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EDUCATION
IN HUNGARY
PUBLICATIONS OF THE ROYAL HUNGARIAN MINISTRY
OF RELIGION AND PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
EDUCATION
IN
HUNGARY
BUDAPEST,
1908.
VICTOR HORNYAnSZKY.
' &-t»Ux ^ - ■) -«5-<*.^-.-5 • ^i-
C c iuo \ "i-ni. 2.(6. 10
INDEX OF CONTENTS,
CHAPTER L
The Royal Hungarian Ministry of Religion and Public
Instruction. The National Board of Education.
1. The Ministry 1
2. The National Board of Education 3
CHAPTER II.
Infant Schools.
I. Historical Review.
1. The first Infant Homes . 6
2. The Association 6
3. The first Training College 7
4. Froebel Associations ^ 7
5. State homes for infants 8
€. Protective legislation for infant children
II. The present organisation of Infant Protection.
1. The objects of infant protection 9
2. Homes for infant children 9
3. Staff 11
4. Th^ scope of Infant Homes 12
5. Infant Home authorities 13
6. Statistical data 14
INDEX OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER m.
Elementary Education.
I. Historical Survey.
1. Earliest traces 15
2. Intervention of Government. Ratio educationis 15
3. The period, 1848—1867 16
4. Elementary Education Acts 17
II. Public Elementary Schools and Continuation Schools.
A) Compulsory attendance. — Powers and obligations of providers
of schools,
1. Compulsory attendance 17
2. Parochial schools 18
3. Denomination schools 19
4. State schools 20
5. Conditions for maintenance of schools 20
6. Buildings, regulations referring to 21
B) Organisation and Syllabus (Scheme of work) of public
elementary schools,
1. Day schools 22
2. Obligatory subjects 22
8. Syllabus and instructions 23
4. Objects of and matter included in subjects taught 23
5. Minimum attendance required 28
6. Syllabus (scheme of work) of denominational schools .... 29
7. School books; educational apparatus 29
8. Continuation schools 29
C) Pupils' Clubs (Associations); libraries, — Commemoration days.
1. Pupils' Clubs (Associations) 31
2. Libraries for use of pupils 32
3. Commemoration days 33
D) Teachers (Male and Female) in Public Elementary Schools.
1. Qualifications required : appointment 33
2. Salaries 34
3. Act XXVII of 1907 • . 34
4. Teachers* Unions (Guilds) 36
5. «Teachers* Homes» 36
6. Pensions 37
INDEX OF CONTENTS VII
E) Authorities controWng Public Elementary schools,
1. Acts referring to Authorities ... 38
2. Local inspection 39
3. Royal Inspectors of Schools 39
4. The local (administrative) Councils 41
5. Autonomy of denominational schools 42
6. Supreme control of Government 42
F) St&tiatical data, *
III. Aims and scope of Elementary Education in Hungary.
1. Difficulties of uniform national elementary education 44
2. Task allotted to State schools 45
3. State grants to non-State schools 46
4. System followed in establishing State public elementary schools. 46
CHAPTER IV.
Higher elementary schools and city schools.
1. Higher elementary schools 48
2. City schools 49
3. City schools for boys 49
4. City schools for girls 51
5. Girls' commercial schools. Course of instruction in needle -work.
Course of instruction in house-craft 52
6. Reform of boys' city schools 52
7. Inspection of schools. Visitation of schools 53
8. Slojd system of instruction 53
9. Holiday courses of instruction 54
10. Teaching-staffs 54
11. Statistics 54
CHAPTER V.
Training of Teachers.
1 . The Elementary Education Act and Teachers' Training .... 56
2. The Evolution of State Training Colleges. Denominational Train-
ing Colleges 56
3. The Scheme of Work in elementary Training Colleges ..... 57
4. Later arrangements regarding the Scheme of Work 59
VIII INDEX OF CONTKKTS
5. The Inner Life of Training Colleges 60
6. The Management of State Training Colleges. Teaching Staffs.
Inspection 60
7. Statistical Data 62
8. Qualification of elementary School-Masters and Mistresses ... 62
9. The Training of School-Masters and Mistresses of Higher Element-
ary Schools and City Schools 64
10. Qualification of the same 66
1 1.* Hungarian Tutorial Library and Museum of Educational Appliances 68
CHAPTER VI.
Commercial (professional) education. Trade and
Commercial Schools for Apprentices.
I. Short History of Commercial (professional) Education.
1. Teaching of commercial subjects before the foundation of the first
Commercial School 71
2. Our first commercial schools and their development (1830—1872) 72
3. «Organisation» (Regulations) for commercial schools of 1872 . . 73
4. «Organisations» (Regulations) of 1884 and 1885 74
II. Present organisation of technical commercial education, and
education of industrial apprentices.
A) Higher grade Commercial Schools,
1. «Organisation» (Regulations) of 1895 76
2. Subjects of instruction and number of lessons per week ... 77
3. School regulations 78
4. Private tuition; private examinations 79
5. Final Examination (Matriculation) 80
6. Qualifications of Teachers 81
7. Statistical Data 83
B) Technical Education in Commercial Colleges of University status
(JSochschule),
1. The Commercial colleges of University status 85
2. The Oriental Commercial Academy 85
3. The Training College for Teachers in Commercial Schools ... 88
4. Commercial Academies 90
C) Trade and Commercial Schools for Apprentices,
1. Origin and early development 92
2. Organisation of Trade-apprentice Schools 92
3. Organisation and scheme of work of commercial-apprentice Schools 94
INDEX OP CONTENTS IX
4. Continuation courses for shop assistants 94
5. Local superintendence of apprentice schools 94
6. Courses of instruction for the training of Teachers 95
7. Statistical data 96
8. Courses of instruction for Conunercial employees 97
9. Apprentice Homes 97
10. Prizes 97
D) Commercial courses of instruction for Women,
1. Historical Survey 98
2. Present organisation 99
3. Continuation courses 100
4. Statistical data 100
E) The Estimates for Trade and Commercial Instruction in 1907,
for the Department of Public Instruction 101
F) Technical Unions and Corporations 101
CHAPTER VII.
Institutes for physically and mentally defective children.
The Protection of Children.
A) Institutes for physically and mentally defective persons.
1. The scope and objects of such institutes 103
2. The organisation of such institutes in Hungary 105
B) The protection of Children.
/. State Asylums for Children.
1. Protection of Children in the past 109
2. Present laws 110
3. Location of Children's Asylums 110
4. Organisation of Asylums Ill
5. Children's colonies Ill
6. Institutions 112
7. Cost of the protection of Children 112
//. Social Institutions for Protection of Children,
1. Hungarian State League for the Protection of Children . . . .113
2. Other charitable institutions 114
3. Statistics .115
INDEX OF CONTENTS
///. State It^fbrmfitoHes,
1. Their object, location and maintenance 116
2. Their organisation . 116
8. Their educational systems 116
IV. Institutions for Prisoners .
1. Societies for Assisting Prisoners 119
2. Prison schools 119
3. Solicitors' Committee on the protection of children 119
CHAPTER VIII.
High Schools for Girls.
1. Retrospect 120
2. The first State High School for Girls 121
3. Reorganisation of the for Girls' High Schools 121
4. The present Organisation of High Schools for Girls 122
5. Education of Girls on Classical School (G3^mnasium) lines, at the
High Schools for Girls .....' 124
6. Classes in housecraft . 125
7. Boarding schools 125
8. Teachers, and inspection 125
9. Statistics 126
CHAPTER IX.
Secondary Schools;
I. Retrospective Survey of the development of Secondary
Education 127
II. Present-day organisation of Secondary Education . . .
1. Classical Schools (Gymnasium) and Modern Schools (Realschule) 129
2. Greek as an optional subject . 130
3. Trend of Secondary Schools 131
4. Course of instruction in Secondary Schools 132
5. Number of Secondary Schools 132
6. Secondary Education for Girls 133
7. Language medium 134
INDEX OP CONTENTS XI
8. Relation of Secondary Schools to the State 134
9. Management of Secondary Schools . 136
10. Homogeneity of Secondary Education 138
11. Public rights of Secondary Schools 138
12. Government Grants 139
III. Codes for Classical Schools (Gymnasium) and Modern
Schools (Realschule)
1. Retrospective 140
2. The curricula now in force in Secondary Schools 142
3. Extra subjects of instruction 147
4. Exercises in Physics and Chemistry 148
5. Development of the Aesthetic Sense . 149
6. Educational outings 149
7. Pupils* self-improvement Associations 150
8. Method of teaching 151
9. Matriculation 152
IV. Physical Exercise.
1. Exertises. Games. Gymnastic competitions ......... 154
2. School Sanitary Arrangements 155
V. Board and Support of Pupils.
1. Boarding-houses 155
2. Scholarships. Aid Societies 156
3. Exemption from pnyment of School Fees 156
VI. General Observations.
1. Terms 156
2. System of teaching 157
3. Moral Education 157
4. Examinations 157
5. Discipline 158
VII. Engagement and salaries of teachers in Secondary
Schools 159
VIIL Statistical data 160
XII INDEX OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER X.
Higher Education.
I. Historical preliminaries.
Higher education from the Middle Ages to the present day. ... 163
II. The Royal Hungarian University of Sciences of Budapest.
1. Survey of its history . 165
2. Its organisation today 165
3. The students ; regulations relating to studies, discipline and fees ;
scholarships and other foundations 166
4. Academical year 168
5. Courses of study and examinations in the theological (Roman
Catholic) faculty . 169
6. Courses of study and examinations in the iaculty of law and
political science . 169
7. Examinations for degree of doctor of laws and political science
Doctor of Canon law 171
8. Seminars of faculty of law and political science 173
9. Courses of study and examinations in the medical faculty . . 173
10. Courses in pharmacology; training of school-doctors. The Pasteur
Institute 175
11. The faculty of arts 177
12. Teachers' training syndicate 177
13. Royal Hungarian teachers' training college 178
14. Courses of study in the faculty of arts. Examinations for degree
of doctor in philosophy. Seminars 178
15. Inauguration of doctors. Promotions (Inaugurations) «sub auspiciis
regiis». Honorary degrees 179
16. Situation of university. Economic arrangements; income. Statistics 180
17. Students' clubs 181
18. The university library 181
III. The Royal Hungarian (Francis Joseph) University of
Kolozsvar.
1. Its foundation 182
2. Teachers' training college 182
3. Teachers' training syndicate 183
4. Its organisation today . 183
5. Its situation , 184
6. Balance-sheet. Statistics 184
7. The university library 185
INDKX OF CONTENTS XUl
IV. The Royal (Joseph) University of Technical Sciences.
1. Its history 186
2. Its present organisation 187
3. The teaching staff 188
4. The students; courses of study; fees 188
5. Examinations; diplomas. «Doctor rerum technicarum».NoHtrincation 189
6. Its situation 191
7. The library , 192
8. Balance-sheet: statistics 192
V. Colleges of law.
The existing colleges treated individually 193
VI. Theological colleges (Clergy Training Schools).
1. Their history 194
2. Existing theological colleges belonging to the Roman and Greek
Catholic churches 195
3. Their organisation; courses of study 196
4. Theological colleges belonging to the Greek Oriental church . . 197
5. Theological colleges of the Reformed church .198
6. Theological colleges of the Evangelical church 199
7. Unitarian seminary 199
8. Jewish theological college 200
VII. Schools of midwifery.
1. Historical survey 201
2. Present system of training. Statistics • . . . 202
VIII. Baron Joseph Eotvos College.
History and present organisation 203
IX. Observatory at 6gyalla.
History and present organisation 204
X. Royal Hungarian College of Mining and Forestry.
1. Foundation and development of the College 206
2. Its objects; inspection and management 206
3. Departments, and courses of study 207
4. Chairs and Professors 207
5. Teaching, and examinations 208
6. Tuition fees, and scholarships 208
7. Teaching equipment , . 209
8. Buildings 209
9. Literary productions of Professors 209
10. Students 210
11. Students' Associations 210
XIV INDEX OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER Xr.
Art Instruction.
I. High School of Arts and Drawing Masters' Training School.
1. Objects of the Institute 212
2. Organisation 2J2
3. Pupils 213
4. Training of drawing masters 215
5. Statistical data 216
II. Masterschools for instruction in plastic arts 216
III. School of Painting for women 217
IV. School of Decorative Art.
1. Past history of Hungarian decorative Art . . . 218
2. Organisation of the school .220
3. Pupils and expenditure 221
V. Musical Art.
1. Synopsis of the history of music in Hungary 222
2. National Academy of Music 225
3. Other musical instruction. Res philharmonicae 226
VI. Theatrical School.
1. History 226
2. Organisation 227
3. Teaching staff, pupils, expenditure 227
CHAPTER XII.
Museums.
I. The Hungarian National Museum. .
A) Historical Survey.
1. Foundation of the Museum 228
2. Early organisation. The Count Palatine Joseph and the Museum 229
3. The Library, the archaeological department and picture-gallery . 229
4. The Museum under the charge of the Vice-gerent Council . . 230
5. The Museum after 1867. — Francis Pulszky in office as Director 231
INDEX OF CONTENTS XV
B) The present organisation and state of tlie National Museum.
1. The Objects of the Museum 232
2. Departments of the Museum 232
3. The administration of the Museiuii 233
4. The Museum-Board 233
5. The Library 234
6. The numismatical and archaeological department 235
7. The zoological department 235
8. The mineralogical and palaeontological department .... 236
9. The botanical department 236
10. The ethnographical department 236
11. Queen Elizabeth Memorial-Museum 237
12. The situation of the Museum 237
II. National Hungarian Museum of Pine Arts.
1. Historical Review 238
2. The Museum of Fine Arts 240
3. Expenditure 243
III. National Hungarian Museum of Decorative Arts.
1. Introduction 243
2. The purpose of the Museum 244
3. Exhibitions 244
4. The National «George R^th» Museum 246
5. Library; Photographic Department; Building; and expenditure 246
IV. The Superintendence of Museums and Libraries.
1. The National Association 247
2. The National Board 247
3. Superintendent-in-chief of Museums and Libraries 247
V. Protection of Art Memorials (Art Relics) 249
CHAPTER XIII.
Theatres.
I. Historical Retrospect.
1. Theatrical Art in the 17th. and 18th. Centuries 251
2. Theatrical Art in the beginning of the 19th. Century 252
3. The first permanent Theatres 252
XVI INDEX OF CONTENTS
II. Theatres of the present day.
1. The Royal Hungarian Opera House 252
2. The Budapest National Theatre 253
3. Other Budapest Theatres 254
4. Provincial Theatres ^ 254
5. State Subsidies to Theatres 254
CHAPTER XIV.
Literature, Science and Public Education.
1. state aid 256
2. Scientific and literary Societies. Shakespeare-Committee .... 256
3. Seismological institutes 256
4. Participation in foreign scientific movements 257
5. Institutions for public education 257
6. PubUc instruction out of school 258
7. Houses for popularisation of culture 258
8. Criticism (reviews) and sanctioning of school books 259
CHAPTER I.
The Royal Hungarian Ministry of Religion and
Public Instruction.
The National Board of Educa|.ion.
1. The Ministry.
The administration and direction of matters of Religion
and Elducation in Hungary belong to the province of the
Ministry of Public Instruction.
The statutes relating to the organisation of Public Instruc-
tion are prepared and carried into effect by ttie said Ministry.
The right of exclusive jurisdiction extends however only
to the State Schools; with respect to parochial Schools, en-
dowed Schools, those maintained by Associations, and private
Schools the supreme administration — but in reference to
denominational Schools the right of supreme Inspection — is
exercised according to the autonomy of the Schools as well
as in proportion to the measure of State assistance given.
The rights exercised by the State over the different
grades of Schools are treated of in detail in the respective
chapters.
The Royal Hungarian Ministry of Public Instruction exer-
cises the central administration through the Minister, who has
the assistance of two Secretaries of State, who act as substi-
tutes for him when occasion requires.
The administrative duties are performed by the business
department of the Ministry in the various educational sections,
at the head of each of which is a ministerial- or departmental-
Councillor.
CHAPTER I.
Besides the Presidential Department the Ministry has 10
Departments. The two first — I. and II. — are occupied with
questions of Religion : — III. a. is the Department of Art : —
111. b. takes care of Museums, Literature, Science, and Free
Instruction: — IV. Higher Education: — V. Secondary Education:
— VI. a. State Elementary Education and School Inspection:
— VI. b. The Training of Teachers: — VI. c. Infant Parochial
and Denominational Schools: — VII. a. City Schools, and Girls'
High Schools : — Secondary and Higher Commercial Schools —
VII. b. Education of physiqally and mentally defective children:
— VIII. The management of episcopal property and endow-
ments : — IX. The management of Estates of Ecclesiastical and
Educational Fund : — X. Management of Teachers* Pensions
and Relief of their widows and orphans.
The Ministry has besides a special consulting Architect,
with three assistants, to make provision for questions connected
with building.
The clerical Staff of the Ministry consists of six minis-
terial Councillors, ten departmental Councillors, eleven chief-
clerks, twelve assistant chief-clerks, twelve senior clerks, fourteen
junior clerks and eight probationary clerks.
Besides these there are employed in connection with the
central Department two Chief Inspectors of School-Districts,
one Classical-School Director, one School Master, one Director
of High Schools for Girls, two Inspectors of teaching, one Sub-
inspector of teaching, two Directors of State elementary Schools,
— one Teacher of agricultural evening Schools, one Teacher of
Grammar Schools, one Master of Training Colleges for Tea-
chers — and one Inspector General of higher grade Commercial
Schools,
In addition the Ministry employs the services of an Audit
Office, a Registry Office, a Dispatch Office, and Archives.
The expenditure of the central Administration amounts
to 1,381,567 crowns per annum, including personal and all
other working expenses.
The Ministry publishes an „ Official Gazette" appearing
twice a month, with the object of making public ministerial
ordinances, decisions on questions of general principle, compe-
titions and other communications relating to the various bran-
ches of the service.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY
The executive agency and controlling medium of the
central Administration is, with regard to the Secondary Schools,
the Chief Inspectors of School- Districts; with respect to the
Lower-grade Schools, the Inspectors of Schools.
In order to alleviate the burdensome work of inspection,
and from the point of view of making the inspection effica-
cious, there are appointed: — for the High Schools for Girls, a
special Ministerial Commission : — for the Higher grade Commer-
cial Schools, and the Schools for training industrial apprentices,
special Inspectors General: — and for the Teachers* Training
Colleges a special Ministerial Commissioner.
The Minister, as occasion arises, take special measures
for controlling certain Schools providing professional education.
The Members of the Hungarian Board of Education make
annual visitations of the Schools, and present a report of their
observations to the Minister.
2. The Hungarian Board of Education.
The work of the Hungarian Board of Education, which
has its headquarters at Budapest, is to follow matters concern-
ing Hungarian Education from the scientific and pedagogic
points of view; and to give its opinion to the Minister on
affairs which have been referred to the Board or on proposals
made on its own initiative. With the exception of the admi-
nistrative business of the Schools, its province extends to all
questions of principle in School matters which appertain to
Lower and Secondary Schools under the control of the Ministry
of Public Instruction.
The Board, whose President is the Minister of Public
Instruction, is directly subordinate to the Ministry. The Hun-
garian Board of Education consists further of an Acting-Chair-
man, a Vice-Chairman, a Secretary, twelve Referendary Coun-
cillors, and fifty ordinary Members at the most. The King
appoints the Acting-Chairman and Vice-Chairman : — but the
other members are each appointed for the duration of a period
of five years by the Minister.
The Members of the Board are appointed from among
public men who are occupied in scientific or educational
pursuits, or professors and teachers of Schools belonging to the
CHAPTER I.
province of the Minister, attenlion being devoted as far as
possible to country districts and the chief departments of
Science. Clerks delegated from the central staff by the Minister
also take part in the sessions, but do not exercise any right
of voting, only the right of speaking.
The Vice-Chairman and Referendary Councillors each
receive a fixed payment : — the ordinary Members . of the
Board are only paid fees for attendance
The Secretary, who is a Director of some Stale School,
is absolved from the duties of a Director during the period
of this service.
The Chairmen, the Referendary Councillors and the
Secretary constitute the Standing Committee of the Board of
Education. In the said Committee the Vice-Chairman usually
performs the work of the Chairman; he also arranges the
spheres of work for the Referendary Councillors ; and, together
with the Standing Committee, constitutes the special Committees,
and also invites others as experts in technical questions.
He also designates the Chairmen and Secretaries of these
Committees, and controls the Office of the Board, for the work
of which he is responsible.
The Secretary manages the Office, takes the minutes at
the sessions, is the Referendary for foreign education, and
otherwise takes part also in the work of the Board.
The sphere of work of the Standing Committee is as
follows: a. — the management of those matters, within its
own sphere of action, which the Minister refers to it for
discussion : b. — to lay before the Minister a scheme of regular
school visitations : c. — to make proposals to the Minister on
the basis of its own observations in the interest of the devel-
opment of public education : d. — to prepare agenda for the
plenary sessions, providing for the preparations, the printing,
and the apportionment of proper times for the Referendaries'
work, and forming Committees for studying the different
questions: e. — to work out the details of business on the
basis of discussions in the plenary sessions, to submit the same
to the Minister, and to make annual reports of their current
labours to be presented to the Minister and to the full session.
The Standing Committee holds meetings at least twice
a month, but the Vice-Chairman may convene it oftener in
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY
case of necessity, at a time outside the long vacation of the
Schools.
The Board holds plenary sittings once annually on con-
secutive days, but the Minister may call it together -at any
time whatever.
The Minister arranges the order of the day at the sessions
of the Board, as well as the detailed order of business, and
presides at the full session or delegates as his substitute the
Acting-Chairman or Vice-Chairman. The Minister gives his
approval to the minute-book, and gives directions to the
Standing Committee for the carrying out of the decisions.
CHAPTER II.
Infant Protection.
I. Historical Review.
1. The first Infant Homes.
The first organisation of Homes for Infant Children was
due to the encouragement given by the example of Countess
Teresa Brunswick, during the first three decades of the nine-
teenth century. The idea of Homes for Infant Children was at
that time almost unknown in the cultivated West, and only
slowly gained ground on account of the backwardness of our
social life at that period. Countess Teresa Brunswick only
succeeded in arousing a more general interest when in 1825 the
Constitution had been restored, and Count Stephen Szechenyi
began to play his role of reformer in the creation of Modern
Hungary.
Owing to this alteration of circumstances the first Home
for Infants was founded at Buda in 1828, and was named by
its foundress Countess Teresa Brunswick «The Garden of
Angels» (angyalkert). The foundation of the first Hungarian
Home for Infants is therefore contemporaneous with the
opening of Infant Homes at Brussels and Lausanne, which
took place in the same year.
2. The Association.
This noble example very soon aroused the interest of the
highest circles of Society; and not only were several Homes
for Infants founded in rapid succession, but in 1836 the ♦Asso-
ciation for the Propagation of Homes for Infant Children in
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY
Hungary* was already established with Count Leo Festetics as
its flrst President, whilst several prominent men took their seats
in the Council, amongst whom was Louis Kossuth.
3. The first Training College,
This Association erected a Training College for Infant
Home Mistresses; and began a general movement for the
• extension of Homes for Infants. The first general meeting of
Hungarian Teachers in 1848 included in its programme the
cause of Homes for Infant Children, and worked out a scheme
of organisation. When the budget of the Ministry for Public
Instruction was presented by Baron Joseph Eotvos, the then
House of Commons passed a resolution that the protection of
Infant Children should receive joint legislative settlement with
popular education. The tempest of the War of Independence
swept away this project, and also in part those satisfactory
results which had been obtained from the impulse of the
Association ; for the 89 Homes which had been already work-
ing in 1848 were reduced to 52 within ten years.
It was only in the sixties that the cause of Infant Protection
took a new lease of life, when in 1865 King Francis Joseph
and Queen Elizabeth honoured the Association withdonations.
In 1868 Baron Joseph E6tv6s again included the protec-
tion of Infants in his legislative proposals connected with
popular education. But in this instance Parliament ordered
the subject to be introduced in a separate Bill. His death
however deferred for a long time the legislative settlement of
Infant Protection.
4. Froebel Associations.
By means of the above mentioned Association however were
developed the Froebel Associations. The first Froebel Kinder-
garten was opened in 1869, and ofterwards in 1872 the «Ladies'
Central Froebel Association*, which fixed the principles of instruc-
tion, and exercised a very beneficial influence on the Association
formed with a view to increasing the number of Homes for In-
fants, which Association was reorganised in 1874 under the
name of the « Hungarian Infant Protection Association. »
CHAPTER II.
These two Associations together with the « Ladies' Central
Froebel Association* and the « Hungarian Infant Protection
Association^, are even nowadays the centres of social effort
developed in the interests of Infant Protection.
The first legislative provision concerning Infant Protection
is contained in Act XXXII of 1875, concerning pensions of
public Teachers, which deals with the qualifications of Infant
School Mistresses.
5. State Homes for Infants.
Subsequently the State itself began to undertake the
maintenance of Homes for Infant Children in 1876. When the
first State Home for Infants was opened, there were already
215 Infant Homes in working order (founded partly on a sec-
tarian basis) attented by 18.024 children under the tutelage of
315 Teachers.
From this time forward the State provided for Infant
Protection with increased activity. A great influence was exerted
on the legislative settlement of this cause by the Infant Homes
Exhibition arranged in 1889 at Budapest, the opulent variety
of which convinced everybody of the success hitherto attained
by the cause of Infant Protection, and at the same time of
its importance for the whole country. There were then already
703 Institutions working, with 829 Teachers, and a total capital
exceeding 4,000.000 K.
6. Protective legislation for Infant Children.
Under such circumstances neither the State nor the Legisla-
ture could delay any longer the legislative settlement of Infant
Protection.
Count Albin Csaky, at that time Minister of Public In-
struction, prepared the Bill which as Act XV of 1891 on Infant
Protection received sanction on April 28. 1891.
This Act raised Infant Protection, as an important factor
of national culture and power, to the level which befits it ;
it stated the obligation of establishing Homes for Infant Child-
ren, in connection with the compulsory attendance ot cliild-
ren at such Homes ; the objects of Infant Protection and the
means of attaining them, together with the sources of mainte-
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY
nance were thereby defined. The Training of Infant Home
Teachers, the oversight and management, was naturally foun-
ded upon the duty of maintaining the Schools by the commun-
ity, in harmony with the Elementary Education Act.
Whereas, however, on the basis of the law actually in
force, and considering the compulsory maintenance prescribed
in it, the cause of Homes for Infant Children does not advance
in the degree to be desired commensurate with its native
importance, furthermore too because the remuneration of
the Infant Homes' Staff has yet to be settled, and besides
since the legal status of the maintainer, as well as the bearing
of the cost of maintenance, is a question concerning the
participation of the State in the maintenance of such Homes,
the Minister of Religion and Public Instruction has decided
on the revision of Act XV, 1891, on Infant Protection; which
revision has been already begun, and it may be hoped that
the new Bill will soon be ready and pass into law.
IL The present Organsation of Infant Protection.
1. The objects of Infant Protection.
According to Act XV, 1891, the object of Infant Protection
is to nurse and take care of children from 3 — 6 years old, to
perfect the fundamental work of education, to develop their
physical skill, intellect and temperament suitably with their age,
and to help them forward thereby in their physical, mental
and moral development. There is no place in Infant Homes for
the tuition assigned to the elementary schools; but on the other
hand it is a work of first importance to facilitate the task of
Hungarianspeaking schools, existing in provinces where other
idioms are spoken, in appropriating the Hungarian tongue, and
to help on their general culture by these means.
2. Homes for Infant Children.
There are for this purpose 1. Infant Homes under the mana-
gement of qualified mistresses or masters, 2. permanent Infant
Asylums under the management of qualified persons, 3. so-called
summer asylums for Infants.
10 CHAPTER 11.
Where any of the above-named Institutions exist, every
parent is obliged to send his or her children from the ages of
3 — 6, of whom proper care cannot be taken at home, to the
existing Infant Home, under penalty of a fine of from 20 filler
to 1 K. The conditions as to what may be understood by
proper care are defined in the regulations for carrying out
the Act.
The political community is obliged to provide for the
maintenance of Homes for Infant Children. With the fore-
going, the obligation to send children to Infant Homes, as well
as compulsory attendance at School and the establishment of
Schools, contained in the Elementary Education Act, was made
complete. Authorised maintainers of Infant Homes are the
State, the religious denominations, legal corporations (Associati-
ons, Unions, Municipal Authorities) and certain private per-
sons. Private persons are obliged to apply, for permission to
establish an Infant Home, to the Royal Inspector of Schools.
The obligation to establish Infant Homes according to
the divisions above-mentioned, is as follows: — I. a) Every
municipality with autonomous rights, p) Every county town
regardless of the taxes paid, and every community in which
contribution to the Revenue exceeds 30.000 K ; and if in such
community there is no Infant Home; or if the number of
children uncared for is above 40, for whom there is no ac
commodation in an existing Home. II. Permanent Infant Homes
must be established in communities in which the tax is between
20,000 and 30.000 K and if there are not less than 40 children
uncared for. III. Summer Infant Asylums. Every community,
finally, whose tax does not exceed 20.000 K and where there
are not more than 15 children uncared for; if, for this purpose,
the resources of the community are not adequate, is allowed
to impose a supplementary tax of 3 per cent on the State Tax.
The State may employ for the maintenance of its own
Infant Homes this tax of 3 per cent, in so far as it has not
been already taken up for Infant Homes by the community.
Furthermore the law provides that where there is no other
Infant Home, infants must be received into sectarian, associ-
ation or private Homes without regard to religion or
language.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY U
3. Staff.
Conditions of employment of the Staff in Infant Homes,
Only those persons may be employed who have passed the
Training College, a two years* course of Instruction, or have obta-
ined certificates as Infant Home Mistresses. In an Infant Home
any woman may become a manageress (matron) after having
passed a 6 months* course of instruction, at the Infant Home,
or having passed an examination before a Royal Inspector of
Schools. To manage a Summer Infant Asylum a certificate
of a 6 weeks' course at an Infant Home is required.
Infant Home Mistresses are engaged for life, and may
only be dismissed from their situations by a verdict, accord-
ing to the regulations, pronounced by the local Council, or
by the chief sectarian authority respectively. The verdict of
dismissal must be submitted by the chief sectarian authority
for confirmation, by the other authorities for approval, to
the Minister.
The State Infant Home Mistress, and the matron (mana-
geress) of an Infant Asylum respectively, is appointed by the
Minister; those of municipal institutions are elected by a
competition regulated by the Committee for municipal Infant
Homes under the chairmanship of a delegate from the County
Council. The election is approved by the County Council
Committee.
The nurse of a Summer Infant Asylum is selected by the
superintendent Committee.
The stipend of Infant Home Mistresses is fixed according
to local circumstances ; viz. : that of Mistresses of Homes
supported by the State, by communities, confessions, corpo-
rations, or private persons, must be 600 K. without lodg-
ing. In localities with more than 10.000 inhabitants not less
than 800 K. The pay of a matron of a permanent Infant
Asylum is fixed at 480 K., and for a Summer Asylum at 20 K
per month. Keeping in view these stipulations the maintaining
authority or persons have to take into account the above
regulations in fixing the salaries of their staff.
12 CHAPTER 11.
4. The Scope of Infant Homes.
In 1892 the Mhiister had detailed Instructions worked
out for Infant Homes, in which particulars are given in all that
concerns the law for bringing the Homes into existence. The
Instructions concerning the scope of Infant Homes lay emphasis
on the object of the work of Infant Homes being kept
strictly separate from elementary education. The activity of the
Infant Homes must avail for education; its only task is to
develop harmoniously the mental and physical capacities of
the children by occupation, conversation, reasoning suitably
with their age, by means of habits and games ; a great stress
is laid besides on religious and moral education ; Prayers
are offered at the beginning and end of the half-day's work.
These are not therefore teaching, but domestic and edu-
cating Institutions and in this regard differ essentially from
Infant Homes abroad, which prepare for school. This prepa-
ratory characteristic is only displayed in that in the said
mental and physical development the work of the elementary
school is made notably easier. This chiefly applies to those
Infant Homes which are attended by non-Hungarian children,
who, owing to the necessity of attendance at Infant Homes,
have to be initiated into the knowledge of the Hungarian
tongue through which their progress in the national schools is
for them considerably facilitated. Whether we consider the
harmonious development of the mental and physical faculties,
or the aforesaid national point of view, the cultural and
national significance of Infant Homes in Hungary, in particular
of those making use of Hungarian only, is much greater than
in other countries.
Considering the work of Hungarian Infant Homes, it is in
uniformity with the permanent Infant Asylums; only their
scope of action and the scale of requirements mark a difference
between them. The Instructions of the Minister define these
differences exactly, Every manager of an Infant Asylum, in
order that the authorities may be able to control him in the
work performed in the School, is obliged to draw up a scheme
of the month's work, and submit it to the managing Committee
for approval. The Infant Home work lasts for 3 hours in the
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 13
morning and 2 hours in the afternoon as a rule. It is a rule
that the children should not be all together except in the
round games. Occupations for the development of the intellect
must as a rule be taken at the beginning of the day's work.
To form the mind and character (temperament) the games and
conversation ; fairy tales, stories, learning poetry, singing, and
fiirther manual occupations, are important. Instructions in
relation to these differ from the Froebel system, in so far as they
do not excessively hinder the exercise of the child's will, do not
overcharge the child's mind, by forcing all its capacities, but leave
a wider scope for the child's freedom, while protecting him
from excessive demands upon his physical and mental powers.
5. Infant Home Authorities.
The local authorities for Infant Homes are the super-
intendent Committee. With the School Board, when there is a
communal one, there is also the Superintendent Committee of
the Infant Home completed by lady members, and the dis-
trict health officer.
Where on the other hand the State has to superintend
the Infant Home, the Committee is formed in the same way.
The corporate Associations have to provide for the super-
intendence of Infant Homes in their statutes; but if they have
none, they must issue special regulations for this purpose.
Generally the councils of Associations exercise this right, and
execute the requirements prescribed for the observance by the
superintendent State, municipal or confessional Committees.
The business of the Superintendent Committee in State and
municipal Homes is : a) in Municipal Infant Homes the election
and employment respectively of Infant Home Mistresses or the
matrons of Summer Asylums; b) the visitation of the Homes
and the control of the work of the mistress or nurse; c) the
control of attendance at the Infant Homes ; rf) the management
and superintendence of the material affairs of the Infant Homes.
The business of the Superintendent Committee of Infant
Homes in confessional Schools, is fixed by the chief church
authority. State Superintendence over all Infant Homes is
exercised by the Minister of Public Instruction, ttu-ough the
Royal Inspectors of Schools.
14 CHAPTER II.
6. statistical Date.
In 1906 regular Infant Homes existed as follows : 1. State
527; 2. County Council 18; Municipal 645; 3. Roman Catholic
185; 4. Greek Catholic 1; 5. Reformed Church 6; 6. Evangel-
cal 16; Greek Oriental 17; 7. Jewish 3; 8. Association 130;
.9. Foundational 17; 10. Private 66; Total 1631.
Permanent Infant Asylums: 1. State 30; 2. Municipal
162; 3. Denominational 16; 4. Others 22; Total 230.
Summer Infant Asylums: 1. State 25; 2. Municipal 596;
3. Denominational 94; 4. Others 19; Total 734.
In all three divisions together there are: a) State 582;
b) Municipal 1421; c) Denominational 338; d) Others 254;
Total 2.595. Amongst these there are 1913 which make use
of the Hungarian language only.
In these Homes 245.214 children were taken care of
amongst whom 57 percent, were Hungarian speaking; there
were 1963 certificated mistresses; 427 certificated nurses and
332 uncertificated nurses. The whole staff was therefore 2722 ;
the expense of maintenance was 3,000.000 K in round numbers.
If we take into consideration that the number liable to attend
the Homes is 1,130.000; although those uncared for at home
are put down at 220.000, the enormity of the task which lies
before Homes for Infant Children is evident.
According to the few statistical data above given it is
evident that the State makes considerable sacrifices in the
interest of Infant Homes. The majority of the Infant Homes
maintained by the State are fitted up in a model fashion;
and, with the exception of one or two located in rented houses,
they are in model buildings ; and there is generally connected
with them, a hall for games, and a hall for work, a lodging for the
mistress, a yard and playground, and a covered shed in the yard.
Infant Homes are usually established by the State,
a) where the work of larger State elementary schools
requires to be facilitated by Infant Homes, chiefly in respect
of the acquisition of the Hungarian language, or b) where Infant
Protection, or the reinforcement of national power is required,
chiefly with regard to economic circumstances, c) finally, where
the arrangement or neglected condition of the whole of the
national Education makes it absolutely necessary for the State
to take over into its own hands the management of the Infant
Homes, or to give them a national direction.
CHAPTER III.
Elementary Education.
I. Historical Survey.
1. Earliest traces.
The firet traces of elementary education in Hungary
date from the period when the Hungarian nation embraced
Christianity and the Hungarian Kingship was established. For
many centuries schools served the interests of the church and
were entirely under its control.
The XIII century saw a remarkable development and a
continual growth in the importance of elementary schools in
Hungary, which kept pace with the evolution of social life
that characterised the same period. The schools were still
under the protecting wings of the Church, but had already to
some extent come within the range of secular life.
The study of the humanities and the Reformation brought
about a radical transformation in mediaeval schools. The
struggle between Catholicism and Protestantism which lasted
for a century, led to the development of elementary education,
or rather was the real cause of teaching becoming to some
extent the education of the masses.
2. Intervention of Government. Ratio Educationis.
In the XVII century the Government began, for political
reasons, to exercise influence on school affairs, the object
being to employ the schools for the purpose of Germanising
16
CHAPTER III.
the country. From this ^time onward elementary education
was ^treated as a [public matter (poliiicum), the fostering,
guidance and management of which was the right and the
duty of the « powers that be».
In the XVIII century Maria Theresa issued her celebrated
€ Ratio Educationist, a decree containing measures relative to
the organization of schools and questions of instruction ; the
Empress-Queen entrusted the supreme control and management
of schools to the Vice-Gerent Council, and divided the country
into nine districts, each provided with a Chief Inspector (Ober-
director).
The second « Ratio Educationist^ issued by Francis I in 1806
was practically the outcome of the organization of their school
(educational) affairs by the Protestants in 1795. This decree
was mainly concerned with the settling of the school affairs
of the Catholic church: it was, however, considerably modified
by the <Sy sterna scholarum* issued by Ferdinand V in 1845.
3. The period between 1848 and 1867.
In 1848 the constitution of the Estates of the Realm was
transformed into a national assembly (representative parliament).
Baron Joseph E6tv6s, the first Hungarian Minister of Public
Instruction, elaborated the first draft of an Elementary Educa-
tion Act, in a modern and national spirit. But owing to the
outbreak of the War of Independence, Parliament had no
time to discuss the draft ; while the absolute rule that followed
the war did away with every kind of legal and constitutional
basis. Count Leo Thun, the Austrian Minister of Public In-
struction issued a new draft for the organization of schools
(Organisations-Enlwurf).
The advent of the provisional government that acted
from 1861 — 1867 put an end to the Thun system, without
any other scholastic system being adopted in its place: it was,
however out of the question to return to the obsolete system
in force before. The most important change was that the
direction of public instruction again fell into the hands of the
Vice-Gerent Council, which, however, pursued an educational
policy that left the affairs of Protestant schools untouched,
while it directed all its efforts to the settlement of the affairs
of Catholic schools.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 17
4. Elementary Education Acts.
After the conclusion of the Compromise (Ausgleich) of
1867, Baron Joseph E6tv6s again became Minister of Public
Instruction. He again took up the thread of the settlement of
the question ot elementary education that had been broken
off by the events of 1848. The result of his work was the
Elementary Education Act (XXXVIIl) of 1868. Tliis fundamental
law was supplemented by the following bills : — Act XXXII
of 1875 dealing with the question of teachers' pensions; Act
XXVlII of 1876 treating of the authorities controlling public
elementary schools; Act XVIII of 1879 dtaling with instruction
in Hungarian (this Act provided that the Hungarian — Magyar
— language should be included among the obligatory subjects
comprised in the syllabus of all public elementary schools, of
whatever character they might be); Act XLllI of 1891 dealing
with the modification of Uie law relating to pensions; Act
XXVI of 1893 dealing with the adjustment of teachers' salaries;
and, finally. Acts XXVI and XXVII of 1907, which treat respect-
ively of the legal status of teachers employed in State schools
and of the legal standing of elementary schools not belonging
to the State, as well as of the payment of teachers employed
in the same : Taken together these laws constitute an organic
whole, and comprise the entire system of national elementary
education in force in Hungary.
II. Public Elementary Schools and Continuation
Schools.
A) Compulsory attendance. — Powers and obligations
of providers of schools.
1. Compulsory attendance.
By Act XXXVIIl of 1868 all children must attend day
schools between the ages of 6 and 12, and continuation schools
between the ages of 12 and 15.
For the punctualattendance at school of the pupils the par-
ents, guardians or employers respectively are responsible. They
18 CHAPTTER III.
are liable, by the Act, to graduated fines of 1, 2, 4 and 8 crowns,
which are to be paid direct to the school authorities. The
parish authorities are required to prepare, once a year, a
register of those children who should attend school, to compel
those children who fail to fulfil the requirements of the Act
regarding attendance to do so, and to take measures for
the infliction of fines in the case of non-attendance.
Delicate children and those suffering from loathsome
and infectious diseases, as well as those who are mentally
defective, may be excused from attendance at school.
The law permits parents to have their children taught in
any public elementary school, of whatever character, or pri-
vately at home: but in the latter case children are required
to pass an examination at the end of the year at some public
elementary school.
2. Parochial schools. (Gemeindeschule.)
By Act XXXVIII of 1868 the managers of schools were
divided into two groups. The one comprises political commu-
nities (parishes), which are bound, the other the State, reli-
gious denominations, societies and private individuals, who are
entitled to provide and maintain schools.
In the case of parishes where there are at least 30 child-
ren whose attendance at school is required by law, who
have no Dublic elementary school at their disposal, or whose
parents do not wish to send their children to the denomina-
tional school existing in the parish, the local authorities are
required to establish a public elementary school.
Such parishes as are not more than 3V2 kilometres dis-
tant from one another may provide a common public ele-
mentary school for the use of the children of both parishes.
The local authorities are required a) to guarantee the
payment of the teachers, b) to provide premises for the pur-
poses of the school, as well as the equipment of the same,
c) to defray all other expenses incidental to the maintenance
of the school.
The expenses of the maintenance of schools are covered
1. by the revenues of school funds (endowments);
2. by the school receipts (school and admission fees,
fines etc.) ;
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 19
3. by school-rates that must not exceed 57© of the direct
taxes paid to the Exchequer. These rates may only be levied
if the abovementioned sources of revenue prove insufficient.
Residents in the parish contributing to the maintenance of
denominational schools, however, are exempt from payment of
these rates in proportion to the amount of their contribution
to such purpose.
The capital of parochial schools consists of a) a hund-
redth part of the common appropriated for the purpose on
the occasion of the discommoning (parcelling out) of the same
h) other endowments, landed property, and money left in tnist
for school purposes. This capital is managed by the local author-
ities, who are required to provide for its continual increase.
In the case of parishes not possessuig a parochial ele-
mentary school, the revenue of the local school capital deri-
ved from the appropriation of the common may, with the
sanction of the Minister of Public Instruction, be devoted to
the maintenance of the local denominational schools.
The aggregate value of the real property of parochial
schools amounted, in 1900, to about 36 million crowns
(£ 1,500.000), and produced a revenue of 1,200.000 crowns:
that of denominational schools amounted to 97,200.000 crowns,
and produced a ij^venue of 3,260.000 crowns.
It is the duty of parish authorities to provide schools for
children living on farms that, from the point of view of
administration, belong to their sphere of jurisdiction, or to
appoint itinerant teachers to instruct them at their homes.
The question of the education of children living on farms
is, in Hungary, of peculiar significance : for in the Great Plain
(Lowlands) a large part of the inhabitants reside, not in vil-
lages, but on widely-scattered farms. In their case it would
not be fair to enforce the fulfilment of the obligations which
are imposed or people living in proper parishes. That is why
the setdement of the question of schools for farm-dwellers
has recently been initiated by the establishment of State
schools.
3. Denominational schools.
The regulations established by Government in the past
with reference to elementary education were unable to loosen
20 CHAPTER III.
the bonds of connection betwen the religious denominations
and the schools maintained by the same : and the Parliament
of 1848, while fully recognising the historical basis on which
the denominational schools rested, passed a resolution that
the school and church expenses of the various denominations
should be borne by the State. The Elemental^ Education
Act of 1868 however, attached the chief importance to the
parish, an experiment which proved a failure.
The various denominations — with one or two excep-
tions — spare neither trouble nor expense in maintaining and
developing their schools, and endeavour to satisfy all the
requirements imposed by law on the denomination schools.
4. State schools.
As decreed by § 80 of Act XXXVIII of 1868, the Ministry
of Public Instruction, acting in the name of the State, shall
not provide elementary schools, except where the factors
entitled or bound to do so (religious denominations, municip-
alites, local authorities), owing to a lack of the requisite
material resources, are unable to establish such schools, or
are not inclined to guarantee an elementary education in
accord with the interests of the State. Where, owing to such
circumstances, the State provides such schools, the latter are
so many strongholds of the idea of a national State and of a
proper modern education of the masses. Consequently, in the pro-
gress of elementary education in Hungary, the centre ot gravity
has gradually been transferred to the districts possessed of State
elementary schools, which are model schools in agreement with
the spirit of the law and, by the example they set, act beneficially
on parts of the country and grades of society which fall outside
the direct sphere of the power of Government.
5. Conditions for maintenance of schools.
Although the providers of schools are of various degree,
the legal conditions for the maintenance of schools are for
all practical purposes and taken all in all, the same.
The law requires, in all cases equally, a) that the sub-
jects of instruction should be those defined by law, b) that
the school buildings and class-rooms should be of the proper
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 21
dimensions, c) that the class-rooms should be equipped with
furniture and appliances of instruction, d) that the number of
pupils should be at most 80, e) that boys and girls should
receive separate instruction, f) that the teachers should pos-
sess the qualifications required by law, g) that the teachers
should receive a certain minimum salary, h) that the pen-
sions of teachers should be duly guaranteed, i) that the school
shall be open for at least 8 months in the country, and at
least 9 months in towns, J) that, finally the local inspection
of schools shall be provided for.
6. Regulations referring to buildings.
All matters relating to the building of schools are regu-
lated by the model plans and instructions issued together with
the Ministerial Decree of 1897: the matter of school equipment
is regulated by the schedule annexed to Act XXVII of 1907.
Since the issue of these model plans (which must be sadop-
led in the construction of State elementary schools), chool buil-
ding in Hungary has made remarkable progress. Not only the
larger towns have fine buildings answering all the requirements
of modern education and hygienics (not to speak of the numer-
ous palaces — buildings containing from 18 to 20 classrooms —
erected for school purposes in the capital city of Budapest), but
even in the provinces, in small villages, there has been quite
a revolution in the exterior appearance of school buildings.
Millions of crowns have been invested by the various classes
of school-providers in the building of schools, the salaries of the
teachers being paid by the Slate. During the last decade, the
State itself has spent nearly ten, the Capital city of Budapest some
five millions of crowns in the erection of suitable schools.
The contributions of local authorities towards the expenses
of public elementary schools constitute about 367o of Ihe whole
sum expended. But the greater part of the same is devoted
to the maintenance and support of denominational schools;
and only IP/o faUs to parochial schools.
The local authorities defray 71 7o of Ihe whole outlay on
their own schools out of their own resources: the rest is
supplied by the State or irom other sources.
The State defrays 187o of the aggregate outlay on Hung-
arian public elemenlarj' schools, — 22,000.000 crowns.
22 CHAPTER 111.
C) Organisation and Syllabus (scheme of work) of public
elementary schools.
The Act distinguishes two courses of elementary educ-
ation, the six years' day school, and the three years' continu-
ation: school. Public elementary schools maintained by local
authorities and by the State are bound to provide for both
courses: denominational schools are not obliged to hold con-
tinuation courses.
1. Day schools.
The six years' course of day elementary schools may be
under the management of one or more teacher; and the schools
are called «undivided», or awholly» or «partly divided* accord-
ingly (i. e. where there are 5 or 6 pupils). The establishment
of boys' and girls' schools is required by the Act only as a
matter of principle: for in reality there are many mixed
elementary schools in Hungary.
2. Obligatory subjects.
The following subjects are obligatory in every element-
ary school:
1. Religion and ethics,
2. Writing and reading,
3. Arithmetic (mental and written), weights and measures,
with a knowledge of the money system,
4. Grammar,
5. Exercises in speaking,
6. Geography,
7. Natural history,
8. The elements of natural science, with special regard
for the occupations of the majority of the parents and the
district in which they live,
9. Practical training in agriculture and gardening,
10. Civic rights and duties : history of the constitution,
11. Geometry,
12. Drawing,
13. Singing,
14. Physical exercises,
15. Needlework.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 23
3. Syllabus and instructions.
The leading principles of the syllabus appointed by the
Minister of Public Instruction for the use of Slate and parochial
elementary schools are:
a) the whole system of instruction should be pervaded
by a moral and aesthetic spirit;
b) the instruction must at all times be practical, adapted
to the requirements of practical life;
c) observation, nature, and real life should be the. main
auxiliary means of instruction;
d) the system of instruction should comprise the training
of pupils for work and the development of physical ability.
The Syllabus and instructions (schedule) attached consist
of two main paits. The first part is the syllabus (scheme of
work) in the strict sense of the word ; the second part contains
instructions for carrying out the Syllabus.
The Schedule itself is divided into three parts. The first,
general part defines the main points of view of elementary
education. The second, special part expounds the purposes of
the teaching of the several subjects, and determines points of
detail; but it gives merely the pith of the methods, and only
determines the principles to be followed.
The third part, starting from the peculiar conditions in
force in «undivided» schools, shows the teachers in such how
to overcome all difficulties.
4. Objects of, and Matter included in subjects taught.
The special part of the schedule deals in the following
manner with the purposes and matter of the several subjects
taught:
Religion and ethics. As parochial elementary schools may
be attended by children belonging to any denomination, the
respective denominations are required to provide for the
instruction in religion and ethics of those pupils belonging to
their own sphere of authority. The schedule, on this point,
adds the following important advice : the instruction in religion
and ethics, together with the other material for instructioUy
should serve to develop an uniformity of feeling among the
pupils.
24 CHAPTER III.
The object of instruction in the Hungarian (Magyar)
tongue is, firstly, to enable the children to understand the
thoughts of others expressed by word of mouth or in writing,
and, secondly, to entible them to express their own thoughts
properly and intelligibly, both by word of mouth and in
writing. To this end instruction in Hungarian will become one
of the main axes of the whole system of elementary education.
Its aim is no less practical than it is formal. This instruction
is the key to all other teaching: and on it turns the national
character of elementary education.
The details of this matter of instruction are :
a) Reading and writing.
b) Calligraphy,
c) Prefatory discourse of teacher,
d) Reading, of set pieces,
e) Discussion of matter read, — with reference both to
its contents and its form,
/) Drafting,
g) Grammatical explanations in connection with the
matter read.
Instruction in grammar is to be merely an aid to rend-
ering the knowledge of the language a conscious one, i. e. to
instruction in correct speech and orthography: in other words,
the object of instruction in Hungarian grammar is to accustom
pupils to a correctness in speaking and spelling founded on
a knowledge of the language. On our way to the attainment of
this end, elementary schools do not need grammatical explan-
ations where linguistic feeling directs us aright.
The object of instruction in arithmetic is, firstly, to
accustom pupils to systematic thinking and thereby to de-
velop their intellectual faculties, and, secondly, to afford
them an opportunity for practice in the calculations and
measurements indispensable in practical life. As for the method
of instruction in arithmetic, the main requirements established
by the schedule are the training of the faculty of observation
<by object-lessons) and the taking of the subjects of the examples
treated, as far as possible, from the sphere of each several
subject of instruction.
The subject-matter of instruction is, in the first standard,
simple quantities between 1 — 20, in the second standard,
EDUCATION IN HUNGAKY 25
between 20—100, in Ihe third standard between 100—1000,
in the fourth standard, the four first rules (of arithmetic) with
figures over 1000. A new subject-matter is operations witii
compound quantities, and vulgar fractions. The subject-matter
in the fifth and sixth standards is the calculations actually
occurring in every-day life. In the fifth class besides, decimal
fractions, and interest ; in the sixth class the reckoning of
capital and percentages.
Geometry, The objects of instruction in this subject are
twofold: a) to explain in a clear manner to the pupils the
characteristics of a few simple geometrical figures, b) to induce
the pupils to apply their geometrical knowledge in practical life.
The first means of instruction is observation (by object-
lessons); the second, drawing, the reproduction of the figures
taught. According to the Syllabus, this subject is taught in the
fifth and sixth standards of elementary schools: but in the
foregoing classes, during the exercises in speaking and in-
struction in drawing, the pupils are enable to acquire a certain
number of geometrical conceptions. In both the fifth and sixth
standards, the instruction in geometry is confined to the second
half (semester) of the school year.
In close connection with the instruction in geometry, is
the geometrical drawing taught in tlie fifth and sixth standards.
The object of the exercises in speaking is that the pupils
shall acquire and correct that knowledge of geography, history,
civil rights and duties, natural history and natural science
which, at this early stage (first and second standards), is of
interest to them, and satisfies and fosters their thirst for learning.
These exercises are intended, moreover, to increase their voca-
bulary and aid them to form proper sentences while speaking.
