Effects of Arts Education
on Participation in the Arts
Louis Bergonzi and Julia Smith
Research Division Report #36
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Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Executive Summary
Introducrion
Measures
Research Focus
Findings
VI
vii
1
1
2
3
3
Introduction
PART I:
PART II:
The Roie of Arts Education in Defining a
Uniquely Diverse American Culture
Connecting Arts Education and Arts Participation
-Analytical View of Arts Participation
Organization and Content of This Report
Summary of Research Methods Used
Description of the SPPA Surveys
Determining the Effects of .Arts Education on
Arts Participation
General Analytic Plan
Description of Variables
Effects of Arts Education on Arts Participation
Data Source
Measures
Understanding .Analysis Tables
Analysis
Results
Conclusion
11
11
11
12
14
15
15
15
17
18
23
23
23
24
26
26
30
PART III: Comparative Effects of Arts Education and
Overall Education on Arts Participation
Introduction
Method
Results
Summary
34
34
34
35
44
PART !V: Summary and Conclusions 45
c
Introduction 4j>
Analytical Process 45
Summary or Results 47
Conclusions 50
Further Research 52
Appendix A: 1992 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts 54
Appendix B: Adjusting for the Effects of Leisure 61
Appendix C: The Effects of Education on Arts Participation 62
Appendix D; Technical Information 64
Path Analysis 64
Data Analysis 65
Notes 66
Bibliography 71
About the Authors 74
Other Reports on Arts Participation 75
Tables
Table 1 . Arts Education Indices I SPPA92) 1 9
Table 2. Arts Activities bv Art Forms Surveyed 20
Table 3. Arts Participation Indices (SPPA92) 21
Table 4. Respondent Background and Lifestyle \ ariabies
Used in Analyses (SPPA92) 22
Table 5. Effects of Arts Education and Sociodemographic
Characteristics on Arts Participation 25
Table 6. Differences in Arts Education by Race/Ethnicitv.
Gender, and Socioeconomic Status 28
Table 7. Differences in Arts Participation by Race/Ethnicity,
Gender, and Socioeconomic Status 29
Table 8. Comparison of Effects of School-Based and
Community-Based Arts Education on Arts Participation 31
Table 9. Effects of Arts Education on Arts Participation:
Summary of Predictors from Final Models 32
Table 10. Comparison of Effects of Overall Years of Education
and of Arts Education Density on Arts Participation 36
Table B.l. Changes Due to Adding Leisure Index to the Analyses 61
Table C. 1 . Arts Consumption by Sociodemographic Background
(Model I) and Years of Education After Taking into
Account Sociodemographic Background (Model II) 63
Table C.2. Arts Production by Sociodemographic Background
(Model I) and Years of Education After Taking into
Account Sociodemographic Background (Model II) 63
Figures
Figure 1. General Analytic Model 17
Figure 2. Complete Theoretical Model 18
Figure 3. Analytical Model Measuring Demographics, Arts
Education, and Arts Participation 27
Figure 4. Relationship Between General Education and Arts
Education 35
Figure 5 A. Relative Effect of Years of Education on Arts
Attendance over Different Levels of Arts Education 38
Figure 5B. Relative Effect of Years of Education on Audio-Media
Arts Participation over Different Levels of Arts
Education 39
Figure 5C. Relative Effect of Years of Education on Video-Media
Arts Participation over Different Levels of Arts
Education 39
Figure 5D. Relative Effect of Years of Education on Arts Creation
over Different Levels of Arts Education 40
Figure 6A. Relative Effect of Arts Education on Arts Attendance
over Different Levels of Education • 42
Figure 6B. Relative Effect of Arts Education on Video-Media
Arts Participation over Different Levels of Education 42
Figure 6C. Relative Effect of Arts Education on Arts Creation
over Different Levels of Education 43
Figure 6D. Relative Effect of Arts Education on Audio-Media
Arts Participation over different Levels of Education 43
Executive Summary
Introduction
The arts education that Americans gain and its potential effect on their par-
ticipation in the arts is an issue that is central to the development and
preservation of our uniquely diverse American culture. Thus it is critical to
look very carefully at what kind of education in the arts Americans receive,
where they receive it, and what influence it may have on active involvement
in the arts later in life. Information regarding the impact of arts education on
arts participation is necessary for any individual or organization interested in
arts education at any level or in the broader range of educational and cultural
policy.
This report identifies broad patterns of arts participation and arts educa-
tion among the American public and investigates the effects of arts education
on arts participation as they apply to all Americans.1 The focus is on the fol-
lowing questions:
1 . Do people become more actively involved in music, dance, writing, act-
ing, and visual arts as a consequence of arts education?
2. How does arts education make a contribution (or reduce the differences)
to arts participation among people of different socioeconomic status, gen-
der, racial, and ethnic groups?
3. Do any of the answers to the above questions differ when distinguishing
between arts education that is based in K— 12 schools and that which is
based in the private sector community outside of school?
4. Which is more important to increasing active participation — arts educa-
tion or general education?
This report uses data from the 1992 Survey of Public Participation in the
Arts (SPPA92), which was conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau on behalf of
the National Endowment for the Arts, and is to date the most comprehensive
indication of arts participation in the United States. Data are representative of
the population of the United States with respect to age, race, and gender. Even
the most basic analyses reveal important differences in both arts education and
arts participation among the racial and ethnic groups considered in the
SPPA92: namely, African Americans, Asians, Hispanics, Native Americans,
and whites. Therefore, in this report each group is considered separately.2
Measures
The art forms from the SPPA92 that were used predominantly in these
analyses are (depending on the particular variable) classical music, jazz, opera,
musical play or operetta, non-musical dramatic play, ballet, other forms of
dance, poetry, novels or short stories, visual art, and video programs about the
arts or artists. Although the SPPA92 does not include all art forms and types
of art in which Americans participate, it does allow consideration of three di-
mensions of arts participation: attendance, production, and accessing the arts
via the media. In this report, participation in the arts activities included in the
survey is also considered as either consumptive (attendance and media-ac-
cessed arts participation) or productive (performance, creating) in nature.
With this distinction, it is important to keep in mind that consumptive par-
ticipation is not merely passive. Individuals actively "consuming" music, liter-
ature, dramatic performances, dance, or visual displays of art use their active
perception and critical reasoning skills.
For the purposes of this report, the measures of arts consumption em-
ployed were the following: live attendance at arts performances (attendance);
listening to radio broadcasts or audio recordings on record, tape, or compact
disc (audio media); watching performances on television and/or using a
videocassette recorder (VCR) (video media); and reading print literature or
listening to recordings of print literature (print media). Additive standardized
scales of arts consumption were constructed, which awarded points for the
number of times the respondent consumed a particular type of music, drama,
dance, or visual art display in the 12 months that preceded the survey.3 Over
12,500 Americans responded to questions of this type.
As previously stated, arts production is defined as either performing (per-
formance) or creating (creation). Once again, additive scales were constructed,
awarding a point for each type created or performed and, for both scales, an
additional point if the performance or creation was publicly demonstrated.
The sample size for arts production questions was 5,701.
Finally, an arts education index (arts education density) was created to rep-
resent both the breadth and depth of arts instruction across a lifetime. One
point was assigned for each type of class taken and one point for each time pe-
riod (elementary, high school, college, or adult years) during which the re-
spondent took classes. On the other hand, scales for school-based and com-
munity-based arts education represented only the number of art forms in
which the respondent had lessons while of school age (through age 17).
The SPPA92 also requested information about the respondent's back-
ground, including sociodemographic characteristics such as gender, race, and
ethnicity. For the purposes of this report, data indicating respondent's family
income, parents' level of education, and the number of cars the respondent
owned were combined into a standardized measure of socioeconomic status
(SES). Respondents also answered questions about their leisure activities
(movies, sports, amusement parks, exercise, outdoor activities, volunteer or
charity work, home improvement/repair, and gardening) and the number of
hours they watched television on an average day. These responses were com-
bined into a standardized measure of leisure activity.
Research Focus
The purpose of this report is not to consider differences in arts participa-
tion by race and ethnicity.4 However, from a perspective of aesthetic and ed-
ucational egalitarianism, the question is asked: Does arts education make arts
participation more accessible to Americans? To answer this question, arts par-
ticipation as an outcome of arts education was viewed, taking into considera-
tion one's lifestyle. Also explored was the question of whether arts education
reduced or possibly eliminated observed gender, ethnic, or socioeconomic sta-
tus differences in arts participation.
Further, because the SPPA92 questions distinguished between arts educa-
tion received in school from that received in the community (outside of
school), it was possible to compare the effects of these two arts education
agencies on arts participation and to pay special attention to the sociodemo-
graphic characteristics of those who receive arts education from each. This was
done in recognition of the view that public schools emphasize equality of op-
portunity and are therefore of somewhat different purpose than most arts ed-
ucation programs available through the private sector, which often require fi-
nancial remuneration from the students or their families.5
Findings
Effects of Arts Education on Arts Participation
To summarize the results in different areas more specifically, each outcome
has been highlighted with a summary of findings, followed by some general
observations concerning patterns of effects.6
Arts Attendance
• Men and women are about equally likely to attend a performance of
music, opera, drama, dance, or a museum exhibit, once one takes into ac-
count social and personal background characteristics and how much time
a person has available to attend an arts performance.
• Those who had more arts education were more likely to attend arts per-
formances— a relationship which was about four times stronger than that
of any other factor considered. '
• More than half the initial differences in attendance associated with SES —
ones ability to pay — were removed by considering differences in arts edu-
cation.
• Maintaining a busier lifestyle reduces one's rate of arts attendance.
Arts Accessed Through Audio Media
• The number of art forms Asians listened to via recordings and broadcasts
of music and drama was comparable to whites, whereas African Americans
had broader listening habits.
• Arts education was much more important in predicting this type of arts
participation than personal background or leisure and more strongly pre-
dicts arts listening than any other type of arts participation.
• Higher socioeconomic status led to increased participation via audio
media but was only one-third as strong a predictor as arts education.
Arts Accessed Through Video Media
0 Of those factors considered in this study, arts education was the only pre-
dictor of watching the arts on television or via VCR.
0 The variables in these analyses predicted very little of this type of arts par-
ticipation. Therefore, many of the influences as to why people watch the
arts on television remain unexplained.
Arts Accessed Through Print and Print-Related Media
" Women read more than men, even after taking SES and level of arts edu-
cation into account.
9 Asian and Hispanics had less print-media involvement than whites and
African Americans, again after taking SES and level of arts education into
account.
• Those with higher levels of socioeconomic status also read more.
e Those with more education in the arts read more. This factor was by far
the strongest single predictor of time spent reading among the factors con-
sidered.
Arts Creation
• Men reported spending much less of their time creating (photography,
needlework, painting, musical composition, creative writing) than did
women, even after taking arts education, alternate leisure activity level,
and SES into account.
• African Americans reported spending less time creating than did other
ethnic groups, even after adjusting for the amount of arts education one
had.
• Arts education was the strongest predictor of arts creation, reducing the ef-
fect of SES substantially.
• Those more active in other pursuits reported less arts creation. In fact,
when the amount of leisure activity was also taken into account, SES
showed no independent effect on participation in arts creation.
Arts Performance
• African Americans reported spending less time performing than did the
other racial/ethnic groups.
° Arts performance was the only type of arts participation that was not pre-
dicted by arts education despite the probable dominance of arts perfor-
mance as a goal and instructional practice within arts education.8
• Much of the influence of arts performance remains undefined.
Arts education was the strongest predictor of almost all types of arts par-
ticipation (arts performance being the exception). Those with the most arts
education were also the highest consumers and creators of various forms of vi-
sual art, music, drama, dance, or literature. Similarly, the higher ones SES, the
more one participates in arts activities. On the other hand, at least half of the
effect of SES on all types of arts participation was attributable to differences
in arts education. Although SES was not as important in increasing participa-
tion as was arts education, it did function as a resource factor, contributing to
whether or not a person received education in the arts. In addition, of all types
of arts participation, listening to the arts via audio media was the most de-
pendent on SES, further revealing socioeconomic status as a restrictive force
on arts participation.
School-Based vs. Community-Based Arts Education
As a final exploration into the impact of arts education, consideration was
given to the question of how respondents' lessons in the arts taken before the
age of 17 in school and in the private sector contribute to arts participation,
both separately and together; and to the impact of demographic background
of students engaged by each type of arts education agency.
Findings indicate that the higher one's socioeconomic status, the more arts
education one received, regardless of where that education was gained, even
after adjusting for personal background. It is noteworthy that SES was more
important to increased community-based arts education than it was for
school-based arts. Whereas men were only slightly less likely than women to
take arts courses in school, they were much less likely to do so in the commu-
nity-based arts education agencies outside of school.
After adjusting for socioeconomic status and gender, African Americans,
Asians, Hispanics, and whites had about the same level of involvement in arts
education in schools. In sharp contrast, white respondents reported much
higher levels of community arts education than did Asian, African American,
or Hispanic, even after adjusting for socioeconomic status and gender.
Effects on Arts Participation
For almost every type of arts participation, the more one received of both
school- and community-based arts education, the more one participated in
the arts as an adult, either through consumption or creation.9 The exception
was once again in arts performance, where having received community-based
arts education as a child or youth did nothing to predict arts performance, and
receiving school-based education actually decreased the likelihood somewhat
that individuals would continue to perform as adults.
In sum, a comparison of school-based and community-based arts educa-
tion does not yield a simple picture as to their relative effects on arts partici-
pation. When compared to school-based arts education, receiving arts educa-
tion that is community-based tends to reflect individuals who were higher in
two types of arts participation (attendance and video-media involvement). Al-
though arts education in school contributed to more time spent in arts cre-
ation, it appears to slightly decrease the likelihood of participation in arts per-
formance. Each type of arts education exerted comparable influence on
audio-media involvement. The largest difference between them was in con-
sumption of arts via video media, in which community-based arts education
was much more important than school-based arts education.
Effects of General Education vs. Arts Education on
Arts Participation
Three sets of analyses for each form of arts participation were conducted
to compare the impact on arts participation played by arts education and by
the broader socialization context of education.10 Because individuals1 access to
these types of education was related to other background features (SES, gen-
der, and ethnicity), an analysis was made of (1) the relationship between arts
education and education, (2) the independent effect of each type of education
on arts participation after taking the other into account, and (3) the contin-
gent effects of education and arts education; that is, the effect of one depend-
ing on how much of the other one received.
Overall, education is generative — more education in the arts also shows
higher levels of general education and vice versa. Interestingly, differences in
school- and community-based arts education primarily occurred between and
around the point of high school graduation. High school dropouts reported
having received much less school-based arts education than did high school
graduates.
Independent Effects of Arts Education and Education on Arts
Participation
Generally, more arts education or education (hence, arts/education)
meant more arts consumption (attending, listening to, watching, or reading)
and more arts creating (writing, composing, drawing, painting). Indeed, arts
education had a much stronger impact than did overall educational attain-
ment, even after taking personal background and socioeconomic status into
account.
