Education for industrial purposes; a report

-NRLF

LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

GIFT OF

ONTARIO
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

EDUCATION

FOR

INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

A REPORT

BY

JOHN SEATH

Superintendent of Education
for Ontario

PRINTED BY ORDER OF
THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF ONTARIO

TORONTO :

Printed and Published by L. K. CAMERON, Printer to the King's Most Excellent Majesty

1911.

..-

.

Printed by WILLIAM BRIGGS, ,
29-37 Richmond Street West, TORONTO.

PREFATORY LETTER

To the Honourable R. A. Pyne, M.D., LL.D.}

Minister of Education for Ontario, Toronto.

Sir, — In accordance with your instructions of August, ipop, to report
upon a desirable and practicable elementary system of technical education
in Ontario, after inquiry into those already existing in some of the countries
of Europe and the States of the Union, I visited in September and
October of that year a number of elementary and intermediate technical
schools in England, Scotland, France, Germany, and Switzerland; and in May
of rpio a number of others in the State of Massachusetts and the City of
New York. In December, ipop, / also attended the Annual Convention of
the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, held at
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and embraced the opportunity of visiting the Trade
School of that city. This branch of education is, of course, not a new field
for educationists, and I have accordingly been able to avail myself of the
fairly extensive literature on the subject. I have, also, as occasion offered,
discussed the problem under consideration with employers and employees;
and I have made special visits to most of the centres in Ontario that may be
expected to take the initiative in providing suitable schools. A good deal of the
information contained in this report I owe, I may add, to an extensive corres-
pondence I have also carried on with Ontario manufacturers and other em-
ployers of labour and with educationists in the various countries I visited
during my tour.

Having in ipoo visited the New England States and the State of New
York, to report upon their Manual Training and Trade Schools, I was for-
tunately able to approach the subject of my present report with some know-
ledge of the question. As, however, I had only two months for my visit to
Europe, on my arrival in London I obtained from the English Board of
Education (which corresponds to our Department of Education} a list of
representative schools of different types in England and Scotland, as well as
in France, Switzerland, and Germany. These schools are situated in London,
Manchester, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Paris, Bern, Bienw, Zurich,
Munich, Cologne, and Aix-la-Chapelle. To the favour of the foregoing list
the Board added letters of introduction to the educationists who were best
able to aid me in my investigation. The list of schools and the letters of intro-
duction I found to be of great service; for they enabled me to utilize to the
best advantage the short time I had at my disposal. In this connection I must
acknowledge in particular the assistance I received from Dr. Jamieson, of
the English Board of Education, who, having been a " colonial " himself (he

[iii]

214811

iv PREFATORY LETTER

was for some time a School Inspector in South Africa}, zvas deputed by Sir
Robert Morant, the head of the Enquiries Department, to forward my cause
in every way possible. I had also the benefit of the advice of Mr. M. E.
Sadler, Professor of the History and Organization of Education in Manches-
ter University, and a recognized authority on the subject of elementary tech-
nical education. In London I received all the assistance I needed from the
officers of the London County Council, in Manchester from Director Reynolds,
and in Liverpool from Director Legge. In Paris I received information and
direction from M. Bedourez, Director of Elementary Education for the
Department of the Seine, and in Switzerland from Professor Fritschi, of the
Pestalozzianum, Zurich, who is both a leading educationist and a member of
the Federal Parliament. For an account of the educational system in Bavaria
and the German Empire, both during my visit and by subsequent correspond-
ence, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. Kerschensteiner, Superin-
tendent of Education of the City of Munich. From Professor Borchers, of
the " Technical High School " at Aix-la-Chapelle, who had been deputed by
the Prussian Minister of Trade and Industry to assist me in my inquiries, I
obtained a knowledge of the system, in the German Empire, as well as in
Prussia.

On the Continent of Europe it is not easy to obtain entrance to the
schools. But the schools of the United States are freely open to the visiting
educationist. State officials, superintendents, and principals and staffs place
their services at his disposal. In that country I visited the industrial and
technical schools of Milwaukee, New York City, Springfield (Mass.}, Wor-
cester, Fitchburg, and Boston. Everywhere I received most courteous and
friendly treatment.

I have also pleasure in acknowledging the assistance I received from
Inspector Leake, of your department, in preparing my survey of the present
provision for technical education in this Province.

In accordance with your instructions, I now submit for your considera-
tion an account of the provisions for elementary technical education in the
various communities I visited; and, to make my account more readily under-
stood by the general public, I have, where practicable, substituted the nearest
Ontario equivalents for foreign terms. In gathering material I kept in mind
the importance of the following topics : —

1. The evolution of the systems of technical education in the countries I
visited ;

2. The relation of the schools to the central governments and the munici-
palities;

5. The sources of financial support;

4. The attitude of employers and workmen;

5. The composition and pozvers of the boards of management;

6. The qualifications of the teachers and the provision for training them;
and

PREFATORY LETTER

7. The courses of study and their organisation.

To the last of these topics I have given a large amount of space. At this
juncture they will be found, I believe, to be serviceable. Many in the Province
do not knoiv what is connoted by the terms Technical and Industrial Educa-
tion, and to those who do know I have tried to supply desirable but not readily
accessible details.

In accordance also with your instructions, I submit a statement of the
changes that appear to me to be necessary, if our system of education for indus-
trial purposes is to be both modern and adequate.

The lateness of the date at which I present this report is due partly to the
pressure of my regular official duties and partly to delays in securing recent
and reliable information; partly, also, to the labour involved in collating and
digesting the large and varied mass of material at my disposal.

I have the honour to be, sir,

Your obedient servant,

JOHN SEATH,

Superintendent of Education.
Ontario Department of Education,
December, 1910.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

A few words by way of introduction. For a varying number of years
the problem of Education for Industrial Purposes has engaged the attention of
almost every country in Europe and almost every state of the Union, as well
as of almost every province of our own Dominion. The present importance
of the problem is the result of three main causes :

1. The rivalry amongst the nations for commercial supremacy;

2. The imperfect provision for training skilled workmen; and

3. The modern extension of the scope of education to include vocational
as well as cultural training, administered an'd maintained wholly or largely
at the public expense.

Of the foregoing causes the most potent is the keen rivalry amongst the
nations for the control or at least a due share of the markets of the world — a
rivalry which is continually being intensified by increasing facilities for com-
munication and transportation. Of this rivalry the general desire for wealth
is, of course, a leading cause. But there are others. The growth of their
populations has forced some countries to supplement by importation their
supply of food stuffs, and these they generally pay for with manufactured
goods. Some of such countries have enough raw material for their own fac-
tories and for exportation. Others again, are forced to import it in varying
amounts. Wherever, in particular, goods are manufactured for export, skilled
labour is becoming more and more a necessity ; for the markets are controlled—
by the countries that produce the best and cheapest goods, and " a market once
won must be kept by constant striving, for the prizes are ' challenge cups/ to
be held against all comers."

Secondly, owing to changes in industrial organization, the old means of
providing skilled labour has practically disappeared. Under the system of
apprenticeship as it existed in the countries of Europe the master workman
was both merchant and craftsman ; he himself carried on all the operations of
his trade. His apprentice, who in turn became a master workman, was both
assistant and learner, and it was to the master's advantage to make his train-
ing as thorough and complete as possible. Later the journeyman appeared,
but for a long time he marked only a stage in the development of the master
workman, and did not interfere with the status of the apprentice. The situa-
tion, however, was different after the Industrial Revolution and the introduc-
tion of the capitalist. The shop of the master workman was then replaced by
the modern factory, and the master workman himself by the financial director,
the* superintendent or foreman, and the merchant. Then, also, disappeared
the provision for the systematic training of the apprentice; for it was not to
the interest of the superintendent or foreman to give him such training. The
place of the apprentice has, accordingly, been taken by the " helper," or " im-
prover," or " junior," or the so-called " apprentice," who picks up his trade

[i]

2 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

as best he can, assisted sometimes by his fellows or by the foreman.
And the introduction of the capitalist has produced another effect. With
expensive establishments and close competition the manufacturer must pro-
duce at the least possible cost. One most important count in this production
is the comparative cheapness of specialized labour. Owing to the development
of machinery a boy may now, in a short time, become expert in performing a
single operation in a process of manufacture which consists of many operations.
It pays his employers to keep him at this operation. He has little or no inter-
est in having the boy taught his trade. But the boy must be taught. If the
manufactures of a country are to flourish it must provide its own skilled work-
men and its own skilled foremen.

Stimulated, no doubt, by the two conditions described above, the modern
educationist has revised his definition of education. Formerly it embraced
almost wholly cultural training. Now it embraces both cultural and voca-
tional. He now holds that every citizen should be so trained as to be able
to discharge his duty to himself and his family as well as to the state. Modern
psychology has shown him that what best fits the child for his place in society
best develops him morally, mentally, and physically. Moreover, owing to the
growth of democratic ideas, education has come to be regarded as a charge
to be maintained and administered wholly or largely at the public expense.
At present in England, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, and
Switzerland its maintenance and administration are held to be a national
duty. In most of the States of the Union, however, the responsibility
is local; but even here the doctrine of state responsibility has already made
some progress. To-day, accordingly, the modern educationist everywhere
joins with the manufacturer and the merchant in pressing for -technical
training maintained wholly or largely at the public expense.

As to the problem itself of education for industrial purposes, it will have
been solved when we know how to recruit the skilled trades from time to time
without overcrowding them, and to train the workers therein so that they
shall become the best possible, and at the same time to develop conditions
that may give them an increasingly better livelihood as well as a due share of
their labour. The kind of education needed is well set forth by the President
of the Textile Workers' Union of America :

" The same keen desire is in the hearts of all parents to see their boys
make good, not as industrial specialists, as simply parts of a machine, where
nothing counts but speed and production, but as men and women whose early
training and education will equip them to grasp the higher technique of any
trade or calling they may be best fitted for, to know the way a thing is done,
why it is done, and the very best and most artistic way of doing it, coupled
with an economic knowledge of the value of their labour."

Another matter : A continual source of confusion in dealing with the
subject of my report is the looseness with which the terms Manual Training,
Industrial Education, Technical Education, and Vocational Education are

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

constantly used. It is, accordingly, necessary that I should define them as they
are now understood where the organization is best.

In any system of primary and secondary education both the hand and the
brain should be trained to act together and to help each other. Without this
training the education would be incomplete. Manual Training is the process
by which this object is attained. The courses include the " constructive " work
and needle work of the lower forms of the elementary schools, and the wood
and iron work and the household science of the secondary schools and the
higher forms of the elementary schools. At first educationists recognized
only the cultural value of manual training; now they recognize as well its
practical value in ordinary life and its value as an initiation into industrial
processes.

The term Industrial Education is applied, in its limited sense, to general
courses which prepare for any trade, as well as the special courses which pre-
pare for individual trades. In many countries it includes, also, the education
of those engaged in transportation. It deals with both theory and practice;
but in all the schools that provide it, especially in the Trade Schools, the
emphasis is on the practice. Locally, it should be added, the term has a still
more limited meaning, being applied to the courses in those schools in which
are trained, for various manual occupations, the waifs and strays from the ele-
mentary schools.

The term Technical Education is applied, in its limited sense, to the
courses provided for those who are designed for the higher directive positions
in connection with the industries ; that is, the courses for overseers and super-
intendents, as well as for students of the technological schools and the uni-
versity departments of Applied Science. Here, however, the emphasis is on
the theory, and machinery and other apparatus are generally used only to
establish the connection between the theory and the practice. Quite mis-
takenly in Ontario the term Technical has been applied to the cultural and
practical courses in Manual Training and Household Science. With greater
appropriateness, however, it is applied to both Industrial and Technical
Education, as defined above. Accordingly, when in this report the context
makes the meaning clear I will use each of the terms in its more limited
sense, and the term Technical to include both.

By Vocational Education we mean the courses that prepare for any
" vocation," or calling, in life, whether it be industrial, agricultural, house-
keeping, commercial, or professional.

In the preceding statement I have not referred to Agricultural Educa-
tion. In the discussion of the problem of education for industrial purposes
agriculture has hitherto held a subordinate place. In it for ages the practical
knowledge has been transmitted with more or less theory from father to son.
Modern commercial rivalry and the modern conception of the scope of educa-

4 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

tion have, however, given it an important place amongst the subjects of voca-
tional training. As will be seen later, agricultural education is both indus-
trial and technical, and the Nature Study of the public school, when associated
with the school garden, may rightly be classed as Manual Training. As a
matter of usage, however, the term Industrial, in its limited sense, is confined
to the trades, and does not include the term Agricultural.

Education for industrial purposes includes also Commercial Education.
The latter is the handmaiden of the agriculturist and the manufacturer, as
well as of the merchant, and is, accordingly, entitled to a place in any discus-
sion of the general theme.

ENGLAND

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ENGLAND: Page

Introduction 9

Higher Elementary Schools II

Technical Schools 12

I. Day Schools 12

II. Evening Schools • 13

III. Management, Fees, and Teachers 15

School Expenditure 16

Compulsory Attendance of Adolescents 17

Cities Visited 2O

London:

Higher Elementary Schools 20

Technical Schools 20

Elementary Evening Schools 22

Scholarship System 23

County Council Schools 25

Central School of Arts and Crafts. I1 :

General 25

Evening Trade Classes 26

School of Architecture and Building Crafts 27

School of Book Production 30

Preparatory Day Technical Schools for Boys 31

• I. The Silversmiths' and Allied Trades 31

II. The Book-production Trades 32

Shoreditch Technical Institute.

General 32

Technical Day School for Boys 33

Day Trade School for Girls 34

Evening Trade Classes 35

Upholstery 35

Plumbing 36

Monotechnic School of Building at Brixton.

General 37

Evening Classes 38

Day Technical School for Boys 38

Borough Polytechnic Institute.

General 39

Day Schools and Classes 40

Evening Classes 40

Trade Day School for Girls 42

Technical Day School for Boys 43

National School of Bakery and Confectionery 43

Elementary Day Course 45

Advanced Day Course 45

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

Letter Press Printing Department 46

Preliminary (apprentices) 46

Ordinary Grade 46

Honours Grade 47

Practical Work 47

Manchester:

Municipal School of Technology.

General 47

Faculty of Technology 48

Day Classes 48

Evening Classes 50

Manual Training for Teachers 51

Municipal Art School.

General . . 54

Evening Vocational Schools.

General . . . 55

Organization, Distribution and Attendance 55

Curricula 57

Liverpool :

Central Municipal Technical School.

Evening Continuation Schools • • 59

Evening Branch Technical Schools 60

Central Technical School 61

City School of Art ' 62

. City School of Commerce 63

Day Preparatory Trade School 63

Day Industrial Schools 64

ENGLAND

INTRODUCTION

Long after her neighbours, England woke to the necessity for
popular education. Not, indeed, until the Education Act of 1870 and1902-
did she recognize provision for even elementary education as a
national duty. Before then the state aided schools had been for
the " labouring classes " only. The next most important act — and
indeed the most important act in the history of education in Eng-
land— was passed in 1902, supplemented as regards London by an
act of the following year. Since then most remarkable progress
has been made in every branch of education. These acts provide
for both elementary and higher education, and substituted for the
School Boards, the County Councils and County Borough Councils
as Local Education Authorities for their districts. Every such
authority appoints an Education Committee, which generally works uon

i r i •,. A e i i Authorities

through a number of sub-committees. A majority of such educa- and
tion committees consists of persons who are members of the Coun- co-option,
cil, unless, in the case of a County, the Council determines other-
wise; and the other members are appointed on the nomination or
recommendation, when it appears desirable, by other bodies, of per-
sons experienced in education, or are co-opted directly by the Coun-
cil as being persons acquainted with the needs of the various
kinds of schools in the district for which the Council acts. Pro-
vision is also made for the inclusion of women as members of the
committee. The powers of our Boards of Trustees are, therefore,
exercised in England by the County Councils through committees
thereof containing the co-opted members mentioned above. Such
committees report to the Councils, and the Councils may transfer
to them all their powers under the Act, except that of levying rates
and borrowing money.

The duties of the local education authorities include the con- Duties a"d

powers ot

trol of secular education in all Elementary Schools (our Public Local Educa-
Schools), whether Council Schools, or Voluntary Schools (that is. Authorities,
schools not provided by local education authorities, and denomina-
tional in character), as well as the supply or aiding of higher edu-
cation. In its discharge of the latter duty, the Council is often
associated with other corporations, as in London, for example, with
the University of London, the city companies, and the governing

Gd

10 EDUCATION. FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

irapportal bodies of secondary schools and of technical institutions. The
majority of such schools are supported partly by the State and
partly by rates, though many schools are also endowed. The funds
provided by the State are distributed through the Board of Educa-
tion (corresponding to our Department of Education), which in-
spects the schools and has the power of withholding grants on the
report of H. M. Inspectors on conditions similar to those in
Ontario. A large number of secondary schools, however, receive
no assistance from the Imperial Government or from the local
educational authorities within whose districts they are situated.
Such schools as, for example, Eton and Rugby, are managed by
Boards of Governors, and are supported partly by fees and partly
by the income from endowments.

General A word as to the general organization of the system of primary

Organization ° & . . ' J

of Elementary and secondary education: The division between elementary and

and Secondary • •.«'.•' v» « _s • 1 1-^1

Education, secondary education in England is a vertical one, not a horizontal
one as in America. It is, therefore, not uncommon to find children
of nine years of age receiving (so-called) secondary education.
The distinction between the two types of schools Was formerly a
social one, but, since the Act of 1902, this distinction is rapidly dis-
appearing. Further, there is a tendency to make the upper and
lower age limits of secondary education twelve and eighteen years.
As will be seen later, this is the tendency in France and Germany
also. The lowest grade of schools, corresponding generally to our
Public Schools, are known as Public Elementary Schools. Higher
Elementary Schools (formerly Higher Grade Schools) are schools
with a three or a four years' course. The name " High School "
is generally reserved for girls' secondary schools founded since
about 1870. The newer municipal and council secondary schools
are known simply as Secondary Schools. The older secondary
schools for boys are often termed Grammar Schools. Schools in
England of the secondary grade may, accordingly, have very dif-
ferent names. Omitting the residential Public Schools, there are
Grammar Schools (for boys), High Schools (for girls), and Muni-
cipal or Council Secondary schools (for boys or girls, or co-educa-
tional). The first three mentioned have generally a nine years'
course through six forms; the last a four or six years'
course through four or six forms. Age for age, pupils in all the
foregoing types of schools are about equal in attainments. Greater
emphasis, however, is placed on the classics in the older schools;
on modern languages and science in the newer schools.

Growth of In technical as well as in popular education, England has been

Education, a laggard. In commerce and industry she had had a long start, and

not until she felt the pressure of competition from Germany and

ENGLAND 1 1

France did she face the question of training her artisans. Until
the great educational enactment of 1889, the Mechanics' Institutes
were in the main the only means whereby the working and the
middle classes continued or supplemented the inadequate provision
of the day schools. These Institutes in the early days of the nine-
teenth century were the forerunner of what we now call Technical
education. The inferiority of English manufactures, as
demonstrated at the exhibition of 1851, led to parliamentary
grants in aid of Science and Art classes. These were dis-
tributed by the. Science and Art Department; so that one
department controlled elementary education, and another the
secondary and technical schools. The Act of 1899 fused these
two departments, and the Act of 1902, already referred to,
introduced unity into local administration. The Technical Institu- Financial
tions Acts of 1889 and 1891 had authorized the levying of a local
tax of a penny in the pound for technical education, and, in addi-
tion, the local authorities receive considerable revenue from the
Customs and Excise, and from the various Trade Guilds, which
are both numerous and wealthy, especially in London. In recent
years the amounts derived from the Customs and Excise have de-
creased considerably and the Government has promised to set aside
a portion of the land tax to make up the deficiency. The Govern-
ment has also given large grants for the support of technical edu-
cation; but the general educational system of England has been
so long in an unorganized condition that the technological branch
is still behind those of the Continent of Europe.

The first result of the movement in favour of technical educa- Provision *<«•

training

tion was the establishment of many high grade technical schools workmen,
and colleges, which, however, proved to be inadequate, because
they did not reach the class that needed instruction most.
So far as concerns the English workman, his technical education is
now provided for by technical day classes, including " Trade
Schools" and evening classes, to which should be added the Higher
Elementary Schools, some of which provide courses with an indus-
trial outlook, but without attempting instruction of a specifically
technological character.

HIGHER ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

Two types of the higher elementary school were recognized Types of
during the years 1906 to 1908. From 1901 to 1904, higher ele- 8c
mentary schools provided four years' courses of instruction of a pre-
dominantly scientific character, and the minimum age of admission
was ten. Under the Code of 1905 and subsequent Codes a new
type was created which provided for only a three years' course ; but

2 E.I.P.

12

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Aim.

the former requirements as to instruction in science have been with-
drawn and the aim now is to continue the general education of
the pupils and to provide them with instruction bearing on their
organization, future vocations, but not of a specialized character. Such curricula
must provide " a progressive course of instruction in the English lan-
guage and literature, in elementary mathematics, and in history
and geography. Drawing and manual work for boys and domestic
subjects for girls must be included in every case as part of the
general or special instruction." Admission to these schools is, with
some necessary exceptions, limited to pupils who are over twelve
years of age and have been at least two years under instruction in
a Public Elementary School. The schools must also be organized
to give at least a three years' course, approved by the Board of Edu-
cation; but this course may be extended if, in the opinion of the
Inspector, the pupils would profit thereby, and a suitable fourth
year course has been organized. In the distribution of the Govern-
ment grant, courses beyond that of the fourth year are not recog-
nized. In this way the Board of Education sets the highest limit
of the course for elementary education. The curriculum varies
according to the locality; in some cases it has an industrial out-
look ; in others, a commercial one ; and in others, it is of a general
character.

Such Higher Elementary Schools are established either by local
education authorities or by voluntary managers. In either case,
the schools are supported by Government grants and by local rates
imposed under the authority of the Council. Voluntary managers
cannot, however, establish a Higher Elementary School without the
consent of the local education authority. I visited two of these
schools in London and one in Liverpool. From what I saw and
the discussion I had with those in authority, I should conclude that
they are not yet free from the influence of the Science and Art
classes they replaced, and that their industrial courses need to be
made less bookish and more practical, and to be brought into closer
relation with local requirements.

TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

I. DAY SCHOOLS

Besides the Higher Elementary Schools, the Board of Educa-
tion may authorize the establishment of Technical Day Schools,
Deluding Trade Schools. Such schools are intended to occupy, to
the best advantage of the boys and girls and of the industry they
may enter, the interval between leaving the Public Elementary
School and entering on their apprenticeship. In England, as else-
where, the rise of the capitalist and the specialization of industries

How

established.

Character of
the Schools
in London
and Liverpool.

ENGLAND 13

and the subdivision of labour resulting therefrom have led to the
decay of the old apprenticeship system and created the necessity
for an educational instrument of this character. The tendency,
however, appears to be averse to trade specialization. The opinion
held by many is that the work-shop is the place to learn a trade;
but that this process can be hastened by a previous education, which,
besides a practical course, provides for other subjects related to
such course. Owing to -the adaptation of these schools to local
conditions, the term Trade School is applied to schools with a
varying amount of industrial outlook. It includes, for example,
such schools as the Liverpool and Leeds Preparatory Trade Schools
for boys, and the more elaborate London. Trade Schools for boys
and girls, and others of a similar but more advanced character.
Accordingly, the curricula of these schools vary considerably. Itstucly?9 °f
is usual where there is a three years' course — the pupils being
taken out of the elementary school a year before they would ordin-
arily leave — for some eight hours to be given to English, eight or
ten to Mathematics and Science, and eight or ten to Drawing and
Manual work. In the later years somewhat less time is given to
English. Differences are also made according to the group of allied
trades, one of which the pupil is expected to enter.

The classes are usually held in the building of the technical in-
stitutions whose chief function is the evening class. In this way,
duplication of accommodation and equipment is avoided and, what
is educationally important, the pupil becomes familiar with the
teachers and surroundings of institutions to which it is desirable
he should return when he becomes an apprentice.

II. EVENING SCHOOLS

The Evening Technical Schools are intended for those who
already engaged in some occupation. The usual time for such
classes is the evening, but classes on Saturday afternoons are recog-
nized as being in the same category. The evening classes vary
widely in scope, for they range from the small and elementary rural
Continuation School to the highly specialized work done in the best
equipped of the technical colleges. In the following statement I
confine myself to the technical classes which are most widely pro-
vided, and which the apprentices and journeymen ordinarily attend.

In England the lowest grade of evening school is the Con-
tinuation School. According to the code of 1905, the subjects in
this grade of school are grouped as follows : —

i. Preparatory and General — Reading, composition, writing, Groups of
arithmetic, knowledge of common things, elementary principles of
science, elementary drawing, elementary science, theory of music
and vocal music.

SchooK

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Flexibility of
system.

Travelling
Schools.

Evening
Technical

Classes.

Organization
Courses.

2. Literary and Commercial — English, Latin, French, German,
any other modern language, mercantile law and practice, commer-
cial correspondence and office routine, bookkeeping and shorthand.

3. Manual Instruction — Woodwork and metal work.

4. Science — Any generalized or special branch of science, in-
cluding mathematics, is accepted as adequate.

5. Home Occupations and Industries — Needle-work, domestic
economy, cookery, dressmaking and cutting out, laundry work,
dairy work, gardening, cottage industries, ambulance, home-
nursing.

6. Physical Training.

7. Art.

Other subjects may be recognized at the discretion of the Board.
Each school must provide for at least two subjects, but only one is
compulsory on each pupil. The system is intended to be a flexible
one, and it is so working out. In the rural districts dairying and
farming are taken up as well as the regular elementary subjects ; in
industrial centres the course supplements the practical work of the
apprentice ; and elsewhere the work is more like that of an ordinary
secondary school. In an effort to meet the wants of the rural dis-
tricts, here and there Travelling Schools have been provided. In
Hampshire, for example, the Education Committee maintains a
Dairy School and a Travelling Forge, which travel for 40 weeks,
giving a ten days' course in each locality. In the rural districts,
little sijpport is given to the ordinary continuation schools. The
travelling schools, on the other hand, are very popular.

As to the technical classes : In England the working-week of
the apprentice in most trades is about fifty-four hours, and, to
enable him to attend the evening schools, the local education
authorities endeavour to secure at least his exemption from overtime
work. During the last few years these efforts have been remark-
ably successful, especially in the North of England; and in many
cases, as the result of conferences between the school authorities
and the employers, the latter have provided even additional induce-
ments. The pupils attend three evenings a week, receiving a total
of six or seven hours of instruction ; but in every case where satis-
factory results are obtained, they devote one other evening a week
to private study.

Courses are so arranged in most of the progressive towns that
pupils who have done well in the elementary schools and who have
attended the ensuing session of the evening continuation school,
begin with the first year of a two years' industrial course. In that
year they usually receive four hours' instruction in practical arith-
metic and mensuration, and free-hand and mechanical drawing, with

ENGLAND 15

two hours a week in English (chiefly composition). In the next
year they give a little less time to English and about two and a half
hours to elementary practical physics and mechanics. In the third
year they continue their practical mathematics, and give about two
and a half hours to theoretical and applied mechanics, and about two
hours to machine construction and drawing, including free-hand
drawing. The courses extend over five years or more, and be-
come more specialized toward the close. Under this scheme, the
artisan student is required generally to take the first two years'
industrial course prescribed above; in the third year, the mechani-
cal and electrical engineers take slightly different work and in the
fifth and higher years, each student specializes in the particular
branch of the trade in which he is engaged.

The technical evening classes, of varying character and stan-£
dard, are the most important general provision that now exists
in England for the education of the skilled mechanic. As has
already been stated, England realized late the value of a State
controlled system, and notwithstanding the very remarkable pro-
gress of the last ten years, she has not yet organized a satisfactory
one. Her evening technical schools are, as yet, her main reliance.

No effort is spared by the Education Committees to secure Efforts to
attendance at the evening technical schools. When I reached attendance.
London early in September, the evening schools had not opened,
but I found that their programmes and advantages were widely
advertised not only in the newspapers but in large posters exten-
sively distributed throughout the city. Later I found that lists
of pupils are sent from the elementary day schools to the teach-
ers of the evening schools, who send prospectuses and letters of
invitation to those who would probably attend. To aid in the
work, the day teachers take part in the evening classes, and their
knowledge of the day school records is of great value in stimulat-
ing the attendance. Prizes and scholarships are also offered.

The Board of Education secures, through its inspectors, a voice Departmental
in the organization of the Schools. These officers keep in close
touch with employers of labour and familiarize themselves with
industrial conditions and are, accordingly, of great service to the
local school authorities.

III. MANAGEMENT. FEES, AND TEACHERS

The day and evening technical classes are generally in the hands
of a principal, acting under the control of the local education
committee. The co-operation of employers is often secured by the
formation of Advisory Committees, representing the chief manu- committees,
t'acturing interests, and, to aid the movement, some of the employ-

i6

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Fees and
Scholarships.

Qualification
of teachers.

Attitude of
Organized
Labour.

ers give specially favourable terms to the pupils who pass through
such schools.

The fee for the session is generally small, running from 75c.
to $2.00, and being often proportioned to the weekly wage of the
parent; and it is generally remitted in the case of needy pupils.
Lunches are often provided at a very small cost. Scholarships,
covering free tuition, are granted pupils of the elementary schools
as the result of examination tests. Here and there throughout
my report I mention the fee in order to give a better idea of the
situation. Universally I found the imposition of the fee advocated
on the ground that it causes the student to set a higher value on
the instruction and, in particular, to attend more regularly.

So far as the instructors of the technical day and evening
schools are concerned, the ordinary English, mathematical, and
science subjects are taken by competent certified teachers who are
expected to have a knowledge of the industries concerned, in order
that they may be able to give a practical application to the
academic work. The frequent absence of this knowledge is, ad-
mittedly, one of the worst defects of the system. The purely
technical subjects are taken by teachers who possess practical
familiarity with the work, such as is possessed by foremen
in first-rate establishments; a good knowledge of the theoreti-
cal side of the subject, and pedagogical ability. Generally speak-
ing, the teachers of the ordinary subjects in the evening classes are
also teachers in the day schools, while the teachers of the evening
technical subjects teach either part or whole time in the day
schools, being engaged in their vocation during the rest of the
time. As I found to be the case in the other countries I visited,
competent teachers are scarce, and a satisfactory solution of the
serious problem of providing a sufficient supply has not yet been
reached.

When Trade Schools were first established, the attitude of the
Labour Unions was unfriendly; but, as their value was demon-
strated, the Unions withdrew their opposition. In some localities,
indeed, they are so friendly that they even assist the students by
offering prizes and scholarships and by paying their fees.

SCHOOL EXPENDITURE

When at Whitehall I asked for a statement showing the ex-
penditure from Imperial and local sources, respectively, for the
different classes of Technical Schools. I found that, in the case of
institutions other than the Public Elementary Schools, the number
of different kinds and the differences among them from the point
of view of fees, endowments, etc., are so great that, to be reliable,

ENGLAND 17

the statement would have to go into very great detail and to be full
of reservations. I am able, however, to give the expenditure for
elementary education, which shows, what appears to be generally
true of all the educational expenditures, that the Imperial grant
is at least equal to the local rates. In 1908-09 the total expendi-
ture of the Board of Education for Public Elementary Education
in England and Wales alone was $54,382,396.00, and for other
departments, including science and art, $6,097,627.00; while the
local rates were respectively $47,880,890.00, and $7,140,772.00;
that is, for the maintenance of the foregoing classes of schools
$60,480,023.00 was contributed by the Imperial Government and
$55,021,662.00 by the different municipalities.

COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE OF ADOLESCENTS

One of the greatest difficulties of the English Board of Educa-
tion is the inability of the local Education Committees to secure at- ° cc
tendance at school after the pupil has completed, at about 12 years
of age, the obligatory course of the elementary school. By means
of scholarships, remission of fees, and other financial aid, the
child of more than average ability may, and often does, advance
beyond this stage, even to graduation at one of the universities
or higher technical institutions; but the child of average intelli-
gence, whose parents belong to the artisan or the labouring classes
very often loses in a few years much of the education he has
received and drifts into the ranks of the unemployed or of un-
skilled labour. Speaking generally, indeed, the classes from which,
at present, the ranks of the ordinary skilled artisans are recruited in artlsana-
England consist of boys and girls who, after leaving the Public
Elementary School, —

1. Enter work-shops and factories and are put to work at one
part of the process, or at one machine, in the use of which they
become fairly skilled in a short time, such workers seldom obtain-
ing any complete knowledge of their trade; or —

2. Either enter unskilled employments, or spend their time in
workshops in doing unskilled work as messengers, etc., and finally
become apprentices at the age of 16.

As I will point out later, the problem of providing for boys
and girls immediately after they leave the elementary school has
been solved in Scotland, Germany and Switzerland by compul-
sory attendance. In England, however, so far no practicable solu-
tion has yet been reached. But a solution has been proposed,
there can be little doubt, will eventually be accepted, probably, of consultative
course, with modifications. In April, 1907, the Consultative Com- c<>mmitt«e-
mittee, a body of eminent educationists nominated by the Board

i8 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

of Education, was requested to report upon the best means of secur-
ing at the evening Continuation Schools a larger attendance of
pupils who have left the Public Elementary Schools, as well as the
best means of securing the effective co-operation of employers and
others able to give help, in arranging facilities for such attendance
and in planning suitable courses and subjects for such classes. The
Committee's report had been published a few weeks when I reached
London. Having regard to the situation in Ontario, which I will
discuss later, I give a concise statement of the parts of the Com-
mittee's recommendations which bear directly on the provisions for
an effective system of vocational training :

Exemption, i. Exemption from full time attendance at the Day School in the case

mitted" °^ boys an^ girls under 16, should be allowed only when the parents or
guardians can show that such children are suitably employed, and while
they continue so employed.

The teachers. 2. — (i) As regards teachers, it will be desirable to interest the Day

School teachers in the work of the Continuation School, and it will often
be necessary to employ them in giving instruction there. Care must be
taken to prevent overstrain in the case of teachers who teach in both Day
and Evening Schools.

(2) Classes should be established in which persons who are already
teachers should be trained in the more specialized parts of the work of the
Continuation School, and in which experts in such subjects may be trained
in the art of teaching.

Other means 3. Apart from the better preparation both of the pupils and of the

effi^encySand teachers for the Continuation School, much may be done to enhance the
securing efficiency of these Schools and to enforce the attendance thereat, upon

at en ance. ^ present voluntary basis, as follows:

(1) Effective encouragement from employers of labour;

(2) Systematic visitation of the parents of children who are about to
leave the Day School;

(3) The personal influence of the Day School teachers;

(4) Propaganda amongst work people;

(5) Close co-operation on the part of local school authorities with
voluntary agencies;

(6) The better adjustment of the courses of instruction to the needs
of local industries;

(7) The provision of systematic classes in history, literature, and
economics for adult students.

Boys and girls should be induced to attend the Continuation Classes
as well during the last months of their Day School course, due precautions
being taken against overstrain.

compulsory Although much may be achieved without legislative enact-

tiiiei7atnc< ment, the Committee reports that without compulsory attendance

Continuation _ , , .,, . ...

schools. at the Continuation Schools, large numbers will remain without
the education they sorely need. The following sections explain
the way in which the Committee thinks such attendance should be
enforced :

ENGLAND 19

1. It should be the statutory duty of the Local Education Committees Powers of
to make suitable provision in their districts for Continuation Classes from Education
the time the pupils leave the Day School until their i;th birthday, and to Committee,
keep a register of all such young persons, with a record of their occupations.

2. It should be lawful for the Local Education Committee to make
by-laws (subject to confirmation by the Board of Education) for requir-
ing attendance at the Continuation Classes to an age fixed by the by-
laws, but not exceeding 17, of any young persons resident or working 'n
their district who are not otherwise receiving a suitable education. It
should be left to the discretion of the Local Education Committee:

(1) To frame by-laws for one or both sexes, for part or parts of its dis-
trict, and for those engaged in particular trades or occupations therein;
and

(2) To determine the age or ages under which the bye-law shall be
operative within the limit of 17 years of age.

3. — (i) It should be the statutory duty of every employer of any young
person under 17 years of age —

(a) To enable him to attend the Continuation Class provided for in
(i) above; and

(b) To supply the names of such young persons to the Local Educa-
tion Committee on demand.

(2) Employers should be forbidden under penalty to employ or to
continue to employ any young person under 17 who failed periodically to
produce a card attesting his or her attendance at a Continuation Class.

4. — (i) The Local Education Committee should have statutory power,
after consultation with representatives of the employers and of the work
people in each trade, to fix the hours and seasons at which the compulsory
Continuation Class should be held.

(2) The Committee should also have the power to prescribe the limit
of hours which may not be exceeded on any day or week, as the case
may be, by employment and further education combined. Such restriction
should be adjusted to the different conditions of the various trades and
callings concerned.

5. As regards curriculum, the Continuation School should give effective Curriculum,
training for the duties of citizenship, and should have reference to the

crafts and industries practised in the districts, including industrial art and
agriculture, when the latter is practised. Prominence should be given to
practical and manual instruction in the courses, but the claims of general
education should not be disregarded. On every ground, the courses should
include physical training.

6. For the planning of courses of instruction and for their periodical
adjustment, the local committees should establish advisory committees,
containing representatives of the employers and work people in each call-
ing and of persons experienced in teaching.

It is also proposed, I may add, to raise to 13 the minimum age increase of
for school exemption, which is now 12, and, after a short interval, minimum a£*-
to 14, provided, however, that in country districts the last year of
schooling may take half time from 13 to 15, instead of whole time
from 13 to 14.

20 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

CITIES VISITED

In England I investigated the technical school systems of
London, Manchester, and Liverpool — of London, because, besides
its higher technical institutions, it has the best developed system
of Trade Schools; and of Manchester and Liverpool, on account
partly of their Municipal Technical Schools and partly of their
provision for technical education intermediate between the elemen-
tary schools and the higher institutions.

LONDON

Local control. Practically all elementary education in London is under the
control of the London County Council, London being a county
for administrative purposes. In the case of higher education, the
Council is associated with several other authorities, such as the
. University of London, the City Companies, the governing bodies
of endowed Secondary Schools, polytechnics and technical insti-
tutes. The object is, by co-operation, to prevent overlapping.

HIGHER ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

Attendance. jn Lon(jOn, with a population of nearly 7,500,000, the Higher
Elementary Schools — 52 in number in 1908, with about 27,500
pupils — provide at suitable centres a superior day school elementary

Admission course. The pupils are selected from the elementary schools on the
combined report of the Council's District Inspectors and the Head
Masters and Head Mistresses, who take into account not only the
ordinary examination results, but the pupil's school record and gen-
eral capability. In these schools pupils enter at the average age of

courses to be eleven and a half, and are provided with a three or four years'

modified. ,.,..'., . , , ,.

course which is industrial, commercial, or general, according to
the varying requirements of the different localities. But the pur-
pose and character of these schools are at present under the con-
sideration of the Council and it is probable that changes will be
made with a view to a more practical character of work and better
articulation with the rest of the system.

TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

But the advantages of the Higher Elementary Schools are not
available to all, nor are they available long enough to any to pre-
vent the boy or girl of normal intelligence from drifting into the
ranks of unskilled labour at fourteen. The decay of the appren-
ticeship system has, of course, intensified the difficulty of the situ-
ation. The London County Council is now attempting to solve
the problem by means of its system of day and evening Trade
Schools.

ENGLAND 21

The day work cf these institutions covers a wide field and in-
eludes drawing classes for designers, teachers, and skilled crafts- Schools<
men; pre-apprenticeship classes for boys entering such trades as
engineering, building, silversmithing, and cabinet-making; trade
classes for girls in dressmaking, waistcoat making, upholstery, cor-
set-making, millinery, ladies' tailoring, and photography; and do-
mestic science classes for girls; but the great majority of the stu-
dents at present attend the evening classes, being engaged
during the day in commercial or industrial pursuits. The number
of day students is, however, steadily increasing. Of these, some
are preparing to take up industrial work or are already so engaged
and attend with the permission of their employers.

The trade schools have of late years become very popular and
have increased in numbers. The employers are also realizing the
value of the instruction given in them, and, as a result, there is no
difficulty in providing employment for those who have taken a full
course of training. Moreover, it is found that in periods of trade
depression, the more skilled artisans from the trade schools
retain their positions when others are dispensed with. A reliable
authority on this subject told me that these satisfactory
results are due in a great measure to the continuance of the pupils'
general education and to the fact that, while trade instruction is
imparted by fully trained experts, a large share of the time-table
is devoted to drawing. The consequent intelligence and originality
of the trade school pupils side by side with their manual dexterity
is greatly appreciated by the employers.

A very important development in connection with the trade voluntary
schools is the establishment of Voluntary After-care Committees, committees,
the members of which interest themselves in the pupils both while
they are in attendance and especially after they have been success-
fully placed in work-shops. These committees obtain information
as to the condition of workers in the various shops, give assis-
tance to those who are seeking employment, and, whenever periods
of apprenticeships are arranged, they take care that the interests
of the boys and girls are carefully safe-guarded in the indentures.

Higher technical instruction is provided for those who can gjgjj! £fcal
avail themselves of it at the Imperial College of Science and Tech- In8titutions-
nology, at University College, King's College, and other insti-
tutions of University rank; and a good deal of the technical in-
struction, especially in the form of evening classes, is carried on
in Polytechnics and other Technical institutions. Of these, some
are aided by the London County Council and others are wholly
maintained by it, while some receive no aid from this source.

22

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Fees.

I?deduorion8 Tne institutions aided by the Council are attended by over
30,ooo students, and include the Polytechnics, the Goldsmiths'
College, the Hackney Institute, a number of Art Schools, and
Monotechnic Institutes, as well as a group of institutions, such as
the Workmen's College, which, however, deals more with general
culture than with technical subjects. Each of the institutions aided
by the Council is managed by a governing body on which the
Council is represented. The rest of the cost of maintenance is
defrayed by grants from the Board of Education, the Parochial
Fund, endowments, students' fees, and voluntary subscriptions.
There are fifteen institutions under the control of the Council, and
in their case the difference between the cost of maintenance and
income from the government grants and the fees is made good from
the rates. Some of the most important and suggestive of these I
describe further on.

The fees for admission to the London County Council Schools
are small. The general fee is about $7.00 a session. In a few
cases it is a little larger. No charge is made for materials
except for those taken away by the pupils as finished work. To
the schools maintained by the Council, apprentices, improvers, and
learners under twenty-one are admitted free. Moreover, the
Council awards annually a large number of scholarships and exhi-
bitions, varying in value from $25 to $250, and tenable at the
various Polytechnics and other Technical Schools.

^ *ke schools receiving no aid from the County Council, the
most important is the City and Guilds Finsbury Technical Insti-
tute, which provides' a two years' course for the mechanical and
electrical engineering trades, and a three years' one for those enter-
ing the chemical trades. Other schools of this class are the Great
Titchfield Street Trades Training School, the Leather Trade
School, and the South London Technical Art School.
: As to management i The powers and duties of the Education

committees. Committee of the County Council are distributed among eleven
sub-committees; and, in the management of its Technical Institu-
tions and Schools of Art, the Committee is assisted by Advisory
Sub-Committees and Consultative Committees of trade experts,
who advise it on matters connected with the administration of the
work of their respective industries.

ELEMENTARY EVENING SCHOOLS

In addition to the day and evening classes of the Polytechnics
and other technical institutions, there are in London, according to
the report of 1908, 302 evening schools carried on in the build-
ings of the Council's Elementary Schools and attended by about

controlled0*
by council,

ENGLAND 23

130,000 pupils. The courses vary greatly in character and are |c^0^ades of
provided in two grades — ordinary evening classes, and higher
grade science, art, and commercial classes.

In the ordinary evening classes the instruction is intended ordinary,
partly to supply the defects of early elementary education and
partly to prepare for the higher grade. The principal subjects of
instruction are shorthand, reading, writing, arithmetic, gymnas-
tics, and subjects with a practical and industrial outlook, such as
dressmaking, book-keeping, manual training, first aid, home nurs-
ing, French, cooking, and millinery. At the higher grade centres-Higher,
most of the students take the commercial classes in which instruc-
tion is given in shorthand, book-keeping, typewriting, English,
French, German, with more advanced classes in accountancy,
banking and currency, commercial and municipal law, machinery
of business, Spanish, Italian, Russian, and Esperanto. In Science,
instruction is given in chemistry, machine drawing, mathematics,
and physiology ; and in Art, chiefly in light and shade, model, free-
hand, blackboard, and perspective drawing.

The ordinary schools are open generally three evenings a week
from 7.30 to 9.30, and the central schools on four evenings a
week for about two and a half hours each evening.

The fees, which cover all the subjects of instruction, are very Fees,
low, being 25cts. a session for the ordinary classes; 6octs. for the
commercial centres, and $1.25 for the science and art subjects. Of
the 302 evening schools, there are about 70 free schools in the
poorer districts, and the pupils in these districts who are unable
to pay the fee may be admitted free to the other evening schools.

The evening schools and the special technical evening institutes
are the most popular and noteworthy feature of the English educa-
tional system, and, owing to local conditions, they are most fully
developed in London.

SCHOLARSHIP SYSTEM

A feature of London education is its scholarship system, a importance,
feature, however, which has been adopted in some of the other
large cities of England as well. This feature deserves more than
passing notice, for it exemplifies, strikingly, municipal liberality
as well as the difficulties connected with the maintenance of day
trade schools; and, although our conditions do not now necessi-
tate such a system in its entirety, it presents some features that are
well worth our imitation.

Of the scholarships, there are two classes; the County TWO classes of
Scholarships, and the Technical, Industrial, and other Scholar- Sc
ships. The former provides a scheme of Junior. Intermediate.

24

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Maintenance

allowances.

Eligible

candidates.

and Senior Scholarships under which a boy or girl may
proceed, step by step, without fee, from the Public Elementary
School to a University Technical College or other institution of
advanced learning. At the age of eleven, every pupil in the Ele-
mentary Schools, who has reached a certain standard, is required
to take an examination in English and arithmetic. On the result
of this, combined with the teachers' estimate, the Junior County
Scholarships are awarded. On certain conditions as to the means
of their parents, pupils not in attendance may also compete. The
scholarships are tenable for three years, and are renewable on
recommendation for two more. As a rule, they are held until the
pupil is sixteen. Some pupils then leave for industrial or other
pursuits, and others obtain Intermediate Scholarships which enable
them to continue their education at school until they are eighteen
or nineteen, when they may apply for Senior Scholarships which
enable them to proceed to a University or Technical School. The
Intermediate and the Senior Scholarships are also open, under
conditions, to those who have not held the Junior grade. The
Technical and Industrial Scholarships are intended to assist, stu-
dents to prepare themselves for some particular trade or vocation.

^ Present> Trade Scholarships for boys are awarded for
courses in engineering, silver-smithing, book-binding, furniture
and cabinet making, carriage building, wood carving, and house
building; and for girls, in dressmaking, laundry work, upholstery,
tailoring, waistcoat making, corset making, millinery, designing,
ready-made clothing, and photography.

Notwithstanding this scholarship system, the child of poor

. * .

parents is unable to attend for two or three years continuous in-
struction after he has reached the age of fourteen, unless some
provision is made which will recoup his parents for the loss they
sustain by not letting him enter some unskilled employment.
For this purpose, the County Council has provided a system of
maintenance allowances. In the Shoreditch Technical School, for
example, a maintenance allowance is made to boys of $30 for the
first year, $50 for the second, and $75 for the third. As a rule,
the Trade School Scholarships for girls are for a period of two
years, with a maintenance allowance of $40 for the first year, and
$60 for the second year.

Jn order to make certain that trade scholarships shall be
given only to children who really need assistance, no candidate is
eligible whose parents or guardians have an income of over $800
a year from all sources. Moreover, to prevent the funds from
being wasted, the awards are conditional on the candidate's pass-
ing satisfactorily a probationary period of three months at the

ENGLAND 25

trade school with no payment for maintenance, but simply with
free tuition. At the end of this period his right to the scholarship
ceases if an unsatisfactory report is received. The parents or
guardians are also required to sign a declaration that they intend
their children to enter the trade in which they are to receive train-
ing during the tenure of the scholarship. According to the reports
of those who are engaged in the work, these safe-guards work
very satisfactorily, and a large percentage of the scholarship pupils
eventually find employment in the trades which they have taken
up in the schools.

The gross cost of the County Scholarship Scheme was, in 1908,
about $750,000. Of this sum $435,000 represents education andScheme-
$315,000 maintenance allowances. Hitherto, no one able to
qualify has been refused a scholarship, and it has been estimated
by the Chief Adviser of the London County Council that when the
scheme has reached a fairly steady condition the annual expenditure
on this account will reach $1,250,000.

COUNTY COUNCIL SCHOOLS

Of the institutions maintained by the London County Council
there are fifteen of the trade school type, attended by nearly 10,000
day and evening pupils; only one of these, however — the Blooms-
bury Day Trade School for Girls — being for girls alone. As char-
acteristic examples of the institutions maintained by the Council,
wholly or partly, I have selected the following :

1. The Central School of Arts and Crafts.

2. The Shoreditch Technical Institute.

3. The Monotechnic School of Building at Brixton.

4. The Borough Polytechnic Institute.

CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS
GENERAL

In the management of its different trade schools, the Educa- oonsuiutire

. _ . ' Committee.

tion Committee of the Council, as has already been stated, is
assisted by Consultative, or Advisory, Committees. The Consulta-
tive Committee of the Central School of Arts and Crafts on Book
Production may be taken as a type. It is constituted as follows,
there being three representatives in each case (nine members for
each section) :

i. Book-binding Section. — Representatives of the London
Book-binders' Association, of the Workmen's Associations (Con-
solidated Society, Day-working Book-binders, Consolidated
Unions), and of the Council.

26 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

2. Printing Section. — Representatives of the Associations of
Master Printers, of the Federation of Printing- and allied trades,
and of the Council.

Aim- The school is intended to supplement rather than supersede, ap-

prenticeship, by affording to those engaged in the typical London
art industries opportunities for design and practice in the branches
of their craft which, owing to sub-division of processes of produc-
tion, they are unable to learn in the workshop. The building,
class-rooms and equipment are amongst the finest I saw in London.
The display of the work of former sessions was most artistic.

The fees are as follows :

Fees. i. Apprentices, learners and improvers under 21 years of age

are admitted free on production of certificates from their employ-
ers or on showing copies of indentures.

2. Persons employed in trades or occupations upon which the
teaching of the school has a distinct bearing are admitted to all
or any of the evening classes of the school which they are eligible
to join on payment of fees at the following rates :

(1) If earning over $6.00 a week, $2.50 a session.

(2) If earning $6.00 or less a week, $1.00 a session.

3. Persons not so employed may be admitted to the school
on payment o'f $2.50 a term or $5.00 the session; but pupils below
the age of 16 years, on furnishing satisfactory evidence that their
work is of sufficient merit, may be admitted on payment of $1.00
for the session.

Disposal of No work may be taken from the institution until it has first

been submitted to the Principal for inspection and approval. Work
executed in materials provided by the Council becomes the property
of the Council; but pupils who desire to possess their work can,
as a rule, do so on payment of the cost of material used.

EVENING TRADE CLASSES

Admission to In the practical trade classes, admission is given only to those

Trade Classes. , . , , 1 ' T,, 1

engaged in the trade. These classes are intended to supplement
workshop practice, and not to teach trades. Pupils are expected to
attend lectures and to work in connection therewith, and those who
fail to do so are not allowed to continue the workshop practice.
Additions to Free tickets of admission to the Victoria and Albert Museum

the ordinary , T ., ,.,.,, .,

courses. and Library, etc., are obtained for all pupils who require them.
During the session arrangements are made for certain of the
classes to visit the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensing-
ton, under the guidance of their respective teachers. It is intended
that the best examples of craftsmanship shall be examined with the
view of preparing a scheme of work for the following session.
Pupils are required to take note-books on their visits.

ENGLAND 27

A course of lectures on various subjects connected with artistic
crafts is delivered during the winter months. Admission is free
and pupils and their friends are invited to attend.

The courses of instruction are in eight groups, as follows, the
classes for each group being accommodated on a single floor :

i. In Architecture and the Building Crafts. — Design, lectures Curses.0'
on history of architecture, building construction and structural
mechanics. Practical courses in stone and wood carving and let-
tering, lead work, decorative plaster work, iron work, bronze
casting, etc., are associated with this section and with the Model-
ling School.

2. In Silversmiths' Work and Allied Crafts. — Silversmithing,
large and small, goldsmiths' and jewellers' work, diamond mount-
ing, art metal work, chasing, repousse work, engraving, die-sink-
ing, design, modelling, metal casting, enamelling and (later)
electro-deposition and gem cutting.

3. In Book Production. — Book-binding, typography, black and
white illustration, writing and illumination, lithography, woodcuts
and wood engraving, miniature painting, etching and mezzotint,
and lectures are given with a view to bringing into closer relation-
ship the various branches engaged in book production.

4. In Cabinet Work and Furniture. — Cabinet work, inlaying
and marquetry, polishing, upholstery, wood carving, and gilding;
also design for furniture, workshop drawing, workshop arithmetic,
perspective and interiors.

5. In Drawing, Design, and Modelling. — Drawing from Life.
This group is in close relation to all the other groups.

6. In Needlework. — Dressmaking, embroidery, etc. Tapestry
and silk weaving are to be added as soon as required.

7. In Stained Glass Work, Mosaic, and Decorative Painting. —
The general composition and setting out of windows; ornament,
as applied to glass, cutting and leading, painting in tempera.

8. Art. — The Royal Female School of Art, established at Blooms-
bury, is now under the control of the Council, and has been incor-
porated in the Central School.

As examples of the various curricula for the different Evening Examples of
Schools, I have selected those of the School of Architecture and Evening* °
Building Crafts, and the School of Book Production:

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING CRAFTS

Architectural Design: A variety of subjects is given at the commence-
ment of each session, from which the pupil selects, according to his ex-
perience or capacity, such as he desires to work out. Individual instruc-
tion is given from the point of view that architecture should take its form

3 E.I.P.

28 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

in response to present requirements and materials grounded on the past
experience of building processes, the solution of the given problems being
affected by considerations of aesthetic selection.

A course of lectures on the " General History of Architecture," is given.
Advanced pupils are required to attend these, and also such additional
lectures as may be given during the course of the session.

The instruction in architectural drawing comprises the copying of
historical examples, preparing details from small scale drawings, colouring
and lettering plans, also the elementary laws of perspective, etc.

Groups are formed for study of the following subjects if a sufficient
number of applications are received: —

(a) Applied Geometry and Working Drawings; (b) Vaulting; (c) Let-
tering; (rf) Materials; (e) Sanitation; (/) Specifications and Estimating;
(g) Construction, Shoring and Underpinning; {h} London Building Acts.

Arrangements are made for visits to works in progress.

A library of architectural works for loan and reference is being formed,
as well as a museum for specimens and models.

Drawing boards and T. squares are provided, but pupils must bring
their own drawing instruments, set squares, note and sketch books, paper
and other materials.

Building Construction: A course of instruction is given with direct
reference to the work of the architectural class, illustrated by models, specimens
and occasional visits to buildings in course of erection.

(1) Junior Course (once a week). — Excavation (necessity of founda-
tions, usual methods of forming same, concrete for trenches and base-
ments). Brickwork (principal bonds, footings, walls, piers, arches, damp-
proof courses, parapets and copings). Masonry (stones in general use,
methods of building stone walls, of jointing and of arching). Carpentry
(use of timber in floors, roofs, partitions and beams, jointing and fixing
of same). Slating and tiling (general description of slates and tiles, with
consideration of relative advantages, gauge, lap and bond, labours at ridges,
hips, verges, eaves, etc. Joinery (floor covering, methods of jointing,
door and window frames). Ironmongery (door furniture and locks, sash
and casement fastenings, hinges). Plumbing (zinc, lead and copper roof-
ings, gutters, flashings, rolls, hips and valleys). Iron work. (Built-up plate
and box girders, iron roofs to 40 ft. span). Plastering (rendering, float-
ing and setting, coarse stuff, putty, rough cast cornices).

(2) Senior Course (once a week). — Excavation (various soils and the
different methods of forming foundations in the same). Concrete (various
kinds of concrete and their use in foundations, floors, roofs, partitions,
etc. The manufacture and properties of lime and cement). Brickwork
(special bonds, chimney construction, building by-laws and thickness of
walls, the manufacture and use of bricks, terra-cotta and tiles, mortar).
Masonry (various kinds of granites, sandstones, limestones, marbles and
slates in general use and their application). Iron work (roof trusses,
girders, re-inforced concrete, the properties of cast and wrought iron and
steel). Carpentry and joinery (roofs, floors, staircases, French casements,
skylights, dormers, counters). Sanitary work (principles of simple domestic
drainage, water service and ventilation). Lighting (notes on gas and
electric lighting). Materials (brief description of the principal materials
in use on or in buildings, including uralite, vulcanite, rubberoid, patent
partition blocks, etc.).

Pupils of both classes are expected to attend at least one Saturday
visit in each term.

Pupils of the Senior class may attend the Junior class in addition, if
they so desire, and vice-versa.

Structural Mechanics: The course includes the determination of the
stresses in roof principals and girders due to loading and wind-pressure
and the application of iron and steel to building purposes. The determina-

ENGLAND 29

tion of forces arising in and the stability of columns, arches, domes, etc.,
and the stability of buttresses, retaining walls and foundations.

A course of experimental instruction is also included, in which experi-
ments are performed by pupils upon suitable models and apparatus to deter-
mine the stresses and deflections in beams, columns, roof principals, shoring,
etc., and the stability of buttresses, retaining walls, arches and domes.

The lectures deal with practical design and calculations with special
reference to the work of the Architectural class, and without the use of
higher mathematics and examples of construction will be worked out.

Shaded Drawing (mostly from the round) : The course is intended for
architects and others engaged in design, and is open to elementary pupils.

Drawing boards are provided, but pupils must provide their own draw-
ing materials.

Lettering and Inscriptions: A course is given, adapted to the require-
ments of monument masons and letter cutters, and also of architects and
sculptors. It is intended to carry on in stone the more general teaching
of the writing and lettering classes with a view to raising the quality of the
lettering carved on public buildings.

The instruction given is of a practical nature and includes the carving
of the Roman Alphabet, incised and in relief, also the Roman small letters
or lower case and italics, and other more specifically ornamental forms
suitable for special purposes. The basis of the instruction is the Roman
Alphabet.

Materials and apparatus are supplied by the Council, but pupils must
use their own tools.

Instruction may also be provided in general stone-working, including
the various kinds of stone and methods of working them, such as reducing
blocks to working sizes, squaring up, hammer and point, mallet and tools,
axed work, working from templates, circular work, simple development
of mouldings and capitals, working and polishing of marble and other
branches of stone work.

Woodcarving: The carving of picture frames and other simple objects is
taken up.

Ornamental Lead-work: The course includes casting, and supplements
the Sanitary Plumbing taught in other classes, thus providing for all that
is usually described as " external plumbing." The laying of lead on roofs
as practised now and in former times is compared and discussed, having
regard both to material and workmanship. The various ways of orna-
menting lead and the use of lead for ornamental purposes are taken up
in detail, and the methods, so far as is possible, practised in the workshop,
as follows: —

•

Sheet-lead Casting (a casting table, 6 ft. by 3 ft., is provided for this) :
Simple Casting in sand (with open moulds) and generally the art of mould-
ing in sand. Pattern-making, especially the use of leads for patterns. The
simpler alloys of lead; metals added in order to toughen or harden lead
or to prevent shrinkage in casting. Beaten-up work, with and without a
wood or other hard core. Cast Sheet versus Milled Sheet for beaten-up
work, also with especial reference to the expansion and contraction of
lead under changes of temperature. Pierced Lead Work; Incising, Stamp-
ing, Punching and Inlaying Lead. Tinning used ornamentally on lead.
Painting and Gilding.

Some of the objects to which the above processes in ornamental lead-
work are applicable and in the design and making of which practice is
afforded to pupils are: — Ridges and Finials, Gutters, Pipe-heads, and
Cisterns, Crestings, Vallances, Tablets for inscriptions, Flower Boxes, etc.

Iron Work: The course includes drawing and design, and is suitable for
smiths desirous of studying decorative metal work. Furniture designers and

3o EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

architects are also advised to study this subject in relation to their work;
handles, hinges, lock plates, keys, finials, etc., being separately studied.

Bronze Casting: A short course is provided of demonstrations in bronze
casting, of interest to modellers, architects, and metal workers generally.

SCHOOL OF BOOK PRODUCTION

Bookbinding: The course is confined to journeymen and apprentices.
The workshops are fitted with all necessary appliances for forwarding
and finishing. Pupils are encouraged to carry out, from first to last, the
binding and decoration of books, and to design and work out their own
patterns.

The method of teaching adopted is founded on the almost imperish-
able character of the work of the early bookbinders, and greater stress is
laid on sound principles of construction than on high finish.

Instruction is given in forwarding, collating, pulling, sewing, glueing
up, rounding, backing, adjusting boards, cutting, edge gilding, headband-
ing and covering, finishing; designing, blind tooling, gold tooling, the treat-
ment of end papers and polishing.

Instruction in washing and mending and in vellum and account book
work is also arranged for.

Typography: The course aims at supplying instruction in the highest
type of book work as distinct from advertising matter, trade cards, etc.
Work is done in co-operation with the classes in bookbinding, lettering,
black and white design, etc., with a view to form a complete school of book
production.

Paper and Leather: Courses of lectures are given by experts in the use of
paper and leather.

Book Illustration: The course of instruction deals with space fillings with
single figures, decorative borders, headings, and tailpieces, title pages, initial
letters and all other branches of book illustration and decoration. The best
examples of black and white work are available for study, and special attention
is also paid to the adaptations of method called for by the requirements of
process reproduction. Advanced pupils are enabled to study from the draped
living model.

Day classes are also conducted twice a week, from 10 to I and 2.30 to
5, when pupils who desire to work in colour or black and white receive
every assistance. Outdoor work is also a special feature of this class.

Writing and Ornamentation: Courses suitable for addresses and other
MSS. are taken up under this head.

The development of the Roman Alphabet by the use of certain tools
and the modifications of its forms by the commonest — the pen — provide
the study for this class; illustrations being drawn from the varieties of
several centuries, chiefly the " Anglo-Irish," early " Gothic " and " Italian
Renaissance " hands. The forms, proportions and characteristics of the
" Roman," " Uncial," " Half-Uncial " and " Versal " alphabets are examined
in particular and compared with notes and explanations as to the requisites
of legible, beautiful lettering.

All pupils are advised to learn and practise a " formal " or book hand,
the round writing of the eighth, the more angular hand of the tenth cen-
turies or an Italic hand being recommended. Certain principles of letter-
ing and the character of pen work are readily appreciable by such practice.

The application of lettering for common purposes, as in title pages,
notices, etc., is considered, and special attention given t'o the requirements
of documents, addresses and above all, the book — as setting a traditional
and conventional standard in such matters as the proportion of margin to
text, size and combination of letters, spacing of lines, paragraphing and
other details of general arrangement.

ENGLAND 31

The historical importance of the initial letter is insisted upon, and the
consequent growth of ornament therefrom, the introduction of subordinate
ornament, line terminals and other decorative devices, following in order,
according to the capacity of the pupil and the time available.

Instruction is given in the use of raised gilding, and the colours and
materials generally to be employed.

Day classes are also held twice a week, from 2 to 4.30 p.m.

Lithography: The course is intended primarily for those who are engaged
as lithographic draughtsmen or designers, but it is also open to artists who
desire the ability to translate their work into this medium.

The class room is fitted with all the necessary requirements for draw-
ing and a fully equipped press for afterwards proving the stones. Pupils
provide their own drawing materials, but the School provides the stones
and, subject to the approval of the teacher, any pupil may have a reason-
able number of copies of his work when completed. Pupils may, if they
wish, attend for practice on other evenings.

The course includes : Drawing on polished stone — pen work. Drawing
on grained stone — chalk work. Drawing on transfer paper, grained paper,
etc. Drawing on zinc and aluminium. Lithography in colour. The class
meets once a week, from 2 p.m. to 4.30 p.m., and on two evenings.

Wood Cuts in Colour and Wood Engraving: The course consists of
twelve demonstrations in Wood Engraving, including the Design, Engrav-
mg and Printing of Colour Prints from Wood Blocks by a method based
on the Japanese practice.

Etching and Mezzotint: Practical instruction is given in etching, aquatint,
line engraving, mezzotint, relief engraving, steel facing and plate printing. A
day class is also held once a week, from 2 to 4-30 p.m., in addition to two
evenings.

Miniature Painting: Besides the ordinary course, facilities are given to
advanced pupils for study from the living model in miniature painting.

PREPARATORY DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FOR BOYS
I. THE SILVERSMITHS' AND ALLIED TRADES

This school was established with the object of providing Aim.
technical instruction for boys who propose to enter some branches
of the trades dealing with the precious metals. Here also there is
a special consultative committee of trade experts.

As indicative of the general character of the London Trades
Schools, the statement of the aim of the School, as set forth in
its prospectus, is well worth quoting:

The object of the school is to enable boys who intend to enter some
branch of the silversmiths' trade or kindred crafts, as silversmiths, gold-
smiths, jewellers, chasers, engravers, piercers, carvers, mounters or
draughtsmen, to continue their general education and at the same time
to acquire such a knowledge of the artistic principles of design and of thie
scientific principles of construction, of the properties of materials and of
the use of tools, as will enable them at the end of a two or three years'
course to enter a workshop with a full appreciation of the points to which
they are expected to direct their attention, and with an intelligence so
trained as to make them immediately of substantial value to an employer.
Moreover, a boy who has passed through the school, though he may be
required to devote himself for years to some special operation in the work-
shop, would be able readily to adapt himself, if called upon, to other
branches of work and the requirements of other shops in the same trade,

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Practical
work.

Admission
Test.

Fe«s.

while the time which he will devote to the study of design and the artistic
treatment of h>s work will raise his status in the trade and place him on
a very different level from that which he would probably occupy without
such training.

curriculum. jhe curriculum includes the following subjects :

Elementary mensuration, geometry, geometrical drawing, free-hand and
model drawing, modelling in clay and wax, heraldry, plant study, colour, ele-
mentary science, English composition, history, geography, workshop drawing,
technology of metals and tools, bench work, and physical exercises.

The practical work comprises filing, piercing, jointing, smith-
ing, square box work, mounting, blowpipe work, chasing, metal
carving, and the use of small hand tools generally. The course is
a three years' one, and, in the third year, a somewhat higher
degree of specialization is permitted.

The school is open to boys who are capable of doing the work
of the seventh year of an elementary school (about 14 years of
age). The fee is $7.50 per year, but the Council reserves the right
to remit in whole or in part the fees of those whose parents are in
receipt of not more than $10 per week.

II. THE BOOK-PRODUCTION TRADES

Boys enter between 13 and 14. They are apprenticed at the
end of the first year to some firm of recognized standing and the
time spent in the school after reaching 14 years of age counts as
part of their period of apprenticeship. Fees and terms of admis-
sion are the same as in the School of Silversmithing.

During the first year the curriculum includes craft work,
English, citizenship, history, geography, practical mathematics,
preliminary science, drawing, design, physical exercises. In the
second and third years the pupils devote themselves either to book-
binding or to typography on the craft side, according to the trade
to which they are apprenticed. Some substantial attention is also
paid to lithography, engraving, process-engraving, estimating and
the history of the " book."

SHOREDITCH TECHNICAL INSTITUTE
GENERAL

This institution is intended for those engaged in the furnishing,
building, electrical, and other trades. It comprises the following
Departments, departments :

1. Technical Day School for Boys.

2. Pupil-teachers' Handicraft Classes.

3. Domestic Economy Day School for Girls.

Admission.
Fees.

Curriculum.

ENGLAND 33

4. Day Trade School for Girls.

5. Evening Trade Classes for Men.

6. Evening Trade Classes for Women.

The accommodation consists of well-equipped work-shops,
class-rooms, chemistry and physics laboratories, and art rooms.

The trade classes are confined to those actually engaged in the Trade classes,
trades who are earning their livelihood or are preparing to earn
their livelihood thereby. Certificates are awarded by the Council
to those who have completed the courses. The classes are intended
to supplement work-shop practice and not to teach the trades. No
pupil is allowed to take work-shop practice unless he takes in
addition the lectures and the drawing office work in connection
therewith. Work executed in material provided by the Council be-
comes its property; but pupils may generally obtain possession of
the work by paying the cost of the material. A stall is provided for
the purchase of all necessary supplies.

Apprentices, learners, and improvers under 21 years of age are Fees,
admitted free on production of certificates from their employers or
on showing copies of indentures.

Persons employed in trades or occupations upon which the
teaching of the school has a distinct bearing are admitted to the
Classes on payment of ices which vary from 6oc. to $5.00 a ses-
sion, according to the course taken and the wages earned by the
pupil.

TECHNICAL DAY SCHOOL FOR BOYS

The Technical Day School for Boys deserves especial notice.
It is intended to prepare them for some branch of the furnishing Aim.
or other wood-working trades, such as cabinet-makers, joiners,
carpenters, shop-fitters, patternmakers, turners, wood engravers,
and trade draughtsmen, etc.; to continue their general education
and at the same time acquire such a knowledge of the principles
of artistic designing and of construction, of the properties of ma-
terials and of the use of tools as will enable them at the end of
a two or three years' course to enter the work-shop so trained as
to be of immediate value to an employer.

The school is open to boys who are about 13 years of age and Admission
have reached about our Fourth Form standard. The fee for this test8'
School is $6 a year, but the Council remits it in the case of a boy
whose parents are in receipt of not more than $10 a week.

The course extends over three years. In the second year the curriculum,
boys are^taught the principles and practice of such art and metal
work as is connected with the wood-working trades. In the third
year some specialization is allowed. The course consists of the
following subjects :

34

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Arithmetic and mensuration, geometry and geometrical drawing, free-
hand and model drawing, modelling in clay, elementary experimental science,
English (composition, history, and geography), work-shop or technical drawing,
technology of woods, metals, and tools, bench work in wood and metal.

Handicraftfor Provision is here made for pupil-teachers who are to become

Pupil-teachers .

handicraft teachers. This is said to be the only school of the kind
in England. The three terms are identical with those of the Tech-
- nical Day School for Boys.

Aim.

Admission.

Fees.

Organization .

DAY TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS

This School also deserves especial notice. It provides a train-
ing- in skilled trades for girls leaving the elementary schools, and
consultative takes the place of apprenticeship. Attached to it there are Consulta-

Committees. . _ r . , . . , ,

tive Committees of trade employers and social workers, who, as
experts, advise on all matters connected with trade work.

Candidates must be resident in the County of London and be
not less than 14 nor more than 16 years of age. They arc selected
after a qualifying examination in English composition and arith-
metic and a competitive examination in freehand and model draw-
ing and needlework. A recommendation must be produced from
the head of the schools which they last attended. Ordinary pupils
are admitted on payment of $2.50 per term, $7.50 per annum.

The course as a rule extends over two years, commencing after
the Easter vacation, but pupils are allowed to leave before the end
of that time if, in the opinion of the Principal of the Institute,
they are ready for the work-room. For the first three months,
pupils are on probation ; if at the end of that time they are making
satisfactory progress, they are definitely admitted into the school.

About one-half of the school time is devoted to instruction
under a skilled trade teacher in the trade chosen, and the other
half to the improvement of the general education of the pupil, with
special reference to the requirements of the trade. Such instruc-
tion includes free-hand and geometrical drawing, design, English,
composition, arithmetic, some domestic subjects and physical
exercises. •

Domestic Provision is here made for a ten months' clay training in plain

school for cooking, needle-work, and dressmaking, mending, laundry work,
house management, personal cleanliness, and hygiene. The girls
are supplied with dinner and tea and with certain materials for
making garments. Thirty scholarship girls are admitted and other
students, when possible, at the following fees :

(1) Girls under sixteen, $2.50 a term and 8c. a day for meals.

(2) Girls over sixteen, $5.00 a term and I2c. a day for meals.

ENGLAND 35

EVENING TRADE CLASSES

Evening Trade Classes are provided for men in:

1. Cabinet Making and Allied Trades — Furniture design and
workshop drawing, woodwork for beginners, wood carving, chair-
making, French polishing and furniture enamelling, upholstery
(stuffing, drapery, and drawing).

2. Building and Other Trades — Plumbing (drawing, practical
work, elementary science), building construction (reading and
execution of working drawings, setting out of masons', carpenters',
plumbers', and slaters' work), electrical wiring and fitting, elec-
trical instrument making and mechanical engineering, physics ( for
electricians), chemistry (chemical industries, polishers, enamellers,
painters, and decorators), work-shop arithmetic and mensuration,
metal work, van-building and wheelwrights' work, drawing and
design, modelling, painters' and decorators' work, mechanical and
geometrical drawing, English language and arithmetic.

Evening Trade Classes are provided for women in :

Cooking, upholstery, trade and home dressmaking, designing

and making ready-made clothing, drawing and design, teachers'

training classes in dressmaking and millinery.

As examples of the curricula of the foregoing, I have selected

those for men in Upholstery and Plumbing :

UPHOLSTERY

Stuffing — Elementary: Pupils practise, from practical examples, such
exercises as stuffing cushions, squabs, small chairs, easy chairs, etc., all of
which are finished in calico, preparatory to being covered with different
kinds of materials.

Stuffing — Advanced Class for Men: Special attention is paid to the treat-
ment of spring stuffing of furniture in general; spring edge or rail stuffing;
double spring stuffing, marking out coverings in such materials as morocco,
tapestry, cretonne, etc.

Special Advanced Class for Men: To be admitted to this class, pupils must
have a good working knowledge of the subjects taught in the advanced
class. Attention is paid to the upholstering of drawing-room suites,
couches, divans, Chesterfields, etc., both in the matter of stuffing and
covering with tapestry or other suitable materials. Instruction is given
in the cutting of loose covers.

Note. — In all the preceding classes, pupils are expected to join the
Drawing Classes for Upholsterers and others.

Drapery: In this class the decorative side of upholstery is dealt with.
The object is to give such instruction as will enable pupils to follow
architects and decorators in the various styles of colour and treatment
in such a way as to give to rooms when finished continuity and fitness.
Introductory remarks on the general principles involved in interior decora-
tion and furnishing. Ground plans of rooms set to scale; plans showing
floor, walls, and ceiling — Room to scale in perspective. Various floor
coverings; how to measure and calculate necessary quantities. How to
measure for blinds, curtains, vitrage, etc., with short lectures on the

36 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

various fittings and appliances used.- Cutting and mounting of roller
blinds. Cutting of curtains; various headings. The cutting and pleating
of curtains, with distribution of fulness, for semi-circles or portions of
semi-circles, and application of principle to all irregular headings. Cutting
of " pelmets " with straight or circular heads. Festoon draperies — how to
cut and pleat. Bed hangings for the various styles of beds in use at home
and in the Colonies (mosquito nets). Elementary instruction in the
various historical styles of decoration. Elementary instruction in the arrange-
ment of colours as applied to decoration and upholstery.

Pupils are required to attend the special Drawing Class for Upholsterers.

Drawing: To take a high place in the upholstery or furniture trade
a workman must be an expert draughtsman, not only in general, free-
hand and geometrical drawing, but also in light and shade and colour;
and a course is provided to enable young upholsterers and furniture
draughtsmen to appreciate form, accurate arrangement, balance and the
general appearance and special features of the various periods and styles of
drapery and upholstery. Lessons and short lectures are given in methods
of measuring; study of the fall of drapery of the same design cut in various
materials; free-hand drawing from copies and models; the study of light
and shade in pencil and water-colour; setting out for cutting and the appli-
cation of geometry to same.

Pupils who have little power of drawing are required to attend the
Elementary Drawing Class.

PLUMBING

The course in Plumbing below is one of the departments provided under
Building and Other Trades:

Drawing: This class, held one evening a week, gives such instruction
as will enable a plumber to understand and set out his work from given
dimensions. The syllabus is as follows: —

The development of surfaces with special reference to the cutting out
of sheet lead for elbows or knees in circular or rectangular pipes, conical
trumpet mouths, also the covering of various architectural designs;
elements of geometry — meaning of plan, elevation, section and the setting
out of detailed work.

Lectures are given on the principles of drainage, sanitary appliances,
roof work, etc.

Practical Work: The course of instruction has been arranged to cover
the whole work of a practical plumber. There are two classes, elementary and
advanced.

Workshop Practice: Tools — their forms and uses; making and fusing
of solder ; soldering apparatus ; fire-places, etc. Pipe bending in various
sizes, both round and square, with the use of dummies or by bobbin
and followers. Joint wiping; all kinds of joint work, from y2 inch to 4 inch
pipes in all positions, viz., upright, underhand, branch, knuckle, flange and
seam. Wiping; soil pipe and anti-syphonage work in accordance with the
latest principles. Setting out and bossing up all kinds of breaks and
corners in sheet lead.

Special attention is given this branch of the plumbers' work, so that
students may gain a thorough knowledge of lead laying in various forms.

Elementary pupils attached to these classes are expected to attend
the Workshop Arithmetic and Mensuration Class. Pupils attending Prac-
tical Classes are expected to attend the Drawing and Lecture Class for
Plumbers. Special stress is placed on the course of Elementary Science
for Plumbers, in which many of the scientific principles underlying their
work are carefully explained and illustrated. Such knowledge is absolutely

ENGLAND 37

essential to pupils desirous of passing examinations in the Theory and
Practice of Plumbing, with a view of becoming Registered Plumbers.

Elementary Science: The course deals with the physical and chemical
principles involved in the theory and practice of plumbing. These are taught in
an elementary but thorough manner, the lectures being fully illustrated by ex-
periments and supplemented by practical work on the part of the pupils. The
course covers the requirements of the examination of the City and Guilds of
London Institute (Preliminary and Ordinary Grades). The scope of the
subjects is shown in the following summary: —

Introductory mechanical notions; force and work; the lever, pulley
block, screw, etc. Determination of areas, volumes and weights. Density
and specific gravity. Pressure due to a column of liquid. Head of water.
Pressure due to action of gases. The barometer. Boyle's Law. Theory
of the syphon, traps, valves, house cistern fittings. Pumps, hydraulic
press, ram, etc. Capillarity, roof leakage, etc., through capillary action.
Effects of heat upon solids, liquids and gases. Temperature; thermometers.
Co-efficients of expansion. Conduction, convection and radiation. Hot
water circulation. Ventilation of pipes. Expansion of water. Quantity
of heat and its measurements. Specific heat of water and of plumbers'
materials. Latent heat of water and of steam. Properties of ice; frost-
bursts. Melting points of metals and solders. Boiling point of water
under pressure. The simple chemistry of the metals in relation to air
and water. Natural waters and their action on metals and solders. Fur-
ring of pipes and boilers. Red lead, litharge, white lead, etc., and the
cements made from them. Action of acids upon metals and salts. Re-
placement of metal by metal; "electrolysis."

MONOTECHNIC SCHOOL OF BUILDING AT BRIXTON

GENERAL

The Monotechnic School of Building- at Brixton was established Accommoda-
tion, Equip-
by the London County Council for the training of artisans engaged ment and ^ »

in the building and allied trades. Workshops are provided and
equipped for practical teaching under conditions similar to those
met with on buildings and in builders' shops. To complete the
scheme of work, a School of Architecture has been added with
courses of instruction in the history of building and architectural
designing, planning, and drawing.

Lecture and class-rooms, drawing offices and laboratories have
been provided in connection with the work-shops, so that the prac-
tical work may be combined with the class studies.

Every facility is given for full size work and for this purpose
the various trades act in conjunction. Great importance is at-
tached to the practical combination of the studies in the several
trades and branches as required by a master builder, foreman or
architect; and for this purpose an architectural director has been
appointed.

The classes are held in the evening, from once to three times a
week, usually from 7.30 to 9.30.

38 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

EVENING CLASSES

?fework!ent8 The work of the school may be divided into three departments,
as follows:

I. Trade Classes.

Brick work, carpentry and joinery, staircasing and hand-railing, joiners'
machine class, etc.; masonry, painting and decorating; plastering; plumbing,
ornamental lead work, iron pipe work, etc.; sanitary engineering; stone carv-
ing, wood carving and modelling ; wrought iron work.

In the practical Trade Classes only those engaged in the trade are
admitted. These classes are intended to supplement work-shop prac-
tice, not to teach trades completely. Apprentices, learners and
improvers under the age of 21 are admitted free on producing
certificates from their employers or on showing copies of their
indentures. Persons employed in trades or occupations upon
which the teaching of the school has a bearing are admitted to the
evening classes on payment of fees which vary according to the
wages the applicant earns.

II. Building Construction and Allied Subjects.

Builders' bookkeeping, estimating; office routine, construction, mechanics
of building and constructional steel work; building or quantity surveying;
chemistry and physics of building materials, geometry; land surveying and
valuation ; workshop arithmetic, practical mechanics.

III. Architecture and Drawing.

Architectural design, working details, and perspective drawing; architec-
tural history; free-hand and model drawing; lettering and inscriptions for
drawings ; sketching and measuring buildings and details. These courses are
held at the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.

Besides the foregoing evening courses, the details of which I
omit, there is also a Day Technical School for Boys.

DAY TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR BOYS

Aim. This school, which is a Day Trade School for boys, and is,

therefore, especially noticeable, provides scientific and technical
training extending over three years for those preparing to enter

Admission the building trades and allied vocations. Admission is restricted

test s

to boys between 13 and 15 who have passed the sixth standard
(senior third) of the Elementary School or its equivalent. The
Fees. fees are $2.50 a term, or $7.50 a year. For the second and third

years of those intending to become craftsmen, or to enter builders',
surveyors' or architects' offices, the fees are $7.50 a term.

All are entitled to the fre'e use of drawing boards, tools, draw-
ing instruments, paper, textbooks, note books, apparatus and ma-
terial for workshop practice and laboratory instruction, etc.

ENGLAND 39

The curriculum which is common to all pupils during the first curriculum,
year includes: —

Building construction,, work-shop practice, study of materials, work-shop
arithmetic and mathematics, experimental mechanics, geometrical and plan
drawing and lettering, free-hand drawing of building details, English literature,
history with special reference to industrial changes and the development of
public and domestic architecture, geography with special reference to building
materials, English composition, and business correspondence.

In the second and third year the course is divided into two
main sections:

1. The Artisan Course for Bricklayers, Masons, Carpenters,
Plumbers, Painters, etc., and

2. The Higher Course for Architects, Builders, and Surveyors.

During these two years, the instruction in building construc-
tion for all pupils is of a more advanced character, and general ele-
mentary science with reference to building materials and the
mechanics of building are added.

Pupils taking the Artisan Course specialize in the trade which
they intend to follow. The pupils in the Higher Course are in-
structed in the various trades in rotation, and to their curriculum
are added building quantities, architectural drawing and land-
surveying.

At the end of the first year, the Principal advises the parents
of pupils as to the most suitable branch or craft to select for their
sons.

BOROUGH POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE
GENERAL

The technical schools already described are maintained and sources of
managed wholly by the London County Council. The Borough
Polytechnic Institute, founded in 1892, is an example of a technical
school supported partly by the London County Council and partly
by other bodies, as well as by fees. Its income is derived chiefly
from grants made by the following :

London County Council, Board of Education, Central Govern-
ing Body, Governors of Herold's Foundation, Trustees of St.
Mary (Newington), National Association of Master Bakers and
Confectioners, London Master Bakers' Protection Society, and
Trustees of St. Olave and St. John ( South wark).

This Institute is one of the most comprehensive I saw in Eng-
land. With it are affiliated four London County Council Com-
mercial, Science, and Art Centres, Morley College, and Herold's
Institute, the last two providing both elementary and advanced
technical instruction. It is, accordingly, able to offer a very wide

40 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

range of subjects, and the courses include not only day and even-
ing trade classes, but technical work of a higher character. The

Aims. first object of the Institute is to provide for the instruction of

young men and women engaged in the various trades and indus-
tries of Central South London; the secondary object is to promote
general knowledge by means of classes in arts and crafts, higher
commercial subjects, languages, domestic economy, music, etc. ;
and, lastly, the Institute does much to facilitate social intercourse
amongst its students. Membership carries with it certain privi-
leges, and healthy recreation and amusement are afforded by its
various clubs and societies.

Training. Every opportunity is given for physical training and develop-

ment. The Playing Fields are within easy distance by street car,
and there are clubs connected with the various branches of sport,
football, cricket, cycling, hockey, swimming, rowing, cross-coun-
try running, etc. There are two gymnasia — the Victoria, for men,
where instruction is given in drill, gymnastics, fencing, and boxing;
and the Stanley, for women, which is well equipped with Swedish
apparatus.

organization. The work of the Institute is divided into two branches : Day
Schools and Classes, and Evening Classes.

DAY SCHOOLS AND CLASSES

Under this head are comprised :

1. Trade School for Girls.

2. Technical Day School for Boys.

3. Domestic Economy School for Girls.

4. The " National " School of Bakery and Confectionery.

5. Music Classes for Boys and Girls.

The attendance at the Day Classes runs from 300 to 400.

EVENING CLASSES

The following are the main departments of the Evening
Classes :

i. Special Trade Classes. — For engineers, metal plate workers,
bricklayers, carpenters, plumbers, tailors, boot and shoe makers,
printers, bookbinders, wheelwrights, varnish and colour makers,
bakers and confectioners.

2. Engineering and Building Trades Department. — Practical
geometry, machine construction, applied mechanics, heat engines,
practical mathematics, building construction, builders' quantities,
motor-car designing and construction. This department is carried
on in a block of buildings, consisting of a laboratory 80 feet by 25

ENGLAND 41

feet, above which on the first floor are the engineering drawing
offices and the engineering lecture theatre, and on the second floor
geometrical drawing offices and builders' drawing office. The
drawing offices are lighted by inverted arc lamps, giving a diffused
light and are provided with lanterns, screens, and blue printing
apparatus.

3. Chemistry. — Organic, inorganic, and electro-chemistry. This
department, for example, is provided with three laboratories for
practical work of all kinds. The first accommodates 100 students,
the second 20, and the third is a small one for special research work.

4. Electrical Department. — Magnetism and electricity, electro-
technics, electric lighting, wiremen's work, etc. In this depart-
ment, the accommodation provided consists of a lecture theatre,
two large laboratories, and a small one for special work.

5. Science Classes. — Mathematics, physiology, and hygiene.

6. Arts and Crafts. — Modelling, woodcarving, design, etc.

7. Women's Technical and Domestic Economy Classes. — Mil-
linery, dressmaking, embroidery, cookery, needlework, sick nurs-
ing, etc.

8. Higher Commercial and General Classes. — Languages, com-
mercial and local government law, economics, banking and cur-
rency, machinery of business, accountancy, etc.

9. Music and Elocution Classes. — Pianoforte, violin, singing,
mandoline, elocution.

The attendance at the evening classes runs from 3,000 to
3,500.

The Special Trade Classes are intended only for those actually soeciai Trad«
working at the respective trades, and on no account will others be
admitted.

Students are required to attend the theoretical as well as the
practical classes; those not complying with this rule are liable to
suspension.

In certain trade classes (engineering, brass-finishing, pattern-
making, etc.), where practical instruction only is given, students
are required to attend a drawing or mathematics class (to which
they are admitted at a reduced fee). No student is admitted to
the practical class who does not fulfil this condition.

Apprentices and others under 21 years of age are admitted to F«e8)and
any particular trade class at half fees on production of a letter S(
from their employer or foreman stating that they are actually
working at that trade.

The London County Council offers, in open competition, even-
ing scholarships in art, science, and technology. There are also
valuable special class prizes.

A 2

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Examinations
and Rewards.

Advisory
Committees.

Admission

tests.

Trades.
Organization.

Character
of Trade
Instruction.

Examinations are held in many of the subjects, and money
prizes, silver and bronze medals, and certificates are awarded by
the Board of Education, the City and Guilds of London Institute,
and the Royal Society of Arts, on the results of the examinations
respectively held by those bodies at the end of the session. Stu-
dents are expected to sit for examination in their subjects of study.

As suggestive examples of the work done in this Institute, I
submit a statement of the organization and character of the Day
Trade School for Girls, the Technical Day School for Boys, the
" National " School of Bakery and Confectionery, and the Letter-
press Printing Department. As the curricula of the two last-named
will prove interesting, I submit also their main details :

TRADE DAY SCHOOL FOR GIRLS

This school is divided into the Trade School and the Domestic
Economy School.

The Governors have secured the services of employers who act
as Advisory Committees in connection with each trade, and their
supervision of the work ensures its reaching a high standard. The
trade teacher of each section has been selected by the Advisory
Committee and has had experience in good work-rooms.

Candidates for admission to either must be at least 14 years of
age, or must have passed Standard 7 of the Elementary School
(about our Junior Fourth Form).

Instruction is given in waistcoat-making, ladies' tailoring, dress-
making, upholstery, and laundry work.

The course of instruction, as a rule, extends over a period of
two years, and pupils are not admitted unless they are prepared
to stay for that time. For the first three months pupils are con-
sidered to be on probation; if, at the end of that time, they are
making satisfactory progress, they are definitely admitted into the
school ; but any pupil who shows no aptitude for the trade or
whose conduct is unsatisfactory is required to withdraw.

The trades selected offer every prospect of a good livelihood
to capable workers; and special care is taken to ensure that the
pupils shall, as far as is possible in the time at their disposal, receive
an all-round training, and acquire some knowledge of every branch
of their trade, so that they may in after life be able to adapt them-
selves to the varied requirements of different firms.

A girl of average ability who takes full advantage of the train-
ing offered by this Trade School should, after two or three years
of work-room experience, become one of the skilled, intelligent
workers for whom there is always demand, and should rise to a
responsible position.

ENGLAND 43

At the end of the course, places are found for pupils whose
school record is satisfactory.

The Domestic Economy School is for girls who desire train- Domestic
ing in the various branches of household work: Cookery, dressmak- Sch°o1-
ing, drawing, laundry work, housewifery, hygiene, sick nursing, and
first aid, physical exercises.

TECHNICAL DAY SCHOOL FOR BOYS

This school was founded to provide boys with a preparatory Aim.
trade training. A general education combined with manual train-
ing is given by highly qualified teachers in the commodious class
rooms, art rooms, drawing offices, engineering, chemical and
physics laboratories, and in the wood, metal or other work-shops,
all of which are specially fitted with modern appliances.

Boys are eligible for admission to the school who are over 12 Admission
years of age and have passed Standard 6 (Senior Third Form) of
an elementary school, or have received an equivalent education.

The course of instruction and the subjects and the hours devoted Curriculum,
to each per week are as follows :

First Year — Mathematics, 5 ; English, 6 ; Science, 4 ; Geometry
and Mechanical Drawing, 4; Art Drawing, i%; Work-shop Prac-
tice, $l/2', Physical Exercises, i1/^. All take this course.

Second Year — Mathematics, 4; Literary Subjects, 6; Science,
4% ; Drawing, 6^2 ; Work-shop Practice, 5 ; Physical Exercises, iM>.
This course is for boys who decide to enter the Engineering trade,
or any branch of metal work.

Third Year — Mathematics, 5 ; Literary Subjects, 6 ; Science, 5% ;
Drawing, 4%; Work-shop Practice, 8; Physical Exercises, I.

For those who intend to follow the trades, such as Bookbind- specialization
ing, Tailoring, Printing, etc., the course is modified in the second
year, and considerably changed in the third, more time being
given to Art work or special work connected with the particular
trade the pupil intends to follow.

For boys showing special aptitude and desiring to remain in
the school for a fourth year, further specialization is arranged.

"NATIONAL" SCHOOL OF BAKERY AND CONFECTIONERY

This school forms a special department of the Borough Poly- Management,
technic work. The claim is made that it is the only one of its kind
in the United Kingdom. It is managed, subject to the approval
of the Governing Body of the Polytechnic, by the Education Com-
mittee of the National Association of Master Bakers and Con-
fectioners, which body contributes an annual sum not exceeding
$2,500. Any individual, society, or firm, contributing not less

4 E.I.P.

44 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

than $125 a year, may appoint a representative upon the Educa-
tion Committee. The London Master Bakers' Protection Society
has contributed $250 annually for some years past.

The staff consists of three teachers : One in the Bread Section,
including physics, chemistry, bacteriology, etc. ; one in the Confec-
tionery Section, and one in Drawing and Modelling.

Prominent scientists and leading members of the trade give
occasional lectures, which are from time to time announced to the
pupils and advertised to the general trade.

Arrangements are made for pupils to visit flour mills, bakeries,
yeast distilleries, and other places of trade interest

Organization. There are both Day and Evening Courses. Both provide ele-
mentary and advanced instruction in Bread and Confectionery mak-
ing. No student is allowed to take the Advanced Course unless he
proves by examination, to the teacher's and the committee's satis-
faction, that he has experience and aptitude sufficient to justify his
inclusion.

Fees. For the whole or part session, September to May, the fee for

Day Students is $36.50.

For the Evening Students' Elementary Courses the fee is
$2.50 the session for each course. For the Advanced Courses the
fee is $2.50 the session for each course.

«on8Iand>da" ^^e scno°l is provided with two large bakeries, equipped with
equipment. a\\ the most modern machinery and appliances, class-rooms, a
laboratory, store-rooms, and all the necessary accessories of what
is practically a Bakers' and Confectioners' College. The last addi-
tions, with equipment, have cost nearly $20,000. Towards this
capital outlay the National Association of Master Bakers and Con-
fectioners contributed $1,250, and the London County Council
Technical Education Board contributed $8,750, and presented to
the National Association the necessary ovens and machinery for
the bakehouses. Further important additions and alterations are
now being made at a cost of over $7,500.

^11 pupils must take the official examinations which are held by
the City and Guilds of London Institute in connection with the
National Association.

In connection with the examinations at the School, the Wor-
shipful Company of Bakers offer the Freedom of their Company
to the two students who secure the highest marks in the first class
Honours Division in Bread-making and in Confectionery.

Similar examinations are also held by the City Guilds and the
National Association in various centres throughout the country.
In the Bread Section of these examinations, the Netherlands Yeast

ENGLAND 45

and Spirit Factory, Delft, offers a Scholarship of the value of
$125, tenable at the School, to the most successful candidate in the
ordinary grade.

To obtain a full technological certificate in Honours, students Certiflcates-
must qualify in two of the following subjects, Chemistry, Hygiene,
Physiology, Steam, etc., in addition to those taught in the School
itself, but provision for teaching these subjects is made in the
Polytechnic, and students .of the Bakery School are admitted to
these classes at half fees.

Following are the main details of the Day School curriculum of
the National School of Bakery and Confectionery. The evening
courses are similar, but less comprehensive :

ELEMENTARY DAY COURSE

Breadmaking: The wheat berry; flour; starches; yeasts; commercial
yeasts ; ovens ; hot plate goods ; bakery arithmetic ; machinery ; yeast foods and
yeast stimulants ; breads and rolls.

Confectionery: Sponge goods; puff paste; short paste; biscuits; cocoanut
goods ; small powdered goods ; ginger confectionery ; shortbread goods ; cakes
(assorted); fondant and water icing; syrups; pies; glace royale; piping;
substitutes.

Drawing and Modelling: Geometrical drawing. — Definitions, measurements
and construction of simple geometrical figures with application. Scrolls for
sides, and " tops " for cakes ; fancy scroll work suitable for chocolate medal-
lions; lettering. Old English and plain block, etc.; modelling of fruits, leaves
and flowers.

Chemistry: The course includes, amongst other subjects: Properties
of matter, chemical analysis, synthesis, solutions, mixtures, chemical ele-
ments, compounds, production of, and properties of gases : Oxygen, hydro-
gen, carbonic oxide, carbon dioxide, etc. Composition and properties of
water, matter in solution, solvent properties, acids, bases, salts, action and
properties of chemicals used in trade. Composition and properties of air.
Composition of fuels and properties of gases produced in burning, solvent
action of acids, alkalies and alcohols. Chemical calculations, construction
of formulae and equations, atomic and molecular weights. Composition and
properties of starch, dextrin, glucose, sugar, alcohol, etc., etc.; composition
and properties of butter, fats, butter substitutes, milk, etc., etc.

Physics: Measurements of weights and volume; British and Metric
systems; equivalents and calculations; specific gravity of liquids and solids;
S.G. of water, alcohol, fats; use and management of balance, hydro-
meter, saccharometer; use and management of microscope; effects of heat
on metals, liquids and gases; heat values of fuels; specific heat, thermome-
ters, heat transmission, conduction, convection, radiation; equivalents of
steam temperatures and pressures. Ratio of surface to mass. Ventilation,
and laws governing. Heat calculations, etc. Specific gravity of milk,
butter, fats, melting points, etc.

ADVANCED DAY COURSE

Breadmaking: The course consists essentially of advanced work and
demonstration of subjects enumerated for elementary course, with the
addition of research work into what may be called the pathological condi-

46 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

tions of breadmaking. Thus, sourness in yeast and in bread is investigated
by deliberately producing those abnormal conditions, and noting carefully
the varying degrees of change with all accompanying phenomena. Such
problems as the possible and the safe range of temperatures for yeasts,
sponges, and doughs; the moistening and keeping properties of potatoes,
sugar, etc., in bread; the relative yield as affected by ovens, machinery, etc.;
the deterring properties of salt and its limits; the "felling" or over solidi-
fying effects of machines; the persistence of holes; the lesser and greater
causes of crumbling in bread; the economic limits of baking temperature;
the economic use of fuel; and many other unsolved problems are investi-
gated with a view to definite answers.

In addition, the advanced students are instructed in a more extended
system of bakehouse and store bookkeeping, including bread delivery, work-
ing expenses, etc.

Confectionery: The course deals fully with the method of preparing —
Continental fermented goods; fancy cakes; gateaux; fancies for afternoon
tea and buffet table; hot and cold entremets; jellies, creams and assorted^
puff paste; wine and dessert biscuits; ices; piping and decorative work;
preserving and crystallizing; machine and hand-made slabs; meringue goods.

Drawing and Modelling: More advanced work on the lines laid down
for the Elementary Course is given, and in addition Lettering — Latin,
German, Text, etc.; fancy scroll work for birthday cakes, etc.; advanced
modelling for fruits, borders and other decorative work; designs for cake
piping in figures, fancy leaves, etc.

Biology: The course includes microscopic manipulation; section cut-
ting and mounting; special study of vegetable cells, including all forms
of starches; microscopic examination of yeast and all allied fungi; study of
lactic, acetic, butyric, and other forms of bacteria; behaviour of yeast under
abnormal conditions; method of yeast culture; preparation and effects of
yeast foods; effects of oxygen and other gases; effects of salt, acids,
alkalies, sulphurs, etc., etc. ; formation of buds and of spores, etc., etc.

LETTERPRESS PRINTING DEPARTMENT

The following courses are held in the evening, and deal with Composing
and kindred departments, covering the syllabus of the City and Guilds of
London Institute for their various examinations.

PRELIMINARY (Apprentices)

The lectures in each grade are given once a week: Spelling; punctuation;
appliances and material used in case room; technical terms generally; com-
position of type metal; qualities of good type; description of the parts of a
type; weight of type and leads; relationship of type bodies and their pro-
portion to foot; lays of the case; characters in a fount; casing letter; atti-
tude at frame; rules to remember when setting; habits to acquire and avoid;
rules for spacing and justifying; rules for dividing words; rules for distri-
buting; locking-up and unlocking; casting up matter; readers' marks; signa-
tures and their use; definition of stereo, electro, line and half-tone blocks.
Candidates for the examinations are expected to show some knowledge of
Elementary Geometry and Freehand Drawing.

ORDINARY GRADE

All the matter contained in the Preliminary Syllabus; production of
bookwork; casting off MS.; preliminary matter — how to set; notes — how to
set; making-up — various operations; proportion of type to page; measures
for bookwork; making margin; imposition; sheet and half sheet work;

ENGLAND 47

signatures; various problems in type bodies; point system; display in its
various phases; use of ornament in display; use of borders and vignettes,
etc.; classification of job-work; harmony of colour; composition of colour
work; tint blocks; sketching (rough); table work — how to set; paper —
machine and hand-made, various sub-divisions, qualities and weights, equiva-
lent weights.

