Effectiveness of a developmental guidance unit and self-instruction module about sexual harassment among seventh grade students

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A DEVELOPMENTAL GUIDANCE UNIT

AND SELF- INSTRUCTION MODULE ABOUT SEXUAL HARASSMENT

AMONG SEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS

By
RUSSELL A. SABELLA

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

1995

This dissertation is dedicated to my father,
Giuseppe Sabella; my mother, Sina Sabella; my
loving wife, Betty; and to my son, Giuseppe
Salvatore Sabella, for providing me with much
love, support, and inspiration.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With reverence and appreciation, I would like to
acknowledge the people who have contributed to the
completion of my dissertation.

My parents, Giuseppe and Sina Sabella, who came to the
United States from Sicily, showed me true diligence,
perseverance, and courage. I am thankful for their
relentless source of support and encouragement. I only hope
to gain their wisdom in my lifetime. I love them very much.

My three brothers, Salvatore, Jimmy, and Joseph have
been close friends. I am grateful for their help and
support .

My sincere thanks goes to Shihan Don Rosenthal, my judo
instructor and good friend, for his guidance, timely
encouragement, and enlightening perspective on life.

My doctoral committee chairman, Robert D. Myrick, has
provided over the last nine years genuine friendship, care
for my family and myself, scholarly leadership, guidance,
and invaluable mentorship. His work with me is greatly
cherished. I look forward to many more years of
collaboration and fellowship.

My committee members, Dr. Gerardo Gonzalez, Dr. Maxwell
Parker, and Dr. Cecil Mercer, have provided valuable input

iii

for the development and completion of this dissertation. I
thank them dearly.

I also wish to thank Mrs. Marty Johnson, Westwood
Middle School; Dr. Thomas Summers, Westwood Middle School;
Mr. Bruce Johnson, Ft. Clarke Middle School; Blair Bushkin,
University of Florida; Kristi Winger, University of Florida;
Mrs. Dorine Thomas and Mr. Ret Thomas, Buchholz High School;
and the BHS TeenAiders for their enormous help, support, and
understanding .

Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Betty Sabella,
and son, Giuseppe Salvatore Sabella, for believing in me and
holding me up when I grew tired. Betty has been so giving
and loving.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES vii

ABSTRACT viii

I INTRODUCTION 1

Purpose of the Study 4

Research Questions 4

Statement of the Problem 5

Need for the Study 6

Theoretical Basis for the Study:

Developmental Guidance 7

Definition of Terms 12

Organization of the Study 14

II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 15

The Nature of Sexual Harassment 15

The Victims and Perpetrators 25

The Middle School Student 49

Previous Attempts at Sexual Harassment

Intervention 52

Peer Facilitator Programs and Training .... 60

Summary 72

III METHODS AND PROCEDURES 7 3

Population and Sample 74

Relevant Variables 7 8

Instruments 80

Research Design 88

Hypotheses 88

Participant Training 90

Procedure 92

IV RESEARCH FINDINGS 94

Knowledge 95

Attitude 98

Behavior 101

Self-Concept 105

School Comfort 106

V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, IMPLICATIONS,

AND RECOMMENDATIONS Ill

Summary Ill

Conclusions 115

Limitations 120

Implications 121

Recommendations 122

APPENDICES

A HIGH SCHOOL PEER COUNSELING

CURRICULUM OUTCOMES 124

B INFORMED PARENTAL CONSENT FOR STUDY

PARTICIPATION 125

C SH INVENTORY 126

D SAI INVENTORY 129

E A LARGE GROUP GUIDANCE UNIT ABOUT SEXUAL

HARASSMENT FACILITATORS GUIDE 130

REFERENCES 163

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 17 9

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2-1 Legal Decisions Affecting Sexual Harassment .... 54

3-1 Population of Alachua County Middle Schools .... 75

3-2 Sampling of Middle School Students 7 7

3-3 Focus, Title, and Objectives for the Intervention

Sessions 79

3-4 Summary of Research Design 89

3-5 Summary of Procedures and Time Table 93

4-1 Means and Standard Deviations for Knowledge,
Attitude, Behavior, Self -concept, and School
Comfort 97

4-2 Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for

the Sexual Harassment Inventory Knowledge Scale . 99

4-3 Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for

the Sexual Harassment Inventory Attitude Scale . . 102

4-4 Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for

the Sexual Harassment Inventory Behavior Scale . . 104

4-5 Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for

the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale . . 107

4-6 Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for

the School Atmosphere Inventory 110

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School

of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A DEVELOPMENTAL GUIDANCE UNIT

AND SELF- INSTRUCTION MODULE ABOUT SEXUAL HARASSMENT AMONG

SEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS

By

Russell A. Sabella

August, 1995

Chairman: Dr. Robert D. Myrick

Major Department: Counselor Education

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effects of a developmental guidance unit and self-
instruction module about sexual harassment on early
adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the
unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self-concept,
and school comfort of middle school students. In addition,
three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit
were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper
led; and self-instruction.

A pre-test-posttest control group design was used with
14 0 seventh graders from two middle schools in Alachua
County. Four science classes from one school and four
English classes from another school were randomly assigned

one of three experimental groups or the control group. The
intervention was delivered in one condition by adults
(teachers or student counselors) and trained and supervised
high school peer facilitators in another condition. The
third condition consisted of students responding to a self-
instruction module about sexual harassment similar to the
adult-led and peer-led conditions except for the benefit of
group activities and discussion. Data were analyzed using a
repeated measures analysis of variance on five dependent
variables. Five null hypotheses were tested.

No significant differences (a = .02) were found among
groups in changes from pretest to posttest in sexual
harassment knowledge (HoJ, attitude (Ho2), behavior (Ho ),
self-concept (Ho4), or school comfort (Ho5). However, a
significant mean difference resulted from pretest to
posttest (a = .02) for the experimental and control groups
taken together for self -concept .

The data analysis did not support the six-week
intervention about sexual harassment with seventh grade
students. However, qualitative data taken from teachers and
students indicated that the intervention had merit and needs
to be studied again, using more reliable instrumentation.

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The public has become increasingly aware, through the
media and increased educational efforts, of the
pervasiveness and intensity of sexual harassment. It has
been a controversial, sensitive, and elusive problem that
has been mostly ignored even in light of its damaging
repercussions. Incidents of sexual harassment have involved
people across different genders, races, educational levels,
and socioeconomic status. No individual is immune from its
debilitating effects on mental health, job performance,
academic progress, and the economy in general.

One critical incident of sexual harassment made an
especially dramatic impact on the public's awareness. In
October, 1991, Professor Anita Hill pressed charges against
Judge Clarence Thomas after his nomination to the United
States Supreme Court. When the U.S. Senate appeared ready
to confirm Thomas without airing the charges, an outpouring
of protest from American women stopped the proceeding in its
tracks and forced a public hearing (Petrocelli & Repa,
1992) .

2
Since this time, a relatively great deal of knowledge
has been ascertained about the nature of sexual harassment
in the workplace and colleges. Only presently has the study
of sexual harassment involved high schools and middle
schools. Until now sexual harassment was presumed to be a
problem exclusive to adults or adult environments.

Episodes of sexual harassment are now known to pervade
the experiences of children and teen-agers even as early as
third grade (Harris, 1993). For example, a neighbor makes
comments about the size of a young girl's breasts. Or, a
teacher implies he will give a student a higher grade if she
sits on his lap, kisses him, touches him, or flirts with
him. Perhaps a tennis coach rubs against a male student
during practice. A camp counselor may manipulate situations
so a student frequently winds up alone with him.

Peer-on-peer sexual harassment is the most prevalent
type of sexual harassment in the schools. For example,
consider the cases of Martin, Topeka, and Steven. Martin
was an eighth grade student who believed that it was funny
to make sexual gestures at girls to invoke their reactions.
It not only amused him but his friends who would watch. The
victim suffered embarrassment and wanted it to cease.
Because Martin was a popular boy with all the students and
the faculty, she was hesitant to report him. She felt
powerless .

3
Topeka is an attractive and popular seventh grade girl.
Several boys asked for her phone number with intentions of
eventually "going steady with her." She disregarded such
requests because she was interested only in one boy, Kevin.
When Topeka asked Kevin for his phone number, he did not
give it to her because, unbeknownst to her, his parents
would not allow it. Topeka grew angry and accused him of
being stupid. In the halls, she tried to humiliate him by
making sexual and derogatory remarks like, "Kevin, you don't
know what you're missing. You're too dumb to know better.
You're probably not man enough to have me anyway 1 "

Steven is a sixth grade student. He was picked on by a
group of eighth grade girls who often teased him. He first
thought that they were just flirting with him which made him
feel good. However, the girls began to focus on his body,
pinch, and laugh at him. Steven tried to avoid them, but
the girls always seemed to find him. He told himself that
he was making something out of nothing. He also wondered if
boys can be sexually harassed?

Martin, Topeka, Steven, and their classmates, need
help. Their knowledge, repertoire of behaviors, and various
attitudes about the other gender is limited. Healthy
intergender relationships can become ineffectual and, over
time, self-esteem may deteriorate. These students need to
learn about the nature of sexual harassment: what it is, how
to prevent it, how to resolve it, how to report it, and how

4
to assist in reducing the overall occurrence of sexual
harassment in the school setting.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effects of a developmental guidance unit and self-
instruction module about sexual harassment on early
adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the
unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept ,
and school comfort of middle school students. In addition,
three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit
were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper
led; and self-instruction.

Research Questions

The following research questions received special
attention:

1. Does participation in a developmental guidance unit
about sexual harassment have an effect on knowledge
about sexual harassment?

2 . Does participation in the unit have an effect on
attitude about sexual harassment?

3. Does participation in the unit have an effect on
potential reporting behavior?

4. Does participation in the unit have an effect on self-
concept?

5. Does participation in the unit have an effect on school
comfort?

Statement of the Problem

The literature on sexual harassment has expounded and
addressed such topics as incidence rates (Adams, Kottke, &
Padgitt, 1983; Dzeich & Weiner, 1984; Harris, 1993),
attitudinal correlates (Biraimah, 1989; Burt, 1991; Carroll
& Ellis, 1989), counseling/recovery issues (Taylor, 1983;
Koss, 1987; Morris, et al . , 1985) perpetrator profiles
(Pryor, 1987; Rappaport & Burkhart, 1984; Bouchard, 1990;),
and risk reduction efforts (Strauss, 1992; Thacker, 1994;
Lumsden, 1992; Bogart & Stein, 1987; Bouchard, 1990;
Petrocelli & Repa, 1992).

Further, the literature about sexual harassment
prevention has been primarily descriptive in nature. It has
focused mainly on strategies that adult men and women can
employ to reduce the likelihood of sexual harassment. To
the contrary, there has been relatively little research that
has empirically investigated the effectiveness of sexual
harassment prevention activities particularly focusing on
middle school students. Attempts at sexual harassment
interventions which use high school peer helpers as the
intervention facilitators in the area of sexual harassment
are nonexistent in the professional literature.

Schools are responsible for providing a safe and secure
environment in which students can perform. Sexual
harassment is known to be destructive and traumatic among
it's victims (Quina & Carlson, 1989). For the perpetrator,

6
being guilty of sexual harassment can result in retributive
actions such as suspension from school or legal proceedings
(Strauss, 1987). Also, because schools are liable for
preventing or resolving instances of sexual harassment,
negligent school personnel can be subject to significant
fines and fees as well as loss of employment (Griffin,
1984) .

Can sexual harassment be prevented? Early
interventions may be one solution to the problem. A
developmental guidance unit that helps students learn more
about the nature of the problem may not only create a better
learning environment in schools but lays the foundation for
positive interpersonal relationships in other environments.
There is a need to develop early interventions and to study
their effects.

Need for the Study

Some people believe that sexual harassment is just a
fact of life. They think that nothing can be done about it,
so, it's best not to talk about it too much. In fact,
sexual harassment is a pervasive social problem among our
youth today, and it escalates when ignored (Bogart & Stein,
1987). Reducing the incidence and prevalence of sexual
harassment through a developmental guidance unit or self-
instruction module could have positive effects on students'
views and actions toward others. When boys and girls strive
for healthier personal relationships, they also approach

7
better working relationships. This can lead to enhanced
academic progress.

According to Strauss (1992), without intervention,
unhealthy sexual attitudes and behaviors formed before and
during adolescence may go unchallenged and unchanged
throughout life. Providing information about sexual
harassment and the opportunity to examine one's attitude and
behaviors regarding intergender relationships is a positive
and effective form of intervention. For many young people,
more educational programs can bring about awareness,
reflection, empathy, and changes in negative behavior.

Healthier relationships between students can foster
increased confidence in oneself and in one's school (Wittmer
& Myrick, 1989). The perception of school comfort only
becomes more positive with heightened levels of safety,
security, and confidence. Positive relationships can also
allow students to better focus on their schoolwork rather
than on their fear of others or certain situations (Purkey,
1970). Therefore, alleviating sexual harassment could have
a beneficial outcome on how students feel about themselves
and how they get along, two conditions which are known to
foster academic performance.

Theoretical Basis for the Study: Developmental Guidance

Going to school provides many and various experiences.
School can be a place where students learn valuable personal
knowledge, skills, and attitudes in addition to their formal

8
education. Children influence each other's self -concept and
the course of their futures. Students can experience the
gamut of emotion, both pleasant and unpleasant, during these
formative years. Personal concerns and conflicts can be an
enormous undertaking and affect academic performance in
direct and indirect ways (Duncan & Gumaer, 1980).

Each student comes to school with a unique background
consisting of special needs and interests which influence
the way he or she learns. In trying to fulfill these needs
and interests, students inevitably run into problems. Some
student problems, more than others, are disruptive to the
effective operation of the school. The intensity of an
experience is relative from one person to the next. For
example, some adults may dismiss a broken relationship
between a boy and girl as only a matter of "puppy-love" and
of no real consequence, especially compared to other
problems. However, some young children can become severely
depressed, irrational, and suicidal in response to such a
broken relationship (Gesell & Ames, 1956).

Organized developmental guidance and counseling is
meant to help young people cope with the issues and problems
of growing up. More specifically, such programs are
designed to enhance personal, social, vocational, and
academic growth (Dinkmeyer & Caldwell, 1970). According to
Myrick (1993), the primary goal of developmental guidance

9
and counseling is to help students learn more effectively
and efficiently.

Developmental guidance and counseling assumes that
human nature moves individuals sequentially and positively
toward self -enhancement . It recognizes there is a force
within each of us that makes us believe that we are special
and there is nobody like us. It also assumes that our
individual potentials are valuable assets to society and the
future of humanity (Myrick, 1993).

The developmental approach considers the nature of
human development, including the general stages and tasks
that most individuals experience as they mature from
childhood to adulthood (Havinghurst , 1972). It centers on
positive self-concepts and acknowledges that one's self-
concept is formed and reformed through experience and
education. It further recognizes that feelings, ideas, and
behaviors are closely linked together and that they are
learned. Therefore, the most desired conditions for
learning and re-learning are important considerations for
development (Myrick, 1993).
Theoretical Aspects of Developmental Guidance

The theory of developmental guidance includes several
defining aspects. First, human development is a life-long
set of physiological, psychological, and social processes
that begins at birth and continues until death. Second,
this development involves an interaction between what a

10
person is given genetically at birth and the different
environments in which that person lives and grows (Myrick,
1993). Third, the idea that life follows a sequential and
hierarchical unfolding of various types of development is a
definitive aspect of this theory. For instance,
developmental guidance considers cognitive development
(e.g., Piaget, 1970), moral development (Gilligan, 1982;
Kohlberg & Tureil, 1971), sexual development (Russo, 1983;
Campbell, 1989; Gullotta & Adams, 1993) and overall human
development (Erickson, 1963; Havinghurst, 1953).

Self-concept has been recognized as an important
variable in developmental guidance. According to Myrick
(1993), as the self-concept develops, various attitudes and
personal styles take shape, which in turn become part of the
learning process. It appears that significant attitudes
about self, others, school, and society, which affect how a
person learns and later functions as a mature adult, are
formed while young people are growing up in their families
and attending school. Therefore, to consider developmental
tasks and stages, without giving attention to self -concept ,
might be considered senseless. In addition, it seems clear
that one's self -picture is shaped by interpersonal
relationships and that these relationships are part of the
conditions in which people learn.

11

Principles and Goals of Developmental Guidance

There are seven principles of developmental guidance
(Myrick, 1993). These principles include the following:

Developmental guidance is for all students.

Developmental guidance has an organized and planned

curriculum.

Developmental guidance is sequential and flexible.

Developmental guidance is an integrated part of the

total educational process.

Developmental guidance involves all school personnel.

Developmental guidance helps students learn more

effectively and efficiently.
• Developmental guidance includes counselors who provide

specialized counseling services and interventions.

Similarly, Shertzer and Stone (1976) wrote that
guidance operates under five principles. These principles
are as follows: (a) guidance is concerned primarily and
systematically with the personal development of the
individual; (b) the primary mode by which guidance is
conducted lies in individual behavioral processes; (c)
guidance is oriented toward cooperation, not compulsion; (d)
guidance is based upon recognizing the dignity and worth of
individuals as well as their right to choose; and (e)
guidance is continuous, sequential, educational process.

Developmental guidance also features a set of
curriculum and goals. There are eight goals which

12
characterize almost all developmental guidance and
counseling programs (Myrick, 1993). Guidance units, which
feature organized learning activities, are designed to
facilitate student learning and the accomplishment of these
goals. The eight goals include (a) understanding the school
environment, (b) understanding self and others, (c)
understanding attitudes and behavior, (d) decision making
and problem solving, (e) interpersonal and communication
skills, (f) school success skills, (g) career awareness and
educational planning, and (h) community pride and
involvement .

A developmental guidance unit on the prevention of
sexual harassment seems particularly relevant to young
adolescents. The middle school years are a time when
students experience significant body changes and when social
relationships play an important part in their personal
growth. These relationships influence how students perceive
school and their learning environment.

Definition of Terms

1. The adult-led intervention for this study is
facilitated by adults such as school counselors or
teachers.

2. Guidance is a constellation of services, commonly
delivered by professional educators such as teachers
and counselors, aimed at personal growth, career
development, and school adjustment.

13

3 . A hostile environment is created when unwanted
personally offensive sexual attention, not necessarily
associated directly with an employment or academic
decision, involves the person being harassed.

4. A peer facilitator is a student who uses helping skills
and concepts to assist other students and sometimes
adults to think about ideas and feelings, to explore
alternatives to situations, and to make responsible
decisions (Myrick and Bowman, 1981).

5. The peer-led intervention for this study is facilitated
by professionally and systematically trained high
school peer facilitators in grades 10, 11, or 12.

6. A perpetrator is a person accused and determined guilty
of sexual harassment by the proper authorities.

7. School comfort is the level of a student's perceived
safety, security, and well-being in the school
atmosphere.

8. Self-concept is a person's self -perception in relation
to important aspects of life.

9 . Sexual harassment awareness is the level at which an
individual recognizes and understands issues of sexual
harassment.

10. Sexual harassment risk reduction involves increasing an
individual's awareness of those variables which, when
operationalized, decreases the possibility of sexual
harassment occurring.

14

11. The self-instruction module is a unit in which subjects
read and respond to materials about sexual harassment
issues without the benefit of group discussion.

12. Sex-roles are the normative requirements that apply to
the specific, relative behavior of males and females in
particular situational contexts.

13. Sexual harassment is any unwanted and unwelcome sexual
behavior that is experienced by a person.

14. A victim is a person identified as experiencing sexual
harassment.

Organization of the Study
The remainder of this study includes a review of the
professional literature in Chapter II. This review includes
an overview of the nature of sexual harassment, victims and
perpetrators, middle school students, previous attempts at
sexual harassment interventions, peer facilitator programs
and training, and a summary. Chapter III will contain a
description of the resultant sample, relevant variables,
instruments, research design, hypotheses, participant
training, the developmental guidance unit, and research
procedures. The data analysis and results of the study will
be presented in Chapter IV. A summary of the results,
conclusions, limitations of the study, implications, and
suggestions for future investigations is provided in
Chapter V.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effects of a developmental guidance unit and self-
instruction module about sexual harassment on early
adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the
unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept ,
and school comfort of middle school students. In addition,
three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit
were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper
led; and self -instruction.

Chapter II is a review of the professional literature
and focuses on the nature of sexual harassment, victims and
perpetrators, middle school students, previous attempts at
sexual harassment interventions, peer facilitator programs
and training, and a summary of the professional literature
about sexual harassment.

The Nature of Sexual Harassment

Although the term sexual harassment was not part of the
English language until 1975, from the mid-1970s until the
present, activists and authors began giving attention to the
problem. After 1980, publications on the topic increased

15

16
rapidly as a result of congressional hearings, increased
litigation, and publication of the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission guidelines on harassment issued in
November of that year. The current body of literature
includes publications regarding sexual harassment in
employment, daily life, and education (McCaghy, 1985).

This section will review the definition of sexual
harassment and related issues in the workplace, college
campuses, and grade schools.
Sexual Harassment Defined

Many of the difficulties surrounding the issue of
sexual harassment were caused by the lack of clear, precise,
or uniform definitions. In Alexander v. Yale (1977), the
courts established a legal precedent under Title IX of the
1972 Education Amendments. None of the federal guidelines,
however, contained a uniform definition of sexual abuse in
the academic setting, and there were no standards for all
institutions to follow. The denotation of sexual harassment
varied among campuses, but most definitions involved
physical assault, verbal assault, and the concept of
coercion or the misuse of differential power (Somers, 1982).

The forms that sexual harassment can take are varied.
However, federal guidelines passed by the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in 1980 can serve as a
starting point for seeking clarity on murky definitional
issues. The EEOC classifies sexual harassment as a form of

17
sex discrimination under Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights
Act.

According to the EEOC, sexual harassment encompasses
unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors and
other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. In the
work place, sexual harassment can be said to have occurred
when (a) submission to such conduct is either explicitly or
implicitly made a term or condition of an individual's
employment; (b) submission to or rejection of such conduct
by an individual is used as the basis for employment
decisions; or (c) such conduct has the purpose or effect of
unreasonably interfering with an individual's work
performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or
offensive working environment (Lumsden, 1992).

Quid Pro Quo and hostile environment are two general
categories of sexual harassment. Literally meaning "this
for that," quid pro quo occurs when employment (or academic)
opportunities or benefits are linked with sexual conduct
(Blackwood & Lamb, 1992 in Lumsden, 1992). Conversely, it
also includes harassment in which sexual advances are made
with the stated or implied threat that if the advances are
not accepted, there will be work or school related
reprisals. A hostile environment involves unwanted,
personally offensive sexual attention that need not be
directly associated with an employment or academic decision
involving the person being harassed (Shoop, 1992).

18
Strauss (1988) provided a description of sexual
harassment that focuses on adolescents. Included are
specific behaviors that are unwanted and sexual in nature
such as touching, verbal comments, sexual name calling,
spreading sexual rumors, gestures, jokes, cartoons,
pictures, leers, too personal a conversation,
cornering/blocking movements, pulling at clothes, students
"making out" in the hallway, attempted rape /rape.