This difference is not surprising, given that general education is by nature
less arts-specific. However, there are two remarkable observations. First, al-
though much arts instruction, particularly in the schools, stresses the devel-
opment of arts performance or production skills, it was arts consumption and
creation that were more related to arts education, not the more logical arts
performance. Arts education (received in either the school or the community)
and overall education, once again, did not impact arts performance at all. Sec-
ond, the effect of education on arts creation does not remain after one con-
siders differences in individuals' level of arts education. However, years of ed-
ucation continued to be a significant factor in predicting Americans' arts
consumption habits, even after taking into account the effect of arts educa-
tion. This result implies that education operates as a socialization force, even
if not as directly related to arts participation as arts education.
Interdependency of Arts Education and Overall Education
Because both arts education and general education influenced patterns of
arts consumption, whether the patterns themselves were different was ex-
plored, as well as whether the effects of overall education and arts education
changed depending on how much of the other a person had received. It could
be, for example, that getting a solid arts education has a stronger effect on stu-
dents who have a strong educational background in general, so that arts edu-
cation simply adds on to the effect of other schooling. On the other hand, it
could be the case that arts education is more important for students with less
overall education. Put another way, if schooling partiallv compensates for a
lack of an education in the arts, then the specific influence of arts education
mav only show up for students who have had limited schooling. This question
frames the last set of analyses.
When looking at print-media involvement (reading and/or listening to
books, plavs, and poetry), findings revealed that there was no shift in the ef-
fects based on the influence of the other type of education. The effect of arts
education on print-media involvement remained independent of overall edu-
cational attainment; in other words, more arts education resulted in more in-
volvement both at the low and the high ends of the educational spectrum.
This is remarkable considering the prominent role of reading in so many as-
pects of education.
However, when looking at arts attendance and audio- and video-media ac-
cessed arts consumption, findings revealed that the effects of general educa-
tion changed, depending on how much arts education one had received.
Specificallv. those people with high levels of general education and a more ex-
tensive arts education experience were much higher in their arts attendance
and consumption than were those with comparable general education but lit-
tle or no arts-specific education. Similarly, arts education had a more power-
ful impact on arts attendance for individuals of greater overall educational at-
tainment; whereas arts education alone, without the larger socialization that
education provides, had less of an impact on arts attendance. A similar pat-
tern was observed regarding rates of watching televised or video-recorded arts
events. This would suggest that this type of arts participation and arts atten-
dance are operating along the same dynamic: arts education makes more of a
difference when students have the larger socialization of education in place. In
general, these two different aspects of education reinforced each other, mak-
ing the final impact on arts attendance much stronger.
Curiously, those people with high levels of general education and a more
extensive arts education spent less time, rather than more, creating arts (writ-
ing, composing, painting, drawing, etc.). The effect of arts education on arts
creation had a very different meaning relative to an individuals overall educa-
tion. Although arts education did increase the amount of arts creation for all
individuals, it was more important for those who had less education in other
disciplines. For example, a student who dropped out of high school having re-
ceived a great deal of arts education (in or out of school) created far more arts
as an adult than did a similar person who attended college.
Finally, it was observed that arts education helped equalize the effects of
overall education on arts listening. People without any arts education were
very differentiated according to their educational background with regard to
their arts listening. As arts education increased they became more similar to
each other, to the degree that among people with a great deal of arts educa-
tion, college graduates and high school dropouts exhibited comparable arts lis-
tening habits.
Introduction
The Role of Arts Education in Defining a Uniquely
Diverse American Culture
American culture is unique in its incorporation of a diversity of artistic tra-
ditions. In order to ensure the continued definition of our American cul-
ture, each successive generation of Americans must gain basic cultural experi-
ences so that they are accustomed and equipped to contribute to or participate
in their national artistic culture. Arts education lies at. the center of this propo-
sition, one that has its place in any discussion of national purpose and iden-
tity. For the elements of American culture are transmitted via exposure, expe-
rience, skill, and understanding in the arts, gained through socialization and
arts education. Toward this process, it is crucial to understand the effect of arts
education on arts participation in order to plan the goals, content, and con-
text (public, private, and parochial school, or private community-based) of
our efforts at arts education. The purpose of this report is to distinguish broad
patterns of arts education and arts participation among the American public
and to investigate the relationship between arts education and arts participa-
tion as it applies to all Americans.
Connecting Arts Education and Arts Participation
Contemporarv reports on arts education have emphasized the intrinsic
value for Americans of an education in the arts; that is, the position that it's
important to learn about the arts because (1) they are subjects worth knowing
in their own right, with identifiable bodies of instructional content; and (2)
they are ways of thinking, knowing, and learning about the world. l ] From
this viewpoint, arts education makes a contribution to American society that
cannot be annexed by any other opportunities provided by schools or any
other arts or social agencies; in short, an education in the arts valued for its
own sake. Also recognized is the role arts education plays in transmitting and
understanding American culture, enabling students to become informed con-
sumers of the arts; giving students a sense of shared community; allowing stu-
dents to discover their artistic potentials, fostering their creativity; developing
a view of the arts as essential to daily life, and supporting the acquisition of
knowledge in other subjects.
Inherent in the intrinsically artistic view of arts education, as well as in the
broader affirmations about the benefits and purpose of arts education, is the
goal of connecting people with their national culture through their participa-
tion in the arts. For when people attend an arts performance, create art, or ac-
cess the arts through the media (among other possibilities for arts participa-
tion), this practice reflects not only aspects of their life experience and
personal situation, or their innate artistic potential, but also their education in
the arts. It is these relationships between personal background, arts education,
and arts participation that are explored in this report using data from the
SPPA92.
Understanding these associations is critical to the discussion about arts ed-
ucation policy at a time when (1) individuals and organizations concerned
with arts education have offered recommendations regarding school arts edu-
cation curricula, structure, funding, testing, teachers, policy, and research; (2)
the U.S. Department of Education has accepted arts standards that define
what every American should know and be able to do in the arts from the Con-
sortium of National Arts Education Associations (Associations, 1994); and (3)
the National Assessment of Educational Progress, scheduled for 1997, will be
a national assessment of students' achievement in the arts. Aside from this
public attention to arts education, the majority of Americans retain private
goals for their children that include having them learn about the arts {Ameri-
cans and the Arts VI, 1992). In holding this personal value system and in un-
dertaking these types of policy initiatives and recommendations, as a nation
and as individuals, we not only deem arts education as a goal, but imply that
arts education is a means toward an end — a means toward participation in the
arts as adult citizens.
Analytical View of Arts Participation
In this report, arts participation as an outcome of arts education and pat-
terns of arts participation by personal background (gender, race/ethnicity, so-
cioeconomic status) are considered. Through statistical analyses a determina-
tion is made as to how much of the patterns of Americans' arts participation
is attributable to arts education, sociodemographic characteristics, and in-
volvement in leisure activities. The SPPA92 also allows for the distinction be-
tween arts education provided in schools and in the community. Explored also
are the effects of overall general educational attainment on arts participation
in order to compare them with the effects of arts-specific education. Thus, it
is possible to provide information to agencies and individuals responsible for
arts education policy on:
s the strength or arts education as a predictor of arts participation, even after
taking into account sociodemographic characteristics and lifestyle.
• the ability of arts education to mediate the influence of sociodemographic
differences on arts participation.
• the relative effects of school-based vs. communitv-based arts education.
• the relative effects of arts education and general education on arts partici-
pation.
Sociodemographic Background
Obviously factors other than arts education influence arts participation,
including sociodemographic characteristics such as gender, race, ethnicity, and
socioeconomic status. In this report, differences in arts participation based on
these characteristics are determined, along with the effects of arts education
on arts participation, taking into account the influence of these other factors.
Based on previous research, it is anticipated that differences in arts partic-
ipation by sociodemographic background will be discovered.12 However, it is
not the aim of this report to investigate the effects of sociodemographic char-
acteristics on arts participation. 1? Rather, the effects of gender, race, ethnicity,
and socioeconomic status on arts participation are considered in order to de-
termine how arts education may reduce or remove any differences in arts par-
ticipation by sociodemographic background.
School-Based and Communitv-Based Arts Education
/
As a nation, Americans value the concept of equal opportunity and view
schools as institutions charged with upholding this ideal. This educational
value is related to David Pankratzs (1987) concept of aesthetic justice, which
he defines as the equitable distribution of aesthetic wealth among members of
a society. Pankratz identifies that:
To achieve an equitable distribution of aesthetic wealth, it is essential
that a society's members have ample opportunities to experience ob-
jects of high aesthetic value, whatever their geographic location or so-
cial stratum. For aesthetic justice to prevail, policymakers have an ad-
ditional obligation to increase the aesthetic capability of a society's
members, i.e., those critical and appreciative skills needed for persons
to best take advantage of the aesthetic opportunities presented to
them (p. 17).
In recognition of these concepts of educational and aesthetic egalitarian-
ism, it is critical to view schools as important arts education agencies and to
consider their relationship to arts education institutions that are based in the
larger community, outside of school.14 The following discussion, therefore,
considers the comparative effects of school-based and community-based arts
education on arts participation, paying particular attention to the sociodemo-
graphic characteristics of those individuals who learn about the arts in each
type of arts education setting.
Relative Effects of Arts Education and Overall
Educational Attainment
There are many studies that substantiate the strong, positive relationship
between overall educational attainment and arts participation.15 In this re-
port, the effects of overall educational attainment on arts participation are
compared with those of arts education. This is in keeping with contemporary
arts education writings that promote arts education as an intrinsically worth-
while endeavor, thus supporting the development of an arts education-specific
policy that goes beyond advocating increased levels of general education as a
way to increase arts participation for more people.
Organization and Content of This Report
In Part 1 the conceptualization of arts participation and arts education is
detailed, and the variables from SPPA92 that were used in this analyses are de-
fined. Also explained is the general plan for data analysis. In Part 2 a brief ex-
planation is offered on how to read and understand the results of these analy-
ses as represented in the tables.
In Parts 2 and 3 the effects of arts education and the comparative effects
of arts education and overall education on arts participation are considered.
Each part, or section, (1) frames the analysis based on contemporary issues in
education or arts education; (2) presents the related analytical model, includ-
ing discussion of any variables unique to a particular section; (3) discusses the
results of the effects analyses; and (4) concludes with an overview of each sec-
tion's results.
Summary of Research
Methods Used
Description of the SPPA Surveys
The 1982, 1985, and 1992 Surveys of Public Participation in the Arts were
commissioned by the National Endowment for the Arts. They were de-
signed to be the most comprehensive national surveys on arts participation.16
In this monograph data from the 1992 survey only is used.17 The response
rate was more than 80 percent and the sample was limited to individuals over
the age of 18 at the time of the survey. The data are weighted so as to be rep-
resentative of the 1992 U.S. population with regard to age, race, and gender.
Questions about live attendance and media participation during the previous
12 months were asked of 12,736 individuals during the period January-De-
cember, 1992. A second set of questions about arts education, leisure activi-
ties, music preferences, desire for additional arts participation, and personal
arts creating or performing was answered by 5,701 individuals during the sec-
ond half of 1992.
Determining the Effects of Arts Education on
Arts Participation
There are many reasons people participate in arts activities. One can eas-
ily speculate that a tentative list might include one's arts experiences as a child,
parental role models, financial resources, socioeconomic status, degree of par-
ticipation in leisure activities, and finally, for purposes of this report, one's ed-
ucation in the arts.
One approach is to describe how rates of arts participation increase/de-
crease for persons with different amounts of arts education; to say, for exam-
ple, that the attendance rate at classical music concerts for people with some
arts education was more than twice that of people with none. Examining arts
participation rates in this way would describe a general trend of increased arts
participation rates for people of higher arts education levels but would not ex-
plain any underlying reasons why this was the case.18
Another approach would be to conduct analyses that describe the type and
strength of the relationship between arts education and arts participation. To
do so one would conduct a correlation analysis. A positive correlation would
indicate a relationship between arts education and arts participation such that
as arts education increased, arts participation increased, whereas a negative
correlation would imply the opposite.19 A positive correlation between arts
education and arts participation, no matter how strong, would not indicate
that arts education caused increased arts participation. The possibility would
remain that another trait associated with arts education is behind more edu-
cated people's increased arts participation. For example, although people with
more arts education may have higher rates of arts participation, and a strong
statistical relationship may exist between the two, this could be explained by
the fact that those with more arts education have greater financial resources
with which to support their arts participation.
Describing the rates of arts participation for persons of different arts edu-
cation levels and the association between the two addresses questions of how
much and to what degree arts education is relevant to arts participation; it
does not explain why. What is needed is an approach that contrasts the influ-
ence of arts education on arts participation with that of other traits associated
with arts participation; that is, by taking into account other known influences
on arts participation. Given the breadth of the information supplied by the
SPPA92, it was possible to consider the effects of arts education on arts par-
ticipation net of socioeconomic status and elements of individual leisure ac-
tivity that may compete with the arts for resources, such as time and money.
Role of Personal Background
It would be illogical to expect that arts participation would be completely
independent of personal background, with members of all groups (racial, eth-
nic, or gender) participating at a comparable degree. To do so would be to ig-
nore the roles socialization, personal preference, and personal history play in
defining individual choice and developing group and personal identity. How-
ever, in these analyses the effect of those factors connected with group status
were removed, thereby isolating the effects of birth-determined membership
in a particular group; in other words, to consider the net effect of group mem-
bership, or that portion predetermined by birth. To find such net effects
would put forth the unfortunate proposition that access to arts education in
the contemporary United States may be determined by factors over which a
person has no control.
Genera! Analytic Plan
The analytic plan appropriate for this type of inquiry is based on analysis
of covariance, following a path-analytic model.20 Even in its simplest form,
the theoretical model demonstrates the "path" quality implied bv its name (see
Figure 1 ).
In this general analytic model, arts participation (C) is the outcome; and
arts education (B) is the factor of interest. Its effect on the outcome is explored
after taking into account sociodemographic characteristics (A) of the respon-
dents. Of equal importance (given the consideration of egalitarian goals for
arts education and participation) is the ability of this model to estimate the
power of arts education to mediate (reduce or remove) any effects of sociode-
mographic characteristics on arts participation. Then the effects of arts edu-
cation on arts participation are investigated, after taking into account various
aspects oi ones lifestyle that may compete with participating in the arts for
ones time and other resources (Figure 2).
In the complete model, arts participation occurs as the result of arts edu-
cation (B), as influenced bv sociodemographic characteristics (A), and after
considering the competing effects of one's lifestyle (C). .Although there cer-
tainlv are other factors that influence arts participation that were not part of
this survey, and therefore cannot be taken into account by the model, data
from the SPPA do allow for the consideration of how much people participate
in the arts as functions of arts education, sociodemographic characteristics,
and lifestyle.
FiGURE 1
General Analytic Mode!
(A)
Sociodemographic
Characteristics
(B)
Arts Education
r
(Ci
Arts Participation
j
FIGURE 2. Coit
iplete Theoretical Mode
!
(A)
Sociodemographic
Characteristics
(B)
Arts Education
(D)
Arts Participation
1
(Q
Lifestyle
Description of Variables
This section details the construction of the measures of arts education and
arts participation, sociodemographic background, and a specific lifestyle fac-
tor that will be used in all of the analyses based on the theoretical model. Vari-
ables that are unique to specific sections of this report are described therein.
Because composite variables were constructed using available information
rather than deleting cases, there were very little, if any, missing data on these
measures.
Indices of Arts Education and Arts Participation
Arts Education
Because each survey item has a limited range of response, the reliability of
any one item for reporting experience or education in the arts is very limited.