HONOURS GRADE

Candidates for Examination in the Honours Grade must have previously
obtained a certificate in the Ordinary Grade. The questions are not lim-
ited to any particular syllabus, but are based upon the groundwork of the
syllabuses for the Preliminary and Ordinary Grade examinations, with a
wide range of the whole subject of letterpress printing, and include such
subjects as the following: —

Construction and management of the hand-press and of platen, cylin-
der, perfecting, and rotary machines; making-ready; rollers — their manu-
facture and treatment; the processes of stereotyping and electrotyping;
process blocks — line and half-tone; their production and suitability for
various classes of work; inks — black and coloured, treatment of; three
colour work; composing and distributing machines; power — steam, gas, and
electric; shafting and gearing; the principles of estimating; charging up
work; the various essentials required for the production of a perfectly
printed book; bookkeeping for printers; general management; the ware-
house; cost generally of plant, material, paper, etc.

i

PRACTICAL WORK

Three evenings a week are devoted to Practical Work of every de-
scription, for which a very large well-selected Plant of Type (including
Borders and Ornament based on the labour-saving principle), Printing
Appliances and Machinery have been provided.

In view of their values in Display Work students are recommended
to attend the Classes in Drawing and Elementary Design, held in the Art
Department of the Institute.

Besides the foregoing provisions for Evening Classes, Afternoon ...
Classes are held for apprentices who have obtained permission from their classes for
employers to attend. The lectures are twice a week from 5.30 to 7 p.m., apprentices,
and the practical work once a week, from 7.45 to 9.45.

MANCHESTER

MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY
GENERAL

The provision for technical education in Manchester is
famous. Its Municipal School of Technology, originally a
Mechanics' Institute, cost upwards of $1,500,000, and is one of the
finest and best equipped buildings I saw in Europe. The building
of the Municipal School of Art is in a different part of the city,
and, though well equipped, is by no means so handsome and
spacious. As elsewhere in England, the Education Committee of
the city controls its schools from the lowest to the highest grade,
and as Manchester is a distributing as well as a manufacturing
centre with varied activities, its system is extensive and com-
plex.

48 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

connection The Royal Charter establishing the Victoria University of

Manchester provides for the establishment of a Faculty of
Technology, but the City Council and the University have come
to an agreement under which certain departments of the school
constitute the Faculty. The University confers the degrees of
Bachelor and Master of Technical Science (B.Sc.Tech., and
M.Sc.Tech.), and the holder of the latter may compete later for
the degree of Doctor of Science. Besides providing technological
instruction, the staff of the school performs other important func-
tions. It has carried out a large number of tests for various firms
in the city and districts, and the facilities which the school affords
for mechanical and electrical tests and analyses of a chemical
nature are constantly increasing. The members of the staff also
flo a large amount of original work.

DAY CLASSES

Students of the Faculty intending to proceed to a degree must
first pass the examination for matriculation of the Joint Board of
the Northern Universities or an examination accepted as equi-
valent thereto, and, at some subsequent period in the ist or 2nd
year of their three years' course, an intermediate examination in
science before presenting themselves for the final examination for
the degree. Students also on passing the entrance examination of
the school, or some equivalent examination, may proceed after
three years' training to a certificate of the University in Technical
Science.

Compared with the matriculation examination of the Faculty
of Applied Science and Engineering of Toronto University, the
course for the entrance examination is noticeably difficult. It em-
braces the following subjects :

English: Dictation, composition, grammar, physical and political geography,
English history.

Mathematics: Arithmetic — Elementary rules with vulgar and decimal
fractions, and square root; algebra (to quadratics), geometry (six books),
plane trigonometry; use of four-figure tables of logarithms, and trigono-
metrical fractions.

Geometrical Drawing: Plane and solid.
Freehand Drawing (simple).

NOTE— Candidates take either, but not both of the preceding.

Model Drawing: Sketching some solid object or group of objects.
Latin, or German, or French: The elements of the grammar; translation
at sight of easy passages or sentences into English; translation of English
into Latin, or German, or French.

ENGLAND 49

General Science: Mechanics (kinematics and kinetics, statics, simple
machines, hydrostatics).

Physics: Matter; heat, magnetism and electricity.

Chemistry: Inorganic, metals and non-metals and their compounds; the
theory.

The course of instruction for the degree or the certificate is
intended to prepare men for responsible positions in industrial life.

The Technological Day courses cover three yeans; but, as they
are of the University grade and of little importance to this en-
quiry, I submit only a general statement.

The courses are as follows:

Mathematical. First year general. Mechanical engineering.
Physics and electrical engineering. Municipal and sanitary engi-
neering. Applied chemistry (general technological chemistry) ;
chemistry of textiles (bleaching, dyeing, and printing) ; manufac-
ture of paper; metallurgy and assaying; brewing; electro-chemistry ;
photography. Textile manufacture. Photography and the printing
crafts.

The first year general course for the mechanical, electrical, and
sanitary engineering, and applied chemistry departments embraces :

English, German, geometrical drawing, engineering drawing, mechanics,
physics, chemistry, with laboratory courses, woodwork — theoretical course,
consisting of lectures on timber, woodworking, tools, and wood-turning,
with a practical course in drawing, bench work, lathe work, and pattern-
making.

The technological day courses are practical throughout. For
example, the department of electrical engineering is provided with Equipm(
the following laboratories :

Materials testing, hydraulic machine testing, steam engine, gas
and oil engine, and mechanics.

Like the American Technological Institutions, this school has ;i
complete equipment of " shops " :

The woodworking shop has an equipment of circular and band
saws, moulding, tenoning, mortising, grinding machines, and
turning lathes, all electrically driven, together with suitable bench
accommodation.

The engineering workshops are fitted with modern tools of
British and American types, and include a special tool room
equipped with fine grinding machines and other high-grade tools
for gauge making and standardised work by modern methods.

The smithy contains a steam hammer, eleven forges, and a large
hearth, and trie Foundry is equipped for making small sand castings
in brass and lead.

In addition to the foregoing technological courses, there are
special day courses for men and women :

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Entrance
teats,

Organization
of courses.

Curriculum.

daT I- ^or Apprentices nominated by their employers, who excuse

them from work for sometimes a whole day a week and occasion-
ally pay their fees, courses are provided as follows :

Engineers' apprentices (three years), plumbers' apprentices
(two years), painters' and decorators' apprentices (three years),
assistants in public libraries (three years), architecture and build-
ing construction (two years).

2. For Women — Theoretical and practical dressmaking, plain
and art needle-work, millinery, training course for teachers.

3. For Teachers — Special classes in manual training in wood-
work and metal work, partly day and partly evening.

EVENING CLASSES

The courses of instruction in the Evening Classes are designed
to give systematic training in the principles of Science and Art as
applied to the commerce and industry of the city and district.

Before entering, the student must possess attainments at least
equal to the Seventh Standard (our Form IV) of an elementary
school, but special stress is laid on mechanics and drawing. For
students not possessed of this indispensable preliminary know-
ledge, provision is made in the Evening Continuation Schools and
in the preparatory Technical and Commercial Schools established
in various districts of the city. Summer evening courses are also
provided, beginning the end of April and ending toward the close
of July.

In many subjects the preparatory training required is of a
special character, and students are not admitted unless they give
satisfactory evidence that they can enter with advantage.

The courses lead to a diploma or a certificate, and extend over
five and three years respectively, according as the industries re-
quire a high degree of scientific theory and training, or handi-
craft skill combined with an accurate knowledge of general prin-
ciples. All lay a broad general foundation of sound mathematics,
drawing, and science leading up to more specialized study, at a
later stage, of those subjects which are of direct value and interest.
The five years' course entitles the student to the diploma of the
school with the title of Associate, and the three years' course to the
certificate of competency in the particular branch of study he has
undertaken.

The subjects of the evening courses are as follows. I give a list
to show the comprehensiveness of the provision in the school for
technical training of various kinds:

ENGLAND 51

Pure and Applied Mathematics: including Mathematics for surveyors.

General Science: Physics, Chemistry, Geology, descriptive Astronomy
and Meteorology, Botany, Physiology, Hygiene, Microscopic Research.

Mechanical Engineering: Machine construction and drawing, applied
mechanics, heat engines, theory of the steam boiler, theory of the steam
turbine, theory of machines, hydraulics, strength of materials, engineers' quan-
tities in estimating, graphics and statics of structures, pattern making, practical
mechanical engineering, rail carriage and wagon building, road carriage and
motor car building, van and cart building, coal mining and mining surveying.
Course for locomotive drivers, firemen, and cleaners.

Electrical Engineering: Electro-chemistry, electro-metallurgy, telegraphy
and telephony, electric wiring and fitting, electric instrument making, electrical
traction for motor men.

Building Industries: Building construction and drawing, carpentry and
joinery, constructional iron and steel work, ferro-concrete construction,
structural designing, graphics, statics for builders, builders' quantities;
house painting and decoration; masonry; staircasing and handrailing; cab-
inet making; metal plate work.

Municipal and Sanitary Engineering: Plumbers' work; sanitary engin-
eering and inspection; municipal engineering; land and engineering surveying.

Industrial Chemistry: Metallurgy; iron founding; iron and steel manu-
facture; bread making and flour confectionery; brewing; water analysis;
oils and fats; chemistry of essential oils and other aromatic substances;
painters' oils, colours, and varnishes; gas engineering and supply; gas
supply, technical gas analysis; coal-tar distillation and coal-tar products;
technical research and construction of plant; photography; photo-mechani-
cal processes; cotton and linen bleaching and dyeing; calico and linen
printing; practical courses in bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing mach-
inery; paper manufacture; technology of bleaching, dyeing, printing and
finishing machinery; special course in dyed and printed goods for buyers
and salesmen; engraving for calico printers.

Printing Industries: Typography; lithography; bookbinding.

Textile Industries: Cotton spinning; cotton and cotton yarn for buyers
and salesmen; cotton weaving and designing; silk manufacture; textile
fabric course for buyers and salesmen; textile engineering courses.

Domestic Economy: Dressmaking; millinery.

Special Courses: Board work for apprentices, improvers and assistants
engaged in the craft of hairdressing. Principles and practice of horseshoeing.
Flour manufacture. Foodstuffs.

Introductory Courses: In branch evening schools in elementary science
and in Art and Drawing.

Summer Evening Courses.

MANUAL TRAINING FOR TEACHERS

As is also the case in the other large centres in England, Man-
chester provides a Manual Training Class for teachers in wood-
working and metalworking in the evenings and on Saturdays.

Woodwork.

In woodworking the course is a two years' one. Fee, $4.25,
including the examination fee, $1.75. Each fee includes the use of Fees,
tools and materials for the course.

52 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Aim- The class is established to give teachers of public elementary

and secondary schools and, under certain conditions, other per-
sons, a practical knowledge of the use of woodworking tools, of
geometrical drawing, isometric projection, and of drawing to scale
as applied to woodworking, with the more especial object of en-
abling them to introduce manual training into elementary and
secondary schools. A spacious workshop, well fitted with benches
and appliances, is provided for thirty students, each of whom is
supplied with a locker and a complete set of tools.

ofrcoursetion The course> which consists of about thirty lessons of two and
a half hours each, is carefully graduated, and includes instruction
in the nature, use, and object of the tools and materials employed,
the best methods of preparing drawings and laying out the work,
in the application of descriptive geometry to woodworking. Op-
portunity is given for discussions on the methods, aims, and edu-
cational bearing of the course of instruction.

The course of instruction and workshop practice prepares can-
didates for the examination in Manual Training, held in May and
June by the City and Guilds of London Institute, which body
grants certificates. All candidates must have had at least twenty
practical woodworking lessons, each of not less than two hours'
duration, during the session preceding each examination, in a clnss
registered by the Institute.

Examination^ The examination held at the end of the First Year's Course
consists of (i) Drawing, (2) a simple Literary Test, (3) Prac-
tical Exercises in woodworking. Candidates are expected to show
a knowledge of drawing to scale and projection, and ability to
draw to scale, in plan and elevation, any simple joint, and very
simple combinations of the same to dimensions or sketches.

The Final or Second Year's Examination, which is open only
to candidates who have passed the First Year's Examination,
comprises drawing to scale and hand-sketches in conventional per-
spective of any of the ordinary joints used in woodwork, or any
framed objects made in wood. The woodworking exercises are
more difficult than those for the first year. A written examination
is also held, and includes the place of origin, and the character-
istic properties and uses of the commoner woods such as white
deal (spruce), red pine (Scotch fir), yellow pine, oak, ash, elm,
beech, mahogany, sycamore, teak, walnut, and bass-wood; the
structure of timber trees, seasoning, shrinkage,, warping, identifi-
cation ; the construction and mode of use of the various tools ; the
best methods of using nails, screws, and glue. It also includes
fittings and cost of equipment of school workshops; arrangement
of pupils ; methods of instruction and sequence of lessons ; systems

ENGLAND 53

of manual training-, as for example, Sloyd; general principles of
teaching.

Metalwork.

In metal work the course is a two years' one, but the class meets
for three hours only on Saturday forenoons.

Fee, $5.00, including examination fee, $2.56. Fee8-

Each fee includes the use of tools and materials for the course,
and also a class in Machine Drawing three evenings a week, which
students are strongly advised to attend.

Students of the course must be teachers who have completed A
and passed the first year examination of the City and Guilds of
London Institute, in manual training woodwork, or they must
present themselves concurrently with their Metalwork Examina-
tion for the Drawing Examination for First Year's Woodwork
and for a special Examination consisting of easy exercises in Prac-
tical Woodworking.

The course for the First Year consists chiefly of practical exer- XrgJ°S2!on
cises in metalwork, including vise work, bench work, and forge
work, together with drawing in connection therewith.

The course for the Second Year canjbe taken only by students
who have passed the examination for the first year. It comprises
exercises in the workshop, similar to, but more advanced than
those of the first year, in which greater accuracy and finish are
expected. The bench work includes brazing. Exercises are also set
requiring the use of the lathe, including chasing, the use of the slide
rest, and methods of screw cutting.

Students preparing for the Final Examination must attend a
class in drawing unless they have done so in a previous session.

Instruction is given in making freehand dimensioned 'sketches,
to plan and elevation, of hand and machine tools and other work-
shop fittings, and of exercises for practical work. The lectures on
practical work include the discussion of the forms and angles of
cutting tools as used for vise and bench work, and for lathes and
drilling machines, together with the construction and use of these
machines; the principle of working of gas and steam engines;
arrangement of the fittings, pulleys, and belting ; and the equipment
of a school workshop and arrangement of lessons, etc.

Much importance is attached to the practical work, which Examinations,
receives at the examination four times the number of marks
assigned to either of the other subjects.

The examinations in both woodwork and metalwork are both
written and practical.

54

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Aim.

The Museum.

Fees.

Curriculum.

Exhibition of
work.

MUNICIPAL ART SCHOOL
GENERAL

The aim of the Municipal Art School is to give a prac-
tical knowledge of designing, drawing, painting, and modelling,
more especially in the various forms of their ornamental applica-
tion in association with architecture and technical conditions of
manufacture, to assist those who desire a knowledge of Art as a
part of their general education, and to give facilities to persons
who intend to adopt Art as a profession, or to include it in their
general qualification as teachers.

An important adjunct of this School is a very fine museum
which cost upwards of $50,000, a sum derived from the profits of
the Manchester Royal Jubilee Exhibition of 1887. It comprises
three large rooms known respectively from the general character
of their contents as the Textile Court, the Italian Court, and the
Gothic Court, and in addition an East and West Corridor. Each
room and corridor is equipped with objects of artistic skill and
handicraft, either original or in fine reproductions, cartoons for
stained glass, textiles of various kinds, a magnificent tapestry
designed by Burne- Jones and executed by William Morris, examples
of silverware, jewellery, majolica ware, pottery, porcelain, print-
ing and book-binding, rugs, Turner's drawings (lent by the
National Gallery), illustrations of Italian and Gothic ornamental
and decorative art, etc.

The school provides both day and evening classes and the
fees run from $3 to $35 a session, according to the number, length
and character of each class. A special class has been provided for
teachers on Saturday forenoon.

Class work is taken up in the following subjects :

Model drawing, freehand drawing of ornament, perspective, geometrical
drawing, blackboard drawing, light and shade, preparatory antique draw-
ing, anatomy, principles of ornament, design and its technical applications,
plants and their relation to design, historic ornament, furniture and interior
decoration, figure composition, book illustration, writing and illumination,
painting from still life, landscape painting, architecture, architectural design,
drawing from life, modelling from life.

The classes in art craftsmanship are as follows:
Metal work, enamels, jewellery, repousse work, stained glass, embroid-
ery, wood carving, marble carving, architecture, decoration in plaster and
stone, house painting and decoration, bookbinding.

At the time of my visit, an exhibition of work done by former
pupils since leaving the school had been open for some time. The
display was a remarkably excellent one, and the Principal informed
me that amongst the exhibitors were pupils who had attained a
high standing as artists and as industrial designers.

ENGLAND 55

EVENING VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS
GENERAL

,- .1 .. ., T-. , Distribution

At convenient centres in many parts of the city the Educa- and aim.
tion Committee has provided evening classes leading up to the
more advanced technical classes in the Central Municipal School
itself, and forming part of the Technical School system of the
city. These classes afford instruction in general, art, and commer-
cial subjects as well as in domestic science for girls and women.
Before being advanced to the evening classes at the Central School,
the student must be sixteen years of age and have had such a
preparatory course as will enable him to take up properly the
course he selects.

In order to ascertain to what extent the business firms of the of0~Rusine *a
City were co-operating with the Education Committee in the work Firms-
of the evening schools, enquiry was made in 1908 in all depart-
ments, other than the Municipal Schools of Technology and Art, as
to the number of students in attendance whose fees had been
paid by their employers. The result was as follows :

Thirty-five separate firms paid the fees of 173 employees. To
encourage the co-operation of the employers, monthly reports were
furnished the firms as to the attendance, progress and conduct of
each student whose fees they paid. Monthly reports were also for-
warded in respect to 192 students in the employment of 25 firms
who had not paid the fees, but wanted to be informed of their pro-
gress. In several cases the advances of salary are dependent on
this progress.

ORGANIZATION, DISTRIBUTION, AND ATTENDANCE

The statement below shows the general organization of the voca-
tional courses in the Manchester School System. I give it in some
detail as the organization should prove suggestive in the case of a
large city like Toronto, in which the new Technical School should
correspond to the Manchester Municipal School of Technology.

Preparatory Course — For boys and girls who desire to im- °rs»nization-
prove their general education or who are not sufficiently prepared
to take advantage of the following courses.

Grade I. — Continuation Schools:

1. First and second year Technical Courses for boys en-
gaged in manual occupations.

2. First and second year Commercial Courses for boys and
girls engaged in commercial or distributive occupations.

56 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

3. First and second year Domestic Courses for girls desir-
ous of receiving a training in domestic subjects.

Grade II. — Branch Technical, Commercial, and Art Classes, and
Schools of Domestic Economy:

1. Second, third, and fourth year Technical Courses, to
meet the requirements of all classes of technical students.

2. Second, third, and fourth year Commercial Courses, to
meet the requirements of juniors in business houses.

3. First and second year Art Courses leading up to the in-
struction at the Municipal School of Art.

4. Specialized instruction in Domestic subjects for women
and girls over 16 years of age.

Grade III. — Central Institutions:

Municipal School of Technology — Advanced instruction
in Science and Technology.

Municipal School of Commerce and Languages — Ad-
vanced instruction in Commercial Subjects and in Languages.

Municipal School of Art — Advanced instruction in Art
and Design.

Municipal School of Domestic Economy and Cookery-
Advanced instruction in Domestic Subjects. (Day classes
only. )

Distribution. The following statement for 1907-1908 shows the distribution
throughout the city of the Evening Schools conducted by the Edu-
cation Committee, outside of the Schools of Technology and Art :

Grade I. Evening Continuation Schools, 65 Departments.
Lads' and Girls' Clubs (Associations for improvement), 5
Departments.

Grade II. Branch Technical Schools, 6 Departments,
Branch Commercial Schools, 19 Departments. Evening
Schools of Domestic Economy, 7 Departments.

Grade III. Municipal Evening School of Commerce, I
Department. Central Evening School of Domestic Economy,
i Department. Teachers' and Special Classes, 9 Depart-
ments.

Attendance. The following statement shows the number of students enrolled
in each department in 1907-1908, and is significant in view of the
fact that the population of Manchester is about 650,000 :

ENGLAND 57

I. The Municipal School of Technology, Day Dept

The Municipal School of Technology, Evening Dept.
Total attendance (some enrolled in more than one

department) 5>299

II. The Municipal School of Art (Day and Evening

Classes) 755

III. Continuation Schools (Evening) :

General 6,603

Commercial 5>595

Domestic Economy 1,181

Branch Technical Schools 871

Special and miscellaneous classes 2AI7

Total attendance (Continuation Schools) . . 16,667

In 1907-1908 162 students in the Day Department were enrolled
as students of Victoria University, with a view to qualify for
Bachelor of Technological Science or a Certificate of Technology.

CURRICULA

NOTE. — The numbers in brackets are the number of hours a week the class is held.

I. TWO YEARS' COURSES

First year:

Preparatory Course — Preparatory course for boys and girls who are
too backward to take one of the following courses and who require
instruction chiefly in the subjects of the Day School.

The pupils in this class, as a rule, receive instruction in reading,
handwriting, and composition, the simple rules of arithmetic with or
without the addition of one or two other subjects at the discretion of
the Head Teacher. As the students will be of varying attainments,
much of the teaching will necessarily be individual.

Technical Course for boys engaged in industrial pursuits — Experi-
mental mathematics, including practical drawing and hand-sketch-
ing (3)! woodwork (2); English (i).

Commercial Course for boys or girls engaged in commercial or dis-
tributive occupations — Commercial arithmetic (2); English (2);
Geography (i); Bookkeeping or Shorthand (i).

Domestic Course for girls and young women in domestic economy
subjects — English (i); arithmetic and household accounts (i);
needlework and cutting-out (2); cookery (2).

Second year:

Technical Course for boys engaged in industrial pursuits — Experimen-
tal mathematics, including practical drawing and hand-sketching
(3); practical mechanics and physics (2); English (i).

Commercial course for boys or girls engaged in commercial or distri-
butive occupations — Commercial arithmetic (2); English (i); com-
mercial correspondence and office routine (i); bookkeeping or
shorthand (2).

Domestic course for girls and young women in domestic economy sub-
jects— English (i); dressmaking (2); home nursing (i); cookery (2).

NOTE, — Where cookery cannot be taken, millinery may be substituted.

58 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

II. SIX YEARS' COURSES FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS

First year — (Taken in Evening Continuation Schools) — Practical math-
ematics and practical drawing (3); woodwork (2); English (i).
Second year — (Taken in Evening Continuation Schools and Branch
Technical Schools) — Practical mathematics and practical drawing
(3); practical mechanics and physics (2) English; (i).
Third year — (Taken in Branch Technical Schools) — Engineering course
— Machine construction (2); applied mechanics (theoretical and
practical) (2%); experimental mathematics (2).

Building Trades Course — Building construction (2) ; applied
mechanics (theoretical and practical) (zVz) ; experimental mathe-
matics (2).

Chemical Industries Course — Chemistry (theoretical and prac-
tical) (2%); physics (theoretical and practical) (2%); experimental
mathematics (2).

Electrical Course — Magnetism and electricity (theoretical and
practical) (2^); applied mechanics (theoretical and practical) (2%);
experimental mathematics (2).

Fourth year — (Taken in Branch Technical Schools) — Engineering
Course — Machine construction (2); applied mechanics (theoretical
and practical) (zVz); mathematics (i); geometry (i).

Building Trades Course — Building construction (2); applied
mechanics (theoretical and practical) (2j4) ; mathematics (i) ;
geometry (i).

Chemical Industries Course — Chemistry (theoretical and prac-
tical) (5); physics (theoretical and practical) (2^).

Electrical Course — Magnetism and electricity (theoretical and
practical) (2%); mathematics and geometry (2); machine con-
struction (2).

Fifth and Sixth year — (Taken in the Municipal School of Technology)
— Advanced instruction in Science and Technology.

III. SIX YEARS' COURSES FOR COMMERCIAL STUDENTS

First year: For all classes of commercial students — (Taken in Evening
Continuation Schools) — Commercial arithmetic (2) ; English (2) ;
geography (i) ; bookkeeping or shorthand (i).

Second year: For all classes— (Taken in Evening Continuation Schools) —
Commercial arithmetic (2) ; English (i) ; commercial correspondence
and office routine (i) ; bookkeeping and shorthand (2).
Third year— (Taken in branch Commercial Schools and Municipal Even-
ing School of Commerce) :

Shorthand clerks and typists — Correspondence, office routine
and typewriting (2); shorthand (3); English (i).

Junior and invoice clerks — Commercial arithmetic (i); book-
keeping (2); shorthand (2); correspondence and office routine (i).

Bookkeepers — Commercial arithmetic (2); bookkeeping (2);
correspondence and office routine (i); English (i).

Correspondence and shippers' clerks— A modern language (3);
correspondence and office routine (i); commercial geography (i);
bookkeeping or shorthand (i).

Fourth year— (Taken in branch Commercial Schools and Municipal Even-
ing School of Commerce) :—

Shorthand clerks and typists — Correspondence, office routine
and typewriting (2); shorthand (3); English (i).

Junior and invoice clerks — Commercial arithmetic (i); book-
keeping (2); shorthand (2); correspondence and office routine (i).

ENGLAND 59

Bookkeepers — Commercial arithmetic (i); bookkeeping (2);
correspondence and office routine (2); English (i).

Correspondents and shippers' clerks — A modern language (3);
correspondence and office routine (i); commercial geography (i);
bookkeeping or shorthand (i).

Fifth year — (Taken in the Municipal Evening School of Commerce) —
Diploma courses in accountancy, banking and economics, secre-
tarial work, municipal work, higher commercial work, foreign
trade and correspondence, and specialized instruction in commer-
cial subjects and languages.

Sixth year — (Taken in the Municipal Evening School of Commerce) —
Diploma courses in accountancy, banking and economics, secretarial
work, municipal work, higher commercial work, foreign trade and
correspondence, and specialized instruction in commercial subjects
and languages.

LIVERPOOL

CENTRAL MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL

Like Manchester, Liverpool has a fine Central Municipal Tech-
nical School, which cost, I understand, about $50x3,000. At this cost and
school the day attendance is very small. I should judge froma
what I saw that there are not more than thirty or forty who take
advantage of these classes. The evening classes, however, are well
attended, numbering about 1,500 pupils.

The system of organization is very similar to that of Man- organization.
Chester, and is the feature I gave most attention to at my visit.
The Education Committee of the City has established a scheme of
evening classes of three grades: Evening Continuation Schools,
Branch Technical Schools, and Central Schools (Central Technical
School, City School of Art, School of Commerce, etc.). Pupils
are not admitted to the classes in higher grades until they are
properly prepared.

EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS

The Evening Continuation Schools provide courses of instruc-Aim.
tion for apprentices and youths engaged in trades, for juniors in
business offices, for girls and young women who desire instruction
in domestic subjects; as well as for those whose general education
does not enable them to enter at once the more advanced classes.
Of this grade there are twenty-five schools for males, eighteen for
females, and four for males over 18 years of age.

The courses provided are as follows :

i. A General and Literary Course, extending over three years, courses,
for students wishing to continue their general education.

5 E.I.P. n

60 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

2. An Industrial Course, extending over two years, for stu-
dents who are engaged in or preparing for a trade of any kind
of manual or industrial work.

3. A Commercial Course, extending over three years, for
students engaged in offices, shops, warehouses, and other places as
business clerks, cashiers, etc.

4. A Domestic Course, for girls and women, in subjects such as
cookery, needlework, dressmaking, etc.

A Preliminary Course in reading, writing, arithmetic and simi-
lar elementary subjects is also provided for those whose education
is not sufficiently advanced to enable them to take up one of the
special courses.

Special Schools are also provided for deaf mutes and the blind.

In order to provide deserving students with an opportunity of

continuing their education beyond the day school course without

a break, the Committee offers every boy or girl on leaving the day

Free tuition, school free tuition in an Evening Continuation School. In the case
of good students this privilege may be renewed at the end of the
year. A certificate at the close of the two years' course entitles

Fees. the holder to admission at a reduced fee to the more advanced

courses at the Branch Technical Schools or the Central Technical
School. As the result of a competitive examination a grant for
books or apparatus may be obtained in addition.

EVENING BRANCH TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

Aim The evening Branch Technical Schools are intended for those

who have completed the courses in the evening Continuation

Admission. Schools, or who have otherwise prepared themselves. Pupils
under sixteen are not admitted (except, in special cases, to an Art
Class) unless they have completed the Evening Continuation
School Course. Of this grade there are eight schools for males,
and two for females, with two classes for males maintained by the
Y. M. C. A.

organization. r^^ fonowjng courses are provided for, though all the courses
mentioned are not taken at each school :

1. Commercial Subjects — A two years' course in shorthand,
book-keeping, correspondence, commercial arithmetic, business
theory and practice, with commercial geography, etc., continuing
the commercial course provided in the evening Continuation
Schools.

2. Building or Engineering Trades — A two years' course for
students engaged in various branches, comprising building con-
struction or machine construction, practical geometry, and practical

ENGLAND 61

mathematics, practical mechanics, etc., continuing1 the Industrial
Course at the Evening Continuation Schools, and preparing stu-
dents for the more advanced stages of the courses taken at the Cen-
tral Technical School.

3. General Trade Preparatory Course for apprentices over
sixteen, comprising practical drawing, workshop calculations, and
woodwork or science, preparing students for the special trade
classes.

4. General Course in English, mathematics, and general subjects.

5. Modern Languages — Classes in French, German, Spanish.

6. Elementary Art Classes, comprising geometry, drawing with .
pencil or brush, model drawing, shading, etc.

7. Household Science Courses in cookery, laundry work, home
dressmaking, needlework, home millinery, home nursing, etc.

At some of the Branch Technical Schools special commercial courses,
courses of an elementary character are provided; also afternoon
classes in one or more domestic subjects (cookery, dressmaking,
needlework and millinery).

The members of the staff are especially qualified in the respec- ofust!!iration8
tive subjects, and in many cases are employed during the day in
commercial or professional work bearing on the subjects they
teach.

As in the case of the Continuation Schools certificates are Certiflcates-
granted to students who complete one of the courses extending
over not less than two years. The holder of such certificate has
preference in admission to the higher classes, and is in certain
cases admitted at a reduced fee. Provision of the same character
is made at the Branch Technical Schools for free tuition with or
without a grant for books and materials.

CENTRAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL

The classes at the Central Technical School are intended for ****
those who have completed the courses at the Evening Continua-
tion and Branch Technical Schools, or elsewhere if their attain-
ments are sufficient. As a rule students are not admitted under
seventeen years of age.

In addition to the advanced courses for students in the Engi- organization,
neering and Building Trades there are also provided in the Central
Technical School systematic courses of instruction of a practical
character for electrical engineers and wiremen, in sheet jr 'plate- and
bar metal trades; for carpenters and joiners; plumbers; house
painters and decorators; and ironmongers' assistants.

62

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Accommoda-
tions and
Equipment.

Special
Classes.

Co-operation
with manu-
facturers.

Scholarships.

Nautical
College.

Aim.

Accommoda-
tions and
Equipment.

Classes are also provided in the following subjects :

Lithography and process work; typography; bookbinding; brickwork and
•masonry ; road carriage building ; motor car engineering ; cabinet-making ;
flour milling; breadmaking and confectionery; gas manufacture and gas sup-
ply; wheelwright's work; tailoring; artificial hair work (hairdressing and wig-
making) ; telegraphy ; telephony ; builders' quantities ; mathematics ; plane and
solid geometry ; chemistry ; physiology ; hygiene ; biology ; botany ; geology ;
mineralogy ; sound, light, and heat ; electricity and magnetism ; mechanics,
naval architecture.

The school contains, in addition to the ordinary lecture rooms
and class rooms, well-equipped laboratories for practical work in
mechanical engineering; electrical engineering; chemistry and
physics; special drawing rooms for machine drawing, builders'
drawing, etc., and workshops in connection with many of the trades
above mentioned.

Special Afternoon and Saturday Forenoon Classes in physiology
and hygiene, drawing, mathematics, and practical laboratory work
in chemistry and physics are arranged; as also Afternoon Classes
(2.00 to 5.00 p.m.) for apprentice plumbers, painters and decora-
tors, metal trades' apprentices, etc. At present only a small number
of apprentices attend the afternoon classes. In 1910, the
Director of Technical Education in Liverpool informs me, an after-
noon class of mechanical engineering apprentices was formed
for the first time. In most cases the students bring with them their
time-sheets to be marked by the teacher, and thus the attendance,
which is during the employers' time, is definitely recognized as part
of their employment. Only the younger apprentices, during their
first and second years, are let off to attend the afternoon classes.

The Education Committee offers to students who have attended
classes in the school for at least two sessions, and who have
worked satisfactorily and obtained certain examination successes,
valuable Senior City Technical Scholarships, giving free education
at the Liverpool University for a period of three years, together
with a money grant of $250 per annum.

The classes of the Nautical College are held daily in the build-
ing of the Central Technical School in both the forenoon and the
afternoon.

CITY SCHOOL OF ART

i
The City School of Art provides in day and evening classes

advanced instruction in art and artistic crafts. The building is
much inferior to that of the Municipal Technical School, but it has
very fair class-rooms and equipment. The curriculum includes
the following subjects:

ENGLAND 63

Drawing, painting and modelling from the figure and antique; painting Curriculum,
from still life and flowers; drawing for book illustration and decoration^
design for manufactures and decoration ; etching on copper, and mezzotint
engraving; artistic lithography; stained glass; enamelling; brass and copper
work; wood and stone carving; embroidery, etc.

A Branch School of Art is provided for in another part of the
City, under the supervision of the Principal of the City School of
Art. As in the case of the other schools those who have attended
the Art Classes in the Branch Technical Schools may be admitted
free to all the Evening Classes. Art Classes are also provided at
the Central Technical School for students who are taking other
subjects there; also at five of the branch institutions.

CITY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE

The instruction given here is of a more advanced character
than may be obtained in the other schools of the scheme. The
school provides special afternoon classes in Modern Languages
for persons engaged in commercial offices.

DAY PREPARATORY TRADE SCHOOL

The Board of Education has also recently established a Day Aim.
Trade Preparatory School in the Toxteth Technical Institute. The
school is intended for boys who are preparing to become appren-
tices to the mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, sheet
metal, carpentry and joinery, building and other trades. As in
other schools of this class, the object of the training is to save
valuable time to both the boys and their employers during the
earlier years of their apprenticeship. The staff consists of teachers staff,
who have themselves had practical workshop experience as well as
experience in teaching ; and the Committee in charge has the con-
stant advice and co-operation of representative employers in the
arranging and supervising of the school course, and in securing
suitable situations for the graduates. The course is a full two
years' one of practical training, and those who graduate find- a
much readier entrance to the factories than those who leave the ele-
mentary school at fourteen to become office or errand boys, and
who quickly lose much of the value of the education which they
received at school, while learning nothing else that would help
them in their future. Moreover, such boys are in a better position
to derive benefit from attendance at the evening classes during
their apprenticeship.

The building has been specially erected for these classes, and
for use in the evenings as a Branch Technical School. It contains, S
in addition to the ordinary class-rooms and lecture-rooms, a special

64

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Admission
tests.

Parents
pledge.

Fees and
scholarships.

Curriculum.

lecture-room and laboratory for experimental science, a work-
shop fitted with benches, lathes, etc., for woodwork, and another
room fully equipped as an engineering workshop, drawing rooms,
etc. There is also a large school playground and space for drill — a
provision not often met with in cities of the size of Liverpool.

For admission a boy must be not less than thirteen, and must
pass an entrance examination in Arithmetic, Drawing (Freehand
and Geometry), and English, equivalent to Standard VII. (Junior
Form IV.).

A noticeable provision, and one to be met with in many other
of the English higher grade schools, is the requirement of a writ-
ten statement from the boys' parents that it is their intention to
keep him at the school for the whole course, and for him then to
proceed to a trade or other industrial occupation. There are three
terms each year with an entrance examination at the beginning of
each, in August, November, and March. The fee, which is $3.75
a term, covers the cost of apparatus, tools, materials, books and
stationery used in the school, but pupils are required to purchase
text-books, stationery, etc., required for home work. As in the
case of the other classes, scholarships giving free admission have
been established. The subjects of the course are as follows, the full
course extending over two years :

Workshop Practice in Wood and Metal. (Special importance
is given to this section of the work, an average of eight hours per
week being spent in the workshops.)

Practical Mathematics, including the application to workshop
problems of Arithmetic, Mensuration, Algebra, Logarithms and
Trigonometry.

Practical Drawing of Engineering, Building and other Details
including constructive and solid Geometry.

Freehand Drawing — Sketching from Objects and Models.

Elementary Science, with practical work in the laboratory in
Mechanics, Physics, and Chemistry.
« English, including Reading and Composition. Geography, etc.

Physical Exercises.

DAY INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS

Besides the Central Technical School, a Higher Elementary
School, and some of the evening classes, I visited two or three of
the Day Industrial Schools provided for poor and neglected chil-
dren. In some cases these were really preparatory trade schools
of an elementary character. While their accommodations and equip-
ment were neither elaborate nor expensive, it was evident that

ENGLAND 65

effective work was being done. Connected with one of these
schools I found a wareroom in which were exposed for sale at cur- J?oducte.of
rent prices the articles the boys had made. The proceeds of the
sale went towards the cost of maintenance. I may add that in an-
olher of these schools I saw the best physical exercises with dum
bells, clubs, etc.. that I have ever seen in any primary or secondary
school in the course of a long- experience.

SCOTLAND

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SCOTLAND : PAGE

Introduction . . 71

Continuation Schools Code 72

Compulsory Attendance Act 74

Edinburgh :

Heriot-Watt College.

General 75

Day College 7t>

College Evening Classes 76

Commercial Classes 77

Trade Classes ,. 77

Continuation Schools 78

Curricula.

Civics, Economics and Industrial History 80

Art.

General Courses.

Wood-Carving 81

Design 82

Modelling in Copper 82

Brass 82

Leather 82

Evening Classes of the Edinburgh College of Art 82

Glasgow :

The Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College.

General . . . 83

Day Classes 85

Evening Schools 86

Evening Continuation Schools at Glasgow and Outside Centres 86

Organization . . . 87

Preparatory Classes 87

Elementary and Advanced Technical Classes 88

Trade Classes 89

Art Classes ' 9°

Allan Glen's School 9i

5COTLAND

INTRODUCTION

The system of education in Scotland I discussed with some of
the officials at the Scotch Education Department in London, and in
Edinburgh, where the Department has a representative. I will,
however, confine myself to a brief account of the provision for
technical education. As in England, this branch has made remark-
able progress during the last few years. The standard of en-
trance to the technical and industrial schools has been greatly im-
proved, the institutions are generally of a more practical character,
and both the Imperial Government and the people have been more
generous in their contributions. As in England and the United Mechanics
States, and indeed in Canada, an attempt was made at first to pro- Institutes-
vide technical education by means of Mechanics' Institutes, but
owing to the inherent defects of these institutes — chiefly the lecture
system and the lack of adequate resources — their failure has been
general. As in England, also, the London Exhibition of 1851 led
to the establishment of the Science and Art Department through l^j^ aj?td
which grants were given on easy conditions as to equipment and ment-
staffs, but in connection with a strict system of examinations on
technical subjects. Central institutions, as well as towns and
villages, established systematic courses, but the instruction in
science was academic, and only indirectly practical. Of late,
however, the accommodation, equipment, courses of study, and
methods of teaching are being related to the industries. Evening
Continuation Schools have been provided by school boards to pre-
pare for entrance into the technical colleges, and to supply
courses of practical instruction that will improve the efficiency of
those engaged in or preparing for the industries. Glasgow and Edin-
burgh in particular have been remarkable for their enterprise
in providing a comprehensive system of technical education for these
cities and the surrounding districts. As elsewhere this provision
has been rendered necessary by the breaking down of the appren-
ticeship system. The Continuation Schools may be held not only in
the evening but in the daytime, though as yet they are held usually
in the evening; and they are open to all who have completed the
obligatory courses of the elementary schools. In the agricultural
districts I was informed that there are few of these classes as yet.
By the Act of 1908 schools boards have, however, the power to
compel attendance both in the urban and in the rural schools, and
the Department of Education is aiming at linking these Continua-
tion Classes to the great central agricultural, technical, art and
commercial colleges, of which eleven are already in existence:

72 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

1. Aberdeen and North of Scotland College of Agriculture.

2. Aberdeen Gordon's College and Gray's School of Art

3. Dundee Technical Institute.

4. Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture.

5. Edinburgh Heriot-Watt College.

6. Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College.

7. Glasgow Athenaeum Commercial College.

8. Glasgow School of Art.

9. Leith Nautical College.

10. The West of Scotland Agricultural College (including Kil-

marnock Dairy School),
n. Edinburgh College of Art.

Of the Scottish system the two most noteworthy features for
my purposes are its scheme of Continuation School instruction
and its provision for compulsory attendance thereat. I now submit
a synopsis of the former and the sections of the Education Act that
provide for the latter.

i*r-

CONTINUATION SCHOOLS CODE

organization fhe code of regulations for Continuation Schools provides for
four divisions :

1. Preparatory Classes for the Completion of General Educa-

tion.

2. Elementary Classes for Specialized Instruction.

3. Advanced Classes for Specialized Instruction.

4. Auxiliary Classes.

Division i. In Division i, the classes are open to any pupils who are free

from the obligation to attend the Elementary Day School. The
subjects are as follows :

English, and one of the following courses: Commercial, Industrial,
Household Management, Rural School Course. One of the following may
be added: The Laws of Health, Money Matters (thrift, investment, insur-
ance), Conditions of Trade and Employment, the Empire (its history,
growth, and trade) ; the Colonies and the openings they offer for enterprise;
Nature Study, Drill, and Singing; and any other subject specially arranged
for by the Department

Division 2. Division 2 comprises classes for elementary instruction in such

special subjects as may be useful to pupils who are engaged in or
preparing for any particular trade, occupation, or profession.
Pupils may be admitted at the discretion of the managers, provided
due regard is had to their previous instruction in the elementary
school and their fitness for work of Division II. The subjects are
thus classified:

SCOTLAND 73

Commerical Subjects: — Commercial Arithmetic, Handwriting, Book-
keeping, Shorthand, Commercial Correspondence, Business Procedure,
Commercial Geography, the study of any language (including English),
with a direct view to its use in business.

Art: Drawing and Modelling; Elementary Design.

Mathematics: Elementary Geometry, Algebra, Mensuration, Dynamics.

Science: The elementary study, Theoretical or Practical, of Physical or
Natural Science, or any branch thereof.

Applied Mathematics and Science: (a) General — Practical Mathe-
matics, including Technical Arithmetic, and the use of mathematical instru-
ments and tables; mechanical drawing. (&) Special — The application of
Mathematics and Science to specific industries. Machine Construction,
Building Construction, Naval Architecture, Electrical Industries, Mining,
Navigation, Agriculture, Horticulture, or any other industry the scientific
principles underlying, which admit of systematic exposition.

Where the nature of the subject requires it, previous or concurrent
study of Applied Mathematics and Science or of the related branch of Mathe-
matics or of Science will be made a condition of taking any subject under the
special course in Applied Mathematics and Science.

Handwork: Elementary instruction in the use of tools — woodwork,
ironwork — with concurrent instruction in drawing to scale and the prac-
tice of such occupations a3 needlework, cookery, laundry work, dairy work,
with accompanying explanations of processes. Ambulance work (practice
and theory).

The regulations require that a time-table and syllabus be sub-
mitted for the consideration and approval of the Department and
classes in each subject or group of related subjects must meet not
less than one day a week for such length of Session as may be
approved of by the Department. For cause this length may be
reduced. Each meeting shall be not less than an hour and a half
for practical subjects, and one hour for others.

Division 3 comprises organized courses of systematic instruc- Division *•
tion, arranged with a view to fitting students for the intelligent
practice of particular crafts, industries, or occupations.

Courses under this division must as a rule extend over three
years, and must provide for such a minimum of instruction as may
be proposed by the Managers and approved by the Department.
Courses may be instituted under this Division to provide technical
instruction suitable to any crafts, industries, or occupations, ap-
proved as suitable by the Department.

Such courses may be classified under the following heads:

Commercial and Literary Courses, Art and Art Crafts, Engineering
(civil, mechanical, electrical, mining, sanitary, etc.), Naval Architecture,
Navigation, Architecture, Building and Allied Trades, Textile Industries,
Chemical Industries, Printing Processes, Women's Industries, Agriculture
and Rural Industries, and other suitable industries or occupations not
included under any of the above heads.

A preparatory year is provided, to which may be admitted Preparatory
students who are over fifteen or who have had satisfactory pre-

74

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Equipment.

Literature
and History.

Division 4.

Approval of
Department.

vious instruction. Certificates are given at the end of each year's
course. The classes must meet not less than twice a week for at
least 20 weeks, each meeting to be for not less than an hour.

Provision for the industrial courses must be made in properly
equipped laboratories or work shops for such amount of practical
work on the part of the students as the Department may deem
necessary, such practical work being illustrative of the principles
taught and not merely of trade practices. Provision is also made
for systematic instruction once a week in some period or branch
of literature and history.

Division 4 comprises the following :

Physical exercises, military drill, vocal music, wood carving, fancy
needlework, elocution (if taken in connection with an English course), or
such other subjects as may be recognized by the Department.

In all the divisions, the courses of instruction, the time-tables
and the qualifications of the teachers are subject to the approval of
the Department.

COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE ACT

The following are the subsections of the Scotch Education Act
of 1908 referring to the compulsory school attendance of adoles-
cents :

"(i) Without prejudice to any other power of a school board to
provide instruction in continuation classes, it shall be the duty of a school
board to make suitable provision of continuation classes for the further
instruction of young persons above the age of fourteen years with refer-
ence to the crafts and industries practised in the district (including agricul-
ture if so practised and the domestic arts), or to such other crafts and indus-
tries as the school board, with the consent of the Department, may select,
and also for their instruction in the English language and literature, and in
Gaelic-speaking districts, if the school board so resolve, in the Gaelic lan-
guage and literature. It shall also be their duty to make provision for
their instruction in the laws of health and to afford opportunity for suitable
physical training.

"(2) If it is represented to the Department on the petition of not less
than ten ratepayers of the district that a school board are persistently fail-
ing in their duty under the foregoing subsection, the Department shall
cause inquiry to be made and call upon the board to institute such continuation
classes as appear to the Department to be expedient, and, failing compliance,
may withhold or reduce any of the grants in use to be made to the board.

"(3) It shall be lawful for a school board from time to time to make,
vary, and revoke bylaws for requiring the attendance at continuation classes,
until such age, not exceeding seventeen years, as may be specified in the
bylaws, of young persons above the age of fourteen years within their
district who are not otherwise receiving a suitable education, or are not
specially exempted by the school board from the operation of the bylaws,
and that at such times and for such periods as may in such bylaws be
specified. Such bylaws may also require all persons within the district
having in regular employment any young person to whom such bylaws
apply, to notify the same to the board at times specified in the bylaws, with

SCOTLAND 75

particulars as to the hours during which the young person is employed
by them:

Provided that no young person shall be required to attend a continua-
tion class held beyond two miles measured along the nearest road from the
residence of such young person.

"(4) This subsection provides for the application of the Public Health
Act of Scotland.

"(5) If any person fails to notify the school board in terms of any
such bylaw in regard to young persons employed by him, or knowingly
employs a young person at any time when his attendance is by any such
bylaw required at a continuation class, or for a number of hours which,
when added to the time required under any such bylaw to be spent at a
continuation class, causes the hours of employment and the time so spent,
taken together, to exceed in any day or week, as the case may be, the
period of employment permitted for such young person by any Act of Par-
liament, he shall be liable on summary conviction to a penalty not exceed-
ing twenty shillings, or in case of a second or subsequent offence, whether
relating to the same or another young person, not exceeding five pounds.

"(6) If any parent of a young person by wilful default, or by habitually
neglecting to exercise due care, has conduced to the commission of an
offence under the immediately preceding subsection or otherwise, through failure
on the part of the young person to attend a continuation class as required
in any such bylaw, he shall be liable on summary conviction to the like
penalties as aforesaid."

EDINBURGH

HERIOT-WATT COLLEGE
GENERAL

One of the most comprehensive institutions in the British
islands for the promotion of technical instruction is the Heriot-
Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland.

The Governors, who are elected by the City Council, School ,
Board, the City Ministers, the University, the Royal Society of comSitfceB.
Edinburgh, and the Edinburgh Chamber of Commerce, are
assisted in their duties by Advisory Committees representative of
both employers and employees in the following trades : Printing,
plumbing, commercial work, chemistry, engineering, building
trades and mining.

The aim of the College is to supply, as far as practicable, for Aim.
the industrial classes what the University gives to those preparing
for the so-called learned professions. It claims to be the first
institution in the British Isles founded for the express purpose of
giving the industrial classes education in the principles of Science.

The diploma of the College is granted in the following depart- Diploma,
ments: Civil engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engin-

6 E.I.P.

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Curricula.

Connection
with •«
Industries.

Connection
with Univer-
sity of
Edinburgh.

Connection
with College
of Agriculture
and Continu-
ation Schools.

Admission to
Evening
classes at
College.

eering, mining, weaving, architecture (conjointly with the School
of Art), naval architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, mathematics
and physics. Last session the attendance at the strictly evening
technical classes was 3,000, and at the day classes 250.

DAY COLLEGE

The courses of instruction in the Day College are arranged for
mechanical and electrical engineers, mining engineers, manufac-
turing chemists, architects, printers, and publishers, and those
who are interested in the study of technical mycology, such as
brewers, distillers, margarine, butter and cheese makers, etc.

A striking feature of the college is the close connection between
it and the various industries and trades in which instruction is
given. The course in brewing, for example, includes apprentice-
ship in a brewery as well as the training in the College, and the
students are also admitted for short periods to the famous Carls-
berg Brewery at Copenhagen. Similarly, those who wish to be
technical chemists are admitted free to the laboratories of the Cor-
poration Gas Works for periods lasting from four to twelve
months. The mining students not only obtain practical instruc-
tion in a mine in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, but arrange-
ments can always be made for from six to twelve months' instruc-
tion in metalliferous mines in different parts of England.

The day classes are recognized by the University of Edin-
burgh. Students may, accordingly, proceed to take their B.Sc.
degree in Engineering and in Chemistry by passing the necessary
University examinations and attending certain additional classes
in the University. Students who hold the B.Sc. degree can obtain
at the College special post-graduate courses of instruction in tech-
nical mycology, analytical chemistry, electrical engineering and
prime movers, with a special diploma therein.

Any further details of the day classes I omit, as being of a
more advanced character than we are likely to have in Ontario
outside of those of the Faculty of Applied Science.

The College is associated with the Edinburgh and East of Scot-
land College of Agriculture, and, what is of special importance to
us in Ontario, with the Evening Continuation Classes of the Edin-
burgh School Board.

COLLEGE EVENING CLASSES

The conditions of admission to the evening classes at the
College are a qualifying certificate from the Evening Continuation
Classes or previous attendance at a secondary or Higher Elemen-
tary School, or passing an equivalent entrance examination.

SCOTLAJND 77

The Evening Class Time Table shows 131 different subjects Curricula-
in each of which a class is formed. Besides five years' courses
under the general heads of mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering, chemistry, mining, architecture, and sanitary science,
the following, of special interest to us, are also provided :

COMMERCIAL CLASSES

The Junior Commercial Certificate is awarded to students who £ ejSSiSe8 :
have obtained either (i) Class certificates in the following sub-
jects at the Evening Continuation Classes in commercial arithmetic,
elementary English, elementary book-keeping and business pro-
cedure; or (2) Class certificates at the Her iot- Watt College in
commercial arithmetic, elementary English, book-keeping, com-
mercial correspondence, and precis-writing; or who possess quali-
fications equivalent to (i) or (2) and who, in addition to either of
the above qualifications, have obtained in the Heriot-Watt College
certificates in advanced English and advanced book-keeping and
practice of commerce.

The Senior Commercial Certificate is awarded to those who 2. senior
hold the Junior Commercial Certificate and who have obtained in
the Heriot-Watt College First Class Certificates in the Practice of
Commerce and Political Economy, and in two of the following
subjects: — Principles of Accounting and Banking Law, Commer-
cial Law, Commercial History, Actuarial Algebra, a fourth year
Certificate in a modern foreign language, or an advanced Certifi-
cate in some other subject of study in the College which will be of
value in the particular department of commerce which the student
proposes to follow, but the selection of this subject must be made
after consultation with the Principal.

TRADE CLASSES

In the Printing and allied trades ample provision has been Printing and

, f 11 i • j r ,• i 1 • i i- 11- Allied Trades.

made for all kinds of practical work, including monotype and lino-
type machines. Apprentices are not admitted into these classes
until the third year of their apprenticeship. They are expected to
attend classes under the School Board for the first and second years
of their apprenticeship. Classes are held for compositors, jobbing
and display work hands, monotype and linotype hands, machine-
men, bookbinders, and instruction is also given in photographic
methods for book illustration.

The class in Carpentry and Joinery is intended for persons andpjoin!ry.
who have previously attended the classes of Building Construction
and Geometry, or have been through the course in Building Con-
struction or Carpentry and Joinery provided in the Evening
Schools of the School Board.

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Masonry.

Other classes.

The work of the class in Masonry and Brickwork comprises
lectures and drawing, and is intended not only for masons and
bricklayers who intend becoming foremen or clerks of works, but
also for architects, surveyors, and others who desire an intimate
knowledge of building methods.

There are also classes for plumbers' work, watch and clock
making, and tailor cutting; and in English literature and com-
position, elocution, theory of music, Latin, and Greek.

CONTINUATION SCHOOLS

Joint
Scheme*.

Joint schemes of work have been drawn up in conjunction with
the Edinburgh School Board. In each course, the student receives
instruction in the earlier stages at the Evening Continuation
Classes of the School Board, and thereafter at the Heriot-Watt

certificates. College and the Edinburgh College of Art. A special certificate is
awarded to any student who completes satisfactorily any of the
courses. The organization of these courses should prove suggestive
to a large city like Toronto.

Courses. fhe Continuation School subjects (otrfer than elementary)

have been grouped as English, commercial, technical and art
courses for boys, young men, girls, and young women, and as
domestic courses for girls and young women only. These
specialized courses are taken up in different schools in various
parts of the city. Summer Session Classes, lasting for a period
of twelve weeks, are opened in three Centres, the subjects of in-
struction being those given during the Winter Session, and such

Fees. others as then may be in demand. The fee for the Session is

$1.25 per subject, except in one school where the fee is 6oc, but
the fee is returned to all students who make 80 per cent, of the
possible attendances. Pupils who enroll for one night a week only
are expected to make 90 per cent, of the possible attendances.

organization. The Continuation Classes are in five divisions as follows, the com-
plementary classes being taken thereafter at the Evening Classes
of the College :

Division i. Division i. Preparatory Courses. — These Courses are formed

for the completion of general elementary education, and are
especially intended for pupils who are over 14 years of age and who
do not possess the qualifications for specialized instruction. Pupils
must enroll for three evenings a week. Typical Preparatory Courses
as taught in these schools are : —

(i) Boys' Course — English, including spelling and composi-
tion ; arithmetic ; and one or two of the following : —

Drawing (Geometrical and Freehand), the Empire (its
growth, history and trade; the Colonies and openings for enter-
prise), civics, woodwork, common commercial documents.

SCOTLAND 79

(2) Girls' Course — English, including spelling and composition;
arithmetic ; and one or two of the following : —

Civics, the Empire, common commercial documents, laws of
health, cookery, needlework, dressmaking, laundry work, millinery.

Division 2. Specialised Courses. - - The following are eligible Dm8lon 2-
for admission : Pupils over 16, or pupils under 16 who have received
a certificate of merit from the Day School or completed the Pre-
paratory School course, or have been for at least one year at a
Higher Grade or a Secondary School.

The Courses are as follows : —

(1) English. Two years' attendance and satisfactory work
qualifying for the third year in Heriot-Watt.

(2) Commercial Courses.

(a) Shorthand Course. A three years' course in English,
shorthand and typewriting.

(fr) General Commercial Course. A two years' course in two
or more commercial subjects selected from commercial arithmetic,
business procedure, elementary bookkeeping, shorthand, English,
commercial geography, French, German, Esperanto.

Division 3. Technical Courses. — A preliminary training for Division 3.
the following trades : Engineering, metal, building, woodworking,
furniture, printing, ink making, baking and confectionery. Two
years' courses are offered in : —

.Elementary engineering (eight schools), elementary physics
(two schools), constructional engineering (one school), elemen-
tary building construction (nine schools), plumbers' work (three
schools), carpentry and joinery (two schools), cabinet-making
(one school), printing (seven schools), baking and confectionery
(one school).

Division 4. Art Courses. — A preliminary training for arts Divi8i°n *•
craftsmen and students, as designers, engravers, metal workers,
house-painters, cabinet-makers, lithographers, stone carvers, wood
carvers, sculptors, modellers, etc. : —

(1) General Art Course (six schools).

(2) Wood Carving and Design.

(3) Modelling in copper and brass.

(4) Modelling in leather.

The last three subjects are each taught in one and the same
school, and students in either of them must take the General Art
course first. Three year courses in Art are provided, preparatory
to the course in the Edinburgh School of Art with its workshops

8o EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

for the teaching of drawing and painting, sculpture, architecture,
and design, and the various Craft and Trade Processes.

Divisions. Division 5. Domestic Courses. — Three years' courses.

These courses train girls and young women to discharge with
intelligent interest the responsible practical duties of the home.
Two or more of cookery, needlework, dressmaking, laundry work,
housewifery, millinery, first aid, home nursing, hygiene, and tem-
perance are taken as forming a complete course.

other classes. Besides the foregoing, classes are provided in civics, economics
and industrial history. Auxiliary Classes are also held in physical
exercises, swimming and life-saving, vocal music, wood carving,
and elocution.

ind°itopioy- An educational information and employment bureau has been

men Bureau. opene(j ty tfa Edinburgh School Board for the purpose of giving
information and advice as to education or employment to parents
and pupils. The bureau is open all day, and on certain specified
evenings to suit the convenience of parents who cannot call during
the day.

As illustrative of the work done in the Continuation Classes of
the Edinburgh School Board I submit the details of the courses in
Civics, Economics, and Industrial History, and in Art. I submit
also an outline of the complementary Evening Courses of the Edin-
burgh College of Art :

CURRICULA

CIVICS

The course in Civics has been framed to suit the capacity of those just
leaving school. The older students find in the courses in Economics and
Industrial History much that is of great value in relation to industrial
knowledge and efficiency:

Nation and State: Representative Goverment, Parliament and People,
Party Goverment, the Village and the Parish, the School, Poor Law Union,
Boroughs and Counties, Public Health, Roads, Streets, Buildings, and
Lands, Police and Justice. Central Government: The Crown, Parliament, the
House of Lords, the House of Commons, Working of the Parliamentary
Machine. Judicial System: Judges and Law Courts, Executive Govern-
ment, Control of Education, Local Government, Trade, Agriculture, and
Post-Office. Executive Government: Home Office, Colonial Office, India
Office, Foreign Office, War Office, Admiralty, Treasury. Duties of Citi-
zens in relation to Local and Central Government. The Empire: Rela-
tions to the Empire and to Foreign Countries. Industrial and Social Duties
of the Citizen. Associations of Workers. The State and Labour.

ECONOMICS

General Course — First year : —

Production of wealth — Land, labour, capital, and organization. Ex-
change of wealth— (a) Value and price; (b) Money; (c) Value of commodi-
ties; (d) Value of money. Distribution of wealth — (a) Rent of Land; (b)
Wages of labour; (c) Profits of capital; (d) Trades Unions, strikes, co-

SCOTLAND 81

operative societies. Foreign Commerce, Credit, and Taxation — (a) For-
eign commerce; (b) Credit and its influences on prices; (c) Taxation.
Special Course — Second year: The study of the following texts: —
Adam Smith: The Divison of Labour; Thomas Robert Malthus: Prin-
ciple of Population; David Ricardo: Theory of Rent; John Stuart Mill:
Theory of Value; John Elliott Cairnes and Thomas Edward Cliffe Leslie:
Economic Method; Walter Bagehot: The Money Market; William Stanley
Jevons: Statistics; Henry Fawcett and Arnold Toynbee: Social Reform.

INDUSTRIAL HISTORY

General Course — First Year: Before the Norman Conquest. The Manorial
System. Service and commutation. Towns, and the beginnings of town life.
The Exchequer. Money and accounts. England under the Edwards. National
unity and commercial policy. The Black Death. Later developments of towns
and guilds. Enclosures for sheep-farming. Progress of woollen industry. The
mercantile system. Elizabeth's legislation. Trading companies, and beginnings
of Colonial expansion. Survey of industries from 1600 to 1760. The rise of
banking. Growth of Greater Britain — trade wars of the eighteenth century.
Machinery and power. The Agrarian Revolution. Laissez-faire and State
charity. Artisan. Pauper. Remedies by legislation. Modern conditions. Trade
and the flag.

Special Course — Second Year : Advantages of combining the study of
history and political economy. Population in 1760. Agriculture in 1760.
Manufactures and trade in 1760. Decay of the Yeomanry. Condition of
wage-earners in 1760. Mercantile system and Adam Smith. Chief features
of the Revolution. Growth of pauperism. Malthus and the law of popula-
tion. The wage-fund theory. Ricardo and the growth of rent. Theories
of economic progress. Future of the working classes. Wages and natural
law. Industry and democracy.

ART

General Courses.

First and Second Years: —

1. Drawing: Any suitable medium, such as pencil, chalk, charcoal, pen
and ink, or colour. /

The objects of study are : Natural forms, such as flowers and plants
from nature, shells, etc.; common manufactured objects; casts of orna-
ments. The drawings of flowers and plants in outline. All other drawings
in light and shade or in colour. Charcoal, or other black and white drawings,
drawings in coloured chalks, or in water-colour on brown or other tinted
paper. Wood carving and metal repousse — for pupils who receive instruction
in design.

2. Work with instruments. — A course of simple geometrical problems.
The construction of simple geometric patterns. The construction of simple
scales, and their use.

3. Lettering. — Construction of simple alphabets — Roman, block, italic.

4. Arithmetic and Mensuration. — The measurement of floors, walls, etc.
The calculation of cost of tradesmen's work.

Wood Carving.

First year (elementary). — Tools: Selecting and putting in order, sharpen-
ing, etc. Chip carving. Elizabethan, Gothic borders, Celtic strap work, Gothic
ornament.

The exercises consist mainly in making copies in soft wood from
clearly-cut models of graduated difficulty.

82 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

The object of this initiatory practice is that the student may gain a
knowledge of the tools, and the proper method of using and sharpening
them, tegether with some mastery over the difficulties connected with the
grain of the wood.

Second Year — Early English, incised carvings, Renaissance (German
and French styles). In this second year, students' exercises are in hard-
wood, oak, walnut, etc., e.g., picture frames, portions of carved furniture,
etc. Students of this grade work from drawings as well as from carved
models.

Third Year (Renaissance). — Italian, Louis XV., high relief, modelling
from cast, masks, bosses, grotesque and heavy ornament. Third year
students who show sufficient capacity are aided in their endeavours to work
out complete designs, such as fireplaces, Church or household furniture,'
fittings, etc. In this case, making complete drawings, showing design, con-
struction, and carving. As far as possible, even from the beginning, students
are helped to develop such individuality as they may possess, consistent with
the principles and necessities of good craftsmanship.

Three lantern lectures on history and design are given to the combined
classes during the Sessien.

Design.

First Year: Freehand and geometrical drawing. Copying of good
examples of ornament and design. Study of the principles of elementary
design as illustrated in patterns, scrolls, borders, etc. Exercises in simple
design, such as repeat patterns, filling of simple shapes, bordering, etc.

Second Year: Studies from designs in historic ornament, such as Celtic,
Norman, Gothic, Greek and Roman, Old English, Italian Renaissance, etc.
Drawing of flowers and foliage. Principles of design in relation to the var-
ious styles of ornament. Designing of panels, pilasters, and useful articles
in historic styles.

Third Year: Analysis of ornament in relation to design. Introduction
of natural history forms, including fish, birds, animals, also the human
figure. The grotesque as seen in mediaeval ornament. Colour in design, its
use, in harmony, contrast, and effect. Original work and motive. Modern
design and "Applied Art."

Modelling in Copper, Brass and Leather.

Metal Workers: A course of instruction in designing, laying down on
pitch block, cutting outline with tools, raising from back, relaying on pitch
block, flattening background, punching, modelling design, lifting copper off
block, cleaning, flattening again, and making ready for the making up of
articles, oxidizing.

Leather Workers: A course of instruction in designing and planning, cut-
ting with knife round the design and raising design, flattening background,
filling the design from back in order to give it raised effect and to ensure that
the design does not flatten again during the making up of the article, modelling
and shading design similar to modelling in clay, reflattening and punching back-
ground, staining and tinting, polishing and finishing, trimming article and
preparing for making up, making up article, modelling various designs, each
flower having different modelling and colouring.

EVENING CLASSES OF THE EDINBURGH COLLEGE OF ART

Drawing and Painting: Life Class (men), Life Class (women), geo-
metrical drawing, perspective, elementary drawing, drawing from the an-
tique, anatomy, book illustration, etching.

SCOTLAND 83

Sculpture: Life Class (men), Life Class (women), special modelling
design and ornament class for craftsmen, carving and pointing in marble
and stone, wood carving class, figure design and composition class, anatomy
class (modelling in the round), antique class, elementary modelling class.

Architecture: Course — Architecture (Gothic). Course — Architecture
(Classic). Sketching ornament from cast. Lectures (Course I, Course II.).

Design: Elementary design, elementary design lecture, advanced, writ-
ing and illumination, embroidery, historic ornament lecture, cabinet making
and furniture design, cabinet making and furniture design sketching class.

GLASGOW

THE GLASGOW AND WEST OF SCOTLAND TECHNICAL

COLLEGE

GENERAL

The Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College had its origin,
origin in Anderson College, founded in 1796 under the will of
John Anderson, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University
of Glasgow. It is thus probably the oldest technical institution
in the world ; it is certainly the oldest in the United Kingdom. In
1886 Anderson College and a number of other institutions of a
technical character were amalgamated to form this College, under
a Board of Governors, representing all the institutions so amal-
gamated, as well as the Corporation of the City of Glasgow. The
first prospectus, issued in 1796, made the following quaint declara- Aim<
tion of its aim : —

"The chief design of this Institution is to offer to young gentlemen
intended for the Arts, Manufacturing or Commerce an opportunity of obtain-
ing such a portion of useful knowledge as will qualify them for the society to
which their fortunes insure their admission which will throw light on the
various processes of the Arts and enable them to bring them to perfection
and which will serve to soothe and fill up in a rational and profitable manner
those hours which everyone must find unemployed in business."

The policy thus set forth has been continuously and successfully Advisory

« - , Committees.

adhered to for over a century and, m furtherance of its aim, the
co-operation of the leading engineering and manufacturing firms
of the district has been secured and advisory committees of
experts have been appointed to represent every trade and industry
with which the Institution is connected.

The work of the College is divided into two main departments
— Day and Evening.

The Day Classes are arranged in Courses of Study extending Day

,. e i . TV. • « Department.

over three or four years. Each course leads to the Diploma and

84 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Associateship of the College in one of the following Departments : —
Civil, Mechanical, Mining, or Electrical Engineering; Naval Archi-
tecture; Chemistry; Metallurgy; Mathematics and Physics.

The Evening Classes are divided into two sections :

DlpSient. I. In one the instruction given is similar to that in the Day
Classes, and its standard may be estimated from the fact that the
roll for last session contained the names of 175 University gradu-
ates.

2. The other section is intended for apprentices and workmen,
and instruction is given in the scientific principles upon which their
respective trades are based.

wiVhnuniYer- Associates of the College are admitted to the examinations for

Arf;eStchool°fthe degree of B.Sc. of the University of Glasgow after attendance

during one academic year on not less than three University courses.

The College is closely associated with the Glasgow School of Art

and Courses of Study lead to a joint diploma. The incorporated

Weaving, Dyeing, and Printing College of Glasgow has recently

been amalgamated with this College.

Joint com- Arrangements have been made by a Joint Committee, repre-

coiiegeand senting the College and certain School Boards in the neighbouring-
school Boards, p 1-1 • .

counties, under which students connected with engineering and

building trades attend the Continuation Classes of these Boards
and follow the syllabuses of work approved by the Joint Committee
with courses extending over two or three years.

Attendance. Last session the students at the College were divided as fol-
lows: Day Students, 605; Evening Students, 4,621; a total of
5,226. They came from all parts of the United Kingdom, and
all the manufacturing industries within a radius of twenty-five
miles were represented on the roll.

Fees and For the Day Course the fees range from $5.25 to $21.00, with

scholarships. iaboratory fees from $IO^O a term to $85.00 for the year. For
the Evening Class the fees range from 37c. to $2.50 with $5.75
to $7.50 for laboratory courses.

The Governors have established a number of scholarships of
the value of $125.00 to enable students who have attended the
Evening Classes to continue their course in the Day Classes and
obtain the College Diploma. The fees, and in some cases the rail-
way fares of students attending from Ayrshire, Dunbartonshire,
Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, and Stirlingshire may be paid by the
Technical Education Committees of these several Shires.

Resources and The annual expenditure of the College for maintenance is
about $150,000. The Government Grant amounts to about $50,000 ;
$80,000 is derived from endowments and about $32,500 from
students' fees. Allan Glen School, which is under the same man-

SCOTLAND 85

agement, has a separate income of about $40,000. A building and
equipment fund of about $1,850,000 has been raised for the College. tion°and0da~
The completed building is estimated to be worth $2,000,000. e(*uiPment-
What is specially remarkable about. this fund is the fact that it was
raised by subscription, thousands of citizens having subscribed in
large and small sums. The building will ultimately consist of six
large wings, and the total floor space will amount to over seven
acres. Even at present it is the largest single building in the United
Kingdom devoted to educational purposes. Its equipment and
accommodations are remarkably fine.

DAY CLASSES

Students of 16 and over may enroll in any of the College classes^™188100
on satisfying the Head of the Department that they are able to take
up the work. Students under 16 and all who desire the Diploma
must pass an Entrance examination. The standard of this examina-
tion is that of the Leaving examination of the Scotch Education
Department. For those who do not hold this certificate the subjects
are:

1. Obligatory — (a) English (grammar, composition, history of the Eng-
lish language and literature, history and geography) ; (6) Mathematics
(algebra, — two unknowns, geometry, — three books, trigonometry).

2. Any two subjects selected from the following: Experimental Science,
French, German, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Greek, and any other language of
which three months' notice is given.

The Governors intend to make Experimental Science obligatory
at an early date. At the examination, the candidate must furnish
satisfactory evidence that his course of training has extended over
a normal period of 450 hours, and he must submit his laboratory
note-books for inspection. The examination will be based on the
course indicated by the note-books, and will be both oral and
written.

Courses are provided in the following:

Mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, technical chemistry, metal-
lurgy, mechanics, engineering, drawing, civil engineering, motive power engi-
neering, electrical engineering, mining and geology, architecture, bacteriology,
music, school of bakery, textile school.

A large number of firms in Glasgow and the West of Scotland
(76 in 1909) have arranged to allow a selected number of their
apprentices facilities for carrying out a scheme of College study
conjoined with practical work. The courses of study in engi-
neering are held during the Winter Session of the College, and
student apprentices are thus left free to spend the intervening
summers in the works. Some of these firms are willing to recog-
nize, wholly or partially, the time spent in College as part of the

86 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

apprenticeship period, but such recognition is contingent upon
satisfactory reports being received from the College in each case.

EVENING CLASSES

Admission For admission to the Evening Classes all candidates, except

those who have passed in mathematics for the Leaving certificate
of the Scotch Education Department or who hold an approved
certificate covering the ground of the Entrance examination; stu-
dents of 21 years and over; and holders of a recognized certificate
from any approved Continuation School, are required to pass an
entrance examination in elementary mathematics, as follows:

Arithmetic: Vulgar and decimal fractions. Square root. Percentage.
Logarithmic calculations with four figure tables.

Algebra: First four rules. Substitution. Equations of first degree in
one and two unknowns. Easy factors. Easy fractions. Graphs.

Geometry: Triangle. Parallelogram. Circle. Mensuration of areas
and solids.

certificate^ Certificates are granted to students who take a three years'
course in one of the following departments : Mechanical engineer-
ing, electrical engineering, civil engineering, mining engineering,
naval architecture, building science, mathematics and physics.

A number of Bursaries of the value of $125 enable students to
continue their studies in the Day Classes and proceed to the College
Diploma.

Railway fares and, in some cases, the fees of students resident
in certain districts are paid by the Educational Committees of these
districts.

The evening classes are as follows :

Mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, technical chemistry, metallurgy,
mechanics, botany and bacteriology, zoology, physiology, music, engineering
drawing, civil engineering, motive power engineering, electrical engineering,
mining and geology, naval architecture, architecture and the building trades,
plumbing, sheet metal work, bootmaking, printing and allied trades, watch and
clock making, school of bakery, tailoring, weaving, etc., painting, decorating,
boilermaking, etc.

EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS AT GLASGOW AND OUTSIDE

CENTRES

/

Except in the Trades departments, the courses of the Day and
Evening Classes of the Technical College are too advanced to be
of special interest in an investigation like the present one that con-
cerns itself chiefly with Elementary industrial education. Follow-
ing, however, I submit details of the Evening Continuation Classes
in Science and Technology at Glasgow and outside centres.

SCOTLAND 87

ORGANIZATION

Evening Continuation Classes in science and technology, lead-
ing to courses in the Technical College, are conducted in Glasgow,
Govan Parish, Maryhill, Shettleston, Cathcart, Shawlands, Barr-
head, Scotstoun, Yoker, Clydebank, Dalmuir, Duntocher, Gavin-
burn, Helensburg, Greenock, Ayr, Cambuslang, Stirling, and.Alloa.

A joint committee, composed of representatives of the College °f

and of the School Boards of the above localities, control the man-
agement of the classes, which are graded as follows : —

1 . Preparatory Classes. — For students whose previous education
does not enable them to take full advantage at once of the Elemen-
tary Technical Classes and for those who have had no instruction in
laboratory work.

2. Elementary Technical Classes. — For those who desire to take
the advanced classes in engineering, building construction, archi-
tecture, and naval architecture in the Technical College. The work
is divided into two courses. The satisfactory completion of Course
2 qualifies students for admission to the Technical College without
further examination.

3. Advanced Technical Classes.— By arrangement with the Col-
lege, advanced classes equivalent to the first year College Course
in Engineering Science are held in three schools. These qualify for
admission to the second year College course without further exam-
ination.

4. Trade Classes. — For students who, having successfully com-
pleted Courses i and 2 of the Elementary Technical Classes, are
unable or unwilling to take up the advanced work in the College
or the advanced Technical Classes specified above and yet desire
to obtain some knowledge of the principles underlying their work.
Trade classes have been established for patternmakers and moulders,
machinists and turners, fitters and millwrights, electrical instrument
makers, carpenters and joiners, and masons and builders.

The fees of any students whose parents do not earn over $6
per week are paid by the Marshall Trust.

One hundred and seventy bursaries of the respective value of
$15 and $12.50 are offered. The age of the candidates must not
exceed 17 years.

PREPARATORY CLASSES

Arithmetic: Weights and measures; simple fractions; decimals; decimal
approximations; metric system; lengths, areas, volumes, ratio, proportion.

Algebra: Definitions of signs and terms; G. C. M. and L. C. M. by inspec-
tion; fractions; simple equations, graphs.

Geometry: Use of instruments and ruler graduated in inches and
tenths and in centimetres and millimetres ; graduating of scales ; accuracy of

88 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

drawing to scale ; measurement of angles and lines ; measurement of triangles,
definitions of angles; parallel straight lines; circle; chords and tangents of
the circle.

Practical Work in Laboratory: British and metric units of length and
other comparisons; measuring rods; mean values; length of curved lines;
measurement of cylinder and determination of the value of Pi. Units of
area; measurement of square, rectangle, parallelogram; triangle and circle;
irregular figures; units of volume; actual measurement of volume of cube;
right prism, cylinder, pyramid, and cone; displacement method; use of
measuring cylinder, etc.; the spring balance; experiments in movements,
levers, etc.

Drawing: Freehand sketching of machinery details; plane geometry,
study of the more simple geometrical solids; easy projections (isometric
and orthographic).

ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED TECHNICAL CLASSES

Mathematics: Course i :

Arithmetic : Vulgar and decimal fractions ; percentages ; averages ; con-
tracted methods; areas; weights and volume; mental arithmetic; calcula-
tion of numerical values from simple formulae ; square root.

Algebra : Symbols ; common rules ; brackets ; substitution ; easy frac-
tions; factors; easy equations of first degree in one unknown; plotting of
points and the construction of simple graphs.

Mensuration: Simple plane and solid figures; exercises with special
reference to the engineering and building trades, weights of building ma-
terials; surface of room.

Geometry: Forms of simple solids; straight lines and angles; symmetry
of figures; isosceles triangle; construction of triangles; parallel straight lines;
sum of angles of a triangle; problems of construction; Euclid I 47 by measure-
ment and calculation, etc.

Mathematics: Course 2 :

Arithmetic: Calculation from more difficult formulae; logarithms.

Algebra: More difficult factors; easy equations of the first degree in
one and two unknowns. Construction of graphs deduced from experimental
results in mechanics. The solution of simultaneous equation of the first
degree.

Mensuration: Solids. Calculations of times for machine operations,
prices, etc. Weights of materials; surface area and capacity of ships' coal
bunkers, etc. Measurement of quantities from plans; measuring quantities
and extending in schedule form.

Geometry: Problems of construction; geometric loci; practical exer-
cises involving the measurement of actual models; relation between the
linear, areal and cubical magnitudes of similar figures plane and solid; pro-
perties of circle deduced from Geometry; angles at the centre on eaual
tangents to circles. Intersection of two circles; angles in segment of a
circle; areas; geometrical illustrations of equations; experimental evidence
for the substance of Euclid, Books I. to III.

Engineering Drawing, Course I. —

Testing instruments, scales, co-ordinate planes, points, lines: Study of
the simpler geometrical solids. Oblique sections. Development of surfaces.
Freehand dimensioned sketches of machinery details. These sketches to
be used for the purpose of making complete working drawings.

Engineering Drawing, Course II. —

Planes. Development of surfaces when cut by oblique planes. True
shape of oblique sections through machinery details. Freehand dimen-
sioned sketches.

SCOTLAND 89

Building Construction, Course I. —

Testing accuracy of instruments. Scales. Explanation of the 3 co-or-
dinate planes. Points. Lines. Simpler geometrical solids. Development
of surfaces. Sections.

Brickwork and Masonry: Foundations. Clearing, damp proof course,
dwarf walls, etc. Bonds. Brick partition walls. Formation of openings.
Stone sills and lintels. Weathering, throating.

Carpentry: Details of joints. Centreing for arches. Wall plates. Joist-
ing and flooring.

Roofs: Couple, collar, lean-to, king trusses up to (say) 30 feet span.

Roof Covering: Names and sizes of slates. Sheet-lead and methods
of laying slates and sheet-lead.

Plumbing: Lead flashings, ridges, drips, gutters, joints for lead pipes.

Joinery: Joint details, mouldings, doors, window seat and cupboards.
Kitchen fittings, strapping, lathing and plastering.

Building Construction, Course II. —

Planes. Development of surfaces. True shape of oblique sections
through joinery details.

Brickwork and Masonry: Classification of walls. Compound walls.
Jointing. Varieties of masonry. Face on stones. Preparation of zinc or
wooden templates. Dressings. Cavity walls.

Ironwork: Proportion and pitch of rivets. Riveted joints. An ordinary
iron or steel rooftruss with details of all joints.

Joinery: Fixing joiners' work, grounds, architraves, skirtings. Com-
mon long window-sashes and their cases. Casement windows. Glazing,
corbelling. Bay and oriel windows. Entrance and vestibule door.

Sanitation, Drainage, etc. : Bathroom fittings. Drainage, sewer, con-
nection. Soil, waste and ventilation pipes, water supply, hot water circu-
lating arrangement.

Naval Architecture^ Course I. —

Construction of wood ships. Early iron ships. Composite ships. Steel
ships. Cargo hatchways. Wood decks. Bulkheads. Shellplating, arrange-
ment of landings. Scrieve board. Marking off rivet holes. Methods of
bending and levelling frames. Battleships and armoured cruisers. Con-
struction of sponsons and paddle-boxes. Methods of launching. In addi-
tion to the Geometry for Course I, Engineering-drawing students in Naval
Architecture are given a course in drawing ship details.

Naval Architecture, Course II. —

Curves of moment. Curves of displacement.

Midship area. Determination of centre of buoyancy. Co-efficients of
fineries. Transverse metacentres. Definition of trim. Effect of free water
on initial stability. Stability of oil tank steamer with tanks partially filled.
Centre of gravity of cargo. Bilged vessels. Structural design. Systems
of framing. Rudders. Ships' specifications. Board of Trade requirements.
Laying off. Expansion of stern plating. Drawing as in Course I.

TRADE CLASSES

Patternmaking and Moulding, Course I. —

Timber and tools, rules for contraction, use of prints, coreboxes, core-
templates, coreplates, lifting straps. Ventilation ' of mould. Workshop
drawing. Translation of drawing office drawing into a full sized drawing
on the pattern board. Moulding sands and loam. Principles of moulding.
Core making and drying, parting surfaces, gates, vents, risers.

90 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Patternmaking and Moulding, Course II. —

Drawing and making of patterns. Drawing off and making spur wheels,
level wheels and worm gearing. Patterns in plaster of Paris. Making of
cores in boxes and with sweep boards. Green sand moulding. Venting
and gateing. Clamping and weighing. Plate moulding. Moulds in dry
sand. Use of a propeller. Chills and chilled castings. Workshop con-
ditions prevail throughout both courses. Patterns are made from actual
work, shop drawings and castings made by each student.

Machinists and Turners.

Cutting speed and rate of feed, cutting angle, cutting face of tool, top
and bottom rake, point of application of tool, influence of cutting, speed
on cutting pressures, comparative resistance in different metals, principles
of construction of machine tools, use of measuring instruments.

Fitters and Millwrights.

Types of prime movers, building in of seatings and chimneys, arrange-
ments of flues, placing of machinery, lining of shafting, pulley transmis-
sion, calculations of horse power, speeds of belt and shafting, use of measur-
ing instruments, gauges, blocks, surface plate, methods of preparing sur-
faces, filing, turning, drilling, shaping, melting and scraping.

Electrical Instrument Makers.

Drawing the common electrical instruments. Explanation of circuits.
Use of vernier micrometer, co-efficient of expansion, conduction, convec-
tion and radiation, reflection, refraction, the prism, doubled curved lens,
concave mirrors, magnetism and electricity, electrical units, statical elec-
tricity, voltaic electricity, electro-magnetism, galvanometers and resistances.

Carpenters and Joiners.

Tools, construction, mechanical principles, sharpening, cutting angles,
practical bench work, joints, roofs, doors, windows, sashes and their cases
with finishings, etc.

Masons and Builders.

Bonds, meeting walls, Glasgow sizes of brick openings, sills, methods
of quarrying, machining, planing and sawing, Varieties of masonry. Com-
pound walls. Stone arches and lintels, etc.

ART CLASSES
First Stage. —

Drawing: Natural forms. Light and shade: Manufactured objects and
museum material. Painting: Ornament from the cast. Modelling: Studies
of an analytical and explanatory nature made to a large scale,
an analytical and explanatory nature made to a large scale.

Instruments: Scales and their construction, geometric patterns, objects
in plan and elevation from actual measurement.

Second Stage. —

Light and Shade: (a) Manufactured and natural objects; (&) cast;
(c) antique. Painting from nature; ornament and the antique. Modelling
from nature, from ornament, and figure from the cast.

Instruments: (a) Technical geometry required in the student's trade;
(6) geometry patterns; (c) objects from measurement in plan, elevation
and section; (d) perspective.

Specialised Work: For students passing in the above courses.

(a) Lettering. (5) Museum studies: Adaptation of natural forms to
ornamental purposes, (c) Work in the actual material from designs executed
by the students.

SCOTLAND 91

ALLAN GLEN'S SCHOOL

Before 1876, Allan Glen's Institution, as it was first called, Grade-
gave instruction free to about 50 boys, sons of tradesmen or of
those engaged in industrial occupations. After that date it was
organized as a high class secondary and technical institution for
boys intended for industrial and commercial pursuits, and has
long been known as one of the most efficient and successful of the
Secondary Technical Schools in Scotland. In 1886, although in a
separate building, it became a part of the Heriot-Watt Technical
College, with separate staff and courses. The fees for each
course run from $3.75 (preliminary class) to $10.50 (class 4). Fces-
The School provides a training in science, art, and in workshop
exercises. Greek is not taught. The courses are as follows : — courses.

Preliminary Class — At eleven years of age the pupils receive
special training in English, composition, arithmetic, drawing,
manual instruction, and physical exercises.

Qualifying Class — At twelve years of age the course consists
of Latin or French or German, English (including reading, writ-
ing, grammar, and composition), geography, history, drawing,
arithmetic, geometry, geometrical drawing, elementary science,
manual instruction, and physical exercises.

The subsequent courses are as follows : —

Class i. Subjects of previous class continued, with the addi-
tion of algebra, practical plane and solid geometry, workshop
drawing, chemistry and physics.

Class 2, More advanced work in drawing, practical plane and
solid geometry, arithmetic, algebra, pure geometry, physics, chem-
istry, and manual instruction, English, history, geography, and one
language — Latin or French or German.

Class 5. All subjects of Class 2 carried to a higher stage and a
course in trigonometry added ; individual work in the chemical and
physical laboratories and in the workshop is specially stressed. At
the same time the liberal culture associated with a training in lan-
guage and literature is' kept constantly in view.

Class 4. Members of this Class are expected to specialize in optional
Course (i) mechanical and electrical engineering, or in Course C(
(2«) chemistry.

The subjects of Course i are mathematics (pure and mixed),
applied mechanics, steam and steam engine, physics, practical solid
geometry, machine design, wood and metal work.

The subjects of Course 2 are inorganic chemistry (theoretical
and practical) and organic, physics, mathematics, practical solid
geometry.

Certain studies are taken by all, viz. : English and another Ian- obligatory

J courser

guage, practical solid geometry, physics, and drawing.

7 E.I.P.

FRANCE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FRANCE : PAQE

Introduction . . o-

Technical Education og

Courses for Adults and Apprentices og

Higher Industrial and Commercial Schools on

Other Educational Agencies 1OO

Lower Industrial Schools IOJ

Paris :

Elementary Industrial Education I0,

Municipal Trade Schools.

General 104

Trade Schools for Boys.

The Diderot School 108

School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry 108

Boulfe School 109

Germain-Pilon School no

Bernard-Palissy School ill

Estienne School 112

Dorian School 113

Trade Schools for Girls.

Rue de Poitou School 115

Jacquard School 116

Rue d' Abbeville School 117

Rue Ganneron School 118

Rue Duperre School 1 19

Other Trade and Technical Institutions.

National Conservatory of Arts and Trades 120

National School of Decorative Art 120

FRANCE

INTRODUCTION

Education in France did not become an important factor of the centralized
national polity until the Revolution, when the general social up-
heaval made it easy for Napoleon I. to place national education in
the hands of the State. Since then, however, the growth of the
present highly centralized system of public instruction has been
marked by many vicissitudes. At present all the schools, colleges,
and universities for general and professional education, supported
in whole or in part by the State, are under the Minister of Public
Instruction and Fine Arts; the provision for special industrial and
technical education is under the Ministers of Commerce, Public
Works and Agriculture; and the great Technical Schools provid-
ing for the Military and Naval service are under their correspond-
ing Ministers. In the general system, local control has been re-
duced to a minimum. The Minister has very large powers ; he au-
thorizes the establishment of educational institutions assisted by
the State; nominates the highest officials, the appointments,
however, being made by the President of the Republic; and he
appoints either directly or indirectly the great body of the teachers,
professors, and officers in the service. His authority is felt every-
where and is maintained by an elaborate system of machinery
operated by a corps of directors and inspectors.

Besides public primary schools, there are in the State system Organization,
secondary schools, divided into two classes, lycees and colleges.
Until recently the former were entirely and directly under the con-
trol of the Minister of Public Instruction ; but there are now a num-
ber of independent ones in receipt of a fixed sum from the State,
which they administer as they please. All the colleges are of the
same grade. The lycees are superior, those of Paris being of a
higher grade than those in the provinces.

Owing largely to the recency of the establishment of a State Large number
system, the influence of the religious orders, and of national preju- sc
dices, especially in the matter of the education of girls, the number
of private schools is very large. Moreover, the progress of edu-
cation has in some respects been slow. It was not until 1882 that
the law was passed which made primary education compulsory.
Under this law, the pupil is free to leave school only when he has
obtained " A certificate of Primary Studies " ; that is, when he is
about eleven or twelve years of age. While also, of late years,
public opinion is reported to be in favour of compulsory educa-
tion for a longer period, no legislative action has yet been taken.

[97]

98 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

TECHNICAL EDUCATION .

Although soon after the Revolution there was a movement in the
direction of establishing classes for young people beyond the ele-
mentary school age, it was not until the last quarter of the nine-
teenth century that the State began to take an active interest in
Primary industrial education, nor until 1880 that primary technical instruc-

Technical . .,.,. »<•• i ••»•»*

Education. tion was for the first time placed on a definite basis. Before that
date such provision as had been made for industrial education —
and drawing and other elementary industrial .schools had long been

Diversified in in existence — was the result of private initiative. As a conse-
quence, to-day the industrial schools of France exist under a great
variety of conditions and are of diversified characters. Some are
wholly under control of the State ; others are municipal, communal,
departmental, or private, and receive grants from the State, which
exercises some control through its inspectors; and many others
again are maintained wholly by trade unions, employers' associa-
tions, religious orders, etc. The industrial schools, however, as a
whole, constitute a fairly comprehensive system ; and, as the range
and amount of the State grants are continually increasing, these
schools are coming more and more under the central control with
a corresponding increase in their efficiency.

Growth and The abolition of the Guilds, in 1701, the organization of indus-

cliftrictcr of

industrial trial associations, and the important part these associations

Schools : State , , • p , . , . . .

and Private, played in founding vocational schools and inspiring State initi-
ative, did much to promote the growth of various types of indus-
trial institutions. Since 1900, indeed, special industrial schools —
public and -semi-public — have developed so rapidly that it is esti-
mated that they now number over 5,000. From all I could learn,
for I had no opportunity of visiting them, the schools on a private
foundation are inferior to those controlled by the State. Their
financial support is inadequate, and they are housed in poor build-
ings, with too often poor equipment and organization. The State
schools on the contrary are generally well housed and well equip-
ped and organized.

Manual After 1880 the Apprenticeship Schools which had existed for

Schools of r .

Apprentice- many years under municipal management were incorporated in
the system of primary education under the name of Manual
Schools of Apprenticeship, and to these, other industrial schools
were gradually assimilated, all becoming more and more practical
in character.

COURSES FOR ADULTS AND APPRENTICES

vte1onnforro~ Throughout the Republic there are at present schools for adoles-
friatieandu6 cents and adults. With a view to their adaptation to local necessi-
ties, great freedom is allowed in their establishment and manage-

FRANCE 99

ment. Any one may establish such a school, with the approval of
the Mayor, the Prefect, and the Inspector. They are, however, not
compulsory, and efforts to make them so up to 17 years of age have
so far proved unsuccessful. Except in a few localities, the sexes are
separate, and the classes are held in the evenings and in the build-
ings of the State schools. The chief sources of revenue of these
schools are municipal grants and private benefactions. In some
cases, indeed, the continuance of these schools is due, I was told, to
the self-sacrifice of the teachers, who often give their services gratis
and sometimes even provide the heating and the lighting. They
belong to the Department of the Minister of Public Instruction,
and at present these Continuation Schools, " Courses for Adults
and Apprentices," as they are called collectively, are organized into
three divisions :

1. For "illiterates." These, however, are poorly attended; f or, courae8 for
as elsewhere, the adult workman or workwoman feels humiliated111
when taking up the rudiments.

2. For those who have completed the course leading to the Cer- compiement-
tificate of Primary Studies, Complementary Courses, correspond-
ing to those of the English Higher Elementary Schools. These are
Continuation Schools proper, and give a general course, with other
subjects having a vocational outlook, such as industrial drawing,
arithmetic, English, German, bookkeeping, stenography, typewrit-
ing, agriculture, land surveying, hygiene, domestic science, needle

work, etc.

3. For industrial workers in particular. This division includes Trade Schools
Trade Schools of various kinds, held usually by day, as well as course's0 n

' Technical Courses." The latter provide instruction in industrial
drawing, geometry, and elementary science, adapted to the needs
of the various classes of artisans. They are conducted usually in
the evenings, the special practical work being taken up often on
Sundays in the shops of the Trade Schools.

Besides the State supported Trade Schools, there are over Pther clasaea

, r\ for appren-

5,000 classes for apprentices provided by various industrial and fcicea-
other organizations, such as, in Paris, the Society for Elementary
Instruction and the Polytechnic Association; at Havre, the Popu-
lar Education Society; and, at Lyons, the Society of the Rhone for
Industrial Instruction.

HIGHER TECHNICAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS

The higher technical and commercial institutions are under the control and
direct control of the Minister of Commerce and Industry, and num- r
ber as follows :

ioo EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

The National Conservatory of Arts and Trades at Paris ; prob-
ably the most important of the technical institutions, with its
laboratories for advanced research and its industrial museum.

The Central School of Art and Manufactures at Paris, which
prepares high class engineers.

4 National Schools of Arts and Trades; boarding schools,
which prepare for positions as managers and directors of indus-
tries.

15 Higher Schools of Commerce.

1 6 Schools of Hydrography: These have been established at
the principal ports for the instruction of sea captains.

4 National Trade Schools : These are each an association of
schools, including the infant and primary school, with, at each
stage, technical instruction, which, commencing as " Constructive
Work " at the earliest age, advances through manual training to
the end of the apprenticeship course. These schools were intended
as models, but, owing chiefly to the tendency to segregate the in-
dustrial and the academic schools, they have had few imitators.

2 National Schools of Watchmaking.

i Practical School of Basket-making.

i Practical School of Commerce.

39 Practical Schools of Commerce and Industry for boys, and
fourteen for girls; amongst the most important of the industrial
schools, providing trade and commercial courses with general
courses as well ; and

15 High Class Special Trades Schools at Paris; seven for boys
and eight for girls. The School of Physics and Industrial Chem-
istry for boys provides both elementary and advanced classes.

In connection with some of the foregoing schools, there are
Industrial Drawing Schools, in which instruction is given in even-
ing classes suitable for local industries.

Maintenance. As in most other countries, the maintenance of the higher tech-
nical institutions is a charge upon the state. In Paris the whole
cost of the Trade Schools is borne by the city. In other cities with
populations over 1 50,000, the State and the cities together bear the
cost. When the population is smaller, the greater part is borne by
the State.

OTHER EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES

Besides the regular schools, public and private, there are many
other agencies in France for the advancement of education, both
general and industrial. As now in Ontario, every public element-
ary school must have a library, maintained partly by the Govern-
ment, partly by the municipalities. In France they are often also

FRANCE 101

maintained from private sources. As also in Ontario, there is a
system of public libraries unconnected with the schools. As again in
Ontario, neither of these systems is as yet satisfactorily developed.
I refer to the library system of France chiefly to point out that in
the large cities there are technical and special libraries. One in Paris,
for example, contains industrial models and drawings as well as
a large collection of works on industrial subjects. As will be seen
later, provision of a similar character is made in both Switzerland
and Germany. These facts have a significant bearing upon the *

recent action of the Ontario Public Libraries Department in pro-
viding technical works for the public libraries in our industrial
centres — an action which, the Inspector tells me, has met with
popular favour.

Besides the libraries, there are also very numerous private in- JljJ
dustrial associations and many of a denominational character for tiona-
the advancement of both general and industrial education, which
provide lectures and classes, and organize clubs. Many of these
have existed since the end of the eighteenth century. The Poly-
technic Association may be mentioned as a type of the best. It pro-
vides classes in typography, dressmaking, millinery, strength of
materials, etc., and organizes visits to work-shops and museums.
The centre of this Association is in Paris, with many affiliated
branches in the provinces.

LOWER INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS

The entrance qualification to the lower industrial schools is Admission
usually the Certificate of Primary Studies, which, as I have already lower indus-

• <• 1 i trial schools

stated, may be obtained at n or 12 years of age; but there are
many exceptions to this statement. Usually, however, the trade
education of the French begins at an earlier age than in other
countries, with, the French claim, corresponding advantages. In
Paris, for example, as will be pointed out later, the standard of
admission varies, and pupils are admitted as the result of a com-
petitive examination.

As to the qualification of teachers : As in England and else- Qfu!r
where, it is not practicable at present to secure generally an
adequate supply of expert teachers of the technical subjects. In
cities like Paris a supply is usually available, but it is generally
not so elsewhere. And, again, as elsewhere, this lack is the chief
drawback to the progress of industrial training and the cause of
the opposition of many of those who are most interested in the
work.

In most industrial schools no fees are charged residents, butFee8-
fees are charged foreigners and French non-residents. In others,
while no fees are charged, all the pupils except the indigent are

102

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

atisfactory.

Attitude of

French

workmen.

required to buy certain meals, for which a small charge is made.
In many, a deposit is exacted to pay the cost of material and sup-
plies, and as a guarantee against damage to school property.
Scholarships are also provided for meritorious pupils, and free
tuition for those who are unable to pay. The fees run all the way
from $1.00 a course to $540 a year for the highest commercial
courses. Sometimes also board and lodging are included in the
fee.

Looked at from the point of view of statistics, the provision for
industrial education appears to be extensive. There is no doubt,
however, that the elementary courses are not regarded as generally
satisfactory by many of the French themselves. The chief causes
of this feeling are defects in the present courses of study, lack of
properly qualified staffs, insufficient financial support, irregular
attendance, and the early age (eleven) at which the Certificate of
Primary Studies may be obtained. In France, I may add, as in
Ontario, the compulsory attendance law is ineffective for want of
adequate means of enforcing it. It is, however, altogether prob-
able that, in France, trade competition will work the cure for these
evils. No doubt in time adequate financial support for all branches
of industrial education will be provided by the State, experts will
take -the place of academic teachers, improvement will be made in
the courses ; and, in view of the action of Switzerland and Germany
in the matter of the compulsory education of adolescents, France
will be compelled to adopt a similar measure.

At first the French workmen did not regard the industrial
schools with favour. Some found fault with them, because their
products were not skilled workmen; others feared the formation
thereby of a select class whose introduction into their ranks might
lower the pay of the workmen trained in the " shops." These ob-
jections have largely now disappeared. Generally, indeed, the
unions are represented on the Boards of Management of the In-
dustrial Schools.

FRANCE 103

PARIS

ELEMENTARY INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

The provision for industrial training in Paris, as well as in
France generally, I discussed with officers of the Minister of Com-
merce and Industry, with some of the municipal officers of Paris,
and with the Director of Elementary Instruction for the Depart-
ment of the Seine.

In Paris, courses in Manual Training form part of the pro- Manual

r Training.

gramme of the primary schools, and are compulsory for both
boys and girls until they obtain the Certificate of Primary
Studies. This is the Manual Training and Household Science of
the Ontario Public Schools. Boys are familiarized with the use
of the tools ordinarily used in wood and iron working, and
girls are taught the elements of household science and of sewing in
particular. While the courses are chiefly cultural, they are also
a preparation for apprenticeship in both men's and women's trades.

The special vocational instruction, which forms part of the Day comoie-

. men tary Trade

elementary school system, consists of Complementary Trade courses.
Courses; that is, Industrial Continuation Schools proper, for both
boys and girls who hold the " certificate." Here both complete
their elementary education, keeping in view as far as practicable
their future employment.

The scheduled programme of studies is as follows, the number curriculum,
in brackets being the apportionment of time in hours to each sub-
ject :

For Boys: Morals (%) ; arithmetic and bookkeeping (i%);
chemistry (2) ; civics (%) ; history and geography (2) ; French
(3); gymnastics (i); physical science and technology (2^); in-
dustrial art (7) ; modelling (21/4) ; geometrical drawing (2) ;
manual work (6^)); singing (i).