The object of the instruction in geography is to enable
pupils to know their whereabouts, particularly in their native
land, and to comprehend the geographical phenomena dis-
played to them on the earth. Idealistically, its object is to
foster the pupils' attachment to their country, and, by raising
them above the level of direct observation, to enrich their
sentiments and strengthen their religious feeling. The Schedule
includes the drawing of sketch-maps.
The teaching of geography proper begins in the third
standard, with a description of the pupils' native place, in
26 CHAPTER 111.
connection with which the pupils are made familiar with the
fundamental conceptions of geography, and with the topo-
graphy of the county in which they live. In the fourth standard
the pupils are made acquainted gradually with the whole of
Hungary. In the fifth standard we have a summarised description
of Hungary, with reference to historical facts, and the inter-
dependence of agricultural conditions and geographical factors.
Then follows a repeated description of the political and cultural
geography of Hungary: after which Austria and the other
European countries are treated. The subject-matter of instruc-
tion in geography in the sixth standard is: — a) economic
geography of Hungary (one third of the school year), with a
detailed treatment of her agriculture, industry, and traffic;
the subject-matter to be varied according to the particular
district and the branches of peculiar interest to the pupils.
In connection therewith, co-operation, banking, savings banks,
money-issue and money standards, are treated. Another third
of the year is devoted to a survey of Europe and the other
continents; while the last third of the year is spent in the
study of physiological and astronomical geography.
History. The object of instruction in history is, by rend-
ering the pupils familiar with the thousand years' past and
the struggles of our nation, and with the national virtues
heralded by the historical events and by the great figures of
history, to arouse, foster, and ennoble natipnal self-esteem, a
love of country, and loyalty to the Sovereign. In the third
and fourth standards, the pupils acquire historical knowledge
from the pieces selected for reading ; but the actual instruction
in history does not begin until the fifth standard. The subject-
matter is : Hungarian history, with particular regard for the
days of glory of the Hungarian nation, for the struggles
against the Turkish invaders, for the fight for freedom of
conscience and the constitution, and for the peaceful days
that followed the expulsion of the Ottomans. The development
of new Hungary is treated in brief in this standard, but in
the sixth standard the modern ages are discussed in detail.
The object of the instruction in civic rights and duties
is to make the pupils familiar with the institutions of State
life and the fundamental laws of the Hungarian constitution,
to create a respect for the laws, and foster national feehng.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 27
The subject-matter of instruction is divided in such a way
that to the fifth standard fall the practical parts (administration^
land registry, taxes, military service, compulsory attendance
at school, field police, industrial laws, public health, servants*
Acts, State registry offices), while in the sixth standard a
knowledge of constitutional and public law is taught (kingly-
power, royal prerogatives, legislation, the government of the
country, law-courts, budget etc.)
Natural sciences. The object of instruction in natural
history and physics is to familiarise the pupils with the life
and objects of nature, and with every-day natural phenomena,
and to foster in them a love for nature.
Natural history is taught in both the fifth and sixth
standards: in the former standard zoology and botany, with
typical objects taken from the surroundings of the pupil. In
the sixth standard the system of teaching is the same, only
the animals and plants taken as examples are more remote
from the surroundings of the pupils: further instruction is
given in a knowledge of the human body (anatomy), and, in
connection therewith, in the laws of hygiene.
Physics are taught in the sixth standard only: but
instruction in the same is preceded by an introduction into
the elements of chemistry, and by the familiarising of the
pupils, on a strictly experimental basis (object-lessons), with
the natural phenomena of every-day life.
Art instruction ; a) Drawing ; the object of instruction in this
subject is to teach the pupils how to pourtray simple objects,
intelligibly and characteristically, from observation, thereby to
train in them a consciousness of observation and visual faculty,
and an intelligent judgment, and, finally, to lead up to a
recognition and appreciation of the beautiful in nature and
in the handiwork of man.
The instruction in drawing is in all standards inteniied
to illustrate natural objects, — though in various grades. One
grade consists of exercises to increase manual dexterity, which
are used in all standards. The second grade consists of exer-
cises for developing the accuracy of the pupils' visual faculties:
these are used in the first and, in particular, in the second
standard. The third grade consists of brush drawing, and is
a graduated course, beginning with the third standard, advanc-
28 CHAPTER III.
ing as far as the painting, in one colour, of the figures of
simple utensils drawn from nature. The fourth grade consists
of the drafting of plans ;
b) the object of instruction in singing is the development
of a musical feeling, and the training of the voice, as well as
the learning by heart of famous Hungarian songs and airs.
An important point is that the Schedule makes the teaching
by notes obligatory, beginning with the third standard. The
songs to be learned from standard to standard are grouped
by subjects.
c) Needlework. Instruction in needlework has been made
obligatory both for boys and girls : its object, the natural
development of the pupils ability and inclination to do manual
labour.
Practical training in agricultural subjects in boys' school
begins in the fifth standard with instruction in the cultivation
of the soil, the propagation of plants, and the tending of
plants in their first year. In the sixth standard, the subject
matter of instruction is the ingathering and preservation of
products, the tending of plants older than one year, and the
keeping and use of animals. In girls' schools the pupils of
the fifth standard are chiefly engaged in gardening, those o
the sixth standard in kitchen work. The subject-matter of
instruction is : housecraft, kitchen gardening, , poultry, swine
and dairy farming, sericulture, and, in some cases, apiculture.
Physical exercises. The Syllabus estabUshes the obligatory
character of the following kinds of physical exercises :
a) games involving free movement, b) drill, c) Swedish gym-
nastics (without apparatus), d) ordinary gymnastics (wilh
apparatus). The first three are obligatory in all six standards:
the ordinary gymnastics (d) are taught from the third standard
upwards.
5. Minimum attendance required.
The aggregate number of hours per week in public
elementary schools with six classes under the management of
one teacher in 32 (an average of 7 — 7^/^ per class). In ele-
mentary schools with two teachers the number of hours of
the first and second standards together is 22 ; of the third
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 2f
fourth, fifth and sixth, 30. In schools with three teachers the
aggregate of houi-s in the first and second standards is 22, in
the third and fourth, 28, in the fifth and sixth, 28.
In schools with four teachers, the number of hours in
the first standard is 21, in the second standard, 21, in the
third, 25, in the fourth, 26, and finally, in the fifth and
sixth, 28.
6. Syllabus (scheme of work) of denominational schools.
The various religious denominations are entitled to
establish the syllabuses of their own elementary schools, within
the limits prescribed by law. Despite the liberty of action thus
guaranteed, tlie schemes of work of denominational schools
do not materially differ from the official Syllabus, but prac-
tically follow the same both in the division of subjects, and
in the method of teaching.
7. School-books : educational apparatus.
In State, parochial, private and proprietary public ele-
mentary schools, as well as in those maintained by the Jewish
confession, only such school-books and educational apparatus
may be employed as have been sanctioned for the purpose
by the Minister of Public Instruction, on the basis of the opinion
of official reviewers and critics. The school-books and edu-
cational appliances to be used in the public elementary schools
of other religious denominations, must be sanctioned by the
ecclesiastical authorities of the respective denominations. The
employment of non-sanctioned school-books or educational
appliances by teachers is absolutely forbidden. When used,
such books or appUances are confiscated by the competent
authorities : and the off'ending teacher is dealt with in the spirit
of the strict statutes referring thereto, whatever the character
of the school in which he is engaged.
8. Continuation schools.
As provided by the Elementary Education Act, the second
course of elementary education is the three years' continuation
school. This school forms a very important complement to
the'^, public elementary school: it importance lies, firstly, in
30 CHAPTER III.
the fact that 957o of the pupils leaving public elementary
schools do not pass to any higher institute, and do not there-
fore continue to study, and, secondly, in the fact that young
people between the ages of 12 and 15 are particularly in need
of school and moral guidance. The cultural significance of
the continuation courses was particularly enhanced by the
regulations and syllabus for a continuation course in agri-
culture issued in 1902, in which the instruction in school
was brought into close agreement with the requirements of
practical life, by enabling the children of parents engaged in
the cultivation of the soil to acquire technical agricultural
traming in continuation schools.
Continuation schools for technical instruction in agri-
culture gradually took the place of general continuation cour-
ses all over the country, and were able to make up for the
deficiencies of the latter by offering a scientific education in
that most important branch of culture.
In these agricultural schools, the subjects of instruction
are partly theoretical, partly practical. The theoretical sub-
jects are writing, and reading of set pieces, within the
bounds of which the pupils' knowledge of natural history,
geography, physics, chemistry, history, and constitutional history
is resuscitated and completed in a manner calculated to
satisfy all the requirements of practical life ; further, the Hun-
garian language, in particular drafting (with special reference
to public life), and arithmetic.
The practical courses in agriculture are held on the model
farm and in the garden attached to the school.
There are separate continuation schools of this kind for
boys and girls; the schemes of work naturally differ to some
extent, according to the future occupations of the pupils. At
the same time the managers of such schools may establish local
schemes of work in agreement with local conditions (branches
of agriculture prevailing in the particular district); conse-
quently there are continuation schools with special courses in
viticulture, forestry, cultivation of the soil, fruit-culture, and
kitchen gardening respectively. The course of instruction
extends over 3 years. The school year comprises a period of
from 8 to 9 months. The number of hours per week is, in
autumn and summer 2, in winter 5. By Act XXVII of 1907
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 31
the language of instruction in all continuation schools is
Hungarian (Magyar).
Among the continuation schools for technical instruction
in agriculture there are some which possess model farms etc
of large extent: on the latter special professional teachers are
employed to give technical and practical instruction in agri-
cultural science. These schools provided with model farms of,
which there are 45 in the country, are called «szaktanit6s gaz-
dasagi ism6tl6 iskolak» (agricultural continuation schools with
expert teachers).
These latter, too, may be engaged in special instruction
in various branches of agriculture, as detailed above. The
instruction in agricultural continuation schools of general
character is in charge of teachers of elementary day schools,
the agricultural training of whom is provided for by the
Ministry of Agriculture, in courses lasting four weeks.
C) Pupils' Clubs (Assoeiations), libraries, Commemoration
days.
1. Pupils' Clubs (Associations).
With a view to increasing the influence of elementary
education, pupils* clubs have been organised in connection
with the public elementary schools. The object of these clubs
is to train pupils who are past the age when attendance at
school is obligatory in a patriotic, moral and religious spirit,
that the difficult work entailed by elementary education may
not be wasted, and that the pupils may be enabled to acquire
knowledge of value to them in practical life. They aim, further,
at accustoming the pupils to a temperate way of living; to
restrain them from frequenting drinking-shops and other sim-
ilar places. To these clubs are admitted all well-behaved girls
too, who are over 15 years of age, and can read and write :
they may retain their membership until they are married.
Separate girls' clubs may also be organised.
By the end of 1907 no less than 618 such pupils* clubs
were active, for the most part in villages (parishes) containing
State schools.
In 1907, the Minister decreed that every year, on May
18, the day when the first Peace Congress at the Hague was
32 CHAPTER III.
opened, the significance of the day, as well as the means and
organs of universal peace, should form the subject of a brief
address in the pupils' clubs, and in the literary unions of
every grade of school in the country.
2. Libraries for use of pupils.
Well organised and properly managed libraries being of
the fii^t importance as supports and auxiliary means for the
development of the pupils' clubs (associations) attached to
elementary schools, in 1902 the Minister of Public Instruction
published the Regulations relating to the criticism, registering,
and employment of the works to be used by the pupils of
elementary schools, together with the statutes for the organ-
isation of libraries for the use of pupils. According to the said
Regulations, for the criticism of the works used by pupils and
the settlement of all matters connected therewith, a ^Board
for the control of the libraries for the use of pupils of elem-
entary schools* was organised, the duty of which is to watch,
control and guide the literary activity of school children in
Hungary.
With regard to the organisation of libraries, it was ex-
pressly declared that a library should be organised in every
state and parochial elementary and continuation school, to-
wards the expenses of which a sum of 50 filler (admission fee)
should be collected from every pupil of State and parochial
elementary schools.
The school library in all cases remains in the possession
of the school.
In the future, in State and parochial elementary schools,
no works can be acquired for the school libraries except such
as are included in the list of books recommended on the
responsibility of the above-mentioned Board.
In 1904 suitable typical Ubraries were established in all
State elementary schools, as well as in all parochial element-
ary schools subventioned by the State.
Contemporaneously with the publication of the register
of books suitable for pupils* libraries, a scheme for the man-
agement of such libraries was issued and made obligatory for
all State and parochial public elementary schools.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 'Xi
The scheme for the organisation of pupils' hbraries in
Hungary was brought very near to practical realisation by
the measures taken in 1904, to found, at one blow, 2196 such
libraries in State elementary schools and parochial pubUc
elementary schools subsidised by the State. The order com-
prised more than 200.000 volumes, representing a value of
^38.914 crowns.
3. Commemoration days.
In 1906, in all elementary schools in Hungary, the Ameri-
can system of the commemoration of a « Birds* day» and an
« Arbor day» was introduced. In spring, in every State, parochial
proprietary and private elementary school, one day is selected,
on which the teachers familiarise the pupils with useful birds,
and, in connection therewith, with a knowledge of trees, and
endeavour to induce the pupils to make the «Day of Birds
and Trees* memorable and permanently useful by the plant-
ing of trees.
With reference to the planting of trees connected with
this commemoration day, the greatest stress should be laid,
in the first place, on a knowledge of the importance of mul-
berry trees in sericulturee : fuit-trees in general are treated
as of secondary importance only. The reason for this is hat
mulberry trees and sericulture which is so dependent on the
same, are of extreme economic and social significance in the
country.
D) Teaehers (Male and Female) in Public Elementary
Sehools.
1. Qualifications required; appointment.
Only such teachers can be legally employed in public
elementary schools in Hungary as are possessed of certificates
acquired in one of the Teachers' Training Colleges organised
in accordance with the Elementary Education Act. The sig-
nature of the respective Inspector of Schools proving that the
teacher knows Hungarian (Magyar) is required to legalise cer-
tificates acquired in Training Colleges where the language of
instruction is not Magyar.
3
34 CHAPTER III.
The teachers are appointed or elected for life in all ele-
mentary schools belonging to the State, local authorities, or
religious denominations. They cannot be removed from office
unless convicted of a breach of good conduct, of crimes, or
a breach of discipline.
Teachers in State schools are appointed by the Minister
of Public Instruction; those in parochial schools, by the local
education authorities (School Board) ; those in denominational
schools by the Board of Management appointed by the res-
pective denomination. At Budapest, teachers in municipal
schools are elected by the Town Council. The election of
teachers in parochial schools must be confirmed by the local
Council, that of teachers in denominational schools by the
respective ecclesiastical authorities. The salaries of teachei's,
matters of discipline, the appointment of teachers and their
dismissal, and, in connection therewith, the legal status of the
providers of schools, were materially and thoroughly regul-
ated by Acts XXVI and XXVIl of 1907.
2. Salaries.
Act XXVI of 1907 settled the question of the salaries of
teachers in State public elementary schools. By the provisions
of the same, the initial salaries of teachers are 1000, 1100,
and 1200 crowns respectively, rising, during thirty years* ser-
vice, with quinquennial additions, to 2400, 2500, and 2600
crowns respectively. Teachers not residing on the school pre-
mises receive allowances (varying between 200 and 600 crowns
per annum) for house-rent. Besides, the Act deals with the
disciplinary rules applying to teachers, with the local inspec-
tion of State elementary schools, and questions of trusteeship.
3. Act XXVII of 1907.
Act XXVII of 1907 was framed, partly to put on a more
suitable basis, to extend and secure the provisions of Act
XVIII of 1879 (dealing with the teaching of Hungarian —
Magyar — in elementary schools) and of Act XXVI of 1893
(dealing with the settlement of the question of teachers' salaries),
partly to ensure the safety of Hungarian national principles
and State interests in public elementary schools.
KI>U CATION IN HUNGARY 35
This Act settles,
a) the question of the salaries of teachers in parochial
and denominational elementary schools. It provides for an
initial salary and allowance for house-rent similar to those of
teachers in State schools, with this difference, that the said
salary (together with extra quinquennial allowances for service)
cannot exceed 2200 crowns ;
b) the legal status of the providers of schools, or rather,
the indispensable conditions incident on the exercise of the
right of maintaining schools;
c) the equipment, methods of teaching, and school regu-
lations required in all pubUc elementary schools in the inter-
ests of national and Slate points of view ;
d) the question of the teaching of Hungarian (Magyar) in
schools not maintained by the State;
e) the disciplinary rules relating to teachers in non-State
schools, and in connection therewith, the question of the oath
to be taken on entering office.
The Act provides for those responsible for the mainte-
nance of schools, in case they are unable to guarantee the
teachers the minimum salary prescribed by law, being entitled
to claim the financial support of the State to the greatest pos-
sible extent, with a view to making up the required sums.
No public elementary school can claim any support from
the State, unless it satisfies the requirements prescribed by
law with reference to the scheme of work, school books, the
qualifications of teachers, and, in elementary schools where
the language of instruction is not Magyar, to the teaching of
the Hungarian (Magyar) language.
By the provisions of the said Act, in all schools where
the language of instruction is not Magyar (whether the said
schools receive a grant from the State or not), the Hungarian
(Magyar) tongue must be taught in all classes of the day
courses, according to the Syllabus and in the number of hours
per week appointed by the Minister after having heard the
views of the providers of denominational schools, to an extent
that will enable non-Magyar children (i. e. children whose
mother tongue is not Magyar), after passing the fourth stand-
ard, to express, tlieir thoughts in intelligible Hungarian, both
by word of mouth and in waiting. In all continuation schools
the language of instruction is exclusively Magyar.
3*
36 CHAPTER HI.
4. Teachers' Unions (Guilds).
By vii-tue of the Elementary Education Act the teachers
in parochial elementary schools in Hungary are bound to
form teachers' unions in each county, with a view to co-ope-
ration for the furtherance of the interests of the school and of
educational matters, and for their own educational improvement.
Consequently there is, in every school district (county),
a General Teachers' Guild, of which all teachers (male and
female) of State and parochial elementary schools, higher
elementary and city schools, are ex officio members.
Besides the above-mentioned objects, the aim of these
general teachers' guilds is to offer assistance to teachers rend-
ered incapable, to teachers' widows and orphans, and to
found charity organisations, to arouse and keep alive an active
interest in the cause in the teachers and the general public,
and thus to increase the funds at their disposal.
It is the duty of the Royal Inspectors of Schools to guide
and control the work of these unions (guilds), and to see that
they are fulfilling the objects' set down in the statutes.
5. € Teachers' Homes ».
In accordance with the fervent desire of elementary
school teachers, at Budapest and Kolozsvar « Teachers'
Homes* have been created, institutes intended to provide the
gifted and well-behaved children of teachers, and of other
members of the educational profession (inspectors, ministerial
clerks etc.) during the period occupied by their studies at uni-
versities, university colleges or technical colleges, with board
and lodging either gratis or for a small fee, and to give them
such intellectual and educational guidance as will enable them
to prepare for a scientific career and to acquire the social
culture necessary thereto.
The erection and equipment of these two institutes cost
about one million crowns.
The ^Teachers' Home» in Budapest was opened in 1899,
and by the gracious permission of his Majesty, is called the
« Francis Joseph Teachers' Home*. The one in Kolozsvar was
handed over to its destination in September, 1904, and began
its work as the «Hunvadi» Teachers' Home.
EDUCATION IN HUN6AHY
The buildings and equipments of the Teachers' Homes
are the property of the Treasury: the management and
administration of the institutes, under the supreme control of
the State, are in the charge of the representative councils of
the National Teachers' Union and the E6tv6s Fund Teachers'
Association respectively.
^ The local inspection of both institutes is carried out by
the Boards of Inspection, the direct management and economic
arrangements by bursars elected for life and subordinated
in disciplinary matters to the Minister of Public Instruction.
6. Pensions.
By Act XXXII of 1872 the legislature settled the question
of the pensions or disablement allowances of elementary
school teachers who have become permanently incapable or
have finished the required time of service.
According to the provisions of this Act, which were
rendered more perfect by Act XLIIl of 1891, a National
Teachers' Pension Institute was established for the use of all
teachers of elementary schools, the funds of which are annu-
ally increased by a considerable grant from the State.
All teachers regularly employed in elementary schools
are obliged to become members of this Institute : the conditions
for admission are 1) the taking of the oath prior to entering
office, 2) the completion of the 21st year, in the case of male,
of the 20th year, in the case of female teachers- Every teacher
is obliged to pay into the funds of the Institute, once for all, 5%
of that part of his payment which may be counted for pension,
2% per annum of his yearly salary, and, in case of a rise of
salary 50% of the additional allowance (this latter on the first
occasion only). The persons (or bodies) responsible for the
maintenance of schools pay 24 crowns. (£ 1) per annum for
every ordinary teacher employed in their respective schools,
and contribute 30 filler (3 d.) per head per annum for every
pupil admitted to their schools.
Teachers can claim a pension after 10 years' service,
when they receive 40% of their whole fixed salary, a sum
that is increased by 2% for every year of further service, so
that after 40 years' service they receive full pension (i. e. their
pension corresponds to the full amount of their salary).
38 CHAPTKR III.
The Institute, further, provides for tiie maintenance of
teachers' widows and orphans.
As the new legislation has produced a considerable
increase in the salaries of the teachers of all public elemental^
schools, the Institute, in its present organisation, will before
long be unable to cope with the demands imposed on it:
consequently the putting of the Institute, in the near future,
on a different basis, will be indispensable.
E) Authorities controlling Public Elementary Schools.
1. Acts referring to Authorities.
Act XXXVIII of 1868 deals with the organisation of public
elementary schools, higher elementary schools, city schools,
and colleges for the training of elementary school teachers,
and gives them the collective title of « national schools.*
Public elementary, higher elementary, and city schools
were placed under the superintendence of the managing bodies
(school boards) and local education authorities, entrusting
the supreme control to the Royal Inspectors of Schools. The
Teachei-s' Training Colleges were given into the charge of
the governing council and the Inspectors of Schools.
But a change had before long to be made in the control
of public elementary schools, firstly, because local inspection
had to be made obligatory for denominational schools, secondly,
because the limits of control that had been insufficiently defined
in the first Act had to be made more precise and complete
by legal measures, and, finally, because after the re-organisa-
tion of municipal administration in 1876, by Act VI of that
year dealing with the local (municipal) Councils, the manage-
ment and superintendence of elementary schools had to be
brought into agreement with this new system founded on
more modern principles.
To this end was framed Act XXVIII of 1876, dealing
with the authorities controlUng Public Elementary Schools.
The provisions of this Act — with the exception of § 7
deahng with the punishment of teachers for breach of discip-
line, which was invalidated by Acts XXVI and XXVII of 1907
— are still in force today.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY iW
According to this Act, there are three forums of control
and management, 1) local (obligatory) inspection, 2) the inter-
mediate State and autonomous control, 3) the supreme control
and management.
2. Local inspection.
By the said Act local inspection is obligatory, and consists
in the fact that State schools are subordinate to boards of
trustees consisting of members partly appointed by the County
Sheriffs (Ol)ergespan), partly elective, and partly members ex.
officio. Parochial schools are under the control of the local
school boards appointed by the representative parish council,
ill which the teaching staff is also represented : while denom-
inational schools are controlled by the managing body (board)
appointed by the respective vestry-board. The trustees of State
schools are engaged more particularly in managing the external
affairs of the schools, and in seeing that the teachers
perform their duties: they do not enter into a criticism of
the methods of teaching. This is the same with the school
boards controlling parish schools, with the essential difference,
however, that the rights of parochial schpol boards include
a) the election of teachers, bj the fixing of teachers' salaries,
in conjunction with the local authorities and the representative
local assembly.
Both the trustees of State schools, and the parochial
school boards are directly subordinate to the Royal Inspectors
of Schools and the local (administrative) Councils.
The work to be done by the managing bodies of denom-
inational schools is the same, the only difference being that,
whereas the scheme of work of parochial school boards is
appointed by the Minister of Public Education, that of the
managing bodies of denominational schools is set fast, by the
respective ecclesiastical authorities.
3. Royal Inspectors of Schools.
The second forum of control and management consists
of the Royal Inspectors of Schools, and the local (administra-
tive) Council.
The position of Royal Inspector was organist \yy Act
XXXVIII of 18G8: but his present sphere of authority was
lU CHAPTER 111.
only appointed by Act XXVIII of 1876 (already referred to) rela-
ting to the authorities controlling elementary schools. His sphere
of authority extends to one school district (each county forms
one district, Budapest and Fiume each constituting one separate
district): he is the external representative of the authority in
which is vested the supreme control of elementary education.
His duty is to visit in person or to send his substitute
to visit every school (infant schools, elementary schools, public
elementary, city schools, apprentice schools, agricultural con-
tinuation schools, schools for training infant school mistresses,
ti'aining colleges for teachers — both male and female — in
elementary schools) at least once a year, and to control the
strict carrying out, in the same, of all Elementary Education
Acts, decrees, and legally appointed schemes of work; to be
responsible for the general administration of the elementary
schools ; to report on elementary education in the local (admi-
nistrative) Council ; and to control and guide the life of the
teaching staffs. He is empowered to take the initiative in the
cases of State, parochial, private, and proprietary schools ;
while, in the case of denominational schools, his work is
principally that of control; the more important measures re-
quired to ensure compliance with the laws he has executed
through the ecclesiastical authorities, with the exception of such
matters as demands for statistical data, matters relating to
pensions and the betterment of salaries etc., with respect to
which he is endowed with the power of initiative. He takes
part in the work of examination in State teachers' training
colleges as president of the Examination Boards and of the
governing council, [and [in that of denominational teachers'
training colleges as co-president of the Examination Boards^
or as Ministerial Commissioner: and the sanctioning of pri-
vate examinations in city schools, and the confirming of the
resolutions of the trustees of state schools, of the school boards
of parochial schools, and of the teaching staffs of State train-
ing colleges, belongs to his sphere of authority.
His reports are submitted, partly to the local (admini-
strative) (Council (chiefly on questions referring to the obligat-
ory provision of schools and the legal status of those res-
ponsible for their maintenance), partly to the Minister.
The Inspectors are assisted by sub-Inspectors and clerks.
KUrCATlON IN HUNGARY
1. The local (administrative) Councils.
While the Inspectors of Schools play the part rather ol
a controUmg organ in the above-mentioned questions of ele-
mentary education, the local (administrative) Councils fill the
role of executive organs. These councils constitute a forum ol
the first instance in matters relating to the obligatory provi-
sion or maintenance of schools, to the legal status of those
responsible for their maintenance, to the supplementing of
teachers' salaries, to differences of opinion between school
boards and teachers, and to the punishment of teachers for breach
of discipline ; while in the case of appeals against the decis-
ions of School Inspectors, they form a court of the second
instance.
Their chief duty is to see that the children icomply with
the regulations respecting compulsory attendance at school,
and to control the carrying out of the legal requirements con-
cerning the provision and maintenance of schools ; to see that
the provisions of the Elementary Education Acts are fulfilled
(in parochial schools, through their parish officers, in denom-
inational schools, through the Inspectors of schools) ; to control
the compliance, in all schools, with the requirements of the
laws dealing with public health; and, as occasion requires, to
take the necessary steps, or to submit reports to the Minister.
The latter duty refers in particular to legal measures of reta-
liation against elementary schools not complying with the
requirements of the law, to warnings to be given, and to the
<'losing of schools.
From this brief sketch of the sphere of authority and
i^ctivity of this Council, it may be seen that our laws have
done their best to interest every factor of the whole State and
social life in the work of elementary education. The necessary
interaction of school and State and social life will, it is hoped,
before long be carried to perfection by the new Syllabuses
and school regulations, which have as their aim the transform-
ation of elementary schools into living pourtrayals of real life.
42 CHA.PTER m.
5. Autonomy of denominational schools.
In the independent settling of their own school affairs,
the various denominations may not exceed the limits prescii-
bed by law: consequently the autonomous school constitution
of the same practically corresponds to that of State and paro-
chial public elementary schools, with regard to the scheme of
work, discipline, time of teaching, the organisation of the
school, the selection of and rules of discipline relating to
teachers.
6. Supreme control of Government.
The supreme control of public instruction — consequently
of elementary education too — is entrusted to the Minister of
Public Instruction, who on the one hand exercises the supreme
State control of schools, on the other, as required by law,
looks after the security of the factors (at any rate of the main
principles and tendencies) requisite to an uniform development
of elementary education.
F) Statistical Data.
The total number of those obliged to attend school in
Hungary is 3,154.000; of these, 1,564.000 are boys, 1,561.000
girls. Of this number those obliged to attend elementary day
scliools comprise 2,200.000; while those whose attendance at
continuation schools is obligatory number 904.000. Of those
obliged to attend elementary schools, 79'5Vo are enjoying
proper instruction — in round figures 2,500,000. 2P/o (^'so in
round figures) did not participate in instruction. The number
of children attending elementary day schools is 1,848.176
(948.918 boys, and 899.258 girls).
Of these :
28*967o ai'^ i'^ the first standard,
23*537o » » » second »
19-347o » ^ » third
15-187o » ^ » fourth
8-867o » )> » fifth
and 5137o > » » sixth »
The number of pupils attending general continuation
courses is 347.000, of those attending agricultural continuation
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 43
schools, 140.655, and of those attending « szaktanitos* (z;. 6- wpra)
agricultural continuation schools, 8356.
The proportion of pupils actually attending continuation
schools (i. e. in comparison to the number of those who
should attend) will be bettered from year to year by the
continual increase in the number of agricultural and house-
craft continuation schools respectively. The creation of a sepa-
rate apprentice school for girls is also planned.
Of those who should attend school, 5177o are Magyars.
11-3 Germans, 167o Roumanians, 12-77o Slovaks, 2-57o Servians,
P/o Croatians, and 2'97o Ruthenians.
The number of elementary day schools is 16.561. Of
these 2046 are State schools, 1473 parochial, 12.734 denomi-
national schools: 271 are private, and 37 proprietary schools.
There are altogether 30.194 teachers engaged in public elem-
entarv' schools.
Of the teachers, in 1906, about 28.600 were certificated.
Of these 543 knew Hungarian very little, or not at all. Of the
non-ceilificated teachers, 321 knew very little or no Hung-
arian.
Of the elementary day schools, 68-557o were «one-
teacher undivided », 28*60 Vo «partly divided », and 2*857o
« wholly divided* schools.
Of the elementary schools, 11.527 had a general, 2.040
an agricultural, 102 a general and an agricultural continuation
school attached. 57'677o of the said schools used Hungarian
(Magyar) as the exclusive language of instruction; while in
17'977o other languages of instruction were used in addition
to Hungarian. Consequently the percentage of schools where
Hungarian is the language of instruction may be put at 70-907o.
The number of schools using Hungarian and some other
tongue as the language of instruction was 1665 (40057o) ; that
of schools where Hungarian was not employed at all 3154
(19®/o). Of these, in 2433 Roumanian was the language of
instruction ; i.. e. Roumanian was used in 14737o of the whole
number of elementary schools.
44 CHAPTBK 111.
III. Aims and scope of Elementary Education in
Hungary.
1. Difficulties of uniform national elementary education.
The geographical, and still more so, the ethnographical
conditions of Hungary are quite different to those of the
States of Western Europe. In Hungary nine-tenths of the
frontier is dry land. Of the inhabitants of the country, the
Magyars dwell, in a large, compact mass, in the central districts;
towards the frontier we meet them in continually decreasing
numbers ; and they confine themselves principally to the broader
valleys and towns. All along the border races of other tongues
(Slovaks, Ruthenians, Roumanians, Croatians, Servians, Germans)
are settled: and these groups of the population not only find
kindred neighbours beyond the frontier, but are continually
being attracted towards them as to neighbours living in States
organised on a national basis. These so-called «nationalist»
differences are only rendered more acute by the differences
in religion.
Elementary education in England, therefore, though
agreeing in its ultimate aims with that in force in Hungary,
follows a different path and, on its progress, has to struggle
against different obstacles to those presented to Hungarian
statesmen. What the latter are striving to attain, viz. : the
creation of an uniform national state, has long ago became
a living reality in England.
All this proves that the Hungarian legislature has settled
the question of elementary education on the most liberal basis,
with the most considerate regard for individual and corporate
rights, even in places where the interests of the State dictated
i^reater severity in the restriction of those rights. When Act
XXXVIII of 1868 gave the local authorities and the religious
denominations the practically unlimited right of providing
schools, and entrusted the determination of the language of
instruction to the bodies providing and maintaining the schools,
it threw the greatest obstacles in the way of the realisation of an
uniform, national elementarv education. The Government is alive
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 45
to these difBculties, and has been struggling with them for
decades : but it is not inclined to have recourse to the weapons
offeree, even where the laws authorise it to do so.
The present Ministry of Public Instruction does not
consider the exclusive nationalisation of elementary education
either necessary or opportune; it adheres to the principal of
liberal education, and believes that, in Hungary, it would be
unwise, from a national point of view, to put the whole manage-
ment of the educational affairs of the country exclusively into
the hands of each succeeding central government. Consequently
the present Ministry of Public Instruction takes its stand on
the basis of free education, strictly adhering, however, to those
conditions, by which every liberty in the life of the State must
be guided, if the employment of the same is not to come into
conflict with State and national endeavours.
2. Task alloted to State schools.
For this very reason, where State interests require, the
Ministry takes advantage of its right to carry into effect ele-
mentary education of a national character side by side with
the existing denominational ad parochial elementary schools.
The chief task allotted to State elementary schools is the
strengthening of an uniform national feeling among the inha-
bitaats of manifold races and denominations; to some extent
to act as a model of elementary education, by a practical
exhibition of the desirable method of instruction in all parts
of the country ; and, finally, to secure the education of the
masses in places where those responsible for the maintenance
of other schools do not at all provide for the same or at any
rate not in an adequate manner.
The above facts are sufficient to prove that the Ministry
of Public Instruction is tar from wishing to prevent the non-
Magyar inhabitants of the country from asserting their racial
individuality, or to throw obstacles in the way of their cultural
development: it only requires of them that, as members of
the Hungarian State they should adapt themselves to the
fundamental law guaranteeing the existence of the Hungarian
State, which the said State could not renounce without exposing
itself to the risk of falling to pieces and going to rack and ruin.
46 CHAPTER 111.
3. State grants to non-State schools.
The injustice of the charges made in tliis country with
reference to the predominance of State elementary schools is
displayed most strikingly hy the Budget for 1907, according
to which the amount appropriated for State elementary schools
was 10,570.010 crowns, that appropriated for the subvention
of parochial, denominational, and private elementary schools.
4,865.000 crowns. In other words the sum appropriated for
the subvention of schools not maintained by the State, which
are, consequently, not of a State character, amounted to nearly
half of that appropriated for the elementary schools maintained
entirely by the State.
5. System followed in establishing State public
elementary schools.
In consequence of these circumstances, in establishing
State elementary schools, the present Ministry has followed
the system of a parallel supply of two great deficiences, two
great wants.
Before all, in the heart of the country, in the towns and
villages of the great Lowlands^ {Alfold), it is striving to
overcome the educational difficulties created above all by the
system of scattered homesteads (tanya), and to spread culture
in these parts among the true-born Hungarians (Magyars).
Then the Ministry is paying special attention to those
parts of the country (in this respect the N. W. and S. E-
districts are taken into particular account), in which the feeling
of uniform nationality seems to be most threatened in the
schools. In these districts it is a question of language boun-
daries.
On the basis of these principles, the Ministry of Public
Instruction is organising State public elementary schools: and
we must particularly emphasise the fact that the nationalisation
of elementary schools belonging to any religious denomination
whatever is not carried out except by the express voluntary
request of the same, and even then only if the competent
ecclesiastical authorities have given their consent. Consequently
there can be no talk of «forced nationalisation* or <national-
isation by force. >
EDUCATION IX HUNGAKY 47
An action initiated with such systematicalness, with the
connivance of all competent factors, cannot give rise to —
and has not hitherto caused — any jealousy or resistance:
for we must insist that the State does not establish State
schools, except where the religious denominations or civic
(local) authorities, owing to a lack of material resources or for
some other reason, are either^ unable or unwilling to secure
the education of the masses — a patriotic duty that is not
without its effect on public life, — i. e. where, in the interests
of public culture and of the State, the establishment of State
schools is absolutely necessary.
CHAPTER IV
Higher elementary schools and city schools.
1. Higher elementary schools.
The higher elementary schools and city schools were
established as institutions for the development of a higher
grade of elementary education by Act XXX VIII of 1868, —
that dealing with elementary schools.
By the provisions of this 'Act the ordinary elementary
school of six standards was to be extended to the limit of
the legal age for attending school, by a higher elementary school
with three senior standards for boys and two senior standards
for girls respectively.
The purpose of this school was to impart a higher edu-
cation than that afforded by the junior standards of elementary
schools and to give facilities for the practical application of
the knowledge acquired, in populous parishes where there is
no opportunity of attending secondary schools.
The subjects of instruction in these higher elementary
schools are :
1. Religion and ethics. 2. The pupils' mother tongue:
a) reading and grammar, p) style. 3. In schools, where the lan-
guage of instruction is not Hungarian, Hungarian grammar.
4. Arithmetic. 5. Historical subjects : a) history, p) geography.
6. Subjects of natural science: a) natural history, j3) physics.
7. Singing. 8 Needlework (in girls' schools).
As these higher elementary schools were established
with the practical object of imparting knowledge useful in
farming (agriculture) and industry, the scheme of instruction
published in 1872 attached to the three senior standards of
boys' elementary schools a fourth, intended to give |>rofessi-
EDUCATION IN HUNGAHY 411
onal training. This fourth standard was abolished by a minis-
terial decree in 1882. The original three senior standards were
retained, and professional training was combined with the
general instruction. So the higher elementary schools for
boys had two schemes of instruction: the one connected
with economical training, the other with industrial workshops.
The same ministerial decree, however, permitted pupils not
wishing to attend the classes in professional training to partici-
pate in the general instruction only, though in each several case
the occupations of the inhabitants must be taken into account.
Alihough it was desirable that this type of school
should prosper in Hungary, as it would have furthered the
education of the people, whose main occupation is agriculture,
it could not succeed, because even elementary schools of six
standards, to which it should have been attached, were estab-
lished in a few places only, and those who desired to obtain
higher grade instrnction preferred to go to city schools or to
secondary schools, where they could obtain all kinds of quali-
fications. In 1888 there were altogether 74 such higher elemen-
tary schools, and in 1906 only 21, of which 13 were girls'
schools.
So this type of school is already a thing of the past.
2. City schools.
The city schools did not prove a failure. On theij' ceasing
to exist as such the higher elementary schools will be transfor-
med into city schools.
The city schools were also devised to complete the instruc-
tion given in elementary schools, but with a course of study
absolutely independent of the same.
The organisation of city schools is not the same for boys
and girls. Those for boys have 6 forms, those for girls only 4.
The city schools are the complement of and of a higher grade
than the 4 standards of elementary schools :
;i. City schools for boys.
Although the city schools for boys are by the Act
included among the institutions established for the imparting of
primary education, their scheme of instruction is parallel to
4
r>() CHAPTER IV.
that of secondary schools, and is, in many towns, a substitute
for tiie 4 junior forms of the same.
The city schools for boys secure a firm footing in
most places with a system of 4 forms. The attendance of
the two upper forms gradually dropped off, and this circum-
stance produced a crisis and rendered the position of these
schools unsafe. For a time these upper forms were connected
partly with economical and industrial, partly with commer-
cial professional education: but even this could not save them
from failure.
The growing unpopularity of the two upper forms was
due in no small part to the reorganisation, in the meantime, of
courses for civil service candidates and in pharmacology,
of the training institute for railway and navigation officials,
and of the agriculture colleges and other coUeges for profes-
sional education, admittance to which was only granted to
such applicants as could produce certificates proving them to
have passed the eighth class of some secondary school.
So in the place of city schools of six forms those
with 4 forms are increasing in number. In these city
schools for boys the Act requires the teaching of the follow-
ing subjects: 1. Religion (and ethics). 2. The mother-
tongue of pupils, style, and the history of literature. 3. The
Hungarian language, if it is not the official language of in-
struction. 4. The German language, from the third form,
in schools where the language, of instruction is Hungarian.
5. Arithmetic, including political arithmetic. 6. Geometry. 7. The
geography of Hungary, and universal geography. 8. Histor3\
9. Natural history. 10. Physics. 11. Chemistry. (Nrs 9, 10, 11
with special regard to industry, commerce and agriculture).
12. Rural economy or industry (in accordance with the wants
of the parish and the surrounding country). 13. Outlines of
common and civil law and of cambistry 14. Bookkeeping.
15. Lineal drawing and calligraphy. 10. Singing. 17. Gym-
nastics and drilling.
As extraordinary objects of instruction may be taught
Latin, French, and other languages, and music.
The language of instruction is, as in the case of higher
elementary schools, according to the Elementary Education
Act, the mother tongue of the pupils But in city schools
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY
erected by the State, the question of the language of instruction
is settled by the Ministry of Public Instruction: so in these
schools Hungarian is exclusively the language of instruction.
Concerning the general objects of city schools for
boys, the Act declares that the scheme of instruction of
the four junior forms shall include the same subjects (the
treatment of which however shall be more detailed), as are
taught in the four junior forms of secondary schools, with
the one exception of Latin. The instruction of other subjects
may only be begun, and they are to be taught chiefly in the
Vlh and Vlth (senior) forms.
The first Syllabus for city schools for boys was issued
in 1869, then again — in consequence of the alteration of
the scheme of instruction for secondary schools — in 1877
and in 1879. At present the scheme of work of 1879 is in
force. But reforms are needed, especially to render the four
junior forms of city schools for boys complete by a suitable
and perfectly uniform scheme of instruction ; for the suspension
of the Vth and Vltli forms has made the scheme of instruct-
ion deficient, and the course of study incomplete.
The Vth and Vlth forms of city schools for boys, in
places where they were continued by a special course of
commercial instruction, have become absorbed in the commercial
schools of independent organization, (v. the chapter on com-
mercial education.)
4. City schools for girls.
City schools for girls had 4 forms from the first and
have developed very well on this basis.
Pupils who have finished the fourth form are admitted
to girls' schools of industry and commerce and, by passing
an examination in the French language, to the Vth class of
girls' high schools. If they are at least 14 years old, they are
admitted into training colleges for women by passing an
entrance examination.
The present scheme of instruction for city schools for
girls was issued in 1887 and hardly differs at all from that
for lower grade girls' high schools, put into force and valid
at that time. (v. the chapter on girls' high schools.)
4*
^i2 CHAPTER IV.
The subjects of instruction are in the main identical
witli those taught in city schools for boys. Besides these are
taught hygienics (with special regard to the vocation of women),
arithmetic and geometry, natural history, chemistry and geology
(with a view to education on the one hand and on the other
to enable the pupils to make use of these subjects in house-
keeping). For the same reason economy loo is taught, with
special regard to sociological conditions. Modern drau^zVig^, needle-
ivork, singing and gymnastics are also taught.
The number of obligatory lessons in each form of the
city schools for girls is 26 weekly; in the first and second
forms of city schools for boys 24, in the other forms 26.
5. Girls' commercial schools. Course of instruction in
needle-work. Course of instruction in housecraft.
For some years past city schools for girls have in many
cases been connected with commercial schools for girls and
with courses of instruction in needle-work and fancy-work^
and in housecraft (cookery). These courses are attended by
pupils, who have finished the four classes of city schools for
girls. The object of these courses is to enhance the chances
of women to earn a livelihood.
With regard to the organization of these courses of
instruction, a reform of the scheme of instruction for city
schools for girls will prove useful. This will be made with
the object of laying much more stress upon the practical side
of education. There are also other circumstances that render
an adequate reform of the scheme of instruction desirable.
Hungarian city schools for girls, as very important and success-
ful factors in the education of women, render inestimable
service as a preparatory course of instruction qualifying for
the duties of domestic life. So the reform of the scheme of
instruction is a matter of public interest. This reform will
be carried out by the National Board of Education in 1908 ;
consequently the new scheme will be published shortly.
6. Reform of city schools for boys.
The reform of city schools for boys is still more urgently
needed. A wish has been expressed that this type of school
EDllCATION IN U13NGAHY .wi"
shall impart general education and give otfical qualifications^
for all kinds of careers, with the exception of admission to an
university, i. e. scientific professions.
The question of the reform of the city schools for boys,
is included in the programme of the Government, for a modi-
fication of the present organization is needed, especially in
regard to administration and the scheme of instruction.
The possibility of the existence of city schools for boys
as an institution with 4 classes has become evident. It is indeed
the school for those who go out into the world after finishing
it or who desire to attend some secondary school with a view
to acquiring professional knowledge. From the point of view
of national education city schools for boys, placed in large
numbers in districts inhabited by various nationalities, have
an important mission to perform. The public is attached to
them, and the Government is scarcely able to satisfy the urgent
demands for erecting new schools of the kind.
7. Inspection of schools. Visitation of schools.
City schools are under the control of the Royal Inspec-
tors of Schools. Their finances are managed by a board of
trustees in the case of schools belonging to the State, and by
the school-boards in the case of other city schools. Educat-
ional and teaching matters are entrusted to the directors,
and the teaching staffs. Within the limits allowed by law
ministerial decrees are issued to promote the development
of schools.
The ministerial decree treating of the visitation of schools,
published in 1904, proved very useful. According to the same,
professional men, mostly directors of schools, are for a period
of three years in rotation entrusted with the visitation of
schools. Since the opening of the school-year 1907/8, 23 such
professional men have been appointed, whose sphere of
control extends over 290 schools; besides this the Royal
Inspectors of schools are going their usual rounds.
8. SlOjd system of instruction.
In accordance with the practical aims of the scheme of
instruction for city schools for boys, handicrafts {sldjd) have
recently been introduced with a view^ to accustoming the pupil,
54 CHAPTER IV.
to the manual skill necessary in practical life, and to give
them a taste for work. For a similar practical reason, in several
city schools belonging to the State, where opportunity offers,
the teaching of the knowledge suitable to the occupations
of the surrounding district has been introduced and the pupils
are imparted practical instruction on some suitable ground or
in an orchard, under the guidance of professional teachers.
9. Holiday courses of instruction.
For the higher training of citj'^ school teachers, cour-
ses of instruction are arranged by the State from year
to year in the holidays, where in rotatio nvarious branches
are treated. The systematic course of study both for linguists
and for students of natural sciences includes the treatment
of both scientific and educational questions, as well as of
experimental practice. To instruct the teachers employed for
teaching slqjd, courses of instruction are arranged too. All
these courses are connected with educational trips.
The teachers (both male and female) of State city
schools admitted to holiday courses of instruction receive
financial support from the State.
10. Teaching staffs.
The maximum number of teaching hours per week that
must be undertaken by city school teachers ranges between
22 and 24; in the case of directors it is 12.
The salary of «ordinary» teachers (both male and female)
ranges between 2000 and 3600 crowns per annum ; and every
five years they receive 200 crowns increase /^z/zn^ue/iniu/n/. The
allowance for house-rent ranges between 350 and 800 crowns.
The Government makes up the deficiences in the salaries
of teacher's of non-State city schools (raising the same to
a level with those of teachers in State schools), and in 1907
the Budget appropriated a sum of 150.000 crowns to this
purpo^^e.
11. Statistics.
In the school year 1905 — 6, the number of city schools
was 382. uf these 131 were boys' schools, the rest girls* schools.
Of State city schools there were 139. Out of the 87 municipal
EDUCATION IN HUNG AMY 55
and parochial schools Budapest alone maintains 10 boys' and
14 girls' schools. 67 Catholic schools are attached to a convent.
13 are Evangelical schools, 28 private schools, and the rest
belong to other denominations or societies.
The number of pupils attending city schools in the
school-year 1905 — 6 was 61.529, of whom 36.079 were girls.
In the same year 4017 boys and 6830 girls passed the
IV th form, and of these 36 87© have taken up an industrial
or commercial career, or have entered schools in which these
branches of education are taught. One of the most favourite
careers of life is that of teacher ; 157o of ^^^ g'rfs and 13'87o
of the boys have taken it up. The Vlth form of the city
schools for boys was passed by 68 pupils only, of whom
22*17o have taken small clerkships.
The mother tongue of 49*344 (80'27o) was Hungarian, of
11 -3470 German, of 2777o Slovak, of 2-547o Wallachian, of
l-517o Servian, of 0'507o Ruthenian and Croatian together, of
1*1 37o some other language.
In point of religion 48'827o were Catholics, 27077o Jews,
10-137o Protestants, 7'597o were members of tke Evangelical
Confession, the rest belonging to other denominations.
The aggregate number of teachers is 3073; and there
are 1221 religious instructors.
In the Budget of the Ministry of Public Instruction for
1907, a sum of 4,269.886 crowns was appropriated for higher
elementary and city schools. Of tliis amount 3,237.886 crowns
were for the salaries of teachers employed in State schools
CHAPTER V.
The Training of Teachers.
1. The Elementary Education Act and Teachers' Training.
The beginning of the Training jof Teachers in Hungary
goes back to the time of Queen Maria Teresa in the 18th
century; but our first independent Training Colleges only came
into being much later, in the eighteen-forties. At the time of
the Revival of the Constitution in 1867, there were altogether
26 Training Colleges in the country.
After the Coronation, among the very first laws framed
ill reference to elementary education was Act XXXVIII of
1868; by which institutes lor the training of elementary school
teachers might be provided and maintained — organised on
the basis of a triennial course — by all those factors to whom
the rights of erecting elementary schools in accordance with
the intention of the law were entrusted. It however declared
the obligation of erecting Schools only as regards the State.
2. The Evolution of State Training Colleges.
Denominational Training Colleges.
Within a short time the Government organised 16 State
Training Colleges for School-Masters, and 4 for School-Mis-
tresses. In addition to these there were 40 Denominational
Training Colleges; so that, in the School year 1871—1872, 60 such
(Colleges were at work. This number has only increased by 14
since that time.
Scarcely had the Training Colleges organised on the basis
of the new law commenced their labours, when it was found,
on the one hand, that the triennial course was insufficient for
EDUCATION IN UUNGAHY
providing the necessary erudition and special knowledge, on
the other hand, that the obtaining of one or two years' practice
in teaching prescribed as a ^ine qua non for procuring a
Teachers' diploma after the Training College course was beset
with insuperable difficulties. This double cause, after ten years*
experience, induced the Government in 1881 — 1882 to alter the
course for the Training Colleges of School-Masters and School-
Mistresses to 4 gears. The year of practical Teaching was
therefore attached to the Training College itself, and at the
same time it was arranged that the Teachers' qualifiying exa-
mination should be held immediately after the completion of
the Training College course.
The Denominational Training Colleges, for want of the
necessary material sources of assistance, accommodated(themsei-
ves with particular difficulty to the new legislative arrangement.
Although the quadrennial course, and together with that, the
new rule of qualification, was eventually adopted by them, they
were struggling, and are still struggling to-day, with many
deficiencies in respect to buildings, space, equipment, teaching
staff, and support of students.
Because the Act, in the case of every elemenbiry educ-
ation Institute, gave the right to the providers of the schools
of defining the language of tuition; therefore Act XVIII of
1879 had to order strictly, that whatever the language of
tuition might be in the Training College, the Hungarian
language should be taught as an obligatorg subject, for such
a number of hours and in such a manner that every candidate
for teaching should be able to master it in such a manner as
to be able to speak and write it fluently. This law, however,
for want of proper sanction, has never obtained proper effect
(Hiring the thirty years since passed.
ii. The Scheme of Work in elementary Training Colleges.
The Ministry of Public Instruction issued the first Syllabus
for the State Training Colleges in 1869, but however, remod-
elled it as early as 1877. In consequence of the change to a
four years' course for the State Training Colleges in 1881 —
1882, again a new Scheme was issued, especially for the State
Training Colleges for School-Masters and Mistresses. In 1903.
58 CHAPTER Y.
was issued the uniform Scheme according to which the State
Training Colleges for School-Masters and Mistresses and, in
conformity with them, the whole of the Hungarian Training
(Colleges, are working at present.
The Subjects for the Training Colleges according to the
Scheme are: Theory of Education.
a) Teaching of physical life.
b) Teaching of psychical life.
c) Elementary School Instruction.
d) History of Education and Organisation of Elementary
School Instruction.
Writing Exercises.
Hungarian Language and Literature.
German Language.
Other languages spoken in Hungary. (Optional.)
History.
Hungarian Constitution.
Geography.
Mathematics.
Natural History and Chemistry.
Physics.
Teaching of Domestic Economy. (Housecraft.)
Music and Singing.
Drawing and Calligraphy.
Needlework.
Physical exercises and Walking.
The fundamental idea and principal endeavour of the
new Scheme is to throw the strictlij professional character of
the Teachers' Training Colleges more definitelg into relief
The subjects pertaining to polite culture in this system
of instruction are as indispensable to a perfect professional
training as the tutorial subjects and practical instruction.
A prevalent feature of the new Scheme is that it provides
definitelg for the expression of didactic uniformity in the
Training of Teachers^ and ensures its effectual success.
In accordance with this, the Scheme so distributed the
whole subject matter that the details standing in closer relation
to primary school instruction should be taught in the higher
courses, and that all subjects included in the scheme of work
of elementary schools should be taken up in the said system.
_ KDUCATION IN HUNGARY 59
In this way the Scheme ^ regards adaptation to the profession
as the final goal in teaching tliese subjects. An important point
in the new Scheme is that it lays great stress upon practical
instruction, and that it has effected a uniformity of organi-
sation and instruction in the Training Colleges for School-
Masters and School-Mistresses; only such insignificant diver-
gencies are permitted between them, as follow spontaneously
from the characteristics of the two sexes.