Therefore it was necessary to combine arts education in different art forms at
different time points.21 Thus, a person who took only music lessons in child-
hood has a lower arts education density score than a person who took both
music and art lessons as a child, and this person in turn has a lower score than
one who took both types of lessons both in childhood and as a teenager. This
combination allows for the use of a weighted estimator of arts education that
is more stable by individual and that has a more reliable distribution, one that
is necessary for the type of statistical techniques used.
Preliminary analyses employed measures of arts education duration and
arts education concentration.-- Results yielded a hi°;ri correlation between the
two measures and overall results that were not different from those using the
more comprehensive measure. The more general consideration of arts educa-
tion was labeled Arts Education Density (Table 1).
Arts education, whether received in school or in the community outside
the school, was also considered. "School" refers to the respondent's school of
attendance and not necessarily a public institution, though the compulsory
nature of education in the United States is in contrast with the more elective
nature of community-based, private education.23
TABLE 1. Arts Education Indices (SPPA92)
Index
Description (range)
Arts Education Density
Arts Education Agency
Community
School
The number of art forms in which respondent had
ciasses, summed across five time periods; 1 point
awarded for each art form and one for each period.
This is a standardized scale of duration, weighted by
number of art forms. (0-40 >
One point awarded for each art form in which re-
spondent received instruction in the larger commu-
nity, outside of school while of school age (through
1 - ; summed for all art forms and standardized. (0-8)
One point awarded for each art form in which re-
spondent received instruction in school while of
school age (through 1 7); summed for ail art forms
and standardized. (0-8)
Arts education is described as instruction in those art forms that were in-
cluded in the 1992 survey (Table 2). Although the art forms surveyed are a
broad representation of those in which Americans participate and are more di-
verse than in earlier versions of the SPPA, they are primarily those art forms
of particular interest to the National Endowment for the Arts as an agency of
the federal government. Despite the great value of this list, it would be unwise
to interpret this list as the only arts in which Americans participate.
TABLE 2. Arts Activities by Art Forms Surveyed
Arts Acti\ it\
Art Forms Considered
Arts Education
Lessons
music, visual arts, acting, ballet, other dance, cre-
ative writing, art appreciation/history, music appreci-
ation/?! istory
Arts Production
Art creation
pottery, needlework, photography, painting, creative
writing, musical composition
Art performance
jazz, classical, opera, musical play/operetta, choral
music, dramatic acting, ballet, other dance forms
Arts Consumption
Attendance
jazz, classical, opera, musical play/operetta, nonmu-
sical plav. ballet, other dance forms, art
museum/galleries
Audio media
jazz, classical, opera, musical pla\ operetta, nonmu-
sical play
Video media
jazz, classical, opera, musical plav operetta, nonmu-
sical plav. dance, program about art/artists
Print and print-related media
read plays, read poetry, read novels or short stories.
listen to a reading of poetry, listen to a reading of
novels or books
Arts Participation
Ethnomusicolosists. sociologists, and psychologists have considered arts
participation from various perspectives.-4 Although the SPPA ma\~ not allow
consideration of all theoretical definitions of arts participation, it does permit
analysts to view three dimensions or arts participation that are central to anv
discussion of arts and arts education policies: attendance at arts events, arts
production, and accessing the arts through media.-" The questions and orga-
nization of the SPPA92 also allowed for consideration of arts consumption
(attendance and media-accessed participation1 vs. arts production i perfor-
mance and creation) (Table 3).
TABLE 3.
Arts Participation Indices (SPPA92)
Arts Consumption
Attendance
the number of arts performances attended, summed
across arts forms
Audio media
the number of art forms respondent listened to:
radio broadcast or audio recording
Video media
the number of times respondent watched the arts
(TV or VCRi
Print and print
-related
media the number of times respondent engaged in reading
print literature or listening to recordings of print lit-
erature
Arts Production
Creation
1 point for each art form created, another point if
the artistic creation was published, displayed, or
performed in public
Performance
1 point for each type of art form performed; another
point if the performance was in public
Note: All indices are standardized (mean = 0; s.d. = 1 )
Respondent Background Variables
Gender, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status were considered as ex-
ogenous variables, since they describe traits that are not impacted by any other
variable in the model. Descriptions of these variables and their construction
appear in Table 4.
In all analyses, race and ethnicity were entered as dichotomous, or
"dummy-coded'' variables. That is, respondents were given a 1 if they were a
member of the group in question; an 0 if they were not. As is necessary, one
group is designated the comparison group. In this reports effect analyses,
white served this role.
In preliminary comparisons, it became evident that African American,
Hispanic, Asian, and white respondents had very different experiences in both
arts education and participation. Thus it was necessary to consider the effects
of each group separately. Although Native Americans had different experi-
ences as well, there were so few of these individuals surveyed (N=16) that it
TABLE 4. Respondent
in Analyses
Background and Lifestyle Variables Used
(SPPA92)
Construct
Variable
Description
Gender
Male
dummy-coded Gender variable. Female = 0; Male - 1
Race/Ethnicity
African American
dummy-coded Race variable. White, Hispanic, Asian
= 0; African American = 1
Hispanic
dummy-coded Race variable. White, Asian, African
American = 0; Hispanic = 1
Asian
dummy-coded Race variable. White, Hispanic, African
American = 0; Asian = 1
Socioeconomic Status
SES
Standardized composite indicator of socioeconomic
status. Variables included were family income, num-
ber of cars owned, and level of parents' education
Lifestyle Considerations
Leisure index
Number of hours spent watching TV per day plus 1
point for each type of leisure activity in which respon-
dent participated
was appropriate to exclude them from these analyses, given the technical re-
quirements of the statistical procedures necessary to answer the research ques-
tions.
Lifestyle Considerations
Lifestyle is represented as a score on the leisure index (LI). The LI is the
sum of the number of hours the respondent reported watching television per
day and the number of leisure activities in which respondent participated
(Table 4). Leisure activities surveyed in the 1992 SPPA include movies, sports
(viewing and participation), amusement parks, exercise, outdoor activities,
volunteer/charity work, home improvement/repair, and gardening for plea-
sure.
Effects of Arts Education on
Arts Participation
This section examines how an individuals access to arts education might
reflect one's social background, leading to differences in arts participation.
Specifically explored is the question of whether gender and racial/ethnicity
differences, or socioeconomic status differences in access to arts education
have consequent impact on arts participation.
Data Source
This investigation uses information gathered from the SPPA92.26 Of the
total sample size of the survey, 12,736, over 5,000 specifically responded to
items concerning (1) personal arts participation by performing or creating, (2)
attendance at arts activities either in person or through the media, and (3) par-
ticipation in other leisure activities. In addition, these individuals provided
some limited information about their earlier in-school and out-of-school ed-
ucation in the arts.
Measures
Three sets of measures were used for these analyses.2 The first set, cap-
turing individual demographics, includes dichotomous ethnic measures for
Asian, Hispanic, and African American (with white as the control group); a
dichotomous measure identifying males; and a composite measure of an in-
dividuals personal income, high-status possessions, and parent education, as
an indicator of SES. The second set of measures, reflecting arts education
background, used a measure of arts education density, a standardized scale
weighted by the number of art forms in which an individual received educa-
tion, as well as by the number of time periods in which a person received that
education. In addition to this overall estimate, separate indices for education
received in school were created (school-based arts education) and for that re-
ceived out of school (community-based arts education). These two variables
considered arts education obtained only through age 17, whereas the arts ed-
ucation density index also included lessons obtained as an adult.
The third set of measures reflects personal arts participation, which is con-
sidered as either consumptive or productive in nature. The first two compos-
ites are performance and creation — each a scale of the number of art forms the
respondent reported producing, weighted by whether it was done for public
display. The last three measures in this set indicate arts consumption: atten-
dance sums the number of live performances attended weighted by the num-
ber of art forms attended, whereas consumption through media were sepa-
rated into audio (radio, compact disc, tape recording) and video media (TV,
VCR). Finally, an index was constructed measuring a person's involvement
with print media and print-related media (audio recordings of print litera-
ture).
Understanding Analysis Tables
The primary results of these analyses using standardized regression coeffi-
cients are reported so that the size of each can be compared accurately. This
section explains the relevant technical terminology so that readers can better
understand the tables that are used to present the findings.
The amount that arts education contributes to later participation in the
arts is referred to as "the strength of relationship" between arts education and
arts participation after taking into account other influences on arts participa-
tion. This strength is determined by comparing the relative size of the stan-
dardized coefficients in the tables, ignoring the presence or absence of nega-
tive signs. ^OCTien present, a negative number indicates that as one factor gets
larger, the outcome gets smaller; for example, one might expect that as one's
time in front of television increases, one's participation in the arts may de-
crease. A positive number indicates that as one factor gets larger, the outcome
increases; for example, one might expect that as ones income grows larger, the
amount one spends on the arts may increase.
Each of these standardized regression coefficients (sometimes referred to
by the Greek letter beta) indicate the unique relationship between that factor
and the outcome — after taking each of the others into account.28 For exam-
ple, the third column of coefficients in Table 5 (Attendance), shows beta = .32
for Arts Education Density, and beta = .08 for SES. Thus, the data indicate
that (1) as arts education increases, people participate in the arts more (the
beta is .32, not -.32), even after ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status
are taken into account; (2) as SES increases, people participate in the arts
more, even after taking ethnicity, gender, and arts education into account
(beta for SES is also positive); and (3) arts education is four times as 'strong'
a predictor of participating in the arts as SES (.32 is four times as large as .08).
The variables that are coded only with an 0 or a 1 (such as the predictor la-
beled Male) show the amount to which the group coded 1 (in this case, males)
differs from the group coded 0 (females). Thus males are more likely than fe-
males to attend arts presentations (the .02 coefficient for Male is positive).
TABLE 5. Effects of Arts Education and Sociodemographic
Characteristics on Arts Participation
Production
Consumption
Performance
Creation
Attendance
Video
Media
Audio
Media
Print
Media
Predictor
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
African American
-.06***
— ns***
.03*
.01
1 9***
.01
Asian
.01
.01
.001
.01
.003
-.02*
Hispanic
.01
.01
.004
.02
.03**
-.04**
Male
-.01
-.17***
.02*
.01
.07***
-.08***
SES
-.003
.03*
r\o***
-.005
1 T***
r\Q***
Arts education
-.01
1 Q***
9 9***
i £***
A 9 ***
40***
density
R2
.01**
.08***
1 t***
.02**
99***
91**
*p<.05. **p<
.01 . ***p
< .001.
Analyzing data sets as large as the SPPA92 will yield some statistically sig-
nificant results due to chance. Therefore it is important to understand that the
level of probability represents the likelihood that the particular effect occurred
due to chance. The importance of any given relationship is shown in the ta-
bles by the absence or presence of one, two, or three stars, explained at the
bottom of each table. Looking specifically at the effect of arts education on
video-media arts consumption (column 4, Table 5), the probability of ob-
serving this relationship by chance alone would be fewer than one time in a
hundred (** = p < .01). Also note that the difference between being African
American, Asian, or Hispanic compared to whites on watching arts events on
television (video media) could occur as a result of chance five or more times
out of a hundred (no stars on any of the betas). Given that the probability has
been set more conservatively than this, specifically less than 5/100, findings
indicate that there are no differences between ethnic groups when it comes to
arts television viewing — in short, that video-media-based arts participation is
independent of race or ethnicity, after one takes into account differences in so-
cioeconomic status and arts education.
Finally, each analysis (columns in Table 5) — each combination of predic-
tors, or model — explains some part of the overall outcome. A perfect model
would be able to predict the outcome 100 percent of the time just by know-
ing the values of those predictors. A totally useless model would predict the
outcome 0 percent of the time. In general, information from surveys is able to
predict at most about 20 to 40 percent of the variance in the outcome, only
because the responses people give to surveys is quite random (Cook & Camp-
bell, 1979). The amount of the outcome predicted by each combination of
variables is represented in the table by the value of R2 as a decimal (convert-
ing to a percent requires multiplying the R2 value by 100). For example, look-
ing across the bottom row of Table 5 indicates that the combination of pre-
dictors being considered best explains audio-media arts consumption, as the
amount of this outcome explained (22 percent, as R2 = .22***) is the greatest
of the six types of arts participation.
Analysis
First, differences in arts education by respondent's race/ethnicity, gender,
and socioeconomic status were investigated. Then the combined effects of
these sets of background measures were explored using simultaneous regres-
sion— demographic information combined with education in the arts (both
general and separated into inside and outside the school) as mediated by com-
peting leisure interests. This analysis was run for each of the six outcomes. The
analytical model is shown in Figure 3.
Results
Sociodemographic Characteristics and Arts Education
Data in Table 6 show the results of personal background comparisons on
arts education.29 Access to arts education differed according to a one's per-
sonal background. First, males received significantly less arts education than
females, more the case in community than in school-based environments
(school beta = -.07*** community beta = -.19***). In other words, although
males were slightly less likely to take arts courses in school, they were at a
much greater disadvantage in getting additional lessons or education from a
community setting. Second, persons of different racial/ethnic backgrounds
gained different degrees of arts education, with African Americans and Asians
demonstrating less arts education than whites and Hispanics, who were com-
FIGURE 3. Analytical Model Measuring Demographics, Arts
Education, and Arts Participation
r
Sociodemographic
Characteristics
Race/Ethnicity
African
American
Asian
Hispanic
Gender
Male
Social Status
Personal SES
Arts Education
Arts Education
Density
School-Based
Arts Education
Community-Based
Arts Education
I
Lifestyle
Leisure Index
Arts Participation
Production
Performance
Creation
Consumption
Attendance
Audio Media
Video Media
Print Media
parable in this regard (column 1). It is noteworthy that this differentiation of
arts education by race/ethnicity was only the case for community-based arts
education and not for school-based arts education: whereas Asians, African
Americans, and Hispanics each participated less in community-based arts ed-
ucation than did whites, the amount of school-based arts education gained by
individuals in all racial/ethnic groups was comparable.
Finally, in general, having an education in the arts had less to do with
race/ethnicity and more to do with SES as increased social resources corre-
sponded with more arts education (betas = .32***, .24***, and .26*** for gen-
eral, school-, and community-based arts education, respectively). Indeed, so-
cioeconomic status was the strongest determinant of arts education, even after
controlling for the other sociodemographic characteristics in this analysis.
Given that arts education differed by personal background, particularly
SES, the research must explore not only whether arts education predicts arts
participation, but if the identified differences in arts education by personal
background carry over to arts participation. In order to do this, two questions
must be asked: Does arts participation differ by personal background? and if
so, Does arts education reduce or remove any of these differences? These is-
sues are now explored.
TABLE 6. Differences in Arts Education by Race/Ethi
Gender, and Socioeconomic Status
licity,
Predictor
Arts Education
Density Index
Beta
School-Based Arts
Education Index
Beta
Community-Based
Arts Education Index
Beta
African American
Asian
Hispanic
Male
SES
-.03*
-.03**
-.02
_ 1 A***
0 ~)***
.02
-.02
.02
— f)7***
04***
_ QC***
_.04***
-.04**
_ I q***
.26***
R2
.12***
.06***
1 i~i***
*p<.05. **p<
.01. ***p<.001.