In the second year, drawing is increased to six hours, and the
provision for manual work is 71/4 hours.

For Girls: Morals (i) ; French (&?-/±) ; arithmetic (2%) ; his-
tory and geography (2%) ; accounts (i%) ; science (i) ; hygiene
and domestic science (%) ; English (2) ; gymnastics (%) ; singing
(%) ; drawing (8) ; cooking (4) ; millinery (2) ; lingerie (4).

Besides the foregoing, there are three courses intended espe- Evening
cially for adults or adolescents. They are held in the evenings, Adurit88afnd
usually between 7 and 8.30, from two to four times a week:

i. Courses of Primary Instruction — These are for workmen primary,
and workwomen, but have no special industrial aim. They pro-

104

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Commercial.

Technical.

courses.

Maintenance.

Teachers.

of Primary

vide for the instruction of illiterates in the elements — reading, writ-
ing, and arithmetic; but, owing to the reluctance on the part of
adults to take elementary subjects, the attendance is comparatively
small.

2. Commercial Courses — These include arithmetic, bookkeeping,
writing, commercial law, stenography, English, and French, and
are intended specially for those who are engaged during the day
as clerks in the various business houses.

^. Technical Courses — These include geometry, industrial draw-
ing, experimental science, and shop-work. There are also special
classes in industrial drawing. The practical subjects are taken
up on Sunday mornings in the work-shops of the day industrial
schools.

These so-called Technical Courses are for apprentices and work-
men wno wjsn to improve their knowledge of the theory and prac-
tice of their different trades. The number and the size of these
classes are increasing very rapidly, and it has been found necessary
to divide them into sections according to the trades of the students.
The results of these courses have been remarkable, and, in some
quarters, they are more popular than are the trade schools. In gen-
eral, also, they are looked upon with greater favour by the older
workmen who are occasionally hostile to the trade schools, on the
ground that they form an aristocracy of labour. For some time,
also, I was informed, the employers, recognizing the value of the
courses, have granted their apprentices some hours a week to attend
special classes held during the daytime.

The Technical Courses are vvhoily municipal; the State has
nothing to do with either their organization or their management.
Each student costs the city about $10 a year. The teachers are
chosen by competitive examination and are appointed by the Com-
mittees of Management.

jn tne evening classes the instruction is given by the teachers of
the day schools or by special teachers who are paid according to the
subjects they teach and the number of hours they give to the work.

The special industrial training of skilled workmen and work-
women Paris provides for, in her municipal Trade Schools, and on
account of their general excellence and suggestive character, I
give them prominence in my report.

In the official list these schools are designated "Superior
Primary Professional (Trade) Schools," being thus distinguished

FRANCE 105

from the Secondary Industrial, or Technical, Schools, as, for ex-
ample, the Technical Schools of Arts and Trades, which prepare
foremen, managers, and even engineers. To this statement, as will
appear later, the Paris School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry
is an exception. In Paris, again, the trade schools give appren-
tices a thorough training for a trade. In the Provinces, the term
is often applied to industrial schools in which the practical work
falls far short of the requirements of a proper trade education.

On all sides, the Paris Municipal Trade Schools are admitted Sructkm0*
to be of a high character, compared not only with the other trade
schools of France, but with the trade schools of other countries.
With one exception they are held in good buildings. The build- Accommoda-
ing and equipment of the Estienne School, for example, cost nearly equipment.
$250,000, without taking into account the cost of the site. All are
well equipped, and the work done by the pupils is most remarkable w?0cre^lence of
for its artistic excellence. In this respect, indeed, these schools
surpass any others I have seen elsewhere, and there can be no
doubt that the eminent position Paris now holds in certain
branches of the trade of the world is appreciably due to the artistic
superiority of these and its other industrial schools.

Owing to the inadequacy of the accommodations the number Attendance
in attendance at these trade schools is limited. Pupils are ad-
mitted in small numbers once a year as the result of a competitive
examination, and there are always many names on the waiting
list. In one of his recent reports, the Director of Manual Train-
ing for the city states that, of about 15,000 boys who leave the
Paris schools each year, only some three or four hundred are ad-
mitted to the trade schools.

The number of these schools is increased according as the
necessary funds can be obtained from the municipality. In 1904,
for example, the reports show 12 trade schools. At the date of my
visit, this number had increased to 15.

The municipal trade schools are maintained entirely at the ex- Maintenance,
pewse of the City of Paris. On the average, each pupil costs the
city from $160 to $180 a year. The State, however, names the
various officers — the directors (principals) and the professors
(teachers), and even the concierge (door-keeper).

The Trade Schools in Paris are conducted under a law passed Trade's^!
in 1900, which provides as follows: Law of 1900.

1. That each school shall be conducted in accordance with a plan arranged
by the City Council and approved of by the Prefect of the Seine under the
authority of the Minister of Commerce.

2. That for each school there shall be appointed an advisory body as fol-
lows, with powers fixed by the Prefect after consideration of a report from the
City Council :

io6 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

The Prefect of the Seine or the Director of Education; a number of mem-
bers of the Town Council; employers of labour selected by the Town Council
with the approval of the Prefect; two representatives appointed by the Min-
ister of Commerce, and the director or directress of the school, who is, how-
ever, to have no vote.

3. (i) That the director or directress shall be appointed by the Minister
of Commerce from one of three applicants recommended by the City Council.

(2) That the appointment of all other members of the school staff shall
be in the hands of the Prefect, after consideration of a report of the Director
of Education, but that before the appointment of technical instructors is made,
the advisory body must be consulted.

(3) That the Minister of Commerce shall lay down the conditions of
appointment for instructors.

4. (i) That the salaries of the staff and increases therein shall be settled -
by a decree of the Prefect after a decision has been come to by the City
Council, and —

(2) That the whole cost of the school shall be borne by the City Council.

teachers of the industrial subjects are selected by means
of Teachers. of a competitive examination, which tests their manual skill, their
technical knowledge, and their teaching ability. The candidates
who succeed are almost always workmen or workwomen of un-
usual technical skill and intellectual attainments. In the boys'
trade schools, accordingly, master workmen take the technical sub-
jects, and in the girls', women of a corresponding degree of ex-
pertness. In many cases the trade instructors are not required to
keep order; a special teacher is sometimes provided for this pur-
pose. They may also devote part of their time to the school and
part to their trade, and they may teach at more than one school.

The mode of selecting the teachers is worth noticing : Through-

out the district bills are distributed, advertising the fact that an

instructor is to be appointed and that an examination is to be held

and Examlna- on a certa^n date. The examining body consists of the Director of

tion- the School, the Director of some other school, a representative of

the Education Administrative Department, and a member of the

Education Committee :

1. Candidates must be usually not less than thirty and not more than
thirty-nine years of age. They are required to submit details as to the school
they attended and how they were employed afterwards ; also, to pass a medical
examination.

2. Examination papers are set in arithmetic and geometry as applied to
the trade ; and on the materials used, the tools required, the method of setting
about the work, and the processes of manufacture.

3. A practical demonstration — drawing to a small scale of a given exer-
cise, execution in outline to size, with geometrical applications.

4. A detailed estimate of the design executed.

5. The carrying out a piece of work prescribed by the Committee.

6. An oral examination on the subjects under (2) above and the manufac-
tures concerned.

Great stress is laid on the requirements of 3, 4 and 5.

FRANCE 107

The staff of each school usually consists of three branches : ?/!tSr!ation

1. Administrative Branch: The Director, an Accountant, a
Storekeeper, a Secretary and Librarian, and a medical man (part
time).

2. Teachers for general instruction.

3. Technical Branch : A superintendent, the technical teachers,
a skilled mechanic in charge of the machinery.

All the schools are day schools, with scheduled programmes;
but, in some, evening classes as well are provided for those whose
time is occupied during the day. All are free to residents of Paris,
and, in most, needy city pupils are supplied with clothes and with
meals. The meals usually consist of a breakfast-luncheon about n,
and a light meal about 4; the charge at the boys' schools being
about nc. and at the girls' 70. In the case of residents of the
Department of the Seine, the communities in which they live are
required to pay $40 a year for each pupil. The fee for others, in-
cluding foreigners, varies according to the course selected. Certain
special provisions are mentioned further on as part of my descrip-
tion of the school concerned.

The examination for entrance is, competitive, and is threefold Entrance

,~> 1 • , tests.

in character — medical, written, and oral. Great stress is laid on
drawing. Applicants with the Certificate of Primary Studies may
compete when 12 years old; others at 13. In some of the schools
a preparatory class has been established for special reasons. Some
exceptional provisions for admission are mentioned further on in
connection with each school. On the satisfactory completion of the certificates
courses certificates of apprenticeship are awarded. Each year prizes and Pnze8-
are also awarded.

The products of the trade schools are sold, and orders are Disposal of
taken by certain schools, especially the girls'. The reasons assigned ducts. pl
for this course are as follows :

In order that the apprenticeship may be completely provided
for and may approach as nearly as possible to actual manufactur-
ing conditions, the pupils work in materials of all sorts, even those
that are high priced. In dressmaking, for example, the apprentices
must be able to work in silk, satin, velvet, etc. If no orders were
taken, such materials would be too costly for the school to provide.
Besides, it is harder to fit a human being than a shop-dummy.
Moreover, as improvements are continually being made in the
trades, and especially as the fashions are constantly changing, the
work of the school can in this way be kept up to date. The money
received for the school products goes towards defraying the ex-
pense of the less costly material used in the courses. The schools,
however, limit the orders they accept to those the execution of

which suits the requirements of the courses.
8 E.I.P.

io8

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Samcteraonfd For b°ys there are seven Trade Schools, with an attendance of
trade schools. about I>3OO; for girls, there are eight, with an attendance of about
2,200. They are all situated in different districts and differ con-
siderably in character. It will be remembered, of course, that each
is under a special committee of management. There are greater
differences amongst the boys' schools than amongst the girls', owing
to the greater variety of the trades. As the system presents many
points that will prove suggestive to us, I submit below a synopsis
of the most important features of some of the curricula.

TRADE SCHOOLS FOR BOYS
DIDEROT SCHOOL

Disappear-
ance of
apprentice-
ship system.

Maintenance.
Organization.

Maintenance
grants.

Exceptional
features.

As the result of a report in 1871 by the then Inspector-General
of Education, the old apprenticeship system practically died in Paris
in 1872, and the Diderot School was opened in 1873. Its estab-
lishment was strongly opposed, but it was successful from the first,
and others were soon started. The annual expenditure is over
$30,000, one-third of which is the cost of material. The accommo-
dations are excellent.

The school trains workers in light and heavy machinery and
pattern making. It provides for an apprenticeship of three years
in blacksmithing, metal turning, machine erecting, making instru-
ments of precision, electrical work, pattern making, boiler making,
carpentry and cabinet making, lock making, sanitary plumbing.

All the pupils in the mechanical and fitting courses are trained
in the third year in practical electrical work. On the completion
of the course and after examination, the successful pupil is given a
certificate of apprenticeship.

In the first two years the daily instruction consists of five and
a half hours' shop-work and three hours' class instruction ; and, in
the third, of seven hours' shop-work and two hours' class instruc-
tion ; thus approximating closely to actual shop conditions.

Very needy pupils may be allowed $60 a year by vote of the
Municipal Council. The school is situated in a workingman's dis-
trict and the expenses are reduced as much as possible.

SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

This school, although ranked as a trade school, has excep-
tional features. It provides instruction in physics and chemistry
as applied to the industries, for young men who enter from the
higher elementary schools, the lycees, colleges, etc. Here are
prepared engineers and superintendents of laboratories, and pro-
vision is also made for the instruction of the higher grade of
workmen. The building and equipment cost over $80,000.

FRANCE 109

The applicant for admission must not be less than 16 and not^g™ission
more than 19 years of age. As in other schools, admission is by
competitive examination. Here, however, it is both written and
oral, as follows :

Written — Composition; a problem in each of arithmetic, algebra,
plane geometry, geometry in space or analytical geometry, physics,
chemistry, geometrical drawing.

Oral — Mathematics and cosmography, physics, chemistry, Ger-
man or English, bookkeeping.

Not more than 30 regular students are admitted in each year Fees,
of the course. When the laboratory accommodation permits, a
few non-residents of Paris are admitted on payment of a monthly
fee of $10. Needy city students may receive a monthly allowance
of from $5 to $10.

During the first three half years the students take the same organization,
course, theoretical and practical, in general scientific work, physics,
chemistry, mechanics, industrial drawing, etc. They then continue in
common the physics and chemistry as well as the practical work in
electro-chemistry, but the laboratory work is separate. When the
student's three years' course is completed and he has received his Research
diploma, he may take a fourth year in the Research Laboratory with w
which the school is provided.

BOULLE SCHOOL

In the words of the prospectus : " The Boulle School aims at Aim.
training skilled workmen and expert artisans capable of maintain-
ing the traditions of taste and the superiority of the specially
Parisian industries in artistic furnishings." Here the pupils serve
an apprenticeship, and at the same time receive superior primary
instruction suitable to their chosen trade. The accommodations
and equipment are very fine. The yearly cost for salaries is about Maintenance.
$30,000 ; for material, $20,000.

The competitive entrance examination comprises three subjects :

_ . .,.,,, . . « , Admission

Dictation, two arithmetical problems, and drawing at sight from tests.
plaster cast. Special stress is placed upon the examination in
drawing.

Candidates from the Department of the Seine are given the Fees,
preference over those from the provinces, provided they reach the
required standard at the examinations. Pupils from the provinces
pay $100 per year, and their families provide for them outside of
school hours.

There are two divisions — Furniture Making and Metal Work. TWO sections

_ Furniture

Each year the school admits 102 pupils — 60 in the furniture and Makingand

, Metal Work.

42 m the metal work division. The total attendance is about 325.

no EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

organization. The COurse is one of four years, and provides both theoretical
and practical instruction. To supplement their theoretical studies
pupils visit museums, palaces, factories, etc., where information of
an aesthetic or industrial character is obtainable.

The theoretical instruction includes a review of primary sub-
jects: Geometry; technology; industrial economy; history of art;
art drawing ; water-colour ; modelling applied to furnishing ; indus-
trial drawing; designing in all its varied applications to the trades
taught in the School.

Trades taught The practical instruction is given by master workmen who
teach only the apprentices. The trades taught are:

1. Furniture Making: Cabinet-making, upholstery, carving
(wood and stone), carpentering.

2. Metal Work: Chiselling (cast-finishing, carving, repousse);
mounting; engraving (steel, tableware, jewels); metal-turning.

At different periods the pupils receive practical directions re-
garding the trades allied to their own. Those of the furniture
section (except the upholsterers) do some work in wood-turning;
those in the metal work section have simple exercises in planing,
fret-saw work, moulding in sand. All, without exception, take
moulding in plaster.

Diplomas. Pupils who pass the final examinations receive a diploma and

are allowed to take their tools with them. As a proof of the
efficiency of this school, it is pointed out that many have obtained,
in competitive examination, dispensation from military service,
with the title of Art Craftsmen ; others have received first prizes at
exhibitions.

QERMAIN=PILON SCHOOL

Aim- The aim of this School is to train young men in drawing

and modelling in their application to the various branches of in-
dustry, such as jewellery, iron-ware, table-ware, lighting fixtures,
fabrics, wall-papers, china, pottery, etc. The course, however, does
not deal with specialties. It is basal in character; so, that when
tne pupil leaves school he may choose the specialty that best suits

Maintenance, his taste and aptitude and will be of most advantage to him. The
annual expenditure is about $12,000. The attendance is not large
(over 100). There are both day and evening courses.

The age of admission is 14, except with the " certificate," in
which case it is 13. The entrance examination consists of geometri-
cal and perspective drawing, the drawing of simple objects, and'
French composition. No meals are provided in this school.

The evening classes are from 8 to 10 hours a week for appren-
tices and others at least 15 years old. For these classes no entrance
examination is prescribed, and foreigners are admitted.

FRANCE in

The day curriculum embraces classes in drawing and model- curriculum,
ling, water-colours, mounting; practical geometry, line drawing
and elementary architecture ; light and shade, perspective, anatomy,
history of art, decorative composition, application of the analysis of
style, designing of furniture and fabrics, embroidery, and lace-
making. Besides, pupils are required to use the library. In addi-
tion, each year a special course of twelve lessons is given in jewel-
lery at the expense of the Syndicate Chamber of Patrons of the
Jewellery Trade.

The course covers three years. There are no shops for practi-
cal work except modelling.

First Year:

Drawing from plaster cast, ornament and figure ; modelling. The draw-
ing and modelling are carried on under the eye of the teachers.

Geometrical drawing, geometry, architecture; water-colour painting
of flowers and materials used in industry.

Six hours a week are allowed for home-study by the pupils; so that
they may have an opportunity of continuing at home their general edu-
cation.

Second and Third Years :

Modelling; practical modelling; drawing from the cast and living models;
comparative anatomy; decorative composition and analysis of style in the
different branches of art; cabinet-making; water-colour. In the second year,
practice and theory of shading. Second and third years, perspective. History
of Art, in second year. Furniture designing, two half years. Special course
in jewellery, provided by the Syndicate Chamber of Patrons of the Jewellery
Trade, twelve successive Wednesdays after Easter.

The pupils of the second and third years are obliged to use the library
on Wednesdays under the supervision of the librarian.

The evening course consists of drawing, elementary and ad-
vanced ; modelling, mounting, perspective, the analysis of styles and
decorative composition, practical geometry, and anatomy.

BERNARD-PAL S Y SCHOOL

The accommodations of this school are very poor ; but it is, I Accommo-
was informed, to be united with the Germain-Pilon School under
the name of " The Municipal School of Art Applied to Industry,"
and to be housed in large and commodious quarters, for which
purpose $200,000 has been voted. The annual expenditure is about Maintenance.
$15,000.

The aim of the school is the application of Art to Indus- Aim.
try — to train skilled workmen in certain Art Industries, such as
ceramics, carving in wood, marble, stone, ivory, decorative paint-
ing, designing for materials, textures, and wall papers.

There are both dav and evening courses. To be admitted to the Admission

, ,. teats.

former the applicant must be at least 13 years of age, and pass an

112

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Day
Curriculum.

Evening
Courses.

School
Products.

Maintenance.

Admission

test". *

Fees.

examination in simple perspective and geometrical drawing. To
be admitted to the evening classes the applicant must be at least 14
years of age. Foreigners are not excluded.

In connection with the School there is also a Friendly Society
of the Old Pupils.

The curriculum has two divisions:

1 . General instruction in art ; and

2. Practical application of this in the work-shop.

In the first year the pupils study drawing from plaster casts, art
objects, or industrial products; modelling; geometry and linear
drawing; water-colour drawing from plants and flowers.

In the following years are taken up, in graded succession, draw-
ing from plaster casts and living models; modelling, comparative
anatomy, water-colours, history of art, analysis of style, decorative
designing, perspective, and theory of light and shade. These
courses are given in the forenoon.

Beginning with the second year, the pupils are arranged in
four classes for practical instruction, during the afternoon, in the
application of art to industry, as follows:

1. Ceramics — manufacture and decoration.

2. Carving — wood, marble, stone, ivory, etc.

3. Decorative painting of all kinds.

4. Designing for materials, textures, papers.

The evening classes are for adults, and are given from 8 to 10
every evening except Saturday and Sunday.

The evening courses comprise an elementary and an advanced
course in drawing; and an elementary and an advanced course in
modelling, analysis of styles and decorative designing, applied
geometry, comparative anatomy.

All the products of the work-shops become the property of
the city.

ESTIENNE SCHOOL

This School gives a very comprehensive course in the arts and
industries of book-making. The annual expenditure is about
$30,000 for salaries and over $15,000 for material. It is the finest
of the Trade Schools. As already stated, the initial cost was about
$250,000.

The competitive examination for entrance consists of the fol-
lowing subjects: Dictation, two problems in arithmetic, object
drawing. The age is not less than 13 and not more than 16. The
school also admits without examination special French pupils for
an annual fee of $80 for the first year, and of $120 for the third
or fourth. Foreigners pay $200.

FRANCE 113

The apprenticeship covers four years, or five if the pupil desires Or£anizallcn-
another year, and the courses prepare for fifteen different trade*,.
In each trade the pupil is taught every kind of work that pertains
thereto. The school hours are from 8.30 a.m. till 6 p.m. The in-
struction is both general and technical.

General course : This comprises French language, history and General

* . Course.

geography, elementary mathematics, physical and natural science
applied to the arts and industries of book-making, history of art
and of book-making, modelling, object drawing, line drawing and
decorative composition, writing, gymnastics, military exercises.
As far as practicable, each of the preceding is made to bear directly
on the trades taught.

Technical course : This comprises printing, lithography, engrav- Technical
ing, book-binding, and gilding in leather; and photographure, as
follows: Type-founding, typographical composition, stereotyping
and electrotyping, press work, lithographic drawing, stone engrav-
ing, lithographic writing, autography (complementary course for
pupils in lithography ; its object is to teach pupils to understand the
models or drafts of architects, engineers, or builders), lithographic
printing, engraving on wood, engraving in relief (on all metals),
copper-plate engraving (graver, nitric acid, dry point), copper-plate
printing, book-binding, gilding in leather, industrial photography
(the various processes).

During the first four months, the pupil attends all the work-
shops. He is then placed in the work-shop of the trade to which
he wishes to belong. Except occasionally, pupils take up specially
not more than one trade. The technical course occupies most of
the pupil's time.

DORIAN SCHOOL

In admitting to this school preference is given to orphans, the
children of mechanics who have resided for 10 yeans or more in
Paris. They must be, at entrance, at least 6l/2 years old and under
ii years. Children of poor or large families are taken also, on
approval by the school authorities, and after passing a medical ex-
amination. No other entrance test is prescribed. The boarders are sJhe051oarding
admitted by the Prefect on a vote of the Municipal Council after
nomination by the " Committee of Patrons " of the School, which
corresponds to the "After-care Committee" of the English Trade
Schools. The pupils are sent away for the summer holidays to the
seaside or on some educational excursion.

The pupils of the boarding-school, who by their thirteenth
year fail to obtain the certificate of Primary Studies, are sent
back to their families. The others take a one year's preparatory
course, and then commence the regular three years' apprentice-
ship to their trade.

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

" After-care '
Committees.

The Day
School.

Admission
tests.

No fees.

Organization.

Theoretical
Courses.

Technical
Courses.

The School management exert themselves to secure places for
good pupils. In this work they are assisted by members of the
Committee of Patrons and by the Old Pupils' Friendly Society,
which has its place of meeting at the school.

Day-pupils are selected by competitive examination. Fifty
new pupils enter each year, making a total of 150 for the three
years of the course.

The competitive entrance examination consists of dictation,
three problems in arithmetic, a question in plane geometry Irom the
first two books, French composition on a technical subject of the
primary course, free-hand sketching.

The school is free to both boarders and day-pupils. The
former are supplied with all instruments and materials for work;
the latter receive the instruments as a loan. School supplies are
free. Boarding pupils wear the prescribed school uniform, which
the parents must furnish. All pupils take the mid-day meal at
the school, the day-pupils being charged 10 cents a day. Luncheon
allowances are made in the case of needy pupils.

The curriculum provides as follows :

i Trades Section for pupils of 13 years and older, possessing
the certificate of Primary Studies.

2. Primary classes for children of 7 to 13 years.

The Trades Section provides instruction, both theoretical and
practical, for highly skilled mechanics; turning, in all materials;
carpentry; forge and artistic ironwork. Additional trades are pro-
vided for according to demand.

As stated above, the Trade Courses are both theoretical and
practical. The theoretical are as follows :

The Theoretical Courses are as follows:

Writing, French, history, industrial geography, accounts, industrial legis-
lation and economy, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, descriptive geometry, theo-
retical and practical technology, mechanics, industrial electricity, industrial
drawing, art drawing, modelling, decorative designing, singing, gymnastics.

The Technical Courses are as follows :

Fitting: First year — The fitter's tools, manufacture and maintenance.
Filing, punching, tracing. Turning.

Second year — Making of tools relating to the trade-engineer's tools
and their use. Turning.

Third year — Making different parts of tools and machines. Tracing,
rimming, cutting of taps, polishing-bits, drills. Tempering and rectification.
Screw-cutting. Construction and mounting of machines. Running motors and
workshop machines.

FRANCE 115

Metal Turning: First year— Simple turning and systematic work in metals.
Punching, boring, etc. Practical application of methods.

Second year — Parallel turning. Simple threading. Forging and temper-
ing. Construction of parts of machines, motors, etc. Bores. Interchangeable
parts.

Third year — Construction of instruments of precision. Threading on the
lathe. Rectification. Construction of fine tools. Reproduction on the lathe.
Mounting and construction in series. Work at revolving lathe.

The third year pupils work at modern machines.

Forging, Locksmithing and Art Ironwork: First year — Exercises with
hand-hammer and sledge-hammer. Rolling with lead. Working a forge.
Heating a piece of iron to proper point for working. Forging of nails, pegs,
etc. Hot punching, anvil work. Simple forge work. Soldering. Forging of
metals drawn to given sizes. Making of fretwork, foliage, etc. Various fittings.

Second year — Hammer repousse work, etc.; cutting out with borer, etc.
Punching. Forging and tempering of fitter's tools, etc.; nuts, etc. Chas-
ing, foliage work, etc. Forging by hand and stamp, of branches, leaves,
etc. Forging of small machine parts. Frames and cases.

Third year — Making of large parts of machines. Balconies, railings,
doors. Making in wrought iron of ornaments, etc.

Carpentering: First year — Tools, mounting and sharpening. Character of
different woods. Cutting to sizes. Simple jointing. Putting together, trim-
ming, tongue and groove, glueing. Polishing and smoothing. Making of
simple objects (shelves, panels, frames, etc.). Rabbeting and moulding tools.

Second year — Various jointings. Jointed work, including moulded parts
(teble, bench, door-frame, door, etc.) Instruction of a general kind re-
garding mechanical tools and their use in carpentering.

Third year — Complicated jointing, curv'ed work. Arches, veneering.
Preparation of woods and selection of them for art work. Practical work
at complex pieces, front doors, wainscotting, etc. Preparation of tracings for
machine work.

Under the guidance of their instructors, pupils in the third
year visit factories and see work being executed.

At the close of the third year of study, pupils undergo an ex- Diplomas,
animation, and a diploma of apprenticeship is given to those who
are successful.

TRADE SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS
RUE DE POITOU SCHOOL

This school teaches girls a trade and continues their general Aim.
education.

The competitive entrance examination 'is on the following: Admission

, . ° tests.

subjects :

Dictation, two problems in arithmetic, composition, specimen
of sewing and of ornamental drawing from the cast.

There are two divisions :

1. The General courses for all the pupils in the forenoon.

2. The Trade courses in the afternoon.

n6

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

General

Courses.

Trade
Courses.

Aim.

Fees and
maintenance.

Admission
Tests.

General
Courses.

Special
Courses.

Certificates.

The apprenticeship lasts three years, except in the case of indus-
trial drawing which lasts four.

General courses: These comprise morals and civics, French,
arithmetic, elementary science applied to commerce and industry,
history and geography, line and ornamental drawing, sewing, book-
keeping.

Trade courses: These comprise commercial course (writing,
book-keeping, elements of commercial law, English, stenography,
typewriting), embroidery for dresses and furniture, millinery,
dress-making, industrial drawing (drawing from the cast, from
common objects, and from flowers and plants), geometrical draw-
ing, water-colours, painting on china, enamel, etc., decorative com-
position, artistic anatomy, history of art.

JACQUARD SCHOOL

To use the words of the syllabus: "This School trains ex-
pert work women capable of maintaining the traditions of taste and
superiority of French industry." At the same time, pupils are
taught the household work necessary to their trade. The period
of apprenticeship is three years. Instruction is free to residents of
Paris, and aid is given in certain approved cases to needy pupils.

The school is held only during the day-time. All, without
exception, take their mid-day meal in the institution.

Candidates at the competitive entrance examination must be
at least 13 years of age unless they hold the " Certificate of Primary
Studies." The subjects are dictation, composition, two problems in
arithmetic, a decorative drawing, a piece of sewing.

Two sets of courses of study are given:

1. General Courses (in the forenoon, from 8.30 to 11.30). and

2. Special Courses in the trade chosen (from I to 5.30 p.m.).

Courses in household work (cooking, ironing, and mending)
are given all pupils throughout their apprenticeship.

General Courses : These include primary instruction, elements of
book-keeping, drawing and water-colour, domestic economy, cutting
and joining, sheath-making for embroiderers, English language.

Special Courses : These include needle-work, corsets, underwear,
millinery and dresses, straw hats, boys' costumes, etc. ; embroidery
for furniture and dress; artificial flowers and feathers.

A certificate of apprenticeship and a savings-bank pass-book are
given to pupils at the end of their third year, when they have
passed all the final examinations.

FRANCE 117

RUE DE D' ABBEVILLE SCHOOL

The pupils of this school are of a higher social class than in most
of the other schools for girls, and, accordingly, prefer the com-
mercial course. The annual expenditure is about $25,000. Maintenance

The school provides young girls with a theoretical and prac-Atm.
tical training in a trade, while completing their primary education
and learning household management. The regular course of
study covers three years, and consists of complementary and trade
courses.

The subjects of the competitive entrance examinations are die- Admission

. . tests.

tation and writing, two problems m arithmetic, French composition
on a simple subject, needlework, simple drawing from plaster cast
or common objects.

For students of painting the course is one of four years; for Organization,
the commercial section, of two years.

The courses require three hours of primary instruction, and
five hours of instruction in the trade every day during the first
and the second years; and one hour of primary instruction and
seven hours of instruction in the trade during the third year.

The Complementary Courses are as follows : complemen-

tary Courses.

FIRST AND SECOND YEARS:

Morals and civics, French (orthography, composition, literature) ; com-
mercial arithmetic (interest, accounts, etc.); elementary geometry; book-keep-
ing; history (ancient, mediaeval, modern, contemporary, in outline) ; geography
(general, France in detail) ; elements of physics, chemistry, natural history ;
domestic needlework; household management (in all three years the pupils
take turns at cooking and housekeeping).

The Trade Courses are as follows : Trade

Courses.

Needlework: First year— All kinds of stitches used in work in linen,
woollen goods and cloths; cutting (two hours a week); drawing from
plaster cast, figure designing.

_ Second year— Children's clothes; graded garments; cutting out of
waists, jackets, petticoats, etc.; drawing from plaster cast, figure drawing
(two hours a week).

Third year — Custom dressmaking; invention of models; change of pat-
terns according to style; cutting-out of all kinds; drawing of models and
finished costumes; history of dress.

Painting: First year — Drawing; water-colours.

Second year — Drawing; water-colours; china painting; anatomy and
perspective.

Third year— Drawing from nature ; water-colour ; painting on china and on
fans; anatomy; perspective; history of art; original designing.

Fourth year — Continuation of third year work; painting on glass;
enamelling; miniatures.

n8 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Corsets: First year — Stitches used in corset sewing, cording, edging,
mounting of busts, stays, etc.

Second year — Whaleboning. making of simple corsets and children's
waists.

Third year — Corsets to order, cutting and fitting.

Embroidery: First year — Different stitches used in embroidering; practice
in double embroidery, beading, spangling, Richelieu embroidery.

Second year — Double shaded embroidery, rococo embroidery, ribbon
embroidery, spiral embroidery, i8th century crochet, application of these
processes to furniture, dress and original embroidery.

Third year — Studies in flowers, insects and birds from water-colours
or nature. Cord embroidery, reversible embroidery, gold thread embroidery.
Practical work on materials, and inlaid lace on materials — Patterns. Me-
chanism of the embroidering-machine.

A course in drawing is given twice a week to pupils of the second and
third years.

Commercial Subjects: During two years of their studies, pupils take
accounts and the various systems of book-keeping, commercial arithmetic,
stenography (Prevost-Delaunay method), and typewriting, and English.

RUE QANNERON SCHOOL

The accommodations and equipment of this School are excellent.

Maintenance. The annual cost of maintenance is about $20,000.

Aim— Ad- Here girls are taught a trade as well as housekeeping. Admis-

sion takes place at the usual age. The subjects for the competitive
entrance examination are spelling, arithmetic, composition, drawing,
and sewing.

The courses last three years, with the exception of that for
drawing and painting, which lasts four. They are divided into
General and Trade courses, and the work in each is both theo-
retical and practical.

General General course : This extends over three years and is obligatory

on all except those who have obtained the " certificate." It com-
prises: French, arithmetic, morals and civics, history and geo-
graphy, elementary science, literature, bookkeeping, English, cut-
ting out, gymnastics, singing, drawing, domestic economy (includ-
ing cookery, taken up every day).

Trade Trade Courses: Of these there are six: (i) Book-keeping,

English, stenography and type-writing; (2) Industrial drawing,
modelling, painting on glass; (3) Artificial flowers and feathers;
(4) Embroidery for dresses and furniture; (5) Millinery; (6)
Corset-making.

Management. In the management of the School, the directress is assisted
by a Committee of Patrons who act as examiners at the close
of the courses.

Financial aid is given the needy, and savings bank books are
presented along with the diploma.

FRANCE 119

RUE DUPERRE SCHOOL

This School trains industrial designers and art workers in the Aim.
special lines open to women.

Pupils from other parts of France than the City or the Depart- Fees
ment of the Seine pay from $20 to $60, according to the courses of
study taken.

All pupils are admitted only by competitive examination,
which takes place in June. For admission to the Elementary Divi-
sion the age conditions are the usual ones; for admission to the
Upper Division the applicant must be at least 15 and not more than
20.

The School has two divisions, an Elementary and an Upper,
each covering three years of study. In each of these divisions in-
struction is both theoretical and practical.

The courses in the Elementary Division are as follows :

Theoretical: French; morals and common law; history and geography; Elementary
arithmetic; simple geometry; elements of the physical and natural sciences Division.
(physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, physiology) ; elements of hygiene, domes-
tic economy, technology, history of art, ornamental designing, applied geometri-
cal drawing.

Practical: Sight drawing and modelling; geometrical drawing applied to
industry; ornamental designing; execution of designs given in the theoretical
course; elements of water-colour and India ink drawing. Reproduction of
models given in the course on ornamental designing.

The courses in fhe Upper Division are as follows:

Theoretical: Oral courses and lectures on ornamental designing, archi- upper
lecture, history of art, comparative anatomy, applied hygiene, political Division,
economy, labour legislation. Also technical courses having in view the
designing and execution of lace-work, embroidery, tapestry, jewelry, gold
and silver work, cabinet-making, furniture, art iron-work, ceramics, stained
glass, enamelling, work in leather, ivory, the application of the process of
photography, stencilling, etc.

Practical: Ornamental designing; sight drawing and modelling from
the antique and from nature; architectural drawing; designing of lace and
embroidery; designing of jewellery, gold and silver work, art iron-work;
designing of papers, hangings, etc. Execution of work in lace, embroidery,
painting and water-colour drawing on paper, silk, glass, etc.; application of
the processes of modelling, moulding, stamping, working in metal, horn,
ivory, mother-of-pearl, fine woods, tinting of materials by various processes,
engraving, style busts, etc., photography (enlarging, retouching of nega-
tives, etc.).

OTHER TRADE AND TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS

Besides the Municipal Trade Schools there are others estab-
lished by private enterprise : these ( for example, the Watchmaking
School) are largely subsidized by the Municipal Council. There are

120 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

also two other technical institutions which deserve especial notice
on account of the influence they have upon the trade of the Republic.

NATIONAL CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES

This consists of a museum and of laboratories for original re-
search in mechanics, physics, and chemistry, as applied to the
various industries. It has no fixed course of study, but simply
offers advantages to students who wish to investigate matters
pertaining to industry or agriculture. Lectures are provided for
from time to time by the Board of Management. Those who
attend are already engaged in various industries, and select the
courses that suit them. The lecturers are scientists of the very
highest rank. The cost of maintenance is borne wholly by the
State; and the Schools are open, free of charge, to all who care
to attend. The Conservatory possesses a large library of general
and technical works, and a collection of machinery, tools, draw-
ings, etc., illustrative of the progress and present condition of the
Arts and Crafts.

The influence of this institution on the development of French
industry has been very great.

NATIONAL SCHOOL OF DECORATIVE ART

Admission is by competitive examination, and the conditions
are similar to those of the Trade Schools. The candidate must
submit a drawing in accordance with the course he may select. Both
boys and girls are admitted, but the classes are separate. The
classes are held in the forenoon, afternoon, and evening.
Foreigners are admitted only at the request of their national re-
presentative in Paris. The courses are those of a high class art
school : Figure, linear, geometrical and perspective drawing ;
shading, ornamental design; anatomy; architecture, ornamental
composition; drawing and painting from natural objects; history
of art and industries.

The artistic influence of this special Art School upon French
industry has also been very great.

SWITZERLAND

TABLE OF CONTENTS

SWITZERLAND : PAGE.

Introduction 125

Industrial and Technical Education 126

Classes of Schools (. . .,. . . 128

General . . 129

Berne :

Trade Schools 131

Machinists 133

Cabinetmakers, Iron Workers, and Plumbers 134

Special Courses 134

Continuation Courses , 135

Bienne :

Technicum . . . 135

Mechanics . . 136

Electricity . . . 139

Watchmaking 140

Architecture . . . 140

Industrial Art 141

Engraving and Sculpture 141

Railway Department 141

Postal Department 141

Preparatory Course 141

Zurich :

Arts and Crafts Schools 142

Other Day Trade Schools 142

Industrial Continuation Schools 143

Trade Schools 144

Schools for Craftsmen 144

Other Classes 145

9 E.I.P.

SWITZERLAND

INTRODUCTION

Under the Federal Constitution of 1874 education in Switer- Educational
land is obligatory, free, under the supervision of the cantons, and
open to all, without distinction of creed. Each canton has, accord-
ingly, its own educational system. But the Federal Government
also has certain powers; it provides that until children are sixteen
they shall not be engaged in factory and school work combined
more than eleven hours a day, forbids their employment in factories
until they are fifteen, prescribes military exercises for the schools,
and examines all recruits for the army at twenty. The federal,
cantonal, and communal authorities, however, work together in re-
markable harmony for the advancement of education.

Each school system begins with the Kindergarten, or Mothers' ^t^m :
School. Such schools, however, are confined to the cities, towns, Kindergarten,
and large villages; and, as in Ontario, their number is limited,
there being only about 900 in a total of nearly 4,500 elementary
schools.

At the Primary School, attendance is compulsory for
six to eight or nine years, but the requirements of such attendance
vary and are adapted to the actual conditions of the agricultural
and industrial communes respectively.

The Primarv Schools are followed by Continuation Schools, continuation

. - J ' Schools.

with courses of from one to two or three years. In some cantons,
attendance at the continuation schools is obligatory, in some it
is optional, and in others the decision is left to the commune; but
usually the courses are confined to the winter months and provide
not more than six hours' instruction a week. They are held some- .
times during the day and sometimes during the evening, and aim
at a review and extension of the work done in the primary
schools. In many cases the courses in these schools have a voca-
tional outlook, which is becoming more marked from year to
year. The primary school in most of the cantons is followed by a
secondary school, by which name is known a higher branch of the
primary school. Compulsory courses in algebra, technical drawing,
and one foreign language are its distinctive characteristics.

Next come High Schools, or Middle Schools, which prepare Hi&h schools
for the universities or the higher vocational schools. These
schools differ greatly in character in the different cantons. Their
courses are not uniform as regards their length, the age at
which they begin, or the dates of admission and the require-
ments for graduation. Moreover, some high schools, as, for

[125]

126

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Scholars'
Homes.

Federal law.

Federal
Grants.

Bases of
Grants.

Central
control.

example, those at Berne and Bale, admit pupils who have com-
pleted only four years of the primary school course; others,
as, ,for example, those at Zurich and St. Gall, prescribe a prepara-
tory course of six years. Their comparatively small number —
for there are only about 70 of them — is due to a peculiar feature
of the Swiss system. Instead of establishing a large number of
small high schools, the cantonal, or local, governments provide
in connection with large and well-equipped high schools what are
called " Scholars' Homes." These provide excellent board and
lodgings for pupils living at a distance, and the cost is so moder-
ate that even parents who are not well off are able to send their
children.

INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

The first attempt at industrial education was made about the
beginning of the eighteenth century, and thereafter the num-
ber of schools kept increasing, though not very rapidly. Towards
the close, however, of the nineteenth century, Switzerland began
to depend more and more upon her manufacturing industries, and
a law was passed by the Federal Assembly which gave the Federal
Government power to develop industrial education by the estab-
lishment of new industrial schools and by assisting those already
established. It also provided for federal grants, which, subject
to the decision of the Federal Council, might reach a maximum
of one-half of the total annual expenditure for this purpose by
cantons, communes, corporations, and private individuals. In
1895, State subsidies were also extended to schools for teaching
commercial subjects, and domestic science and trades to girls. The
federal grant to the industrial schools is on the average one-third
of the total cost of maintenance, but special grants are made wher-
ever conditions justify them. These grants are conditional on
suitable premises and class-rooms, satisfactory organization and
results, satisfactory programme of study, submission of financial
statements to the Federal Government, and both cantonal and
federal inspection.

Technical and industrial education, provided or assisted by
the Federal Government, is under the Federal Department of Com-
merce, Industry and Agriculture, with the exception of the Poly-
technic School at Zurich, which, founded in 1854, is still under
the Department of the Interior. In the cantons, this branch of
education has come more and more under the control of the De-
partment of National Economy; but in those cantons where there
is no such Department, all the schools, including the technical
schools, are under the control of the Department of Education.

SWITZERLAND 127

Although opposed generally by employers of labour, a general
apprenticeship law, subject to adoption by each canton, was passed 3hlP Law-
on a referendum vote in 1906 by a decisive majority of the elector-
ate of the Republic. Of this law nearly half of the cantons have
availed themselves. It provides in detail for the protection
of the employee. Under it every employer who teaches a
trade or accepts boys and girls as apprentices, must allow at least
four hours a week during the day-time for attendance at an in-
dustrial school. An apprentice is defined to be a man or woman
who is learning a trade in a workshop or store (not including
such unskilled employment as selling ribbons, etc.). To be ad-
mitted to a trade the future apprentice must have completed the
course of the elementary school and be at least 14 years of
age. To be admitted to a mercantile business the minimum
age is 15. A definite written contract is signed by the em-
ployer, the parent or guardian, and the apprentice. The contract
provides also that the employer shall look after the bodily and
mental welfare of the apprentice, who must have ten hours' con-
tinuous rest and must not be called to work over-time until he is
over sixteen. At the end of his term, the apprentice must pass
an examination conducted by a Board appointed by the Govern-
ment; and, if he fails, he may present himself again after a lapse
of six months. The enforcement of the foregoing provisions is
entrusted to the Minister of Commerce and Industry.

The committees in charge of the trade schools are composed Local control,
of the chairman or some other member of the local school com-
mittee and representatives of the various trades — employers and
workmen — and of those who understand and take an interest in
trade education.

The labour organizations generally look with great favour Attitude of
upon the trade schools. They are continually asking for them, organizations,
and desire that they shall be free. Indeed, so well disposed have
they been that, recognizing the effects of unskilled competition with
the skilled workmen of France and Germany, some of the trade
unions have established such schools themselves, and maintain them
out of their own funds, with the aid of a cantonal grant.

More and more the expert (the engineer, the architect, the ^{J^^rs11
gardener, the painter, etc.), has charge of the industrial subjects.
In the smaller centres of population where no trade teachers are
available, the elementary or secondary school teachers still go on
teaching arithmetic, technical drawing, mechanics, physics, etc.;
but such teachers are fast being replaced by experts. At present
also the State is endeavouring to give the men with practical ex-
perience some training in pedagogical method. In 1885, the De- fcpr^'S°n for

128

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Industrial

Drawing

Schools.

Industrial

Continuation

Schools.

Handicraft
Schools and
Trade
Courses.

Housekeeping
and Domestic
Science
Schools.

Trade and
Apprentice
Schools.

Industrial Art
Schools.

partment of Industry and Agriculture established special classes
for teachers in the Technicum at Winterthur to prepare them to
teach technical work, especially drawing. Diplomas are granted
each year on an examination. One-third of the expenditure is
defrayed by the Federal Government and the classes receive
encouragement in other ways. The professional training is of two
kinds: practical men (engineers, architects, etc.) are trained as
teachers, and teachers are taught the practical work of the various
trades.

CLASSES OF SCHOOLS

The special provision for industrial and technical education is
as follows:

Industrial Drawing Schools, Industrial Continuation Schools,
Handicraft Schools and Trade Courses, Housekeeping and Domes-
tic Science Schools, Trade and Apprentice Schools, Industrial Art
Schools, Secondary Technical Schools, Technical Colleges, Indus-
trial Museums.

The Industrial Drawing Schools provide, for the smaller towns,
classes in freehand and mechanical drawing, and in colour-work
and designing.

Of the Industrial Continuation Schools about 200 are for both
men and women ; they are a special class of the continuation schools
already described. They provide for the different handicrafts and
trades, and are compulsory in some cantons, optional in others. At
first they were held in the evenings; but, since the new law for ap-
prentices, they have been held generally in the daytime.

The Handicraft Schools and Trade Courses are of a higher
grade than the preceding, and aim at extending the knowledge of
those engaged in trade. The courses, which include work-shop
training, cover from two to three years. The Arts and Crafts
Schools at Zurich and Berne are examples.

The Domestic Science Schools provide instruction for domestic
servants as well as for future house mistresses. For the purpose of
training teachers for these courses the Federal Government assists
with grants three schools with courses of from six to eighteen
months.

The Trade and Apprentice Schools provide a thorough train-
ing in trades for ambitious workmen, and are of a higher class
than the Handicraft School and Trade Courses. The Silk Weav-
ing School at Zurich and the watch-making school at Bienne are
examples.

The object of the Industrial Art Schools, which are of a higher
type than the Industrial Drawing Courses of the smaller towns, is to
improve industrial workers, and especially designers on the art side

SWITZERLAND 129

of their crafts. Of these there are only a few special schools — at
Zurich, Berne, Geneva, and Bale. Instruction in Applied Art is
also a regular part of the course in the other industrial schools.

The Secondary Technical Schools are of a higher grade than
any of the preceding and are intermediate between the ordinary schools,
trade school and the polytechnic. They are often called Tech-
nicums and correspond to the German institutions of the same .
name. The first Technicum in Switzerland was founded at Win-
terthur, near Berne. There are also Technicums at Geneva,
Bienne, Burgdorf, and Fribourg, and a movement is on foot to
establish one at Luzern. The Technicum I saw was at Bienne.

The chief of the Technical Colleges, and a famous college it Technical
is, is the Polytechnic at Zurich, maintained by the Federal Gov-
ernment.

Industrial Museums are provided in a few of the larger towns ; industrial

f 1 • T-» i r/ • i r« i Museums.

as, tor example, in Berne and Zurich. Such museums appear to
me to be a most commendable feature of the system. They are
intended to acquaint the teacher and general public with the sug-
gestive features of .the progress of industry and industrial education.
They contain plans for school buildings, specimens of school furni-
ture and other equipment, samples of industrial work, and a large
collection of educational literature.

The minimum age for admission to the industrial schools is Entrance
fourteen. In some schools no examination is required, but the
applicant must show that he possesses at least an elementary educa-
tion, and that, after a period of trial, he is able to go on with the
work. For admission to a Technicum two years' or more previous
practical trade work is usually required.

The fees run from $2 a term to $10 for residents of Switzer- Fees,
land : foreigners pay $5 a month. In some localities the schools are
free, foreigners paying $10 a year. In others, including the
commercial schools, special courses for foreigners are provided,
costing about $50 a year. Where the Swiss pupil is unable to pay,
the fee is remitted, and scholarships are also provided.

GENERAL

To show the comprehensive view of education taken by the
Swiss and the regard of the Government for the welfare of the
people. I may add that in the municipal building, in which are now
housed the Zurich Trade Schools, there are about a dozen suites
of rooms, such as would be occupied by the poorer classes of the
community. Each of these suites is completely furnished by manu-
facturers for about a month each in succession, with examples of
their various productions of an artistic and economical character.

130 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

On the day of my visit, the rooms were crowded with men and
women appraising the different articles of furniture. It appears
evident that such exhibitions cannot but have an important and
beneficial influence upon the character of the Swiss homes.

penditareon Switzerland, with a population of 3,559,349 in 1908, expended
education. Qn ecjucation $j 5,860,000. Of this, the communes paid $7,800,-
ooo; the cantons, $6,840,000; and the Federal Government,
$1,220,000. Of the total sum, $10,180,000 was expended on
primary education; $1,440,000 on secondary education; $1,800,-
ooo on vocational and continuation schools; $1,200,000 on middle
schools, and $1,240,000 on universities.

Attendance at 1-1

industrial The following statistics for 1008 show the extent to which

Schools. ...,,. , f.

the Swiss avail themselves of vocational education ; the figures
have, of course, increased considerably during- the last two years.
Besides 2,470 compulsory and 237 voluntary Continuation
Schools, providing for a general education and attended by both
boys and girls, there were in 1908 special vocational schools, as
follows :

/. For Primary Education —

328 Industrial and Drawing Schools, with 19,884 boys and
4,829 girls.

95 Commercial Schools, with 10,981 boys and 2,195 girls.

II Agricultural Schools, with 221 pupils.

496 Schools for Domestic Science, with 12,704 girls.

//. For Secondary Education —
5 Technical Schools, with 2,010 pupils.

17 Industrial Schools, with 4,952 pupils.

1 6 Watchmakers and Mechanicians Schools, with 1,236
pupils.

9 Textile Schools, with 546 pupils.

6 Woodworkers and allied trade schools, with 155 pupils.

32 Commercial High Schools, with 4,610 pupils.

13 Agricultural Schools, with 1,131 pupils.

47 Domestic Science Schools for women, with 7,466 students.

///. For Higher Education —

The Polytechnicum at Zurich has 2,519 students, 515 of whom
are foreigners.

Five Cantonal Universities, three with four academic faculties
and two with three.

SWITZERLAND 131

BERNE

TRADE SCHOOLS

The Trade Schools at Berne, a city of about 70,000 inhabi- Establishment
tants, were established by the municipality, and are under the
supervision of the City Council which appoints the staff. The
schools for boys are all in one fine building, owned by the city, For Boys,
and are supported by contributions from the municipality, the
Canton, and the State, and by the income from the sale of work done
in the schools. The object aimed at is to furnish a thorough
training in a trade, to give further general practical and theoreti-
cal instruction to young artisans who have ended their apprentice-
ship, and in general to improve technical training by enabling the
industries to keep pace with modern developments.

There is also a school in a good building, newly erected, where ForGirls-
girls are taught the usual trades for girls: — dressmaking, sewing,
laundry work, etc.; and a school for Household Science where
they are taught housekeeping, cookery, etc., in courses which last
from three to six months.

The .pupil must be at least fifteen years old, have a good ele-
mentary school education, and be physically fit. The entrance
examinations required of all pupils are held at the beginning of
March, and cover German, arithmetic (to decimal fractions and
percentage), geometrical and free-hand drawing. The pupil is,
however, definitely accepted only after a trial period of about four
weeks.

On entering, a definite contract is signed between the munici-
pality and the pupil, in which the mutual obligations are carefully
specified :

The municipality, through its school staff, undertakes (i) the
carrying out of the courses of instruction free of charge, (2) ob-
servation of the laws regarding accident insurance, and (3) reim-
bursement to the pupil for work done by him, according to a fixed
wage-scale which is detailed below.

The pupil, on his part or through his guardians, engages to
conform to discipline and make good any damages to school
equipment.

Differences arising between pupils and the school are to be
settled by reference to three arbitrators — one nominated by each
party and the third (if needed) by the President of the Law Court
in Berne.

The Board of Management is composed of a member of tne Ma^fa ement
State Government Board, a member of the City School Board, a

132

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Curriculum
of Boys'
School.

Academic
subjects.

Duration of
courses.

Nqfees : pupils
paid for
work.

Disposal of
Products.

Special and
Continuation

Classes.

Admission
tests : fees.

Revenue and
Expenditure.

supervising committee of sixteen persons (representing all the
allied interests), and from three to six members of the teaching
staff for each of the four departments.

The heads of the school are the Superintendent of Education
for the Canton of Berne and the Superintendent of Education for
the city.

In the boys' trade school, which alone I visited, instruction is
given in four divisions : Machinery, Cabinet-making, Iron-work,
and Plumbinsr.

o

The teaching of such academic subjects as history, geography,
and civics is left to the evening schools ; but, as is to be expected,
this is not regarded as a satisfactory provision.

For machinists the course is one of four years: for cabinet-
makers, iron-workers, and plumbers, three years. Less time may
be required in the case of those entering with higher qualifications.
The school year lasts from April I5th to April 15th, with a holi-
day from Christmas to New Year, and two weeks' in the summer.

Instruction is free, but the pupil supplies the necessary draw-
ing instruments. On the other hand, he is paid for his work, the
kind and quantity of which is assigned by the instructors, and the
wage determined according to its quality. The money thus earned
by the pupil averages as follows :—

For machinists, 5 cents per day in the second year, 10 cents
in the third and 1 5 cents in the fourth ; for cabinet-makers, iron-
workers and plumbers, 5 cents per day in the second half of the
first year, 10 cents in the second year and 15 cents in the third (or
final) year.

The sale of the work is entrusted to the Trade Unions; but
the manufacturers are not well disposed towards such competition.

The curriculum of the Trade School also offers Special Courses
in the installation of gas and water, and Continuation Classes for
plumbers and cabinet-makers who have already served an appren-
ticeship of at least three years.

For admission to the Special courses in Gas and Water-fittings
the applicant must have finished his apprenticeship. The fees are
$i for entrance and $20 for the course.

For admission to the Continuation Courses for plumbers and
cabinet-makers, the applicant must have had a three years' appren-
ticeship. The admission fee for both is $i, $40 for the plumbers'
course, and $10 for the three months' term, and $40 for the longer
t'erm of the cabinet-makers' courses.

The revenue for the year 1908 amounted to $34,893. Of the
total revenue for the past few years, about one-half was the pro-
duct of work done in the schools, the other half being made up of

SWITZERLAND *33

the combined contributions of the Federal Government, the Can-
ton, and the city, each one-third. Of the expenditure 41.2 per
cent, was for salaries, 24 per cent, for raw material, and 12.8 per
cent, for prizes and assistance to pupils.

The examinations are conducted by the State, and take place
in the spring and the autumn. On the completion of one of the
regular courses the student is granted a diploma. If, for a satis-
factory reason, he withdraws before such completion, he is granted
a certificate of attendance in which is stated the cause of his with-
drawal.

In 1908 the attendance was as follows: Machinists, 46 ; Attendance,
cabinet-makers, 26; iron-workers. 29; plumbers, 22; continuation
classes, 6; total, 129. The final State examinations were taken
by 35-

The Trade School courses are as follows :

i

MACHINISTS

About four-fifths of the time is given to workshop practice.
FIRST YEAR.

Algebra: The first four fundamental operations with monomials and
polynomials. Equations of the first degree with one unknown. Extraction
of square root of decadal numbers. Equations of the first degree with more
than one unknown.

Arithmetic: Review of fundamental operations with examples from actual
work. Vulgar and decimal fractions applied. Measures, weights, currency,
percentage and interest.

Business Exercises: Correspondence, Letter post and Parcel post, Money
Orders, Reduction Orders, Banking, Railway traffic, Freight Bills, Accounts,
Receipts. Promissory Notes.

Planimetry: Lines, angles, triangles, squares, polygons. The circle. Cal-
culation of circumference and area of plane figures. Solution of practical
problems.

Drafting: Theory of projection. Round, oval and three-edged flanges,
octagonal matrices, construction of ellipse, oval, parabola, hyperbola,
cycloid, spiral lines and their application in machinery, sketching of simple
bodies in ground-plan and elevation. Detailed drawing of simple objects
from models, with insertion of dimensions.

Free-hand Drawing: Sketching of simple machine parts from models in
rectangular projection, with the insertion of measurements. Sketching of
bodies in parallel perspective.

Workshop Instruction: Filing, turning, planing, forging, and tempering.
Making of simple machine parts, etc.

SECOND YEAR.

Mechanics: The chief kinds of motion. Fundamental laws of inertia
and re-action. Force. Acceleration. Mass. Bodies in motion. Independ-
ence of motions. Forces in a plane with different points of application.
Statical moment couples.

134

Technology: Iron ores. 'Varieties of iron. Pig-iron, malleable iron.
Action of foreign elements on pig-iron. Combustibles. Smelting-furnace.
Iron-casting. Welding. Iron in fusion (Bessemer and Siemens-Martin
processes).

Rolling-mill. Steam hammer. Hydraulic press. Steel. Preparation
of pipes. Cast-iron pipes. Smelted pipes of various kinds. Seamless pipes.
Forged and pressed pipes. Rolled pipes. Commercial forms of iron. Tin,
copper, lead, zinc, aluminium.

Alloys, — of brass, bronze, aluminium.

Stereometry: Bodies. Calculation of surface and cubic content. Cal-
culation of weights. Practical examples.

Drafting: Practice in drawing machine parts, such as wheels, couplings,
etc.

Theory of Construction: Detailed study of rivets, screws, keys and pins,
belt-pulleys, cog wheels and gearings.

Workshop Instruction: Preparation of parts for tool-machines, etc.

THIRD YEAR.

Mechanics: Parallel forces in space. Calculation of pressure. Centre
of gravity. Equilibrium and stability of bodies. Guldini's law. Levers,
rollers, barrel wheels. Inclined plane. Pin and screw.

Calculating: Cog wheels, gearing. Calculation of time in machine-work.

Bookkeeping: Aim, method and keeping of business books. A year's
account and making out of balance. Exchange and business methods.

Drafting: Drafting of whole machines, e.g., for boring, planing, cut-
ting, turning, etc., from prepared sketches.

Physics: (i) Heat — Expansion of solid, fluid, and gaseous bodies. Spe-
cific heat. Conduct and radiation of heat. Melting, steaming. Properties
of vapours. Atmospheric precipitations.

(2) Light — Diffusion and velocity of light. Measurement of light. Re-
flection. Refraction. Decomposition of colours. Lenses. Photographing
room. Projection apparatus. The eye. Optical instruments.

(3) Magnetism and electricity — The magnet. Magnetic induction, etc.
Earth's magnetism. Conductors and non-conductors of electricity. Atmos-
pheric electricity. Lightning-rods.

(4) Galvanism — Galvani's and Volta's experiments. Electric currents.
Electro-magnetism, etc. Chemical re-actions. Action of heat and light.
Wireless telegraphy. Telephone. Transformers. Municipal electrical
plants.

Workshop Instruction: Devising and constructing of complete machines
from original designs. Exact fitting of parts, etc.

CABINET-MAKERS, IRON-WORKERS, AND PLUMBERS

The courses are analogous in character and scope to that given above
for machinists, the subjects prescribed and the importance attached to them
being governed by the needs and the objects aimed at in the special trade.

SPECIAL COURSES

Gas: History of lighting, preparation ' of gas of various kinds. Ap-
plication of illuminating gas. Municipal gas system. Gas mains and pipes.
Connections. Gas plants. Meters, taps, regulators. Lamps and chande-
liers. Burners. Street-lighting. Gas apparatus for cooking and heating.
Gas apparatus for industrial purposes. Plans and estimates of gas fittings.

SWITZERLAND 135

Workshop Instruction: Practical work in the handling of the various
pipes, fittings, etc.

Water: Here the instruction is analogous in scope and kind to the
above for gas. In each case, the theoretical instruction calls for four hours
a week, with 52 hours a week for practical work in the shops. The term
lasts six months.

CONTINUATION COURSES

Plumbing — Theoretical Instruction: Special drafting. Bookkeeping and
calculating. Estimating.

Workshop Instruction: Preparation of models from designs made in the
theoretical courses. Bathroom outfits. Ornamentation of buildings. .Washing
outfit, with work in copper. The preparation of some piece of artistic work-
manship.

Cabinet-making: These courses are analogous to those for Plumbers,
but specially adapted to cabinet-making. The instruction is both theoreti-
cal and practical, in terms of three, six or twelve months, to suit the quali-
fications of the applicant.

BIENNE

TECHNICUM

This, the Technicum of Western Switzerland, was founded inEgtabligh.
1890 in Bienne, a town of about 20,000 inhabitants. In 1909, the ment
school, which up till that time had been a local municipal institu-
tion, was taken over by the Federal Government.

The building is a very fine one, well situated and well equipped Accommo-
in all departments. Its cost was borne partly by the Federal Gov-
ernment and partly by the town. The Watchmakers' School is
close by and the machine shops are at some distance.

The Board of Management is composed of (i) two trade Board of
specialists appointed by the Federal Government, (2) a representa- Manageinent'
tive of the Department of the Interior, (3) an Administrative
Council of twelve persons prominent in their professions, and (4)
five special committees for each of the departments taken up in the
school, at the head of each of which stands one of the members of
the Administrative Council.

The curriculum now provides for the following departments : curriculum.

Watchmaking, Mechanics, Electricity, Architecture, Industrial
Arts, Railways and Postal Service, Preparatory Course.

A novel feature of the School is its course for Railways and
Post Offices, both of which services, with the exception of a few
mountain railway lines, are owned by the Federal Government.
The Railway and Postal departments of the School have a complete
outfit in miniature of all the mechanical equipment that pertains
thereto — rails, switches, signals, station houses, etc.

130

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Grade.

Admission

tests .

Fees.

Insurance.

In character, this Technicum is intermediate between the ordin-
ary Trade School and the Polytechnic at Zurich. The course is a
three years' one, theoretical in the main, but closely connected with
practical work. The graduates become foremen or superintendents,
whereas the pupils of the ordinary Trade School usually become
artisans.

To be admitted, students must have completed the pro-gym-
nasium course; that is, nine years' schooling, or have served as
apprentices for two years. Entrance examinations are held for
admission to the lowest form, or, if the applicant is sufficiently
advanced, to the one next above. All pupils are recommended to
begin with the lowest Form, and a preparatory course is also
offered. A trial period of three months has to elapse before the
applicant is finally accepted as a regular pupil.

The fees : $2.00 per month in watchmaking and mechanics,
$10.00 per half-year term in the other departments. Foreigners
pay $5.00 per month in Watchmaking and $14.00 per term in the
other subjects. In some branches $1.00 per term is exacted for the
use of materials, etc. Pupils who only hear lectures without taking
part in practical work pay 4Oc. per term for each course of one
hour a week, or not more than $10.00 in all. Articles made by
the pupils in the work-shops may be retained by them on payment
of the cost of materials used.

Pupils are insured against accidents, half of the total premium?;
being paid by the school. According to the department and to the
risks incurred, pupils contribute from 20 cents to $1.20.

Public examinations are held at the end of each term, and
diplomas are awarded.

The following are the courses ; I give them in detail, owing to
the importance of the grade of the school :

In Mechanics there are two divisions : an upper one for those qualifying for
directors of works or foremen in construction shops; and a practical division
for work in metals. In Electricity the organization is the same. The upper
course in each case covers 6 or 7 terms, and the practical division 6 terms; a
term being half a year:

I. MECHANICS

A. UPPER DIVISION

FIRST TERM.

Native Language: Elocution, reading, business correspondence.

Foreign Language (French for German pupils and German for French
pupils): Reading, oral exercises, etc.

English (optional courses) : Reading, translation, conversation.

SWITZERLAND 137

Arithmetic: Review of the four rules, fractions, metric system, propor-
tion, interest, accounts, etc.

Algebra: Review, positive and negative quantities, equations of the first
degree with one unknown.

Geometry: Plane geometry, equality and similarity, mensuration.

Physics: Mechanics of solid bodies.

Chemistry: Introduction, metalloids and their combinations.

Projection: Use of instruments, geometrical bodies in different positions,
rotations, parallel perspective, etc.

Free-hand Drawing: Perspective, leaf-forms, ornaments from models,
pen tracings, simple work in colours, drawing from plaster models.

Penmanship.

Workshop Practice.

SECOND TERM.

Nath'e Language: Business correspondence, deeds, contracts, etc.

Foreign Language (French for German, German for French pupils) : More
advanced conversation, compositions, etc.

English (optional course) : Conversation, business letters, etc.

Algebra: Powers, roots, logarithms, equations of first degree with several
unknowns, equations of second degree with one unknown.

Geometry: Solid geometry, prism, pyramid, cylinder, cone, sphere, cal-
culation of surface and volume, conic sections.

Physics: Mechanics of liquid and gaseous bodies, heat.

Chemistry: Metals and their combination, introduction to organic
chemistry.

Descriptive Geometry. Machine Drafting. Workshop Practice.

THIRD TERM.

Language: Italian, reading, translation, elementary conversation.

Algebra: Review, equations of second degree with several unknowns,
arithmetic and geometric progression, compound interest, theory of com-
binations.

Geometry: Trigonometry, solution of problems, etc.

Descriptive Geometry.

Physics: Optics, magnetism, electrostatics.

Mechanics: Statics of forces in a plane, theory of centre of gravity,
stability, friction, etc.

Theory of Machines: Screws, couplings, rivets, chains, pulleys, etc., etc.

Technology: Malleability of materials, properties of materials used in
machine construction.

Materials: Resistance, elasticity, etc.

Machine Construction. Sliding scale

FOURTH TERM.

Language: Italian (optional) : More advanced work.

Algebra: Binomial theorem, complex numbers, equations of the third
degree, problems.

Geometry: Analytical geometry of point, straight line and circle, theory
of conic sections.

Physics: Electric currents, exercises, review.

Mechanics: Motion of the point, dynamics, rectilinear and curvilinear
motion, dynamics of solid bodies, etc.

138 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Theory of Machines: Calculation and construction of supports, cog-wheels,
etc., transmission of power by belts and ropes, cranks, pistons, etc.

Technology: Work in metals as to their ductility, etc.

Graphic statics. Strength of materials. Construction of machines^
Electrotechnical -work. Workshop practice.

FIFTH TERM.

Mathematics: Differential and integral calculus.

Technical: Installation of heating plants. Theory of heat. Motors:
Hydraulics, turbines, hydrometry, etc. Graphic Statics. Applied Geometry.
Civil Engineering. Book-keeping by single and double entry. Theory of
machines. Elevators and transporting machines. Practical work. Con-
struction of machines. Electrotechnical work: Dynamos, etc. Chemistry:
General review.

SIXTH TERM.

Mathematics: Application of differential and integral calculus to geometry
and mechanics, etc.

Installation of Heating Plant: Transmission of heat, air, steam and water
heating, ventilation, etc.

Motors: Steam-engines, gas and petroleum motors, etc.

Theory of Machines: Construction and trial of regulators.

General: Estimation of net cost, etc., industrial hygiene, factory laws, pre-
cautionary measures, etc.

Elevators and transporting machines for water and gas.

Construction of Machines. Practical work: Experiments with machines,
etc.

Chemistry: Industrial chemistry, combustibles, chief metals and their com-
binations.

Kinematic geometry.

Electrotechnical work.

Workshop practice: Adapted to the needs of the individual pupil.

B. PRACTICAL DIVISIOIN

(a) Theoretical Instruction
FIRST YEAR.

Native Language: Readings, Composition.

Foreign Language: German for French pupils, French for German.

Arithmetic: Fractions, proportion, percentage, interest, etc.

Algebra: Four operations with integrals and fractions, equations of first
degree with one unknown, square root.

Geometry: Lines, angles, triangles, polygons, circles, similiarity and
equality, surfaces.

Physics: Mechanics of solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies.

Chemistry: Principal metalloids and their combinations.

Workshop Technology: Metals, fine tools..

Technical Drawing.

SECOND YEAR.

Native Language (optional) : Practical, commercial, industrial.

Foreign Language: German for French pupils, French for German.

Algebra: Powers, roots, logarithms, equations of first degree with several
unknowns, equations of second degree with one unknown.

SWITZERLAND 139

Solid Geometry: Principal theorems, surface and volume.
Physics: Optics, heat, magnetism, electricity.
Workshop Technology: Materials, metallurgy, casting.
Machine Drawing: Sketches from models, colours, shading, etc.

THIRD YEAR.

Mathematics: Trigonometry — Principal -formulae, solution of triangles.

Mechanics: Composition of forces, lever, pulley, etc., practical and
theoretical work.

Technology: Work in metals, tool machines.

Machine Drawing: Workshop designs on large scale, crayon drawings,
heliographic reproductions.

Book-keeping.

(b) Practical Work in the Apprentice Workshop

FIRST YEAR.

Practical work in wood and metals; construction of many objects, such
as geometrical bodies in wood and metal, saws, hammers, keys, etc.

Work at the lathe, tools, and machines, etc. ; construction of various objects,
planing and marking of marbles, rules, etc.

THIRD YEAR.

Continued work in mechanics and construction, with optional work in
watchmaking, electricity, or physics, according to vocation in view.

II. ELECTRICITY

(a ) Upper Division

For the first, second and third terms the courses are the same as above
for Mechanics.

For the fourth term the course is the same as for the Mechanics, but
with more detailed electro-technical work.

For the fifth term, the subjects down to Chemistry are the same as for
Mechanics; then

Magnetism and Electro-magnetism: Laws of attraction and repulsion,
magnetic bodies, circuits, resistance, induction, currents, etc.

Laboratory work.

Mountings: Theoretical and practical work.

Construction of Machines.

For the last two terms the courses are as follows : —
SIXTH TERM.

Motors and Mathematics, as above for Mechanics.

Electro-magnetism, electro-dynamics, induction, electro-statics, dynamos,
etc.; installation of electric fittings.

Telegraph and telephone, electric clocks and signals.

Laboratory Work: Experiments with dynamo machines, etc.

Electric Railways: Calculation of size of machines, regulation of motors,
etc.

10 B.I.P.

I4Q EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Mounting Plant: Theory and practice. Drawing of electrical works. Theory
of electric works.

Chemical Laboratory: Analyses, electro-chemistry
SEVENTH TERM.

Mathematics: Application of differential and integral calculus to geometry,
mechanics and physics.

Installation of Works: Distribution of power and light, transformers, etc.
Plans for Electrical Outfits, etc.

Machines and Transformers with alternating currents: Generators, regu-
lation of tension, friction, motors, etc.

Electrolysis. Electrotyping. Laboratory work in electricity. Drawing of
electrotechnical machines, etc. Electric railways.

Laboratory work in chemistry.

(b) Courses for Electric, Fitters

These are the same as above for Mechanics and Electricians to the end
of the fourth term.

FIFTH TERM.

With electricians, the students take the courses in elevators and trans-
portation machines (optional), theory of machines (optional), municipal
works (optional), applied chemistry, motors, electric technique, magnetism
and electro-magnetism, installation of works, laboratory works, fitting,
theory and practice.

SIXTH TERM..
, With Electricians, the students take the following: —

Electro-dynamics, telegraphing and telephoning, dynamos, installation,
motors, electric railways, electro-technical works, fitting, construction,
drawing, laboratory work, alternating currents.

III. WATCHMAKING

The subjects taken up are as follows, the courses being of two, three
or four years: —

Native language, foreign language (optional), arithmetic, algebra,
geometry, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, chemistry, cosmography,
bookkeeping, theory of watchmaking, mechanics, theory of regulating,
technical drawing, letter engraving, electrotechnics, practical work (about
one-fourth of the whole time).

IV. ARCHITECTURE

The subjects taken up are as follows, the course being one of three
years: —

Native language, foreign language, Italian (optional), arithmetic,
algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, caligraphy, geology
and mineralogy, projection drawing, descriptive geometry, stone-cutting,
freehand drawing, architectural drawing, theory of construction, study of
styles, nature of materials, mechanics, statics and strength of materials,
practical work, land surveying, direction of works, legislation and hygiene,
electrotechnics, plans, book-keeping, perspective, modelling, wood joints,
rural architecture, fire service, construction of machines, estimates, bridges
and highways, embankments, hydraulic works, history of art and archi-
tecture, life-saving.

SWITZERLAND 141

V. INDUSTRIAL ART

In this department there are two courses, as follows — a Preparatory course
of two years and a Special one of two.

Preparatory Course: The subjects are: —

Freehand drawing, linear and projection drawing, light and shade,
architectural drawing, ornaments and figures, study of styles, practical
work.

NOTE. — The practical work (21 hours a week the first term and 10 the second) is taken up here.

Special Course: The subjects are: —

Perspective, professional drawing, theory of ornamental forms, draw-
ing from nature, drawing from living models, anatomy, work in chased
leather (optional), modelling, with, in addition, the subjects of the Preparatory
Course, except freehand drawing, linear and projection drawing, and light and
shade.

VI. ENGRAVING AND SCULPTURE

The subjects taken up are as follows, the course being one of four
rears : —

Freehand drawing, technical drawing, perspective, theory of ornamental
forms, drawing from plaster casts, caligraphy, industrial art drawing, study
of styles, modelling, chemistry, anatomy, drawing of plants, drawing from
living models, work in chased leather (optional), engraving and sculpture.

NOTE.— To the practical work in Engraving and Sculpture more than half the time is devoted
each week.

VII. RAILWAY DEPARTMENT

The subjects taken up are as follows, the course being one of two
years: —

German (as native language), French (as native language), German
(for French or Italian pupils), French (for German or Italian pupils),
Italian (as foreign language), English (optional), geography, arithmetic,
physics, chemistry, merchandise, caligraphy, stations and offices, signals,
railway management, shipping, railway legislation, tariffs, service corres-
pondence, telegraph service, practical work, practice in telegraphy, first
aid, excursions in groups (about once a week).

VIII. POSTAL DEPARTMENT

The subjects taken up are as follows, the course being one of two
years : —

German (as native language), French (as native language), German
(for French or Italian pupils), French (for German or Italian pupils),
political economy, arithmetic, algebra, physics, chemistry, caligraphy, service
correspondence, telegraphing, other subjects allied to postal service.

IX. PREPARATORY COURSE

The subjects, which are taken up in one year, are as follows : —

German (as native language), French (as native language), German

(for French or other pupils), French (for German or other pupils), arithmetic,

algebra, geometry, technical drawing, caligraphy.

142

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

ZURICH

Provision for

Industrial

Education.

Accommoda-
tions.

Day Classes.

Evening

Classes.

Course for
Apprentices.

Maintenance.

ARTS AND CRAFTS SCHOOLS

In Zurich industrial education is provided in the Arts and
Crafts (or, Industrial Arts) School and in the Industrial Continua-
tion Schools. I visited the former of these Schools, two of the
evening Continuation Schools, and the famous Swiss National
Museum. I may add that there is also a special silk weaving
school of a high character; but, as we are not interested in this
subject in Ontario, I did not visit it.

At present the Arts and Crafts School is in temporary quar-
ters, in the building of the National Museum. As, however, the
part of this building now occupied by the school will soon be
needed by the city, a new one is projected for the school, part of
the cost of which will, it is expected, be met by the Canton and the
Federation, as is often the case in Switzerland. This school has
an attendance of about 500, 130 of whom are day pupils. The day
classes are attended by apprentices and, after a four weeks' trial,
by boys and girls of about seventeen who have completed the
primary school course and submitted a satisfactory work in design
and served an apprenticeship in a special trade. The courses are
from two to three years, and are taught by well-educated experts.
The curriculum includes bookbinding, lithography, printing, wood-
work, metal work, jewellery, repousse work, silk weaving, and art
designing in various branches.

Besides the day classes there are also evening classes attended
by about 350 students.

The regular course for apprentices covers three years,
conditions of admission are an elementary education and the mini-
mum age of 14. For work satisfactorily done, the pupil is paid
according to a fixed scale, and both staff and pupils are insured
against accidents, one-half of the premium being paid by the <
and the other half by the insured.

The total yearly cost of the Arts and Crafts School and the
Industrial Museum, which is connected therewith, is $80,000, of
which one-third is contributed by the Federation and most of the
balance by the Canton.

For joiners,

dressmakers,

etc.

The only other day trade schools are one for joiners and two
for girls in dressmaking, household science, laundry work, etc.
The students in attendance at the Work-shop Training School for
joiners are of four classes: Apprentices, apprentices desiring ad-

SWITZERLAND 143

,vanced work, master journeymen and apprentices taking special
courses, and pupils of the Arts and Crafts School desiring special
practical work.

INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS

In the Industrial Continuation Schools which provide over 350 Or«anization-
classes held at suitable centres, all on week days (chiefly in the
evenings), except six classes on Sunday forenoons, there were in
the summer term of 1909 over 3,000 students (both young men
and young women) with about 150 teachers. The students attend
from a great variety of industries ; but, as far as possible, those in
the same industry are taken together. When I visited Zurich these
courses were about to be reorganized, the intention being to group
them in four departments, each under a special head, and to adapt
them better to the necessities of the trades.

Below I submit a synopsis of the courses. From this their 85urs2er of
character will be seen. They provide supplementary instruction
directly connected with the industries. The preparatory course
for apprentices in the postal, telegraph, and telephone service is
a special school, although registered amongst the continuation
schools and supervised by the same authorities. As a rule, the
work taken up in the evening classes is more elementary than the
corresponding work in the Arts and Crafts Schools; but the work
in technical drawing is of an advanced character owing to the
number of metal manufactories in the city and neighbourhood. A
noticeable feature of the courses is the provision for the foreign
languages. The language of the Swiss is, of course, chiefly French
and German, with some Italian; but, as English and Italian are
needed in commercial correspondence and in the trades, special
attention is given these languages. Very many of the masons, for
example, are Italians.

All of the industrial schools, including the Arts and Crafts ?geamdent.MaD"
School, are under the supervision of a special committee, consist-
ing of architects, tradesmen, professors of science, and representa-
tives of employers and trade unions, nominated by these bodies and
appointed by the local school board, which is elected by general
vote of the ratepayers every three years.

One-third of the cost of the Trade Schools, as well as of the Maintenance-
Commercial, Agricultural and Domestic Science Schools is pro-
vided by Federal grants, not quite so much by the Canton, and the
rest by the city.

144 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Curriculum. Following is the curriculum of the Industrial Continuation

Schools for 1909. The length of each class is given in hours in
brackets : —

TRADE SCHOOLS

Seventy-four classes, including those for young women. With a few
exceptions, these are week-day evening classes, there being only six on Sunday
forenoons. The number of classes in each subject varies from two to six or
seven.

German (2), French (i^), arithmetic and geometry (2), caligraphy
, roundhand (i%), freehand drawing (3), projection drawing (2).

SCHOOLS FOR CRAFTSMEN

1. Preparatory Courses for Apprentices in Postal, Telegraph, and Tele-
phone Service. Forenoons and afternoons.

German (6), French (8), Italian (4), English (4), arithmetic (3),
•algebra (2), history (2), geography (4), chemistry (3), caligraphy (2),
stenography (2), gymnastics (2).

2. A second class for the same students, with the same list of subjects,
except that for chemistry and stenography are substituted physics and book-
keeping.

NOTE. — The foregoing are under the same management as the Continuation Schools, but are
special Day Schools.

3. Drawing and Modelling: (Forenoons and afternoons).

Freehand drawing, perspective, projection drawing, technical drawing
for mechanicians, modelling for teachers (each 3).

4. Building Trades: Special Class for Artisans (i half-year). Forenoons.
Algebra and geometry (4), descriptive geometry (4), German (2).

5. Mechanicians: Special Class (3 half-year courses). Forenoons.

First half-year. — Algebra and geometry (4), projection drawing (3),
sketching (i%), chemistry (iVz).

Third half-year. — Algebra and geometry (4), technical drawing (3),
descriptive geometry (3), chemistry (2), physics (2), mechanics (i%),
German (2).

Fifth half-year. — Algebra and geometry (4), technical drawing (6),
physics (2), mechanics (iVz).

6. Electrotechnicians: Special Class. Forenoons and evenings.
First half-year. — As for Mechanicians above.

Second half-year. — As for Mechanicians above.

Third half-year. — Algebra and geometry (4), drawing (6), physics (2),
mechanics (i%), electrotechnics (i%), advanced exercises (iVz).

7. Gardeners' Apprentices: Forenoons.

First half-year. — German (i), arithmetic (i), botany (2).

Third half-year.— Botany (i), landscape gardening (i), geometry (i).

Fifth half-year. — Surveying (i), landscape gardening (i), botany (2).

8. Joiners' Apprentices: Theoretical Courses (3 years). Forenoons, after-
noons, and evenings.

First year. — German (i%), arithmetic and geometry (2), freehand draw-
ing (3), projection drawing (3).

Second and third years. — Calculating (i), materials (i), freehand draw-
ing (3), special drawing (5), wood-carving (2), book-keeping (2).

SWITZERLAND 145

In each year, practical instruction from 7-12 a.m. and 2-6 p.m. daily
(Saturday, 5), excepting the hours devoted to theoretical courses.

9. Masons' Apprentices: Three years' courses. Afternoons.
Building materials (2), drawing (2).

10. Printers' Apprentices: Four years' courses. Evenings.
German, arithmetic, book-keeping (each 2).

11. Hairdressers' Apprentices' Courses. Afternoons. Both men and
women. Wig-making, etc. (2). German (2).

OTHER CLASSES

In addition to the above classes, instruction is given in various parts
of the city in a great many subjects, such as stenography, French, Italian,
English, commercial arithmetic, book-keeping, freehand drawing (adapted
to the needs of the various trades), perspective drawing, modelling, draft-
ing of all kinds, nature of materials, etc.

Courses in Drawing and Book-keeping are given for girls engaged as
seamstresses, etc.; also instruction in Household Work: Mending, sewing,
dressmaking, cooking, etc.

GERMANY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

GERMANY PAGE

Introduction z cj

Organization of School System j,,

Technical Education lt.,

I. Lower Schools . ..

II. Middle Schools

III. Higher Schools '.'.!".*'." Xoo

Number of Industrial and Technical Schools "... jfo

Maintenance . . . jgj

Table Showing Percentage of State and Local Contributions 162

Schools Visited l(3.

Munich :

general l64

Continuation Schools for Boys and Men 165

I. Compulsory Day Schools for Apprentices 106

General j66

1. District Schools ^7

2. Trade Schools ^7

3. Commercial Schools x6y

II. Voluntary Schools for Journeymen and Master Workmen 168

'.II. Voluntary Schools for Unemployed Journeymen and Master Workmen 168

IV. Other Industrial Schools > 169

Continuation Schools for Girls and Women 169

Cost of Continuation School System 170

Curricula of Continuation Schools 170

Cabinet-makers . . 170

Butchers 170

Bookbinders 171

Tailors 171

Messenger Boys 172

Wagoners and Drivers 172

Barbers and Wigmakers 172

Commercial Schools 172

Duties of Citizenship 172

Table Showing General Organization 174

Cologne :

Royal Building-Trades School.

General 175

Technical Division , 176

School for Workmen 176

v

Royal Higher Machine-Construction School.

General . . . 177

Preparatory School 177

Technical Division 178

Master Workmen's School of Machine Construction 179

Evening and Sunday Courses 180

Courses for Master Installators and Gas Plumbers 180

Aix-la Chapelle:

General 180

Higher Technical School for Textiles.

General . . . 181

Spinning Department 182

Weaving Department 183

Dyeing and Finishing Departments 183

GERflANY

INTRODUCTION

Many years ago the Germans discovered the paramount im- Hegard for

J J , _ Education.

portance of education. After their reverses under the first
Napoleon, they decided that chiefly to intellectual power they must
look for national progress. The educational reforms then begun
received an immense impetus after the overthrow of Napoleon the
III ; for it was then evident that to these reforms more than to any-
thing else was due the success of the German arms.

Of all the modern systems of education, the German is now character of

School

admittedly the most comprehensive and the most highly organized system.
and effective. An outline of the general system is needed to make
clear the position of industrial education. It must be premised,
however that any general statement is subject to numerous excep-
tions. Unlike the schools of England, the schools of Germany are
free from Imperial control. Each State is educationally inde-
pendent, and each municipality exercises freedom in the adaptation
of its schools to local needs.

ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOL SYSTEM

Attendance at a day school from six until at least fourteen years A*e limits,
of age is compulsory in practically all the States of the Empire.
Until ten, pupils attend a People's School, our Public School, or
a special type thereof. At this age, the parent must decide whether
his child is to remain at the Public School or to go to a higher
school; and in nearly all the States he must continue his educa-
tion until he is sixteen, seventeen or eighteen, according to the
State in which he lives. In Germany, moreover, a boy's career is Effect of
usually marked out for him from the first. The organization of the conditions,
system is, accordingly, free from the difficulties that beset us in
Ontario. If his father is a workman, he becomes one, too, and he
usually remains in this class. Occasionally he rises, but such cases
are far more uncommon than they are in Canada. As a result of
this condition and of the general appreciation of education, the
boy is trained in special schools for the exact position in life he
expects to hold. In Germany everything is systematic, nothing is
left to chance.

If, accordingly, when the pupil has reached the age of ten, he p^iic
is to go on at the Public School, the provision is as follows :

i The Public School until he is fourteen, when many pupils
need to go out to work.

[151]

'52

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Continuation

School

Courses.

Trade School,

Further

Industrial

Education.

II.

Gymnasia
Classical.

Real School.

Ober-real
School.

Subsequent
Courses.

2. A Continuation School until he is seventeen or eighteen.
These schools continue the general education of the young workers,
usually without broadening his scholarship, but some of them have
courses that bear upon his future vocation. They provide three
courses :

1 i ) The General Course continued.

(2) Industrial Courses.

(3) Commercial Courses.

Generally speaking, as these three courses are taken usually by
those who during the daytime are actively engaged in business, the
classes are held in the evenings and on Sundays and holidays.

For the Continuation School, the pupil who desires a more
thorough education may substitute:

(1) A Primary Trade School. Such schools are provided for
textile workers, mechanics, locksmiths, etc.

(2) Special Trade Schools in great variety. Such schools are
provided for textiles, carpentry, engineering, blacksmithing, navi-
gation, ship-building, tanning, clock-making, printing, dyeing, etc.

Later an opportunity is given in experimental shops to apply
knowledge, and, in work-shops, to conduct original investigation
and experiments. For master tradesmen there are also clubs provid-
ing practical courses and workmen's shops for further instruction.

If, however, the pupil is to take a higher school education, he
leaves the elementary Public School at ten and enters a second-
ary school. Here also he has to choose amongst the following : ^

1. A Classical Gymnasium, with a nine years' Latin, a six
years' Greek, and a seven years' French course.

2. A Real Gymnasium, with a nine years' Latin course and
a six or seven years' course in French and English, respectively;
more attention is being given to modern languages, science and
mathematics than to Latin.

3. An Ober-real School, with a nine years' French and a seven
years' English course; science and mathematics receiving special
attention.

Each of these types has its sub-class, in which the instruction

ends with the sixth year.

The Classical and Real Gymnasia lead to a university ; the Real
and Ober-real Schools are for those who desire a more practical
training or who intend to enter the higher industrial or commercial
schools. At the end of the sixth year course, the student may
obtain by examination a certificate which reduces the two years*
compulsory military service to one, and also confers upon him
other advantages which present strong inducements to complete
at least the six years' course. At the end of the ninth year's course,
the student may enter on a classical, literary, or technical course at

GERMANY 153

an institution of university rank. As so few, however, take the nine
years' course, the six years' course is so arranged that it practically
covers all the subjects of a good education, the additional three
years of the nine years' course, when taken, being spent in obtain-
ing a more complete mastery of the subjects.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Even as early as the sixteenth century there were continuation ^^j^.?^
schools here and there in Germany, and about the middle of theSchools-
eighteenth century Frederick the Great of Prussia ordered that
all the masters of trades should send their apprentices who were not
proficient in reading, writing and arithmetic for instruction in these
subjects four hours a week. In Baden also it was decided that
technology and drawing should be taught in the People's Schools
of towns having trades and art industries. In the beginning of
the nineteenth century technical schools were provided in many
Germans towns, including mining schools in the mining districts.
In Prussia trade schools were established for the building trades, OriKin of
and in Saxony for lace-making, basket-weaving, etc. But it was™0??™

• ° ° system.

not until the London Exhibition of 1851 that the Germans dis-
covered from the exhibits that, if they were to compete with France,
their technical school system must be more fully specialized. With
the energy that characterizes them as a people, they at once took
measures to meet the situation. Since then and especially since
the war with France in 1870-1871, when, as I have already said,
they found out that their success was largely due to education, they
have provided a system of technical schools as yet unequalled in the
world. In discussing this characteristic of the German system, in my ^fara^ter-
report of 1901, I quoted a lucid paragraph from an address by Dr. istics-
Loudon, then President of Toronto University. I quote the para-
graph again :

The technical system of Germany covers the whole field of industry and Modern
commerce. It distinguishes clearly between the general and the technical. No developm
attempt is made to put a veneer of technical training on a defective general
training. It distinguishes between the training of the director, the foreman,
and the operative. In all grades it concentrates effort on the underlying prin-
ciples of art and science and their application. The general result is a thor-
oughly trained body of workmen under scientific leadership.

During the last quarter of a century in particular, technical causes,
education has developed with great rapidity and there has been an
equally remarkable advance in scientific knowledge; now, practi-
cally every German town is supplied with technical schools. In
many States, as in Wurttemberg, for example, these schools are
very numerous, and specialization is carried to a high degree.

154 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Nature has not provided Germany with the means of becoming
prominent in agriculture. Compared with many other countries,
her soil is poor. Her increasing population has made her a nation
of manufacturers, and, accordingly, a nation strongly in favour of
a thorough system of industrial and commercial as well as of gen-

aii°pweuener~ era^ education. Indeed, one main cause of the eminence of Ger-

educated. many, even in industrial matters, is the fact that practically all her
people are well educated. In Prussia, for example, the percentage
of illiteracy is only .02 ; and in Wiirttemberg no one over ten years
of age is unable to read and write.

Like her general system of schools, the system of technical
schools is both highly organized and very comprehensive.

?arietie?trol: The tendency in Germany at present appears to be for each
State to control as far as practicable all its educational institutions.
This, however, has been only partially accomplished in the case of
industrial and commercial education; for many private associations
of various kinds provide courses on payment of fees. In Prussia,
for example, out of a total of 2,278 business schools and schools
for skilled factory employees (of the secondary type), there were
a few years ago 428 such schools which provided for a great variety
of trades. The control of the industrial and technical schools varies
also in different States. In Bavaria, they belong to the State De-
partment of Education. In Prussia, however, they are looked at
from another point of view and are controlled by the Minister of
Trade and Commerce; and in Saxony, Baden, and Wiirttemberg,
their control is divided between the Departments of Agriculture and
the Interior. The rural schools- throughout the Empire belong to
one or other of the last-named Departments.

Fee. Fees are usually charged. They run from 25 cents a month

for each subject in the girls' evening schools to $25 a term in the
building trade schools; but, for cause, these may be partly or <
tirely remitted. In the textile schools of Prussia, however, t
fees run from $50 to $200 a year, according to the character of
the work taken up and the nationality of the student. A foreigner
is charged more than a native of another German State, and the
latter more than a native of the State in which the school is s
ated. .

Owino- to the great variety of the industrial and technical
schools due largely to their origin, the time of instruction, the
entrance requirements, the very general separation of the sexes,
the great number of the trades, the adaptation of the schools 1
local necessities, and the differences in their relation to the State,
the municipalities, and the private associations, it is impossible
make a logical classification. For the purposes of a general pre

•Schools.

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

GERMANY 155

tation the industrial and technical schools have, however, been
divided roughly by the Germans themselves into three classes : —

1. The Lower Schools (Industrial).

2. The Middle Schools (Industrial and Technical) ; and

3. Higher Schools (Technical).

I. LOWER SCHOOLS

The Industrial Continuation Schools are the lowest grade of
industrial schools and correspond in position to the English Indus- isti08-
trial Higher Elementary Schools. As a rule, they give the work-
men trade instruction of a general character; and, as they are
bound up in the general scheme, from them the pupil may enter
special trade schools. They are intended for apprentices who aim
at becoming skilled journeymen. There are, however, many
varieties of schools, and some develop into schools of the next higher
grade. These schools may be roughly classified as follows : —

1. General Industrial Schools, where the instruction serves as a cusses,
preparation for any of the trades and where no special trade is
taught.

2. Special Trade Schools, where instruction is given in each
trade or group of trades ; as, for example, in Munich ; and

3. Agricultural Schools, where the instruction is of a general
character, but with a distinct agricultural outlook.

While the period of attendance of boys at a continuation orcompui

. . ,., , -r* . . attendance

other school varies m different parts of the Empire, it is com- Boys,
pulsory in most of the States until he is about 18 years of age, and
the laws on this subject are yearly becoming more exacting. In
many States also employers are compelled to see that their em-
ployees attend these schools, and to allow them to attend a certain
number of hours a week in the day-time.

Attendance at a continuation school is, however, not generally
compulsory in the case of girls. It is so in Prussia, Bavaria,
Wiirttemberg, Baden, Waldeck, and Saxe-Meiningen ; but not in
the other States of the Empire. Indeed, from the time of the
Revolution until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the
education of boys alone received attention from the municipalities.

The power to establish Continuation Schools as well as
compel attendance is in the hands of the individual States and°PtIon-"
sometimes of the individual municipalities; but when they are once
established, the pupils must attend and parents must see that they do
so. With the following exceptions, all the States have compulsory
attendance laws: In Prussia attendance is compulsory by local
by-law, except in Posen and West Prussia, where attendance is com-
pulsory by State law; in Hamburg and Liibeck attendance is

11 E.I.P.

156 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

enforced by the Guilds; and in Schaumberg-Lippe employers are
compelled to allow attendance for a period up to eighteen years of
age. The by-laws vary greatly in different parts of Germany. In
some towns only boys engaged in trades and commerce are com-
pelled to attend; in others all boys, and sometimes girls, are com-
pelled ; and the number of the compulsory hours of attendance also
varies.

Ctoferriof 1891 ^e obligation to attend Industrial Continuation Schools was
imposed by the Imperial Law of 1891, one of the few instances, it
may be noted, in which the Imperial Government has legislated for
the educational organization of the States. The order itself was a
direct result of trade competition with other countries, the United
Kingdom in particular. In view of the situation in Ontario, the
following sections of the order are well worth quoting:

Section 120. The masters in any branch of industry are bound hereby,
in the case of their workers under the age of 18 who attend an institution
recognized by the authorities of their district or their State as a continua-
tion school, to allow them the time fixed as necessary for such institution
by the authorities. . . . Through the ordinance of a district council or
any wider communal body, attendance at a continuation school may be
made obligatory for all male workers under the age of 18. In the same
way, proper regulations may be made to secure the execution of such an
ordinance. In particular, regulations may be passed to insure regular
attendance and to determine the duties of -parents or employers in this
respect, and notices may be issued by which organization in the continua-
tion school and a proper relation of the scholars to it may be assured.
From the compulsory attendance based on such an ordinance are exempted
only those persons who attend another continuation or technical school,
provided that the instruction given in such school be recognized by the
higher authorities as a complete equivalent for that given in the general
continuation school . . .

Section 150. A breach of section 120 of this law is punishable by a fine
not exceeding 20 marks ($5.00), or, in case of non-payment of such fine, by im-
prisonment for a term not exceeding three days.

tamttuisorerg '' ^e new scno°^ ^aw at Wurttemberg, which went into effect in

schooiLaw April, 1909, deserves special notice, for it marks the greatest advance
in industrial legislation since the provision for compulsory attend-

conditionof ance at continuation schools. The kingdom has long been famous
for its school system, crowned by its University at Tubingen, and
its Polytechnic at Stuttgart. In 1900 the population of this king-
dom was about 2,170,000, but its area is only five times that of our
County of Bruce. The country is. of course, densely populated.
Two-thirds of . the land is under cultivation, and about one-half of
the population are engaged therein. Geographically, however, the
kingdom is at a disadvantage in the industrial struggle, and accord-
ingly every effort has been made to develop its industries.

provisions of The new law provides that every commune in which for three
successive years, at least forty male workmen under eighteen have

GERMANY

157

been engaged in commercial or industrial pursuits shall in future
provide an industrial or commercial school, and shall maintain such
school so long as the number of workmen under eighteen does not
fall below an average of thirty during three successive years. The
ordinary type of school will be an industrial school, and, if the needs
of the community require' it, a commercial school must be established
in addition. In the case of very poor communes the State may sanc-
tion the postponement of the building of an industrial school for ten
years, but in all cases a general continuation school must be pro-
vided. The elementary school course usually ends at fourteen ; but
every youth under eighteen who is engaged in industrial or com-
mercial pursuits is obliged by the new law to attend the continuation
school for three years thereafter, and if the commune so decide he
may be required to attend for a fourth year. Employers must supply
the names of the employees affected and set them free to attend the
continuation school. Parents and guardians must see to it that the
law is carried out. Penalties are provided for neglect of duty on
the part of employer, pupil and parent, or guardian. The law also
permits communes to make attendance at this school compulsory for
girls under eighteen who are in employment, and permits communes
to establish industrial schools for them or departments for them in
other industrial schools.

The .public attitude toward compulsory industrial education Attitude of
from 14 to 18 is generally favourable. It is felt to be a burden ; Slrd^com-'
but the German is far-seeing and patriotic enough to bear willingly attendance,
a burden that increases his profits and gives his country eminence
in the markets of the world. Some employers, as is to be expected,
regard their apprentices as a source of cheap labour, and occasion-
ally, where compulsory attendance is enforced for boys, they re-
place the boys by girls wherever they are able, especially in com-
mercial offices. When, therefore, the compulsory attendance of
girls is proposed, such employers are its bitter opponents.

The Board in charge of a Continuation School is composed Boards of

..,,..,,_ ., . Management.

generally of a member of the Municipal Council; the Director, or
Principal, of the school ; representatives of the bodies that contri-
bute toward the support of the school, as, for example, Trade
Guilds, Chambers of Commerce, with occasionally representatives
of the workmen. In the organization of the school the State In-
spector has usually a good deal of influence, but there is no general
organized system of supervision. *

In Germany, I may here point out, the Trade Unions do not Attitude of
claim representation on these Boards. They appear to be satisfied Labour,
with the provision for instruction and attendance and feel that
justice is being done to both the employee and the employer.
Moreover, the German, though disposed to fault-finding, is natur-

158 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

ally submissive to constituted authority, and the study of civics
which is generally carried on in the schools gives the workmen a
•fairly sane view of economic problems.

curricula. The main feature of the German curriculum for the Lower

Industrial Schools is the combination of theoretical instruction with
work-shop practice, and the concurrent courses for culture and for
citizenship. The only subjects that appear to be common to all are
German, practical arithmetic, and drawing. In the Commercial
Schools, the subjects are usually commercial correspondence, law,
arithmetic, and geography ; book-keeping, stenography, typewriting ;
the others varying according to the requirements of the locality.
In some of the larger cities classes are also provided in algebra,
trigonometry, geometry, science, French, and English. In the Agri-
cultural schools, the subjects usually taken up are German; arith-
metic ; history, geography and science ; and special training in agri-
culture. To these subjects are often added book-keeping, drawing,
mensuration and land surveying, biology, and physics. In all the
vocational schools the general education of the public school is con-
tinued in its essential features.

Qualifications Few of the Lower Industrial Schools, which are held in the
day-time, take up all the time of the teacher of the industrial sub-
jects; for the hours in which he is employed are comparatively
few. For the academic subjects, the teachers of the evening classes
are those of the Public School, who take this work in addition ; and,
for the technical subjects, workmen who are employed during
the day and have recent technical knowledge and skill. Such
workmen may or may not have pedagogical qualifications. In
a few of the States — Prussia, for example — the teachers take
special courses of from four to six weeks at the expense of the
State, or communities, or localities. Special examinations for
industrial teachers are also sometimes held, but this provision is,
as yet, exceptional. In this connection, it should not, however,
be forgotten that under a system of education, compulsory usually
until he is eighteen, the German workman is generally better edu-
cated than the workman of most other countries. Nevertheless,
one of the difficulties in connection with the Lower Industrial
Schools, which the Germans have not yet completely overcome, is
the scarcity of competent teachers. The schools have developed
so rapidly that the supply has not kept up with the demand.

GERMANY 159

II. MIDDLE SCHOOLS

Of the Middle Schools there are four chief classes — the Schools
of Industry, Workmen's Schools, Higher Trade Schools, and Tech-
nicums, each with a variety of courses. Many of the lower grade
schools have courses which suit as a preparation for any trade.
These middle grade schools, however, have a definite industrial aim,
and provide for those who intend to become foremen or superin-
tendents, and for workmen who have no expectation of being able to
take one of the higher technical courses.