4. Later arrangements regarding the Scheme of Work.
During four yeai'S, till the gradual coming into operation
of the new Scheme was accomplished. Ministerial ordinances
followed hard upon one another. It was enacted that not only
the teacher of method and the teacher of the practising schooK
but also the teacher of general culture and other subjects should
take their part in conducting the practical instruction (pre-
paration, oversight, criticism) of candidates. Likewise the visi-
iaiion of one another's lessons was made binding on all the
teachers. The practising school of six classes was, in all State
Training Colleges, supplemented with a domestic economy con-
tinuation school; Students' libraries were established; Students*
Unions consisting of boys and girls who were over school-age
were organised. Each State Training College takes the greatest
ciU'e that the candidates, besides the work allotted them by
the Scheme, should be introduced into every branch of teaching
work, a system which has hitherto been unknown. In this
connection, special care is bestowed on practical domestic
economy during the whole four years' course, under the gui-
dance of economic expert teachers, and in the School-mistresses
Training Colleges (in domestic economy continuation schools)
instruction in cookery, dairy work, poultry-breeding &c, was
introduced. For the purpose of enhancing the successful activity
of these branches of instruction, the Minister of Public Instruction
arranged several courses for School-mistresses in the Training
Colleges for Mistresses. Courses of instruction in other branches
too have been given, at the expense of the State, such as were
suitable to enrich the teachers' knowledge, and to arouse their
desire for work.
The Ministry of Public Instruction has also taken care
that the Teachers' Training Colleges permanently maintain their
1)0 CHAPTER V.
<;oanection with and action upon elementary school teachers.
For this purpose, during the long vacation annually, in several
Training Colleges for School-Masters and Mistresses, systema-
tically organised courses of further training are held for ele-
mentary School-masters and Mistresses.
Finally it is worth mentioning, that in the State School-
Mistresses' Training Colleges, School Excursions are also much
in vogue, and are managed by special rules of organisation.
5. The Inner Life of the Training Colleges.
In some measure it is possible to give a general picture
•only of the inner life of State Training Colleges. This varies
too according as the College is provided with a boarding
establishment or as the day students merely participate in food
and instruction. In the State Training Colleges, with the exception
of three, there are everywhere boarders.
The instruction in the State Training Colleges is perfectly
free of charge, and the expenses of boarding and commons
are covered either entirely or in more or less degree, by
scholarships granted to students of unexceptionable behaviour
and industry.
The school year begins without exception on September
the 1st, and closes with the end of May. There is plenty of
room for the collective activity of the students outside the
regular compulsory times of study. There is no State Training
College, in which there is not a Students* Union for Self-Culture,
and in connection with it a Singing and Music Onion. The
students in many places have founded branch societies within
their own unions. There is everywhere a Students' Library
at the disposal of the pupils.
(). The Management of State Training Colleges.
Teaching Staffs. Inspection.
The Elementary Education Act of 1868 puts ats the head
oi every State Training College a Board of Management con-
sisting of five members, at the head of which the Royal County
Inspector takes his place. The Minister of Public Instruction
-appoints the Board of Management from time to time. Its scope
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 61
of action in former years extended to the inspection and control
of all the affairs of the Training College ; at the present day it
is limited to merely material affairs.
The Teaching Staff performs the work of instruction and
tuition of the Training College, with the College Director at
their head, who settles matters of study and discipline in har-
mony with the staff of teachers, and for this purpose calls
together, at least once a mouth, a conference of teachers, over
which he presides.
The Minister of Public Instruction appoints, by pubUc
competition, the State Training Colleges* teachers together with
the Director.
Besides the regular teachers, other teachers (among them
a religious instructor) give lessons in the State Training Col-
leges. Their commission is generally given for a year, and the
State in return for this service gives them a suitably fixed
share in the fees.
In connection with the training of the Budapest State
City-School Masters and Mistresses, a College has been organ-
ised for training teachers of training colleges, for the sake of
training men and women teachers. The College course is one
of two years ; its members are selected from well qualified
pupils of the two City School Training Colleges, who share in
State Scholarschips, and complete their courses of study at the
University. The College management provides as well for the
necessary completion of their studies, and besides, for opport-
unities of teaching practice in the elementary school Training
Colleges. After the completion of two years in the College,
the candidates appear before the examining board organised for
ihe purpose, to obtain qualifications for the teaching of the various
branches. Singing and music, as well as the training and quali-
fication of drawing-masters, are taught under practically similar
conditions at the Hungarian drawing-masters' Training College,
and the Royal Academy of Music.
Uniformity between all the Hungarian Training Colleges
is wanting from the point of view of educational administra-
tion, inspection, and control. The State Training CoUeges foi*
School Masters and Mistresses are subordinated in this regard
to the Royal School Inspectors, through whom all their official
intercourse with the Ministry of Public Instruction is carried on
f)2 CHAPTER V.
Besides, tor the sake of direct observation of matters of study,
their direction and control, in 1907, on the part of the State
Training Colleges, was organised the post of departmental
Inspector^ one of the chief duties of whom is to visit the Training
Colleges, observe their working, and so secure in a practical
manner the necessary uniformity of training.
The administration of denominational Training Colleges
belongs exclusively to their respective chief ecclesiastical author-
ities. Over them, the Ministry of Public Instruction, through
the medium of the Royal School Inspectors, or of Committees
appointed on occasion by the Minister, exercises the supreme
control of the State,
7. Statistical Data.
In the school year 1905—1906, of 82 elementary School
Training Colleges, 25 were maintained by the State, 56 by the
denominations (Rom. Cath. 30, Gk. Cath. 6. Gk. Oriental 5.
Evangelical 7. Reformed 7. Jewish 1.) and 1 by a private
Society. There were 48 Male Training Colleges among them
(Stale 18, Denominational 30.) and 34 Female Training Colleges
^^State 7, Denominational 26, Proprietary 1.).
In the School year 1905 — 1906 there were 871 teachers
in all the elementary school Training Colleges, and 11.028
pupils were trained ; of these the School Masters' Training
Colleges had 478 teachers and 5925 pupils; the School Mis-
tresses' Training Colleges had 393 teachers and 5103 pupils.
The cost of maintenance for the Training Colleges was
altogether 2,986.358 K (crowns); of this 1,830.047 K fell to the
State. 1,156.306 K to the Denominations and Proprietary
Training Colleges.
8. The Training of elementary school Masters and Mis-
tresses.
The qualification is on a uniform foundation, and an
almost identical method is employed in the entire country.
Regarding State Training Colleges at present, the ministerial
examination regulations issued in the year 1900 is in force.
Its chief provisions are the following:
EDUCATION IN HLNGAKY 63
The following may present themselves for qualifying
examination : a) those who have finished the Training College
with at least a satisfactory result : b) those who have trained
themselves privately for a teacher's career, and have passed
a successful private «class» examination in each year's Training
College course.
The Board entrusted with the holding of the qualifying
examination consists of the Training College teaching staff,
under the presidency of the Royal Inspector of Schools, or in
case of his being unable to attend, of a substitute appointed
by the Minister of Public Instruction. (In religious examin-
ations the respective chief ecclesiastical authorities may also
send delegates).
The qualifying examination consists of tlu-ee parts.
a) Written examination, b) teaching tesl, c) viva voce examin-
ation. For the written examination the following work is
prepared : 1. Treatise in Hungarian on a thesis dealing with
the theory of education, 2. Translation from German into
Hungarian, 3. solution of two geometrical problems out of four
set, 4. Drawing, 5. Calligraphy. All the Training College sub-
jects appointed by law occupy a place in the uiva voce examin-
ation. The teaching-test is held in the practising school atta-
ched to the college: the subject of the same is given beforehand
and must be elaborated in writing.
Any one who has not satisfied the examiners in at most
two subjects in the qualifying examination, has to attend an
extra examination in the same subjects after half a year. Those
however who have failed in three or more subjects, are required
to repeat the whole qualifying examination, which can only
be done after a year. No candidate can present himself for
re-examination more than twice. The time for the qualifying
examinations is the months of June and December.
Besides the teacher's diploma the candidates may obtain that
of precentor in the School Masters Training Colleges ; and in
the School Mistresses Training Colleges the diploma of work-
mistress and gymnastic instructress.
The «nostrification» (adoption and approval) of diplomas
of teaching obtained abroad, may by permission of the Minister
of Public Instruction, be carried out on the passing of an
examination taken before some qualifying Board in Hungarian
<)4 CHAPTER V.
language, Hungarian geography, Hungarian history and consitut-
ional history.
According to the latest published statistical data, in the
school year 1905—1906, 2557 elementary school masters and
mistresses obtained diplomas ; the number of masters' diplomas
among them whas 1325, of mistresses' 1252 (937 qualified
before State examining Boards, 1640 before denominational).
9. The Training of School-masters and mistresses of higher
elementary schools and city schools.
The training of elementary and city school masters and
mistresses takes place in two State Colleges founded at Buda-
pest. Both the Colleges take boarders. The Mistresses Training
(College is also in connection with a girls' high school (board-
ing school) which serves as a practising school. The Mistresses'
Training College, together with this high school, has adopted
the name of «Erzsebet noiskola* (Elizabeth Girls' School), in
memory of the sad death of the late popular Queen Elizabeth.
Both Colleges have a triennial course. The training in
both is arranged according to departments. The two groups
viz. 1. for the study of languages and history and 2. the
group for the study of mathematics and natural science^ form
the backbone of the order of studies, to which are joined, as
side-groups, singing and music and in the men's training col-
lege, physical exercises. Admission into the Training Colleges,
takes place at all times for one or amother of the special
groups, and the candidates besides this have free choice of
any of the side-groups.
With regard to all the special groups the obligatory sub-
jects are: 1. Preliminary study of Philosophy (psychologj-
and logic). 2. Theory of education and teaching, with the his-
tory of educational theories and institutions. 3. History of Hung-
arian Literature. 4. Teaching practice in the practising school
serving for this purpose.
The following are the subjects of study of the individual
special groups:
I Group for study of languages and history: 1. Hung-
arian language (Grammar, rhetorical style, aesthetics, poetry)
and literature. 2. German language and literature, in two
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 65
grades: a) qualification for teaching the German language^
and b) as a side subject or subsidiary language. 3. Hungarian
and General History. 4. History of Constitution arid juridical
knowledge. 5. General Geography, Hungarian Geography and
Statistics. 6. Drawing. 7. French language and literature
Coptional.)
II Group for study of mathematics and natural Science :
1. Mathematics (algebra, geometry). 2. Commercial and poli-
tical arithmetic. 3. Book-keeping. 4. Chemistry. 5. Physics
(with cosmography). 6. Economy and house-keeping. 7. Draw-
ing. 8. Zoology. 9. Botany.
III Singing and Music Group. 1. Singing. 2. Theory of
music (general theory of music, harmony, history of music).
3. Instrumental music (piano, organ, harmonium). 4. Theory
and practice of teaching music.
IV Gymnastic Group. 1. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene.
2. Theory of gymnastic instruction. 3. Gymnastics and games
(practical gymnastics).
Not to speak of the groups serving an exclusively pract-
ical object — in the two chief groups the training proceeds on
a scientific basis, and corresponding to this in a higher grade.
The object is not merely the knowledge of scientific results,
but, in so far as time and circumstances permit, the appro-
priation also of the method of scientific study. In the humane
studies consequently, special care is bestoved on the know-
ledge and employment of the corresponding literary sources;
in the sphere of natural science, on the other hand, on labo-
atory work.
Both State Training Colleges are independent of one
another, with independent management, and special staffs of
Teachers. The men's Training College in the school year
1905—1906 had 19 Teachers, the women's Training College
had 20 Masters and Mistresses. The number of pupils at the
same time in the former amounted to 157, in the latter
to 149. In the said year the State spent on the maintenance
of the men's and women's Training College 172.820 K, on the
women's Training College 189.334 K.
Of the religious denominations only the Rom. Cath. Church
maintains, in connection with the conventual girls' higher
ediication institutes, such Training Colleges exclusively for
66 CHAPTER V.
mistresses. There are altogether 5 such Rom. Cath. Training
Colleges for the training of Mistresses of higher elementary and
city schools, which are indeed working on the basis of the
organisation and scheme of teaching of the State CoUeges, but
cannot compete with these in the developed state of their
work. Of this the following data also bear witness. The Rom.
Cath. Training Colleges had in 1905—1906 altogether 40 teachers,
mostly from outside, 236 pupils, and showed an outlay of
38.869 K on maintenance.
10. The qualification of higher elementary and City School
Masters and Mistresses.
During the last thirty years the Minister of Public Ins-
truction has regulated the appointed qualification of pupils,
together with the organisation and scheme of teaching which
serve for the training of higher elementary and city school
masters and mistresses. At the present time the regulations
issued in 1902 are in force, according to which the qualifica-
tion is carried out in the following manner.
The qualifications take place before the ^National Board
for the examination of higher elementary and city school masters
and mistresses^ ^ the president, vice-president and members of
which (the latter from the teaching staffs of the two State
Training Colleges) are appointed every five years by the
Minister of Public Instruction. The qualification is granted not
by the plenary session of the Board, which only meets to dis-
cuss matters involving questions of principle, but by special
Committees delegated in the Board's name. Each special Com-
mittee consists of the President of the plenary Board, the
Vice-President, and the number of members of Committee
requisite for conducting the examinations.
The obtaining of higher elementary and city school mas-
ters* and mistresses* diplomas is dependent on the successful
passing of an examination in all the subjects of the two groups
given below.
A) Group of languages and history.
I. Subjects common to all groups: 1. Preliminary Philo-
sophy (psychology, logic). 2. Theory of education and teaching,
with the history of educational theories and institutions. 3. His-
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 67
tory of HuDgarian literature. 11. Special subjects : 1. Hungarian
language (grammar, style, rhetoric, esthetics, poetry) and
literature. 2. German language and literature (German addi-
tional language or qualifying subject). 3. General History.
History of the Hungarian nation. Constitutional law and juri-
dical knowledge. 4. General geography. Geography of Hungary.
B) Group of Mathematical and Nattiral Sciences.
I. Common subjects (see under group A) II. Special sub-
jects: 1. Mathematics (algebra, geometry). 2. Book-keeping (only
for men). 4. Natural history (with Cosmography). 5. Chemistry.
6. Mineralogy, Petrology, and Geology, 7. Zoology. 8. Botany.
The examination in the subjects of these groups consists
of two parts.
The examination is held in the Hungarian tongue, and
the qualification refers only to schools using Hungarian, although
it may be obtained also for schools using another language.
In this case the candidate undergoes a special examination in
the respective language, according to the standard requirements
fixed with regard to the German language.
In reference to passing the examination we may mention
that the first examination is only viva voce, while the second
examination is both viva voce and in writing. Papers are set
in the Hungarian language and in German, if the candi-
dates wishes to qualify for teaching languages too, and in
mathematics : commercial and political arithmetic and book-
keeping, (in these two latter subjects the examination is con-*
fined to written papers). The written work is completed by
work done in the laboratory; e. g. biology, (zoology, botany)
mineralogy, and chemistry.
Practical teaching completes the second examination and
with it the qualifications; a scheme of the same is to be prepared in
writing (a paper on the theory of education written on the spot).
Outside the two science groups special qualifications
can be obtained before the same examining Board : in singing,
gymnastics, in the French, Italian^ and English languages^
and in needlework. In all these cases the special examination
is limited to the special subjects only (candidates possessing
city school diplomas take over the classifications of the common
08 CHAPTER V.
subjects); and the higher elementary and city school Training
Colleges' scheme of work fixes the standard of requirements.
The candidate who fails to satisfy the examiners in one
or more subjects is relegated to a reparaiorg examination
in these subjects. It he displays an obvious want of prepara-
tion, the Board has the right to compel him to repeat tlie
whole examination. If the candidate cannot repair all his
classifications at the first opportunity, the Board can fix a
limited period within which he may repair the remaining
unsatisfactory classifications. He who is not able to produce
satisfactory results in all subjects at this second reparatory
examination is finally excluded from all examinations.
By way of exception those elementary school-masters
(and mistresses) are admitted to the qualifying examination
who have taught for one year at least after taking their dip-
loma in any public school, and have successfully passed a
private examination in the subjects of the courses of the
higher elementary and city school Training College.
In the case of grammar school qualifications obtained
abroad, »nostrification« is only to be had by permission of
the Minister of Public Instruction. The subjects of the examina-
tion made necessary thereby, are established by the examining
Board on each several occasion in accordance with the conditions.
By the side of the Rom. Cath. higher elementary and
city school Mistresses' Training Colleges, other examining
Committees are formed wdth the consent of the Minister of
Public Instruction, and hold such qualifying examinations;
and their conduct is conformed in all matters to the require-
ments of the ministerial regulations aforementioned.
In the school year 1905 — 1906 78 males and 56 females
obtained the higher elementary and city school masters' or
mistresses' diploma before the State Board of Examiners ; and
74 women before the Rom. Cath. Comittees.
11. Hungarian Tutorial Library and Museum of Educational
Appliances.
The first large Museum for educational appliances in
Europe was founded by Englishmen in London. Following
this example similar institutions grew up in other countries, as
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY
also in Hungary, where such a museum was opened in 1877.
Later on the Hungarian Tutorial Library was added to this,
and after long preparation both institutions received a com-
plete organisation in 1906.
The object of the Hungarian Tutorial Library is to supply
the students of educational matters with the assistance neces-
sary to their studies. The library endeavours to provide Hung-
arian literary works on education as completely as possible,
and from among foreign educational works only those which
can be applied to Hungarian conditions, or are not to be
neglected on account of their practical value and abiding
scientific value.
The aim of the Hungarian Museum of educational applian-
ces is, on the one hand, the collection and exhibition and
making accessible for purposes of study of the apparatus of
teaching and of the equipments of the Hungarian schools ; and
on the other hand, the admission of home industry into the pro-
duction of teaching apparatus and school outfits, and the giving
of information, guidance and help to the respective craftsmen.
Foreign instruments and appliances too may be admitted
into the collection, if they can be applied to native condit-
ions or are otherwise instructive.
Besides all this the Hungarian Museum of educational
appliances gives opinions to school authorities about all matters
of school outfit, and educational apparatus, and criticises educat-
ional implements sent by the Minister to receive practical
recommendation. Besides this however, the Museum may submit
single appliances of education on its own initiative to the
sanction of the Minister.
To attain this object :
The Museum organises model libraries, and travelling
libraries according to the grades of the schools;
besides making collections, furnishes rooms for reading
and working;
holds instructive lectures upon the articles kept in the
museum ;
gives professional opinions on application;
lends books and educational appliances which are kept
in the Tutorial Library and Educational Museum for use
under the rules of management;
70 CHAPTER VI.
publishes bibliographical information;
takes part in the organising of educational museums,
tutorial libraries, and collections;
promotes exhibitions of educational appliances.
Under the management of the two Institutions a period-
ical appears with the title of »The Official Gazette of the
Hungarian Tutorial Library and Educational Museum*.
The Tutorial Library and Educational Museum are located
in the ^Teachers' Homei at Budapest.
For the expenditure of the two Institutions an allowance
of 12,000 crowns was granted in the year 1907, while a large
increase of salaries is contemplated, beginning from 1908.
The Library contains 12,813 works (10.297 volumes,
and 8604 pamphlets.) The Educational appliances which are
exhibited in the Museum number about 8000.
In 1907 the Museum and the Reading Room received
7271 visitors.
CHAPTER VI.
Commercial (professional) education.
Trade and commercial schools for apprentices.
L Short History of Commercial Education.
1. Teaching of Commercial Subjects before the foundation
of the first Commercial School.
In Hungary, as in other European States, commercial
education did not begin until the first half of tiie nineteenth
century.
Till then our schools were under strong religious influ-
ence and paid little attention to practical matters. Only in
the 18^ century did the practical feeling spread through the
country, and this practical feeling caused commercial education
to be commenced. This new tendency can be said to have
begun during the reign of Maria Teresa (1740 — 1780), with
her educational decree entitled «Ratio Educationis», this being
the first law which introduced commercial subjects into the
scheme of education. From the elementary schools to the
University, the theory of commerce and business was taught.
Book-keeping was also placed on the curriculum.
After 1806, the above-mentioned «Ratio» obliged pupils
to attend continuation classes on Sundays; and these classes
were later on developed into the schools for industrial and
commercial apprentices. The first Hungarian commercial school
was opened in Budapest in the year 1830.
72 CHAPTER VI.
2. Our first commercial schools and their development.
The first Hungarian commercial school was founded by
Emanuel Bibanco, a Silesian, and was a private institution^
as were all other technical schools. Bibanco established his
school with the aid of the «Pest Mercantile Corporation »►
(Pesli Kereskedo Testftlet). The school consisted of two divi-
sions : the one being the Sunday classes, the other a week-
day class. This undertaking proved so successful, that at the
end of three years there were 100 pupils^ whereas there were
not more than 12 when the school was inaugurated. The
necessity for such schools and their expansion was furthered
by the fact that the Parliament of 1832 — 36 debated the matter,,
and in ISi^O Act XVI declared that every tradesman must
keep books according to rules strictly laid down.
In the forties of the XIX century commercial schools
were founded all over the country, after the model of that in
Budapest.
After the death of Bibanco his pupil Anthony Hampel
took over the school, and not only carried it on, but devel-
oped it. Later the school came into the possession of the
Budapest Mercantile Corporation. Between 1849 and 1867
Hungary suffered heavily under the despotism of Austria^
which also affected matters of education and culture.
The foundation of private commercial schools was not
resricted, but permission had to be obtained; and this was
only granted on the founder undertaking to carry on the
school in accordance with the rules established and fixed
by the. Austrian Imperial Ministry. The inspection and control
of the schools was carried out in a manner that reeked of
foreign red-tapism. The instruction, the spirit and the language
were German and had to be German. In time the
Bibanco-Hampel school had a three years' course. The tech-
nical commercial school had also a three years' course. Only
such pupils were admitted as had passed four standards of
an elementary school, or an entrance examination. Here also
all subjects were taught in German. All other commercial
schools in the country were likewise established after the
model of the Bibanco-Hampel school. They had a purely prac-
tical aim, and educated clever retailers for trade in goods.
EGUCATION IN HUNGARY 73
Among the schools founded in the fifties, we must men-
tion the ^Commercial Academy » (Kereskedelmi Akademia)
established by the *Pest Mercantile Corporation^ and €The
Wholesale Merchants' Guild*, which celebrated its fifty yeare'
jubilee in November 1907. The Budapest Commercial Aca-
demy was founded six montlis before the Vienna one, and
of the commercial academies in the Dual Monarchy, only
that of Prague is older.
We must mention that besides the commercial schools,
modern schools (Realschule) were founded to prepare for the
School of Technical Sciences and these also taught industry
^nd commerce; the School of Technical Sciences opened in
1857, took the place of the « Industrial Schools* of 1844.
A further course prepared for a higher commercial and
industrial career,
3. Organisation of Commercial Schools of the year 1872.
The first official « organisation » (Regulations) for com-
mercial schools was issued by the Royal Hungarian Govern-
ment in 1872, by the intervention of Augustine Trefort,
Minister of Public Instruction, when all commercial schools
were placed under the control of this Ministry.
According to this first official «organisation», the commer-
cial schools were to be independent of secondary schools
giving a general education. There are three types of commer-
cial schools ; viz.
1. the lower grade commercial schools (Sunday-Classes
or Evening-Classes) which are to take the place of the Con-
tinuation Schools;
2. the intermediate commercial schools with a three years'
course ;
3. the higher grade commercial schools.
The conditions for admission into intermediate commer-
cial schools are that candidates must have passed the age of
14, must possess certificates of the fourth class of a classical
(Gymnasium) or modem (Realschule) secondary school, or
must pass an entrance-examination. At the end of the three
years' course a final examination is held, in the presence of
the Delegates of the Ministries of Public Instruction and
74 CHAPTER VI.
Commerce ; and certificates are issued to those who pass tliis
examination. These certificates are acknowledged by the State,
and entitle the holders to serve for one year in the army as
volunteers, instead of three years.
As to the qualification of teachers, the subjects of general
education must be taught by teachers qualified for secondary
schools ; — commercial law and political economy by teachers
who have passed the State Examination in Law at the Univer-
sity; and the special commercial branches such as commer-
cial arithmetic and book-keeping by teachers who have been
trained at the University of Technical Sciences.
The supervision and control of the schools was entrusted
to the Royal Inspectors of Elementary Schools, under whose
supervision the schools remained until the year 1895. In other
respects, the administration of intermediate commercial schools
was the same as that of the classical and modern secondary
schools giving a general education.
The «organisation» (Regulations) of 1872 introduced order
and system into the commercial schools, the majority of which
were in the hands of private persons, to whom every credit
is due for the establishment of these schools. Some of the
schools were also in receipt of financial support from the
State, which, in the school -year 1879/80, granted them
10.500 florins (21.000 crowns).
In 1881 the first intermediate commercial school belonging
to the Hungarian State was established in Fiume. This school
is still in existence, since 1895 under the title of « Higher grade
Commercial School*, and continues its important mission in
a special direction in our only maritime port. In this school
for instance foreign languages (in particular English) are more
thoroughly taught than in other schools, and special attention
is paid to the teaching of the theory of maritime commerce.
4. The « organisations » (Regulations) of 1884 and 1885.
Resides the « organisation » of 1872; the combination of
commercial schools with the City-Schools established in 1878;
the Army Act of the same year; and lastly the Act of 1883
concerning qualifications had a great influence on the further
development of commercial schools. This latter Act, which
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 75
grnnted special privileges t6 commercial schools, actually
diverted the same from their original purpose, as many pupils
entered them for the sake of these privileges, even if they
did not care to be qualified for a commercial career.
The second « organisation » of 1884 distinguished only
2 types of commercial schools, and omitted the third :
1. lower grade commercial schools, and
2. intermediate commercial schools.
The latter schools were brought into connection with
the City Schools in that, in the fifth and sixth class of the
latter, commercial subjects were taught side by side with
general subjects. In other respects, the organisation of 1884
did not make any important changes in the curriculum, except
that the technical commercial branches were strictly separated
from the subjects of general instruction.
One year later, in 1885, the « organisation* of 1884 was
replaced by a third one. The reason for the rapid change
was that the Minister'of Commerce did not consider his right
of control and his own influence on the schools sufficiently
guaranteed by the provisions contained in the « organisations
of 1884; and in consequence of this fact, the « organisation*
of 1885 contains several improvements with regard to better
administration and methodical teaching.
The most important point concerning better adminis-
tration was, that the relation of commercial schools and city
schools was regulated anew, the provisions of the Regulations
of 1884 being abolished.
As to the methods of teaching, arrangements wese made
that the pupils of the commercial schools {not commercial
courses) attached to the city schools, should receive instruction
in the subjects of general education together with the pupils
of the fifth and sixth classes of the city schools ; but that the
commercial subjects should be taught quite separately ; partly
in the fifth and sixth classes, partly in the seventh class, which
was newly established as the finishing course of the whole
school.
In this way the city schools were brought into connection
with the commercial schools, the whole course of this type
of school being one of seven years, the last three of which
had already become practically an intermediate commercial
76 CHAPTER VI.
school of three years. The organisation of 1885 contained
one more reform; the study of the French language was
made obligatory.
In the scholastic year 1889 — 90 there were in Hungary
no less than 27 such commercial schools.
II. Preseut organisation of technical commercial
education, and education of industrial apprentices.
A) Higher grade Commercial Schools.
1. «Organisation» of 1895.
The deficiencies of the «organisation» of 1885 and the
experiences of the ten years between 1885 and 1895 induced
Count Albin Csdky, the Minister of Public Instruction, to
revise the same. The preparatory work begun by him was
completed by his successor. Dr. Ggula Wlassics^ who, on the
20th August 1895, issued a Ministerial Decree (No. 44.001X
containing the new «organisalion» of commercial schools.
Since 1895 our commercial schools have in general been
regulated by this «organisation». Their object is to prepare
boys betwee nthe ages of 14 and 17 for a commercial career^
by giving them the necessary general education as well as
the requisite commercial training.
An important innovation in this new « organisation* was
that the schools known until then as « intermediate commercial
schools* and «commercial academies* were welded into one
under the title of « Higher grade Commercial Schools » ; they
were taken from the sphere of authority of the Royal Inspectors
of Elementary Schools and placed under the expert supervision
of an Inspector-General of Commercial Schools. The organi-
sation retained the 3 years' course (called «lower», «middle>
and « uppers classes) as well as the former system of adminis-
tration ; but the entrance examination was dropped. The
establishment of commercial schools in connection with city
schools was permitted; but, beyond the fourth class of city
schools they had to be quite independent.
EGUCATION IN HUNGARY 77
A further innovation was, that, as a second obligatory
foreign language English or Italian could be chosen in place
of French (e. g. in Fiume). The obligatory number of lessons
is 32 — 34 per week.
The higher grade commercial schools, as indeed the
whole of technical commercial education, was placed under
the control of the Minister of Public Instruction, but the
Minister of Commerce also exercises a certain influence through
the medium of his delegates, who are present at the final
examinations.
On the part of the Minister of Public Instruction the
direct control is exercised by Inspectors General of Commer-
cial Schools. At present there are 2 Inspectors General; one
of them is engaged in carrying out the direct inspection of
the schools and their examinations, while the other is charged
with the central administration.
2. Subjects of instruction, and number of lessons per week*
The obligatory subjects of the higher grade commer-
cial schools are: 1. Religion; 2. The Hungarian language
and Literature ; 3. German ; 4. French (or possibly English or
Italian) ; 5. Geography ; 6. History ; 7. Algebra and Political
Arithmetic ; 8. Physics ; 9. Theory of Commerce ; 10. Commer-
cial Arithmetic; 11. Business Work; 12. Book-keeping; 13. Com-
mercial Correspondence ; 14. Political Economy ; 15. Commer-
cial Law; 16. Chemistry and knowledge of mercantile wares;
17. Calligraphy.
The voluntary subjects are : 1. Some fourth language ;
2. Shorthand; 3. Practical work in the Laboratory; 4. Con-
versational practice in foreign languages, Gymnastics, and
other sports. It is intended to make these 4 voluntary subjects
obligatory in the future. It is not necessary to teach the
voluntary subjects in all schools, but each school must have
a chemical laborator5\ If a pupil chooses to learn a fourth
language, he is compelled to attend the whole course, and for him
this subject is obligatory. A fourth language can only be
begun in the middle (second) class, and the study of the same
must be continued in the upper (3rd) class. Practical work in
the chemical laboratory may be arranged for in the middle
78 CHAPTER VI.
and upper classes, but it must not cause any expense to the
pupils. Utensils and chemicals must be provided by the schools.
The number of weekly lessons of practical work in the labo-
ratory, conversational practice in foreign languages and short-
hand is fixed by the teaching staff. The number of pupils in
the conversational exercises in foreign languages and the
practical work in the chemical laboratory is limited to 20 in
each group. Special attention is paid to the collections of
wares used for demonstrative instruction (object lessons).
In several schools practical business work is taught in the
form of a «Model Counting-house». Many schools arrange trips
in Hungary and abroad to complete the theoretical instruction
of their pupils. Excursions are also made to places important
from a commercial or industrial point of view. During the
holidays many teachers go to foreign countries to perfect their
knowledge of foreign languages and their general experience,
and in order to attend special courses in commercial subjects
and foreign languages ; — they receive a scholarship from the
State for this puipose.
3. School Regulations.
The school regulations in the higher grade commercial
schools are on the whole the same as those in the secondary
schools ; in the same way the curriculum of subjects of general
education practically corresponds to the requirements of second-
ary schools.
The principal points of the school-regulations are as
follows :
Into the « lower* class of a higher grade commercial
school such pupils are admitted, as have passed with success
through the first four classes of a classical secondary school
(Gymnasium), a modern secondary school (Realschule) or
a City School and there passed the examinations. Into the
« middle* and «upper» classes of the commercial school
only those are admitted, who have passed the foregoing
class with success. A pupil coming from abroad can only
be admitted to the «upper» class (3rd class) of a commercial
school, if by the production of a certificate of the foreign
school, he prove that he has had instruction in all the subjects
taught in our schools ; — he has also to pass an examination
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 79
in Hungarian, Hungarian History, Hungarian Geography and
Hungarian Commercial Law, as far as they have been taught
in the foregoing class. To pass during the scholastic year from
one school to another is allowed in exceptional cases only,
and only for very important reasons.
Not more than 40 pupils must be taught in any one
class: 5 more may be admitted in special cases, vsrith the
permission of the Inspector General. No pupil can be exempt
from learning the obligatory subjects.
The instruction is based on the text-books approved by
the State. The pupils receive certificates twice a year: at the
end of January they receive a Report (Semesterzeugnis) and
at the end of the scholastic year a formal Certificate. Each
school follows the offical curriculum according to the local
wants of the school ; there may however be slight alterations,
which must be approved of by the bispector General of
Commercial Schools. No teacher is allowed to teach more
than 3 hours without a break. The staff of teachers holds an
ordinary conference every month in order to setle questions
of discipline and administration, and several extraordinary
conferences, where questions of method are discussed and
points of general interest are raised.
At the end of the school year, in the second half of the
mouth of June, oral examinations are held with the particular
object of testing the knowledge of pupils of doubtful proficiency.
Those who have finished the third class, are admitted
to the final examination (matriculation).
4. Private tuition, private examinations.
The first regulations concerning private tuition and pri-
vate ^examinations* were included in the «organisation»
of 1895.
After the organisation of 1884, when the Act concerning
qualification had already come into force, — commercial
instruction granting peculiar privileges and qualifications, — a
continually increasing number of persons endeavoured to
complete their commercial studies without attending any
school, — so much so that the government was obliged to
introduce severe restrictive and controlling measures.
80 CHAPTER VI.
The question was however not definitely settled until the
introduction of the said «organizat]on», on the basis of which
in 1903 the Minister of Public Instruction regulated private
examinations by a new decree, according to which the
Inspector General of Commercial Schools may give periiaassioa
for private examinations, at the request of individuals, between
the ages of 17 and 19, who are engaged in practical life and
have completed 4 classes of a classical or modern seccmdary
school or of a city school.
These rules extend also to women who desire to pass
an examination privately.
The private examinations are presided over by the Inspec-
tor General of Commercial Schools or his representative,
5. Final examination.
This examination was established in commercial schools
on the model of the secondary' schools, by the « organisation »
of 1895,
Since that time commercial courses too have been con-
cluded by a final examination.
Concerning these examinations a new decree was issued
on April 26, 1907. According to the same the aim of the
commercial final examination is to prove that the student has
acquired both the professional training and general culture
which will be required from him in his future occupation
and his position in society.
At the final examination the Inspector General of Com-
mercial Schools or the Commissioner of the Minister of Public
Instruction and the copresident, the Commissioner of the
Minister of Commerce, preside.
The examination is held in June, and there is a sup-
plementary examination in September for those who have
failed in 2 subjects at most.
The groups of subjects of the examination in writing are :
1. Hungarian, 2. German language and German commercial
correspondence, 3. Hungarian and French commercial corres-
pondence, 4. Commercial arithmetic, 5. Book-keeping.
The candidates are required, as far as possible, to make
a clean copy of their work at once (i. e. without making a
rough copy first).
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 81
Four houi^ are allowed for each set paper. The exa-
minations are conducted under the control of professors.
Otherwise the procedure corresponds to that of the secondary
schools.
The groups of subjects of the oral examination are :
I 1. Hungarian literature, 2. Historj' of Hungary and com-
mercial history.
II 1. Political economy, 2. Commercial law.
Ill 1. Commercial geography, 2. Chemistry and know-
ledge of mercantile goods.
Each student answers in one subject of each group, chosen
by the Inspector General of Commercial Schools when designa-
ting the themes for the examinations in writing (set papers).
After the class-examination of the third (upper) class the
Director of the school informs the student in which subjects
he will have to answer. Those subjects in which the student
does not answer at the final examiration must also be classi-
fied in the certificate. Such classifications must be carried over
from the certificate of the third class.
The oral examination is public. The examination may
last only 7 hours in one day ; during that time 15 — 18 students
can be examined. The subjects of the examination are those
of the three years' course ; the questions are put by the pre-
sident, and the co-president also has the right to question.
Those who have matriculated at higher grade commer-
cial schools may enter the commercial and financial careei-s
strictly so called; they are likewise qualified for smaller
posts in the civil service, as well as for a further study at the
^Oriental Commercial Academy », the «Commercial Academies*,
the «Training College for Commercial Teachers*, the «Agri-
cultural Academies*, the «Courses for Railway and Navigation
Officers* and the University, where they can be admitted as
«extraordinary» students. Further they enjoy the privilege of
an abridged military service viz. instead of 3 years they have
to serve 1 year only.
6. Qualifications of Teachers.
According to the present organization the following qua-
lifications are required of the teachers of the Higher gi^ade
Commercial Schools: For general subjects the <^Diploma of
6
82 CHAPTER VI.
teachers of Secondary schools^, for the teaching of commer-
cial law and political" economy the c Diploma of Doctor in
Law and Political Science* must be acquired.
The qualification for the teaching of geography, chemistry,
knowledge of mercantile goods, commercial arithmetic, poli-
tical arithmetic, book-keeping, and the theory of commerce
must be acquired by passing a special examination^ which is
preceded by a preliminary examination.
These examinations are passed before the Board of
Examiners of Commercial Teachers, the members of which
are appointed by the Minister of Public Instruction; one
member being delegated by the Minister of Commerce. The
subjects of the Commercial Teachers' Special Examination
form three groups, viz.: 1. Book-keeping, Theory of Com-
merce and Commercial Correspondence; this special examin-
ation has to be preceded by a preliminary examination in
the Hungarian and German languages; 2. Commercial Arith-
metic and Political Arithmetic, which has to be preceded by
a preliminary examination in mathematics and physics; and
3. Geography, Chemistry and Knowledge of Mercantile goods,
to be preceded by a preliminary examination in geography
and chemistry.
After having passed the preliminary examination, the
candidates have to study the subjects of their special examin-
ation at the University or at the Course organized for this
purpose in 1898.
Teachers possessing a Diploma qualifying for teaching in
Secondary Schools can be admitted by the Minister of Public
Instruction to the « Special Examination for Commercial
Teachers».
At the opening of 1908 the Minister of Public Instruction
issued a Decree, according to which the Special Examination
for Commerial Teachers must be followed by an Examination
in the Theory of Education, which can be passed after one
year's practice in teaching on the basis of the Special Exa-
mination. In this way the requirements of the Examination
for (Commercial Teachers are the same as those of the Exa-
mination for Teachers in Secondary Schools. According to
this, a ^Commercial Teacher's Diploma^ is granted to those
who pass the examination, instead of the ^Certificate of
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 85
Qualification » which existed till now. This new system of
Examinations was put into force in 1908. The «organisation»
of the Higher grade Commercial Schools published in 1895 is
still in force. During the last 13 years, however, circumstances
have altered considerably and the « organisation > is in many
points no longer adequate. The revision of the same is there-
fore urgently required,, and the reform so strongly advocated
by the experts, has already been taken in hand and will be
completed in the near future.
7. Statistical data.
In the scholastic year 1905/906 the number of Higher
grade Commercial Schools in Hungary was 37. Of these 18
belonged to the State ; 6 belonged to municipalities and were
supported by the State; 3 belonged to municipalities without
any support on the part of the State ; 2 were denominational
schools (viz. 1 Greek Oriental and 1 Jewish Commercial
School); 5 belonged to Commercial Corporations and 3 to
private individuals. 10 commercial schools belonging to the
State, 1 school belonging to a Commercial Corporation and
1 school belonging to a private individual are in connection
with a city school; the other commercial schools are inde-
pendent. The Greek-Oriental (Roumanian) Commercial School
at Brasso is in connection with a classical secondary school
(Gymnasium).
2 commercial schools belonging to the State, 1 commer-
cial school belonging to a municipality, 1 commercial school
belonging to a commercial corporation, and 2 commercial
schools belonging to private individuals have boarding-schools
connected with them. The terms for board and lodging vary
between 500 and 1200 crowns per annum.
The total number of premises (class-rooms, laboratories,
etc.) is 332. Of these, 154 are in schools belonging to the
State ; 59 in schools supported by the State ; 40 in schools
belonging to municipalities; 11 in denominational schools ; 58
in schools belonging to a commercial corporation, 10 in schools
belonging to private individuals.
The total number of teachers was 448 ; of these 251 were
ordinary teachers, 37 extraordinary teachers, and 160 assistant
teachers paid by the hour; 164 teachers were qualified to
6*
84 CHAPTER VI.
teach in secondary schools, 164 teachers were qualified to
give instruction in Commercial schools, 30 had advocate's
diplomas, 40 had diplomas for teaching in city schools, 2 had
diplomas for teaching in elementary schools; and 52 were
uiicertificated. 160 teachers were employed in schools belonging
to the State.
The total number of pupils was 5969. Of these there were
in the « lower* -class (first class) 2288, in the « middle* -class
(second class) 1968, in the «upper»-class (third class) 1715
The native language of 4868 pupils was Hungarian, of 720
German, of 77 Slovak, of 171 Roumanian, of 1 Ruthenian
of 23 Croatian, of 78 Servian, of 31 some other language.
As to religion, there were 1959 Roman Catholics; 46
Greek Catholics; 338 belonged to the Reformed Church; 327
were Lutherans; 245 Greek Orientals; 16 Unitarians ; 3035
Jews; 3 belonged to some other denomination.
1771 pupils went in for the «final examination* (matric-
ulation), of whom 1447 passed. Of these young people 520
entered a commercial career, 132 engaged in industries, the
others taking up other careers, 29 of them going in for advan-
ced studies.
The cost of maintaining the « higher grade commercial
schools» was, in 1905/906, 1,681.117 crowns. Of this sum
646.492 crowns fell to State schools; the municipal schools
subsidised by the State cost 291.198 crowns; the municipal
schools not subsidised by the State 244.507 crowns ; the deno-
minational commercial schools 39.847 crowns; the schools
belonging to corporations and societies 342.633 crowns; the
maintenance of private institutes amounted to 116.440 crowns.
The average cost to the State of each school is 35.916
crowns. The average cost of the maintenance of denomina-
tional schools is the smallest (19.923 crowns), that of the muni-
cipal schools the largest (81.502 crowns).
School-fees are in the State Schools, for each pupil from
50 — 200 crowns. 257o of this goes to provide for free scholars.
In the other schools the fees vary between 40 and 300 crowns
per annum.
The teachers' salaries in the « higher grade commercial
schools* vary between 2600 — 4400 crowns, with a rise of 200
crowns every fifth year, and each teacher receives a sum of
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 85
between 400 and 1000 crowns as allowance for rent. The direc-
tors' salaries vary between 3600 — 6000 crowns, with a rise of
200 crowns every fifth year, and 500 — 1200 crowns allowance
for house-rent. The highest salaries are those of the teaching
staff of the Budapest Commercial Academy, where the
Director receives 12.000 crowns a year and 2000 crowns
allowance for house-rent.
The State, taking in consideration the fact that the
teachers engaged in non-State schools possess equal qualifi-
cation to those engaged in State schools, but are receiving a
lower salary, supplements the same.
The directors of the said schools, at the end of thirty
years* service, receive a pension equal to the salai'y of the
last working year, minus the allowance for house-rent.
B) Technical Education in Commercial Colleges of
University status.
I. The commercial colleges of university status. (Hochschule.)
Besides the 37 «higher grade commercial schools* men-
tioned above, the number of which was augmented to 41 in
1907, and which are practically of the same rank as secondary
schools, there- are 4 institutions of a higher status, which
possess the character of an university.
These 4 institutions are:
1) the Oriental Commercial Academy,
2) the Training College for Teachers in Commercial
Schools,
3) the Commercial Academies of Budapest and Kolozsvdr.
2. The Oriental Commercial Academy.
For many years the Hungarian Government has been
cherishing the wish to develop our export- trade towards the
Orient, and it was as the result of these endeavours that, in
the year 1883, a «Course for the study of Oriental Languages*
was established at the Commercial Academy of Budapest.
This Course was officially recognised in 1885, and in 1891 it
received a special organisation as ^Oriental Commercial
Courses.
86 CHAPTER VI.
The Course was held temporarUy in the building of the
Commercial Academy, but was, from this time, a quite indep-
endent institution belonging to the State.
In 1899 this institution received a new organisation,
and its character as a college of University status was also
expressed in its name, which was changed to ^Oriental Com-
mercial Academy y^.
The aim of the Oriental Commercial Academy is to give
a high general education, a thorough commercial training
and a good knowledge of foreign languages, to those who desire
to devote their energies, either as commercial agents and
employees, or as independent merchants, to our export-trade
towards the Orient. It is also the aim of the Academy to give an
opportunity of studying commercial subjects and foreign lan-
guages to those who are already engaged in practical com-
mercial life, and are anxious to complete their knowledge and
education.
The Oriental Commercial Academy consists of a two
years' course. In order to be admitted to the first year's
course, the student must have gone through the eight classes
of a secondary school or the three classes of a c higher grade
commercial school*, and must have passed the respective
examinations.
In order to be admitted to the second year's course,
the first year's course must have been attended and the
examinations must have been passed.
As « extraordinary* students such may be admitted, as
are suff^iciently well educated to be able to understand the
lectures and the teaching.
The subjects of the Oriental Commercial Academy are :
A) Languages : Roumanian. Servian, Bulgarian, Turkish,
Greek, English, French, German and ItaHan, which are taught
in both the first and second year's course. The number of
lessons per week varies, according to the importance of the
language, between 3 and 5.
The study of German is obligatory, and besides this,
each student is bound to choose another Western language
(English French or Italian) and one Oriental language (Rou-
manian, Servian, Turkish or Greek), so each student has to
learn two Western languages at least and one Oriental one. The
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 87
study of Italian and English is of special importance. English
is indispensable in Egypt, where many students find em-
ployment. Some go to South-America, and therefore Spanish
is also taught as an extraordinary subject in the second year's
course in 2 lessons per week. Besides the languages mentioned,
Russian and Arabic are taught in the second year's course
in 2 lessons per week, as extraordinary subjects. The study
of Russian is intended for those who take Servian, and Arabic
for those who take Turkish.
B) Special Commercial Subjects, (ieography and Ethno-
graphy of the Orient, Theory of Customs and International
Commerce, Consular Affairs, International Law, Theory of
Communications, Book-keeping, Commercial Arithmetic, Cyclo-
paedia of Law, Commercial Law and Commercial Legislation,
Political Economy.
C) Extraordinary Subjects. History of the Orient, Hygiene
of the Orient, prophylaxis against oriental diseases, Shorthand,
Typewriting.
The Oriental Commercial Academy is under the control
of a Managing Board consisting of the following members:
the President, nominated by the Minister of Public Instruction
in conjunction with the Minister of Commerce, two members
nominated by the Minister of Public Instruction, two mem-
ers nominated by the Minister of Commerce, and six members
chosen from among the most eminent members of the Hun-
garian commercial world.
A great many scholarships are granted to poor students
by the Ministry of Commerce, by different chambers of com-
merce and commercial corporations, as well as by private
individuals. Some of the scholarships are granted to students
going abroad after having finished their studies (travelling
scholarships).
The school arranges a trip every year to complete the
theoretical instruction of the students. The expenses of this
trip are borne by the State. Every year the studentis of the
first year's course are taken to Servia, Bulgaria and Roumania,
the students of the second year's course to Turkey.
The students leaving the school find employment in im-
portant commercial and banking firms in the Orient; and
there is hardly any town or commercial centre in the Balkan
SS CHAPTER YI.
States and in the Levant where at least one or two former
students of the Oriental Commercial Academy are not estab-
lished. Some students also find employment in the offices of
the Oriental Consulates of the Monarchy.
The teaching staff consists of 1 director, 6 ordinary and
14 extraordinary professors. The number of students in 1906/07
was 63, of whom 34 were first year and 29 second year
students. The expenses of the school amounted in 1907 to
K 72.500.
The Oriental Commercial Academy possesses an inter-
esting oriental etlmografical museum, and a scientific period-
ical is also pubhshed by the Director under the title of
< Revue Orientale».
3. The Training College for Teachers in Commercial
Schools.
This institution also belongs to the Hungarian State and
is likewise endowed with an university character.
The theoretical training of teachers for commercial
schools, as well as the training of teachers for secondary
schools, is the task of the University, and the teachers pass
their diploma examination betore the Board of Examiners for
Secondary Schools. The commercial subjects however, such as
book-keeping, commercial arithmetic, or commercial corres-
pondence, do not belong to the sphere of university studies and
it was theretore necessary to establish the Training College for
Teachers in Commercial Schools, in order to give those who
intended to devote themselves to the teaching of commercial
subjects an opportunity of acquiring the necessary theoretical
and practical training. As a start, useful work was done by
the special Holiday Courses arranged by the Ministry in different
towns of Hungary and abroad, for teachers of commercial
subjects already teaching in commercial schools, but after the
issue of the «organisalion» (Regulations) of 1895 a definite
settlement of the question could not long be postponed.
The Training College for Teachers in Commercial Schools
was established in 1898 by the Minister of Public Instruction
in conjunction with the Minister of Commerce. This institution
is not only the first of its kind but it is even older than any
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY
similar institution in other countries. The College began its
work in September 1898.
The aim of the institution is to provide the necessarj'-
theoretical and practical training for those, who either wish
to devote their time exclusively to teaching in commercial
schools, or who have already obtained the Diploma qualifying
for teaching in Secondary Schools and desire to acquire a
further qualification for commercial schools. Special attention
is paid to a theoretical and practical training in those subjects^
which are not treated at the University or at the University
of Technical Sciences
This institution is temporarily accommodated in the build-
ing of the Commercial Academy, where the « higher grade
commercial school > with its excellent equipments and organ-
isation serves as a model-school.
For those who go in for a Commercial Teacher's Diploma^
attendance at the Training College is obligatory during the 4
years of study at the University.
The lectures and practical courses held at the Training
College and the number of lessons per week are as follows :
Political Arithmetic (4), Theory of Probabilities (1), Commercial
Arithmetic (4), Book-keeping (4), Theory of Commerce, in
connection with Hungarian and German Commercial Corres-
pondence (4). Commercial Geography and practical geogra-
phical exercises and map-drawing (3), Exercises in Mechanical
Technology (2), Political Economy (2), Exercises in Style (in
Hungarian Commercial Correspondence) (1), Method of teaching
Commercial Subjects (1).
The lectures and courses are held by Professors of the Uni-
versity, by Professors of the University of Technical sciences and
of the Commercial Academy and by the Inspector General of Com-
mercial Schools. A Professor of the University stands at the head
of the institution and he has charge of the administration too.
The expenses of the institution amount to K 12.000 per annum.
The number of students of the Training-CoUege was 20
in 1906 — 07, (it was much larger a few years previously, but
the Ministry had to introduce restrictive measures in order
to decrease the number of candidates, as there was a conside-
rable over-crowding in this profession, and a great many can-
didates were unable to secure suitable appointments).
90 CHAPTER VI.
4. Commercial Academies.
The recently established HungariaD « Commercial Aca-
demies* are institutions of an University character, which in
their organization resemble the similar schools existing in
Austria, Germany, Belgium and France under the name of
«Handelshochschulen», «Instituts superieurs de Commerce> or
«ficoles des Hautes fitudes Commerciales*.
In the fifties of the 19th century there was a course of
higher commercial education at the University of Technical
Sciences, but it was only maintained for a few years. Several
attempts have been made by experts to organize it afresh,
but it was only in 1900 that the question was practically
settled. The commercial schools existing at that time were
called in part « commercial schools*, in part « commercial
academies.*
Both types provided a commercial education of the status
of that of a secondary school. The Minister of Public Instruc-
tion, Dr. Julius Wlassics^ however, was not open to grant
any longer the title of «commercial academy* to a school of
a secondary grade, and consequently a new type of commer-
cial college (Handelshochschule) was inaugurated by the Minis-
terial Decree dated the 9th March 1900, according to which
the « Commercial Academies* had to provide a thorough
commercial instruction of an University status.
According to this Ministerial Order, the « Commercial
Academy* must consist of a course of two years, and only
those are admitted to the Academy, who, as a preliminary
step, have passed through the eight years' course of a second-
ary school or the three years' course of a commercial school,
and have passed the respective final examinations (matriculation).
At present there are 2 Commercial Academies in Hungary,
one in Budapest, the other in Kolozsvar. The Budapest Com-
mercial Academy was founded 50 years ago, and received its
present organisation in 1900. Both academies are organised
as the continuations of commercial schools, with a three years'
course.
According lo the Ministerial Order mentioned above, the
two years' course of the Academy must comprise at least 60
hours per week.
EDUCATION IN HUNGAHY 91
The curriculum of the Comoiercial Academies of Buda-
pest and Kolozsvar contains the same subjects of general
knowledge, commercial knowledge and special acquirements
as are treated in the similar institutions of Germany, France^
Belgium and other countries. The subjects are as follows:
political economy, banking, exchange, commercial and indu-
strial politics, social politics, statistics, finance, commercial geo-
graphy, cyclopedia of law, civil law, commercial law, insurance
and social legislation, knowledge of mercantile goods, book-kee-
ping (with practical courses), commercial arithmetic, commercial
correspondence, modern languages, tariff and customs, practical
business work, etc. Besides the above, there are lectures, courses
and practical exercises giving the students an insight into the
modern business methods of the import and export trade.
There are also special courses of instructions for insurance,
banking, corntrade, wood and timbertrade, import and export-
trade, and textile industry, with special curricula.
As the students of the Commercial Academies enter the
institutions from different schools, — partly from commercial
schools and partly from classical and modern secondary schools,
— their preparation is not the same, and therefore provision
is made that the students coming from each special type
of school shall enjoy special instruction, as completion and
continuation of their former studies.
In the curriculum for students coming from secondary
schools the greatest stress is laid upon commercial subjects;
in that for those who have matriculated in commercial schools,
subjects of general education and political economy are the
most important.