Sociodemographic Characteristics and Participation in the Arts
As was the case with arts education, differences in sociodemographic
background extend to differences in arts participation (Table 7). Of the two
arts production measures, demographic background showed slightly more dif-
ferences in creating than performing in the arts (R2 = .05*** and .01***, re-
spectively). In fact, the only significant difference among groups for arts per-
formance was that, net of gender and SES, African Americans had lower
involvement with arts performance relative to whites (beta = -.06***). In
looking at arts creation, the same was true for males relative to females (beta
= -.20***) and again for African Americans relative to whites. Finally, the
higher one's SES, the more one created in the arts (beta = .09***), though SES
did not indicate anything regarding arts performance.
Looking at arts consumption, SES strongly predicted both live attendance
and audio-media arts involvement (listening to recordings, radio) but was not
as important for video-media arts consumption. This difference could reflect
a direct link to the relative ongoing cost of buying tickets, recordings, and
books compared to turning on a television, once one owns it. Another ob-
served difference was that African Americans were significantly more likely to
listen to recordings of music or stage presentations than their white counter-
parts, after taking gender and SES into account. Finally, males were noticeably
less involved with print media, and SES positively predicted this tvpe of in-
volvement. In other words, higher income individuals from more educated
parents were more likelv to read or listen to a recording of print literature, or
at least to report having done so. These results suggest that video-media in-
volvement is the most equitable type of arts consumption, but that SES still
plays a restrictive role in determining all types of arts participation except arts
performance.
TABLE 7. Differences
in Arts Parti
cipation
by Race/Ethnicity,
Gender, and Socioeconomic Status
Produ
ction
Consumption
Performance
Creation
Attendance
Video
Audio
Print
Beta
Media
Beta
Media
Beta
Media
Beta
Predictor
Beta
Beta
African American
-.06""
-.05"**
.02
.01
.12***
.003
Asian
.01
.002
-.01
.002
-.01
-.04**
Hispanic
.01
. .01
-.003
.02
.02
-.05***
Male
-.01
-.20***
-.02
-.02
.01
-.13***
SES
-.003
.09***
.18***
.04***
.26***
.22***
R-
.01**"
.05***
.03***
.01*
.07**"
.07***
"p<.05. *"p<
.01. ***p
< .001.
Effect of Arts Education on Participation in the Arts
Having determined differences in arts participation for people of different
sociodemogtaphic background, consideration was then given to the mediat-
ing effects of arts education (as estimated by the arts education density index)
on arts participation.30 As before, the only background factor predicting par-
ticipation in arts performance was ethnicity, with African Americans being
somewhat less involved in this type of arts participation than whites (Table 5).
Interestingly, those who had more arts education did not necessarily perform
more than others. For the other outcomes, education in the arts was the
strongest predictor (range of betas = .16*** (video media) to .42*' ' (audio
media)), even more powerful than SES or personal background. In addition,
taking differences in arts education into account decreased the net effect of
SES (personal income, number of high-status possessions, and background
education of parents), in most cases cutting the effect at least in half.31 Thus,
the impact of socioeconomic status on involvement in the arts occurs through
differential access to education in the arts.32 In short, the direct function of
SES on arts participation is as a resource factor.
Comparison of Arts Education Agencies — School and Community
In this section, distinction is made between the effects of arts education
obtained in the school and in the community (Table 8).33 For every outcome
except performance, both sources of arts education have an independent pos-
itive impact on the measure of involvement in the arts. Oddly enough, school-
based education actually decreases the likelihood somewhat that individuals
will continue to perform as adults (beta = —.03*). Of the remaining five indi-
cators of personal participation in the arts, school-based arts education was
the weaker of the two types of arts education for every outcome except cre-
ation of art (beta = .11*** for school-based compared to beta = .07*** for
community-based). The largest difference between the effects of these two arts
education agencies occurred with video-media consumption (beta = .10*** for
community-based compared to .03* for school-based). There was no differ-
ence in predictive strength between these two arts education systems with re-
gard to audio-media participation (betas = .19***).
When comparing the data in Tables 5 and 8, the portion of the variance
explained by school- and community-based arts education was slightly lower
(the same in the case of arts performance) than that of the full combined mea-
sure of arts education density.34 In addition, the effects for SES were slightly
weaker in the case of the more comprehensive arts education measure.
Conclusion
The questions of this section were to determine who received an educa-
tion in the arts and how it may have influenced participation in the arts. This
summary is organized around those two issues. Arts participation, both theo-
retically and via statistical methodology, was viewed as an outcome of arts ed-
ucation influenced by personal background (gender, race/ethnicity, and SES)
that competes with other leisure activities for resources, such as time and
money. Arts participation was considered globally (rather than by individual
art form) and defined by the nature of the arts involvement; that is, was art
produced (performed or created) or was it consumed (via live attendance, lis-
tening to the arts via audio media, watching the arts via video media, or being
involved via print or print-related media)?
Education in the arts was viewed primarily in two ways: as a general arts
education background gained across one's lifetime, and as delivered through
TABLE 8. Comparison
of Effects of Schoo
-Based
and
Community-
Based Arts Education on Arts
Participation
Produ
ztion
Consumption
Performance
Creation
Attendance
Video
Audio
Print
Media
Media
Media
Predictor
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
African American
-.06***
-.05***
.03*
.02
.13***
-.02
Asian
.01
.001
-.001
.001
-.001
-.01
Hispanic
.02
.01
.002
.02
.02*
-.03**
Male
-.01
-.18***
.02
.004
.05***
r\y ***
SES
.001
.05***
1 1 ***
.01
I -****
-i 2***
School-based
-.03*
1 1 ***
.09***
.03*
1 Q***
.03*
arts education
Community-based
.01
.07***
17***
.10***
1 g***
.08***
art education
R-
.01***
r\7***
.08***
.01**
.16***
.05***
~p<.05. **p<
.01. ***p
< .001.
age l7 via one of two arts education agencies based in schools or in the pri-
vate community, outside of school. The latter was established to allow for
comparisons by arts education agency.
Who Received an Education in the Arts?
Findings revealed that socioeconomic status is a determinant to gaining an
education in the arts in the United States: the higher ones SES — the higher
one's level of arts education. Although this holds .true for the population at
large, SES is not the sole influence on the distribution of arts education across
the population. Indeed gender, race, ethnicity all play a role.
Regarding overall arts education, women demonstrate a higher degree of
arts education than men, as do whites and Hispanics compared to Asians and
.African Americans. Arts education that is gained in the private sector is dif-
ferentiated by race/ethnicity, with nonwhites less involved than whites. On
the other hand, arts education that is obtained in the school is not a matter of
race or ethnicity, with African Americans, Asians, Hispanics, and whites en-
gaged at comparable levels. In this regard, schools do seem to function as the
more egalitarian source of arts education in the United States. However, SES
continues to influence those who receive school-based arts education, though
less so than is the case for community-based arts education.
Impact of Arts Education on Patterns of Arts Participation
Arts education is the strongest predictor of arts attendance, arts creation,
and accessing the arts through audio, video, and print media (Table 9).35
Findings show that the more arts education people have, the higher their in-
volvement with the arts. This is sustained even when taking into account in-
fluences on arts participation that were initially attributed to socioeconomic
status, race/ethnicity, and gender.
The one exception occurred with arts performance, where knowing some-
thing about one's degree of arts education does not indicate anything about
one's level of arts performance. It is also worth noting that the predictors
which were considered here did a very poor job of explaining arts perfor-
mance; clearly there are other influences on arts performance that are unac-
counted for by the SPPA92 data.
TABLE 9. Effects of Arts Education on Arts Participation:
Summary of Predictors From Final Models
Produ
ction
Consumption
Performance
Creation
Attendance
Audio
Media
Video
Media
Print
Media
Predictor
African American
+
+++
o
o
Asian
o
0
o
0
0
-
Hispanic
o
0
o
++
0
-
Male
0
-
+
+++
0
-
SES
0
+
+++
+++
o
+++
Arts education
0
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
density
Note: Symbol: + = positive predictor, - = negative predictor, o = not a predictor
1 symbol = p < ,05; 2 symbols = p < .01 ; 3 symbols = p < .001 .
Using this notational system for summarization purposes, one can read that arts
creation was positively predicted by arts education at the p < .001 level of prob-
ability.
There is no clear pattern of arts participation with regard to demographic
background (race, ethnicity, and gender). For example, involvement with the
arts via the print media is most differentiated by background; on the other
hand, whites, Hispanics, and Asians attend and watch the arts at comparable
levels.
A pattern was discovered in that, in all but one case (again, arts perfor-
mance), differences in arts participation by socioeconomic status are reduced
by taking into account differences in arts education. In other words, part of
the reason for observed differences in the degree of arts participation by peo-
ple of differing socioeconomic status is attributable to differences in their arts
education. This implies that arts education facilitates participation in the arts
for a broader cross section of the population than one would have found were
it not for arts education in the United States, but SES still operates as a re-
striction to arts consumption (with the exception of video-media arts in-
volvement, on which it was not an influence).36
Both school- and community-based arts education are positive and sig-
nificant predictors of all types of arts participation, except arts performance,
even after adjusting for personal background and SES. Community-based arts
education is not related to arts performance, whereas increased engagement in
school-based arts education actually means decreased levels of this type of arts
participation as adults.
Community-based arts education is more strongly indicative of arts par-
ticipation than school-based arts education, though one must remember the
more individualized nature of the former relative to the primarily group in-
structional processes of the latter. The largest difference in predictive power is
with video-accessed arts participation, with the effect of community-based
arts education being more than three times stronger than that of instruction
gained in the schools. Engaging in either of these two arts education agencies
predicted comparable levels of listening to the arts via audio media.
The availability of leisure hours is not consistently related to arts partici-
pation.37 Increased hours of leisure activities means decreased rates of arts at-
tendance, listening to the arts, and creating art. For involvement with print
media, the relationship is positive. There is no relationship between leisure ac-
tivities and arts performance or watching the arts on television. In all cases ex-
cept for audio-accessed arts participation, the addition of the rate of leisure ac-
tivities into the analyses does not increase the amount of variability in arts
participation that could be accounted for with just the other variables.
Comparative Effects of Arts
Education and Overall
Education on Arts Participation
Introduction
This section compares the role of arts education and the larger socialization
context of education and their effects on adults' participation in the arts.
Given the effects of gender, racial/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status differ-
ences on individuals' access both to overall education and to instruction
specifically in the arts,38 this analysis considers whether these two factors have
an effect on arts participation (consumption or production) that is either (1)
independent — the effect of each after taking into account that of the other —
or (2) interdependent — the effect of one type of education depending on the
other.
Determining the nature of the relationship between education and arts
education and their comparative effects on arts participation is important to
individuals and agencies responsible for developing policy and programs de-
signed to encourage arts participation. For although it may be encouraging to
learn that higher levels of education lead to greater arts participation,39 par-
ticularly at a time when a larger percentage of the population is obtaining
more education (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1993), there is lit-
tle opportunity or motivation, under this scenario, to do anything regarding
national arts education policy except to promote an increased degree of gen-
eral education. For if there is no effect of arts education on arts participation,
beyond that of general education, an important justification for the develop-
ment of arts education policy and programs is compromised.
Method
This investigation uses information gathered from the SPPA92. The same
model and measures described previously in Parts 1 and 2 are employed. Ed-
ucation and arts education were compared in three ways by determining, first,
the direction and magnitude of the relationship between the two types of ed-
ucation; second, the independent effects of each factor after taking the other
into account; and third, the extent to which the effect of one type of educa-
tion is contingent on the other.40
Results
Relationship Between Years of Education and Arts Education
Correlation analyses yielded positive, significant relationships between
years of education and (1) overall arts education (r = .42**), (2) school-based
arts education ( r= .21**), and (3) community-based arts education (r =
.26~x). This indicates that individuals with more overall education receive
more education in the arts, both in general and in and out of school. It does
not indicate that one type of education was gained as a (causal) result of ac-
quiring the other, but that they occur together.
Given this information, the experiences of individuals of different educa-
tional backgrounds were examined using school-based and community-based
arts education components. Overall, it is clear that education in the arts in-
creased substantially with involvement in education (Figure 4). Interestingly,
FIGURE 4. Relationship Between General Education and Arts
Education
<
—
0.8
0.6
■B 0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
9 • m m
Arts Ed. Density «= — Communis
-based «^ School-based
..-"
..-••-
0
•
B
O
•
e
0
•
■
■
•
■
Less than HS
Grad.
HS Grad. Some College College Grad.
Amount ot General Education
Post-Grad.
College
Note: Numbers are mean standardized scores for each arts education index. ANOVA
results indicate that all three types of arts education showed significant differences
(p<.001 ) over the categories of general education.
the regular increase in communitv-based arts education for each of the time
points was not matched bv an increase in school-based arts education. In
other words, whereas more overall education translated to more community-
based arts education, differences in school-based arts education primarily oc-
curred between and around the point of high school graduation, with high
school dropouts receiving much less than high school graduates, and those
who went past high school into college — for any amount of time — having re-
ceived more school-based arts education while of school age.
Independent Effects of Years of Education and Arts Education on
Participation in the Arts
The combined impact of years of education with arts education was then
explored taking into account other sociodemographic characteristics. More
importantly, this analysis demonstrated the independent impact of each mea-
sure; that is, the effect of one type of education on arts participation, taking
the other into account. The critical focus is indicated in the last two rows of
results in Table 10.41
TABLE 10. Comparison of Effects of Overall Years of Education
and of Arts Education
Density
on Arts Partici|
Dation
Produ(
:tion
Consurr
iption
Performance
Creation Attendance
Video
Audio
Print
Beta
Media
Beta
Media
Beta
Media
Beta
Predictor Beta
Beta
African American -.06***
-.05***
.03*
.02
.13***
.01
Asian .01
.01
-.004
.01
-.004
-.03*
Hispanic .02
.01
.01
.03
.04**
-.03*
Male -.01
-.17***
.02
.003
.05***
-.08***
SES -.01
.04*
.05***
-.02
.08***
.04**
Overall years .02
-.02
.10***
.04*
.16***
.15***
of education
Arts education -.01
1 g***
.28***
.14***
•3 7***
.35***
density
R2 .01*
.08***
.13***
.02*
.24***
As was observed in Part 2, none of the measures except those related to
ethnicity has a predictive influence on performing. However, for each of the
other types of arts participation, arts education had more than twice the pre-
dictive power of years of education in explaining an individuals involve-
ment— creating, listening to, watching, attending, or reading — with the arts.
Interestingly, although the effect of overall years of education is not as strong
as specific education in the arts, there is a residual impact. In other words,
more schooling increases a person's involvement in the arts, at least of a con-
sumptive nature, even though education may not be specifically focused on
the development of arts participation behaviors.
Interdependency of Education and Arts Education and the
Effect on Arts Participation
This combination of independent effects of arts education and education,
each acting separately on arts participation, suggests the possibility that over-
all education and arts education may have a different effect on participation in
the arts based on how much of the other type of instruction one receives. De-
termining whether this is the case or not is necessary for an accurate and com-
prehensive interpretation of the preceding observations of the independent ef-
fects of arts education and education.
Results of analyses to test this possibility indicated that only in regard to
print-media arts involvement were the effects of arts education consistent
across levels of overall education. This is remarkable given that reading is an
activity with a strong presence at all levels of education. One might expect
therefore that the effect of arts education on involvement with print media
would be different for varying levels of education. However, this was not the
case.