Bouchard (1990) reported four parts of sexual
harassment. First, sexual harassment is one-sided and
unwelcome. Second, it is about power, not about physical
attraction. Third, sexual harassment happens over and over,
and fourth, sexual harassment does not stop even after
confrontation. Fourth, the victim simply cannot get the
offender to cease their harassing behavior.
Sexual Harassment in the Workplace

In October 1991, a woman named Anita Hill went before
the United States Senate Committee. She alleged that her
former supervisor, then Supreme Court nominee Clarence
Thomas, sexually harassed her. Nationally, the number of
complaints filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC) rose to 7,495 from October 1991 through
June 1992 compared to 4,962 during that period the previous
year. One reason for this is that, until this event, many
victims of sexual harassment felt isolated and perhaps could
not even define sexual harassment.

19
Another plausible reason that reports of sexual
harassment in the workplace became more frequent is the
changing workforce. Women's entry into the workforce has
been prompted by necessity because of demanding economic
conditions, increasing number of female head-of -households,
and desire for greater job satisfaction. As more women have
tried to obtain wage-paying jobs, they have had to fight
continuously for fair treatment. For example, as recently
as 1990, the median annual earnings for a full-time woman
employee in the United States was $19,816 per year— only 71
percent of the median earnings of a full-time male employee.
Sexual harassment has been identified as a means to maintain
the status quo of power. It may be one way that many men
express their resentment and try to reassert control when
they view women as their economic competitors (Petrocelli &
Repa, 1992).

According to Petrocelli and Repa (1992) male workers
who sexually harass women on the job are, perhaps
unintended, doing more than annoying her. They are
reminding her of her vulnerability, creating tensions that
maker her job more difficult and making her hesitant to seek
higher paying jobs where she may perceive the tensions as
even greater. Hence, sexual harassment can create a climate
of intimidation and repression. A woman who is the target
of sexual harassment often goes through the same process of
victimization as one who has suffered rape, battering or

20
other gender-related crimes— frequently blaming herself and
doubting her own self -worth.

In addition to trauma imposed on the victim, sexual
harassment in the workplace may have other consequences.
For example, sexual harassment can have a cumulative,
demoralizing effect that discourages women from asserting
themselves within the workplace, while among men it
reinforces stereotypes of women employees as sex objects.
Also, sexual harassment can cause direct economic injury in
the form of employment status, lost wages, and other job
benefits. Sometimes it can lead to firing for failing to go
along with the sexual demands of an employer (Petrocelli &
Repa, 1992; also see e.g., EEOC v. Domino's Pizza, 1983;
Priest v. Rotary, 1986).

Study results on the frequency of sexual harassment
incidents in the workplace range considerably. As high as
92 percent of women employees have reported some form of
sexual harassment. A study of federal employees found that
42 percent had suffered unwanted sexual advances on the job
(Sandler, 1989). Further, sexual harassment has become a
serious issue among men. The number of law suits brought by
men alleging sexual harassment is increasing and will likely
continue to increase as more women attain supervisory and
management positions (Hazzard, 1989).

21
Sexual Harassment in Universities

Sexual harassment is neither a new issue at the work
place nor on the university campus. Five students claiming
sexual harassment by faculty at Yale University sued the
institution in 1977 under Title IX. Since then, it has been
increasingly recognized that sexual harassment can create a
malevolent effect on the learning environment. For example,
Dzeich and Weiner (1984) reported that 30 percent of
undergraduate women experienced harassment by at least one
of their professors during their four years in college.

A woman who refuses sexual demands may jeopardize her
academic career or employment. Reprisals are not unusual;
unfair grades or job evaluations may be given. The student
may be fearful of any interaction with a professor.
Students may drop courses, transfer to other schools, and
even discontinue their education (Sandler, 1989).

How frequent are incidents of sexual harassment on the
college campus? Results have been consistent even though
different definitions of sexual harassment may be used.
About 20 to 30 percent of women undergraduates experience
some form of sexual harassment. For graduate students, the
figures are higher, between 30 and 40 percent. When
definitions of harassment include sexist remarks and other
forms of gender harassment, the incidence rate among
undergraduates approaches 70 percent (Adams, Kottke, &
Padgitt, 1983; Lott, Reilly, & Howard, 1982).

22
One small university reported that, of 215
undergraduate survey respondents, 89 percent of women and 85
percent of men reported at least one incident of sexual
harassment in one of four categories: in class, with
faculty, with staff, and with students (Mazer & Percival,
1989; Paludi & DeFour, 1989; Carroll & Ellis, 1989). Not
all women experience harassment nor do most professors or
staff proposition their students or workers; usually, it is
a small number of men harassing a larger number of women
either simultaneously, sequentially, or both.

Only recently have studies begun to examine faculty
harassment. At the University of California at Davis, 20
percent of the women faculty reported they had experienced
harassment; at Harvard University, 32 percent of the tenured
female faculty and 49 percent of the untenured female
faculty reported experiencing sexual harassment. At the
University of Pennsylvania, 47 percent of women faculty
reported having experienced some form of sexual harassment
on campus (Sandler, 1989).

Similarly, an investigation of sexual harassment of
women professors by students attempted to determine how
widespread the problem is and to examine how gender and
status define an individual's vulnerability to sexual
harassment. Survey data from 208 25- to 67-year-old female
instructors employed at a university revealed that subjects
experienced a variety of behaviors, mostly from male

23
students, which ranged from sexist comments to sexual
assault (Grauerholz, 1989).
Sexual Harassment in Schools

Until recently very little attention has been paid to
the sexual harassment that occurs in our junior high/middle
and secondary schools. The first survey on peer-to-peer
sexual harassment in secondary schools, conducted by the
Massachusetts Department of Education, was administered in
1980-81 to approximately 2 00 male and female high school
students in Massachusetts. In addition, 60 in-depth
interviews were conducted with young women who were enrolled
in courses that were considered non-traditional for their
sex (shops and courses such as auto body, auto mechanics,
plant maintenance, plumbing and air conditioning, metal
fabrication, etc.). The study revealed that sexual
harassment is a problem for many students in high school,
both in vocational high schools and in comprehensive
schools; that young women are much more likely to be victims
of sexual harassment than their male counterparts,
especially in the more severe forms of unwanted sexual
attention; that student to student sexual harassment is more
prevalent than teacher to student sexual harassment; and
that peer-to-peer sexual harassment, including cases in
which the harasser is both known to or identifiable to the
victim or not known, ranged from verbal and written comments

24
to physical assault to attempted rape (Bogart & Stein,
1987) .

More recently, the American Association of University
Women's (AAUW) Educational Foundation commissioned a
questionnaire study to provide an empirically supported
profile of the problem of sexual harassment in schools. The
survey was completed by a total of 1,632 public school
students in grades 8 through 11, from 79 schools across the
continental United States. Students were provided a
definition of sexual harassment as the following: "Sexual
harassment is unwanted and unwelcome sexual behavior which
interferes with your life. Sexual harassment is not
behaviors that you like or want (e.g., wanted kissing,
touching, or flirting." (Harris, 1993).

The AAUW questionnaire found that 4 out of 5 students
(81%) reported that they were the target of some form of
sexual harassment during their school lives. In addition to
the finding that sexual harassment is widespread, the survey
also reported that

• Sexual comments, jokes, looks, and gestures— as well as
touching, grabbing, and/or pinching in a sexual way— are
commonplace in school.

• Being called gay would be more upsetting to boys than
actual physical abuse.

• Experiences of student-to-student harassment outnumber
all others types of sexual harassment.

25
• Notably higher numbers of girls than boys say they have

suffered as a result of sexual harassment in school;

African-American girls have suffered the most.

Reilly (1992) suggested that adolescent attitude
towards sexual harassment varies according to certain
demographic variables. She used high school students and
adults enrolled in traditional and nontraditional training
programs. Also used were teachers in 12 different school
districts. Study participants were asked if they considered
10 different behaviors to be sexual harassment. Female
respondents were more likely to consider the behaviors to be
sexual harassment than were male respondents; however, both
males and females felt that forms of sexual harassment in
which job security, compensation, or work assignments were
conditional on sexual favors were most offensive.

Further, respondents aged 16-18 were consistently less
likely to perceive behaviors as sexual harassment than were
individuals aged 13-15 or over 18. Race also influenced
perceptions of sexual harassment. Caucasians and Hispanics
were most sensitive to sexual harassment (Reilly, 1992).
The Victims and Perpetrators

This section describes the victimization experience,
the perpetrator, and other liabilities which accompany
sexual harassment.

26
The Victims of Sexual Harassment

One factor which compels intervention efforts in the
area of sexual harassment is the experience of the victim.
One researcher noted that, "Experiencing violence transforms
people into victims and changes their lives forever. It is
inevitable that once victimized, at minimum, one can never
again feel quite as invulnerable" (Koss, 1988, pg. 3).

Sexual Harassment Trauma Syndrome, as described by
Woody and Perry (1993), is comprised of emotional reactions,
physical reactions, changes in self perception,
interpersonal relatedness and sexual effects, and career
effects. Further, sexual harassment of one family member
can disrupt or alter the entire family system. The
emotional impact of sexual harassment was further delineated
by the AAUW study (Harris, 1993) which indicated that 50
percent of all students who have been harassed suffered
embarrassment. Similarly, 37 percent of students attributed
to sexual harassment their feelings of self -consciousness,
29 percent felt less sure or less confident about
themselves, 24 percent felt afraid or scared, 21 percent
doubted whether they can have a happy romantic relationship,
17 percent felt confused about who they are, 16 percent felt
less popular, and 12 percent felt more popular because of
experiencing sexual harassment.

Sandler (1989) noted that a victim who is harassed
often finds herself in a double bind. She may be unsure if

27
a real injustice has occurred. Did he really touch her
breast or did she imagine it? If he really did touch her in
a sexual way, is that really something she ought to complain
about? Will anyone take her seriously if she does? If she
ignores it, will it go away? These questions are not easy
to answer and often leave a victim in an intellectual and
emotional quandary.
The Perpetrators of Sexual Harassment

Harassers are people with a "hangup" about power, they
are bullies. Harassers like to give orders and make other
people afraid. They are often people who will do anything
to have their own way. Sexual harassers can often pick up
the wrong message from televisions and movies about what
other people want. Once in a while, the harasser is a
sadist, someone who simply enjoys inflicting pain in others
(Bouchard, 1990).

Sexual harassment perpetrators can also experience
deleterious consequences because it is a moral and legal
violation against society. Further, sexual harassment is
usually a violation of school rules, regulations, or policy.
In addition to hurting the victim, a perpetrator is subject
to school disciplinary procedures ranging from verbal
reprimand to expulsion. Criminal proceedings may find a
perpetrator guilty of at least a misdemeanor which carries
with it fines, probation, or jail time. The injurious
experiences of the victim, perpetrator, and sometimes school

28
officials warrants investigating the effects of a
developmental guidance unit and self-instruction module
about sexual harassment.
The Liabilities of Sexual Harassment

Incidents of sexual harassment have evoked law suits
involving money settlements, community outrage, and displays
of ignorance. For instance, LEXIS/NEXIS is a commercial
online database service which provides information including
legal documents from all states and some other countries,
the texts of major newspapers and periodicals, and medical
information (LEXIS/NEXIS User's Guide, 1993). A LEXIS/NEXIS
search using the key words "sexual harassment and school"
resulted in the following reports in various major
newspapers:
• In the Georgia case of Franklin vs. Gwinnett

County Public Schools, the court ruled that "victims of
sexual harassment and other forms of sex discrimination
in schools may sue for monetary damages" under Title IX
of the Education Amendments of 1972. Title IX
prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender in
schools and colleges that receive federal funding.
According to some lawyers, the legal decision "could
result in multimillion-dollar award verdicts against
school districts and colleges ( "Attorneys Assess High
Court Harassment Ruling Impact, 1992)."

29

School officials in one Minnesota high school
ignored a girl's complaints of vulgar treatment by boys
for a year and a half until she filed charges with the
state and won a $15,000 "mental anguish" settlement.

A high school girl filed suit against her school
after officials did nothing about removing graffiti in
the boy's bathroom that called her a "slut" and
depicted her as doing demeaning acts with boys and
animals. She made requests over 10 months to have the
graffiti removed and for a long time didn't mention it
to her parents. The student won a $15,000 settlement.

A Texas civil rights group filed a federal lawsuit
seeking $850,000 against a school district, alleging
school leaders failed to protect two teen-age girls
from sexual harassment by three boys.

In California, the U.S. Department of Education's
Office of Civil Rights found that one of their school
systems failed to protect an eighth grade girl who
repeatedly endured classmates' shouts of "moo, moo" and
other taunts about her body. Her parents filed a
lawsuit and settled out of court for $20,000.

When a swarm of young men in Missouri surrounded a
girl in a New York swimming pool, ripped off her
bathing suit and sexually assaulted her, a city
official called it, "horseplay that got out of hand."

30

• A high school newspaper in St. Petersburg, Florida
featured stories about sexual harassment. One story
included the results of a survey which said that 43
percent of girls and 16 percent of boys had been
touched against their will. The survey also asked if
girls, "...invite the advances made by a man through
their dress or behavior." Sixty-two percent of the
boys and 21 percent of the girls said yes.

• Another Minnesota student, seven years old, became
the first elementary school student in the country to
accuse her peers of sexual harassment. The student's
mother filed a sex discrimination complaint against the
school district charging that it failed to discourage
harassment of her daughter and other girls who were
subjected to nasty language, taunting and other
threats. In the settlement, the district agreed to
institute a sexual harassment policy.
Additionally, the educational impact of sexual

harassment is significant. When students are the target of
sexual harassment, their right to an equal education is
compromised. Experiencing sexual harassment can interfere
with "learning, attendance, course choices, grades, and
therefore economic potential" (Strauss, 1988).

Consider that 23 percent of students who have been
sexually harassed say that one outcome of the experience is
not wanting to attend school. Nearly one in four girls

31
(24%) say that harassment caused them to stay home from
school or cut a class (Harris, 1993). Since school
attendance is directly related to grades, increased truancy
can increase the risk of jeopardizing one's career potential
(e.g., see Bobbett, 1993; Ceci, 1991; and Lee, 1989).

Further, 2 3 percent of those experiencing sexual
harassment reported not wanting to talk as much in class
afterwards (Harris, 1993). Several studies indicate that
there already exists a lower rate of class participation
among female students as compared to male students at the
elementary level (Biraimah, 1989; DeVoe, 1991; Visser,
1987). Experiencing sexual harassment may add to the
problem of low participation among females.

Twenty-one percent (21%) of students who have been
sexually harassed say the experience has made it more
difficult to pay attention in school. Sixteen percent (16%)
of students said they have made a lower grade on a test or
paper; 13 percent made a lower grade in class; 16 percent
found it hard to study, and 12 percent of students who have
been harassed had thoughts about changing schools. A small
percentage of students changed schools and doubt whether
they have what it takes to graduate from high school because
of sexual harassment (3% and 4%, respectively, Harris,
1993) .

32
Other Considerations

What factors make sexual harassment a problem? Several
elements which contribute to the increased risk of sexual
harassment have been identified throughout the literature.
Strauss (1992) suggested several factors which include
social norms, lack of clear communication, sex-role
stereotyping, and false perceptions and beliefs about sexual
harassment (i.e., myths). Also, lack of victim reporting
contributes to sexual harassment.

The degree to which each factor contributes to sexual
harassment is not known and requires further research. More
is known about how each of these factors contributes to the
area of sexual assault. Notwithstanding, sexual harassment
and sexual assault have been recognized as having similar
and analogous attributes. One expert in the area of sexual
misconduct closely places the two on the same continuum.
The continuum includes listening to sexist jokes, telling
sexist jokes, sexual objectif ication, viewing violent
pornography, emotional withdrawal, rape fantasies, believing
submission is consent, sexual harassment, threats and
violence, sexual assault, and rape (Parrot, 1991).

The parallel relationship between sexual harassment and
sexual assault is also exemplified by Quina and Carlson
(1989). These authors developed a working guide to the
treatment of survivors of sexual victimization. In the
guide, rape, incest, and harassment are treated as related

33
forms of sexual abuse. Woody and Perry (1993), in writing
about the psycholegal considerations and family therapy as
treatment choice, include in their definition of sexual
harassment: verbal innuendoes, gestures, unwanted physical
contact, and rape.

Further evidence suggesting the analogy between sexual
assault and sexual harassment exists. For example, 60 male
and 162 female undergraduates completed an instrument called
the Sexual Harassment Proclivities Scale (SHPS). These
scores were compared with those for measures of sex-role
stereotyping, adversarial sexual beliefs, sexual
conservatism, acceptance of interpersonal violence, rape
myth acceptance, likelihood of rape, acceptance of feminism,
empathetic concern, sexual activity, and sexual
exploitation. Most of the results were statistically
significant for both men and women, although correlations
tended to be higher for men. A factor analysis of the SHPS
yielded a 1-factor solution for both men and women,
supporting the view that the scale measures likelihood of
sexual harassment (Bartling & Eisenman, 1993).

This study investigates the effects of a developmental
guidance unit and self-instruction module about sexual
harassment on early adolescents. The unit is designed to
enhance knowledge, behavior, and attitude that is
incompatible with the factors identified as increasing the
risk of sexual harassment. These factors which included

34
social /cultural norms, interpersonal communication behavior,
sex-role stereotyping, sexual harassment mythology, and lack
of victim reporting have been derived from known factors
contributing to sexual assault or rape.

Social and Cultural Norms. Sexual harassment happens
partly because society pushes adults and teens to be sexual.
Sex is used to sell everything from cars to toothpaste.
Advertising exploits women, and increasingly men, by
dressing them in short, tight clothes and photographing them
in suggestive poses (Strauss, 1992).

Sometimes it is difficult for males to understand what
females feel when they are routinely portrayed as sex
objects. Males do not perceive sexual attention as
negatively as females do. One gender may believe that,
because they enjoy sexual attention, the other gender may
enjoy it, too. When one gender does not enjoy sexual
attention, but the other keeps giving it, this is the point
at which sexual attention becomes sexual harassment
(Strauss, 1992).

Interpersonal Communication Behaviors . Sexual
harassment is perpetuated also because intergender
communication is sometimes unclear. An individual's
statements may not coincide with his/her nonverbal behavior.
For example, when a female says, "no," but she says it with
a smile and a polite tone of voice. Perhaps she is smiling
because she is embarrassed; she does not want to seem rude

35
or she has learned to place other people's feelings above
her own. Perhaps she smiles so as not to reveal her anger.
Boys may distinctively believe the messages obtained from
her nonverbal behavior over what she says .

One way that males tend to miscommunicate with females
is to misinterpret a female's messages, verbally and non-
verbally, according to a set of preconceptions. Usually,
such preconceptions are sexual in nature. Therefore, a
meaningless twist or turn of a female's body might be
considered "playing hard to get" to a male if he is
preoccupied with sex.

Males and females communicate from two different
standpoints. Males engage the world as an individual in a
hierarchical social order in which he is either one-up or
one-down. Conversations in the male's world are
negotiations in which people try to achieve and maintain the
upper hand if they can, and protect themselves from others'
attempts to put them down and push them around. Females, on
the other hand, approach the world as individuals in a
network of connections. Conversations in this world are
negotiations for closeness in which people try to seek and
give confirmation and support, and to reach consensus. They
try to protect themselves from others' attempts to push them
away (Tannen, 1990).

Such disparity in intergender communication can lead to
grave misunderstandings, which, may contribute to unwanted

36
sexual attention. Sensitivity training is needed to enhance
knowledge, behaviors, and attitude which facilitate
communication that is more clear and accurately understood.
In the schools, this training could take the form of a
developmental guidance and counseling unit.

Sex-role Stereotyping. Another factor which
contributes to the frequency of sexual harassment is sex-
role stereotyping. Sex-roles are the attitudes and behavior
patterns adopted as an expression of masculinity and
femininity. Masculinity and femininity are structures that
have for centuries guided the lives of men and women and
shaped the decisions which they made. As babies become
toddlers and then preschoolers, they are deluged with direct
and indirect messages about how they are to behave based
solely on their sex. These messages come from parents and
relatives, other adults, siblings, and friends and from
cultural media such as movies, television, books and song
lyrics (Warshaw & Parrot, 1991).

For instance, girls learn, early on, that they should
be "sugar and spice and everything nice" while boys learn
that they should be "snips and snails and puppy dog's
tails." The girls' labels sound sweet and passive. The
boys' labels sound daring and active. From such imprints,
many girls proceed along a "niceness" track. They learn
that they are supposed to be friendly and to yield to
others' needs and wants even if it means sacrificing their

37
own. They may develop a sense of physical and intellectual
helplessness; are discouraged from becoming self-reliant and
independent; learn to defer to men; to rely on men to
provide them with social status, protection, and,
ultimately, a secure future (Warshaw & Parrot, 1991).

Many of our society's sexual harassment-supportive
attitudes and myths are rooted in beliefs about appropriate
behavior for women. For example, if a woman is too
friendly, men are likely to perceive her behavior as
seduction (Abbey, 1982). Or, if she is wearing a skirt
which ends above her knees, then she wants the man to touch
or comment on them. In fact, showing one's knees is not the
same message as "touch me."

Many boys are steered onto an "aggression" track that
guides them toward a self-centered view of their place in
society. They learn to set aside the needs of others, to
use physical responses to beat an opponent when faced with
conflict, and to equate showing empathy with being weak and
feminine. This kind of upbringing often leads to beliefs in
sexual entitlement and social superiority over females. The
result is a string of myths that boys and men are expected
to live up to (Warshaw & Parrot, 1991; Koss, 1988).

Given these divergent social development patterns, some
of the travelers on the "niceness" track and some of those
on the "aggression" track are on a collision course with
each other. They may collide as preteens or teenagers in

38
junior high or high schools or at after-school jobs; as
young single adults in college or the work place; or as
marriage partners, dates, or friends in later years. Many
of the collisions may be perceived, considered, or
identified as sexual harassment.

Thus, for many men and women, "the battle of the sexes"
may be just that. From their socialization in childhood and
adolescence, they developed different goals related to
sexuality which set them up as adversaries. Both groups
learned that women, to maintain their own "worth," are
supposed to control men's sexuality and that men are
supposed to singlemindedly go after sexual intercourse with
a female, regardless of how they do it (Warshaw & Parrot,
1991; McShane, 1988) .

Traditional sex-roles can place limitations on many
facets of our lives including relationships, on a date,
communicating with others, and in the work place.
Traditional sex-roles can especially be unnecessarily
confining, and overconf ormity to traditional sex-roles can
be dysfunctional (Pleck, 1981). Nevertheless, traditional
sex-roles for men and women in relationships have been
pervasive and robust.

The majority of literature on sex-roles suggest that
rigid sex-roles can restrict one's knowledge, attitudes, and
behaviors to those deemed societally appropriate for each
respective gender. Learning about sex-roles can increase

39
one's choices in how to learn, perceive, and act. A review
of the professional literature resulted in one study which
provided evidence to the contrary. Powell (1986) examined
the effects of rater characteristics on definitions of
sexual harassment in 249 undergraduates and 102 part-time
students in MBA courses holding full-time jobs. Subjects
were administered the Bern Sex-Role Inventory and classified
as high/low in masculinity or femininity. Then, a sexual
harassment index was calculated. Results showed that sex
influenced subjects' definitions of sexual harassment,
whereas sex-role identity had a minor effect.