The organisation of the two Academies is similar in most
points. The Commercial Academy of Kolozsvar is connected
with the University, and its students attend the University
lectures also. The scholastic affairs are in the charge of an
Education Committee consisting of several members, viz. the
Delegates of the Minister of Public Instruction, of the Minister
of Commerce, of the Board of Directors and of the teaching
staffs of the Academies.
At the end of the second year of the academical course
the students have to pass a final examination and they tlien
get a certificate.
1)2 CHAPTER VI.
The Commercial Academy of Budapest, as well as that
of Kolozsvar, belongs to a Commercial Corporation and is
supported by the State, the Commercial Academy of Budapest
receiving an annual grant of 20.000, that of Kolozsvar of
28.000 crowns.
In the academical year 1906 — 07 the number of students
was 143 in Budapest and 39 in Kolozsvdr. Their excellent
teaching staffs possess an University training of a high standard
and some are engaged solely in the Academy.
C) Trade and Commercial Schools for Apprentices.
1. Origin and early development.
The first Commercial School founded in 1820 was really
nothing beyond a Sunday-School for Trade-apprentices. This,
later, developed into the complete system of the special com-
mercial instruction of to-day. The past of trade-instruction in
Hungary carries us back, however, to the eighteenth century.
This was based upon the ratio educationist The Trade-appren-
tice Schools likewise developed from the Sunday Schools for
the people, and whilst their special pursuit was drawing, the
Commercial Schools were moving in their own particular
direction.
The law of 1868 dealing with Public Instruction placed
these Institutions upon a legal footing, imposing upon them the
obligation of providing continuation courses. Since compulsory
attendance at school extends to the age of 15 an apprentice who
has begun work must attend a Continuation School or a school
for apprentices specially organised. The minimum requirements
of the law in the case of Apprentice Schools were laid down
by the Law of Public Instruction.
The law which had the greatest effect upon the develop-
ment of these Schools was Act XVII of 1887, which put
all affairs relating to Trade and Commercial Schools upon
a permanent legal basis.
2. Organisation of Trade-apprentice Schools.
The Trade-apprentice Schools were, for the first time,
organised, by the Hungarian Government, in 1877, but the passing
of the above-mentioned law and various changes of circum-
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 93
stances necessitated the re-organisation of 1893, by the provisions
of which, in all those localities wherein at least fift}^ appren-
tices are employed, and no separate schools are available,
the onus of providing courses of instruction for apprentices
is laid upon the District Authority. The courses of instruction
established for trade-apprentices are of two kinds, (a) General,
(b) Professional, trade- apprentice schools, and a like division
holds good in the case of Commercial apprentice schools.
General Schools for apprentices to a craft are so organized
as to answer, as far as practicable, to the necessities of the
whole of the trades represented in the district.
The branches of study in these schools comprise reading,
modern culture, commercial correspondence and arithmetic,
book-keeping, and drawing, (where necessary). Apprentice-
Schools erected for some special object confine their courses
to instruction in one branch of trade or such other branches
as are classed in the same category.
The cost of the Schools is met, firstly by the fees and
fines as provided by the terms of the Trade Law, further by
a charge upon the revenue of the Municipal or other Autho-
rity, by a levy of 27© upon the direct State Tax assessed
upon the district and, finally, by State-aid granted by the
Minister of Public Instruction.
The ordinary course of instruction in trade-apprentice
schools extends over three years (for ten months of the year,
from September to June). Those apprentices under the age
of twelve unable to exhibit proof of the necessary grounding
must previously pass through a preparatory class. The super-
intendence and guidance of these Schools fall within the
province of the Minister of Public Instruction, but the Minister
of Commerce is also able to makes his influence felt. The
Ministers exercise direct control through their Inspector
General of Commercial Schools and the Royal Inspectors of
Elementary Schools. The medium of teaching is the Hungarian
language, though permission to use another language may be
granted by the Minister, in which latter event two additional
hours beyond the seven already allotted weekly must be
devoted to the teaching of Hungarian speech and writing.
Teachers of Intermediate and Higher grade Commercial
Schools and those of Elementarv and Secondarv Schools must
94 CHAPTER VI.
be employed in apprentice Schools, and so assigned that
teachers and drawing- masters or such as are qualified to teach
drawing should preferably be allotted to Technical Trade
apprentice Schools, and those of Higher grade Commercial
Schools to Commercial apprentice schools.
Apprentice Schools may be carried on in the buildings
of Trade or Commercial Schools, Secondary or Public Element-
ary Schools, by permission of tlie respective patrons
3. Organisation atnd Scheme of work of Commercial-
apprentice Schools.
The Organisation and Code of these Schools are set
forth in detail in the Regulations of the year 1897 and agree,
in many respects, with the general provisions as to Trade-
apprentice Schools.
The usual subjects of instruction in the autonomous
Commercial apprentice Schools are as follows: — Reading,
modern culture, Composition, Geography, Commercial Arith-
metic, and Office routine, Book-keeping, Cambistry, Corres-
pondence and Calligraphy. In those localities wherein Com-
mercial Schools cannot, owing to the limited number of pupils,
be erected. Commercial apprentices are taught in the Schools
of the trade-apprentices. Subjects which are indispensable to
a liberal education are studied by both classes concurrently;
but Commercial instruction, in the narrow sense, is given
separately.
4. Continuation Courses for shop assistants.
It is worthy of mention that the further instruction of
Commercial and trade assistants is provided for by means
of separate professional courses, which are established in
connect! onwith apprentice, Trade and higher grade Commercial
Schools.
5. Local Superintendence of Apprentice Schools.
Local Inspection Boards for these Schools are
1. The Committee of Inspection.
2. The Industrial Authority of First instance.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 95
3. Royal Inspectors of Schools and the Royal Inspectors
General. (For the latter see above.)
The Committee of the Apprentice Schools exercises local
inspection in respect of educational, administrative, intellec-
tual and material affaire, the Committee elects its Chairman,
Deputy-Chairman, Steward and Secretary, from its own body.
These may be persons engaged in teaching or who under-
stand or are interested in teaching, or they may be well-
educated tradesmen or merchants. The Industrial Authority
of First Instance forms the executive under the Trade
Law. It must pay heed to the attendance at School of the
pupils and to the doings of the Principals. It may inflict
punishment upon the pupils for non-attendance. The szolgabiro,
(an elective provincial magistrate), forms the authority of First
Instance in districts; in Municipal Boroughs, the Council; in
Municipal Cities, the Chief Constable; in the capital, the
Divisional Justices (Stipendiary Magistrates.) The Royal
Inspector of Schools is tiie immediate local executive official
representing the State. Since the school year 1902—03 special
Inspectors have been appointed by the Minister of Edu-
cation, for the Apprentice Schools; these are in addition to
the Directors General of Trade Instruction who conduct
the professional inspection of education. The number of these
special officials was increased in 1907 to the number of 34, 25
of whom direct and control the technical teaching at Trade
apprentice Schools, and the remaining 9 do the like in the
case of the Commercial Schools. Being expert advisers, in their
capacity as Managers and teachers of the respective schools,
the Inspectors are enabled to raise the standard of apprentice
instruction, by directing their efforts to particular ends.
6. Courses of Instruction for the training of teachers.
Beyond this special inspection of apprentice Schools,
teachers' drawing-courses in connection with apprentice
schools have proved necessary and useful, and were organised
in the provinces ten years ago, by the Minister. The City
of Budapest also devotes much attention to this purpose. The
courses offer special training for drawing-masters of Apprentice
Schools, thus ensuring that the technical teaching in connection
96 CHAPTER VI.
with trade branches shall be of a more practical and appropriate
character.
Forty three thousand crowns (about £ 1800) were appro-
priated in the Budget of 1907 for the organisation of these
Vacation Courses, instituted to further the training of drawing-
master and ordinary teachers.
7. Statistical data.
There were, in the school year of 1906 — 07, four hundred
and sixty five Trade apprentice Schools in Hungary ; of these
fifteen were Government Schools, four hundred and twenty
three were District Schools, two Denominational, twenty-five
belonging to factories and companies.
Hungarian was the medium of instruction in 452 Schools,
German in 11, Italian in 1, and Roumanian in 1.
The Schools were attended by 83.518 apprentices. 69.375
of whom attended the Schools until the end of the year.
Teachers to the number of 3607 were engaged in the
schools. Drawing was taught by 1365 teachers; gener^ sub-
jects occupying the attention of the remainder. Drawing-
masters taught 1627 separate classes, the others 2240 classes.
Of the former 865 were duly qualified teachers.
For the upkeep of the Trade apprentice Schools
437.886 crowns were allotted by the Treasury and from the
National Apprentice Fund ; 1,241.758 crowns were contributed
by District Authorities and other supporters, thus the total
necessary expenses amounted to 1,679.644 crowns.
The average annual cost of providing education for each
pupil of the Trade apprentice School was 20 crowns.
There were, in 1906 — 07, ninety-one Commercial Appren-
tice Schools, of which 2 were State Schools (Fiume, and Brasso)
73 District and 26 belonging to Companies.
In these Schools 7160 pupils received instruction in 303
classes. Teachers to the number of 417 were employed, 104 of
whom were not fully qualified.
The sum disbursed by Parish Authorities and Companies
for the upkeep of the Schools was 223.983 crowns. The average
annual cost to each pupil of the Commercial apprentice
Schools, in the year 1906 — 07, was 35 crowns.
EnUCATION IN HUNGAHY 97
Thirteen Continuation courses for shop-assistants were
maintained in the provinces during 1906 — 07, apart from those
in the Capital. Tlie courses of instruction were mainly adapted
to the requirements of assistants in the timber, metal, building
and decorative trades ; thus they principally consisted of tech-
nical instruction in drawing. The courses were attended by
493 assistants, 345.of whom passed out successfully. They were
conducted by 48 teachers. The cost of maintaining these courses
was 19.328 crowns, of which 13.928 crowns was contributed by
the Treasury. The average cost per head was 40 crowns.
8. Courses of Instruction for commercial employees.
These Courses supply the necessary technical instruction
to commercial employees who have not attended an appren-
tice school or who desire further training. Nine such courses
were attended by 372 pupils and conducted by 30 teachers.
The total expense of the Courses amounted to 20.774 crowns,
2590 crowns being Contributed by the Treasury.
The instruction in the Apprentice Schools was given
between the hours of 2 p. m. and 7 p. m. Courses for Trade
and Commercial assistants were held later to suit the con-
venience of pupils occupied during those hours.
9. Apprentice Homes.
For the care of apprentices and growing youths there are
Institutions under this title, superintended by teachers of Trade
apprentice Schools. They were founded and extended in accor-
dance with the plan formulated in the year 1906—07. The
Homes attract those youths engaged in trade, especially upon
Sundays and holidays ; here they form themselves into associa-
tions and develop, by means of rational and useful recreation,
patriotism, intellectual capacity and the qualities of good citizens.
10. Prizes.
The purpose of improving the education of apprentices is
further served by the award of prizes to the value of some thou-
sands of crowns, granted by the Minister of Public Instruc tion for
annual distribution amongst apprentices of exemplary conduct
who have made good progress, and to such as excel in drawing.
7
CHAPTER VI.
D) Commereial Courses of Instruction for Women.
1. Historical Survey.
It was in 1870 that the idea took root in Hungary that
the special education of boys in Trading and Commercial
matters should be extended to females.
The first movement in this direction was initiated by
private individuals, many of whom to this day provide courses
for the commercial training of women who enter upon a
business career. Such courses embrace typewriting, shorthand,
correspondence and book-keeping, as being most likely to
prove profitable to the individual who has founded them.
The first Conunercial course of any importance were
instituted in Budapest in the year 1888, by the teaching staff
of the Girls Middle Class School of the fifth district. At the
commencement the course extended over six months, but
later over eight months.
The succes of this attempt induced the then Minister of
Education, Count Albin Csaky, acting in conjunction with
the Minister of Commerce, to promulgate the first official
code dealing with Commercial courses for females, on March
15th 1891.
In terms of the Departmental Order, the aim of this
departure was to open a new field for the activities of women
by putting them in a position to earn a living by honourable
means. Modifications were made in the original code in 1893,
to permit of such elasticity in organisation as would admit
of the preparation of women for commercial occupations of a
lower grade. In terms of the modified code such courses run
parallel to lower commercial schools; and this being so they
endeavour to satisfy more modest requirements both as regards
the subjects taught and the ultimate object.
This later re-organisation, after having been in force
for seven years, gave place to the second organisation of
female Commercial courses issued on the 11. June 1900 by
the Minister of Public Instruction.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 99
2. Present Organisation.
The following are a few of the most salient points of
the present-day organisation.
The objects of commercial courses for females are : the
acquirement of a stock of commercial knowledge and of
practical skill which females need in their capacity of book-
keeper, cashier, correspondent or other business employment^
or as members of a family, who must act as deputy for
parents or husbands in business affairs.
The period of instruction extends over ten months, the
language of instruction being Hungarian.
Courses are organised in conjunction with Commercial,
Middle or Girls High Schools.
Permission to organise such courses is granted by the
Minister of Public Instruction acting in conjunction with the
Minister of Commerce. The supreme superintendence is exercised
by the former of these Ministers through the Inspector General
of Commercial Education. The courses may also be controlled
by the Minister of Commerce through his expert mediums.
The following are admitted to these courses: Such
pupils as have passed through the four standards of a Middle
or High School for Girls, or who have passed an entrance
examination. The number in any one class may be forty.
School books and manuals of instruction may be used only
upon approval of the Minister of Public Instruction. Teachers
of Commercial Schools are appointed for the giving of instruc-
tion in Commercial subjects: for instruction in other subjects,
however, certificated teachers from Middle Schools are employed.
It is desirable, moreover, that pupils should frequent
factory and trading premises for the purpose of practical
training. Instruction may not proceed after 5 p. m. Pupils are
under female supervision. Reports of progress are issued to
the pupils at the end of January, for the information of parents.
At the end of the school year, in June, a public examination
both written and viva-voce is held. Here the procedure res-
embles, but upon a smaller scale, the final school examination.
The Principal or his deputy acts as president during the
examination, and has as colleague the Commissioner of the
Ministry of Commerce.
100 CHAPTER VI.
Subjects for the written examination comprise, Commer-
cial arithmetic, Book-keeping and Commercial correspondence
in Hungarian and German. The viva-voce part includes, Com-
mercial Science, Commercial Geography and knowledge of
mercantile wares.
Pupils having satisfied the examiners in every subject are
granted certificates. Ordinary subjects of instruction in Com-
mercial Courses for Females are as follows: Commercial arith-
metic, Book-keeping, Commercial knowledge, Cambistry, Office-
work and correspondence. German reading and correspondence,
Commercial Geography, Knowledge of mercantile wares. Short-
hand and Calligraphy. The special subject is Type-writing.
3. Continuation courses.
Continuation courses may be organised for female trade
employees in conjunction with the commercial courses for
females. In such courses only such pupils are admitted as have
completed the ten-months' commercial course for females. The
object of such courses is practical, inasmuch as it allows
females to acquire greater skill in commercial and office-work.
The course extends from October till the end of June. An
examination is required, as in the former case, for admission.
The subjects are Commercial correspondence, Book-keeping,
Commercial Arithmetic, Science of Commerce, and Law of
Exchange, Shorthand; Commercial correspondence and Office-
work in the German language form the special subjects of
instruction.
4. Statistical data.
There were, in the school-year 1906 — 07, twenty-four
commercial courses for females, one more than during the
preceding year. Of these seven were conducted in Budapest
and seventeen in the provinces. Pupils received instruction in
thirty-six divisions and in the same number of classes. Their
number was 1456, of whom 1387 were successful. Instruction
was in the hands of 221 teachers. The maintenance of the
courses cost the sum of 141.452 crowns that is, an average of
100 crowns per head. The expenses were met, in general, by
school fees (each pupil paying from 100 to 140 crowns). There
was a surplus of 30.000 crowns in the capital.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 101
E) The Estimates for Trade and Commercial Instruction in
1907, for the Deparment of Public Instruction.
It should be noted that in Hungary only Industrial and
Commercial Apprentice Schools belong to the Education Depart-
ment, whereas the professional Trade and Technical Schools
come within the province of the Minister of Commerce. The
estimates for the Ministry of Public Instruction for 1907
assigned 389.300 crowns for Trade Apprentice Schools. For
State Higher grade Commercial Schools 741.938 crowns; for
the Budapest Oriental Commercial Academy 72.500 crowns;
for the support of Commercial Schools 237,400 crow^ns were
appropriated. The expense of conducting the examinations at
the Higher Commercial Schools was 9500 crowns. The total
expenditure of the Education Department upon Trade and
Commercial Instruction in 1907 was 1,450.638 crowns.
F) Technical Unions and Corporations.
Amongst the factors making for the development of
technical instruction, certain valuable Societies and Corpor-
ations displaying thorough and purposeful activity should be
mentioned. The National Industrial and Commercial Instruction
Council, founded in 1892, was extended to admit of the incor-
poration of a special Commercial Division. The Council acts
as an official deciding body, half of its sixty members being
composed of practical tradesmen, manufacturers and gentlemen
occupied in scholastic pursuits.
The official organ of the Council, « Hungarian Industrial
Instruction » is also the organ of Technical instruction. The
Council forms the Advisory Board of the Ministers of Com-
merce and of Religion and Public Instruction.
The National Union of Commercial School Teachers acts
as a Society for fostering the development of special instruction,
and the interests of teachers. Its organ is ^Commercial In-
struction » which appears monthly.
102 CHAPTEK VI.
Trade instruction of lower grade as well as the interests
of the teaching staff is represented by the Union of Trade-
SchoolTeachers founded in 1907. In addition to these there are
other Technical Societies in Hungary, serving the interests of
Technical Instruction. Amongst such may be mentioned the
Society for the propagation of Commercial Knowledge, the
Union of Commercial Employees and Youths, and finally the
National Union of Private clerks and Lady-clerks.
CHAPTER VII.
A) Institutes for physically and mentally defective
children.
1. The scope and objects of such institutes.
The deaf-and-dumb and blind are not able to appro-
priate impressions, ideas, and knowledge conveyed to them from
the outer world, on account of the deficiencies of the organs
of sense, or of the unserviceable condition of the same. The
weak-minded, or such as are backward in their studies, because
of the slow development of their mind, cannot attain to the
necessary knowledge by normal methods of teaching. Ways and
means have therefore to be sought, in order to substitute
organs of sense, defective or not effective, by some other
faculty ; and in spite of the deficiency of reasoning power, to
make it possible that even such as these may become capable
members of Society, by resuscitating the slumbering sparks of
intelligence.
By the aid of medical science means for this have been
discovered. This method is taught by Therapeutic Education.
In this way we succeed in teaching the deaf and dumb to
speak audibly, just as men in full possession of their faculties
speak. With the blind the organs of hearing and touch supply
the place of sight.
The sightless acquire knowledge first of aU through
hearing; they acquire, however, more accurate information of
the shapes and other properties of objects by means of touch.
104 CHAPTER Vll.
Exercise and refinement of this organ renders it possible for
the blind to learn to write and generally to cultivate their
minds.
During the acquisition of theoretical knowledge the blind
are also prepared to earn their own livelihood later on by
means of their own handiwork, and to learn some branch of
industry (brush-making, basket-weaving, caning chairs, rope-
making, type-writing, machine-knitting, and other female
crafts &c).
Blind children therefore have to be dealt with, from their
tenderest age, as if they were sound. Their hands must be
prepared and strengthened for work. Braille has invented a
special system of puncture-writing for the use of the blind;
which method of writing they communicate with each other.
The blind also print, with this system of type, books which
they read fluently, by feeling the raised characters with their
finger-tips. But they already have intercourse with the seeing
by means of printing on paper with regular alphabetic char-
acters constructed of needle-points. There are also special
appliances of teaching for the acquisition of other knowledge.
Thus they have also maps in raised printing for learning
geography, and mechanical apparatus for learning arithmetic.
In the education of those of weak intelligence and of weak
faculties, in. order to get at their intellects, the chief business
is to arouse and to keep awake their attention, as well as
to exercise their organs of sense. In doing so it is necessary
to employ methods of instruction in which particular attention
is bestowed on the individual, which therefore excludes
teaching in large numbers.
For this reason single classes consisting of a larger number
of pupils than 15 — 20 at most are not possible.
For these even it is necessary to employ special plans
of lessons, time-tables, methods of teaching ; and great care
must be bestowed on the development of manual dexterity,
that they may make themselves at least useful in life by such
means.
Therapeutic Education is also occupied with persons
afflicted with impediments of speech (stammerers, lispers &c.)
for the removal of their defects, which frequently become
considerable obstacles to success in life.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 105
Defective speakers pass under medical inspection and
guidance, and under tuition in special courses of study, while
they perform regular exercises appropriate for the purpose
of weaning them from their defects. Moreover, in the case
of those who are afflicted with more serious impediments of
speech, physicians set before themselves the object of discov-
ering tlieir causes, with a view to getting rid of those also.
The general physical condition, with medical direction takei>
in a stricter sense, receives special attention. The exercises
themselves consist of proper regulation of the breathing
necessary for correct voice-production, and of points to be
observed for the self-discipline required by defective speakers,
and so forth. Therapeutic Education is concerned in framing
special instruction for epileptic children also. Because of the
fear of their causing physical contamination in the public
schools, they are seldom admitted to them; and during the
condition of spasmodic unconsciousness, medical supervision
must be resorted to. In more serious cases, however, on
account of a lesser degree of mental capacity, or for the sake
of sparing them, the methods employed with students of
weaker ability are usually adopted.
Therapeutic Education, however, is occupied with all
the abnormalities which may be revealed in studying the
defects of children and require special treatment, from the
point of view of instruction, training or management. Natur-
ally Therapeutic Education in only concerned with defective
children who are trainable and docile. Those children whose
faculties are absolutely wanting, are not fit for admission to
educational institutions. They are therefore sent to Nursing
Homes which specially serve this purpose. Matters of Thera-
peutic Education in Hungary appertain to the province of
the Ministry of Public Instruction.
2. The organisation of such Institutes in Hungary.
Considering the exemplary special treatment and processes
of tuition which have to be applied to physically and mentally
defective (children) pupils for their improvement and quali-
fication — this also takes place, uniformly with reference to all
branches of Therapeutic Education, in a special course of
106 CHAPTER VII.
training at Budapest. This course of instruction lasts for two
years. In the first year the teachers acquire theoretical know-
ledge, in the second year they make themselves practically
efficient.
The Institutions for Therapeutic Education have proper
regulations for organisation^ plans of instruction, appliances
for teaching especially suitable for their purposes. Specialist
physicians practise in the State Schools for impediments of
speech, just as in all the State Institutes engaged in Therapeutic
Education. Besides, specialist consultations are organised at
Budapest with a view to expert examination of all the defective,
and for the purpose of supervision by a Medical Board.
A psychological experimental Station is annexed to the
Institutes of Therapeutic Education, which works locally by
the side of the State Supplementary School for those of weak
faculties, and determines, as a basis for the children's studies^
the grades of deficiency, and their respective capacities ; guides
the teachers in their studies of method, and also gives advice
to parents in weekly consultations.
Institutes of Therapeutic Education are already tolerably
numerous in Hungary. In particular the best care has been
bestowed upon the schooling of the deaf and dumb. There
has been a State Institute for them at Budapest since 1891
and at Vac since 1902. There are Institutes assisted by the
State at Kolozsvfir (1888), Temesvar (1887), Arad (1885), Kapos-
var (1897), Kecskemet (1900), Eger (1908), Jolsva (1901), Szeged
(1901), Debrecen (1903), Sopron (1903), K6rm6cbanya (1903),
Ungvar (1907), and Pozsony (1905). Finally the Israelite Budapest
Deaf and Dumb Institute was founded by A. Fochs in 1877.
The State-supported Budapest Royal Hungarian Institute,
and the Kolozsvdr Institute, and the Institute brought into
existence by the Wechselmann endowment, (1826, 1900, 1907
respectively) serve for the instruction of the blind.
With regard to employment of the blind who have left
the Institution, and the general provision for their further welfare,
this is the task of the State subventioned « National Society for
the Support of the Blind». There are besides Institutions for
the occupation of blind people, at Budapest (1899), Szeged (1901),
Temesvar (1901), Kolozsvar (1900), Szombathely (1905), and
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 107
Miskolcz (1906), in which the young are also taught theoretical
knowledge.
For the mentally deficient there are State Institutions at
Budapest (1897) and Borosjeno (1904). This latter is principally
for the employment of those who have studied in the Insti-
tution and completed a six years* course of study. For those
of weaker capacity, i. e. for such as are not able to keep pace
with their companions in the elementary schools, there is the
State Supplementary School at Budapest.
There are Private Teaching Institutes at Pelsflc (1904),
and also at Budapest, which receive both epileptic children and
idiots. There is a special Institute for epileptics at Balf (in the
county of Sopron) founded in 1904, wich receives a grant from
the State. But in all those places where there is a college
for training teachers, or a school for the deaf and dumb,
or for the blind, or for the mentally defiden it is customary
to hold a course of Therapeutic Instruction for the treatment
of those afflicted with impediments of speech. Where there
is no such course of instruction the teachers as a rule supply
corrective guidance.
Children from 7 — 10 years of age are admitted into
Institutions for those who are physically and mentally defici-
ent. Applications for admission are addressed to the Manage-
ment of the Institutions. The necessary forms of questions, con-
cerning medical opinion and statements about material cir-
cumstances, are to be had without fee from the Management.
The period of instruction spent in the Institutes is from
6—8 years.
Physically and mentally defective children who live in
places where there are no such schools, must be taken to the
localities of the schools. Where they are not placed in board-
ing-houses with lodgings connected, the provincial children are
entrusted to good reliable families, through the intervention
of the Management, against a payment of 20 — 24 K per month,
and thence they attend the School. The class teachers and
managers control the maintenance of such children.
The State provides the expenses for the accommodation
of children of poor parents, partly or entirely in State Insti-
tutions, but in State-assisted Institutions through the legal
authorities, and in non-State Schools by means of the inter-
108 CHAPTER Vll.
vention of Social Committees of Inspection. ChUdren living in
the head-quarters of such schools are obliged to attend school^
a circumstance which the school Inspectors control.
With regard to the education of the deaf and dumb the
country is divided into circuits (districts) according to counties.
Everyone has to send his children to the School established
in the circuit in which they live.
Such deaf and dumb persons as have completed the course
of instruction in the -Institute are able to earn their livelihood
just the same as those in full possession of their senses. Blind
persons completely trained in Institutes become masters of
blind occupations, in which provision is made for their being
able to support themselves by respectable work. The mentally
deficient are about to be provided for in much the same way.
Technical Schools and Institutions for the education of
physically and mentally defective persons are directly super*
intended by the Minister of Public Instruction, and by the
Hungarian Board of Therapeutic Education respectively, in
such a manner that by means of this Board, reports relating
to the educational affairs of the teaching Staffs are submitted
to the Ministry. The members of the Board, consisting of the
central managers and of the more eminent teachers, and
moreover, on occasion, of local delegates, examine the results
of the tuition, and make a report of their observations to the
Ministry, likewise through the Board. These members however
are not altogether exempted from giving instruction. The
Board at the same time have to give a coiporate opinion
to the Ministry on professional questions. On request also they
give information to private persons.
The matter of physical and mental deficiency is perfectly
organised in Hungary, and moreover in such a way that the
State maintains model Institutions for the purpose of training
pupils of normal age, — and for further education; and
thus supports social action as well as the whole cause of giving
relief in this domain.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 109
B) The Protection of Children.
While in the first place the cause of child-protection is
served by a number of social institutions with good results,
the State itself, especially through the medium of the Home
Department and the Ministry of Justice, lends substantial sup-
port to the efforts of the various social institutions. The object
of the Home Department in protecting children is to save a
vast number of lives from ruin and destitution, while the
Ministry of Justice treats the question criminologically. There-
fore, while the former endeavours to save the children from
physical, the latter saves them from moral shipwreck.
The State possesses two kinds of large institutions to serve
this end, viz: State Asylums under the control of the Home
Department, and State Reformatories under the control of the
Ministry of Justice.
The mission of the Asylums is two-fold. In the first
place, they save the lives of many children, and, seconda-
rily, reform them. To this end they work in complete har-
mony with the Reformatories; and consequently not only
physically neglected children are admitted, but also such as,
being under the age of 15, are in danger of demoralisation,
though not as yet guilty of any crime or offence.
On the other hand, such as, having committed some
crime, have given proof of corruption, are sent to the Refor-
matories, where strict and rigorous educational systems are
employed for their amendment.
A Children's Code comprising all laws pertaining to
children is being drafted by the Home Department conjointly
with the Ministry of Justice.
A comprehensive and full description of Stale and social
Institutions for the welfare of children is given herein.
I. State Asylums for Children.
1. Protection of Children in the past.
Before the year 1898, the protection of Children was the
concern of charitable societies only. Of the many charitable
institutions existing to this end the most prominent were the
« White Cross* Society, which had a large institute in Buda-
110 CHAPTER VII.
pest and eleven branches in the provinces and the « First
Budapest Association for Children's Asylums*.
In accordance with Act. XXI of 1898 a State fund was raised
to cover the expense of publicly nursing the sick. This Law
provided that the expenses incurred in nursing, educating and
bringing up foundlings to the age of 7 should be defrayed
from the same fund.
2. Present lavtrs.
The legal provision referred to preceded the enactment
of the legislative measures of 1901 on the protection of children.
According to Acts VIII and XXI of 1901 the State pro-
vides for the education of foundlings and such children, below
the age of 15, as are declared by the authorities to have been
abandoned by their parents. For this purpose the State has
to build Asylums in various parts of the country.
According to a recent decree (1907) of the Home Depart-
ment, the protection of these Asylums is accorded to children
exposed to evil through their environment and who are on the
point of turning vicious, — i. e. who show evil tendencies.
The Home Department has a separate branch for the
protection of children, which, with all the other institutions
for ihe same purpose in the country, are under the control of
a State Superintendent.
3. Location of Children's Asylums.
In the course of five years 17 Asylums have been erected
in the country by the Home Department. At the head of each
is a physician in the capacity of director. Every Asylum is
provided with the requisite number of nurses, clerks, attend-
ants etc.
On the 1st January 1908 the State Asylums provided
altogether for 35.242 children, apportioned as follows :
Budapest 6418
Debreczen 2416
Nagyvarad 1552
Bekes-Gyula 1396
Arad 1532
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 111
Szeged 3559
Kecskem6t 3037
Veszpr^m 2299
Rimaszombat 1163
Kassa . 1574
Munkacs 1575
Marosvfisarhely 612
Kolozsvfir 1076
Temesvfir 1738
Szabadka 1580
Pecs 1324
Szombathely 2391
4. Organisation of Asyltims.
The object of these Asylums is to take up all children
seeking, or presented for, admission. Children formerly exposed
to immoral influences, owing to the environment in which
they were brought up, are placed under observation in special
departments; and those in perfect health are sent to the
colonies {v. infra § 5.), where they are placed under the
charge of trustworthy guardians.
Sick children receive proper medical attention in the
Asylum.
The children thus enjoy the benefits of a family circle,
in compliance with the main principle of State protection.
This is considered the best method of developing each child's
individuality, besides affording him an opportunity to share
the advantages of his foster-mother's family, and in time to
become a true member of the family into which he has been
adopted.
5. Children's Colonies.
For the benefit of children who are under State protection,
colonies have been established in 238 villages, where, besides
older children, infants are received and entrusted to carefully-
selected wet-nurses.
In case it is desirable for the infant, the mother also is
allowed to accompany her child and join the family in which
it is placed.
112
CHAPTER VII.
Each colony has its own physician and is under the
control of the Colony Committee, composed of gentlemen and
ladies cf the district in which the colony is located.
The children of these colonies may enter the State ele-
mentary or other public schools as soon as they attain the
age at which school-attendance is compulsory by law.
6. Institutions.
About 85 per cent of the children under State protection
are placed in private families. Such children, however, as for
some reason cannot be trusted to private families are cared
for in various institutions established for their benefit by the
State. Children suffering from rickets, scrofula, tuberculosis,
deaf and dumb, blind, and idiots, and all in need of specially
careful treatment, besides such as from higher mental or
intellectual capacity are fitted for superior education, scientific
or industrial, are brought up in these institutions. The Stat^
seeks to allow its talented proteges, even at financial sacrifice,
the fullest scope to develope their faculties. Of such establish-
ments may be mentioned, the Sanatoriums of Palics and Gor-
genys6 for rickety children, the Agricultural School at Algy6gy,
the Horticultural School at Zombor, the Boys' Institution at
Nagy-SzoUos for children in need of individual treatment.
The State aims at inducing public charity to contribute
to the maintenance of these auxiliary establishments, as well
as to the Asylums, as, besides financial and moral support, a
genuine concern on the part of the public is absolutely nec-
essary to successfully cope with the great work of child
protection.
7. Cost of the Protection of ChUdren.
In accordance with legal provision, all expenses incurred
in the maintenance and education of the children in the
Asylums are payable by the State in the case of each child
under 7. From thence up to the age of 15 the expenses
incurred are payable by their respective parishes. The State
expenses for the protection of cliildren amounted in 1907 to
5,057.337 crowns.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY US
II. Social Institutions for the Protection of Children.
1. Hungarian State League for the Protection of Children.
Of all the charitable institutions of the country, the
Hungarian State League for the Protection of Children holds
the foremost place, its sphere of activity extending over tlie
length and breadth of the land. Indeed, the Government has
recognised its importance as one of the State's auxiliary forces
in the work of Cliild Protection, and as such, has invested it
with an official character. Tiiis fact, together with its extensive
organization, has tended to increase its importance and its
usefulness. Its membership is unlimited, and anybody may join
the League who contributes to its funds. At the present time
there are over 50.000 Members. The operations of the League
include all phases and branches of child protection, from ear-
liest infancy up to latest youth, and its activity is limited
only in cases where the League's assistance would clash
with that of the Slate. Where Governmental enquiries or
action would prove prejuducial to the interests of either parents
or children, the League is ever ready to take up the matter.
Children who are sick, deaf, dumb, blind, epileptic, scro-
fulous, phthisical, deformed, or crippled, are sent by the
League to medical institutions and watering places. Arrange-
ments are also made to send children to health resorts during
vacation time. While children endowed with special talents
are afforded opportunities for higher education: and in this
respect no exception is made with regard to children of
foreign nationality.
The League provides for the children under its charge
to be placed either in its institutions or in private families
living on its settlements. In the latter case the children are
under the supervision of a physician belonging to the asyl-
ums. On the other hand, such children as have been exposed
to immoral influences, or have lived in an immoral atmosphere,
or who already show vicious tendencies, are put into the League's
own institutions under strict observation. At the present time
the League possesses three such institutions : one in Budapest
8
114 CHAPTER VII.
for girls, and two for boys, in Rakos-Keresztur and Sopron
respectively. Three others are in course of erection, at Szeged,
at Szaloncza, and at Nagy-SzoUos. Each institution is staffed
by a Director and the necessary number of teachers. The
children are instructed in various branches of domestic know-
ledge and usefulness. In the new institutions, agricultural,
industrial, and horticultural knowledge will also be taught.
When the children have acquired proficiency in these studies,
they are put out with farmers or other employers, for prac-
tical experience, while remaining still under the protection
and control of the League.
In any case where the League fails to obtain the desired
result by its own educational methods, the child is forthwith
transferred to the State reformatory.
For the benefit of the boys, the League has entered into
agreement with one of the marine associations to receive such
boys as desire a naval career, to train them for seamen. And
further, at the League's initiative, a training-ship is to be built
for the training of 40 boys annually. The League makes
pecuniary grants also to midwives, in cases where such assi-
stance is needed, and at the same time assists by introducing
them to families. It further supplies drugs, bandages, artificial
legs, etc. gratis, to aU in need; as well as financial aid to
deserving poor. The League has its own publications.
2. Other charitable institutions.
Besides the League, there are a number of other charit-
able institutions in Hungary which, in consideration of a nominal
payment, or series of payments, undertake the education of
children under State protection. Such institutions most worthy
of mention are the «Szeretet Egyesfilet* for idiots; the Child-
ren's Polyclinic at Temesvar; the Educational Institution for
Boys ^f weak intellect, also at Temesvar; the Schools for
Maidservants at Temesvar, NagyszoUos, Budapest, and Rima-
szombat.
Those private charitable institutions which receive children
for education from the Asylums, receive therefrom a propor-
tionate fee for the attendance, board, and lodging in respect
of each child so received.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 115
3. Statistics.
In Hungary there are 9 Hospitals for Children, 4 Free
Milk-distributing Agencies, 113 Day Homes, 109 Orphan Asyl-
ums, 268 Ladies' Associations for Child Protection, 161 Child-
ren's Aid Societies, 17 Children's Health Resorts, and Watering
Places, and Vacation Resorts (i. e. recreation resorts visited
by the children during the holidays), 15 Deaf and Dumb
Institutes, 5 Blind Institutes for children, 5 Homes for Child
Cripples, and 3 for Child Idiots. There are also 32 Agencies
for assisting prisoners after discharge.
In the Childrens Hospitals there are 677 beds, and their
capital amounts in the aggregate to 3,815,205 crowns.
The invested capital of the Free Milk Institutions amounts
to 72.000 crowns.
In our Day Homes 1652 children receive attention. Their
invested capital is 1,900.614 crowns.
The Orphan Asylums have 4314 children under their
care, and their funded capital amounts to 17,512.007 crowns.
The property of the Ladies' Associations amounts to
136.512 crowns.
The Childrens Aid Societies possess a capital of 660.989
crowns, and assist 4339 children annually.
Our Childrens' colonies. Health Resorts, etc. provide for
1032 children during the summer, and their property amounts
in the aggregate to 230.000 crowns.
Of our Deaf and Dumb Institutes, 3 are maintained solely
by public charity. These shelter 91 children, and their funded
capital amounts to 1,212.368 crowns.
In the Blind Institutes, maintained by public charity, 88
children are provided for. Their funded capital amounts to
131.000 crowns.
In the Homes for Child Cripples are 64 children. Funded
capital 131.000 crowns.
Of our institutions for idiots, only one — the »Szeretet
EgyesQlet* — is maintained by public charity. It has 105 child-
ren in its charge, and its funded capital is 32.529 crowns.
From the above it will be seen that the total funded
capital of the various public charities of the country amounts
in the aggregate to 27,188.213 crowns.
8*
116 CHAPTER VII.
III. State Reformatories.
1. Their object, location, and maintenance.
Reformatories are considered the best means of check-
ing criminal tendencies in juveniles. Their object is to awaken
the moral consciousness and to improve the character of
each youthful offender. The sense of duty and righteousness
is inculcated by precept and example ; while instruction in
some useful occupation transforms tlie potential criminal into
an honest and respectable member of the social order. The
inmates of these reformatories are, firstly, young boys who
have been found guilty of some punishable offence. Secondly,
boys whose admission is desired by their parents, or by the
administrative authorities — always in proportion to the
number of vacant places. The candidates for admission to
these reformatories must be between the age of 7 and 18.
The total number of reformatories is 5 ; 4 for boys and 1 for
girls. They are distributed over the country as follows : Aszod
with 280 children, Kolozsvar with 60, Szekesfehervar with 120,
Rakospalota with 200, and Kassa with 240. They are built and
maintained by the fines inflicted in the courts of justice, which
amount to something like 1,200.000 crowns annually, amply
sufficient for the purpose to which the money is devoted.
2. Their Organisation.
Al the head of each institution is a Director, who is
assisted by tutors, teachers, clerks, and accountants. The staff
is thus composed partly of instructors and partly of workers.
The pupils are in classes of twenty, each under an instructor.
The annual boarding expenses amount, per head, to 200
crowns; clothing 20 crowns. Heating, lighting, and servants,
wages^ 70.000 crowns, in the aggregate, for all the institutions.
3. Their Educational Systems.
In the important matter of deciding on the educational
system to be adopted in State reformatories, the Ministry of
Justice was guided by the principle that the punishable crime
or offence is invariably the outcome of the delinquent's envi-
EDUCATION IN HUNGAHY 117
ronment, hereditary tendency, or both. In order, therefore, to
reclaim a youth who has strayed from the path of virtue and
honesty, his individual character must, iii the first place, be
strengthened by means of external physical influences, in such
wise that his criminal tendencies may become eradicated. The
fundamental idea of reformatory education is to improve and
develop the individuality, and bring about a change in the
conditions of life in which criminals are fostered. Accor-
dingly the manner of dealing with pupils in reformatories is
directed towards two main points. One of these is the; indi-
vidual education of the youth. This consists in a careful obser-
vation of the subject, by which his instructor seeks to know
his pupil thoroughly, to study his character, his weaknesses
and strong points, to lop the undesirable shoots and train and
assist the growth of desirable traits. For this reason the pupils
are divided into groups of 20, each group forming a small
community, or as it is actually called, al « family », the head
of which is the instructor. The pupils remain in their « family*
for their whole term under the guidance of the same head.
Prior, however, to their being allowed to join a «family»,
they are placed under strict observation. The object of this is
to decide as to the « family » best suited to their idiosyncrasies.
The division into « families » is guided by the occupation
of the boy — or of his parent — or of the aptitude for any
particular employment evinced by the boy. Therefore all the
members of one «family» are engaged in the same kind of
work, constituting «carpenter», «gardener», «weaver», etc.
«families». The members of the « families* live together each
with their «heads», as they would live with their own parents.
Thus the «heads» being in constant touch with the boys, train
and educate them in a firm yet kind and friendly spirit, free
from cold officialism with its indifferent formalities.
The second main point towards which this reformatory
training is directed, is to impart a thorough knowledge of
some handicraft. In doing this the instructors doubtless acquire
an invaluable insight into the boys* characters. But of still
greater importance is the fact that the boys by completing
their practical studies are enabled to live independently and
honestly when, in leaving the institutions that have fostered
them, they are cast upon their own resources. Raised above
118 CHAPTER VII.
their former evil and debased surroundings to the standard
of respectability, they feel its claims upon them and are not
often found false to their trust.
For the benefit of the pupils the reformatories of Kassa
and Aszod have established schools of applied science, at the
head of which are certificated engineers, assisted by foremen
skilled in the practical industries whidi they represent. At
Aszod, for instance, there is a sch6ol of carriage-building.
Firstrate carts, vehicles of all kinds, for industrial and agri-
cultural use, transport wagons, coaches and carriages of all
descriptions are made at the institution.
While at the Kassa reformatory, shoe-making, carpentering,
trunk-making, leather-working, and textile industry are taught
in the most practical fashion, the workshops being fitted up
for both manual and ma<^hine work.
The goods made irt these reformatories have often carried
off first prizes at both national and international exhibitions.
It is interesting to note that these two reformatories will
also participate in the coming London Exhibition.
Besides the Industrial courses, horticulture is taught in
every institution, while in Asz6d dairy-farming, agriculture,
and viticulture are also de rigeur.
In developing and improving the favourable traits of the
pupils' individuality, and giving them a thorough training along
industrial lines, every care is taken by the heads of the
«families» not to neglect the intellectual side of their characters,
and to inculcate and foster religious sentiment.
In accordance with rule, the pupils, after four years in
the reformatory, during which period they complete their
industrial course, are — their conduct having been entirely satis-
factory — discharged conditionally from the institution. At this
juncture the National League for the Protection of Children
takes them in hand and obtains situations for them. During
this time they still remain under the observation and protec-
tion of guardians appointed by the League in the town in
which the reformees are located. If their behaviour continues
to be satisfactory their discharge from the reformatory is
confirmed. In the event of a lapse they are returned to the
reformatory. After the age of twenty, however, the authority
of the reformatory can no longer be enforced.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 119
IV. Institutions for Prisoners.
1. Societies for Assisting Prisoners.
In Hungary there are 32 societies established for the pur-
pose of assisting Prisoners. These societies enjoy the support
of the State, and are finan cially helped out of the fines paid
into coiirt in the nature of penalties for certain offences against
the law. In addition to these societies, ten others are in course
of formation, besides the society to be formed for aiding mili-
tary prisoners on their release.
In 1907 a national congress was held by these prisoners'
Aid Societies, when it was decided to create a central organ-
isation in Budapest for directing the whole. The most promi-
nent of these Societies has at K6bdnya an asylum for dis-
charged prisoners needing assistance. There they are engaged
in some useful work, the more intelligent being occupied in
address writing and other clerical work.
2. Prison schools.
In all prisons of the Royal High Courts and the Warrant
Office, there is an elementary school which all iUiterate priso-
ners under the age of 30 are obliged to attend.
3. Solicitors' Committee on the protection of children.
The ^Lawyers Circle of Budapest^ is a free social union of
solicitors residing in the metropolis. This society has formed
a Committee out of its own members, on the basis of the
French and Belgian ^Comilis de defense^^, for undertaking
in a benevolent manner the defence of youthful offenders
arraigned before the local police magistrates; and also to prepare
the way, from a judicial point of view, for the adaptation of
certain important reforms on the question of child protection.
This defence of children is undertaken free of charge by some
200 solicitors of Budapest.
CHAPTER VIII.
High Schools for Girls.
I, Retrospect.
Female education in Hungary was organised by the State
in Hungary after the Compromise (Ausgleich) of 1867, which
also marks the beginning of a political and social renaissance.
In former times female education, higher than that of
the elementary schools, was solely taken up by female con-
vents (Religious orders) and institutions supported by private
individuals. The principal subjects taught at these schools were
foreign languages, singing, music, dancing, drawing and needle-
work, but very little attention was given to scientific subjects.
The language used in the lectures and the spirit of the teaching
were essentially foreign, the same as were the families them-
selves whose daughters were educated at these schools.
The appearance of Count Stephen Szechenyi marks the
awakening of the national spirit.
The Elementary Education Act of 1868, as already set
out, organised female education by instituting City schools for
girls above the public elementary schools. After this training,
in order to obtain further instruction, young women were at
liberty to join one of the Training Colleges for female Teachers.
However in certain social circles the necessity of a Girls'
School was felt to be needed over and above the existing
Elementary Schools, and higher standards were required to
place girls' education on a level with the boy's Classical
Schools (Gymnasium).
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 121
2. The first State High School for Girls.
On this basis Augustine Trefort, the then Minister of
Public Instruction, established in the year 1875 at Budapest
the first State High School for Girls ; and encouraged by the
success of this school, later on the providers of the various
denominational and parochial schools founded similar schools,
partly reorganising some of the existing girls' schools.
The first State Girls' High School was placed above the
six standards of the girls' public elementary schools and
comprised 4 classes, a course which was completed by the
further course of two years. As the previous training of the
j)upils entering the school seldom satisfied the conditions of
enrollment, a 12 months' preparatory course was added. The
new scheme therefore, extended the training of girls over seven
years beyond the Public Elementary Schools, making it thereby
very similar to the eight years' training at the boy's Secondary
Schools.
The subjects taught, including the French language which
took the place of Latin, were also on a level with those of
the Secondary Schools, which is more apparent by the fact
that only such teachers were employed for the continuation
course as possessed the same qualifications as those acting at
Secondary Schools.
3. Reorganisation of the Girls' High Schools.
There was however some difficulty in incorporating the
High School for Girls in the existing Educational Scheme ; and
in 1883 a modification was made inasmuch as the pupils were
taken from the fourth standard of the Public Elementary
Schools and the training spread over 6 years in a uniform
way. This arrangement, too, made them similar to the Second-
ary Schools, but from the point of view of administration and
superintendence they were in a somewhat anomalous position,
as they were placed under the Elementary School Inspectors.
The scheme was then revised in 1885 for the second
lime; and in 1887 for the third time, until finally in 1901
a new scheme was adopted, which has remained in force to
this day.
122 CHAPTER VIII.
The Scheme of 1887, taking into consideration the exist-
ing circumstances, has been modified in such a manner as to
give the pupils, to a certain extent, a complete education
after finishing the fourth standard, seeing that part of the
pupils leave the school on ending this course.
The consequence of this proceding was the possibility of
the establishment of High Schools for Girls even without the
5th or 6th classes, i. e. comprising four lower, and complete
ones comprising six classes.
In this scheme the latter were termed higher grade and
the former (viz 4 standards) lower grade High Schools for Girls.
In this way the lower grade High School for Girls became
similar to the girls' schools already in existence, with the
exception of the French language. The method of teaching at
these two descriptions of schools was therefore, as it were,
amalgamated, the aim being practically the same.
4. The present organisation of High Schools for Girls.
The disadvantages of the scheme adopted in 1887 were
the following: The distribution of the schools into a lower
and higher course of studies; the didactical imperfections
resulting therefrom ; and the fact that no attention was given
to the necessary centralisation of the subjects taught
The present scheme for High Schools for Girls was appro-
ved by a ministerial decree dated the 19th of June 1901, and
issued by the Minister of Public Instruction, which came into
force at the opening of the School year 1901 — 02.
The principal alterations in principle therein set out are
as follows:
The High Schools for Girls to be on a level with the
Secondary Schools, with a six years' uniform course of studies;
and the subjects taught to suit their special objects. Their
object to give the pupils a general education after the style
of boys' Secondary Schools, distinguishing them both from
the already existing girls' Secondary Schools with a practical
tendency and the City Schools for girls of 8 classes, which
constituted the preparatory training for the university. The
principal attention to be given to the teaching of history and
literature so as to lay particular stress upon the national point
of view.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 123
The German language to be taught from the first class
upwards, and French from the second. Physics, natural History,
Arithmetic, Drawing, Singing, Nedlework, Gymnastics to be
taught in every class. Hungarian motifs and works of art to
be used in the main, as a basis in the courses of Drawing,
Singing and Nedlework.
The study of practical housecraft and the theory of edu-
cation is intended to assist the pupils in their natural calling
as women.
Gymnastics in connection with games, afternoon excursions,
skating, swimming and dancing are also stipulated for.
More attention has in this manner been given to the
physical training of the girls.
The following subjects constitute the official Syllabus
(scheme of work) at the High School for Girls as they are
constituted to-day.
Religion,
Hungarian Grammar and Literature,
German,
French,
Psychology and theory of education,
History,
Geography,
Zoology and Botany,
Mineralogy and Chemistry,
Hygiene,
Housecraft,
Physics,
Arithmetic,
Drawing,
Calligraphy,
Needlework,
Singing (optional from the 5th class upward).
Physical exercises.
As may be seen, the chief point of the education is a
training in national literature, but at the same time the subjects
also embrace foreign languages and aesthetics, as well as other
practical knowledge required by all cultivated women.
124 CHAPTER Mil.
Among the optional subjects there are the English and
Italian languages, taught from the 4th class upwards in two
hours per week respectively.
The object of leaching the English language is identical
with that of the teaching of the other foreign tongues viz.:
1. English conversation and composition.
2. The comprehension of English (modern) literature.
5. Education of girls on the lines of Classical Schools, at
the High Schools for Girls.
In the year 1895, on the initiative of Dr. Julius Wlassics,
the then Minister of Public Instruction, young women were
admitted to the University, and thus enabled to devote them-
selves to philosophical, medical and pharmaceutical callings,
with certain restrictions. It was therefore necessary to make
arrangements for a course of studies preparing the pupils for
the university.
This they were able to do privately.
The State was anxious to give young women wishing
to enter the university, a. means of acquiring the knowledge
necessary for admission by special training in connection with
the High Schools for Girls. For this purpose a course of studies
on Classical School lines was established at the Budapest High
School for Girls during the school year 1897/8; so that those
who were preparing for the university underwent a special
and suitable training commencing with the fifth class and lasting
4 years.
Eighteen female pupils took the first course of this descrip-
tion in 1901, and were successful in passing the final examina-
tion at a Budapest State Classical School.
The Classical School course for female pupils, which at
the outset had a temporary character, was definitely organised
in the year 1905; and the Budapest High School for Girls was
at the same time called a Girls^ Classical School. Apart from
this the former characteristics of the Girls' High School with
6 classes still survive, but there are special parallel classes from
the fifth class upwards indenlical with those of the Classical
schools; and this special course is concluded by an 8th class,
as is the case in the Grammar Schools. The said institution.
EDUCATION IN HUNGAKY 125
was at the same time granted tbie right of holding final exa-
minations, the same as the Classical Schools, and this privilege
was also bestowed on a High School for Girls belonging to
the Corporation of Budapest.
Besides the Qassical School course there is a course of
2 years above the 6 classes of the Budapest State High School
for Girls, where pupils can secure a higher social education if
they wish to do so.
The subjects taught in the completing course are the
Hungarian, German, English, French and Classical literatures,
History, Geography, Aesthetics, The History of CiviUsation,
Economy, Physics, Law, Theory ot Education, Drawing, Paint-
ing, Needlework, Singing and Gymnastics.
6. Classes in Housecraft
Courses of Practical Housekeeping have recently been
established in connection with some of the High Schools for
(iirls, with a view to giving the country a generation of
thoroughly cultivated industrious women, by completing home
education on a more modern basis.
7. Boarding Schools.
With the object of putting educational qualities to a prac-
tical use, the High School for Girls are usually connected with
Boarding Schools equipped with all the requirements of modern
times. The management of the Boarding schools is entrusted
to a special Directress, besides whom there are also assistants
as house mistresses, and other female members.
8. Teachers, and Inspection.
The management of the Girls' High Schools is partly in
the hands of female and partly of male instructors. The ordi-
nary male teachers have Secondary School qualifications : the
number of female teachers with similar qualifications is on the
increase.
The payment of the latter and their conditions of service,
are practically the same as those of the Secondary School
Teachers.
126 CHAPTER Vlll.
The female teachers possessing Secondary School quali-
fications receive similar payment to those of Secondary Schools.
The Inspection of the High Schools for Girls is provisio-
nally undertaken by Ministerial commissioners, who proceed in
their work of control and inspection of the instruction and
administration mostly according to the rules which are in force
in the Secondary Schools.
9. Statistics.
The number of Hungarian High Schools for Girls in the
year 1905/6 amounted to 32 — of this number 16 were State
schools, 3 were parochial schools, — 6 Roman Catholic, 3 Re-
formed, 1 Evangelical, 1 a school supported by a private society,
and 2 were private schools.