For all other types of arts participation (except arts performance to which
neither type of education was significantly related), the independent effects of
education and arts education were different by level of the other type of in-
struction. Although this clouds any discussion of the independent effects of
these educational backgrounds for these types of arts participation, it does of-
fers a richer description of how these factors operate in tandem on arts par-
ticipation.42 To make better sense of the results, graphs have been constructed
for each outcome for which the interaction between arts education and over-
all education was significant. It is important to recall that these graphs use the
adjusted regression estimates, that is, those that take into account a persons
race, gender, and SES (Figures 5 A— 6D).
Contingent Effects of Education on Arts Participation by Level of
Arts Education
The effect of years of education on individuals' attendance at arts events,
on the degree of listening to or watching the arts, or on arts creation, depends
on the extent of one's education in the arts.43 More overall education had a
stronger effect on both attendance (Figure 5A), accessing the arts via audio
(Figure 5B), and via video media (Figure 5C) for individuals who had more
extensive arts education than it did for those with little or none. In other
words, the socializing effects of education were augmented by arts-specific ed-
ucation to increase this type of arts participation, but they did not operate that
way if a person had not received arts education.
FIGURE 5 A. Relative Effect of Years of Education on Arts
Attendance over Different Levels of Arts
Education
o
u
u
C
<
• • • • Little Arts Education — — Average Arts Education — Extensive Arts Education
~ 1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-0.1
i o o • * ° ° *
i i r t i
< HS Grad HS Grad Some College 4 Yrs. College > 4 Yrs.
College
Years of Education
FIGURE 5B. Relative Effect of Years of Education on Audio-
Media Arts Participation over Different Levels of
Arts Education
o • • ■
c
g
fO
u
1.0
0.5
re
r o
< 8 0.0
re j^
I -0.5
g
"§ -0.1
L/'ft/e Arts Education
■\verase Arts Education
Extensive Arts Education
I ! I I I
<HSGrad HSCrad Some College 4 Yrs. College > 4 Yrs.
College
Years of Education
FIGURE 5C, Relative Effect of Years of Education on Video-
Media Arts Participation over Different Levels of
Arts Education
z
'"• Little Arts Education ■= = Average Arts Education === Extensive Arts Education
<
re ,N
V
I
0
—
1.0
0.5
# 0.0
-0.5
-0.1
r •••••• i
ig»B«»*O*«***01
o*e»ooo8»«o°»»0*000*0
< HS Crad HS Grad Some College 4 Vrs. College > 4 Yrs
College
Years of Education
FIGURE 5D. Relative Effect of Years of Education on Arts
Creation over Different Levels of Arts Education
<
1.0
0.5
c
o _
"•5 &
u y o.o
I
t/i N
-0.5
-0.1
Little Arts Education — — Average Arts Education — ■ Extensive Arts Education
n ■! '
< HS Crad HS Crad Some College 4 Yrs. College
Years of Education
> 4 Yrs.
College
This result is observable in the relative position of the lines in Figures 5A,
B, and C, where the solid black line, representing standardized arts participa-
tion rates for people with extensive arts education, is consistently above the
other two lines, which represent participation levels for individuals of average
and little arts education. The general rising slope of these three lines demon-
strates the positive effects of overall education for people of all levels of arts
education.
On the other hand, education had less of an impact on participating in ac-
tive listening to the arts and on creating arts (Figures 5B and D), even a neg-
ative one in the case of arts creation. For these activities, although specific ed-
ucation in the arts had the effect of increasing participation, this effect actually
decreased with an increase in overall education. This is demonstrated by the
fact that the three lines are more spread out at "<HS Grad" than they are at
">4 Yrs. College." This reduction of the spread suggests (1) a subsumed effect
of education on arts creating and listening, one that diminishes with compet-
ing educational experiences (arts education) rather than being enhanced by
those experiences, and (2) that the effect of arts education is sustained even
with a constraining influence of increased overall education (the relative place-
ment of the three lines remains the same). This may reflect generally the more
arts-specific nature of arts education as compared to general education and,
more specifically, the purpose and practice of creating art, which is a probable
element of arts instruction.
Contingent Effects of Arts Education on Arts Participation by
Level of Education
The effects here also varied by type of arts participation. Although patterns
of arts creation and listening were each driven differently by arts education ac-
cording to level of overall education, rates of arts attendance and video— media-
accessed arts participation were affected in ways similar to each other.
Arts education had a significantly more powerful effect on arts attendance
when combined with increasing years of education; that is, although it is true
that as people gained more arts education they attended more arts perfor-
mances, this relationship was even stronger for people with greater overall ed-
ucational attainment (Figure 6A). Arts education had an impact on arts at-
tendance, even for individuals without a high school education; but the effect
was reinforced by the socialization education provided. This also held true for
watching the arts on television (broadcast or VCR) (Figure 6B). These find-
ings suggest that for these two types of arts participation, arts education makes
more of a difference for individuals who have experienced the broader social-
ization that greater overall education seems to provide.
People with at least a college degree and a great deal of arts education cre-
ated significantly less art than individuals who had dropped out of high school
but who had also gained a great deal of arts education (Figure 6C). This is evi-
dent in the reversal of the relative position of the two outer lines from the order
at "None" to the one at "A Great Deal." A reasonable supposition for this find-
ing is that college graduates are involved in other activities that preclude time
spent in creative pursuits, whereas high school dropouts are doing one of the
things that they were trained to do via arts education, namely create. This sug-
gests that the influence of an education specifically in the arts on arts creation is
sustained independently of overall education and is thus more conducive to pro-
moting adult creative behaviors than general (non-arts) education.
This contingent effect of arts education was even more dramatic when
considering its effect on listening to the arts via radio broadcast or audio
recording (Figure 6D). Listening habits were most different by level of educa-
tion for individuals without any arts education, with people who have more
education listening to more art forms than those with less education. (The
greatest distance between the three lines is for individuals who have had no
arts education.) This differential by education level was reduced as a person's
level of arts education increased, to the point that people who had a great deal
of arts education exhibited the same degree of arts listening whether they were
high school dropouts or college graduates. In other words, arts education
equalized the stark differences in arts listening habits that were based on how
much education a person received.
FIGURE 6A. Relative Effect of Arts Education on Arts
Attendance over Different Levels of Education
<D
u
c
ro
F o
£S en
< r^
<
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-0.1
HS Dropout
HS Grad/Some College
College Grad/Adv Degree
None
Very Little
Average
Amount
More Than
Average
A Great Deal
Amount of Arts Education
FIGURE 6B. Relative Effect of Arts Education on Video-Media
Arts Participation over Different Levels of
Education
= • • • HS Dropout
TO
Q.
re
~ o
2? u
•<. C/l
ro _N
CD
O
>
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-0.1
HS Grad/Some College
College Grad/Adv Degree
None
Very Little
Average
Amount
More Than
Average
A Great Deal
Amount of Arts Education
FIGURE 6C. Relative Effect of Arts Education on Arts Creation
over Different Levels of Education
• • • • HS Dropout
ra —
v z
u g 0.0
<
-0.5
-0.1
HS Grad'Some College
College Grad'Adv Degree
None
Very Little
Average
Amount
Amount of Arts Education
More Than
Average
A Great Deal
FIGURE 6D. Relative Effect of Arts Education on Audio-Media
Arts Participation over Different Levels of
Education
c
' " - HS Dropout
HS Grad'Some College
College Grad/Adv Degree
1.0
0.5
< ^ 0.0
'Z is
I
O
U
<
-0.5
-0.1
-1.5
None Very Little
Amount of Arts Education
^^ H I
Average More Than A Great Deal
Amount Average
Summary
In this section, the role of arts education and the larger socialization con-
text of education and their effect on adults' participation in the arts was com-
pared. Having demonstrated the effects of gender and ethnic differences and
socioeconomic status on individuals' access both to general education and spe-
cific education in the arts, this analysis explored whether these two factors
have an independent impact, a contingent relationship, or a subsumed effect
on arts participation, either by consumption or production.
First, findings revealed that there is a strong relationship between general
education and arts education; that is, education in the arts increases substan-
tially with additional education, and vice versa. Additionally, there are differ-
ences in school- and community-based arts education occurring between and
around the point of high school graduation, with high school dropouts re-
ceiving much less school-based arts education than high school graduates.
It was then determined that both types of education have an independent
positive effect on adults' arts participation, for every outcome except perfor-
mance. However, although general education increases arts consumption
(even after taking arts education into account), the positive and unique im-
pact of arts education was in every case the stronger of the two. Thus it is clear
that specific arts education, over and above that of educational experiences,
has the greater effect.
Finally, the contingent impact of arts education relative to the amount of
education one receives was explored. Varying relationships were found. For
arts attendance and for watching the arts on television/video, there exists a
contingent relationship between the two types of education, so that each in-
creases the impact of the other over what it would be separately. The effects of
arts education on arts creation diminish as the competing type of education
increases (though all effects continue to be positive). For arts creation, educa-
tion in the arts thereby subsumes the effects of education, so that arts educa-
tion is most important for those individuals who have the least amount of
overall education from which to draw. Lastly, the role arts education plays to
expand listening habits among adults helps to equalize overall differences,
bringing closer together those individuals who have very different levels of ed-
ucational experience.
Summary and Conclusions
Introduction
In the introduction to this monograph it was suggested that arts education is
one of the mechanisms through which a uniquely diverse American culture
is defined and developed. This is because an education in the arts should pro-
vide the members of each subsequent generation with arts exposure, skill, and
understanding, thereby encouraging and enabling full participation in the
American artistic culture. To assess this supposition, it was necessary to gain a
more complete understanding of how exposure to and education in the arts
influenced people's participation in arts activities in the larger context of their
learning and growing. Also toward this end, it was vital to understand the arts
education process as part of a larger context, both in terms of its effect on in-
dividuals and its role in the fabric of a dynamic American culture. This is of
particular importance at a time of increased public attention to national arts
policy and arts achievement, and when the majority of Americans hold a pri-
vate view that arts education is something they would like their children to
have.44
The history of arts participation in the United States is inexorably linked
to changes in the social hierarchy, to the emergence of arts-related technology,
to the desire to establish an American culture, and to the societal value
awarded to different arts traditions. In the contemporary United States, re-
newed importance is awarded to a multitraditional understanding of the arts
and an interest in equality of opportunity and access to social institutions and
traditions. These points are part of the basis of these analyses and are also con-
sonant with the view of school as a social institution of egalitarian purpose.
Thus it was necessarv to consider the social distribution of arts education and
arts participation and, in particular, the context and experiences of different
racial/ethnic groups.
Analytical Process
In this report, arts participation was not viewed by individual art form,
but globally, across art forms. Part 1 detailed the construction of indices of arts
participation organized around the distinction between arts production
(creation and performance) and arts consumption (attendance, watching the
arts on television, listening to the arts via radio broadcast or audio recording,
reading print literature or listening to recordings thereof). This configuration
of arts participation is comparable to that used in earlier analyses of the 1982
and 1985 SPPAs and reflects the organization of the 1992 survey.
The measures of arts education were defined as an overall index (arts ed-
ucation density) and two other indices that corresponded to the two arts ed-
ucation agencies differentiated by the SPPA92, namely school-based and com-
munity-based arts education. Demographic background included gender and
race/ethnicity, specifically Asians, African Americans, Hispanics, and
whites.45 A standardized measure of socioeconomic status was created that in-
cluded family income, parents' level of education, and the number of high-
status possessions owned. Amount of leisure activity was represented by the
sum of the numbers of hours spent watching television and the number of
leisure activities pursued. This aggregation of data was designed in order to
create variables that were more stable and reliable.
In this report, arts participation was viewed as (1) an outcome of arts ed-
ucation that is influenced by personal background and life experience, with
these concepts being defined, in part, by race/ethnicity, gender, and socioeco-
nomic status; and (2) as something that competes with leisure activities for an
individuals resources, that is, time and money. While it is valuable to describe
rates of arts participation,46 it was the purpose of this report to define broad
patterns of arts participation and to investigate the effects of arts education on
these patterns. Particular attention was awarded to the possibility that arts ed-
ucation modified arts participation patterns that are based on those elements
of personal background that are beyond one's control, such as race, ethnicity,
and gender. In short, the question was asked: Did arts education facilitate arts
participation for a broader cross section of Americans?
In Part 2 determination was made of the effects of arts education on arts
participation and the comparative effects of arts education obtained in school
vs. the community. Particular attention was awarded to the sociodemographic
background of the individuals engaged by each of these arts education agen-
cies. This was done in recognition of the notion of schools as social institu-
tions inherently valued for providing equality of opportunity and therefore
being of somewhat different purpose than educational institutions established
and operating in the private sector.
An assessment of the comparative effects of arts education and of overall
education on arts participation was presented in Part 3. This allowed us to dif-
ferentiate between the larger socializing role of educational attainment and
that of arts-specific education in predicting arts participation. This is impor-
tant to the development of arts education policy that ( 1 ) does more than call
for increasing the degree of Americans' educational attainment as a means of
increasing arts participation and (2) reflects the view advanced in contempo-
rary arts education writings that an arts education is intrinsically valuable.
In summary, the results of these analyses were intended to shed some light
on:
the strength of arts education as a predictor of arts participation,
the ability of arts education to mediate sociodemographic differences
(race, ethnicity, gender, and SES) in arts participation,
the relative effects on arts participation of arts education received in the
schools and of that obtained from community-based arts education
providers.
the comparative effects of arts education and overall educational attain-
ment on arts participation.
Summary of Results
In this section, the results of these analyses are organized around two ques-
tions: How does arts education influence arts participation? How do arts ed-
ucation and education work interdependently to affect arts participation? For
each question, related results are discussed for each of the six types of arts par-
ticipation considered, specifically attendance, creation, performance, and
media-accessed arts participation (audio, video, and print media). The reader
should keep in mind that the discussion of the effect of any factor on another
refers to its net effect; that is, its effect after taking into account the influence
of the other factors included the particular analysis, for example, gender,
race/ethnicity, SES, or amount of leisure activity.47
How Does Arts Education Influence Arts Participation?
The answer here is simple: the richer one's arts education, the greater one's
participation in the arts. Increased arts education means increased adult arts
participation of all types, except arts performance. Arts education is the
strongest predictor of arts creation and of all four types of arts consumption,
stronger even than socioeconomic status and personal background. Although
higher SES does translate into higher rates of arts consumption and creation,
in most cases at least half of the differences in arts consumption and creation
related to SES are due to differences in arts education. Americans watch the
arts on television (broadcast or VCR) at rates that are comparable for all
racial/ethnic groups, for men and women, and for all degrees of socioeco-
nomic status. The only differentiating attribute here is one's degree of arts ed-
ucation, with increased arts education yielding increased accessing of the arts
via video media. However, many of the influences on this type of arts partic-
ipation are not represented by the factors included in the analyses.
School-Based and Community-Based Arts Education
Socioeconomic status is the strongest determinant of obtaining an arts ed-
ucation. However, this is slightly less the case for arts education provided in
schools than it is for arts education offered in the community outside of
school. Indeed, members of all racial/ethnic groups attained comparable lev-
els of school-based arts education, whereas the reverse was true for commu-
nity-based arts education, with nonwhites accruing significantly less educa-
tion in the arts than whites. This suggests that school-based arts education is
more accessible to a broader cross section of Americans than is arts education
offered in the private sector. The fact that this racial/ethnic stratification of
arts education remained after adjusting for socioeconomic status indicates that
it is not a matter of social or economic affluence but that schools, truly, are
the more egalitarian source of arts education in the United States.