In more recent times, traditional roles are rapidly
changing and creating a disturbance for the individuals
involved. Hart and Dalke (1983) indicate that an increasing
number of women are returning to school . Women are moving
outside the traditional four areas in which they have been
working: clerical, service, factory, and sales. They are
now becoming airline pilots, engineers, doctors, oil
drillers, and executives. The authors also indicate that
men are shifting roles, too. There is an increase in the
number of men teaching young children, heading schools and
libraries, and working in nursing and clerical positions.
They are also refusing transfers as a part of professional
advancement in order to maintain a stable and meaningful
family life.

40
Movement towards the condition of androgyny is
necessary for emancipating males and females from socially
determined roles which are uncompromising and stifling. As
described by Heilbrun (1973), androgyny is the condition
under which the characteristics of the sexes, and the human
impulses expressed by men and women, are not rigidly
assigned. Androgyny seeks to liberate the individual from
the confines of the appropriate. Unless progress towards
androgyny occurs, men and women will continue to struggle
for self -actualization and experience intergender unrest,
such as in the form of sexual harassment.

Moving toward androgyny is not effortless. For
example, Strauss (1992) wrote that teens who try to
challenge these stereotypes don't get much support from
their peers, society, and sometimes their own parents.
Girls are told that boys won't like them if they show their
intelligence. Boys are told that they are "wimps" if they
don't fit the stereotype of the tough-guy "macho" male.

Sexual Harassment Mythology. A fundamental reason that
sexual harassers and victims of sexual harassment exist is
because they often believe myths concerning male-female
interactions. For instance, Reilly and her colleagues
(1992) found a positive correlation among mens' self-
reported tolerance for sexual harassment, adversarial sexual
beliefs, rape-myth acceptance, likelihood to rape, and
experience as a sexual victimizer.

41
According to Sandler (1989), many misconceptions
surround sexual harassment. There are the "beauty" and
"clothing" myths. Essentially, some people believe that a
female's beauty can be so overpowering as to "cause" sexual
harassment. Similarly, the victim can be blamed for the
harassment because of the clothing she wore. Although a
woman's clothing may communicate, "I'm a woman," this is not
the same message as "Touch me." Clothing does not give
others permission to touch or grab; it does not signal what
a woman wants or will do. The beauty and clothing myth
views sexual harassment as an extension of biological
drives, ignoring the issue of power, and shifting the
responsibility and blame to the victim (Sandler, 1989).

Further, the beauty and clothing myth perpetuates the
idea that the world is really safe and fair, and if the
woman dresses or acts in a particular way, the male will
control himself and not sexually harass her. In essence,
this myth tells women that they must strive for invisibility
to avoid being sexually harassed, and if they are sexually
harassed, it is because they were not invisible enough. In
reality, people are often sexually harassed irrespectful of
attractiveness, age, or behavior.

Another common misconception or myth about sexual
harassment is that rules, policies, or the laws prohibiting
it restrict normal socializing between males and females.
The truth is that sexual harassment consists of unwelcome

42
conduct of a sexual nature. It in no way affects ordinary
social contact between people (Petrocelli & Repa, 1992).

Yet another myth is that the victim should have just
said "No," or "Stop." This myth involves poor or inaccurate
intergender communication. Victims of sexual harassment may
sometimes say "yes" or do nothing simply because they are
too frightened to confront the harasser, who, many times is
aggressive. In particular, many women have difficulties
confronting sexual harassment because they have been
socialized to be "nice" which usually means "do not make
waves." Frequently, confronting sexual harassment is
difficult because the victim may suffer unpleasant
consequences such as negative peer pressure, ridicule, or
isolation.

Ironically, when sexual harassment is confronted,
sometimes the perpetrator simply ignores it and continues.
He may believe that his behavior is not as serious as
perceived by the victim. Or, he simply may not be able to
stretch his own definition of appropriate and understand why
his actions may be unwelcomed. Accordingly, believing that
simply saying "No," or "Stop," to a harasser is sufficient
is erroneous.

Another myth about sexual harassment is that females
falsify charges as a way of getting back at males. Although
sometimes true, this myth perpetuates the belief that true
sexual harassment is rare. To the contrary, studies

43
indicate that the incidence and prevalence of sexual
harassment is ubiquitous (Harris, 1993; Illinois Task Force,
1980). Still, studies which report on the prevalence of
sexual harassment are thought to be highly underestimated.
Sandler (1989) approximated that females— perhaps more than
90 percent^-don't want to report or file charges because they
know of the risks involved. Risks may include retaliation
from the perpetrator, being ostracized from peers or
colleagues, being ridiculed, experiencing additional
harassment by others, and sometimes loss of employment or
promotion.

Another myth which removes sexual harassment from being
"real" denies that any harm was done. Unwanted behaviors
such as "cat calling," lewd and lascivious comments, sexual
innuendos, and jokes are dismissed as harmless flirting.
These myths reject the victim's trauma of experiencing
another's intrusive actions. According to Burt (1991) many
"no harm done" myths refer to women of societally devalued
status or women who are stereotyped as sexually available.
The most extreme implication of these myths is that once a
woman has consented to any sexual activity, she is never
again in a position where she can legitimately say "no."
Prostitutes are a special case of the open territory victim,
so devalued that many people believe that prostitutes cannot
be sexually harassed.

44
The "no harm done" myth is the type of myth that traps
minority women, whose experiences of sexual violation are
not taken seriously because they are stereotyped as being
promiscuous and therefore already devalued. Any group of
women stereotyped as being sexually active outside of
marriage, such as divorcees or prostitutes, or any women who
frequent places associated with being sexually available,
such as bars, run the risk of being dismissed as unworthy of
the law's protection or of sympathetic concern when they
press charges of sexual harassment (Burt, 1991; Koss, 1988).

The "she wanted it" myth maintains that the victim of
sexual harassment wanted it, invited it, or liked it. The
issue of consent lies at the crux of this type of myth.
These myths simply pose the questions: Did she want it or
did she have to endure it? Did her observed behavior stem
from personal motivation, in which case she granted
permission, or from a hostile environment created by the
perpetrator, in which case it was sexual harassment (Burt,
1991)?

Complications arise in answering this seemingly simple
question because the culture's many myths concerning women
and sex are distilled to a belief that "women never mean
no." At some level, women are always presumed always to
"want it," no matter what is said. To differentiate sexual
harassment from flirting, one must be convinced that the
victim did not consent to the sexual actions of another or

45
others. Differentiation becomes convoluted when women with
certain reputations or identities are stereotypically
assumed to consent more readily, to more men, in more
situations .

The "she deserved it" myth claims that the victim did
something to initiate the harassment. These myths admit the
traumatic experience of the victim although they hold the
victim responsible-^theref ore sexual harassment did not
occur. If she was attractively dressed; walked alone passed
a construction site; if she was, in the perpetrators
perception, a tease; if she had previously been out on a
date with him; if she said "hello" to him at school or the
office— it was the victim's fault. The victim "got into the
game" of sexuality, this reasoning goes, and once in the
game, society loads her with the full responsibility for
whatever happens. The "she deserved it" myth does not
distinguish between companionship, friendship, a date,
sexual intercourse and her asking to be sexually harassed.
When blame is placed on the victim, certain underlying
ideological assumptions may be operating. For example,
women are sly, manipulative, devious, underhanded; that
women are teases; that they like to make men jump through
hoops. And if they lose control and the situation goes too
far, then getting harassed is simply what they deserve and
their own fault for trying to control and manipulate men
(Burt, 1991).

46
The contribution of myths to sexual harassment involves
their function as a method to maintain male dominance in a
patriarchal society. Sexual harassment myths justify and
excuse sexual harassment. They teach victims to blame
themselves for their own victimizations. They support the
use of hostility, coupled with sexuality, as a mechanism for
keeping females powerless. The myths make clear to females
that preventing sexual harassment is her responsibility and
that she will find little sympathy for her situation should
she be so careless as to allow herself to be sexually
harassed. They make especially clear the disbelief and
blame she will encounter should she be sexually harassed by
someone she knows. Sexual harassment myths keep victims
quiet and controlled (Burt, 1991).

Another way myths may be functional is perpetuation of
a "blame-the-victim" attitude which makes it more difficult
for victims to seek help and to recover from sexual
harassment. This way, the harasser is "freed" of the guilt
that accompanies the responsibility for actions. The
harasser becomes desensitized to the seriousness of sexual
harassment, it's consequences, and simultaneously achieves a
"clear conscience." This combination is conducive to
recommitting the crime of sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment mythology shapes people's attitudes
towards women, relationships, and appropriate gender
specific behavior. Unfortunately, the current research

47
suggests that the more rigid that one adheres to his/her
sex-role stereotype, the more problems that exist between
the genders. Teaching young children about sex-roles gives
them greater latitude in their behaviors, attitudes, and
knowledge. This supports positive, mutually respectful, and
overall healthy relationships.

Lack of Victim Reporting. The lack of victim reporting
is another contributing factor to sexual harassment.
According to Harris (1994), students do not routinely report
sexual harassment incidents to adults. In addition, boys
who have been harassed are more likely than girls to have
told no one (27% and 19%, respectively). Only seven percent
of sexually harassed students say they have told a teacher
about the experience, with girls twice as likely as boys to
have done this. By far, most reporting takes place on a
peer-to-peer basis: 63 percent of sexually harassed students
have told a friend.

Reasons and rationale for the lack of reporting include
that victims feel uncomfortable, embarrassed, or ashamed.
They are afraid that no one will believe them, that
harassment will reflect badly on their character, that
somehow they will be viewed as having invited the behavior.
And often, they do blame themselves. They may feel
unjustified guilt, be fearful of repercussions, and may even
be too ashamed to tell friends or family (Sandler, 1989).
If students were more knowledgeable and confident about

48
reporting, perhaps reporting sexual harassment, then
reporting might occur more often.

Reporting sexual harassment is important for several
reasons. One, even if the victim does not want to press
criminal charges, reporting the incident to law enforcement
officers means that the incident will be officially
documented. Second, reporting sexual harassment can help
the victim feel more empowered. Third, reporting is the
first step in an official investigation and a possible
conviction. A victim who initially does not want to
prosecute and changes his/her mind later could not do so if
he/she did not report soon after the incident occurred. On
the other hand, if a victim wants to prosecute and reports
the incident, he/she can always later decline. Fourth,
reporting provides more consistent consequences for
perpetrators of sexual harassment which discourages future
incidents from occurring. Fifth, reporting an incident of
sexual harassment can lead to a confrontation with the
perpetrator and ultimately resolution.

A successful resolution can help to avoid further
actions and prove to be an educational experience. Such an
experience can become constructive and reduce the risk of
another incident. The guidance unit about sexual harassment
with seventh grade students used in this investigation also
attempts to increase knowledge about reporting, skills for

49
making effective reports, and a positive attitude about
reporting.

The Middle School Student

This investigation focuses on seventh grade middle
school students. Students at this age and stage of
development are known to be highly influenced, experiencing
rapid growth and development, and therefore, excellent
candidates for sexual harassment sensitivity training. This
section delineates known developmental characteristics of
this age group. Included is the nature of sexual
development of children.

The ages from 10-15 years mark a critical period in
human development. Youngsters grow by leaps and bounds.
They gain weight, lose their baby fat and develop sexually.
The changes are not only physical ones. Middle-schoolers
also develop thinking skills that prepare them for
adulthood. They begin to discover a sense of their own
identity, to understand abstract concepts like "right and
wrong" and "justice and injustice." They begin to think
about friends, family and the future in different ways.

Characteristics among adolescents can vary in depth and
breadth. However, general qualities for this age group have
been identified. The following is a list of behavior
patterns typical among middle school students, particularly
seventh graders (Gullotta & Adams, 1993):

50

• Alternate white-hot bursts of emotional and physical
energy with long periods of "vegging out" — usually by
adult standards, basically doing nothing productive.

• Taking risks such as in asking for dates and often
getting their feelings hurt easily.

• Simultaneously crave tender loving care from their
parents, even as they ask for more independence.

• Youngsters focus intensively on their own interests and
privacy, but at the same time, they are concerned with
what peer groups think of them.

• Want more privileges, but they may have difficulty
accepting the responsibility that comes with them.

• Begin to be aware of social issues.
The Nature of Sexual Development

Sexual attention to self and others increases with
advanced sexual development. Such attention can be positive
or negative depending on one's degree of sexual maturity and
gender. Normal development among boys, especially a
broadened chest, increased muscle density, body hair, and a
deeper voice is usually met with acceptance and even
reverence among adolescents. For girls, however, normal
sexual development is many times met with ridicule. Larger
hips and breasts, the beginning of menarche, and perhaps the
beginning of cosmetic enhancement are often the brunt of
jokes, sexual comments, and rumor. Also, boys and girls who
are sexually underdeveloped may suffer negative sexual

51
attention. Following are known characteristics of average
sexual development.

The relentless growth of the body is the dominant theme
during the early-adolescent period. No other period during
the second decade of life rivals these growth advances and
none incubates such potential for social and emotional
change. About two years before puberty the body begins
readying itself for the forthcoming distress. In this
period, known as pubescence, the body undergoes an increased
rate of physical growth (Mitchell, 1979; Gullotta & Adams,
1993) .

Psychological responses to such rapid and tumultuous
growth encompasses many challenges. The most notable is a
general preoccupation with the body, with the way it looks
and how it feels. This is a period of body shyness and
sensitivity. Students feel self-conscious, they worry about
how their body looks to others, even though they possess
some objective idea as to whether it is attractive by
general standards (Mitchell, 1979; Gullotta & Adams, 1993).

Many adolescents have discovered that feelings of
inadequacy and inferiority can be alleviated by making fun
of others, even in a playful way. However, at any given
time, the playfulness may or may not be taken seriously, so
the game is not without psychological risk. As a child
progresses along his or her sexual development, the risk for
being sexually harassed also advances. Even though

52
motivation to sexually harass others is not known to be
sexually driven, advancing sexual development may provide
the focus for such behavior.

Previous Attempts at Sexual Harassment Intervention

Sexual harassment has proven to be highly resistant to
change, the existence of both legal and other strategies
notwithstanding. In part, at least, this may be because
sexual harassment works. Socially, politically, and
economically, sexual harassment protects male "turf,"
intimidating and humiliating those who would threaten it,
putting them in their place and keeping them there (Bogart &
Stein, 1987).

Former attempts at reducing and preventing the
occurrence of sexual harassment has been mostly confined to
the work place and university settings. Further, much of
the effort to reduce or eliminate sexual harassment has been
in the form of guidelines and policies formulated by the
administration or supervisor. The following delineates
previous attempts at sexual harassment intervention at the
work place, college campuses, and middle/high schools.
The Work place

Prior to the 1980 's, there were no federal or state
laws prohibiting sexual harassment on the job and few
instances in which it was prevented or punished. A woman
who was beaten, seriously molested or raped in the work
place might file an assault or battery lawsuit, for example,

53
but that happened only rarely. The term sexual harassment
was not known (Petrocelli & Repa, 1992). A series of legal
decisions, beginning with the Civil Rights Act Title VII of
1964, paved the way for current laws regarding sexual
harassment in the work place. Table 2-1 depicts legal
decisions affecting sexual harassment at the work place and,
eventually, the classroom.

Many employers have not relied on laws regarding sexual
harassment for preventing sexual harassment in their work
place. Nor have organizations waited for the determination
of sexual harassment to occur in the courtroom. Instead,
they have taken a somewhat proactive stance by setting
official policies and procedures to deal with such
situations.

Most sexual harassment prevention policies provide for
informal and formal complaint procedures . The informal
route allows the harassed individual to complain to a member
of management or a person designated to receive such
complaints. The formal route provides for a formal, written
complaint, usually accompanied by a documented investigation
(Thacker, 1994).

Problems with these policies do, however, exist and may
have limited effectiveness. Individuals who are targets of
the harassment are required to file a complaint. However,
almost half of them do not feel comfortable complaining,
either formally or informally, about the unwelcome sexual

54

Table 2-1.

Legal Decisions Affecting Sexual Harassment,

1964 Civil Rights Act Title VII prohibits sexual/racial
discrimination at work.

1972 Civil Rights Act Title IX, Federal Education Amendments,
prohibits sexual/racial discrimination against students
and staff in education.

1980 The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) defines
sexual harassment.

1980 Continental Can v. Minnesota court case determines that an
employer and/or organization is liable for sexual
harassment and must take prompt action to correct the
problem.

1982 Huebschen v. Wisconsin Department of Health and Social

Services court case determines that submission to sexual
advances cannot be made a term of employment, and that an
organization is liable for the actions of its supervisors .

19 86 Meritor State Bank v. Vinson court case determines that
sexual harassment is a form of sex discrimination under
Title VII, and that allowing an environment of sexual
harassment is unlawful.

1991 Ellison v. Brady court case rules that a "reasonable

woman" (rather than the traditional "reasonable person")
standard should be applied by juries and judges in
considering sexual harassment case.

1991 Robinson v. Jacksonville shipyard Inc. court case

determines that posting pornographic material at work is a
type of sexual harassment and creates a hostile
environment .

1991 The Civil Rights Act of 1991 states that a victim of

sexual harassment can attempt to recover compensatory and
punitive damages from his or her employer.

1991 In an out-of-court settlement, a high school in Duluth,
Minnesota is ordered to pay $15,000 in damages to a
student who was sexually harassed by her male peers.

1992 Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools makes clear
that students who suffer sexual harassment and other forms
of sex discrimination can seek monetary damages from their
schools and school officials for violating their civil
rights .

1992 The Minnesota Court of Appeals decides that an employee
need not complain at the time about sexual harassment on
the job in order to sue later and collect damages from the
employer. Their decision strengthens the position that
employers are liable if they knew or should have known
about harassment. It supports the growing sense of
awareness of which behaviors are appropriate, and which
are clearly inappropriate.

(Strauss, 1992, p. 6)

55
advances. For these people, the response is likely to be
passive, acquiescent, perhaps even compliant. A policy that
requires passive targets to complain is similar to having no
prevention policy at all (Thacker, 1994). Further, such
policies sometimes do not account for when the designated
complaint receiver, many times a superior, is the
perpetrator.
College Campuses

Colleges have recognized their obligation to provide
work and study environments free of sexual harassment and
intimidation. Like the work place, sexual harassment
intervention efforts at colleges primarily have been in the
form of policies and procedures. The other principal
intervention method uses education in the form of classroom
discussion, workshops, and presentations.

Institutions have chosen to take a number of productive
actions designed to eliminate harassment and its effects
rather than to merely wait for charges of sexual harassment
to be brought. A study by Saunders (1992) showed that 91
percent of colleges have sexual harassment policies.
Institutions have also developed procedures to inform new
staff, faculty, and students about sexual harassment policy.
Moreover, many institutions have disseminated information
concerning grievance procedures; developed publications
about sexual harassment and its legal implications;
developed a code of conduct for faculty and staff; included

56
material on sexual harassment in courses on human sexuality;
and trained counselors and other student personnel to deal
with sexual harassment issues raised by students (Sandler,
1989) .

Dzeich and Weiner (1984), recommended three goals for
sexual harassment policies to be credible. They must
prevent harassment, remedy situations which occur, and deal
with perpetrators. The authors suggested that remedies must
not only address the needs of women but stop the offending
behaviors. Top-level administrators, such as the president
or provost, must be committed to the prevention of sexual
harassment; by affixing their signature to policy statements
and procedures, they send a strong message to the community.
They may carry with it authority, legitimacy, and perhaps
even needed resources.

Unfortunately, formal procedures have not appeared to
act as a deterrent. For instance, both Harvard University
and the University of California at Davis had formal
policies and procedures in place at the time these
institutions conducted sexual harassment surveys, yet more
than 13 percent of the women respondents at the University
of California and nearly half those at Harvard, reported
unwanted sexual approaches from male faculty (Bogart &
Stein, 1987).

Some institutions disseminate information in the form
of flyers, brochures, and television spots over school

57
networks. For example, the Project on the Status and
Education of Women at the Association of American Colleges
offers numerous publications intended to address sexual
harassment on college campuses. Advanced efforts in
preventing sexual harassment may take the form of direct
education and sensitivity training.

Educating students about sexual harassment, in an
effort to prevent it's occurrence, has been performed in a
variety of ways. Such training can take place as part of
courses such as Psychology, Sociology, Women's Studies,
English, Human Sexuality, and electives such as Career
Development .

Some institutions have formulated peer education
programs that focus on sexual misconduct. At Princeton
University, students are trained through the SHARE Program
(Sexual Harassment /Assault Advising, Resources, and
Education) in counseling and group facilitation skills and
also receive training on specific issues of sexual
harassment, sexual assault, and male/ female communication.
Then, as peer educators, they help design and conduct
workshops on such issues as acquaintance rape, peer or
faculty harassment, and homophobic harassment (Hindus,
1989) .

According to Hindus (1989), peer educator input is
invaluable, since they are aware of student concerns on
campus and can provide examples and scenarios that are

58
familiar to their peers. Their participation can also be
important in designing workshop formats, selecting films,
videos, and resource materials, and deciding when and where
to conduct workshops for students. They also speak to other
students about harassment and refer them to appropriate
resources.

Hindus (1989) also wrote about the advantages of using
peer educators for sexual harassment intervention efforts.
One result of such peer counseling and educating activities
is the legitimizing of the issue of harassment for students
who might discount the same messages from administrators.
In addition, peers often are more accessible, less hampered
by institutional concerns, and better able to understand and
relate to another student's experiences. They also can
mobilize other students on these issues and serve as
catalysts for institutional change. As activists, they can
alert administrators to student needs and concerns, and act
as informal educators for their peers in daily interactions.
Middle and High Schools

Limited and sporadic efforts have been placed on
learning more about the nature of sexual harassment among
children in the school setting. One reason might be that
sexual harassment is a disturbing issue among parents and
administrators alike. Many parents do not like the idea of
their children discussing such delicate issues and, thus,
have denied permission for systematic data collection among

59
their children. To appease parents and others,
administrators may be motivated to ignore the problem and
conclude that it does not exist or occurs in rare isolated
incidents in their setting.

Attempts at preventing sexual harassment at the grade
school level include formulating policies and procedures;
posting flyers; conducting discussions in the classroom as
well as with parents during Parent-Teacher Association (PTA)
meetings; assigning someone, usually a school counselor, the
role of school sexual harassment complaint manager; and
including sexual harassment in the student handbook.

Several publications have resulted in response to the
importance of preventing sexual harassment among our youth.
For example, Everything You Need to Know About Sexual
Harassment (Bouchard, 1990), Tune In to Your Rights: A Guide
for Teenagers About Turning Off Sexual Harassment (Morris,
et al., 1985), How to Stop Sexual Harassment in Our Schools:
A Handbook and Curriculum Guide for Administrators and
Teachers (Shoop & Edwards, 1994), Sexual Harassment and
Teens: A Program for Positive Change (Strauss, 1992), and
Confronting Sexual Harassment: Learning Activities for Teens
(Sabella & Myrick, 1995).

Even though sexual harassment has been found to be
highly prevalent and pervasive among our school children,
prevention efforts seriously lag. This investigation will

60
add to a deficient area of the literature about sexual
harassment prevention for middle schoolers.

Peer Facilitator Programs and Training

This study will use systematically trained and
supervised high school peer facilitators in one of four
conditions. This section contains a history and definition
of peer facilitation, rationale for using peer facilitators
in this study, the roles of peer facilitators, and a review
of the literature about peer facilitator effectiveness.