The number of rooms used for teaching purposes was
431, and for boarding purposes 516.
The number of scholars was 5817, including 1008 boarders.
Of this total, taking the mother tongue as basis, the greater
part (5367) were Hungarians (Magyars), and of the remainder
most (258) were Germans.
The number of teachers was 524, of whom 303 were
regular teachers. The number of female teachers was alto-
gether 343.
The cost of support of the Hungarian High Schools for
Girls in the year 1905/6 was, in round numbers 1,970.000
crowns. In the Budget of 1907 the State appropriated the sum
of 1,325.000 crowns for the support of these schools. Of this
sum 30.000 crowns has been spent for the purpose of raising
the salaries of the teaching staff of denominational and parochial
High Schools for Girls to the level of those enjoyed by teachers
in the State schools. 207.000 crowns has been voted for the
expediture on provisions (catering department) of the State
Boarding schools; while 205.000 crowns was the revenue of
the latter.
CHAPTER IX.
Secondary Education.
L Retrospective survey of the development of
Secondary Education.
Act XXX of 1883 regulating Secondary Schools and the
education of the teachers therein employed forms the present
basis of the constitution of Hungarian Secondary Schools. As far
as our country is concerned, this is the first law which dealt
systematically with Secondary Education, since, though one or
other of the older laws may refer to this subject, it expresses
the legislative will, in merely general terms, that suitable
schools be established ; lays down the principle of the right of
Royal (in the present sense of State) inspection^ or grants power
to erect such Schools to the representatives of recognised
denominations.
Nevertheless the Act of 1883 establishing these Schools
was not the result of any radical agitation so much as
of a feeling of the necessity of regulating the then existent
conditions, and of removing those obstacles which formed a
barrier to progress, obstacles born of disputes concerning rights
and obligations in general. Thus the Act in question did not
essentially change the legal status nor organisation of the
Secondary Schools of that day, but simply gave to them such
directing impulse as to ensure that principles long admitted
and recognised should be put into practice.
It was always an admitted and well understood principle
that the State, or, in the language of our older Common law,
the Crown, had the right to cause to be inspected any School
128 CHAPTER IX.
whatever. This right was specifically claimed by King Charles
HI in his Decree No. LXXIV of 1715 and re-affirmed in his
Decree No. LXX of 1723, though nothing was then laid down
as to the mode of inspection. In the course of historical deve-
lopment this right was exercised as far as the different denom-
inational Secondary Schools was concerned in very different
ways. The Catholic church being in very close connection with
the State, the Schools of this denomination were at the dis-
posal of the Catholic State, and the king might deal with them
as he should see fit. It was only in Transylvania that the
Catholic Church found itself in a quite different situation under
Protestant Princes ; it was here organised upon an autonomous
basis, a form it retained under succeeding Catholic rulers. In
the Secondary Schools of the Protestant and Greek Oriental
Churches the king's right of supervision was, at first, rather
of a politico-religious complexion, but later, in the time of
religious toleration, it never, save in the most exceptional cases,
became really effective.
It has been for long a recognised and essential principle
that the king or, according to varying historical phases, the
State should provide that every subject of whatever degree
might have the advantage of suitable instruction. This prin-
ciple manifested itself, in some degree, as far back as 1548, in
the Decree of King Ferdinand I, and again in 1550, in a second
Decree. In terms of these the possessions of the deserted Mon-
asteries and Chapters were to be in part employed in the
building of schools. The principle was thoroughly vindicated
in the time of Queen Maria Theresa (1740 — 1750). Owing to
the suppression of the Jesuits in Hungary the cost of the
further maintenance of a large number of gymnasiums devol-
ved upon the Government. In consequence of this the Govern-
ment became the recognised authority responsible for the
upkeep of a considerable number of the Catholic Schools. At
the same lime the spirit of the age more and more urgently
demanded that Schools should subserve the ends of the State.
Under these circumstances the « Ratio educationist * was evol-
ved. This formally regulated the school system, from that of
* Ratio educationis totiusque rei literariae per regnum Hungariae
ct provincias eidem adnexas. Vindobonae, 1777.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 129
the village elementary school to that of the University. It delim-
its the aims of every kind of school, lays down the measure
of instruction to be imparted and provides for the admini-
stration and supervision of the Schools.
This, however, was merely a Royal Order, not a law,
as was the second «Ratio educationist issued in 1806.
The autonomous Churches therefore as far as they them-
selves were concerned did not consider that they were under
any obligation with respect to this order, and they accommodated
their educational policy to its requirements to no greater extent
than was dictated by a mere question of expediency. Thus
matters stood with respect to the new Secondary School system
which was evolved during the absolutist regime. (Entwurf der
Organisation der Gymnasien und Realschulen in Oesterreich.
Vom Ministerium des Kultus und Unterrichtes. Wien, 1849.) —
as with respect to the changes made in this system by the
Council of His Excellency the Governor and the responsible
Ministry until the promulgation of the Law of 1883. The Con-
stitutional Government always found itself face to face with
great difficulties whenever it desired effectively to make valid
in practice the right of supervision, while the principle had
always been conceded.
After repeated attempts extending over a hundred years,
the Law of 1883 relating to Secondary Schools at last took
effect. It was promulgated during the period of office as Minister
of Public Instruction of Augustus Trefort, and this year the 23rd
of May witnesses its twenty-fifth anniversary. During the inter-
vening period this law has proved effective and has contri-
buted in great measure to the strengthening and favourable
development of the Secondary Schools.
IL Present-day Organisation of Secondary Schools
Education.
1. Classical (Gymnasium) and Modern Schools (Realschule).
The province of Gymnasium and Real Schools is — in
the words of the Law of 1883 relating to Secondary Schools —
to provide the youth of the country with higher general edu-
cation and thus to prepare them for higher scientific training.
9
130 CHAPTER IX.
The Classical Schools solve this problem by including
in the syllabus every division of the «humanities», paying
special attention to the teaching of the classics; the Real Schools
by the teaching of modern languages, Mathematics, and Natural
Science.
It is fairly obvious from the text of the law that, in
Hungary, secondary Schools are either Classical or Modern
Schools; that both set before themselves the same objects and
that both appear upon the same level as educational factors,
and are classed in the same category.
But, though complete equality obtains between these as
far as concerns final aims and provinces, yet, in respect of
facultative qualifications, these is a difference between them,
since whilst the candidates for the final examination of a
Classical School may be accepted at any time as students
of the University of Technical Sciences or ordinary University,
the pupils who have passed the like examination at a
Modern School are restricted, as regards right of entry, as ordi-
nary students, to the Polytechnic, Mining, Forestry and Agri-
cultural High Schools. They may, it is true, attend certain
courses at the University proper, but these include the courses
in Mathematics and Natural Science only.
That this difference of right of entry, based upon the
difference in the cardinal subjects of instruction in Secondary
Schools moving in divergent directions but striving for one
common object^ shall not operate to the disadvantage of young
men upon the point of choosing a career, the educational
authorities have arranged that pupils possessing the certificate
of the final examination of a Modern School may be enabled
to enter for the complementary examination in Latin and
Greek, thus opening to them the whole of the University
faculties.
2. Greek as an optional Subject.
The object of Act XXX of 1890 is that the two recog-
nised classes of Secondary School shall be as far as possible
assimilated. In terms of this law the pupils of the four higher
classes of the Classical School (V to Vll) are not compelled
to take up the study of the Greek language, provided that the
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 131
parents enter the names of their respective children for the
study of certain optional subjects laid down in the curriculum.
Pupils exercising this right become more widely acquainted
with the literature of Hungary, and by reading translations in
Hungarian of the works of the best Greek authors, are intro-
duced to the literature of ancient Greece and the history of
Greek culture: but this alternative selection involves the com-
pulsory study of Drawing (elements of Geometry and Freehand).
Great numbers of students take advantage of the right conferred
by the law aforesaid. For example in the School year 1905/6,
the number of pupils comprising the four higher classes of
Classical Schools was 18.176, of whom 11.735 learnt Greek and
6.441 took up optional subjects.
3. Trend of Secondary Schools.
It may be seen that the Hungarian Secondary Schools
founded in 1888 upon the dual principle foreshadowed above
passed through many phases and in the present form of
Classical and Modern Schools jhave satisfied the requirements
of the three-fold objects of Secondary education, whilst preserv-
ing their several and separate characteristics.
The first direction, that is the Latin-Greek, is followed by
those pupils of the Gymnasium who have studied these subjects,
and by such Modern School pupils as have privately taken up
the study of the languages and, after the final Modern School
examination have passed a complementary examination in these
subjects. Every faculty of the University is opened to them, as
is the University of Technical Sciences and every order of
Institution engaged in Higher Education.
The second type is the Latin. This study is taken up by
such Classical School pupils as have taken up optional
subjects in preference to Greek, and by those pupils of Modern
Schools who have learned Latin and have passed the com-
plementary final examination in that subject. The faculties
of Law, Political Science, Medicine and Philosophy of the
University are open to them, as are the coui'ses in Mathe-
matics and Natural History. They are admitted, moreover
to the University of Technical Sciences, to the Mining, Forestry
and Agricultural Academies and High Schools.
9*
132 CHAPTER IX.
Lastly the third type, cliaracterised by a course of study
which excludes Latin. This course is taken by such students of
Modern Schools as do not take up the study of Latin nor
enter for the complementary examination in Classics. These
students are admitted to the University of Technical Sciences
only — as between that Institution and the University — and
only to those other High Schools (University Colleges) which
do not demand from their students a preliminary knowledge
of classics. Such are the Mining, Forestry, and Agricultural High
Schools and Academies, and the Mathematical and National
Science parts of the University Curriculum.
In the School year 1905/6, 4014 pupils of the eighth class
drawn from 132 Classical Schools entered for the final examination,
as, during the same period, did 630 pupils representing 25 Modern
Schools. Of this total of 4644, seventy were girls. The complement
tary examination in Latin was taken by 183 Real School pupils.
4. Course of instruction in Secondary Schools.
The Hungarian Secondary Schools provide eight classes,
and a course extending over eight years. Those pupils who
have passed successfully, the fourth elementary School examin-
ation may be admitted to the first class of the Secondary School,
provided they have completed their ninth year. This latter
condition may, in certain cases, be waived. In case the can-
didate for admission does not possess the necessary certificate
from the elementary School, he is subjected to an entrance
examination designed to test his knowledge of reading, writing
and arithmetic. Admission to a higher class is dependent upon
satisfactory progress in the subjects of instruction, proof of
wliich must be afforded by the result of a public class exam-
ination held at the end of every year. After successfully passing
through the eighth class the pupil proceeds to his final, the
rights conferred by success in which have been discussed
above.
5. Number of Secondary Schools.
These were, in Hungary, in the School year 1905/6,
202 Secondary Schools of which 170 were Classical and 32
Modern Schools. Of the former 132 provided the full course of
eight classes : of the latter, 25.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 133
When we examine the area of Hungary and the ratio to
area of the population, we find that there is one Secondary
School to every 1442 sq. kilometers, and to 78.000 inhabitants.
If we turn our attention to the subdivision of these Secondary
Schools into Classical and Modern we find [that there is one
of the former to every 1727 sq. kilometers, and to 93.000
inhabitants, and one of the latter to every 8740 sq. kilometers
and 472.900 inhabitants.
6. Secondary Education for Girls.
Secondary Education in the case of Girls is not provided
for by law. Girl students in Hungary who wish to complete
their studies at Secondary Schools and to take the final exam-
ination of either Classical or Modern Schools must master the
same subjects as are obligatory for boys, these including eveni
Greek and Latin. They may attend each year for the purpose
of submitting themselves for successive class examinations and
undergo the customary final at the end of the eightli year^
but they are not permitted to attend boys' schools in the
ordinary course. In terms of the Decree of His Majesty, issued
1895, such girls as excel in their studies, have passed the final
examination of the Secondary School and hold certificates of
such marked « Excellent* or «Good» may be admitted as ord-
inary students in the faculties of Philosophy and Medicine at
the University, and may take up the course of training qual-
ifying them as teachers of Secondary Schools, physicians or
chemists.
The origin of Secondary (Gymnasium) education for girls
may be traced to the private enterprise of an association of
teachers in Classical Schools under whose guidance it deve-
loped in the form of Girls' Gymnasium Courses. Having served
its purpose, this private association soon afterwards dissolved,
leaving the work of providing this form of instruction to the
State, to the City of Budapest and to the Central Society for
the Education of Women. To the last named belongs the credit
of having founded, with the help of a grant from the State,
the first complete Classical School for Girls.
There are, properly speaking, only three such Schools in
the Metropolis. The other Institutions partaking in the wider
134 CHAPTER IX.
sense of the character of Secondary Schools designed for the
education of girls, teach neither Latin nor Greek, set no final
examination and offer a course extending over six years only.
Their code and syllabus agree in the main with those of the
German «H<)7iere Tdchterschulen» and the French ^Lycies de
jeimes filles». Their number was 32 in the School-year 1905/6.
7. Language medium.
Altlu'ough as regards incidence of population the Hungarian
form only 507o of the people in the country, yet the teaching
medium in the greater part of the Secondary Schools of the
country is Hungarian.
This has not been accomplished by forcible means, as the
laws ensure to every nationality and community the right to
erect Secondary Schools and to select whatever language it
pleases as the medium of instruction. Notwithstanding this right,
statistics of the School-year of 1905/6 give this medium as
Hungarian in the case of 183 of the 202 existing Secondary
Schools. These Institutions thus contribute to the strengthening
of the State and, as homes of culture, have, during the last
forty years, never ceased to foster in the youth entrusted to
their care, feelings of attachment to and ardent love for our
national institutions and national language. In addition to those
Schools wherein the medium of instruction is Hungarian, there
are six in which Roumanian has been selected, seven which
have chosen German, one Italian, four German-Hungarian and
one Servian-Hungarian.
8. Relation of Secondary Schools to the State.
Secondary Schools in Hungary may be divided into three
groups. To the first belong such Classical and Modern Schools
as are maintained either by the State or out of the Hungarian
Educational Fund formed by the conversion of the revenues
of the Order of the Society of Jesus to scholastic purposes.
The Minister for Public Instruction has these Schools under
immediate charge and exercises unrestricted control as regards
both the code and discipline. He nominates the various members
of the teaching staff and provides for the requirements, in the
material sense, of the Schools. As regards those Schools main-
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 135
tained out of revenues accruing from the Educational Fund,
he is limited in the selection of teachers to such as profess
the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Faith. The number of
Schools belonging to this group was for the years 1905-6
77, in the proportion of 52 Classical to 25 Modern Schools.
The second category comprises Second aiy Schools main-
tained by Municipalities or Public Bodies, and various Autho-
rities ; those under the charge of Roman Catholic and Greek
Church Bishops respectively; such as belong to the Monastic
Orders, and such others as are privately conducted. The studies
in these Institutions are under the immediate guidance and
control of the Minister of Public Instruction: yet thorgh the
Institutions themselves accommodate themselves to the terms
of Ministerial decrees in this respect, they are, as regards per-
sonnel, and internal economy, practically independent as long
as they keep within the provisions of the law. These were in
the School year 1905—6, 66 Secondary Schools of this class,
of which 64 were Classical and 4 Modern Schools, The several
authorities maintaining these comprised 12 Municipalities, 39 Catho-
lic, or Monastic, 7 Transylvanian Catholic, 2 Greek Catholic, 1
Jewish, and others representing societies, foundations, or private
individuals.
The third group includes those Secondary Schools maint-
ained by various autonomous communities. Of these 27 Clas-
sical Schools represent the Reformed Church, 22 Classical and
22 Modern Schools the Lutheran Church, 1 Classical the United
Protestants ; 3 Qassical and 1 Modern Schools the Greek Oriental
Church and 3 Classical Schools the Unitarian Body.
As regards these Secondary Schools the Minister exercises
the State right of supervision only to the extent of detaching
a special government representative, whose duty it is to report
upon the condition of the Schools If this report be adverse,
the authorities maintaining the particular establishment are
called upon to comply with the terms of Ministerial requirements.
Matters affecting the personnel and interior economy of Second-
ary Schools of autonomous denominations are quite beyond
the province of the Minister. Turning to the question of studies,
the governing bodies of* the various establishments are at per-
fect liberty to evolve codes for themselves respectively, subject
to the proviso that these must include all such instruction as
136 CHAPTER IX.
is compulsory in the case of the syllabus of Secondary Schools,
and that the Schools are maintained upon the same general
level as the latter. The choice of text-books rests with the
authorities themselves. It is, notwithstanding, the right and duty
of the Minister to ascertain from the governing body of any
Denominational School whether the books in use be printed
or be in manuscript, and to review them with the object of
satisfying himself that they contain no assertion, doctrine nor
opinion inimical to the State, the Constitution or the Law.
Should this be found to be the case in any specific instance,
it is the right, as it becomes the duty, of the Minister to prohibit
the further use of such text-books, to confiscate them should
necessity so order and to institute further proceedings in the
ordinary legal course, to the end that the persons responsible
may be duly punislied.
9. Management of Secondary Schools.
For administrative purposes Hungary is divided into
twelve teaching districts. At the head of each district there is
a District Royal hispector General who is in immediate
touch with the Ministry of Public Instruction, carries out
all instructions proceeding therefrom in the Classical and
Modern Schools belonging to the first and second groups of
the above indicated Secondary Schools, and exercises educat-
ional and disciplinary control. At least once a year he must
visit officially the Schools within his jurisdiction, convince
himself by observation that the energies of the teachers are
properly directed, that the pupils make satisfactoiy progress,
and that the condition of the appliances is maintained at a
proper standard; he must, further, look into the questions of
the requirements of the Schools, that of the office management,
and of the funds in the charge of the School Director, of the
keeping of the building in good repair and of the internal
economy of the School premises. He communicates his experi-
ences, and such instructions as it is within his province to
give, to the teaching body, in conference, and submits the
minutes, together with such opinions and suggestions as the
case may require, to the Minister. He presides at the viva-voce
part of the final examinations the written part of which he
has arranged.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 137
The Inspector General visits in his official capacity the auto-
nomous, denominational Classical Modern and Real Schools and
the Secondary Schools of the third division belonging terri-
torially to his own district; but the right of control does not
fall within his province. For this he must obtain from the
Minister, who exercises supreme control over denominational
Secondary Schools in accordance with the provisions of the
law, a separate commission tenable for one year. The Inspector
General pays his visit in his capacity as a representative of
the Government, though this carries with it no right of inter-
ference, his activity being limited to the office of an observant
controlling medium, who communicates the result of his ex-
periences to the teaching body and reports in like terms to
the Minister. He is further restricted in that he is not called
upon to preside at the final examinations in autonomous
denominational Secondary Schools, this office being undertaken
by the Commissioner of the particular denominational governing
board, though the Ministry of Public Instruction deputes its
own nominee, to satisfy itself that the ordinary course of
procedure is complied with.
Summing up the information thus far detailed, it will be
noted that in Hungary the State maintains only a third of the
Secondary Schools, the other two thirds being entrusted to the
government of the various denominations. Bearing in mind
that the population of Hungary comprises various nationalities,
it would appear a disquieting circumstance that with respect
to the interests of Hungarian national culture and ideals, the
State is so pushed into the background. Luckily, however,
there is no cause for alarm since the tried loyalty and strong
Hungarian bias of the majority of the denominations furnish
guarantees that our Secondary Schools and the youth ti^ained
therein, who are destined to become leading elements in the
society of the future, are faithful props of Hungarian ideals
and culture. If they at any time were to attempt to move in
a contrary direction, the law of 1883 relating to Secondary
Education, conceived as it was in a spirit of wisdom and
foresight, indicates the manner in which every such antinat-
ional movement may be counteracted.
138 CHAPTER IX.
10. Homogeneity of Secondary Educatibn.
To the end that this may be assured the oft-quoted law
of 1883 contains many regulating clauses. Three may be more
particularly cited. First that the State is the authority which
determines the final goal and the minimum of subjects to be
taught, though the autonomous denominational Schools cannot
be compelled to accept the curriculum laid down by the State
in schools maintained by themselves, but they are responsible
that the results attained in their schools be at least equal to
those obtained in State Schools. Secondly that the Hungarian
language and the teaching of Hungarian literature are without
exception compulsory in all the Secondary Schools in the
country. Every citizen of Hungary, whatever his particular
nationality, who desires to fill any public office must know
the language and literature of Hungary. Thirdly from this time
forth only qualified teachers may be employed in Secondary
Schools. The State reserves to itself the sole power to grant
this qualification.
11. Public rights of Secondary Schools.
The public rights of Secondary Schools are contained in
the powers granted to them to issue certificates which are
recognised as valid by the State. This specific right is subject
to the following conditions. Firstly: the property of the part-
icular School must be insured. Secondly: the class-rooms must
be so constructed as to satisfy architectural, educational and
sanitary requirements. Thirdly : the syllabus must come up to
the level prescribed for Secondary Schools of the State. Lastly :
those persons entrusted with the duty of teaching must satisfy
the demands of the law as regards teaching capacity, number
and permanency of occupation.
If any public Secondary School not under the immediate
governance and guidance of the Minister of Public Instruction
do not come up to the requirements of the law, the
Minister aforesaid is entitled to withdraw this public right
from such institution, provided he have within the period of
at least six months conveyed three successive warnings to the
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 139
responsible aathority. Such Schools as have been deprived of
this right cannot grant certificates valid in the eyes of the
State nor can they hold the final examinations.
Societies and Unions may found and maintain private
Classical and Modern Schools and private educational estab-
lishments providing similar courses, if they place such institut-
ions in the hands of teachers who possess diplomas as teachers
of Secondary Schools, and in all other respects conform to the
provisions of the law. The private Secondary Schools, for the
very reason that they have no public right as outlined above,
cannot grant to their pupils certificates which are valid in the
eyes of the State. If, then, pupils who have taken the course
prescribed for these private schools desire certificates recognised
by the authorities, conferring the right of admission to any
public educational establishment, they may obtain such only
by putting in an appearance at the final examination of some
public Secondary School. This examination may be taken at the
end of any teaching year.
Hungary is not propitious ground for the maintenance of
private Secondary Schools. At present none such exist through-
ont the length and breadth of the land.
12, Government Grants.
Secondary Schools maintained by some denominational
authorities, municipalities, associations or private citizens, which
are required in the public interest or serve important local
demands, but which cannot be wholly maintained out of the
resources of the Authorities or Associations cited in such
manner as to answer legal requirements, are eligible for grants
at the discretion of the Minister for Public Instruction. According
to the degree in which grants are made the Schools con-
cerned must forego some part or other of their autonomous
government : in other words the grant of Public Moneys entails
the application of the principle of Public Control. The amount
of grants, which in the case of any single secondary school
providing the full courses of eight classes cannot ordinarily
exceed the sum of 32.000 crowns (£ 1330) annually, is voted
by Parliament and provided for in the Estimates. Special condit-
ions contingent to the grant are laid down in contract form.
140 CHAPTER IX.
They usually provide that in all Schools enjoying a grant the
Code approved by the Government must be accepted, or that
a certain number of appointments to the ofifice of teacher
must be reserved to the Minister.
The Budget of 1907 made provision for 86 of these denom-
inational or other autonomous schools, which, with the addition
of 600,000 crowns (£ 25 000) as a separate grant to supplement
the resources available for the payment of teachers' salaries,
and 428.660 crowns (£ 17.800), appropriated for extraordin-
ary supply, and invested in such form as to constitute assets,
amounted to the sum of 2,873.316 crowns (£ 119.800).
ilL The Codes for Classical and Modern Schools.
1. Retrospective.
Want of space prevents us from publishing, at full length,
the two codes now in force, dr from dealing in detail with
each separate subject of instruction. For the purpose of guid-
ance we are, however, enabled to indicate here those succes-
sive changes and modifications to which these have been sub-
jected in the course of their gradual evolution and adaptation
to the varying requirements of the times.
The first Code ever issued by the Government qua
Government was the « Ratio Educalionis> of the year 1777.
It divided the courses of those Schools which answered to
our present-day Secondary Schools under three main heads:
a Grammatical course of three years, a Gymnasium course of
two years and lastly a Philosophical course, also of two years.
The Gymnasium course was in 1806 as the result of some
few unessential changes extended to four years, thus the whole
series extended over a period of eight years, the basis upon
which the Secondary Schools course is now constituted.
The Code prescribed for Austria in 1849, the «Entwurf
der Organisation der Gymnasien und Realschulen in Osterreich*
issued in Vienna was, one year later, in 1850, extended to Hung-
ary. It laid down that Secondary Schools should be divided
into two main branches: Classical Schools of eight courses
and Modern Schools of six. This Code known as the «Thun
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 141
System> adopted the principle of 3pecialisation in some degree,
introducing the Greek language as a compulsory subject into
Classical Schools, and giving more scope to matliematics and
the natural sciences.
The code of 1861, referring to the medium of teaching,
provided for Classical Schools wherein instruction is given
exclusively in the Hungarian language, apart from such as
permit of bi-lingual instruction. This Code thus gave more
sQope for the development of the Hungarian language, the
Geography and History of Hungary, removed the Greek element-
ary course from the third to the fifth class, and reduced the
School routine altogether, inaugurating anew the standard
system in place of the special courses in the two lowest
classes.
Baron Joseph E6tv6s, the first Minister of Public Instruc-
tion under the constitutional regime drew up a scheme which
promised thorough reforms of far-reaching import. It contained
provisos that would have prolonged the full course from eight
to nine years, divided as follows: a lower school course of
four years, a middle school course of two years and an upper
course of three years* duration, — practically a re-introduction
of the special, as opposed to a general, system. The Code for
use in the lower forms was di'awn up and its gradual intro-
duction ordered, in 1868, but the death of Baron Eotvos in 1871
arrested the projected reforms, and the action of his successor
who issued a new Code for Classical Schools, approaching,
as it did, in its main features, the provisions and aims of the
<Entwurf» practically put an end to the scheme. The Code
founded upon the «Entwurf» remained valid in Modern Schools
until the year 1875, when the endeavours that had been made
in the direction of raising the rank of these Instiutions to
the level of Classical Schools, at length triumphed. They
were constituted anew, with eight full courses, as Secondary
Schools, their aim being to prepare students for the courses
of the University of Technical Sciences. The era of exper-
iments appeared now to have come to an end. The time had
arrived when some permanent form, some stability of aim
should be given to Secondary Education, when some common
code should determine and coordinate the courses of the two
main divisions of Schools, in consonance with the requirements
142 CHAPTER IX.
of the country and the more general demands of European
culture.
The new Code was prepared in 1879 upon the initiative
of Augustus Trefort. This is the first Code which designedly
takes into account psychological phases of child and youthful
development, in the selection of the subjects of instruction and
the method of their treatment. Teaching methods^ in conse-
quence, underwent great changes: artificial divisions between
upper and lower Gymnasiums and between these together and
Modern Schools were swept away; the courses extended over
eight standards and the more concentrated final aim took no
account whatever of such students as failed to complete the
full courses laid down for Secondary Schools.
Certain modifications appearing in 1890 based upon Act
XXX of that year, permitted students of Classical Schools
freely to choose between the taking up of the study of the
Greek language and certain defined optional subjects.
For nearly two decades Secondary Education proceeded
upon the same lines. At length the then Minister of Public
Instruction, Dr. Julius Wlassics, being convinced that the time
had arrived when the subject could with advantage be re-op-
ened, caused the codes to be re-examined by all competent
authorities and educational experts^ in the most public and
open manner. No expression of opinion proceeding from any
quarter whatever, provided it were germane to the issue, was
neglected by the Minister, who, upon full consideration of the
various reports, was enabled to complete the revision and, in
1899, to draw up and promulgate the Codes now in force in
Classical and Modern Schools.
2. The curricula now in force in Secondary Schools.
The following table exhibits the number of hours assigned
to the study of obligatory subjects in Gymnasiums and Modern
Schools.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY
143
General Time-Table for the Gymnasitims.
o
Subjects
1 Religion
2 Hungarian
3 Latin
4 Greek
5 Optional subjects in place of
Greek
6 1 German
7 History
8 Geograpliy
9 Natural History
10 Physics
11 Mathematics
12 Practical Geometry ....
13 First principles of Philo-
sophy
14 Calligraphy
15 Physical Culture
Total:
class
28
28
28
28 30
30
30 30
Total
No: of
hours
16
30
44
19j
19'
19
18
8
13
8
26
10
3
2
16
232
144
CHAPTER IX.
General Time-Table for Modern Schools.
o
525
Su bj ects
I ^ a > t>
hi-< ki-4 H^ k-4 K^
class
Total
No: of
hours
1 Religion
2 Hungarian
3 German
4 French
5 Historj^
6 Geography
7 Natural History (Zoology and
Botany)
8 Chemistry and Mineralogy .
9 Physics
10 Mathematics
11 Practical and Descriptive
Geometry
12 Freehand Drawing ....
13 First principles of Philosophy
14 Calligraphy
15 Physical culture
Total :
28
28
28
28
30
30
30
30
16
28
25
24
17
8
10
8
12
31
20
12
3
2
16
232
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 145
The curricula as above, established under the aegis of
Dr.Wlassics, lay special stress upon three points. Firstly a desire
to bring to an end the old system of overburdening pupils.
Secondly the acquisition of greater latitude for subjects of
instruction of a national character. Thirdly the arrest of a
threatened decline in the faculty of observation, by means of
provision of optional subjects in place of Greek.
The curriculum at present in force provides many safe-
guards against the launching of complaints, ever increasing in
volume, from pai-ents protesting against the overburdening of
the minds of pupils; these safeguards being limited as far as
possible by the necessty of preserving the standard of culture.
Thus in the teaching of Latin, the Hungarian-Latin translation
work has been omitted from the final examination which, of
course, need not imply that, in the teaching of the Latin
language itself, such exercises may be dispensed with. As the
result of general experience, reading of a tiresome nature has
been exchanged for reading more graduated and offering wider
interest, and the number of writing exercises in Latin has been
reduced. The less essential parts^of Mathematics have been either
altogether omitted or contracted and the principle of practical
training has been more finally established. It has been arranged
that in the teaching of Physics, Mathematics should serve only
for the expression of laws, not for their deduction. In the
teaching of Practical Geometry in Classical and Modern
Schools and in that of Descriptive Geometry in Modern Schools,
teaching which had hitherto been too abstract, the employment
of object lessons has become customary, and the instruction
itself has been confined to the more simple forms. Beyond all
this, the cult of physical education has sensibly extended, and
arrangements have been made wherely compulsory afternoon
games are instituted for every separate class.
More efficacious are those regulations of the curricula
which are directed towards the teaching of subjects bearing a
national character. Two full years are devoted to the study of
the History of Hungarian Literature in Classical Schools,
in place of the one year previously allotted, a change which
on the one hand has made more easily possible the more
economic arrangement of the more rudimentary subjects, and
on the other hand has in far greater measure made more
10
146 CHAPTER IX.
easily attainable the first aim of the present code, which is
that the youth may be made acquainted with literature itself,
its greatest lights and its development. More clearly to emphas-
ise thorough reading, it became necessary to enter into greater
detail as regards the pieces and to introduce many new ex-
cellent reading-pieces.
It may be hoped that this adjustment of the curriculum
will raise the level of literary culture in the true meaning of
the term. Indeed there are indications that this is so.
The whole system of the teaching of History has under-
gone a change. The curriculum certainly tends to ensure that
the knowledge of the national past shall attend pupils of
Secondary Schools from the first class to the last, partly in
the form of suitably selected historical reading pieces, (in the
I and II classes incorporated with instruction in the Hungarian
language), partly in that of conversational narratives, drawn
from Hungarian history, partly, again, in connection with
general history, and (in the last class), by means of the teach-
ing of the history of the Hungarian nation, particularly in the
form of a retrospective synoptical survey of the development
of the State as a social and political entity.
From the point of view of the necessity of correctly
apprehending the national past, the arrangement which attempts
to place Hungarian history organically within the frame of
general history, bearing in mind the corelation of the interde-
pendent parts, promises in this coherent course of teaching,
to bear excellent fruit.
A greater amount of attention is paid in the present
curriculum to the study of the geography of Hungary. The
first class is exclusively restricted to this division. In other
subjects, matters which have any beai'ing upon home affairs
and conditions are given their due share of attention.
In these optional subjects which replace the study of the
Greek language, special emphasis is now laid upon such literary
elements as touch upon Grecian culture. The neglect of De-
scriptive Geometry and the organisation of the interdependent
courses of Freehand Drawing in the four higher classes, may
on the one hand serve artistic and aesthetic education, till now
little fostered in the system of teaching in Classical Schools,
and on the other hand bring nearer the attainment of an
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 147
object, — not hitherto realisable on account of the limitations
imposed by the Departmental time-table, — that Freehand
Drawing should be included amongst those subjects of general
training compulsory in the care of every student.
Dr. Wlassics, favouring the idea of uniformity as far as
practicable in the teaching given in the two main divisions^
framed the new codes in such manner as to pave the way in
this direction, leaving to his successors the task of following
the idea of convergent lines to ultimate uniformity of direction.
As a matter of fact the subjects of instruction in the two
Schools, Classical and Modern, have been made to approximate,
as may be seen by comparison of the Codes: amongst the
compulsory subjects only Latin Literature, French Literature,
Drawing and Chemistry may still be regarded as exhibiting
real points of difference, whereas the remainder of the generally
compulsory subjects of the two codes agree in all essentials.
3. Extra Subjects of Instruction.
By the provisions of the law regulating the courses for
Secondary Schools, instruction is given in certain extra subjects
by teachers whose inclination has led them to qualify them-
selves for the purpose. Attendance at these classes is of course
optional. These subjects, common to both orders of Schools
are : liturgical and artistic singing, Shorthand, Freehand Drawing,
Hygiene, whilst other subjects are peculiar to one or other as
that of French, obligatory in Modern Schools but now optional
in Classical Schools, Latin, obligatory in the latter and now
forming an extra subject in the former. The addition of Book-
keeping to the Modern School Syllabus completes the general list.
Instruction in Latin and Hygiene, provided and regulated by
the Authorities, is gratis, but voluntary attendance at any
of the other courses involves the payment of fees not exceeding
twenty crowns in amount, which form the honorarium of the
teacher.
In addition to the subjects enumerated, which may be
said to form the general list, various other extra courses may
be taken according to the special local demands and interests
of the Secondary School providing such. Some of these Courses
are now being delivered, wherever the services of specially
10 •
148 CHAPTER IX.
trained teachers are available, and suitable class-rooms and
equipment are at • hand. The courses include the common
language of the district, — Roumanian, Servian, or Slovak;
Modern Languages, English or Italian ; Music, Fencing, <3:Slojd»,
— the last more particularly in Boarding Schools. Modern Schools
provide instruction in Modelling, Ancient Lettering, — Ronde,
Gothic, Block letter types etc. and exercises in Physics and
Chemistry.
The short extra Code is drawn up for its own particular
use by each separate Institution, according to special require-
ments, regard being paid to the number of applicants, the
teaching staff available, and questions of time place and financial
means. It is the duty of the Director of the School to see that
the taking up of extra subjects does not operate to the dis-
advantage of the pupil by diverting his attention from the
obligatory course. If such be found to be the case the student
is prohibited from following up the study of such extras.
Teaching shall be as. far as possible practical : this applies
with special force to the instruction in modern languages.
The impetus which Freehand Drawing has received abroad
of late years has not been without its effect in Hungary. The
success of new teaching methods, and the direction given to
this study, have stimulated this country to follow upon similai'
lines, with the result that as an extra subject it has met with
a most popular reception in our Classical Schools.
4. Exercises in Physics and Chemistry.
It is recognised as a general principle that the methods
of investigation practised in the study of Natural Sciences,
should as far as possible be utilised in the teaching of Physics.
The great educational value and training power of National
Sciences can find scope only where pupils acquire their know-
ledge, to a large extent, as the result of their own observation,
examination and speculation, that is to say by following in the
steps of the original investigator. These requirements are met
in the Secondary School courses, more particularly in those
inroduced in the Modern Schools where exercises and experiments
in Physics and Chemistiy form the main part of instruction.
EDUCATION IX HUNGARY 149
5. Development of the Aesthetic Sense.
These are certain factors within the compass of Secondary
Education whicli operate in the direction of awakening and
developing in the minds of the students artistic taste. The
deshability of this being admitted, teachers in the Secondary
Schools within the Metropolitan area are encouraged as far as
possible frequently to visit the various National and Public
Collections, more particularly the Picture galleries, Archaeological
and Ethnographic Departments of the Hungarian National
Museum, the National Gallery, Technological Museum, and
the Exhibitions of Plastic Art and Art Industry. In commun-
icating the information thus afforded with a view to widen the
ai'ea of the pupil's knowledge and to refine his taste, teachers
should lay special stress upon the bearing of these aesthetic
developments upon the national and racial culture. The teachers
in the country are also incited to follow this lead, as the
Educational Authorities consider it a serious national task to
awaken an interest in Art in the souls of the youth of the
country ; the earlier the better, as this serves to render existence
more ideal, to modify the worldly views of succeeding gener-
ations and to ennoble the character and heart.
Lectures on the History of Art illustrated by magic lantern
slides are delivered every year during the winter months to
the pupils of the two higher classes (VII— VIII) of Secondary
Schools, upon School premises, at various centres in turn. Each
course consists of a series of twelve*^ lectures, the delivery of
which is entrusted to some capable teacher of the School, and
carries an honorarium of 240 crowns (£ 10.)
6. Educational Outings.
Great attention is paid to the work of extracting as much
value as possible out of the educational trips arranged for the
youth of Secondary Schools. The trips have been much facil-
tiated by the cheap railway fares afforded by our fixed zone-
system, and are carried out under the special guidance and
inspection of a teacher. For shorter or longer periods no more
than twenty pupils are placed under the supervision of one
teacher. The Expenses are met by grants from the special
School Fund formed out of the General Fund.
150 CHAPTER IX.
The Authorities have made known to each individual
. teacher entrusted with the duty of piloting the students that
the aim of these educational trips is not single, in the sense
that it should be confined to instruction in Natural History and
Geography, or that physical training alone should be considered :
it is rather to combine useful information with some conception
of the various phases of the National History upon which this
information, touches and reflects. It is desirable that if the
School purpose to send its pupils upon a trip with the object
of teaching Natural History or of demonstrating geological
formations, their historical standpoint should be the pivot upon
which the instruction thus imparted ought to turn. The teacher
should lead the students to some ruins of fortresses or battle-
ments reminiscent of historical events ; he should accompany
them to the birthplace or tomb of some man who stood
prominently forth in the national records or in the history of
our literature ; he should explain the significance and recall the
memories of such places, and endeavour by his enthusiastic
depicting of old scenes and of the deeds of the great dead, to
awaken kindred feelings of reverence and patriotism in the
breasts of his charges.
These excursions might be turned to account to make clear
the ethnographical relations of our country. But one of the
chief aims should remain the inculcating of deep feelings of
love for the Fatherland.
Educational trips have also been made to more remote
district and to places of interest abroad, as for instance Venice,
Rome, but in such cases the purpose of the journey has been
published at the beginning of the School year, in order that the
pupils taking part might have an opportunity to make suitable
arrangements and that the school might be enabled to collect
a Fund with a view to including pupils of small means at
reduced cost or gratis.
7. Pupils' Self Improvement Associations.
With the object of developing and extending their know-
ledge of the national language and literature, (by means of
recitation and the composition of poetical and prose works),
and of perfecting themselves, as far as possible, in other sub-
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 151
jects, the pupils of the two highest classes of Secondary Schools
form themselves into Associations as above, spheres in which
diversion and recreation are provided, and wherein the spirit
of noble emulation induces every one to give of his best.
Those members of a musical turn combine to form, within
the greater circles, orchestras which perform at concerts
got up to mark suitable occasions or school anniversaries.
These Unions exercise in special degree the art of oratory:
and from them are drawn those speakers who fitly represent
the youth of the country upon the occasion of great National
Festivals. They may be formed to further the purposes of
self-education, self help, physical culture or recreation, but no
Societies formed upon political bases or designed to further the
interests of separate nationalities are tolerated. The proceedings
are conducted by the members themselves guided by one of
the senior teachers, and all officials, as Chairman, Treasurer,
Secretary and Librarian etc. are elected from the general body
of members but act under the general superintendence of the
Director of the School. The subscription fees, amounting upon
the average to 20 filler (4 d.) per head, are devoted to the
purchase of books for the library and to the provision of money
prizes for essays or other literary works.
8. Method of teaching.
The codes of the Classical and Modern Schools indicate
to teachers the aim of instruction and the point of view from
which it should be given. As complements to these codes
methodical directions have been devised and issued, to the end
that teachers may be supplied with models to assist them in
working-up and generally preparing the material prescribed for
use in the various branches of Science. These directions do not,
however, seek to cripple the teachers' initiative, nor to check
such departures as may seem expedient in view of the special
local circumstances and requirements of the different Schools ;
they merely serve to elucidate the practice of the essential
continuity and interdependence of the several branches of
instruction, and to provide hints as to usage, whilst setting up
certain well defined principles as to method and thus consti-
tuting a standard subject to such slight variations as are ad-
verted to above.
152 CHAPTER IX.
In addition to these codes which oflfer general directions^
special instructions are published as particular guides to serve
in the teaching of some one or other subject; these aids are
supplemented by the special holiday-courses instituted for
teachers of Secondary Schools.
Without enumerating these in detail, it may sufficienth^
serve our purpose to cile the fact that the vacation course last
year dealt with the practical teaching of the Latin language;
a special conference, moreover, took up the discussion of the
same subject from the point of view of methods of leaching
The debate originated in an enquiry concerning the principles
laid down in an English edition of a Latin Grammar, published
by Dent; and it extended to an examination of the methods
therein suggested.
This work has now been remodelled in accordance with
our requirements and has been introduced, experimentally, as
a text-book, in some few of the Classical Schools.
9. Matriculation.
The question of the value of these final examinations,
forming part of the system now in use, has already been
discussed.
Here we propose to speak only of the leading principles
which determined the modifications of instructions that had
remained in force until 1905.
The raison d'etre of the instructions now governing finae
examinations, must be sought in a desire to raise their general
level, to make them more serious and valid tests of the amount
and value of knowledge acquired, and to assist the Examining
Board to arrive at a first estimate of the powers and state of
mental development of candidates. To attain these ends it was,
first of all, necessary to relieve candidates of superfluous burdens
due to the multiplicity of subjects, which, as experience proved,
decreased their mental elasticity and caused them to tire before
a valid judgment could be formed. For this reason the number
of subjects forming the written examination and the writing
tests has been reduced, more stress being laid upon the viva-
voce part. The number of subjects forming part of the former
division has been reduced from five in Gymnasiums and four
in Modern Schools to three.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 153
In Classical Schools the final examination resolves itself
into three tests, a) An essay upon some theme taken from
the national Literatm-e, written in Hungarian, b) Translation
from Latin into Hungarian, c) The solut.on of Algebraic and
Geometrical problems.
In Modern Schools: a) An essay in the Hungarian language
as above, b) Optional: 1. Translation from Hungaiian into
German, or 2. German subject chosen from the work already
done in the language and literature, c) Solution of Algebraic
and Geometrical problems.
The Oral Examination has been simplified in accordance
with the views above expressed. It has been found that for the
purpose of ascertaining the degree of a candidate's knowledge
and mental development, the national Language and Literature,
national History in connection with its correspondence to the
subject of General History, Mathematics, Physics, provide satis-
factory tests. To these may be added, in the case of the pupils
of Classical Schools the Latin Language and Literature as tests
of the degree of classical literary education, and in the case of
Modern School pupils the German Language and Literature
as standards for the measurement of progress in modern lite-
rary education.
Accordingly the table of subjects forming the viva-voce
part of the final examinations in Classical Schools runs as
follows: a) Hungarian: Language and Literature, b) Latin:
Language and Literature, c) History of Hungary, d) Mathem-
atics, e) Physics. The corresponding subjects for Modern School
pupils are : a) Hungarian : Language and Literature, b) German :
Language and Literature, c) History of Hungary, d) Mathem-
atics, e) Physics.
In those Institutions where the medium of teaching is
other than Hungarian, in the case of both Classical and Modern
Schools, the language of instruction and its literature must be
taken as a subject in addition to those specified above.
The written part of the examination in held with closed
doors, five consecutive hours being devoted to each subject.
Any pupil failing to obtain satisfactory classification in two or
more subjects may not be admitted to the oral examination.
154 CHAPTER IX.
IV. Physical Exercise.
1. Exercises. Games. Gymnastic competitions.
For counterbalancing the mental strain due to the study
of theoretical subjects, and preserving a just equipoise, the code
makes provision for the teaching of such simple games as can
be practised having regard to our home circumstances and local
environment, and as can justly be considered as falling within
the scope of physical culture proper for students of Secondary
Schools. For this purpose each School is provided with a play-
ground, the ordinary size of which is 200 X 100 meters (about
4^/2 acres). The upkeep of these areas involves great expense,
and in general is only made possible by the support of the
town in which the School is situated. Special afternoons are
systematically set apart for games during five months of every
School year. These give opportunity for exercise for from two
to three hours, once a week. Great attention is paid to skating,
bathing, swimming and short excursions, the purpose of these
last being to harden the body. In order that the results of the
till then localised physical training might be seen for a short
time in combination, Count Alb in Csaky, Minister of Public Instruc-
tion in 1891, originated a scheme for bringing together as many
pupils as possible from all parts of the country in School Com-
petitions.
The success of this movement gave an impulse to physical
training and competitions in general, which culminated in the
brilliant display given by the assembled youth of the country
before spectators from all parts of the world upon the occasion
of the celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the settle-
ment of the tribes in Hungary. These competitions are specially
regulated and are divided into Central, District and Local
Matches. The Central and Provincial Sports are held once
every « Olympiad*, the local matches once every two years.
Of late the pursuit of sport has been placed under special
inspection and the Swedish method adopted.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 155
2. School Sanitary Arrangements.
The Act of 1876 as to Public Health makes provision
for Secondary Schools. All Departmental Orders since issued
attach great importance to tlie regulation and close control of
all matters relating to Health. Special Orders determine the
precautionary measures to be adopted in times of epidemics,
and lay down rules for the prevention of the spread of infect-
ious diseases. The subject of Trachoma is specially treated,
as is that of vaccination. Dr. August Trefort instituted School
Physicians in 1885. He issued special instructions in 1887 as
to the duties of teachers of Hygiene in the schools. This forms
an extra subject, instruction in which is now given for two
hours weekly to such students of the VII — VIII Standards as
present themselves.
V. Board and Support of Pupils.
1. Boarding houses.
The Day-School system prevails, in general, throughout
Hungary, such Boarding Establishments as do exist having no
uniform character, organisation, form of inspection, nor system
of maintenance. There are even Boai'ding-School supported
by Funds having no connection whatever with Secondary
Schools. There were founded as charitable institutions, the
boarders consisting, in the main, of orphans sent there to
follow their studies. There are, on the other hand, certain
Boarding-Establishments forming the complement of Secondary-
Schools, with whose supervision either the manager or a
teacher of the latter is entrusted. The fees chargeable depend
to a certain extent upon the financial position of the parents,
some part of the cost, perhaps half, being remitted, at discretion.
In other Establishments the fees range from 300 — 600 — 700, to
1200 crowns per annum, though in Classical Schools of the
Calvinist Denomination full board is offered for 200, 160 or
even only 120 crowns per annum. Other Secondary Schools,
especially those of the Denomination named, maintain Boarding-
Houses but lodge the pupils elsewhere. The number of pupils
so placed out of the house must not exceed six per cent.
156 CHAPTER IX.
2. Scholarships. Aid Societies.
Scholarships and Exhibitions are within the reach of good
but poor pupils. These vary in value from 1 00, 200, 300, 400
to 600 crowns annually. (£ 4, 8, 12 . 10, 16, 25.). About 12.000
of these exhibitions representing a total value of a million
crowns (£ 41.600) are awarded.
In addition to these there is, in connection with every
Secondary School, an Aid-Fund formed from the subscriptions
of pupils, and administered by the Aid-Society. This body
usually devotes its revenues to the provision of school-books
for the poorer students, and to the giving of Exhibitions and
School-fee grants.
3. Exemption from payment of School Fees.
Pupils of good parts but restricted means may within
the limits of a specified percentage of the pupils registered, be
exempted from the payment of School fees by the manager of
the particular Institution. Exemption may be complete or partial.
The annual sum payable in each School varies with local
circumstances, it being 72 crowns or £ 3 in the Capital, and
from 48 crowns to 60 crowns in the provinces : in some places
it is fixed as low as 36 crowns. In the School-year 1905—6
the number of pupils exempted from payment was 15.505,
of which total 9668 were completely and 5037 partially
exempt.
VI. General Observations.
1. Terms.
The School-year begins on the 1st Sept. Admission is
gained through the manager : no class may contain more than
60 pupils. The School-year is divided into two terms. At the
end of the first term an official report of the pupils' progress
and behaviour is issued to parents. In case of any marked
decline in the standard of either, admonitory sheets are sent
out as occasion may require. Instruction is given in the morn-
ings and afternoons, two half-day holidays, or Wednesday
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 157
and Saturday afternoons being granted. With tlie permission
of tlie Minister many Scliools have adopted the principle of
continuous teaching, that is from 8 a. m. till 1 p. m. thus
leaving the pupil free in the afternoons. This does not hold
good every day, however, as one or two afternoons are
devoted to instruction in extra subjects and sports.
2. System of Teaching.
The principle of specialisation prevails in general, it being
necessary to entrust teachers Vi^ith many subjects only in the
lower classes. Teachers visit each other's class-rooms with the
object of furthering the cause of harmony in procedure. At
the Conferences they discuss the subjects to be treated, decide
upon the reading-pieces and the material for written themes.
This is particularly necessary in the interests of the uniform
procedure of teachers engaged in parallel standards. The
functions of the Manager are to control the studies of the
pupils and to preserve proper discipline.
3. Moral Education.
It is the duty of the manager no less than that of every
member of teaching staff to see that the youths under charge
ai'e brought up in a moral spirit. The law classes tliis form
of knowledge amongst those subjects from wliich no exempt-
ion may be granted. The Code, — using the term in this specific
narrow sense — is devised by the principal authority of each
particular Church or Denomination. Two hours per week are
devoted to this subject, the pupils being bound to conform to
such practices as the competent authorities of the respective
denomination have declared to be compulsory.
4. Examinations.
At the end of the second term of the School-year public
examinations lasting from two to three days are held for each
class. These consist of questions bearing upon work done
during the year, the subjects of previous instruction being
suitably grouped for this purpose. Pupils, though they may
158 CHAPTER IX.
have made doubtful progress or have received bad marks
during term must, in any case, attend and answer the quest-
ions put.
Any pupils receiving unsatisfactory marks in one or at
most two subjects may, after the holidays, that is, at the
beginning of the new School year, present himself for re-ex-
amination in such subjects.
A pupil who has failed in several subjects must go through
the class-course again. At the end of the School year a printed
Report is issued by every Secondary School; this contains, in
addition to an essay or article upon some subject of interest
to pupil or parent, data bearing upon the work of the School
year, details of the subjects treated and Tables of Marks.
5. Discipline.
Pupils are under proper disciplinary authority. Methods
and means are details which fall within the duty and scope
of the staff of teachers generally. Punishment by means of a
cane, or indeed corporal punishment of any kind is forbidden.
The degrees of punishment are as follows :
1. Private hint from the teacher as to some particular
fault and suitable admonition.
2. Severe reprimand by the Manager.
3. Public reproof before the Class.
4. Summons before the manager who may exercise his
discretion as to suggesting to parents the advisability of remov-
ing the pupil privately from the School.
5. Summons before the assembly of Teachers, who warn
the pupil that expulsion must inevitably follow failure to amend
his behaviour.
6. Expulsion from a particular School or from Secondary
schools within the district.
7. In cases where moral corruption is unmistakeable and
the danger of infection serious, absolute exclusion from any
and every public School in the country.
A sentence of expulsion must be submitted to the Minister
of Public Instruction for ratification.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 159
VII. Employment of teachers in Secondary Schools
and their Salaries.
The teachers in Secondary Schools are such only as have
specially qualified for the work of these Schools. At first they
are employed as substitutes for the regular teachers, and
appointed from year to year as occasion requires. If these
substitutes prove efficient, within from one to three years they
are nominated ordinary teachers. Each substitute employed in
the capital received a salary of 2000 crowns per annum, but
if employed in the provinces 1600 crowns. Ordinary teachers
are divided as regards salaries into two classes, one being
placed in class IX with salaries ranging from 2600, 2900, to
3200 crowns per annum; the other being placed in class
VIII with salaries of 3600, 4000 to 4400 crowns per annum.
They are thus classified at the time of nomination. The increase
of salaries proceeds automatically within given periods, salaries
of the IX class advancing every four years, and those of the
VIII class every five years. Managers of Secondary Schools are
placed as regards payment of salaries as to half their number
in class VIII and as to the remainder in class VII. The salaries
in class VII range from 4800, 5400 to 6000 crowns. Only such
ordinary teachers as are entrusted with the functions of Directors
may receive the special complement to their salaries which
places them as regards payment upon the footing of Directors.
Teachers are nominated by the Minister of Public Instruction
but Directors by the King.
Teachers of Gymnastics are paid upon the scale as laid
down in class X; they receive during the first four years of
their service 2000 crowns per annum, during the succeeding
four years 2200 crowns, during the following eight years 2500
crowns, for the next four years 2600 crowns; after completing
twenty years of service the salary is 2800 crowns per annum.