The relative effects on arts participation of the arts education obtained via
these two arts education agencies also differed by type of arts participation.48
People who gain a community-based arts education exhibit higher rates of arts
attendance and video- and print-media arts involvement, relative to individu-
als whose arts lessons were taken in school. School-based arts instruction is the
stronger determinant of arts creation. Individuals who gain their arts educa-
tion through either arts education agency demonstrate comparable degrees of
accessing the arts via audio media. Adults who take arts lessons in schools have
lower rates of arts performance, whereas taking lessons outside of school does
not result in any change in the likelihood of performing arts as adults, despite
the performance/production orientation of much of the arts instruction in ei-
ther context.
How Do Arts Education and Education Work lnterdependentiy?
The answer to this question varies by the type of arts participation and
particularly by levels of arts education and overall education.49 After deter-
mining that there was a positive relationship between overall educational at-
tainment and arts education, findings confirmed that their effects on arts par-
ticipation were interdependent, meaning that the effects of each were different
depending on the level of the other. This was the case for all types of arts partic-
ipation except print-media involvement and hinders simple conclusions about
the effects of either arts education and education in comparison to the other.50
For this reason, in this section the discussion is confined to the interdepen-
dent effects of arts education and education.
Education makes more of a difference in arts consumption (except for
print-media involvement) for people with more extensive arts education than
it does for those with little or no arts education background. In these cases,
the socializing effect of education is augmented by arts-specific education.
However, people with more arts education create more art, though this is less
the case for people with higher levels of overall education. This indicates that
arts creation is more easily fostered within an arts-specific education, above
and beyond the inhibiting effect of increased (non-arts) education.
The effect of arts education on arts participation across levels of overall ed-
ucation also varies by type of arts participation. Rates of arts attendance and
watching the arts on television (broadcast or VCR) are higher for people who
have more arts education, but this is even greater for individuals at a higher
level of overall education. Apparently, arts education makes more of an impact
on these two types of arts participation when the broader socialization pro-
vided by overall education is in place than it does by itself. This is not the case
regarding arts creation: arts education is more important to arts creation for
people with less overall education, to the degree that a high school dropout
with a great deal of arts education creates far more art as an adult than does a
person of similar arts education background who went to college. The num-
ber of art forms people listen to via radio broadcasts or audio recordings varies
greatly based on their arts/educational background; specifically, individuals
with more education have broader listening habits than those with less. How-
ever, this difference is dramatically balanced by increased arts education, to
the degree that college graduates and high school dropouts with extensive arts
education demonstrate comparable listening habits.
Closing
Whether a person participates in the arts, and the form and extent of one's
participation, depends on a variety of factors. Attempts at explaining these
phenomena inevitably yield both information and the need for continuing in-
quiry. Yet it is reasonable to claim that, overall, arts education contributes to
increased arts participation. The broader socialization provided by general ed-
ucation enhances the influence of an arts education, in most cases. However,
specific elements of personal background, such as race/ethnicity, gender, and
socioeconomic status, appear to affect which Americans gain these types of in-
struction. Having the financial and social resources to support and sustain an
arts education is a major influence on who accesses the arts education avail-
able in the United States. These influences — some of which are beyond an in-
dividual's power to alter — particularly restrict access to arts instruction within
the private, community-based arts education sector. However, it appears that
public schools provide arts education to a broader cross section of Americans.
The complexity of the picture of arts participation painted here reflects
the elaborate nature of the life experiences that prepare and influence one's
participation in the arts. The SPPA92 offers an opportunity to determine
broad patterns in Americans' participation in a variety of arts as they relate to
patterns of arts/education and sociodemographics.
Assuming this to be valuable, there are certain limitations that need to be
kept in mind in interpreting the results of this report. First, the art forms rep-
resented in the survey are not necessarily those in which many Americans par-
ticipate. Second, participating in a particular art form implies a depth of ex-
perience that may not necessarily be represented in all responses to individual
survey questions. For instance, a respondent may consider "remote control
surfing" across television channels and spending a moment or two watching a
televised symphony concert as "watching a classical music performance." The
commitment of time and attention captured in this instance compromises the
definition of "participation" in the arts via video media. An equally important
consideration is whether this type of response may be systematically related to
a particular subgroup of respondents. However, because one can reasonably
assume that this weakness in the validity of the responses is random across the
survey sample, there is no reason to question any of the findings related to the
sociodemographics of survey respondents. Third, some of the terminology
used in the survey to define arts education may be vague. For example, the
phrase "lessons or classes in music — either voice training or playing an in-
strument"— may inadvertently underestimate school-based experiences in
classroom music taught by music specialists. This is particularly important for
future surveys because since 1 962 visual art and general music classes have be-
come the main vehicles for providing music and visual art education in
schools (Leonhard, 1991).
Conclusions
Within the limitations of this report, the following conclusions are offered
about the impact of arts education on arts participation in the United States:
1 . Arts education is the strongest predictor of all types of arts participation,
except arts performance. The more arts education a person has, the more
extensive one's participation in the arts. Arts education also weakens the
restrictive relationship between socioeconomic status and arts participa-
tion, thereby facilitating participation in the arts to a broader cross section
of Americans.
2. Arts education has at least twice the power of years of education in pre-
dicting arts participation (again with the exception of arts performance).
Arts participation is not only a matter of more education, but is an issue
of having an arts focus to that education. However, for all relevant types
of arts participation, the independent effects of one tvpe of education de-
pends on the amount of the other and varies by type of arts participation.
Specifically:
• Overall education has a stronger effect on arts attendance and audio—
and video-media- accessed arts participation for persons who also have
extensive arts education. The reverse is the case for arts creation.
• Although arts education increases arts attendance and watching the
arts via video media, this is significantly more true for people with
higher overall education. Arts education promotes arts creation despite
the strong detrimental effect of increased overall educational attain-
ment. Breadth of listening to the arts via audio media is most different
by education level for individuals with no arts education; however, arts
education actually equalizes differences in listening habits among indi-
viduals of dissimilar educational backgrounds.
3. Gaining; an arts education in the United States is a matter of socioeco-
nomic status and gender, with citizens of higher socioeconomic status and
women securing higher levels of arts education than their respective coun-
terparts. While men are less educated in the arts than women, their arts
participation is comparable, except in the cases of arts creation and print-
media involvement.
4. School-based arts education is not related to race or ethnicity, but com-
munity-based arts education is differentiated by these characteristics. Also,
arts education offered through schools is slightly less related to socioeco-
nomic status than that offered in the private sector. The arts education
gained from these agencies positively influences arts participation, though
differently by type of arts participation. The largest difference between
community- and school-based arts education is with video— media-ac-
cessed arts participation, where the former is three times more powerful a
predictor than the latter.
5. Factors that influence arts performance and participating in the arts via video
media are largely unexplained by the SPPA92. Even arts education, which
has been criticized for possible overemphasis on performance at the expense
of knowing something about an art, does not predict arts performance.
6. Increased socioeconomic status directly increases arts participation and
also does so indirectly by facilitating access to arts education. Conversely,
this has the opposite impact on arts participation for individuals of de-
creased socioeconomic status.
7. Being more active with leisurely pursuits reduces arts participation of all
types except for arts performance and watching the arts via video media,
to which leisure activity is not consistently related.
8. There are differences in overall arts education by personal background,
with men, African Americans, and Asians generally gaining less arts educa-
tion than their respective counterparts. These differences are particularly
evident when considering arts education that is based in the private sector.
The content and organization of the SPPA92 and the results of this report
reflect the complex nature of the life experience that prepares and influences
one's arts participation. Determining who in the United States participates in
the arts based on sociodemographic and educational background is not a sim-
ple task and reflects the complexity of the life experiences that socialize, pre-
pare, introduce, reward, sustain, and extend arts participation.
Further Research
The following suggestions are offered for further research in order to in-
vestigate more thoroughly the questions addressed by this report:
1. Early childhood arts experiences. SPPA92 does not contain questions
pertaining to early socialization experiences regarding arts education and par-
ticipation, particularly those provided by parents. Being able to describe and
adjust for this is essential in estimating the effects of arts education on arts
participation. Not having this information included in the SPPA92 is a
change and a loss from earlier SPPAs.
2. Description of the arts education experience. It is commendable that
the SPPA92 distinguishes between arts education received in the school and
in the community. This certainly represents an improvement over earlier sur-
veys. What is needed now are questions that determine certain basic qualities
of those arts education experiences, for example, the number of classes in a
particular art form, the duration of the instruction, school status (public, in-
dependent, parochial), or the format of the instruction (private or group).
3- Contextual understanding of the status of arts education at all levels
of formal schooling. .Although information about arts education involvement
is valuable, it is insufficient to determine the status of arts education in the
United States because nothing is known about the opportunities Americans
have in order to learn in the arts. With information about the context of arts
education, ones understanding of arts education would be improved by being
able to view it as relative to the opportunity to learn.
Currentlv this is impossible because those survevs sponsored by the De-
partment of Education, although they consider the context of student learn-
ing, increasinglv slight the arts; and because the NEA's Surveys of Public Par-
ticipation in the .Arts, although focused on arts education and participation,
do not sufficiently consider elements of educational context that affect the op-
portunity- to learn in the arts, that is, school district investments such as in-
structional time, faculty/staff, physical space, course requirements, equipment
and supplies. It is promising that this issue is touched upon by the arts edu-
cation research agenda developed bv the NEA and the Department of Educa-
tion (Associations, 1994). At a time when national standards in the arts are
being promoted, it is essential to be able to consider the direct and indirect ef-
fects on arts achievement and participation of the resources available for sys-
tematic arts education, as well as the qualities of the arts education itself.
Appendix A
1992 Survey of Public Participation
in the Arts
INTRODUCTION - Now I have some questions about your leisure activities. The Bureau of the
Census is collecting this information for the National Endowment for the Arts. The survey is
authorized by Title 20, United States Code, section 954 and Title 13, United States Code, section
8. Your participation in this interview is voluntary and there are no penalties for not answering
some or all of the questions. (If PERSONAL INTERVIEW, hand respondent the Privacy Act Statement,
SPPA-13.)
PGM 3
The following questions are about YOUR
activities during the LAST 12 months-
between 1.19 , and
19 .
With the exception of elementary or high
school performances, did YOU go to a live
jazz performance during the LAST 12
MONTHS?
oDNo
Yes - About how many times did you do
this during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number of times
(With the exception of elementary or high
school performances.) Did you go to a live
classical music performance such as
symphony, chamber, or choral music
during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
oDNo
Yes - About how many times did you do
this during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number of times
(With the exception of elementary or high
school performances,) Did you go to a live
opera during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
oDNo
Yes - About how many times did you do
this during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number of times
(With the exception of elementary or high
school performances,) Did you go to a live
musical stage play or an operetta during
the LAST 12 MONTHS?
oDNo
Yes - About how many times did you do
this during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number of times
5.
(With the exception of elementary or high
school performances.) Did you go to a live
performance of a non-musical stage play
during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
oDNo
Yes - About how many times did you do
this during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
9.
Number of times
(With the exception of elementary or high
school performances,) Did you go to a live
ballet performance during the LAST 12
MONTHS?
oDNo
Yes - About how many times did you do
this during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number of times
(With the exception of elementary or high
school performances.) Did you go to a live
dance performance other than ballet, such
as modern, folk, or tap during the LAST 1 2
MONTHS?
oDNo
Yes - About how many times did you do
this during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number of times
(During the LAST 12 MONTHS.) Did you
visit an ART museum or gallery?
oDNo
Yes - About how many times did you do
this during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number of times
(During the LAST 12 MONTHS.) Did you
visit an ART fair or festival, or a CRAFT fair
or festival?
oDNo
Yes - About how many times did you do
this during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number of times
10. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS.) Did you
visit an historic park or monument, or
tour buildings, or neighborhoods for their
historic or desian value?
JNo
Yes - About how many times did you do
this during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number o* times
11. With the exception of books required for
work or school, did you read any books
during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
0?c I oDNo
Yes - About how many books did you
read during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number of books
12. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
read any -
Read answer categories
a. Plays?
iCJNc jQYes
b. Poetry?
iDNo 2DYes
c. Novels or short stories?
iDNo ?UYes
13. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
listen to -
a. A reading of poetry,
either live or recorded?
]No 2_]Yes
b. A reading of novels or
books either live or
recorded?
. UNO
j Yes
14a. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS.) Did you
watch a jazz performance on television or
a video (VCR) tape?
iGNo - Skip to item 14c
Yes - Was that on TV, VCR. or both?
2UTV
3IHVCR
4 □ Both
b. About how many times did you do this in
the LAST 12 MONTHS?
Number of times
c. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS.) Did you
listen to jazz on radio?
026 I .DNo
zDYes
d. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS.) Did you
listen to jazz records, tapes, or compact
discs?
I •□No
?U>es
Pag* 2
15a. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
watch a classical music performance on
television or a video (VCR) tape?
020 i iDNo- Skip to item 15c
Yes - Was that on TV, VCR, or both?
2CTV
sLjVCR
1 □ Both
b. About how many times did you do this (in
the LAST 12 MONTHS)?
Number of times
c. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
listen to classical music on radio?
™ I iDNo
2D Yes
d. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS, I Did you
listen to classical music records, tapes or
compact discs?
1DN0
2QYes
16a. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS.) Did you
watch an opera on television or a video
(VCR) tape?
03a I iQNo- Skip to item 16c
Yes - Was that on TV, VCR, or both?
2CITV
3D VCR
« □ Both
b. About how many times did you do this (in
the LAST 12 MONTHS)?
Number of times
c. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
listen to opera music on radio?
1DN0
2[DYes
d. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
listen to opera music records, tapes, or
compact discs?
.□No
2 □Yes
17a. With the exception of movies, did you
watch a musical stage play or an operetta
on television or a video (VCR) tape during
the LAST 12 MONTHS?
1LJN0 - Skip to item 17c
Yes - Was that on TV. VCR, or both?
2DTV
sCvCR
.■□Both
b. About how many times did you do this (in
the LAST 12 MONTHS)?
Number of times
(During the LAST 12 MONTHS.) Did you
listen to a musical stage play or an operetta
on radio?
.□No
2DYes
d. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
listen to a musical stage play or an operetta
on records, tapes, or compact discs?
.□No
2aYes
18a. With the exception of movies, situation
comedies, or TV series, did you watch a
non-musical stage play on television or a video
(VCR) tape during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
i ONo - Skip to item 18c
Yes - Was that on TV, VCR, or both?
sDtv
jDVCR
< □ Both
b. About how many times did you do this (in the
LAST 12 MONTHS)?
Number of times
c. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you listen
to a radio performance of a non-musical stage
play?
iDNo
2D Yes
19a. With the exception of music videos, did you
watch on television or a video (VCR) tape
dance such as ballet, modern, folk, or tap
during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
i D No - Skip to item 20a
Yes - Was that on TV,
2DTV
3D VCR
4 Q Both
VCR, or both?
b. About how many times did you do this (in
the LAST 12 MONTHS)?
Number of times
20a. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you watch
a program about artists, art works, or art
museums on television or a video (VCR) tape?
i DNo - Skip to item 21a
Yes - Was that on TV, VCR, or both?