The Schools of Industry and the Workmen's Schools offer aScl>ool80f

J Industry and

higher education to workmen. Generally speaking, the latter are
organized for journeymen who desire to become master workmen,
and the former for the older workmen who desire simply to be-
come more skilled in their trades and to acquire, perhaps, the
knowledge which may enable them to conduct small businesses of
their own. Such schools are necessarily evening schools.

Here I may refer to the Prussian Travelling Courses for Trade- Travelling

•' , '."' Courses.

masters and Factory Foremen, which are, however, provided only
in factory districts. In 1908 they furnished 987 courses in 48
centres. The cost was large, and was defrayed partly by the
State. The instruction is given by travelling teachers during the
winter and is sometimes connected with the trade schools of the
locality, but often with permanent " Industrial Halls," where the
work of apprentices is exhibited beside that of journeymen and
master workmen, and even of the factories. Such a hall has been
established in Cologne and a number of other cities.

The Higher Trade Schools are technical in character, being m
some respects the most advanced of the Middle Schools. Before
entering, the student must have a fair knowledge of elementary
mathematics and physics (about two years of our High School
course), as well as knowledge and skill as a workman. These
schools provide for young men who aim at the higher positions in
manufacturing establishments or who may go. to the Higher Indus-
trial Schools. While engaged in their occupations they take day-
courses for two or three years.

For admission to the Technicums the age limit is lower than
in any of the other Middle Schools. Pupils are required to
be at least fifteen and to have had a couple of years' study ^ in a
gymnasium. For them, one year's previous work-shop practice is
sufficient, but they may, however, complete their apprenticeship
before they enter. The courses extend over two or three years
and are designed to fit men to manage the smaller independent
enterprises and to hold positions mid-way between those held by the
journeymen and those held by the graduates of the technical

i6o

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Grade and
character of
work.

schools of university rank. These Technicums are under State
'supervision, and are maintained by the State and the local muni-
cipality. The German manufacturers attach great importance to
them, and encourage their establishment in every possible way.

III. HIGHER SCHOOLS

The Higher Industrial Schools are of the university rank, and
include the " Technical High Schools " and practical science de-
partments in certain universities, some of the higher special in-
dustrial schools, and a few of the technicums which have developed
abnormally. These institutions prepare the highest class of engi-
neers and technical specialists, who fill the most important indus-
trial positions all over the world. When the student enters the
" High School " he selects his department — Civil Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Mining Engineer-
ing, Architecture, Applied Chemistry and Physics, etc. Outside
of one course of lectures, he may take what he pleases. As regards
practical work he may spend the greater part of his time in the
laboratory alone or with a member of the staff. He passes the
Primary examination at the end of his second year, and the Final
at the end of his third, when he must submit some important piece
of original work. While thoroughness is indispensable, each
student is permitted to acquire his knowledge as far as possible in
his own way. To the research conducted in the Technical High
Schools Germany is greatly indebted. This the manufacturers real-
ize, and they do all in their power to aid the scientist by undertak-
ing experiments under his direction and by contributing to the
expense of his research work.

Lower
Schools.

Middle
Schools.

NUMBER OF INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

The Lower Industrial Schools are very numerous, and are very
widely distributed throughout the empire. For the ordinary artisan
they are the most important of the system. In Prussia, in 1907.
there were 1,579 Industrial Schools for boys, with an attendance of
280,427, and a State subsidy of about $500,000; 357 commercial
continuation schools, with an attendance of 43,584, and a State sub-
sidy of nearly $35,000; and 3,477 rural continuation schools, with
an attendance of 532,932, and a State subsidy of over $85,000, the
total cost being nearly $135,000. Of the rural schools 8 gave special
trade instruction.

Of schools of the Middle class, there are over 750 (about 90
being private), covering all the departments of industrial work —
mechanics, textiles, architecture, and building construction, mining.

GERMANY 161

metallurgy, wood-carving, ceramics, industrial art, farriers, navi-
gation and marine mechanics, fresh water navigation, ship-building,
etc.

Of the Higher Schools, that is, those of university rank,
there are nine, with, in addition, three Mining Academies, five
Forestry Academies, four Agricultural Academies (the one in Ba-
varia having also a department of Practical Brewing), five Veter-
inary " High Schools," five Commercial " High Schools," two
Royal Academic Schools of Art, with a number of Art Academies
in other States.

MAINTENANCE

As has already been pointed out, the organization of industrial in Prussia.
and technical education differs in the different States. Accord-
ingly, no reliable statistics of the cost can be given except State by
State, and then not always in detail. A few examples will, how-
ever, show the general situation.

The Prussian State Industrial Bureau, established in 1905, has
issued a report showing the State expenditures for certain classes
of industrial schools. These statistics are only a partial statement
of the expenditures, but they show the fostering care of the State
itself :—

1. For 22 schools for metal workers, $265,762.

2. For 41 schools for Trade and Industrial Arts, $218,654.

3. For 23 schools for building trades, $355,876.

4. For 13 textile schools, $91,705.

5. For 2,278 courses for factory employees and business,

6. For 70 schools for home industries and business for girls,
$23,869.

7. For travelling schools with 987 courses in 48 cities, the
amount was large and was partially defrayed by the State, but it
is not ascertainable.

The sums expended by the municipalities' are in many cases far General.
larger than those contributed by the State. Under the system of
taxation as between the Empire and the Federated State, it is to the
latter alone that financial assistance can be looked for.

Besides their revenue from State and municipal grants, many
Industrial Schools, however, receive assistance from local guilds
and like corporations. As the attitude of Germany towards the
support of its Industrial Schools has been a subject of discussion
in Ontario for some years, I submit a table received last August
through the British Ambassador at Berlin. The table shows the
percentage of local and State support in all the German States: —

1 62

The Share of the State Contributions towards the Total Expenditure for Industrial
and Technical Education in the German Empire

NOTE : Except in Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wurtemburg, Baden, Hessen and Brunswick, there are no

Technical High Schools.

FICDERAL STATE.

HIGHER INSTITUTIONS.

MIDDLE INSTITUTION'S.

LOWER INSTITUTIONS.

Kingdom of Prussia.

Kingdom of Bavaria.

Kingdom of Saxony

Kingdom of Wurttemberg

Grand-duchy of Baden
Grand-duchy of Hesse

Grand-duchy of Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin-

Grand -duchy of Saxony. . .

Grand-duchy of Mecklen-
burg-Strelitz

Grand-duchy of Oldenburg

Duchy of Brunswick

Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen.

Duchy of Altenburg

Duchy of Coburg-Gotha.. .
Duchy of Anhalt

The higher Industrial Edu-
cational Institutions
(Technical High Schools),
are State Institutions and
as such are exclusively
supported by the State.

As in Prussia

As in Prussia.

As in Prussia.

As in Prussia

As in Prussia

None

None.

None.

None.

As in Prussia.
None

None.

None

None

38%

The percentages above have reference in general only to
the cost of instruction. For the furnishings of the
schoolrooms and school buildings and for mainten-
ance of the same, the State as a rule makes no con-
tributions.

The middle industrial insti-
tutions in Bavaria are
partially State institutions
which are supported ex-
clusively by the State,
partially Municipal ordis-
trict institutions to which
the State makes contri-
butions. The total ex-
penditure for other than
State schools is not known,
consequently the propor-
tion of the State contri-
butions to these cannot
be given.

24.8%

For a few institutions stand-
ing between the middle
and higher classes of In-
dustrial schools the State
contribution amounts to
74.1%

9.4%

69.5%

The percentage has reference
only to the General Con-
tinuation Schools, not to
the Trade Schools. For
the latter, the necessary
statistical information is
not available.

About 75% of the cost of middle and lower industrial edu-
cation is covered by the State contributions. A separate
statement for these two spheres of education is not
possible since no clear dividing line is drawn between
middle and lower industrial education in the individual
institutions.

50.7%
27.5%

42.8%
26%

The necessary statistical basis for a statement of the share
of the State contributions in the total expenditure for
middle and lower industrial education is not available.

24.7%

51.3%

The necessary statistical basis for a statement of the share
of the State contributions in the total expenditure for
middle and lower industrial education is not available.

The necessary statistical in-
formation for a statement
of the share of the State
contributions in the total
expenditure for middle
industrial education is
not available.

13.2%
55.3%
5.9%
60.2%

16%

For a school which stands
half-way between the
middle class and higher
industrial institutions,
the State contribution
amounts to 13% of the
total expenditure.

31.5%
20.1%
36.7%
42.2%
39.7%

GERMANY

163

The Share of the State Contributions towards the Total Expenditure for Industrial
and Technical Education in the German Empire — Continued

FEDERAL STATE.

HIQHER INSTITUTIONS.

MIDDLE INSTITUTIONS.

LOWER INSTITUTIONS.

Principality of Schwarz-

There are no middle (class)
industrial institutions.

There are no middle (class)
industrial institutions.

UA%
For a school which stands
half-way between the
middle class and higher
industrial institutions,
the State contribution
amounts to 32.8% of the
total expenditure.

The necessary statistical infoi
share of the State contril
penditure for middle and 1
tion is not available.

There are HO middle indus-
trial institutions.

80.1%
«0.7%
30.5%

mation for a statement of the
ration towards the total ex-
ower (class) industrial edaca-

24.8%

Principality of Schwarz-

Principality of Reuss-Elder

Principality of Reuss-

Principality of Schaum-

FreeandHausetown Liibeck

Free and Hansetown Bremen
Free and Hansetown Ham-

7.
A separate statement for the
is not possible since the ne
for this is not available.

The State contributions
amount to 84.8% of the
total cost in case of the
industrial school; 58.6%
of the total cost in case
of the builders' technical
school; 7.8% of the total
cost in case of the women's
industrial school.

63.8%

The middle and lower (clas
learning are all State sch
the State.

88%

»%
two departments of education
cessary statistical information

None.

78.8%

s) industrial institutions of
Dols, which are supported by

40%

NOTE : The above statements are partly for the year 1907-08, partly for the year 1908-09, and partly the
average of these years.

BERLIN, August, 1910.

1 64

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

SCHOOLS VISITED

In Germany I visited the States of Bavaria and Prussia. In
Bavaria I gave most of my time to the Continuation Trade School
(system of Munich, as being of special interest to Ontario at the
present juncture. In accordance with the advice I had received at
Whitehall, I visited, in Prussia, the Royal Building Trades School
and the Royal Higher Machine Construction School, in Cologne;
and the Higher Technical School for Textiles, the Technical High
School, the School of Mines, and the Art School, in Aix-la-Chapelle.

flUNICH

Character of
Industries.

Continuation

Industrial

Schools.

Foundation
of the system

Other Indus-
trial and
Technical
Schools.

Manual
Training and
Household
Science.

GENERAL

Munich, with a population of over half a million, has few large
factories. Its industries are varied and numerous, there is little
sub-division of labour, and there are many small workshops.
The conditions have, accordingly, been especially favourable to
the establishment of a comprehensive system of continuation indus-
trial schools. This result has been accomplished at the instance and
under the direction of Dr. Kerschensteiner, the Superintendent of
Education for the City. Not all educationists, not by any means
all the Germans either, believe that his combination of the theoretical
and practical is the most effective. In Prussia, in particular, the
conviction is that tli;e chief duty of the industrial and technical
schools is to teaeh the theory; the employer's workshop is the right
place to apply it. There can be no doubt, however, that, although
hot all the schools are equally efficient, Munich now possesses tWe
most complete system of trade schools to be found in the world.

The foundation of the system is the effective training of the
apprentice. The main objective point of this training is industrial ;
but it includes instruction in the economic and commercial aspects
of each trade and also in the duties of citizenship. The apprentice
must become both a skilled worker and a good citizen.

Nor is the industrial system confined to the apprentice. It pro-
vides for the further instruction of the journeyman and the master
workman. Munich contains also a Trade and Technical School, a
Technical High School, a Veterinary High School, and an Aca-
demy of Art.

Moreover, in the Public Schools of Munich provision is made
for Manual Training and Household Science as a means of edu-
cation. As elsewhere, the main object is cultural, but these subjects

GERMANY 165

serve also as a basis for a trade. Special attention is paid them
during the last school year. Then, wood-work and metal work are
taken, each half a year, four hours a week being given each subject,
as well as an hour for drawing. The boys also take practical chem-
istry and physics two hours each. In their last year they spend
36 hours a week at school ; in the earlier years, 28 hours. The girls,
who are in separate schools, take the usual subjects of a Household
Science course, including sewing. In the lower classes a good deal
is clone of what we know as constructive work.

The City schools are under the control of a Board of Directors, Manasement-
composed of the (second) Mayor of the City, as chairman, mem-
bers of the City Council, school Inspectors, representative citizens, a
prominent clergyman of the Catholic and of the Protestant religions
respectively, delegates from the Chambers of Commerce, Industry
and Handicrafts, and the head of the teaching staff of each of the
schools themselves. Every effort is made to secure as members the
best citizens available. Allied subjects are grouped together in the
different school buildings, with a separate staff and director for
each. When, in Bavaria, State grants are given, the schools are
inspected by a State officer, as well as by a local officer. Dr. Ker-
schensteiner is satisfactory to the State Government. In Munich,
accordingly, the local Inspector and the government Inspector are
the same. Where a Trade Guild exists, it is expected to assist in
the establishment and management of the Sunday and Evening
Classes. Generally, also it pays for the material used in the shops,
and provides objects that are useful for illustration in the practical
work.

The schools, especially the workshops, are elaborately fitted Equipment
out with the most up-to-date equipment, better, indeed, in some
cases than are the establishments in which the students are em-
ployed. Most of the schools have also collections of models and of
specimens of the pupils' work, a feature which, I may add, is being
imitated in other countries.

In the technical subjects, instruction is, in most cases, given Q^j
by an expert member of the trade or business. In the academic
subjects, it is given by the day-school teachers of the elementarv
schools. The city encourages its trained teachers to learn trades
and gives them leave of absence for the purpose. In Munich, how-
ever, as elsewhere, it is not always easy to secure thoroughly com-
petent teachers for all the classes.

CONTINUATION SCHOOLS FOR BOYS AND MEN

The Continuation Schools for men and boys may be classified as
follows : —

i. Compulsory Day Schools for Apprentices.

1 66

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Length of

compulsory

attendance.

Apprentices
not paid
while attend-
ing schools.

Subjects and
character.

School
Museum=.

2. Voluntary Sunday and Evening Schools for Journeymen
and Master Workmen.

3. Voluntary Day Classes for unemployed Master Workmen
and Journeymen.

I. COMPULSORY DAY SCHOOLS FOR APPRENTICES

GENERAL

The attendance at the schools for apprentices is compulsory
for the full period of the apprenticeship — for at least three years,
sometimes for four years — after completion of the courses of the
public school; that is, from 14 to 18 years of age; and sometimes
even longer. Employers are also compelled to allow their employees
to attend these schools for from six to eight or ten hours a week;
but every effort is made to suit the convenience of the employers.
In the case, for example, of wood carvers and sculptors, the schedule
calls for 14 hours during the winter term and 3 during the summer.

As a rule, apprentices receive no pay for the time they spend in
the schools; but there are various trades in which this is not the
case. In reply to my objection that the forfeiture of part of his pay
might induce the apprentice to go where there were no compulsory
continuation school classes, Dr. Kerschensteiner made the following
statement :

There is no exodus of apprentices from the city as a result of their being
deprived of their pay for a few hours a week on account of the compulsory
continuation classes. At least I know of no complaint on this score any-
where in the German Empire. In Munich such a thing cannot occur, for the
very reason that our organization forms one of the strongest attractions to
the apprentice. On the contrary, a considerable number of apprentices come
from other municipalities to our Continuation Classes, and their employers
even pay their transportation expenses. If you promote really good Continua-
tion Schools there will certainly be little danger that the apprentices will
run away.

The compulsory subjects are : Commercial correspondence,
book-keeping and arithmetic; German literature, civics and
hygiene ; drawing ; the use of tools and machinery ; practical work ;
the practical course being adapted to the different trades. Religious
instruction is by law compulsory, and courses in gymnastics are
provided. In accordance with the general scheme in Germany, the
theoretical foundation of each trade is closely related with instruc-
tion in the processes of the trade; that is, for example, the mathe-
matics of the school are the mathematics of the shop whatever the
latter may be. A remarkable feature of the continuation schools is
their collections of models and specimens of work done in the trades.
These not only extend and improve the student's knowledge of his
work, but they serve as suitable objects for the drawing class.

GERMANY 167

In Bavaria generally, the instruction of the apprentices is
in the evenings and on Sundays. In Munich, however, it is given
on week days and in the day-time. The available hours are from
7 a.m. to 9 a.m., and from i p.m. to 7 p.m., the hours of labour of
the workmen being from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m., with a longer period for
dinner than in Ontario. There are no compulsory classes on Sun-
days or after 7 p.m. on week days.

Of the Compulsory Day Schools there are three classes — Dis-
trict, Trade, and Commercial :

1. DISTRICT SCHOOLS

The theoretical instruction includes in each case the subject Curriculum-
of religion, taught Protestants and Catholics in separate classes,
arithmetic, composition, duties of citizenship, gymnastics, one hour
a week in each. Where practical work is taken up, two hours are
devoted to it, making seven hours a week in all. There are 13
schools in different sections of the city, 8 of them giving theoretical
instruction only, 4 both theoretical and practical, and one being the
School for Defectives, which was organized in 1908-09, and offers,
at present, a one-year's course. It receives pupils of defective prep-
aration, or those who are intellectually backward, the instruction
given being of such a kind as not only to impart information and
manual dexterity, but also to develop character.

Boys under 18, who are not apprenticed to any trade, as, for ex-
ample, elevator boys, labourers, etc., are given a general education*1
in German, commercial correspondence, arithmetic, civics, drawing,
gymnastics, and manual work.

2. TRADE SCHOOLS

Subjects more closely allied to one another are grouped to- curriculum,
gether, and instruction both theoretical and practical is given in six
principal school buildings. In addition to these, accommodation is
provided separately for a large number of the smaller more de-
tached trades. The time-table in each case is fixed with regard to
the convenience of the trade in question.

Nearly all of the Munich Trade Schools receive a small money Maintenance,
contribution from a Royal National Fund. In most cases also
the Guild of the trade contributes something to the support of its
school. For apprentices, the instruction is free.

1 68

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Curriculum.

Work-shops.

Time of
Instruction.

Trade Draw-
ing Schools.

Students'

Practice

Schools.

II.

3. COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS

These schools train merchants, clerks, and secretaries.

VOLUNTARY SCHOOLS FOR JOURNEYMEN AND MASTER
WORKMEN

The technical courses for journeymen and master workmen in-
clude freehand, projection and mechanical drawing; painting and
modelling ; beaters' work ; chased work ; business methods ; study of
manufactured products; elementary practical geometry; chemistry;
physics; work-shop and laboratory practice.

The following are also provided in addition :

1. Business courses, including commercial arithmetic; book-
keeping; the study of exchange; the cost of production; commer-
cial correspondence and commercial law.

2. General courses, including the history of citizenship and of
industry; commercial and trade geography; hygiene; partnership;
commercial law; insurance legislation; and constitutional govern-
ment.

All the Industrial Schools have corresponding work-shops:
and, if the system develops, as is expected, there will be a volun-
tary continuation school for journeymen and master workmen cor-
responding to each compulsory continuation school for appren-
tices. The classes are held on Sundays and in the evenings. A
small fee is charged. On Sundays and holidays, the instruction is
given in the forenoon, sometimes in the afternoon ; on work-days, it
is given in the evening: and at least five hours a week must be
devoted to it.

HI.

For master workmen and journeymen who are out of employ-
ment, as, for example, masons who cannot work all the year, there
are schools held in the daytime, as follows :

1. Trade Drawing Schools, with a schedule of instruction,
mainly for those who desire to extend their knowledge of drawing :
as, for example, builders, artistic and mechanical draughtsmen,
furniture designers, etc.

In these schools, practical work is a minor feature of the course.

2. Students' Practice Schools, with a schedule of instruction.
In these there is special practical work for those who need addi-
tional technical education.

GERMANY 169

3. Open Drawing Rooms for journeymen, without a schedule
of instruction. For them, as for all students of the industrial schools, Room8-
ample provision is made for instruction in drawing.

The first two are for defined trades, and have courses of at least
30, at most 48, hours a week. The last prepare for widely different

callings, with courses of from 30 to 36 hours a week.

(

!

IV. OTHER INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS

There are also in Munich, Industrial Schools maintained by
Guilds and Industrial Unions. These use the equipment of the
municipal schools ; but, when they do so, the officers of these schools
take part in the organization and management.

CONTINUATION SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN

Every girl, including domestic servants, who does not attend secondaryion:
a secondary school must attend a continuation school until she|^0?i8y
is 1 6. This compulsory instruction is given chiefly on week-days,
three hours a week. All who do not attend these day continuation
schools are obliged to attend a " Sunday School," instruction at
which has been obligatory since 1903. This school provides for
girls from 13 to 16, also for three hours a week. About 17,000
receive instruction in the Continuation Schools, including those who
take both the Sunday Schools and the Day Schools. The majority
are taught on week-days.

As the foregoing schools do not supply sufficient instruction, the
citizens of Munich have also established a more comprehensive Con-
tinuation School, with two divisions, one for domestic science and
one for the commercial subjects. Each class receives from six to
ten hours' instruction a week, and each pupil must attend regularly
the courses for which she is enrolled.

The Sunday, as well as the Day Continuation Schools, are in-
tended in particular to prepare girls for the duties of their future
homes. The curriculum extends over three years and provides in-
struction in household science, including house management, sew-
ing, millinery, cooking, etc., with a woman's duties as a citizen.

Two other schools are provided for girls : vocational

1. The Municipal Riemerschmid Commercial School.

This School is a day school and gives instruction in advanced
commercial subjects. The courses extend over three grades, for 25
hours a week.

2. The School of Women's Work, of the People's Educational
Union.

170

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

This School is intended to prepare girls to earn their living in
all the branches of women's trades. Combined with this is a Train-
ing College with a two years' course for instructors in hand-work
in the elementary schools.

COST OF CONTINUATION SCHOOL SYSTEM

The importance attached by the citizens of Munich to its Con-
tinuation School System may be inferred from the fact that in
1906-1907 the total cost of these Schools was $238,532.36 and, if
we include the cost of the Commercial School for Women and the
city's contribution to the Women's Work School, the total cost was
$265,785.69. The total attendance at all the Schools was 18,852.

CURRICULA OF CONTINUATION SCHOOLS

The following are characteristic examples of the organization
of eight of the Continuation Schools, the number of times a week
being in brackets:

CABINET-MAKERS

Apprentice^ The course for apprentices covers 4 years, with 9 hours a week,
distributed according to subjects, as follows:

Religion (i), composition and reading (i), arithmetic and
bookkeeping (i), duties of citizenship (i), technical drawing (3),
practical work (2).

The journeymen's and master workmen's courses cover 3 years.
The subjects are :

First year: Technology of wood (2) ; style (2) ; technical drawing (4) ;
electricity (i) ; industrial chemistry (i) ; practical work (2).

Second year: Style (2) ; technical drawing (4) ; book-keeping (2) ; busi-
ness and law (i).

Third year: Style (2) ; technical drawing (4) ; calculating (2) ; technology
(2); perspective (2).

To supplement this regular instruction, the pupils are taken fre-
quently to visit museums, expositions, etc., where special displays
of products of their trade are to be seen.

BUTCHERS

Apprentices. For butchers a five-year apprentice course is given, the subjects
in each being:

Religion (i) ; arithmetic and book-keeping (2) or (2^); composition and
reading (2) or (2j4) ; duties of citizenship (2) or (2^/2) ; practical work (i) ;
making an average total of 8 hours per week in each year.

Maintenance; Considerable money contributions to the support of the School
are made by the City Butchers' Guilds. 'The pupils have at their
disposal a library of works dealing with all aspects of their trade.

Journeymen,
etc.

GERMANY 171

BOOK-BINDERS

The school for book-binders provides a three-year course for Apprentice*
apprentices, with 9 hours a week, and a one-year (voluntary) course
foi journeymen and master workmen. The subjects of instruction
tor apprentices, with the hours per week, are as follows :

First year: Religion (i) ; arithmetic and book-keeping (i) ; business
composition and reading (i) ; duties of citizenship (i) ; drawing (4); wares
and materials (i).

Second year: Religion (i) ; arithmetic and book-keeping (i); business
composition and reading (i) ; duties of citizenship (i) ; drawing (3) ; prac-
tical work (use of tools) (2).

Third year: Religion (i) ; arithmetic and book-keeping (i) ; business
composition and reading (i) ; duties of citizenship (i) ; drawing (2); prac-
tical work (use of tools) (3).

The courses for journeymen and master workmen include the Journeymen,
subjects of book-keeping, calculation, drawing, and practical work.

The apprentices' courses are given usually on week-days, morn- instruction,
ing and afternoon ; the journeymen's on week-day evenings from
7 to 9 (theoretical instruction), and Sunday forenoons from 8.30
to 12.30 (practical work).

Instruction for ordinary apprentices is free. A nominal feeFees-
is exacted from those whose masters are not members of the Book-
binders' Guild. Journeymen who are natives of Bavaria pay 500.,
natives of other German States, 75c., and foreigners, $1.00 per
month during the winter terms, and 250., SOG., and 75c. respectively
in the summer term. The proceeds from apprentices' fees go to the
Book-binders' Guild ; from journeymen's fees to the City Treasury.

Working material for the apprentices is furnished through the working:
Book-binders' Guild from the Royal National Fund and the Bavar-
ian Ministry of the Interior, the former contributing $37 and the
latter $50. Journeymen supply their own jnaterials.

As in the case of all the other Munich trade schools, a substan- Library, etc,
tial technical library is at the disposal of the pupils in book-binding.
Educational excursions to factories, etc., are organized.

TAILORS

The school for tailors gives four years' course in the following
subjects:

Religion (i) ; composition (i) ; arithmetic and book-keeping (i) ; duties Curriculum*
of citizenship (i) ; wares (i) ; technical drawing (2); practical work (2);
gymnastics (i) ; total, 10 hours per week.

The instruction is given on three week-day forenoons, from 7 Time-
to 12 o'clock, and on two afternoons from 2 to 7.

The Tailors' School, like most of the other branches of the Maintenance.
Munich trade schools, is supported by contributions partly from the
National Fund and from the Trade Guild.

Excursions to museums, factories, expositions, etc., supplement
the regular instruction.

12 E.I.P.

172 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

MESSENGER BOYS

This school provides instruction in the following subjects :

Religion (i) ; arithmetic (i); reading and essay writing (i) ; duties of
citizenship (i) ; manual training and drawing (2) ; gymnastics (i).

WAGONERS AND DRIVERS

This school provides instruction in the following subjects:

Curriculum. Religion (i) ; trade essay and reading (ij^) ; arithmetic and book-keep-

ing (iH) J duties of citizenship (i) ; knowledge of horses (i) ; locality and
by-laws (i).

BARBERS AND WIGMAKERS

This school provides instruction in the following subjects:

Curriculum. Religion (i) ; trade essay and reading (i) ; arithmetic and book-keeping

(i) ; duties of citizenship (i) ; drawing (i) ; trade knowledge (i) ; elementary
surgery (i) ; practical work (3).

COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS

The courses cover four years — one preparatory and three
regular, with 8 hours a week. The subjects of instruction, with
hours per week in each, are as follows:

Curriculum. Preparatory year: Religion (i) ; arithmetic (2) ; business correspondence

(3) ; commercial geography (i) ; writing (i).

First year: Religion (i) ; arithmetic (2); book-keeping (i); business
correspondence (i); commercial geography (i) ; duties of citizenship (i) ;
writing (i).

Second year: Religion (i); arithmetic (i) ; exchange (i) ; book-keeping
(i); business correspondence (i) ; commercial geography (i) ; duties of
citizenship (i) ; writing (i).

Third year: Religion (i) ; arithmetic (i); book-keeping (2); business
correspondence (i) ; commercial geography (2); duties of citizenship (i).

Maintenance. These commercial continuation schools are supported by the
District Government and the municipality of Munich in equal
shares. Additional contributions for school supplies, etc., are made
by the Munich Chamber of Commerce and Commercial Association.

DUTIES OF CITIZENSHIP

The " Duties of Citizenship " form an important part of the
Munich Industrial courses of study. The scope and character of
the subject may be estimated from the following details :

CLASS I.— (a) Hygiene: The construction of the human body. Nutri-
tion ; food and luxuries ; breathing, circulation of the blood ; care of the
skin and teeth; dwellings and clothing; work and recreation; gymnastics and
exercise out of doors. The influences detrimental to health in the industry,
especially the bad effects of dust; first aid in the accidents of the industry.
Fostering of cleanliness. (&) Deportment: Demeanour in the_ house and out-
side; in the workshop; toward acquaintances; in school and in society.

GERMANY 173

CLASS II. — Industrialism: History of hand work in general and of
machine construction in particular; beginnings in the construction of so-called
machinery in ancient times. Significance of rotary motion for nearly all
machines. Mechanical contrivances for war and conveyance in the middle ages ;
discontinuation of the machines of older times by the invention of the
steam engine; recent engine construction; the most important engine shops of
Munich. Allied industries. The present-day condition of engine building; the
most important features of the industry; the protection of designs (through
patents).

CLASS III. — Citizenship: Communal government; problems of communal
society, its social and economic arrangements; rights and duties of the com-
munal citizen ; communal titular officials. The state constitution of Bavaria ;
problems of states unions; duties and rights of the citizens of the state; titular
state officials. The Bavarian state government. The constitution of the Ger-
man empire; the problems of the empire. Social legislation. Commerce and
trade in the nineteenth century, and their significance for the well-being of
the citizen and industrialist. The value of German consuls in foreign coun-
tries.

CLASS IV. — The Citizen of the State in Public Life: Human society, the
social and economic distinctions in it; their origin, necessity and present devel-
opment. General social and political economic systems (legislation, adminis-
tration of rights, security, culture, and public safety). The part taken by the
citizen of the state in the advancement of the common interests of life. The
advantages of life under a united states government. Germany's economic and
cultural position in the world. Industrial legal knowledge, especially legal
instructions for conducting factories, steam plants, and such other mechanical
systems ; accident insurance.

174

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

TABLE SHOWING GENERAL ORGANIZATION

The following table for 1907-1908 shows the number of hours
prescribed each week for each school, and the number attending the
compulsory and the voluntary classes.

Trade

Hours of
instruction
per week

Com-
pulsory
attendance

Voluntary
attendance

Bakers

6

26;

Barbers and wig makers

1 20

Bookbinders

c8

Braziers and bell-makers

8

127

Builders . . .•

12

I ^4

Butchers

8

I 3O

Cabinet makers

126

Chimney sweeps and stokers

6 to 9

26

KA

Confectioners

8

81

04

Coopers

•?2

18

Coppersmiths

10

e-i

Decorators, varnishevs and gilders

T1A

J2A

1 j

Dental workers

8

A-l

Druc'crists .

I IQ

Engineers

•JOA

*5

Gardeners

8

78

Glaziers, etc

C7

T r

Innkeepers' assistants

8

8;

li

Jewellers, silversmiths, goldsmiths

n

62

Joiners and cabinet makers

Q

74

11*1

Lithographers ... .;

6;

•*.}/

Locksmiths, art metal workers

•3/1 0

34
r i£

Musicians

7

40

Opticians .

^6;

Photographers

1O

82

Potters etc

/ 13 winter

1 10

Printers

\3 summer

Q

J

206

Jz

C2

Saddlers, etc ;

8

59

18

Sculptors

(14 winter

I 60

Shoemakers ;

\3 summer
10

f
88

Smiths and wheelwrights

Q

77

7C

Tailors

10

1 7O

Tinsmiths

g

72

78

Turners

iolA

10

I C

Upholsterers, etc

11A

80

e-i

Wagoners and drivers

7

IQ

178

^^aiters

8

1 4O

AVatchmakers

10

71

7-1

^Vood carvers

o

14

Special school for painters

•?8i

Special school for printers

648

14;

Special school for trades

1,020

Classes for pupils with no fixed trade

7

I.O4Q

Commercial schools for clerks and government

servants

8 to 10

I.OIO

6,725

2,684

GERMANY 175

COLOGNE

ROYAL BUILDING-TRADES SCHOOL
GENERAL

This is one of twenty- four Prussian schools of similar char- °.«sinal°*
acter. The term " Royal," I may explain here, is applied to those School*."
schools which are conducted and maintained by the State — Prussia
in this case. They often originate in a school connected with a
factory and aided by the local municipality. Such a school, when
of sufficient importance, is taken in charge by the State, the factory
and the municipality being represented on the directorate. TheyAim-
are technical schools for the training, especially, of masons, carpen-
ters, and stone-masons who wish to qualify for taking part in
engineering and construction work and in Government
work (railway, military, municipal engineering, etc.). All the
Building-trades Schools are under the charge of the Minister of
Trade and Industry. The examinations are under Government
supervision.

The Board of Management has at its head a director appointed Management,
by the State, and includes representatives of the teaching staffs and
the municipality.

The age of admission is 16 years; a public school education
and one year's active work at the trade. The staff may, however,
make exceptions according to the individual case.

Two half-year terms, beginning at the middle of October andTerma-
the first of April respectively; holidays of about n weeks during
the year.

The fees are $25 per term. For foreigners, five times thisF<
amount. Each pupil must insure himself against accident by the
payment of a premium of 19 cents per term as a regular part of the
school fees. This gives in case of death $750; in case of permanent
disability, the interest on $3.750; and for temporary disability, 75
cents per day.

All instruments for drafting, etc., are supplied by the pupil him-
self.

The School provides also the following:

1. A School for Workmen in the building trades, which is workmen,
open only in the winter half year (middle of October to middle of
March) .

2. Evening and Sunday Classes, which are held on Wednes-

day evenings, 8 to 10 o'clock, and on Sunday mornings from 9 classes,
to 12 o'clock.

Instruction is offered in about 25 subjects, of which a free
choice is allowed the student according to his needs and ability.

176

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Admission

tests.

Fees.

Preparatory
Course.

General
Course.

Special
Courses.

The conditions of admission are as follows: Age, 18 years; an
elementary school education ; apprenticeship as a mason or carpen-
ter; and at least one year as journeyman.

For each term the fee is 50 marks ($12.50) ; foreigners pay
five times as much.

TECHNICAL DIVISION

The studies in the Preparatory Class are German, arithmetic,
elementary natural science, geometry, algebra, free-hand drawing,
writing, drafting. The subjects in the five Forms, from lowest to
highest, are as follows :

Form V. — German and business correspondence, arithmetic, algebra (to
sample equations), plane and solid geometry, natural science, theory of pro-
jection, building construction, architecture, planning of buildings, freehand draw-
ing, modelling.

Form IV. — Subjects of Form V. in more advanced stages and, further,
trigonometry, solid geometry, materials, statics, making of estimates. Total,
44 hours per week.

Form TIT. — Continuation of most of the subjects of Form IV., with
the addition of surveying.

In the two highest Forms, work is specialized as follows: —
I. ABOVE-GROUND CONSTRUCTION

Form II. — German, mathematics, theory of projections, statics, build-
ing construction, drafting of buildings, architecture, original designing of
buildings, theory of structural form (evolution of architectural styles, etc.),
freehand drawing, modelling.

Form I. — Theory of projection, statics, building construction, drafting of
buildings, architecture, designing of buildings, planning of interiors, etc.,
freehand drawing, building estimates.

Curriculum.

II. SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION

Form II. — German, mathematics (logarithms, etc.), natural science and
materials, railway architecture, surveying, levelling, drafting, etc., theory
of construction, projection theory, statics, road construction, water works
(dams, dykes, river regulation, river harbours, etc.), bridge construction,
"ailway engineering, estimating of works, modelling.

Form I. — Mathematics, surveying, etc., theory of building construction,
statics, municipal underground engineering (streets, water-works, sewers),
water engineering (canals, reservoirs, dykes, harbour works, etc.), bridge
construction, railway engineering, machinery.

Instruction in first aid is given to all pupils of Form III., 12 hours during
the term.

SCHOOL FOR WORKMEN

Junior Class. — German, writing, arithmetic (to extraction of square
root), geometry (to circle), natural science, freehand drawing, geometrical
and projection drafting, theory of building construction, modelling of build-
ings.

GERMANY 177

Senior Class. — (a) Masons — German and business correspondence, arith-
metic (percentages, insurance, etc.), free-hand drawing, theory of building
construction, architectural drafting, architecture, materials, estimates, survey-
ing, jurisprudence, book-keeping, modelling, first aid.

(&) Carpenters. — Subjects generally the same as above for masons, but
specially designed for carpenters in the matter of building construction,
planning, and modelling.

(c) Stonemasons. — As above, but with corresponding variations to suit
stonemasons.

ROYAL HIGHER MACHINE=CONSTRUCTION SCHOOL.

GENERAL

The aim of this school is to train men for operating and con- Aim.
structing machines and becoming eventually managers or owners of
machine shops. One school provides, also, courses for master
workmen and master installators, and has plumbers' as well as ad-
vanced evening and Sunday classes.

The building, costing about $2,000,000, was erected by the city cost of

jt i r • -irtx * • « • « Building and

and the annual cost of maintenance is about $100,000, of which Maintenance,
the city defrays about $34,000, the rest of the cost being borne by
Prussia. The building is well equipped with machines of various
kinds, but here, as very generally in Germany, they are used for
the purpose of illustration. Machines themselves are not made by
the students.

The conditions of admission are: (i) Standing of second 4s™iss °"
highest class in a secondary school and two years' practical work,
or (2) attendance at the preparatory school and 2^/2 years' practical
work, or (3) military certificate of the one-year "volunteer"
class, with two years' practical work and evidence of efficiency in
drafting, or (4) certificate of sufficiently high grade from recog-
nized State school, with two years' practical work, or (5) passing
a State examination, with three years' practical work.

The day attendance is usually about 300, the evening from 1,200 Attendance.
to 2,000.

For each half-year term the fee is $25 ; five times this sum for Fees-
foreigners.

An initial outlay is necessary of about $10 for mathematical in-
struments, and a current expenditure of about $8 per term for books
and materials.

Pupils are insured against accidents on the same terms as in the
Royal Building-Trades School.

PREPARATORY SCHOOL.

FIRST TERM. Curriculum.

German: Orthography, grammar, composition.

Arithmetic: Stress laid on rapid mental calculating. Drill on funda-
mentals.

Mathematics: Algebra; square and cube root, theory of numbers, equations
of first degree. Plane geometry : Triangle, quadrangle, circle, pythagorean pro-
position.

Physics: Properties of bodies. Expansion, weight, density, gravitation.

Chemistry: The leading conceptions. Properties of air and water. Phos-
phorus, sulphur. Respiration and combustion.

Geometrical Drafting: Dissection of lines and angles. Measures, circles,
regular polygons, etc. Conic sections : ellipse, parabola, hyperbola.

Free-hand Drawing: Sketching of fundamental parts of machines, etc..

SECOND TERM.

The same subjects as above, but more advanced.

TECHNICAL DIVISION

Form IV. (the lowest Form).

Mathematics: Algebra: Involution, roots, logarithms, equations of first
degree with one or more unknowns. Exponential equations. Equations of the
second degree. Arithmetical and geometrical series. Calculation of compound
interest, etc.

Plane Geometry: Calculation of surfaces. The circle. Proportion.
Problems.

Solid Geometry: Regular bodies. Prism. Pyramid. Cylinder, cone.
Sphere.

Trigonometry: Use of tables. Goniometry. Solution of oblique-angled
triangles.

Mechanics: Theory of motion. Statics of solid bodies. Solidity,
elasticity.

Physics: Equilibrium and motion of solid bodies, liquids and gases.
Theory of heat.

Chemistry: Atomic theory. Treatment of useful metals.

Descriptive Geometry: Constructions of ellipse, parabola, hyperbola.
Spirals, etc.

Machines and their parts: Screws. Pipes, etc. Sketching and technical
drafting of machines.

Theory of Building Construction: Kinds of stone. Mortars. Window
and door openings. Vaulted roofs. Chimneys. Woods and their use in
building. Roofs, stairways. Drafting buildings.

Ornamental Writing: Tracing.

Form III.

Mathematics: Series. Convergence and divergence of endless series.
Binomial series. Exponential series, etc. Theory of curves.

Mechanics: Dynamics of solids. Theory of solids.

Physics: Optics. Sources, diffusion and velocity of light. Reflection and
refraction. Optical instruments. Chemical action of light. Photography.

Descriptive Geometry: Continuation of work of Form IV.

Machines and their parts: Continuation of Form IV. work.

Tool-machines: Construction, various parts, mechanisms for operating.
Lathes, boring-machines, etc. Safety devices.

Mining: The leading ores. Pig-iron. Malleable iron. Copper, lead, tin,
etc., and how procured. Alloys.

Drafting: Machines and their various parts.

GERMANY 179

Electrotechnique: Electricity. Currents. Effect of heat. Chemical action.
Magnet, etc. Alternating currents. Measurements. Production of electric
current. Dynamos.

Theory of Building: Materials and their treatment. Strength of materials.
Special drafting.

Form IT.

Mathematics: Algebra (continuation of earlier work). Theory of curves,
more advanced.

Mechanics: Fluid bodies. Equilibrium and pressure of water, etc. Elastic
bodies. Gases and vapours. Chief laws. Steam, its action and application.

Machines: Pumps, etc. Steam engines. Steam boilers.

General Technology: Handling of iron as to its fusibility and ductility,
etc. Materials: leather, rubber, emery, asbestos, etc.

Electrotechnics: Accumulators and transformers, etc. Application of elec-
tric current. Illumination by electricity. Safety devices.

Construction: Calculation of strength of supporting parts. Distribution of
pressure, etc.

Practical work in the laboratories.

Life-saving: First aid to injured, etc.

Form I.

Repetition and Extension: Work in mathematics, mechanics, machine-
construction, steam, levers, cranes, electricity, general technology, construc-
tion, etc.

Hydraulic motors. Gas motors.

Estimates: Practical exercises in laboratories.

Book-keeping: Practical and theoretical.

MASTER WORKMEN'S SCHOOL OF MACHINE CONSTRUCTION

This school gives less advanced instruction than the Higher Aim.
School and aims at training master workmen, machinists, and
operators of smaller plants. It has three classes of a half year each.

The admission requirements are a good elementary school
education, and at least four years in a work-shop.

For each term the fee is $7.50; foreigners, as usual, five times Fee3-
as much.

In each of the three Forms, the student has 46 to 48 hours per week. Curriculum.

Form III. (the lowest): German, arithmetic, geometrical drafting,
free-hand drawing, geometry.

Form II.: German, arithmetic, projection drawing, experimental physics
(properties of bodies, heat, steam, magnetism), experimental chemistry of
elementary character, algebra (to equations of first degree), plane and solid
geometry, mechanics (motion, solid bodies), machines of all kinds, practical
work, mining of materials, construction of buildings.

Form I. : Electrotechnics, mechanics, dynamics of solid bodies, fluid
bodies, stability, tool-machines, steam-boilers, etc., steam-engines, water-
power machines, gas machines, lifting machines, technology (mines and
materials), bookkeeping, making of estimates, technical jurisprudence, labor-
atory work, first aid and life-saving.

i8o

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Aim, Ad-
mission tests,
etc.

Aim.

Admission

tests.

Fees.

Curriculum.

EVENING AND SUNDAY COURSES

These courses are for pupils who wish to continue their studies
after completing the courses in the foregoing schools. Instruction
is given in about 35 different subjects.

The fees vary according to number of courses taken : Up to 3
hours per week, 50 cents per hour for term ; up to 7 hours per week,
37 cents per hour for term ; for each hour over 7, 25 cents.

Classes are held on week-days from 8 to 10 p.m., and on Sun-
days from 9.15 a.m. to 12.15.

Instruction is given in about 35 different subjects.

COURSES FOR MASTER INSTALLATORS AND GAS PLUMBERS

Special advanced courses, maintained by the State, are given
for the further training of master workmen in the gas, water, and
electric plumbing trades. Only those are admitted who have passed
a regular apprenticeship, and are at least 24, but not more than 40
years of age. Each course lasts three months, and is divided into a
general technical preliminary part lasting four weeks, and a special
part lasting eight weeks. The fee for the complete course is
$18.75. The number of hours per week is 48. The preliminary
part is the same for all trades ; the special course varies according
to the trade needs.

The complete course of study for the Higher Machine Construc-
tion School includes a preparatory class and five half-year classes.
For all the trades the instruction is the same except in the last two
terms, when the students specialize according as they are to engage
in above-ground or under-ground construction.

Technical
High School.

Small size of
classes.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE

GENERAL

In Aix-la-Chapelle, besides the Higher Technical School for
Textiles, I visited the Technical High School, the School of Mines,
and the Art School. The first mentioned is of university rank.
Its building is spacious and, as was proudly pointed out to me, it is
exceptionally well planned. Like the Faculty of Applied Science
at the University of Toronto, which, I may point out in this connec-
tion, follows the Prussian, not the English or American system of
instruction, it has many laboratories, but no "shops." What struck
me in particular was the small number in each class. In fact,
the classes in the German technical schools are always small. In

GERMANY 181

Ontario we must get over the notion that large classes are either a
proof or a necessity of efficiency.

At the School of Mines I met the Director only ; the session did
not begin for some weeks afterwards. The school is equipped with
the machinery used in the mines and with plans of mine con-
struction. For some weeks during the year the staff and the
students live at one of the mines, and take up the practical side
of the course.

The Art School is a very fine one-story building, lighted from Art Sch°o1
above, and having a central exhibition hall, with class rooms open-
ing into it. The arrangement is an excellent one. The course is
both the Fine and the Applied Arts.

HIGHER TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR TEXTILES
GENERAL

The Textile School, which is housed in a large and magnifi-
cently equipped building, gives theoretical and practical instruction
in the manufacture of woollen goods. Its aim is to train manufac- Aim.
turers. directors, and skilled specialists, and to afford as well an
opportunity of obtaining the knowledge necessary for buying and
selling the goods. The school also provides for the education of
engineers and technicians who wish to devote themselves to the con-
struction of textile machines, or to superintend the plant of textile
factories. A Master Workmen's School is carried on, in evening
and Sunday classes, for the training of skilled workmen and other
employees. Finally, a special branch of the Textile School is de-
voted to the training of women as cloth-darners, for the correction
of defects in weaving.

Practical training, upon which special stress is laid, is given Practical
continuously by the actual filling of contract orders from local and contract

, . / r , . Orders.

foreign manufacturers. In this way, the pupil is able to learn at
first hand the conditions and needs of the trade, and to use the
school as a work-shop to make himself proficient in practice.

The conditions of admission are a certificate of satisfactory Admission

. . . tests.

school education, or, in default of this, an entrance examination in
German and arithmetic. Foreigners are required to give evidence
of an adequate knowledge of the German language. The minimum
age for admission is sixteen. Previous practical training is not
demanded, though regarded as desirable.

The pupils are divided into three classes — Regular, Special, and glares of
Occasional. Regular pupils take all the subjects of the separate
courses; Special pupils take only the practical part; Occasionals
attend only lectures, according to individual choice.

1 82 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Each course covers half a year — from March ist to August

1 5th, and from October ist to March ist, respectively. Special
pupils may enter at any time. Each half-year term consists of
about 21 weeks, with 44 instruction hours per week. Instruction
is given daily (except Saturday afternoon) from 8 to 12 a.m., and

2 to 6 p.m.

The fees are as follows : For Regular pupils — Germans, $25.00
per term; foreigners, $125.00 per term. For Special pupils — Ger-
mans, $12.50 per month; foreigners, $62.50 per month. For Occa-
sional pupils — Germans, $3.75 per term for i hour courses; for-
eigners, $12.50 per term for i hour courses. Foreigners have to
pay in addition an entrance free of $15.00. To poor or specially-
talented pupils fees may be remitted in whole or in part, at the dis-
cretion of the Director of the School.

All class-room materials are supplied by the pupils themselves.

Examinations. The. examinations are conducted by a Commission composed of
the Director of the School, the Professors in the Department con-
cerned, two representatives of the School Board, and a Gov-
ernment Commissioner nominated by the Minister of Trade and
Commerce, the last-named choosing the Chairman. The examina-
tions are held at the close of each term, and are open only to
students who have taken complete courses. They are both written
and oral. The question-papers are prepared by the Director of the
School, but have to receive the approval of the Government Com-
missioner. The oral examinations cover each subject of the de-
partment taken. The questioning is by the teacher of the particular
subject, but it is also open to all other members of the Commission
to put questions to the candidate. If the Government Commis-
sioner considers that the regulations have been infringed in any
way, he may object to the findings of the Examining Commission
and lay the matter for final decision before the Minister of Trade

Leaving an(j Commerce. Successful candidates receive a Leaving Certifi-

Certificates.

cate. Unsuccessful candidates are allowed to repeat the examina-
tion only after having taken another full term's work. All other
students receive only an official statement of the length of their
attendance. In 1908 the total attendance was 286, of whom 47
passed the examinations for complete courses.

Organization. jne sci-,ooi js organized in four departments : Spinning, Weav-
ing, Dyeing, and Finishing, each complete in itself. The courses
of instruction are as follows:—

SPINNING DEPARTMENT

Curricula. In the spinning-school instruction is given in the production of simple

yarns, as well as twisted and art-yarns. Attention is devoted chiefly to the

GERMANY 183

woollen industry, the treatment of other spinning-materials being taken up
as far as is consistent with the chief end in view.

The subjects and hours of instructions are: Spinning (theory) (8),
materials (2), special arithmetic and bookkeeping (2), weaving (theory)
(2), chenr'stry and dyeing (4), general machinery instruction (3), drawing
and sketching (4), jurisprudence (2), practical work (17).

Some of the details are as follows: .

Spinning and Willowing of materials of varying quality and colour. Comb-
ing in its different processes. Fine spinning and its machines. Yarn-twisting;
spools, machines for the different processes and for saving of waste. Use of
the yarns ; choice of materials ; causes of faults, and their prevention.

Theory of Materials: Various kinds of spinning fibres. General quali-
ties of wools. Special kinds and their application. The principal wool-
producing countries. Characteristics of their products. Sorting of wools.
Washing and the machines for that purpose. Various drying-systems. Dis-
entangling of wool by chemical and mechanical processes. Art wool and
its preparation.

Special Arithmetic and Bookkeeping: Calculations occurring in the
preparation and combining of parts. Calculation of weights and quantities,
twists and products, values. Office bookkeeping. Equipment and methods.

WEAVING DEPARTMENT

Weaving (theory) : Definition and division of fabrics. Preliminary
operations. Weaving. Hand and machine looms. Description of ma-
terials according to substance, colour, etc. Colour-effects, faults, strength
tests. Chief manufacturing centres for the various materials.

Chemistry and Dyeing: Elements of chemistry. Acids, alkalies, salts.
Discussion and valuation of materials used in textile industries, such as
water, fixing materials, soaps, washing and fulling materials, oils, fats, etc.
Chemistry of textile fibres. Chemical methods of refining. Various bleach-
ing and dyeing processes. Preparation, character and application of the
various colours. Effects of the processes of washing, fulling and dressing
upon colours and fibres. Determination of proportion of wool and cotton in
mixed goods. Dyeing and pressing machines.

General Theory of Machinery: Elements of mechanics. Transmissions.
Prevention of dissipation of energy. Steam boilers, firing, sheathing, test-
ing, coal-saving. Steam-driven machines, water-engines, gas motors, elec-
tricity, its theory and application. Factory buildings, their heating, lighting,
ventilation, etc.

Drawing and Sketching: Sketching of machines and their parts. Draw-
ing of plant for textile manufactory.

Jurisprudence: The chief laws concerning industry. Conditions of
workmen, Sunday laws, inspection, courts, life and accident insurance, regu-
lations for the prevention of accidents, the welfare of the workmen.

Practical Work: Keeping of the machines and combs. Mixing, willow-
ing. Care of the machines in operation. Work in chemical laboratory.
Analysis of materials used, such as oils, glues, water, dyes, soaps, etc,

DYEING AND FINISHING DEPARTMENTS

The courses of study detailed above for the departments of Spinning and
Weaving are typical of the departments of Dyeing and Finishing, each depart-
ment devoting special attention to its special subjects.

UNITED STATES

TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNITED STATES. PAGE

Introduction . . . 189

Technical Education 189

Industrial Education igo

I. Trade Schools ., 191

II. Intermediate Industrial Schools 191

III. Part-Time Co-operative Schools 192

General Situation 192

Legislative Acts 194

Report of Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education 195

Present Condition of Industrial Training 196

Conclusions . . . 196

Recommendations . . . 197

Schools Visited 198

I. Trade Schools.

Milwaukee School of Trades, Wisconsin.

General . . . 198

Curriculum.

Patternmaking 200

Machinemaking and Toolmaking 201

Carpentry and Woodworking 201

Plumbing and Gas Fitting 202

Mechanical Drawing 203

Workshop Mathematics 203

New York City Trade School.

General 203

Curriculum.

Plastering 205

Bricklaying 205

Carpentry 206

Sheet-metal Cornice Work 207

House Painting 207

Fresco Painting 208

Sign Painting 208

Plumbing 208

Steam and Hot Water Fitting 209

Blacksmith's Work 210

Printing 210

Hebrew Technical Institute, New York City.

General 211

Curriculum 212

Baron de Hirsch School, New York City.

General 216

Organization • 216

Manhattan Trade School for Girls, New York City.

General 217

Curriculum ' 218

Hebrew Technical School for Girls.

General 219

Boston Trade School for Girls.

General 220

Curriculum.

Dressmaking 221

Millinery 221

13 E.I.P.

1 88 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

f PAGE

Clothing-Machine Operating 222

Straw-Machine Operating 222

Supplementary Work 222

II. Intermediate Industrial Schools.
New York City Vocational School.

Establishment 222

General . . . 223

Curriculum.

Vocational Subjects 224

Drawing . . . 224

Non- Vocational Subjects • • 224

Albany Vocational School.

Establishment 224

Curriculum for Boys 225

Curriculum for Girls 227

Worcester Independent Industrial School, Massachusetts 228

Rochester Shop Schools, New York 229

III. Co-operative Industrial Schools.
Fitchburg High School.

Establishment . . . 230

Curriculum . . . 230

Co-operative Plan 231

Rules and Conditions 233

Apprenticeship Agreement 234

Agreement of Relative or Guardian 235

Beverley Co-operative Trade School, Massachusetts.

Establishment 236

Co-operative Plan 236

Curriculum 237

Advantages of Plan 237

IV. Technical High Schools.

Springfield Technical High School, Massachusetts.

General . . 238

Curriculum . . 238

General Scientific Course 239

Science and Art for Girls 242

Evening Schools • 242

Vocational School 243

Stuyvesant High School, New York City.

Accommodation and Equipment 245

Curriculum 245

Boston Girls' High School of Practical Arts.

General 246

Curriculum 247

Dressmaking 247

Millinery 248

Household Science 249

V. Commercial High Schools.

High School of Commerce. Boston.

General . . 250

Curriculum . . 251

Co-operation with Business Men 251

VI. Correspondence-Study Schools.
University of Wisconsin, Madison.

General 252

University Extension Division 253

Correspondence-Study Department 254

UNITED STATES

INTRODUCTION

In the United States there are two classes of schools — Grammar Sch°o1
and High — both called Public Schools. Generally, however, they 5
are not standardized as in Ontario. Some States, it is true, have
established systems in greater or less detail, but local control is
exercised to a far greater extent than in any of the Provinces of
Canada. Accordingly, schools may be of the same general char-
acter though different in many details. Besides the Public Schools,
there are also a large number of private schools, especially of the
secondary grade. In some of the older States the latter hold the
place for many years held in England by such schools as Rugby,
Eton, and Harrow. Moreover, a good deal of the present pro-
vision for industrial education in many of the States has been made
by private individuals. As in Ontario with household science in
the case of Mrs. Massey-Treble, of Toronto, and in Canada with
manual training and school gardens in the case of Sir William
Macdonald, of Montreal, the newer movements in education are
generally introduced by philanthropists and maintained by them
until adopted into the public systems.

The conditions in the United States more closely resemble
those in Ontario than do the conditions in the European countries
I visited. I have, accordingly, given special attention to their
schools for industrial purposes.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION*

About the middle of the nineteenth century evening: classes were Mechanics'

, , . , ,- ' Institutes.

opened under private auspices at half a dozen centres, chiefly in con-
nection with Mechanics' Institutes. Although there was then a de-
mand for technical instruction on the part of the workers, it is only
of late years that these classes have provided courses with an indus-
trial outlook. The next important advance took place in the period
of mining and railroad expansion which followed the Civil War and
which led to the establishment of engineering schools and institutes
of technology. At first, as in the case of the foregoing evening
classes, these institutions were provided at private expense; but
the large grants of land made to the States under the Morrill Act
"of 1862 for the support of instruction in agriculture and mechani- Mon-m Act.

* For much of the material in this historical outline I am indebted to " Some'Notes on the History
of Industrial Education in the United States," by Charles R. Richards, Director of Cooper Union,
New York, in the Report of the Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Education, submitted
to the National Education Committee, in July, 1910.

[l89]

190

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Manual
Training.

In the

Grammar

Schools.

In the

High Schools.

Manual
Training and
Technical
High Schools

cal arts resulted in the establishment of engineering departments
in most of the western colleges and universities.

The Manual Training School of Washington University, St.
Louis, founded in 1880, was the first serious attempt to introduce
industrial training into the schools. It was rapidly followed by
manual training classes in other cities, some on a private foundation
and others as part of the public system. But it was not until the
years between 1887 and 1890 that manual training was introduced
into the Grammar (our Public) Schools. Beginning with wood and
iron work in the upper grades, this subject is now represented in
the schools of many municipalities. At first manual training was
advocated for the Grammar and High Schools on purely cultural
grounds. During the last four or five years, however, as a result
of the growing emphasis on the social side of education, the con-
ception of manual training in the Grammar Schools has come more
and more to be " that of an educative instrument interpreting the
fields of art and industry in terms adapted to the life of the child
and the limitations of the school." In the High Schools, however,
whether hand-work shall be cultural or vocational or both appears
to be as yet an unsettled question. In the Report for 1910 of the
Committee of the N. E. A. on the place of industries in public
education two main classes of schools are recognized, the Manual
Training High School and the Technical High School, which are
defined as follows, in the terms I use in my General Introduction :—

The Manual Training High School is one in which a greater or less
amount of hand work is taken up and in which the greater part of the
academic instruction is like that found in other High Schools, none of the
instruction being especially planned to be of direct vocational service; and

The Technical High School, on the other hand, is one for the prepara-
tion of pupils for positions in industrial life which require skill and technical
knowledge and are of greater importance and responsibility than those of
skilled mechanics. The instruction deals both with manual operations,
and with such direct application of the principles of science and mathematics
to industrial work as will enable the student to master the fundamental
processes and problems of the industries dealt with in the School; but the
instruction is not narrowly vocational.

Such schools, however, usually form elective departments of
High Schools; not many have been separately established. More-
over, there are few, either schools or departments, to which the
definition of a Manual Training High School can be properly
applied. Most have an outlook more or less industrial.

•

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Of the Public Schools which make definite efforts to train
workers there are three classes — the Trade School, the Intermedi-
ate Industrial School, and the Part-time Co-operative Trade School.

UNITED STATES 191

I. TRADE SCHOOLS

The Trade School is designed to train apprentices for a par-Aim-
ticular trade. It aims to give such preparation as shall abolish the
drudgery and waste of the student's time in the shop by supplying
him in school with an economic instruction in the practical work
and in the necessary theory of the trade. In some trade schools
academic instruction is given as well, but the amount of both this
and the theory varies greatly in different schools.

The New York Trade School was founded in 1881, but in the Number,
first twenty years thereafter only three other important schools
were established, all being well endowed. Since 1901, about ten
or twelve additional schools of this class have been established and
maintained by private individuals or by municipalities, with, in
addition, a number of commercially conducted schools in the build-
ing and other trades. In 1907 the Milwaukee School of Trades,
already a year in operation at private expense, was taken over by
the City, and since then public trade schools have been established
in Philadelphia, Pa. ; Portland, Ore., and Worcester, Mass., and
in New York and Boston (for girls).

Professor Richards' estimate of the situation I give in his own obstacles to

. . their estabhsh-

words ; it is to us in Ontario of great importance as it sets forth ment-
the two main economic obstacles to the successful establishment and
management of a general system of trade schools: —

Such schools are still in the experimental stage. They face grave economic
problems that are still unsolved :

First among these is the problem of support presented to the student Support of
worker during the period of instruction. This difficulty serves to restrict student8t
the number that can take advantage of such schools to the comparative few.
Training for the skilled trades is in common practice restricted to the
period above 16 years of age, and as the great bulk of the youth who will
form the mechanics and industrial workers of the country must of neces-
sity enter upon remunerative work at sixteen or shortly after, the sacri-
fices necessary to permit attendance at a trade school can be expected only
in cases of exceptional foresight and home conditions above the average.

The second aspect of the economic problem in relation to such schools 9°^ °/
is found in the large expense of administration, instruction, materials, and c
physical maintenance in proportion to the number of students that can be
instructed.

II. INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS

During the last three or four years a new and important class
of school — the Intermediate Industrial. General Industrial, or Pre-
paratory Trade, as it is variously called — has come into existence
for boys and girls from 14 to 16.

To quote Professor Richards again:—

The idea has been gaining ground that one of the greatest needs of Aim-
industrial education is to provide a school training for those who expect

192

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Character of
work.

Number.

to enter the industries at sixteen that will give a sound basis of general
principles and a wide acquaintance with materials and processes, and so
make possible the development of industrial intelligence and, consequently,
of industrial adaptability.

The aim of such schools is not a specialized trade training, but such
instruction in the processes fundamental to several trade groups as will
give an advantage to the boy of sixteen, whether it be to enter upon the
work of mill or factory or to take up the task of learning a skilled trade.

This Intermediate industrial School prepares boys and girls for
entrance to the trades. Such schools place greatest emphasis
on practical work under conditions resembling as closely as possible
those prevailing in commercial practice. The academic work is
also closely related to the practical work and little is taken up that
does not bear ultimately on the trade work. But, of this class of
school there is already a number of varieties, some providing
specialized courses in addition to the general ones, in accordance
with the necessities of their localities.

Intermediate Industrial Schools have been established as part of
the public school system in New York City, Rochester, Albany,
Springfield, and New Bedford. The expectation is that this type
of school will go far to meet the situation created by specialization
which has rendered it difficult and often impossible for the worker
to become more than a cog in the industrial wheel.

III. PART-TIME COOPERATIVE SCHOOLS

Aim.

The Part-time Co-operative School plan is an attempt to
combine practical training in a manufactory with general and tech-
nical instruction in a school. The plan was first tried in the
Faculty of Applied Science of the University of Cincinnati, where
it has been in successful operation for several years. During the
last two or three years it has been applied also to pupils of the
organization. High School grade. The details of such co-operative systems
vary according as the boy comes from the shop to the school or
goes to the shop from the school. Thus, in Cincinnati, a group of
machine-shop apprentices are given about 4 hours' instruction per
week in the schools, while in Pittsburg, Beverley, and Fitchburg,
selected groups of High School boys are given a week in the shop
and the school alternately. As I have already reported, in Munich
and other parts of Germany the industrial training of apprentices
is similarly provided for.

GENERAL SITUATION

Not much Speaking generally, therefore, although certain types of indus-

Progre88. trjal schoois have established their claims to a place amongst the

Public Schools of the United States, others are still in the experi-

UNITED STATES 193

mental stage. Moreover, the very general opinion held in Ontario
that tHe United States has for a considerable number of years been
making great progress in industrial education does not appear to
be justified by the facts. Some States and some smaller communi-
ties have, it is true, recognized the necessity for this education, and,
through private initiative and philanthropic effort, a more extensive
provision exists than the State legislation would indicate ; but from
what I heard at the Milwaukee Conference in December, 1909, I
judge that, in the United States, much remains to be done before the
necessity for industrial training at the public expense becomes gener-
ally recognized. As a matter of fact, also, from the standpoint of
actual realization, the practice is still far behind the legislation.
This opinion is strengthened by the statement of the Director
of the Bureau of Municipal Records, Philadelphia, Pa., published
in the Report for 1910 of the Committee on the Place of Industries
in Public Education, already referred to. The Director states the
situation thus: —

About one-half of the thirteen hundred city and town school "systems"
in the United States have introduced, somewhere in their curricula, various
forms of constructive activity denominated handwork, or manual training.
In only one hundred and fifty of these cases, however, does the handwork
extend through all of the grades of the elementary schools, and in only
about one hundred cases into the High Schools. Of the six hundred school
systems having manual training, three hundred give less than an hour a
week to it; and only thirty-seven devote as much as half an hour a day to
the subject. . . .

There are about one hundred and fifty schools of secondary grade in
the country that are classified in the reports of the Commissioner of Educa-
tion as manual and industrial training schools. Of this number, however,
only one-half are reported as giving any attention to the manual arts.
Thirty of these are public high schools; most of which devote from five to
nine hours a week to manual, technical, and industrial instruction. Some
give as little as four hours a week; but fewer than half of them give as
much as one-third of their time to such instruction. With two or three
possible exceptions, none of these public high schools may be ranked as
technical high schools, the distinctive industrial or vocational purpose being
almost uniformly absent.

The Director adds that the handwork in the elementary schools character of

,.,« ., ., .,,. . , ,, the School

is still, in the main, abstract, isolated, impractical and unrelated to work,
social conditions. Within the last few years, however, the de-
mand for industrial education has made itself felt even in the ele-
mentary schools, and. as I have pointed out, a number of public
intermediate and trade schools of a distinctively vocational type
have come into existence.

In a country like the United States with a population of causes of

situation.

nearly 92,000,000, the foregoing record is certainly a meagre one.
No one questions the necessity for such schools. The movement

194

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

appears to have lacked leadership; until the publication of the
report of the Massachusetts Commission, no competent organization
of the subject was attempted.

Favourable
trend of pub-
lic opinion.

Wisconsin.

Massachu-
setts.

LEGISLATIVE ACTS

That there is a marked trend of public opinion in the direction
of industrial education at the public expense is clear from the legis-
lative enactments by various States. Probably the most advanced
and suggestive Acts have been passed by the Wisconsin, Massa-
chusetts, and New York Legislatures.

The schools to be established under the Act in Wisconsin are
trade schools intended to produce skilled workmen rather than to
give any special or extended industrial course along with
academic work. The School Board is in control; but it may ap-
point an Advisory Committee, consisting of five members, not mem-
bers of the Board, each of whom is experienced in one or more of
the trades taught in the school. The Act provides also for a special
annual assessment, not exceeding half a mill, to be used in establish-
ing and maintaining a trade school. A check on the establishment
of such a school by the School Board against the wishes of the
community is maintained by the provision that the question must
be submitted to a vote of the electors of the municipality upon a
petition of twenty per cent, of the voters at the last election.

Wisconsin has also provided for the establishment and main-
tenance of departments of Manual Training in High Schools and
in the upper grades of the Grammar schools; the State aid being
equal to one-half of the amount of local expenditure, the maximum
aid being $250 for Manual Training in High Schools and $350 for
Manual Training in High Schools and upper grades of Grammar
Schools. Total annual expenditure for State aid, $25,000. In this
State the industrial movement is in its infancy. Wisconsin has also
established a State Mining Trade School, to teach the science, art,
and practice of mining, and the application of machinery thereto.

Under the Massachusetts Act, Industrial Schools must be estab-
lished independently, in order to secure their freedom from the
adverse influences of the academic teacher of the older type.
The State Board of Education has general charge of these
schools; it may initiate and superintend their establishment
and maintain them with -the co-operation and consent of the muni-
cipality concerned, and any money contributed by the State or the
municipality shall be expended under its direction. Day schools,
evening schools, and part-time schools are provided for. The Act
provides also for a report upon the desirability of establishing one

UNITED STATES 195

or more technical schools or industrial colleges with a three or four
years' course for extended industrial training.

The Act of the State of New York provides for the establish- N«W York-
ment and maintenance of the following: —

1. General Industrial Schools, open to pupils who have com-
pleted the Elementary School courses and are fourteen years old.

2. Trade Schools for those who are sixteen and have com-
pleted the Elementary School courses or the general Industrial
course, or have met the requirements of the School Board; and

3. Schools of Agriculture, Mechanic Arts, and Homemaking
for those who are fourteen years old, who have completed the Ele-
mentary School courses or have met other requirements of the
School Board.

Under this Act, the School Board has control, but it is required
to appoint an Advisory Committee of five members, representing
the local trades, industries, and occupations, to consult with and
advise it. State grants are also provided on the fulfilment of certain
conditions. This industrial system is intended to be flexible
enough to provide for those who can attend school all day; for
those who must work part of the time to earn a living but can
afford to go to school part of the time; and for those who must
work all day but can attend an evening school.

REPORT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS COMMISSION ON INDUSTRIAL

EDUCATION

The State of Massachusetts has been the first in the Union to importance
undertake systematically the work of providing for its manufac-0
turing interests a body of workmen, skilled not only in the practical
but the theoretical branches of their work. A statement of the
situation in the United States would be incomplete without some
consideration of the epoch-making Report of the Commission on
Industrial and Technical Education, appointed in 1905. The
Commission held an enquiry with regard to the leading industries
of the State and heard a large number of witnesses. Its first
report, published in 1906, is at present the most potent factor in
the reorganization of industrial training of the United States, and
its conclusions and recommendations are well worth the serious
consideration of the people of Ontario ; in my judgment, they apply,
mutatis mutandis, to Ontario as well :

The Commission points out that, in the past, special training f or Cauges of pre.
vocations was provided by the system of apprenticeship, and that the 8e
two systems of training by school and apprenticeship went on con-
currently, but as the system of apprenticeship became decadent, spe-
cial training for vocations took its place, first in the Schools of
Theology, of Medicine, and of Law; then in the Normal Schools

196

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

and later in the Technical Schools for Engineers. Moreover, that,
in the case of every calling, the school training gradually absorbed
more and more time, and came to be the only training for the child,
thus producing a one-sided system of education.

Following is a synopsis of the commission's report:

Provision for
the different
callings.

The wasted
years of
adolescence.

Lack of

industrial

intelligence.

PRESENT CONDITION OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

All the callings in life for which children and youth need to be specially
prepared may be roughly grouped into four classes — professional, commer-
cial, productive, and domestic.

Of these, the professional callings are sufficiently provided for, partly
at public and partly at private expense. A large part of the burden of
high school maintenance is incurred in the interests of professional callings.

The activities which may be classed as commercial, including all that
have to do with the processes of distribution and exchange, are provided
for largely at the public expense. The schools send out salesmen, clerks,
bookkeepers, typewriters, and stenographers in ever-increasing numbers.
Their occupations are the ones which allow clean hands and good clothes.
If anything is lacking in this business training, it is special education in the
principles and practice of expert salesmanship. A beginning of such
instruction has been made in Boston.

Turning to the occupations engaged in production, in distinction from
distribution, we find that these are only touched on educationally in their
most advanced and scientific forms. No instruction whatever is furnished
at public expense in the principles or practice of farming, dairying, garden-
ing, the building trades, cabinet-making, machine shop practice, boot and
shoe making, tanning, printing, bookbinding, dressmaking, millinery, em-
broidery, design.

(An Agricultural College has been established at Amherst, but the High
Schools do not prepare for it. Manufacturing has been recognized by State
grants to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Worcester
Polytechnic Institute — institutions intended for the training of men in the
highest ranks of productive industrial life. It has been recognized still
further in the recently established textile schools at Lowell (1897), New
Bedford (1899), Fall River (1904), and in a few others established since the
report was issued.)

CONCLUSIONS

1. For the great majority of children who leave school to enter employ-
ments at the age of 14 or 15, the first three or four years are practically
waste years so far as the actual productive value of the child is concerned,
and so far as increasing his industrial or productive efficiency. The employ-
ments upon which they enter demand so little intelligence and so little
manual skill that they are not educative in any sense.

For these children, many of whom now leave school from their own
choice at the completion of the seventh grade, further school training of a
practical character would be attractive, and would be a possibility if it pre-
pared for the industries. Hence, any scheme of education which is to
increase the child's productive efficiency must consider the child of four-
teen.

2. Children who continue in school until sixteen or eighteen, especially
if they complete a high school course, are able to enter upon employments
of a higher grade, usually in mercantile pursuits, and they are able by
reason of greater maturity and better mental training to learn the tech-
nique of their employment in a shorter time; but they are wholly lacking in

UNITED STATES 197

manual skill and in what we have called industrial intelligence. For the
purpose of training for efficiency in productive employments the added
years which they spend in school are to a considerable extent lost years.

In the cases of both classes of children the employment upon which
they enter on leaving school is determined by chance.

3. The productive industries of the State, including agriculture, manu- Qualification
factures, and building, depend mainly upon chance for recruiting their of workmen-
service. A few apprenticeships still exist in a few industries or parts of
industries, but very few apprentices are indentured, and many so-called
apprenticeships are falsely so named.

The knowledge and skill which the new men bring to the service of any
industry is only what they have picked up in a haphazard way. Some bring
much and many bring little.

4. This condition tends to increase the cost of production, to limit the of^kiii.o£lack
output in quantity, and to lower the grade in quality. Industries so recruited

cannot long compete with similar industries recruited from men who have
been technically trained. In the long run that industry, wherever in the
world it is located, which combines with general intelligence the broadest
technical knowledge and the highest technical skill, will command the
markets of the world.

5. The industries of Massachusetts need, in addition to the general ^e^irementa
intelligence furnished by the public school system and the skill gained in industries
the narrow fields of sub-divided labour, a broader training in the principles and tne state-
of the trades and a finer culture in taste as applied to material, workman-
ship and design. Whatever may be the cost of such training the failure to

furnish it would in the end be more costly.

6. The State needs a wider diffusion of industrial intelligence as a foun-
dation for the highest technical success, and this can be acquired only in
connection with the general system of education, into which it should enter
as an integral part from the beginning.

7. The investigation has shown the increasing necessity for a woman Women's
to enter the industrial world for the sake of self-support, and hence that occupatlonSl
she should be prepared to earn a respectable living wage, and at the same

time that the attempt should be made to fit her so that she can and will
enter those industries which are most closely allied to the home.

The investigation has shown that the vocation in which all other
women's vocations, have their root, namely, the care of the home, has been
overlooked in the modern system of education. In order that the indus-
trial life of the community may be vigorous and progressive, the house-
keepers need to be instructed in the laws of sanitation, in the purchase,
preparation and care of food, and in the care of children, that the home
may be a home and not merely a house.

(In a number of centres provision is now made in the foregoing sub-
jects.)

RECOMMENDATIONS.

I. That cities and towns so modify the work in the Elementary Schools Manual train-
as to include for boys and girls instruction and practice in the elements of
productive industry, including agriculture, and the mechanic and domestic
arts, and that this instruction be of such a character as to secure from it
the highest cultural as well as the highest industrial value; and

2. That the work in the High Schools be modified so that the instruc- ^Sdie^to011 °'
tion in mathematics, the sciences, and drawing shall show the application practical life
and use of these subjects in industrial life, with especial reference to local sc
industries, so that the students may see that these subjects are not designed
primarily and solely for academic purposes, but that they may be utilized

198 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

for the purposes of practical life; that is, algebra and geometry should be
so taught in the Public Schools as to show their relations to construction;
botany to horticulture and agriculture; chemistry to agriculture, manufac-
tures and domestic sciences; and drawing to every form of industry.

The Commission also recommends: —

Elective High i. That all towns and cities provide by new elective industrial courses
trk?courses. m Higfi Schools instruction in the principles of agriculture and the domestic
and mechanic arts;

Evening 2 That in addition to day courses cities and towns provide evening

courses for persons already employed in trades and

Part-time 3. That provision be made for the instruction in part-time day classes

Day Classes. of children between the ages of 14 and 18 years who may be employed during

the remainder of the day, to the end that instruction in the principles and

the practice of the arts may go together.

i

SCHOOLS VISITED

Of the schools for industrial purposes which I visited in De-
cember, 1909, and May, 1910, I have selected the following for
special description on account of the suggestive and generally typi-
cal character of their organization :

Trade schools. The Milwaukee School of Trades, the New York City Trade
School, the New York City Hebrew Technical Institute for Boys,
the Baron de Hirsch Trade School, the Manhattan Trade School
for Girls, the New York City Hebrew Technical School for Girls,
the Boston Trade School for Girls.

intermediate The New York City_ and Springfield Vocational Schools and the

schools™ Worcester Independent Industrial School, to which I add an
account of the Albany Vocational School and the Rochester Shop
Schools, based on facts obtained by correspondence.

Co-operative The Co-operative Industrial Department of the Fitchburg High
School, to which I add an account of the Vocational School
established at Beverley, based on facts obtained by correspondence.

Technical The Springfield Technical High School, the Stuyvesant High

School, and the Boston Girls' High School of Practical Arts.

I add an account of the Boston High School of Commerce and
of the Correspondence-Study School of Madison University.

I. TRADE SCHOOLS
MILWAUKEE SCHOOL OF TRADES, WIS.

GENERAL

Under an Act of the Legislature of the State of Wisconsin,
the Milwaukee School of Trades, which had been founded in 1906
by the Merchants' and Manufacturers' Association, became part of
the school system of the city in July, 1907, at which date the
Act came into effect. This school is the first trade school in the

UNITED STATES 199

United States to be sustained by a special municipal tax levied for fKSS
industrial education. It provides instruction for young men be-Tax-
tween the ages of 16 and 20 in the practice and fundamental prin-
ciples of the manufacturing and building trades. The school does
not claim to turn out journeymen. Its aim is to instruct its students ^jm.
so that on graduation they may be of practical value to their employ-
ers and receive fair remuneration. Each course is intended to be the
equivalent of an apprenticeship of four years. For each trade,
the course is a two years' one of 52 weeks per year and 44 hours
per week, except in the case of the plumbing trade, for which half
the above time is required. Early in the present year, I may add, a
School of Trades for Girls was also established.

The school building, both outside and inside, looks like an ordin-
ary factory, and it was so originally. It makes no architectural
pretensions, and its equipment, which is excellent and complete, is of
the factory character. Besides shops and class-rooms for the differ-
ent trades, an " Exhibit Room " is provided which contains sampl
of work of interest and value in each trade. This notable feature
of the equipment is a help and an inspiration to all, including visit-
ing parents and the boys who have not yet chosen their trade. I
have already called attention to the existence of similar museums in
the European schools.

When I visited the school in 1909 it provided instruction in Department^
pattern-making, machinist and tool making, carpentry and joinery,
plumbing and gas fitting. Moreover, its prospectus states that
when a sufficient number present themselves to form a class, instruc-
tion in other trades will be provided.

The school aims at placing the student in conditions as nearly
as possible like those he will meet with in actual practice. The
hours are occordingly, from 8 to 12 and from i to 5 daily except
Saturday. On Saturday there is a session from 8 to 12. The
evening classes are from 7.30 to 9.30, four days a week, from the
ist of October to the 3Oth of April. The course of instruction in Day courses,
each trade includes the following branches : —

1. Shop Practice and Trade Lectures.

2. Drawing: Freehand, mechanical; isometric, problems in design, architec-
tural.

3. Workshop Mathematics: Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry!

4. Shop Inspection Trips: In connection with each trip, a carefully written
report must be submitted.

5. Practical Talks and Lectures on subjects connected with each trade and
topics fundamental to all trades.

About one-fourth of the student's time is devoted to academic
instruction incidental to his trade, the remainder of the time being

200

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Admission
tests.

Evening
Classes.

Fees.

Controlled by

Advisory

Committee.

spent in actual shop practice. The school, however, provides no
cultural classes.

To qualify for admission, the students must be sixteen and be
able to read and write English and perform the fundamental oper-
ations of arithmetic. Special preparatory classes in the City High
Schools are in contemplation. At present boys below sixteen and
in attendance at the High Schools are allowed to pursue those
studies which will be most helpful to them when they enter the
School of Trades.

The evening classes supplement the experience of apprentices
and workmen who are employed during the day, but the course is
such that none except students of unusual ability can serve the
entire school apprenticeship in evening classes alone.

The cost of maintenance is approximately $225 a year for each
pupil. For residents of Milwaukee who are not over twenty years
of age, the school is free. For all others the day classes are $15 a
month, and the evening classes, $4. Students receiving free tuition
are charged for the materials used in their trades as follows :—

Day pupils in pattern making, machinist, tool making, and
wood working trades, $4.00 per month.

Day pupils in plumbing and gas fitting trade, $5.00 per month.

All students admitted are considered to be on one month's
probation, but, if necessary, a longer period may be allowed.

The school is under the immediate control of an Advisory
Committee called " The Committee on Trade Schools," as provided
in the Legislative Act.

The following are the details of the courses of study: —

CURRICULUM

Patternmaking

Instruction in the proper use and care of tools and machinery.

Lectures on pattern making materials; laws governing warping and
cracking; talks on protective coatings for patterns.

Instruction in allowance needed for draft, shrinkage, finish, shake, and
warp.

Especial attention is given to the intimate relation which should exist
between pattern shop and foundry. No pattern is begun without first thor-
oughly studying all the interests involved in its use in the foundry. If it is
a pattern for a casting upon which machine work is to be performed, its
interests in that shop must also be considered.

The shop work includes the application of all the principles given in
lectures and shop talks. Carefully graded problems are given the appren-
tices, from simple exercises to develop skill in the use and control of their
tools up to the most difficult work likely to be met with in pattern making.

UNITED STATES 201

Some of the problems given are as follows: —

Small rectangular patterns for solid and hollow castings. Ribbed sur-
face plates. Built up patterns, including choice and preparation of stock.
Pipe fittings. Valves. Patterns involving auxiliary patterns. Steam and
gas engine patterns and core boxes. Patterns for electrical machinery.
Patterns for steam pumps. Spur, bevel and worm gears. Fly wheel and
pulley patterns. Sweeps for loom work. Miscellaneous patterns and core
boxes.

Each student must test all his earlier patterns for draft, shrinkage, and
finish, by making moulds from them and forming the castings with molten
metal.

The school offers especial advantages to its students in pattern making
by supplying opportunities for the further study and criticism of their work
when the castings from their patterns are received from the foundry to be
worked upon in the machine shop.

Machinemaking and Toolmaking

Instruction is given in the use and care of the different machine tools,
and the manipulation of tools for precision measurements.

The following work is then taken up: —

Lathe Work: Plain cylindrical turning and boring. Taper turning and
boring. Thread cutting of all standard threads. Chucking and face plate
work. Boring with boring bar. Mandrel work. Use of steady rest, cat
heads and follower rest. Running, shrinking and pressing fits.

Drilling and Boring: Guiding drills. " Drilling within desired circle.
Countersinking and countercoring. Laying out work. Methods of clamp-
ing work on drill press table. Special uses of drill press.

Planer Work: Plain surfaces at varying angles. Methods of holding
irregular work. Planing curved surfaces. Planing dovetails and ways of
lathes. Special planer work.

Shaper Work: Advantage of shaper over planer in special work. Cut-
ting keyways. Cutting to a shoulder. Clamping and chucking work. Spe-
cial shaper work.

Milling Machine Work: Care of milling cutters. Cutting speeds and
feeds. Methods of holding cutters. Milling operations. Indexing. Spiral
work. Use of special attachments.

Gear Cutting Work: Proportions of gear teeth. Rules for spur-gear
calculations. Bevel gears. Worm wheels and worms. (Each student pre-
pares his own gear blanks.)

Machine Grinding: Selection of grinding wheels. Wet and dry grind-
ing. External and internal grinding. Surface grinding.

Bench and Vise Work: Chipping, filing, scraping, fitting, assembling

Tool Making: Taps. Dies. Cutters. Reamers. Counterbores. Twist

11s. Milling Cutters. Special tools. Dies and Punches. Jigs. Gauges.

Note.— All tools made by apprentices include every step from the secur-
ing and annealing of stock to the tempered and ground tool.

Carpentry and Woodworking

The work done in this trade consists of instruction in carpentry, joinery
cabinet making, stair building, and mill work; the aim being to give each
graduate in this course a thorough foundation in all the fundamental processes
of wood working.

202 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Hand Tools: Instruction is first given in the use and proper care of the
hand tools used in the trade. Students are started at once upon the basic
exercises as follows : —

Six kinds of lap joints. Nine kinds of mortised and tenon joints. Four
problems in graining. Seven problems in dovetailing.

Ornamentation: Fluting, straight work. Fluting, circle and segment.
Reeding, straight and circular design. Chamfering, stop chamfers, O.G. and
other designs. Special design in plain relief carving, etc.

Mill Work: Plank frames for brick and frame houses. Box window
frames for brick and frame houses. Vestibule entrance frames, side light, etc.
Porch and cornice work. Exterior decoration. Interior finish, doors, wains-
cotting, china closets, etc. Instruction in the manner of laying out the work.
Billing same for cutters and assembling and finishing. Special designs m
sash, etc. Store fronts.

Framing, etc.: Balloon framing. Timber framing. Making timber joints.
Rafter framing. Truss framing. Laying joist and framing headers, etc. Set-
ting of partitions, etc.

Cabinet Work: Making cabinets. Bank fixtures. Hardwood mantels.
Veneering and fancy goods. Inlaid work, etc.

Stair Building: Mode of laying out ordinary straight stairs. Laying out
winders. Laying out circular and elliptical stairs. Kerfing stringers.
Laminating stringers, risers and other bent work. Method of laying out
and working hand railing for platform, quarter turn and winding stairways.

Mill Machinery: Instruction in the use of saws, planers, moulders,
jointers, mortisers, tenoners, and other machines in connection with all
classes of wood working, giving in detail the manner of making and temper-
ing knives, setting up and caring for machines.

Plumbing and Gas Fitting

After an explanation of the names and uses of the various tools and
materials used in the plumbing trade, the students are immediately set to
work on the following: —

Problems: Sheet lead seams. Over-cast joints. Cup joints. Five-eighth
inch round and branch joints; horizontal, upright and vertical. Calking
and making joints on cast iron soil and drain pipe. Stop cock. Solder-
ing nipples, large and small. Two-inch ferrules. Bath plugs. One and one-
quarter inch round and branch joints, horizontal and upright. One and
one-half inch round and branch joints, horizontal and upright. Floor flanges.
Wall flanges. Quarter bends. Half S traps. S traps. Four-inch ferrules,
horizontal and upright. One-half inch round and branch joints, horizontal
and upright. Five-eighths inch round joint, oblique. Five-eighths inch
round joint, overhead. Plain bibb vertical branches. Two inch round and
branch joints, horizontal, upright, and vertical. Two-inch short bend with
ferrule. Four-inch short bend with ferrule. Four-inch drum trap. Tank
seams, horizontal and upright.

Setting up and Connecting: Sinks, lavatories, boilers, hot water tanks,
laundry trays, laundry stoves and heaters, urinals, closets, bath tubs, hydraulic
rams, kitchen ranges for gas, coal or wood fuel, automatic cellar drainers,
pitcher pumps, wall and horizontal force pumps, hydrants, Ruud instan-
taneous water heaters, special galvanized iron boilers, regular galvanized
iron boilers. The installation of plumbing fixtures in erected sections of
city and country residences, supplied by direct and tank water pressure
systems.

UNITED STATES 203

Lectures: On the following subjects: —

Systems of installation and ventilation. Trapping and venting of drain,
soil and waste pipes. Supply pipes. Boilers. Tanks. Fixtures. Trapping
of fixtures. Pumps. Water supply for country houses. Disposal of sewage
in country houses. Estimating on contracts. State sanitary laws applicable
to plumbing.

Gas Fitting: At the close of the plumbing course the necessary time is
taken for instruction and practice in gas fitting.

Mechanical Drawing

A thorough course is given in Mechanical Drawing, based on the spe-
cial needs of each trade. The school furnishes each student with "a draw-
ing board and T square, but he must supply his drawing instruments.

Instruction is given by lectures, by means of specification sheets pre-
pared in blue print form, and by notes prepared by the drawing instructors
and printed by neostyle. Most of the instruction is individual. Students
are urged to do as much home work as possible, such as making tracings
and inking in their drawings which have passed inspection.

A course in each trade leads up to practical problems in original designs
peculiar to that trade.

Since, practically, fifty per cent, of the value of a pattern maker to his
employer rests on his ability to interpret correctly blue prints and working
drawings, the apprentices in this trade are given special practice in inter-
preting working drawings.

Workshop Mathematics

After a thorough review, which demonstrates to the pupil and the
instructor the ability of the former for this important branch of his trade,
the apprentice is lead, by the solution of practical problems, through the
necessary portions of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.
These subjects, when presented to pupils in the abstract, are frequently
beyond their mental grasp, but when connected with trade practice their absolute
necessity becomes plain. The student then attacks the problem from a new
standpoint and with renewed vigor, and succeeds in mastering the difficulties.

All the problems in this branch of apprenticeship, also, are specially
prepared by the instructors and printed by neostyle. Much of this work is
required to be done by the students as home study. Lectures and shop talks
supplement the workshop mathematics.

NEW YORK CITY TRADE SCHOOL

GENERAL

The purpose of this " short course " trade school is to provide in- Aim.
struction for young men between the ages of seventeen and twenty-
five who have either been already engaged in trade or who desire
to learn one. This was the first school of its type and, in fact,
the first trade school of any kind to be established in the United
States. Its founder, the late Colonel Auchmuty, himself an archi-
tect by profession, was one of the first to realize the fact that the
ineffectiveness of the apprentice system in the building trades

14 E.I.P.

204

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

" Auchmuty "
System.

Qualifications
of Teachers.

Day and
Evening

Classes.

Certificates.

Products.
Fees.

Advisory
Committees.

Accommo-
dations.

made it necessary to provide institutions which would combine
trade instruction with work in the shop.

The mode of instruction used at the school is known as the
" Auchmuty system," and originated with the founder. For each
trade, a course of instruction is provided in the practical and theo-
retical branches. The course specifies a series of exercises in
manual work which each student is required to execute and com-
plete, and which are so graded that the student acquires facility
in the handling of tools and a knowledge of the processes of his
trade. The teachers, of whom there are about thirty, are expert
mechanics.

As I have elsewhere stated, this is a trade school pure and
simple. Even in drawing, for example, the student is taught
merely to read plans and blue prints; he is not taught to make
drawings himself.

Both day and evening classes are provided, and a certificate is
granted on the completion of the course. The day classes last for
one term of four months, and the instruction is given from 8.30
a.m. to 4 p.m. every day. A young man who possesses the neces-
sary aptitude and education can complete the day course in one
term. The evening classes last for a term of six months, meeting
three or four evenings a week for two and a half hours each even-
ing. For a certificate the average student usually attends three
terms, but these may be reduced to two when he is able to complete
the course in that period. Last session 172 atttended the day classes
and 516 the evening classes. As its prospectus states, this school
is not a money-making or charity institution, nor is it conducted in
the interest of or in opposition to any organization of master or
journeymen mechanics.

The work done by the students is not used in any way for the
pecuniary advantage of the school.

The fees for the evening classes range from $12 to $16, and
for the clay classes from $25 to $45 a term. The difference be-
tween the amount of the fees and the cost of maintenance is made
up by the income from an endowment of $500,000 and by dona-
tions. The cost of maintenance in 1909-1910 was nearly $39,000.

Besides the Trustees, the school has the advantage of various
committees who visit the institution and co-operate in its manage-
ment. These Committees represent the Master Plumbers' Associa-
tion, Master Painters' and Decorators' Association, 'Master Steam
and Hot Water Fitters' Association, Master Pattern Makers'
League, General Association of Mechanics and Tradesmen of New
York.

The accommodations are very fine. There are eight one-story
buildings, one two-story, and two three-story, and the rooms

UNITED STATES 205

have been arranged with a view to securing large floor area and
ample light and ventilation. A library, containing the best class Equipment,
of literature and of technical works, has been provided. Trade
and technical papers are also kept on file. The equipment of the
various work-shops is excellent. The approximate cost of the
accommodations is $300, and, of the equipment, $50,000.

At a short distance from the school there is a students' dormi- students'

. • Dormitory.

tory, where young men who come from distant points (and they
come from all over the American continent, including Canada,
and even from Europe and Asia) may obtain accommodation.

CURRICULUM

Throughout the course it is the duty of the instructors to give
attention to the following: i. That each student acquire a work-
manlike manner of using his tools. 2. That tools be used pro-
perly and for the purpose for which they are intended. 3. That
a student 'acquires a free and easy manner of doing work. An
awkward position or attitude is corrected immediately.

Following are details of the courses which are of value, as
they embody the results of over a quarter of a century's experi-
ence :

Plastering

1. Name of tools and the use of each.

2. Lathing, proper space between laths, number of nails to a lath, breaking
joints.

3. Picking up mortar. Practice with hawk and trowel.

4. How to mix mortar for scratch coat; the proportion of sand, lime and
hair to use.

5. Applying the scratch coat. Tools required. Where to begin in plaster-
ing a room; thickness of coat, and how much mortar should be forced between
laths to form a proper key or clinch. Use of the scratcher.

6 How to mix mortar for brown coat; the proportion of sand, lime, and
hair to use.

7. Applying the brown coat. Tools required. Screeds and their object.
Proper thickness of brown coat and where to begin in the room. Where
" dots " are needed and how to make them. How to plumb " dots " with a
plumb rule. How to finish if no hard finish coat is to be applied. How to sand
finish if wall is to be frescoed. How to brown coat a brick wall.

Bricklaying

The manual work includes the following: —

1. Spreading mortar. The pupil to be shown how to hold trowel ', how to
cut and take up mortar with the trowel ; the movement of the wrist in spreading
mortar.

2. Building straight walls, 8, 12, 16 and 2O-inch thickness; toothing; gable
end and party wall blocking on ends ; corbelling.

206 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

3. Building^ return corners, 8, 12, 16, 20-inch thickness.

4. Building intersecting walls, 8, 12, 16, 20-inch thickness.

5. Building piers, 12, 16, 20-inches.

6. Building arches, 8, 12, i6-inch thickness.

7. Building fireplaces and flues.

8. Building walls containing window frames ; setting sills and lintels.

9. Laying out and building a house.

Before an exercise is begun the instructor explains the nature of the work
and also does the work in the presence of the class.

In his supervision of the students the instructor constantly gives attention
to the following: To the position of standing, to the manner of holding and
using the trowel, of taking up and spreading the mortar, selecting the best side
of brick, how to hold it in, laying to a line, bedding brick properly and cutting
off the mortar, putting on the cross joint, to avoid dropping mortar, to striking
joint? and pointing.

It is the duty of the instructor to have the pupils acquire a workmanlike
manner of using the trowel before any pointing or striking of joints is done.

In building arches attention is given to setting the centre, to having the
joints of the arch of a proper and uniform thickness, to bedding solidly in
mortar each brick in the arch.

Lectures on the following subjects are delivered during the course:
Properties of mortar and cement, and how they should be mixed; arches,
their various styles, and the advantages of each ; flues, their construction
and utility; bonding, walls, foundations, materials; how hard finish should be
mixed, what materials enter its preparation and the proper proportion of each
to use ; applying the hard finish ; tools required ; where to begin a room and
number of coats to apply ; how to brush and trowel the surface ; how to finish
angles; what materials are required 'for cornicing and the preparation of same.
Cornices : Tools required ; when cornices should be run ; how to apply the
plaster and use the mold, mitres, circles, rule joints, ovals and arches.

Carpentry

Part I. — Planing. Planing and squaring to a given width and thickness.
Planing to a given bevel. Planing to ajjquare piece of four equal sides. Making
and proving a straight edge. Slip tongue. Rabbeting. Dadoing. Matching
and blindnailing. Beads — plain, return centre, stop. Rabbeted frame. Plumb
rule. Boring (three pieces). Mitreing. Casing rabbeted frame. Stop cham-
fers (five patterns). Square box post-chamfered. Rule joint. Centres — semi-
circle, segmental, Gothic, elliptic. Window frame for a frame house. Window
frame for a brick house. Pentagons, hexagons, octagons. Joinery — halved-
together joint, half dovetail joint, open mortise and tenon joint, blind mortis*
and tenon joint, mortise and tenon joint, mitre joint, mitre joint with open
mortise and tenon, an open double mortise and tenon joint, blind mortise and
tenon joint, suitable for the end of a brace, dowel joint, dovetail joint. Corner
post. Jamb and door work. Sash work. Large doors. Closet seat. Nest of
drawers. Stairs.

Part II. — During the progress of the course the following work will also
be done: —

Herring-bone bridging. Deafening of floors. Setting stud partitions.
Flooring. Firring. Skirting. Miscellaneous work.

Part III. — Building of a frame house, complete in all details.
At stated periods lectures will be delivered relative to tools, materials,
and the work included in the course.

UNITED STATES 207

Sheet Metal Cornice Work

Part I.— Cutting curves and circles; showing use of shears. Filing and
tinning the soldering copper. Soldering flat seams. Soldering upright seams.
Drawing of geometrical problems.

Part II. — Drawing of details, obtaining pattern from same, and setting to-
gether the following work : —

Plain capital : Moulded gutter with flat and return head. Square moulded
leader head. Octagon moulded leader head. Plain window cap. Ornamental
window cap. Raised panel work. Plain cornice with modillions. Ornamental
cornice, including brackets. Square turret. Ornamental finial. Sheet-metal
cross. Pediment on a wash. Dormer window. Ventilator on a pitched roof.
Flat skylights. Hipped skylights. Bay window. Special problems.

Part III. — Hammer work : This section comprises the drawing of details,
obtaining patterns from same, and constructing the following:

Hand work: Making a zo-inch full ball in eight horizontal sections. Round
finial. Centre piece for a ceiling.

Machine work : Circular panel in two pieces using machine profiles. Cir-
cular moulding in two pieces, using machine profiles. Segmental pediments with
columns.

The scientific instruction treats of the following: (a) Tools required by
the cornice maker and the special use of each; (&) materials; (c) definitions of
architectural terms; (d) definitions of geometrical terms; (?) roofing and
flashings; (/) slate roofing and flashings; (g) proper way of doing work.

House Painting

Part I. — Name of tools comprising a painter's kit and the use to which each
is applied. How to bind a brush. Importance of keeping paint as much as
possible off the hands ; danger of eating with dirty hands or allowing paint to
remain upon them; how to clean the hands. Care of brushes; manner of keep-
ing pots clean.

Part II. — Making putty. Glazing: (i) Removing lights, (2) re-glazing,
(3) bedding the glass, (4) cleaning.

Part III. — Painting new wood: (i) Killing knots and green spots; in-
jurious use of shellac on new wood; (2) priming or first coat; (3) puttying and
sand papering; (4) second coat; (5) third coat. Burning off paint: (i) How
to handle torch and regulate flame; (2) filling in the wood; (3) sand papering.
Ordinary painting : (i) Painting brick work; (2) painting wood work; (3) wall
painting — preparation of walls. Lining on brick wall with trench.

In doing the work provided for in this section of the course, it is the duty
of the instructor to give particular attention to the following: (i) That each
pupil uses the different brushes properly; (2) that a free movement of the wrist
in using the brush is acquired: (3) that the proper manner of taking paint from
the pot with the brush is observed and the importance of cleanliness in work is
impressed on the pupil's attention ; (4) how to avoid spattering the paint and
the need of using up the colour in the pots; (5) way to remove paint that has
been spattered.

Part IV. — Mixing white paint — materials required. Names of the ordinary
colours and stainers and their use. Mixing oil colours. Mixing kalsomine
colours. Contrast and harmony of colours.

Part V.— Painting in three shades. Flatting. Stippling.

Part VI. — Kalsomining: (i) Preparation of size; (2) sizing; (3) prepara-
tion of kalsomine; (4) application of same; (5) lining with pencil.

208 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Part VII. — Staining. Varnishing. Treatment of hardwood — cleaning, etc.
Polish white and gilding. Graining.

Part VIII. — Exterior painting: (i) Painting brick; (2) painting wood
work; (3) painting of tin.

Part IX. — Ceiling work: (i) Cutting out cracks and replastering same;
(2) laying in panels; (3) preparing stencils; (4) applying ornaments.

Part X. — Marbling. Bronzing. Paper hanging: (i) Making paste; (2)
preparing and sizing walls; (3) hanging paper.

Part XL — Review of course of instruction.

Parts VIII., IX. and X are for day class only.

The scientific instruction includes the following subjects: (i) White lead,
(2) oils, (3) turpentine, (4) dryers, (5) colours and their composition, (6)
brushes and their care, (7) painting, (8) gilding, (9) varnishing, (10) kalso-
mining.