The period of service of the teacher and Director ceases
in thirty years, after which each becomes entitled to pen-
sion commensurate with the amount of his full salary at
the time of retirement. Directors and ordinary teachers in
addition to their ordinary salaries become entitled to an incre-
ase of 200 crowns per annum every fifth year during their
160 CHAPTER IX.
period of service, as long-service grants : these increases reckon
towards pension. Directors are allowed from 500 to 1200 crowns
per annum for rent, and teachers from 400 to 1000 crowns
for the same purpose, but these sums are not taken into
account in computing the amount of pension allowances.
The above scales of payment are in force in the case of
the teaching staff of the State and Royal Catholic Secondary
Schools.
Should the authorities of denominational and district
Secondary Schools and of those Schools under the superin-
tendence of other legal corporations find themselves unable
from whatever cause to pay to their Directors, ordinary teachers
and teachers of Gymnastics according to the scale cited above
they become entitled to a grant from the State to such an extent
as will enable them to meet their requirements. The amount so
granted by the State under the title of Supplementary Salaries
amounts to 600.000 crowns, annually.
Vm. statistical data. School-year 1905/6.
A) Number of Secondary Schools.
The total number of Secondary Schools is 202, of which
170 are Classical and 32 Modern Schools.
Classification: State Classical Schools 38, Royal Catholic
Classical Schools 14, District 9, Schools of Catholic Monastic
Orders 39, Transylvanian Roman Catholic maintained by the
State 7, Greek Catholic 2, Foundation 1, Company 1, Private
3, Autonomous Denominational High Schools of all Sects 56.
These last are made up as follows: Reformed Church 27,
Evangelical 22, United Protestant 1, Greek Oriental 3, Uni-
tarian 3. The Modern Schools are, according to classification,
State 25, District 3, Jewish 1, Evangelical 1, Greek Oriental 1.
B) Number of pupils in Secondary Schools.
a) The number of pupils upon the School Registers at
the beginning of the year mentioned was 68.159; at the end
of the year 63.739.
EDtCATION IN HUNGARY 161
b) At the end of the year the division as to nationalities
was as follows: Hungarian 50.283, German 6254, Slovak 1809,
Roumanian 3909, Ruthenian 91, Croatian-Servian 1112, other
nationalities 281.
c) The classification upon a religious basis was at the
end of the year : Roman Catholic 27.499, Greek Catholic 2787,
Reformed Church 9129, Evangelical 6056, Greek Oriental 3299,
Unitarian 514, Jewish 14.455.
d) The classification of the parents according to social
position and occupation worked out as follows : Landowners
1534, Small landowners 7730, Cultivators 1210, Greater manu-
facturers 829, Small manufacturers 8944, Industrial employes
1193, Merchants 1178, Tradesmen 6627, Commercial employes
1000, Public officials 9987, Private officials 4418, Other intel-
lectual professions (Doctors, Lawyers, Pastors) 10.391, Soldiers
685. In personal service 3263, of Independent means 4845,
Pupils no longer minors 5.
C)
Teachers are, according to the customary classification:
Ordinary 2308, Ordinary teachers of Religion 134, Substitutes
372, Ordinary teachers of Gymnastics 131, Extraordinary tea-
chers of Religion 735, Extraordinary teachers of Gymnastics 31.
D) More important Receipts and Items of expenditure of
the Budget of Secondary Schools.
The value of School property is 88,787.151 crowns
(£ 3.700.000 about). For School fees 2,663.029 crpwns. Entrance
fees 717.552 crowns. The total receipts amount to 19,347.745
crowns. Expenses, personnel 10,972.197 crowns. Necessaries
5,918,383 crowns. Scholarships and aids 1,229.895. Total ex-
penses 19,347.745 crowns.
E) Equipment, apparatus etc. Collections and Libraries.
Natural History apparatus:
Zoological: diagrams 27.282
» Animals, and constituent parts of same 501.944
Botanical: diagrams 22.695
» dried collections 382.708
11
162 CHAPTER IX.
Mineralogical : specimens and wall pictures . . 29.444
Minerals 338.512
Various 44.961
Physics :
Wall diagrams 3.037
Apparatus 93.028
Chemistry :
Chemicals 37.528
Apparatus 52.145
Geography:
Maps 21.482
Globes 819
Other teaching apparatus 25.774
Numismatic Collection 320.264
Historical and antique (in the Museum) 65.782
Freehand drawing:
Specimens (cards) 175.833
Model drawings 29.237
Geometrical drawing:
Drawing copies 31.297
Models 10.035
Apparatus 10.613
Teachers' library 3,235.626 works
Pupils' library 136.201 >
Gymnastic apparatus:
Indoor 66.778
Outdoor 7.396
F) Buildings.
With respect to the School buildings, those now in use are
as far as their interior arrangement and furnishing is concerned,
such as to correspond to modern requirements. The latest
Secondary School now in course of construction in Budapest
is estimated to cost 750.000 crowns (£ 31.250), apart from the
cost of the site ; the total outlay will exceed one million crowns
(£ 41.666). The Catholic High School now being built in Temes-
var will cost 1,200.000 crowns (£ 50.000).
CHAPTER X.
Higher Education.
I. Historical preliminaries.
According to our historical data, at the close of the
XII century, during the reign of Bela III of Hungary, the
first Hungarian chigher school* (university college) was
organised at Veszprem. After the same had ceased to
exist, in 1367, King Louis the Great founded an university
at Pecs, which was closed in 1543* During the reign of
king Sigismund, probably in 1389, there was a shortlived
university at Obuda: while in 1467 an university was
founded at Pozsong by king Matthias, who established, besides,
an incomplete university, consisting of courses in theology and
philosophy, at Buda: but the latter, after a brief existence,
was closed. In the XVI century, in 1531, a Protestant college
was estabhsted at Sdrospatak; at Kolozsvdr^ in 1581, an instit-
ute with the status of an academy, and in 1588, at Debreczen,
a college belonging to the Reformed Church.
The most important moment in the history of higher
education in Hungary, however, was when, in the first half
of the XVII century, in 1635, Peter P4zm4ny, Archbishop of
Esztergom, ofiFered an endowment of 200.000 crowns for the
establishment of an university at Nagyszombat under the
direction of the Jesuits. This university, after the confirmation of
its charter and the conferring of privileges by King Ferdinand 11,
was actually opened in 1636. In 1657, at Kassa, a «Studium
11 •
104 CHAPl'ER X.
generale» was organised after Ihe model of the University of
Nagyszombat, this too being placed under the control of the
Jesuits: but it ceased to exist in 1773. Of the creations of the
XVII century we must not omit to mention, further, the
Protestant « higher school » founded by Gabriel Bethlen at Gyula-
feMrvdr in 1629 and transferred later on to Nagyenged, as
well as the Evangelical university college established at Eperjes
in 1667.
The Catholic university founded at Naggszombat was
« nationalised » during the XVIII century, was expanded and
transferred from its original home to Buda: it ranks today,
in the guise of the Rogal Hungarian University of Sciences
of Budapest, as the first and greatest university in the
country.
In addition to the same, a second university was organ-
ised, in 1872, at Kolozsudr: and these two universities are
at present the seats of scientific university education in this
country.
For instruction in technical sciences there is only one
university in Hungary, at Budapest. This is the Royal Joseph
University of Technical Sciences, which has arisen from a
fusion of the engineering school connected with the former
university of Buda and of the Joseph School of Industry.
Higher education in Hungary includes, further, the schools
of law (academies of law and lyceums of law, which differ
from the former only in name), as well as the seminaries^
which serve not only for the training of priests but also for
the development of theological scholarship, and the schools
of midwifery, the training of midwives being, to some extent,
a function of the medical faculties. Finally, we shall treat,
in this connection, of the Baron Joseph EotvOs College^ and
of the Observatorg of Oggalla.
EDUCATIOK IN HUNGARY 165
IL The Royal Hungarian University of Seiences of
Budapest.
1. Survey of its history.
By Letters Patent issued by Maria Teresa on July 17
1769 the university founded by the Archbishop Cardinal Peter
Pazmany at Nagyszombat and consisting then of faculties of tlieo-
logy and arts and added to in 1667 by the creation out of the
•endowments of the Archbishops of Esztergom, L6sy and Lippay,
of a faculty of law, was declared to be a croyal institute* and
receiving the addition of a medical faculty, developed into a com-
plete university. This latter was transferred, in 1777, from Nagy-
szombat to Buda: and on that occasion the Patent (Diploma
inaugurate) issued by the Queen on March 25 of that year
was published with its provisions for the confirmation of the
old privileges, rights and endowments, and for the increase of
the wealth of the said university. The legislation of 1848 did
not fail to consult the interests of the University : Act XIX of
that year deals with cthe Hungarian University*, placing the
same under the direct control of the Hungarian Minister of
Public Instruction and declaring full liberty of teacher and
pupil (liberal education).
2. Its organisation today.
The Budapest University consists of four faculties (viz ; —
theological — Roman Catholic — , law and political science,
medicine, and arts) which are composed of the teaching staff
and the «undergraduates». The teaching staff consists of
^public ordinarijT^ and «puhlic extraordinary y^ professors
appointed by the King on the proposal of the Minister
for Public Instruction, who in his turn acts on the suggestions
submitted by the respective faculty, further of lecturers (Privat-
docent) qualified, by consent of the respective faculty with
the approval of the Minister, to lecture in public on special
subjects or branches of studies, and, finally, of teachers
(Lector) engaged to give instruction in languages, shorthand
etc. At the Budapest University there are at present two
166 CHAPTBR X.
teachers for the English language: there is also a chair
(quite recently filled) for English Language (Philology) and
Literature. At the University of Kolozsvar there is also a
teacher of English. The teaching staff is assisted by assistants^
deputies^ and probationers elected for periods of three, two
or one year (always re-eligible) by the faculty in question,
such elections requiring the confirmation of the Minister.
Of the members of the teaching staffs of the various
faculties, the corpus professorum (professorial council) consists
of the ordinary professors, the extra-ordinary professors
(whose number must not however be in excess of one half
of that of the ordinary professors) and two delegates of the
lecturers. This body is responsible for the government of the
affairs of the faculty and is presided over by the Dean, who
is elected annually (for one year, though he is re-eligible)
at a full session of the faculty, from among the ordinary
professors.
The head of the University is the Rector Magnificus
(Vice- Chancellor) elected anually, from each faculty in rotation,
by four delegates (electores) of each faculty, who presides
over the Senate, the self-governing body controlling the exe-
cutive administration of the University which consists, besides
the Rector, of the Pro-Rector (the retiring Rector), the four
Deans of Faculties and the four Pro-Deans (those professors
in office as Deans the year before). The head of the central
executive office of the University is the secretary to the Senate :
while the Registrary (Quaestor) receives the fees payable to
the University.
3. The students. Regulations relating to studies, discipline
and fees : scholarships and other foundations.
The students are, at the present time, either ordinary
(those who are admitted as having matriculated at some
secondary school) or extraordinary (those who are not
admitted to the full privileges of membership of the Univer-
sity, and are not required to satisfy the authorities of any
thing except that they are over 16 and possess the necessary
attainments). Foreigners who can satisfy the authorities that
they have qualifications corresponding to matriculation in an
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 167
Hungarian secondary school, may be admitted as ordinary
students. In each several case the decision rests with the
respective faculty.
We must not forget to mention that by a Royal Decree
dated Nov. 18. 1895, his Majesty graciously permitted the
admission of women too as undergraduates of universities
and university colleges, to enable them to train themselves as
teachers, doctors and chemists, provided they comply with
the usual requirements. Permission is given in each several
case after a statement has been made by the university or
college in question : and diplomas are issued to them after a
succesful completion of the prescribed university career.
University students may choose lectures at will, but they who
intend to enter a profession involving certain special training
and desire for that reason to take special examinations or the
degree of doctor, are required to observe the courses of study
and take the examinations (spoken of below) established by the
respective faculty. For the completion of the courses of study pre-
scribed by the faculties of theology, law and political science and
arts 8 terms (4 years), for that prescribed by the faculty of medi-
cine 10 terms (5 years) attendance of lectures is required: not less
than 20 lectures must be attended weekly every term (half year).
(Law students serving as volunteers during their university
career may graduate in 7 terms : medical students are allowed
to count that term (half-year) in the middle of which they are
obliged to join the colours for special service). Those students
who have completed the course of university studies prescribed
by the courses of study of the respective faculty receive a
certificate (absolutorium) to that effect.
Ordinary students, when they enter their names on the
rolls of the University, pay an admission fee (valid for all
time) of 4 crowns 20 filler (3/6), 6 crowns (5/ — ) library fee
and, every term, a contribution of 1 crown (10 d.) in aid of
the students' hospital and the Mensa Academica (for the sup-
port of indigent students, supply of cheap food etc.) The fees
are, half yearly, in the case of ordinary students and those
engaged in the study of chemical sciences, 75 crowns {g 3 .2 ,&):
while extraordinary students pay 20, 30 or 75 crowns
respectively, according to the number of courses attended
and the weekly number of lectures of the same. — The
168 CHAPTER X.
money paid in admission fees is employed by the various
faculties for various purposes: while 5^/© of the lecture fees
is distributed (in proportion to the number of lectures given
and the students attending the same) among unsalaried extra-
ordinary professors, lecturers (Privatdocent) and teachers.
(Lector).
The students are subject to the common laws and public
authorities as far as actions involving a breach of the pubUc
peace are concerned ; whereas in respect of their behaviour
at the University and in aU matters concerned with the Uni-
versity they are subject to the University statutes and bye
laws and to the University authorities. If any student be brought
to trial by an authority outside the university for a breach
of public law, notice of the same and of the verdict must be
given to the Senate, which takes all necessary steps against
the culprit to preserve the dignity of the University and to
punish any breach of the statutes of the same.
There are many scholarships and exhibitions for uni-
versity students: the endowments are managed, partly by the
University, partly by the State. The scholarships are awarded
from the interest of the endowments, in accordance with the
provisions contained in the letter of endowment. The Budget
of the Ministry too contains items for the granting of schol-
arships by competitive examination, and of travelling scholar-
ships. Besides the endowments for the purposes of scholar-
ships, other endowments and monies are managed by the
University authorities, the objects of which are the granting
of pecuniary aid, prizes for scientific essays etc. The amount
of the monies thus manipulated by the University was, ia
1907, 1,204,354 crowns {g 50,181.10.0).
4. Academical year.
The Academical year is divided into two halves (semest-
ers). The first semester lasts from Sept. 1. to Jan. 6, the
second semester from Jan. 7. to June 25.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 169
5. Cotirses of study and examinations in the theological
(Roman Catholic) faculty.
In the four courses held b}^ the theological faculty the
following ordinary subjects are taught:
In the first course (year), general theology. Old Testament,
Hebrew ;
In the second course, dogmatics, New Testament;
In the third course, ethics and ecclesiastical history;
In the fourth course, canon law and the theory of the
care of souls. Besides these subjects the students attached to
the faculty are expected to attend the lectures on oriental
philology as extraordinary subject). They are expected to pass
an examination at the end of each several half-year (term):
otherwise the term does not count.
The degree of doctor in theology (Doctor S. S. Theologiae)
can be obtained only by the passing of four special examin-
ations and the writing of a special treatise. The subjects of
the first examination are the Holy Scriptures, of the second,
general theology and dogmatics, of the third, ethics and the
theory of the care of souls, of the fourth, canon law and
ecclesiastical history. The order of examinations may be determ-
ined by the candidate himself: but the first examination
can only be taken after the lapse of five terms, in subjects,
lectures on which have already been attended. The subject
of the treatise is set by the Dean of the Faculty. All lectures
in this faculty are delivered in Latin, the official language of
the theological faculty only.
Connected with the facuhy is the Central Seminary
(theological college), whose pupils are the students of the
faculty.
6. Courses of study in thefactdty of law and political science.
Students of the faculty of law and political science are
expected to pass two intermediate examinations, one at the
end of the second term, in Roman law and Hungarian con-
stitutional and legal history with special reference to the legal
development of the States of Western Europe, the other at
the end of the fourth term, in Hungarian political law, national
economy and the science of finance. The examination boards
consist, in each case, of three members of the faculty (ordin-
170 CHAPTER X.
ary or extraordinary professors, or lecturers). In order to
complete the prescribed course of study^ the students are re-
quired, in addition to passing the above intermediate exam-
inations, to attend all the courses of lectures included among
the subjects of such examinations and of all state examinations
and examinations required for obtaining the degree of doctor
as well as courses in history (two terms) and philosophy
(one term).
When the course of study in law has been completed a
theoretical state examination may be passed ; this is of two
kinds, in legal science and in political science. The former
qualifies for a legal, the latter for an administrative career
(civil service).
I. Subjects for the state examination in legal science.
a) Hungarian civil law in connection with Austrian law
in so far as the latter is of practical significance on Hungar-
ian territory) and with special reference to the canon law
principles relating to marriage;
b) criminal law and procedure ;
c) commercial law and laws of exchange ;
dl civil law procedure ;
e) Hungarian administrative law.
II. Subjects for the state examination in political science.
a) Constitutional and governmental politics ;
b) Hungarian administrative law, with regard to proced-
ure out of court (exclusive of procedure relating to land
registry) that part of criminal law relating to minor offences
and the procedure concerned with the same;
c) the principles of Hungarian economical science, with
the main institutions of the same including evasions of the
law referring to excise duties.
d) canon law as the constitutional and administrative
aw of churches;
e) of the statistics of the Hungarian state those parts relat-
ing to population^ culture and political economy, with refer-
ence to Austria too.
The state examination is presided over by a board of
five which shall include, besides the professors engaged in
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 171
teaching the special subjects, men actually engaged in public
service who, on the recommendation of the faculty, are request
ed by the Minister to assist in the work of examination.
7. Examination for degree of doctor of laws and political
science. Doctor of canon law.
All students who have completed the course of studies
prescribed by the faculty of law and political science may take
not only the theoretical State examination, but may obtain
also the degree of doctor of laws which is a conditio sine
qua non of qualification as an advocate and qualifies for every
legal and administrative branch of public service, as well as
the degree of doctor of political science, which qualifies for
every branch of the administration.
1. To obtain the degree of doctor of laws (Doctor juris
universi) three examinations have to be passed and a thesis
written.
Subjets of the first examination (Rigorosum):
a) Roman law (with the Pandects),
b) Canon law,
c) Philosophy of law (with historical part and internat-
ional law).
Subjects of the second examination :
a) Hungarian common law,
6) Administrative laws and laws dealing with finance,
c) Politics,
d) Hungarian criminal law and Procedure.
Subjects of the third examination :
a) Hungarian civil law,
b) Austrian civil law,
c) Procedure of Hungarian civil law,
d) Commercial law and law of exchange.
2. To obtain the degree of doctor of political science (Doc-
tor politicae sive Doctor scientiarum politicarum) two examin-
ations (Rigorosum) have to be passed and a thesis written.
Subjects of the first examination :
a) Philosophy of law (with historical part and internat-
ional law),
b) Canon law,
172 CHAPTER X.
c) Hungarian common law,
d) Politics.
Subjects of the second examination :
a) National economy and science of finance,
b) Statistics of the Hungarian and the Austrian States
(with regard to the other chief States of Europe too),
c) Hungarian administrative law (inclusive of law concern-
ing excise administration, procedure out of court, that part of
criminal law, with the procedure of the same, relating to minor
offences, and exclusive of procedure relative to land registry).
Candidates for these examinations must have passed a
full course of study in law and political science (half at least
of the same at an Hungarian institute of law) and must pro-
duce a certificate (absolutorium) testifying to the same. In the
cases of both degrees the examinations may be taken in any
order. The examinations can be taken at an university only.
The Board of Examiners consists of the Dean or Pro-dean
of the Faculty, who presides, and of four professors chosen
from the members of the faculty.
After successfully passing the examinations, the candidates
ave required to write a thesis (dissertatio inauguralis) on a
subject chosen from among the special subjects of the ex-
aminations or appointed by the Board of Examiners. When
the same has been approved, the candidate in question is pre-
ferred to the degree of doctor and receives his diploma.
Doctors of laws may receive the diploma of doctor of
political science, doctors of political science that of doctor of
laws, by taking an examination (complementary) in the extra
subjects and by handing in a thesis.
3. The Faculty of Law confers a third degree of doctor
— in conjunction with the theological faculty, — that viz : of
doctor of canon law (Docftgr juris canonici). To this degree
only persons of higher ecclesiastical rank in the Roman
Catholic church (clerici maiorum ordinum) are admitted, pro-
vided they have matriculated and have attended courses in
Roman and canon law (the latter either in the faculty of law
or in the theological faculty). The subjects of the examination
are Roman law and canon law, together with the history of
the latter. After passing the examination candidates are requir-
ed to write a thesis on some subject of canon law.
EDUCATION IX HUXGAKY 173
8. Seminars of faculty of law and political science.
There have been seminars connected with the faculty of
law since 1885, their object being to promote the exegetic
reading of sources, in the case of theoretical subjects, in that
of positive law to give practical training. There are .5 seminars
at work in this faculty, for Roman law, criminal law, national
economy and statistics, politics and, finally, for philosophy
of law and comparative legal science.
9i Courses of study and examinations in the
medical faculty.
The medical faculty. In Hungary, to obtain the diploma
of doctor of medicine and the right of practising as a medical
practitioner, certain specified medical studies must be engaged
in for ten university terms (^= 5 years), of which period at least
half must be spent at an Hungarian university — the examin-
ations detailed below must be successfully passed at an Hun-
garian university and, after admission to the degree of doctor
of medicine, a year must be spent in « walking the hospitals*
(an obligation, the fulfilment of which must be duly attested),
such hospitals to be some public hospital entitled to give the
training, any hospital endowed with the character of a public
institution, any hospital belonging to the common Austro-
Hungarian Army or to the Hungarian National Defence (Hon-
ved) Army. Diplomas of doctor of medicine acquired at other
than Hungarian universities (with the exception of affiliated
universities) have to be adopted and approved according to
special regulations relating thereto, before their holders can
become entitled to practise in Hungary. The examinations can
be passed during the course of the academical year only.
According to regulations brought into force in the academ-
ical year 1900—1901 candidates for the degree of doctor of
medicine must pass three examinations, the first of which must
be taken during the course of study, the other two after the
completion of the same.
Subjects of first examination :
Natural history (oral).
Chemistry (oral).
174 CHAPTER X.
Physiology (oral and practical),
Anatomy (oral and practical).
Subjects of second examination :
Morbid anatomy (oral and practical).
General pathology and therapeutics (oral),
Pharmacology (oral),
Hygienics (oral),
Medical jurisprudence (oral).
Subjects of third examination :
Treatment of internal diseases (oral and clinical),
Surgery (oral and clinical), and operating surgery
(practical),
Ophthalmology and obstetrics (cUnical): and obstetric
surgery (practical). Clinical examination in some special branch
of medical science (psychiatry, treatment of children's disorders,
skin diseases or syphilis).
All these examinations must be passed before the special
boards of examiners working in the Hungarian universities.
Each board is presided over by the Dean of the medical
faculty (in case he be prevented from attendance, by the
Pro-dean, or by one of the presidents of boards elected at
the annual meeting of the faculty held for the purpose of
the election of officers, such election being subject to the
approval of the Minister). For the proper conduct of the
examinations the government commissioners appointed by
the Minister of Public Instruction in conjunction with the Home
Secretary are responsible. The ordinary examiners are the
professors of the respective special subjects included in
the several examinations. The examinations are public. Not
more than four candidates may, as a rule, be examined at
the same time. After successfully passing the examinations
the candidates are inaugurated to the degree of doctor of
medicine (Doctor medicinae universae). The diploma, however,
as well as the certificate qualifying for medical practice are
not issued until after the completion of the obligatory one
year's hospital course. The principle of reciprocity in force
between Hungary and Austria with regard to the validity of
diplomas of doctor of medicine ceased at the close of 1898,
it being expressly declared that after Jan. 1. 1899 medical
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 175
practice in Hungary or Austria could not be carried on except
by virtue of a diploma acquired or approved and adopted in
the respective State.
Foreign diplomas qualifying for the practice of some
special branch of medical sience cannot be adopted or appro-
ved, such not being issued at all by Hungarian universities.
10. Courses in pharmacology: training of school-doctors:
the Pasteur Institute.
Besides courses of lectures for medical students, the
medical faculty offers other courses too. In the closest connexion
with the faculty is the training of chemists and the course
for schooldoctors. Until the close of the academical year
1897/98 mid wives were trained in connexion with the medical
faculty (this is still the case at the University of Kolozsvar).
aj With regard to the training of chemists there are
two separate regulations in force. One deals with the training
of chemists' probationers, the other with the training of
chemists* apprentices (dispensers);
According to the provisions of the regulations relating
fo probationers, any one may be admitted as probationer
in a pharmacy who has successfully passed six classes of a
clas^cal school (gymnasium), modern school (real school) or
city-school. The time of probation is three years, except in the
case of those who have matriculated, who must serve two years
only. After the completion of the period of probation, candida-
tes must pass the probationers' examination (tirocinium) before
a board of examiners consisting of university professors and
chemists. The examination is both oral and practical Successful
candidates receive a probationer's certificate and may be
appointed assistants in any pharmacy. The period to be
served as assistant consists of two years: it may be done either
before or after the university course.
According to the regulations dealing with the training
chemists' apprentices (dispensers), the two years' university
course in chemistry is open to those only who have succeeded
in passing the probationers' examination.
At the end of the first half year of study a preliminary
examination must be passed in natural history, at the end
of the second half year a second preliminary examination
176 CHAPTER X.
must be passed in chemistry and botany, before a board of
examiners consisting of professors of the faculty of arts (at
Kolozsvar of the faculty of mathematics and natural sciences)
presided over by the Dean of the respective faculty. At the
end of the two years' course, before a board of examiners
consisting of professors of the faculty of medicine (presided
over by the Dean of the said faculty), and in the presence
of the representative of the Government, a practical examin-
ation (rigorosum) must, be passed in analytical and pharm-
aceutical chemistry as well as a theoretical exancination
in general and pharmaceutical chemistry, pharmacologj^
and pharmaceutical technology. Successful candidates receive
the diploma of master of chemistry. Those masters of chemistry
who have been, on the strength of certificates of matriculation,
ordinary students of the University, can receive diplomas of
doctor in pharmacy, by engaging for a further period of
one year in laboratory work at the University in chemistry,
pharmacology and hygiene and by writing a thesis on some
subject connected with either of the said branches of science.
Their thesis being accepted, they are inaugurated as doctors
in pharmacy (Doctor pharmaciae). For the purpose of
completing the practical training of chemists* apprentices and
providing for the needs of the University hospitals there is a
private dispensary in connection with the faculty of medicine
of the Budapest university.
b) The course of study for the training of school doctors
and teachers of public health in secondary schools (the object
of which is to spread the knowledge of hygienics from the
point of view both of public health and general culture) was
instituted for medical practitioners in the faculty of medicine
in the academical year 1885—86. The course lasts for SVg
months and those attending it, at the end of the same, are
qualified by examination to teach pubhc health in secondary
schools and to undertake the work of school-doctors.
c) Mention must be made too of the Pasteur Institute
and Hospital, though established, not for purposes of education,
but for scientific and therapeutical reasons. It was founded in
1889. Until 1905 this institute was under the direction of
the Professor of General Pathology and Therapeutics. At
present it is independent of the faculty of medicine, and is
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 177
carrying out most beneficial work in preparing anti-rabies
serum and inoculating against hydrophobia, under the manage-
ment of a director, aided by two hospital doctors and the
requisite staff of assistants. In 1907, to cover its expenses the
sum of 97,072 crowns was voted.
11. The Faculty of Arts.
When the University was founded, the Faculty of Arts
was really the complement of secondary education and served
as a preparatory course for studies in the faculty of theology
and the two other faculties (those of law and medicine)
established later on: but it was materially different to the
classes of philosophy attached to the secondary schools in
that it provided courses of lectures (which could be chosen
at will) for students desiring higher scientific qualifications,
attaining thereby the level of an University.
The faculty of arts was not exempted from its position
as a preparatory school for the sister faculties until 1850,
when the preparatory courses were included in th^ scheme of
work of secondary schools.
12. Teachers' Training Syndicate.
Tlie training of teachers for secondary schools did not
begin until 1862, when the first Teachers' Training Syndic-
ate was established, for granting certificates of qualifications
for teaching in secondary schools to students who had com-
pleted the course of studies of the faculty of arts.
According to the regulations refering to the examintions of
teachers dating from 1882, there are three grades of examinations;
a) Preliminary examination, to which candidates may
proceed after two years' study of the University: they are
required to show a knowledge of Hungarian philology and
literature (whatever their special branch) and are examined
orally and by set papers,
b) Special examination, to which candidates may proceed
after a further two years' study (i. e. four years in all) ; it con-
sists of three parts viz : — a thesis (written at home) on a sub-
ject connected with the candidate's special subject; an oral
examination, and set papers;
12
178 CHAPTER X.
c) examination in the theory of education, generally taken
after a year's practical experience in teaching at a secondary
school (i. e. at the dose of the fifth year).
In accordance with the new regulations the difference
between main and subsidiary subjects has been dropped.
The training of teachers for commercial schools is also
carried out by the said syndicate.
In the academical year 1906 — 07, 379 preliminary examin-
ations, 261 special examinations and 196 examinations in the
theory of education were held, and 185 diplomas qualifying
for teaching in secondary schools were issued.
13. Royal Hungarian Teachers* Training College.
In 1870 a teachers' training college was organised in
connection with the faculty of arts of the Budapest University.
The said college provides that the candidates
a) should attend a systematic course of studies in every
branch within the scope of the university lectures;
b) should take part in the practical courses provided by
the tutors under the control of the college authorities, to con-
solidate their previous knowledge and duly elaborate the
material of the University lectures;
c) should learn thoroughly some modern language in
the interests of their special training.
For the purposes of the training of teachers special lec-
tures and practical courses are held in accordance with the
programme established for the use of candidates. The affairs
of the College are managed by a Council consisting of a pre-
sident, a director and seven other members. There are 18
scholarships inj all at the disposal of candidates, of the value
of 1000 crowns each, in the gift of the Minister of Public
Instruction. The expenses of the college are covered by the
Treasui^: for 1908 the estimate (including 18.000 crowns for
scholarships) amounts to 62,100 crowns (£ 2590).
14. Courses of study in the Factilty of Arts. Examinations
for degree of Doctor in Philosophy. Seminars.
The course of studies in the Faculty of Arts covers a
period of four years. In connection with this faculty students
can acquire not only diplomas qualifying them to act as teach-
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 170
ers in secondary schools, but also the degree of Doctor in
Philosophy (Doctor philosopUae), which merely implies a
certain standard of scholarly attainments but does not imply
any special qualifications.
Candidates for this degree must prove that they have
attended courses of lectures at some faculty of arts (either
at an Hungarian or foreign University) during a period of four
gears. In exceptional cases candidates who hare not completed
the prescribed course of university studies but can prove
that they have acquired the necessary special knowledge by
constant application to the studies in question or by independ-
ent research and consequent literary activity are allowed to
take this examination, which consists of an oral examination
in three subjects (one main and two subsidiarg subjects) con-
tained in the scheme of studies of the faculty of arts. One of
the subsidiary subjects must be such as is necessary for the
scientific study of the main subject, thus forming an indispens-
able complement to the same. Before being admitted to the
oral examination, candidates are required to write an inde-
pendent thesis on some question connected with the main sub-
ject. The Board of Examiners consists of at least two, but
not more than four professors acting under the presidency of
the Dean of the faculty.
Since 1885 the Faculty of Arts has contained seminars
which are partly for the purpose of the training of teachers,
partly for the object of initiating students into the methods
of research. The Faculty can boast of 3 seminars, those of
classics, modern philology, history, geography, and mathe-
matics.
15. Inauguration of doctors. Promotions (inaugurations)
«Sub auspiciis regiis». Honorary degrees.
Inaugurations of doctors (of whatever faculty) take place
amid quaint ceremonies that have been retained from old times,
in the presence of the Rector and the four Deans of faculties.
Far more pompous is the ceremony of «promotio (inaug-
uration) sub auspiciis regiis», an institution revived in 1893,
established with a view to rewarding the merits of students who
have distinguished themselves and of encouraging the efforts
of the undergraduates as a whole. Students whose career both
12 •
ItSO CHAPTER X.
at school and at the University has always been distingui-
shed (always securing the maximum of marks) — annually two
are chosen, as far as possible from the various faculties in rota-
ion — are permitted by His Majesty the King to be inaugurated
at «doctors under Royal auspices* in the presence of His
ofiQcial representative, who, in his capacity as such, presents
the students thus distinguished with a valuable ring, the gift
of the King.
One form of doctor's degree is the honorary one (Doctor
honoris causa). This degree may be granted by any one of
the faculties, by consent of the King through the mediation
of the Minister of Public Instruction, to persons who have
distinguished themselves in the field of science and scholarship.
16. Situation ot the University. Economic arrangements.
Income. Statistics.
The lecture rooms of the faculties of theology and law
and political science are situated in the so-called «central
university building* which was not long ago rebuilt. Certain
sections of the faculty of arts too are to [be found here,
while the rest is situated in the former building of the Lower
House (Chamber of Deputies). Buildings involving an expen-
diture of 7^/2 million crowns (£ 312.500) are in course of con-
struction for the faculty of medicine, in addition to those
already at the disposal of the said faculty. Measures have been
taken for the creation of a new botanical garden too.
In consequence of the development of the University,
its economic administration has also had to be developed.
In place of the former University Steward there is a director,
a steward, a controller, an accountant, a deputy-steward, a
bailiff, an engineer and a large staff of assistants, who all
constitute the economic department of the University; while
a bui'sar, a manager and two clerks are responsible for the
administrative business of the University hospitals.
For the ordinary expenses of the University a sum of
2,296.663 crowns was voted in the Budget of 1907 ; of this
1,819.503 crowns were for salaries etc. 477.070 crowns to
cover administrative and other expenses. Further sums of
100.000 crowns for transitional expenses, and 200.000 crowns
KDUCATION IN HUNGARY 181
for supplies, furnishing etc. were voted by Parliament in the
Budget of 1907. To this must be added the sum of 896,755
crowns granted for the expenses of the University hospitals.
In the second half (semester) of the academical year
1906 — 07 the teaching staff consisted of the following members :
90 ordinary, 42 extraordinary professors, 3 deputy-professors,
151 lecturers (Privatdocent), 11 substitutes, 3 readers, 96
teachers (lector), 9 assistants and 66 probationers, total 471.
In the same term the number of students was as follows:
in the faculty of theology 78 ordinary and 9 extraordinary,
in the faculty of law and political science 3091 ordinary and
152 extraordinary, in the faculty of medicine 1258 ordinary
and 33 extraordinary medical students as well as 103 students
of chemistry, finally in the faculty of arts 1203 ordinary, 84
extraordinary students, and 150 students of chemistry, in all
5630 ordinary and 531 extraordinary students.
578 doctor's diplomas were issued, in the faculty of
theology 6, in that of law and political science 349, in that
of medicine 149, and in that of arts 74.
17. Students' clubs.
There are several prosperous clubs in the University.
Besides the « University Circles which receives a grant from
the State (the nearest equivalent of the Oxford and Cambridge
Unions), there are charity organisations managed by the stud-
ents of the faculties of law, medicine, and arts, the students
of chemistry having one of their own. Recently students' clubs
have been formed for the cultivation of sport, music (singing),
and shorthand. Besides there is the Mensa Academica which
provides cheap food and free dinners for poorer students,
and the Hospital Fund.
18. The University Library.
In organic connexion with the University stands the Uni-
versity Library, the foundations of which were also laid by
Archbishop Pazmany. A new buQding was erected in 1876,
in which, besides other premises, there are two reading-rooms,
one holding 30, the other 110. At the close of 1907 the library
contained 264.886 printed volumes, 43.540 smaller printed
works (308.426) and 2049 volumes of MSS.
182 CHAPTER X.
III. The Royal Hungarian (Francis Joseph)
University of Kolozsvar.
1. Its foundation.
The University of Kolozsvar was founded by Act XIX of
1872, which entitled the said University to incorporate the
already existing Academy of Law and the Institute of Sur-
gery established for the training of masters in surgery
(lower grade surgeons who ceased to exist in 1874). By the
provisions of this Act an University of Sciences, consisting
of four faculties {those of law and political science, of medi-
cine, of philosophy and linguistics (arts), and of mathematics
and natural sciences), was established at Kolozsvdr^ on the
principle of liberal education. In contrast to the University of
Budapest, that of Kolozsvar was not provided with a theolog-
ical faculty, whereas the customary faculty of arts was divid-
ed into two parts, concerned with instruction in humanities
and sciences respectively. Since 1881, by the gracious per-
mission of His Majesty, the University of Kolozsvar has borne
the title of «Francis Joseph University of Sciences > : and
during the academical year 1897 — 98 the University received
the Royal Letters of Endowment presented by the King.
2. Teachers' Training College.
By virtue of § 3 of the Act just mentioned, a teachers'
training college (for secondary schools) was attached to the
faculties of philosophy, linguistics and history and of mathe-
matics and natural sciences. The College had 126 members in
the first semester and 116 members in the second semester
of the academical year 1906 — 07. The expenses of the College
are borne by the Treasury; the Budget for 1908 contains
an item of 22,160 crowns for this purpose. At the head of
the college is a Director, who is assisted by 25 professors:
20 of. the candidates receive scholarships.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 183
3. Teachers' Training Syndicate.
When in 1873 the first professors were appomted to teach
in the Training College, a Teachers' Training Syndicate (for
the qualification of teachers for secondary schools) was ap-
pointed from among the representatives of the various bran-
ches of learning, on the basis of the regulations described in
treating of the Budapest Teachers' Training Syndicate (v. supra).
In the academical year 1906 — 07 the Syndicate admitted
85 candidates to the preliminary examination, 84 to the spe-
cial examination, and 96 to the examination in the theory of
education. Teachers' diplomas were issued to 83 successful
candidates, of whom 2 were women.
4. Organisation of the University today.
The University of Kolozsvar began work in the acade-
mical year 1872 — 73. The means of instruction were provided
for by the transferring by contract to the University, as usu-
fructuary, of the library, archaeological and natural history
collections and the garden of the Transylvanian Museum, and
by the employment for clinical purposes of certain depart-
ments of the National CaroUne Hospital.
The Act providing for the foundation declared that, as
far as the University of Kolozsvar was concerned, the statutes
and regulations in force in the University of Budapest should
be valid at Kolozsvar too. The Act defined further that the
various faculties (in internal affairs) were corporations indep-
endent of one another and endowed with equal rights, under
the presidency of the respective Deans, and subject to the
authority of the Senate presided over by a Rector (elected as
at Budapest), to whose sphere belonged the discussion and
settlement of all the corporative and administrative affairs
of the University as well as any affairs of the faculties
of common interest.
The statutes relating to discipline, studies and examin-
ations as well as the regulations of the various faculties refer-
ring to examinations and degrees are identical with those
in force in the University of Budapest (u, supra), with this
difference, that what there refers to the faculty of arts, applies
in the case of Kolozsvar, to the faculties of philosophy, linguis-
184 CHAPTER X.
tics and history, and of mathematics and natural sciences
respectively.
There are courses for students of chemistry and school
doctors too, as at Budapest.
The «promotio sub auspiciis regiis» is in force at the
University of Kolozsvdr too, with one difference, viz: — only
one candidate can be presented every year.
5. Its situation.
When first founded, the University was confined to the
buildings of a lyceum and a governor's palace, which were
by no means suited to the purpose. The most necessary build-
ings were begun in the eighties of the last century: the first
to be completed was the Chemical Institute, which was soon
followed by buildings devoted to the purposes of the faculty
of medicine (anatomy, physiology and public health). At the
beginning of the nineties the former main building was demo-
lished and in its place a new main building complying with
all modern requirements was erected. In 1895 the ancient
Caroline Hospital of Kolozsvar (without losing its character
as a « national institution) was transferred from the control
of the Home Office (the department of government controlling
all public hospitals) to that of the Ministry for Public Instruc-
tion: and before long a sum of 2,800.000 crowns was voted
for the erection of a Caroline National Hospital in connection
with the University of KolozsvSr. In the new buildings of the
hospital devoted to the treatment of the public at large and
to clinical purposes, besides the necessary administrative sec-
tions, departments were established for the treatment of inter-
nal diseases, surgery, gynaecology, and obstetrics, ophthalm-
ology, skin diseases and syphilis, fitted with all the requirements
of modern medical science and hygiene. Not far from the
main hospital building was erected a psychiatrical clinic, near
which is situated a pavilion-like building for the use of those
suffering from diseases of the lungs.
6. Balance-sheet. Statistics.
The expenses of the University of Kolozsvar are borne
entirely by the Treasur5\ The Budget for 1907 contained the
following items: 1,148.739 crowns for ordinary expenses, of
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 185
which sum 832.371 crowns were for salaries and remunerations^
316.368 for up-keep of buildings etc. A further sum of 44.000
crowns was voted for transitional expenses, 400.000 crowns
for furnishing and supplies. To these sums must be added the
954.491 crowns voted by Parliament as a gi'anl to the Caroline
National Hospital which includes the University clinics.
The capital sum represented by the endowments managed
by the University amounted, at the close of the academical
year 1906—07, to 215.780 crowns 66 filler.
At the close of the second semester of the academical
year 1906 — 07 the teaching staflF comprised 47 ordinary, 4
ordinary and 4 titular extraordinary professors, 30 lectur-
ers (Privaldocent), 6 teachers (lector), 1 reader, 7 adjuncts, 36
professor's assistants, 2 operating probationers, 32 paid proba-
tioners, 3 archelogists, 12 unpaid probationers and demons-
trators, altogether 184. At the same period the number
of students was 2131, of whom 1990 were «ordinary» students
(1428 in the faculty of law and political science, 202 in the
faculty of medicine, 258 in the faculty of philosophy linguistics
and history, and 102 in the faculty of mathematics and natural
sciences), 59 were « extraordinary*, and 82 chemists apprentices^
In the academical year 1906 — <?7, 796 successful candidates
were inaugurated to the degree of doctor, of whom 546
received the degree of doctor of laws, 211 that of doctor of
political science, 20 that of doctor of medicine, 16 that of
doctor of philosophy, and 2 that of doctor of mathematics and
natural sciences. Finally, one candidate was inaugurated as
doctor of chemistry.
There are several students' clubs in the University of
Kolozsvar. Besides the Charity Organisation ^nd Debating
Club, the most important is the University Students' Mensa
Acadepaica, the income of which, last year, was 42.763 crowns
3 filler and the expenditure 39,992 crowns 92 filler. There
is further an « University Circle* (Union) which receives a
grant from the State.
7. The University Library.
A new building is being erected, at a cost of 1,500.000
crowns, for the housing of the University Library. Besides
the director, there is one librarian, one curator and one pro-
186 CHAPTER X.
fessor attached to the library. At present, together with the
library of the Transylvanian National Museum (v, supra),
there are 277.029 volumes in all, of which 148.946 belong to
the said Museum and 128,053 to the University Library proper.
IV. The Royal (Joseph) University of Technical
Sciences.
1. Its history.
Systematic technical instruction in Hungary dates from
the close of the XVIII century, when, in 1782, in connection
with the University of Buda, an Institute of Engineering was
organised, in which, during a three years' course, instruction
was given in practical geometry^ mechanics, hydrodynamics
and drawing; later on agricultural science too was represented
in the said Institute. As the Institute was unable to satisfy the
growing demand for technical instruction, in 1846 an Industrial
College called after the Count Palatine Joseph was founded.
In 1850 the above-named Institute of Engineering was incor-
porated in the Joseph Industrial College and was transformed
into an institute of technical sciences. In the temporary organ-
isation of this institute, which was transferred from Buda to
Pest in 1854, a change was made, it being raised to the rank
of a Polytechnical School consisting originally of two prepa-
ratory departments conditionally organised and each including
one year's course, and a class of general technical science.
In this Technical class the course of study for engineers was
ordinarily to be completed within the space of four years.
In 1871 the Polytechnical School was placed on the footing of an
University, and became an autonomous University of Technical
Sciences containing four special departments, those viz: — of
engineering, architecture, mechanical engineering, engineering
and chemical science, and one general department. It was
thus raised to the level of the Technical High Schools (Hoch-
schule) in existence abroad. The Statutes providing for the
re-organisation of this Technical university were modified by
a Royal Decree dated June 12. 1882. The most important
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 187
modification was that iu each special department, the period
required for the completion of the prescribed course of study
was reduced from 5 years to four, while the general department
was exempted from the duty of preparing students for parti-
cipation in the work of the various special departments. These
statutes have since then been modified on more than one
occasion, last of all in 1898.
These statutes together with the regulations referring to
admission of students, courses of studies, fees, and discipline
etc., in their present form, contain the following main provisions:
2. Its present organisation.
The object of the University of Technical Sciences^ which
is under the direct control of the Minister of Public Instruction
is, by giving systematic instruction, to train technical experts
in a scientific manner, and to provide opportunities for the
training of teachers of mathematics and technical sciences.
The University of Technical sciences is divided into five
departments, viz : — 1) architecture, 2) mechanical engineering,
3) engineering, 4) chemical science (these are all special
departments), 5) general department (the latter is for those
intending to become teachers or who desire to study separate
branches of science only). At the head of each special depart-
ment is a Dean, chosen by the professorial bodies from among
the ordinary professors. The work of each several body of
professors is to espouse the interests of their special department,
for which reason they submit suggestions and resolutions to
the approval of the Senate; to give opinions in special questions
requiring expert knowledge; and finally they have charge of
the discipline of the students.
The government of this University is in the hands of
the Senate, which consists of all ordinary and extraordinary
professors, and of 2 or three representatives of the lecturers
(Privatdocent), and is presided over by the Rector who is
elected by the Senate from among the ordinary professors.
This Senate is supplemented by the Rectorial Council consisting
of the Rector, Pro-Rector and the Deans, which is responsible
for the administration of the University and acts in the name
of the Senate.
188 CHAPTER X.
The office work of the University is carried on by the
Secretary, Bursar, Registrary, Controller, 3 clerks and 1
assistant clerk.
3. The teaching staff.
The teaching staff of the University of Technical Sciences
consists of the ordinary and extraordinary professors, who
are appointed by His Majesty, to whom the Minister of
Public Instruction submits the proposals of the Senate, and are
obliged to give 6 lectures weekly in addition to practical courses;
of the lecturers (Privatdocent) appointed by the Minister at the
suggestion of the Senate to lecture on certain branches of
some technical science; of adjuncts and professor's assistants
similarly appointed ; of teachers (I.ector) and experts invited
to give special instruction.
4. The students. Courses of study. Fees.
The students of the University of Technical Sciences are
either <^ordinary* or ^ extraordinary >. The «ordinary» students
are members of one or other special department: the «extra-
ordinary» students cannot be admitted to any of the special
departments and are allowed to attend lectures on particular
subjects only. For admission as ordinary students, certificates
of matriculation at some secondary school must be produced ;
while for admission as extraordinary students nothing more
is required than proof of having completed their 18th year,
good conduct and the requisite amount of culture. Ordinary
students are not limited at all in their choice of lectures: yet,
if they wish to secure a diploma, they are obliged to attend
all lectures included in the syllabus of the respective depart-
ment, and cannot attend anyof the courses of lectures unless
they can prove that they have in due order been to the
lectures and completed the practical courses prescribed as
indispensable preliminaries to all further studies. For the guid-
ance of students the various special departments prepare
schemes of lectures to be attended, which is discussed by the
Senate and submitted to the approval of the Minister. They are
then distributed among the students. Ordinary students are
required to attend at least 10 (hours of) lectures weekly : two
practical hours are taken as equivalent to one theoretical lecture.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY
Ordinarj' students pay an admission fee of 10 crowns, further
lecture fees of 75 crowns per semester, and 2 crowns to the
public charity fund ; extraordinary students pay a fee of 2
crowns 60 filler per semester per lecture (hour) as well as
2 crowns each half-year to the public charity fund.
Students working in labm*atory pay an extra labonvtory
fee of from 20 to 40 crowns per semester.
To control the progress made by ordinary students,
intermediate examinations (Colloquium) are held from time to
time, which must be taken by all students who require certif-
icates witnessing to their progress, to be issued at the end of
the half-year.
The regulations referring to the discipline of the students,
and the division of the academical years are practically identical
with those described in treating of the University of Budapest.
5. Examinations. Diplomas. « Doctor rerum technicarum».
Nostrification.
To certify the scientific qualifications acquired at the
University of Technical Sciences examinations are held, after
the successful passing of which candidates receive diplomas.
There are two examinations (Rigorosum) in each special
department. To the first examination are admitted all ordinary
students who have spent at least four half-years in the Uni-
versity, have attended the courses of lectures prescribed by
the syllabus of the respective special department for the
first and second years, and have at least «satisfied» the requi-
rements of the professors at the intermediate examinations
(Colloquium).
To the second examination (Rigorosum) are admitted all
ordinary students who can testify that, after passing the first
examination, they spent a further period of four half-years at
the University of Technical Sciences, have attended the course
of lectures prescribed by the syllabus of the respective spe-
cial department for the third and fourth years, and have at
least «satisflied» the professors at the intermediate examin-
ations (Colloquium).
Subjects of the first examination (Rigorosum) :
a) in the department of architecture, mathematics, mech-
anics (statics), descriptive geometry ;
190 CHAPTER X.
b) in the department of mechanical engineering, math-
ematics (analysis, geometry), mechanics, geodesy;
c) in the department of engineering ^ mathematics (an-
alysis, geometry), mechanics, geodesy;
d) in the department of chemical science, general chem-
istry, physics (experimental, technical, and chemical), mineralogy.
Subjects of the second examination (Rigorosum) :
a) in the department of architecture, applied mechanics,
history of architecture, architectonics, drawing of plans ;
b) in the department of mechanical engineering, water
engines, caloric (heat) engines, mechanical technology;
c) in the department of engineering, architectonics, bridge-
building, roadmaking and railway construction, hydrotechnics ;
d) in the department of chemical science, organic chem-
istry, chemical technology, eduction of preparations.
The examinations are in writing (drawing) and oral.
The former always precede the latter. The board of examiners
consists of Dean of the respective department (who presides),
ordinary or extraordinary professors engaged in teaching the
special subjects in question, and the delegate of the Minister
of Public Instruction (an outsider). The fees for the first exam-
ination amount to 40 crowns, for the second, in the depart-
ments of architecture and engineering 60, in those of mechan-
ical engineering and chemical science 50 crowns respectively*
Degree fees amount to 36 crowns.
By a Royal Decree dated March 22. 1901, His Majesty
graciously permitted that the degree of Doctor of Technical
Sciences should be conferred by the Budapest University of
Technical Sciences. By the provisions of decree No. 31649
(ex 1901) issued by the Minister of Public Instruction and
treating of the means of acquiring the title of Doctor of Tech-
nical Sciences the conferring of which was permitted by the
Royal Decree mentioned above, those graduates of the Buda-
pest University of Technical Sciences who have completed
the course of studies prescribed by either of the four special
departments and have acquired the diploma as above, may,
after passing a stiff examination, be inaugurated as Doctors
of Technical Sciences (doctor rerum technicarum). This degree,
however, does not imply any special privileges in technical
practice, but merely points to higher scientific quaUflcationsv
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 191
Besides this degree, the Senate of this University may
award the honorary degree of doctor to men who have dis-
tinguished themselves in some branch of technical science.
The first step towards the conferring of such honorary degrees
is a proposal made by one or other of the special depart-
ments, which proposal is submitted by the Minister of Public
Instruction to the approval of his Majesty. Jubilee diplo-
mas, too, may be issued to men who have borne the title of
doctor of technical sciences for fifty years and enyoy public
esteem.
Hungarian students who have studied at foreign Tech-^
nical High Schools (Hochschule) cannot receive diplomas
from the Budapest University of Technical Sciences unless they
have spent at le st 4 of the prescribed 8 half-years at the
said University and pass both examinations (Rigorosum) in
the same.
Diplomas acquired by native Hungarians at foreign Tech-
nical High Schools can be adopted and approved (nostrificatio) by
the Budapest University of Technical Sciences, if the students
in question prove that they matriculated at some secondary
school and that the extent and success of their studies ful-
fils the requirements prescribed by the respective special
department of the said University.
Degrees of Doctor of Technical Sciences acquired abroad
cannot be oflficially recognised in Hungary, unless the diplomas
are adopted and approved by the Budapest University of
Technical Sciences.
6. Its situation.
By Act XVII of 1902, a sum of 10 million crowns was
voted for the purpose of the erection of new modern buil-
dings for the housing of the University of Technical Sci-
ences. The work of building is almost complete. Five pavi-
lion-like buildings are being constructed, 1) Main building
and library, 2) chemical institute, 3) institute of physics.
4) institute of electro-technics, 5) engineering laboratories, engine-
ering workshops and boiler-house. Lectures are already being
held in the institutes of chemistry and physics: the other
buildings will be handed over in 1909.
192 CHAPTER X.
7. The Library.
The University of Technical sciences possesses a valuable
library, which, at the close of the academical year 1906 — 07,
contained 60.911 volumes, 1583 smaller publications and 710
periodicals.
8. Balance-sheet Statistics.
In the Budget for 1907 a sum of 977.089 crowns was
appropriated for the ordinary expenditure of the University
of Technical Sciences (740.189 crowns for salaries and remu-
nerations, 236.900 crowns for other expenses). For transitional
expenses 198.500 crowns, for furnishing, supplies etc. 1,400.000
crowns were voted for 1907.
During the academical year 1906 — 07 the teaching staff
of this University consisted of 33 ordinary, 1 extraordinary,
6 titular extraordinary professors, 24 lecturers (Privatdocent),
9 specially invited experts, 26 adjuncts, 37 professor's assistants,
6 teachers and 1 fencing-master.
In the second semester of the same academical year the
number of students was 1253, of whom 1234 were ordinary,
19 extraordinary students.