American adolescents are among the greatest resources
of our nation. Like most people, they want to feel special
and needed. They want to do things which bring them
favorable recognition and which demonstrate that what they
do is of value. One of the most interesting and innovative
educational endeavors of our time is the development of peer
facilitator programs, where young people are trained to help
their peers and others (Myrick & Folk, 1991).

Peer counseling is a rapidly growing people-helping-
people phenomenon that has found a vital place in schools,
businesses, and communities in the United States and Canada.
Peer counselors attempt to address a range of human needs in
areas of social-emotional functioning, behavior control and
management, and educational achievement (Alkin, 1992).

According to Myrick (1993), the concept of peers
helping peers is not new. The idea began years ago in one
room school houses, when older students were given the

61
responsibility of tutoring younger students in basic skills.
The process was not as refined as it is today. However, the
value of having students help other students was learned
early in the history of education and has never been
forgotten.

In the 1950 's and 1960 's empathy, openness, and
acceptance were identified as ingredients for effective
change in counseling and therapeutic relationships (Bergin &
Garfield, 1971; Rogers, 1957 in Alkin, 1992). These
findings, together with the inability of traditional mental
health and educational services to address the needs of the
population at large, once again led to the training of
paraprofessionals to augment professional services (Albee,
1985 in Alkin, 1992) .

During the 1970 's, successful "peer counseling"
programs were started in several schools and universities
(e.g. Hamburg & Varenhorst, 1974; Samuels & Samuels, 1975;
Gray & Tindall, 1978; and Myrick & Erney, 1978). However,
some peer counseling programs experienced problems. The
term peer counselor has been met with skepticism by parents,
teachers, administrators, and counselors who reserve its use
for crisis interventions or intense situations when a person
is in trouble. Some see counseling synonymous with therapy,
and, therefore, inappropriate for unlicensed people (Myrick,
1993). Efforts to fit the title to functions that peer
counselors perform leads to avoid the term peer counselor in

62
favor of more acceptable titles (e.g., peer helper, peer
friend, or peer facilitator) .

The term peer facilitator was introduced (e.g. Myrick &
Erney, 1978) because it seemed more accurate in describing
the limited role and function of young people as helpers.
It communicates best what students are asked to do when
helping others. At the same time, it provides enough
flexibility to incorporate several helping roles and
functions. In addition, the term is easier to explain to
parents and educators (Myrick, 1993). Further, the need for
more precision in labeling is supported by apprehension
about the potential liability in having minimally trained
peers perform what might be perceived as professional
counseling activities (Alkin, 1992).

This investigation recognizes the term peer facilitator
as referring to a student who uses helping skills and
concepts to assist other students— and sometimes adults-^:o
think about ideas and feelings, to explore alternatives to
situations, and to make responsible decisions (Myrick &
Bowman, 1981).

The importance of using peers in sexual harassment

intervention lies in their intrinsically established mutual

perception of trust and genuineness. Myrick and Sorenson

(1992) noted that,

As children mature, peer influences become
increasingly more important in their lives. Peer
groups influence social attitudes and skills,
emotional well being, and the general climate of

63

the school and community. When adolescents behave
in dys functioning ways, their behavior is often
attributed more to their peer relationships than
to family interactions . This is especially true
for problems related to drug use, delinquency, and
sexual behavior, (p. 9)

People tend to talk to others perceived most like
themselves about personal problems. One middle school study
showed that less than a third of the student body believed
there was someone in school to whom they could talk about
their problems. Less than a third said they knew of a
teacher or friendly adult available to listen to them. Most
agreed that when they or their friends had problems, another
student was the best place to find help (Myrick & Sorenson,
1992) .

Another study determined that boys who have been
harassed are more likely than girls to have told no one (27%
and 19%, respectively) . A scant 7 percent of sexually
harassed students say they have told a teacher about the
experience, with girls twice as likely as boys to have done
this. By far, most reporting takes place on a peer-to-peer
basis: 63 percent of sexually harassed students have told a
friend (49% of boys and 77% of girls, Harris, 1993).
Accordingly, peers need to be used as effective and
efficient assistants in combatting the problem of sexual
harassment.

There are four critical areas in which peer influence
dominates: in finding out how to deal with aggression, in
learning about sex, in developing moral standards from

64
within, and in finding emotional security (Segal & Segal,
1986). Therefore, students remain on the front line when it
comes to recognizing incidents of sexual harassment. Peers
can be important resources for assisting in sexual
harassment prevention efforts.

In addition to helping other students in the area of
sexual harassment, Myrick (1993) has noted several
advantages to peer facilitators themselves. Such advantages
include that students can:

• learn leadership skills which can be used throughout
life.

• become actively involved in helping their schools have
better learning environments. Students communicate
more effectively and are more positive with each other.
They learn more about how to be sensitive to others and
how to stand up for their own rights.

• provide more guidance services to others because there
are more helpers in the school. Peer facilitators are
the helping hands of teachers and counselors. They
help deliver guidance services and, consequently, many
more students are involved.

• contribute to a highly visible program that brings
positive public relations to the school's guidance
program.

• become less likely to be resistant to learning
something when they learn that their help is valued and

65
wanted. Personal growth is an expected outcome for all
the peer helpers.

• provide a positive experience for the program
coordinator and trainer. It is often reported as the
highlight of a counselor's or teacher's week.

• have the opportunity to act as models for other
students and to implement effective interpersonal
skills as part of the school day. It can help build
positive school environments which make school a better
place to be for everyone, including teachers and
counselors .

Informal peer education is a natural part of high
school life. Countless times during the normal course of a
school day, information of varying degrees of accuracy on
such topics as sex, alcohol, drugs, hygiene and diet passes
from one student to another. Often those students who enjoy
a high status among their contemporaries are viewed as
purveyors of reliable information in these areas. Using
trained peer helpers for facilitating a guidance unit about
sexual harassment is a more systematic approach to the
natural order of school life. Natural opinion leaders,
interested in being more effective helpers are seen as ideal
instruments for inculcating healthy lifestyles in a school
population. Given proper training, these natural leaders
can serve not only as role models but as advocates of
healthy skills and information (Sparks & Hudson, 1984).

66

Using peer facilitators is also endorsed by the

American School Counselor Association (ASCA) . In 1989, ASCA

published its official position statement on peer

facilitator programs,

. . . peer facilitator programs enhance the
effectiveness of the counseling program by
increasing outreach programs and expansion of
guidance services . Through proper selection,
training , and supervision, peer facilitating can
be a positive force within the school and
community that will meet the need of a sizeable
segment of the student body.

Students often communicate their problems to
their peers rather than to parents,
administrators, or counselors . There exists in
every school community a segment of the student
population that rejects adult relationships. In
our society peer influence may be the strongest
single motivational force in a student' s life.
Peers can be selected and trained by professional
counselors in communication and counseling skills
through a carefully planned peer counseling
program, and produce additional guidance services
which otherwise might never have been realized.
(Myrick & Folk, 1991, section H, appendix A)

Peer Facilitator Effectiveness

Although there exists no published studies about the
effectiveness of high school peer facilitators in the area
of sexual harassment intervention, many studies concerning
peer facilitator effectiveness exists in other areas of
intervention, for different grade levels, using similar
formats. For instance, Tobler (1986) conducted a meta-
analysis of 143 adolescent drug prevention programs to
identify the most effective program modalities for reducing
teenage drug use. Peer programs were found to show a
definite superiority. On the ultimate criteria for drug

67
use, peer programs were significantly different than the
combined results of all the remaining programs.

Similarly, Mathur and Rutherford (1991) conducted a
review of the literature to evaluate the success of peer-
mediated interventions in promoting social skills of
children and adolescents with behavior disorders. The
authors analyzed 21 articles on their experimental,
procedural, and generalization components. Results
indicated that (a) peer-mediated approaches have
demonstrated success in reducing immediate positive
treatment effects, (b) typologies of peer-mediated
treatments have been identified, and (c) peer-mediated
approaches, in general, have contributed to the
effectiveness of generalization technology.

A study investigating the effects of peers on academic
achievement was based on 905 students in 150 classrooms for
grades four, five, and six. Peer effects was added to a
model which employed teacher, student, and campus effects to
explain academic achievement. Results of the study include
a significant increase in the amount of variance explained
in student academic achievement (gain score) for each grade,
as well as when the overall case is tested (Jones, 1988).

Waters (1991) studied the effect of peer facilitation
instruction on AIDS knowledge and attitudes of teenage
students and teachers. The author also compared the peer
facilitation instruction to a traditional instructional

68
framework. Positive change was found in both knowledge and
attitude among students from the peer-intervention group and
the traditional group. Some positive change was also found
in knowledge among teachers from the traditional group and
in attitude among teachers from the peer-intervention group.
Overall, no significant differences were found between the
peer-facilitation and the traditional approaches to
instruction in the amount of knowledge and attitude change
for both students and teachers.

Fouts (1985) investigated the effects of a peer
facilitator-led study skills unit on study skills, self-
concept, school attitude, classroom behavior, and academic
achievement among sixth grade middle school students. The
study skills unit was implemented by trained eighth grade
peer facilitators and a professional school counselor. No
significant differences were found in sixth graders'
classroom behavior and academic achievement. However,
significant differences were found in self-concept and
school attitudes. This investigation provided further
support for the effectiveness of trained peer facilitators
in changing study skills.

Sprinthall, Hall, and Gerler (1992) described a program
in which 11th and 12th graders became peer counselors for
groups of middle school students experiencing a family
divorce. The results supported the developmental goals for
the program for both the high school students and middle

69
school students. Both groups showed an increase in
interpersonal awareness, greater understanding of the
complexities and paradoxes of life, psychological causation,
individuality, and the internalization of standards for
mature judgement.

Another examination of peer facilitator effectiveness
was conducted for secondary school students in an
alternative school. The dependent variables included self-
concept, interpersonal relations and school interest.
Twelve students from the school, selected by a screening
committee of students and faculty, were trained in
communication, coping skills, and group dynamics for a total
of sixteen sessions over an eight week period. After
training the peer facilitators co-led six groups of students
for a total of fourteen sessions over a six week period.
Findings indicated that participants in the program showed a
significant gain in school interest over non-participants.
Self-concept scores of participants did not differ
significantly from those of non-participants. This study
lends further support to the positive relationship between
participation in a peer group facilitation program and
positive attitude toward school. Further, the study calls
for further research to using peer group facilitation to
increase the school interest of secondary students in the
alternative school (Kelley, 1980).

70
Analogously, Correll (1983) reported that following
training and experience as peer tutors in a behaviorally
oriented reading program for junior high school students,
formerly disruptive students decreased their disruptive
behaviors and exhibited improved morale and increased
academic progress.

Many empirical studies concerning the effectiveness of
using peers as group facilitators have corroborated the
personal experiences of trainers. Peer facilitator trainers
have provided anecdotes which are a tribute to the work that
peer facilitators have provided for their contemporaries.
Common sense and systematic research both provide a sound
basis for using high school peer facilitators in the area of
sexual harassment among seventh grade students.
High School Peer Facilitators

The areas in which high school peer facilitators have
been used are as diverse as the facilitators themselves.
For instance, Frenske (1983) reported using peer
facilitators to encourage increased female interest in
science careers. Maher and Christopher (1982) examined the
effectiveness of behavioral group counseling in preventing
remediating maladjustment of 24 ninth graders of average
intelligence. When compared to ninth graders receiving
routine counseling services, the students receiving group
counseling improved their school attendance, and GPA, while
reducing their number of disciplinary referrals and

71
referrals for special education. Additionally, there were
no differences between groups receiving counseling from
professionals and from older students.

One orientation program led by peers intended to foster
successful school adjustment for entering eighth graders in
a black, suburban high school. It was hypothesized that
deficits in attendance and appropriate school-related
behaviors may be due largely to a lack of accurate
information about expected behavior, appropriate role
models, good interpersonal skills and acceptance of personal
responsibility. The results for the class initially
participating in the peer-led informational-processing group
were a reduction in absences, improved conduct, and
subsequently fewer failing grades (Huey, 1985).

High school peer facilitators can be trained in many
settings and by using various methods. Settings can include
the classroom, on field trips, during small group guidance,
in a school club, during teacher-advisor groups, or during a
summer camp. Methods can include weekend marathons, a
f ocused-project approach, retreat-workshop approach, small
group units, or elective classes. The peer facilitators
used in this study are trained in the classroom as members
of an elective class called Peer Counseling III and IV. The
course follows the high school peer facilitator curriculum
shown in Appendix A.

72
Summary

The injurious effects of sexual harassment span from
the classroom to the courtroom. Students can be emotionally
and physically traumatized which seriously hinders the
developmental and educational processes. The destructive
nature of sexual harassment compels further research in the
area of interventions. Further, because sexual harassment
occurs mostly among peers, investigations which include
using peer facilitation as an intervention condition are
needed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effects of a developmental guidance unit and self-
instruction module about sexual harassment on early
adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the
unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept ,
and school comfort of middle school students. In addition,
three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit
were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper
led; and self-instruction.

CHAPTER III
METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Sexual harassment is any unwanted sexual attention that
interferes with one's life. It has been recognized as a
problem among people in the workplace and students at
universities. More recently, the problem of sexual
harassment has been acknowledged among students in the
middle and high school grades. Sexual harassment interferes
with students' academic progress, economic potential, social
and emotional development, and psychological well-being.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effects of a developmental guidance unit and self-
instruction module about sexual harassment on early
adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the
unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept ,
and school comfort of middle school students. In addition,
three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit
were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper
led; and self-instruction.

The population and sample, relevant variables,
instruments, research design, hypotheses, participant
training, the developmental guidance unit and self-

73

74
instruction module, and research procedures will be
described in this chapter.

Population and Sample

Alachua County is located in north-central Florida,
covers 965 square miles, is home to 194,000 people, and is
considered a center for education, medical research, and
agriculture. The University of Florida is the financial
anchor for the area, serving as employment for over 11,300
people (according to figures released on June 6, 1995 by the
Alachua County Chamber of Commerce) and providing income for
the many businesses and service providers in the area.

The population for this study consisted of seventh
grade students from seven different middle schools in
Alachua County, Florida. On May 9, 1995, the total middle
school student population in Alachua County was 6,268. The
total number of seventh grade students was 2,275. The
population of Alachua County middle schools is racially
integrated, at approximately 62% white and 34% African-
American. The percentages of males to females is virtually
even (See Table 3-1). The Alachua County school system also
includes six high schools and 23 elementary schools.
Sample

All seventh grade students in Alachua County middle
schools were eligible to participate in the study. Of the
seven middle schools invited to participate in this study,
two agreed. Considering the management of experimental

75

Table 3-1.

Population of Alachua County Middle Schools.

School

Grade

Black White

TOT

Lincoln

6-8

650

662

601

627

1312

Howard Bishop*

6-8

548

566

546

529

1114

Westwood*

6-8

463

507

303

631

970

Mebane

6-8

261

287

166

375

548

Spring Hill

5-8

245

263

89

410

508

Fort Clarke

6-8

637

649

255

938

1286

Oak View

6-8

256

274

159

368

530

TOTALS :

3060

3208

2119

3878

6268

Schools participating in this study.

76
conditions and research procedures, seventh grade students
at both schools were identified as those who could best
participate in the study. More specifically, four seventh
grade science classes in School A (out of 14 total science
classes) and four seventh grade English classes at School B
(out of 19 total English classes) were selected to take part
in the study because they could be randomly assigned to
experimental conditions.

The classes in each school were randomly assigned,
using a table of random numbers, to one of four different
experimental conditions (peer-led [E ] , adult-led [E ],
self-instruction [E3], and control [Cj]). A total of 182
seventh grade students participated in this study (out of
2,163 total in the county, or 8.41%). Of the 182 students,
140 (77%) completed all instruments during pretesting and
posttesting and were included in the data analyses (see
Table 3-2) .

Data collection ensued after securing research and
participant approval from the Committee for the Protection
of Human Subjects (i.e., University of Florida Institutional
Review Board) , Alachua County School Board Department of
Research and Evaluation, school site Principals, teachers,
and students' parent (s) or legal guardian(s) (see Appendix B
for Informed Parental Consent for Study Participation) .

77

Table 3-2.

Sampling of Middle School Students.

al

Scho

ol

Experimentc
Condition

Westwood

Ft.

Clarke

Condition
Total

Peer-led (EJ

17

18

35

Adult-led (E2)

19

18

37

Self-led (E3)

22

18

40

Ctrl (CJ

12

16

28

School

Totals

70

70

140

78
Relevant Variables

This section describes the independent and dependent
variables included in this study. Three instruments were
administered both pre- and postintervention by student
counselors and teachers. They were (1) The Sexual
Harassment Inventory (including subscales of knowledge,
attitude, and behavior), (2) The School Atmosphere
Inventory, and (3) the Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept
Scale.
Independent Variable

This study included one independent variable, the
guidance unit or experimental intervention, with three
levels. The three levels were characteristic of who
facilitated the intervention and included: teachers and
student counselors (adult-led) , systematically trained and
supervised high school peer facilitators (peer helper-led) ,
and students ( self -instruction ) .

The developmental guidance unit about sexual harassment
among seventh grade students included six sessions which
focused on knowledge, attitude, and behavior regarding
sexual harassment. The six sessions were conducted over six
weeks (one session per week) . Table 3-3 depicts the focus,
title, and objectives for each session.
Dependent Variables

This investigation focused on five relevant and
dependent variables: knowledge, attitude, behavior, self-

79

Table 3-3.

Focus, Title, and Objectives for the Intervention Sessions.

Focus

Title

Objectives

Knowledge & Self
Concept

Tic -Tac- Know

Knowledge, Self-
Concept, and
Attitude

Knowledge, Self-
Concept , and
Attitude

Knowledge, self-
Concept , and
Behaviors

Knowledge, Self-
Concept, and
Behaviors

Knowledge, Self-
Concept , and
Behaviors

Hit or Myth: You
Make the Call

Is it Sexual
Harassment?

Are You a Good
Listener?

Earning Mutual
Respect

Helping Yourself
and Others

To introduce the topic of
boy- girl relationships
and how physical changes
influence personal
relationships; to
introduce the concept of
sexual harassment and
that it has become a
problem in society.

To have students be aware
of sexual harassment
mythology; assist in
refuting false beliefs
about sexual harassment .

To help students identify
sexual harassment when it
occurs; to differentiate
between three forms of
sexual harassment
(physical and verbal;
hostile environment; and
quid pro quo) .

To teach communication
skills including active
listening, nonverbal
communication, and
facilitative responding.

To teach the definition
and concept of mutual
respect; appreciating
differences; and being
sensitive to personal
space .

To teach students how to
confront a perpetrator;
report sexual harassment;
keep a journal of
incidents; effectively
support and help others
experiencing sexual
harassment.

80
concept, and school comfort. Each of the variables were
measured by an appropriate instrument.

Instruments

This study included three criterion measures. The
Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale assessed self-
concept. The Sexual Harassment Inventory measured general
knowledge, attitude, and behavior of sexual harassment
issues. Last, the School Atmosphere Inventory assessed each
student's level of school comfort. All instruments are
self -reported.
Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale (PHCSCS)

The procedure for choosing the Piers-Harris Children's
Self-Concept Scale included first identifying self-concept
as a factor significantly related to the area of sexual
harassment and then conducting an extensive review of the
assessment literature. The PHCSCS was determined as an
appropriate and sufficient instrument for determining actual
change in self-concept as affected by the developmental
guidance unit and self-instruction module about sexual
harassment.

The PHCSCS is an 80-item, self-report questionnaire
designed to assess how children and adolescents feel about
themselves. Children are shown various statements that tell
how some people feel about themselves and are asked to
indicate whether each statement applies to them using
dichotomous "yes" or "no" responses. The PHCSCS is intended

81
for use with children and adolescents, ages 8 to 18 years
(Piers, 1989).

Construction and use of the Piers-Harris was based on
the belief that individuals hold a relatively consistent
view of themselves which develops and stabilizes during
childhood. Further, the PHCSCS operated under five
assumptions as outlined by Piers (1989). First, it was
assumed that children will reveal important aspects of this
underlying self-image by stating whether or not a series of
simple, declarative statements hold true for them, and that
this assessment of their self-concepts relates meaningfully
to other aspects of their personalities and to predictions
of future behavior (Piers, 1989).

A second assumption included the view that self-concept
has both global and specific components. Global self-
concept reflects how an individual feels about himself or
herself as a total person, taking into account his or her
characteristic interactions with others, general and
specific abilities, and physical self-image. Areas of
specific self -concept result from an individual's self-
appraisal in specific areas of functioning (e.g., physical
self, moral and ethical self, academic self).

Third, it was assumed that self-concept is relatively
stable. Although shaped by experience, it is not something
which changes easily or rapidly. In children, self -concept
is initially more situationally dependent and becomes

82
increasingly stable over time. Although it is possible to
enhance children's self -concept through a series of
corrective experiences, changes are not likely to occur as
the result of a brief, single, or superficial intervention
such as a weekend camping trip.

The fourth assumption was that self-concept has a self-
evaluative as well as a self-descriptive component. It
represents an individual's accumulated judgments concerning
himself or herself. Some of these evaluations may reflect
internalized judgments of others (e.g., values, norms,
notions of what constitutes socially desirable traits and
behaviors). Others may be unique to the individual.

Fifth, self-concept is experienced and expressed
differently by children at various stages of development. A
sixth assumption is that self-concept serves an important
organizing function and plays a key role in motivation. An
individual's judgment of whether or not a particular
behavior is consistent with his or her self-image also helps
guide future behaviors. Behaviors which are consistent with
one's self-image will tend to be favored over inconsistent
behaviors.

A number of studies (e.g., Fahey & Phillips, 1981;
Marsh, Smith, Barnes, & Butler, 1983; Platten & Williams,
1981) have investigated the test-retest reliability of the
PHCSCS with both normal and special samples. Test-retest
reliability coefficients range from .42 (with an interval of

83
8 months) to .96 (with an interval of 3 to 4 weeks). The
median test-retest reliability was .73. It has been noted
that reliability estimates which are based on more
heterogenous samples are expected to be higher due to less
constriction in range. In addition, the fact that shorter
test-retest intervals are generally associated with higher
reliability estimates is also consistent with expectation
since there is less chance that environmental or
developmental changes will have affected children's self-
concepts. Internal consistency coefficients of the Piers-
Harris ranges from .88 to .93. The test-retest interval for
the present investigation is seven weeks.

Estimates of the content, criterion-related, and
construct validity of the PHCSCS have been obtained by a
number of empirical studies. These studies have used a
variety of approaches including item analysis,
intercorrelations among the scales and items, and
comparisons of the responses of various criterion groups.
Correlations between the PHCSCS and behavioral ratings by
teachers for sixth grade students ranges from .17 to .25.
Correlations with peer ratings for sixth grade students
ranges from .34 to .49 (Piers, 1989).

The Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale has been
used extensively as reported in the professional literature.
For instance, an electronic search of all dissertation
abstracts from over 550 universities, including almost all

84
North American graduate schools and many European
universities, yielded 169 dissertations which used the
PHCSCS . Further, an electronic search of the Educational
Resources Information Center (ERIC), from January 1988 to
March 1995 yielded 29 other studies and articles which
incorporate the PHCSCS. The ERIC database is an index to
journals in education and the ERIC microfiche collections
(composed of report literature) .