Fresco Painting

Part I. — Name of brushes and the use to which each is applied. Importance
of cleaning brushes thoroughly when work is finished. Washing off plastered
walls and ceilings. Preparation of walls and ceilings for water colours. Cutting
out and filling in cracks. Shellacing cracks and stains. Preparation of size.
How to mix kalsomine. Kalsomining and mixing colours. How to hold and
use a straight edge. Keeping straight edge clean. How to hold and use :i
fitch for lining. Wide lines. Running light lines with pencil fitch. Lines
crossed at right angles. How to make and cut stencils. Stencilling. Pounces
and how made. Painting flat ornaments in one and more colours and edging.
Painting mouldings.

Part II. — Painting ornaments in various styles. Stucco painting. Gilding.

Part III. — Advanced ornamental (painting. Glazing. Painting of flowers.

Part IV. — Freehand drawing. Elementary and in light and shade. Work
to be done from plates and casts.

Sign Painting

The manual work includes the following:

Method of preparing a new sign board for lettering. Treatment of
old sign boards for the purpose of re-lettering. Forming letters of the
alphabet in Roman, Block and Egyptian styles. How to hold and use the
lettering pencil. How to hold and use the palette. How to hold and use the
mahl stick. Painting signs in one colour from copy. Painting signs in two
or more colours from copy. Shading. Blocking. Lining. Smalting. Gilding
on wood. Gilding on glass. Lettering on japanned plates. Lettering on
muslin. Lettering on wire.

The scientific instruction consists of lectures on the following subjects:—

How sign boards should be made. Colours principally used by sign
painters. How colours should be mixed to meet the requirements of the
different kinds of work. Colours to be used in shading and blocking. Styles,
proportions, and spacing of letters. Laying out work. Preparation of size.
Application of size and leaf. Difference in treatment of gilding on wood and
on glass. Japans and dryers. Smalting.

Plumbing

The manual work includes the following:

Seams; overcast joint; cup joint; calking; §-£ inch round joint,
horizontal; % inch branch joint, horizontal; ^ inch round joint, up-
right; quarter bend; $A inch branch joint, upright; stop cock; floor flange;

UNITED STATES 209

2 inch ferrule; bath plug; 5^ inch branch joint, vertical; wall flange; halt !S
trap ; S trap ; soldering nipple, small ; soldering nipple, large ; 4 inch ferrule,
upright; 4 inch ferrule horizontal; tank seam, upright; tank seam, horizontal;
Yz inch round joint, horizontal Y* inch branch joint, horizontal; Yt mcn round
joint, upright; Y? incn branch joint, vertical; |H? inch round joint, oblique; ^
inch round joint, overhead; plain bib, vertical branch; 2 inch round joint,
horizontal; 2 inch round joint upright; 2 inch branch joint, upright; 2 inch
branch joint vertical; 2 inch short bend, with ferrule; 4 inch short bend, with
ferrule.

On completion of above course, advanced work will be undertaken,
namely: Setting up sinks, basins, boilers, wash trays, closets, and bath tubs,
making bottle traps and other miscellaneous work.

In the wiping of joints, instructors give particular attention to the
following, viz. : i. That the student holds the ladle and pours the metal there-
from correctly. 2. That the wiping cloth is used properly. 3. Obtaining the
right heat for wiping the joint. Forming the joint. Wiping the joint clean.
That the wiping is done with one hand only.

Lectures will be given on the following subjects : Drain, soil and waste
pipes. Trapping and ventilation of drain, soil and waste pipes. Supply pipes.
Boilers. Tanks. Fixtures. Trapping of fixtures. Pumps. Disposal of sewage
in country houses. Water supply for country houses. Miscellaneous. Cor-
recting diagrams of improper plumbing.

Steam and Hot Water Fitting

Part I. — Name of tools and the use of each. The object of using oil on
cutters and dies ; kind of oil to use. How to stand at work-bench ; the proper
way of using the pipe-cutter. Cut 6 pieces of each size pipe— M, i, i% and
il/2 inch. Each piece to be six inches in length. How to adjust the stock and
dies; proper way of using; how to start a thread. Take the piece of pipe pre-
viously cut, and make nipples by threading both ends. Number of threads
nipples should have. How to cut a crooked thread, and under what conditions
used. Building coils; return, mitre and corner coils.

Part II. — On completion ol Part I., students receive instruction in the
erection and the principles of operation of the various systems of heating,
namely :

(i) Steam one pipe; (2) steam two pipe; (3) combination steam one and
two pipe; (4) hot water; (5) direct-indirect; (6) indirect; (7) high pressure;
(8) high and low pressure.

The work is done from plans and in the construction of the various sys-
tems, the piping, fixtures and appliances are put together in the same manner
as required in actual practice.

Part III. — During the progress of Part II, the construction, purpose and
operation of the following apparatus is explained and illustrated :

Globe, angle, check, safety, and other valves. Radiators. Water feeder.
Glass water gauge. Steam gauge. Steam cock. Expansion tank. Feed
water injector. Steam pump. Steam trap. Return steam trap. Feed water
heater. Pump governor. Blow-off tank. Separator or extractor. Pressure
regulator.

During the course a series of lectures on the science of the trade is deliv-
ered. The lectures embrace the following subjects: —

Tools, fitting and pipe. General questions on heating. Low pressure
steam. Two pipe steam heating. Single pipe low pressure steam heating. In-
direct steam heating. Hot water heating. Single pipe main system. High
pressure steam heating. High and low pressure steam heating. Exhaust
steam heating. Power fan or blower system of steam heating and ventilating.

210 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Blacksmith's Work

Part I. — Use of Tools — Making fire and its management. Names of the
different tools used in hand forging. Position in regard to fire and anvil. Ex-
planation of the different degrees of heat. Motion of wrist in handling work
and method of striking. Use of the vise and the name and use of the tools
required for bench work. Use of the drill press. Use of screw-cutting tools.

Part II. — Forging — This section will embrace pointing, bending, welding,
up-setting, splitting, punching and riveting, points, hooks, staples, S hooks, gate
hooks, hold fasts, bridles, experiments in welding, rings, chain and hook, bolts,
jaws, tees, nose keys.

Upon completion of the above exercises pupils will be given house work,
railing work and machine work of a practical character, to execute. The work
will be done from drawings and patterns.

Part III. — Tool Making — The instruction will include: Machine and
lathe tools; blacksmiths', millers', stone-cutters', carpenters', plumbers', pipe
and steam fitters', tin and coppersmiths' tools. Particular attention will be
given to manner of tempering.

Part IV. — Vice Work — Filing to line, bevels, clipping, fitting tongues and
grooves, scraping, drilling.

The work provided for under this section is performed throughout the
course as occasion demands it. When a piece of work has been made, any
filing or other vise work that may be required to finish it is dene before the
work is finally put away.

Theoretical instruction is given on iron and iron working, fuel, iron forging
and welding, steel and steel working.
I

Printing

Part I. — How to stand at the case, and how to set and hold the composing
stick.

Learning the case; spacing and justification.

Composition on reprint copy; straight matter.

Composition on manuscript copy; straight matter.

Explanation of point system. The different sizes of type, rules and leads.

Displayed advertisements; reprint copy.

Displayed advertisements; manuscript copy.

Part II.— Job Printing— This includes bill heads, note heads, statements,
letter heads, business cards, tickets, dodgers, circulars, blank forms and general
mercantile work, cutting and mitering rules. Reprint copy is given at first,
and the student is required to duplicate the dispky type and spacing, after
which, he sets from manuscript copy and exercises his own judgment in display
and arrangement

Part III. — Tabular work, without brass rules: One column of words and
one column of figures; one column of words and two columns of figures; one
column of words and three columns of figures; one column of words and four
columns of figures; two columns of words and one column of figures; three
columns of figures.

Tabular work", with brass rules : One column of words and two of figures ;
one column of words and three columns of figures ; one column of words and
four columns or more of figures with single, double and triple heads; two
columns of words and two columns of figures.

Part IV. — After the first week of the course, the distribution of type com-
mences, and the instructors see that students properly sort spaces, and put

UNITED STATES 211

accents, italics, head-letters, leads, slugs and rules in their proper places.
Cases, galleys, stones and the floor must at all times be kept free from "pi."

Each student is also taught making up, justifying, locking up forms,
making ready for, running and cleaning press.

First proofs of each student's work must be kept on file, with his name
and the date marked on the head.

HEBREW TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, NEW YORK CITY

GENERAL
i

The aim of the Hebrew Technical Institute is to provide forAim-
the technical education of Jews and others of limited means in
studies that will fit them for mechanical trades. It has been in
existence since 1883, and is supported by contributions of members
of the Hebrew Technical Institute Society and by the revenue from Maintenance.

investments amounting- to $200,000. The school occupies a six- A

«.«.,. . , , , . tions and

storey building, with good class rooms and equipment. There are Equipment.
two buildings, which cost about $38,000 each. The equipment cost
$36,300; salaries, $26,500; material, $41,000: and other items,
$11,000.

Candidates for admission must be residents of New York, at Admission

tGStS

least twelve and a half years old, healthy and strong, with satis-
factory testimonials of character. On the average, about 40 per
cent, of the entrants are below fourteen, and about the same per-
centage have not graduated from the Grammar Schools. They
must also pass an entrance examination in arithmetic, English,
geography, and United States history. Last session the day school
attendance was 270; the evening, 68.

Practical evening classes are maintained in tool making, instru-
ment making, die making,- machine work, pattern making, cabinet
making and mechanical drawing. To these classes are admitted
machinists and men in cabinet and pattern making shops who are
over nineteen years of age. The classes are held three evenings a
week, from 7.30 to 9.30. The instruction is free, but $i a month
is charged for material. The course extends over two years.

The daily session is from 9 a.m. till 5 p.m., except on Friday, D&y school.
when the school closes at 4, and Saturday, of course, is a holiday.
The junior class is dismissed at 4.

Tuition, books, and tools are free, and hot lunches are provided
at a cost of ten cents a week. The cost of each pupil was $119.

The school contains an excellent reference library, chiefly
mechanical and scientific subjects. It has also a circulating
library, containing books of travel, history, biography, literature.
poetry, fiction, etc.

212

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Sayings Fund.

Character of
Courses :

General
Industrial.

Trade and
Technical.

A students' savings fund has been established, the object being
to enable graduates to purchase out of their savings the tools and
instruments they need on leaving the school.

My impression of this school is that it is a very excellent one
indeed, and that schools patterned upon it would be useful in some
parts of this Province.

While the school provides for technical training, a large part
of the daily work is given to the essentials of a good education;
and, as the classes are kept small, pupils usually advance at least as
rapidly as in the Public Schools.

The course is a three years' one and is so arranged that during
the junior and middle years the students are instructed in the sub-
jects that will be useful to them whatever mechanical pursuit they
may finally choose. In the third (the senior) year they are en-
couraged to give special attention to the branch of the work that
seems most agreeable and suitable for each. The school does not
aim at teaching the higher branches of mechanical, civil, or elec-
trical engineering. The great majority of the graduates are in-
tended for positions as skilled artisans ; for example, foremen in
wood and iron working shops, electrical industries, and draughts-
men in architects' offices and manufacturing works, as well as
workmen in the various industries. The list of graduates and their
vocations at the end of the catalogue for 1910 shows that the
majority take up a trade and often advance to responsible positions.

The following are the courses of study : —

CURRICULUM

JUNIOR YEAR.

English: Reading; spelling, definitions, penmanship (vertical system) ;
language lessons ; exercises in composition and letter writing ; rhetoric ; litera-
ture ; American history ; geography ; map drawing.

Mathematics: Arithmetic — Common and decimal fractions; denominate
numbers; square root; cube root; metric system; percentage; proportion.

Algebra.

Geometry: Study of form; mensuration; inventional geometry; plane
geometry.

Short home lessons are assigned daily.

Applied Science: The mechanical powers, matter, gravitation, hydrostatics,
heat, sound, and light; elementary laboratory work; simple experiments in
electricity. Experimental chemistry.

Mechanical Drawing: Instruction in the elements of drawing; handling of
instruments ; exercises in the use of T-square and triangles ; working draw-
ings of simple objects and bench exercises; lettering.

Free-hand and Decorative Drawing: A series of elementary rectilinear
exercises based upon the square; these exercises formed into borders; other
borders made with straight lines (Meanders); the circle; exercises with the
complete circle and with arcs; regular triangle and polygons; simple rosettes;
the ellipse ; oval and related forms ; conventionalized leaves and flowers. These

UNITED STATES 213

exercises are made at first with pencil only, then the outlines are traced in ink
and water colours applied.

Object Drawing: Beginning with the cube, many objects, principally
with straight edges, are drawn, such as boxes, books and furniture, shading
alternatively with pencil and brush, aiming at exactness of outline and cor-
rectness of shading.

Regular home work is necessary.

Wood Work: Uses of the bench and the chief wood-working tools;
principal characteristics of woods; exercises with plane, chisel, saw, and
other tools; joints and articles illustrating their use; glueing, finishing with
stain, shellac, and wax.

MIDDLE YEAR.

English: Grammar; composition; letter writing; business forms; penman-
ship (vertical system); rhetoric; literature.

History of the United States completed. Biographies of eminent men of
America, and its political and scientific developments. Jewish history.

Geography, completed ; map drawing.

Industrial topics; study of woods.

Lectures upon general science, mechanics and shop work.

Mathematics: Algebra. Plane and solid mensuration. Plane and solid
geometry; applied geometry.

Applied Science: Physics; mechanics; heat; light; sound; laboratory work.
Electricity; laboratory work in static electricity and magnetism.

. Geometrical Drawing: Patterns for sheet-metal work; projections and
drawings as applied to machine-shop exercises ; lettering and blue-printing.

Free-hand Drazving: Decorative Drawing. — Artistic lettering, outlines of
vases; the plant ornament applied to floor designs, borders, panels, and
wall papers; each copy is succeeded by a free imitation or composition;
general use of water colours.

Object Draiving: Beginning with the cylinder and sphere, a series of
objects with curved surfaces are represented such as fruits, cups, dishes and
vases; sketching of animals; shading alternately with pencil or brush; the
aim being an artistic rendering of surfaces.

Regular home work is necessary.

Wood Work: Exercises in joinery and constructive carpentry.

Lathe Work: Centre work; face plate work; geometric solids.

Construction work: Joinery; model of a window sash or panel door;
printing frame; dovetailed box; staining and polishing.

Wood Carving: Use of carving tools; sharpening tools; geometric
designs in chip carving; designs in Renaissance; conventional designs cut
in high and low relief; classic architectural styles and ornamentations; con-
structive furniture and cabinet work.

Metal Work: Instruction in the quality and manufacture of brass and
iron; use of the different chisels, files, and small tools; chipping and filing;
speed lathe work; use of drill press, planer, and shaper.

SENIOR YEAR

t The student pursues all the studies of the fundamental course, and, in
addition, those of one of the special courses.

214 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Fundamental Course

English: Grammar; American and English literature; rhetoric; composi-
tion correlated with concrete and technical shopwork ; narration; description;
argumentation ; exposition.

Physical geography.

Civics.
• Industries and natural resources of the United States.

Talk on woods, metals, coals, building materials, and kindred subjects.

Lectures upon general science, mechanics and shop work, illustrated
by stereopticon views; upon the preservation of health; upon the duties of
citizenship.

Mathematics: Physical arithmetic as applied in the laboratory.
Arithmetic: General review and final examination.

Algebra: Quadratics, ratio, proportion, progression, evolution of for-
mulas, and logarithmic computation.

Plane and solid geometry as applied in the shops. Plane Trigonometry.
Elements of mechanics.

Applied Science: Physics. — Experimental mechanics; advanced laboratory
work; construction of apparatus.

Electricity: Electricity and magnetism as applied to the telegraph,
telephone, lighting, transmission and distribution of power.

Primary and storage batteries; electric heating and welding.

Chemistry: Lectures and elementary experiments; laboratory work.

Engineering: Text book work and lectures. — Study of the theory and
principles of reciprocating and rotary steam engines, internal combustion
engines, boilers, pipes, valves, purrfps, injectors.

Practical operation of the injector; operation of the steam engine, gas
and gasoline engines; fuel, boiler and brake tests.

Applied Mechanics: Elementary principles of graphical statics illustrated
by many problems; theory of stresses as applied to calculations in building and
machine design.

Mechanical Drawing: Cabinet projection; working drawings for pattern
making; working drawings for machine-shop exercises; architectural and
machine drawings.

Free-hand Drawing: Decorative Drawing. — Flat ornaments in the his-
toric styles; monograms; more elaborate use of water colours; architec-
tural drawing with pen and ink; interior wall decoration.

Object Drawing: Flower drawing with pencil; pencil sketching of build-
ings and their parts; groups of objects; still life; pen and ink sketches.

Wood Work: Advanced lathe work; pattern work; moulding and cast-
ing in white metal; cabinet work; veneering and polishing; construction
work in carpentry.

Architectural wood work, grill work, interior finish.

Wood Carving: Carving from casts and working drawings; draught
carving for moulding; constructive furniture; applications of ornamenta-
tion; lectures on architectural styles.

Metal Work: Advanced work on speed lathe; plain and taper turning;
cutting threads on engine lathe; planing; drill press exercises; gear cutting;
making tools, taps, reamers, and milling-machine cutters; grinding; forging,
annealing, hardening and tempering.

Forging: Practical work in forging squares, rounds, and welding.

Forging, hardening, tempering and grinding lathe tools.

UNITED STATES 215

Some ornamental iron work is done to develop facility in handling tools
and metal, but the principal work is in producing practical tools for actual
use.

Inspection Trips: Inspection trips to .the country, parks, museums,
shops and industrial establishments, under the guidance of a competent
instructor and regularly conducted, form an important part of the courses
during each of the three years.

Special Courses

Each course is for two hours a day.

1. Mechanical Drawing:
Parallel and angular perspective.

Architectural Drawing: Foundations, piers and walls; floors, roofs, and
stairways; structural iron work; plans of buildings; round writing; artistic
lettering; tinting.

Machine Drawing: Isometric and cabinet projection; cams and wheel
gearing; boiler settings; details of steam engine and dynamo; details of
special machines; assembled drawings; lettering.

2. Wood Working:

Advanced pattern making at the bench and lathe; moulding and cast-
ing in white metal; carpentry work; cabinet work; polishing; wood carving;
advanced wood turning.

Architectural wood work, grill work, interior finish.

3. Metal Working:

Theory and practice in the use of metal construction, and the making
of tools, cutters, gear wheels, etc. Making, hardening, tempering, and
grinding cutters, drills, and tools. Construction of some machine or ap-
paratus, as speed lathe, dynamo, emery grinder, small milling machine, or
electrical instrument; fitting thread and taper work; forging.

All work is made to size. Blue prints and micrometers are constantly
used.

4. Instrument Making:

Theory and practice in the design and construction of electrical and
scientific instruments and apparatus.

Machining and finishing brass, copper, hard rubber, and steel; gea.
cutting, fitting threads, boring, taper turning, grinding, polishing, plating,
making special tools.

Constant use of the micrometer and similar accurate measuring instru-
ments is required.

5. Practical Electricity:

Lectures and recitations, 2 hours per week, additional.

Experimental work: Electro-magnetism; primary and storage bat-
teries; dynamos and motors; electrical measuring with amperemeter, volt-
meter, and wheatstone bridge; electrical testing of dynamos, motors, and
arc lamps; construction of apparatus for use in demonstrations and ex-
periments; application of alternating currents of electricity.

6. Wood Carving:

Analysis of antique and modern ornament relating to decorative prin-
ciples in the composition of ornamental panels, pilasters, capitals, mouldings,
and other features as applied to furniture in various periods or in interior
architectural decoration.

Making of moulds and reproducing carved models in plaster.

7. Free-hand Drawing:

216 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Decorative Drawing: Flat ornaments in the historic styles; mono-
grams, title pages, book covers; interior wall decoration; more elaborate
use of water colours; architectural drawing with pen and ink; systematic
instruction in ornamental composition.

Object Drawing: Flower drawing with pencil; pencil sketches of build-
ings and their parts; groups of objects; still life; sketching of animals. The
sketching is done with pencil, pen or brush.

BARON DE HFRSCH TRADE SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY

GENERAL

This institution was established by the Baron de Hirsch fund in
1891. Like the New York Trade School, it is a short-course trade
school. Its object is to give young Jews, who alone are admitted,

Aim. a practical knowledge of a trade and enough theory to prepare them

for? the grade of journeymen. Entrants must be at least sixteen
years of age, and be able to speak, read, and write the English lan-
guage. They must also be able to maintain themselves during the
session. The course lasts five and a half months, and in this time
a student is expected to acquire as much as he would in a shop in

only Day two years. Day instruction only is provided ; there are no evening
classes. The management believes that evening classes are not an
efficient means of training beginners. Its argument is well worth
the production :

Argument Twenty-two weeks of day class ^instruction are required to prepare pupils

against Even- to enter the trades as helpers. To give the equivalent, one hundred and seven
3es* of evening class instruction, or, approximately, three school years, are neces-
sary when a percentage of those completing the course would be much
smaller. As a result, pupils would enter the trade before they were prepared.
The evening schools' statistics of other schools demonstrate the truth of this
statement. Moreover, the evening school makes it easy for large numbers to
attempt to learn a trade at very little sacrifice, the result being that many
enter without definite aims. On the other hand, the short-course day classes
compel a sacrifice of a certain wage-earning period, and, as a result, the pupils
have a greater appreciation of the advantages. An average of 84 per cent, of
those enrolled in this school remain throughout the course and graduate.

Coat The building, including permanent plant, is worth $158,000, and

the equipment $10,000; total yearly cost of maintenance, $37,940,
each pupil costing $157.92, not including cost of books.

ORGANIZATION

Trades taught. The trades taken up are machinists' work, plumbing, house-paint-
ing, electrical work, carpentry, fresco painting.

school The shop work is in charge of instructors, who are expert

mechanics of long experience. The course gives a maximum
amount of actual practice. The theoretical side of the trade is
explained in frequent lectures and shop talks. Notes are taken by

Note-taking. fa& pupils, to be afterwards carefully copied at home into note-
books specially provided. They are at the same time given suitable

UNITED STATES 217

printed diagrams and tables for the purpose of illustration, and
these are bound up with their shop notes. This note-taking is an
important feature of the course. The theoretical side of the instruc-
tion is more developed here than in the New York Trade School.
The academic work consists of mechanical and geometrical drawing
and shop arithmetic and mensuration. During the latter part of '
the course in drawing a set of plans and elevations for a cottage are
prepared by the carpentry, electrical, and plumbing divisions. Dur-
ing the term examinations are held, and those who fail are dis-
missed from the school. On the completion of the course each
graduate is given a certificate, and a kit of tools. The latter is pro- certificates,
vided by the fund, but each graduate is expected to repay the cost.

As to the effect upon the wage-earning power of those who increased
have taken this course : On investigation it has been shown that the
average wages of some two hundred pupils before entrance was
$5.39 per week, earned at various unskilled trades; and that, after
a five ajid a half months' course at the school, they earned, on
graduation, an average of $7.54 a week. And, further, there has
been such a demand for skilled helpers that they have had little dif-
ficulty in obtaining from $5.00 to $15.00 a week, and in about two
years' time they are able to earn journeymen's wages.

MANHATTAN TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, NEW YORK CITY

GENERAL

This vigorous short-course trade school was established in Aim.
1902 to train girls for trades in which they might obtain a living
wage and advance to more responsible positions. The present
building provides accommodation for 500 girls. At first inde-
pendent and supported by private benefactions, the school has just
been taken over by the New York Board of Education. For ad- Admission
mission, applicants for the day classes must not be under fourteen test8'
or over seventeen, and they must have completed the Fifth grade
of the Grammar School or its equivalent, unless special arrange-
ment is made with the Principal of the school last attended.

The School is free, and where the Students are poor, a scheme school free,
of assistance has been devised, the need of the girl's family being
the basis on which the assistance is given.

A lunch-room has been established, and the students assist inMeals-
succession in preparing, serving and clearing away. In times of
depression a work-room was opened for the unemployed and the
school served meals daily to more than 500 people. With the
inauguration of regular cooking, in this way a scheme was adopted cSSkSy in
for training at least some of the girls in the care and preparation
of food. The selection is made from three groups of girls :

2i8 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

1. Those who can remain long- enough to complete their trade
and take the cooking course ;

2. Those who have such poor health that a knowledge of
what to eat and how to cook it is a first consideration; and

3. Those who are already, for various reasons, house-keepers
in their homes.

Twenty girls are chosen at one time who work in groups of ten
for six weeks daily. In this way thirty lessons are given which
are almost equivalent to a year's provision in the Public Schools.

CURRICULUM

courses. The departments of the school are based on the use of the

needle, the sewing machine, and the paste brush. These trade
branches are supplemented by art and academic studies and physi-
cal training. The courses, which average a year each, are as fol-
lows :

1. Electrical Power Operating: (cO General operating, (&) special machines:
Lace stitching, hem stitching, button-hole embroidery.

2. Dress Operating: Lingerie, fancy waists and suits.

3. Straw Sewing: Women's and men's hats.

4. Dressmaking: The usual course, including wholesale and custom work.

5. Millinery: Elementary work for assistants, frame workers, and pre-
parers. v

6. Novelty Work: Sample mounting, sample book covers, tissue paper
novelties and decorations, jewellery and silver-case making, etc.

NOTE.— The trades under this head are continually developing according to the demands of the
public.

7. Art: Both general and advanced courses adapted to the work of the
trades ; colour setting, costume sketching, stencilling and perforation.

NOTE.— This department, originally intended to be auxiliary to the trades, has developed also
into a separate department.

8. Academic: Business arithmetic and English, industries and textiles,
civics, ethics of drawing, cost of living.

9. Physical Training: Examination and treatment exercises; hygiene.

Organization The elasticity of the organization deserves special notice: The

Elastic. ... . j. ,t

length of time the pupil remains varies according to the course se-
lected. In millinery, it is from six to eight months; in elementary
art trades, from twelve to fifteen ; in sample mounting, about six ;
in novelty work, from six to twelve; in machine operating, from
twelve to fifteen; in dressmaking, from twelve to eighteen, al-
though the greater number remain only twelve. Moreover, the
work is so arranged in each trade department that about every
three months there is some degree of finality ; so that a pupil who
must go out to work may be prepared in that period for some kind
of wage-earning. In the ordinary meaning of the term, there is
no graduation. Pupils leave when there is an opening and they

UNITED STATES 219

have reached a point satisfactory to their instructors. Certificates
are afterwards granted to such pupils; first, if they have good
school records in trade work, academic work, and art work, and if
their spirit while at school has been satisfactory; secondly, if a
satisfactory report is received from the employers, of their ability
to meet the requirements of the trade in which they are engaged
on leaving school.

Order work is regarded as a valuable educational feature of°rderWork
the teaching, but it is kept under strict control and used only when
it is really useful for training students. In the dressmaking depart-
ment, individual custom work is preferred because large orders
from the trade must be delivered in a short time and their edu-
cational value' is lost in many repetitions. In the operating,
millinery, and art departments, the training of assistants for mil-
linery work-rooms can be accomplished without an undue amount
of order work ; and in art, the order work is often so elaborate that
too much of the time of the instructors would be required to pre-
pare it for the girls. In the novelty department small orders
rather than large ones are desired.

The following statement of the trade order work for eighteen
months (January, 1908, to July, 1909), shows the situation:

Amount Amount

Department. of sales. Department. of sales

Dressmaking $19,196.22 Millinery • • $7374

Operating 2,363.34 Dressmaking operating .... 506.61

Novelty 1,820.74 Art 68.84

THE HEBREW TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS

GENERAL

Of the trade schools for girls that I saw during my visit, this is
one of the finest in the matter both of accommodations and equip-
ment and of culture and general tone. It is on a private foundation,
and is not connected with the public system. Its attendance is
about 400, and consists chiefly of the children of Jewish immigrants.
The school is free, and further aid is given when it is needed.
of the noticeable features is the swimming pool, which cost $23,000,
rfnd is now amongst the best and most enjoyable of the school
utilities. The cost of its maintenance, including the salary of the
teacher, is less than 8 cents a week for each student. Besides the
pool, the school has a commodious gymnasium and a roof garden.
The system of ventilation is also excellent, 750 cubic feet of fresh
air being introduced every minute in every class-room.

The school hours are from 8.30 a.m. to 4 p.m. The only sum-
mer vacation is one that the pupils have at their work in the build-
15 E.I.P.

220 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

ing. During July and August, however, less mental work is pre-
scribed than during the rest of the year. Then, also, attention is
given to the cultivation of the speaking voice, additional time to
choral work, and the improvement of the physical condition.

Aim- The plan of the school is to build a sound educational super-

structure on a good physical foundation. While it provides voca-
tional training, it emphasizes the cultural and the home-making sub-
jects. From what I saw even during my brief visit it was evident
that the scheme is a successful one.

course of The course of study lasts for eighteen months, and includes the

following subjects :

1. Commercial Department: Stenography, typewriting, book-keeping, arith-
metic, penmanship, geography, psychology, literature, history, rhetoric, cooking,
housekeeping, physical training, music, social ethics.

2. Manual Department: Sewing, millinery, history of industries, cooking,
drawing, millinery, psychology, geography, arithmetic, literature, history,
rhetoric, physical training, music, and ethics.

BOSTON TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS
GENERAL

Aim. This trade school was founded in 1904 and provides girls be-

tween the ages of fourteen and eighteen, as soon as they leave the
Grammar School, with training'which will enable them to enter the
skilled trades of dress-making, millinery, clothing machine operat-
ing, and straw hat making. It is intended also to increase their
general efficiency and relate this efficiency to their home life, and to
improve their condition mentally, morally, and physically. For
several years a private school, it was taken over in 1909 by the

Equipment Boston School Committee. At present it is accommodated in three

and accommo- r

dations. houses which were originally built for private occupancy. The
equipment, however, is good. Both electrical and foot power
machines are provided. The basement serves as a lunch-room and
the large parlour in one of the houses is used for daily assemblies,

school trade work, gymnastics, and recreation. The school day lasts from

8.30 to 5.00 p.m., with an hour's intermission at noon, and the
school is in session all the year around An average of five and a
half hours daily is devoted to trade instruct-- and of about two

Disposal of hours to supplementary academic work. The work made by the
pupils is sold, thus giving them the advantage of actual trade
practice and enabling the school to more than cover the cost of the
material used. Here I may say that the practice of selling the
products of the girls' trade school appears to be general. The
labour unions do not object to it; chiefly, I am told, because there
are so few unions amongst women, and because the volume of the

UNITED STATES 221

products is small compared with those that come from ordinary
trade sources.

The trades taken up centre about the needle and the foot electri- Departments,
cal machines, as these are the trades from which the greatest
demands exist for skilled workers : Dress-making, millinery, clothing
machine operating, straw machine operating. Each pupil elects Organization,
one trade, but in each of the departments the girls are prepared to
enter a variety of trades. For example, the work in dress-making
is so planned that girls may take positions as seamstresses, dress-
makers' helpers, experienced skirt finishers, waist finishers, or
sleeve finishers. So, too, in the case of millinery, girls are pre-
pared to become frame makers, hat makers, or trimmers; and, in
machine operating, also, a great variety of trades are opened to
girls. No attempt, however, is made to produce expert trade
workers. The object is rather to give the necessary experience,
skill, and speed in some of the more fundamental processes by com-
bining the school and the shop.

The courses supplementary to the trade work are obligatory,
Design is taken up on account of its bearing upon dress-making and
millinery. Domestic science is also provided to give the girls the
help they need at their homes and in the hope of developing at some
future time trades related to house work.

The length of the course for the average pupil is one year, and c<
certificates are granted pupils who complete a course satisfactorily
and prove their ability in the trade elected.

CURRICULUM

The following are outlines of the various courses:

Dressmaking.

1. Children's Garments: Giving practice in construction, and in hand
and machine sewing, including use of electric power machine.

2. White Work: Underwear, giving use of finer material; construction
of larger garments; practice in more difficult processes; fine hand tucking,
rolled edges, lace inserting, simple embroidery, etc.

3. Fitted Linings: Shirt waists; use of various textiles; shirt waist suits
and simple dresses.

4. Costumes: Giving practice in dress finishing, simple braiding and
embroidery.

Millinery.

1. Plain Sewing: Giving practice in hand and machine sewing, includ-
ing special stitches used in millinery; shirring, velvet hemming, wiring, etc.

2. Hat Making: Summer materials, including linings, bands, frames, straw
braiding; making of maline, chiffon, lingerie, and straw hats.

Winter materials, including buckram frames, fitted and draped coverings ;
making of felt, velvet, satin and silk hats.

222 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Clothing-machine Operating.

1. Clothing Machines, with practice on straight-away work, aprons, etc.

2. Plain Sewing.

3. Garment Making on Electric Power Machines (no basting) : Aprons,
underwear, petticoats, kimonos, waists, children's clothing.

4. Use of Special Machines: Buttonhole machine, tucking machine.

Straw-machine Operating.

Straw Machines, including:

(a) Use of coarse braids, lappings, joinings, tip making, fitting of
simple shapes to plaster blocks.

(b) Use of fine braids, handling of delicate colours, braid combinations,
and fitting difficult shapes to blocks.

Supplementary Work.

1. Spelling: Terms used in the trade.

2. Business Forms: Trade problems, bills, accounts, etc.

3. Business English: Applications for positions, ordering materials, letters
to customers, descriptions of costumes, hats, etc.

4. Textiles: Processes of manufacture; judging kinds and qualities of
materials; learning uses, widths, prices, etc.

5. Colour Study and Design: Principles applied in copying and plan-
ning hats and costumes; judging good and poor design and colour com-
binations; selecting materials in colour schemes; designing simple costumes
and making practical designs for braiding and embroidery.

6. Cooking: Planning, preparing and serving the daily luncheon; care
of lunch room, kitchen, dishes, closets, towels, etc.

7. Physical Exercises: These are given daily, together with lessons
on the care of the body and the necessity of proper food, sleep and exer-
cise. The individual needs of each girl are carefully noted, and an effort
is made to correct such deficiencies as will be a drawback to a girl in her
trade work. Emphasis is laid on correct postures in sitting and on the
need of fresh air in the work room.

II. INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS
NEW YORK CITY VOCATIONAL SCHOOL

ESTABLISHMENT

New York City was the first large city to take steps to provide

for intermediate industrial training. At a meeting of the Board

of Education in July, 1908, a report was adopted, a synopsis of

: scheme of which I now give, as it sets forth the general aim of the Intermedi-

Schools. . °

ate Industrial Schools:

In order to give training for particular vocations or industries, your
committee recommends:

(1) The establishment of separate vocational schools for the secondary
ninth and tenth school years (Lower School of our High Schools);

(2) The organization of different types of these schools, the course
in each to be two years in length, and the pupils to be those who have

UNITED STATES 223

graduated from the public elementary schools or who have reached the
age of 14; and

(3) A general course, which is to be taken by all the pupils, and a
variety of industrial courses, any one of which may be selected by the pupils
on entrance.

Such vocational schools are not intended and cannot undertake to
graduate journeymen or skilled mechanics. They purpose rather to give
the pupil skill in the use of tools and a knowledge of those processes and
principles that underlie constructive work, so that he may be able to apply
the knowledge thus gained to definite and concrete problems.

It is thus hoped to do away with the situation created by specialization,
and the necessity of " stealing a trade." The pupil who has gone through
this course should in a short time be enabled to become a self-supporting
and properly trained workman or mechanic.

These vocational schools, moreover, are not intended to take the place
of the High Schools. They are designed for the purpose of making more
efficient wage-earners by giving to boys who cannot or will not attend High
Schools a better and more practical training.

As a result of this action, it was decided to open two such indus-
trial schools in New York City : one for boys and one for girls. The
one for boys I was able to visit. It is yet in its initial stage, having
been opened in the fall of 1909.

GENERAL

The admission standard is the graduation diploma from an ele- Admission

tests.

mentary school. Pupils who have not graduated may be admitted
on certain conditions if they are fourteen years old.

In order to accustom boys to the realities of the business world, school

J ' Sessions.

the school day begins at 9.00 a.m. and lasts till 5.00 p.m., with one
hour for lunch. There are no home lessons and no books are car-
ried to or from the school, but a pupil may arrange with his in-
structor for special work to be done at home if he so desires. The
school is open during July. Boys may enter then or in September.

In this school the pupils have an opportunity of learning the courses,
elements of a trade and of studying architecture and freehand and
mechanical drawing, while continuing their general education along
lines that fit in with this work.

The course is intended to cover one year or two years, but pro-
vision is made for those who wish to remain longer in the school.
Those boys who definitely know the trade they want to follow are
allowed to take up that work at once and devote most of their time
to it. Those who have not decided on any special work are re-
quired to take up several lines of trade work. After a time the
instructors are able to advise the boys intelligently and the pupil
then devotes his time to the trade he selects. The Principal of the
school is trying to carry out a plan in which there are no organized
classes and the boy progresses as quickly as his ability will permit.
The work is intended to be individual, but the boys work in groups.

224 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

In addition to the trade work, the boys are required to take trade
drawing, along with the non-vocational subjects, to which they
devote about a quarter of their time.

The teachers are experts; the trades are taught by experienced
mechanics.

CURRICULUM

The following are the courses of study:

Vocational Subjects.

Woodwork: Cabinet making and bench work, wood turning, pattern mak-
ing in wood, use of wood-milling machinery.

Metal Work: General machine-shop practice, sheet metal work, forging,
plumbing, electric wiring and installation.

Printing: Composition, press-work.

i
Drawing.

Mechanical: Working drawings, isometric, architectural drawings.
Freehand: Industrial design ; making and reading blue-prints.

Non-vocational Subjects.

Trade Mathematics: Arithmetic, use of symbols (elementary algebra).
Plane Geometry and Trigonometry as used in trade.

English: Business letters, reading with oral and written expression, draw-
ing of contracts, writing specifications, etc.

Industrial History: CiVics, industrial and commercial geography.

Science: Applied physics and chemistry.

Business Subjects: Elements of commercial law, simple bookkeeping.

Another variant of the vocational school has been established at
Albany. I was unable to visit it, but have obtained full informa-
tion from Mr. Arthur D. Dean, Chief, Division of Trade Schools,
State Education Department, Albany. The character of the pro-
posed school was discussed in October, 1908, at a meeting between
Mr. Dean and the Board of Education. The school has been in
existence over a year. The mode of establishment and the organi-
zation deserve special attention.

Procedure. The local board addressed a circular to the parents and guar-

dians of the boys and girls in the sixth and seventh grades of the
elementary schools, informing them that this vocational school
would be opened and referring briefly to the purpose of the school,
its equipment, staff, course of study, and requirements for admis-

UNITED STATES 225

sion. The Principal and the Domestic Science teacher of the voca-
tional School also visited the grades of the elementary classes, ex-
plaining in greater detail the purpose of the School and distributing
blanks to be signed by such parents or guardians as wished their
children to attend. More than twice as many applied for admission
as could be accommodated.

The equipment consists of the following :

1. Draining: 25 drawing tables with drawing materials and X
instruments. dation8'

2. Sewing Equipment: 5 sewing machines, 25 sewing tables,
with minor articles of equipment and material. The sewing tables
are also used for drawing in connection with household design.

3. Woodworking: 24 benches with the necessary bench tools,
tool room supplies, universal saw bench, a band saw, power oil stone
and grinder and 4 speed lathes. An electric motor was also
installed. A lumber and wood finishing room adjoins the bench
room.

4. Domestic Science: A group of cooking tables, with pine tops,
accommodating 24 students; gas stoves, a gas range, coal range,
refrigerator, and the furnishings of a dining-room; also a small
iron bedstead.

The class rooms for the academic subjects are fitted as in schools
for academic purposes.

The teachers of the School are all experts, having had practical Q^u
experience in shops and in schools.

The local Advisory Board required by law consists of the Super- Board°ry
intendent of the felt mills, the Manager of the stove works, a con-
tractor and builder, a printer (Trade Union representative), and
the chef of one of the hotels.

The last report shows that so far the school has been very Attitude of
successful and that larger accommodation will have to be provided. ei
It is well to note in this connection that the New York Central
Railway Company will give credit pro tanto in their apprenticeship
system to the graduates of this school, and the General Electric
Company will give preference to such students receiving training
similar to theirs on their application for admission to their appren-
ticeship system.

CURRICULUM FOR BOVS

In book work there is constant practice in measurements, esti-
mates of cost, descriptions of processes used from the point of view
of good English as well as of accuracy. The English course pro-
vides also for literature, reading, composition, grammar, spelling,
and penmanship.

226 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

The courses in mathematics and science are as follows :

Arithmetic: The decimal equivalents of workshop fractions, approxi-
mate and check methods of arithmetic, ratio, proportion and percentages,
four figure logarithms applied to multiplication and division, power roots
and the developing of all sorts of pocketbook formulae.

Algebra: Symbols and processes, substitution of numerical for literal
values and the evaluation of simple workshop formulas, solutions of equations
other than simple by plotting " graphs " on squared paper. No " formal "
algebra ; it will be made to fit in with formulae used in electricity, mechanics
and engine practice.

Mensuration: Measurements of areas of plane figures, (i) by reducing
to equivalent triangles; (2) by counting squares when drawn on squared
paper; (3) weighing the similar shape in cardboard, sheet lead or iron
sheet. Measurement and calculation of volumes.

Geometry: Use of instruments, simple construction as far as possible
leading to the self-checking of students' work, (i) by comparison with one
another or (2) by a calculated standard result, measurement of angles and
their ratios by construction and comparison with printed tables (trigono-
metrical), the amount of error to be written down opposite the result, the
geometry of simple solid figures, etc.

During the last two years, as well as to some extent the first two years,
the mathematics will deal with the speed of 'machines, the working out of
such calculations as weights of castings, measuring areas, calculations and
exercises in the use of various measuring machines used in the trades, cal-
culating by graphic methods, etc. For example, a boy that intends to be
a foundryman needs to know weights of materials, percentages of alloys,
etc.

Physics: The general properties of matter — state, structure, size,
density, hardness, fluidity, etc.. — effects of heat on substances used for con-
structional purposes, specific, sensible and latent heat, and the practical
application of their qualities, melting and boiling points of suitable sub-
stances, steam raising and the properties of steam, the transmission of heat
— conduction, convection and radiation and application of this to practical
work — hot and cold water supply, use of exhaust steam, heating and venti-
lating methods, circulation of water in steam, boiling, etc., injectors, in-
spirators, steam boilers, etc.

Chemistry: Effects of heat, moist air, water and simple acids on mater-
ials used for construction purposes; rusting, rotting and the action of protec-
tive coverings on metal and wood, combustion of solids, liquid and gaseous
fuels, and the application to industrial purposes, interchangeability of energy,
chemical heat, electrical, mechanical, some notion of the conservation of
energy.

Electricity: Batteries, electric magnets, motors, etc., electric wiring and
simple testing.

Practical applications of the science subjects to the industries are made.
The physics deals with levers, cams, concentric, reciprocating, rotary, oscillat-
ing, friction, strains, tension, with relation to their practical application to the
machinery in the school and in the locality.

History and Civics: The course has for its general idea the develop-
ment of the industrial citizen and consequently lays emphasis on the indus-
trial or economic phenomena of the national development rather than upon
its political and military aspects. Emphasis is placed upon the development
of transportation and communication, the establishment and growth of cities
together with their new code of civic life, the changes brought about by the
concentration of capital and labour in production, and the civic duties and
privileges of the modern industrial citizen.

UNITED STATES 227

Geography: The .course centres about collections of the raw materials
of commerce such as may be gathered and classified by the pupils. Textiles,
gums, minerals, oils, woods, leather, rubber, threads, etc., are shown in their
native forms and in the various stages of their manufacture.

Hand Work: The course for boys differs from what is ordinarily the
conception of manual training, in this respect chiefly, that from three to five
half days per week are given the subject, whereas many schools give only
about one and a half hours a week to such work. It is intended that in the
last two years the hand-work shall centre around direct applications to local
industries. Provision is also made for sheet-metal work, tinsmithing, solder-
ing, gas piping, metal spinning, electric wiring, and speed lathe work, both in
wood and metals. At this stage, the pupils are about sixteen, and they are
expected to elect their trade.

Drawing: In the first year emphasis is laid upon inventive design both
in freehand and mechanical drawing. The industrial drawing aims con-
stantly at the graphical expression of original creation rather than imitation.
The drawing of the last three years consists of the practical application of
mechanical and freehand work to parts of machinery, house plans, etc. Em-
phasis is placed upon the reading of drawings, making sketches of machine
parts quickly arid accurately.

CURRICULUM FOR GIRLS

These courses are modelled rather on the workroom than on the
school-room plan, and provide for housekeeping, sewing, and design.

Housekeeping: The kitchen and dining-room are furnished in very simple
style. In the housekeeping course the girls are taught: —

(1) To care for the rooms; sweep, dust, clean windows and paint, build
a fire and care for the stove, sink and tables.

(2) To cook simple nutritious dishes in family quantities and to buy the
materials for these dishes.

(3) To serve a simple meal and know something of its nutritive value,
expense, and fitness.

(4) To wash and iron the garments made in the sewing classes, the
aprons worn for school work and the towels, table mats, and curtains used
in the house.

(5) To keep a book of recipes used in the cooking lessons.

Sewing: This work is carried on in a large schoolroom which has been
fitted with work tables and sewing machines. The girls are taught to make
a variety of simple garments for themselves or members of their families,
as well as articles used either in the home or in the school. The course also
includes cutting by patterns and the making of simple drafts. The study of
fabrics, especially those made from cotton and wool, is a part of the
course, and the girls are taught something of their manufacture, quality,
patterns, dyes, widths and uses. They are also encouraged to collect and
mount samples of different materials which they would be most likely to
buy and use.

Design: An attempt is made to apply the simple principles of design
and colour to the work in the other classes. The girls have designed and
stencilled curtains for the dining and sewing rooms and have made designs
for doilies for the table. They expect to plan attractive spacing of tucks,
ruffles and embroidery for underwear, and select combinations of colour and
trimming for dresses. They will also make designs for articles used in the
house, such as candle shades, pillow covers, and the like. These designs
will be executed in their other classes.

228

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Accommoda-
tions.

Curriculum.

Disposal of
Products.

Views of
Commission.

WORCESTER INDEPENDENT INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL,
MASSACHUSETTS

The Worcester Trade School is an independent industrial school,
constituted under the Massachusetts School Act, and has been in
operation since September, 1909. The building for the offices and
academic work is a plain square one of four stories, with two long,
well-lighted shops in the rear. The building and equipment were
provided by the City of Worcester, at a cost of about $90,000.
The intention of the Board is to establish as soon as possible a
corresponding school for girls.

The object of this trade school is the usual one — to provide
skilled mechanical workmen, well trained and thoroughly compe-
tent. All shop practice is under the supervision of skilled workmen,
who act as foremen and instructors. Both evening and day classes
are provided.

Owing to the prominence of the metal trades in Worcester and
the fundamental character of the machinist's trade, the classes so
far provided are for boys over fourteen in the machinist's trade,
including instruction and practice in pattern-making, tool-making,
die-sinking, iron-moulding and blacksmithing. Instruction is also
provided in English, history, civics, commercial geography, com-
mercial arithmetic, commercial law, book-keeping, trigonometry,
political economy, physics, and chemistry, all of these subjects being
taken up strictly in their relation to industry.

On one important subject the Worcester Commission appointed
to report on the question of establishing a trade school has made a
noticeable pronouncement: Its contention is that if the pupil is to
become a skilled workman he must be trained upon high-grade
machine products under real shop conditions and approved methods.
This, of course, means a shop product. The question, then, is : How
shall the products of the school shop be disposed of?

According to the Commission, the objections to the productive
school shop may be summarized as follows : —

1. The claim by the manufacturers that goods so produced com-
pete with theirs in the market.

2. The fear of skilled workmen that their opportunities will be
reduced by the school production.

3. The fear that cheap goods will be sold at reduced prices.
The position taken by the Commission is that none of these ob-

jectionls can be; justly offered if the school shop produces nothing
that will unfairly compete with goods manufactured in Massachu-
setts, if nothing is sold under market prices and if all productions
are of a superior quality. For, if so, they will tend to raise, not
to lower, the prevailing prices of skilled labour and the productions
of skilled labour.

UNITED STATES 229*

ROCHESTER SHOP SCHOOLS, NEW YORK

Another variety of intermediate industrial schools that de- organization.,
serves notice is that in operation in Rochester, N.Y. Since Decem-
ber, 1908, three have been established under the new Industrial Law
of the State, two for boys and one for girls. An account of one
of these " Shop Schools " has been published by the Superintendent.
The school was organized in an old eight-roomed school building
not otherwise needed for school purposes, and a staff appointed,
consisting of a principal'who teaches part of his time, four shop-
instructors, a class-room teacher, and an instructor in drawing.

Boys are admitted at any time during the year. The class-room individual
work is, accordingly, largely individual. They may also graduate Work-
.whenever they have finished their course, the average time being two
years.

The school has four departments : cabinet making, carpentry, Departments,
electrical work, and plumbing.

The cabinet making department is a little factory in itself, with
glueing room, machine room, assembly room, and finishing room.
Here there is division of labour, the boys being promoted from one
branch of the work to another as soon as they have acquired a
reasonable degree of efficiency. Any article manufactured must character of

&. . J Products.

meet two conditions :

1. It must be something which is needed in the schools, and
which the Board of Education would otherwise purchase ; and

2. It must have an educative value for the pupil. For 1910
the recognized products were: drawing boards, primary looms,
pillow looms with heddles, drawing kits, saw horses, sewing boxes,
manual training benches, umbrella racks, bookcases, desk chairs,
teachers' sanitary desks, and music cabinets.

The carpentry, plumbing, and electrical shop work taught in the courses,
school is much the same as would be taught in any trade school in
these branches. The peculiarity of the school is the installation and
repair work which is being done in the various school buildings of
the city by groups of boys sent out from the shop school.

The following is given as a concrete example of the kind °f
work : "A call comes in the forenoon from a grammar school that work,
the fire alarm system is out of order. That afternoon a group of
boys visits the school and locates the trouble. The next morning
they make out a bill of materials needed for the repair work. If
the job is at all complicated they also make the necessary drawings.
As soon as the materials are delivered the same group of boys
returns to the school and makes the proper repairs. In many cases
the work is carried on under a boy foreman, and only inspected by
the regular foreman when completed,"

230

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Suasions.

Attitude of

Organized

Labour.

courses? On behalf of this school it is claimed that, although no trade

can be taught in the school, yet, whr-n the school shop work is sup-
plemented by all kinds of real work under necessarily varying con-
ditions, the opportunities for a thorough grounding are increased.
Besides, the installation and repair work is much more interesting
to the pupils than work constructed merely for construction's sake,
and boys gain confidence in attempting and mastering the problems
submitted to them. Moreover, as the materials used in the outside
work are not wasted, the cost of instruction in the school is greatly
reduced.

The number of periods each week for the various subjects
is as follows in hours: Shop work, 15; mathematics, 4; English,
3'M> ; drawing, 5 ; spelling and industrial history, 2^2-

The school day is six hours long, except for the groups that
work outside in the afternoon. For these the work-day averages
seven and a half hours.

So far the labour unions have shown a most friendly spirit.
They approved of the establishment of the school, and are kept
fully informed regarding its plans and methods.

III. CO-OPERATIVE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS

FITCHBURG HIGH SCHOOL

ESTABLISHMENT

In connection with the engineering department of the Univer-
sity of Cincinnati, a system of co-operation has been established
between the University and the shops of the city, under which the
shop takes charge of the practical training of the students, and the
University of the theory. The plan adopted was discussed in April,
1908, at a meeting of Metal Manufacturers in New York City.
Some Fitchburg manufacturers were present and were greatly im-
pressed with the advantages of such a system. On their return to
Fitchburg, a plan was drawn up by the manufacturers of that
city for a combination shop and school course and presented to the
School Board, with an offer of the use of their shops for the practi-
cal instruction of apprentices, if the school would provide the neces-
sary theoretical and academic instruction. This proposal the School
Board accepted and the following local industries now provide the
shopwork: Saws and knives, steam engines, grinding machinery,
pumping machinery, special and woodworking machinery, lathes,
planers, railway tools, and general machinery.

CURRICULUM

Co-operative The course is one of five elective High School courses and is

course™1 known by the name of the Co-operative Industrial Course. The

boys receive instruction in the shops during one week and in the

Action of
Manufac-
turers and
School Board.

UNITED STATES 231

school the next week. Last session 100 attended, and the cost of
the special salaries was $3,400. The course covers four years, as
follows ; the figures in brackets are the number of hours a week :

First Year. — All School Work: English and current events (5), arith-
metic, tables and simple shop problems (5), algebra (5), freehand and me-
chanical drawing and bench work (8).

Second Year. — School and Shop Work: English (5), shop mathematics,
algebra and geometry (5), physics (4), civics (2), mechanism of machines
(5), freehand and mechanical drawing (6).

Third Year. — School and Shop Work: English (5), shop mathematics
(5), chemistry (4), physics (4), mechanism of machines (5), first aid to
injured (i), freehand and mechanical drawing (6).

Fourth Year. — School and Shop Work: English (5), commercial geog-
raphy and business methods (2), shop mathematics (4), mechanism of
machines (4), physics, electricity and heat (4), chemistry (6), freehand and
mechanical drawing (5).

CO-OPERATIVE PLAN

The course is a form of the apprenticeship system under which scheme of

» . alternation.

the manufacturer takes the boys in pairs, so that by alternating
they have one pair always in the shop and the school has one of the
pairs. The course is an elective one which any boy regularly ad-
mitted to the1 High School may take with the approval of his
parents. Each Saturday morning at eleven the boy who has been
at school goes to the shop and finds out what particular job his
alternate has been working on, in order that he may take up the
work without delay the next Monday morning.

As to the academic work : Since the School term is only 20 Academic
weeks a year, only such subjects are taken up as are of practical sub;iec
value to the student. Throughout the four years, the object in
English is to enable the students to speak and write intelligently.
Familiarity with shop terms and their significance is an important
factor of the work. For this purpose, the teacher of the English
department made a special study of the English the course requires.
Current events and industrial history, the daily happenings in the
industrial world; the history of the iron industry, factory systems
and labour problems; new inventions, and the reading of the
mechanic journals are included in the course. The mathematics
deal with simple problems in mensuration, fractions, metric system,
circular measure, followed by problems in cutting speeds and feeds,
belting, gearing, strength of materials, and general cost figuring.
Algebra is taken up to give facility in using the formulae common
in trade journals and hand-books, and in understanding simple
geometric and trigonometric formulae. Under mechanism are
taken up construction and uses of the various machine tools. The
names and uses of every part are learned in the school, as well as
in the shop, with the reason for the shapes of the various parts, the

2'32

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Shop-work.

Boys'

Compensa-
tion.

kind of material used and their construction, etc. In physics, work-
ing problems are emphasized rather than theories ; and in chemistry,
the nature and qualities of metals and salts, tests that can be applied
to fractured metals, hardening and tempering processes. The com-
mercial geography comprises the study of the sources of supply
of the various industries, the preparation and methods of trans-
portation, cost of materials, railway systems, water ways, etc.
Under business methods is taken up the organization of shop sys-
tems, including the receiving of materials, laying out of work,
tagging, inspecting, and routing of work throughout the shop ; also
general office systems. Drawing is, of course, emphasized. Civics
and history are essentials of good citizenship, and a careful study
is made of the forms of City and State government.

The shop work consists of instruction in the operation of lathes,
planes, drilling machines, bench and floor work, and such other
machine work, according to the period of the apprenticeship, as
pertains to the particular branch of manufacture in the shop where
the boy is employed. The boys receive compensation for their ser-
vices during the week they are in' the shops, at the following rates :

For the first year, ice. an hour; the second, nc. an hour; and
the third, I2%c. an hour; that is, $5.50 a week, or $165.00 for the
first year; $6.05 a week, or $181.00 for the second year; and $6.78
a week, or $206.25 for the third year; a total of $552.75 for the
three years. These rates, it may be mentioned, are higher than the
former apprentices have been receiving, the manufacturers having
raised the scale of their own accord. The wage scale becomes
operative at the first of July, when the boys enter upon a trial
period of two months. All of the class begin work at this date, a
few weeks' vacation being allowed in July or August. The division
into pairs is made at the opening of the fall term in September.
Every student is given a trial period of two months, beginning
immediately at the close of school in June. If it turns out that he
has no aptitude or liking for a trade, he takes up some other course
in the High School. During this trial period he has the oppor-
tunity of finding out what occupation will suit him.

Local opinion. When I visited Fitchburg, I met one of the leading manufac-
turers, as well as the Principal of the school. Locally, the plan
seems to have strong support. It is claimed that it presents a
strong inducement for the boy to remain in school. He can earn
some money ; in fact he can earn more than he could by going out
and taking the ordinary jobs in stores and offices that would be
available. Moreover, the payment for the shop work enables
parents of limited means to keep their children in school longer
than under the usual conditions. I may add that where there is a

UNITED STATES 233

vacation week in school, the shops provide work so that the boy is
kept off the street.

What is regarded as a strong feature of this co-operative plan importance of

., j • i i_ ^1 1 i < • the contract.

is the contract entered into by the boy and his employer. I quote
the opinion of the High School teacher who has general charge of
the school work :

The modern boy is a very unstable article; he tries this and that and is
loathe to settle on one thing. After he has had a trial period of two months
and is satisfied he wants to learn a trade, his parents agree that he shall
stick to it for three years, and the manufacturer on his part agrees to
teach him the various branches of the trade designated in the agreement.
The arrangement is mutual: Each agrees to give the other a square deal.
I found, in a trip through the West last summer, that only those places
that had this written agreement between the apprentice and the employer
had any success with their apprenticeship system.

When in Fitchburg, I called upon one of the representatives Attitude of

c -111 111 Organized

of organized labour who had a boy taking the course, and found Labour,
that this representative was satisfied with the situation. I found
later, however, that philanthropic and social workers, and organ-
ized labour in particular, are strongly opposed to this form of co-
operative plan, chiefly on the ground that the manufacturer selects
and controls the boy and that it does not give equal rights to every-
one. A Committee of the Amercan Federation of Labour reported
in 1910, at its meeting in Toronto, thr.t there is justification in con-
demning-any system of public instruction privately controlled, or
any scheme of private selection of pupils, and calls attention to the
fact that such a plan is being fostered by manufacturers' associa-
tions. Possibly, the fact that Fitchburgh, as the result of an unsuc-
cessful strike, is now an " open shop " city has a bearing upon the
attitude of all parties towards the question.

Below I give the rules and conditions under which special ap-
prentices taking the four years' co-operative industrial course are
received for instruction at the works; also, the apprenticeship
agreement in which the parties are the apprentice, his parent or
guardian, and the employer :

F'Mles and Conditions.

1. The applicant for apprenticeship under this agreement must have
satisfactorily met requir .ments for entrance to this course at the High
School.

2. The apprentice is to work for us continuously, well and faithfully,
under such rules and regulations as may prevail, at the works of the above
company, for the term of approximately 4,950 hours, commencing with the
acceptance of this agreement, in such capacity and on such work as speci-
fied below: —

Lathe Work, Planer Work. Drilling, Bench and Floor Work, and such
other Machine Work, according to the capability of the apprentice, as per-
tains to our branch of manufacturing.

234 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

This arrangement of work to be binding unless changed by mutual
agreement of all parties to this contract.

3. The apprentice shall report to his employer for work every alternate
week when the High School is in session, and on all working days when the
High School is not in session, except during vacation periods provided
below, and he shall be paid only for actual time at such work.

4. The apprentice is to have a vacation, without pay, of two weeks each
year, during school vacation.

5. The employer reserves the right to suspend regular work wholly, or
in part, at any time it may be deemed necessary, and agrees to provide
under ordinary conditions other work at the regular rate of pay, for the
apprentice during such period.

6. Should the conduct or work of the apprentice not be satisfactory to
employer or to the High School authority, he may be dismissed or sus-
pended for a time at any time without previous notice. The first two
months of the apprentice's shop work are considered a trial time.

7. Lost time shall be made up before the expiration of each year, at the
rate of wages paid during said year, and no year of service shall commence
till after all lost time by the apprentice in the preceding year shall have
been fully made up.

8. The apprentice must purchase from time to time such tools as may
be required for doing rapid and accurate work.

g. The said term of approximately 4,950 hours (three-year shop term),
shall be divided into three periods as stated below, and the compensation
shall be as follows, payable on regular pay days to each apprentice.

For the first period of approximately 1,650 hours 10 cents per hour.

For the second period of approximately 1,650 hours. . . .11 cents per hour.
For the third period of approximately 1,650 hours 12^ cents per hour.

10. The above wage scale shall begin the first day of July preceding the
apprentice's entrance upon the first year of shop work of the High School
Industrial Course.

The satisfactory fulfilment of the conditions of this contract leads to a
diploma, to be conferred upon the apprentice by the School Board of Fitch-
burg upon his graduation, which diploma shall bear the signature of an
officer of the Company with which he served his apprenticeship.

Apprenticeship Agreement.

Agreement Among the Three Parties.

This Agreement made the day of

A.D., 19 , by and between of

(Employer)

party of the first part; and of

(Co-operative Student)

party of the second part; and of

(Bondsman)

party of the third part.

Witnesseth. That the party of the second part shall from the date
hereof, for the term of three years (4,950 hours, divided into three periods
of 1,650 hours a year, as stated in the "Rules and Conditions,"), and so
much longer as may be necessary to make up lost time, become and be the
apprentice of the party of the first part to the art or trade of ,

UNITED STATES 235

and that said parties of the first and second parts will well and truly do
and perform all things required to be done and performed by them in and
by said Rules and Conditions of the Co-operative Industrial Course.

And said party of the third part, in consideration that the parties of
the first and second part have with his knowledge executed this agree-
ment, covenants and agrees for himself and his assigns, heirs, executors or
administrators, with the party of the first part that the party of the second
part shall well and truly do and perform all things required to be done by
him, in and by this agreement, and in case said party of the second part
shall in anywise violate any of the terms and provisions of this agreement or
said Rules and Conditions, to pay to the party of the first part the sum of
One Hundred Dollars, as ascertained and liquidated damages for such
breach of contract.

In Witness whereof, said party of the first part has caused these
presents to be signed and sealed by its

for this purpose authorized, and said parties of the second and third parts
have hereto set their hands and seals this day and year first above written.

Signed and Sealed

(Employer)

In presence of

Signed and Sealed

(Apprentice)

In presence of

Signed and Sealed

(Bondsman)

In presence of

Agreement of Relative or Guardian.
*» of the above named

(Relative or Guardian)

do hereby give my consent to

(Apprentice)

his entering the employ of the said

(Employer)

upon the terms named in the above articles of agreement; and I further
agree that in consideration of such employment the wages or earnings of
my said shall be paid directly to him, and I hereby release

Son or Ward)

all claim that I now have or may have hereafter thereto.

Dated at this day of 19

Signed and Sealed

(Relative or Guardian)

In presence of

This is to Certify that the within named,

completed his term of apprenticeship.

(Seal)

16 E.I.P.

236

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

BEVERLEY CO-OPERATIVE TRADE SCHOOL, MASSACHUSETTS

ESTABLISHMENT

An institution on the co-operative plan, but of a different char-
acter from the Fitchburg one, has been established at Beverley,
Massachusetts. I was not able to visit it, but I have obtained in-
formation regarding it from the Principal by correspondence, and
from Deputy Commissioner Prosser, of the Boston Board of Edu-
cation, at an interview with him in Boston. Last year, a Beverley
Commission on Industrial Education reported in favour of co-
operation between the city schools and the United Shoe Machinery
Company, the chief industry of the city, with about 3,000 em-
ployees. The plan adopted is as follows :

CO-OPERATIVE PLAN

Separate
Department
in Factory.

Plan of
Operation.

Industrial
Education.

A separate department has been organized in the factory of the
company, equipped with all the necessary machinery tools for 25
boys at one time. The company furnishes all materials and keeps
the accounts. The machinery manufactured is inspected by regu-
lar factory inspectors and when satisfactory goes into the regular
stock of the United Shoe Machinery Company. One-half the regular
piece price is paid each pupil for all his product that passes inspec-
tion. The company also makes up the deficit between the earnings of
the practice shop as shown by the accounts and the cost of main-
tenance of the practice shop, including the salary of the instructor
while in the shop. The hiring of the shop instructor, the foreman,
and the management of the shop is in the hands of the Committee
committee on on Industrial Education. This Committee consists of five members
of the School Committee, the Mayor, and one representative of the
manufacturer furnishing the practice shop, the Superintendent of
Schools being ex officio Secretary and Executive Officer. The
Committee has full charge of the school and practice shop, subject,
however, to approval by the State Board of Education. The manu-
facturer furnishing the practice shop has the right to withdraw his
co-operation on reasonable notice.

Being under a special Committee, the School is independent of
both the factory and the High School, though sharing in the facili-
ties of both.

In the High School the work is carried on in a labora-
tory assigned for the exclusive use of this school. The other school
laboratories and class rooms are used in the afternoons when not
occupied by the regular High School classes. All the work is car-
ried on in separate classes with different hours from the regular
•High School and with a distinct course of study and a corps of in-
structors selected to suit the needs of the classes. The school day

Work in
High School.

UNITED STATES "' 237

consists of eight hours, there are no home lessons, and the factory
..hours and discipline are the same as for employees.

To be admitted, the candidates must be fourteen and have com- Admission

tests.

pleted the sixth grade of the elementary school. Many, however,
have attended the High School for a year or two. The number is Organization,
limited to fifty, who are in two groups of twenty-five each, which
alternate between the factory and the school building. Each group
is under the charge of the machinist instructor, who accompanies
it at both school and factory. The advantages of this plan are that
the instructor correlates the work more closely. The wider experi-
ence makes him also more expert ; for the work of the factory pre-
vents his being too theoretical in his instruction, and the experience
in the school makes him a better teacher at the factory.

CURRICULUM

It is intended that two years shall be given to the introductory
.course, followed probably by one or two of more advanced work
and specialization. As, however, the school is in the experimental
stage, the course has not been formulated beyond the first year.

The course of study includes :

At the Factory: Operation of different machine tools on various classes
, of work, and specializing on machine tools for which special aptitude is shown.
Each pupil makes a freehand mechanical sketch and writes a description in
notebook of the various articles manufactured by him.

At the School: (i) Drawing: mechanical sketching, with all necessary
dimensions, working drawings, perspective, industrial design, machine
design. (2) Shop Mathematics : arithmetic and mensuration, algebra, geom-
etry, trigonometry, with shop tables and the use of instruments of precision.
(3) Machinist's literature, current and historical and modern machine shop
practice. (4) Science : mechanics, electricity as applied to machinery, chem-
istry of materials and their manipulation. (5) Business and social forms
and practices, and personal, social and civic duties.

ADVANTAGES OF THE PLAN

The following advantages are claimed for this variety of the
co-operative plan :

1. The work-shop is equipped by the manufacturer with
machine tools of the very best and latest type.

2. The High School is modern in its equipment, and keeps pace
with improvements in appliances and laboratory apparatus.

3. The School has been established without a large initial ex-
pense for buildings and equipment.

4. Not only the industrial experience of the manufacturer is
utilized, but his interest and co-operation are assured.

5. The School is distinctly a Public School, at both the High
School and the factory. No indenture to the manufacturer is re-

238 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

quired, and there can be no suspicion, as is the case in the Fitch-
burg School, that the boys are exploited for the benefit of the
manufacturer. The pupil may leave at any time. He receives in
wages one-half the regular piece price, and all his work at the fac-
tory is done under the sole direction of the mechanical instructor
who teaches him at the school.

6. The product of the pupil's work is used to pay the cast of the
raw materials and to pay him for his labour in proportion to his
competency as a workman. The other half of the regular piece
price is credited to the funds of the school at its cost price to the
factory. So far, any deficit has been made good by the manufac-
turer; but, as the pupils become more skillful, it is expected that
deficiencies will disappear. It is also provided in the agreement
with the manufacturer that, if any profits should accrue, they will
belong to the school and be distributed to the pupils in increased
wages, or in whatever way is deemed advisable by the Board of
Trustees.

IV. TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS

SPRINGFIELD TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL, MASSACHUSETTS

GENERAL

confused The Springfield Technical High School illustrates the looseness

nomenclature. . ., . .

with which such schools are named. At first a manual training de-
partment of the Public Schools, it was, in 1898, reorganized as an
independent school, under the name of the Mechanics' Arts High
School and conducted in a building which had been a private school
for teaching the trades. But, as this association and the opening
of a new Public Evening Trade School in the same building with
the same equipment and teachers, had led many to suppose that the
day school was for the same purpose, the name was changed in
1904 to the Technical High School, to which it has now a just claim.

Accommoda- When I vi sited the school about ten years ago its accommoda-
tions were poor and its equipment limited. It is now housed in a
magnificent building, and possesses equipment for both boys and
girls of a very complete character, at a total cost for site, building,
and equipment of about $280,000.

character of The school is an independent Public High School, free to boys
and girls who live in Springfield. The entrance qualifications are
the same as for those who enter the Central High School of the city,
which, I may mention, cost about $400,000.

CURRICULUM

General The programme includes the English language and literature,

mathematics, science, history, French, German, and Latin of a
High School course ; it also recognizes the principle that the activi-

UNITED STATES 239

ties of home life, or of an industrial or business career, should begin
in the School, and it provides that in all the courses the boys shall
take drawing and shop work, and the girls sewing and cookery.

There are three courses of instruction, each of which offersThree
from twenty to thirty hours per week throughout each of the four00
years. They differ, however, in the subjects and the relative
amount of time given to practical work and the literary or scientific
studies. The aim in all the courses is educational and practical, not
narrowly vocational. No attempt is made to teach the mechanic
a building trade as such. The courses are as follows :

I. The College Preparatory Course: This course is based on
the requirements for admission to the various colleges and schools
of technology. Girls receive at the same time a training in domestic
science, and boys in drawing and shop-work.

II. The General Scientific Course: In addition to genera]
academic training, instruction is given in drawing and design in
the elements of the mechanic arts, and in the principles of domestic
science, which, in this course, are of more importance than in the
College Preparatory or the Commercial Course. For those who
wish to place special emphasis on practical work, a sub-division of
the course has been provided in which less literary and mathema-
tical study is required. In the third and fourth years specialization
in the work of the drawing room and the shops is permitted, and
the students taking this sub-division become so well grounded in
the principles of the fundamental mechanical trades that their term
of apprenticeship, if they take one, may be materially shortened.

III. The Commercial Course: This course combines special
consideration of the ordinary commercial branches, with a good,
general academic course. This department prepares not only good
book-keepers, stenographers, and typewriters, but it provides a gen-
eral course that will enable students to earn promotion to the more
responsible positions.

As indicative of the relation between the school and the f ac- scehooisnto f
tories, I may mention that more than 60 per cent, of those who Factones-
have been trained in the Technical High School are engaged in
industrial employment of some kind, often in positions of leader-
ship. Moreover, about 25 per cent, of the graduates of the Tech-
nical High School have taken College courses and are filling engi-
neering positions of great responsibility.

General Scientific Course

The following are the technical courses :

1. French, German and Latin are electives on the understanding that, if
chosen, they will be continued for at least two years.

2. In order to meet an unusual requirement or to provide a programme
better suited to the needs of any pupil, the Principal, with the approval of

240 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

the Superintendent, may authorize the omission of any subject and the sub-
stitution therefor of an. equivalent subject.

3. Figures in brackets after each subject indicate lesson periods of 45
minutes each. Unprepared lessons generally cover two periods or 90
minutes.

4. The number of prepared and of unprepared lessons per week are given
for each division.

A.— For Boys

FIRST YEAR.
Division (a) —

English (3), Algebra (5), History (5 mos.) (5), Physics (5 mos.) (5),
French (elective) (5) — 13 — 18 prepared lessons.

Mechanical Drawing (4), Wood Turning, elementary pattern making,
metal work (with French elective 6) (10), Physical Training (2) — 9 — 7 un-
prepared lessons.

Division (&) —

English (3), Algebra (5), History (5 mos.) (5), Physics (5 mos.) (5")—
13 prepared lessons.

Mechanical Drawing (4), Wood Turning, Elementary pattern making,
metal work (10), Physical Training (2) — 9 unprepared lessons.

SECOND YEAR.
Division (a) —

English (3), Geometry (4), Physics (5), French (4)— 14 prepared
lessons.

Mechanical Drawing (4), Pattern Making and Moulding or Cabinet Mak-
ing (5 mos.) (8), Forging and Vice Work (8), Physical Training (2)— 8 un-
prepared lessons.

Division (&) —

English (3), Geometry (4), Physics (5), History (4)— 14 prepared
lessons.

Mechanical Drawing (4), Pattern Making and Moulding or Cabinet Mak-
ing (5 mos.) (8), Forging and Vice Work (5 mos.) (8), Physical Training
(2)— 8 unprepared lessons.

THIRD YEAR.

Division (a) —

English (4), Chemistry (3 prepared) (6), Advanced Algebra and Solid
Geometry (4), Elective (4)— 15 prepared lessons.

Elective Subjects: History (4), French (4), German (4).

Mechanical Drawing (4), Machine Shop Practice (6), Physical Train'
ing (2) — 7 unprepared lessons.

Division (&) —

English (4), Shop Mathematics (4), Elective (4— 5)-
Elective Subjects: History (4), Bookkeeping (5), Typewriting (5),
Stenography (S)— 13 — 16 prepared lessons.

Mechanical Drawing (4), Machine Shop Practice (6), Physical Training
(2). Elective: Extra Shop or Drawing Room Practice (4)— 9— 7 unpre-
pared lessons.

FOURTH YEAR.

English (4), Trigonometry and Applied Mathematics (5), Elecf'ves
(8—10 prepared) (10— n).

UNITED STATES 241

Elective subjects: History and Civics (5), Advanced Physics (3 pre-
pared) (6), Advanced Chemistry (3 prepared) (6), German (5) — 17 — 19 pre-
pared lessons.

Mechanical Drawing (6), Machine Shop Practice (4) — 5 unprepared
lessons.

Division (&) —

English (4), Trigonometry and Applied Mathematics (5), Electives (5
prepared) (10-11).

Elective subjects: History and Civics (5), Bookkeeping (5), Type-
writing (5), Stenography (5).

" Architectural Drafting, Machine Drafting, Tool Making, Pattern Mak-
ing. Cabinet Making, Electrical Cons- 1 ruction (4 to 6).

Mechanical Drawing (6), Machine Shop Practice (4).

Elective: Extra Shop or Drawing Room Practice (4 to 6) — 7 — 8 unpre-
pared lessons.

B.— For Girls

FIRST YEAR.

Division (a) —

English (3), Algebra (5), History (3), Science (3), French or Latin
(elective) (5) — 14 prepared lessons.

Design (4), Household Arts (4 or 6), Physical Training (2) — 7 unpre-
pared lessons.

Division (6) —

English (3), Algebra (5), History (3), Science — 14 prepared lessons.

Design (4), Household Arts (8), Physical Training (2) — 8 unprepared
lessons.

SECOND YEAR.
Division (a) —

English (3), Science (3), Household Science (3 prepared) (5), French
or Latin or German (5), Elective (4 — 5) — 14 — 19 prepared lessons.

Elective subjects: Geometry (4 — 5), Bookkeeping (5), Typewriting (5).

Design (4), Household Arts (4), Physical Training (2) — 6 unprepared
lessons.

Division (&) —

English (3), Science (3), Household Science (3 prepared) (5), History
(4), Elective (5) — 13 — 18 prepared lessons.

Elective subjects: French or German (5), Bookkeeping (5), Typewrit-
ing (5).

Design (4), Household Arts (4), Physical Training (2) — 6 unprepared
lessons.

THIRD YEAR.
Division (a) —

English (4), Chemistry (3 prepared) (6), Hygiene and Sanitation (2),
Elective (i required) (3 — 5) — 13 — 14 prepared lessons.

Elective subjects: French or Latin (3 — 5), History (4), Advanced
Algebra and Geometry (3), German (4—5), Bookkeeping (5), Typewriting
(5), Stenography (5).

Design (4), Household Arts (4), Physical Training (2) — 6 unprepared
lessons.

242 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Division (6) —

English (4), Chemistry (3 prepared) (6), Hygiene and Sanitation (2),
Elective (i required) (4— 5)_i3_i4 prepared lessons.

Elective subjects: History (4), French or German (5), Bookkeeping
(5), Typewriting (5), Stenography (5), Household Science (Advanced) (4).

Design (4), Household Arts (4), Physical Training (2)— 6 unprepared
lessons.

FOURTH YEAR.

Division (a) —

English (4), Household Chemistry (5 prepared) (7), Elective (i re-
quired) (5) — 14 — 15 prepared lessons.

Elective subjects: History and Civics (5), French or Latin (3 or 5),
German (3 or 5), Advanced Physics or Advanced Chemistry (6).

Design (4), Household Arts (4) — 4 unprepared lessons.
Division (6) —

English (4), Household Chemistry (5 prepared) (7), Elective (i
required) (5).

Elective subjects: History and Civics (5), French or German (3 or 5),
House Decoration, House Designing, Food Preparation, Typewriting (5) —
14 prepared lessons.

Design (4), Household Arts (4) — 4 unprepared lessons.

Science and Art for Girls.
FIRST YEAR.

Science: Elementary Science, Physics, Plant Physiology.

Design: Design for basketry, leather work, weaving, stencilling, inci-
dental lettering.

SECOND YEAR.

Science: Physiology, Physics.

Household Science: Preparation of Food, composition and nutritive value.
Design: Designs for pottery, metal work, wood furniture, constructive
details.

THIRD YEAR.
• Science: Chemistry.

Household Science: Hygiene and Sanitation, consideration of site of
house, plumbing, heating and ventilation, lighting, furnishing.

Design: Architectural drawing, relation of house to surroundings,
planning of house, details of construction, interior decoration, relation to
purpose, proportion, colour schemes, hanging of pictures, materials for de-
coration.

FOURTH YEAR.

Household Science: Household Chemistry', dietetics, household manage-
ment, cost of living, table serving.

Design: Special problems for handwork elected, design applied to dress.

EVENING SCHOOLS

Aim- In connection with the school is an Evening School of trades,

established in 1898, the object of which is to give men who are
already employed an opportunity to make themselves more efficient

UNITED STATES 243

workmen, and to supplement the imperfect and highly specialized
training of modern shops by presenting a greater variety of work
than would be open to them under the present factory system.
These classes are very popular, and the various city governments
have, almost invariably, voted promptly the sums needed for their
support. The returns from the sale of tools and other apparatus Disposal of
made by the machine shop classes have reduced considerably the cost
of maintenance. The classes are free to all over fourteen who are Fees,
residents of Springfield, but a fee of $5.00 is charged each student
for materials and other incidental expenses in machine shop prac-
tice and in pattern-making. In plumbing the fee is $8.00, and in
the laboratory classes in electricity, $4.00. Non-residents are
charged $10.00, or $15.00, according to the classes they take. The
school lasts twenty-four weeks, opening the second week in October,
and the sessions are trom 7.15 to 9.15 p.m., three evenings a week.
The different departments are as follows : Departments.

Mechanical Drawing, including Machine Drawing and Architec-
tural Drawing; a three-years' course.

Machine Shop Practice and Tool Making ; a two-years' course.

Wood Turning and Pattern Making, with Cabinet Making and
Furniture Making. Courses adapted to circumstances.

Plumbing, including the subjects of Water Supply and Sanitary
Drainage; a two-years' course.

Shop Mathematics : Two courses — elementary and advanced.

Electricity : Two courses — elementary and advanced.

In general character the above courses are the same as those
to be found in other evening trade schools.

Besides the evening trade classes, Springfield provides Even- other Even-
ing Elementary Schools, an Evening Art Drawing School, and an
Evening High School with a preparatory department. Moreover,
in January, 1909, a new departure was inaugurated in the evening
work, by the organization in the Technical High School Building
of classes in domestic science, dress-making, and home decoration.

As to attendance at the Evening Schools : The report for 1909 Attendance,
shows an enrolment of 1,393 at the general Elementary Schools,
99 at the Drawing School, 148 at the preparatory department of
the High School, 720 at the High School, and 447 at the School
of Trades ; and this in a city of about 80,000 population.

VOCATIONAL SCHOOL

But while Springfield has provided technical education of a
broad character for students of the High School grade, and special-
ized evening instruction for the workmen, until recently it did not

244 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

provide special instruction for the trades in the case of those stu-
dents who are unable to avail themselves of a High School educa-
tion.

Stebiishment. In the manufacturing establishments of Springfield many trades
are represented; the last report of the Massachusetts Bureau of
Statistics credits it with 184. It has, accordingly, been plain that it
would be altogether too expensive to provide training for all.
Moreover, some of the industries are highly specialized, and employ
operatives who, after a few weeks or a few months, become almost
as automatic as the machines, they control. To meet the situation,
last autumn the school board organized a Vocational School.

Aim. The school is one of the intermediate industrial type, and is intended

to give the future workman an acquaintance with the fundamental
principles of hand and machine work, and to help him to acquire
some skill in the use of tools and some knowledge of the
processes and principles of construction; to teach him some-
thing about the raw materials used in local industries, the source
of such materials, the geographical conditions of the regions
they come from, and the methods of transporting them to the
factory, and to give him also some notion of factory processes,
the markets for which the products are prepared, the organiza-
tion of a factory, the work of apprentices, the wages they receive,
and the conditions of wage increase. Such knowledge is intended
to help the boy to grasp industrial conditions and to solve industrial
problems. The school also provides courses in practical mathema-
tics, mechanical drawing, and English composition. History is also
taught with emphasis on its commercial and industrial phases.

Plan- To carry out the scheme, the following plan was put into

operation last autumn, and is reported by the Springfield Superin-
tendent of Schools to have so far been a successful experiment :

Two groups of boys from the elementary schools, of about
twenty-five each, have been taught by two trained craftsmen, one
a woodworker and the other an ironworker. The boys selected
were at least fourteen years of age and were fitted for the seventh
or eighth grade of the elementary school work. The course is in-
tended to be one of three or four years, and to prepare boys for
entrance into the more important hand-tool and machine-tool trades
after shortened apprenticeships.

Each boy spends half the year in woodwork, and the other half
in ironwork, in order to test his aptitude for trade and to find out
which trade he is most fitted for. In the second year he will make
a choice of the line of work he will take up in the school. In the
forenoon the boys are in class-rooms of the elementary schools,
where they will take up academic work and mechanical drawing,

UNITED STATES 245

and in the afternoon they are in the shops of the Technical High
School.

An extension of this scheme was also provided when last sum-
mer a six weeks' Manual Training Vacation School for boys was
opened with, it is reported, a good attendance and excellent results.

STUYVESANT HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY

ACCOMMODATION AND EQUIPMENT

The Stuyvesant High School provides technical instruction, but ^
for boys only. The building covers an acre of ground, and in the equipment,
five stories and basement contains actual floor space of about five
acres, providing for about 1,200 day pupils. The attendance at the
evening classes is nearly as great. The accommodations and equip-
ment are so excellent as to deserve description: Forty-eight class
rooms, three physical laboratories, three chemical laboratories, three
lecture rooms, nine draughting rooms, eight carpenter rooms, three
wood-turning and pattern-making shops, one metalwork shop, one
foundry, two blacksmith shops, one machine shop, one special
laboratory for electricity, one construction and milling room, one
blue-printing room, one photographic dark room, a library, an
auditorium with seating capacity for 1,500, a lunch room, a
gymnasium nearly a hundred feet square, with elevated running
track and visitors' gallery, a locker room with over 2,000 lockers for
individual students, and a lavatory with ten shower baths. All the
shops and rooms have excellent equipment. The site cost $365,000,
the building $1,000,000, and the equipment $200,000, a total of
$1,565,000.

The salaries cost $150,000 a year; the material, $15,000; and Maintenance,
the other items of maintenance $20,000. The total attendance in the
Manual Training Department is 1,900, and each pupil cost $100 a
year.

CURRICULUM

Two courses are provided ; the work done is of a higher charac-
ter than in most of the other Industrial or Technical Schools :

i. The General Course, for those boys who wish to prepare general
directly for schools of medicine, law, dentistry, or pharmacy; for
schools of electrical, mechanical, or civil engineering; or for the
academic department of any college. Here are included the usual
academic subjects, with free-hand and mechanical drawing in the
first and second years, and mechanical drawing in the third and
fourth years ; joinery in the first year : wood-turning, pattern-mak-
ing, moulding, and sheet metal work in the second year ; forging in
the third year; and machine shop construction in the fourth year,

246

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Industrial
Course.

Aim.

Departments.

for which, however, a student preparing for a technical college
course may substitute an academic subject.

2. The Industrial Course, for those boys who intend to go
directly from the High School to positions in machine shops, in
building construction, electric light and power plants, chemical de-
partments of manufacturing establishments, in commercial indus-
tries requiring technical knowledge and skill or in the different
departments of City Government.

In this course the number and the extent of the academic sub-
jects are somewhat less than in the first course. In the following
statement, the number in brackets is the number of class periods
each week; as will be noticed, no choice of study is allowed in the
first three years, but a wide range is allowed in the last year:

First Year: English (5), algebra (5), freehand drawing (2), mechanical
drawing (4), joinery and cabinet making (10), music (i), physical train-
ing (2).

Second Year: English (3), plane geometry (4), chemistry (5), freehand
drawing (2), mechanical drawing (4), wood-turning, pattern making and join-
ery (10), physical training(2).

Third Year: English (3), plane geometry and trigonometry (3), physics (5),
modern history (3), mechanical and architectural drawing (i), forging and
machine shop practice (10), physical training.

Fourth Year: English (3), shop mathematics (3), American history and
civics (4), advanced chemistry or economics or industrial and Commercial
Law or applied mechanics, steam and electricity (4), mechanical and archi-
tectural drawing (4), special shop work in Laboratory Practice in one of the
following electives :

1. Building Construction ; carpentry ; sanitation, including heating and in-
stallation; electric wiring and installation.

2. Advanced forging and tool making.

3. Advanced pattern making and foundry practice.

4. Advanced machine shop practice.

SL Industrial chemistry.

\

BOSTON GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL ARTS
GENERAL

This school differs from the industrial, or trade school, in pro-
viding for all a good four years' academic course and in preparing
girls for the duties of the home as well as for trades. It is a con-
necting link between the ordinary Trade School and the Technical
High School.

The academic departments are English, history, mathematics,
science, art, and French and German. The Principal, however,
informs me that on account of their comparative unimportance,
probably hereafter no modern language will be taken up. As far
as possible the academic subjects are given a practical application;

UNITED STATES 247

thus, for example, the pupil is taught both how to prepare sulphur
dioxide and how to bleach the straw for straw hats. Instruction is
given throughout the course in choral singing and physical training.

The Art department deserves special notice. Its object is to Art Depart-
cultivate taste through a study of the principles of beauty and their
application to the problems of dress and the home. It includes
representation, which stimulates observation and expression; con-
struction, which teaches the facts of form and the making of draw-
ings for the work-shop; mechanical drawing, which necessitates
accuracy in measuring; composition and design, which include the
analytical study of the principles of beauty and colour harmony;
costume designing ; house decoration and furnishing.

The Industrial Departments are household science and arts, industrial
sewing, dress-making, and millinery. Besides fitting girls for
home-making, the insti uction in practical arts insures to those who
seek employment places of responsibility in the industries they have
studied at school.

The terms of admission are the same as those of the other His;h Admission

tests

Schools in Boston and are about the same as those we prescribe in
Ontario.

CURRICULUM

Following is a summary of the programme of studies:

In the first year all take the same subjects; there are no elective courses. SummaiT-
In each of the second, third and fourth years, a choice of one of the follow-
ing elective courses is allowed: Dressmaking Course (10), Millinery Course
(10), Household Science Course (10).

NOTE.— The number after each subject is the number of periods a week devoted to it, each period
being 45 minutes long.

First Year.— Required : English (5), history (2), mathematics (4), art
(4), sewing (6), cooking and housewifery (4), choral practice (i), physical
training (2).

Second Year.— Required : English (4), history (2), French or German
(3), chemistry (4), art (5), choral practice (i), physical training (i).

Third Year. — Required: English (4), history, civil government (2), French
or German (3), biology, one-half year (2), physics, one-half year (2), art (5),
choral practice (i), physical training (i).

Fourth Year.— Required : English (4), French or German (3), house-
hold accounts, one-half year (2), home nursing, one-half year (2), economics
(2), art (5), choral practice (i), physical training (i).

As this school is one of the best I know of which provide trade Practical
instruction of a high character and good all-round culture for girls
of the secondary grade, I give the details of the practical courses :

Dressmaking
FIRST YEAR.

White Work: Review of sewing stitches on a model. Hand stitching.
Running. Over-seaming. Hemming. Buttonholes. Gathering. Putting
on a band.

248 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Care and use of sewing machines.

ra^HrmTtS' in^d!,n? hand ,and machine sewing. Each to be planned,
drafted, cut, and fitted by pupils: —

Apron :-(a) Machine: Ruffle, hems, tucks, straight bands, straight
facings, (b) Hand: Fancy hem stitches.

f.rin- K SeamS" Cuttin& and Pacing of yokes. Bias

facings. Straight band. Placket. Joining lace and embroidery.

Kimono: Tailor basting. Seam finishings (cat stitch, open and closed
^ Frenach°knote) ge' *"" ^'^ ^^ embroideries> etc. (Solid,

Night Gown: Draft with yoke. Draft princess (make either). Sleeve
(circular, puffed, straight).

Corset Coyer and Skirt, or Chemise: Setting in of lace. French em-
broidery. Rolling hems. Whipping ruffles.

Hemming, marking, and darning table linen. Patching. Mending flan-
nel. Mending and footing stockings. Mending gloves.

SECOND YEAR.

Drafting: Skirts, shirt waists. Make models of different plackets and
seam finishings. Cut, fit, and make a shirt waist suit. Plaids. Stripes.
Bias folds. Pipings.

Tailored Waist: Neck band. Stiff cuff.

Crochet Stitches: Drawn work.

Lingerie Dress: Flounces. Laces. Embroideries from original designs.
Making medallions. Mending lace. Transferring embroideries. Chemis-
ettes. Undersleeves.

Orders taken for shirt waist or plain skirt. Shop methods.
THIRD YEAR.

Pattern Making: Plain skirt modified for pleated skirts, and different
fancy models.

Circular skirts. Circular gored skirts. Drafting for close fitting waist
and Princess dress. Materials, wool and silk. Unlined tailored skirt. Press-
ing. Seam finishings — Overcast. Bound, Pinked. Notched. Waist, lined
and unlined. Drop skirt. Lined waist, boned (model), with cases, without
cases. Lined skirt — Stiffening, braid, velveteen, etc. Mending woollens.
Mending heavy lace with lace stitches. Making trimmings. Shirrings.
Cordings.

FOURTH YEAR.

Draft Patterns for all styles. Tailored coat. Skirt. Graduation dress.
Evening dress to order.

Millinery.
FIRST YEAR.

Bandeaux: Of buckram. Side. (Covered plain of side, both sides, and
edge). Of wire.

Folds: Cutting, piecing, and making. Plain folds. French folds. Roll
hern. Teaching cat stitch, slip stitch, etc.

Frames. — Buckram: Taking measures, cutting patterns, making cov-
ering wires. Covering frame with canton flannel, binding edge, lining.
Finishing with folds. Talks on materials — silk and velvet. Renovating —
silk and velvet. Ornaments made from copy and original design.

Wire frames: Made from model hats, (i) One piece frames. (2)
Two piece frames. These covered with crinoline as a foundation for other
covering.

UNITED STATES 249

A small wire frame (dolls') from original design. Covered with straw
(first straw sewing) and finished as a review of principles previously taught.

Visit Spring openings and make wire frames in prevailing style, and
cover with straw, shirrings, rim facings, puffed edges.

SECOND YEAR.

During this year use the real materials, velvets, ribbons, flowers, lace,
etc. Consider cost of each article made.

Bow Making: Wiring, edging with straw, etc., rosettes, lining velvet
for trimmings, ornaments.

Felt Hat (old): Renovate, brace, face, put on folds, copy a simple
trimming.

Frames for bonnets and toques, covered with real materials, as velvets,
fancy braids, chenilles, etc. Baby's bonnet.

Renovating: Flowers, lace, wire lace. Make wire frames. Cover with
straws in combinations, with fancy crowns, and brims. Re-shaping old
style hats by taking out braid and adding more by piec:ng, colouring. Trim
same. Other practice in trimming.

THIRD YEAR.

Renovating and curling feathers. Visit openings, and make sketches of
hats and trimmings, from which trim felt hat, and make frame, cover and
trim. Modify the prevailing styles to suit individuals. Make hat from
original design. Fur sewing. Making of and trimming hats with fur.
Mourning work. Buying materials. Taking orders.

During this year the pupils will buy materials, estimate cost of hats,
estimate fair profits, considering a trade milliner's expenses. Make hat for
sale.

The following are the articles made :
FIRST YEAR.

5 different kinds of Bandeaux; i Buckram hat frame, made and cov-
ered; 3 different ornaments of silk and velvet; 2 wire frames; straw mend-
ing; i miniature hat, wire frame, covered wi.h straw, trimmed, original
design; i wire frame covered with crinoline and straw and faced with shir-
red mull; i hat of original design, complete, for student's wear; 3 different
ornaments of straw.

The above are required of all girls. Some do extra pieces.

Household Science*
FIRST YEAR.

Care of kitchen. Building and care of fire.

Foods: Definitions. Reasons for cooking. Water.

Carbohydrates: Cereals, starchy vegetables, green vegetables, fruits,
sugar — candy.

Fats and Oils: Sources. Uses in cooking. Salads, butter balls, whipped
cream, soap.

Beverages: Coffee, tea, chocolate, cocoa.

Proteids: Milk — chese, white sauce, milk soups. Eggs— Soft cooked,
hard cooked, poached, scrambled, scalloped, soft custard, baked custard, egg
vermicelli. Meats— Cuts of meat, soup stock, braised beef, steak— Ham-
burg steak, hash. Fish — Boiled, broiled, baked.

Albuminoids: Gelatine, jellies, snow pudding.

Doughs and Batters: Baking powder biscuits. Muffins. Popovers.
Plain cake. Cookies.

250 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Frozen Mixtures: Sherbet. Ice cream.
Left-overs.

Sorting clothes. Removal of stains. Preparation of water. Starching
Care of line. Drying. Ironing. Folding.

Practice on: Bed linen, body linen, table linen, woollens, laces, silks.
Cleaning windows, paint, woodwork, metals.

SECOND YEAR.

Preserving and Canning: Fruits and vegetables. Soups with soup
stock foundation. Salads — Mayonnaise dressing. Custards. Omelets.
Souffles. Meat — Roasts, poultry. Fish — To skin, to bone, to fillet, to serve.
Gelatine — Fruit jelly, Bavarian cream, food in aspic jelly. Pastry. Fried
Food. Bread. Biscuits — buns. Cakes — cookies. Frozen mixtures — Ices,
ice cream, Mousse.

Study of Foods: Season. Care. Price.

Buying, planning, and serving meals for a certain price.

Practice in housekeeping in a model home, care of storeroom.

THIRD YEAR.

Preserving. Invalid cookery. Study of dietaries with prices for babies,
school children, aged people of different occupations. Cooking and serv-
ing meals (individual responsibility). Breakfasts, luncheons, dinners,
suppers.

FOURTH YEAR.

Cost of household furnishings and decorations, and cost of living based
on incomes. Food, rent, light, heat. Balance food values for menus cov-
ering several days, use of left-overs.

Each student to plan and cook entire meal. Practice in catering for
small parties.

V. COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOLS

HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, BOSTON .

GENERAL

Aim. This school, which now occupies temporary quarters, is a

special school for higher education in commercial subjects. More
elementary courses are provided in the High Schools. As stated
in the programme, the object of the school is to combine instruction
in general high school subjects with instruction in the specific sub-
jects of commerce. The general subjects are, however, taught with
a constant view to preparing the pupil to use them in business, and
to this end they are centred about the specific work in commerce.
The admission test is the same as that in the other High Schools.

Admission For graduates of the High Schools a more advanced course is also

tests. • , ,

provided.

The course of study allows a student to prepare himself for one
of the three main departments : Secretarial Work. Buying and Sell-
ing, and Accounting.

UNITED STATES. 251

CURRICULUM

The subjects taken up are as follows, the number of weekly
periods being given after each subject :

English: 4 for three and one-half years, commercial English, advertising,
correspondence, first half fourth year.

Modern Languages: German, 4 for three years, 3 for one year, French or
Spanish, 3 during second, third, and fourth years.

Economics and History: General history, 3 during first year. Modern
history, 4 first half third year. Economic history, 4, second half of third year.
Commercial geography, 4, first half of second year. Local industries, 4,
second half of second year. Commercial law, 4, first half of fourth year.
Civil Government, 4, second half of fourth year. Economics, 4, fourth year.

Mathematics: Algebra, 4, during first year; review, 4, three months in
fourth year. Plane geometry (elective), 4, third year. Commercial arithmetic,
4, second half second year. Solid geometry and trigonometry (elective).

Business Technique: Penmanship, 4, first half first year. Business forms
and practices, 4, second half first year. Book-keeping, 4, second year. Ad-
vanced Book-keeping (elective in third and fourth years), 4, third year; 6,
fourth year. Typewriting, either one period, third and fourth years, or in the
advanced book-keeping and stenography courses. Stenography (elective), 5,
second year; 4, third year; 6, fourth year.

Science: Elementary physics, 4, first half first year. Physical geography,
4, second half first year. Chemistry, 5, third year. Advanced applied chemistry
(elective) 5, fourth year.

Drawing (elective) : Freehand, 3, third year. Mechanical drawing, 3,
fourth year. Commercial Design, 3, fourth year.

CO-OPERATION WITH BUSINESS MEN

A noteworthy feature of this school is a scheme of co-operation
maintained between the school and the business men of the city :

i. A general committee of twenty-rive business men, represent- Advisory
ing the various activities of the city, has been appointed by the school Cc
board for advisory purposes. While this is the first time such a
plan has 'been put in operation in the United States, it has been in
operation for many years in Germany and is regarded as being a
most important factor in the efficiency of her commercial schools.
In Germany the Gity Chamber of Commerce usually takes the initia-
tive in the establishment of the Commercial School, and it is to the
business men that the boards of management look for advice in its
administration. At this school throughout the year business men
discuss before the students such subjects as success in business, busi-
ness ethics, business organization, etc. Lectures have also been
provided for on leather, wool, provisions, textiles, wholesale and
retail business, etc.

2. Co-operation has also been provided for between the school summer
and the business office. During each year groups of students have Employm
been taken into the business houses, where, under the direction of
competent guides, they are shown a modern business house in actual
operation.

17 E.I.P.

252 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Plan- The plan of summer employment is put into operation in a very

simple way. I have before me a circular letter addressed by the
Principal of the school to a number of business houses asking for
co-operation. The letter states that the school desires 300 positions
for summer employment, at a minimum wage of $2.00 a week, this
sum being required to pay car-fares and buy lunches. While higher
pay may be offered, wages are a minor consideration, the chief
object being to give the boys some business experience. This
scheme is regarded as an experiment but so far it has been successful.
Subject to the parents' approval every boy of the second and third
year classes is expected to spend at least four weeks of his summer
vacation as an employee in a business house. To secure a position
he must be mature enough for the work, have had a satisfactory
school record, and be recommended by his teacher. He takes with
him to the business house a summary of his school record, and brings
back to the school a summary of his record with the business house,
under the following heads : responsibility, initiative, accuracy, ability
to work with others, good taste in dress and manners.
. Last summer, through the public spirit of certain business men
of Boston, two travelling scholarships were established. Such
scholarships, I may add, are provided in Germany also. The young
men who held these scholarships were selected from the senior class
of the school after an examination in modern languages, economics,
and a knowledge of commercial conditions in South America,
and were sent on a trip of observation to the east coast of that
continent, where they visited some of the largest cities, such as
Buenos Ayres, Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro. On their return
they made an official report of their visit to the Advisory Commit-
tee of business men associated with the school.

VI. CORRESPONDENCE-STUDY SCHOOLS
THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON

GENERAL

When in Milwaukee in December, 1909, at the Convention of the
Association for the Promotion of Industrial Education, I met
some members of the staff of the University of Wis-
consin. One of these was Mr. William H. Lighty, Secretary of
the University Extension Division. Then, and later by corre-
spondence, he put me in possession of some facts in connection
with this division of the University work that should prove sug-
gestive in Ontario. I heard also an illuminating address by Charles
Van Hise, President of the University, on the subject of University
Aid to Industrial Education.