The ordinary students were distributed among the
various special departments as follows:
1) in the department of engineering, there were 382,
2) in that of mechanical engineering. . . . 587,
3) in that of architecture 96,
4) in that of chemical science 180, and
5) in the general department there were 8 ordinary
students.
251 diplomas were issued, of which 106 fall to the
department of engineering, 121 to that of mechanical engin-
eering, 13 to that of architecture, and 11 to that of chemical
science.
In the University of Technical Sciences there are also
students' clubs, a charity organisation, a sport club and a
singing club, which together receive an annual grant of
5000 crowns.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 193
V. Colleges of Law.
There are at present ten colleges of law in Hungary.
They are the following:
1) The State College (Academy) of Law at Kassay which
was established as a Royal institute in 1777, and, until 1894,
was maintained out of the Catholic Educational Endowment
Fund. Since the latter date however, its expenses have been
borne by the Treasury. (The said Catholic Educational En-
dowment Fund was started in 1782 out of the total personal
and real estate of the Jesuit order ~ with the expection of
the property of the convent of Nagyszombat, which was
given to the University. The Fund was increased in 1784 and
1791 by additions from the property of other orders).
2) The Royal College {Academy) of Laiv at Pozsony, which
was also founded at Nagyszombat in 1777, and transferred in
1784 to Pozsony. It is maintained entirely out of the Catholic
Educational Endowment Fund.
3) The Royal College (Academy) of Law at Nagyvarad the
foundations of which were also laid by Maria Teresa witli a two
years* course in philosophy. It did not begin work as a school of
law until 1788, during the reign of Joseph II. Its expenses are
borne by the Catholic Educational Endowment Fund.
4) The Archiepiscopal College (Lyceum) of Law at Egei\
founded in 1740 by George Foglar, coadjutor of Eger. The
patron of the institute is the Archbishop of Eger who, together
with the Chapter, provides the greater part of the money
required for its maintenance:
5) The Episcopal College (Lyceum) of Law at Pecs,
founded by Baron Ignatius Szepessy, Bishop of Pecs. This
institute was opened in 1833: its expenses are paid out of
the following endowments: — that of Baron Szepessy, that of
the Diocese of Pecs, and that of Samuel Hetyey, Bishop of Pecs:
6) The Protestant College (Academy) of Law at Kecskemet.
The Reformed Church had a ,.High School" (Hochschuie-
University College) as far back as the XVII century, but in-
struction in legal science w^as not given until 1831. The Academy
of Law, as such, was not actually organised unlil 1862: its
expenses are borne in part by the municipality.
13
194 CHAPTER X.
7) The Protestant College (Academy) of Law at Sdros-
patak. The School founded by the Perenyi family was, in
tlie middle of the XVI century, raised to the status of an
university college (Hochschule), ajttd the teaching of legal
science was begun a hundred years later. Special chairs for
Law were not set up, however until the XVIII century. The
Academy received the character of a public institute in 1864.
8) The Protestant College (Academy) of Law at Debreczen.
A Reformed High School (Hochschule) was established in
Debreczen at the time of the Reformation. The teaching of
legal science was soon begun, — at first only in connection
with philosophical science. Special chairs for law were not set
up until the opening of last century. It was in the middle of
last century that the Academy of Law^ was developed.
9) The Protestant College (Academy) of Law at Mdra-
marossziget The teaching of legal subjects as an independent
branch of science in the Reformed University College founded
at Maramarossziget in the middle of the XVI century, was
not begun until 1836. The Academy was not organised in-
dependently until 1869.
10) The College (Academy) of Law of the Evangelical
Church at Eperjes. The teaching of legal subjects as an in-
dependent branch of science in the College of the Evangelical
Church founded at Eperjes in 1531, was similarly not begun
until the opening of last century. The Academy was organised
in the middle of the same century.
The teaching staffs of the ten collges of law, in the
second semester of the academical year 1905 — 06, included
altogether 72 ordinary, 13 extraordinary and one deputy
professor, 19 lecturers (Privatdocent) and 9 readers and
teachers: the aggregate number of students was 1594.
VI. Theological Colleges (Clergy Training Schools).
1. Their history.
These Colleges — which are under the direct control of
the ecclesiastical authorities and in which the training of
clergymen is carried out practically without any interference
on the part of the State — may be classified as follows, accord-
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 195
ing to denominations : — Roman and Greek Catholic Seminaries
{Theological Colleges), Greek Oriental Seminaries, Theological
Colleges belonging to the Reformed Church, Theological Colle-
ges of the Evangelical Church, an Unitarian Seminary, and
a Jewish Theological College (for training of Rabbis).
1) Roman and Greek Catholic Theological Colleges
{Seminaries).
The training of Catholic priests in Hungary can be traced
back as far as the period of the foundation of the Hungarian
Christian Church, i. e. to the time of the king Saint Stephen
(997 — 1038), for in the monasteries erected by Saint Stephen
the instruction of those desirous of taking holy orders was
carried out by Benedictine monks, who were assisted by the
monasteries of the other orders and, at the seals of bishops,
by the schools of the chapters. When the universities were
founded, candidates for holy orders preferred to frequent
the latter, though the schools of the chapters were also kept up.
In 1563 the Council of Trent ordered the establishment
of theological colleges in every diocese and determined the
main points of the organisation of the same. In Hungary, too,
seminaries were founded, but not in any numbers until the
XVIII century.
2. Existing theological Colleges of the Roman and
Greek Catholic Churches.
Today almost every diocese in Hungary has a seminary
of its own.
Those belonging to the Roman Catholic Church are the
following : the archiepiscopal colleges at Esztergom, Kalocsa
and JEger, and the episcopal colleges belonging to the dioceses
of Besztercebdnga, Csandd (situated at Temesvar), Gyor,
Kassa, Transylvania (at Gyulafehervar), Nagyvdrad, Nyitra,
Pecs, Rozsnyo, Szatmdr, Szepes (at Szepeshely), Szekesfehervdr,
Szombathely, Vdcz, and Veszprem. Besides these there are theo-
logical colleges (partly engaged in the training of teachers) under
the control of various orders of monks belonging to the
Roman Catholic Church: these are the following, — the Bene-
dictine College at Pannonhalma (with a Teachers' Training,
College attached), that of the Cistercian Order at Budapest,
13*
196 CHAPTER X.
those of the Piarists at Budapest and Kolozsvdr, and that of
the Premonstratensians (White Canons) at Budapest There
are others belonging to the Grey Friars at Szeged and
Kecskemet, to the Franciscan Order of the Virgin Mary at
Pozsony, to the Franciscan Order (called after St. John of
Capistran) at Baja, to the Franciscan Order (called after St.
Stephen) at Vajdahunyad and Malaczka, and to the Capuchins
at Pozsony.
The theological colleges belonging to the Greek Catholic
Church are the following : — those at Eperjes and Ungvdr
(the latter in the diocese of Munkacs), and the Roumanian
colleges at Baldzsfalua and Szamosajvdr.
Finally there is the Central Seminary (Clergy Training
School) at Budapest, which is at the disposal of candidates
for holy orders belonging to either (Roman or Greek) Catholic
Church. This is attached to the theological faculty of the
Budapest University, in so far as the students of the same are
supplied by this School.
We must not omit to mention that at YiennUy in connection
with the University, there is a Seminary (Pazmaneum) founded
by Archbishop Pazmany for the use of Hungarian theological
students. There is, finally, at Vienna, a higher Training College
for Clergy (the College of St. Augustin) founded by Francis
I. in 1830 for distinguished Austrian and Hungarian clergy
who have already completed their university course and are
reading for the degree of doctor of theology. There are 7
scholarships in this institute for Hungarians.
3. Their organisation; courses of study.
In all these Clergy Training Schools the course of study
comprises four years. But, whereas at Esztergom and Eger
the four courses are separated, in the other schools two courses
(two years) are combined, so that the subjects are taken in
rotation.
The language of instruction, generally speaking, is Latin.
Examinations are held every half-year. The majority of the
schools are maintained out of ecclesiastical funds^ some of
them are kept up, or at least subventioned, out of the Catholic
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 197
Religious Fund * managed by the State. The colleges under
the control of the monks are maiiltained out of the estates
of the respective Orders.
In the theological colleges belonging to the Roman and
Greek Catholic Churches, in the second semester of the aca-
demical year 1905 — 06, the teaching staff comprised 125 ordi-
nary, 31 extraordinary, and 10 deputy professors, and 10 teach-
ers and readers. The number of pupils was 1111.
4. Theological Colleges belonging to the Greek
Oriental Church.
By nationality, the members of the Greek Oriental
Church in Hungary may be divided into Servians and Rou-
manians: a) In 1794, a Clergy School y^as opened at Karlocza^
for the training of Servian clergy belonging to the Greek
Oriental Church. The course of study extends over 4 years;
b) In 1811 the first theological college for the training of
Roumanian clergy belonging to the Greek Oriental Church
was opened at Nagyszeben. The course of study extends, at
the present time, over a period of three years.
Other theological colleges for the training of Roumanian
clergy belonging to the Greek Oriental Church exist at Arad
(founded in 1814) and at Kardnsebes (founded in 1865). The course
of studies is practically identical with that in force at the
College of Nagyszeben, and extends over a period of three years.
In the academical year 1905 — 06, the teaching staff enga-
ged in the Roumanian schools belonging to the Greek Oriental
Church comprised 3 directors, 9 ordinary, 6 extraordinary and
3 deputy professors, and 3 assistants. The number of pupils
(students) was 208.
The expenses of the Clergy Training Schools belonging
to the Greek Oriental Church are borne entirely by that Church.
• This Fund was established in 1651, by Ferdinand III who orde-
red a sum of 12.000 crowus to be appropriated to the subsidising of
parish priests. It was later increased by the property of Orders which
were dissolved. The Fund is managed by the Minister of Public Instruc-
tion, under the control of a board of 18 containing spiritual and tem-
poral members (clergy and laity).
198 " CHAPTER X.
5. Theological Colleges of the Reformed Church.
The history of the training of clergy in the Reformed Church
in Hungary dates back to the period when the doctrines of the
Reformers were being spread in the country. Clergy Training
schools belonging to the Reformed Church were founded in
1550 at Sdrospatak, in 1588 at Debreczen, later on at Fapa^
then, in the times of Gabriel Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania^
(and on his initiative), in 1629 at Gyulafeh4rudr (transferred
later on to Nagyenyed), in 1855 at Pest (the Budapest of
to-dayX and, finally, in 1895 at Kolozsvdr, The latter institute
is in connection with the University of Kolozsvar, in so far
as the Minister of Public Instruction has permitted the ordi-
nary students of the School to be admitted as ordinary stu-
dents in the faculty of philosophy, linguistics and history, they
being required to attend 10 lectures only a week instead of
the obligatory 20, and to enjoy all the privileges and rights
of ordinary students, — with the exception that they cannot
compete for scholarships.
By the provisions of the regulations appointed at the
General Convention of 1886, there are examinations (Collo-
quium) every half year, while at the end of the second year
the students are required to pass an examination (oral and
set papers) in the literary history, of the Old and New Testa-
ments, in general Church history, and in the philosophy of
religion. After the completion of the four years' course of
study, candidates are admitted to the first theoretical quali-
fying examination^ and after the lapse of one year more, to
the second practical qualifying examination. Previous to each
of these examinations a thesis must be presented. The boards
of examiners include, besides the professors, a committee of
five members elected by the General Assembly of the various
dioceses. After the second quahfying examination, successful
candidates receive diplomas.
In the academical year 1905 — 6, the teaching staff of the
five schools (Budapest, Sarospatak, Papa, Debreczen, Kolozsvar)
comprised 5 directors, 26 ordinary, 3 extraordinary, and
1 deputy professor, and 10 teachers. The number of students
was 509.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 199
6. Theological Colleges of the Evangelical Church.
In the theological colleges belonging to the Evangelical
Church special courses in theology were not given until the XVIII
century. Three years courses in theology were established in
Eperjes in 1854, in Pozsong in 1856, and in Sopron in 1861.
The course of studies was modified by the General Assembly
in 1869, which passed a resolution that every theological stu-
dent should, after the completion of his three years' course
at an Hungarian college, spend a further year in study at
some foreign university, and should not otherwise be admit-
ted to the final qualifying examination. The said General
Assembly resolved, further, that an entirely independent theo-
logical college of a higher status should be founded. After
tedious negotiations and discussions, it was finally established
in Pozsong, where, in 1882, it was opened with six ordinar}^
professors and a course of study extending over a period of
four years. The statutes provide that students shall pass the
preliminarg examination at the end of two years, and the
special examination at the end of the fourth year.
The organisation of the colleges at Eperjes and Sopron
has been adapted, as far as possible, to that of Pozsony;
though the course of study at Sopron extends over a period
of three years only.
The Evangelical Church of Transylvania, which is not
connected with the other dioceses, has a Clergy Training School
at Naggszeben^ which was founded in 1820 and has a seminar
for instruction in the theory of education attached.
In the academical year 1905—6, the teaching staff of
these 4 theological colleges comprised 4 directors, 21 ordinary
professors and 10 teachers. The number of students was 219.
7. Unitarian seminary.
The Hungarian Unitarian Church was formed in 1566.
At the same time an University College was organised at Kolozs-
var, principally with the object of training clergy. This work
was done by the college for more than three hundred years:
but an independent Clergy Training School was not established
at Kolozsvar until 1847. The course of study at first extended
200 CHAPTER X.
over a period of two years; but in 1860 it was made into a four
years' course. The students of the seminary are admitted to the
University of Kolozsvar as ordinary students under the same
exceptional conditions as those granted to the members of the
theological college belonging to the Reformed Church {v. supra).
In the academical year 1905—06, the teaching staff
comprised a director, 5 ordinary, and 1 extraordinary professor,
and 2 teachers. The number of students was 34.
All the theological colleges (Clergy Training Schools)
belonging to the three Protestant denominations are main-
tained by the respective denominations.
8. Jewish Theological College (for training of Rabbis).
The theological training of the Jewish confession in Hungary
was for a long time confined to the instruction in the Talmud
and ritual decisions, by Rabbis, of those who were candidates
for holy orders In the middle of last century the Rabbinical
school at Pozsony acquired the character of a public institute :
but the first national Rabbi Training School was established
at Budapest in 1877.
This school consist of two courses (upper and lower)^
each ranging over a period of five years. The lower grade
(secondary) course corresponds to the four upper classes of
the classical schools (gymasium), and was extended by a fifth
year in order that pupils might obtain a more thorough
knowledge of Jewish learning: after the completion of the
same, pupils receive a certificate of matriculation which
confers the same privileges as those acquired in State schools.
In the higher grade (upper) course all theological subjects
(together with their complementary branches of learning) are
taught: the students attend the University as well, with a
view to acquiring general knowledge.
Students who have completed the upper course, provided
they show an adequate oratorical talent and a knowledge of
ritual duties, and have attended lectures at the University on
the theory of education and hygiene, are admitted to the
qualifying examination. At this examination candidates are
examined both orally and by set papers.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 201
Recently opportunity has been offered in the National
Rabbi Training School for the practical acquirement by
would-be teachers of religion of the special knowledge required.
In the academical year 1905 — 6, the teaching staff of the
institute comprised 3 ordinary and 2 extraordinary professors.
The number of pupils was 16.
The only influence exercised by the State on the affairs
of the Rabbi Training School is the control by the Minister
of Public Instruction of the so-called National Jewish School
Fund* devoted to the maintenance of the institute, and the
appointment of the professors of the School by the said
Minister, who is represented at the matriculation examinations
of the institute by a special delegate.
VII. Schools of Midwifery.
1. Historical Survey.
The training of midwives in Hungary, until the close of
the XVIII century, was extremely deficient. Systematic training
in midwifery dates only from 1770, when obstetrics began to
be taught in a special course (both for doctors and candidates
for the diploma in midwifery) at the University of Nagyszombat
(later transferred to Buda). In 1775 a theoretical course in
midwifery was organised at Kolozsvar in the Institute of Sur-
gery : but the instruction did not become practical (even then
only in part) until the erection of the lying-in hospital in 1851.
This course in midwifery was transferred in 1872, when the
Institute of Surgery was abolished, to the newly-established Uni-
versity of Sciences, where the Professor of Obstetrics was entrus-
ted with the holding of a course of instruction every year. The
first independent school of midwifery was founded at Nagy-
szeben in 1809: but as the institute was not able to accommodate
midwives, the training was very deficient. Schools of midwifery
exclusively engaged in the training of expert midwives were
* This Fund was formed of the sums paid, in accordance with
a Royal Decree of 1850, by the Jews of Hungary in place of the war
contribution levied on them in 1849.
202 CHAPTER X.
established al Nagyvdrad and Fozsong in 1873. In 1882, the
training of midwives in the University of Budapest was made
independent of the training of doctors, and the Professor ot
the newly-founded second chair for obstetrics was required
to provide for the instruction of midwives. Schools of
midwifery were established at Szeged in 1884, at Ungudr in
1890 (to be quite exact, finally in 1894), at Debreczen in 1896,
at Szombathelg in 1897, at Budapest in 1898 (in consequence
of the discontinuing of the course for midwives at the University)
at Pecs and Szekszdrd in 1902, and at Kassa in 1906.
2. Present system of training. Statistics.
The organisation of these 11 (or, if we include the school of
midwifery attached to the University of Kolozsvar, 12) schools
of midwifery is provided for by the regulations issued in 1873,
by virtue of which the said schools are national institutes for
the training of midwives and for the nursing of poor enceinte
women and of those lying-in, the said institutes being under
the control of the Minister of Public Instruction and under the
management of the various directors (Professors), aided by
assistants and by active midwives. The language of instruction
is Hungarian, except in districts inhabited by non-Magyar
nationalities, where it is Slovak, German, or Roumanian
respectively.
Every academical year is divided into two courses, each
of five months' duration: the winter course lasls from Sept. 1.
till the end of January, the summer course from Feb. 1. till
the end of July.
Candidates for admission must be not younger than 20^
and not older than 40 : they must be able to read and write,
and must be of unimpeachable character.
The instruction is theoretical and practical. All the
requisites of the practical instruction are supplied by the hos-
pitals attached, in which women expecting confinement and
lying-in are treated and cured free of charge. In the inter-
ests of practical instruction, some of the schools have an
obstetrical polyclinic attached : poor women expecting confine-
ment who do not desire to be admitted to the hospitals are
treated at their own homes. Besides the lying-in department,
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 203
some of the schools have a department for female disorders,
to which paying patients are admitted as well as poor non-
paying patients.
At the conclusion of each course qualifying examinations
are held, in the presence of professional men delegated by
the Minister.
The fees for examinations and diplomas amount, in the
case of university courses, to 72 crowns (half of which may
be remitted in the case of poor pupils), in the case of school
of midwifery 40 crowns, from the payment of which poor
candidates may be excused altogether.
In the academical year 1905 — 06, the teaching staffs of
the schools of midwifery comprised 41 members ; the number
of pupils was 732, of whom 710 received diplomas.
The Budget for 1907 contained an item of 298.292 crowns
for the ordinary expenses of the 11 schools of midwifery (i. e.
exclusive of that attached to the University of Kolozsvar), of
which sum 110.592 crowns were for salaries, remunerations
etc., and 187.700 crowns for other ordinary expenditure. Further
sums of 65.000 crowns for transitional expenses, and of 120.000
crowns for furnishing and supplies were voted for 1907.
VIII.
Baron Joseph Eotvos College.
By a Royal Decree dated Ischl, Aug. 18, 1895, His Majesty
permitted the foundation, at Budapest, of a College for students
intending to enter the teaching profession, to be named after
Baron Joseph Eotvos, the famous statesman and writer who
died in 1871. The object of the College is to give deserving
students of the Budapest Universities who intend to enter the
leaching profession an opportunity of holding social intercourse
with their fellows and of acquiring the necessary theoretical and
practical knowledge to qualify them for their work. The Col-
lege is directly subordinate to the Minister of Public Instruction.
At the head of the institute is the Curator^ who, as the special
delegate of the Minister, exercises full control in every respect.
The Director has charge of the discipline and studies of the
204 CHAPTER X.
members, and of the economic arrangements. For the expert
guidance of the students residing in the College, four tutors
(chosen by the Curator from among teachers in the service
of the State) are delegated by the Minister (for periods of
three years in rotation) to do duty in the institute, and, for
the period of this special work, are generally exempted from
all other official duties. It is the duty of these tutors to be pres-
ent in the College during the hours devoted to private study,
to give individual or combined instruction to the candidates,
and, as occasion arises, to hold special courses of lectures.
The members (pupils) of the College are the following :
a) holders of State scholarships (entitling to absolute or
half exemption from the payment of fees),
b) holders of scholarships from other bodies which main-
tain schools, and, finally,
c) paying boarders who present themselves voluntarily
for admission.
No-one is permitted to board for more than four years
in the College. The hours of study are from 5 to 7 p. m.
The Budget of 1907 contained items of 110.980 crowns
for ordinary expenditure, and 200.000 crowns for furnishing
and supplies. The College is at present situated in hired pre-
mises, but as the State has purchased a suitable site, and plans
have already been prepared, the College will before long be
housed in buildings belonging to the State.
IX,
The Observatory at Ogyalla.
(Endowment of Nicolas Konkoly-Thege.)
Since the removal, in the days of absolute rule, of tlie
Budapest University Observatory from the top of the Gellert
Mount in Buda, Hungary has not had a State observatory. As
this circumstance had a paralysing effect on the scientific
cultivation and teaching of astronomy in Hungary, both the
astronomical experts and the University authorities have for
long been contemplating the erection of a National Observatory.
This plan has, however, not yet been realised.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 205
Yet, in order that the students of the Universities should
not be deprived, in the event of the non-realisation of the
plan, of the possibility of extending the scope of their studies
by the acquirement of astronomical knowledge, the Hungarian
Minister of Public Instruction, in 1899, made a contract with
Dr. Nicolas Konkoly-Thege, the Director of the National
Meteorological Institute, by which he accepted the offer made
by the said Director. This offer was to the effect that the said
Director transferred to the possession of the Hungarian slate
the whole furniture and equipments of the private observatory
of 6gyalla, which constituted his own personal property and,
according to the inventory, represented a value of 119.708
crowns, on the following conditions: — 1) the Minister of
Public Instruction should guarantee, by an entry in the books
of the Land Registry Office, that the said observatory should
be used as a National Observatory for a period of one hundred
years ; 2) the said Minister should declare himself ready to
contribute the sum (for payment of salaries and other expenses)
requisite to the maintenance in working order of the said
observatory. The only other condition stipulated for by Mr.
Konkoly-Thege was that he should, as long as he lived, be
allowed to perform the duties of superintendent-in-chief, his
services to be given gratis.
The observatory has been working for nine years already
on the basis of the above contract, both for the purpose of
astronomical observations and with a view to providing
practical training in astronomy for the students of the Univer-
sities of Budapest and Kolozsv&r.
A sum of 34.280 crowns was voted in the Budget for
1907 to cover the aggregate expenses of the observatory.
The staff of the observatory includes,
1 observer,
2 adjuncts,
1 assistant, and
2 servants.
206 CHAPTER X.
X.
The Royal Hungarian College of Mining and Forestry.
1. Foundation and development of the College.
In the year 1763 Queen Maria Theresa founded the Mining
Academy of Upper Hungary in an ancient mining town,
Selmeczbanya. It was the first College of Mining with the status
of an University in Europe. The College of Forestry was
founded in 1808, and united in 1846 to the Mining Academy
under the title of the Academy of Mining and Forestry. In
the year 1904 the institute adopted the name of College of
Mining and Forestry.
The Academy from the very beginning up to 1867 was
a College for the whole extent of the Austro- Hungarian
Monarchy, making use of the German language generally,
and was under the chief jurisdiction of the Vienna Court
Chamberlain. Not until 1867 did it pass over to the authority
of the Hungarian Government, and became a purely Hungarian
College, in which the Hungarian language is exclusively used.
2. Object, Inspection and Management.
The task of the College is to qualify Surveyors of Mines,
Surveyors of Smelting-Works and Surveyors of Forests, by
systematic education on a scientific basis.
The Minister of Finance, together with the Minister of
Agriculture, exercises supervision over the College. From the
point of view of chief management the College is under the
supreme authority of the Minister of Finance ; but the tuition
and personal affairs of the Forestry branch are looked after
by the Minister of Agriculture.
For the purpose of maintaining discipline, organisation
and other matters the Minister has a Commission issued, con-
sisting of experts delegated from the staff^s of the two Ministries,
with the object of discussion and giving opinions; the Chairmen
of which Commission are appointed annually by the two
Ministers alternately.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 207
By right of autonomy the Senate of the College and the
Rector, elected from within the same, manage the affairs of
the College. The Members of the Senate are all the ordinary and
extraordinary Professors; special regulations for organisation
and management establish its scope of action. In addition,
departmental Heads (Deans) are elected annually by the
Senate from the ranks of the ordinary Professors to preside
over each section.
3. Departments and courses of study.
There are four departments in the College:
A) The Mining Branch:
1. The Mining-Surveyors' Section,
2. The Smelting-Surveyors' Section,
3. The Iron-foundry-Surveyors' Section,
B) The Forestry Branch:
4. The Forest-Surveyors' Section.
The period of instruction extends over four years in
each several section. Young men preparing for service as
Mining officers, after acquiring the legal erudition required
by law, are obliged to pass through the whole Mining-Surveyors'
Section.
The College arranges the subject matter and course of
study in the several sections, and separates them according
to departments, as shown in the above synopsis.
4. Chairs and professors.
The regular professorial chairs are 20 in number, eight of
them for mining and metallurgy only, six for Forestry only, and
six combined. There is a corresponding number of professors.
The position of professor, ordinary or extraordinary,
is filled up by competition or invitation. The King appoints
ordinary professors on the suggestion of the senate of the
college, which is sumitted to his Majesty by the competent
Minister; the said Minister appoints extraordinary professors,
and entrusts the teaching of such subjects as have no chair
to professional men (docents) who possess the proper educational
qualification.
208 CHAPTER X.
To cooperate with the Professors of Drawing, Laboratory
work, and other subjects requiring practical instruction, adjuncts,
and assistants respectively are appointed.
5. Teaching and Examinations.
In the College, as in the most part of the technical schools
where compulsory education is in force, public and obligatory
examinations, and «colloquia» respectively are held every half-
year Those students who fail to satisfy the examiners in some
compulsory subject of instruction at half-yearly intervals, are
admitted twice to supplementary examinations; in case of non-
success in the latter they are obliged to attend lectures on the
subject in question over again; and if afterwards they again
fail to pass the examination they are discharged from the
College.
In order to prove their acquisition of scientific erudition
in the College and to obtain a diploma in Mining-Survey, or
Smelting-Survey, or Forestry, if they have been in active
service for 2 years at least after the conclusion of their studies,
in the systematic work belonging to the scope of the depart-
ment selected, students are admitted to a State examination.
The State examinations are held twice a year; the members
of the examining Board are selected partly from the profes-
sorial staff of the college, partly from the professional men
in active service chosen and appointed for a period of 6 years
by the competent Minister.
6. Tuition. Fees and Scholarships.
Students in the College pay neither Tuition Fees nor Exam-
inalion Fees, and enjoy the use of the laboratory, free of charge.
There are at the disposal of the College authorities
thirty mining and thirty Forestry State Scholarships of 600 K,
several exhibitions of 1000 K, for mining officers, as well as
other exhibitions — nine of 600 K, two of 400 K, one of 20O
K, and one of ninety K; and finally for certificated forest-
surveyors, one State Scholarship of 2000 K, for the purpose of
travelling and studying abroad.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 209
7. Teaching equipment.
The following CoUeclions (museums) and teaching appa-
ratus, appropriately arranged, serve for the advancement of
Instruction and Study: — The College Library contains over
30.000 vols, and was originated in 1765. For the use of the
students there is a special reference library and reading-room.
The Archives possess a very valuable collection of deeds rela-
ting to the history of the College. The Collections (museums) are
plentifully equipped with materials pertaining to the province of
each of the «chairs»: metals, ores, mddels, machinery, apparatus,
utensils and implements. Laboiatories have also been erected
and furnished for the practical employment aud education of
the young men. The Electric Lighting establishment, with 60
H. P. Diesel-motoi-s, electric motors and measuring apparatus
according to the latest methods, is devoted to the purposes
of technical instruction in electricity. The Engine and modelling
workshop is occupied with the construction of implements
and models. The Botanical Gardens with an area of 6 catastral
acres ; The Orchard, with 3 acres of land, and The School of
Forestry at a distance of two and a half miles from the town,
with an area of 498 catastral acres, answer the purposes of
the Forest Department. Finally, in connection with the college,
where the official premises of the same are located, we have
the Station of experimental Forestry, whose functions extend
over the whole country, to which also other branch exper-
imental stations in Hungary are subordinated.
8. Building.
The College is located in three large buildings which were
erected in the years 1885 — 1900. The plans are now ready of
a special chemistry pavilion for the purpose of instruction in
chemistry and assaying.
9. Literary Productions of Professors.
The literary productions of the professoriate include on
the one hand scientific works for making the results of their
experiments and researches known, and expert treatises, and on
the other original independent literary work and school-books.
For the promotion of this literary activity the Minister of Finance
14
210 CHAPTER XI.
grants to the College 7000 K per annum, which is include
in the budget of the same, for the publication of periodicals
and books written by the professors. .
10. Students.
The students of the Principal School are ordinary or out-
side, students. Only such young men are admitted as ordinary
students as can produce certificates from a Classical School or
a Modern School. The outside students are only entitled to study
a single subject by permission of the Senate and are not per-
mitted to sit for examination therein. The students are obliged
to enter some one of the departments, to attend the whole
compulsory course therein, to attend regularly at the lectures,
and to take part in the drawing — designing — construction —
laboratory — and out-of-door practical classes; and in the
regular educational excursions. Those who do not display pro-
per industry in attending lectures, drawing-lessons and practical
instruction are not admitted to examination in the subject in
question, and must take the course over again.
The number of Students is governed by the requirements
of home Mining and Forestry. In the academical year 1907 —
1908, 355 students were enrolled, 117 of these in the Mining
department, 238 in the Forestry department.
11. Students' Associations.
The life of the College is exhibited in the following asso-
ciations :
The College Students' Union represents the entire body
of students. Its headquarters are the «Iigusagi Otthon* (Students'
Home). Its objects are : interchange of ideas, self-cultivation by
means of reading and literary work, keeping the esprit de
corps alive, and promoting the moral and material interests
of the members.
A branch Union of the Students' Union — the Students*
Choral Music Union has the object of cultivating singing and
music both serious and gay.
The College Charity Organisation provides indigent pupils
of the College with ready money or with the expenses of
nursing and medicine in cases of sickness.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 211
The Court of Honour is for the settlement of affairs of
honour which arise among the students. One of the professors
of the School is President.
The College Literary Club for the students' mutual im-
provement, was founded with the object of the arrangement of
lectures and debates, and the cultivation of departmental
studies.
The College Athletic Club is for the promotion of physical
exercises.
The College Provincial Societies are intended to bring
together in one society pupils coming from the various parts
of the country and to promote closer mutual intercourse.
The Academic Table (Mensa academica) is in course of
formation, its object being to supply provisions cheaply or
ijralis to indigent students of the College.
IV
CHAPTER XL
Art Instruction.
1. High School of Art and Drawing-masters' Training College.
(Royal Hungarian College of Art.)
This scliool is under the immediate control of the R.
H. Ministry of Public Instruction. It was opened in 1871. Its
organisation helped to create in Hungary two different gener-
ations of. artists. In one direction, as a training College, it is
engaged in instructing drawing-masters and mistresses, whose
task it is to spread a taste for art' in all secondary and prim-
ary schools as well as an understanding of art and a suscept-
tibility for the ennobling enjoyment of the same ; in the other
direction as a High School of Art it is educating independent artists.
The Institute has from the verj^ first admitted female
pupils, both in the classes for the education of artists and those
for the instruction of drawing- masters and mistresses.
2. Organisation.
The teaching staff consists of masters of painting, sculpture,
and architecture, and of certificated drawing-masters; there
are besides two University professors for the teaching of
theoretical knowledge, and three headmasters of secondary
schools, — 24 in all.
In accordance with the objects of its foundation, this insti-
tute contains three ordinary chief classes, viz. :
a) male candidates desiring to be qualified as drawing-
masters,
b) female candidates desiring to be qualified as drawing-
mistresses,
c) art pupils.
Resides the above-mentioned chief classes there are :
1. an evening class for painters, scuptors, architects
art craftsmen, and drawing-masters for practice in drawing
from models ; admission to this class is gratis for all applicants,
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 21H
2. a graphical class to which all voluntary applicants
(university students, and artists) are admitted, for the acquiring
of a knowledge of the various original graphical processes,
3. in connection with the College there is a separate class
for practical trainu.g where the pupils may carry out their
own conceptions in different technical ways. Only female pupils
are admitted to this class. The object is to teach drawing
mistresses such crafts as may enable them, parlitcularly if they
are sent to the provinces, to exercise a practical influence for
good upon their surroundings and upon industry.
4. there is besides in the College a so-called training-
college for the theory of instruction in drawing with the object
of giving candidates (both male and female) desirous of qualify-
ing as drawing-masters or mistresses an opportunity for practice
in instruction.
The com'se of instruction of drawing-masters extends
over a period of four years:
The instruction of drawing-mistresses also extends over a
period of four or five years respectively, viz. :
a) for certificated teachers of elementary schools, a course
of four years is obligatory,
b) candidates not certificated as elementary school teachers,
who have, however, passed six classes of a girls' high school,
must pass the preparatory class before being admitted to the
ordinary class. In their case therefore the course of instruction
extends over a period of five years.
The instruction of art pupils is not restricted to a fixed
number of years, but in their case too, the ordinary course
extends over a period of four years. Drawing- masters and art
pupils remaining longer than four years are accommodated
in separate studios.
The school year is divided into two semesters.
3. Pupils.
The pupils may be «ordinary» or « extraordinary*.
The «ordinary» pupils are bound to attend regularly on
all the courses of instruction comprised in the scheme of
the department to which they are admitted ; the extraordinary
pupils may choose from among the several subjects of instruct-
214
CHAPTER XI.
ion, but they are bound regularly to attend the classes
chosen, otherwise they are considered to have left the College,
The preliminary conditions for the admission of pupils,
or rather their admission to the entrance examination, before
taking which they are obliged to produce their certificate of
birth, a medical certificate and school certificates, are the
following :
a) they must have completed their 16th year,
b) sound sight,
c) the requisite general knowledge, and some practice
in art drawing. The latter is to be proved by a separate
entrance examination.
With regard to the possession of the requisite general
knowledge the conditions for admission are the following:
a) for candidates desirous of qualifying as drawing-
masters in secondary, schools, certificates of matriculation at
a classical school (Gymnasium) or a modern school (Real-
schule),
b) for candidates desirous of qualifying as drawing-masters
in elementary schools, certificates of elementary school teachers,
c) for candidates desirous of qualifying as drawing-
mistresses, 1. a certificate of elementary school teacher, 2.
attendance of six classes of a girls' high school,
rf) candidates for admission as ordinary art pupils (male
and female) must prove that they have previously attended
six classes of a secondary or city school, or of a girls' high school
respectively.
In exceptional cases there may be admitted as extra-
ordinary pupils such applicants as cannot prove the posses-
sion of the above-mentioned qualifications or may desire to
frequent the Institute on a different footing to that of the
ordinary pupils. But these too are required to certify the
possession of adequate practice in the subject chosen, by
passing an entrance examination.
The subjects of entrance examination for candidates
desirous to qualify as drawing-masters or mistresses, are the
following: formal and decorative and perspective drawing.
The pupils of art must be able to draw a head, or an
act from a living model. The time allowed for drawing is
four hours.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 215
Applicants that do not, at the entrance examination, give
evidence of adequate artistic talent, are refused admission.
There are no boarders at the College, but there is a
pupils' table (mensa academica), the object of which is to
bring together pupils taking their meals at various points of
the city and to offer them good food at low rates.
These is a competition every year for State scholarships.
These scholarships are granted by the Minister of Public
Instruction in accordance with suggestions offered him by the
director.
During the course of the year the proficient pupils are
awarded prizes. Prizes are offered further for the solution of
problems of art, and decorative art, and the works of successful
candidates become the property of the Institute ; besides, in
order to instigate the pupils to independent work out of school,
the best results of holiday work are purchased by the Institute.
The best students of the higher classes are awarded tra-
velling scholarships upon application being made, provided
such application receive the support of the Hungarian National
Art Council.
The expenses of excursions made by groups of pupils for
landscape painting are as a rule defrayed by the Institute.
4. Training of drawing masters.
The examinations for qualification as drawing-masters are
held before a special national board, which issues diplomas.
The president of this committee is appointed by the King
of Hungary ; the vicepresident and members, for a period of
3 years each, by the R. 11. Minister of Public Instruction.
The examinations for qualification as drawing-masters
are grouped as follows:
I First intermediate examination;
II Second » »
III Special examination
The different grades of qualification are the following
schools:
A) Qualification for teaching in secondary schools. For the
teaching of art and geometrical drawing in secondary schools.
The same qualifications are required for teaching in higher
gradeprofessionalschoolsof industry and for female schools of
216 CHAPTER XI.
industry, as well as in all schools equivalent to secondary schools
or of a lower grade.
B) Qualification for /eac/jm^ in city schools. For the teach-
ing of art and geometrical drawing in city schools as well
as in schools of industry of equal grade and those of a lower
grade.
C) Qualification for teaching as mistresses in city
schools. For the teaching of art and geometrical drawing in
city schools, as well as in industrial schools of equal grade
and those of a lower grade.
D) Qualification for teaching in the teachers' training
colleges as drawing masters or mistresses.
Only such candidates are admitted to the qualifying exa-
minations as, besides possessing requisite introductory know-
ledge, have duly finished the prescribed course of studies in
the training school for drawing-masters and have successfully
passed the examinations connected with these courses.
The subjects of the intermediate and special examin-
ations are: formal drawing; decorative design; still life drawing
and painting; decorative art drawing and designing, (drafting),
architectural drawing, style and science of form, modelling,
composition of figural design, descriptive geometry and per-
spective; history of arts, anatomy of structure, Hungarian
literature, and the theory of education.
5. Statistical data.
The number of pupik at the end of 1907 was 374, of
whom 284 were males and 90 females.
The high school of arts is located in a separate building.
The State grant to the school in 1907 was 183.080 crowns, of
which 113.440 crowns were spent on salaries and remunera-
tions, and 69.640 crowns on other expenses.
II. Masterschools for instruction in plastic arts.
These are institutions affording to gifted young painters
and sculptors already beyond the preparatory stages an
opportunity to enter the sphere of free art and to overcome
the difficulties of apprenticeship with the help of the Govern-
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 217
ment, and thus to enable them to successfully cope with the
difficulties of their profession.
hi a beautiful fenced-in park in Budapest, adorned by
the sculptural triumphs of the past, there are three buildings,
with large studios : the first is the painters' masterschool under
the management of Julius Benczdr ; the second is the painters'
masterschool under the management of Bartholomew Szikely ;
the third is the sculptors' masterschool under the direction of
Aloysius Strobl.
Each master chooses his pupils at will from among the
applicants. Only those may become pupils of the masterschool
who are past the preliminary stages, and are engaged in the
production of independent works of art.
In order to enable the young artists to devote their abili-
ties to efforts of a higher order, they are provided free of
charge with separate studios, and models; they may make
free use of the collection of costumes belonging to the insti-
tute and of the art library.
There are besides scholarships for them, voted out of the
budget of the government ; and private endowments under
the control of the government contribute to the support of
young artists.
The directors of the niasterschools enjoy the use of
gratis studios, and receive considerable salaries. It is the task
of the directors to bestow constant atlention upon the work of
the pupils accepted by them, and to offer them their advice
ill the development of Iheir individuality.
III. School of Painting for Women.
This school was founded by the Ministry of Public
Instruction in 1885, in order to give Hungarian women an
opportunity of independent practice in the art of painting.
To this school are admitted well-bred women who
have completed their 16th year but are not over 30. The
conditions of admission are absolutely liberal, with the calcul-
ation that a cultivated woman, even if she does not attain
to eminence in the practice of painting, is in the family
218 * CHAPTER XI.
circle the predestined guardian and propagator of the artist-
ical spirit and conception of the world which is one of the
principal conditions of refined social culture, and of the
general spreading and flourishing of art.
The pupils may remain 8 years in the school.
In the summer season the school arranges excursions into
the country for landscape painting and for the encouragement
besides of a thorough study of nature.
The State provides for the maintenance of the school :
for 1907, a sum of 20.900 crowns was allotted.
The present director is Louis Dedk-Ebner,
IV. School of Decorative Art.
1, Past history of Hungarian Decorative Art.
In the XIX century, particularly in the second half, the
governments of the civilised states created in rapid succession
schools and workshops for the so-called «small artists* who
were so long looked down upon. Their object in so doing was,
that industrial articles of every day use should assume a nice,
artistic shape and become ornamental, that the demand for the
same should increase, and that they should become suitable as
articles of export. At the same time they desired to educate
the people artistically, to cultivate the artistic propensities
slumbering in them, and to off'er the means for increasing
their earnings. The year 1867, which inaugurated an epoch
of peaceful progress after the political struggles of the Hun-
garian nation, marks the period when the wisdom and deep
foresight of the statesmen then at the head of affairs initiated
an epoch of intensive cultural and scientific labour.
Looking around them, they could, alas, without difficulty
see that the Hungarian nation, once one of the most pre-
eminent in popular art and one of the peoples of Europe
most clearly predestined to cultivate art, had entirely or
almost forgotten, in the course of the stormy centuries of its
past, all the traditions of its popular art and industry.
Our once famous goldsmith's and enameller's art was
entirely forgotten. The metal industry of Upper Hungary had
been annihilated. Our industrial art, which had alwavs been
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 219
famous for ils articles made by perforating, carving and
turning, did not venture beyond patterns already thrashed
out elsewhere. Only our potlery and textile industry showed
any signs of life* But even these were condemned to death,
because the levelling influence of the mighty progress made
by the means of communication in the XIX century cut away
the ground in which our national customs and traditions and
the popular costumes of the provinces were rooted.
These sad circumstances matured in August Trefort, the
then Minister of Public Instruction, and in his excellent collabor-
ators, the idea of developing the taste of our national artisans,
and of enabUng them to satisfy even higher requirements, by
reviving the old almost forgotten national traditions and by
endeavouring to induce the public, who had already taken a
fancy to foreign manufactures, to return to the productions
of home industry. This idea he desired to realise by the creat-
ion of a school of decorative art.
As an experiment, in 1880, he attached to the Royal
Hungarian school of model drawing and to the training college
for drawing-masters, as a kind of branch of the same, a
<^workshop for decorative carvings.
In the school year 1883 — 4 more spacious premises and
the establishment of new branches had to be provided for.
Classes for modelling, goldsmith work, woodcarving, and later
for decorative painting, copper-engraving and decorative
sculpture, had to be opened.
In order to unite the classes dispersed in different hired
premises, and to afford the pupils an apportunity of systemat-
ical and uniform instruction and to render the industrial
museum more accessible, in the following decades a large
building was erected for this purpose, and in 1897 the school
began the twelfth year of its activity in these comfortable
and elegant premises.
In the new building the school from the very first began
to display energetic and intensive activity. For the benefit
of the large number of artisans who from early yetirs were
compelled to earn their bread in practical life and whose further
progress was thus barred, an evening class was opened in
1900 — the first of its kind in the country — where art and
architectural design, goldsmiths' craft, designing of furniture.
220 CHAPTER XI.
and drawing from life were taught. In a short time this evening-
school become one of the most frequented and most popular.
Almost at the same time, the day -tuition was also extended
by the opening of a special-class for instruction in the art
of furnishing where the proper employment of the inside of
rooms and designing of furniture was taught. This class too
become one of the most frequented.
2. Organisation of the school.
The school at present comprises the following special
classes: decorative painting, decorative sculpture, miniature
plastic art, jewelmaking and enamelling, woodcarving and
copper-engraving and the art of furniture making. In order
to complete these branches and to develop art, the school
teaches besides: decorative drawing, figure-drawing, architec-
tural drawing, anatomy of structure, history of art, history
of Hungarian literature, hgyienics, and first aid.
The institute was provided in 1907 with a workshop for
practical joinery, in order to give pupils of the furnishing
class practical instruction.
In the same year (1607) there was added a workshop
for lacemaking, under the management of Dekanyi, and a
carpetweaving workshop under the management of KorSsfoi-
Kriesch : by the addition of these classes the school acquired
a considerable influence on the lace and textile industry:
and this influence was further increased by the creation of
itinerant schools, so that, particulary in respect of the revival
of the lace-industry, throughout the country a very healthy
movement may be observed.
There is a prospect of the addition, in the near future,
of a general graphical class.
The course of instruction at this school lasts five years,
and is divided into two parts: a preparatory course of two
years, and a professional instruction lasting three )"ears.
In the preparatory course the following subjects are
taught: decorative drawing and painting, freehand perspec-
tive, geometry, figure-drawing, achitectural drawing, science
of figures and construction, and other subjects necessary as
a preparation to the course of special instruction.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 221
In the professional classes: professional instruction; archi-
tectural structure and drawing ; industrial style ; figure-drawing,
industrial drawing, anatomy of structure, history of art;
hygienics, and first aid.
The school has also a splendid reference library and a
collection of art-prints which, however, after the fusion with
the Museum of Decorative Art, were allotted to the library
of that Museum.
The school lays great stress upon the collecting of the
productions of ancient popular art, still to be found in some
parts of the country, and employs them all in tuition with a
view to developing the national character of Hungarian deco-
rative art.
4. Pupils and expenditure.
There are three categories of pupils :
1) ^ordinary* pupils who have passed at least 4 classes
of a city or secondary school and have some experience in
drawing or in modelling ;
2) ^extraordinary» pupils, who have not finished four
classes of a city or secondary school, but are on a level with
the ordmary pupils in point of talent;
3) «outside» pupils, who take up certain specified subjects
only, and partake in certain practical work only.
Regular pupils, after having succesfuUy passed their
examinations^ are entitled to serve in the army as volunteers
for one year.
During the school year 1907 — 8 the day classes were
frequented by 178, pupils and the evening classes by 208 pupils.
The total number pupils of was, therefore 38G.
The teaching staff consisted of 22 members. In the Budget
for 1907 a sum of 197.740 crowns was appropriated for the
support of the National Hungarian School of Decorative
Industry.
Proficient pupils enjoy exemption from school-fees, material
help, and travelling scholarships. Prizes are also distributed by
the school on the basis of competitive examinations. The
school further arranges exhibitions annually at which the work
of the pupils is shown.
222 CHAPTER XI.
V. Musical Art.
1. Synopsis of the history of Music in Hungary •
The Hungarians were musicians, even before they were
converted to Christianity. Their music was then a part of their
religious rites. Whenever they offered sacrifices near trees,
springs or rocks, they accompanied the act with singing. Besi-
des, their bards composed songs commemorative of their advent-
urous escapades and their warlike exploits. These bards were
differently named: «hegedos6k» (fiddlers), «lantosok» (lyre-
players) or «igriczek> (players), but the part played by them
differs from that of the French troubadours, of the English
Minstrels and of the German Minnesdngers. Whilst the latter
stand for the most part in the service of the worship of women
or of Mary, and were recruited mostly from the knight class,
the Hungarian lyre-players were the poets and supporters of
historical song and only in a few cases was one or other of
them knighted.
As to the instruments they played upon, on this point
the opinions of scholars are divided. Some say the lyre, others :
the violin ; most probably it was a kind of zither played with
a bow. As far back as the reign of the first Hungarian king.
Saint Stephen (997 — 1038) there existed schools where singing
was taught and where missionaries from abroad introduced
Ambrosia n and Gregorian chants. Hungarian popular music
had even then a certain racial character, and Saint Gerard
the first bishop of Csanad, an Italian and himself an author,
remarked this peculiarity. Among the people the ancient pagan
songs survived nearly three centuries, and the pagan dances
in vogue in pagan worship were not abolished until the reign
of Ladislas IV (1272—90). The lyre-players continued to appear
at the courts of princes, lords and church-dignitaries, and
though, in consequence of the misery which followed the
invasion of the Tartars in the time of Bela IV (1235-1270),
they were deprived of their estates, they still subsisted (together
with the so-called «reg6c2» (« romancers*) and did not finalty
disappear until towards the end of the XVII century. It is
therefore evident that the Hungarians always had singers and
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 22.1.
music, and were consequently not dependent in any way
on the teaching of the Gypsies who settled here in the
XIV century. The Gypsy hypothesis was contradicted long
ago. Before the settlement of the Gypsies the Hungarian people
possessed numerous historical and popular songs; it is true we
know only the subject of these songs, just as other European
nations do not possess much of their popular music previous
to the XIV century, because the collection and recording of
the same did not begin till the XV century. As for the Gypsies,
investigations have settled the question that this race adopts
the music of the nation with which they have intercourse.
This is undoubtedly the case. Therefore the music of the
Hungarian, Roumanian, Turkish, Russian and Spanish Gypsy
is in each case a different one. The Instrument called a «cymbal»
is not of gypsy origin, though at present almost exlusively
played by Gypsies, because it was known to the Assyrians,
Chinese and Arabs, and in Europe the English, French, Italians,
and Germans were familiar with it under the name of
Dulcimer, Tympanon, Salterio tedesco and Hackbrett
Whilst the words of the Hungarian popular songs were
in that language the Catholic songs were naturally in Latin.
The musical sounds were called in Hungary, from time imme-
morial, ut, re, mi, etc. a fact to which De Muris, a famous
theorist of the XIV century bears testimony.*)
The oldest Hungarian church music-codex may be traced
back to the XIII century ; during several centuries the Catho-
lic songs were preserved only in manuscript collections;
and the first printed collection appeared in 1651. Ferdinand I
(1526 — 1564) officially allowed the use of Hungarian songs in
the Catholic churches and the «Cantionale et passionale Hun-
garicum», which dates from between 1675 — 1700, publishes
mass-songs with Hungarian words. With the second half of
the XVII. century church songs began to adapt more and
more Hungarian national elements, while on the other hand
the Gregorian chant, and later on the Protestant psalms, exer-
cised an important influence upon secular music.
•) His nominibus notae, ut dictum est, appelantur a Gallicis,
Anglicis, Teutonicis, Hungaris, Slavis et Dacis et ceteris Cisalpuinis.
umma Musicae Magistri Joannes de M.)
(
224 CHAPTKR XI.
Among the popular songs preserved we have, if not the airs,
at any rate the words of some which date from the XV century.
We have a considerable number of original tunes in print, dating
from the following century, which is of twofold importance. Side
by side with historical songs appear flower-songs and love-songs
and we are able with ease to trace the transformation of the life-
less tunes into easily flowing, more lyric songs which throw the
Hungarian national character into belter relief. The popular ele-
ment is still more faithfully represented in the songs composed in
the period of the T6k6ly and Rakoczi risings at the close of the
XVII. and the opening of the XVIII century. To this period may
be traced back the Rakoczi March, which was made use of by
Berlioz in liis «Damnation de Faust». Originally it was a plaintive
song — the ^Complaint of Rakoczi » — and the motifs were taken
from military calls. We know nothing of its composer, or of the
musician who transformed it into a march. However it is cer-
tain that it was first played in public by John Bihari (1789 — 1827j,
a selftaught Hungarian violinist. The most complete collection
of Hungarian popular songs is that of Ladislas Kiin («Hung
arian songs» in ten vols). All the great masters who sojourned
in Hungary, such as Haydn, Dillersdorf, Schubert, Marschner,
Liszt, Brahms, made use of Hungarian themes.
Harmonized Hungarian dances appeared as early as the
XVI century in musical collections printed abroad, e. g. those
printed by the following publishers: Heckel (1562), and Schmid
(1577) of Strassburg, and Paix (1583) of Lauingen; during
the XVII century by Giovanni Picchi in his «Balli d'arpicordo*
(1621) published in Venice etc. These may be found in various
libraries in Europe. The Hungarian dances they contain, are
called ^Magyar Passamezzo and Saltarello» «Ungaresche>,
«Ballo ongaro» and so on; but the Hungarian features are
not so conspicuous in them, as in the later Hungarian dances,
called €palotds», ^verbunkos» and «csdrdds*. Of the collections,
those dating from the XVI century are scored for organ and
lute. It is interesting that Vincenzo Galilei, the most eminent
musical aesthetician and lute and violin virtuoso of the XVI
cenlury, says that the lute was imported by the Hungarians.*)
*) Fu portato da noi questo nobilissimo slruniento da Pannoni.
(Oialogo etc.)
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 225
In the XVI century 'we find not only amateur lute-
players, but musically trained virtuosi who composed poly-
phonic works. Such was Valentine Graevius Bacfart of Transyl-
vania, who sojourned at the couil of Vienna and in Poland,
and who finally died in Padua; John Neusiedler, born at
Pozsony, whose 4:Lautenbuch» is an excellent book of reference
for the historians of music. Similarly we find at the court of
Louis II in Buda two of the world renowned masters of
counterpoint : Adrian Willaerl and Thomas Stolzer ; whilst in
the XVII century a third composer of polyphonic works lived
at Pozsony, viz. : — Samuel Bockshorn (Capricornus). Pozsony
was the birthplace of one of the pioneers of European opera,
John Sigismund Kusser (1657 — 1727), who ended his chequered
career in Dublin as conductor of the orchestra of the Viceroy;
of Ireland.
In the XIX century the higher musical forms are replete
with national features. Michael Mosonyi the symphonist, Charles
Huber the chamber-musician, Francis Erkel the first master
of Hungarian opera, all introduced Hungarian motifs into their
compositions. The Hungarian pioneer of programme music,
of the modern symphonical poem and of the musical drama,
Edmund Michalovich (born in 1842), borrowed the subject of
one of his operas («Eliana») from Tennyson's Idylls of the King.