The PHCSCS has been used considerably for the purpose
of empirically and systematically detecting specific
treatment effects. For instance, Barrett (1985) used the
PHCSCS to detect changes in behavior for children in a
private clinic for deficits in social skills. The children
were trained using the behavioral techniques of cognitive
behavior modification, modeling, role-playing, and token
reinforcement .

Carusi (1983) used the PHCSCS to evaluate a
transactional analysis unit intervention. Additionally,
Dygert (1980) studied the effects of a human relations
program on self-concept and achievement among eighth grade
rural students using the PHCSCS. Another and final example
of a study which uses the PHCSCS to ascertain treatment
effects includes Roberson's (1981) investigation of the
effects of stress inoculation training in a classroom
setting on state-trait anxiety level and self-concept of
early adolescents.

85
The Sexual Harassment Inventory (SHI) and the School
Atmosphere Inventory (SAI)

A search for instruments appropriate for measuring
knowledge, attitude, and behavior regarding sexual
harassment was conducted by reviewing several data bases.
These included: a) the Educational Resources Information
Center (ERIC); b) Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook;
c) Tests in Print; d) the American College of Testing (ACT);
e) Dissertation Abstracts; f) PsycLit; and g) Health &
Psychosocial Instruments (HAPI). No instruments were found
to exist for obtaining reliable, valid, and properly
normalized data about middle school students' knowledge,
attitude, or behaviors about sexual harassment.

Instruments found to measure factors regarding sexual
harassment were normalized for undergraduate and graduate
college students or for adults in the workplace.
Instruments were considered in closely related areas such as
interpersonal interaction (e.g., Fundamental Interpersonal
Relations Orientation Behavior for Children, ) , behavior
(e.g., Jessnes Behavior Checklist, The Child Behavior
Checklist, Texas Social Behavior Inventory, Waksman Social
Skills Rating Scale,), and attitude (Harassment Sensitivity
Inventory; Attitudes Toward Communication Patterns in a Work
Setting Questionnaire) . None of the considered instruments
were found to be appropriate for measuring the outcome
variables in this study.

86
Instruments considered for measuring school comfort
included Security-Insecurity Inventory, Supervisory
Inventory on Safety, Classroom Environment Scale (2nd
edition) , Learning Environment Inventory, and the School
Environment Preference Survey. However, none of these
instruments were appropriate in regard to validity,
reliability, or norm references, for adequately measuring
level of perceived school comfort in this study.

In response to the lack of instruments, two inventories
were especially designed for this study, the Sexual
Harassment Inventory (SHI) and the School Atmosphere
Inventory (SAI). Items for the SHI were developed by
identifying pertinent information about students' knowledge,
behaviors, and attitude about sexual harassment via a review
of the professional literature. Items for the SAI were
developed by interviewing experts in education and middle
school students. An initial inventory encompassing both the
SHI and the SAI included 58 items. It was piloted using 96
students from three different home room classes at a middle
school not participating in the study. Students responded
on a five point Likert-type scale indicating their level of
agreement to each item. Choices included Strongly Disagree,
Disagree, Uncertain, Agree, and Strongly Agree (in order
from 1 to 5 ) .

The test-retest interval was seven days and resulted in
a Pearson r correlation coefficient of .48. An item-by-item

87
correlational analysis was also conducted and items were
eliminated which were most highly intercorrelated. The
remaining items were then rank ordered by correlation
coefficients. Twenty-eight total items with high
intercorrelations and with the least test-retest reliability
were deleted while making certain that each subsection
maintained an adequate number of items.

The resultant Sexual Harassment Inventory (SHI; see
Appendix C) used in this study measures knowledge (10
items), attitude (6 items), and behavior (3 items),
associated with sexual harassment among middle grade
students. Further, the SHI included a section of four items
to address sexual harassment incidence and prevalence. The
School Atmosphere Inventory (SAI; see Appendix D) , designed
to assess perceived comfort in the school environment,
encompassed seven items.

The new inventories were once again administered,
presented as one instrument, to a total of 4 6 students in
two different classrooms in a school not participating in
the study to obtain test-retest reliability. A Pearson r of
.56 was obtained. Afterwards, the principal investigator
interviewed eleven middle school students, 23 graduate
students in school guidance and counseling, and several
experts in the field of test and measurement about altering
the inventories for clarity and consistency. The number of

items were not changed, but edited. The revised instruments
were used for this study.

Research Design

The hypotheses were tested based on the data derived
from a randomized pretest-posttest control group design
(Campbell & Stanley, 1963). The pre- post-test control
group design is conventional and appropriate because of its
many research advantages. The design minimized threats to
internal validity such as history, maturation, testing,
instrumentation, statistical regression, differential
selection of subjects, experimental mortality, and
interaction among factors (Mason & Bramble, 1989). A
summary of this design is presented in Table 3-4.

Hypotheses

There will be five dependent variables in this study:
knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept , and school
comfort. An appropriate test of significance (a=.10) will
be used to determine whether any measured differences are
greater than chance alone.

The following five major hypotheses will be tested:
Ho2: There will be no statistically significant difference

(a=.02) in knowledge change over time (pre to post)

among the experimental and control groups, as measured

by the Sexual Harassment Inventory.

89

Table 3-4.

Summary of Research Design,

Week

Experimental

Condition 1 2-7

R El Peer-led 0X, 02, 03

R E2 Adult-led 0^ 02, 03

R E3 Self 0lf 02, 03

R C2 Control 0X, 02, 03

x,

o4, o5, 0

X2

o4, o5, 0

X3

o4, o9, o

0w o5, 0

01 = Pre-test of the Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept

Scale

02 = Pre-test of the Sexual Harassment Inventory

03 = Pre-test of the School Atmosphere Inventory

Xa = High School peer facilitator-led developmental guidance
unit on sexual harassment.

X2 = Adult-led developmental guidance unit on sexual
harassment.

X3 = Self -instruction module about sexual harassment.

04 = Post-test of the Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept

Scale

05 = Post-test of the Sexual Harassment Inventory

06 = Post-test of the School Atmosphere Inventory

90
Ho2: There will be no statistically significant difference
(a=.02) in attitude change over time among the

experimental and control groups, as measured by the

Sexual Harassment Inventory.
Ho3: There will be no statistically significant difference

(a=.02) in behavior change over time among the

experimental and control groups, as measured by the

Sexual Harassment Inventory.
Ho4: There will be no statistically significant difference

(a=.02) in self -concept change over time among the

experimental and control groups, as measured by the

Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale for Children.
Ho5: There will be no statistically significant difference

(a=.02) in school comfort change over time among the

experimental and control groups, as measured by the

School Atmosphere Inventory.

Participant Training

This section describes training procedures with adults
and high school peer facilitators to help them deliver the
intervention in a skillful manner. Each facilitator
received a facilitator's manual (Appendix E) which includes
the developmental guidance unit on sexual harassment and met
with the principal investigator for an initial orientation.

Adult facilitators consisted of two teachers and two
school counseling graduate students from the University of
Florida. The principal investigator interviewed each adult,

91
at each site, at least once per week. The goal of each
contact was to discuss the progress of the previous
sessions, review for future sessions, and maintain
consistency among groups and schools.

Peer facilitators were drawn from an elective course at
Buchholz High School in Gainesville, Florida, which is
designed to prepare peer helpers who work in various
projects. The training consisted of successful completion
of an introductory 18-week elective course on peer
facilitating called Peer Counseling I/II which incorporates
the core helping skills. For example, peer helpers studied
and practiced skills such as attentive listening,
facilitative responding, problem solving, giving feedback,
and referring. Further, peer helpers focused on knowledge
regarding current adolescent issues such as suicide,
sexually transmitted diseases, sexual assault, eating
disorders, stress management, drugs and alcohol, and career
development.

To prepare peer helpers for facilitating the guidance
unit on sexual harassment, the principal investigator
reviewed the facilitator's manual with them and their
trainers. Following, the trainers prepared and rehearsed
each session before the peer helpers met with the middle
school students. Trainers assisted the peer helpers
practice facilitating each session via role-plays and
discussion. The principal investigator interviewed the peer

92
helper trainers on a weekly basis to discuss the progress of
each session in the unit, answer any questions for future
sessions, and maintain consistency among groups and schools.

Procedure

This study began in February, 1995. It encompassed
approximately eight weeks of school and was completed in
April, 1995. A summary of the procedures and time frame is
presented in Table 3-5. The self-instruction condition for
this investigation presented the guidance unit about sexual
harassment in the form of written materials. The materials
contained activities which required reading, evaluating, and
responding to the items used in the adult-led and peer-led
conditions .
Data Analyses

Following data collection, the five hypotheses were
tested using a repeated measures analyses of covariance
(ANCOVA) . The repeated measures ANOVA was used to test for
time X group effects, significant differences between
experimental and control groups, and significant differences
in pretest to posttest data. The time X group interaction
was the effect of primary interest, denoting whether there
was a differential amount of change from pretest to posttest
occassion among the four groups.

93
Table 3-5.
Summary of Procedures and Time Table.

Week Procedures

1 Orient and assist in training of peer facilitators.

2 Random assignment of conditions for each school.
Organizational meeting with adults at each
respective school and with high school peer
facilitator trainers to review facilitator's manual
and procedures for the study. Peer facilitators
continue their training.

3 Orientation and training for adults. Peer
facilitators continue their training.

4 Obtain consent to participate from students and
parents. High school peer facilitators continue
preparation for facilitating the unit.

5 Pre-testing of all subjects.

6 Session 1 of the intervention.

7 Session 2 of the intervention.

8 Session 3 of the intervention.

9 Session 4 of the intervention.

10 Session 5 of the intervention.

11 Session 6 of the intervention.

12 Post-testing and debriefing

CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effects of a developmental guidance unit and self-
instruction module about sexual harassment on early
adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the
unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept,
and school comfort of middle school students. In addition,
three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit
were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper
led; and self-led.

Data were completed on 140 students from two middle
schools in Gainesville, Florida. More specifically,
complete data were obtained from 37 students in the adult-
led group, 35 students in the peer-helper led group, 40
students in the self-led group, and 28 students in the
control group.

Five separate repeated measures analyses of variance
(ANOVA) were conducted, one for each of the five variables
related to the hypotheses. The experimental and control
groups were examined on the following variables: knowledge,
attitude, behavior, self -concept , and school comfort. Each

94

95
hypothesis was tested at the .02 level of confidence and
used the F score and accompanying p. value.

The .02 level of significance was used to control for
Type I error rate. The principal investigator wanted to
obtain an overall confidence level of 90% which has been
traditionally accepted in social research. Since five group
hypotheses tests were used (knowledge, attitude, behavior,
self-concept, and school comfort), the .10 confidence level
was divided into five hypotheses tests, resulting in an
individual alpha level of .02.

Knowledge

Sexual harassment knowledge consists of recognizing and
understanding relevant facts about sexual harassment. Ten
items, items 15 through 24 on the Sexual Harassment
Inventory, were included and assessed whether respondents
correctly agreed with known facts about sexual harassment,
including definitions, scenarios, and statistics. For
example, one item asked for level of agreement to the
statement, "If a person was accidentally offended by a
sexual joke, then it is not considered sexual harassment."
A low level of agreement is desirable for this item. Other
items involve identifying sexual harassment (e.g., "I know
sexual harassment when I see it taking place"), knowing
about contributing factors (e.g., "Sexual harassment happens
when a person gets excited and cannot control him/herself"),

96
and prevalence (e.g., "Sexual harassment happens to about
50% of all middle school students.")

Items were framed in both negative and positive
directions. However, before the data analysis occurred,
items written in the negative were reversed for consistency
and ease of interpretation. Therefore, a high score on the
behavior sections of the Sexual Harassment Inventory is
considered favorable.

The minimum and maximum range of scores for the
behavior subscale was ten and fifty, respectively. Higher
scores on the inventory were favorable over lower scores. A
score of 30 to 4 0 reflects uncertainty about sexual
harassment facts. A score greater than 40 reflects general
agreement to facts about sexual harassment and is therefore
desirable. Students who scored below 30 generally do not
correctly recognize facts about sexual harassment as
reported on the SHI.
Ho^ There is no statistically significant difference (a =

.02) in knowledge change over time (pre to post) among

the experimental and control group as measured by the

Sexual Harassment Inventory.

As illustrated in Table 4-1, students in the control
group achieved a group mean score of 34.7 0 on the pretest
and 33.96 on the posttest of the SHI. Students in the
adult-led group achieved a group mean score of 34.31 on the
pretest and 33.92 on the posttest. The peer-helper led

97

TJ

<ri

T)

C

rti

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98

group achieved a group mean score of 33.03 on the pretest
and a 35.40 on the posttest. Students in the self-led group
achieved a group mean score of 34.32 on the pretest and
34.49 on the posttest.

The repeated measures ANOVA of these data is reported
in Table 4-2. The p value (.038) and the F value (2.90)
suggest that there was not a statistically significant time
X group interaction at the .02 level of confidence.
Therefore, the null hypothesis relating differential change
in sexual harassment knowledge among the groups was not
rejected.

In regard to sexual harassment knowledge, a
statistically significant difference between schools
resulted (F = 9.17, p = .003). Westwood scored
significantly higher (x = 35.46, SD = 5.00) than did Ft.
Clarke (x = 33.37, SD = 4.69).

Attitude

Attitudes concerning sexual harassment consists of
beliefs about the other gender, contributing factors, and
reasons why sexual harassment occurs. Six items, item
numbers 9 through 13 on the Sexual Harassment Inventory,
were included such as, "People who are sexually harassed are
asking for it." A low level of agreement is desirable for

99
this item. Other items included were, "When someone dresses
in a sexy way they deserve to be sexually harassed, " "Girls

Table 4-2.

Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for the Sexual
Harassment Inventory Knowledge Scale by Group.

Mean
Source of Variance df SS Square F P

Group

3

9.61

3.2

.12

.950

School

1

253.02

253.02

9.17

.003*

Group*School

3

152.02

50.67

1.84

.144

Error

127

3503.58

27.59

Time (Pre-Post)

1

14.54

14.54

1.24

.268

Time*Group

3

102.08

34.03

2.90

.038

Time*School

1

.71

.71

.06

.806

Time*Group*School

3

94.82

31.61

2.70

.049

Error

127

1488.62

11.72

'significant at .02 level of confidence.

100
may say they don't want it, but they really want sexual
attention," and "Some people like being sexually harassed."

All items about attitude were framed in the negative.
However, before the data analysis occurred, the items were
reversed for consistency and ease of interpretation.
Therefore, a high score on the attitude section of the
Sexual Harassment Inventory is considered favorable. The
minimum and maximum range of scores for the attitude
subscale was 6 and 30, respectively.

A score of 18 to 23 reflects uncertainty about items
reflecting attitude. A score greater than 23 reflects
general disagreement to false beliefs about sexual
harassment and is therefore desirable. Students who scored
below 18 generally agree with false beliefs about sexual
harassment or beliefs regarded as misogynist as reported on
the SHI.
Ho2: There is no statistically significant difference (a =

.02) in attitude change over time among the

experimental and control group as measured by the

Sexual Harassment Inventory.

Students in the experimental conditions showed a
positive increase in attitude scores on the Sexual
Harassment Inventory. More specifically, students in the
adult-led group increased from 22.86 to 24.03, giving a
difference of 1.17 points. The peer-helper led group
increased from 21.69 to 23.37, giving a difference of 1.68

101
points. The self-led group increased from 23.95 to 24.36,
giving a difference of .41 points. The control group
resulted in a decrease from 23.29 to 22.32, presenting a
difference of -.97 points.

The repeated measures analysis of variance is
summarized in Table 4-3. The F score of 1.63 and p_ value of
.19 suggest that there was no statistically significant time
X group interaction at the .02 level. Therefore, the null
hypothesis relating to differential change in attitude among
the groups was not rejected.

Behavior

Sexual harassment behavior consists of actions
considered effective for reporting an incident of sexual
harassment. Three items, items six through eight on the
Sexual Harassment Inventory, were included and addressed
being able to talk with a counselor, parents, or friends
after an incident of sexual harassment. For example, one
item asked for level of agreement to the statement, "If I
were sexually harassed, I would want to tell a counselor."
A high level of agreement is desirable for this item.

All items concerning behavior were framed in positive
directions. Therefore, a high score on this section of the
Sexual Harassment Inventory is considered favorable. The
minimum and maximum range of scores for the behavior
subscale was three and fifteen, respectively. A score of 9
to 12 reflects uncertainty about such behavior. A score of

102

Table 4-3.

Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for the Sexual
Harassment Inventory Attitude Scale by Group.

Mean
Source of Variance df SS Square F

Group

3

156.68

52.23

2.06

.11

School

1

81.77

81.77

3.23

.07

Group*School

3

113.43

37.81

1.49

.22

Error

127

3215.96

25.32

Time (Pre-Post)

1

16.60

16.60

1.39

.24

Time*Group

3

58.38

19.46

1.63

.19

Time*School

1

1.56

1.56

.13

.72

Time*Group*School

3

44.75

14.92

1.25

.30

Error

127

1517.67

11.95

103
13 or higher reflects motivation to report incidents of
sexual harassment to trusted friends and adults. Students
who scored below nine would not engage in this type of
behavior regarding sexual harassment as reported on the SHI.
Ho3: There is no statistically significant difference (a =

.02) in sexual harassment behavior change over time

among the experimental and control group as measured by

the Sexual Harassment Inventory.

With the exception of the self -led group, both
experimental and control groups decreased their scores on
the behavior scale of the Sexual Harassment Inventory. The
adult-led group resulted in a decrease of .40 points from
pretest (x = 10.38) to posttest (x = 9.98). The peer-helper
led group decreased from 11.23 to 10.91, giving a difference
of .32 points. The self -led group remained the same from
pretest to posttest with a score of 10.93. The control
group showed the greatest decrease from pretest (x = 10.64)
to posttest (x = 9.89), presenting a difference of -.75.

The repeated measures analysis of variance is
summarized in Table 4-4. The F score of .45 and p_ value of
.71 suggests that there was no statistically significant
time X group interaction at the .02 level. Therefore, the
null hypothesis relating to differential change in sexual
harassment behavior among groups was not rejected.

104

Table 4-4.

Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for the Sexual
Harassment Inventory Behavior Scale by Group.

Mean
Source of Variance df SS Square F P

Group

3

41.58

13.86

1.43

.24

School

1

2.60

2.60

.27

.61

Group*School

3

14.13

4.71

.49

.69

Error

132

1276.68

9.67

Time (Pre-Post)

1

7.02

7.02

1.89

.17

Time*Group

3

5.06

1.69

.45

.71

Time*School

1

4.48

4.48

1.21

.27

Time*Group*School

3

17.52

5.84

1.58

.20

Error

132

489.53

3.71

105
Self-Concept
Self -concept, as assessed by the PHCSCS, is defined as
a relatively stable set of self-attitudes reflecting both a
description and an evaluation of one's own behavior and
attributes. Items are phrased in either a positive (e.g.,
"I have many friends") or a negative (e.g., "I feel left out
of things") direction to assess favorable or unfavorable
evaluations of self. A high total score indicates a
favorable self -concept (i.e., a high degree of self-esteem
or self-regard, Piers, 1989).

The total score has a possible range of zero to 80, and
reflects the number of individual items which were responded
to in the direction of positive self -concept . Thus, a high
total score indicates a favorable self-concept whereas lower
scores are associated with lower self -concept . A score of
51.84 is considered average.

Ho4: There is no statistically significant difference (a =
.02) in self-concept change over time among the
experimental and control groups as measured by the
Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale.
The group means for students in all four groups
increased from pretesting to posttesting in their unadjusted
means on self -concept . This indicated that all groups had
elevated their self-esteem. On the pretest, students in
both the experimental and control groups scored an average
of 62 which is equal to a national percentile of 73.

106
Posttesting scores resulted in an average score of 65 which
is equal to a national percentile of 81.

More specifically, the control group increased from
64.00 to 69.04 giving a difference of 5.04 points. The
adult-led group increased from 63.11 to 64.27 presenting a
difference of 1.16 points. The peer-helper led group
increased their self-esteem scores on the PHCSCS from 60.09
to 61.63 for a difference of 1.54 points. The self-
instructed group resulted in a positive increase of 2.35
points after raising their average scores from a 60.80 to a
63.15. These gains in self-concept scores from pretesting
to posttesting were statistically significant at the .02
level of confidence (F = 16.51, p = .0001).

The repeated measures analysis of variance on data
using the Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale is
summarized in Table 4-5. The F value of .69 and p value of
.56 suggest that there was no statistically significant time
X group interaction at the .02 level of confidence.
Therefore, the null hypothesis relating to differential
gains in self-concept among the groups was not rejected.

School Comfort

School comfort, as measured by the School Atmosphere
Inventory, is defined by the level of perceived safety and
security about one's school environment. Items both
describe the respondent's perception of the school and their

107

Table 4-5.

Summary Table

for Analysis

of

Variance for

the

Piers-

-Harris

Children's

Se

If-

-Concept

Scale

bv

Group .

Source of
Variance

df

SS

Mean
Square

F

P

Group

3

1283.02

427.67

2.08

.11

School

1

89.06

89.06

.43

.51

Group*School

3

644.17

214.72

1.04

.38

Error

129

26587.76

206.11

Time (Pre-Post)

1

402.12

402.12

16.51

.0001*

Time*Group

3

50.69

16.9

.69

.56

Time*School

1

1.1

1.1

.04

.83

Time*Grp*School

3

54.38

18.13

.74

.53

Error

129

3142.47

24.36

'significant at the .02 level of confidence.

108
feelings about their surroundings. For example, items such
as the following are included: "I feel safe at school,"
"There are one or more dangerous groups at school," and
"Sometimes I walk the long way to class to avoid trouble
with other students."

There are seven total items on the SAI, three of which
are in the negative and four in the positive. However,
before the data analysis occurred, the negative items were
reversed for consistency and ease of interpretation.
Therefore, a high score on the SAI is considered favorable.
The minimum and maximum range of scores are 7 and 35,
respectively .

A score of 21 to 27 reflects uncertainty about their
perceived level of school comfort. A score of 28 or higher
reflects general agreement to statements reflecting a
positive outlook towards safety and security while in
school. Students who scored below 21 on the SAI tend to
disagree that their school environment is a safe and secure
place to work.
Ho5: There is no statistically significant difference (a =

.02) in school comfort change over time among the

experimental and control groups as measured by the

School Atmosphere Inventory.

With the exception of the peer-helper led group,
students in both the experimental and control groups
decreased their unadjusted means on school comfort. The

109
adult-led group decreased from 22.46 to 22.11, presenting a
-.35 difference. The peer-helper led group increased from
22.31 to 22.35 giving a .04 difference from pretest to
posttest. The self-led group decreased from 21.57 to 21.17,
presenting a -.40 difference. The control group decreased
their score by .08 from pretest (x = 21.86) to posttest (x =
21.78) .

The repeated measures analysis of variance is
summarized in Table 4-6. The F score of .03 and p value of
.99 suggest that there was no statistically significant time
X group interaction at the .02 level. Therefore, the null
hypothesis relating differential change in school comfort
among the groups was not rejected.