UNITED STATES 253

The University of Wisconsin is a State-supported institution,
its main revenue being derived from a two-seventh (2-7) mill tax.
In addition to this, however, in recent years appropriations have
been made for building and other purposes. The annual appropri-
ation made by the State Legislature, including the tax and special
appropriations, amounts to $1,200,000. Each college of the Uni-
versity has its special staff.

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION DIVISION

The University Extension Division is one of the co-ordinate col- Department*
leges. It consists of four departments :

1. Lecture Instruction Department. University lectures are i- Lecture,
available for lecture courses or single lectures, commencement ad-
dresses, etc., in a large number of departments.

2. Debating and Public Discussion Department. This depart- z- Debating.,
ment issues bulletins, stating questions of live interest, gives
affirmative and negative references upon them and lends libraries

for preparing debates. Thousands throughout the State in High
Schools, School Boards, Town Councils; and farmers', social and
women's clubs, etc., have been assisted through this department.

3. General Information and Welfare Department. This de- information.,
partment serves as the clearing-house for enquiries and for infor-
mal dissemination of useful and serviceable knowledge having a

direct bearing upon general welfare.

4. The Correspondence-study Department is the one in which ence°study!nd
we are interested. The instruction in it is given in five main
divisons as follows : —

(1) Special Vocational Studies;

(2) Elementary School Branches;

(3) High School and Preparatory subjects;

(4) Special Advance Work;

(5) Regular University grade of work.

In the foregoing, thirty-five departments of the University are
represented. These embrace 206 courses of study, the subjects
taken by the correspondence students including nearly all that are
offered.

As illustrations of the scope of the work done, I give the
details of three of the grouped vocational studies: —

Mechaniffll Engineering: Mechanical Drafting, Stationary Engineering,
Machine Design, Refrigeration, Heating and Ventilation, Power Plants, Gas
Power Plants, Steam Engine and Boiler Operation.

Structural Engineering: Structural Designing, Structural Drafting, Bridge
Construction, Building Construction, Masonry and Reinforced Concrete.

254

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Fees.

sources of

attendance.

classes.

Electrical Engineering: Lighting and Wiring, Car Operation, Electric
Railways, Telephony, Central Station Operation, Dynamo Running, Power
Transmission.

A large percentage of students taking mechanical courses pay
fees through orders on their employers, in small monthly instal-
ments, many at the rate of $2.00 a month and some at less.

Correspondence-Study Department
The students in the Correspondence Courses come from the

, *,

ranks of labourers, apprentices, farmers, skilled mechanics, labour
organizations, clerks, salesmen, travelling men, stenographers, drug-
gists, bankers, business men, home workers, club women, students,
teachers, lawyers, clergymen, doctors, civic officials.

Some of the members of the University Extension Division are
appointed for correspondence-study work alone and devote their
entire time to it. Others divide their time between Correspondence
and residence instruction. Others again give most of their time to
residence and the rest to correspondence instruction. The pro-
fessors and instructors appointed for any course in correspondence
read the recitation papers and give the instruction in these courses.
Those who carry on the work in industrial education subjects, have
by their previous training and experience special qualifications, not
only for teaching these subjects, but even for the production of
suitable texts.

I*1 addition to the instruction given through correspondence,
professors and instructors from the University make visits to com-
munities in which a group of students are working along the same
line and there supplement the correspondence instruction with
class-room lectures and individual instruction. In communities
where local centres have been developed, the University has pro-
vided a staff consisting of a local representative or manager, usually
of professorial rank, and instructors in such branches as have a
sufficient number of students to warrant special local instructors,
and field organizers to present the character of the University ex-
tension work to those who may profit by this form of instruction.
These local classes meet in the local University head-quarters, in
rooms belonging to school boards or public libraries, or in speci-
ally appointed class-rooms in a commercial or industrial establish-
ment set apart and equipped by that establishment for University
Extension teaching purposes. In one instance the owner of large
business interests has supplied well furnished class-rooms and has
equipped them with books for the students' use. He has also
offered to pay the fees of all employees who complete courses of
study.

UNITED STATES 255

It is significant of the success of the scheme that of the total |ian?830f
number who began work only about 4 per cent, dropped out before
completing the course, and those who did so had good and satis-
factory reasons. One of the well-known defects of the commercial
correspondence schools, such as that of Scranton, has been that so
many students drop out. This defect President Van Hise realized
shortly after the establishment of his University Correspondence
School. I quote his words :

The extension movement at the University has developed beyond our
most sanguine expectations ; indeed has expanded day by day, and I see
before it almost limitless opportunity. Correspondence work at the out-
set followed the model of the commercial correspondence school, but
Director L. E. Reber soon saw that there were two defects in that system
—the defect that each student was obliged to work by himself, and the
defect that he did not come in contact with his teacher. These two handi-
caps are so great that only a small percentage of those who begin a course
of instruction continue to the end. It requires a great deal of stamina for a
man, after he has worked nine or ten hours in a shop, to sit down by him-
self in the evening, study a lesson, and write a paper ; and thus a very large per-
centage of students in correspondence-study courses have in the past fallen out
before the end is reached. To remedy these defects it was suggested that the
artisans should be gathered into classes, and meet a teacher. Hence, we have The Travel-
instituted the travelling professor. lins Professor.

But in order to make this more successful, it was necessary to get the
co-operation of the merchants and manufacturers. Therefore we came into
Milwaukee and presented the case to the merchants and manufacturers of
this city. Some of them said, we will give you an opportunity to meet the
men in our shops; a number of them offered quarters for class-rooms; and
some of them went so far as to say, we will pay the men for the time
they are receiving class-room instruction. In Milwaukee at the present
time we have more than 1,000 students doing vocational work in twenty
different manufactories. Thus, the defects of correspondence work have
been remedied, and instead of some ninety-five per cent, dropping out of a
course before its completion, less than five per cent, do so. Already we
are told by the merchants and manufacturers of Milwaukee that the effects
of this movement is seen in the increased efficiency of their workmen; that
it furnishes them better-trained foremen, and in greater numbers.

Although this department of the University has been in exist-
ence only since January, 1907, the registration had grown from 26
on that date to over 3,500. Of the latter number, nearly 2,000 are
registered for special vocational studies.

President Van Rise's statement of the attitude of his University
on the question of the extension movement for industrial education versity-
is well worth quoting ; it is that of a State University which recog-
nizes to the full its obligations to the people who support it : —

*

It is the desire of the University to fill the gap in the training of arti-
sans — to do the work of the trade school until the trade school occupies the
field; and when they do so fully, to take the artisans from these schools and
make of them broader and better citizens; to give them an opportunity
commensurate with their ability, such as every citizen should enjoy in a

256

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Other Uni-
versity
Correspond-
ence-study
schemes.

democratic community, in a civilization where we do not recognize that one
man is superior to another, and where we hold that the door of opportun-
ity shall be open to all.

Nor is the University of Wisconsin the only University which
has adopted an extension scheme. Within the past few years a
number of other State Universities have followed the example of
Wisconsin; notably, the Universities of Chicago, Kansas, Ne-
braska, and Minnesota; and half a dozen others have introduced
correspondence-study instruction on a similar basis, although, of
course, they have not yet carried it so far.

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ONTARIO

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ONTARIO :

Page

Introduction 263

Organization of Educational System 263

Obstacles to Modernization 264

I. Industrial and Technical Education:

1. Present Provision — Provincial 267

(1) Household Science ". 267

(2) Manual Training 268

(3) Technical and Art School, Hamilton . . • 271

(4) Technical High School, Toronto 272

(5) High School Mining Department, Sudbury 273

(6) Evening Classes 274

(7) Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering, University of Toronto •• 275

2. Present Provision — Voluntary 276

(1) School of Mining, Kingston 276

(2) Apprenticeship Schools 277

(3) Canadian Horological Institute 278

(4) Young Men's Christian Association 279

3. The Situation from the Point of View of the Industries 279

4. Proposed Changes in Present Provision for Industrial and Technical Edu-

cation 282

Introductory 282

(i) Primary School Classes for Boys and Girls leaving School before 14- • 283

(2) Industrial and Technical Schools for Boys and Girls at School after 14 284

(3) Industrial and Technical Schools for Boys at School after 14 284

(a) The General Industrial School • 284

(b) The Special Industrial School 286

(c) The Technical High School and High School Departments 289

(4) Industrial and Technical Schools for Girls at School after 14 290

(5) Industrial and Technical Schools for Workmen and Workwomen • • • • 292

(a) The Apprenticeship School 292

(b) The Industrial and Technical Evening School 294

(c) The Correspondence-Study Industrial and Technical School 296

(6) General Provisions 298

(a) The Qualifications of the Teachers 299

(b) A Director of Industrial and Technical Education 301

(c) An Ontario Industrial and Technical College 302

(cl) A Dominion Institute for Industrial Research 3°4

II. Drawing and Art Education:

1. Present Provision — Provincial 3°8

2. Present Provision — Voluntary 3°9

(1) Central Ontario School of Art and Design 3O9

(2) Other Provisions for Art 3^

III. Agricultural Education:

Introductory ; 312

I. In Primary Schools 3*3

259

260 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

2. In Secondary Schools 315

The Dunn County School of Agriculture and Domestic Science, Menotn-

inee, Wis 317

3. The County Representatives of the Department of Agriculture 318

4. The Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph 321

5. Other Provisions for Agricultural Education 323

IV. Commercial Education:

Introductory 323

1. Provision in England and Foreign Countries 324

2. Provision in Ontario 325

Introductory 325

(1) School Attendance 326

(2) Organization of Courses 327

(3) Proposed Commercial Courses for Secondary Schools 328

(4) Qualifications of Teachers 329

V. General Considerations:

1. Sources of Financial Support 330

2. Local Management and Organization 337

3. Compulsory Attendance of Adolescents 342

VI. Summary of Recommendations • 345

Appendix A.

Attitude of Interested Public Bodies:

Canadian Manufacturers' Association 351

Board of Trade of Toronto 35i

American Federation of Labour 352

Trades and Labour Congress of Canada 352

Appendix B.

I. Opinions of Employers of Labour:

American Bank Note Company, Ottawa 353

American Watch Case Company of Toronto • • •' 353

John Bertram & Sons Company, Limited, Dundas 354

Berlin Interior Hardwood Company, Limited, Berlin •••.•• 355

Bredin Bread Company, Limited, Toronto 356

Berlin Furniture Company, Limited, Berlin 356

Brigdens Limited, Toronto (late, The Toronto Engraving Company, Limited) 357

Canada Carriage Company, Brockville

Canada Cycle and Motor Company, Limited, West Toronto 358

Canada Foundry Company, Limited, Toronto

Canadian Locomotive Company, Limited, Kingston

Canadian Westinghouse Company, Limited, Hamilton

Cowan & Company of Gait, Limited, Gait

Dennis Wire and Iron Works Co., Limited, London

Dodge Manufacturing Company of Toronto, Limited, Toronto

P. W. Ellis & Company, Limited, Toronto

Frost & Wood Company, Limited, Smith's Falls •

Globe-Wernicke Company, Limited, Stratford 3°4

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 261

Page

Goldie & McCulloch Company, Limited, Gait 364

John Goodison Thresher Company, Limited, Sarnia 364

Gurney Foundry Company, Toronto 365

Harris Lithographing Company, Toronto 365

International Harvester Company of Canada, Limited, Hamilton 365

McLaughlin Carriage Co., Limited, Oshawa 366

McClary Manufacturing Company, London 366

John Morrow Screw Company, Limited, Ingersoll 367

Ontario Engraving Company, Hamilton 367

Geo. Pattinson & Company, Preston 368

Penmans Limited, Paris 368

Toronto Carpet Manufacturing Co., Toronto 368

Welland Vale Manufacturing Co., Limited, St. Catharines 369

Williams, Greene & Rome Co., Limited, Berlin 369

Methodist Book and Publishing House, Toronto 369

W. J. Gage Company, Toronto 370

The Builders' Exchange, Toronto 371

John C. Boswell, Hamilton (Painter) 371

Holtby Bros., Toronto (Mason Contractors) 372

Adam Clark, Hamilton (Plumbing and Heating) 372

Keith & Fitzsimons Company, Toronto (Plumbers and Steamfitters) 372

A. B. Ormsby, Limited, Toronto (Sheet-Metal Workers) 372

Donaldson & Paterson, Hamilton (Carpenters and Builders) 373

W. J. Hynes, Toronto (Contractor and Relief Decorations in Staff, Cements,

etc.) 373

Grand Trunk Railway System, Stratford Shops 373

II. Opinions of Educationists:

Dean of the Faculty of Education, Toronto, late Principal of the Technical

High School, Toronto • • • 375

Dean of the Faculty of Education, Kingston, late Principal of the Kingston

Collegiate Institute 377

Principal of the Brantford Collegiate Institute and Manual Training School 379

Principal of the Hamilton Technical and Art School • 380

Principal of the Stratford Collegiate Institute and Manual Training School . • 381

Appendix C.

I. Acts of the Legislature:

An Act Respecting the Department of Education 3&4

An Act Respecting Public Schools 384

An Act Respecting High Schools and Collegiate Institutes 3^5

An Act Respecting Continuation Schools 3^5

An Act Respecting Boards of Education 3^5

An Act Respecting Public Libraries 3§6

An Act Respecting Technical Schools 3^6

The Consolidated Municipal Act of 1903 3^7

II. Regulations of the Department of Education:

Distribution of Legislative Grants for Manual Training, Household Science,

and Special Technical Instruction 3^8

Qualifications of Teachers:

Household Science 3^9

Manual Training 3^9

ONTARIO

INTRODUCTION

In order to make clear the provision for industrial and technical
education in each of the countries I visited, I have introduced the
subject with an outline of the general organization of its educa-
tional system, indicating its most noteworthy features. In order
now to make clear the changes that appear to me to be needed in
the Ontario system, I give, first, an outline of its general organiza-
tion, indicating the main obstacles from the point of view of the
schools themselves, to its complete modernization ; and, secondly, a
statement, in some detail, of what we have already accomplished in
the way of industrial and technical, drawing and art, agricultural,
and commercial education. In connection with the latter state-
ment I discuss the nature and practicability of proposed changes.

ORGANIZATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

First, then, as to the organization of the system :

Like most other countries, we have three divisionte — primary,
secondary and university.

I. Primary education is provided for in our Public and Separ- Primary,
ate Schools wholly at the public expense. Besides the so-called
essentials, English, mathematics, geography, and history, the
courses of study include drawing and art, constructive work, man-
ual training, and household science; and provision is made for
instruction in commercial subjects, agriculture, and industrial arts.

II. Secondary education is provided for in our Continuation secondary.
Schools, High Schools, and Collegiate Institutes, largely at the
public expense. In these schools there are two classes of courses :

1. The General Course taken by those who desire merely a
general education; and

2. The Special Courses, as follows, taken up by those who
desire education for special purposes.

(i) The courses for University Matriculation and the Prelim-
inary Examinations of the Learned Professions. The latter lead
to vocational courses ; the former may lead directly or indirectly to
such courses, but they are usually taken to enable the student to
obtain a higher general education.

NOTE— Only occasionally throughout the sections dealing with Ontario do I refer explicitly "to the
contents of the preceding sections. By means of the table of contents and the marginal notes, those who
•wish to study the subject may easily find any desired detail- «

263

264 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

(2) The courses for admission to the Normal and Model
Schools and the Faculties of Education. Although sometimes taken
by those who desire only a general education, these usually lead to
vocational courses.

(3) The Household Science course.

(4) The Commercial course

(5) The Agricultural course.

Courses (4) and (5) are themselves manifestly vocational:
and, as course (3) prepares girls for housekeeping, it also is to be
placed in the same class.

(6) The Manual Training Course.

(7) The Middle School Art course, which is an extension of
the Art course of the first two years of the High School course.

The two foregoing courses, with a few exceptions, must at pres-
ent be classed as cultural.

III. Higher education is provided for also largely at the public
expense at the University of Toronto, in the Faculties of Arts, Med-
icine, Applied Science and Engineering, Household Science, Edu-
cation, and Forestry. With the University of Toronto are connected
the federated universities of Victoria and Trinity, three federal
denominational colleges, eight colleges directly affiliated, and five
affiliated through the federated universities. The colleges provide
for instruction in agriculture, dentistry, pharmacy, music, and vet-
erinary science. The other colleges are merely secondary schools.

Outside of the provincial system there are four universities and
a number of private schools.

OBSTACLES TO COMPLETE MODERNIZATION

Secondly, as to the main obstacles, from the point of view of
the schools themselves, to complete modernization :

^"partmentai The most striking feature of our primary and secondary
examinations. schools is the system of uniform departmental examinations, which
for over a quarter of a century have not only determined the char-
acter of the teaching, but have held in thrall the pupils, the teachers,
and the public. In the case of the public and separate schools it
is the examination for entrance into the high schools that domin-
ates; and in the case of the high schools, continuation schools,
and collegiate institutes, it is the examination for university
matriculation and for admission to the teachers' training schools.
On the results of these examinations school boards and the general
public appraise the teacher's competency, and upon such appraise-
•other ment depend his promotion and his salary. When to the influence

influences. Q£ these examinations there are added that of academic tradition,

ONTARIO 265

the general desire for an occupation that allows " clean hands and
good clothes," and the lack of suitable provision for agricultural
and industrial education and of sufficient inducement to follow
these occupations, it is easy to understand why for many years
the most important products of our schools have been teachers and
professional men. Our schools, it is true, also send out in increas-
ing numbers clerks, book-keepers, stenographers, and typewriters;
for the preparatory courses entail little cost upon school boards, and §hisf p/0:

J ducts of the

they are taken by many because they are short and lead to ready schools,
employment, and they, too, allow " clean hands and good clothes."
But, as a determining factor in our school system, the influence of
these courses is not to be compared with that of our uniform exam-
inations. Apart altogether from the question of securing proper
consideration for industrial and agricultural education, the evil in-
fluences of these examinations must be overcome. During the last
few years something has been done to effect this purpose, but much
still remains.

In any system of education one of the greatest obstacles to J^|ul*Jt*n
progress is the difficulty of securing regular and adequate attend- attendance,
ance. That we have not been successful in doing so in Ontario is
clear from the following statement, based on the latest statistics:

As to the Primary Schools : Out of an estimated total population in the Statistics of
Province of 2,687,861, there were enrolled in the Public Schools 401,268, with Attendance,
an average daily attendance of 240,008 — that is, 59.81 per cent, of the enrol- Primary
ment ; and in the Separate Schools, 55,034, with an average daily attendance Schools-
of 34.553— that is, 62.78 per cent. Of these 239,331 (125,210 boys and 114,121
girls) were enrolled in rural and 216,971 (109,666 boys and 107,305 girls) in
urban schools. Of the foregoing, it is estimated, about 1,070 girls and 1,030
boys in rural and 970 girls and 930 boys in urban localities — a total of 4,000 —
leave school from the third form; and about 9,190 boys and 8,810 girls in rural
and 10,750 boys and 10,250 girls in urban localities — a total of 39,000 — from
the fourth form. Accordingly, so far as attendance at our provincial schools is
concerned, a grand total of about 43,000 end their education in the third and
fourth forms; those from the third form leaving generally at from ten to
twelve years of age and those from the fourth at from thirteen to fifteen.

As to the Secondary Schools : The following table shows the latest returns Secondary
of the attendance at the Lower, Middle, and Upper Schools of the High Schools-
Schools, Collegiate Institutes, and Continuation Schools,- the course for each
school being a two years' one :

Lower School. Middle School. Upper School. Total.

High Schools . . 9,938 4,672 1,142 15,752

Collegiate Institutes 10,706 5,01 1 1,632 17,349

Continuation Schools 3,955 1,884 27 5,866

Accordingly, in the Secondary Schools, 13,032 fewer attend the Middle
School than the Lower School, and 8,766 fewer the Upper School than the
Middle School; and, of a total of 456,302 enrolled in our Public and Separate
Schools, only 2,801 reach our highest classes.

The foregoing estimate of attendance does not take into account the
small number that attend the private schools.

266 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

The general situation, as disclosed by the above statement, is
attendance. a serious one> go far as concerns the primary schools, the

situation is largely due to the neglect of the existing provisions.

Until the child is fourteen, or until he has passed the high school
Truancy Act entrance examination, he is required by the Truancy Act, with one

not enforced. . . . .

or two necessary exceptions, to remain under instruction at a pro-
vincial school or elsewhere. But, although the Act makes it impera-
tive for every urban municipality, and gives every township the
power, to appoint a truant officer, in the case of the former it is
sometimes either loosely enforced or not enforced at all ; and in the
case of the latter no such officer has yet been appointed. The phase
of the subject, however, with which I am at present concerned is
the large number leaving the provincial schools about fourteen or

Early exodus earlier, and the comparatively small number remaining for longer

destined8 for periods, whose destination in both cases is some form of industrial
"'occupation. In this connection it is important to determine the
causes of the exodus :

General The Factory Act provides, with a few exceptions, that no child

shall work in a factory until he is fourteen years of age ; and, as I
have already ishown, the Truancy Act also provides, with a few
exceptions, that every child shall remain under instruction at a
provincial school or elsewhere until he is fourteen or has passed the
High School entrance examination. Those, accordingly, whose cir-
cumstances compel them to earn money or to assist their parents as
soon as possible, leave school at fourteen, some having completed
the course of the first four forms of the Public School, while others
drop out earlier. It is their age, not their school standing, that
enables them to leave. Moreover, as attendance after fourteen is
not compulsory, many boys and girls leave at that age, although
not compelled to do so by financial necessity. The chief causes are
parental indifference and lack of control, the irksomeness of study
and of the restrictions of the elementary school, and the desire on
the part of many to engage, as soon as possible, in some sort of
money-making employment, no matter how small the pay.

• The causes outlined above operate more or less in every
country, but in Ontario other causes operate as well.

special causes Owing to the conditions which have dwarfed the growth of the
fifth forms of the Public Schools the High School Entrance Exam-
ination, usually passed when the candidate is about thirteen or four-
teen, has come to be regarded as the Public School Graduation Ex-
' amination. Some pupils, it is true, who pass do remain at the Pri-
mary school after they are fourteen or they enter the High School,
and later take up a trade, but the evidence of manufacturers and
school inspectors goes to show that their number is small indeed.
Moreover, if under existing circumstances the child enters a High

or THE

ONTARIO 267

School, the predominant influences there are towards the profes-
sions, teaching, and commercial life. For the pupil who is going to
take up some industrial occupation our school system provides no
course which he or his parents recognize as bearing adequately on
his future. He is without incentive to continue at school.

1. INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION
1. PRESENT PROVISION— PROVINCIAL

Of technical education, in the limited sense of the term, we NO technical,
have none in our Public or High Schools, nor have we industrial industrial
education in the sense of preparation for the trades, except, as will the schools!"
be seen later, in the Toronto and Hamilton Technical Schools,
and, to a very limited extent, in a few of the other High Schools,
As now used in Ontario, the name technical education has included
the manual training and the household science of Forms IV.
and V. 'of the Public Schools, and of the High School Lower
Schools; and as these subjects are preparatory in any system of
industrial education, I deal first with the provision so far made for
them.

(1) HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE

The subject of household science was first introduced into this introduction

of subject.

Province in 1900 through Mrs. Lillian Massey-Treble, of Toronto,
and the late Mrs. Hoodless, of Hamilton. Through the generosity
of the former, the Victor School of Household Science and Art
was established and maintained in Toronto ; and through the untir-
ing zeal of the latter, the Hamilton Board of Education and the
Department of Education established and maintained the Ontario
Normal School of Domestic Science and Art, which was transferred
later to the Macdonald Institute, Guelph. As a result, the subject
was placed in the revised school programmes of 1904, and it is now Present
taken up with a more or less limited course in the following locali-
ties, the figures in brackets indicating the number of centres :

Public Schools Only: Brockville (i), North Bay (i), Ottawa (i), To-
ronto (13).

High Schools and Collegiate Institutes Only: London (r), Stamford (i).

Public and High Schools and Collegiate Institutes: Belleville (i), Brant-
ford (i), Gait (i), Guelph (3), Hamilton (5), Ingersoll (i), Kingston (i),
Peterborough (2), Sault Ste. Marie (i), Thorold (i), Woodstock (i).

Public and Separate Schools and Collegiate Institutes: Berlin (i), Owen
Sound (i), Stratford (i).

Temporarily Closed: Renfrew (i).

That, is, after ten years' time, household science is taken up in
only 21 of our 279 urban municipalities and in one of our townships

18 E.I.P.

268

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

Limitation of
subject.

Accommoda-
tions and
equipment.

Qualifications
of teachers.

University
Faculty of
Household
Science.

Introduction
of subject.

Value not
appreciated.

— by no means a satisfactory showing, especially in view of the
liberal grants offered by the Department of Education.

As I have already stated, the household science in our schools
has so far no industrial outlook. Like the manual training, it is
taken in addition to the courses in other departments; it is
now simply one of the cultural and practical subjects of our curricu-
lum. Each of the school centres is provided with a school kitchen
and, in some cases, with a dining-room, having the necessary closets
and other accommodation. In some of the centres the provision is
excellent. Primary and secondary schools, however, in which the
whole science of housekeeping and home-making is taught, we have
not yet succeeded in establishing. In a few cases sewing is now
being introduced, but the majority of the schools teach cookery
alone.

In the department of household science there is no difficulty in
obtaining an adequate supply of teachers. Every teacher of the sub-
ject is fully certificated by the Department of Education, having
been trained at the Macdonald Institute, Guelph, the Ontario School
of Domestic Science, or the Lillian Massey School. In one or two
cases, however, credit has been given for work done in the United
States. In the Toronto and Hamilton Technical Schools, where the
courses include dressmaking and millinery, these subjects are taught
by women trained in the workshops. Household Science also re-
ceives attention at the Normal Schools and the Faculties of Educa-
tion.

Here I may report that during the last ten years household
science has reached a higher plane than manual training. The Vic-
tor School of Household Science and Art has developed into one of
the arts graduation departments of the University of Toronto, and
through the munificence of Mrs. Lillian Massey-Treble the Faculty
of Household Science will occupy a building, now in course of erec-
tion on the University grounds, which has so far cost $425,000,
without equipment.

(2) MANUAL TRAINING

In 1900 Sir William C. Macdonald, a well-known Montreal phil-
anthropist, established and maintained for three years manual train-
ing centres at Brockville, Ottawa, and Toronto. As a result of the
success of his experiment, the Department of Education in
1904 placed Manual Training in the revised school programmes.
In its elementary form in Forms I to III of the Public Schools,
it is now called "constructive work." Since then the sub-
ject has been tak n up in a considerable number of schools;
but, as its value is not yet fully appreciated, and as like house-
hold science it is optional, it has not yet been generally intro-

ONTARIO 269

duced. The unthinking still class it amongst the educational
" fads " and " frills," and it is looked upon with disfavour by some
of our labour organizations, because a few years ago, in the United
States, some who had received advanced training in the subject
foolishly allowed themselves to be used in breaking up a strike.
Manual training is now taught in the following localities, the figures provision,
in brackets indicating the number of local centres :

Public Schools Only: Brockville (i), Cornwall (i), Guelph (3), London
(4), North Bay (i), Ottawa (14), Rittenhouse (i), Toronto (13).

Collegiate Institutes Only: Kingston (i).

Public and High Schools and Collegiate Institutes: Brantford (2), Gait
(i), Hamilton (4), Ingersoll (i), Peterborough (2), Port Arthur (i), Sault
Ste. Marie (i), Stratford (i), Woodstock (i).

Public and Separate Schools and Collegiates: Berlin (i), Collingwood
(i), Owen Sound (i), St. Thomas (i), Stratford (i).

Temporarily Closed: Alvinston (i), Essex (i), Renfrew (i).

That is, after ten years' time, notwithstanding the liberal grants
offered by the Department, manual training is taken up in only
26 of our 279 urban municipalities and in one township. Manifestly,
in the case of both household .science and manual training, steps
must be taken to secure their more general introduction.

In the Normal Schools the subject receives its due share of Provision for

. : . . . training

attention, and, since 1908, teachers-in-training who pass their ex- teachers,
amination at Easter may attend free a special course at the
Macdonald Institute at Guelph, from then till the end of June, their
board and travelling expenses being paid by the Department
of Education. The object of this course is to train teachers
who, in the urban schools, shall be able to give such instruction in
drawing and woodwork as may lay a proper foundation for real
industrial training. Seventy-eight teachers have obtained certifi-
cates of competency; but, owing to the recency of the provision,
the lack of public interest, and, no doubt, the pressure of the high
school entrance examination, little appreciable effect has so far
been produced. A year's course of training is also provided at
Guelph, but so far few have availed themselves of the opportunity.

When first introduced as a school subject manual training wasVi*iueof
generally regarded as having only a cultural value. Now in On-
tario, as in other countries, ain effort is being made to give it an
industrial outlook in the secondary schools and the higher forms of
the public schools. That this modification in no way impairs its
cultural value, both psychology and experience have shown. In the
manual training centres at Alvinston, Brockville, Collingwood,
Cornwall, Essex, Fort William, Gait, Guelph, Ingersoll, London,
North Bay, Ottawa, Peterborough, Renfrew, the Rittenhouse
School, and St. Thomas, the equipment is for woodwork alone,
•except in Gait, Guelph and Ottawa, where elementary work is

2/o EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Equipment (jone jn COpper an(j .brass ajsa At each centre the equipment for
woodwork consists of from twenty to twenty-five single benches
and the necessary tools for bench work in wood; and attention is
«metmentcf Pa*d to mechanical drawing. On an average not more than an hour
and a half a week is given to bench work, and not more than half
an hour a week to mechanical drawing; but, considering the com-
paratively small amount of time available for the subjects, fairly
satisfactory results are being obtained.

£oodlnd°iron The centres which have gone beyond the simple equipment de-
working, scribed above are Berlin, Brantford, Hamilton, Kingston, Owen

Sound, Sault Ste. Marie, Stratford, and Woodstock.

Equipment. jn these secondary school centres the equipment is good, consist-

ing of the usual manual training outfit, with, in addition, wood-
working and metal-working lathes, forges, shapers, grindstones,
vises, drills, circular and band saws, and other suitable tools. The
equipment at Woodstock is probably the most complete. The equip-
ment at the Sault was carefully selected by the Algoma Iron Works,
with a view to the requirements of the local industries.

Monsmmoda" Separate buildings have been provided at Brantford

Hamilton, Stratford, and Woodstock, and separate wings at Berlin,
Kingston, and Sault Ste. Marie. In all these localities separate
rooms are generally provided for wood-working (including wood-
turning) and metal working (including forging, bench vise work,
and machine shop practice). The work taken up at Stratford,
character of Woodstock, and Berlin is simply manual training. There is at
present a small industrial class at Brantford, and mechanical draw-
ing has been emphasized at Kingston and wood-turning at Strat-
ford. In nearly every case the work in drawing and in wood
and iron is simply added to the work in other departments, and the
academic work is that of the general course, without correlation
with the practical work of the industries.

Destination of In Kingston, the late Principal reports that practically all the few
pupils who took the industrial drawing course enter a school of
practical science, or the Kingston Locomotive Works as draftsmen.
In Stratford, some of the boys work in the Grand Trunk Railway
shops during the holidays ; and in Brantford, the Waterous Engine
Works Company gives the pupils a preference in admission to the
drafting room. In the other schools, with extremely few excep-
tions, all of those who take the courses are intended for other than
industrial occupations; they give up the manual training courses
after one year or at mast two.

Sithih?011 Nowhere, except at the Sault, has a connection been established

industries. wjt|1 ^ jocaj industries. In a letter to me of recent date, the

principal states that an arrangement has been entered into for

co-operation between the Algoma Iron Works and the Board of

ONTARIO 271

School Trustees. The general manager of the Lake Superior
Corporation has agreed to allow his apprentices to take at the at°theelaui°tn
school not only drawing but English and mathematics, on condi-
tion that the school provide the necessary equipment. To this con-
dition the board has agreed. This co-operative arrangement will ne-
cessitate a weekly afternoon's absence from the works ; but, for this
period, the corporation will continue the pay of the apprentices.
The Algoma Iron Works is only one part of the industry at the
Sault, and the principal expects that the apprentices in the other
departments will ask for the same privilege. Evening classes, I
may say, are also contemplated, and the outlook for an apprentice-
ship school is very bright.

Nearly all the teachers of the schools I have so far dealt with
have taken courses of various kinds in woodwork, metal work, and
mechanical drawing, and many of them are continually improving
their knowledge of these subjects by actual shop-practice. But
the supply of teachers for manual training is unsatisfactory in both
quality and number.

(3) TECHNICAL AND ART SCHOOL, HAMILTON

So far, the only locality that has made comprehensive provision
for industrial education is the City of Hamilton. For this purpose, equipment,
it has erected a " Technical and Art School," connected with and in
the rear of the Collegiate Institute, at a cost, with equipment, of
about $100,000. The whole building is specially fitted up for in-
dustrial work. In the basement, which is high and well lighted,
are located the forging department and the electrical laboratory;
on the first floor are the woodwork shop, the machine shop, and
class-rooms ; and on the second floor, the household science depart-
ment, the drafting room, the printing department, and class-rooms;
while the whole of the third floor is devoted to the art department.
The school was opened in September, 1909, and provides for both
day and evening classes.

All of the members of the staff except two have had practical Qualification*

... of staff.

experience in industrial work and all possess special qualifications
for their duties. The regular staff provide instruction in wood-
working, machine shop practice, forging, electricity, mechanical
drawing, freehand drawing, mathematics, cooking, and sewing. For
the science and the English, no specially qualified teachers have yet
been provided, and in this respect the industrial course is defective.
This work is now taken up by members of the staff of the Collegiate
Institute.

For admission to the day school, pupils must be fourteen ; but £ste.i88lon
if they have not passed the High School Entrance examination,

272

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Day courses.

Evening
courses.

"it is sufficient if they satisfy the Inspector of Public Schools and
the Principal of the Technical and Art School that they are fit for
the work. During the session of 1909-1910, forty pupils were
enrolled in the day classes, exclusive of special pupils in the house-
hold science and art departments.

The regular day classes are instructed in English, mathematics,
science, woodworking, forging, machine shop practice, mechanical
drawing, freehand drawing, and electricity. Special day courses
are also offered in industrial designing, including wallpaper, book-
covers, posters, jewellery, fabrics; and in china painting, clay
modelling, cooking, and dressmaking.

A large number of pupils in the Collegiate Institute and the
advanced classes of the public schools receive part time instruction
in woodworking, metalworking, cookery, sewing, and freehand
drawing.

During the session of 1909-1910, the attendance at the evening
classes ran from 150 to 170. The classes are open three evenings a
week and provide instruction in mathematics, physics, chemistry,
forging, experimental electricity, machine shop practice, wood-
working, printing, mechanical drawing, architectural drawing,
dressmaking, millinery, cookery, and a number of branches of fine
and applied art.

Visits are made to the local industries, and in connection with the
work of the art department a local carpet company has agreed to
pay for and make use of suitable designs for carpets ; and a station-
ery manufacturing company has made a similar offer with reference
to designs for blotters and book covers.

(4) TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL, TORONTO

Accommoda- The building now occupied by the Toronto Technical High
School was erected for a club house. As a consequence, the class-
rooms, halls, etc., are quite unsuitable for school purposes, and
the continually increasing attendance has emphasized their defects.
No shops have been provided for wood-working or metal-work-
ing, and the chemical and physical laboratories and the art rooms
are both poor and poorly furnished. A site has, however, been
provided at. a cost of $95.026, and a balance of $211,020 is now
available for a new building, from the City Council Grant and the
proceeds of the sale of another site. At present the plans
are under consideration, and, no doubt, in the course of
a year or two Toronto will possess an industrial and technical
-school of a character suitable to the requirements of its population
and to its importance as the metropolitan city of the Province.

Connection
with local
industries.

ONTARIO 273

Notwithstanding its present drawbacks the school has done good
work, chiefly of a theoretical character. To the correctness of this
statement some of the local manufacturers with whom I have com-
municated have borne testimony, as is shown in Appendix B.

The school now provides courses in the following departments : courses.

Day Courses: Science matriculation, general scientific, business, art,
home economics, and special courses connected with the preceding.

Evening Courses: Mathematics, applied mechanics, electricity, steam engi-
neering, chemistry, architecture and building construction, mechanical drawing,
freehand and design, modelling in clay, wood carving, estimating cost of
building, cookery, home nursing, sewing, millinery, and embroidery.

Besides the principal the staff consists of 7 directors and 41
instructors. Of these 23 teach evening classes only; 6, full time inof staff-
day classes; and the others, part time in both day and evening
classes. A number of the teachers of the evening classes are en-
gaged in industrial occupations during the day, and some of the
teachers of the' day classes have had practical experience of a similar
character.

The Board has just decided to provide for. the bushes:; depart-
ment, a High School of Commerce in a separate building and under
a separate staff.

(5) HIGH SCHOOL MINING DEPARTMENT, SUDBURY

Last September the Sudbury High School Board established ^m-
a Department of Mining under a technically trained university
graduate. The object is to assist in the development of the
nickel and copper mines of the locality and their dependent smelters,
the Moose Mountain Iron Mines with their magnetic concentration
mill, the Long Lake Gold Mine with its cyanide plant, and the
numerous gold and copper prospects along the Sault branch and
near Lake Wahnapitae.

For a time this work will be developed in two divisions :

1. Four Years' Courses for High School pupils; and

2. Short Courses for men engaged in the mining industries.

The High School pupils will be required to take the English course*,
and mathematics of the first two years, together with physics,
chemistry, geology, drafting, and commercial work, the languages
being optional. During the last two years the course will
consist of assaying, ch .nistry, geology, mine alogy, drafting, phy-
sics, metallurgy, mining, surveying, etc., and the pupils will be en-
tirely under the charge of the mining teacher. Practical work will
be taken up during the summer vacations, and the mines and
smelters of the district will be used in connection therewith.

Those pupils who have completed the course satisfactorily and Diplomas,
produced proof that they have had sufficient underground experi-
ence will be given a diploma.

274 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

At present twenty-three pupils are taking the High School
Course, and the prospects of the success of this department are
reported to be very favourable.

courses for 'pjie ^Q^ courses for men engaged in the mining and smelting

industries will be developed in three divisions : Prospectors', Miners'
and Smelter men's classes, as follows :

Prospectors: The determination of the common rocks and
minerals; geology, which will include the rocks and associations in
which valuable minerals are likely to occur, and elementary know-
ledge of ore deposits, with particular reference to those of Ontario;
the conditions which tend to make a deposit valuable; and other
information which will be helpful in their calling.

Miners: Mining methods, timbering, the use and handling of
explosives, and kindred matters.

Smelter men: Chemistry, the construction and use of various
types of furnaces, the reasons for the various operations around
the smelter, the reactions which take place in smelting, and the
effect of the various materials used, etc.

Arrangements are also being made to have a prospectors' class
during the winter season, when mining experts will give a series of
lectures. ,

uonsIand0da~ There are three laboratories — Chemical, Physical, and Assaying.

equipment. fhe Chemistry Laboratory is equipped for quantitative and quali-
tative analyses, as well as the usual High School work in Chemistry ;
the Physical Laboratory has also modern equipment, and the As-
saying Laboratory is equipped with furnaces, gasoline tanks, and
burners, and crushing apparatus; the total cost of the equipment
being about $5,000.

(6) EVENING CLASSES

Evening classes once existed at Kingston, but, owing to local
conditions, they have been discontinued. After a year's interrup-
tion, Brantford has resumed its evening classes with a large
attendance, in wood-work, metal-work, and mechanical drawing.

Besides the classes at Brantford, and those at Hamilton and
Toronto, already described, classes of an industrial character are
held at the following places :

?fseionntpr°' At Toronto: The Broadview Boys' Institute, the Lansdowne

School, the Dewson Street School, and the Queen Alexandra
School; at Guelph: The Public Schools and the Consolidated
School; at Brockville, Berlin and Gait, one class each; the class
at Gait providing a course in the "Theory of Iron and Steel."
Outside of Toronto and Hamilton, the only subjects taken up are

2

a

M
M

o »

ta "

Si

ONTARIO 275

woodwork and metal work, household .science, and mechanical
drawing.

The evening class movement is still in its infancy. From aprospecta.
number of letters I have recently received I feel safe, however, in
reporting that, with due financial assistance from the Legislature,
we should soon have evening classes in most of the important
manufacturing centres.

(7) FACULTY QF APPLIED SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

But if Ontario has made little provision for industrial educa- various

. . . departments.

tion it has made ample for technical education — for the education
of those who are to hold directive positions in connection with in-
dustry— in the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering of the
University of Toronto, with its departments of instruction in civil
engineering, mining engineering, mechanical engineering, archi-
tecture, analytical and applied chemistry, chemical engineering, and
electrical engineering. These departments lead to the diploma of Diplomas.
Bachelor of Applied Science. The instruction extends over
four years and is intended to give the student , a thorough Aim.
knowledge of the scientific principles underlying the practice in the
several professions and also such training as may make him immedi-
ately useful therein. The professional degrees are given after the Degrees.
B.A.Sc. has spent three years in the actual practice of his profession
and has satisfied the examiners by. oral and written examination
that he has the necessary experience and competency.

The Faculty has well equipped laboratories, but is without the Equipment,
shops for woodwork and metal work, which are found in the tech-
nological schools of Great Britain and the United States; nor does
it provide the courses for the industries that are maintained in nia
of these institutions. The system of instruction followed is the
Prussian one, which even in more elementary stages provides the
theoretical in the schools and the practical in the various industrial
occupations. While taking these courses at the University, the
students work during the summer in commercial machine and other
workshops with the object of becoming acquainted with the condi-
tions of industrial life, not with the object of acquiring skill in the
use of tools. The graduates are intended to direct those who do
the actual work of the industries, not to do the actual work them-
selves. The Faculty has a high reputation for efficiency, and its
attendance is steadily increasing. In 1901, 32 diplomas and 20
degrees were granted; and in 1910, 162 diplomas and 97 degrees. degrees-
Practically all the graduates remain in the professions, the excep- D^dtribution
tions being less than i per cent. Eighty-five per cent, of the gradu- of'
ates are practising in Canada ; 65 per cent, in Ontario. An idea of

276 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

the usefulness of the institution may be gathered from the following
list of the employments in which the graduates are now engaged:

Exploration, surveys, railway construction, canals, waterworks, sewerage,
drainage, irrigation, hydraulic power, municipal engineering, steel and con-
crete construction, bridge work, contracting, mining, metallurgy, assaying,
prospecting, mine management, reduction plants, smelting, blast furnaces, steel
works, field geology and mineralogy, machine construction, engine works, manu-
facturing, managers of machinery companies, salesmen in engineering indus-
tries, draftsmen, inspection patent office work, electrical designers, electric
railway operation power stations, telephone and telegraph work, design and
construction of electrical equipment, power transmission, architecture, building
inspection, ventilation and heating, sanitation, analytical chemistry, industrial
chemistry, managers and chemists of sugar pulp, soap, gas, tanning, packing, ar.d
other related industries.

2. PRESENT PROVISION— VOLUNTARY

So far I have dealt with the institutions which belong to the Pro-
vincial system of education. There are, however, others under
outside control, which deserve notice partly on account of the im-
portance of their work and partly on account of the organization
of some of them.

(1) SCHOOL OF MINING, KINGSTON

status. At Kingston, provision for technical education is made in the

School of Mining, which is a' branch of the School of Mining
and Agriculture, incorporated by Act .of our Legislature and affili-
ated with Queen's University for the purpose of receiving degrees.
It is, however, a school of applied science, providing an education

Aim. both theoretical and practical, for the professions of the mining,

civil, electrical, mechanical, chemical and sanitary engineer, the
assayer, the consulting geologist, and the metallurgist ; and for pros-
pectors, mining foremen, and others concerned in mining. The

Diplomas and school provides a three years' course for a diploma and a four
years' one for degree of B.Sc., in the departments of mining and
' metallurgy, chemistry, mineralogy, chemical engineering, civil
engineering, mechanical engineering, sanitary science, and power
development. After due examination and at least two years' prac-
tice of the profession, the degree of M.Sc. is granted, and after

Equipment, three, the degree of D.Sc. The school is well provided with labora-
tories and with " shops " for woodworking and metal working. It
receives an annual grant of $42,000 from the Legislature of the
Province, and has done good service, especially in the eastern part
. >•-.*' of the Province.

Attendance. por fae jast four years, the average number of graduates has
been a total of 39, including 13 in Mining. These numbers, how-
ever, should be taken in relation to a freshmen class of about 90 for
each of the four years.

ONTARIO 277

Sixty-two per cent, of the total number of graduates and 66 per Distribution
cent, of the mining graduates are employed in Ontario. Their occu-
pations are as follows, 64 per cent, of the total number being
engaged in the first three occupations :

Mining and prospecting, electrical engineering, municipal engineering, sur-
veying, railway engineering, chemistry and assaying, geological survey, mechani-
cal engineering, with 3 per cent, in various other occupations.

(2) APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOLS

The Grand Trunk Railway has established large shops in which Grandjrunk
it employs and trains apprentices at Toronto, Ottawa, Allandale,
Montreal, and Stratford, Canada; and at Battle Creek and Port-
land, U.S.A.

As an example of a school provided by a large corporation in school at
connection with its works, I visited the one at Stratford. The shops
which have recently been completed are, it is claimed, the second
largest on the continent and the only ones in which the apprentice- Accommoda-
ship system is fully worked out. The building itself and the sur-
roundings are remarkably commodious and well kept, and, as the
roof and the sides are made of glass, the interior is unusually wellft°^™f88£jff.
lighted. The departments of instruction are blacksmithing, ma- attendance,
chinery, erecting, forging, brass founding, boiler making, model
and pattern making. Two evenings a week the apprentices meet
for class work, under a practical man, who works in the shop during
the day. There are six teachers, who take up practical mechanics
and mechanical drawing, as well as arithmetic and mensuration.
The classes run from November to April, when an examination is
held. At present, 122 are in attendance, 107 apprentices and 15
"improvers." If the apprentices fail at any of the examinations,
they are dismissed. In the shops a specially detailed foreman in-
structs the apprentices, pointing out their mistakes and showing
them the proper methods. The master mechanic himself, who is
an enthusiastic supporter of this method of training, takes a great
interest in the work.

The apprenticeship covers five years. A contract is signed be-
tween the company and the apprentice, and the wages paid i
as the course advances. For the first year the payment is 8c. an
hour; for the second, IDC. ; for the third, I2c. ; for the fourth, I4C. ;
and for the fifth, I7c. The working hours are from 7 to 6, with
an hour at noon.

The Grand Trunk Railway system has an arrangement with
McGill University by which two scholarships are competed for each university,
year by the apprentices, or the employees' sons. The winners are
each entitled to a four years' course in mechanical engineering,
transportation, or railway construction. During the long vacation,

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Canadian

Pacific

Railway.

Character of
the provision.

Michigan

Central

Railway.

Dennis Wire
and Iron
Works Co.,
Curriculum.

Accommoda-
tions and
equipment.

Courses.

Diplomas.

the company finds them employment at fair wages. On the com-
pletion of his university course each apprentice is required to give
the company two years' service at reasonable wages ; and, if it does
not find a satisfactory position for him at the expiration of this
period, he is then free to look for one elsewhere.

In this apprenticeship system the Grand Trunk Railway has been
a pioneer, and it has since been copied by all the great railways of
Canada and the United States, as well as by some of the large manu-
facturing firms of the latter country.

One other great Canadian railway, the Canadian Pacific, has a
school of the same character at the Angus Shops, Montreal. From
correspondence, I learn that the apprentices receive instruction free
two hours twice a week during working hours without deduction
from their pay. This instruction is compulsory. Evening classes
are also maintained, but they are optional and are intended chiefly
for adult employees who cannot afford to pay for instruction out-
side. Scholarships and prizes are awarded in the different branches
of study. Any material needed for the classes is free and, for those
who attend the evening classes, supper is also free.

The New York Central Railway vwith which the Michigan Cen-
tral is connected, has also provided at St. Thomas, Ontario, one of
its apprenticeship schools. Thi§ railway has nine other such schools
in the United States. From the documents I have at hand, the
system appears to be a very complete one.

In Canada, so far as I am aware, no large manufacturing cen-
tres have yet made similar provision, except in London, where the
Dennis Wire and Iron Works Company last September established
a class for its workmen in designing, geometry, mensuration,
draughting, construction, reading blue prints, laying out work, etc.
In the United States, however, ten manufacturing firms are reported
as having such schools as an integral part of their business.

(3) CANADIAN HOROLOQICAL INSTITUTE

The only commercial trade school in the Province is the Can-
adian Horological Institute for the training of watchmakers. It
occupies a building designed expressly for the work and owned by
the director. The work room is well lighted and ventilated, and
well equipped. The work of the school consists of lectures, technical
drawing, and bench work, special stress being placed on the last two.
The instruction is individual. No one without previous experience
is admitted for less than two years. In the case of other students,
the time required to complete the course varies according to the
value of the previous experience. Diplomas are granted in the first
and second grades, but only to those who complete the work of

ONTARIO 279

the full course. When the student provides the lathe, the cost of Fees-
instruction for the first year is $180; when the school provides it, the
cost is $200. Similarly, the cost for the second year is $150 and
$160. Provision is also made for short courses in the case • of
those who do not intend to complete the full course. The hours are
from 8.30 to 12 and from 1.15 to 5.45. Students who do trade
work receive half the profits. This school has been in existence for
over twenty years. If it were in Germany or in Switzerland it
would probably belong to the State system of industrial schools,
and have the financial and other benefits of such connection.

(4) YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION

In this Province, as in other countries, the Young Men's Chris-
tian Association is doing a very useful work by means of its evening
classes. In Toronto, it has a Commercial School in which the Toronto."
usual commercial subjects are taken up. It provides also special
classes in accountancy, salesmanship, show-card writing, public
speaking, first aid to the injured, etc. Its present industrial pro-
vision consists of a trade school for carpentry, in which is
taught the application of the steel square to the building of stairs,
roofo, and various other building operations, and a trade school
for jewellers in which are taught engraving, designing, setting,
and the manufacture of jewellery. The Association has classes
in other parts of the Province: Belleville, Brantford, Colling-
wood, Gait, London, Peterborough, Port Hope, St. Catharines,
and Stratford. In these the most important vocational courses
are the commercial subjects, mechanical drawing, shop arithmetic,
and sign writing.

As reported to me, the policy of the Association is to co-operate
with and supplement, not to compete with, the educational work of
the Province. Its intention is to develop classes not provided for,
or not sufficiently provided for, in some localities. As a corpora-
tion it thus undertakes to perform the same function as do philan-
thropists like Sir William Macdonald. With the large amount
subscribed for its new buildings in Toronto during the past year,
the Association expects to conduct in that city schools in plumbing,
stone masonry, plastering, painting and decorating, the designing
of garments, and the operation of power sewing machines.

3. THE SITUATION FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE
INDUSTRIES

Besides setting forth, as I have already done, the existing pro-
visions for industrial and technical education, it is now desirable that
I should set forth also the situation from the point of view of the

280

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Preparatory
education of

Provision in
the schools.

industi ies before attempting to suggest changes in the organization
of our school system. The following statement summarizes the
opinions communicated to me both orally and by correspondence :

. i. Pupils from the schools entering the trades are poorly pre-
thestrldelring Pare<^' They lack the Power of independent thinking and they are
unable to apply to practical purposes the knowledge they have ob-
tained. To quote from one of my correspondents: "The average
apprentice gets along fairly well on a Public School education after
he has found out in the shop how to apply it practically, which
means that the shop has to do what the schools should do, to make
a boy's education of practical value to him." The defect here pointed
out is probably due as much to the immaturity of the pupils who
enter the trades as to the lack of practicality in our courses of study.
2. In our educational system, to quote from the Report of the
Technical Committee of the Manufacturers' Association, "very
little effort is made to interest the pupil who, when a certain stage
in hi,s education is reached, fails to respond to the effort of the
teacher. This pupil is not to be condemned at once as an idler.
Very probably his awakening mind is attracted by mental food other
than that offered him in the rigid curriculum of our present system.
He may desire to work with his hands, and, through a different
system, could be easily instructed in studies which would tend to
guide those hands in their work. This pupil should not be turned
out of the schools in a dissatisfied frame of mind. He should be
retained until definite convictions have been reached as to what
purposes he shall devote his life. Under our present educational
system, many pupils are driven by the system itself, or by their par-
ents, into commercial and professional life who would be much
better suited for executive positions in our workshops. Too often
parents do not realize the prizes that are available in industrial life,
and only in recent years have our educational authorities awakened
to the fact that the educational system, as at present devised, tends
to take the youth of the country away from industrial life."

3. The report of 1910 on Industrial education, published by the
American Federation of Labour, in which Ontario is represented,
makes the following pronouncement:

"Our movement in advocating Industrial Education protests
most emphatically against the elimination from our Public School
system of any line of learning now taught. Education, Technical
or Industrial, must be supplementary to and in connection with our
modern school system. That for which our movement stands tends
to make better workers of our future citizens, better citizens of our
future workers." This position is maintained also by employers of
labour and by experienced educationists. To quote from the letter
of a manufacturer : "What we want in our factories is apprentices

A good
general
education
indispensable.

ONTARIO 281

who by their previous education have been made both resourceful
and strong." To quote again from the letter of an educationist:
"The great hope of increased efficiency and of a higher standard
amongst artisans depends upon his education before he enters the
shop.'' As I have already pointed out, this opinion is strongly held
by the Germans.

4. Owing to the decadence of the apprenticeship system, no Training
organized means of training the workman now exists in connection apprentice-
with the trades and other industries. In many there are no appren-
tices, and where there are so-called apprentices, few employers of
labour make any systematic attempt to provide for their training.

In shops where there is little machinery, the workman generally
picks up his trade as best he can, without any systematic direction
by the foreman, or with the occasional aid of his fellow employees.
In the industries which are highly specialized, the workman has no
opportunity to learn more than one step in the process of manufac-
ture. This he is able to learn in a short time, and his employer takes
care he shall learn it well. If, however, he wishes to learn all
the trade, he "steals it" by going from shop to shop and learning an
additional step in each.

5. The number entering many of the industries is becoming
smaller. Those who do enter are not willing to become apprentices
or to spend the time heeded to learn the trade. They expect jour-
neymen's wages soon after they enter, and, for the sake of a small
increase, they pass from one employer to another.

6. From the point of view of the employer, the limitations
placed by the Labour Unions upon the number of apprentices to each
journeyman, both prevent the adoption of any organized system of
training and unduly limit the supply. From the point of view of the
organized labour, this limitation is necessary to prevent the em-
ployer from exploiting cheap labour for his own benefit.

7. In a country like Canada, with its abundant opportunities of
advancement, the best workmen are continually dropping out of the
ranks and so continually lessening the supply. They embark in busi-
ness for themselves, or they migrate to the Western Provinces where
they often enter upon other employment.

8. Employers in Ontario have great difficulty in procuring an
adequate supply of competent foremen and managers and the higher
grade of skilled workmen. "The result," to use the words of the
Technical Committee, "is that many of the factory executives, as
well as many of the higher paid artisans, are recruited from the
industries of Great Britain and the United States."

9. To borrow the words of the report of the Massachusetts 5^^ °.fithe
Commission, which apply equally to Ontario, the result of the pres-

ent industrial situation as set forth above "ten Is to increase the cost

282

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Remedy
proposed.

Classes of
pupils.

Pupils in
attendance;
two sub-
classes.

of production, to limit the output in quantity, and to lower the
grade of quality. Industries so recruited cannot long compete with
similar industries recruited from men who have been technically
trained. In the long run, industry, wherever in the world it is lo-
cated, which combines with general intelligence the broadest techni-
cal knowedge and the highest technical skill, will command the
markets of the world."

10. Both the manufacturers and the labour unions are stronglv
in favour of a system of Industrial and Technical Education, or-
ganized on modern lines, as the remedy for most of the evils set
forth above. This is embodied in the resolutions passed by both,
the chief of which I quote in Appendix A.

4. PROPOSED CHANGES IN PRESENT PROVISIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL
AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIO .

INTRODUCTORY

Having completed my survey of the existing provision in On-
tario for Industrial and Technical Education, and having pointed
out incidentally its shortcomings, I now submit the changes that
appear to me to be necessary if we are to provide as adequately for
the industries as we have long been providing for the professions.
Owing to the diversified nature of the industries and of the inter-
ests involved, and the general lack of knowledge of the conditions
of the problem, I find it necessary to enter into greater details than
in the case of either Agricultural or Commercial Education. More-
over, Industrial and Technical Education is the main subject
before the public at present, and it is the main theme of this report.

Of those boys and girls for whom industrial or technical train-
ing should be provided, there are two main classes :

I. Those who are in attendance at our public, separate, and
high schools and who will enter an industrial occupation; and

11. Those who are engaged by day in industrial occupations and
need this training, no matter what may have been their previous
educational opportunities.

Of those pupils who are in attendance, there are two sub-
classes :

1. The first sub-class consists of the very large number who
leave school, for various reasons, at or before 14; and

2. The second sub-class consists of the comparatively small
number intended for industrial occupations who remain or may be
induced to remain at school for various periods after 14.

The replies to my circulars to manufacturers of all classes show
that even in the skilled trades the large majority of the boys who
enter come from the Public Schools, and that, in the unskilled and

ONTARIO 283

semi-skilled trades, the boys and girls come from the same source,
some entering from Form III. and many from Form IV. but with-
out having completed the work. A limited number pass the High
School Entrance Examination, but very few indeed enter from the
High Schools.

1. PRIMARY SCHOOL CLASSES FOR BOYS AND GIRLS LEAVING SCHOOL AT OR

BEFORE 14

First, then, as to the training of boys who leave school at or courses for
before 14: Before this age, the boy is not ready for industrial boys'
training, but he can be taught to use his hands properly making
things in which he is interested ; he may be trained so that his hand
and his brain may work together ; he may learn the value of accur-
ac\ and the result of miscalculation ; he may also learn that nothing
but good handiwork will do and nothing but the best is good; he
may be taught to express himself with his pencil as well as in
language, and in particular to make and to work from simple
plans; he may increase his power of invention by designing ob-.
jects in wood or metal; and, under the influence of a competent
teacher and suitable environment, he may even realize that some
forms are more beautiful than others. And the knowledge and
skill he acquires by the above processes he may turn into power in
dealing with the handiwork of his future trade.

The foregoing, educationists will recognize as a description of
what the Manual Training and Art Work and Drawing of our
elementary schools should be. From the point of view of the
necessities of the future workman, it is of the utmost importance
that these subjects be given a,n industrial bent. And if, in addi-
tion, the other subjects of the public school course are brought into
closer relation to the pupil's life than they have hitherto been, they
will become the best and, indeed, the only possible preparation for
industrial work before the age of 14.

Secondly, as to the training of girls who leave school at or courses for
before 14: For the girl who then leaves for some industrial occu-g'
pation. the public school course to the end of the fourth form also
needs to be modified. For the fourth form in particular, Manual
Training should consist of Household Science and Art Work and
Drawing, the last named dealing chiefly with suitable freehand and
elementary designing, and the rest of the course, as in the case
of the boy, being intimately related to the life of the pupil.

Regarded as educational " fads " when introduced about twenty y,alue ?'_

rr-v • • Manual Train-

years ago, Manual Training, Household Science, and Art Work ins- House-

j T\ • -I i • hold Science

and Drawing nave come to be recognized in every progressive and Art and
country as essential parts of any scheme of elementary education.

Besides being basal in any such scheme, they have a cultural value
19 E.I.P.

284

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Aims of
teachers in
greater need
of modifica-
tion than
courses of
study.

which is necessary for the future professional man, as well as for
the future workman and the future homemaker. As has already
been pointed out, Art Work and Drawing are compulsory subjects
of the Ontario Public School Course of Study. Manual Training
and Household Science are also compulsory in the Public Schools
into which they have been introduced. The time is manifestly ap-
proaching when it will be the duty of the Department of Education
to place them also on the compulsory list of subjects in our urban
schools, to begin with.

I have spoken above of the necessity for modifying our courses
of study. As a matter of fact, however, it is the teacher and the
examination system that are to blame. Some changes, it is true, will
be necessary; but, to secure the proper operation of these courses,
the motive of most of our schools must be changed and the proper
goal set before both the teacher and the pupil. To put matters
right, our professional training schools can do much, but public
opinion can do more. Moreover, we cannot emphasize too strongly
the need of a good general education.

2. INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FOR EOYS AND GIRLS AT' ECHO CL

AFTER 14

Boys and giris Next, as to the training of the important but, at present, com-
gchooinafterai4. paratively small number of boys and girls who remain or may be
induced to remain at school for Various periods after 14. How to
provide this training constitutes the chief educational problem of
the day. With their compulsory attendance and their co-operative
systems, Germany and Switzerland have made most advance. Great
Britain and the United States are attempting a solution. In Ontario
we are about to do so.

As the result of my investigations and experience I have to
report that, for this sub-class of boys and girls, three classes of day
schools are feasible in Ontario :

A. The General Industrial School.

B. The Special Industrial School.

C. The Technical High School and High School Department.

3. INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FOR BOYS AT SCHOOL AFTER 14
A. The General Industrial 'School

. As we have seen, industrial occupations that demand intelligent,
individual effort do not want the boy until he is about 16. Be-
fore that age he is, as a rule, callow both physically and mentallv.
The unskilled industries, and even some skilled industries, will take
him, but they will put him at work which has little or no value
either cultural or practical and which seldom leads to a more pro-
ductive future. For this sub-class I propose General Industrial

Classes of
schools pro-
posed.

Age of ad-
mission to
industries.

ONTARIO 285

Schools, with a two years' course to be increaised or diminished
according to local conditions. w

For such schools the. curriculum should consist of shop work in curriculum,
wood and metal of a more or less general character, taking up about
one-third of the time; with drawing, English, book-keeping, prac-
tical mathematics, and science, all intimately correlated with the
shop work, and all being treated from the point of view of the work-
man and the industries of the locality. To this course should be
added a general outline of English and Canadian History with
special reference to the history of trade and commerce; as in
European countries, suitable physical exercises to develop a sym-
metrical body; elementary civics and a course in English literature
to broaden the mind and cultivate the finer emotions. The General
Industrial School should be so organized as to provide a suitable
foundation for whatever trade a boy might select. In them he Aims and
would be fitted for life as a citizen; and, while acquiring industrial
knowledge as well as skill in the use of tools, he would work with
rire economy of time, material, and effort; that is, his "industrial
intelligence" would be adequately trained. Moreover, the two
years spent in this preparatory school would develop in him a
definite vocational purpose and would enable him, with the assist-
ance of his teachers, to select the trade for which he is best fitted.
In them, he would also be trained for a place in those establishments
where there is specialization, where much machinery is used and
each workman is assigned a part in a process of manufacture which
mav include a hundred parts. This type of day school, variously May be

"IT i i 1 i • • • -i-^ , • variously

modified and known by various names, is common m Europe, and is modified,
gaining ground rapidly in the United States. It is, I believe, the why

i • <• 1 i 1-1 -i 11 -1 • important.

solution of the day school industrial problem with which for some
years and in many localities we must be content in Ontario. It is
the kind of school that can be most easily introduced, for our
manual training provision may be readily modified to suit the new
conditions. Moreover, as it provides basic general training, from
it, as opportunity offers, may be developed the special industrial
school.

As to the admission age and educational standard : The pupil Admission

... ,. .. ,.,.,, . test; standard.

should enter the school as soon as he is physically and education-
ally able to go on with the work. Physically he should be able
to handle profitably the lighter tools — that is, when, in most cases,
he is about 13 or 14; and, educationally, he should have a fair
knowledge of the essential public school subjects. Moreover, as
so many leave school before completing the fourth form courses,
it would be well, at first at any rate, to admit the pupil whenever,
in the opinion of the principal of the primary school and the
principal of the general industrial school, he is able to comply with

286

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Importance
of a good
general
educat on.

Known by

various

names.

Reasons for

selecting

name.

Reasons for

selecting

name.

the foregoing requirements. Gradually the standard of scholar-
ship might be raised, but present conditions justify the above pro-
posal. We are going to make the boy a workman, not necessarily
a scholar ; and a fair knowledge of the essentials should now suffice.
Nor should it be forgotten that he will continue the most important
academic subjects in the industrial school where they will be none
the less cultural because they have an industrial application. If
boys can be induced to take a High School course before entering
an industrial school,, so much the better. My investigations lead me
to endorse most heartily the opinion, now held by employer and
employee as well as by educationists, that the better the general
education of the workman, the more efficient an industrial unit will
he become. But, in the meantime, we must adapt our schemes to
existing conditions.

A word as to the name for this class of school : The commonest
name by which, in other countries, the General Industrial School is
known is the Continuation Industrial School. This name is prop-
erly applied where the school, whether a day or an evening one,
is associated with the elementary school, and continues its pro-
gramme in a limited form and with an industrial outlook. The
name comes from Germany, where it answers fully the foregoing
description. In England the same idea is carried out in the name
Higher Elementary School andv in France in the name Comple-
mentary Courses. In the United States such schools are called
Industrial Schools, Secondary Industrial Schools, Intermediate
Industrial Schools, Continuation Schools, Shop Schools and Fac-
tory Schools, all names connoting their general character.
The name Vocational Schools, also applied, is a manifest misnomer,
for, in their present condition, it connotes too much. In some
parts of the United States and England, I may add, such schools
are also known as Preparatory Trade Schools. As I shall point out
further on, the conditions in Ontario have become such that we
cannot develop these schools satisfactorily as part of our Public
School system ; and, accordingly, I propose the name General Indus-
trial Schools, which indicates the object of the school, without
conveying a wrong impression as to its character and relation.

i

B. The Special Industrial School

For the next grade of school for boys, I propose the name
Special Industrial. Ordinarily such schools are known as Trade
Schools, and, usually, they are so in reality ; but they may occasion-
ally provide for occupations such, for example, as various forms
of transportation, which are not generally included in the trades.
Moreover, the name Trade Schools is objected to by many on the

ONTARIO 287

ground that it supports the idea that they teach a trade completely.
It is, however, with the trades that we are now chiefly concerned.

After the course in the general industrial school the boy c^acter
should pass on to a special industrial school where the course is not
general, but specia,!; where the trades and similar occupations are
taught with a view to making efficient workmen, and where the
work is essentially individual and largely independent of
machinery. Such a school, however, will not alone turn him out
fully skilled. There he learns the theory and the processes of the
trade. By applying this knowledge in the shop he becomes expert
and develops speed. When about 16 the boy should receive in this
school specialized instruction in the trades and other similar occupa-
tions, both practical and theoretical, with cognate subjects as well.
Correlation with the local industries is especially to be desired. In
the work of the school they afford a ready means of concrete illus-
tration. Moreover, such instruction will commend itself to the sup-
porters of the school, and to the parents in particular, who will look
to the locality for employment for their children. The number of
years to be devoted to such instruction will, of course, depend upon
the character of the trade and the necessities of the pupils. Sys-
tematized instruction of the foregoing character is also needed,
both for the workman who must know all his trade and for the
workman who, owing to factory specialization, learns only part of
it. The shop and the special industrial school together simply pro- A new

f f • i • form of ap-

vide a new form of apprenticeship. prenticeship.

In none of the countries I visited are the full-time day trade Limitation of.
schools either numerous or well attended. The need for such schools attendance. ~
is confined to a comparatively small number of trades and to locali-
ties where there is an exceptional concentration of industries. In
other countries the trade schools have many varieties in their stan-
dards and the details of their course. Those that seem to be
most needed in Ontario and to give promise of most successful
operation would be in connection with the machine and building
trades, the printing trades, and furniture manufacture. But the
cost of the accommodations, equipment, and maintenance, and
above all, the financial necessities of the pupils and their desire to special ob-
earn money as soon as possible have prevented the successful successful
operation of such schools, even where they are suitably staffed and °F
equipped. The latter obstacle some of the older countries of
Europe have attempted to overcome by a system of scholarships
and maintenance grants. Scholarships we may have in Ontario,
but maintenance grants would not be acceptable to a democratic
community. Even in countries where the full-time day trade schools
have been long established, they are attended by dozens; the
evening schools by hundreds. The day trade schools, it is true,

288

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Admission
tests.

Length and
character of
courses.

Lower

grade

special

Industrial

Schools.

Co-operative
part-time
trade school.

will no doubt 'increase in numbers, as the belief in the necessity for
industrial education increases and local obstacles are removed; but
it is very unlikely that for many years this type of school can be
maintained in Ontario except in the very largest centres. More-
over, the specialization in manufacture, which is continually in-
creasing, will itself tend to limit their numbers.

The admission qualifications to this class of school will, of
course, depend upon whether the pupils enter from an elementary
or a general industrial school. In the former case the qualifica-
tions will be the same as for admission to the general industrial
school; and, in the latter, they will depend on the relation of the
general to the specialized school.

In dealing with the question of the general industrial school I
have assumed a two years' basal course. Local conditions, however,
might make it necessary for some of the pupils or for all to special-
ize from the beginning or shortly afterwards. Some of the voca-
tional -schools of the United States, which I have already de-
scribed, are of the latter character, and their establishment is evi-
dently contemplated in the resolution of the American Federation
of Labour, quoted in Appendix A. If specialization were carried
on from the first, we should then, of course, have a special industrial
school of a lower grade than that contemplated in this section of
my report. Probably the first Stage in the development of a two
years' basic industrial course in most centres of Ontario will be a
school of this or of a mixed character. Until public opinion is
properly educated most parents and boys will want definite pre-
paration for a trade at an early stage. As a matter of theory early
specialization is undesirable; but we cannot ignore the fact that,
when they enter a trade, such specialization is forced upon those
who do not or cannot attend an industrial school; we must deal
with the situation as it exists.

A variant of this class of school must also be considered : In a
few cities of the United States the part-time trade school on the
co-operative plan has been carried on during the last few years,
with apparently satisfactory results. For a certain number of
hours a week the pupil of the school goes to the factory for prac-
tical work, and takes up in the school a special theoretical and aca-
demic course bearing upon his trade. The organization of this
system I have discussed in my account of the Fitchburg and Bever-
ley Schools, where a mutual arrangement has been made between
the manufacturers and the school boards. In my discussion of the
subject I have set forth in detail the advantages of the co-
operative plan as they present themselves to the local authorities;
also the views of organized labour on the subject of such co-opera-
tion. Besides the manufacturers of Fitchburg and Beverley, some

ONTARIO 289

others, I find, hold that for certain industries this type of school is
practicable, but that for others the instruction cannot be given by
day. From this point of view, accordingly, the practicability of co-
operation depends on the nature of the trade.

C. The Technical High School and High School Departments

Some boys may, however, take a technical high school course. Aim-
For such, separate schools may be provided or the courses may form
a department of the high school, under competent direction. They
would prepare for positions in industrial life which require special
technical knowledge and are of greater importance and responsibil-
ity than those held by skilled mechanics. Those who would attend
them would come from homes unembarrassed by financial consid-
erations, whereas with those who would enter the industrial
schools wage-earning at an early age would be a necessity. As will
been seen by my description of the Springfield Technical High
School, which is of this type, the curriculum provides for a two Curncula-
years' course taken by all, followed by elective two years' specialized
courses, with, in both cases, direct applications of the principles of
science and mathematics to practical work, such work having an
industrial but not narrowly vocational character. Another type of
technical high school prepares for more advanced professional work,
and is, accordingly, intermediate between such a school as the
Springfield one and the higher technological colleges. Of this
character is the Stuyvesant High School. As I have already pointed S5tlSer of
out, none of the Ontario so-called Technical High School depart- mghnschooi.
ments answers either description. With few exceptions, these de-
partments consist simply of manual training added to the ordinary
academic work of the school. None of them as yet is adequately
organized.

The technical high schools as we find them developed in a few American °f
large centres of population in the United States correspond longo mghnschooi.
intcrvallo to the technicums of Germany and Switzerland and the
higher departments of the polytechnics of Great Britain, and there is
reason to believe that in time many will become more and more as-
similated to them in general character. Like some of the techni-
cums, the American technical high school usually has another func-
tion— it prepares students for admission to the higher technological
schools, some of which even now require such preparation on the
part of their matriculants. The technical high school is a necessary ontlrfo? I!
function in a complete system of education ; but for their products
there would be little or no demand in Ontario for a good many
years. The day when they would be in demand might be hastened
if the standard of matriculation into the Faculty of Applied Science
and Engineering in the University of Toronto were raised very cou-

2QO

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Age of admis-
sion to trades
and character
of courses.

Specialized

industrial

schools.

General

industrial

schools.

Importance
of physical
education.

Secondary
industrial
schools.

siderably, as has been done in many other similar institutions, and
the character of its matriculation course brought into closer relation
to its undergraduate courses and the capabilities of our high schools.

i

(4) INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS AT SCHOOL AFTER 14

So far I have dealt with the question of provision in day schools
which is more or less feasible in the case of boys. Girls, on the
other hand, who enter any kind of industrial employment do so
earlier than the boys who are to become skilled mechanics, and the
courses that result in wage-earning capacity are by them more easily
completed than are the corresponding courses for boys. In the
large majority of English and American trade schools girls enter at
the age of 14, and sometimes even earlier. They desire to earn
money as soon as possible, and, for obvious reasons, they do not
look forward to a trade or any other industrial occupation as their
life work. These facts, I find, are generally recognized in provid-
ing for industrial training. The Trade Schools Act of Wisconsin,
for example, provides " for the maintenance of schools for the pur-
pose of giving practical instruction in the useful trades to young
men having attained the age of 16 years and young women having
attained the age of 14 years." Accordingly, for girls of about 14
who are intended for some kind of industrial occupation, and who
may remain or may be induced to remain, for various periods after
that age we must, in the large majority of cases, provide an indus-
trial course specialized from the beginning, although, as is done in
the trade schools of Europe and America, provision should be made
for further instruction in the essential academic subjects as well. In
some localities the conditions might justify the establishment of a
general industrial school with a one or two years' course before
specialization. Such general courses might consist of English, geo-
graphy, history, practical science, mathematics, and drawing
(freehand and designing). As also in the case of boys, the English
should include English literature. Suitable physical exercises should
also be provided. For admission, the provisions would natur-
ally be similar to those proposed in the case of boys. Physical exer-
cises, I should here point out, are emphasized for both boys and
girls in all the countries I visited. For girls in particular, whose
occupations are mainly sedentary, such exercises are indispensable.

Secondary industrial schools are also desirable of the same
character as the Boston High School of Practical Arts and the
science department for girls in the Springfield Technical High
School. More than one or two of such schools, we are, however,
not likely to have in the near future. They are the product of large
urban populations, and of a state of public opinion more advanced

ONTARIO 291

than ours is in Ontario. The establishment of a Faculty of House-
hold Science in Toronto University will hasten the advent of such
schools if the matriculation examination for entrance to the faculty
recognizes the household science that may be taken up in the second-
ary schools. An organization under which the university would
continue to repeat the work of these schools would be neither con-
sistent nor economical.

As a luminous and comprehensive statement of the situation I
quote the communication I have received from Mrs. Huestis, the
President of the Local Council of Women of Toronto, in reply to Toronto-
a letter from me asking for her views on the subject of industrial
training for girls and women :

It is becoming quite evident to all that each year finds girls occupying
more and more important pla'ce in the industrial world. It is .furthermore remedy.
admitted by most employers that they enter into this new sphere almost
totally unprepared by previous training. To those of us who have given this
phase of the question serious consideration, the remedy seems to be in the
establishment of trade schools similar to the Manhattan Trade School for
Girls, either as separate schools or as branches of regularly established technical
schools.

Realizing the large numbers who leave the public schools at the age of No curtail-
fourteen to enter industrial life from economic conditions and also realizing general
the shortness of the time thus given to the securing of the necessary funda- education.
mental academic education in such subjects as reading, writing, arithmetic and
spelling, I would be sorry to advocate during this public school course any
special technical training other than domestic science. The girl who is thus
forced into industrial life at such an early date must get her industrial training
in either evening classes or in the establishment of part time day classes. That
girls are willing and anxious to attend such classes is fully demonstrated by
the very large registration of girls in the evening classes of the Toronto
Technical High School.

In considering the training necessary we must consider the industrial Avenues of

i • , ,- • , employment

avenues which now lie open to girls : open to girls:

1. The numerous Clothing industries, for both men's and women's wear, i. Clothing.
demand large numbers. According to the department in which they serve, girls

would require instruction in drawing and designing, cutting, draughting, hand
sewing, ordinary machine sewing, power machine sewing, special machine work,
such as buttonhole, lace, embroidery, and hemstitching machines, weaving, mil-
linery;, dressmaking, etc.

2. The Publishing and Bookbinding industries need large numbers of 2 Publishing
girls. These might be given instruction in drawing and bookcover and maga- *"^ bookbmd-
zine cover design, illustrating, labelling, cutting, folding, and pasting. Under

this head might be included the necessary hand skill required in the various
novelty work departments.

3. Salesmanship is to-day one of the largest avenues for girls, and 3. Salesman-
courses to fit them better for their duties are urgently needed. They should sniP-

be given courses in the expert knowledge of the nature of the goods to be sold,
as well as a training in the art of salesmanship with its necessary adjunct of
courtesy, etc.

4. The avenue of Domestic Science is so exceeding important that all 4. Domestic
girls should have more or less training in this department. It should give the Science.
necessary professional training for those who intend to follow it as an occupa-

292

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

6. General
Education.

tion, viz. : for cooks, waitresses, general servants, etc. It should also give such
training to all as will fit them to become the future home-makers of the land.

5. As to Drawing and Designing: Girls have shown their aptitude for this
line of work, and the various engraving and lithographic houses as well as many
other establishments are urgently demanding girls who have the necessary skill
in freehand drawing and design. This demand also extends along such lines
as interior decoration for both private and public buildings, designs . for wall
paper, carpets, linoleums, tiles, textiles of various sorts, both printed and woven,
furniture, silverware, stained glass, etc. The openings for girls along these
lines are quite extensive and remunerative. As Canadian girls trained in
Pratt Institute, New York, are making a success of church and house decora-
tion in New York, could not our girls remaining in Canada have the same
opportunities?

In all cases, hand in hand with this special technical or industrial training
which the girl may need should go whatever academic instruction is necessary to
enable her to assume her proper business position so that advancement to higher
and more remunerative lines might not be cut off. But besides all this the
girl in the industrial world of to-day is the home-maker of to-morrow, hence
the necessity for some training in household science. Furthermore, the physical
education of the girls at all stages should be closely guarded, as little will be
gained by giving the required industrial training if the girl's physical well-
being is not guarded to enable her to perform her duties without encountering
the physical breakdown so commonly occurring to-day.

Sources of
attendance.

Claims of
schools.

5. INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FOR WORKMEN AND WORKWOMEN

For many years, in Ontario, as elsewhere, boys and girls, men
and women, engaged by day in trades, etc., will be by far the most
numerous of the claimants for industrial instruction. As soon as
the day industrial and technical schools have been opened, an in-
creasing number will have received some training before they take
up their occupations; but, even to the most proficient, supple-
mentary instruction will be of great advantage, while to the large
numbers that will always be prevented by various causes from
availing themselves, even in part, of day school instruction, special
systematic training will be indispensable.

For the class of workers who cannot attend or who have not
attended day industrial or technical classes I have to report, as the
result of my investigations and experience, that, from the nature of
the case, all the following are feasible for boys, and at least the
evening school for girls :

A. The Apprenticeship School.

B. The Evening Industrial and Technical School.

C. The Correspondence Industrial and Technical School.

Character.

A. The Apprenticeship School

The Apprenticeship School is a modification of the part-time co-
operative school already described. In the latter the pupil, while
attending school, goes to the factory for the supplementary practical

ONTARIO 293

work. In the apprenticeship school, on the other hand, the factory
hand comes to the day school. Of this kind of school a few exist continuation
in the United States. In the Cincinnati Continuation School, asSchooh
it is called there, apprentices are given about four hours' instruc-
tion a week for forty-eight weeks. The school is under the Board
of Education of the City, and is supported from public funds, at a
cost of about $15 a year for each pupil, 250 of whom attended in
1909-10. their wages being continued for the time spent in the
school. The subjects taken up are mechanical drawing, blue-print
reading, shop mathematics, civics, reading, writing, and arithmetic.
This, of course, is an adaptation of the Munich continuation indus-
trial school scheme for the instruction of apprentices. As I have school at the
pointed out, even already in Ontario an arrangement of this kind
has been made between the High School at Sault Ste. Marie and the
Algoma Steel Works of that city.

In my judgment, the part-time co-operative plan described above
and on pp. 230-238, when suitably adapted to local conditions, might
be introduced with advantage in Ontario, where evening schools or
full-time day schools are not available, or where the evening schools
do not make suitable provision. In support of this view, I may
point out, as is shown by the evidence of many of our manufac-
turers in Appendix B, that, .ilthough decadent, apprenticeship is by
no means dead in certain Ontario industries. Moreover, there is no
likelihood of its being wholly replaced for many years to come by
an adequate system of trade schools. What is most to be desired is
a combination of apprenticeship and the trade school, which has
in view the all-round education of the workman, and which is safe-
guarded from exploitation by the employer. But. in all cases, the
employer holds the key to the situation. His object is, of course, to
have the largest returns for the smallest possible expenditure, and
it is perfectly legitimate that it should be so. Without a
reasonable prospect of advantage to himself he would not employ
at intervals young or untrained apprentices ; nor, as he naturally
aims at as complete specialization as possible, would he be likely to
provide at a loss to himself the variety and the sequence of work
indispensable in any adequate scheme of trade education. But the
fact that voluntary, as well as compulsory, co-operative schools are
at present in successful operation demonstrates their practicability
in Ontario under suitable conditions.

In this connection I may discuss another class of apprenticeship
schools which cannot be omitted in a comprehensive treatment of ^
the subject. In the absence of outside facilities apprenticeship aild Factories,
schools have been established and maintained by railways and great
manufacturing companies themselves. Besides foremen who devote
themselves during shop hours to the instruction of tbp apprentices,

-'94

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Prussian
Apprentice-
ship Schools.

In Ontario.

ship schools.

General dis-
tribution.

Character.

there are provided within the establishments during working hours
or in the evenings classes in which are taught the theoretical parts
of the trades, including drawing and such mathematics and science
as are needed for intelligent workmanship. In Prussia some of the
finest royal industrial schools have been developed from similar
apprenticeship schools. At first such an institution is established
by a local factory, aided by municipal funds, and managed by a
board on which are represented both the factory and the munici-
pality. When the school grows to be important enough, it is taken
over by the Prussian Government and maintained and managed
under its direction, the factory and the municipality continuing their
contributions and being represented on the board of management.

Conditions may not now be favourable to the general establish-
ment in Ontario of such apprenticeship schools. As, however, is
shown in Appendix B, one was established last September at the
Dennis Wire and Iron Works in London. In time, no doubt,
others will follow, and before many years it may be in the interests
of some of our municipalities to contribute to the maintenance of
such schools, and in the interests of the Province to supplement this
contribution from the Provincial Treasury. I have not yet visited
the school at London and it is too soon to predict its future, but
there can be no doubt as to the efficiency of the system as I saw it
in operation at the Grand Trunk Railway shops at Stratford. The
apprenticeship school has the advantage over other part-time sys-
tems of being operated under actual business conditions and by
expert instructors, who can at every step correlate the theory and
the practice. It is altogether probable that, under suitable condi-
tions, this type of school would be a partial and economical solution
of the problem of providing skilled workmen.

B. The Industrial and Technical Evening School

In countries like Great Britain and the United States, which
have only of late years awakened to the imperative need of system-
atic industrial education, the evening school is by far the common-
est means of supplying the lack; and, where no day instruction is
available, it is manifestly the only means. Indeed, the English and,
as yet, the Scotch continuation schools are held in the evening. In
the United States, wherever there is a day industrial school, almost
(invariably there are evening classes, and there are many evening
classes where there are no day schools. In France, too, the evening
class is still very common, and, in Germany and Switzerland, it is
found, in many places, to be more convenient to hold the compul-
sory continuation school in the evening. The day industrial schools
are more or less substitutes for apprenticeship. The evening

ONTARIO 295

schools, on the other hand, merely supplement the imperfect and
often specialized training of the workshops by broadening the
pupil's acquaintanceship with the processes of his trade and supply-
ing him with the theoretical knowledge he cannot obtain in the
course of his daily work.

The evening school has one great advantage over the day school. ^
It overcomes the two main obstacles in the way o'f the day school — SchooL
it does not interfere with the wage-earning of those who attend it ;
and it may be maintained at a comparatively small cost, for the
equipment and accommodations used by day are available for it,
and the part-time day teachers may be members of its staff. But, vantages,
even under the best conditions, the evening school must be less
effective than the day school, for it has this serious disadvantage,
that it is held when the mental capability of the pupil, especially of
the young pupil, has been lessened by a day of toil. Moreover, as
one might anticipate, and as is shown by the evidence in Appendix
B, the young workman does not realize the value of his opportuni-
ties, and sacrifices future gain for present pleasure. This disadvan-
tage might, however, be overcome if, as some now do, the manu-
facturer required his apprentices to attend. Another disadvantage
is the difficulty of effective organization except where there are
large staffs. The evening school should provide for the workman
in all stages of his advancement. In it must be represented the
general and the special industrial schools and the technical schools,
with their varied courses. Here, however, in particular, the courses
must be flexible, and special consideration given the needs of the
individual. Provision must also be made for both sexes, and for
adults as well as adolescents. On the latter score there is usually
little trouble in Germany and Switzerland, where, owing to the
developed condition of their systems, the age and attainments of
those attending the evening classes are fairly uniform; but, for a
good many years, owing to the adults' self-consciousness, effective
organization will, with us, continue to be a difficult problem. More-
over, as the limitations of the evening classes are such that the in-
struction in each subject can be provided not more than two or three
times a week, and not more than a couple of hours each evening,
such courses must be less comprehensive than those of the corre-
sponding day school or they must entail much longer attendance.
Notwithstanding these drawbacks, the evening school must, for
many years, be our chief reliance. After all, as, indeed, is demon- schools our

chief re-

sitrated by the attendance at the Hamilton and Toronto Technical nance.
Schools, the devotion of five or six hours a week to directed and
assisted evening study, which will increase their wage-earning
power, is not so serious a tax upon the ambitious and healthy work-
man and workwoman. Nor should the educationist overlook the

296 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

moral advantage of such useful occupation of the evening hours,
especially to the adolescent.

evolution.1" In the evolution of a system of industrial education in this Pro-

vince the first stage must be the evening school. A few, indeed,
have been already established, and if, as is probable, competent
teachers of industrial subjects — drawing in particular — are procur-
able in other centres, progress might be made, pending the estab-

Legislative ,

grants. lishment of a comprehensive system. The Government should, I

think, defray a share of the cost of maintaining such schools ; a
larger grant being given a village than a town, a town than a
small city, and a small city than a very large one. In
Nova Scotia a number of evening schools are in operation to the

ofUstaf£a ' '8 support of which the Government and the locality contribute
equally. Here, as there, competent foremen and specially qualified
teachers might be employed. For the purpose of a workshop educa-
tion the apprentice " takes little stock " in the qualifications of day
school teachers of the academic subjects.

C. The Correspondence=Study Industrial and Technical School

Fees paid The Scranton Correspondence School, which is controlled by the

Scranton ._ . ^ . . . . , . , .

school International Printing Company of that city, with a capital of

by Ontario. J . -%,.,. r.

$6,000,000, is probably the largest school of the kind in existence.
Its advertising literature shows that in October, 1906, its Canadian
agencies contributed $180,000 to the yearly receipts. Most of this
must have been collected from the workmen of the Dominion ; most
of it, also, must have been collected from the workmen of Ontario ;
and, as the industries of the Dominion are rapidly increasing, the
total sum collected must now be much larger than that given above.
A half a million of dollars is, I believe, now a moderate estimate,
although some put it at a far higher figure. The school is main-
tained solely for the gain of its stockholders, and, like any other
business house, it sends out " salesmen," who canvass the various
districts into which the management has divided the United States
and Canada, and even far New Zealand, Australia, and South
Africa. When a high school inspector I met these salesmen
more than once in hotel offices, where they were relating to eagerly
listening workmen the advantages of the correspondence school.
Trade courses This company offers for workmen trade courses in drawing, letter-
ing, sign painting, plumbing, heating and ventilation, sheet-metal
work, boilermaking, and shop and foundry practice; and technical
courses in architectural drawing, civil engineering, electrical engi-
neering, mechanical engineering, mining, steam and marine engi-
neering, structural engineering, telegraph and telephone engineer-
Ing, and textiles.

ONTARIO 297

One of the chief reliances of the school is its list of text-
books specially prepared for industrial work. The claim that the
Jist is a good one is well supported. We also must have suitable
text-books for all grades of our industrial schools.

The International Typographical School of Printing, at Chi- pnht£*s°i
cago, is under the direction of the International Typographical schofirof)hical
Union's Commission on Supplementary Trade Education, and isprintins-
supported by fees from students and appropriations from the In-
ternational Typographical Union. The existence of this school
under its conditions shows the value the workman attaches to the
instruction given. Its object is to counteract the evils of specializa-
tion as practised in printing offices. This school is an institution
with an educational, not a commercial, aim, and, I may add, is
strongly favoured by the American Federation of Labour.. In its
report of 1909 this federation gives a list of seven other labour
organizations that have undertaken a similar extension of educa-
tion for their members, and takes occasion to commend enthusi-
astically such " supplemental technical education," and to report
that it should be provided at the public expense.

The desirability of schools of this character was first suggested
to me by some of the representatives of organized labour in
city of Toronto, and I have found on enquiry a very general desire
on the part of labour men that a correspondence school should be
provided in Ontario. It certainly appears to be reasonable that,
in providing the workman with instruction, his convenience and
necessities should be taken into account. Even when we have
secured a system of day and evening industrial and technical
schools, many will not be able to avail themselves even of the
evening classes. There will also be small manufacturing centres —
too many I fear — where it will be impossible to maintain evening
classes effectively organized or evening classes at all.

In my account of the provision for industrial training in the
United States, I have described the Correspondence-Study School
of the Extension Department of Wisconsin University, and have
pointed out in particular the effective means this University is
taking to supply in its school the defects of the Commercial Corre-
spondence School. A school of this character, which would com-
bine with class instruction by travelling teachers the best features
of the Commercial Correspondence School appears to be a necessity
in this Province. The combination is, however, also a necessity;
for, as is well known and as is clear from the evidence of the
Principal of the Brantford Colegiate Institute in Appendix B, few
workmen succeed in getting an adequate return for their fees.

298 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

6. GENERAL PROVISIONS

In the foregoing statement I have set forth the classes of in-
dustrial and technical schools which my investigations and experi-
ence lead me to regard as feasible in Ontario under suitable condi-
Generaiin- tions. The General Industrial School, modified to suit the varied

dustrial

school local requirements, is a necessity in every manufacturing centre.

special in- The establishment and the organization of the Special Industrial

schoofs, School, in particular, v/ill, however, depend upon the nature of the
local industries and the attitude of the local manufacturers, labour
men, and school boards. Accordingly, it does not fall within the
scope of a report like the present one to deal with the details of the
subject; nor, indeed, could anyone devise a scheme of organization
or a curriculum of study applicable to every locality. In the case of
the General Industrial Schools, certain subjects, as I have already
shown, should find a place; but the details of most of these subjects
and the organization of the other classes of schools must, as I have
just said, depend upon local conditions. In this connection it is neces-
sary for me to point out that while the Government and the School
Boards have important parts to play in the development of a general
scheme, much will depend upon the manufacturer and the employer.

obligation on if as a f ew do even now, the employer refuses to admit to his works

employers and .ill'.

employees. a bov who has not taken such preparatory courses as the locality may
afford, if he requires his employee to take advantage of any facilities
that may be offered to supplement his shop work, if he makes no de-
duction from his pay when, in doing so, the employee has to absent
himself from his work, and especially if he recognizes in his pay-sheet
efficiency thus increased, Ontario will soon have a satisfactory system
of industrial schools. Organized labour can also do much to secure
this result. Probably one of the chief obstacles to progress will be
the limitation of the number of apprentices to each employer. In
a condition of the labour market in which practically any one may
qualify as an apprentice and the unqualified may pose as a journey-
man, the labour organizations have some justification for this re-
striction: but, on the other hand, all experience shows that there
is no danger of too large an increase in the supply of skilled labour
through industrial schools that limit the age of the students and
insist on thorough and comprehensive courses of instruction,
much stress cannot be laid upon the necessity for sympathetic am
harmonious action by the employer and the employee. Both now are
crying vigorously for governmental assistance. The wagoner 1
the fable calls on Jupiter to help him with his wagon, which has
stuck in the mud. Jupiter's answer is well known.

ONTARIO 299

Some questions of a general character which are vitally im-
portant in the operation of a state system of industrial and tech-
nical schools remain to be considered :

1. The Qualifications of the Teachers.

2. A Director of Technical and Industrial Education.

3. An Ontario Industrial and Technical College.

4. A Dominion Institute for Industrial Research.

A. The Qualifications of the Teachers

In any scheme of education, the question of the qualifications f^tol neces'
and training of teachers is a basal one, and it is especially so in the trainine-
case of industrial and technical education, which, being in most
respects a specialized form of education, requires teachers specially
trained. Without teachers so trained, it would be useless to attempt
to put into force programmes of study, be they ever so suitable. In
all the European countries I visited, especially in Germany, pro-
vision is made for training such teachers, and inducements are
offered them to avail themselves of it. Even in these countries,
however, this is the part of the organization that often lags behind.
Wherever industrial education has proved to be unsuccessful, its
failure, I wais invariably told, was due chiefly to defects in the
teaching.

For technical high schools we must have technically trained For Technical

» High Schools.

graduates — men who have taken up science and mathematics as well
as the shop work from the industrial point of view, and who are
pedagogically fit for their work. For special industrial schools ^or special
competent workmen of the foremen grade are no doubt available ; schools,
but, to be efficient instructors, these require special training; and
for the complementary sciences, mathematics, and English, spec-
ially trained teachers will also be necessary. Most of our workmen
do not possess the necessary theoretical knowledge of their trades ;
their general education is too often defective; and they have, of
course, had no pedagogical training. For our general industrial f^
schools in particular, we must have teachers who know and canSchools-
teach the other subjects of the course, in addition to and in correla-
tion with the drawing and the wood and metal work which have so
far been the mainstay of the manual training departments. In this
class of school, satisfactory results are best obtained when the
related subjects are taught by the same teacher. At this stage he
alone can correlate them properly. The department system is,
however, often followed ; and, when there are a number of teachers
on the staff who act together under a strong and watchful principal
the system appears to produce good results. But for a good many
years the staffs of most of the schools will be small, and it will take
time to secure generally an industrial outlook. For this reason it
20 E.I.P.

300 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

JJ|ntelchearsn" should be clearly understood that the manual training teacher is not
not qualified. now fully qualified for a position in an industrial school. We need,

accordingly, to supplement his present education and to provide for

that of the teachers of the technical and special industrial schools.

For the former, the summer school would probably suffice; for the

latter, ampler provision is indispensable.

^aufiedecure The history of the manual training movement in this Province,
teachers. shows us that, with a very limited number of available positions and
especially with an uncertain future, few are willing to prepare them-
selves for specialized work even when, as is the case at the Guelph
Macdonald School, suitable courses have been provided and, when,
as has too often been the case, disproportionately large salaries have
to be paid to obtain even meagerly qualified teachers. If we are to
have within a reasonable period an adequate supply of competent
teachers for the different classes of our industrial schools, we must
for some years provide, besides free tuition, an allowance for travel-
ling expenses and maintenance while they are preparing themselves
for their duties. Such expenditure should, however, entail upon the
teacher an obligation to serve the Province at a reasonable salary
for a period of years. Some such plan as that followed in the Grand
Trunk Railway apprenticeship system at Stratford would probably
meet the case.

Exanapie-of jn support of the foregoing proposal, let me quote a special

example: When in Europe, I intended to visit Ireland as well as
England and Scotland, but the time at my disposal would not permit.
I found, however, then, and since by correspondence, that Ireland
has made extensive provision for agricultural, industrial, and tech-
nical education. For this purpose over $1,000,000 is spent annually,
a small part of which comes from local sources, by far the larger
part coming from endowment funds and parliamentary grants.
One prominent feature of the Irish system is the provision made for
the training of the teachers. At various centres facilities are offered
journeymen and other workmen to fit themselves as trade school
teachers. From a fund for this purpose $3.75 a week is allowed
each teacher for a year. For those engaged in teaching, summer
schools are provided, in which are courses in experimental
science, laboratory work, drawing and modelling, manual training.
domestic science, crochet work, embroidery, etc. For the summer
school students a maintenance allowance, with travelling expenses, is
also provided. In addition, special scholarships for science teachers
are offered in the Royal College of Science for Ireland. These
carry free tuition, travelling expenses, and a generous maintenance
allowance. For art teachers similar provision is made in the Metro-
politan School of Art.

ONTARIO 301

Nor in providing our teachers should we, if need be, confine our-
selves to the Province of Ontario. No narrow spirit of exclusion ^OUM not be
should prevent us from securing the best. When, for example, I Ontario-
visited the Arts and Crafts School of Zurich, a large majority of
the teachers were, I found, from France and Germany, and the
authorities there hold that nationality should not enter into a ques-
tion of educational supply. When, too, about a quarter of a cen-
tury ago Japan determined to establish a modern system of educa-
tion, not only did she send her men to study in the schools and col-
leges of Europe and the United States, but she imported teachers
for her own schools and colleges. Now she has teachers trained
by herself, and to this wise initial policy, more than to anything
else, must be attributed her phenomenal progress.

With an adequate supply of teachers the day school problem
will present little or no difficulty. For the evening schools the day supply.
school teacher whose time is wholly taken up in his regular duties
should, for evident reasons, not be employed. The solution of the
evening school problem will be found in the employment of part-
time day school teachers, of competent foremen and draughtsmen,
engaged during the day, and probably of travelling teachers who
are members of the staffs of more than one school.

B. A Director of Technical and Industrial Education

My recommendations in regard to the types of schools and ti
courses of study suitable for each locality have designedly been in- edly indefinite
definite. From the nature of the case they could not be otherwise.
My experience leads me to endorse most heartily the opinion of Mr.
Arthur D. Dean, Chief, Division of Trade Schools, Albany, N.Y.,
whose address T heard a year ago at the annual convention of the
National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education at Mil-
waukee, and whose official experience enables him to form a reliable
judgment on the question :

In considering a State policy for providing industrial education it is neces- Organization
sary to keep constantly in mind one basic principle : If industrial education ™astic.e
means a redirecting and adapting of our education to fit the economic and
social needs of our people, then it is a problem that has no single solution ;
there will be as many school classifications as there are groups of industries,
nearly as many solutions as there are types of communities, and there is no
single inflexible course of study and no single line of procedure.

Since I began this report I visited most of the centres of
where industrial schools may be expected in the near future, and 1
have visited and corresponded with employers and employees as well
as the principals in charge of the present manual training schools.
Everywhere I went there is evidence of a desire for the establish-
ment of industrial schools, but everywhere there is also a lack of
•definite ideas as to their probable cost, their scope and method, and

302 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

the best way to engraft them upon our present school system. What
is now needed is expert guidance rather than the stimulation of pub-
lic opinion.

Necessity for The history ofjhis movement has shown clearly that, with the
best intentions, but without competent direction, boards are liable
to make serious economic and educational blunders. A few weeks'
visit to schools of the character I am discussing will not enable the
layman of the school board to settle problems which require techni-
cal knowledge, both expert and educational. The expenditure in-
volved is too great and the interests at stake are too important to be
left entirely to his discretion.

SfeSL J have> accordingly, to recommend, subject to the provisions of
separate unit. any general scheme, that each industrial centre shall be regarded as
a separate unit for the purposes of organization ; and that, as pro-
posed later in this report, the industrial and technical school or
schools for each such centre be organized by its board of trustees
under the advice and with the approval of the Minister of Educa-
tion. For this purpose, I recommend that this branch of the ser-
vice be placed in charge of a departmental officer, whose duty it
A Director s^a^ ^e to v^ eac^ manufacturing centre and formulate a plan of
aU^echnksai or^amzat*on' a^ter consultation with the school board and repre-
Education. sentatives of the local industries. This officer should have had tech-
nical training of a general character ; and he should be an education-
ist in sympathy with the aims and methods of elementary industrial
training.