Hungary has produced numerous first-class musicians for the
benefit not only of that country itself but of the culture of
the whole of Europe. We shall mention in this place the foll-
owing names only: the composers Hummel, Liszt, Stephen
Heller and Goldmark; the pianists Joseffy, Dohnanyi, Szendy,
Joseph Weisz, and Robert Freund; the violinists Josef Bohm,
Joachim, Michael Hauser, Rem6nyi, Auer, Louis Straus,
Singer, Hubay, Vecsey, Flesch; the cellist Popper, and the
conductors Seidl, Richter and Nikisch.
2, National Academy of Music.
At present the Minister of Public Instruction gives grants
to sundry schools of music in the Capital and provinces, and
defrays the entire expenses of the National Academy of Music.
The teaching staff of Ihis institute once included Robert
Volkmann and Francis Liszt. The present director is Edmund
15
226 CHAPTER XI.
Michalovich. Beside the keyed, string, wood and brass wind
instruments, the cymbal and singing, the following subjects
form part of the scheme of instruction: composition, instru-
mentation, score-reading, theory of music (for non-composers),
chamber music, choral singing, orchestral practice, musical
dictation, history of music, musical aesthetics, the theory and
history of Hungarian national music, liturgies, methodics, theory
of education, poetics, the history of Hungarian literature, reci-
tation, histrionic art, Italian and dancing. There are about
500 pupils; the teaching staff numbers 44; the large concert-
hall of the institute accommodates more than 1000. For the
ordinary expenditure of the institute a sum of 229.673 crowns
was voted in 1907 and a further sum of 30.000 crowns for the
furtherance of musical art; the latter sum is to be consider-
ably increased in 1908.
3. Other musical instruction. Res philharmonicae.
There is a chair for the history of music at the Univer-
sity of Budapest ; in the elementary schools singing in obligatory ;
in the secondary schools it is facultative ; the members of tea-
chers' training colleges are required to learn piano and violin
(or organ) playing. In Budapest there are several symphony
and choral societies, of which the oldest is the Philharmonic
Society, which has recently introduced the compositions of
several modern English composers, such as Mackenzie, Elgar etc.
VL Theatrical School
1. History.
This institute, as a course of professional instruction con-
nected with the National Theatre, was opened in 1863 and
was put under the control of the National Board of Theatres.
A resolution of Parliament in 1873 put it under the manage-
ment of an independent director, and assigned it to the sphere
of authority of the Ministry of Public Instruction.
At first the dramatic and operatic departments worked
together; but in 1893 the operatic instruction was transferred
to the R. H. National Academy of Music, and the work of
the Theatrical School was confined to dramatic instruction.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 227
2. Organisation.
The course of study at the Theatrical School at the outset
extended over a period of four years, but lately it has been
reduced to three years. Of these three years the first is only a
trial year, the object of which is to decide which of the appli-
cants have a real talent for the stage. Those who are not able
give to evidence of some talent, are discharged at the end of
the first year.
The institute has a separate building equipped with ade-
quate classrooms, training stages, and a handsome little theatre,
where the pupils perform once a week before the public.
The subjects taught are: elocution, oratory, the theory of
theatrical art, dramaturgy, the history of civilisation, poetry,
aesthetics, psychology, dancing, fencing, and dramatical exer-
cises. Besides, the pupils are bound — in order to get accusto-
med to the work of the theatrical profession — to act as mutes
on the stage of the National Theatre.
3. Teaching staff, pupils, and expenditure.
Besides the director there are at present 9 professors and
140 pupils (80 female and 60 male).
With the consent of their parents, males may be admitted
who have completed their 18*^ year and females who have
completed their 16*** year, if they have received proper instruction,
and possess good figures and a suitable voice.
Industrious and talented pupils, if poor, enjoy exemption
from school-fees, and receive also material aid from the Goverg-
ment. After having completed their Academic course, the
pupils receive a diploma by wliich they become members of
the National Association of Actors.
In the budget in 1907 the amount of 81.840 crowns was
allotted towards the maintenance of the institute.
15«
CHAPTER XII.
MUSEUMS.
I. The Hungarian National Museum.
A) Historical Survey.
1. The Foundation of the Museum.
The Hungarian National Museum was founded by Count
Francis Szechenyi — the father of Count Stephen Szechenyi,
one of the greatest Hungarian statesmen of the XIX century,
by ihis Charter of Foundation dated November 25th 1802, in
which he offered to the Hungarian Nation for perpetual pos-
session his collection kept in Nagy-Czenk, consisting of a lib-
rary of 15.000 volumes, of 1152 manuscripts, maps, 2623 coins,
pictures and family coats of arms, setting up as the aim of
the development of the Museum to be thus organised the sys-
te«iatical collection of the memorials of national science and of
the Hungarian race. This noble act of the generous Count
contributed essentially to the national development of Hung-
arian culture which was based, partly on the inheritance of
Latin culture, partly on French and German influences. And
this fact at that time, had not only a cultural, but also a
political importance, for at the end of the XVIII century the
nation had to face a merciless political reaction, and nothing
but the literature and the social enthusiasm connected with
it, could keep up and strengthen the selfconfidence of the
nation.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 229
2. Early organisation. The Count Palatine Joseph and the
Museum.
Count Francis Szechenyi's endowment was incorporated
in the Statute-book in 1807 (Act XXIV of 1807), under the
name «Szechenyi National Library », which name the library of
the National Museum still bears today, and the Archduke Joseph
of glorious memory, the popular Count Palatine of that time,
created the first rules of the new institution. For the expenses
of the Museum buildings Act Vtll of 1808 ordained a public
collection, by means of which a Museum Fund of more than
half a million florins was established and Prince Anthony
Grassalkovich gave a plot for the purposes of the Museum.
The collections were temporarily placed in the present
Central Seminary, later in the former Main Building of the
University, but in the mean time, in 1805, during the French
wars, it had to be carried in boxes to Temesvar, and to
Nagyvarad in 1809. In 1813, the Grassalkovich plot was sold
at a public auction, and in its place that of Anthony Batthydny
was bought; the Museum — enlarged in the meantime by
donations and by purchases, specially by the acquiring of the
world-wide renowned library and archaeological collections of
Nicholas Jankovich — found a home in the old building
situated on this latter plot and in another house, that of the
Jankovich family.
The famous Palatine Joseph — who was, in the early
years, an indefatigable patron of the museum, — employed
James Ferdinand MuUer as first head of the institute, and from
1812 as director.
When the Museum building, according to the provisions
of Act XXXVII of 1836, had been completed at public expense
on the above mentioned Batthyany plot, after the designs of
Michael Pollack, and the Museum was transferred thither in
1846, it already contained three departments : a library,
an archaeological department and a picture gallery.
3. Library, archaeological department and picture gallery.
The reading room of the library was opened as early as
1803, in the monastery of the Franciscan order, and in the
interest of its augmentation, the Palatine issued an order
230 CHAPTER XII.
through the Vice-gerent Council, that every publisher should
send in one obligatory copy of all his publications ; but this
order had not much success^ and the question of the obUgat-
ory copies was finally solved, after much delay, by Act XLI
of 1897. However the library, though at first it had not even
a grant for making purchases, was largely increased by the
patriotic zeal and the ardour of benefactors.
The development of the Archaeological Department was
furthered by a governmental decree issued in 1812, by
which the relics discovered in this country were not to be
sent — as before — to Vienna, but the Museum was given the
right to make a selection from them. At first the picture gallery
was the third department of the Museum, the very modest
foundation stone of which was laid by the small number of
oil-paintings that belonged to the Szechenyi Library; but in
1836, after the addition of the valuable collection of pictures
bequeathed by Ladislas Pyrker, Archbishop of Eger, which
generous endowment, with many others, was incorporated in
the Statute Book (by Act XXXVllI of 1836) — it became at
once significant. This gallery does not any longer belong to the
National Museum, but forms a part of the «Fine Arts Museum »
an institution which will be treated of later on {v. infra).
4. The Museum under the charge of the Vice-Gerent
CounciL
After the death of the Count Palatine Joseph, which took
place in 1847, the Museum was entrusted to the care of the
Vice-Gerent Council, and except during the years 1848 — 49, was
under its charge till 1867. In the life of the institute this period
was rather one of stagnation than of progress. But, by the repe-
ated appropriation of extraordinary grants (e. g. from the Nat-
ional Fund and from the Castle-building Fund), the Museum
authorities were enabled to begin a systematic grouping of the
collections. For the rest, the absolute government did not care
much for the Museum.
It was left to the zeal and generosity of the Hungarian
nation to put the Museum in a position to proceed, slowly
but surely, to the completion of the task that had been set
before it National enthusiasm provoked some interest at the
short-lived Diet of 1861.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 231
5. The Museum after 1867. Francis Pulszky in office as
Director.
In 1867, after the restoration of the constitution, a new era
opened for Hungary, the refreshing air of which penetrated as
far as the cloistered buildings of the Museum.
Under the care of Government and Parliament, the
Museum became a scientifically organised educational insti-
tute and the greatest credit is due to Francis Pulszky, the
gifted and learned scholar who, after the war of Independence
(1848 — 49) lived a long time in England as an exile, who was
not only an eminent authority on archaeology, his favourite
pursuit, but one of the old-fashioned polyhistors, who in his
capacity as Director for a quarter of a century (1869 — 1894),
raised the Museum to an European level, and initiated and
perpetuated the scientific character of the Institute. In his time
the building was completely furnished, the collections finally
arranged, and considerably added to.
The fact that in 1870 the State grant to the Museum was only
67.757 florins (135.514 crowns), whereas, in 1907, Parliament voted
no less than 684.011 crowns for the purposes of the Museum, is
an obvious enough proof of the advance made by that institution.
Besides the material affairs. Parliament has interested
itself in the internal affairs of the Museum (for which purpose
it has on several occassions appointed special committees), and
on the suggestion of the Committee sitting in 1887, Count Albin
Csaky, the then Minister of Public Instruction, issued Regula-
tions for the organisation and service of the Museum, which
were revised in 1898, in which revised form they are still in
force : but owing to the altered circumstances, there is a need
of a further revision, for the carrying out of which the neces-
sary measures have already been taken.
We must not omit to mention that in 1902 the Museum
celebrated the hundredth anniversary of its foundation. On this
occasion, a sumptuous volume was issued, written by the
Museum staflT, entitled «The Past and Present of the Hungarian
National Museum» — which is to be exhibited in the Hung-
arian Exhibition in London, — and at the some time the
statue of Count Stephen Szechenyi, its eminent founder, was
unveiled by John Istok, in the Garden of the Museum.
232 CHAPTER Xll.
B) The present organisation and state of the National Museum.
1. The Objects of the Museum.
The Hungarian National Museum, which is not only the
most important collection in Hungary, but quite the most
eminent centre of Hungarian culture, is a national institute,
which is maintained partly from its own Fund, partly by the
Treasury, a certain sum being voted yearly by Parliament.
The objects of fhe institute are to collect and preserve objects
referring to national history and the complementary sciences
of the same connected with general culture and Natural History^
in the first place such as are native to the country, in the
second place such as are foreign but serve as a necessary
complement to the native ones; its task is, further, by a
scientific elaboration of the various collections, to further the
study of the branches of science represented in the various
departments, and to promote public education by throwing
open the collections to the general public, who are thus able
to train themselves by observation.
Under the collective title of «Publications of the Hungarian
National Museum*, the Museum issues scientific works, and
since 1898 has been holding a series of systematic lectures,,
the subjects being treated in a popular manner, which lectures,
owing to the vast amount of knowledge they impart, are
attended by all grades of society.
The Hungarian National Museum in comparison with
one of the greatest European collections, «The British Museum »
is naturally of much smaller dimensions: for while the latter
exhibits the culture and history of the mighty Island-state as the
nucleus of collections illustrative of the history of universal civil-
isation, our Museum is obliged to prefer national aims to those of
universal history, and is consequently unable to following its mightj'
rival in forming collections gathered from all parts of the world.
2. The Departments of the Museum.
The Departments of the Hungarian National Museum
are as follows:
1,. Szechenyi National Library ;
2. Numismatical and archaeological collections;
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 233
3. Zoological Department;
4. Mineralogical and Palaeontological Department (with
chemical laboratory);
5. Botanical Department;
6. Ethnographical Department;
7. Queen Elisabeth Memorial Museum.
The various departments have photographic studios, plaster-
casting workshops, chemical laboratories etc. at their disposal.
3. The Administration of the Museum.
The general control of the Museum is in the hands of
the Minister of Public Instruction. At its head stands the Director,
appointed by the King on the suggestion of the Minister.
In the Budget for 1907 besides the Director, the appoint-
ment of the following officials was included : 3 Chiefs of Depart-
ments, 10 principal keepers, 9 keepers, 10 first class and 8
second class assistant keepers, 1 mechanician, 9 assistants, 1
porter and 24 servants. Employed in the Director's office are,
one secretary and 1 clerk.
The Library, archaeological and mineralogical departments
are looked after by the University Professors of the respective bran-
ches of science, who receive a special remuneration for this work.
4. The Museum Board.
In order to further the interests of the Museum and the
increase of the collections, there is a special «National Museum
Board», the task of which is to arouse public interest in the
Museum, to keep the Minister and society in general informed
of the means by which the educational objects of the institute
may best be realised, to help to increase its funds and endow-
ments, to discuss questions relating to the increase and acquire-
ment of collections and to the manner of bringing the same
to the notice of the public, to further the special research
work of the Museum staff, and to make suggestions as to
measures that require to be taken.
The president of this Board, which consists of 14 members,
is the Minister of Public Instruction, in the event of his absence,
the secretary of State, or one of the members of the Board
specially delegated for the purpose. The members are eminent
scholars appointed by the Minister.
234 CHAPTER XII.
At the beginning of every quarter, with a view to dis-
cussing general matters, the Director of the Museum summons
a meeting of the Chiefs of Departments and representatives of
the staff.
5. The Library.
The work of the «Szechenyi National Library* consists
in hunting up MSS. and deeds relating to Hungary, and in
purchasing them or acquiring faithful copies of the same ;
further in collecting all the publications appearing in Hungary,
and, — with special regard to Hungarian history and its
complementary sciences — all foreign publications which refer
to Hungary.
The department of the Library are :
a) Book Department;
b) Manuscript Department;
c) Archives (including family archives deposited there for
safe-keeping) :
d) Newspaper Department.
The Library was originally arranged after the system of
Michael Denis, Director of the Court Library in Vienna. It is,
at present, arranged after the so called Munich-System. This
new arrangement was made between 1869 — 1875.
The various Departments of the Library keep their own
Journal, and have their own Inventory and Catalogue.
One part of the Book (printed publications) department
is catalogued on slips, another part by branches; while all
publications (issued before 1711) and incunabula printed in
Magyar or other languages spoken in Hungary are entered
in separate registers.
The Manuscripts Department is also provided with a slip-
catalogue. A part of special interest is the collection of literary
letters.
The Newspaper Department is also catalogued on slips.
The main collection of Archives contains slipcatalogues
of patents conferring coats-of-arms, of charters of guilds, town
and corporation charters etc., arranged alphabetically and
according to year of issue.
For visitors to the Newspaper Department there is a
special Reading Room.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 235
There are also private rooms for scholars engaged in
scientific researches.
Books are lent to well known men only. Manuscripts and
rare books are lent to public institutes only. Books etc. are
not sent to the provinces except at the request of public in-
stitutes. For foreign institutes the principle of reciprocity is in
force.
The official organ of the Library is the « Hungarian
Review of Books» (Magyar K5nyvszemle).
At the close of 1907, the Library contained about
1,758.000 books, MSS. etc. (exclusive of family archives). The
number of people using the library was 43.964 ; that of books,
deeds etc. made use of, 174.427.
6. Numismatical and Archaeological Department.
The collections of coins and antiquities were separated
from the other collections in 1809, and in 1810 they were
thrown open to the public.
This Department collects Hungarian or such antiquities
as refer to Hungary. The «Archaeological Advertiser* pub-
lishes particulars concerning additions to the Department,
The sections of this Department are: a) Coins, bj Pre-
historic relics, c) Collection of antiques, d) Collection relating to
Hungarian History, e) Collection relating to military History,
f) Relics. At the close of 1907 it contained in all some 337!152
objects ; and in the same year it was visited by 105.280 persons.
7. The Zoological Department.
The Zoological Section — like the two other Natural
History departments — is of a more or less universal character,
though it takes special measures to complete the collections
of native speciitiens, as far as that is possible.
It is divided as follows : a) Mammalia, b) Birds, c) Rep-
tiles and Amphibia, d) Fishes, e) Marsupialia, f) MoUusca,
g) MoUuscoidea, h) Insects, i) Myriapoda, j) Spiders, k) Shell-
fishes, /) Worms, m) Echinodermata, n) Coelenterata.
Its official organ is the « Natural History Magazine*
{Term6szetrajzi Fiizetek). During the present year it was visited
by 157.716 persons.
236 CHAPTER Xll.
8. Mineralogical and Palaeontological Department.
This department took its origin from a mineralogical
collection presented to the Museum by Countess Francis Sze-
chenyi, and consisting of a number of selected objects.
During the past few decades the chief patron of this
Department (which was made independent in 1870) has been
Andrew Semsey, the distinguished Maecenas who has spent
tens of thousands of pounds on enriching the collections.
At the close of 1907 the Department contained some
101.275 specimens and the number of visitors in 1907 amounted
to 35.225.
9. The Botanical Department.
This Department was founded in 1817 by the Count Pala-
tine Joseph, who bought for the Museum the collection of
plants that once belonged to Kitaibel, the celebrated Hungarian
botanist. It was made independent in 1870. In 1892 the collection
of plants and the library of Louis Haynald, Archbishop of
Kalocsa was bequeathed to the Museum, and the collection
thus enriched could not be accommodated in the Museum
building.
Consequently a house had to be rented, and from there
it was transferred, a short time ago, to another building, the
palace of the « Hungarian Academy of Sciences.*
At the close of 1907, it contained 490.190 specimens.
10. The Ethnographical Department.
Not until the sixties of last century was the foundation
of this section provided for. Its foundations were laid by an East
Asiatic collection made by John Xantus. And not «ntil the nineties
did people realise that an ethnographical collection relating to the
races of Hungary should be organised. There was no suitable
room ; at first it was located in the Arcade front flanking the
gardens of the Palace in Buda; afterwards the collection was
placed in a house, rented for the purpose, but in a short time,
after remarkable additions had been made, it was transferred
to its temporary home in the Hall of Industry in the Town.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 237
Park. This section is connected with the Hungarian Ethnographi-
cal Society, and its official organ is a supplement of the «Ethno-
graphy» (Ethuographia), the review published by that society.
At the close of 1907 it contained some 17.363 objects,
and in the same year, between July 13lh when the new rooms
were opened, and Oct. 15th, when, as they could not be heated,
they had to be closed, it was visited by 19.853 persons.
11. Queen Elizabeth Memorial Museum.
In Nov. 1807, to immortalise the memory of his late
Consort, His Majesty the King offered all the objects used by
the late Queen Elizabeth and at that time in the possession
of the Royal Family, to Ihe Hungarian Nation, and he ordered
that these objects, together with others that had already been
presented to the National Museum, and with such other relics
as were offered for presentation, should be collected in the
Royal Palace of Buda, under the name tQueen Elizabeth
Memorial Museum ». For the purposes of the Museum, all objects
that have any reference to the late Queen and shall in the
future be offered by their present owners, will be gratefully
accepted, such acceptance, however, being subject to ihe appro-
val of the Minister of Public Instruction, to whose care and
control the Museum has been entrusted.
This Museum was opened on Jan. 15th 1908.
12. The situation of the Museum.
The most pressing need of the Hungarian National
Museum at present in the want of space.
In spite of the fact, that some deparrments — the Ethno-
graphical and Botanical Departments and the Queen Elizabeth
Memorial Museum — are not in the main building, — the latter
is not large enough. The Library in particular does not pos-
sess a suitable reading room and the Archaeological Depart-
ment suffers from overcrowding. It is, however, to be hoped,
that in a short time this state of things will be altered, for
the Estimates for 1908 contains items to be appropriated for
the erection of the new buildings, the construction of which
cannot well be postponed.
238 CHAPTER XII.
II. National Hungarian Museum of Fine Arts.
1. Historical review.
The Hungarians have at all times been staunch patrons
of art. Even our rude ancestors who conquered this land
appear to have had a marked predilection for artistic pomp
and splendour in their tents, apparel, arms, and jewels, Which
were all valuable and of fine workmanship. Discoveries of
ancient relics, in some of our oldest graves, have supplied
ample proof as to their genuineness and also that their owners
had not obtained possession of them through plunder or
pillage. Moreover, the existence of an independent national
art industry in ancient times is fully established by the peculiar
style of the many different objects that have been brought
to light.
When Christianity dawned in Hungary, her artists turned
their attention to monumental creations, and an unparalleled
activity in architecture prevailled from the eleventh to the
fifteenth century.
All the kings and races built forts, churches, and mon-
asteries, which were often used as tombs as well. Our antiqui-
ties reveal a magnificent and genuine development of the
Roman style. Although the Hungarians, situated at the eastern
door of Europe, were kept constantly employed in fighting the
Turks and Tartars, they have nevertheless taken their full share in
the evolution of art. The royal palaces and courts, the man-
sions and castles of the aristocrats, churches and monasteries,
all testify to the flourishing condition of ecclesiastical and
secular art.
On this side the Alps it was in Hungary that the
Renaissance first took root, in the reign of Matthias Corvinus,
a true and enlightened patron of the fine arts. On account,
however, of the stormy state of political circumstances in his
day, the greater and richest parts of Hungary were soon sub-
jugated by the Turks. With this, organic development ceased,
and confined itself in its stunted and degenerate state to the
poorest and most distressed districts of Hungary, on its Western
and northern frontiers.
EDUCATION IX HUNGARY 239
A revival on an almost entirely new basis did not set in
until tlie eighteentli century, after the Turks had been driven
out of the country.
During the 150 years of our constant warfare with the
Turks, our most ancient collections were completely dipersed,
and only a few articles are to be found in various countries of
Europe — mostly in the private collections of old royal families.
Our latest collections are traced back to the end of the
seventeenth century, and others date from the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries only. Of these we will only mention here
such as have had an influence on the increase of the State
art collections. Leaving out of consideration the private collect-
ions of Count Viczay, Count Brunswick, and Count Apponyi,
there are the collections of Prince Paul Eszterhazy, whose
pictures date from 1697, of Nicolas Jankovich, Archbishop
Joseph Pirker de Fels6-E6r, and Bishop Arnold Ipolyi.
In the National Museum, in which the relics of Hungarian
history and culture are preserved, the first public collection
of fine arts was founded; but the departments of painting
and sculpture were added only when Archbishop Pirlier
presented 162 pictures to the nation. The first independent
National Picture Gallery was inaugurated on the name-day
of the late Archduke-Palatine, the 19th March 1846. With the
support of the c Association for the Protection of the Picture
Gallery* and other similar institutions, the collection was
satisfactorily developed and has since been augmented by
remarkable donations of works of ancient and modern art.
An opportunity was presented for a new establishment
when, through the benevolence of Prince Nicolas Eszterhazy,
the nation acquired the « Eszterhazy Picture Gallery*. And
this fine collection was, by virtue of Law Article XI (1871),
constituted public property and styled the National Picture
Gallery. Hence there were developments all round. All pictures
of the nature of ancient historical art were gathered together
in the national picture gallery, while the various stages of
modern development were demonstrated by the Picture Gallery
of the National Museum.
After the separation, both galleries showed a fair increase
until the legislature, in commemoration of the Millennium,
brought them together again by means of a new institution.
240 CHAPTER XII.
2. The Museum of Fine Arts.
The legislature ordered the establishment of a new insti-
tution under the title of «The Hungarian National Museum of
Fine Arts», which is intended to embrace all branches of
creative art, arranged in order of historical developement. Thus
all which hitherto have been divided under State Control, will
now be gathered under one roof, and provided with the nec-
cessary means of realizing their destined end.
In accordance with the provisions of the Law referred
to, a grand edifice has been erected, occupying 12.000 square
metres of land, to serve for a modern museum, in which the
various collections, initiated in 1905, will find a home. This
museum is divided into departments as follows:
1. The department of ancient plastics and arclutecture,
consisting of ten spacious halls and pavillions in which authen-
tic copies of architectural and sculptural art are displayed,
beginning with ancient Egypt and the East, and ending with
the Greek and Roman decadence.
2. The department of mediaeval and mod^n architecture
and sculpture. This consists of three large courts and one hall,
containing originals as well as copies of objects of architecture
and sculpture, showing the progress of national and foreign
development through the early Christian, Roman, Gothic,
Renaissance, and Baroque periods down to the end of the
eighteenth century.
3. Picture Gallery of Historic Art. Besides the national
development of the painting art, here are shown, in original,
characteristic, and well-selected examples, all phases of foreign
historical developement of this art. The collection occupies
27 rooms, ten of which are lighted from above, and the rema-
ining seventeen have side-windows. It differs from all other
exhibitions by offering a uniform and correct presentation, and
it has fully accomplished its purpose in displaying, not only
Italian paintings, but specimens of almost every style and
epoch.
The thirteenth century tablets of the Italian department
include some of the works of Lippi, Rafifael, Ghirlandajo Gen-
tile Bellini, Luini, Boltraffio, Latto, Giorgione, and Tiepalo.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 241
In the Spanish department are masterpieces of Murillo, and
<joya, so often praised in literature. Hardly less important are
the representations of the Netherlands, and Flemish schools,
comprising works of Brueghel, Memling, G. David, Coques, Van
Dyck, Rubens, and Jordaens.
In the Dutch department we find pictures by such masters
as Steen, Van der Heist, Th. de Keyser, Vermeer, Van-Detlft
Hals, Bol, Rembrandt, Cuyp, and Morels.
The German school is represented by Cranach, and DOrer ;
the English by Reynolds, Romney, and Hoppner ; the French
by Clouet, Rigaud, Greuze, CI. Lorrain, and Poussin; and in
the Hungarian department valuable additions may be seen of
master-pieces by Oriente, Kupeczky, Manyoki, and Bogdanyi.
The principle followed in the acquirement of new pictures
is to realise as completely as possible a universal collection.
This arduous task will perhaps never be fully accomplis-
hed, taking into consideration the geogi*apliical situation of
Hungary, which is too far from the centre of Europe to obtain
the knowledge of art necessary for a man of general culture.
This could only be possible by prolonged and expensive tra-
velUng. Hence the importance of an all-embracing art col-
lectioa
4. The equipment of the modern Picture Gallery was
carried out on the same principle as the previous collection.
Special attention has been paid to the display of the various
schools and tendencies of foreign painters. Indeed, more atten-
tion has been given to this matter by us than by any other
countries of Europe. Prominent Austrian, German, Swiss,
Danish, Finnish, Belgian, French, Spanish, Italian, American
and English masters are represented, their works being arran-
ged in the collection in such manner as to show at a glance
ihe various schools of painting and the successive development
of each nation.
The constant effort to solve an unsolvable problem is seen
in the fact of the museum possessing the master pieces of such
eminent painters as Amerling, Waldmiiller, Canon, Achenbach,
Lenbach, Leibl, Stuck, Uhde, Ziigel, Bocklin, Thaulow, Zorn,
Axel, Gallen, Mesdagh, Knoff, Isabey, Troyon, Diaz, Dupre,
Renard, L. Simon, Sisley, Zuloaga, Favretto, Segantini, Harrison,
Cameron, W. Crane, Solomen, East, 0. Hall and many others,
16
242 CHAPTER XII.
besides the latest famous productions of the modern French,
English, Scotch, and Northern painters.
Special attention is, of course, given to the representation
of the Hungadan School of painting. The development is ob-
served to be more remarkable at the end of the eighteenth
and in the nineteenth century. This period is represented by
the productions of Schalhaas, Dondt, the Marks family, Marasztoni,
Borsos, Brocki, Barabas, Ligeti, Madarasz, Than, Lotz, and
Munkacsy ; while later we have the most successful pictures of
our best painters, many of whom are now living. Besides
these are shown the results of a revolutionising artistic ten-
dency at the present day, which is striving after new effects
in art.
The Modern picture Gallery is worthily sheltered in 18
halls, besides a number of spare rooms to meet the exigencies
of probable augmentation.
5. The department of modern plastics serves a similar
purpose, its object being to show Hungarian chiselling art side
by side with the achievements of foreigners. This collection
consists of the works of Ferenczy and Zflilich from the begin-
ning of last century; as well as the later works of Hungarian
artists, and either originals or true copies of the works of
Thorwaldsen, Canova, T. D. Boehm, Meunier, Bartholomi, and
Rodin.
In this section great care is taken in its arrangement that
universal development shall by easily discernable.
6. To all these collections is added a sketching department,
displaying in chronological order the many and varied pro-
ducts of the sketching art, including the works of almost all
the prominent artists up to the present time. The greater por-
tion of these valuable etchings and free-hand drawings comes
from the family of Prince Eszterhazy, supplemented by — in
some cases — the entire collections of such famous masters as
DQrer and Rembrandt ; and completed by individual donations,
as for instance the valuable bequest of Stephen Daelhas. The
collections of English smooth sketches is eminently worthy of
attention, the most renowned sketchers of the day being there
represented by their best works.
With regard to all that we have already stated, we desire
further to state, that in our efforts to reduce the disadvantages
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 243
wrought by unfavourable circumstances in the development
of our national art, we aim at the preservation of all that is
best in it, side by side with the worthy achievements of for-
eign countries. Above all we desire to raise the museum to the
highest rank, as a temple of our national culture, so tliat, by
joining the memorials of the past with the achievements
of the presentit may serve the cause of development and
progress in art.
3. Expenditure.
In the year 1907, 491.900 crowns were allowed for the
maintenance of the Museum of Fine Arts and the Historical
Picture Gallery. Of this sum, 164.900 crowns were disbursed
in general, and 327.000 in incidental, expenditure.
III. National Hungarian Royal Museum of Decorative
Arts. (Art Industry).
1. Introduction.
In the latter half of the nineteenth centur}^ England awoke
to the fact — at the first Universal Exhibition of 1851 — that
Art was on the decline ; and she was also the first to take the
initial steps for its revival, in which she was followed by all
the civilized States. The basis of England's action was the
idea, certainly a correct one, that the decaying arts of the
nineteenth century would revive through a more profound
knowledge of the art treasures of past ages. Therefore it came
to pass tliat with all the means at her disposal England
undertook the work of accumulating objects of ancient art and
placing them at the service of the general public in the Museum
inaugurated in 1857, named at the time after the locality «The
South Kensingtons, and later given its present designation after
Queen Victoria and her consort Prince Albert. As a corollary,
an Art Training School was instituted at the same time in which
the youth of the nation might turn to practical use the know-
ledge obtained from their studies at the Museum referred to-
Witnessing the eminently practical results Of these two
English institutions, Hungaiy followed, and at the instance of
16*
244 CHAPTER XII.
the National Industry Association inaugurated in 1878 the
National Hungarian Museum of Industrial Art, and in 1880 the
School of Industrial Art. Both these institutions struggled for
many years with great difficulties, principally with regard to
accommodation, the rooms being insufficient and unsuitable.
In 1896, however, through the munificence of the legislature
a palatial edifice was erected as the home of both museum
and school.
2. The purpose of the Museum of Decorative Arts.
Briefly stated, the aim of the Museum is to acquire and
preserve for posterity all objects of ancient Hungarian art,
besides specimen copies of the national works of art of foreign
countries, with a view to stimulating the industrial art of
Hungary through the medium of the materials accumulated;
also to provide the rising generation with the best examples
of industrial art ; to direct their activities, as it were, into a
national channel in order to enable them to meet the public
demands. At the same time to foster a strong and healthy
patriotic sentiment in the public, to ennoble and refine its taste,
and aid science in obtaining a thorough knowledge of our
ancient civilisation. To this end exhibitions are periodically
held for both the cultured and the uncultured classes, and
lectures are delivered, which are afterward published in the
form of cheap brochures. Models are also lent to schools and
private enterprises, while the fine library and art collection
are devoted to the same purpose.
3. Exhibitions.
The first exhibition was arranged in 1882, consisting of
ancient Hungarian prints and book-binding. On this occasion
sixty pieces of <scCorvins» (Corvin codexes) were on view.
In the same year the Museum participated in the exhibit-
ion of the <tUnion Centrale des Arts Decoraiifs» with Hungarian
embroideries and cloths.
In 1884 nearly eight thousand pieces of Goldsmiths' and
Silversmiths' work from all parts of the world — principally
from the churches — were exhibited, those of the middle ages
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 245
possesing an unsurpassed value as works of art. To preserve
these for public enjoyment afler the close of the exhibition
an atelier was established for the production of copies of these
treasures. Many of these copies were taken up in England,
and also by the Victoria and Albert Museum, the School of
Art in Bombay, Queen's Park Museum in Manchester, the Free
PubUc Library in Belfast, the Museums of Science and Art
in Edinburgh and Dublin, and the Museum in Glasgow.
in the same year also the Museum took part in an
exhibition of Hungarian pottery in Paiis.
It has further initiated a novelty in the way of exhibitions,
by collecting, the productions of artisans who show artistic
talent in any branch, and in forming the same into a Christmas
show. Later on these exhibits were developed to an important
extent and the scheme placed on a broader basis, by the
National Art Industry Association.
This association endeavours to further the cause of national
industrial art by enlisting social sympathy and assistance, and
by this means it has already achieved excellent results. The
Christmas shows have become immensely popular, and at the
festive season form a centre where the industrial art wares
find ready purchasers.
The results of this evolution, which was organised in Eng-
land and swept like a wave over Europe, seeking for new forms
and expressions in art, were presented at an exhibition in
1898, thereby opening the way for the development at art
culture in Hungary.
By the kindness of the Science and Art Department, the
Museum took part in the national competition in 1899, exhibit-
ing a number of articles which had carried off prizes and
medals on previous occasions.
The Historical Pavillion, which was so highly success-
ful at the Paris International Exhibition of 1900, was entirely
the work of the Museum of Decorative Arts. The Hungarian «Ex
libris» (book-plates) were first introduced at an exhibition in 1903
and have subsequently become quite popular among the proprie •
tors of libraries. While in 1904 the entire stock of old tapestries
and embroideries in the possession of the Museum were placed
on public view.
246 CHAPTER XII.
The Museum at Kassa was fitted out by an official of the
Museum of Decorative Arts, and has become the most important
institution of its kind in the country.
Last spring art-lovers were greatly interested in the ex-
hibition of the original works of the late Aubrey Beardsley.
This also was arranged by the Museum. Its most successful
achievement was, however, the one instituted this year, at
which some 4000 works of art were displayed, including those
of 64 amateurs of Budapest, thus stimulating the artistic sent-
iment by the public exhibition of art treasures which other-
wise would have been inaccessible.;
Another purpose of this exhibition was to inculcate the
pleasures of collecting, and thereby help to prevent ancient
works of art from passing out of the country and getting lost.
4. The National « George Rdth» Museum*
This collection belonged originally to George Rath, and
was two years ago presented to the nation by Mrs. George
Rath, in memory of her late husband. Thus a new museum
has been brought into being in a separate bulding, though
forming part of the Museum of Decorative Arts and in charge
of its board of directors.
The George Rath Museum contains paintings of the old
masters, antique bronzes, wood-carvings, coins and medals,
silversmith's handicraft, china, fayence, and pottery ; furniture,
jewellery, rugs, cai'pets, and various objects of art, numbering
altogether 1200 pieces and amounting in value to upwards of
one million crowns.
5. Library, Photographic Department, Building and
Expenditure.
The exceedingly valuable library, the common property
of the Museum of Decorative Arts and the School, contains 6193
volumes and 83892 art illustrations, and forms an essential
adjunct to the Museum in the fulfilment of its mission. But
besides these, we ought not to omit to mention the rich
collection of phgtographic views of Hungarian subjects.
In 1894 the erection of the edifice to form the new Art
School was commenced, and completed in 1896. The cost of
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 247
the construction was about three millions of crowns ; and the
area at the disposal of the Museum is 6586 square metres.
For the maintainance of the Museum in the year 1907
the sum of 150.630 crowns was allowed by the Minister of
Public Instruction.
IV. The Superintendence of Museums and Libraries.
1. The National Association.
Regarding public collections brought together in an un-
official manner, there are three institutions which play an
important role in Hungary.
The National Association of Museums and Libraries^ which
consists of the representatives of Collections, and the institutions
that maintain them.
This National Association endeavours to keep alive public
interest in the common collections.
2. The National Board.
The National Board of Museums and Libraries formed
of the delegates of the Association, the representatives of unions
and institutions for the spread of public education, the mem-
bers of the staft of the office of the Superintendent-in-chief of
Museums and Libraries, head officials of the State public col-
lections, and representatives of the Minister — (as an advisory
board of the Ministry) — looks after the affairs of the Public
Collections which receive Slate aid.
Until the present time, the Council, as far the free Lib-
raries were concerned, was the executive organ of the State;
but according to the new rules issued by the Superintendent-
in-chief, this executive work is to be undertaken by the latter.
This rule is in process of alteration.
3. Superintendent-in-chief of Museums and Libraries.
At the head of the Board for the General Control of
Museums and Libraries, there is a Superintendent-in-chief
appointed by the King for a period of five years, who, as in
the case of inspectors appointed by the Minister, fills an honor-
ary office.
248 CHAPTER XII.
The only salaried State officials are the « Referendary »
i. e. the chief of the Administration, the secretary, who attends
to the administrative work, and the clerk.
The task of the Board is to make the objects contained
in public collections a factor in the development of national
sciences, art and culture.
Having regard to this, — as executive organ of the State —
it surveys the collections, gives directions for their arrangement,
co-operates in establishing new collections, makes proposals to
the Ministry in order to obtain its material and moral support,
and carries into effect the decrees of the latter. The Board also
arranges special courses of lectures for the instruction of cur-
ators of the collections etc.
The two Boards have been working just ten years, and
owing to their activity many centres of culture have been
formed throughout the country, — centres which, being in pos-
session of the requirements of higher intellectual life, have
become important factors in the development and spread of
c ulture.
In the year 1907, there were 76 institutions of a scientific
character included in the sphere of authority of the Super-
intendent-in-chief, under the supreme control of the State.
The number of free libraries founded by the National
Board increased to 268; besides which, associations and other
societies established, under the auspices of the said Board?
227 others.
In the same year a quarterly periodical published by the
Superintendent-in-chief in conjunction with the National Board,
made its first appearance under the title «Muzeumi es Konyv-
tari firteslt6» (Review of Museums and Libraries).
In the Budget of 1907 a sum of altogether 393.000 crowns
was appropriated for the purposes of the National Board and
the Superintendent-in-chief, as well as for the support of the
Transylvanian Museum and for the National Administration of
the Archives belonging to the Roman catholic chapters and
convents which are recognised by the Hungarian law as auth-
entic places.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 249
V. Protection of Art Memorials. (Art Relics.)
The question of the preservation of antiquities has, since
1881, been subject to law. In the year 1860 the Hungarian
Academy of Science did its best in the interests of Hungarian
Art Memorials, by issuing the publication : «Archeologiai Kozle-
menyek» (Archaelogical Notes), containing in its rich columns
a comprehensive monograph of our art memorials.
In 1868 a regular subsidy was voted by the Hungarian
legislature, in the budget of the Ministry of Public Instruction,
for the maintenance of objects of historical interest; and in
1872 a provisional Committee was appointed by the Ministi'y
for the research and preservation of such objects, and for the
dissemination of information with regard to them. From this
point, activity became general. The Committee lost its provi-
sional character in 1881 and became permanent on the passing
of Act XXXIX (1881), known as the «Law of Art Me-
morials*, providing tliat «Art Memorials are to be subject to
the protection of this present Law, and placed under tlie
control of the Minister of Public Instruction*, further, «that the
said Minister, in carrying this law into effect, will act on the
authentic opinion expressed by the Committee on Art Me-
morials».
The sphere of activity of the National Committee on Art
Memorials includes all edifices of every kind soever, whether
above, below, or on the surface of the earth, as well as their
appurtenances of sculpture, painting, or other treasures of an
art or historical value.
The term «art memorial* applies to all architecture and
architectural appurtenances dating from prehistoric times to
the nineteenth century.
The duties of the National Committee consist in searching
for national art treasures and memorials, in classifying them,
pronouncing on their respective merits and value; also in their
protection, and in the publication of descriptive pamphlets with
reference thereto. It decides as to art memorials in need of
repair, and prepares the plans for the necessary restoration,
subject to the permission and control of the Minister of Public
250 CHAPTER XII.
Instruction, who regulates all matters of work and expenditure
along definite lines, on the basis of the budget items fixed
annually.
In accordance with law, any building or structure what-
ever possessing the character of an art memorial is under the
protection of the State, and the discoverer of such is bound
to report it to the municipal authority of the spot on which
the discovery is made. Moreover, the owner of the fabric thus
reported to be of art value, must keep it intact for a period
of sixty days from the date of the report. This period is fixed
to allow time for the Minister to complete the necessary
arrangements with regard thereto.
The Committee on Art Memorials decides as to what
buildings or appurtenances shall be preserved as memorials.
These must be maintained in a perfectly original state by their
owners at their own expense. Repairs or alterations may only
be made by permission of the Minister, and then only in the
prescribed manner. If the owner fails to preserve and protect
the art memorial, as prescribed by the Minister, or makes
alterations without authority, proceedings may be instituted
against him by the Minister for the appropriation of the
memorial. If the memorial to be preserved be the property of
an administrative body, of a municipality or of a legally
recognised religious denomination, which fails to fulfil these
obligations, the Minister of Public Instruction reserves the right
to order and carry into effect the necessary work of restoration
or of maintenance at the expense of the proprietors. If, how-
ever, the said work of restoration or of maintenance should
entail undue strain on the financial resources of the admini-
strative body, of the town, or of the religious denomination,
the Minister, (should it be deemed desirable to maintain the
memorial) may defray part or the whole of the expenses
thereof out of the National Fund.
CHAPTER XIII.
THEATRES.
I. Historical Retrospect
1. Theatrical Art in the 17th and i8th Centuries.
Hungarian Theatrical Art began with Mystery Plays and
School Dramas: For the most part of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, professional dramatic representation was
still German in this country; and it was only in 1791 that
the « National Hungarian Dramatic Society* originated under
the leadership of Laszlo Kelemen, the first Theatrical Director
in Hungary.
Just about a hundred years before their appearance on
the stage, towards the end of the seventeenth century, George
Felvinczy had been granted the privilege of organising a
Hungarian Company, by the Emperor Leopold I. We have
however no precise information as to the merits of Felvin-
czy's productions; the still extant licence alone preserves his
memory. Kelemen's Company must have had to compete with
the contemporary German companies, at that time much
further advanced. But the general indifference displayed
towards Hungarian dramatic performances involved him finally
in failure ; so that, being unable to support himself in Pest,
he started on a tour in the provinces in 1796 with the
remnant of his company.
252 CHAPTER XUl.
2. Theatrical Art in the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Just in the same way a company was formed in the nineties
of the XVIII century at Kolozsvar in Transylvania, but under
considerably better auspices than had been the case at Pest.
This company was invigorated by the support of the Magnates
(aristocrats) of Transylvania, and in 1807 already they were
giving birth to new «troupes». One half of the company made
its appearance in Pest, where it was successful in maintaining
itself under the name of the «Hungarian Theatrical Company* ;
for they found in the person of Laszl6 Vida a Maecenas ready
to make any sacrifices.
About this time companies were formed one after the
other in the provinces, and among them the Kassa Company
in particular attained a high artistic level.
3. The first permanent Theatres.
In the meantime the Kolozsvdr Theatrical Company
flourished more and more vigorously, until in the year 1821,
owing to the munificence of the Magnates (aristocrats) of
Transylvania, who were inspired by the excellent example of
Baron Nicholas Wesselenyi, they obtained a permanent home ;
for they built the «Transylvanian National Hungarian Play-
house* which later was called the « Kolozsvar Hungarian
National Theatre », which was in point of fact the first perm-
anent Theatre of Hungary.
In 1837 the Budapest National Theatre, still existing at
the present day, was built from public subscriptions; and
from this originated the National Hungarian Opera House in
1884, with the assistance of the State, from which time onward
the Budapest National Theatre devoted itself entirely to the
production of the Drama.
II. Theatres of the present day.
1. The Royal Hungarian Opera House.
The Royal Hungarian Opera House stands absolutely
alone in its own department in the highest position in the
country, as being the only one; and, with its first-rate staff" of
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 253
artists and diversified programme, we may boldly rank it
along with the principal European Opera Houses.
Upon its programme, where we very frequently meet
with the works of Richard Wagner, so much appreciated in
this country, together with the works of other composers of
the greatest merit, are to be found the ever increasing batta-
lions of Hungarian composers ; at whose head may be named,
Francis Liszt, Francis Erkel, Count Geza Zichy, and Edmund
Mihalovics; names which are a testimony to the progressive
culture of the nation in the domain of this art also.
2. The Budapest National Theatre.
The National Theatre is the most eminent theatre in
the country as regards the Drama; and its programme includes
the works of famous authors, native and foreign, classical and
modern. As a matter of course a very prominent place is
occupied in this programme by the dramatic works of William
Shakespeare, the celebrated English genius, whose name is
met with on the Hungarian Stage, at tlie time of the earliest
attempts at dramatic representation in Hungary, i. e. at
the end of the eighteenth century. In the National Theatre
Shakespeare was acted from the very beginning, and
the first of his plays which was represented on the stage,
was the «Taming of the Shrew*. The others followed, and
are constantly on the programme, being received with uni-
versal interest up to the present day, and indeed the Theatre
bestows especial care upon their reproduction. The plays most
frequently performed are: — Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet,
Julius Caesar, Macbeth, King Lear, Othello, The Merchant
of Venice, A Midsummer Night's Dream, A Winter's Tale,
and Richard 111 ; but in addition to these nearly all the others
are produced as well. Among the most celebrated Hungarian
dramatists may be mentioned, over and above the present
rising generation of authors, the following: — Charles Kis-
faludy, Joseph Katona, Emmerich Madacli, Edward Szigligeli,
Gregory Csiky, Maurice Jdkai, Francis Herczeg, and Eugene
Rakosi.
254 CHAPTER Xlll.
3. Other Budapest Theatres.
The rapid progress in culture, of which the country was
the scene in the second half of the last century, opened up
a vast region for the completer development of Theatrical Art.
At the present time, in addition to the two before
mentioned Theatres subsidised by the Slate, there is another
which is the property of the metropolis itself, but is let out
to a private manager — the Nepszinhaz-Vig-Opera (Popular
Opera Comique), which with its miscellaneous programme
advances the cause of Theatrical Art.
Among the private Theatres may be mentioned the
«Vigszinhaz» (Comedy Theatre) and the «Magyar Szinhdz*
(Hungarian Theatre), as working on the most modern lines.
4. Provincial Theatres.
Theatrical life in the provinces is also very active. There
are thirty companies playing in the provinces, leaving out of
consideration the Kolozsvar National Theatre. The larger of
these perform in the more important County Towns, resorting
to the smaller localities only in the summer, when these have
been vacated by other companies which give six or eight
weeks' series of representations.
5. State Subsidies to Theatres.
All theatrical matters were originally assigned by legis-
lation to the sphere of authority of the Minister of the Inter-
ior ; but in 1907 the Minister of Public Instruction took them
over from him ast the result of a similar decision of the legis-
lature.
The Royal Hungarian Opera House, the Budapest National
Theatre, the Kolozsvar Hungarian National Theatre are under
Government inspection.
The managers of the two former of these receive their
authorisation from the Minister, whereas the lessee of the
Kolozsvar National Theatre is under the supervision of two
private directors. All of these three participate in an annual
subvention from the charges of the Royal Household, in
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 255
addition to a subvention fixed by the legislature, which is
charged on the Government estimates.
In the year 1907 the Royal Hungarian Opera House received
a subsidy of 400.000 K (crowns) from the King, and 733.000
from the Slate. The Royal contribution to the Budapest
National Theatre was 120.000 K, and that of the State
150.000 K : and the National Theatre received from the income
of the Hungarian Theatrical Fund 56.000 K. The KoIozsv4r
National Theatre received 20.000 K from the King, and a
subsidy from the State also of 20.000 K.
For subsidising provincial Theatres as well the total sum
of 168.000 K was voted by the legislature.
CHAPTER XIV.
Literature, Science and Public Education.
1. state aid.
The Budget of the 'Ministry of Public Instruction for 1907
included a sum of 313.394 crowns for the promotion of litera-
ture, science and pubHc education.
2. Scientific and literary Societies. Shakespeare-Committee.
A considerable part of this amount is given to the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences : the Kisfaludy Society — the
most prominent literary society in Hungary — , the Natural
Sciences Society, the Geographical Society, the Geological
Society and the Ethnographical Society also receive a grant.
A most important movement that receives financial support
from the State, was initiated quite recently in Hungary, with
the object of propagating the cultivation of Shakespeare. The
Kisfaludy Society has constituted a special Shakespeare Com-
mittee which has already begun a course of lectures on the
importance of the great and gifted British poet and for the
belter knowledge of his works. Besides, a Shakespeare-Review
will be published, Shakespeare monographs will be issued,
and it is intended to have a special Shakespeare-room in the
University Library at Budapest, where we shall have a coK
lection consisting of all the important works of the Shakespeare
literature. The revision of the Shakespeare translations, made
by the best Hungarian poets and writers, is also o be taken
in hand.
3. Seismological institutes.
The seismological institutes working at Budapest also re-
ceive financial support from the State. These are the seismological
observatory situated in the basement of the National Museum
which is well equipped with instruments, and the calculating
institiire. Both were created, on the initiative of the Inter-
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 257
national Seismological Alliance, by the zeal of the General
Secretary of the Permanent Committee, the representative of
Hungary in the Alliance, and by some other generous persons.
They commenced operations in 1906.
These institutes through the medium of their weekly
reports published in French, are in constant touch with foreign
States and are called upon to link the scientific world of Hun-
gary more closely with those of foreign countries.
4. Participation in foreign scientific movements.
Generally speaking, Hungary participates as far as possible
in all international scientific movements and sends represen-
tatives to the more important scientific congresses; in 1907
professional men were sent abroad on several occassions, e. g.
to the London Congress of School Sanitation, to the Exeter
Medical Conference etc. The Hungarian Committee of the
International Central and Eastern Asiatic Society is subven-
tioned by the State; Hungary is a member of the International
Seismological Alliance and of the International Geodetical Alli-
ance, which latter held its Congress in 1906 at Budapest, when
Baron Roland Eolvos, Professor in the University of Budapest
and an Ex-Minister, gave an account of the results of his
important experiments made with the aid of a torsion pen-
dulum respecting gravitation, for which purpose the State gave
him a substantial grant.
In the University of Paris there is a chair for Hungarian
Language and Literature, established with the assistance of the
Hungarian Government; and a work-table is rented at the
Stazione Zoologica at Naples for the use of Hungarian experts
(specialists).
,l 5. Institutions for Public Education.
Among the institutions devoted to the propagation of
public education, the following are subventioned by the State :
— the Popular Course in Higher Education established after
the model of the English « University Extension», — the Free
Lyceum, The Elizabeth Popular Academy and the Urania
Hungarian Scientific Society, whose popular scientific review
and activity in promoting out of school public education in
the provinces has scored a great success.
17
258 CHA'^TER XIV.
6. PubUc instruction put of school
Provincial centres are to be creatied to propagate
education: and in many provincial towns teachers of second-
ary schools are holding lectures from year to year, iilaking
use of the rooms and equipments of schools, and as^sted by
State grants and by the support of other social factors.
The Ministry is at present working on a scheme for the
uniform organization of public instruction out of school. This
is to be organized on the basis of the system of education
(elementary, secondary, higher) at present in force. The object
of the lowest grade will be to instruct illiterate persons to
read and write, that of the secondary grade to propagate
general education aiid to impart professional training in several
directions (this grade will therefore be of especial importance
from the point of view of industry and agriculture), while that
of the higher grade will be to impart knowledge on a level
with that offered by the lectures and courses of study of uni-
versities and colleges of university standing.
The main object of this instruction out of school, — which
will be subventioned by the State, — is to complete the edu-
cation of those who have attended lower grade schools and
to educate those whose vocation has not permitted them to
enjoy any of the benefits of schooling.
7. Houses for popularisation of culture.
With these endeavours is connected the question of Houses
for the popularisation of culture, whose establishment has
already received the sanction of Parliament. In these buildings
there will be a hall for lectures and musical performances,
with pictures on the wall purchased the State; there will be
a laboratory, a museum of small extent, a library, a shop for
selling articles produced by home industry, a locality for- a
permanent exhibition of agricultural or industrial implements
or models of the same. In other words, a place and an oppor-
tunity will be provided for the display, in its many phases,
of public culture. These houses will be erected by the towns
concerned, with the assistance of the State.
EDUCATION IN HUNGARY 259
8. Criticism (review) and sanctioning of school-books.
The Departmenl of Science and Literature of the Ministry
of Public Instruction is charged with the examination and
sanctioning of the use of school-books.
In schools under the control of the Ministry only such
school-books may be used as have been sanctioned by the
Ministry. The school-books, which must be handed in to the
Ministry in printed form, are examined by one or two com-
petent critics, and the sanction by the Minister of their use in
schools depends on the nature of their report. The critics' fees
are paid by the author. The question which of the school-
books whose use has been sanctioned shall be used in a school,
is decided in the case of elementary- and apprentice-schools
by the board of management and boards of trustees respec-
tively (at Budapest by the town council), in other schools by
the teaching staffs.
From a national point of view the Minister has a certain
right of controlling the school-books used in denominational
institutes.
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