Based on analysis of the data, null hypotheses relating
differential changes in knowledge (HoJ , attitude (Ho2),
behavior (Ho3) , self -concept (Ho4), and school comfort (Ho5)
among the groups were not rejected. However, all
experimental and control groups significantly increased
their scores from pretesting to posttesting on the Piers-
Harris Children's Self -Concept Scale. Also, there was a
statistically significant difference in sexual harassment
knowledge between schools.

Table 4-6.

Summary Table for Analysis of Variance for the School
Atmosphere Inventory by Group.

110

Source of
Variance

df

SS

Mean
Square

Group

3

59.06

19.69

.84

.47

School

1

1.55

1.55

.07

.80

Group*School

3

26.64

8.88

.38

.77

Error

125

2927.02

23.42

Time (Pre-Post)

1

11.51

11.51

1.23

.27

Time*Group

3

.82

.27

.03

.99

Time*School

1

20.53

20.53

2.19

.14

Time*Group*School

3

2.51

.84

.09

.97

Error

125

1172.24

9.38

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, IMPLICATIONS,

AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effects of a developmental guidance unit and self-
instruction module about sexual harassment on early
adolescents. More specifically, the study examined how the
unit effected knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept ,
and school comfort of middle school students. In addition,
three group conditions related to the delivery of the unit
were compared: adult-helper led; high school peer-helper
led; and self -instruction.

One hundred and eighty two seventh-grade students in
two middle schools participated in this study. One hundred
and forty students (77% of the total; seventy students from
each school) completed all necessary pretests and posttests
for data analysis. One experimental condition [Adult Helper
Led (EJ, Peer-Helper Led (E2), Self-Instruction Module (E3) ;
or Control (Cj)] was randomly assigned to four different
groups at each school.

Ill

112

The intervention lasted eight weeks. During the first
week, all groups (Ex, E2, E3, and CJ were administered three
pre-assessments which included the Sexual Harassment
Inventory (SHI), the School Atmosphere Inventory (SAI), and
the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (PHCSCS).
All experimental groups (E , E2, and E3) participated in one
45-minute session per week during weeks two through seven.
The control group members continued with their regular class
curriculum for the days in which the intervention took
place.

The adult and peer-helper group leaders followed the
sessions as outlined in the facilitators manual. Throughout
the intervention, adult leaders received continual direction
from the principal investigator. Peer helpers also received
ongoing systematic training and supervision from the
principal investigator and their peer-helper trainer who is
a licensed mental health therapist and school counselor.
During the first week, all students participated in
pretesting, and during the eighth week, all students
participated in posttesting.

Pretesting and posttesting incorporated three criterion
instruments which were fully completed by 140 students. The
Sexual Harassment Inventory assessed knowledge, attitude,
behavior, and incidence related to sexual harassment. The

113
Piers-Harris Children's Self -Concept Scaled was used to
measure self -concept . The School Atmosphere Inventory
assessed level of school comfort.

A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to
test for significant differences among experimental and
control groups in amount of change from pretest to posttest.
The resulting data related directly to the following null
hypotheses :

1. There is no statistically significant difference in
knowledge change over time (pretest to posttest) among the
experimental and control groups as measured by the Sexual
Harassment Inventory.

The repeated measures analysis of variance comparing
changes in group means over time indicated no statistically
significant interaction at the .02 level of confidence (see
Tables 4-1 and 4-2). Thus, null hypothesis number one was
not rejected. However, there was a statistically
significant difference in schools when testing at the .02
level of confidence (F = 9.17, p = 0.003). In addition, no
statistically significant threeway interactions occurred
when testing for interaction effect of group, school, and
time.

2 . There is no statistically significant difference in
attitude change over time among the experimental and control
groups as measured by the Sexual Harassment Inventory.

114
The repeated measures analysis of variance comparing
changes in group means indicated no statistically
significant interaction at the .02 level of confidence (see
Tables 4-1 and 4-3). Thus, null hypothesis number two was
not rejected. In addition, no statistically significant
differences were found when testing for threeway interaction
effect of group, school, and time.

3. There is no statistically significant difference in
behavior changes over time among the experimental and
control groups as measured by the Sexual Harassment
Inventory.

The repeated measures analysis of variance comparing
changes in group means over time indicated no statistically
significant interaction effect at the .02 level of
confidence (see Tables 4-1 and 4-4). Thus, null hypothesis
number three was not rejected. In addition, no
statistically significant differences were found when
testing for threeway interaction effect of group, school,
and time.

4. There is no statistically significant difference in
self-concept change over time among the experimental and
control groups as measured by the Piers-Harris Children's
Self -Concept Scale.

The repeated measures analysis of variance comparing
changes in group means over time indicated no statistically
significant interaction effect at the .02 level of

115
confidence (see Tables 4-1 and 4-5). Thus, null hypothesis
number four was not rejected. In addition, no statistically
significant differences were found when testing for threeway
interaction effect of group, school, and time.

5. There is no statistically significant difference in
school comfort change over time among the experimental and
control groups as measured by the School Atmosphere
Inventory.

The repeated measures analysis of variance comparing
changes in group means over time indicated no statistically
significant interaction at the .02 level of confidence (see
Tables 4-1 and 4-6). Thus, null hypothesis number five was
not rejected. In addition, no statistically significant
differences were found when testing for threeway interaction
effects in group, school, and time.

Conclusions

Several conclusions were reached as a result of this
study. First, this study found no statistically significant
differences among experimental and control groups in change
from pretest to posttest on the variables of knowledge,
attitude, behavior, self-concept, or school comfort.
However, these findings are inconsistent with student
feedback about their experiences during postassessment .
Students in the experimental groups (E , E2, and E3)
completed a ten item survey about the intervention's impact

116
on their knowledge, attitude, and behavior involving sexual
harassment.

Seventy one percent (71%) either agreed or strongly
agreed that the intervention increased their understanding
of others. Thirty-two percent (32%) of students
experiencing the guidance unit about sexual harassment
reported that the unit had a positive effect on their
behavior towards others. Sixty-six percent (66%) reported
that the intervention had an overall positive effect on
them. According to the post evaluation of the intervention,
forty-four percent (44%) of students reported that the unit
increased understanding of themselves. Seventy-one percent
(71%) reported that the unit helped them to better
understand sexual harassment.

Students also responded to open-ended questions about
the guidance unit. They responded with comments such as,
"Needed to have more sessions," "I think it's great that you
and the teachers are teaching us this, because we need to
know how to deal with sexual harassment," and "I think I
learned a lot because when I was in 4th grade my friend got
harassed and I didn't know what to do but now I do. I
learned a lot this year." Students also gave positive
feedback about the activities in general (e.g., "The
activities taught me a lot and they were fun ... it gives
you a lot of facts and keeps you interested with
activities.") and specifically (e.g., "I liked the Go to

117
Your Corner activity the most because you could find out
what other people's opinions were").

One possible reason for the discrepancy between the
lack of significant results and student assessment of the
intervention is that students at this age and stage of life
are inconsistent. Their thoughts, feelings, and attitudes
are effected by fervent physical and psychological growth.
Social and peer pressures may influence students at this age
to change how they think and feel from one moment to
another. If middle school students were inconsistent in
their responses on the instruments, the overall power to
detect significant changes is negatively effected.

Further, closer inspection of the data indicated that
students responded to items about sexual harassment
knowledge, attitude, and behavior by choosing responses
mostly reflecting uncertainty, slight agreement, or slight
disagreement (x=3.56 SD=0.42 and x=3.61 SD=0.50, pretest and
posttest, respectively) . Students may perceive the topic of
sexual harassment as being controversial and sensitive.
Strongly agreeing or strongly disagreeing with statements
about sexual harassment may be more psychologically risky
than responses closer to "uncertain." Therefore, rather
than to strongly agree or strongly disagree about statements
regarding the topic of sexual harassment, students may have
maintained a more safe posture by choosing responses closer
to "uncertain" even though it was made clear that their

118
responses were strictly confidential. This lack of variance
may have had a deleterious effect on detecting actual
changes between experimental and control groups.

In summary, there appears to be a divergence between
results as measured by the SHI and SAI , and the student
evaluation of the guidance unit. Students rated their
experiences with the guidance unit about sexual harassment
as positive. They reported that they learned more about the
topic and felt more confident about taking action. However,
the hypotheses in this study were not rejected. This
discrepancy may have been due to inconsistent and rigid
student responses on the instrument items.

Close inspection of the research findings show
increased group means from pretesting to posttesting in
several areas which indicates some positive direction in
student responses. Students in both the experimental and
control groups scored significantly higher on the PHCSCS
from pretest to posttest.

All experimental groups showed average positive gains
on the variables attitude and self -concept . Groups
experiencing the guidance unit led by peer helpers showed
positive mean gain scores on all variables except for
one — sexual harassment behavior. Students in the self-
instruction intervention showed positive mean gain scores
for attitude, knowledge, and self -concept . All variables

119
except for one, self -concept , showed no positive average
gains for the control condition.

Overall, the intervention groups led by adults resulted
in 18 students (51.40%) improving their scores on the SHI
after receiving the intervention. The intervention groups
led by peer-helpers resulted in 22 students (69%) improving
their SHI scores while students in the self-instruction
groups resulted in 17 (49%) students improving these scores.
Similarly, 19 students in the control groups (50%) also
improved their scores on the Sexual Harassment Inventory.
Sixty-six students from all four conditions (52%) improved
their combined scores of behavior, knowledge, and attitude.

On the SAI , fifteen students (43%) experiencing the
guidance unit led by an adult resulted in positive mean gain
scores on the SAI. Also on the SAI, students in groups led
by peer helpers showed positive mean gain scores for fifteen
students (44%). Self-led groups responding to instructional
modules showed positive mean gain scores for fifteen
students (40.5%). Ten students (37%) in the control groups
showed positive mean gain scores on the SAI. Overall,
students who made positive mean gain scores on the SAI
included 55 students (41.4%).

Positive mean gain scores for the PHCSCS resulted in
the following: 21 (56.8%) for the adult-led groups; 19
(55.9%) for the peer-helper led groups; 26 (65%) for the
self-instruction groups; and 18 (69.2%) for the control

120
groups. Although there were no statistically significant
differential changes over time among these four groups,
there was a statistically significant difference in self-
concept as measured by the PHCSCS from pretest to posttest
(F = 16.51, p = 0.0001) for all groups averaged together.

It may be concluded that the pretests may have
sensitized students and affected their responses on the
postassessments. In essence, the preassessment may be an
important part of the treatment. It may also be concluded
that students significantly improved their self-concept as a
part of normal developmental growth.

Limitations

This study had the following possible limitations:

1. The intent of the PHCSCS is not particularly disguised
and the scores are subject to conscious distortions by
children, usually in the direction of more socially
desirable responses.

2. This intervention or guidance unit in this study was
delivered to "intact" units. That is, the opportunity to
randomly assign individual students to experimental
conditions was not there. Therefore, the researcher had to
rely on the random assignment of students that is typically
done by the school registrar at the beginning of the school
year. According to school counselors, the classes appeared
to be equal in terms of gender, race, and academic
achievement. However, this limitation also determined

121
procedures in the analysis of data. A Chi Square procedure
was performed to determine if there were any statistically
significant differences between groups based on gender or
race. No differences were found for gender (X2 = .097, p_ =
.992) or for race (X2 = 15.45, p_ = .218).

3. The sample was dependent upon the availability of
faculty and students in the schools where all experimental
conditions could be assigned and controlled in a reliable
manner. This limited the sample of middle school students
to seventh grade students in two academic subjects.

4. The Sexual Harassment Inventory is a relatively new
measurement device that needs further investigation in terms
of content validity. Data is still being collected
regarding its validity and reliability.

5. The topic of sexual harassment was prevalent and
sensationalized in local newspapers and on television at the
time of the study. While this demonstrated a need for the
study, information through the media could not be
controlled. Students' knowledge, attitude, and behaviors
may have been positively affected by public media.

Implications
The results of this study showed no statistically
significant difference among the experimental and control
groups in regard to changes from pretest to posttest in
knowledge, attitude, behavior, self -concept , and level of
school comfort as they relate to sexual harassment.

122
Further, the nature of who facilitated the intervention did
not make a difference in the outcome as measured by the
three postassessments. Yet, students in all the
experimental conditions reported that they benefited from
experiencing the intervention.

Therefore, important research questions pertaining to
how a guidance unit about sexual harassment influences these
variables remains to be answered. Further, the nature of
who leads such a guidance unit, and how this influences the
outcomes, is needed.

The present research results showed that the
intervention made no statistically significant differences
in any of the five outcome variables. However, students
rated their experiences regarding the guidance unit about
sexual harassment as positive and meaningful. Students
generally agreed that they had increased knowledge and
understanding about the nature of sexual harassment and how
to confront it. The divergence between these two sources of
data may be due to (a) inconsistent responses on the SHI and
SAI ; and (b) low variance in student responses to inventory
items. Research instruments that produce more reliable
responses need to be developed and used in similar research
efforts.

Recommendations

The following recommendations are made based on this
investigation :

123

1 . More reliable instruments should be developed to
assess the impact of sexual harassment interventions on
behavior, knowledge, and attitude.

2 . More reliable instruments should be developed to
assess the impact of sexual harassment interventions on
level of perceived school comfort.

APPENDIX A
HIGH SCHOOL PEER COUNSELING CURRICULUM OUTCOMES

Peer Counseling I

1 . Demonstrate an understanding of the fundamental
characteristics for all counseling/f acilitative
relationships .

2. Demonstrate an understanding of self, others, and
community .

3 . Demonstrate an understanding of f acilitative
communication skills.

4 . Demonstrate an understanding of problem-solving
techniques.

5. Demonstrate an understanding of basic leadership
skills .

6. Demonstrate an understanding of group dynamics and be
able to perform group oriented tasks.

Peer Counseling II

7 . Demonstrate an understanding of the effects of peer
pressure on the individual and society.

8. Demonstrate an understanding of the impact of
interpersonal skills on all aspects of life.

9. Demonstrate an understanding of personal behavior as it
relates to long and short range life and career goals.

10. Demonstrate an understanding of academic motivational
skills.

11. Demonstrate an understanding of the aspects of
assertiveness .

12. Demonstrate an understanding of the effects of stress
and related coping skills.

Peer Counseling III

13. Identify the needs and concerns of the student
population.

14. Demonstrate a knowledge of school resources and
community youth servicing agencies.

15. Demonstrate a knowledge of program planning and
implementation .

Peer Counseling IV

16. Utilize a variety of f acilitative strategies applicable
to given situations.

17. Utilize knowledge and understanding gained through
individual and group projects.

(following Myrick & Folk, 1991)

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APPENDIX B
INFORMED PARENTAL CONSENT FOR STUDY PARTICIPATION

(SCHOOL NAME) will be participating in a study to determine the
effects of a developmental guidance unit on children's behaviors,
knowledge, and attitude about sexual harassment. Also considered will
be how the guidance unit affects self -concept.

Your child's class was selected to participate in the study.
Those children who participate will be asked to fill out three
questionnaires at the beginning and again at the end of the study. In
between, they will engage in discussion and activities about behaviors,
knowledge, and attitudes about sexual harassment. The unit will require
only two homeroom classes per week for three weeks and will focus on
promoting healthy boy and girl relationships.

No physical or psychological risk is anticipated for children who
participate. in addition, no monetary or other compensation, other than
learning valuable information about preventing sexual harassment, will
be provided to children who participate. Failure to participate will in
NO way affect your child's academic standing or progress. Also, it will
be explained to your child before the study begins that he/she may elect
to not answer any or all questions.

Only those children whose parents or guardians return this consent
form will be able to take part in this investigation. I would
appreciate your signature on this form to allow your child to
participate. If you have any questions or concerns, please call me at
Lincoln Middle School (955-6711) or in the evenings at home (373-7372).

Thank you very much for your help!

J have read and I understand the procedure described above. I agree to
allow my child participate in the procedure and I have received a copy
of this description.

Russell A. Sabella, Ed.S.
Doctoral Candidate, University of Florida

Please have your child return this form to there homeroom teacher by
( DATE ) .

Child's Name (Please Print)

Child's Signature Date

Parent/Guardian Signature Date

Parent /Guardian signature "~ Date

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APPENDIX C
Sexual Harassment Inventory

1 . I am a :

1 = Boy 2 = Girl

2. I describe myself best as:

1 = Black (African-Am) 2 = White (European-Am)
3 = Asian-American 4 = Hispanic 5 = Other

3. Please bubble in the number 1 for pretest or 2 for
posttest .

4. Bubble your correct school:

1 = Ft. Clarke Middle 2 = Westwood Middle

5. Who is leading the sessions?

1 = adult

2 = high school peer counselor

3 = I am completing the written activities

4 = Nobody. I will get the activities later.

FOR THE REMAINDER OF THE ITEMS PLEASE:

BUBBLE IN A NUMBER FROM 1 TO 5 ACCORDING TO WHAT

LEVEL YOU AGREE WITH EACH STATEMENT.

1 = Strongly Disagree 4 = Agree (A)

(SD) 5 = Strongly Agree (SA)
2 = Disagree (D)
3 = Uncertain (U)

6. If I were sexually harassed, I would want to tell a
counselor.

7. If I were sexually harassed, I would want to tell one
of my parents.

8. If I were sexually harassed, I would want to tell one
of my friends.

9. When someone dresses in a "sexy" way, they deserve to
be sexually harassed.

10. Some people like being sexually harassed.

11. People who are sexually harassed are usually asking for
it.

12. Girls may say that they don't want it, but they really
want sexual attention.

13. Boys may say that they don't want it, but they really
want sexual attention.

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14. A person who is sexually harassed just needs to relax
and see it as fun.

15. I know sexual harassment when I see it taking place.

16. Sexual harassment is against school rules.

17. Sexual harassment is against the law in 15 different
states .

18. If it is difficult to work in school or on a job that
lets sexual harassment happen, then it would be a
"hostile environment."

19. Sexual harassment happens when a person gets excited
and cannot control him/herself.

20. Sexual harassment happens most often in the bathrooms.

21. One of the best ways to deal with sexual harassment is
to ignore it.

22. If a person was accidently offended by a sexual joke,
then it is not considered sexual harassment.

23. There are five different forms or kinds of sexual
harassment.

24. Sexual harassment happens to about 50% of all middle
school students.

25. Sexual harassment happens a lot at school.

26. I have been sexually harassed at school.

27. I have seen someone who was being sexually harassed at
school .

28. There may have been a time when I sexually harassed
someone at school .

The following questions concern your experiences with the
sexual harassment activities or self -instruction materials:

29. The sexual harassment unit increased my understanding
of others.

30. The sexual harassment unit had NO affect on me.

31. The unit had some affect on my behavior outside the
activities or materials.

32. I disliked being a member of the group doing the unit.

33. The sexual harassment unit increased understanding of
myself.

34. I would recommend the sexual harassment unit experience
for others.

35. The unit helped our school to be a better place to be.

36. This unit helps boys and girls better communicate.

37. I better understand sexual harassment.

38. I have talked to a friend about what I have learned
regarding sexual harassment since the unit began.

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What is one thing that you enjoyed most about your
experiences?

What is one thing that you would change about the unit to
make it better?

Any other comments or suggestions:

APPENDIX D
SAI INVENTORY

1. I know what is not allowed at school.

2. I feel safe at school.

3. Teachers at school are helpful.

4 . I find it easy to talk with a school counselors when I
meet with him/her.

5. Their are one or more dangerous groups at school.

6. Some places at school are not safe.

7. Sometimes I walk the long way to class to can avoid
trouble with other students.

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APPENDIX E

A LARGE GROUP GUIDANCE UNIT ABOUT SEXUAL HARASSMENT

FACILITATORS GUIDE

Your efforts in presenting this unit are most important
and valuable. You will have a unique opportunity to help
reduce the risk of sexual harassment among young people.
Sexual harassment includes behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs
that are widespread and disturbing.

Sexual harassment has been a problem typically
recognized and studied in the workplace and across
universities. Only until now has it been identified as a
problem among our youth in their school environments . The
following statistics reflect the extent of the problem:

• Four in five students (about 81%) say they have
experienced some form of sexual harassment during their
school lives; 85% of girls and 76% of boys.

• One in 3 students (32%) who have been harassed first
experience sexual harassment in grade 6 or earlier.

• Two in 3 of all students surveyed (66%) have been
targets of sexual comments, jokes, looks and gestures —
as well as touching, grabbing, and/or pinching in a
sexual way.

• Nearly 4 in 5 students (79%) who have been harassed
have been targeted by peers : current or former
students. Eighteen percent (18%) of students who have
been harassed cite adults as the perpetrators.

• Two in 3 students who have been harassed (66%) say they
have been harassed in the hallway.

WHY SEXUAL HARASSMENT RISK REDUCTION?

The pain a victim may have to deal with supports the
idea of continued prevention efforts this area. One
researcher had this to say about the victimization
experience, "Experiencing violence transforms people into
victims and changes their lives forever." A victim may
experience what is now known as Sexual Harassment Stress
Disorder (SHSD) . This can include experiences such as fear,
avoidance, emotional numbness, disturbances of self-esteem,
feelings of not having much ability, and other sexual
difficulties. Further, SHSD can include: denial, migraines,
food and/or drug and/or alcohol abuse.

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The perpetrator. A person guilty of sexual harassment
can also experience awful consequences. In addition to
hurting the victim, a student who sexually harasses can be
subject to school disciplinary procedures ranging from
verbal reprimands to expulsion. Criminal proceedings may
find the harasser guilty of a misdemeanor which carries with
it possible fines, probation, or jail time. Of course a
disciplinary and/or criminal record can be a serious
obstacle to college entrance, career advancement,
scholarship, or political positions to name a few.

Other liabilities of sexual harassment. Sexual
harassment incidents have led to law suits. Consider the
following:

• A high school girl filed suit against her school
after officials did nothing about removing graffiti in
the boy's bathroom that called her a "slut" and
depicted her as doing demeaning acts with boys and
animals. She made requests over 10 months to have the
graffiti removed and for a long time didn't mention it
to her parents. The student won a $15,000 settlement.

• A Texas civil rights group filed a federal lawsuit
seeking $850,000 against a school district, alleging
school leaders failed to protect two teen-age girls
from sexual harassment by three boys.

• In California, the U.S. Department of Education's
Office of Civil Rights found that one of their school
systems failed to protect an eighth grade girl who
repeatedly endured classmates' shouts of "moo, moo" and
other taunts about her body. Her parents filed a
lawsuit and settled out of court for $20,000.

• School officials in one Minnesota high school
ignored a girl's complaints of vulgar treatment by boys
for a year and a half until she filed charges with the
state and won a $15,000 "mental anguish" settlement.

• A high school newspaper in St. Petersburg, Florida
wrote stories on sexual harassment. One story included
the results of a survey which said that 4 3% of girls
and 16% of boys had been touched against their will.
The survey also asked if girls, "...invite the advances
made by a man through their dress or behavior." Sixty-
two percent of the boys said yes and 21% of the girls
also said yes.

• Another Minnesota student, seven years old,
became the first elementary school student in the
country to accuse her peers of sexual harassment. The
student's mother filed a sex discrimination complaint

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against the school district charging that it failed to
discourage harassment of her daughter and other girls
who were subjected to nasty language, taunting and
other threats. In the settlement, the district agreed
to institute a sexual harassment policy.