C. An Ontario Industrial and Technical College

progressive As is well understood and as is shown by the evidence of the

manufacturers in Appendix B, the lack of competent foremen and
the higher grades of skilled workmen is now probably the greatest
drawback to the progressive efficiency of our industries. As a
matter of fact, the evidence shows further that our employers have
often to draw such employees from the ranks of British and foreign
labour. Besides, the workman who has learned his trade in the
usual way becomes fully expert therein at 24 or 25, so far as
mechanical operations are concerned. If he has had some theoreti-
cal training as well, he will, of course, know his trade better; but,
Necessities of ordinarily, he can advance no further. Manifestly, therefore, if we
the situation. ^r& ^ j^^ h jgh_ciass workmen, " made in Ontario," we must pro-
vide high-class instruction. I have already pointed out, also, the
necessity for training the teachers of our manual training and in-
dustrial schools, and for establishing a correspondence-study school
which shall combine with instruction by letter special class instruc-
tion by travelling teachers. This necessity must be met, and it
should be met as promptly as possible. If we were to follow the

ONTARIO 303

example of some of the long-established British technological
schools, we should add to the functions now discharged by the
Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering of the University of uifit^d states
Toronto, the first two of the above functions, which are industrial in
'character and come within the limits of secondary education. If, also,
we followed the example of Wisconsin and some other universities in
the United States the Provincial University would provide, as part
of a comprehensive system of extension work, a correspondence-
study school for workmen. But in our system of education the Applied °f
Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering corresponds to the In'IfnIerin?
" High School, " in the German system with its purely technical verity ^f1"
course of the university grade ; and Wisconsin University has carried unsuitable.
on its industrial correspondence-study work in a State where only
lately provision has been made for trade schools, and it intends to
carry it on in future only in localities for which adequate industrial
schools are not provided. For us now to follow the foregoing ex-
amples would be to make an addition to the courses of the Univer-
sity, both exceptional and unnecessary. Morepver, the Dean of the
faculty at Toronto informs me that the time of his staff is now fully
occupied, and that to add industrial functions to its present techni-
cal ones would necessitate an additional staff, additional accommo-
dations, and additional equipment, all specially adapted to the new
requirements. It is important, also, to note that the aims of the
proposed departments would be quite different from those of the
present faculty. Little or nothing would be gained by association
with it. Subdivision of labour and singleness of purpose have their
advantages under any conditions, and the workman deserves as
much consideration as the engineer.

I recommend accordingly, that an Industrial and Technical Col- Establishment
lege be established and maintained by the Provincial Government indiFstriaTcial
for the further training of the most progressive of our foremen and College>
skilled workmen, for the training of the teachers of our industrial
schools, and of pupils who have taken the courses at the special in-
dustrial schools, for the conduct of a modern correspondence-study
school, and for such other purposes as may promote the interests
of the industrial worker. Even if we had what we are not likely
to have for a good many years — well staffed schools — we should
still need a college of this kind; and, until we have such schools
we shall need it especially. Most, if not all, of the first
teachers of such a college must be drawn from outside the
Province ; or, as Japan did, Ontario must send her men abroad to
prepare themselves for their duties. By adopting the latter policy
we should be more likely to secure the teachers we need. It would, competent
of course, entail some delay ; but " a good beginning is half of the indi^nsabie
whole." Competent teachers for our ischools we must have at any from the flr8t-

304 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

cost, and their training must be provided for in this Province. We
need a new breed, with a new outlook and with new ambitions.
To attempt to organize a system without first providing for the
training of such teachers would be most unwise.

M^seumStrial -^n suc^ a College would naturally be placed the first of our In-
dustrial Museums. The part such museums play in the industrial
history of the European countries, I have already pointed out. On-
tario cannot afford to ignore their importance.

D. A Dominion Institute for Industrial Research

relation6 One of the most important developments of the German indus-

between ^T'ia\ system is the intimate relation that exists between her manu-

techmcal •'

education and facturinpr establishments and her higher technical institutions.

the industries. e>

in Germany: This intimate relation, it is well known, has done much to promote

her industrial eminence. To this end, both the States and the

Empire contribute. Not only do the States give the industries direct

assistance in their operations,* but they carry on research for their

benefit, often with the assistance of the larger manufacturers, who

imperial place their staffs at the disposal of the scientists. The Imperial Gov-

ch8arioueen* ernment maintains at Charlottenburg the Imperial Institute for

Physical- Physical-Technical Research, which gives special attention to the

Research! advancement of the manufactures of the country at large. To use the

words of its constitution, its object is "the promotion, by means of

experiments, of scientific research and of precise technical work."

Its syllabus covers the various departments of physics and chemis-

try, and includes the testing of various kinds of measuring instru-

ments. In one of its divisions the members of the staff attend meet-

ings of scientific and technical workers, and inspect the testing sta-

tions and the large manufactories throughout the Empire. In 1908

this institute cost for maintenance $113,500.

in France: Nor is Germany alone in making such provision. At Paris the

National Con- *mi i 1 1 j.i_

servatoryof iNfational Conservatorv of Arts and Trades, also supported by the

Arts and _ __

Paril?Sat *In association, for example, with the Technical High School at_ Charlot-

tenburg, there is an organization known as the Royal Material Testing Insti-
tute, situated in Gross Lichterfelde, one of the suburbs lying to the south of
Berlin. Like the High School, the institution is maintained by Prussia.
is devoted more especially to the examination and testing of materials used
in various departments of technical work. Its functions are:

(1) To plan experiments and to design machines, instruments, and ap-
paratus generally, for making tests of materials in the public interest.

(2) To carry out tests with materials and construction parts in the public
interest or in the interests of science. To make such tests for governmental
departments and private individuals upon payment of certain fees, and, in con-
nection with the results of these tests, to give official advice and to grant official
certificates.

(3) Upon request of both disputants, to act as arbiter in disputes over the
quality of material or construction parts employed in technical work.

This institution comprises six departments devoted to (i) metal testing,
(2) building material testing, (3) paper and textile testing, (4) metallography.
(«;) general chemistry, and (6) oil testing.

ONTARIO 305

State, does work of a similar character. Research, however, is not
the chief part of its programme. It contains a great industrial
museum, wherein are deposited machines, models, tools, plans, de-
scriptions, and books relating to all kinds of arts and trades; and
it undertakes the inspection of weights and measures and carries on
experiments in connection with this work. This institution pro-
vides also, without fee, various courses of lectures dealing with the
application of science to industry and commerce, and addressed
chiefly to the artisan class.

In Switzerland the Federal Government maintains the Poly- in switzer-
technic at Zurich, which, like the French Conservatory, discharges Pobteotinte
a variety of functions. Above all, it is a great school of applied a
science, similar in many respects to the Technical High School at
Charlottenburg, the Massachusetts Institute at Boston, and the
Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering at Toronto. But it
combines the functions of a technical high school with those of an
institute of research. In passing, I may point out that Switzerland Switzerland

, . r+ * f u and Canada

has a population of only 3,463,000; Canada, one of between seven contrasted,
and eight millions ; and that Switzerland is very poor in the raw
material for manufactures ; Canada, exceptionally rich.

The English parallel of the Imperial Institute at Charlotten- in England :
burg is the National Physical Laboratory at Bushy Park, Tedding- Physical
ton, near London. This laboratory was completed and opened in near London.
1902, and is under the direction of a governing body which con-
sists chiefly of members nominated by the Royal Society, with
others selected to represent various commercial and industrial inter-
ests. The laboratory was founded for the testing and verification
of instruments for physical investigation, for the construction and
preservation of standards, and for the systematic determination of
physical constants and numerical data useful for scientific and indus-
trial purposes. It is under the direction of a highly-trained special-
ist, and consists of a number of divisions, each fully equipped with
apparatus both for making regular tests and for carrying out in-
vestigations of public and scientific interest. The character of the
work is somewhat varied. It includes the study of the optical quali-
ties of glass, thermometry, pyrometry, the study of wind pressure,
the metallographical study of alloys, photometry, and quite recently
a large experimental tank was installed in the laboratory for the
purpose of studying the behaviour of ship models under a variety
of conditions. The expenditure for the laboratory in 1909
amounted to $170,148, of which $80,256 came from Treasury
Grants. From private sources in the same year came also $07,334
for the experimental tank above referred to, and $48,667 for a
building for metallurgical research. imperial

The Imperial College of Science and Technology, recently estab-s£ie^|°fnd
Hshed in London, England, takes part in furthering the interest of LondSnlogyin

306

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

In the United
States: Bureau
of Standards
at Washing-
ton.

Similar pro-
vision by the
Dominion ;
The Depart-
ment of Mines.

The Depart-
ment of
Marine and
Fisheries.

the manufactories. In the words of its constitution, it has for its
object " to give the highest specialized instruction, and to provide
the fullest equipment for the most advanced training and research
and the various branches of science, especially in its application to
industry; and to do all and any of such things as the governing
body considers conducive or incidental thereto, having regard to the
provision for these purposes which already exist elsewhere."

The Bureau of Standards at Washington is a branch of the
Department of Commerce and Labour of the United States Gov-
ernment In addition to the work of verifying standards of various
kinds, it also carries on such investigation and research as may be
of importance to the scientific, technical, and manufacturing inter-
ests of the country.

Although my report deals primarily with the obligations of On-
tario, it is not out of place to ask here what work the Dominion of
Canada is now doing for her industries of a character similar to that
done by the institutions I have described.

The Department of Mines was created and placed under a Minis-
ter of Mines in 1907. Its technical work is carried on in two bran-
ches, the Mines and the Geological Survey. The Mines branch is
divided into the outside service, to which the Assay Office at Van-
couver is attached ; and the inside service, with headquarters at Ot-
tawa, which is organized for administrative purposes into the fol-
lowing divisions : Metal Mines, non-Metal Mines, Fuel and and Fuel
testing, Chemical, Mineral Resources, and Statistics. During the
present session, it is understood, an Act will be passed providing
also for the regulation of the manufacture, storing, and testing of
explosives. In this department a great deal of experimental work
is carried on. The Geological Survey Branch is organized into the
following divisions : Administrative and general, geological, palae-
ontological, mineralogical, topographical, natural history, draught-
ing library. At present this branch is collecting and caring for
material for the new Victoria Museum.

The importance of the Department of Mines may be gleaned
from the fact that of late years the value of the mineral output
of Canada has been increasing very rapidly. The Department places
it at $90,415,763. For the fiscal year 1910-11, the total vote for the
Department of Mines for all purposes is $621,289, which includes
a special grant for the investigation of processes for producing
Under the Department of Marine and Fisheries, the

zinc.

Dominion Government also maintains three biological stations —
one at St. Andrews, N.B., and one at Nanaimo, B.C., for the in-
vestigation of the natural history of our salt-water seas, with

ONTARIO 307

special reference to the fisheries, and one at Go Home Bay, Ont,
for similar investigation in regard to our fresh-water seas.

Before 1884 agriculture in Canada was in a depressed condition, mentofpart"
In that year a committee appointed by the House of Commons to Agriculture-
enquire into the best means of encouraging and developing agricul-
ture showed clearly that its condition was due to widespread ignor-
ance amongst the farming community, which led to defective farm-
ing and the adoption of wasteful methods. The committee recom-
mended that experimental farms be established, where tests should
be carried on in all branches of agriculture and horticulture, and
that the results of this work should be published in bulletins from
time to time and distributed free amongst the farmers of the Do-
minion. In 1886 an Act was passed almost unanimously author-
izing the Dominion Government to establish experimental farms
for the aforesaid purposes. The five farms at first established, the
central one being at Ottawa, have been increased to nine, with three
smaller stations ; and for the last financial year the cost of the system
was nearly $135,000. Agriculture is undoubtedly still the most
important industry of the Dominion ; but in Ontario and Quebec, in
particular, the manufactures are developing with great rapidity,
and, owing to our increasing population and the abundance of our
natural resources, they are likely to develop with even greater
rapidity.

But, besides providing for the industries, so-called, the United
Kingdom and the foreign countries I have mentioned above make
similar provision for agriculture. France, for example, has Agro-
nomic Stations attached to her universities and agricultural stations.

We cannot now say of our manufactures, as was said in 1884 of
agriculture, that they are in a depressed condition ; but we can say
that ignorance of the best means of utilizing our resources has pre-
vented us from reaping the full advantage of their richness.

The Dominion Government has thus recognized three of our The standards
main sources of wealth — our mines, our fisheries, and our farms and Ottawa. at
forests. It also maintains at Ottawa the Standards Branch of the
Department of Inland Revenue, which administers the Acts dealing
with weights and measures, gas, the inspection and exportation of
electricity, the adulteration of food, agricultural fertilizers, commer-
cial feeding stuffs, the inspection of petroleum, patent medicines.
As in the foreign institutes, we have, in this Bureau at Ottawa, what A Dominion
might become the nucleus of an institute to carry on research work, institute!
bearing upon all the trades of the Dominion, and, until our Prov-
inces are wealthier and their industrial necessities greater, to per-
form for the Dominion the duties now performed for Prussia by the
Royal Material Testing Institute.

3o8

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Importance of
Drawing and
Art.

Defective
provision in
Ontario :
results.

Progress in
Provincial
Schools.

Provision in
the United
States.

Defective
qualifications
of teachers in
Ontario.

The general interests of agriculture, the mines, and the fisheries
are each under the charge of a Dominion Minister. This country
needs also a. Dominion Institute of Industrial Research, and the
Minister of Trade and Commerce, to whose department it would
naturally belong, might well have an eye to the advancement of the
manufactures of each of our provinces.

II. DRAWING AND ART EDUCATION
1. PRESENT PROVISION, PROVINCIAL

In all the countries I visited great importance is attached to the
Fine Arts and their applications to the industries. Every centre of
any importance has its picture gallery and its art museum with
technical and industrial art departments. Drawing and applied art
are universally regarded as basal, and provision is, accordingly,
made for the instruction of workmen as well as of artists. In Ger-
many, for example, the amount of attention given to drawing is
very striking. Moreover, the schools are supported both by the
locality and by the State. If there is one department more than
another in which Ontario lags behind it is in the department of
drawing and art. We have as yet no effective organization for
training students; and, as a result, some of the more ambitious go
to the art schools of the United States. Skilled engravers and litho-
graphers are imported from the same country, and a good deal of
our high-class illustration and printing is executed there as well.
Of the correctness of these statements the evidence in Appendix B,
of the manager of the Toronto Engraving Company, himself an ar-
tist of repute, leaves no reasonable doubt.

Since 1904, when the revised curriculum went into operation,
specially qualified art teachers have been appointed in our Normal
Schools, and there has been a steady advance in drawing and art in
our Public and High Schools, especially on the purely artistic side.
But there is still much room for improvement. As I have noted in
dealing with manual training, two years ago provision was made
at Guelph for industrial drawing for Normal School teachers-in-
t raining, but the subject has so far received little attention except
where there are manual training centres. In the United States nearly
every city or town of any pretensions has one or more supervisors
of art instruction for its elementary and secondary schools to the
very great advantage of education. Only three cities in this Pro-
vince have so far appointed such officers for their Public Schools,
but the improvement of the subject in these centres amply justifies
the means. Few primary or secondary teachers, however, are spe-
cially qualified to teach this department. Some have attended the
art summer schools of the University of Toronto, but most have
merely picked the subject up. To illustrate partly the apathy of the

ONTARIO 309

public and the teachers, and partly the dominating influence of our
examination systems, I may point out that, although the Depart-
ment of Education offers an annual grant of $25.00 to each school
board and $75.00 a year to each High School specialist in Art main-
taining an Art class of six in the Middle School, only one of the
146 High Schools and Collegiate Institutes has attempted the
course. So far as concerns the Province at large, almost no provi- Little proyis:

0 ' ion in Ontario

sion for advanced work is now made outside of a few schools, some for advanced
of which are private. Some years ago Art Schools were established
at Toronto, Hamilton, London, Kingston, St. Thomas, Ottawa, and
Brockville, which received small grants from the Ontario Legis-
lature. Of these all have gone out of existence except two — the one
at Hamilton, which has become merged into the Hamilton Techni-
cal School, and the one at Toronto, which has become the Central
Ontario School of Art. The other art schools were established, it
would appear, in advance of public opinion, and, consequently, they
failed to comply with the moderate requirements of the Department
of Education.

In any system of industrial and technical training the claims of Tra?n?nal
art instruction cannot be overlooked. We need good teachers andsch?0i

. needed.

at least one institution in which they may be adequately trained.
Toronto should possess a well organized and generously maintained
school of art and design, and the other principal centres of popula-
tion should have at least efficient art departments as part of their
school systems.

2. PRESENT PROVISION, VOLUNTARY
(1) CENTRAL ONTARIO SCHOOL OF ART AND DESIGN

One voluntary institution deserves notice as much for what it character,
has already done as for what it may yet do. To the Central Ontario attendance.
School of Art and Design the Province owes more than to any
other school the progress shp has made in art. Here have been
trained artists of no mean ability, and the heads of the art depart-
ments in the engraving and lithographing houses of the city. For
some years the school has been receiving a grant of $600 from the
City of Toronto and of $400 from the Ontario Government. Beyond
these grants and a few subscriptions it has had to depend upon the
fees from the students, which have necessarily been kept as low as
possible. The school is not a commercial institution ; any surplus it
may have at any time is used to procure or renew its equipment. In
1909-10 the total receipts were only $3,377.14, although the classes
were attended by 126 students. Most take the evening classes and
are employees in some branch of industry for which an art training
is required, or they are qualifying themselves for some such occupa-
tion.

310 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

The curriculum embraces the following branches:

Subjects of Pictorial composition, illustrating, lettering, book-binding and leather

curriculum. WOrk, illuminating, engraving, mural decoration (including wall papers),

leaded glass, ceramics, jewellery, textile fabrics, carving, metal work and

casting; etching, and general principles of constructive design and their

relation to exterior and interior decoration.

For two evenings a week there is a class from the nude, for
men only. This class is supported by the Royal Canadian Academy,
from funds supplied by the Dominion, and consists of students
whose work has passed a committee appointed by the Academy.
About a dozen attended in 1910.

2fUasfSrafcions The staff of tne school consists of local artists of established
Equipment, reputation. But the equipment is quite inadequate; all the original
casts and art accessories were destroyed in the fire that took place
a couple of years ago. The casts have been partly replaced by sub-
scription, but the equipment is not yet so good even as it was before
the fire.

Presen neces- ^0 enable this school to train both artists and skilled workmen
the following are necessary:

Suitable accommodations, a greater range of courses, a larger
staff, additional equipment, a reference library. Weekly lectures
are also necessary to stimulate the student and broaden his outlook.
In time scholarships should be provided. Besides rewarding merit,
they would prove an incentive to study, especially if, as in other
countries, they assisted the students to study in the picture galleries
of Great Britain and the Continent.

tton°mlre0sent ^ present the school is in temporary quarters on Yonge Street,
and future, having been obliged to vacate the premises on King Street which it
had occupied for many years. There is, however, every prospect
that, in the near future, adequate and suitable accommodations will
be provided. By the wills of the late Goldwin Smith and his wife
the property in Toronto known as " The Grange " has been donated
to the Art Museum Association. In the rear of this building the
association intends to erect a gallery for exhibition purposes. Here,
also, it is confidently expected, class-rooms will be provided for the
Art School.
School for the ^s ^ nave already pointed out, compared with other countries

Fine Arts Ontario is sadly lacking in its provision for art. In the new To-
necessary. j .

ronto Technical School building about to be erected one of the most
important departments should be that of Industrial Art and Design.
While such a department cannot be efficient if it does not give due
prominence to the artistic side, it will, in function, be auxiliary to
the industries. This instruction, but of a higher character, the Art
School should also provide, while performing its main function of
being auxiliary to the Art Museum Association. This is an im-

ONTARIO 311

portant matter. As I pointed out in my report on the schools -of
Paris, it is to the association of the fine and the applied arts that
France owes the artistic supremacy of her manufactures.

Artists claim that in an art school there is an environment which
gives inspiration to the student, an inspiration not usually or neces-
sarily found in a technical school, with its different associations
and its different aims. This opinion, which the Philistine usually
Scoffs at, I discussed with many educationists during my tour, and
I have to report that the opinion is general that, .if the Fine Arts are
to flourish in this Province, a high class Art School cannot be suc-
cessfully merged into a Technical School.

In the Central Ontario School of Art and Design we have an Re-organiza-
tion of
established institution which stands well in the estimation of the management

proposed.

art-loving public and which has done its share in the promotion of
education. I feel justified in recommending that its Board of Man-
agement be so reorganized as to be of a more representative char-
acter, and that the school itself be assigned a definite place in the
provincial system. Such a reconstruction would probably weld
together all the art interests of the city, and secure more liberal
support from both the Legislature of the Province and the City of
Toronto.

If we are to make progress in art we must have in our schools f0£f£e^n°tf
competent teachers of art. Outside of the elementary courses ofteachers-
the Normal Schools and the Faculties of Education no provision
exists for training them at present, and very few, indeed, are able
to pass the departmental examination for a specialist's certificate.
Properly maintained, this art school would supply such teachers
and at the same time promote directly the interests of both the fine
arts and the industries.

(2) OTHER PROVISIONS FOR ART

Although the Department of Education has not so far succeeded voluntary

, . i r 1 1 i- »associations.

in doing much for the advancement of art, a number of voluntary
associations have been formed for its promotion. The chief of these
are the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts, the Art Museum Associa-
tion of Ontario, and the Ontario Society of Artists. Others in Tor-
onto are the Canadian Art Club, an offshoot from the last named;
the Toronto Society of Applied Arts; the Graphic Arts Club, con-
sisting of illustrators of various kinds ; and the Toronto Association
of Architects. All the foregoing institutions hold exhibitions, but the
Central Ontario School of Art and Design is the only teaching body.
On account of the far-reaching nature of their constitutions, two
others deserve special notice: The Royal Canadian Academy of
Arts, established by the Dominion Government at the instance of the

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

The necessi-
ties of the
situation.

School

curricula,

adequate.

Other condi-"

tions

unfavorable.

Marquis of Lome when he was Governor-General, holds exhibi-
tions in the large cities of the Dominion alternately, and has begun
a Canadian national gallery at Ottawa. From the Dominion Gov-
ernment it receives a grant of $2,000 a year, which it may spend on
pictures or in assisting provincial organizations. Some details of
its constitution I will give later in connection with the subject of
Dominion contributions for educational purposes. The purpose of
the Art Museum Association of Toronto, to which I have already
referred, is the cultivation and advancement of the fine and applied
arts by means of the establishment and maintenance of a building
for the purpose of such arts, the holding of exhibitions therein for
art purposes, the acquiring of works of art for a permanent gallery
or museum, and the education and training of those desirous of
applying themselves to art studies.

It is evident from th.e foregoing statement that we have already
much of the machinery needed for the proper advancement of Art.
What is still needed is its reorganization and extension, and, above
all, its proper financial support.

III. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
INTRODUCTORY

Next to the professions, "agriculture is best provided for in
Ontario; but although the provision for primary and secondary
education in the subject is in some respects adequate, in others —
and they are the most important ones — it is quite inadequate. In
Forms I. to IV. of the Public School Course Nature Study connected
with life on the farm is obligatory, and leads up to the Agriculture
of Form V., which, for obvious reasons, is optional, just as
the obligatory constructive work of Forms I. to III. leads up
to the optional manual training of Forms IV. and V. The High
School regulations provide for a two years' course in agriculture.

The programmes are adequate, but other conditions are not. In
particular the attendance at the rural schools is as irregular as that
at the urban schools, and as many drop out of Forms III. and IV.
The High School entrance examination dominates the rural school
at least as much as it does the urban school, and the other influences
that affect those who intend to enter a trade affect equally those who
intend to become farmers, with this exception, that even from an
early age the farmer's son readily finds employment of a kind
that leads directly to his future occupation; the future mechanic
does not. Moreover, and this is probably the worst defect, the supply
of competent and enthusiastic teachers and other necessary officers
is quite inadequate.

ONTARIO 313

I. IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Let me now examine the situation in the Primary Schools. Each JniJraimng

Normal School has been furnished with a school garden, and theTeachers'
staffs give the subject as much attention as is practicable; but,
owing to the shortness of the session and the pressure of the
other subjects, as well as the limitations of the seasons during
which each session is held, a complete elementary course cannot be
provided. In the yet distant future we may have a two years' ses-
sion of the Normal Schools. Until then the beginning made at the
Normal School must be supplemented from the other opportunities
offered by the Departments of Education and Agriculture. For the
further instruction of the teachers-iii-training a summer school of
four weeks' duration was established in 1908 by the Department of
Education at the Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph. Here, also,
a special three months' course, from Easter to July, is provided by
the same Department in agriculture and horticulture for those who
are able to pass the Normal School examination at Easter. So far
131 certificates of competency have been issued in this special
course.

As an essential part of the course in nature study and agricul-
ture and horticulture the Department of Education encourages the school
establishment of school gardens in villages and rural schools by an
initial grant of $50 and a special yearly grant of $30 to each school
board that maintains one, and of $30 to each duly qualified teacher
who takes up the courses. Not many school gardens, it is true, have
as yet been established; but, from information I have received in
reply to a circular of enquiry, there is reason to hope that, under
proper stimulation, the number will rapidly increase. The special
obstacles to their satisfactory maintenance appear to be the frequent tenance
change of teachers, the pressure of the examination subjects, the
interference of the summer vacation, and the lack of teachers — of
male teachers in particular — of confidence in the value of school gar-
dens, and of enthusiasm and definite guidance. In many localities
the first-named obstacle will probably never disappear ; but, in time,
it will become less formidable, and, for other reasons also, the im-
portance of the High School entrance examination must be reduced.
The lack of male teachers should not, however, be an obstacle. In
the United States the woodwork of the elementary manual training
course is often taken, and successfully taken, by female teachers.
There is nothing in the operations involved in the agricultural course
which is beyond the capabilities of ours, especially when aided by
the boys of the school. This, indeed, our teachers have already dem-
onstrated. Some years ago many farmers had little confidence in the
Ontario Agricultural College; at present they are unanimously in

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

care during
mmmer.

its favour. As soon as the supply of competent teachers meets the
demand, and the value of elementary instruction in practical agri-
culture and horticulture, even when given by a woman, is generally
understood, it is altogether likely that we shall have a similar
change of opinion. The interference of the summer vacation is
certainly an obstacle, and my correspondents most frequently point
^ out • but Mr. Cowley, now Inspector of Continuation Schools,
who was at one time Inspector of Carleton County, and under
whom the school garden system in connection with the scheme of
Sir William Macdonald, of Montreal, was very successful, has
given me the following statement on the subject :

Example of

Carleton

County.

When the Macdonald School gardens were being introduced in Carleton
County, the travelling instructor, Mr. J. W. Gibson, usually sper an hour a week
during vacation at each school garden. Each pupil who had charge of a plot
was expected to meet him, or, in the event of absence, was held responsible for
arranging with some other pupil to tidy up his plot. This plan worked fairly
well. In some cases, also, the janitor or some other suitable person was paid a
small sum for looking after the plots and walks in a general way. In this case
the man in charge gave out the necessary tools from the garden shed to the
volunteers among the pupils who attended on a specified day each week to assist
in keeping the garden in condition. Mr. Gibson's experience leads him to prefer
this as the best all-round arrangement for meeting the summer vacation diffi-
culty. As a rule, the sum of ten dollars will be sufficient to remunerate the man
who thus takes charge of the garden of the average rural school. This amount
may easily be raised by the sale of produce grown for the purpose on a special
plot in the garden. At present one of the Carleton gardens has about two thou-
sand young trees in its forestry plot. From this plot a considerable number of
the' larger trees have already been sold to residents of the district, and there will
apparently be plenty of demand for all the trees that can be grown in the
garden.

In connection with the summer vacation problem, it should be noted that,
after the garden has been properly cleansed of weeds and weed-seeds,
there will be much less need for weeding after June 3Oth. In some rural
districts, too, it would apparently, for other reasons as well, be advantageous
to shorten the summer vacation and lengthen the winter one.

On the whole, the care of the school garden during the summer presents

no difficulty that cannot be effectively met by a level-headed, capable agricul-

Guidance and tural instructor, in co-operation with interested teachers who have taken the

aV^aylfneTes- prescribed preparatory course. It seems to me that it will be of great ulti-

sary. mate consequence to put the county agricultural instructor in charge of a

headquarters school garden. During the summer vacation he could visit the

gardens at short intervals until they become too numerous. When that stage

is reached the public opinion of each section will look after its garden.

But in educational matters prejudice and apathy die hard;
expert guidance and continued stimulation are always necessary.
Some of the county inspectors and the county representatives of the
Department of Agriculture are now attempting to perform this
important duty; but the time of the latter is in most cases already
taxed, and few of the inspectors possess the necessary knowledge.
For the latter, as soon as the reorganization of this branch of the

ONTARIO 315

service is completed, attendance at a summer school at the Ontario
Agricultural College should be prescribed; and, to begin with, one Inspector8>
special departmental officer should be placed in charge of the county
work in co-operation with the inspectors and the representatives.
The duty of stimulating and directing school garden operations is A Director of
a most important one. If enthusiastically performed, not only would Agricultural
it make real the instruction in agriculture in the Public Schools, but
it would bear fruit in a larger attendance in the agricultural depart-
ments of the High Schools. One thing is certain, if agricultural
education is to become efficient the work of reform must be carried
on chiefly in the Public Schools. In the case of the industries I have
pointed out the necessity for courses in manual training in Forms
I.-IV. as a basis for the trades. In the case of agriculture it is
equally important that in Forms I. to IV. of the rural public
schools nature study and the associated school garden should
receive attention.

2. IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The programme of the High and Continuation Schools includes j^cOTdar *°r
courses in agriculture and horticulture. Since 1907 each year hasc°urse8-
seen the appointment of three or four graduates of the Ontario
Agricultural College to take charge of these courses, and to act also
as county representatives of the Department of Agriculture. At
present such provision has been made in connection with the Con-
tinuation School at Carp, the High Schools at Essex, Norwood,
Petrolea, Port Hope, Simcoe, and Stirling; and the Collegiate Insti-
tutes at Collingwood, Gait, Lindsay, Morrisburg, Perth, Picton,
and Whitby; and there can be little doubt that in due course the
other counties of the Province will be similarly officered.

As to the attendance in the Secondary Schools : So far the Attendance

• poor.

courses have been taken by few ; in some localities, indeed, by none. Causes-
From the evidence submitted in my correspondence it would appear
that in most cases the farmer who now sends his son or his daughter
to the school to prepare for a teacher's certificate or for matricu-
lation, is sending as many of his family as he can spare.
Moreover, he must be thoroughly convinced of the value of the
agricultural course before he will substitute one of them for the
teachers' course, which produces ready returns, or for the univer-
sity course, which gratifies his ambition. The agricultural depart-
ment has this disadvantage also. The farmer's son who secures ad-
mission to the university or the normal school may then return to
the farm, or he may enter the Agricultural College at Guelph. If he
takes the High School agricultural course it will admit him only to

the second year of the course at the College — an inducement which

21 E.I.P. • •

316 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

three years' trial has shown to have no practical value. Besides, the
t?oCnnece8sary.°ther examinations are the object of the teacher's ambition; the
agricultural examination is not. The conclusion of the matter
appears to be this : For the present the two years' courses now pre-
scribed are too ambitious for most of the schools, and it would be
better to develop either individually or in a series the short courses
which have already been carried on successfully in nearly all. More-
over, as I have proposed in the case of the trade industrial classes,
it will no doubt be found necessary for a time to admit to the ishort
courses pupils who have not passed the High School entrance exam-
ination, but who, in the opinion of the teacher of agriculture and of
the principal of the Public School or Separate School, are able to
take up the work. It appears to be clear, also, that the absence or
the smallness of the High School classes cannot be justly laid at the
door of the agricultural teacher. With few exceptions, the princi-
pals of the High Schools report favourably of his attitude on this
question; and it is reasonable to suppose that, under suitable con-
ditions, he would be as successful in this branch of his duties as he
has undoubtedly been in the others. True, these men have had no
pedagogical training ; but, if we insisted on such training at present,
we should not be able to secure teachers with the necessary expert
qualifications. Besides, the intensely practical nature of the greater
part of the courses makes this "defect less important. The present
Present organ- combination of two functions in one officer is, however, still in the

ization only . .

temporary. initial stage. In some cases, the representative of the Agri-
cultural Department does not realize that, as matters now stand,
he is responsible to the School Board also. After a few years,
it will no doubt be found desirable to separate the functions, and to
hand over the teaching function to graduates who have taken, at
the University, a two years' course in science, and, at the Ontario
Agricultural College, a two years' course in agriculture; and who
have, besides, the professional training we now impose upon all
our other teachers. In the meantime, however, the present officers
can do much to prepare the way for an efficient system of primary
and secondary education in agriculture. In the meantime also the

gra8de.°ndary responsibility of these officers must be clearly defined.

The next step in the development of agricultural education
would be the establishment of well-organized agricultural depart-
ments in the High Schools and of Agricultural Continuation
Schools. At present, with the exception of the Guelph Consolidated
School, where classes are maintained in agriculture and domestic

Evening science the Continuation Schools are simply High Schools in minia-

s*lckcuc*o •

ture, and, like the High Schools, they aim chiefly at the preparation

classes.

ONTARIO 317

of candidates for the departmental and university examinations. As
my report hais shown, England, France, Switzerland, and Germany
provide continuation agricultural classes, held chiefly in the even-
ing. These, however, are the products of old and populous coun-
tries. Their forerunner in Ontario will be the Consolidated School ; £u

' High Schools.

but this, unfortunately, is now no nearer realization than it was
when first talked of over ten years ago. The last step in the develop-
ment of secondary agricultural education will be the establishment
of separate high schools, somewhat of the character of the Wis-
consin County Schools of Agriculture, of which there are now ten. Wisconsin

, • « ,1 ' T> • • i T i i • • State Law.

By correspondence with the Principal 1 have obtained particulars in
regard to the school at Menominee, in that State.

The Dunn County School of Agriculture and Domestic Science,
Menominee, Wis.

The Wisconsin State law provides that any county may, through {^^nd"
its county board, establish a county agricultural school. A site maintenance,
for all the necessary buildings must be provided, together with a
specified amount of land, which, in the opinion of the Principal,
should not be less than 160 acres. The State provides two-thirds
of the money necessary for maintenance, provided, however, that
it is not obliged to pay more than $4,000 in any year to any school.
It is expected, however, that at the next meeting of the Legislature
this amount will be raised to $6,000. These schools are really high
schools.

As to the present accommodations of the Menominee School : £on° a\S°da"
One large brick building has been set aside for general agricultural e(*u1Pment-
work, as well as the shops where instruction is given in blacksmith-
ing, woodworking, and machinery. The commercial creamery and
the chemical and natural science laboratories are also in separate
buildings. At present the stock consists of twelve milch cows.
There are also a silo and the other equipment necessary for the
courses. The students take care of the cattle, under the supervision
of a competent instructor. The poultry department accommodates
one hundred fowl. The work of the institution is conducted not
from an experimental standpoint, but rather for demonstration.

Pupils are admitted when 16, directly from the rural schools ; Admission

J tests.

but, by special arrangement, any student may be admitted, even
though he may not have completed the rural school course. There Fees-
are no fees except a small charge for the classes in chemistry, gaso-
line engines, and farm machinery. Text books are provided by the
school, and pupils pay 25 cents a month for their use. Many pupils,
mostly young men, have found it possible to pay their way while
attending the school by various kinds of manual labour. The

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

course of study is a two years' one, some subjects being taken by
the men and women together and others separately.
Departments. There are five departments, with their subjects as follows :

1. Field Agriculture and Natural Science : Farm management: Care of
crops, systems of rotation, introduction of better seeds and better methods, the
economic aspects of farm life. Elementary principles in applied chemistry, bot-
any, entomology, etc.

2. Animal Husbandry: Dairy husbandry, foods and feeding, stock judging,
types of farm animals, veterinary farm practice, and -poultry.

3. Domestic, Science : Household chemistry, food study, cooking, household
physics, household bacteriology, food adulteration, household management,
home nursing, sewing, millinery, house decoration, art needle work, textiles,
and laundry.

4. Agricultural Engineering : The essentials underlying constructive and re-
pair work and working principles of construction of machinery for farm power
and field work, woodworking, forging, drawing, concrete construction, gasoline
engines, field machinery, spraying, applied mathematics.

5. Academic : Civics, history, physiology, English, book-keeping, theme-
writing, reading, and elementary mathematics.

3. THE COUNTY REPRESENTATIVES OF THE DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE

succerssFuint ^ut' Chough as teachers of agriculture in our High and Con-

tinuation Schools, success has so far not followed the footsteps of
the County Representatives of the Department of Agriculture, there
can be no doubt whatever that, in the latter capacity, they have been
eminently successful. The regulations direct that they shall bring
the Department of Agriculture " into close touch with the farming
community, and make it more directly beneficial to them." This
the county representatives have undoubtedly done.

During the past year I have received reports from the Secondary
School principals of the work done both at their .schools and
throughout the counties. I cannot exemplify the character of the
latter better than by citing the report for 1909-1910 of the repre-
sentative for the County of Waterloo, whose zeal and competency
the Principal of the Gait Institute commends in high terms.
I have pleasure in adding that what the Waterloo representative
has done most of the others have also done :

Farmers'

Clubs.

We have about tw,elve farmers' clubs in operation in the county, meeting
during the winter once or twice a month. These meetings are of an educa-
tional nature, and are addressed by the members themselves, with an occasional
outside speaker on the programme. The clubs afford opportunities for public
speaking, for acquiring the benefit of the experience of other farmers in the
community. They act also as social centres for the district, neighbours become
better acquainted, and in many ways these clubs are proving very beneficial.
Different schemes have been initiated in various clubs. One has been instru-
mental in getting a rural telephone system among the farmers and in starting
a successful continuation class in the village school. Another has revived the
plowing match and instituted an annual neighbourhood banquet. Others have

ONTARIO 319

various co-operative schemes. Each club is working out plans for the better-
ment of its members. Of course, I attend as many meetings as possible, but as
they are all held in the evenings, and are in different parts of the county, at
times it means considerable travelling and driving at late hours, which makes
it impossible for me to attend all. However, each club secretary sends me a
full report of each meeting, together with copies of some of the papers read
and a synopsis of the discussions. Consequently, I keep in close touch with all
the clubs over the county. We have used some of these reports and papers
for full page accounts of the various meetings in our local weekly papers,
copies of which were sent to each member in all the clubs. We are holding a
conference of the officers of these clubs in the near future, in order that they
may be mutually helpful. Preparation is also being made for the organization
of more clubs.

The short courses have been of two or three days' duration, and for the Short courses,
purpose of a practical study of live stock and seeds. I have been favoured with
the services of the professors of the Ontario Agricultural College for this work.
These courses have been held at Ayr, Gait, and Elmira. The average attend-
ance at each has been between 300 and 400 farmers. We have used the best
stock obtainable, and have had as teachers the highest authorities ; so that these
courses are of immense value in advancing agricultural education at home. And
just here is an excellent sample of the value of the farmers' clubs. In the
necessary preparation work for these courses, such as obtaining stock, build-
ings, advertising, etc., the organized clubs have been the main feature, and
have, in a large measure, insured success.

Practical demonstrations in caring for orchards have been held. Parts of Care of
orchards in various sections of the county have been sprayed and results noted orchards,
by the owners. At some of these sprayings the men of the neighbourhood were
invited to be present, and explanations were given as to the methods and
reasons for the different sprayings. The subject of farm weeds was also dis-
cussed, with the actual weeds of the district from the fields for illustration pur-
poses.

We have had about 30 experiments on farms in different parts of the county Experimental
in order to determine the value of the fertilizers for certain purposes. These
experiments consisted of applying the different fertilizers in various combina-
tions and with various crops, both on muck soils and on typical fields of the
farm. The material has been prepared for the experimenter and directions
given, so that we have had very little difficulty in getting good results from the
men who have co-operated with us. Of course, these experimental plots were
visited some time during the season.

During the last two years we have had three of the rural schools near Gait
unite in a competition in growing farm crops and in making nature collections.
This year we have had six of the rural schools near Ayr doing the same work.
In the three schools near Gait a choice of a larger number of crops was gjven,
and each pupil was allowed to grow two. The results were exhibited at what
we called a Rural School Fall Fair. In connection with this work T believe some
of the best educational activities for young boys and girls on the farm have re-
sulted, but they must be seen to be fully appreciated. As far as possible, the
pupils' plots at their homes were visited during the summer.

In driving about the county I sometimes take the opportunity of visiting
the rural schools and addressing the pupils. I have also helped some of the
teachers in connection with their rural school gardens and nature study.

Two years ago we took about 1,000 pupils on an excursion to the Ontario
Agricultural College. We are seeing results of the excursion to-day.

Each year I have been on the programme of all the Farmers' Institutes
meetings in both the north and the south ridings. During the winter practically
one month has been spent at these meetings. We have induced many pupils
each year to visit the Agricultural College at the time of the annual Institute
excursion.

320

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Farmers'
Institute1

Fall Fairs.

Other work.

Local co-
operation.

Short
Coursi s
at Higli
Schools.

Options at
Normal School
entrance
examinations.

Necessity for
courses at
Primary and
Secondary
Schools.

The Agricultural Society has given me large latitude in connection with
certain features of the fall fair, and particularly in the pupils' department, which
is now exceptionally educative not only for the boys and girls exhibiting, but
for the public as well. Under the head of Nature Study, prizes are offered both
Public and High School pupils for collections of wild flowers, weeds, grasses,
grains, and clover, injurious insects, beneficial insects, photographs of natural
objects and scenery, an essay on farm weeds. Prizes are offered rural pupils for
Swede turnips feeding sugar beets, pumpkins, etc. Prizes are also offered for the
products of their work in sewing, cooking, ironing, and manual training.

In connection with the fall fairs we have also had exhibits of our own, such
as would be helpful for farmers seeking information. We have also held suc-
cessful stock judging competitions for boys in connection with the fair. Our
experimental plots are in the fair grounds. I have also had the opportunity of
delivering addresses at the seed fairs of the Agricultural Society.

Besides the above there is much detail work of a more general nature, such
as preparation of addresses for meetings, articles for the press, assisting the
different farmers' clubs in their various activities, aiding the women's institutes,
horticultural societies, poultry associations, etc. The office is used as the board
room for these societies. I have addressed the Teachers' County Convention,
acted as judge in the Standing Field Crops Competition, and have endeavoured
to be of assistance to all organizations connected with the rural communities.
Mention should also be made of the individual assistance given to numerous
farmers, both in the office and in going through the country.

In giving you a list of my activities at any time it is not possible to state
the preparations of plans for the future. Much of our work is simply a part
of a larger plan that can be reported on only when completed.

All of the above together with other things that I may have omitted to
mention is, as you are aware, entirely outside of my connection with the Col-
legiate Institute.

The foregoing is but the briefest statement of some of the things we have
been engaged in. It is enough to show, perhaps, that, as local representatives,
there are many fields of work open to us. I should add that, since being placed
in Waterloo County, I have had the hearty and helpful co-operation of all
with whom I have been associated, without which, indeed, results would not
have been so promising.

The Principal of the Collegiate Institute informs me that a
short course of about six weeks will be given farmers' sons during
the coming winter, using in the work the agricultural class-room
and apparatus. Some of the pupils in the Collegiate Institute are
now taking agriculture in addition to their other courses, and last
yeaf a number took the agricultural course alone. Here I may point
out that it is well worth considering whether, if the bonus system
is retained, it would not be in the interests of education to recog-
nize also as bonus subjects, at the Normal School entrance examina-
tions, suitable courses in agriculture, household science, manual
training, and art, as well as Latin. The proposal has much to com-
mend it.

What these officers are doing is, of course, exceedingly valuable
as industrial training; but the organization of our educational sys-
tem will not be adequate until we have established successful classes
in agriculture and horticulture in our Public, High, and Continua-
tion Schools, with, eventually, separate Agricultural High Schools.

1 1

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J a

S 5

— 3

Of 03

o 5

ONTARIO 321

What Wisconsin has done surely Ontario can also do. Here I may direction?ntal
add that the Director I propose in connection with the school gar-
dens and elementary instruction in agriculture should also act as
Director of the agricultural classes in the High Schools until the
work reaches a more advanced stage. In this connection I desire to
express most emphatically the opinion that, if we miss the present
opportunity of taking a further step in the development of an effici-
ent system of agricultural education, it will be exceedingly diffi-
cult to rectify our blunder in the near future.

4. THE ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, GUELPH.

At the head of the agricultural branch of our industrial system
stands the Ontario Agricultural College, at Guelph. As I have
already reported, I had no time to visit any of the other agricultural
schools during my tour. I found, however, that, in Europe and the
United States, provision is generally made for all stages and all de-
partments of agricultural education. I found, also, that the Ontario
Agricultural College is widely known, and everywhere regarded as
a most effective institution.

The College i,s affiliated with the University of Toronto. Its regu-
lar four years' courses lead to the university degree of B.S.A. They
are technical in the limited sense of the term, and prepare men for Technical

. *. courses for

professorships or lectureships in colleges and directing positions in degrees.

connection with agriculture as well as for actual farming itself.

The graduates, however, are but a small proportion each year of the

student body. The first two years lead also directly to the farm ;

that is, more than half of the attendance take a diploma, from 50 Industriai

per cent, to 70 per cent, returning to the farm and the rest going on d?p\r0Smas?r

for the degree.

In winter short courses of from two to four weeks' duration
are held at the College for mature farmers in stock judging, seed
judging, poultry culture, fruit growing, and butter and cheese courses.8 c
making. The aggregate attendance at these courses reaches more
than 500 a year. The agricultural teachers in the High Schools also
conduct two and three day short courses in stock and seed judging
at different points in their counties at which College professors are
present and assist in the practical demonstrations. Manifestly the
two years' courses and the short course are industrial, although not
actually so denominated.

Besides giving valuable assistance in the reforestration of the
Province and supplying the farmers with the products of the bac-
teriological laboratory, the College discharges the following func-

322

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Schools'
division

industrial"8 °f tions, which are, of course, most useful forms of industrial train-
Training, ing:

a^Experi^1 ^n &s Ontario Agricultural and Experimental Union there are
Farmal Union; 5>5oo farmers, conducting experiments on their own farms and re-
porting to the College once a year. Through this organization the
best varieties of field crops have been introduced into the different
communities with surprising results. In the schools' division of
the Union correspondence is carried on with teachers and trustees
in regard to material supplied through the College for school gar-
dening and the improvement of school grounds and buildings, such
as vines, shrubs, flower and vegetable seeds, grains, forest-tree
seedlingis. It advises in regard to agricultural text-books, and pro-
vides the College paper for the school library and a picture of the
College for framing as a wall decoration. It also conducts corre-
spondence in regard to methods of instruction, plans for gardening,
laying out school grounds, and in general the teaching of elemen-
tary agriculture and horticulture in the schools. In 1910 more
than 400 Public School teachers were engaged in this work. The
College also issues monthly the "Schools' and Teachers' Bulletin,"
which is " devoted to those interests of the Ontario Agricultural
College which pertain particularly to the training of teachers, for
giving instruction in the schools of the province along vocational
lines, home economics, industrial arts, and elementary agriculture
and horticulture."

Each year College professors attend public meetings in the rural
districts, deliver addresses at farmers' institutes, and give practical
demonstrations on improved methods of farming. From these pro-
fessors the farmers learn what has been done on the College farm.
The result is that in the month of June, each year, between 30,000
and 40,000 farmers visit the College and go over the farm, under
the guidance of the staff, noting the experiments, the crops, the
breeds of animals, methods of cultivation, etc.

Undergraduates of the College are engaged each summer to
visit individual farmers and survey their farms for tile drainage.
During the summer of 1910 ten such men have been employed,
going constantly from farm to farm with surveyors' instruments.
The result is that nearly 100,000 acres have been drained in this
way in the past four years.

The College sends out travelling dairies and holds butter-mak-
ing demonstrations in the township halls, school-houses, on the
four corners, and wherever it is practicable to get farmers and farm-
ers' wives to meet. As a result, in this Province good butter is now
the rule and poor butter the exception.

farmers.

the

by under-
graduates.

Trarelling

dairies.

ONTARIO 323

By means of the staff of the department of Pomology, pruning, fp™^!' etc.
spraying, and thinning demonstrations are held throughout the
Pnovince.

All the work described above has proved of such interest to the A corrcspon-

f - , , ,,,. dence-Study

farmers that it is necessary to keep a large staff of stenographers, school,
and the professors are occupied a good deal of their time, when not
engaged in teaching and experimental work, in conducting "a Cor-
respondence-Study School" with the farmers all over the coun-
try in regard to farm crops, farm management, and better methods.
Moreover, each department publishes general and special bulletins
on its own particular work. This, with the travelling professors,
is the counterpart of the Correspondence-Study School I propose as
one of the functions of the Ontario Industrial and Technical College.
In addition to the foregoing work the College conducts in con-
nection with the Department of Education, as I have already
pointed out, summer classes for teachers in nature study, elemen-
tary agriculture and horticulture, art, constructive work, wood-
work, metal work, mechanical drawing1, and household science..
From Easter until the end of June it also maintains more advanced
courses for teachers in elementary agriculture and horticulture and
the elementary industrial arts.

5. OTHER PROVISIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

Besides the Ontario Agricultural College the Province main- ^acuity of
tains a Faculty of Forestry in the University of Toronto, with a
staff of one professor, two lecturers, and one instructor, at an
annual cost of nearly $10,000; and, as I have already mentioned,
the Dominion Government maintains a system of Experimental Experimental
Farms. The latter does no instructional work, but from time to time
communicates the results of the experiments to the farmers and once
a year makes a report to Parliament. All this experimental work,
but on a smaller scale, the Ontario Agricultural College does for
Ontario, in addition to the instructional and other activities which
I have described above.

IV. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
INTRODUCTORY

About twenty-five years ago many business men — some, indeed, oV
even now — both in Ontario and elsewhere, took the ground that a
boy cannot be educated for business, that it can be learned only in Education,
the office or the warehouse. This opinion is based on the erroneous
assumption that the advocates of commercial education claim that,
immediately after his preparation, the student will be at once as
useful to his employer as if he had spent the time in a business office.

324

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

England.

Germany.

Switzerland.

The situation in this case is, however, the same as that in the indus-
tries. A trade school does not produce an efficient mechanic; it
merely gives him the training which enables him to become an
efficient one after proper experience; So too, in the case of the
Commercial student.

1. PROVISION— ENGLAND AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES

In England, at present, the organization of commercial educa-
tion is exciting great interest ; but, owing to the discentralization of
the system of education, the courses are marked by great variety.
In England also, as in the United States and Ontario, there arc
rrany so-called Business Colleges conducted for private profit, and
supported because their organization is more elastic than that of the
public schools, and from its conditions offers a shorter road to wage-
earning employment. Some of these schools give a good training,
but most of them are of a low grade. Besides commercial education
of the primary and secondary standard, the nature of which in some
centres I have already indicated in my report, England has provided
in universities and university colleges courses in economics and
commercial subjects. Of these, the chief are the University of Cam-
bridge; the London School of Economics and Political Science,
and University and King's Colleges (University of London) ; the
Universities of Birmingham and Liverpool; and University Col-
lege, Reading.

As my report has also shown, commercial education is amply
provided for in the other countries I visited. In Germany, many
of the schools of commerce exist as departments of technical schools
and colleges. They exist also as separate institutions, and several
of the higher ones are attached to universities. The first com-
mercial high school was founded by the Leipsig Chamber of Com-
merce in co-operation with the University of Leipsig in 1898.
Since then many schools modelled on it, have been established in
various parts of the Empire. Here, I may note, that these schools
in particular are equipped for practical teaching. They have lib-
raries, stereopticons, and museums in connection with the geography
and the natural products course, as well as laboratories for physics
and chemistry, where the students are trained in the chemical, me-
chanical, and microscopic examination of merchandise, for the detec-
tion of fraud and adulteration. The students are also taken to
works, factories, business offices, and other places from which
they are likely to derive advantage.

In Switzerland, there are commercial schools of all grades. The
system provides instruction in the elementary and secondary schools
and in the highest institutions, from which, under travelling scholar-

ONTARIO 325

ships, the best of the students are sent abroad for one or two years
to complete their studies.

The French merchants set great store by commercial education. France-
With them, the question of distribution is not less important than
that of production. As my report shows, the State Chamber of
Commerce and other commercial bodies have established Schools of
Commerce in the business centres, the expense of which is borne
by the State and the municipality, by the Chamber of Commerce, by
merchants, and by school fees. Here, also, the school museum
shows, by means of samples and specimens, all kinds of productions
in their natural or raw state, as well as the phases through which
they pass from the raw to the manufactured condition. These
museums are regarded as essential. They are, however, usually
presented by merchants or manufacturers, and very seldom is a
school obliged to make purchases for them.

Besides the provision for elementary commercial education in united
the United States, there are also special Commercial High Schols
in the larger cities with excellent staffs, accommodations, and equip-
ment. The one at Boston, I have already described. Many of the
universities have also provided graduating departments. Of these,
the chief are the Graduates' School of Business Administration at
Harvard and at Dartmouth College, the College of Commerce and
Business Administration at Chicago, the Wharton School of Fin-
ance and Commerce at Pennsylvania, the School of Commerce at
Wisconsin, the College of Commerce at the University of Califor-
nia, and the University of New York. In the Universities of Michi-
gan, Illinois, and Vermont, there are no separate commercial de-
partments, but, as in the University of Toronto, the work constitutes
a division of the Arts Department and the degree is that of B.A.
In the others, the commercial departments are separate, with special
certificates and degrees. The courses at the University of New
York are especially practical.

2. PROVISION IN ONTARIO
INTRODUCTORY

So much for the situation in other countries. Before discussing Dominion

trade returns.

the provision for commercial education m Ontario, it is important
to ascertain at least in a general way the extent of the trade rela-
tions. For Ontario alone, the available statistics do not enable me
to give a separate report. The following statement taken from the
Dominion Trade Returns for 1909 to 1910, will give an idea of the
situation, in view of the large part Ontario plays in the importation
of foreign products and the distribution of her own.

The following are the names of the different countries from
which Canada imported goods for home consumption or to which
she exported goods of home production :

326

Trade
relations.

Value of
imports
and exports.

British Empire : United Kingdom, Bermuda, British Africa, British Aus-
tralasia, Australia New Zealand, British East Indies, British Guiana, British
West Indies, Fiji, Hong Kong, Newfoundland.

Foreign Countries : Arabia, Argentine Republic, Austro-Hungary, Belgium,
Brazil, Central American States, Chili, China, Cuba, Denmark, Danish West
Indies, Dutch East Indies, Duch West Indies, Ecuador, Egypt, France, French
Africa, French West Indies, Germany, Greece, Hawaii, Hayti, Holland, Italy,
Japan, Mexico, Norway and Sweden, Panama, Persia, Peru, Philippines, Porto
Rico, Portugal, Russia, St. Pierre, Spain, Spanish Africa, Switzerland, Turkey,
United States, Jnited States of Columbia, Uruguay, Venezuela.

The total value of the imports for Home consumption from the
above, amounted to $298,205,957.00, and of the exports to $242,-
603,584.00. The classes of exports are set forth under the follow-
ing heads:

The Mines $ 37,257,699 oo

The Fisheries 13,319,664 oo

The Forest 39,667,387 oo

Animals and their products 51,349,646 oo

Agricultural products 71,997,207 oo

Manufactures 28,957,050 oo

Miscellaneous 54,931 oo

$242,603,584 oo

Attitude of

educationists

towards

commercial

education.

Another matter: About twenty-five years ago, so deeply em-
bedded in the mind of our educationists was the cultural theory of
education, that little provision was then made even for book-keeping,
not to ispeak of the other subjects of a commercial course. During
the last fifteen years, however, the importance of the commercial
department has grown with the efficiency of the schools, the
increase of business, and the adoption of better methods of trans-
acting it The cheapness of the equipment and the comparative
ease with which students of the course can qualify themselves for
wage-earning positions have conduced to the same end. Moreover,
as the subjects of a commercial course are practical, many parents
believe that if their children take them at school they will be in a
better position to earn a livelihood.

(1) SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

The following table shows the attendance in the different classes
of schools. It must be remembered, however, that the large number
taking book-keeping alone, is due chiefly to the fact that the subject
is obligatory for teachers' academic certificates, and is by many re-
garded as an essential part of a general education :

ONTARIO 327

In Book-keep- In a Commer-

ing but not cial Course,

a Commercial more or less

Course. complete.

Public Schools (number of pupils in 4th and 5th
Forms, exclusive of Continuation Schools :
88664) 4904 6268

R. C. Separate Schools (Number of pupils in 4th
and 5th Forms, exclusive of Continuation
Schools : 9177) 33 1445

Continuation Schools (Number of pupils in

Lower School: 3955) 2209 45

High Schools and Collegiate Institutes (number

of pupils in Lower School : 20644) 12370 2864

(2) ORGANIZATION OF COURSES

After a conference in 1901 with representatives of the Mann- Provision for
facturers Association and the Board of Trade, the Senate of the Education
University of Toronto established a diploma in Commerce. The university
provision, however, proved to be ineffective, chiefly because it did
not lead to a degree. As a result, after further consultation with
business men, a new course was established about two years ago as
one of the departments of the Arts Faculty. This course is known
as that of Commerce and Finance and leads to the degree of B.A.
Last session, a considerable number of students took the first year.
Of these, sixteen secured standing, of whom the greater number are
now proceeding to the second year. In addition, a very fair number,
I understand, have entered the first year this session. In this depart-
ment the work of the first and second years is taken at the University
and is the same as the Arts Course, except for Accounting. In the
third and fourth years, the co-operative plan has been adopted. The
student engages in actual business and takes at the University the
special commercial subjects dealing with banking, finance, transpor-
tation, insurance, and trade and industry. This curriculum is, of
course, intended for the highest grade of commercial students, not
for those who fill subordinate positions.

The Hamilton, Toronto, and Ottawa Public Schools have 5th At the
Form Commercial Courses, the Hamilton one being for three years schools,
and the others for two. In the other Public Schools and in the
Separate Schools, however, the book-keeping or commercial subjects
are simply additions to the subjects of the General Course. In
sixteen of the High Schools, book-keeping is taught. Two years'
commercial courses more or less complete and organized in many
cases as separate departments, have been provided in forty-five of
the one hundred and forty-six High Schools and Collegiate In-

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

General
Business
Course.

High schools. stitutes. The Brantford, Chatham, Ottawa, and St. Thomas Col-
legiate Institutes, and the Toronto Technical High School have
three years' courses and separate departments. The other High
Schools provide commercial courses more or less complete. At
present, however, almost the only products of our commercial de-
partments are stenographers, typewriters, and book-keepers. In
most cases, however, the supply probably meets the present demand
in both quantity and quality.

(3) PROPOSED COMMERCIAL COURSES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

In order to put into definite shape the results of my investigation
of the most effective commercial curricula, I submit two courses,
the General Business and the Office Course, which might readily
be carried out in our large cities :

The General Business Course is intended for those about
to enter business life in some of the more responsible positions,
eventually becoming travellers, buyers, managers, etc. This course
should extend over a period of four years :

1. Language: English — Composition, correspondence, and literature;
French and German — Conversation and correspondence..

2. Accounting and Business Practice: Penmanship, bookkeeping and
the principles of accounting; laws of business, business forms and docu-
ments; business practice.

3. Mathematics: Arithmetic and algebra applied to commerce; foreign
tariffs weights, measures, moneys, and exchanges.

4 Study of Materials: Commercial, industrial and statistical geog-
raphy including markets, exporting and importing, trade customs anc
transportation; commercial and industrial history; knowledge of products
and industries.

5. Principles of Commerce: Economics and statistics; bank-ng a

rency.

6. Optional Subjects: Shorthand, typewriting and drawing.

The Office Courses are for those intending to enter business life
as book-keepers, accountants, stenographers, secretaries, etc., and
should extend over a period of three years :

I Accountancy Course: Subjects of the first two years of the General
Business Course; shorthand and typewriting to be compulsory. Special
stress in the third year on mathematics and accounting.

2. Shorthand Course: Subjects of the first two years of the general
ness Course, shorthand and typewriting to be compulsory. Special
the third year on shorthand and typewriting.

- in this connection I direct attention to the organization of the
Boston High School of Commerce. As there, it might be practicable
in ,ome cities here, for school boards to arrange for co-operation,
S durmg the summer at any rate, with ,some of the best business
houses The fictitious business departments of the Business College
have not been found to be of much value for educational purposes.

Office
Course?

Boston

co-operation

ONTARIO 329

Many of the best of these colleges, I am told, have given up this part
of their equipment.

My remarks 'SO far have had in view the requirements of our Evening
ordinary day schools. To most of those who are engaged in business
by day and whose means have not allowed them to utilize, before
entering on business, the opportunities of the day school, the evening
school should be available. The organization of such schools in some
of the chief cities of the old world, as part of their provision for
vocational training, I have already dealt with.

The foregoing and the other similar proposals in this report as-
sume a change -in relation of the schools to the public ; but, if the t
schools are to prepare pupils for the duties of the future, the pro- o£ ilfe-
posals, though novel, cannot be regarded as unreasonable. In many
respect our schools have hitherto been too far removed from the
activities of life.

(4) QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS

As to the qualifications of our teachers : Book-keeping and com-
mercial transactions are a part of the courses for all grades ofpractice-
public school teachers, and our collegiate institutes are required
to employ commercial specialists who have taken an examination
that means practically two years' preparation. To obtain their in-
terim certificates, the latter are not now required to have had ex-
perience in business, although a good many have obtained some such
experience during the summer vacations. In view of the require-
ments in the case of agricultural and industrial education, it ap-
pears reasonable to expect that at least before an interim certificate
becomes a permanent one, the commercial specialist should have had
some such experience. If, also, concurrent practice could be obtain-
ed while they are.preparing for their interim certificates, it would be
greatly to be desired. It does not appear to be logical to place
under teachers who have never had any business experience the
education of those intended for a business career.

At present, the Department of Education makes no provision for Proposed
the training of commercial specialists. Either they study the course preparatory1"
without assistance or they attend one of the business colleges forco
a few months. Manifestly, to complete our system of professional
training, the Department should provide them with a preparatory
course. The University supplies us with specialists in the academic
subjects, including Household Science. As it has already provided
a Department of Commerce, it may be that by a system of options
in the first two years, it could supply us with commercial specialists ;
a diploma being given to those who complete a two years' course
and a degree to those who take a four years' course. Suitable op-

330 EDUCATION FOR UNDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

tions might, of course, be provided, instead of some of the languages
and other academic subjects that do not bear directly upon com-
merce; and, for such students, at any rate, a Department might be
constituted apart from that for B.A., a<s I have already shown, is
now done in some other Universities. As an alternative, an ar-
rangement might be made with the Board of Education of the City
of Toronto, which is about to establish a High School of Commerce.
As now in the case of Art, a summer school, I may add, is feasible
for those who have not the means to take a continuous course.

V. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. SOURCES OF FINANCIAL SUPPORT

cost of jn most respects the cost of commercial education need not

Education

Purlnosesttial ^e great. Suitable equipment and accommodations are within the
reach of most localities and the salaries that are paid in the aca-
demic departments will secure an adequate supply of competent
teachers. But it is different in industrial and agricultural educa-
tion. The equipment and accommodations for both — especially
for the former — are exceptionally costly; exceptionally large salar-
ies must be paid for specially trained teachers, and the materials
for the work-shop and the stock and supplies for the farm will be
a continual source of expense. If, however, Ontario is to become a
great manufacturing as well as a great agricultural Province, there
is no escape from this expenditure.

sources of The sources of financial support available at present are fees,

support.

local rates, and Legislative grants.

Fees. As to fees : Their imposition should, as at present, be a matter

entirely within the control of the school board. The day classes
would naturally be dealt with as are the academic day classes of
the same locality. But much can be said in favour of charging fees
for evening classes, part or all being returnable on condition of
regular attendance and of satisfactory progress. All the evidence
I gathered in Europe favours the imposition of such fees. There
it improves the regularity of attendance and iStimulates the zeal
of the pupils. Under the most favourable conditions, however, the
income from fees would form but a small part of the necessary

income.

Local rates. As to ioca] rates : The aggregate municipal and county tax

for the schools of the Province is already large ; but, as the localities
in which the industrial and agricultural schools are situated will
reap the chief benefit from their establishment, it is only right that
the municipalities concerned should contribute to the cost.
Already, indeed, where schools take up industrial work, they share

ONTARIO 331

in the educational rates of the municipalities, and the High and
Continuation Schools Acts of 1909, provide for a special county
grant of $500 for the support of the agricultural department, from
which, however, the farmer, not the school boy, derives most benefit
at present.

As my report has already shown, the various governments of grf£tB*tlve
Europe assist in the establishment and maintenance of their in-
dustrial, agricultural, and art schools; and, in the United States,
notwithstanding the democratic doctrine of independent local con-
trol, State after State is now following the example of Europe.
That the Piovince of Ontario will also aid to the utmost of its
ability industrial, agricultural, and art education there can be no
room for doubt. Hitherto agriculture has been and, indeed, it still
is the leading occupation of the people. Of late years, however,
the industries have come to the front and it is reasonable to expect
that their interests will hereafter also receive due consideration.

In Great Britain and in many of the countries of the Continent, ^ca/Mann-
the industrial and technical schools, as my report has shown, are Merchants"*1
aided with both money and equipment by the Guilds and similar
societies. In our new country, there are no Guilds ; but the Manu-
facturers' Associations and Boards of Trade, which are their mod-
ern representatives and which have shown special interest in the
question of industrial education, not to speak of individual manu-
facturers and merchants, might well give countenance and similar
aid to the schools in their localities.

At this stage in my investigation, it is desirable to set forth what
the Legislature of the Province has already done to aid the various
branches of training dealt with in my report. The following state-
ment gives for the year 1909-10 the main details of the Legislative
grants for the various branches of technical, industrial, agricultural,
and art education, and for manual training and household science,
not including the cost of Departmental administration; the figures
speak for themselves :

PRACTICAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING.

The University of Toronto, Faculty of Applied

Science and Engineering $151,728 50

Queen's University Mining School, Kingston-. 42,000 oo

$193.728 50

THE TRADES.

Evening Classes 1,799 00

Sault Ste. Marie High School 5,OOO oo

Sudbury High School S,ooo oo

Hamilton Technical and Art School 5,ooo oo

16,799 oo

ART.

Central Ontario School of Art 400 oo

Summer School for Drawing and Art Teachers

at the University of Toronto 617 80

$1,017 80

22 E.I.P.

332 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

AGRICULTURE.

Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph 234,815 67

Ontario Veterinary College, University of

Toronto 31,854 43

Teachers of Agriculture in the High Schools
and Representatives of the Department of

Agriculture 16,800 oo

Grants to Public School Boards ; Agriculture

and Horticulture in Rural Schools 750 oo

Grants to Teachers ; Agriculture and Horticul-
ture in Rural Schools 510 oo

Agricultural and Horticultural Societies 122,77431

Live Stock Branch 31,770 10

Farmers' and Women's Institutes 34,759 25

Dairy Branch 56,642 41

Fruit Branch 39,1 1 r 36

County Representatives 20,972 19

Reports, bulletins, etc 21,44536

Miscellaneous 3*250 oo

Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto.--- 10,755 63

$626,210 71

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIAL ART.

Travelling Expenses and Board of Teachers-

m-training attending at Guelph Classes in

Elementary Agriculture and Horticulture

and Industrial Arts 2,755 49

Services and expenses of Instructors of above

Classes 736 oo

Summer School for Teachers at \he Ontario

Agricultural College, Guelph ............ 1,172 oo

$4,663 49

MANUAL TRAINING.

Public and Separate Schools 12,532 53

High Schools and Collegiate Institutes 7,119 40

DOMESTIC SCIENCE.

Public and Separate Schools $5,258 68

High Schools and Collegiate Institutes 2,383 72

$27,294 33

CUM MARY OF ABOVE BY DEPARTMENTS.

Practical Science and Engineering (Technical) $193,728 50

Trades (Industrial) 16,799 oo

Art (Partly Industrial) 1.017 80

Agriculture (Partly Technical but chiefly Industrial) 626,21071

Elementary Agriculture and Industrial Arts (Pedagogical) -• 4,663 49
Manual Training and Domestic Science (Neither Technical

nor Industrial) 27,294 33

When pointing out above the sources of financial support, I
described them as being "available at present." In dealing with the
question of a Dominion Institute for industrial research, I pointed
out the claims of the Provinces for the establishment of an in-
stitution which would render the same service to the trades as the

ONTARIO 333

Experimental Farms now render to Agriculture, the Department
of Mines to Mining, and the Department of Marine and Fisheries
to the Fisheries. As I will now point out, we have also good
grounds for claiming from the Dominion a contribution to the sup- claims of

........ . . . . the Province

port of both the industrial and the agricultural educational schemes for special
of each of the Provinces. The main grounds are as follows :

i. No other form of education is so intimately bound up intimate

•111 « • « • -r 1 connection

with national development and national prosperity. It has, ac- between

,. . i -I-N Agriculture

ccrdmgly, special claims upon the Department of . Trade and |Ild the.
Commerce. No argument should be needed to demonstrate the thesis an<i Trade'and

. . Commerce

that efficient provincial systems of industrial and agricultural
education will directly advance the interests of Canadian trade and
commerce, and do more than anything else to develop the resources
of the Dominion. So fully, indeed, is this claim recognized in France,
the German States, and Switzerland, that in these countries, with
few exceptions, the technical and industrial schools are under charge
of the Ministers of Trade and Commerce, not of the Ministers of
Education.

2. Generally, also, the European schools are aided by the cen-
tral as well as by the local Governments.

The German Empire has admitted the obligation by giving ^otSer6
grants to shipbuilding and navigation schools on the Baltic. That Germaify.:
she has done so little is due, no doubt, to the magnitude of her
expenditures for Imperial purposes and to the fact that her feder-
ated States have not given up their taxing powers to the same
extent as have the Provinces of the Dominion. In France, grants Fr*}n.c.e

and the

are made by the Republic, and, in the United Kingdom about half
of the total cost of elementary education, including lower and
middle industrial, agricultural, and commercial education, is borne
by the Imperial Parliament, which aids the higher technical insti-
tutions as well. These countries have no provincial legislatures,
but they contribute to the support of the ischools from the national
treasuries.

Switzerland and the United States, however, afford exact Switzerland,
parallels. In Switzerland, although education is wholly within the
control of the Cantons, the Federation and the Cantons both con-
tribute generously to the expense of industrial, agricultural, art, and
commercial education. In the United States, also, notwithstanding |faet2nited
the educational autonomy of each State and the supreme im-
portance of State rights, Congress furnishes, under the Morrill
Acts, already referred to, over 40 per cent, of the revenue of all the
higher schools of technology; and these Acts provide for instruc-
tion "in such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and
the mechanic arts in such manner as the legislatures of the States

334 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

may respectively prescribe in order to provide the liberal and
practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits
of life." I may mention also, as a sign of the times, that a Bill was
introduced at the last session of Congress "to enable it to co-
operate with the States in encouraging agriculture, the trades and
industries, and home courses in the State Normal Schools, and to
appropriate money therefor and to regulate its expenditure." The
Bill contemplates an expenditure of over $10,000,000. The Morrill
Acts provide for higher technological education; this bill, their
logical successor, provides for secondary and primary education of
the same character. It hais not yet passed, but my correspondence
with competent judges gives grounds for the expectation that in
essence it eventually will. Consistency demands that it should,
obligation -2. As I pointed out when discussing the desirability of

admitted by « «. « . ^ • • ^ • -r^ • •

The Dominion establishing a Dominion Institute, the Dominion itself has also
admitted an obligation. It promotes the advancement of agricul-
ture in the Provinces and has already done something for the
advancement of the other industries. In a few cases, not then
referred to, it has even made grants more or less directly for Pro-
vincial education. It has established at Kingston a Military Col-
lege for instruction in engineering, which is, confessedly, avail-
able for general as well as military purposes. It contributes $2,500
a year towards the expense of the Railway School of McGill
University, Montreal ; it has given aid to various Industrial Exhibi-
tions, the Royal Society of Canada, the Royal Canadian Academy
of Art, the Royal Astronomical Society, and the Canadian Mining
Institute. For a number of years, it has provided a series of free
lectures to all candidates wishing to pass examinations for masters'
and mates' certificates, on subjects pertaining to navigation, seaman-
ship, etc. These lectures are held in nearly all the principal ports
where there is an examiner, and in places like Vancouver and Hali-
fax they are well attended. The lectures are supplementary to
the instruction obtained elsewhere. The parliamentary grants to Mc-
Gill University and the Royal Canadian Academy of Art are
especially significant. Not all our railways are interprovincial ;
many of them are chiefly of local value; and no differentiation in
favour of the employees of the former would be practicable. The
Act of incorporation of the Academy provides that the objects of the
corporation shall be "the encouragement of Design and the Indus-
trial Arts and the promotion and support of education leading to
the production of beautiful and excellent work in manufactures;
such objects to be attained by the institution of a national gallery
at the seat of Government, the holding of exhibitions in the principal
cities of the Dominion, and the establishment of Schools of Art and
Design." The Academy has not yet established any School ; but

ONTARIO 335

out of its $2,000 yearly grant from the Dominion Parliament, it
contributes to the support of the Central Ontario School of Art
and Design, in Toronto, and of a similar institution in Montreal.
Here we have a corporation established and maintained by the
Dominion for tfcie praiseworthy purpose of promoting in the
Provinces a branch of education which, it is well known, is funda-
mental in every industrial occupation. The Royal Canadian Acad-
emy is, undoubtedly, of importance to the Dominion as a whole;
but an Art School at Toronto or Montreal is no more Dominion
in its outlook than a trade school would be in either of these cities.
The sums so far granted by the Dominion for Provincial educa-
tional purposes are small, it is true, but the principle is the same as
it would be if they were a hundred times as large.

4. In this connection it is most important to consider that the Limited
subsidies to the Provinces were settled at a time when the questions
at issue had not attained their present importance and when the
revenue of the Dominion and the volume of its trade were compara-
tively small. With limited resources and the necessary demands
of other departments of the public service, it is more than doubtful
if any of the Provinces will alone be able to make adequate provision
for both industrial and agricultural education.

From the foregoing statement, it appears to be clear that the conclusion.
Provinces have a claim upon the Dominion, based on the logic
of the situation, the example of other countries, and its own action
in the cases detailed above.

The revenue of the Dominion for the financial year endins: A Dominion

-. , , . J ° grant justified

March, 1910, was $101,503,710.93 and the expenditure by the
$79,411,747.12, leaving a surplus of $22,091,963.81, and every
indication points to a rising revenue and continued surpluses. Two
or three millions for the purposes under consideration would hardly
be missed, while the advantages to trade and commerce would
far more than justify the appropriation. Subject to the provisions
of an Act, the expenditure should, of course, be at the discretion of
the Provinces. The newer ones would naturally use most of the
grant for agricultural, the older ones for industrial education.

Closely connected, however, with the question of a Dominion Reputed
grant are. two considerations which cannot be overlooked, and which a Dominion
some regard as obstacles to action by the Dominion Parliament :
The Confederation Act gives each Province absolute control Educational

, . . ., , autonomy

over its educational system ; and it is a principle of responsible of the
government that Parliament shall account for its expenditures.

In discussing the question of technical education at its
convention in 1904, the Manufacturers' Association pronounced
in favour of "a general system with one standard curriculum and
tinder one central management," and assumed that "it is the

336 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

function of the Federal Government alone to organize properly
such a system of schools throughout the Dominion." My report
has shown, I believe, that not even in the same Province can there
be one standard system, and that, for the purposes of organization
each locality must be treated as a unit. The Memorial presented
by the Association to the Royal Commission last November
shows, however, that it realizes its mistake; for it now asks the
Commission to report upon a system suitable for each Province.
My report has also shown, I believe, that, as in other countries,
industrial and agricultural education cannot be separated wholly
from the ordinary educational systems. Accordingly, the proposal
of the Association that the Provinces shall accept a system of
technical education controlled by the Dominion is one which I am
elation. sure none of them would entertain. Such a system could not be

operated in terms o'f the Confederation Act. On this subject, you
yourself, Sir, have spoken with no uncertain sound. In the report
of your Department for 1909 you use these words: —

Attitude o The announcement that the Federal Government intends to appoint a

Department ^°ya' Commission of enquiry into the best means of encouraging technical
of Education, training in all the Provinces is a suitable recognition of a national obligation.
The framing of the customs tariff which determines in large measure the
employment of the people in industrial occupations is exclusively in the hands
of the Federal Parliament, the power having been taken over from this and
other Provinces in 1867. I have long? been of opinion that under the cir-
cumstances, federal grants for technical education should be made by the
Dominion Parliament to be expended for specified purposes without infringing
upon the absolute control of each Province over its own schools. The
intention to appoint a Federal Commission I regard as the first step in
carrying out a clear obligation.

cS'iSaSt ^or need there be any difficulty in securing to the Dominion
protected. a reasonable guarantee that the money had been properly expended.
The grant to each Province should be computed on the same basis
as are the other subsidies; and the Act providing for the distribu-
tion should specify clearly the purposes for which the money is
intended. All that the most exacting should require would be the
submission to the Dominion Parliament of the detailed statement
of the expenditure as given in the Provincial public accounts. The
Dominion and Provincial auditors are responsible only to the
legislative bodies that appoint them, and their certificate that the
expenditure had been in accordance with the Act should be
sufficient. In the event of a difficulty there would, of course, be
as now, an appeal to the Treasury Boards. Usually, it is true the
proper application of such grants is secured by inspection; but in-
spection, to be worth anything, means also direction, and inspection
by Dominion officials of schools which must form an integral part of
the Provincial systems would inevitably lead to a conflict of au-
thority.

ONTARIO 337

In support of the foregoing proposal I may again urge the precedents
precedent already set by the Dominion itself. The grants to the already 8et-
Royal Society, the Canadian Academy, and the Canadian Mining
Institute are paid to the President and Secretary thereof, and are
not subject to audit; the Societies merely send the Minister of
Finance a copy of their report, in which they give a detailed state-
ment of the total receipts and expenditure. The grant to the
Railway Department of McGill University is given on condition
that the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, and the Canadian
Northern contribute at least an equal sum. In this case also the
Government requires no account, but presumes that the University
uses the money in a manner satisfactory to the railways. Speaking
generally, the various Dominion Ministers, who are interested in
such grants, are merely furnished with some general information
as to their application. Why should the proposed Dominion subsidy
in aid of Provincial Industrial and Agricultural education be made
an exception ?

2. LOCAL MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION

Opinions differ in different countries as to the best system industrial

Schools oil

of local control. On the Continent of Europe, the higher technical the Continent

of Europe.

schools are generally under special boards, .sometimes with and

sometimes without government representation. But, without any

exception that I know of, the lower grade industrial schools are

under the charge of boards of management on which are repre- committee*-

sented, either directly or through Advisory Committees, the indus- advantages

trial interests of the localities. Everywhere, during my tour, I

made special enquiry as to the effectiveness and acceptability of

such committees, and the evidence I gathered was conclusively

in their favour. They secure the sympathy and co-operation of the

local industries, bring the schools into close relation with the

conditions of the trades, and keep the equipment and courses of

study abreast of the times. Indeed, so highly valued are they that

often each trade department of a school is provided with a

specially qualified Advisory Committee which from time to time

visits the department and aids it with its advice. In France and fy

Switzerland the labour organizations are often specially recognized La

on these committees; but in Germany they are satisfied with the

administration and do not ask for recognition. In England all Local Boards.

the schools of a municipality supported by public funds are under

the education committees of the county councils and their ad-

visorv committees. In the United States, except in Massachusetts,

such schools are under the same board of education. In

Massachusetts, the movement in favour of industrial education had

338

Schools of
secondary
grade for
Ontario.

Industrial

advisory

committees.

been opposed by many of the educationists of the older type, and it
is felt there that the industrial schools will have a better chance of
successful operation if placed, for a time at any rate, under boards
without other alliances. To secure this object without, however,
disrupting the unity of their system, some other States, following
the example of Europe, provide advisory committees.

The industrial and technical schools I have proposed will be of
the secondary grade and their management should be entrusted to
High and Municipal Continuation School Boards and Boards of
Education. At present, indeed, most of the Manual Training and
Household Science departments, from which no doubt will be
developed our first industrial and technical schools, are under the
control of the aforesaid boards; and the new schools are likely to
commend themselves more to the pupils if they feel that on entering
them they have been promoted to schools of a higher grade. The
set towards the High Schools rather than towards Fifth Classes is
due, in part at any rate, to the prevalence of this feeling.
"We are dealing with a condition, not with a theory." I recommend,
accordingly, that provision be made for the creation of an Advisory
Committee in connection with the aforesaid boards of trustees.
Various modes of appointing such a committee are now in operation.
The following will, I think, meet the requirements of the situation
in Ontario: —

When any of the aforesaid boards shall have established by
resolution a general or special industrial school or a technical
school, whether day or evening, it should then or at its first meeting
thereafter appoint a committee to be known as the Advisory Com-
mittee on Industrial and Technical Schools, said committee to con-
sist of ten members, composed as follows :

Of five members of the Board, including the representatives
thereon of the Public and Separate schools, and of five other citi-
zens, not members of the Board, duly qualified to vote at school
elections and engaged in the local trades and industries, nominated
by the Chairman and approved by the majority of the trustees then
present; such nominations to include employees as well as employ-
ers of labour. The advisory committee so appointed should have
authority, subject to the approval of the Minister of Education,
to prepare courses of study and provide for .examinations and
diplomas, and, subject to the approval of the Board, to employ and
dismiss teachers and to settle their salaries, to visit and report upon
such schools, and to purchase machinery, tools, and supplies, and
to provide suitable grounds and buildings for the use of such
schools. In order to provide the necessary continuity of policy.

ONTARIO 339

two of the original five members who represent the interests of
the local trades and industries should be appointed for a term of
one year, two for a term of two years, and one for a term of three
years; and, thereafter, as the terms of the members so appointed
expire, their successors should be appointed each for a term of
three years. In the case of a vacancy during the term of any
member, the Board should fill such vacancy for the unexpired term
in the manner proposed above.

Mutatis mutandis, Advisory Committees should also be pro- Agricultural
vided where there are agricultural and commercial departments. merciaim
The agricultural departments have been established only recently
and have not yet won their way to popular favour. Now especially
they need the sympathy and support of the local farmer, whether
they consist of two years' or of six weeks' courses. No doubt, also,
the representative farmers on the advisory committees will be in
a position to add to the efficiency of the courses. On the other
hand, the commercial departments have been long established and
are increasingly well attended. They do not need the moral sup-
port of representative business men. Nor would it be worth while
to appoint such committees for schools which simply provide
courses in bookkeeping, stenography, and typewriting. When,
however, the curriculum of the school includes the Special Commer-
cial courses whether of one year or of two years, prescribed by the
Department, a well-selected Advisory Committe should be able
to give valuable assistance in adapting the details to the actual
business conditions of the locality. The closer vocational subjects
and departments are brought to the life of the community, the bet-
ter will the instruction be from both the practical and the cultural
standpoint.

It is true, of course, that the boards themselves may include per-
sons as much interested in the industrial, agricultural, and commer-
cial departments, and as competent to give advice, as any others that
may be co-opted ; but this will not always be the case, and it will be
of advantage to these departments to have their interests
specially provided for. It will take both time and effort to
counteract the adverse influences of academic tradition and the set
towards the professions.

Here I may point out that in the European schools I visited, importance of
the successful completion of a vocational course is invariably marked certificates,
by the issue of a diploma or certificate. In some of the German
schools, such certificate or diploma is issued on the joint authority
of the Government and the Board of Management. This plan
I recommend for Ontario. The courses in the different classes of

340

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Duty of
Employer.

Local

organization
of schools.

Industrial
Schools.

our vocational schools will in their details be adapted to local con-
ditions. A general test would, accordingly, be impracticable; but
it will, I believe, be practicable to devise a scheme which will be free
frcm the objectionable features of our provincial academic examina-
tions, and under which Boards may issue certificates and diplomas,
endorsed by the Minister of Education. The success of such a
scheme will depend largely upon the attitude of the employer. By
attaching value to the certificate or diploma in selecting his em-
ployees and organizing his business, he can do more for the advance-
ment of vocational training in this Province than can either the
Government or the School Board.

Closely connected with the question of . management is the
relation of the industrial, agricultural, and commercial schools to
the other schools of the locality. Having regard to the influences
of tradition and the examinations and to the special character of
the work, these schools and departments should, as far as practic-
able, be separate in organization from the academic schools and
under separate principals. Manual training and household science,
as defined in our curricula, are essential subjects of a general educa-
tion. They are, of course, also basal for the industries ; but the first
mentioned phase of their content, being the comprehensive one,
should determine their position in the organization of the curriculum
and the scheme of control. From the present point of view no
special provision is necessary for them.

First, then, as to the Industrial Schools, General and Special :
The mathematics, science, English, and work-shop courses must
be wholly separate from the corresponding classes in the academic
High Schools, and must be taught by teachers who have been
specially prepared for the work. At present, in the so-called
technical High Schools and High School departments, these sub-
jects are almost invariably taught by the ordinary members of the
High School staffs, whose chief duties and whose ambitions are
connected with the academic work of the school. They do not
possess the special knowledge that would enable then to correlate
the subjects with the practice of the industrial school; and, even
if they did acquire this knowledge, it would be futile to expect
them as a class to be zealous for a department in which they have
no vital interest. As a matter of convenience and economy, the
industrial classes we are now contemplating might be taken in the
same building as one of the other schools; but they should be
under the control of an independent principal. Of course, as is
now provided where a Public and a High School are in the same
building, the principal of the Public or the High School should be
supreme in those parts which the schools would use in common.
The future of the industrial school should not be imperilled . by

ONTARIO 341

intimate association, with schools whose main object has hitherto
been the preparation for the professions and the universities.

As to Technical Departments and Schools : It is altogether schooiacal
likely, as I have already shown, that it will be some years before
our conditions justify their establishment. As a first step in their
evolution we shall probably have courses consisting of manual
training, and some academic subjects more or less related to
industry. But, for the same reasons as I urge in the case of indus-
trial schools, the same principle of organization should be followed
as soon as they can be established as departments or schools. To
be efficient, they will require different courses of study, separate
staffs, and, to a large extent, separate equipment, class-rooms, work-
shops, and laboratories.

As to Agricultural Classes : Here, too, as my report has shown, Agricultural
for some years we can expect not more than short courses, taken
either by the pupils of other departments or by pupils who take
these classes only. In such cases, the principal will make the
necessary provision, subject to the direction of the Advisory
Committee. When, however, we have separately organized
agricultural departments and agricultural schools, we should then
have separate principals.

The Commercial Departments are so well established and the commercial

, „ . . Departments.

classes are so generally well attended that no further provision
appears to be necessary than the Advisory Committees already sug-
gested. As in the large cities of the United States, and as now
appears to be decided in the City of Toronto, economical as well
as pedagogical reasons justify the establishment of separate High
Schools of Commerce in all the large cities of Ontario.

Not many even of our cities are likely to have more than one General
Commercial Department and one Industrial School. A city, f

however, like Toronto, which covers a large area and which has a Ontario.
large population, should provide for those who have completed the
fourth form of the Public School course or for whose admission
special provision is necessary, branch preparatory day and evening
commercial, industrial, and general schools, with a central High
School of Commerce, a central Industrial and Technical School,
and general evening classes in the High Schools for those who
can take up the special work of the secondary school. Evening
classes of an elementary character, preparatory for those of the
secondary grade should also be provided in suitably distributed Pub-
lic School centres. Effective organization takes into account the
convenience of the pupils, the proper gradation of classes, and the
economic distribution of the staff. In this connection the organiza-
tion adopted in Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow and Edinburgh,
and the cities of the Continent is well worth careful consideration.

342

EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Importance
of the
problem.

How solved
elsewhere.

Necessity for
the provision
in Ontario.

3. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE OF ADOLESCENTS

In any provision for education, one of the greatest difficulties
is that of securing regular and adequate attendance. For reasons
already dealt with, most of those pupils who now intend to
join a trade or to become farmers leave the public or the separate
schools at 13 or 14 or even earlier; few join from the higher
schools. Accordingly, the most important educational question at
present is : How can the regular and adequate attendance of such
pupils be secured from 14 to 16 or 17; or, indeed, how can it be se-
cured at all ? The establishment of the proposed industrial and agri-
cultural schools will, it is true, under proper conditions induce more
to remain at school; but others who might attend will prove indif-
ferent to their opportunities, and others, again, are obliged to earn
a livelihood as soon as possible. This problem Germany, Switzer-
land, and Scotland have solved by extending the scope of the
compulsory attendance laws to 17 years of r.ge or over, and by
providing evening schools and part-time day schools. London and
some other British cities have attempted to solve it by maintaining
a liberal system of scholarships and maintenance grants in
connection with their day schools and by promoting in every
way attendance at the evening schools. The recent report of the
English Advisory Council suggests in a half-hearted way
means of improving the attendance under the present volun-
tary system; but there can be no reasonable doubt that England
will eventually follow the example of Scotland. This, indeed, is
the burden of the Advisory Council's report. In the United States,
New York has also taken a step — a short one, it is true — in the
same direction. In that State, until 17 years of age, a child must
be either in school or at work; for the past two years, Nebraska
has made attendance at school compulsory, under certain reasonable
conditions, until 16 years of age for at least two-thirds of the year;
and in its session in 1910 the Ohio Legislature passed an Act
compelling the child between fourteen and sixteen who has failed
to reach certain academic standards to give a portion of his
working period to after-training in day schools. So far, however,
the legislation in the United States is in the experimental stage,
but the fact that the movement for extending the age of compulsory
attendance has met with favour in a democratic country is itself
suggestive.

To spend large sums of money on industrial and agricultural
education without taking means to insure attendance is neither
logical nor economical. It is of material importance that the exist-
ing Truancy Act should be properly enforced. An Ontario law mak-
ing full-time school attendance compulsory until 16 or 17 would also

ONTARIO 343

be desirable. But such a law is impracticable; for many between 14
and 1 6 or 17 are now and always will be compelled by dire necessity
to earn what they can. On the other hand, to enact a law similar to
the European compulsory continuation school laws appears to me to
be both desirable and practicable. Its provisions should, of course,
refer at first only to urban municipalities ; for, in these, the appoint-
ment of a truant officer is imperative by law and his services would
be available in connection with the proposed change. So long as the
proposed Act provides for "local option," no one can reasonably Local option-
object to its enactment. I suggest the following as the basis for
an amendment to the present Truancy Act : —

i. It should be lawful for any urban High or Municipal Continiia- fldfcions to
tion School Board or Board of Education from time to time, at a
special meeting called for the purpose, to make, vary, and revoke
by-laws for required attendance at day or evening classes until such
age, not exceeding 17 years, as may be specified in the by-law, of any Power to
adolescents above the age of 14 within the municipality who are not requiring

, . . ...»«. . attendance

otherwise receiving a suitable education or are not specially ex- untn 17.
empted by the School Law from the operation of the by-law; and
to require such attendance at such times and over such periods as
may in such by-laws be specified.

2. The Board should also have the power, after consulta- determine
tion with both employers and employees, to frame by-laws for tk,en*fpthea
either sex or for both, and for those engaged in particular trades bylaws-
or occupations, and to determine in each case the age or ages up to

which the by-laws should apply within the limit of 17 years of age.
It should also have power after like consultation to fix the hours
and seasons at which the compulsory classes should be held.

3. Such by-laws should also require all persons within the Employers
municipality, over which the School Board has jurisdiction, having Adolescents0
in regular employment any adolescent to whom such by-laws apply,

to notify the same to the Board at such times specified in the by-laws
with particulars as to the hours during which the adolescent is
employed with them.

4. Provision should also be made for the due enforcement of
the by-laws by the Truant Officer and for penalties in the case of any
parent or guardian whose neglect has led to failure on the part of penalties
the child to attend the classes provided for above ; also, in the case

of employers who do not give the notification required above or
who knowingly employ an adolescent above the age of 14 at any
time without his attendance as required under the by-la'ws.

5. In order also to make certain that the enactment of such
by-laws is supported by public opinion, without which indeed it
would be useless to attempt to enforce them, provision should be V0ter8<

344 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

made for the submission of the question to the ratepayers at the
next annual election for school trustees, if within, say, one month
of their enactment twenty per cent, of the duly qualified electors
so petition. A similar provision, I may add, has been made by the
Wisconsin Legislature in the matter of the establishment of trade
schools by a school board.

measure?able ^ *s certainly true, as I have already pointed out, that even the
present moderate provisions of the Truancy Act have not been
generally enforced. This, however, should not prevent the enact-
ment of the amendment I propose; for the provisions of the
Truancy Act have been fairly well enforced in most of the
municipalities where the amendment would likely be adopted, and
it is not unreasonable to expect that the enforcement of the
proposed amendment would commend itself to employer and
employee and their liberal-minded fellow citizens. Here I . may
add that the machinery for such a provision has been adequately
tested in several European countries, and it should be the duty of
the Director of Technical and Industrial Education to instruct and
supervise Boards in its operation.

ONTARIO 345

VI. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

As the conclusion of my report, I submit a summary of my recommen
dations :

I. FUNDAMENTAL

1. A good general education as an essential preparation for all vocations.

2. A closer connection between our schools and the activities of life.

II. INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION
PROVISION FOR INSTRUCTION OF PUPILS AT SCHOOL

1. In the case of the large number who leave school at or before
fourteen, the extension of the present provision for teaching Household
Science and Manual Training, as a basis for men's and women's trades as well
as for cultural purposes.

2. In the case of the comparatively small number who remain at school
for various periods after fourteen, the establishment of the following classes
of day schools, by Boards of Education and High and Municipal Continuation
School Boards :

(1) The General Industrial School with courses in Shop Work and
in English, Mathematics, and Science related thereto; all being treated from
the point of view of the needs of the workmen and workwomen, and the
cultural education of the Primary Schools being continued.

(2) The Special Industrial School, providing for the trades and similar
occupations, and including the full-time day school, and the part-time co-
operative school.

(3) The Technical High School or High School Department, for
pupils who will remain three or four years at school and are preparing for
directive positions in connection with the industries.

PROVISION FOR INSTRUCTION OF WORKMEN AND WORKWOMEN

3 In the case of workmen and workwomen engaged by day in their
various occupations, the establishment by the aforesaid boards, of the follow-
ing classes of 'Schools :

(1) The Apprenticeship School in which the apprentice attends for
part time the Day Industrial School, and the Day or Evening Apprenticeship
School provided by the employer himself.

(2) The Evening School, supplementing the day shop-work by instruc-
tion in the evening in the subjects of the Day General and Special Industrial
Schools and the Technical Schools.

(3) The Correspondence-Study School, providing instruction partly
by correspondence and partly by a staff of travelling teachers.

346 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

ORGANIZATION

4. ( I ) Each industrial centre to rank as a unit for the purposes of or-
ganization.

(2) The appointment of a special departmental officer to act as Direc-
tor of Industrial and Technical Schools, and to assist Boards in the establish-
ment and organization of such schools.

AN ONTARIO INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL COLLEGE

5. The establishment of an Ontario Industrial and Technical College,
with an industrial museum, for the training of all grades of industrial teachers,
of workmen who have already spent some years in apprenticeship, for pupils
who have taken courses at the Special Industrial Schools, and for the conduct
of a Correspondence-Study School with travelling teachers.

ORDER OF URGENCY OF THE FOREGOING PROVISIONS

6. (i) The immediate provision of Industrial and Technical Evening
Schools where competent instructors can be secured, with liberal support
from Legislative grants.

(2) The appointment of a competent Director as soon as one can be
secured.

(3) The establishment of an Industrial and Technical College, and, in
particular, the provision of an adequate supply of competent teachers.

(4) The further organization of a complete system of industrial and
technical schools in accordance with the financial capabilities of the Province,
after the disclosure of the attitude of the Dominion on the question of
a special subsidy to the Provinces for the improvement of agricultural and
industrial education.

HI. A DOMINION INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

7. The establishment by the' Dominion Government, of an Institute of
Industrial Research, for the advancement of the trades, as the Dominion has
already done in the case of agriculture, mining and other departments.

IV. DRAWING AND ART EDUCATION

1. The further extension of the provision for Art and Drawing in
the Primary and Secondary Schools.

2. The establishment of a Central Art School in Toronto with both day
and evening classes for the fostering of the Fine Arts, for the preparation of
special teachers of Art, and for the special education of workmen in the more
artistic trades.

3. The establishment of other Art Schools and Departments in
other centres of the Province.

4. More generous support of Art by Legislative grants.

ONTARIO 347

V. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

1. The further extension of Nature Study and Elementary Agri-
culture in the Primary Schools with the attendant School Garden.

2. The re-organization of the provision for Agriculture in the High and
Continuation Schools, and the extension in connection therewith of the
present system of County representatives of the Department of Agriculture,
as a step in the development of School Departments of Agriculture and Agri-
cultural High and Continuation Schools.

3. The appointment of a special Departmental officer to act as Di-
rector and inspector of the Primary and Secondary Agricultural Classes, and
to stimulate the development of such classes throughout the Province.

VI. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION

1. The better adaptation of our school courses to business life and
the requirements of the different kinds and grades of business.

2. The provision of practical courses and of better theoretical courses
for Commercial Specialists and of preparatory training for such teachers.

VII. GENERAL PROVISIONS
SUMMER AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS

1. The extension of the present system of Summer and other Special
Schools for teachers of Nature Study, Agriculture, Art and Drawing, Com-
mercial subjects, Household Science, Manual Training, and Industrial sub-
jects.

FINANCIAL SUPPORT

2. The provision of adequate grants for Vocational Education by the
Legislature of the Province, by the municipalities concerned as part of the
school rates, and by a special subsidy from the Dominion for the advance-
ment of both Agricultural and Industrial Education in the Provinces.

ADVISORY COMMITTEES

3. (i) The appointment of Advisory Committees for the management
of duly established Industrial and Technical Schools; such Committees to
consist of members of the School Boards and an equal number of other citi-
zens, representing the employers and the employees, who are qualified voters
and who are specially competent to advise and assist, and the proposals of
such Committees to be subject to the approval of the Boards with which they

are connected.
23 E.I.P.

348 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES.

(2) The establishment of similarly constituted Committees for the
management of Agricultural and Commercial Departments and Commercial
High Schools.

RELATION OF VOCATIONAL TO ACADEMIC SCHOOLS

4. ( I ) The organization of Industrial Schools with separate staffs and
courses, and under separate principals.

(2) The organization of the Technical, Agricultural, and Commercial
Departments to remain as at present, except where they may be organized
as separate schools.

COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE OF ADOLESCENTS

5. The enactment of a Provincial law with "local option," giving
Boards the power to pass by-laws to compel the attendance at school of
adolescents between fourteen and seventeen, under certain specified condi-
tions.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 351

APPENDIX A

ATTITUDE OF INTERESTED PUBLIC BODIES
Canadian Manufacturers' Association

In 1906 the Canadian Manufacturers' Association presented to
the Governor-General-in-Coimcil the following resolution, passed at
its previous meeting:

Be it resolved that the Dominion Government be requested to appoint a
commission to report on the best method for establishing a comprehensive
national system of Technical Education to provide Canadian industry and
commerce with trained assistants from amongst the Canadian people, and
thereby aid in developing Canadian industry, and do away with the present
condition of affairs, which compels employers to go abroad for men to occupy
the more responsible and more remunerative positions in Canadian enterprises.

The memorial which accompanies the resolution reviews at some
length the efforts of the Association in the field of technical educa-
tion, and presents a strong case for financial assistance from the
Dominion Parliament. The resolution quoted above was endorsed
by each branch of the Association at Toronto, Montreal, Quebec,
Halifax, Winnipeg, and Vancouver, and by the principals of the
Universities of Laval, McGill, Toronto, Queen's, Dalhousie, and
Manitoba.

The efforts of the Association bore fruit last June, when the
Dominion Government issued an Order-in-Council constituting a
Royal Commission for the purpose of enquiring into " the needs
and present equipment of our Dominion of Canada respecting in-
dustrial "training and technical education, and into the systems and
methods of technical instruction obtaining in other countries."