2DTV
3D VCR
i □ Both
b. About how many times did you do this (in
the LAST 12 MONTHS)?
Number of times
21a. I'm going to read a list of events that some
people like to attend. If you could go to any of
these events as often as you wanted, which
ones would you go to MORE OFTEN than you
do now? I'll read the list. Go to -
Mark (X) all that apply
• '.._ Jazz music performances
; —Classical music performances
3 D Operas
- 2 Musical plays or operettas
5 Q Non-musical plays
:„ Ballet performances
Dance performances other than ballet
e _ Art museums or galleries
9 □ None of these - Skip to item 22a
If only one is chosen, skip to item 22a
If more than one is chosen, ask -
b. Which of these would you like to do most?
Category number
ooDNo one thing most
22a. The following questions are about your
participation in other leisure activities.
Approximately how many hours of television
do you watch on an average day?
1
I Number of hours
b. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did YOU go
out to the movies?
iDNo
sDYes
c. With the exception of youth sports, did you
go to any amateur or professional sports
events during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
iCNo
sDYes
d. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you go to
an amusement or theme park, a carnival, or
a similar place of entertainment?
iDNo
?DYes
e. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you jog,
lift weights, walk, or participate in any other
exercise program?
.DNo
2D Yes
During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you
participate in any sports activity, such as
Softball, basketball, golf, bowling, skiing, or
tennis?
iDNo
2DYes
g. Did you participate in any outdoor activities,
such as camping, hiking, or canoeing during
the LAST 12 MONTHS?
iDNo
2DYes
h. Did you do volunteer or charity work during
the LAST 12 MONTHS?
iDNo
2D Yes
Did you make repairs or improvements on
your own home during the LAST 12
MONTHS?
iDno
2D Yes
Did you work with indoor plants or do any
gardening for pleasure during the LAST 12
MONTHS?
1DN0
2DYes
23a. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you work
with pottery, ceramics, jewelry, or do any
leatherwork or metalwork?
.DNo-
2DYes
Skip to item 24a
b. Did you publicly display any of your works?
066 I 1DN0
zDYes
FORM SPPA 2 149 921
Page 3
24a. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you do
any weaving, crocheting, quilting,
needlepoint, or sewing?
30b. Did you play any jazz in a public performance
or rehearse for a public performance?
08c I iDNo
057 1 i H No - Skip to item 25a
2DYes
?GYes
31a. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you play
any classical music?
b. Did you publicly display any of your works?
068 ! .riNr>
°6' I i □ No - Skip to item 32a
2[jYes
2D Yes
25a. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you
make photographs, movies, or video tapes
as an artistic activity?
b. Did you play classical music in a public
performance or rehearse for a public
performance?
069 I id No - Skip to item 26a
°82 I ,riNn
2D Yes
2DYes
b. Did you publicly display any of your works?
32a. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you sing any
music from an opera?
070 I -riNo
083 I 1 riNn - Skip In item 33a
sCYes
2GYes
26a. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you do
any painting, drawing, sculpture, or
printmaking activities?
b. Did you sing in a public opera performance
or rehearse for a public performance?
084 1 iriNn
07 I iDNo - Skip tn itpm 27 a
zDYes
2GYes
33a. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you ling
music from a musical play or operetta?
b. Did you publicly dicplay any of your works?
»« I .riNn
065 I 1 DNo - Skip to item 33c
2^Yes
2GYes
27a. With the exception of work or school, did you
do any creative writing such as stories, poems,
or plays during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
b. Did you sing in a public performance of a
musical play or operetta or rehearse for a
public performance?
086 |
073 I i D No - Skip to item 28a
1DN0
2DYes
2DYes
b. Were any of your writings published?
c. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you sing in
a public performance with a chorale, choir,
or glee club or other type of vocal group, or
rehearse for a public performance?
°7" I if~lNn
2l]Yes
°"7 1 ,HNo
28a. Did you write or compose any music during
the LAST 12 MONTHS?
2CYes
075 I i G No - Skip to item 29a
34. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you act in a
public performance of a non-musical play or
rehearse for a public performance?
2Z'Yes
b. Was your musical composition played in a
public performance or rehearsed for a public
performance?
088 I iDNo
zDYes
ore ] ,riNn
35a. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you dance
any ballet?
2D Yes
089 I 1 □ No - Skip to item 36a
29a. Do you own any original pieces of art, such
as paintings, drawings, sculpture, prints, or
lithographs?
2QYes
b. Did you dance ballet in a public performance
or rehearse for a public performance?
JLl i GNo - Skip to item 30a
2GYes
090 1 ,DNo
2GYes
b. Did you purchase or acquire any of these
pieces during the LAST 12 MONTHS?
36a. (During the LAST 12 MONTHS,) Did you do any
dancing other than ballet such as modern, folk,
or tap?
»» I ,nNo
2GYes
30a. During the LAST 12 MONTHS, did you
perform or rehearse any jazz music?
2DYes
b. Did you dance modern, folk, or tap in a
public performance?
075 I iDNo- Skip to item 31a
as i .dno
?DYes
jGYes
Page
f ohm SPP* 7 t* » 9?'
37a. I'm going to read a list of some types of
music. As I read the list, tell me which of
these types of music you like to listen to?
Mark (XI all thai apply
i ... Classical Chamber music
2DOpera
Operetta/Broadway musicals/Show tunes
• DJazi
sDReggae (Reg gay )
Rap music
| 'OSoul
r ._.' Blues/Rhythm and blues
9D Latin/Spanish/Salsa
I .Big band
_ Parade/Marching band
i2QCountry-western
I __ Bluegrass
nDRock
„The music of a particular Ethnic/
National tradition
I ^Contemporary folk music
__ Mood/Easy listening
isQNew age music
i DChoral/Glee club
20 O Hymns/Gospel
21 D All
22D None/Don't like to listen to music - Skip to item 38a
b. If only one category is marked in 37a enter code in
37b without asking. Which of these do you like
best?
Category number
oD No one type best
38a. Have you EVER taken lessons or classes in
music -either voice training or playing an
instrument?
1QN0- Skip to item 39a
2D Yes
b. Did you take these lessons when you were •
Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if
respondent is under 25 years old.)
Mark (XI all that apply.
1 D Less than 1 2 years old
2D 12-1 7 years old
3D 18-24 years old
-L 25 or older
CHECK
ITEM A
Refer to item 38b
Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 38b7
D No - Skip to Check Item B
D Yes - Ask item 38c
38c. Were these lessons or classes offered by the
elementary or high school you were
attending or did you take these lessons
elsewhere?
102 I iD Elementary/high school
2D Elsewhere
3D Both
CHECK
ITEM B
38d.Did you take any of these lessons or
classes in the past year?
!LI 1DN0
2D Yes
FORM SPPA2 14-9-921
39a. (Have you EVER taken lessons or
classes) in visual arts such as sculpture,
painting, print making, photography, or
film making?
■ □No - Skip to item 40a
2DYes
b. Did you take these lessons when you were
Read categories (Do not read category 4 if
respondent is under 25 years old!
Mark (XI all that apply
1 D Less than 1 2 years old
2D 12-1 7 years old
sD 18-24 years old
iD25 or older
CHECK
ITEMC
Refer to item 39b
Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 39b7
D No - Skip to Check Item D
D Yes - Ask item 39c
39c. Were these lessons or classes offered by the
elementary or high school you were
attending or did you take these lessons
elsewhere?
106 I 1 D Elementary/high school
2D Elsewhere
3D Both
CHECK
ITEMD
Refer to item 39b
If box 4 is marked in item 39b. ASK item 39d
If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 39b AND
the respondent is under 25 years old7
DNo - Skip to item 40a
DYes - Ask item 39d
39d Did you take any of these lessons or classes
in the past year?
1DN0
2DYes
40a. (Have you EVER taken lessons or classes) in
acting or theater?
108 I 1 D No - Skip to item 4 1a
2 DYes
b. Did you take these lessons when you were
Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if
respondent is under 25 years old.)
Mark (XI all that apply.
i_ILess than 12 years old
2D 12-1 7 years old
3D 18-24 years old
*D25 or older
Refer to item 38b
If box A is marked in item 38b, ASK item 38d.
If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 38b AND
the respondent is under 25 years old7
D No - Skip to item 39a
DYes - Ask item 38d
CHECK
ITEME
Refer to item 40b
Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 40b?
DNo - Skip to Check Item F
DYes - Ask item 40c
40c. Were these lessons or classes offered by the
elementary or high school you were
attending or did you take these lessons
elsewhere?
i D Elementary/high school
2D Elsewhere
3D Both
CHECK
ITEMF
Refer to item 40b
If box 4 is marked in item 40b, ASK item 40d.
If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 40b AND
the respondent is under 25 years old7
DNo- Skip to item 4) a
DYes - Ask item 40d
40d.Did you take any of these lessons or classes
in the past year?
iDNo
2DYes
41a. (Have you EVER taken lessons or classes) in
ballet?
"; I l □ No - Skip to item 42a
aDYes
b. Did you take these lessons when you were
Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if
respondent is under 25 years old./
Mark IX) all that apply.
__!_' T Less than 12 years old
2D 12-1 7 years old
3D 18-24 years old
<>D25 or older
CHECK
ITEMG
Refer to item 41b
Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 41b7
D No - Skip to Check Item H
DYes - Ask item 41c
41c. Were these lessons or classes offered by the
elementary or high school you were
attending or did you take these lessons
elsewhere?
i D Elementary/high school
:D Elsewhere
sD Both
CHECK
ITEMH
Refer to item 41d
If box 4 is marked in item 41b, ASK item 41d.
If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 41b AND
the respondent is under 25 years old7
D No - Skip to item 42a
DYes - Ask item 41d
41d.Did you take any of these lessons or classes
in the past year?
.DNo
2 DYes
42a. (Have you EVER taken lessons or classes) in
dance, other than ballet such as modern, folk
or tap?
i D No - Skip to item 43a
2DYes
b. Did you take these lessons when you were -
Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if
respondent is under 25 years old.)
Mark (X) all that apply.
iDLess than 12 years old
2D 1 2-1 7 years old
3D 18-24 years old
25 or older
CHECK
ITEM I
Page 6
Refer to item 42b
Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 42b7
D No - Skip to Check Item J
DYes - Ask item 42c
42c. Were these lessons or classes offered by the
elementary or high school you were
attending or did you take these lessons
elsewhere?
118 I 1 D Elementary/high school
2D Elsewhere
3DBoth
CHECK
ITEM J
Refer to item 42b
If box 4 is marked in item 42b, ASK item 42d.
If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 42b AND
the respondent is under 25 years old7
DNo - Skip to item 43a
D Yes - Ask item 42d
42d.Did you take any of these lessons or classes
in the past year?
1DN0
2DYes
43a. Have you EVER taken lessons or classes in
creative writing?
120 I 1 DNo - Skip to item 44a
2DYes
b. Did you take these lessons when you were
Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if
respondent is under 25 years old. I
Mark (X) all that apply.
i_J 1 D Less than 1 2 years old
2 D 1 2-1 7 years old
3D 18-24 years old
iD25 or older
CHECK
ITEMK
Refer to item 43b
Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 43b7
DNo - Skip to Check Item L
DYes - Ask item 43c
43c
Were these lessons or classes offered by the
elementary or high school you were
attending or did you take these lessons
elsewhere?
1D Elementary/high school
2D Elsewhere
3D Both
CHECK
ITEM L
Refer to item 43b
If box 4 is marked in item 43b, ASK item 43d.
If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 43b AND
the respondent is under 25 years old7
D No - Skip to item 44a
DYes - ,4s* item 43d
43d. Did you take any of these lessons or classes
in the past year?
1DN0
2 DYes
44a. (Have you EVER taken a class) in art
appreciation or art history?
™' I ) DNo - Skip to item 45a
2DYes
b. Did you take this class when you were -
Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if
respondent is under 25 years old.)
Mark (X) all that apply
Less than 12 years old
2D 12-17 years old
3D 18-24 years old
i ' 25 or older
FORM SPPA 2 US 92!
CHECK
ITEMM
Refer to item 44D
Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 44b7
D No - Skip to Check Item N
□ Yes - Ask item 44c
4-4c.Was this class offered by the elementary or
high school you were attending or did you
take this class elsewhere?
45c. Was this class offered by the elementary or
high school you were attending or did you
take this class elsewhere?
i □Elementary/high school
2D Elsewhere
3D Both
CHECK
ITEMP
i D Elementary/high school
2D Elsewhere
oD Both
CHECK
ITEMN
Refer to item 44b
If box 4 is marked in Item 44b, ASK item 44d
If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 44b AND
the respondent is under 25 years old7
D No - Skip to item 45a
DYes - Ask item 446
44d.Did you take any of these lessons or classes
in the past year?
iDNo
2DYes
45a. (Have you EVER taken a class) in music
appreciation?
1?e I i D No - Skip to item 46a
2DYes
b. Did you take this class when you were -
Read categories. (Do not read category 4 if
respondent is under 25 years old.)
Mark IX) all that apply.
JiU iDLess than 12 years old
2D 12-1 7 years old
3D 18-24 years old
4 D 25 or older
CHECK
ITEMO
Refer to Item 45b
If box 4 is marked in item 45b. ASK item 45d.
If not - Is box 2 or 3 marked in item 45b AND
the respondent is under 25 years old7
D No - Skip to item 46a
D Yes - Ask item 45d
45d.Did you take this class in the past year?
HD 1DN0
2DYes
46a. What is the highest grade (or year) of regular
school your FATHER completed?
I 01 D 7th grade or less
02 D 8th grade
o3D9th-11th grades
o« 0 12th grade
05 □ College (did not complete)
06OCompleted college (4+ years)
o?DPost graduate degree (M.A., Ph.D.. M.D , J D . etc.)
obD Don't know
b.What is the highest grade (or year) of regular
school your MOTHER completed?
133 1 01 D 7th grade or less
02 D 8th grade
03 D 9th- 11th grades
04 D 12th grade
05 □ College (did not complete)
06DCompleted college (4+ years)
07DPost graduate degree (M.A., Ph.D., M.D., J.D., etc.)
osD Don't know
Refer to item 45b
Is box 1 or 2 marked in item 45b7
□ No - Skip to Check Item P
□ Yes - Ask item 45c
CHECK
ITEMQ
is this the LAST household member to be
interviewed?
D No - Go back to the NCS- 1 and interview the
next eligible NCS household member
DYes - END INTERVIEW
FORM SPPA-! I2-9-92I
Paoe 7
Appendix B
Adjusting for the Effects of Leisure
TABLE B.I. Changes Due to Adding Leisure Index to the
Analyses
Type of Arts
Participation
Changes in
Beta Value
Leisure
Index
Changes in
R2 Values 2
Predictor1
Model 1
Model II
Model 1 Model
Attendance
SES
.08***
Q-7***
-.05***
Arts
Education
on***
-> 1 ***
Audio media
Male
SES
.07***
1 T***
.05***
-i 2***
-.06***
-J2*** TO***
Arts
Education
42***
.41 ***
Video media
.01
Print media
Male
SES
— Oft***
gg***
_ Qg***
.08***
-.05***
Performance
.02
Creation
SES
.03*
.02
_ n^***
Note: Model 1 : Sociodemographics and Arts Education; Model II: Sociodemographics,
Arts Education, and Leisure.