CARING PEOPLE CAN HELP

Teachers, counselors, administrators, and peer
facilitators are important resources for reducing sexual
harassment. This guidance unit about sexual harassment will
be facilitated by both adult educators and
professionally/systematically trained high school peer
facilitators .

Teachers Can Help. Teachers are in a good position to
conduct intervention efforts for reducing the risk of sexual
harassment. Advantages include that:

LI Classroom groups are already intact, usually uniform
for grade level.

□ Trust and genuineness is part of the teacher-student
relationship which is an important ingredient with a
sensitive topic such as sexual harassment.

IJ Students have had the opportunity to establish rapport
with the teacher and with each other. Increased
rapport is essential to discussing sexual harassment
and engaging in experiential activities.

□ The unit can provide further development of the helping
relationship with students and sometimes even parents.

□ Teachers can model effective communication and
acceptable behaviors .

Further, since the unit focuses on developing and using
the teacher-student relationship, it can be a positive
experience for the teacher. For instance, the second annual
Metropolitan Life Poll of American Teachers conducted in
1985, indicated that 51 percent of all teachers surveyed
said that they have considered leaving the teaching
profession at some point in their careers. More secondary
than elementary school teachers expressed disenchantment
with education and appeared more likely to leave.
Interestingly, 7 5 percent of those who considered leaving,
but stayed, did so because of the satisfaction they derived
from their relationship with students.

Peer Facilitators Can Help. Peer facilitators may be
an ideal resource for helping. Consider that sometimes
adults sometimes make children feel uncomfortable,
especially when talking about a sensitive topic such as
sexual conduct. Frequently, people feel that others their

133

own age can better understand what they are going through,
and that a better understanding usually results in more
effective help.

Everyone knows too that the weight a peer carries
behind any message, positive or negative, can be greater
than that of an adult. Young people listen best to other
young people. The positive influence peer facilitators can
have on middle school students is powerful and exciting.
There are other advantages of being a peer facilitator
involved in sexual harassment risk reduction. Peers are
often more accessible and available. As activists, peers
can alert adults to student needs and concerns in the area
of sexual harassment. Using professionally and
systematically trained peer facilitators increases the
number of helpers and the magnitude of the message.

WORKING WITH MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS

Intervening at the middle school level makes good
sense. Quite often (approximately 2/3 of the time), middle
school students do not believe there is anyone in their
school to whom they could talk about their problems. You
will have the chance to show yourself as a caring and
trustworthy individual. Second, this unit is developmental
in nature. This intervention is meant to reduce the risk of
sexual harassment before it happens. Third, students at
this stage in life are ready and usually receptive to sexual
harassment reduction training.

Middle school students may be in the initial stages of
developing attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge which will
later influence whether they are involved in sexual
harassment or not. This intervention includes presentation
and activities to:

Q Enhance skills such as giving feedback, effective
communication, and officially reporting sexual
harassment. Communication includes attentive
listening, being open, and learning how one's
perceptions influences communication patterns.

□ Increase knowledge of facts pertaining to sexual
harassment including legal and personal consequences.

□ Heighten awareness of, and dispute, sexual harassment
supportive beliefs.

□ Practice behaviors conducive to healthy, equitable
relationships .

SEXUAL HARASSMENT IS ALL AROUND US

Sexual harassment is widespread in the public schools.
For instance, a recent study, which questioned 1,600 public

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school students in grades 8-12 from 7 9 schools across the
United States, showed that 4 in 5 teen-agers have
experienced some form of sexual harassment at school. One
in 10 students said that they have been forced to commit a
sexual act, beyond kissing, during school hours. And while
most of the harassing came from schoolmates, 25% of the
girls and 10% of the boys said they had been harassed by
school employees.

The survey used a broad definition of sexual
harassment, including sexual comments or jokes; spreading
sexual rumors about another student; touching, grabbing or
pinching in a sexual way; spying on a student who was
dressing or showering; pulling another student's clothing
off; forcing a kiss; "mooning" another student; or forcing
another student to "do something sexual, other than
kissing. "

Congratulations on facilitating this guidance unit on
sexual harassment. I hope that you will enjoy the
activities as you help students reduce the chances of sexual
harassment occurring in their work environment. I also hope
that you become proud of your work. Know that you are
directly and indirectly contributing to each student's
emotional, social, career, and academic development.

Sincerely,
Russ Sabella

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Helpful Hints for Group Facilitators

As a group facilitator, it might be helpful to be reminded

of these group procedure "tips" to enhance

the success of the unit:

□ Read the entire unit before beginning the first
session. This will give you an overall "picture" of
the objectives and how the sessions build on one
another. Also, you may want to review and refresh your
memory by skimming each session before leading it.

□ Always leave about six or seven minutes to conduct your
closing questions and statements.

□ Use high facilitative responses in all your
interactions. Especially concentrate on making
feeling-focused responses, clarifying and summarizing,
and asking open-ended (how or what) questions for
discussion.

□ Move through the procedures of each session at a fast
pace without sacrificing effectiveness, this keeps
students' attention.

IJ Check the physical arrangement of the room before
starting and make certain that it is favorable for
making the plan work.

□ Stick to the plan while maintaining a little
flexibility to accommodate your own personal style.

SUMMARY OF

SESSIONS

Title

Session Focus

1

The Nature of the Beast

Knowledge

2

Go To Your Corner!

Knowledge & Attitude

3

Is it Sexual Harassment?

Knowledge & Attitude

4

What Are You Trying to

Related Behaviors &

Say?

Knowledge

5

Hey I You're In My Space 1

Related Behaviors &
Knowledge

6

Helping Yourself and

Related Behaviors &

Others

Knowledge

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OBJECTIVES: To introduce and discuss the topic of boy-girl
relationships and how physical changes influence
personal relationships; to introduce the concept of
sexual harassment and the extent of it being a problem
in society.

MATERIALS :

1. "X's" and "O's" sheets

2. Masking tape.

BEGIN BY SAYING ... "Good afternoon. (For Peer

Facilitators: My name is .) Today is the

first of six sessions that we are going to have
together. We will be learning about a very important
issue which face us in our society . That issue is
sexual harassment . Once a week for the next six weeks,
we will be taking a look at what sexual harassment is,
why it happens, and how to reduce the chances that it
will happen. We will also learn what to do about
sexual harassment if it happens to you or a friend. "

THEN SAY ... "Let's think of a few questions to get started

1 . What can you remember about the kinds of games that you
played in elementary school?

2. Did these involve primarily boys, girls, or both?

3. How do physical changes in boys and girls at the middle
and high school affect the way in which they talk and
act toward each other?

NOW SAY . . . "Nature plays a part in preparing boys and girls
for more mature and closer relationships through
physical changes. They sometimes cause confusion,
embarrassment, uncertainty, shyness, aggression, and
almost always some social awkwardness . The middle
school years are a special time for boys and girls,
when you have an opportunity to learn how to relate to
others in positive ways."

NEXT SAY . . . "Some of the problems during this time evolve
in the form of sexual harassment . This is a problem that
some of you are already familiar with. Let's play a game of
Tic-Tac-Know to learn more about the nature of sexual
harassment . "

137

ACTIVITY 1: "TIC-TAC-KNOW! "

□ Clear a part of the classroom to make room for the Tic-
Tack-Know grid.

□ Mark off your grid with the masking tape like so:

□ Ask for volunteers to make up two groups of 6 people
(for a total of 12 students).

□ Have the two groups stand on two opposite sides of the
grid and say . . .

FIRST SAY "One team will be the X's and the other team

will be the O's. You will hear a series of questions -
some multiple choice, others true/ false. Discuss these
among your team and come to an agreement on the answer.
If you are correct you get to choose a member of your
team to walk into a spot on the grid and hold that
position. If you are wrong you cannot put anyone on
the grid, then control goes back to the other team.
The other team will get a new question. The first team
to get Tic-Tac-Know wins 1 We'll move pretty quickly so
we can play two games involving everyone in the class."

□ Read the following questions for each game. Each
question has the correct answer and an explanation.

□ After you tell each team whether their response to the
question is correct or not, wait until they have picked
a spot on the grid and have settled down to read the
rationale.

□ Circle each question as you present them so I will know
how far you've gotten.

QUESTIONS FOR TIC-TAC-KNOW

1. Someone is being sexually harassed when another person
makes a sexual comment about them.

ANSWER: FALSE. The comment must be unwanted for it to
be sexual harassment.

2. Nine times out of ten, when you ignore sexual
harassment it usually goes away.

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ANSWER: FALSE: Sometimes, ignoring it usually makes it
happen more because the harasser does not recognize
that the behavior is unwanted.

Even if a person meant something as a joke, it is still
considered sexual harassment.

ANSWER: TRUE: Joking does not excuse unwanted sexual
attention and certainly does not dismiss the act as
sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment happens because some people are too
sensitive and they don't like flirting.

ANSWER: FALSE: Sexual harassment happens because the
offender is ignorant, immature, or just plain mean.
The victim is not to blame.

There are five different forms of sexual harassment.

ANSWER: FALSE: There are three forms of sexual
harassment which includes - Physical /visual (such as
touching, brushing against, flicking one's tongue at
someone). Quid pro quo means "this for that" and
happens when someone wants to trade something for sex.
Hostile environment is a form of sexual harassment when
someone is subject to sexual comments or sexual
materials (such as posters of naked people) that
negatively effects his/her school performance.

Sexual harassment happens most often in (a) the
hallways, (b) the classroom, or (c) in the parking lot.

ANSWER: (a) In the hallway. Then next most frequently
in the classroom and then in the parking lot.

People can claim sexual harassment even if they have
not been touched.

ANSWER: TRUE: Making unwanted sexual comments or
showing sexually explicit materials to someone who does
not want them is sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment is against the law in 34 states and
is now being considered in 12 others.

ANSWER: FALSE: Sexual harassment is against federal
laws which means they are effective in all 50 states.
It is a third degree felony and is punishable by fines
and/or jail time.

Which of the following have been accused of sexual
harassment: (a) President Clinton, (b) Judge Clarence
Thomas, (c) Fred Savage (The Wonder Years), (d) Bob
Barker (The Price is Right), (e) Richard Simmons, (f)
Homer Simpson (The Simpsons), or (g) all of the above.

ANSWER: (G, all of the above). However, not all have
been legally charged and/or have been found guilty.

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10. Sexual harassment is against school rules.

ANSWER: TRUE: Not only is it against school rules, but
the county has written a policy against sexual
harassment that applies to all schools in Alachua
county.

11. According to a national survey of middle and high
school students, about 55% of all students have been
sexually harassed.

ANSWER: FALSE: Survey results showed that about 80%
of school children experience some form of sexual
harassment.

12. Sexual harassment can happen as early as 3rd grade
although it happens for the first time most often in
7th grade.

ANSWER: TRUE.

13. Sexual harassment happens because when a person gets
excited, he or she sometimes can't control him/herself.

ANSWER: FALSE: Although it is sometimes difficult to
control what we say or do, it is possible. Sexual
harassment happens because someone decided to act in a
certain way.

14. Under the "new" laws, what used to be considered
flirting is now known as sexual harassment.

ANSWER: FALSE: Unwanted sexual attention has always
been harassment and has been around for a very long
time.

15. A husband cannot be found guilty of sexual harassment
when it comes to his wife because they are married.

ANSWER: FALSE. Having a marriage license does not
give permission to treat your partner as a victim.

16. At least half the boys who are sexually harassed say
that it was a girl who did it.

ANSWER: TRUE. About 57% do.

17. Being at a party with alcohol increases the chances of
sexual harassment happening.

ANSWER: TRUE: Alcohol usually impairs a person's
judgement and ability to make good decisions.

18. Victims of sexual harassment feel so bad that they
often do not want to come to school.

ANSWER: TRUE.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. What is one thing that you learned about sexual
harassment today?

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NOW SAY . . . "Sexual harassment is unwanted and unwelcome
sexual behavior which interferes with one's life.
Sexual harassment is not behaviors that one likes or
wants, such as kissing, touching, or flirting that is
wanted. It is a topic that needs to be talked about.
It is a problem in society that your generation will
help solve. No longer can sexual harassment be ignored
or tolerated. It is destructive to business,
government, marriages, schools , and communities."

AND THEN SAY . . . "You are going to have an opportunity in
this guidance unit to help bring about some changes in
the way people relate to one another and to improve
your own relationships . It may be one of most valuable
topics that you will ever study."

FINALLY SAY . . . "If there is anyone in our group who is

uncomfortable or embarrassed about this topic, you may
want to talk with me (us) privately. In the meantime,
unless I hear otherwise from you, we will meet again
.... and talk more specifically about the nature and
extent of the problem of sexual harassment. We hope
you enjoyed today's activity and look forward to seeing
you next week (peer facilitators) . "

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OBJECTIVES: To increase awareness of sexual harassment
mythology; to reject false beliefs about sexual
harassment.

MATERIALS :

1. Masking Tape

2 . Large signs for the corners of the room designating
level of agreement.

IJ Before you get started, tape the levels of agreement
signs (Strongly Agree, Agree, Strongly Disagree, and
Disagree) in each corner of the room. The "Uncertain"
sign should go somewhere in the center of the room.

FIRST SAY . . . "Last week we took a look at some of the facts
of sexual harassment. Our mission was to make sure
that we had our story straight. Today we will be
looking at something similar - some of the myths
surrounding our topic."

KEY QUESTIONS:

1 . What is a myth?

ANSWER: A myth is a story that is not true although
sometimes it gets passed on as if it is true.

2. What might be a myth about boys?

ANSWER: There are many. One might be that all boys
always want sexual attention. This is not true. Some
boys are annoyed and embarrassed by sexual attention.

3. What might be a myth about girls?

ANSWER: There are also many myths about girls. One is
that if a girl wants to be alone with you, then she
wants sexual attention. This may not be true. There
are many reasons why a girl would want to be alone with
a boy including wanting to talk, study, or watch
television.

ACTIVITY 1: Go to Your Corner!

FIRST SAY . . . "Sorting out the myths from the facts about
sexual harassment can sometimes be difficult and
confusing. We sometimes learn what we know about
something from people who really do not know the facts

142

or who have been misinformed. Sometimes it can get
tricky. So, if you find that you make a mistake about
what is fact and what is a myth, don't worry, you're
not alone. Feel good that you will finally know the
facts . "

THEN SAY ... "Let's play a game called Go To Your Corner!

The way it works is that I will read a statement about
sexual harassment. The statement could be a fact or it
could be a myth. You will have to decide how much you
agree or disagree with the statement. Your choices are
Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly disagree .
Once you decide, go to the corner of the room that has
the appropriate sign (pause and show each sign) . For
those of you who cannot make up your mind, you can go
to the center of the room where it says "Uncertain. "

□ After you read each statement and students have had a
chance to go to their respective corners, instruct
students on opposite sides (for instance, the Disagree
and Agree corners or the Strongly disagree and Strongly
agree corners) to provide rationale for their decision.
They can try to persuade the other groups, including
the "Uncertain" group, that their position is the
"correct" one.

□ After some discussion, have the undecided students
think about the arguments they have heard, make a
decision, and go to one of the four corners.

IJ Then, provide the correct answers and rationale

provided for you after each statement and after you
have regained their attention.

IJ You will probably only have time to get through the
first three although others are provided for you in
case you find that you have more time. Remember to
save time at the end for closing statements.

GO TO YOUR CORNER! QUESTIONS:

1. Some people like being sexually harassed.
ANSWER: FALSE. Remember, sexual harassment is
unwanted sexual attention. Nobody likes to be
humiliated, embarrassed, and hurt. People who believe
this do not understand the difference between sexual
harassment and flirting.

2. When someone dresses in a "sexy" way, they deserve to
be sexually harassed.

ANSWER: FALSE. Nobody deserves to be humiliated,
embarrassed, or hurt. This is what sexual harassment
does. Dressing in a certain way could attract
attention, and that attention may be sexual. But, if
the attention is unwanted, then the situation could be

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considered sexual harassment. Perhaps the person who
dresses in a "sexy" way ought not to according to one's
opinion. However, this opinion does not give anyone
the right to sexually harass someone else.

3. A person who claims they are being sexually harassed
simply needs to relax and see it as fun.

ANSWER: FALSE. Sexual harassment is a crime. It is
never, ever relaxing or fun. Believing this one is as
ridiculous as believing that, "If you are going to be
hit in the head with a stick, they you might as well
sit down and enjoy it."

4. People say that they don't want it, but they really
want sexual attention.

ANSWER: DEPENDS. Every once in a while someone might
say they don't want sexual attention when they really
do. It may be too embarrassing for that person to
actually admit it. Or, they may not want others to
think anything negative of them. However, when we
believe that someone really means "yes" when they are
saying "no, " then we are not listening to them. If
this person acted on it, then they may be committing a
crime. So, it is always much healthier to talk about
it and find out for sure how a person really feels than
to interpret, for yourself, what you think the person
really means.

5. When it comes to sexual attention, sometimes "no" means
"maybe. "

ANSWER: FALSE. A person might want to believe that a
"no" means "maybe." This leaves room for opportunity.
At the same time, however, this leaves room for
terrible mistakes. Therefore, one must always take a
"no" for it's face value. If the person who said "no"
really meant "yes" then it is their loss and they will
have to "fess up" later to get what they want.

6. Too many girls are crying "sexual harassment" because
they have sex with a boy and then they are embarrassed
when someone else finds out.

ANSWER: FALSE. This situation might happen every once
in a while although it is rarely true. Sometimes
people think it happens more than it does because when
it does happen, it is usually told on national news and
talked about a great deal .

□ Instruct everyone to go back to their seats.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1 . What is one thing you learned today about sexual
harassment?

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2. How do myths about sexual harassment begin? How do
they continue?

ANSWER: Myths can begin in various ways. They can
begin because people believe things even though they do
not have any proof. These are called assumptions.
They can begin as stereotypes (e.g., All boys want
sexual attention) . Sometimes myths can start just
because a person is misinformed (e.g., Some people
enjoy being sexually harassed) . Myths about sexual
harassment can be kept up by rumor and by the media
such as television and movies.

3. Do your beliefs have an influence on how you act?
ANSWER: Yes, what you believe indeed influences how
you act. For example, if you believed that all snakes
are dangerous, you would not pick up a snake in front
of you. Or, if you believed that studying for a test
increases your chance of getting a good grade, you will
be more motivated to study than if you believed that it
did not help. This is important because if you were
sold on a false belief about sexual harassment it could
lead to trouble.

NOW SAY . . . "Not everyone is in agreement about various
beliefs concerning sexual harassment. You may have
been surprised to discover that what you thought was
true was really only a myth. This can happen to us as
we continue to learn more about the world and mature.
Since our beliefs influence how we behave, it is
important to get the facts straight. It is just as
important to reject myths when we hear them among
others so that they will not continue along a path of
personal destruction."

FINALLY SAY . . . "During our next time together, we will

continue learning more about what sexual harassment is
and what it is not."

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Session 3: Is it Sexual Harassment?

OBJECTIVES: To help students identify sexual harassment
when it occurs.

MATERIALS :

1. Scenario Strips.

2. Scenario Discussion sheets (to be handed to small group
leaders ) .

OPEN BY SAYING . . . "As you know by now, sexual harassment

has become a problem in society that affects the way in
which people work together. This problem often begins
early in life, especially during the middle school
years . "

NOW SAY "We have already discussed some facts and

myths about sexual harassment . To prevent it from
happening, we need to recognize it when we see it.
Recognizing sexual harassment is not always easy. We
will be looking at some situations that may or may not
be sexual harassment . Let's put our heads together and
figure out what exactly makes up sexual harassment.
For our next activity, we will break into four groups
or teams. "

ACTIVITY 1: IS IT SEXUAL HARASSMENT?

□ Divide the large group into three small groups. One
way to do this is by dividing them by the row they are
in or by having the students count off to three. Make
sure that the groups do not form on their own or they
will probably be imbalanced by gender or race. Have
the group members sit together in one of three
designated places in the room.

□ Have each small group decide on who their small group
leader will be (allow only about 30 seconds for this).

□ Quickly go around the room and confirm each small group
leader.

□ Give each small group leader a "Scenario Discussion
Sheet" which corresponds to the scenario that his/her
group is reviewing (e.g., group #1 gets the discussion
sheet for scenario #1). ONLY the small group leader

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should see the sheet. Explain that it will be his/her
job to:

• make certain his/her small group is on task; he/she
can read the scenario out loud while the group members
read along

• ask the questions on the Scenario Discussion sheet

• report to the rest of the class what happened in the
process of discussing the questions in his/her small
group

□ Pass out Scenario 1 to group 1, Scenario 2 to group 2,
and Scenario 3 to group 3.

NOW SAY . . . "The task of each small group is to discuss your
scenario. Try to agree on whether the situation
constitutes sexual harassment or not. Also, each team
should try to answer the questions provided with the
scenarios. Team 1 will work on scenario #1, Team 2 on
scenario #2, and Team 3 will work on Scenario #3.

□ Give each team 5-6 minutes to complete their tasks.
You can walk around the room to monitor their progress.

□ When each team has completed their task, or at the end
of the allotted time, begin to discuss each scenario.
Each team's small group leader should read the scenario
and report on the team's decision. Then, prompt each
small group leader to tell about the various factors
that were considered and what happened in the process.
Use the following discussion questions:

• What happened when the group tried to agree?

• What was one issue where almost everyone agreed?

• What was one issue where almost everyone disagreed?

• How did the group's answers to the questions compare
to the written answers on the leader's handout?

SCENARIO 1:

Brian and Joe, both in the same English class,
sometimes make comments about what type of girls they like.
One day Brian says to Joe, "I like vem with little round
butts" in front of Jill, a girl who sits in the next row.
Brian laughed as usual. Jill told them that she found such
comments disgusting and asked them to stop. Both Brian and
Joe apologized to Jill. The next day, Jill once again
overheard Brian in a loud voice tell Joe a similar comment.
Brian and Joe continued to ignore Jill's confrontations.
Jill began to feel helpless and upset. She found it very
difficult to concentrate in school.

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SCENARIO #1 QUESTIONS

1. Is this sexual harassment? Why?

ANSWER: Yes, Brian and Joe are guilty of sexual
harassment. Even thought the comments may not be
offensive to every person, they are offensive to Jill.
Therefore, Brian and Joe are creating a "hostile
environment" for Jill. A hostile environment is when a
person makes a situation very difficult for someone
else to concentrate, study, and ultimately make good
grades. If Jill really thought the comments were funny
and played along, the situation would not be considered
sexual harassment.

2. What else could Jill have done to make it stop?

ANSWER: Most people would like to make the victim
responsible by saying things like, "She should just
walk away," or "It's not the boys' fault that she can't
take a joke." However, responsibility for preventing
sexual harassment relies on all people involved. It is
never the victim's fault for being sexually harassed.

IF THE STUDENTS HAVE TROUBLE COMING UP WITH IDEAS, YOU MIGHT
SAY . . . "Most people would have trouble coming up with
ideas for Jill to stop the vulgar comments made by
Brian and Joe. The problem is that it is difficult to
control someone else's behavior. That is why it is the
harasser' s responsibility to stop. One thing Jill
could do is to file an official complaint with a
teacher , counselor , administrator , or even the school
resource officer. "

3. How else might Brian and Joe respond to Jill's
complaints?

ANSWER: Brian and Joe are either being insensitive or
very forgetful in this case. They should have taken
Jill very seriously the first time. Also, Brian and
Joe could talk to Jill about her feelings.