Board of Trade of Toronto

In March, 1899, tne matter of industrial education was taken
up actively by the Board of Trade of Toronto, which then sent repre-
sentatives to Ottawa to lay before the Government the importance
of the subject. In June of the same year the following resolution
was adopted:

That this meeting most heartily endorses the movement in favour of a
broader and more thorough technical training in all its branches in this
country, and pledges itself to forward the movement by all means in its power,
and that the chairman do appoint a small committee as a nucleus.

The subject has been followed persistently ever since, and the
Board stands exactly in the same position as it did when that resolu-
tion was adopted.

352 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

American Federation of Labour

The following is a report adopted at Toronto in November,
1909, by the American Federation of Labour, in which Canada is
represented :

We favour the establishment of schools in connection with the Public
School System, at which pupils between the ages of fourteen and sixteen may
be taught the principles of the trades, not necessarily in separate buildings, but
in separate schools adapted to this particular education, and by competent and
trained teachers.

The course of instruction in such a school should be English, mathe-
matics, physics, chemistry, elementary mechanics and drawing, with shop
instruction for particular trades ; and for each trade represented, the drawing,
mathematics, mechanics, physical and biological science applicable to the trade,
the history of that trade, and a sound system of economics, including and
emphasizing the philosophy of collective bargaining. This will serve to pre-
pare the pupil for more advanced subjects, and in addition to disclose his
capacity for a specific vocation.

In order to keep such schools in close touch with the trades there should
be local advisory boards, including representatives of the industries, employers
and organized labour.

We recommend that any technical education of the workers in trade and
industry, being of public necessity, should be not a private, but a public func-
tion, conducted by the public and at the public expense.

Trades and Labour Congress of Canada

The resolution of the Trades and Labour Congress of Canada on
the subject of industrial training is as follows :

Resolved, that inasmuch as the natural resources of Canada in its rivers,
in its forests and in its farm lands, are of immeasurable extent and commer-
cial value, and are urgently calling for the best and most approved means of
development and utilization ; and whereas the present methods of production
require further scientific stimulus — more especially in the mechanical branches
— of a broadly national character, through a proper and special educational
system; be it resolved, that this Trades and Labour Congress of Canada place
itself on record as in favour of the establishment of industrial technical
schools throughout the Dominion, and it is hereby an imperative instruction
to the executive of this body to use its best efforts at an early date in urging
the importance of trie subject upon the serious attention of the Dominion Gov-
ernment, with a view to the establishment of such a system of special educa-
tion throughout Canada.

In addition, the Congress has from time to time presented
memorials to the Dominion Government, from one of which the
following is a quotation :

The workmen of Canada are strongly of opinion that the welfare and
development of Canada demand some large scheme of technical education.
It is not a matter alone for the welfare of the workmen or of the employer,
but of the whole Canadian people. We want Canada to be foremost in the
arts and manufactures, and we are just at that stage of industrial develop-
ment when the institution of technical schools would be of most value.

APPENDIX 353

APPENDIX B
I. OPINIONS OF EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR

In I. below, I give selections from over one hundred replies I
received from manufacturers and other employers of labour to a
circular asking for a statement of the system of apprenticeship fol-
lowed in each industry, the faults of tHe system and the manufac-
turer's opinion of the best way to remedy them.

In another circular I made enquiries as to the age at which
workers generally enter the factories; the forms or grades of the
Public Schools from which they come ; the manufacturer's estimate
of the education they have received ; and the age at which the manu-
facturer thinks they should enter to be of most use for his industry.
With very few exceptions, the employers of skilled labour put the
age at about 16. In this case I have not quoted the replies. A few
of the former replies refer to the age, but the reference is merely
incidental.

In II. below, I give statements from the educationists who have
had charge of our Manual Training Departments as to the condi-
tions of the problem from their point of view.

American Bank Note Company, Ottawa

I. A. Machado, General Manager.

1. We take apprentices in the several different trades required by our
work, who serve from three to five years according to the trade.

2. We have no special complaint to make of the present system but feel
that a great improvement could be made if there were some industrial schools
in Ottawa, from which we could draw our apprentices.

The writer is a very strong believer in the economic value of manual
training and technical schools. A practical start in this direction could be made
by establishing industrial schools from which manufacturers could be supplied
with promising material, showing aptitude for one class or another of work.

American Watch Case Company of Toronto

W. K. McN aught, M.P.P., President.

In regard to the system of apprenticeship in our industry I am sorry to
say that apprenticeships are a thing of the past in this business. The reason
for this is twofold.

1. The majority of the boys themselves as well as their parents object to
any apprenticeship at all, as they do not want to be bound down for so Jong
a time, and always have a feeling that if they can get 50 cents or $i a week
more anywhere else, they want to be in a position to leave and take it. This,
of course, is the objection from the boys' side.

2. On the other hand the apprenticeship system has been practically killed
on account of the sub-division of labour and the introduction of labour-saving
machinery. In the old days of this business, as I presume in many others,
the boy served an apprenticeship of five years ; and, as but little machinery was
used, during this time he learned practically every branch of the business and

354 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

was a general all-round worker. To-day this business is sub-divided into
probably twenty or thirty distinct branches, each of which uses automatic
machinery as far as possible. The result of this is that the beginner learns
only one branch of the business, and probably he learns only to run one machine
or to perform one operation. As a rule it requires but a short time, say
two or three months at the outside, to learn to operate any machine thoroughly
or to learn to perform any one separate operation. This state of affairs pro-
hibits any one person learning the entire trade under modern conditions, and is
therefore incompatible with the old apprenticeship system.

I cannot say that in my opinion the present system is faulty. It is modern,
and has therefore ousted the old order of things on account of its being able
to produce goods much cheaper and better than they were ever made under the
old system.

These new conditions are here to stay. In fact, they will, if possible, be
accentuated in the future, and it seems to me the only thing to do, therefore, is to
try and educate labour in such a way that it can make the best of present condi-
tions. In my opinion this can best be done by a system of general technical
training by which boys would be taught to use their hands as well as their
brains in making simple things and in the general use of ordinary tools. They
should also be taught to draw and be given some idea of designing. In fact,
education of this sort, in my opinion, should be along broad lines, which would
make them better fitted to go into any business whatever.

John Bertram & Sons Company, Limited, Dundas
I.

Henry Bertram, Secretary-Treasurer.

The following system of apprenticeship has been in operation in our works
in practically the same form for about forty years. The fact that for a great
many years we were the only concern in Canada engaged in our particular line
made it necessary for us to train apprentices in our own system, in order to
have a supply of skilled help to carry on the work, and our present staff is to
a great extent the result of training up our own men.

1. Apprentices are accepted according to priority of application, but edu-
cational standing is given first consideration, i.e., a boy with high school training
has preference over one with public school education.

2. Apprentices serve four years (and lost time) at any one of the following
trades : Lathe hand, planer hand, fitter, pattern maker, moulder, draftsman ; but
special five year apprentices are given instruction in each of the above except
" moulding." Apprentices in the drafting rooms are given the privilege of shop
experience, serving a portion of their time in the works.

3. All apprentices are bound for their period of apprenticeship, making a
deposit of one hundred dollars as security, which amount, with bank interest,
is returned to them when their apprenticeship is completed.

4. Wages are paid at a fixed hourly basis for each year, so that pay in-
creases automatically at the end of each year.

The only serious fault in apprenticeship in a small town like ours, is the
determination of parents to give their boys " a trade " (any trade) and as the
fathers of a large proportion of our apprentices are employed in our works, the
boys are apprenticed to their fathers' " trade," it being the most convenient,
without considering in any way their adaptability for it. This causes " misfits."
A boy who gets along passably well is " bound " and by force of circumstances
is compelled to complete his apprenticeship in a line of business in which he
takes no real interest.

APPENDIX 355

The remedy lies with the parents in a considerable degree, as by proper
observation of their children's talents, the proper calling for them could be
decided upon. But some system of industrial education (manual training or
elementary technical education) is required to give our boys a chance to decide
intelligently for themselves what line of business will be congenial.

II.

Charles E. Dickson, Cashier.

1. Apprentices start work here at an approximate average age of seven-
teen years. It is not possible to give the actual average, as we have not com-
plete records of apprentices' ages.

2. The majority of our apprentices come to us from the High School
entrance class, and quite a number have a partial High School education. An
occasional boy is accepted who has not reached the highest Public School
grade, but as a usual thing we require at least that standing for our appren-
tices. The average apprentice gets along fairly well on a Public School edu-
cation, after he has found out in the shop how to apply it practically, which
means that the shop has to do what the schools should do to make a boy's
education of practical value to him.

3. It is quite difficult to say just at what age a boy should enter the works
in order to be most useful. Boys at 15 to 16 years of age, who are mechani-
cally inclined, show much greater aptitude in learning to handle tools than boys
of maturer ages. On the other hand, young men of 20 and over who have
been apprenticed here have invariably taken a deeper interest in the work, and
have without exception made good mechanics. The younger boys are handi-
capped by lack of ability to apply their knowledge in a practical way, and the
older ones, who have learned by experience in other mercantile lines to apply
their knowledge practically to a greater or lesser degree, have reached an age
where their aptitude for learning is considerably less than that of younger
boys. To our mind, there is only one inference — our present system of Public
School education is " lopsided," being entirely theoretical. The boy who com-
pletes the public school course goes out into the business or mechanical life
and wastes, in many cases, years in learning the practical application of the
knowledge he already has. Manual training in our schools appears to be the
only possible solution of the problem, but it must be on a far wider basis than
the system already instituted in the various centres. At present it is more or
less confined to woodworking, on account of the expense of installing equip-
ment for other lines, but it must be borne in mind that each town or district
has distinctly separate needs. If a town is largely engaged for generations in
ironworking, as in our own case, it is natural that the children of our work-
men should have a natural aptitude toward ironworking, and manual training
and elementary technical education in this direction would save them years in
after life. We are free to admit that manual training, even in woodworking
alone, is a long step in the right direction, but to meet present-day needs as
they should be met, the system should be broadened and made elastic enough
to be adapted to the varying needs of different communities. This would assist
in specialization in the manufacturing lines of various districts, which experi-
ence in England, Germany and other countries shows to be the natural trend.
Heredity in this direction must be acknowledged and provided for, and a sys-
tem of manual training which recognizes the principle assists materially the
force that has made Sheffield, Nottingham and dozens of other cities, world
famous manufacturing centres.

Berlin Interior Hardwood Company, Limited, Berlin

We start young men at a low salary with a bonus at the end of each
year, increasing the salary for the second year and also the bonus for the second
year and likewise the third year. These men are placed under the supervision of

356 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

a practical man whose duty it is to give instructions in the practical use of
tools. We have found this the best method of making the best mechanics of
these young men.

We might say that our business is somewhat different from the ordinary
woodwork, in this respect, that we manufacture interior fittings for banks, offices,
etc., and these boys have to work from full size detail drawings, and we are
strongly of the opinion that schools for industrial education should be first
to teach them to read drawings and details in connection therewith, following
up with the practical use of tools and the proper method of applying them.
This certainly is the most needed at the present time, and with this training, we
believe, the pupil would know whether he had a liking for the trade before com-
mencing to work in a factory, as they would then have sufficient experience to
understand just what this particular trade required.

Another question that we believe would be well to consider is economy
in the use of material in this age of keen competition, as we find in many in-
instances that, for the want of proper knowledge, material is wasted.

In our opinion the present scarcity of skilled mechanics is largely due
to the manufacturers themselves, inasmuch that with the modern machin-
ery they start men at one particular job and keep them at that until they
become expert at that one job, but take them off that job, they are entirely at
sea and are unable to help themselves. This principle, we believe, is a good
one for neither the mechanic nor the manufacturer, and we believe that there
is no better way than for the manufacturer to take his apprentice and put him
through the entire line of work.

We believe that if Industrial Schools were established in different parts o;
the Province, they would give the young men a desire, after completing their
course at school, to continue their particular trade.

Bredin Bread Company, Limited, Toronto

M, Bredin, President and Manager.

We have been 23 years in business and have only had two regular inden
tured apprentices, serving only three years each, so that we are safe in saying
that the journeymen bakers with anything like a thorough grounding in this
trade are fast dying out as a class.

As to the faults of our system and the remedy:

I am of the hope that technical education is the only hope of the future
in our trade, and I may go further and say that the only hope of providing
the people, as a whole, with a good, wholesome, nutritious and properly manufac-
tured loaf of bread, " the Staff of Life," is to have provision made for the tech-
nical training of at least a limited number of young men in the chemistry and
food value of flours and yeasts so that there would be a sufficient number coming
along to fill the more important positions in the large bread factories that are
growing up in all our cities, and also positions in any of the smaller shops in
city, town or village.

Berlin Furniture Company, Limited, Berlin.

/. E. Jacques, Director.

We have to advise you that we have no system of apprenticeship, as the
custom of taking on apprentices seems to have died a natural death some time
ago. We simply take on youths and keep them as long as we possibly can, but
in no instance is it very long, as in about six months they imagine themselves t»
be experienced journeymen.

APPENDIX 357

Brigdens Limited, Toronto (Late The Toronto Engraving Company, Limited)

George Brigden, Manager.

The most striking fact which confronts one is that but very few are able
to draw even the simplest object in an accurate manner. To draw a chair or
table in clear outline, in proper perspective and proportion is, in many cases,
an impossibility; but ask the same person to draw a figure, and you will have
produced a drawing, more or less smudgy in outline, but possibly correct in
form. In doing the latter the student will display intense interest, but to do
the first is considered but child's work and almost beneath his attention; a
clear evidence that he has not had instilled in him that most essential feature
of commercial art, viz., definiteness of line and accuracy of form. Judging
from the examples brought in for inspection, the almost universal idea appears
to prevail that to paint a picture or portrait is the acme of art. To but few
is given such a gift, and our technical art schools should devote their ener-
gies to dispelling from the student's mind the notion that there is any pro-
nounced demand in this country for work of this character.

A Technical School should be devoted exclusively to Commercial Art. It
should be clearly pointed out to the students that those who study in its
classes should be those who desire to apply the knowledge gained to the trade
or calling for which they have a particular inclination.

Art as related to the painting of pictures and portraiture should be entirely
ignored. Only that which applies directly to the manufacturing industries
should be taught. The primary classes should be thoroughly and persistently
trained to produce drawings in clean outline, devoid of shading. Accuracy
and neatness should be set before them as the acme of result. Elementary
lessons in geometry and perspective should be given at least once a week.
After spending a term or so in this work, the teacher will be able to deter-
mine what special line the student is best suited for. The classes should be
divided into three main branches, viz., mechanical, design, and figure drawing;
but before selecting any one, the student should be thoroughly grounded in the
basic principles above enunciated.

In the mechanical classes the correct drawing of nuts, screws, gears,
piston rods, wheels, chains and the essential parts of machinery should be
taught. Lessons in mechanics should be frequently given, so that as the
students advance they may understand how to draw machines not only in ele-
vation but in section. A close study should be made of standard machines
and engines. They should know how to erect one from verbal descriptions or
rough drawings. Having learnt this, they should take up the matter of proper
shading. The use of the air brush as applied to shading should be taught. It
may be a surprise to you to know that there are not two artists in Ontario
who can draw a carriage correctly for illustrative purposes. Such work has
never been taught, the result being that thousands of dollars leave our Pro-
vince yearly for United States cities for providing catalogues for carriage
manufacturers.

The field of design is a large one, compassing many trades, each one
demanding a special training of itself. There are several valuable works deal-
ing with this subject, such as Jones' " Grammar of Design," which should be
bought and kept in a library for frequent reference. Wall paper designs,
carpet designs, book and catalogue covers, are in constant demand. Artists
who can plan out and design booklets in their entirety are never in want of a
situation. Designers of furniture, stained glass, ornamental iron ware,
electroliers, gas fixtures, etc., are badly needed. We are far too dependent
on outside sources for such things. Our country is growing rapidly, and each
day hears a greater call for artists who can fill such positions.

358 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

Figure drawing, as applied commercially, should be taught by a teacher
who is thoroughly acquainted with the demands of catalogue and illustrative
work. Life classes should be formed. Anatomy should be studied in a most
comprehensive manner. This is perhaps the highest grade of commercial art,
and requires the constant study of the best obtainable models, and only those
who show a decided taste for this work should be encouraged to take it up.
That it has not been taught properly has been evidenced frequently in our
establishment. On several occasions I have been told by students that they
have learnt more in two months in our office than in several sessions in the
technical schools. This may be a severe arraignment ; but facts are stubborn
obstacles, and, if we are to make a success of our schools, the conditions
demanded by manufacturers must be carefully studied and every possible effort
put forth to meet them.

It has been thought in some quarters that my criticisms given before the
Commission referred to the work being done in the Ontario School of Art.
I had no idea of referring to work done by this institution, which covers a
different field from that of a technical school. The training given in this
school is more especially for those going in for the higher branches of art,
figure, and portrait painting, and illustrating of magazines, etc. It is, of
course, inevitable that the technical school in its higher branches should cover
some of the work being done in the School of Art. This, however, should not
in any way take away from the value of either school, and I am sure you will
agree with me that, following along the lines of all the great English centres
where Art is flourishing, it is time that we in Canada had both sides properly
developed.

Canada Carriage Company, Brockville

T. J. Storey, President and General Manager.

In my opinion the instruction of artisans is a most important branch of the
educational system of Canada to-day. The people are going beyond all bounds
in the effort to get book learning, and take no thought of how the boys are to
earn their living after they leave school.

In a large percentage of the cases the extent of education that has been
given them has unfitted them for work, and I trust that the government will take
this matter up thoroughly, and follow some of the plans they have in Ger-
many and England, and teach boys how to use their hands and control them with
their brain.

We are not making any mechanics, nor can we find anyone who wants to
learn a trade, unless he can begin at journeyman's wages, in doing it, and as a
result all our mechanics are being drawn from Europe.

Canada Cycle and Motor Company, Limited, West Toronto

T. A. Russell, General Manager.

1. Our system of apprenticeship is rather limited. It applies only in machine
departments. The apprenticeship period is four years. The apprentice receives
a small wage the first year, which increases each year of his apprenticeship. He
is given facilities to learn all the machine shop operations that are practised in
our shop.

2. The great difficulty at the present time with this system is, that very few
young men are taking an apprenticeship, and out of those that do commence,
a great many drop out before they have finished their course, with the result that
they become only fair workmen and not, by any means, skilled.

It seems necessary to devise some method of education for those entering
industrial life, so that they can obtain such training as will fit them to become
skilled workmen in a shorter period of time than the old apprenticeship system.

APPENDIX 359

Canada Foundry Company, Limited, Toronto.

Geo. W. Waits, Manager of Works.

1. The system followed by us is to article an apprentice for a period of four
years.

2. The main fault of this system is a lack of sufficient education on the part
of the apprentices to enable them to obtain their maximum efficiency during the
term of apprenticeship.

The best way, in my opinion, to remedy this is instruction in technical schools
in the evenings, but the difficulty is to ensure the attendance of the appren-
tice at the lectures. If some scheme can be devised that will ensure regular
attendance at such lectures, great good can be done.

Canadian Locomotive Company, Limited, Kingston

C. Birmingham, Managing Director.

Below we give you the desired information as to our apprenticeship system.
Our apprenticeship agreements must be signed by the parent, or guardian,
of the young man who is applying to be taken on as an apprentice — this for the
purpose of establishing that the conditions are clearly understood, and also as
authority to us to pay the apprentice's wages to him direct.

We exercise a good deal of pains to see that the apprentice is given an
opportunity to learn all branches of whatever trade he selects to follow; that
is to say, he is not kept on any one particular job an undue period of his time,
but if he enters say as an apprentice to the machinist trade, by the time his
term is completed — if he has ordinary ability and application — he should be a
thorough mechanic.

With reference to the faults of our system, we find it gives a fair amount
of satisfaction both to the apprentice and ourselves, but if there were any way of
giving the young man additional educational facilities, it would, of course, result
in a higher class mechanic when his term was completed. Doubtless you are
aware of a system which has been tried (with apparently good results) in Cin-
cinnati and other places, where, by the co-operation of employers and an edu-
cational institution, the apprentices alternate, serving say two weeks in the shops,
and then two weeks in the classes of the college, the continuity of the work not
being interfered with by having a double number of apprentices on the staff, so
that there are always half in college and half in the shops.

Owing to the fact that there are so few manufacturing establishments in our
line here, we do not see how this would be practical ; but if you can devise some
system whereby this can be accomplished, it will doubtless do much good.

Canadian Westinghouse Company, Limited, Hamilton

C. H. O. Pook, Assistant Manager of Works.

Engineering Apprenticeship System

This course has been arranged for graduates of Universities and Technical
Schools, and is of two years' duration.

The company desires to train a skilled force of engineers, upon whom it
can draw for assistance in the various branches of its industry.

Approved applicants are given the opportunity of entering the works
in order that they may become familiar with the various manufacturing oper-
ations and the general construction and working of the apparatus produced.
The engineering apprentices are afforded, in the various departments of the
works, actual shop and engineering experience, both mechanical and electrical,

360 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

and the work of the technical school will be supplemented by the practical
training thus afforded. Upon the completion of the course it is expected that
the engineering apprentice will have prepared himself for filling satisfactorily
a position in some department of the company's service. Preference in com-
pensation and position is given to those who prove their work by aptitude
and diligent attention to duty during the apprenticeship period, and by an
intelligent appreciation of the work.

Machinist or Shop Course

Intelligent young men desiring to learn the machinist trade are admitted
to the company's apprenticeship course, and all proper and reasonable means
afforded to these apprentices to become thoroughly instructed in all branches
of the machinist trade, and in special cases in such other lines of work as are
connected with electrical manufacturing. Apprentices entering on this course
under 21 years of age are required to serve four years, and three years if
over 21 years of age. To those apprentices who satisfactorily serve the entire
term of their apprenticeship the company grants a bonus of $100.

Patternmaker's Course

This, as in the case of the Machinist Course, is of four years' duration, and
similar conditions apply to it.

Moulder's Course

This course is also of four years' duration and the apprentices are taught
core making, bench and floor moulding in the iron foundry, brass moulding,
and are also required to spend a certain portion of their time upon the charging
deck of the cupola in order that they may get an insight into all phases of
foundry practice.

With reference to your second inquiry as to the faults of our system, I would
say that in the majority of cases we find the system to be all we could desire,
and that it has produced some very skilful engineers, machinists, and other
tradesmen, many of whom upon completion of their apprenticeship stay in the
regular employment of the company, and in the few cases where the apprentices
do not fulfil their entire term we believe it to be not owing to any fault in
the system but rather to the fact that we or the apprentice discover after he
has worked some time at the trade that he is not suitable for the work and
should take up some other calling.

Cowan & Company of Gait, Limited, Gait

The system of apprenticeship we follow is simply to engage the young
men for a certain term of apprenticeship, the term varying according to the
trade they wish to learn, at so much per day, the amount increasing each year
of their apprenticeship, with a substantial bonus when they have satis-
factorily completed the term of their apprenticeship. From our experience
we find this system has been more satisfactory than any we have tried, as it puts
the young man on his honour to fill his apprenticeship satisfactorily, and he has
the bonus at the end of his term, which makes him independent to a certain
extent at the end of his apprenticeship, and at the same time it puts the em-
ployer on his honour to give the apprentice every opportunity to learn his trade
and turn out a first-class mechanic.

We have discontinued binding our apprentices and requiring them to give
security for the faithful completing of their apprenticeship, as we found it did
not work satisfactorily; for, if the apprentice became dissatisfied, holding him

APPENDIX 361

under security made him dislike his work, and he was not learning his trade
and was no use to his employer, and also no manufacturer wishes to put the
law in force and collect from him security if he was not filling his apprentice-
ship faithfully.

As to your second question: We have no faults to find with the system
except the deficiencies in human nature which you cannot overcome. If the
apprentice becomes dissatisfied it is no use in his own interest to learn a
trade that he doesn't like and he would be no use to his employer who is en-
deavouring to teach him that trade, and he would forfeit his bonus.

Dennis Wire and Iron Works Co., Limited, London

E. R. Dennis, President.

1. We have no apprenticeship system in our industry. Boys will not enter
a shop under a system of apprenticeship, and, further, such a system is almost
impracticable in industrial establishments as at present organized.

During the past few years we have been obliged to obtain from time to
time skilled men from the United States and Great Britain. Our young men
here seem to lack both the preparation and inclination to be good mechanics.

2. In our industry we prefer not to take boys under 16 years of age.

In my opinion the preparation the boys receive in our public and high
schools here, while it may be most useful as preparation for a professional or
commercial career, is very unsatisfactory for the boy who desires to take up
mechanical work. I think the education in our public schools should aim to
develop the particular genius which every individual boy possesses, and allow
him to express himself by working at wood working, carving, modelling, ham-
mered metal work, etc.; not so much that he shall be taught to make certain
things, but that his ability as a craftsman may be developed and that he may
be given an opportunity of discovering for what he is fitted before too late.

In our business we depend more on skilled men and less on machine work
than do many other industries. Boys should be started at an early age with man-
ual training in the public schools, and between the ages of 14 and 16 given
instruction in a more advanced institution, connected with the high school.

The call for skilled mechanics is becoming increasingly insistent, and unless
some system o? manual and technical training is soon instituted in our schools
I am at a loss to answer the question, "Where are to-morrow's skilled men
to be found?"

3. It seems to me there are practically no present means of preparing
skilled workmen.

A young man enters a shop with the single idea of getting as much remun-
eration for his services as possible. It is, therefore, necessary to keep him at
some special line of work or operating some special machine, so that he
becomes a machine hand, a specialist, but not a skilled mechanic, who is an
all-round trained man.

As our factories are at present organized, the training of apprentices in
them is now out of the question. We are endeavouring to make up the loss
caused by the passing of the apprenticeship system by conducting a night
school for our employees. In London at the present time there are practically
no means available for a boy or young man to learn a trade properly and
become a thorough, skilled mechanic. There are, of course, a few handy men
being turned out who may claim to be mechanics, but they are not such in any
sense of the word.

The only remedy I can see is in the establishment of manual training in
all our public schools, where the boys can be started young and be given the
training necessary to become proficient in the mechanic arts. In these manual
and technical training schools the boys would also get an inclination to enter
trades, which is not the case at the present time.

362 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

We are conducting a night school in connection with our factory; from
twenty to twenty-five men are in attendance out of a total number of one hun-
dred employees. Admission to the classes is not limited to beginners;
any man in the shop who desires to become more skilful in his work and
acquire some technical knowledge is invited to attend. Designing, geometry,
mensuration, draughting, construction, reading blue prints, laying out work,
etc., are taken up. Once a month we have a special meeting, addressed by
outsiders, on practical subjects. The young men who are attending the classes
are acquiring manual dexterity at their work during the day, and technical
knowledge in the evening. Classes meet one night per week, but the men are
given problems to take home and work out. The work done in these classes
enables us to detect ability in individuals among our men that we should other-
wise be unaware of, and we can place them in ^he positions they are best quali-
fied to fill — to our mutual advantage.

Dodge Manufacturing Company of Toronto, Limited, Toronto

C. H. Wheaton, Manager.

We are glad to enclose to you herewith copy of the "Apprenticeship
Articles" which we have adopted and which we have found to be the only
effective means of procuring mechanics through apprenticeship. You
will note that these Articles provide for a bonus to the apprentice who works
out the full period. Also they provide for a forfeit or tax for the one who
falls down. Furthermore you will note that the Articles call for the surety-
ship of the boy's parents, and we believe that if such Apprenticeship Articles
as these were more universally adopted and the details of same strictly en-
forced that there would be more mechanics produced.

As to any faults or drawba-cks through this system, we have not found
them other than the general difficulty of persuading boys and their parents to
enter into the contract, and we believe that the remedy for this must be by
general education. We think that there are a goodly percentage of mechanics'
sons who might reasonably be mechanics and do well. Also we believe that
there are a lot of them who are unwilling to deprive themselves to the extent
necessitated by the small wage possible during their four years of apprentice-
ship, which runs from 6oc. per day for the first six months to $1.50 per day
for the last six months of the whole term of four years, but this must' be the
pri^e which they must pay for their knowledge, and as a rule there are a great
many of them who will not wait, preferring to make from $i to $1.50 per day
at the start, but very often do not get much higher than that and continue to
be labourers or handy-men for the balance of their lives. Quite possibly there
are too many boys who drift aimlessly into whatever happens to come along
and quite possibly monthly addresses might be given at the public schools by
practical men to the boys. For instance a practical moulder might give an
address describing the foundry trade in detail, pointing out the good points
as well as the drawbacks and the possibilities, then a practical machinist might
do likewise, also a practical pattern maker likewise, and so on. Then we
believe that if at certain periods, such as the closing terms at the public
schools, enquiries were made as to how many boys were going to stop school
and start to work, and as to what they proposed to do, whether they were,
going to learn a trade or enter into a commercial life and so on, no doubt
some good could be accomplished. Also in many cases certain boys through
their physical make-up are best fitted for certain trades and businesses and
they should be so advised and directed, no doubt often to the ultimate benefit of
the boys.

APPENDIX 363

P. W. Ellis & Company, Limited, Toronto

W. G. Ellis, Factories Manager.

We are pleased to know from your circular of February 2ist that the
Government is giving special attention to the proper education of youths who
will likely be engaged in industrial enterprises, and trust that you will recognize
the fact that our factories must secure their apprentices from those who have
received only a Public School education. Our experience has been that it is
very seldom a boy from the High School applies for a situation as an apprentice
in our factories, and when they have they remain only for a short time.

We have always found it difficult to induce our apprentices after labouring
all day, to improve themselves by attending night classes during the winter
months, showing conclusively that lost opportunities during the Public School
course are not likely to be supplied later on by a technical course in a purely
technical school. Nor do we consider it wise to have the Public School course
shortened and interfered with by the switching of children into the High
Schools, by what is known as the Entrance Examination, thus sadly disorgan-
izing our Public Schools, especially in the senior classes, where they should be
exceptionally strong. We would also call your attention to the apparent lack
of systematic training of the eye to form and size. We have tried in our estab-
lishment to give our apprentices drawing lessons, but have been compelled
to give this up, owing principally to the lack of ambition shown by the appren-
tices themselves. Our efforts showed very conclusively that their Public School
education along those lines had been sadly neglected. The artist who gave
instructions, made the statement that of all the apprentices who entered his
class, only two gave evidence of having previously received such instruction
as gave them an idea of drawing; one having been educated in a Birmingham
school, and the other in Glasgow.

What we want for our factories is apprentices who are made by their
previous education, resourceful and strong. Think of a lad entering most
factories, without any knowledge whatever of chemistry, or having had a fair
introduction to the practical sciences. Let him take up any of the industrial
journals, how stupid he must feel in reading many of the articles therein found,
and how can you expect him to be at all ambitious when turned out of school
with a finished Public School education, absolutely blind to his opportunities?
When we know it is easily possible to secure such an education within the
period of the age of fourteen, it seems criminal to deprive the Public School
course of a finish adequate to the needs of our country's wage-earners. Go
back thirty years ago to the old Toronto Model School, from which youths
naturally left at the age of fourteen, and you will find a course at that time
which would be an ideal one for youths entering the artisan field, which we
are sure Principal Scott of the Normal would largely endorse.

In answer to your first question, "the system of apprenticeship we follow
in our industry," we would say that we have two systems, one covering a full
apprenticeship course of five years, and the other what is known as the indus-
trial course of three years. We find the industrial course to be the most
popular with the youth of to-day, and from the manufacturer's standpoint, it is
usually the most profitable for him. We are enclosing you agreement forms
covering both systems. We strongly recommend the full apprenticeship course,
by which with properly educated youths who will know how, and who have
the capacity for meeting business necessities by the aid of research, corres-
pondence schools, reference library, etc., the general Canadian industrial wel-
fare would be exceptionally improved and benefited.

24 E.I.P.

364

Frost & Wood Company, Limited, Smith's Falls

F. Whitcomb, Superintendent.

The number of apprentices we have is very limited, only three in our tool
room and sometimes we have some in our foundry; but there are none in that
department at the present time.

In our tool room they serve four years, and we try and manage so that
there will be one in each year.

In training them, we do our best to give them as much general work ns
possible.

Qlobe=Wernicke Company, Limited, Stratford

James J. Mason, President.

We have no regular system, as we find the three-year service does not
work out well. We, therefore, engage our boys and push them along as fast
as possible, advancing them as they improve. We find this works out better
than a regular apprenticeship contract.

Goldia & McCulloch Company, Limited, Gait

We are enclosing you a copy of our agreement with our apprentices, which
we require them all to sign, and under which we endeavour to teach them as well
as we can the practical part of the mechanical business in the several lines in
which we take them on. We make no attempt whatever to give them any
technical education but confine ourselves entirely to the practical part.

This system, we have come to think, has a number of serious faults.
In the first place, the pay that we give does not seem to be sufficiently high
to get the right kind of boys, although we cannot, of course, say that even
higher pay would get boys who have spent at least some time in the Collegiate
Institute, as there seems to be a tendency on the part of all these to seek
employment where they get quicker results and which they think will secure a
superior social position.

We are also beginning to feel that to attract the proper kind of boys we
must make some effort to teach them the theoretical part of the business to
some extent as well as the practical, and the writer intends, as early as possible,
to make some investigation with regard to what other manufacturers are doing
along this line.

It would no doubt be a very great help if some system of elementary technical
education could be devised by the Government to work along with the system
of apprenticeship as now in force. In the issues of the "American Machinist"
for January 6th, 1910, and for January 20th, 1910, this subject is discussed
and a short description given of the co-operative system in use in Fitchburg,
Mass., where the manufacturers and the School Board co-operate in giving
alternate instruction in theoretical and practical work. We are rather of
the opinion that this will be difficult to work in most places in Ontario, but if
it could be done it would be a very great help. It probably would be easier
for the Government to investigate the subject thoroughly and lay down certain
courses for study and then leave the carrying out of this to the manufacturers.
This might at first sight seem to be a slip-shod way of taking care of the matter ;
but, as in a very short time it would result in the manufacturer who paid most
attention to this getting the best apprentices, it would only be a short time
before practically all were working in unison.

John Cioodison Thresher Company, Limited, Sarnia

W. T. Goodison, Secretary.

We have instituted in our shop a system of apprenticeship by which each
apprentice is articled for a period of four years, no matter what trade he

APPENDIX 365

wishes to take up. Of course, where the apprentice is under the age, we get
the parent's signature as well. We find this works very satisfactorily in most
cases, but there are other cases where it is not so good. Our greatest difficulty
is in getting the apprentices to serve their full term. Some of them, after
they have served two and a half or three years, try to make some pretext to
get the articles cancelled, as they think they can go and command a job on
journeymen's wages. Apart from this difficulty, we find our system works
very well.

Qurney Foundry Company, Limited

Edward Gurney.

We are apprenticing young men on the old principle, for three years, only
occasionally. In some cases we take adults and bind them for two or three
years, giving them a large percentage of the usual piece prices as soon as prac-
ticable. We find that as a rule the young boys are not seeking a trade as in
former days'. The art of moulding has been so largely simplified in recent
years that it does not require the long application that it did formerly. From
the fact that we cannot start young with apprentices as we did formerly we are
not educating moulders as we once did. Practically there is no apprentice
system applied in any large way in this industry.

Harris Lithographing Company, Toronto

5. Harris.

1. We use an Indenture Form binding the boys in the Mechanical Depart-
ments for four years, and in the Art Department five years, under a gradu-
ated scale of wages, and we have inserted a clause in one indenture, whereby
we may (where merit deserves) increase the amount without cancelling the
Indenture.

These lads are put under a competent man. They have an opportunity
of observing the best methods, and are permitted almost immediately to do the
easier parts of the work. In a very short time we give them actual work.
Sometimes they spoil it, so that it has to be done over; but the experience
quickly teaches them to be accurate and careful.

We find this to be much better than just giving them practice work, where
it is immaterial whether they are correct or pot.

We also advise them to go to technical schools, but this is optional with
them. Some do, but we are of the opinion the majority do not take advantage
of the opportunity. There is no doubt it would make them better workmen,
inasmuch as they would have the theory and the knowledge of chemicals that
would materially assist them in conjunction with their experience.

We have found this system to work very well, and our boys have been
in practically every case successful workmen and very often have taken posi-
tions of trust over older men.

2. We do not know of any better system, and if the lads would take up
the technical end of it we are of the opinion it is about as good a system as
can be had.

We may say that we like to get the boys when they are about 15 or 16
years of age; not older than 16 years.

International Harvester Company of Canada, Limited, Hamilton.

A. A. McKinstry, Superintendent.

I. At the Hamilton works of the International Harvester Company appren-
tices are selected as far as possible from the sons of the men working with the
company, or boys recommended by these men.

366 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

A regular scale of wages if paid, increasing every six months for four years,
the rate of increase being greater for each successive six months as the term
expires.

No written contract or bond is exacted other than that regularly used in
the engaging of employees.

A verbal understanding is arrived at between the Company and the boy
hired as an apprentice to the effect that the first three months he is on pro-
bation, at the expiration of which time he is retained permanently or discharged
by the foreman, according to whether he has made good or otherwise. The
boy also has the option during this time of leaving if he so desires. If both
parties are agreed and the boy remains with the company, the three months'
probation service applies on his first six months' term.

It is also understood that during the four years term served by the
apprentice, he is to be changed around to get experience along all lines of the
trade, and at end of term should be familiar with either machine or bench
work.

2. The main drawback to above-mentioned system is that the company
has no hold on the apprentice when he becomes proficient and gets offer of more
wages elsewhere before his time has expired.

The remedy for this condition lies in the method of paying a 'lower rate
of wages during actual service, and, upon completion of the four years' term,
make the party a present in the form of a bonus of an amount equal to the
difference between the lower rate and the regular rate or a little* better for the
time served, but of course in case of non-completion of the term the forfeiture
of the bonus becomes effective.

Another point which can scarcely be called a fault is that a few complaints
have been made by boys, to the effect that they were not changed about suffici-
ently, being kept too long on some of the minor jobs.

This condition is almost invariably the fault of the boy himself, as any
apprentice who shows himself adapted to the worlc and pushes ahead, will as a
matter of practical economy, be stepped up and put on better work, but when
the boy is slow and laggard it is impossible to push him along rapidly.

McLaughlin Carriage Co., Limited, Oshawa

R. S. McLaughlin, President.

Answering your circular letter, we consider that facilities for securing
a technical education are very necessary these days, when it is practically
impossible to induce apprentices to put in their full time and thus learn
thoroughly the trade which they select. We have found it practically im-
possible to get young men with patience enough to master the trade
at which they start — they are so anxious to get along and make money. Our
piece-work system may possibly be responsible for this, but by no means alto-
gether so.

We are sure that any steps which may be taken by your department
along the lines of creating means whereby a technical education can be secured
for the average young man or ambitious young mechanic would be heartily sup-
ported by every manufacturer.

McCIary Manufacturing Company, London

W. M. Gartshore, Vice-President.

The system of apprenticeship which we have followed for some years is
that apprentices should be taken on for three years in the trade of mould-
ing, and be paid $4.50, $5.50 and $6.50 per week, respectively, if employed
at day work, and if employed at piece-work at the rate of eighty per cent,
of the standard board price for journeymen.

APPENDIX 367

At other trades : Tinsmithing — they are employed for the same length of
time, but there is no opportunity for piece-work. Pattern-making and machin-
ist's work — they are generally placed on four years' apprenticeship, at the rate
of $3.50, $4.50, $5.50 and $6.50 per week, respectively.

Each apprentice is under bond to the extent of one hundred dollars that
he will complete his apprenticeship. Where they are under age, the bonds
are furnished by the parents or guardians ; when over age, the security is left
with us in the shape of cash, sometimes paid in full, and other times deducted
from their wages, and put to their credit, and paid to them on completion of
their apprenticeship, with interest.

Notwithstanding the favourable terms on which young men can learn
trades, there is a scarcity of supply. Boys prefer, apparently, to get employ-
ment at something more remunerative, without any disposition to qualify them-
selves for better positions later on.

Of late we have found more success in employing men, and in some cases
married men, who have recognized the necessity of having a trade, but appli-
cations from those under age are very limited and the supply is not equal to
the demand.

In case of a technical education we think boys could be induced to follow
out those lines to which they are suited, as apparently they have no formed
opinions on the subject, and, as a rule, take the employment that offers the
greatest financial inducement for the time being.

John Morrow Screw Company, Limited, Ingersoll

/. A. Coulter, President and Manager.

We have really no system of apprenticeship further than that we make
our boys serve four years. We do not allow a boy to start an apprenticeship
with us until he has worked around machinery in our works for one year;
the reason for this is that we have in days gone by found that after we have
taken on some one to learn the trade of tool-making he had not the proper
"bump" for this work. If we find a boy is mechanical and has ability along
these lines during the time (a year or more) he is in our employ on other
work, we then give him an apprenticeship of four years, crediting him with
one year for the time spent as above indicated.

Our scale of wages is three, four, five and six dollars per week respec-
tively for each year. From this we deduct soc per week, which is handed
to the apprentice at the completion of his term, and which he forfeits should
he not carry but the full time of his apprenticeship. We have found this
to work exceedingly well. By this method the young man has a little money
•with which to buy tools, etc., to start him at the end of his apprenticeship,
and which would never have been saved except for this rule. Then, too,
we find that this has a tendency to hold these young fellows until they have
•completed the term.

Ontario Engraving Company, Hamilton

C. R. McCullough, President.

i. We take a boy at say, fifteen years of age. If he is intended for the
Artist Department he carries out sketches for submission to customers, learns
to "prove" engravings, makes sets of letters, gets his hand in on the simplest
class of design, is given medium class of design on showing progress, and
finally graduates into the higher class of air-brush work on machinery, stoves,
pianos, birdseye views, etc. In the Engraving Department a boy is taken at
fifteen and delivers engravings to customers, sweeps up the workshop, gets
mounting wood ready, assists the journeyman, and is assigned in due course
definite duties to perform. The training is all-round. Consequently the
worker is able to "fit" in in most departments.

368 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

2. Our plans as outlined above have worked well. The local Technical
School has afforded real service in enabling juniors and improvers additional
training in lettering, design, etc., in the evening classes.

If the Technical School conducted evening classes in Chemistry as applied
to photography, the fault in our engraving apprenticeship would be remedied.

Qeo. Pattinson & Company, Preston

Geo. Pattinson, M.P.P.

We are engaged in the manufacture of woven woollen goods, comprising
tweeds, cloakings, overcoatings, and woollen dress goods. There is no
system of apprenticeship in this country. Young people commencing work
usually follow one branch until they become proficient. The woven branch
of the woollen industry has gradually been reduced. At the present time
mills in operation are situated at considerable distances from each other. In
our opinion it would be a difficult matter to arrange technical education that
would be comparatively beneficial.

Penmans, Limited, Paris

R. Thompson, General Manager.

We have no system ; no proper apprenticeship can be followed to-day in
our business in tne towns in which we are located, since a boy or a girl wants
a man's or a woman's pay on starting in at the business. Having that much
money, they do not apply themselves to any particular work. They simply
hold on for some time, spending too much time on the streets and at shows.

The answer to the second question is that under these conditions we
cannot inaugurate a system. You will understand that in speaking in this way
we are speaking generally, and what we say does not apply to all persons,
but to the greater number.

Our skilled operators both in men's and in women's work become such
from helping to prepare work for the older ones and eventually picking the
work up of their own accord. They become skilled to the degree they apply
their minds and energy.

Toronto Carpet Manufacturing Co., Limited, Toronto

Jas. P. Murray.

In the matter of the child's age when employed, we submit that the entire
responsibility should be with parents. It is not the children or the employer
who are to blame for under-age children sometimes found in factories. The
parents force the children out to earn money and do all they can to make them
look to be over fourteen. We have a system of swearing parents as to chil-
dren's age, but even then the greatest care has to be practised.

We find so little ability in writing, grammar, spelling, and arithmetic that
it is sometimes doubtful if the time at school has not been more than half
wasted. In most of our cases the children who come to work in our factory
are not from the more well-to-do class of public school pupils. The poorer
workpeople take less interest in the attendance or the progress of their children
at school. The teacher should be a second parent, as the school is but taking
the parent's place. More men should be employed as teachers, particularly
after boys pass into their ninth year.

It has always been found that in all kinds of textile industry, fourteen
years is a good age to start learning the trade. A system of continuation
schools should be a practical part of our educational system. When children
enter a factory, it is taken that their school days are over. This is wrong.

APPENDIX 369

The law compelling attendance at school should cover apprenticeship, and no
child should be free from school attendance until the apprenticeship has been
completed. This, of course, should mean that learners should be articled appren-
tices ; but as trade union's socialistic sentiment opposes this as an infringement
on liberty, it might be difficult to have it enforced.

And further, the elementary special practical studies of a trade should be
taken up for a given period after apprenticeship expires. This could be encour-
aged by scholarships and diplomas. The Universities of Cincinnati, Pittsburg,
and others have introduced a way. May the method not be modified if it is
found to be necessary?

The education of a youth should be as a building planned and constructed
for and to a purpose. You cannot have a building by simply excavating and
putting in the foundation, and letting the rest go up any way or in any shape.
You may get a building, but it will probably be uninsurable.

These remarks have been made more lengthy because of the importance
of the whole subject, and if points outside your three questions have been
touched upon, it is because they seem to be necessary as a sequence to the work
done in the Public School.

Wetland Vale Manufacturing Co., Limited, St. Catharines

C. G. McPhee, Secretary.

The system of apprenticeship which we follow in our industry is that we
usually vork our men into positions that require particular skill by starting
them as helpers. All our factory work is piece work and the different jobs
require helpers or heaters. The piece work price is divided, 60 per cent, of the
price going to the workman and 40 per cent, to the helper or heater. As we
have vacancies, we usually fill them from among the men who have been acting
as helpers.

Williams, Greene & Rome Co., Limited, Berlin

F. 5". HodginSj Secretary-Treasurer.

The majority of our help is female help and there is no regular apprentice
ship. At the present time these girls come in and work for a period of about
two months under a guarantee of a wage of about $3.50 per week, and then
they go on piece work.

In our cutting room we employ a number of men. We have no regular
apprenticeship contract but it is understood that boys who come in here and
do the rough work in the beginning learn the trade and it takes them from
two to four years before they are put on piece work as experienced cutters.
The length of time varies according to the growth of the business and our
requirements which are, of course, affected more or less by the number of ex-
perienced people who leave us, as we educate practically all of our help here.
The advent of the electric cutting knife in the shirt department has done away
to a certain extent with the necessity of having cutters who have worked at
the trade for a considerable length of time.

In our hand ironing department (hand ironing being considered a trade)
we are obliged to employ all adults and, consequently, when they come in we
pay them about $1.00 a day for a couple of weeks while they are learning the
first rudiments. Then they are put on to the rougher work on piece work and
gradually advance.

Methodist Book and Publishing House, Toronto

Rev. Dr. William Briggs, Book Steward.

I. SYSTEM OF APPRENTICESHIP. — Apprenticeship in the various trades of our
business lasts five years. As a rule our apprentices enter at the age of 14 or 15
years.

370 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

2. FAULTS OF THE SYSTEM. — We have no criticism to offer. If at the end
of five years we do not consider the apprentice fully qualified in his trade he
as not promoted. He has the option of remaining with us as an apprentice
until better qualified, or leaving our employ. Our greatest complaint concerns
the lack of interest evinced by. the average employee in the welfare of the
house for which he works. There is a great lack of intelligent initiative, and
too much shiftless irresponsibility. This is possibly one of the undesirable
consequences of business prosperity. Excessive demand for and restricted
supply of labour is not conducive to the production of the best expert labour.

3. AGE OF ENTRY. — Apprentices in our composing room and bindery aver-
age between 14 and 15 years of age when entering our employ. In our press
room the average may be two years older. With the exception of a limited
percentage of our employees the personnel is constantly changing. This is
accounted for by the ease with which employment may be secured by applicants
of even mediocre ability.

4. SCHOOL STANDING OF APPLICANTS. — As a rule the applicants have
reached the lower fourth grade of the Public Schools. The education they
have received is very elementary, but when supplemented after they begin work
by attendance at the city night schools it is sufficient to produce first-class
mechanics.

5. DESIRABLE AGE. — Our experience has been that the best results are at-
tainable when the employee enters our service at the age of about 15, after
.completing the Public School course. If they are reasonably bright, attentive,
and ambitious, their success in their calling is assured.

6. GENERAL. — There is a tendency towards specializing in the printing
business, just as there is in other enterprises. This may act as a deterrent in
some cases in the attainment, after a reasonable apprenticeship, of an all-round
competence in the different branches of the trade. As yet, however, this is
not a serious matter. While I realize what a' great many good results have
•been obtained through the growth of unionism, and would not be quoted as
facing in any way opposed to its development, yet it is evident that the con-
solidation of the men's interests has cultivated the idea that the interests of
the employer and the employee are not identical, but rather, conflicting, and it
has become more and more difficult to entourage in the employees of our
mechanical departments that interest in the welfare of the institution that is
so desirable, and in fact so necessary to its highest success.

W. J. Gage Company, Toronto

Book Publishers and Manufacturing Stationers

1. APPRENTICESHIP. — We have an apprenticeship system whereby we em-
ploy boys or girls, and have them instructed in the different branches of our
•trade :—

Compositors. — We are allowed by the Union two apprentices to the first
five journeymen compositors, and one to each subsequent four or fraction
thereof.

Pressmen. — One to each four journeymen or fraction thereof.

Feeders. — One to the first five, and one to each additional six or fraction
thereof.

Bookbinders. — One to the first three, two to the first five, three to the first
nine, and one to each additional four. Service for apprentices is five years,
(except for feeders and bindery women, which is 3 years.

2. AGE. — The large majority of our apprentices usually enter our employ-
ment when they are about 14 or 15 years of age, and we find that apprentices
starting at that age are much more useful and adaptable to our business than
those that come on older. DESIRED AGE: Those who have received a good

APPENDIX 371

Public or Separate School education are far enough advanced to be able to
readily grasp any of the technicalities of our manufacturing business.

3. FAULTS. — There are too few apprentices permitted by the Unions. Ap-
prentices are not articled and, therefore, are not under control, and in many
cases the journeymen take no interest in teaching them.

A good system of preparatory education along technical lines should send
us apprentices better equipped for learning a trade thoroughly.

Builders' Exchange, Toronto

P. L. Fraser, Secretary.

1. (i) The apprenticeship system does not prevail to any considerable
extent in the building trades. In fact, some firms engaged in certain trades
have no apprentices whatever, and do not encourage the system. On investi-
gation I find the following existing conditions in the trades named: —

Stone Masons and Bricklayers. — Scarcely any apprentices.

Stone Cutters.— Some firms none, others with i or 2, some indentured.

Plasterers. — Most firms have i and 2, some indentured, but majority are
not.

Plumbers and Steamfitters. — A great number of apprentices employed by
all firms, but generally not indentured.

Carpenters. — Scarcely any apprentices.

Painters. — Nearly all firms have apprentices, but not indentured.

Electricians. — Few apprentices, not indentured.

Roofers. — The larger firms have 2 or 3 each, but not indentured.

(2) The means of training are: ist, observation; 2nd, instruction from the
foremen and men along with practical work. Some firms that have indentured
apprentices insist that they attend the night schools, which are at their disposal.

(3) The defects of the present provision' — it is difficult to point out the
defects, but that the system is not satisfactory is apparent from the calibre of
the mechanic of the present day production. From observation and investiga-
,tion, it is evident that under the indenture system, the boy oftentimes becomes
an unwilling apprentice, which means coercion and eventually failure. In case
of dissatisfaction, redress is all on the side of the apprentice. Again under
the present system, an apprentice may serve all his time without having an
opportunity to learn all the features of the trade. The whole system seems
obsolete and needs modernizing. During the last three decades, conditions
have changed for the journeyman, and it is necessary to bring the apprentice
to a corresponding level. Quicker methods of obtaining the knowledge he
seeks must be adopted in order that he may be able to give service equal to
•the remuneration it is necessary for him to receive.

(4) In my opinion the establishment of a system of Trade Schools would
greatly overcome the apparent dissatisfaction that exists under the present
apprenticeship system.

2. Workers generally enter the building trades at about 16 years.

3. The majority of apprentices come from the fourth form of the Public
School, but do not seem capable of applying their knowledge of the " three R's "
to their work.

4. It is generally admitted that apprentices are most useful when starting
at the age of 16 years.

!

John C. Boswell, Hamilton (Painter)

i. APPRENTICESHIP. — There have been no apprentices in ten years, except
one who works with his brothers. We pick up our men by chance, and gradu-
ally work them into the trade.

372 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

2. AGE. — They enter at almost all ages. Their schooling has very little
bearing on their work. Desired age : From sixteen to eighteen.

3. FAULTS. — It is largely a matter of chance if the workman becomes skilled.
He must depend almost entirely on himself to pick up a knowledge of his trade.

A boy or young man might be helped by a short course in a Trade School.

Holtby Bros., Toronto (Mason Contractors)

1. APPRENTICESHIP. — Bricklayers' apprentices serve four years, and two are
allowed by the Union to each employee.

2. AGE. — Apprentices enter under eighteen, usually at fourteen or fifteen.
Desired age : The Public School training is sufficient for ordinary needs. Our
apprentices follow up the work in a Technical School, and a better grounding
in Public School on these lines would be an advantage.

3. FAULTS. — Technical studies have not until lately been held up as a desir-
able field of endeavour as compared with what are considered professions. Under
the present system a great many are put to work at a trade when they fail to
make good in school, and in this they may follow their natural bent. If they
had been allowed to exercise their abilities in this direction under a system of
manual work, they might have absorbed considerable working knowledge and
a basis upon which to continue special courses in connection with their trades.

Adam Clark, Hamilton (Plumbing and Heating)

1. APPRENTICESHIP. — Apprentices serve five years helping journeymen, but
are not of much use until after having served seven years.

2. AGE. — About 15 years of age. A Public School education is good as far
as it goes. Desired age : Seventeen years.

3. FAULTS. — No technical training, which, if they had it, would probably
reduce their apprenticeship about two or three years, make better workmen,
and raise the standard of work.

Keith & Fitzsimons Company, Toronto (Plumbers & Steamfitters)

1. APPRENTICESHIP. — We have apprentices for five years at $3 per week, with
advance of $i each year. Of late, we cannot obtain them as they are scarce,
and we now employ boys at what wages we can.

2. AGE. — They enter at 16 years, which is about the best time for them.
The education they receive in Public Schools is very poor, and not at all what
they should have.

3. FAULTS. — The fault at present is in the time and pay necessary for boys.
We have to pay them high wages and let them go when not wanted.

The labor unions are a bad element for the boys, as they incite them to ask
for wages they are not capable of earning. The growing boys are young men,
without the trade, and they expect to get high wages, but are not retained any
longer than can be helped.

A. B. Ormsby, Limited, Toronto (Sheet=Metal Workers)

i. APPRENTICESHIP. — We don't have boys sign articles. We start them on
a small salary, with an increase every year. At the completion of four years'
time, if they have ordinary ability, they are practical mechanics and are worth
the union rate.

APPENDIX 373

2. AGE. — Boys enter our establishment at fifteen or sixteen years of age.
Desired age : A boy of fourteen that weighs about 120 pounds is more useful
to us than a boy of sixteen that weighs 105 pounds. We need good husky boys.

3. FAULTS. — The trouble with most boys that enter our employment is
that they have no fixed idea what work they would like or what they desire to
go at. If they happen to be passing the office and see the sign that we want
boys, they come in and apply. If they last a week or two they are likely to
stay with us ; but fully fifty per cent, of our boys quit after working a week, and
they then go around looking for another job, taking the first thing that circum-
stances put in their way. We would suggest that from the time boys are ten
years old they be sent to a manual training school where they may get an idea
of what they are adapted for and what they would like to go at.

Donaldson & Paterson, Hamilton (Carpenters & Builders)

1. APPRENTICESHIP. — We employ our apprentices for a term of three years,
paying $i=;o the first year, $450 the second year, and $550 the third year.

2. AGE. — Our opinion of the training received in the schools is that it bene
fits them. Desired ^age: About 17 years.

3. FAULTS. — The use of so much wood-working machinery. A young man
should get into a jobbing shop.

W. J. Hynes, Toronto (Contractor and Relief Decorations in Staff,

Cement, etc.)

1. APPRENTICESHIP. — For shop work an apprenticeship of four years. For
contract work on buildings an apprenticeship of five years. I stipulate that all
apprentices shall attend the night classes of the Technical School for the whole
term of their indentures. Apprentices in shop are directly under foreman's
eye. Outside they may be either under foreman or under some qualified journey-
man at times. Other conditions of apprenticeship are as outlined in the usual
indenture form.

2. AGE. — In shop I prefer them not over sixteen years of age. Outside the
Union stipulates that an apprentice shall be under eighteen. Their preparation
in the schools is practically nil, and I find it difficult to make them realize just
how important to them their apprenticeship really is.

3. FAULTS. — There seem to be too many boys set to learn a trade because
•they are thought too dull for office or professional life. If connected with a
large employer they necessarily receive less personal attention from that em-
ployer, while if connected with a small employer they may receive more per-
sonal attention, but in the latter case the opportunities for seeing the best class
of work are not so good. Would look to Technical Schools, free from Union
control, as a means to encourage clean living, right thinking and ambition.
Present instruction deals too much with subjects which apparently do not induce
real thinking on the part of the student. The average apprentice on the work
does things without reasoning out the why.

Grand Trunk Railway System, Stratford Shops

R. Patterson, Master Mechanic.

In Stratford we have about one hundred and ten apprentices at the present
time, and we put these boys through a five years' technical course.

We have great difficulty in getting lads fifteen years of age who are com-
petent to pass the examination for entrance to our works, particularly in math;-

3/4 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

matics and spelling; though our requirements go only as far as decimal fractions
and ordinary words are given to them for spelling test. In going into this
matter I find that the boys and girls attending the Public School up to ten and
eleven years of age are able to write, read, and spell fairly well, and will do
up to long division or decimals accurately, or fairly so. After this period, and
while they attend school for three or four more years, they are not able in a
great many cases to do multiplication or division correctly, have practically no
knowledge of drawing, geometry and mensuration, and their writing is not
improved, nor in some cases their spelling.

For commercial and industrial pursuits these requirements are absolutely
necessary to the success of the young man, and it appears to me that after he
arrives at the age which I have mentioned, so many subjects are taken up by the
student, that the real solid foundation of the education which he requires be-
comes a secondary consideration and he branches off into other subjects which
are practically a preparatory step for the university. It seems to me that the
whole trend of our education is based on the principle of giving them a general
knowledge for higher educational purposes. Now, this principle may be all
right for the purpose for which it is intended; but it is very detrimental to the
average student; for, when he leaves school at the age of fifteen, he has not
really got a good solid foundation to work on, but only a general smattering of
various subjects. Could these boys stay at school until they are 17 or 18 years
of age, this system would probably be satisfactory; but, as the majority leave
between the ages of fourteen and sixteen, they are handicapped for commercial
or industrial pursuits in the matter of their education. I would, of course,
prefer to have these boys remain at sfchool until they are seventeen or eighteen
years of age, so that they could get a good education, but, as before stated, this
is very often not possible with the large percentage of the boys, whose parents
cannot afford to send them to school for so long a period.

I think pupils are rushed through the schools too fast in the endeavour to
have them get this higher education, and also that the average boy is not con-
sidered as much as he ought to be in school life. You will find that, at a school
where there are two or three brilliant scholars, the boys who pass with honours
receive special attention, and a great noise is made if a few of these scholars
get high marks, while a large percentage of the scholars are away below the
average. Now, in school, as in every other sphere in life, the bright scholars
will take care of themselves. It is the scholar that is a little below the average
or only up to the average that needs coaching and special attention, and there
should be some means of taking care of this class of students. Teachers are
often judged by the number of scholars they can cram through to get high
marks at the examinations or pass into the higher classes. What I want to
emphasize is that more attention should be paid and longer time given to the
scholars to get a good grounding in a practical education, and that more atten-
tion should be paid to the scholars who are not brilliant.

Another difficulty is that in the public schools boys are taken only as high
as the fourth book, and a great many people are under the impression that when
a boy gets into the fourth book he has sufficient education, and the boy himself
begins to feel that he should then go to work. This is a very critical time, and
is just when he needs most attention. We should have the fifth book in our
public schools, or it should be taught free in our high schools, under the same
conditions as the fourth book in the public schools. To sum up : I believe that
lit would be of great assistance to our technical education if these boys were
taught to a greater extent, reading, writing, spelling, mathematics, drawing and
mensuration, dropping some of the other subjects which are merely a prepara-
tory step to a higher education. We find, when boys come to us from the Public
Schools or in some cases from the High School, they will only make from ten
to twelve per cent, when we test them in mathematics at the first examination
in practical questions, but after we put them through a course of practical six
months' work, a class will average from 70 to 75 per cent.

APPENDIX 375

With regard to technical training, you are conversant with our system at
Stratford, and I believe that this system should be carried out throughout the
whole country; that is, that manufacturers should be induced to take up the
apprenticeship question, arrange for preliminary examination before they are
allowed to enter the service (this would be a great incentive for boys to qualify),
and give them an education while in the service along with other practical work.
This would soon make competent foremen and superintendents for the different
manufacturing industries.

Some means should be devised by which the government would give a grant
to the establishment taking care of a certain number of apprentices, and eventu-
ally scholarships could be given so that the boys who desire to have a more
advanced education might go to the university for one year or an advanced
technical school, such as the government should build in the different large
cities. By this means a system of technical education would be spread all over
the country, all the manufacturers would be interested in it and it would be
developed rapidly and could be put into operation almost immediately, with
the co-operation of the manufacturers and with a minimum of expense to the
government.

II. OPINIONS OF EDUCATIONISTS

Dean Pakenham of the Faculty of Education, Toronto, late Principal of the
Technical High School, Toronto

As a preliminary to a reference to some of the difficulties attendant upon
the organization of technical education in Ontario, a few general observations
are offered.

The situation does not justify an over-sanguine temper and should not
provoke to an over-hasty act. Discontent with industrial conditions has per-
sisted through the centuries and, despite all man's efforts at reform, it will
persist. Education is not an infallible remedy. Industrial education will not
eliminate the industrial misfit. Over-zealous advocates of technical education
often disparage general education, or often set one form of education against
another. Book learning is set over against hand training, and the liberal arts
over against the applied sciences. And yet both are essential. A democracy
cannot persist in Ontario without a trained professional class. No man needs
the liberalizing influences of the humanities more than the Ontario craftsman !

Nor should the situation provoke a very keen sense of guilt at Ontario's
failure to provide technical education. Ontario has not failed. Looked at from
one side technical education is concerned with the workers in rural centres
and the workers in urban centres. In so far as rural workers are concerned,
Ontario has little to learn from other lands in the matter of agricultural edu-
cation. She has much to teach. Looked at from another side technical edu-
cation is concerned in the training of those who make and of those who sell.
In so far as those who sell, i.e., the merchants, are concerned, Ontario has
long recognized her duty, has striven intelligently to perform that duty, and,
apart perhaps from the higher or college form of commercial education, has
achieved some success in the performance. Even those who remain — those
who make in urban centres, i.e., the manufacturers, mechanics, artisans —
Ontario has not wholly neglected. This bears repetition. Ontario has not
neglected training for the industries. The first need of those industries is the
trained leader. For the engineers, experts, directive minds of her industrial
army, she maintains instruction in applied science, which is scarcely surpassed
on this continent. The second need is the trained rank and file. The indis-
pensable condition of such training is a new spirit and a new purpose in the
existing schools. School curricula that have trained the aristocracies of Greece
and Rome and the ruling classes of modern Europe will not meet the demands
of a democracy whose interests are industrial and whose school attendance is
co-extensive with the population. Recognizing the situation Ontario has set

376 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

about readjusting her school curricula and school activities. She has already
opened a few technical schools and a considerable number of manual training
and household science centres. She has reorganized her professional schools
for teachers, with a view to serving an agricultural and industrial community,
and she has added to, enlarged, and made more practical her Public and High
School Courses in art, science, mathematics, as well as in the manual arts.
Her rapidly expanding school expenditures, moreover, are another evidence of
her sincerity in this regard. It is true that in the specific training of the rank
and file of the industrial army Ontario has not moved forward rapidly. But
her steps have been certain, and she has never retreated. Unlike other modern
countries, she has never sent an expensive technical plant to the scrap heap!

The situation, moreover, will not permit of wholesale importations or
imitations. Ontario cannot duplicate the organization that obtains in Switzer-
land or Germany, or even England. This is not the old world. Here the
industrial population is sparse, and industrial interests are still subordinate to
agricultural interests. Social conditions do not here favour the transmission
of an occupation from father to son as a heritage, nor do political ideals per-
mit paternalism in state control of parent or apprentice or employer.

The general situation, moreover, makes one or two things clear. The
average parent needs a new sense of the dignity of manual labour, and the
average ratepayer needs a new sense of the importance of technical education.
That education will be expensive, and, therefore, possible only in the larger
urban centres, and those urban centres will maintain that education with un-
certainty and reluctance. Conditions such as these demand the vigorous initia-
tive of the state, with money, expert advice, some official pressure, and much
official missionary work!

Some of the difficulties that beset the training of the craftsman have their
origin in the modern factory.

The evolution of machinery has resulted in the growth of an army of
unskilled workmen as machine attendants, "improvers," handy men, shop
assistants, and labourers. This army, in so far as it is recruited from those
happy-go-lucky fellows to whom " sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof,"
will not accept technical education. Ambitious men, once drafted into its
ranks, quickly attain to the fullness of their powers without technical educa-
tion. Accordingly technical education, as it fosters ambitions and draws the
recruits away from unskilled activities, becomes a questionable blessing in the
eyes of the shop.

Modern competition, taken together with the disintegration of the appren-
tice system, has thrown a veil of secrecy over the activities of the workshop.
The artisan does not know his employer or his fellow workmen, does not know
the finished article of which he fashions a part, and is himself only a number.
" No admittance " is written across the doors of the shop. " No admittance "
is often written in spirit over its machines and its processes. Technical educa-
tion cannot flourish in such an atmosphere.

There is hope for technical education in co-operation between school and
shop. But modern competition makes co-operation difficult or well-nigh im-
possible. Strenuous work during the day leaves the workman too exhausted
for effective study at night. The employer cannot afford to release the worker
from the bench for study during the day. Nor can he permit, as seems in-
creasingly necessary, the use of the shop for applications of school processes.
The shop* may need technical education, but under the stress of modern com-
petition it cannot stop to give it, or even at times to reward it. .

Some difficulties that beset the training of craftsmen have their origin in
the schools.

Technical schools, be their organization what it may, must assume in
their pupils an indispensable minimum of training in the fundamental subjects.
So long as the leakage from the Fifth, Fourth, etc., and even Third school
grades (i.e., between the ages 16 and 10) continues, this "indispensable

APPENDIX 377

minimum" is impossible. In this school "mortality," with its attendant evils,
lies the first problem of technical education.

Existing technical curricula are unsatisfactory. They are compiled by
men who do not know the shops as if intended for schools of college rank
and for pupils the majority of whom do not pass on into the shops. Here
lies a second problem of technical education.

Technical instruction may be given in night classes or day classes. In so
far as day classes are concerned, the call of the shop is so insistent that the
boy cuts short his school training and passes on abruptly to the workbench.
In so far as night classes are concerned, physical exhaustion, the need of
social relaxation, night work in the shops, and discouraging progress, play sad
havoc with attendance. Hundreds set forth in October with high hopes, but a
wretched score or two reach the goal in spring time! To make attendance
regular and continuous is another problem of technical education.

Man cannot teach what he does not know. No man can teach the shop
who does not know the shop. This is a common pedagogic truth which has
hitherto been overlooked. The teacher of mathematics, or science, or lan-
guages, has been set to teach the processes of the shop, and has failed. To
create a new type of teacher is another problem of technical education.

High schools have a long history and noble traditions. They trained our
fathers; they give us our professional classes; they add a fine flavour to our
civilization. But technical schools are new, without traditions, as yet without
successes, and therefore without prestige. Here lies implicit another and even
graver task — to turn a due part of the tide of ambitious youth away from the
High Schools and into the Technical Schools.

Other difficulties that beset technical education have their origin in the
boy himself.

Hitherto the trades have been recruited in no slight degree from boys
who, unsuccessful and unhappy in the schools, reject further education, or
from boys who, as messengers, newsboys, elevator boys, delivery boys, are
flotsam and jetsam upon the great sea of human activities. These boys must
be made happy and successful in school, or must be given a steadying purpose
in the work-a-day world.

The industrial misfit is the victim of an unwise choice of occupation. The
parent, chance, pressing economic demands, are now the determining factors
in this choice, while the one determining factor should be the fitness of the boy
himself. The boy should choose his occupation, and should base that choice
upon a knowledge of his own powers. In some way, and especially through

technical education, the boy must be helped to find himself.

i

Dean Ellis of the Faculty of Education, Kingston, late Principal of the
Kingston Collegiate Institute and Manual Training School

Judging from our experience in Kingston, and from enquiries made about
the subject elsewhere, I am not at all hopeful regarding the success of evening
classes in this Province under present conditions. The following reasons in-
fluence me in coming to these conclusions. I will state later some opinions
that I have formed regarding methods that may be adopted that possibly would
lead to better results : —

i. The apprentice or young workman does not feel the pressing need of
gaining greater ability in order to improve his earning capacity The unskilled
workman at a machine can generally make wages considerably in advance of
those prevalent a few years ago, and this earning power has gone ahead quite
as rapidly as the cost of living has increased, so that he does not feel the pinch
of even relatively reduced pay. Since there is no immediate pressure on him
to undertake a tedious amount of supplementary work in order to earn a reason-
able living, while particularly he has no family, or the support of that family

3/8 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

is not expensive, he lets the opportunity slip by until too many years have gone
for him to recover the advantages of the lapsed opportunity, even if he wanted
to do so.

2. It is a characteristic of the untrained man that he lacks staying power.
Evening classes to be effective require a long course of concentrated effort to-
wards a definite purpose. It would be easy to persuade many to enter on such
a course, but any mere spurt of study cannot be satisfactory, because either
boys or men who have been away from school for some time adjust themselves
slowly and at considerable effort when they resume studies. In order, there-
fore, to make such advancement as will be materially beneficial to them, the
studies must be both extended in time and intensive in character. These con-
ditions will be met successfully only on rare occasions, and by the exceptional
individual, when there is not pressure of economic necessity to compel the
effort.

3. The conditions of the workshop are such that it is not reasonable to
expect boys and men to attend evening classes. A day's work is not a suitable
preparation for mental effort at riight, for a tired body does not conduce to
activity of mind. It, therefore, needs an unusual stimulus to cause those who
are engaged during the day in work that produces a physical drain, to undertake
a systematic series of night exercises that make a considerable demand on
bodily energy. Beyond that, it is probable that in most cases such intellectual
work is more exhausting for the mechanic than for the school-boy, because of
lack of adjustment for the labour required.

4. Another element that has contributed to the failure of these attempts
to give the essentials of necessary education to employees of industrial and com-
mercial establishments has arisen from the employment of instructors who lack
the proper point of view. The teacher who has been trained for ordinary
school work is not content to treat the subjects for evening classes in the way
they should be taken up. Even in technical classes in schools one of my serious
difficulties has been to get teachers who would do the work, particularly in
Mathematics, Science and Freehand Drawing, keeping the industrial application
to the fore. When that application becomes an essential factor in the success
of the teaching itself, and in the maintenance of attendance, the difficulty is
increased. The instructors of evening classes should not only be expert teach-
ers, but each should be a master of the industrial or commercial operations to
which his instruction leads. This is necessary for economy of time and for the
confidence of those attending.

5. Experience shows the attendance and work of evening classes to be
irregular and sporadic. When this work is not done systematically and with
serious and long-continued effort, there is little use in attempting to carry it
on, for it is bound to result in failure so far as any profitable result is concerned,
and to engender dissatisfaction, or even disgust, in the individual who does
not know why he makes no progress. The work of such classes should, there-
fore, be systematic and continuous, two elements that have not been prominent
in cases in which attempts have been made to give instruction to those engaged
in industrial operations.

In my opinion,, evening classes to be successful must be conducted in
schools specially designed to give industrial training, and the curriculum should
be made with the view of continuity and definite application of the knowledge
and facility 'gained. The entire work should be vocational, should appeal to
ambitious youths as worth the effort, and should be conducted by men who
understand the conditions of the workman and are in sympathy with him.

Some arrangement should, if possible, be made to set apprentices free at
least for the time necessary for this instruction, and if manufacturers would
pay dividends for skill, and thus recognize efficiency, the problem would be
much nearer solution. Meantime, lack of a feeling of need of evening classes,
fitful attendance, scrappy courses of study, unfit physical condition, and teachers

APPENDIX 379

of doubtful qualification for thir duty combine to make any effort to conduct
such classes under the present conditions a rather hopeless labour.

Technical schools properly equipped and staffed, situated in important
centres, would probably be more successful, because of their aims, methods and
influence.

Brantford Collegiate Institute and Manual Training School

A. W. Burt, B.A., Principal.

In reply to your enquiry concerning the work in our Technical and Indus-
trial classes, I beg to state that in our day classes in Manual Training and
general technical work, there is a much better attendance than last year. In
the Industrial class, on the other hand, there is a slight decrease — from eighteen
to sixteen — though the members of this class are on the whole much superior
to those of the class of last year. In the evening classses there is also an
increased enrolment, our accommodation being overtaxed in woodwork, metal
work and mechanical drawing. Our past experience, however, has been that
the attendance drops off when the winter sports begin, and when night work
is being done in the factories, so that after Christmas, in the academic subjects
especially, it is somewhat difficult to maintain a class large enough to justify
the continuance of the work. Different plans have been tried in various places
to secure continuous attendance, but none, as far as I can learn, have proved
successful unless the managers of the local factories have co-operated with the
schools. We shall try to secure this in some way next year, when our new
school will be in use, and we hope ,a new enthusiasm will be aroused. We
shall, however, I think, have to wait till positions in banks, offices, and stores
are less easily obtained by boys of limited education, and till there is more
discrimination between the rewards of skilled labour and that which is unskilled,
or skilled in one finite branch only, before we can hope that many men ex-
hausted by ten hours of monotonous toil will devote themselves to what, as far
as they can see, will be of little pecuniary advantage to them. A recent ex-
perience will illustrate what I mean : A farmer who moved into town some ten
or twelve years ago, a " handy man," has been working since at one of our
factories. He has been continuously producing one part of a certain machine,
using a machine to accomplish this. He was shingling his house a few weeks
ago, and informed me that he would have 'engaged a carpenter to do this work
had not the factory been " shut down " for stock-taking ; for he could earn more
at his machine than he would have to pay a carpenter, i.e., more than a man who
would have to spend three or four years in learning a somewhat complex and
difficult trade.

The success of the Correspondence Schools is sometimes pointed to as an
indication of the eagerness of the masses to secure instruction in technical
lines. It is true that attractive advertisements and persistent well-paid can-
vassing secure them a large enrolment of students, but another incident will
illustrate how far advantage is taken of the opportunities they undoubtedly
present. When the Industrial Commissioners made their visit here, it was
thought well to bring before them some students, and if possible some graduates,
of the Correspondence Schools. In the whole city, with some hundreds of
these students said to be enrolled, the work having been carried on for many
years, only one could be found who had finished a course, two others who had
done this having left the city.

It appears, then, that the great difficulty in Ontario will be, not to devise
a scheme of Technical and Industrail training, but, at present at least, to secure
and retain students. Workmen will have to learn that there are other rewards
of efficiency than they now realize, and employers of labour must do more than
merely urge the community to develop the skilled labour they require. Let me
present a few more illustrative facts to show how slight is the attraction of

25 E.I.P.

380 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

industrial life for educated boys. For our industrial class, i.e., the class or-
ganized with the direct purpose of preparing boys for the factories, we can only
secure pupils (as I learn is the case in Hamilton also) by admitting boys who
have not passed the Entrance Examination. Of some seven who left this class
last year, only one is working in the shops, three are in banks, two in stores,
and one, after working for some time in a factory, has a position in a whole-
sale merchant's office. I spoke to the latter a few days ago. He said that his
prospects of making money are better than they were, and that his work is much
more agreeable. Again, we had a boy who failed to gain his promotion in the
Teacher's Course, but who had done well in Manual Training. I recommended
his father, a prosperous foreman-moulder, to put him in the shops after a pre-
liminary course in our Industrial class. The father replied that he was not
going to let his son slave away his life in the factories as he had done, getting
up early to breathe dusty air all day, and then going home too tired to do
anything but sleep to prepare for a new day's toil. Those of our boys who have
done best in the shops, and these, too, constitute by far the largest number there,
are boys who have taken general work in the school. For example, a young
man, who went as far as to the Matriculation Examination, has rapidly risen
to the best position in the town in the trade he learnt-

My opinion is that little can yet be done in Ontario by way of direct pre-
paraation for industrial life, that what will be most effective till openings in
easier callings are fewer is, not trade schools, as in the old world, where necessity
urges men into any remunerative employment, but general courses in our
schools affording ample time and opportunity for such subjects as Drawing and
Manual Training, so that boys may be led to discover their capabilities, and
thus to follow those callings for which they are best fitted. For successful,
evening classes we need the co-operation of the manufacturers at least to the
extent of recognizing in increased pay, limited apprenticeship or shorter hours,
the effort put forth by their employees to improve their efficiency.
I

Hamilton Technical and Art School

\ /. G. Witt on, M.A., Principal.

In our day school we have at present two classes of boys who devote all
their time to technical school work, in addition to a large number of occasional
pupils, whom, for the present, we may dismiss from the discussion. The attend-
ance in these classes is small. This may be attributed principally to two causes,
the chief of which, in my opinion, is the public's intense conservatism in regard
to the educational programme. In the past, the pupil who passed the High
School Entrance Examination, if he wished to continue his education, had to
attend a High School, and the programme of studies offered there has been
accepted as a matter of course. But while this programme offers a necessary,
and no doubt very satisfactory, preparation for those who wish to enter teach- '
ing or one of the " learned " professions, I am convinced that it is of consider-
ably less value to others, and especially to the many who spend only a year or
rwo at a High School. These pupils, to my mind, would find a course such as
is offered by this school to be ®f greater value to them, but for some time, I
fear, it will be difficult to convince their parents of this. The same conservatism
will prevent the public realizing the value of a course for girls which would
include such subjects as arithmetic, English, cooking, sewing, design, etc.
Possibly the prejudice in favour of a more literary training will wear away in
time; it is unreasonable, perhaps, to expect a radical change to be effected
quickly.

The High School course has an added advantage in presenting a definite
goal to the ambitious student; when he completes his course his efforts are re-
warded by a teacher's or a matriculation certificate. We are sometirnes asked

APPENDIX 381

what we have to offer our pupils on the completion of their course, and find
that we are not in a position to give a wholly satisfactory reply. Some token
of recognition by the Department of Education would likely stimulate the
student and at the same time enhance the status of the school.

Other difficulties are those of obtaining suitable text-books, and securing
teachers whose training enables them to view the academic subjects from the
standpoint of their industrial applications.

Our evening pupils are under no such restraint as our day pupils, and their
attendance is irregular. This irregularity might be corrected to some extent
by the Government recognizing the work of the pupils as suggested above, or,
if it could be accomplished, by an arrangement between the school on the one
hand, and the employers or the labour unions on the other. One of the United
States railroads, I understand, which has established schools for its own
apprentices, gives " merit marks " to those pupils who complete their courses
of study. This is part of a general system, for the same railroad gives merit
marks to employees who, by exceptional service, advance the road's interests,
and the winner of a certain number of merit marks is entitled to special con-
sideration in the way of promotion and advance of wages. The scheme is
susceptible, possibly, of wider application.

It might be well, too, for the Department to consider to what extent the
co-operation of the labour unions might be secured to the advantage of' their
younger members and the general public. In establishing our course in printing,
we have been promised the support of the local Typographical Union, and from
the representations made to us we look for the Union to encourage apprentices
to attend the class.

But while a better training of our artisans is to the advantage of both them-
selves and their employers, any system of public instruction is concerned chiefly
with the public welfare. More complex conditions of living demand a broader
training of our workmen. The following from "Modern Sanitation" (Sept.,
1910), is to the point:

"Recently, in that city (St. Paul, Minn.), the plumbing board, at a meeting
held in the office of the City Engineer, made a ruling, which has almost the force
of a law, to the effect that hereafter, in order to qualify as a master plumber,
the applicant must pass an examination as to his ability as a journeyman, must
be able to prepare plans of plumbing work, and must be able to estimate on
the plumbing in a building from the plans and specifications." How well the
plumbers are qualified to meet these demands is shown by a further quotation:
" A poll of those engaged in the plumbing business to-day would no doubt dis-
close the fact that not 10 per cent, of them can draw a plan, nor can all write
a specification."

To revert to our own school— we find a good demand for instruction in
those subjects which promise immediate benefit to the pupil, such as mechanical
and architectural drawing, woodworking and machine shop practice, and very
little interest in the academic branches, such as physics and chemistry, whose
value, though no less real, is less apparent. Our classes for women, viz., the
classes in cooking and dressmaking, have been well attended and the newly-
organized class in millinery promises well. The attendance builds up some-
what slowly in the fall, is best in mid-winter, and dwindles in the spring.

Stratford Collegiate Institute and Manual Training School

C. A. Mayberry, B.A., Principal.

We have not as yet had any public evening classes in this city and I cannot,
from experience, say anything on the subject. We have, however, been dis-
cussing the matter of technical education and I can speak of the conclusions
we have arrived at The Grand Trunk shops have a system of compulsory
classes for its apprentices. These classes have been very successful and have

382 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

done much for the boys in the employment of that company. These classes, I
understand, are general throughout the Grand Trunk system. I believe that
evening classes for mechanics are not only feasible but very necessary under
present conditions. There are many of the younger class of mechanics of
the better class, who are ambitious enough to feel the need of some further
training and are seriously handicapped by their meagre attainments in mathe-
matics and drawing especially. These classes would supply the required train-
ing. There are many boys, no doubt, who perhaps would not benefit much by
the establishment of such classes, but there would be provided the facilities
for the more progressive class who are destined to become leaders among me-
chanics. I find that our manufacturers and employers of labour, generally,
think this want of training is a serious drawback and are much concerned that
opportunities for improvement should be given to young mechanics. I should
not expect that any great number of young men in a place the size of Strat-
ford" would voluntarily avail themselves of the opportunities afforded. But
a number of promising young artisans would do so. There is no doubt that
the manufacturers would co-operate with the educational authorities in the
work. If an Industrial School could be established to care for this class separ-
ately from our existing educational system, so much the better. It seems to
be an opinion generally held among our manufacturers that many young. me-
chanics after a few years' experience in the shops would avail themselves of a
year or so in such a school. The benefits of such a training could hardly be
over-estimated. All our employers of labour are thoroughly convinced of the
urgent necessity of doing something at once to increase the efficiency and the
general status of the mechanic. Suppose we could get fifteen or twenty of this
class in Stratford to take up the work they need. Would not this be worth
while? These men would become leaders in their field of labour, master-
mechanics, foremen, etc. It requires, of course, time to develop such a system;
it cannot be done without expense, but it would more than pay for the trouble.

I believe, however, that the great hope of the increased efficiency and of a
higher standard among the artisans' class depends upon the education of the
mechanic before he enters a shop, and that to this end the efforts of our Gov-
ernment and manufacturers should be mainly devoted. In this opinion I have
the undoubted support of all leading manufacturers here. There is no doubt
among them that the further the boy goes in school, and the better his general
education, the more efficient and satisfactory mechanic does he become. There is
an idea too widely held that a very meagre education is all the mechanic needs,
and the great proportion of young artisans is drawn from the class which
leaves school before even entering the fourth class of the public school. To
remedy this serious state of affairs is the great problem.

If a Technical course were established in the High School along similar
lines to a Commercial course, I feel persuaded that it would not be many years
until the course would become fairly popular with the mechanic class. I am
sure that the manufacturers would lend their efforts to carrying out this
scheme and would recognize the diploma of our graduates having a two or three
year course in such a way that many boys would be induced to continue their
course along this line. I am assured by our leading manufacturers that it
would be to their benefit not only to give their moral support to this plan but to
encourage it financially by giving such apprentices a few cents an hour more
than the apprentices who lacked the course. Especially in places where a
Manual Training School exists could the High School undertake such work
without adding new machinery to our present facilities. That the High School
is the place to do this work is without doubt. The greater number of the me-
chanic class that could be induced to enter the High School, the more satisfac-
tory will be the results. To bring the artisans closely in touch with secondary
schools and to give them a desire for better general education is, in my opinion,
the greatest benefit that can be conferred upon them. I was greatly struck

APPENDIX 383

with this on visiting the G.T.R. shops the other day. I asked the master-
mechanic to name to me the young men who are leaders in his shops. I had
no difficulty in finding out that every young man named as being progressive
and promising and taking the lead there had formerly been a student of ours.
We have already a very small class of the nature and the character I have men-
tioned in our school, and from our short experience we are well pleased with it.

384 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

APPENDIX C.

For convenience in dealing with the questions discussed in my
report, I give below in I. the provisions of the Schools Act
for manual training, agriculture, household science, and technical
education; and, in II. the regulations governing the distribution of
the grants for manual training, household science, and special tech-
nical education and the qualifications of the teachers of such schools .

I. ACTS OF THE LEGISLATURE
An Act Respecting the Department of Education

Under "An Act respecting the Department of Education," the Minister
administers and enforces the statutes and regulations respecting technical
schools, and may make regulations for their establishment, organization, gov-
ernment, courses of study, examinations, accommodations, and equipment, the
authorization of text-books and books of reference, and the qualifications and
duties of inspectors, teachers, and directors of such schools. It is also his duty,
subject to the regulations, to apportion, out of the moneys appropriated for
such purpose, all sums payable under any statute or regulation towards the
maintenance of technical schools.

An Act Respecting Public Schools

Instruction in Agriculture, Manual Training and Household Science

no. — (i) The council of a township may engage the services of a person
holding the degree of Bachelor of Science of Agriculture or other certificate
of qualification from the Ontario Agricultural College and approved of by the
certificate of the Minister or of an instructor qualified as required by the regu-
lations, to give instruction in agriculture, manual training and household
science in the public schools of the municipality, and the council may levy and
collect from the ratepayers of such municipality who are public school sup-
porters such sums as may be necessary to pay the salaries of such instructors,
and all other expenses connected therewith.

(2) The courses of instruction shall be those prescribed by the regulations.

(3) The board of a rural school section or of a union school section or
a number of such boards may severally or jointly engage the services of any
person qualified as provided in subsection i for the purpose of giving similar
instruction to the pupils of their respective schools.

(4) The courses of instruction in agriculture, manual training and house-
hold science shall, as far as practicable, be open to all residents of the school
section or municipality.

Manual Training and Domestic Science Classes

in. — (i) The high school board, the public school board and the separate
school board, or the board of education and the separate school board, or any

APPENDIX 385

of such boards in a city, town or village may enter into agreements with one
another for the formation and carrying on of classes for instruction in agri-
culture, manual training and household science in connection with the work of
the schools under the management of such boards, and for providing suitable
buildings, apparatus and appliances for carrying on such classes, and the
appointment of teachers therefor, and the proportion in which the cost thereof
is to be borne by each board.

(2) The boards may delegate the management and control of such classes
and the buildings, apparatus and appliances used in connection therewith, to
such committee or committees as they may see fit, composed of members of
such boards or of one or more of them, and such committees may if the cost
thereof has been included in the estimate mentioned in subsection 4, procure
from time to time such buildings, apparatus, appliances and material as may
be deemed necessary for carrying on such classes, and may engage teachers
therefor.

(3) The members of any such committee shall hold office during the
pleasure of the board by which they are appointed.

(4) The committees shall annually, on or before the first day of February,
furnish to each board an estimate of the amount required for carrying on such
classes during the then current year, and the boards shall include in the esti-
mates to be furnished to the council of the city or town the proportion of the
amount so required, which is to be provided by the board, and the same shall
be included in the school rates of the municipality and levied and collected
therewith.

An Act Respecting High Schools and Collegiate Institutes

ii. A high school board, a public school board and a continuation school
board, or any one or more of such boards, may engage the services of any
person holding the degree of Bachelor of Science of Agriculture or other cer-
tificate of qualification from the Ontario Agricultural College and approved of
by the Minister, to give instruction in agriculture to the pupils of their
respective schools.

23. — (2) Where an Agricultural Department is established by the Minister
in a high school the council of the county in which the high school is situate
shall, on or before the isth day of December in each year, pay to the board
of the school in which such department is established the sum of $500, which
shall be applied by the board to the purposes of such department.

An Act Respecting Continuation Schools

10. — (3) Where an Agricultural Department is established by the Minister
in a Continuation School, the council of the county in which the Continuation
School is situated, shall on or before the 15th day of December in each year
pay to the board of the school in which such department is established the sum
of $500 which shall be applied by the board to the purposes of such depart-
ment.

An Act Respecting Boards of Education

23. The provisions of The Public Schools Act and of The High Schools
Act and of The Act respecting Technical Schools and of all amendments
thereto, which are not inconsistent with this Act, shall be read as part of this
Act, and so far as such provisions are inconsistent with the provisions of this
Act they shall not apply to municipal boards or union boards.

An Act respecting Public Libraries and Art Schools provides that: — A
Board may open evening classes for artisans, mechanics, workingmen and

386 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

others, in such subjects as may promote a knowledge of the mechanical and
manufacturing arts.

The board in a city may with the approval of the municipal council, estab-
lish an art school within the city, and may conduct the same, subject to the
Regulations, so as to promote the study of art or the purposes for which it
is established ; and all the powers vested in, and all the duties imposed upon
the board with respect to libraries, reading-rooms and museums shall be
applicable to an art school so established.

An Act Respecting Public Libraries

A Board may open evening classes for artisans, mechanics, workingmen,
and others, in such subjects as may promote a knowledge of the mechanical
and manufacturing arts.

The Board in a city may with the approval of the municipal council, es-
tablish an art school, within the city, and may conduct the same, subject to
the Regulations, so as to promote the study of art or the purposes for which
it is established ; and all the powers vested in, and all the duties imposed upon
the board with respect to libraries, reading-rooms and museums shall be applic-
able to an art school so established-

For such schools a Legislative grant not exceeding $400 is provided, with
a further sum on the basis of attendance and efficiency.

An Act Respecting Technical Schools

Her Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Legislative
Assembly of the Province of Ontario, enacts as follows : —

Establishment of Technical Schools by High School Boards

1. The trustees of any high school or any board of education may, by
resolution passed at a special meeting called for the purpose (of which at
least one month's notice shall be given in writing to each member thereof),
establish a technical school, or may change any high school already estab-
lished into a technical school, providing that such resolution shall not take
effect until ratified by a by-law of each municipality composing the high school
district, and also by the county council (if any), required by The High Schools
Act, to contribute the equivalent of the Legislative grant towards the main-
tenance of such high school.

Technical Instruction Provided by High School Boards

2. Subject to the preceding section, it shall be lawful for the trustees of
any high school or board of education to provide instruction in the arts and
sciences usually taught in technical schools, but particularly such arts and
sciences as relate to the industries of the Province; the marketable value of
the raw material used in manufactures ; the chemistry of foods, dyes, and min-
erals. Instruction shall also be given in agriculture and domestic science, and
in architecture, mechanical drawing and decorative design, and such other
related subjects as may be found necessary to render the labours of the farmer,
the mechanic and the artisan more productive. The buildings to be used for
technical school purposes shall be separate and distinct from the buildings used
for high school purposes. Any pupil not entitled to be admitted to a high
school shall not be entitled to admission to any technical school established as
herein provided.

3. The provisions of The High Schools Act shall apply to technical
schools, subject to any regulations of the Education Department with respect

APPENDIX 387

to the fees to be paid by pupils, the course of study, the qualifications of
teachers, the use of text books, and the equipment of the school. The con-
ditions upon which money voted by the Legislature for high schools shall apply
to all appropriations made to technical schools.

Establishment of Technical Schools for Adults in Cities and Towns

4. It shall be lawful for the municipal corporation of any city or town
by by-law to appropriate such sums of money as may be deemed expedient
for the establishment of a technical school for adults within the meaning of
this Act. All the powers vested in the corporation by The Municipal Act,
for the purchase or expropriation of lands, or for leasing or repairing build-
ings, or for the erection of new buildings for the use of the municipality,
shall be applicable to this Act.

Grant to Technical Schools for Adults

5. Towards the maintenance of such schools there shall be paid annually,
on the report of the Minister of Education, out of any moneys appropriated
by the Legislature for that purpose, a sum not exceeding the amount payable
for the maintenance of high school pupils under the regulations of the Educa-
tion Department.

Board of Management

6. The general management and control of the school for adults shall be
vested in and exercised by a board of management, to be appointed as pro-
vided in section 9 of The Public Libraries Act. In cities and towns in which
a public library has been established under Part I. of the said Act, technical
schools for adults shall be under the management and control of the board of
such library. Provided always that any technical school already established
under by-law of a municipality may be carried on under such by-law during
the pleasure of the municipal council, subject to the regulations of the Educa-
tion Department.

Powers of Board, and Expenses

7. The board or the trustees (as the case may be), appointed under any by-
law as in the preceding section provided, shall have the power to appoint such
teachers, officers and servants as may be necessary for the purposes of the
school, to fix their salaries and to assign them their several duties. For the.
payment of the salaries of the teachers, officers and servants, and for all other
purposes of maintenance, the municipality shall have power to appropriate out
of the general income of the municipality from any source whatever such sums
of money as the municipality may by by-law determine. The expenditure of
the board of management shall be subject to the same audit as the expendi-
tures of the municipality.

Regulations of Education Department

8. The qualifications of the teachers employed in technical schools for
adults, and all matters relating to the course of study and the equipment of
the school, shall be subject to the regulations of the Education Department.

The Consolidated Municipal Act of 1903

This Act provides that By-laws may be passed by the councils of counties,
cities and separate towns : —

10. For establishing schools for the training and education of artisans,
mechanics and workingmen in such subjects as may promote a knowledge of
mechanical and manufacturing arts, and for acquiring such real property as

388 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

I

may be requisite for such schopls; and for erecting and maintaining suitable
buildings thereon; and for improving and repairing such school buildings, and
for disposing of such property when no longer required.

(a) Tfie councils of any municipalities establishing such schools may
appoint boards of trustees or managers to conduct the schools, giving them
such authority or power for the management of the same, as the councils may
deem expedient.

11. For making grants in aid of such schools as may be deemed exped-
ient.

12. For granting such aid to art schools, approved by the Education Depart-
ment, as they may deem expedient.

By the councils of counties, townships, cities, towns and villages : —
i. For granting or loaning money or granting land in aid of the Agricul-
ture and Arts Association or of agricultural or horticultural societies as author-
ized by The Agriculture and Arts Act, or in aid of any association
formed for the holding of a fat stock or live stock show or exhibition or any
exhibition for the promotion or improvement of farming in any of its branches
or departments.

II. REGULATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

Distribution of Legislative Grants for Manual Training, Household
Science, and Special Technical Instruction

1. The plans of every building hereafter erected or of any room adapted
for the purpose of manual training, household science, or special technical
instruction, shall be submitted to the Minister of Education, and be subject
to his approval, and a copy of such plans shall be filed in the Department of
Education. <

2. Subject to the provisions of sections 5, 7 and 8 hereof, every school
maintaining a manual training department shall be entitled to the following
annual grants : —

(a) A fixed grant of $350.00.

(&) 10 per cent, of the expenditure over $600.00 for teacher's salary or
.salaries, but so as not in any case to exceed $100.00.

(c) 20 per cent, of the cost of equipment for each of the first five years,
and thereafter of the annual renewals and additions.

3. Subject to the provisions of sections 5, 7 and 8 hereof, every school
maintaining a department for household science shall receive annually: —

(a) A fixed grant of $200.00.

(&) 20 per cent, of the expenditure over $500.00 for teachers' salaries, but
so as not to exceed $50.00.

(c~) 20 per cent, of the cost of equipment for each of the first five years,
and thereafter of annual additions and renewals.

4. Any school under the control of a public, separate, or high school
board, or board of education, or of a recognized technical school board, which
is specially organized and equipped for giving instruction in the theory and
practice of the mechanical and industrial arts and sciences, shall be entitled
to receive out of any Legislative appropriation therefor, in addition to such
sums as they may be entitled to receive under sections 2 and 3 hereof, such
further sum as the Minister of Education may approve, based upon inspection
and report, but so as not in any case to exceed $750.00. To be eligible for this
grant the building in which instruction is given, equipment, courses of study,
and qualification of staff, shall be approved by the Minister of Education.

5. In apportioning the Legislative grants on equipments the maximum
value recognized shall be (a) for manual training, $500.00, (b) for household
science, $300.00.

APPENDIX 389

6. The course of study, and the qualifications of every teacher hereafter
employed, shall be subject to the approval and regulations of the Education
Department.

7. The unit of distribution of the Legislative grant for manual training
and household science shall be the time of one teacher for five hours on each
of five days per week.

8. The grants mentioned in the foregoing sections shall be subject to such
pro-rata increase or reduction as the Legislative appropriation therefor will
permit.

9. No manual training or household science school or department will be
recognized as efficiently equipped that is provided with accommodation for
less than 12 or more than 25 students, at any one time, for practical work.

Qualifications of Teachers

Household Science

1. Subject to the provisions hereinafter mentioned, no certificate to teach
Household Science shall be awarded after September ist, 1904, to anyone who
does not hold at least Junior Leaving or Junior Matriculation standing.

2. All institutions whose graduates may be recognized as teachers of
Household Science shall provide, to the satisfaction of the Education Depart-
ment, suitable courses of study as well as adequate accommodation, equipment
and instruction, for students preparing to become teachers in this department.

3. Every student who desires to become a teacher of Household Science
must take a two years' course of study in the department, but any person hold-
ing, at least, a certificate from one of the Normal Schools who completes
satisfactorily a one year's course shall be awarded a teacher's certificate in
Household Science.

4. Any graduate of the Normal College who completes satisfactorily a
one year's course at one of tEe recognized institutions for the training of
te?chers in Household Science shall be awarded a teacher's certificate as a
Specialist in this department.

5. Any person holding a certificate to teach Household Science granted
by the Education Department shall be qualified to have charge of a department
of Household Science under any High, Public or Separate School Board.

6. Certificates as teachers of Household Science shall give no legal qual-
ification to teach any of the other subjects of the school curriculum.

7. No grant shall be paid by the Government towards a department of
Household Science unless the teacher who has charge of such department is
duly qualified as herein provided.

8. These provisions shall not apply in the case of teachers already in
charge of the department of Household Science or to students preparing to be
teachers of the subject who have been enrolled before the date of these regu-
lations.

Manual Training1

1. Subject to the conditions herein mentioned, the Macdonald Institute,
Guelph, shall be the only institution recognized by the Education Department
for the training of teachers in Manual Training.

2. The Macdonald Institute shall provide, to the satisfaction of the Edu-
cation Department, suitable courses of study as well as adequate accommoda-
tion, equipm-i t and instruction for students desiring to become teachers of
Manual Training.

3. Any person holding at least a second class certificate from one of the
Normal Schools, ,who completes satisfactorily a one year's course at the Mac-
donald Institute, shall be awarded a teacher's certificate in Manual Training.

390 EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES

4. Any graduate of the Normal College, who completes satisfactorily a
one year's course at the Macdonald Institute, shall be awarded a teacher's cer-
tificate as a Specialist in Manual Training. '

5. Any person holding a certificate from the MacdonaU Institute as i.
Teacher of Manual Training shall be qualified to have charge of a department
of Manual Training under any High, Public or Separate School Board.

6. No grant shall be paid by the Government towards a department of
Manual Training unless the teacher who has charge of such department is
duly qualified as herein provided.

7- A certificate as a Teacher of Manual Training or as a Specialist in
the same department shall give no qualification to teach any of the other sub-
jects of the Public or High School curriculum.

8. These provisions shall not affect any person who is now in charge
of a department of Manual Training in any High, Public or Separate School,
or who may be appointed by the Board concerned before the ist of September,
1904 : it being understood, that such persons shall have qualifications satisfac-
tory to the Minister of Education.

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

OF

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

JAN 24 1944

LD 21-10m-5,'43 (6061s)

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