1 Only those predictors whose beta values changed when LI was included are listed.
2 Blank cells indicate no change in R2 values between models.
<p<.05. **p<.01
<p< .001.
Appendix C
The Effects of Education on
Arts Participation
In preparatory analyses to those of Part 3, the effects of overall educational at-
tainment on arts participation were considered. Findings revealed that an in-
dividual's sociodemographic characteristics are strongly related to the amount
of education one receives, with the strongest relationship occurring between
socioeconomic status and years of education.51 This result suggests that access
to education among adults is very much a matter of socioeconomic status in
the United States. Because a person's socioeconomic status in society con-
tributes to access to education, these differences are perpetuated.52
Therefore it is important to determine whether socioeconomic status or
educational attainment more strongly predicts an individual's participation in
the arts. Results suggest that, in general, increased amounts of education pos-
itively contribute to an individual's arts involvement for all forms of con-
sumption (Table C.l). However, overall education does not effectively in-
crease one's involvement in performance activities (Table C.2). However, note
that although educational attainment has a positive impact on arts participa-
tion, the contributing impact of socioeconomic status is not explained away.
There is a reasonably strong relationship between SES and participation for
every mode of participation except performance and, interestingly, watching
the arts on television or video tape. This last finding holds importance in that
the impact of education explained away all of the initial relationship between
SES and watching the arts.53
Education has a purpose which goes beyond being simply a functional
transition to work. One does not become educated for the sole purpose of
gaining access to employment. Rather, it serves as a socializing force, bringing
individuals to the larger cultural milieu and improving their access to, as well
as increasing their participation in, art forms which help determine the cul-
tural makeup of our society. In Part 3, this question was pursued further by
comparing the role of arts education and the larger socialization context of ed-
ucation on participation in the arts as adults.
TABLE C.I. Arts Consumpt
ion by Sociodemographic
Background (Model i) and Years of Edu»
cation After
Taking
into Account
Sociodemographic
Background
(Mode! 11)
Attendance
Audio
Vledia
Video Media
Print Media
Mode!
Model
Mode
I
Model
Predictors 1
ii
I
II
1
II
I II
African American .02
.02
1 n***
1 2***
.01
.01
.003 .003
Asian -.01
-.02
-.01
-.02
.002
-.001
_.04** -.05***
Hispanic -.003
.01
.02
.04**
.02
.02
-.05*** -.03**
Male -.02
-.03*
.01
.01
-.02
-.02
_13*** -.14***
SES .18***
.10***
.26***
.14***
.04***
.01
17*** in***
Years of Education —
.20***
—
70***
—
09***
- .28***
R2 .03***
.06***
.07***
.14***
.01***
.01***
07*** 1 3***
*p<.05. **p<.01. *
'**p < .001
TABLE C.2. Arts Production by Sociodemographic
Background (Model 1) and Years of Education After
Taking into Account Sociodemographic Background
(Model II)
Performance
Creation
Model
Predictors 1 II
Mode!
!
II
African American -.06*** -.06***
Asian .01 .01
Hispanic .01 .02
Male -.01 -.01
SES -.003 -.01
Years of Education — .01
-.05***
.002
.01
- 20***
Qg***
nc***
.00006
.01
- in***
Q"7***
QC***
R2 .01*** .01***
.05***
.05***
*p<.05. **p<.01. ***p<.001.
Appendix D
Technical Information
Path Analysis
J ath analysis is an analytic technique that uses ordinary least squares (OLS)
regression in progressive stages to build a model of relationships as one influ-
ences the next.54 It is useful when considering analytical models in which not
all the predictors of concern are exogenous (external to, or outside, the
model); that is, when at least one variable in the model functions as an effect
of some predictors and is also a cause of one or more outcomes (Cohen and
Cohen, 1983). In these types of models, path analysis uses the endogenous
(internal to, or inside, the model) predictors as outcomes of earlier regressions
in the model, then estimates the effects of both exogenous and endogenous
predictors in later regressions. The final model in the analysis is a full multi-
ple regression estimating the effects of all predictors and confounding factors
on the overall outcome.
In each case, the direct effects of exogenous and endogenous predictors on
the outcome are given by the standardized partial regression coefficients. The
value of using standardized coefficients is that they make it possible to com-
pare the magnitude of partial effects over different dependent measures which
may have different units of analysis. The indirect effects of the exogenous vari-
ables on the outcome are estimated by the cross products of direct effects
through the model. The total effect of any given predictor on the outcome
would be the sum of the direct effect and the indirect effects.
The purpose of this technique is to examine relationships which are in-
fluenced by intervening factors, by decomposing the total effect into direct
and indirect components. This analytic technique is used to estimate the ef-
fects of socioeconomic status on arts participation as this access is mediated
through references in arts/education, and to determine how this type of ed-
ucational experience influences participation as mediated by lifestyle. The in-
vestigation explores to what extent these mediating factors contribute to final
differences between individuals who did and did not have an education in the
arts.
Data Analysis
The final analyses were conducted using the software package, Statistical
Program for the Social Sciences (SPSS-x, version 4.1), on a UNIX system. In-
dividuals for whom responses to questions were missing were excluded from
the analyses using a pairwise deletion procedure. Results of correlation-based
analyses used weighted samples. Parallel regression analyses on unweighted
samples were conducted with no differences found.
Notes
1 . For information on the rates of arts participation by degree of arts education
and of education, see Orend and Keegan (1996). Also, arts education was
viewed from a global perspective rather than by individual art form as investi-
gation was made into the possibility of causal relationships between types of arts
participation and arts education.
2. Due to the fact that there were so few Native Americans surveyed (N=16), and
given the statistical procedures employed in this report, it was necessary to ex-
clude them from the analyses.
3. In the case of listening to music or stage works via audio media, a point was
awarded for each art form the respondent listened to via radio broadcast or
audio recording. This reflects the content of the SPPA92 questions pertaining
to this type of arts participation.
4. For a discussion of race/ethnicity and rates of arts participation by art form, see
the NEA Research Division reports by Love and Klipple (1996).
5. Even though arts lessons "in-school" were not limited to those in public schools
by the wording of the SPPA92, one can extrapolate a certain degree of nonpri-
vate "publicness" to the SPPA92 questions that distinguish school and commu-
nity arts instruction, given that approximately 80 percent of American students
attended publicly supported schools in 1992 (U.S. Department of Education,
1995).
6. Although the final analytical step took into account various aspect of one's
leisurely lifestyle that may compete with participating in the arts for one's time,
the inclusion of leisure into the analyses did not increase the ability to predict
arts participation, nor did it alter the impact of the other variables on arts par-
ticipation. For these reasons, mention of leisure in this discussion is limited. See
Appendix B for a summary table of the differences between analyses where
leisure was included and excluded.
7. This finding does not indicate that a person trained in the arts attends perfor-
mances four times as much as those who do not, but rather that the relation-
ship between arts education and arts attendance is more reliable and important
than ethnic background, SES, or degree of leisure activity.
8. See Reimer (1994) and J. Paul Getty Trust (1985) for discussions of the status
of music performance in music education and of the role of visual art produc-
tion in art education, respectively.
9. In considering the comparative effects of arts education on arts participation by
arts education agency (school-based vs. community-based), one should remem-
ber that school-based instruction is likely to be delivered to groups of students,
while much of what goes on in community- based arts education efforts is
within a one-on-one private setting. Consideration of this difference must be
madf wnfn intprnrptincr tnp rnmnantiifp <=fih=<-t-c nf porh <-«t-i irtr t-»ii-t-i/-i»-><-n-«/-.»-»
10. See Appendix C for a summary of results related to the effects of general edu-
cation on arts participation.
11. See Arts. Education, and Americans Panel (1977); NEA (1988); Consortium of
National Arts Education Associations (1994) [Associations]; National Coalition
for Music Education (1991); Fowler (1988); J. Paul Getty Trust (1985).
12. See the SPPA85 monograph by DiMaggio and Ostrower (1992) and DiMaggio
and Ostrower (1990) for such analyses and for thoughtful consideration of the
implications of differences in arts participation bv race and ethnicity.
13. See Love and Klipple (1996) for a description of race/ethnicity and arts partic-
ipation based on the SPPA92.
14. The interdependence and importance of these two arts education agencies to
arts education in America is well defined. See Arts, Education and Americans
Panel (1977), National Endowment for the Arts (1988) or Fowler (1988).
15. See for example, Robinson (1993) and DiMaggio and Ostrower (1992.)
16. See the Forward in Robinson (1993) for a description of the purpose of the
SPPA, its history, data collection procedures, survey methodology, and an out-
line of the questionnaire.
17. See Orend (1988) for analyses of data from the 1982 and 1985 SPPA regarding
socialization and arts participation.
18. For discussion of arts education and education rates and the degree of arts par-
ticipation as estimated in the 1992 SPPA, see the companion publication to this
monograph by Orend and Keegan (1996).
19. See Orend (1988) for this type of analysis using data from the 1982 SPPA.
20. See Appendix D for a more in-depth description of this statistical protocol and
for other technical matters pertaining to this reports analytical techniques.
21. Time points were less than 12 years old, 12— l7 years old. 18-24 years old, 25
or older, within the year prior to the survey date.
22. Arts Lesson Duration Scale: an indication of the duration of arts lessons over a
lifetime. For each art form, a point was awarded for each time period the re-
spondent received arts lessons and then the scores for each type of arts lesson
were summed and standardized. Arts Lesson Concentration Scale: standardized
mean of the sum of the number of arts for which the respondent received
lessons offered in the communitv and the number of arts for which the respon-
dent received lessons offered in school.
23. Even though the SPPA92 questions about arts lessons in the "school you were
attending" did not confine "school" to public school, one can extrapolate a cer-
tain degree of nonprivate, "publicness' to the responses to those questions,
given that approximately 80 percent of Americans attend public schools (U.S
Department of Education, 1995).
24. See Gates (1991) for a summary and extension of theories of music participa-
tion or Cornwell (1990) for a discussion of arts participation as a dimension of
participation in a democracy.
25. This is a reflection of the organization of the questions contained on the 1992
questionnaire and is comparable to a similar analysis of the SPPA 1982 and
1985. See, for example, Orend (1988).
26. See Part 1 for a detailed description of the SPPA92.
27. See Part 1 for a detailed description of the measures of arts education and arts
participation used in this report.
28. See the section, "Determining the Effects of Arts Education on Arts Participa-
tion," in Part 1 for a description of methodology.
29. The reader is reminded that the effects of arts education on arts participation,
as indicated by beta coefficients, are net effects; that is, after taking into account
the other variables in the model.
30. The reader is reminded that in the current monograph, arts participation is con-
sidered globally, across art forms. For a discussion of race and ethnicity and rate
of arts participation by art form, see the companion NEA Research Division
monograph by Love and Klipple (1996).
31. Compare betas for SES found in Tables 7 with those in Table 5.
32. For discussion of how social differences in access to arts education contribute
indirectly to differences in participation in the arts as adults, see Chapter 4 of
Bergonzi and Smith (1996).
33. The focus here rests on comparing these two effects. Therefore, although a full
simultaneous regression was run with each measure, the discussion concerns
only the bottom two rows of results in the table. Background variables will be
considered in this discussion only when analyses of the effects of school- and
community-based arts education produce results that clarify or substantially dif-
fer from those of the previous section.
34. This can be attributed in part to the fact that Arts Education Density is an index
that also includes information on arts education received as an adult after the
age of 17.
35. This discussion is based on analyses of the effects of arts education on arts par-
ticipation as presented earlier in this section. With one exception, analyses using
the variable, Leisure Index (as presented in Part 1) offered no increase in the
power of the analytical model to predict arts participation, nor did they sub-
stantially alter the relative predictive power (betas) of the other variables. For
these reasons, these analyses are not presented in this section, but are summa-
rized in Appendix B. However, limited discussion of the results of these analy-
ses is included in this section's summary, in the Executive Summary, and in Part
4.
36. In addition to arts consumption, higher SES indicated more arts creation, even
after adjusting for arts education. However, SES did not impact arts creation
after including leisure in the analyses.
37. See Appendix B for a summary of the mostly nonsubstantive changes due to the
addition of leisure to the analyses.
38. See Bergonzi and Smith (1996) for a more detailed description of differences .in
education based on personal background. See Chapter 3 for a description of
similar differences in arts education.
39. See Appendix C for a summary of these differences.
40. To help focus the results, years of education have been condensed into logical
categories, namely less than high school degree (2 through 1 1 years), high
school graduate (12 years), some college (13 through 15 years), four years of
college (16 years), and more than four years of college (17 through 26). Like-
wise for degree of arts education but by standard deviation units of the stan-
dardized Arts Education Density scale: none (-2 units), very little (-1), average
(0), more than average (+1), and a great deal (+2).
41 . The reader is reminded that in the current monograph, arts participation is con-
sidered globally, across art forms. For a discussion of race/ethnicity and rates of
arts participation by art form, see the NEA Research Division monograph by
Love and Klipple (1996).
42. Arts education was not significantly related to arts performance either separately
(Table 5) or in combination with general education (Table 10). A discussion of
the interdependent effects of arts education and education on arts performance
is therefore moot.
43. The reader is reminded that "effects" here are net effects, that is, after taking into
account the other variables in the model.
44. National activity such as the Consortium of National Arts Education Associa-
tion's submission of arts standards to the U.S. Department of Education that
define what every young American should know and be able to do in the arts
(Associations, 1994), and the 1997 National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP), is slated to be an assessment of the national status of students'
achievement in the arts. For evidence that the majority of Americans retain pri-
vate goals for their children that include having them learn about the arts, see
Americans and the Arts VI ( 1 992).
45. Given the statistical procedures needed to employ, too few Native Americans
were surveyed to be included in these analyses.
46. See Robinson (1993) for such observations using data from the 1992 SPPA.
47. This discussion is based on analyses of the effects of arts education on arts par-
ticipation adjusting for the competing effects of lifestyle, using the variable,
Leisure Index. (Refer to the discussion in Part 1.) With one exception, these
analyses offered no increase in the power of the analytical model to predict arts
participation, nor did they substantially alter the relative predictive power
(betas) of the other variables. For these reasons, tables from these analyses are
not presented in this section but are contained in Appendix B. However, some
discussion of the results of these analyses is included in this section, in the Ex-
ecutive Summary, and in Part 2.
48. In interpreting these findings one must keep in mind the more individualized
nature of community-based arts instruction vs. the group processes employed
by school arts teachers.
49. Neither arts education nor education were significant predictors of arts perfor-
mance. For this reason, arts performance is not included in this discussion.
50. The effect of overall education on print-media involvement was consistent
across levels of arts education. Given that reading is an activity that is inherent
at all levels of education, one might expect the effect of arts education would be
different for individuals of varying education levels. This was not the case, how-
ever. Arts education was more than twice as powerful a predictor of print-media
involvement than was overall education.
51. See Chapter 3 in Bergonzi and Smith (1996) for a more detailed description of
the effects of overall educational attainment on arts participation.
52. See Spring (1991) for a more elaborate discussion of this topic.
53. The addition of leisure to these preparatory analyses did not alter the results in
any substantive way. For this reason, this report does not discuss leisure as a fac-
tor in predicting the effects of education on arts participation.
54. A more complete discussion of path analysis can be found in Cohen, J. and P.
Cohen (1983), Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral
Sciences, or Pedhauzur, E. J. (1982), Multiple Regression in Behavioral Research.
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