4. In addition to being offensive to Jill, what else is
wrong with comments such as the one Brian and Joe made?

ANSWER: Even if Jill didn't care about comments like
the one Brian and Joe made ("I like vem with small
butts"), there is still something wrong. Such
comments reflect a certain attitude towards females.
Many people who say things like that see women as
objects. Such comments can show that the person does
not recognize the other as someone who has feelings and
may get hurt .

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SCENARIO 2:

Carl rides the bus to school and back home every day.
Just for fun, he wrote a note to Juanlta and passed it to
her. The note to Juanita read, "You have a really fresh
body. How about you and I get together? Come over
tonight ! . " After Juanita read the note and looked up at
Carl, he made some sexual gestures with his eyebrows and
lips.

SCENARIO #2 QUESTIONS

1. Is this sexual harassment? Why?

ANSWER: MAYBE. It depends on whether Juanita is
receptive to Carl's remarks or not. If Juanita enjoys
this kind of attention, then it would not be sexual
harassment. But if she found the remarks to be
offensive and if Carl would not stop, then it would
considered sexual harassment. This type of sexual
harassment would be considered visual, the most obvious
and recognized. Carl may assume that such behavior is
O.K. with Juanita and risks hurting her feelings and
jeopardizing his career.

2. How might Juanita have felt if Carl's behavior was
unwanted?

ANSWER: Juanita may have felt various unpleasant
feelings including invaded, helpless, angry, or
embarrassed. She had no say in Carl's offensive note
and gesture. No one should be made to feel this way.
Such unpleasant experiences can negatively affect
Juanita 's academic performance, social confidence, and
self-esteem.

3 . Why might Carl have acted this way?

ANSWER: All sorts of reasons, none of which excuse his
behavior. Carl may believe that such behavior is
harmless. He may have wanted some type of attention
and did not know of a better way of getting it. Carl
also might have done it because it makes him feel
playful, even at Juanita 's expense. Some people, maybe
even Carl, believe that girls enjoy that kind of
attention, even against their will. Finally, he may
simply be mean spirited and enjoys creating discomfort
and even agony in others. Remember, these might be
explanations for Carl's behavior but certainly not
excuses. There is no justification for sexual
harassment.

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SCENARIO 3:

A group of four girls frequently whistle "wolf calls"
at Jamal. Jamal thought it was kind of neat and enjoyed the
special attention. After a while, when the girls didn't
stop, Jamal strangely began to feel embarrassed and
uncomfortable. He no longer considered the attention
special and began to also feel upset. He told them to quit
it although they would laugh and continue. Jamal didn't
really know what to do. Jamal just wanted to be left alone.

1. Is this sexual harassment? Why?

ANSWER: At first Jamal enjoyed the wolf calls and
probably wanted the girls to continue. However, there
came a time when it was no longer fun and he wanted it
to stop. The point at which he did not consent to the
wolf calls, and the females continued, that became
sexual harassment.

2. Do boys really experience sexual harassment?

ANSWER: Yes. Sexual harassment for a boy can be just
as traumatizing as it is for a female.

3. What might the girls have thought about Jamal 's request
for them to stop whistling at him? Why?

ANSWER: Many people buy into the myth that boys are
always ready and willing when it comes to sexual
attention. It's simply not true. Boys are not always
"turned on" by sexual attention. Boys can become
uncomfortable in such a situation and want to be left
alone. The sad thing is that when a boy refuses sexual
attention, others may inappropriately label him as
"less of a boy or man."

4. What might some of the other boys think if they knew
that Jamal requested that the girls stop whistling?
ANSWER: The other boys may believe Jamal 's worst
nightmare — that he is less of a man, perhaps even a
"sissy," because he was being ridiculed by a group of
girls (often seen by boys as inferior) . Of course this
is not true.

□ Have the students stay in their groups while you make
some concluding comments :

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. What is one thing that you learned today about sexual
harassment?

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2. What are some examples of sexual harassment that takes
place in school?

ANSWER: Examples of sexual harassment include making
comments about someone's body or a part of their body;
making sexually explicit material such as posters,
pictures, or hand-made drawings public; making academic
achievement a condition of sexual favors; spreading
rumors of a sexual nature about a person.

3. How can sexual harassment influence production in
school? On the job?

ANSWER: Sexual harassment can seriously lessen
performance on the job or at school. It is very
difficult to work when you are feeling embarrassed,
angry, degraded, humiliated, and disgusted. Sexual
harassment also instills fear and can make the person
think less of themselves.

4. What makes the business world concerned about this
problem?

ANSWER: Sexual harassment decreases productivity which
means loss of money. It kills team work and is against
the law. A company can be sued for a lot of money if
they allow sexual harassment to occur.

THEN SAY . . . "Today we have practiced recognizing sexual

harassment when we see it. It is also important to do
our part in not letting it happen to us our others.
This involves several skills which we will begin to
tackle next time we meet."

CONCLUDE WITH "Next time we are going to think more

about how we might be more attentive to each other so
that we do not miss out on what the other is trying to
say. "

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OBJECTIVES: To teach communication skills which include
active listening and nonverbal communication.

MATERIALS :

1. GIZZYDEECH cards.

2 . Blind spot paragraph

FIRST SAY . . . "This is our fourth session together and so
that means we're past the half way point. There is
still much to cover so we should move ahead to make the
best use of our time. You probably remember that last
week, we discussed several different types of
situations and whether each situation involved sexual
harassment . "

THEN SAY ... "Sometimes we ignore other person' s words and
feelings . Being a careful listener is both an art and
a science . Have you ever noticed how some people are
good listeners, when others seem to be distracted and
have trouble paying attention? Some people are tuned
into what you are feeling and thinking, whereas others
are not. Being a good communicator and problem-solver
relies on being an attentive listener. "

NOW SAY . . . "Today, we are going to look at some ways in

which you can become a more attentive listener. As a
person is talking, try to listen carefully for both
pleasant and unpleasant feelings. Ask yourself: "What
is the person experiencing in the situation?" Can you
say aloud the feelings you are hearing? Let's listen
to a few examples: "

ACTIVITY 1: GIZZYDEECH!

□ Have students volunteer to help by raising their hand.
LI Then, choose ten of these students balanced for gender

and race.

□ Take them aside and give them each a "GIZZYDEECH card.
Make sure they can all pronounce the word.

□ In turn, have the students, in front of the class, read
aloud the sentence they have on their card. They
should read the sentence and focus on the feeling

152

indicated on the card. They can also use their hands
and facial expressions. Each card should result in a
different tone of voice and body language.
□ After each student reads a card, have the students try
to guess the feeling trying to be expressed. This game
is similar to charades.

The GIZZYDEECH cards include:

1. Read with excitement; "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."

2. Read with sadness: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."

3. Read with anger: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."

4. Read with pride: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."

5. Read with fear: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."

6. Read with NO feeling: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."
1 . Read with surprise: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH. "

8. Read with depression: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."

9. Read with confusion: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."

10. Read with love: "You are such a GIZZYDEECH."

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. What might the word GIZZYDEECH mean?

ANSWER: Actually, the word doesn't mean anything, it
was made up .

2. How did you know what the feeling being expressed was
without knowing what the meaning of the word GIZZYDEECH
is?

ANSWER: Perhaps you might have been able to tell the
meaning of the word by the speaker's feeling and
expressions.

3 . How might it feel for someone not to know what you are
trying to say?

ANSWER: It probably feels frustrating. You may even
feel helpless or left out.

4. Could the same statements have different meanings based
on how they are said?

ANSWER: Yes indeed. A person's tone of voice and
their expressions can change the meaning of what is
said.

5. When someone says something but their body "says
something else," which do you believe?

ANSWER: Most of the time, the listener will find that
a person's body language is the most accurate. This is
because the speaker cannot influence his/her body
motions as well as they can what comes out of their
mouth. The body usually does not lie like one's mouth
can.

6. How does attitude affect what a person actually hears?
ANSWER: You may have heard that "a person hears what
they want to hear." Their is a great deal of truth to
this statement. What a person wants (or needs) to hear

153

may influence the meaning they place on what is
actually said. When listening to others, it is always
important to keep our own prejudices aside, and listen
with an open mind. This is important because
misinterpreting what someone says, and then acting on
it, can sometimes lead to trouble such as sexual
harassment.

NOW SAY . . . "Our ten volunteers have demonstrated how the
same word, which in this case does not mean anything,
can give a different message just by how it is said.
You may have noticed that each person was saying the
sentence with a different feeling and with different
expressions . People can say a great deal just by their
body language . Even if you don't understand what they
are saying, you might be able to get the message by how
they say it. Paying attention to underlying feelings
can give a person insight into what is going on."

FINALLY SAY ... "Sometimes, a person's body language can be
difficult to interpret, even confusing. This is
because a person may be confused about what they are
experiencing. For instance, a girl might enjoy sexual
attention although has been brought up to think that
"nice" girls should not. Or, for example, a boy who is
being sexually harassed by a girl may be confused
because he thought that boys are always supposed to
enjoy sexual attention. When in doubt, an individual
should always ask what the other person is trying to
say or how they are feeling.

ACTIVITY 2: THE BLIND SPOT

OPEN BY SAYING We have talked about body language and

how it plays an important part in communication. Now
let us turn to a different activity that should give us
some further insight into what it means to be in tune
to the messages that we get through our eyes and ears."

□ Pass out the Blind Spot sheet. Make sure that the

students put them face down and do NOT read them until
you say so.

NOW SAY . . . OK, In a few moments we will be reading together
what is written on the sheets of paper I just passed
out. Then, I will give you a very quick task that
should only last a few seconds so you'll have to be on
your toes. Are you ready? OK, turn your papers over

154

□ Have the students turn the papers over and have
everyone read aloud. The paragraph contains the
following:

• "One of the best feelings is the feeling of love.
If a person is a friend of yours, and you love them,
that is also a special kind of love. Peelings of fear
sometimes come with love.

□ Instruct the students to quickly count the number of
letter F's in the sentence. Give them about 15
seconds.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. How many letter F's did you count?

ANSWER: There are actually ELEVEN of them in the
sentence although they will probably not count all
eleven.

2. How come there are different answers even though
everyone has the same paper?

ANSWER: The reason is that most people miss the F's in
the word of because it sounds more like a "v" than an
" f . "

3 . What might you have learned about communication from
this exercise?

ANSWER: This exercise attempts to show that
communication is not always easy. We must work hard to
make sure that we hear and see everything that is
intended. The best way to do this is to listen
carefully to words and feelings, confirm, and ask
questions.

4. Is it possible that you can be wrong about something
even though you think that you are absolutely right?
ANSWER: Yes, that is why we should put off getting
defensive and try to learn.

NOW SAY . . . "Our exercise showed us how we all have what Is
called a blind spot. Sometimes we just do not see
things that are right in front of us. In a similar
way, we do not hear things that are spoken directly to
us either. In these cases, we must try to get help
from others to help us see or hear things in our blind
spot. For example, in this situation, rather than
arguing about how many letter F's there are in the
paragraph, we could ask the other person to show us how
they arrived at their answer. "

THEN SAY . . . "In relationships we must be careful to hear
the other person' s words and feelings . If we do not,
then we might miss something important which could
eventually hurt their feelings . We are now learning

155

that attentive listening is more work than most people
think. It takes careful consideration of the person' s
words, feelings, expressions, and our own frame of
mind. "

FINALLY SAY . . . "In our next session, we will look at the

idea of mutual respect, especially when it comes to our
personal space. See you next week!"

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Session 5: Hey! You're In My Space!

OBJECTIVES: To teach the concept of respecting other's
"personal" space.

MATERIALS :

1. The Party Cards

2. Sheet of labels to use for sticking cards on people's
back.

3. A radio or tape player (optional)

OPEN BY SAYING . . . "Last week we learned more about what it
means to be an attentive listener. We played the
GIZZYDEECH game and also talked about blind spots. We
found that it takes lots of work to really understand
what someone is saying and feeling. We also discussed
how important it is to be an attentive listener to
prevent hurting someone' s feelings . "

THEN SAY . . . "Today we will look at this idea called

respect . Respect is an expression of consideration,
especially for someone's feelings . Respect is also
showing appreciation. What are other ways that people
are shown respect? Let's find out ..."

ACTIVITY 1: "THE PARTY"

FIRST SAY ... It's time for our next activity. Let's begin
by using a little imagination. At this time, let's
have a party. Our party will be somewhat different,
however, because each person will have a different set
of instructions to follow. Each of you will receive a
piece of paper with your own personal message to
others. The paper will be taped on your back where you
can ' t see it . "

THEN SAY . . . "After everyone gets their special message, I
will be giving you various topics to discuss as you
socialize and get to know each other. Between each
topic I will say "STOP." At that time, please turn
your attention to me for the next topic. As you
discuss the topics, others may react to your unique
message . Oh yes, do not share the personal messages
with anyone until the party is over! Later on we will

157

see if the persons wearing a message can guess what it
is . "

□ Tape a message to each of student's back. Some
students will receive the same message. The messages
include:

• Disregard the topic and make comments about my feet!
Say things like, "Ooooh, those are the best looking
pair of feet I have ever seen!"

• Disregard the topic and make comments about my
hands 1 Say things like, "Ooooh, those are the best
looking pair of hands I have ever seen!"

• I hate it when people look me directly in the eyes
when talking with me.

• I like to hold hands when I'm talking to a friend.

• I might be interested in going together with you.

• I like to talk with others ONLY when there is nobody
around.

• I like people to get up close to me when I 'm talking
with them.

• I scare you. Act nervous when talking to me.

• I am not comfortable with people "in my face." Stay
at least 5 feet away when talking to me.

• You find me attractive.

• You are VERY interested in getting my phone number.

• You are extremely interested in what I have to say.

□ If you have a cassette or CD player, begin playing some
party music loud enough to hear but not too loud as to
disturb any neighbors. If not, that's OK too, just
skip this part.

□ Then start the party by reading the first topic. After
about two minutes, say STOP, wait to get their
attention, and read the next topic. Here are the
topics to use:

1. How would you describe the last party you were at?

2. What is your favorite thing to do on the weekend when
you don't have any chores or other responsibilities?

3. If you had to choose a favorite musician or musical
group, who would it be and why?

4. If someone gave you a million dollars to throw the next
party, on the condition that you spent every dollar on
the party, how would you do it?

NOW . . . Ask the following questions and allow anyone who
raises their hand to answer:

• How did other people behave towards you?

• What do you think your personal message says?

158
FOLLOW UP DISCUSSION AND QUESTIONS:

1. How was communication affected by your message?
ANSWER: Sometimes how a person sees you or how they
think of you will affect just how they speak with you.

2 . How did you know when you were too close or too far
from the person you were speaking with?

ANSWER: You must judge by the person's expressions to
know if they are comfortable with you. Sometimes it is
hard to tell so it is up to the other person to tell
you or for you to ask.

3. What is personal space?

ANSWER: Personal space is the amount of space around
you, at any given time or situation, that you feel
comfortable with someone else.

4. How is personal space a consideration in sexual
harassment?

ANSWER: Repeatedly violating someone's personal space
and making them uncomfortable with sexual attention is
considered sexual harassment.

NOW SAY . . . "You have all had a chance to interact at our
special party. The goal of this particular activity
was to teach the definition and concept of respecting
the personal space of others. Each person brings to a
conversation many things: ideas, beliefs , habits,
skills, and a comfort zone. Some of you experienced
what it was like trying to figure out how to get into a
comfortable stance for both you and the other person
with whom you were talking. If someone was closer to
you than you wanted, you might have felt annoyed. When
someone gives you unwanted sexual attention, in the
form of words, pictures, or actions, the feelings only
get stronger. You might feel angry, confused,
helpless, and even violated. It is important to make
certain that the other person is interested and open to
your comments and or behavior no matter what the nature
of your conversation is about.

CONCLUDE BY SAYING . . . "We are certainly winding down with
our time. Next week will be our last session together
as we explore and try to further understand the nature
of sexual harassment. For our last meeting, we will
take a look at how to reduce the risk of it happening.
Also, we'll discuss how to best help a friend if it
happens to him/her. "

159

OBJECTIVES: To teach students how to confront a

perpetrator; report sexual harassment; effectively
support and help others experiencing sexual harassment,

MATERIALS :

1. Handout: "Memo"

2. Handout: "Helping a Friend Who Has Been Sexually
Harassed"

3. Handout: "Options for Confronting Sexual Harassment"

4. "Options for Confronting Sexual Harassment" strips

ACTIVITY 1: Opt to ST0P1

FIRST SAY . . . "We have certainly come a long way since our

first time together. Since then, we have discussed the
definition of sexual harassment, sexual harassment
myths, how to recognize it when you see it happening,
and the importance of respecting someone's personal
space. Now we must turn to the topic of what you might
do to confront sexual harassment if it happens to you.
We will also spend our time discussing how you might
effectively help a friend if needed."

THEN SAY . . . "Let us look at several different options that
you might have for stopping sexual harassment. Having
options means having the power or right of choosing.
Although you may not have the power to control the
behavior of the perpetrator, you do have the power to
stand up for your rights . "

NOW ASK . . . "What might be some options for confronting
sexual harassment when you see it? Remember that violence is
not an acceptable option.

□ After brainstorming for about three to four minutes,
have a couple of students help you pass out the handout
called "Options for Confronting Sexual Harassment"

□ Point out the options that students were able to offer.
Then, point out the options that they did not mention.

□ When you get to Option #6, pass out the "Memo" handout.

160

SAY . . . "This handout will guide you in writing an official
notification of your sexual harassment experience. You
can send it to any adult that you trust."

NOW ASK . . . "Are there any other options for confronting
sexual harassment, not including violence, that we
missed?

NOW SAY . . . "OK, confronting a perpetrator of sexual

harassment is a skill. Like any skill, to get good at
it, you have to practice . So, let us practice our
sexual harassment confrontations skills. I need
everyone to bring there chairs (or sometimes it's a
desk and chair in one) into a circle around the room.
(If the room you are in does not allow this such as in
a science room then have the students stand in a
circle) .

IJ Put an empty chair in the middle of the circle.

THEN SAY . . . "Now that you are all in a circle, let me

explain what comes next. Each person will pick from a
hat one option for confronting sexual harassment.
Pretending that the perpetrator is sitting in the chair
in the middle of the circle, use the option you picked
to confront him/her. You can make up what you think
the perpetrator did in your personal confrontation .

Q Begin the activity by letting a volunteer pick out of
the hat and practicing that option. If students are a
somewhat hesitant, you might want to begin yourself.

U If at any time a student does not want to participate,
allow him/her to pass. If a student passes, come back
to him/her after everyone who wants to go has gone and
ask if he/she would like to try it.

□ Remember to offer a few complimentary words as you go

along to encourage participation and reinforce skillful
confrontations .

AFTER THE LAST PERSON HAS GONE, SAY . . . "Terrific! Just
remember that you have the right to not have anyone
victimize you with sexual harassment . If someone does,
you can use any or all of these options to confront
him/her. You also have the choice to go right to
option #6 and make an official complaint. If you can,
always seek the help of your parents I guardians . Now
let's turn to the most effective way to help and
support a friend who has been sexually harassed. "

A

161

ACTIVITY 2: HELPING A FRIEND WHO HAS BEEN SEXUALLY HARASSED

FIRST SAY "What can you do to help a friend who is

experiencing sexual harassment feel supported? (PAUSE
FOR ANSWERS) One way is to make sure that you do NOT
blame him/her in any way for the harassment. For
example, you do not want to say that he/she should have
expected the harassment because of what he/she was
wearing or what was said."

THEN SAY ... "Let's take a look at some other things you can
do to help a friend who is suffering from sexual
harassment . "

□ Pass out the Helping a Friend Who Has Been Sexually
Harassed handout.

□ Review the handout with the students. Point out the
items that they were able to say and those that they
did not.

□ Finally, bring attention to the section with resource
numbers in case they need to use them.

KEY QUESTIONS:

1. Is it possible that someone you know would do something
that could be considered sexual harassment?

ANSWER: The answer is yes. It is difficult to believe
that someone you know would do something as awful as
sexual harassment, although it is sometimes true. This
person may be just as guilty of sexual harassment as a
stranger. This doesn't mean that you should not be
friends with this person. What it does mean is that
you have an obligation to help your friend stop the
harassment before he or she hurts anyone else — and —
before he/she hurts him/herself.

2 . What is the difference between an informal and a formal
complaint?

ANSWER: An informal complaint is made unofficially.
That is, the complaint is not written. A formal
complaint follows certain guidelines and always
involves a written description of the incident (s).
Formal complaints are needed to make a legal case
against the harasser if informal efforts are not
successful .

3. What if sexual harassment happens with an adult?
ANSWER: This is an especially tough situation because
adults are supposed to know better, be responsible, and
trustworthy. Even though this is ideal, the truth is
that all adults are not trustworthy. Therefore, a

1

162

young person who experiences sexual harassment by an
adult should follow the same guidelines for when a
student is the harasser. The adult harasser needs to
be confronted and stopped.

FINALLY SAY . . . Our time together is coming to an end. We
hope that you will take what you've learned to help
fight sexual harassment that happens around you. Only
when everyone does their share will sexual harassment
really become a thing of the past. We hope that you've
also enjoyed our time together. Even though sexual
harassment is a disturbing topic, we've tried to make
it somewhat fun through our activities. If you have
any other questions about sexual harassment, remember
that you have many caring and knowledgeable adults
around who can help. All you have to do is ask. You
can also check out books from your school and city
libraries to read more about sexual harassment . We
appreciate your attentiveness and participation .
Thanks for playing!

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Russell Anthony Sabella was born in Manhattan, New York
in 1965, the son of Mr. Giuseppe Sabella and Sina Sabella.
Russell graduated from Cape Coral High School in 1983 and
immediately attended the University of Florida. He received
his Bachelor of Science degree in psychology from the
University of Florida in 1987. During that time, he worked
as a crisis counselor and resident assistant for the
Division of Housing.

Russell then entered graduate school in counselor
education at the University of Florida. Throughout graduate
school, he worked with the Division of Housing as a Hall
Director, Staff Resource Assistant, and also a Residence
Director. He received his M.Ed, and Ed.S. degrees in
guidance and counseling at the University of Florida in
1990.

Following graduation, Russell worked as a peer
facilitator trainer and school counselor for the Alachua
County school system. During this period, he became a
doctoral student at the University of Florida in counselor

173

174
education. He has authored, with his doctoral chair,
Dr. Robert Myrick, a book entitled Confronting Sexual
Harassment : Learning Activities for Teens. After completing
his Ph.D., Russell will begin work as a faculty member in
the Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology,
University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky.

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion
it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and
is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for^the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Robert D. Myrick, Cj>airman
Professor of Counselor Education

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion,
it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and
is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Gerardo Gonzalez
Professor of Counse

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion
it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and
is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy. t ^~^V?

Woodrow M. Parker ~

Professor of Counselor Education

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion
it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and
is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Cecil Mercer <

Professor of Special Education

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion
it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and
is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

August, 19 95

Dean, Graduate

LD

1780
1995

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

3 1262 08285 368 9