The effects of marine organisms on engineering materials for deep-ocean use

Technical Report =: THE EFFECTS OF MARINE ORGANISMS

ON ENGINEERING MATERIALS FOR

DEEP-OCEAN USE

7 March 1962

U. S. NAVAL CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Port Hueneme, California

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THE EFFECTS OF MARINE ORGANISMS ON ENT NEEHING (UATENALS FOR
DEEP-OCEAN USE

Y-RO11-01-042
Type C
by

James S. Muraoka

OBJECT OF TASK

To determine the effects of pelagic and benthic marine organisms upon
engineering materials for use in deep-ocean environments.

ABSTRACT

A literature survey was made of the effects of marine organisms on various
types of engineering materials, particularly in deep-ocean environments. Numerous
materials such as manila ropes, cotton fishing nets, petroleum hydrocarbons, rubber
products, steel, submarine cables (telegraph and telephone), concrete, and cork
(floats) have been attacked and destroyed by various marine organisms in various
depths, from shallow protected waters to ocean depths exceeding 7, 200 feet.
Marine organisms which have been observed to be responsible for the destruction of
these materials include species of wood- and rock-burrowing animals, purple sea
urchins, sharks, fish, and microorganisms.

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CONTENTS

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PROPOSED FIELD AND LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS ........- 1]
Exposure of Materials in the Natural Sea Environment ........-. 12
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The present study was undertaken to investigate, analyze, and evaluate the
effects of marine organisms of the archibenthic and abyssal zones on various types
of engineering materials such as elastomers, plastics, metals, portland-cement,
concrete, and electrical wire conductors. The study places particular emphasis
upon the biological deterioration of engineering materials exposed in the deep-ocean
environment as well as in the marine sediments.

In the following pages a preliminary analysis of environmental variables is
summarized, the results of a literature survey of the problem are presented, and a
proposed field and laboratory study to accumulate further data on the effects of
marine organisms on engineering materials is submitted.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEA WATER

The environmental variables which are of immediate interest to marine
biologists and oceanographers include salinity, temperature, density, viscosity,
pressure, light penetration, suspended organic matter, dissolved gases, and
hydrogen-ion concentration. 23,4 A brief summary for each of these variables
follows.

Salinity

The salt concentration of sea water is known as salinity and is expressed as
grams of salts per kilogram of sea water (parts per mille, o/co). The salinity in
the ocean is generally between 33 and 37 o/oo. Because the salinity range in the
open oceans is rather small, an average value of 35 o/oo is used.

Temperature

The average surface temperatures for all the oceans range from about 27 C
near the equator to (-) 1 C in the arctic and antarctic regions. However, with
increasing depth not only does the temperature drop, but the seasonal variations
become negligible below depths of about 600 feet. The temperature at 600 feet
is about 20 C, at 4,000 feet it is about 5 C, and below this depth the temperature
falls to a minimal value of 1 to 2 C in the abyssal regions.

Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of sea water is dependent upon salinity, temperature, and

pressure. At atmospheric pressure and 0 C the specific gravity of sea water of average
salinity 35 0/oo is about 1.028, and at 10 C it is about 1.027.

Viscosity

The viscosity of sea water is slightly greater than that of fresh water (0.0893
poises at 25 C) and increases gradually with an increase in salinity and to a much
greater extent with a decrease in temperature. At a salinity of 35 o/oo, for example,
the increase of viscosity is almost two-fold for a temperature drop from 25 to
0 centigrade.

Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure increases by about | atmosphere for each 32. 8-foot
increase in depth, and shows a range from zero at the surface to some 1, 100 atmospheres
at the greatest known depth of 36,000 feet. The mean ocean depth of all the oceans
and adjacent seas is about 12, 500 feet.

Light

Light is absorbed rapidly when passing through the surface waters of the sea
and the intensity falls off with depth. In the clearest open ocean water, light is
perceptible to a depth of 2, 300 feet. In average open ocean water, light of
selective wavelength bands is perceptible to a depth of 1,000 feet, and in turbid
coastal waters to 200 feet.

Suspended Organic Matter

Sea water cones a small quantity (1.2 to 2.0 mg of carbon per liter) of
dissolved and suspended organic matter, which is derived from the excreta of
living organisms and their decomposed tissues after death.

Dissolved Gases

The dissolved gases of particular biological interest are oxygen and carbon
dioxide. The dissolved oxygen content of ocean water varies from 0 to 8.5 ml/liter
STP (standard temperature and pressure). It is greater in the surface layers where free
exchange with the atmosphere can take place than in the subsurface waters, which
obtain their oxygen through mixing, wind action, etc. In certain closed seas and
basins in which there is deficient circulation, the bottom layers become stagnant
and the oxygen concentration falls to zero. Hydrogen sulfide and other products
of putrifactive decomposition such as methane may be present in such areas. The
carbon-dioxide concentration in sea water varies from 34 to 56 ml/liter. It is
present as free CO> and HyCO3, but the greater part of carbon dioxide is present

as carbonates and bicarbonates; the content of free COs and HCO decreases with
increasing temperature and salinity. In general, the carbon-dioxide content is
higher in the deeper waters than at the surface layers.

Hydrogen-lon Concentration

Sea water is normally alkaline in reaction, with a pH range of 8.0 to 8.4 in
surface waters. In stagnant basins where large amounts of H9S are present (anaerobic
condition), the 9H may approach 7.0.

MARINE ORGANISMS RESPONSIBLE FOR MATERIALS DAMAGE

The results of the literature survey on the biological deterioration of various
engineering materials in the marine environment are tabulated in the Appendix.
Materials attacked by biological organisms, the type of damage resulting from attack,
the geographical location where the damage occurred, biological organisms respon-
sible for the damage, and other pertinent information to the subject are listed and
referenced. The following discussion is based on that data.

Crustaceans

Crustaceans responsible for extensive damage to materials in the sea include
species of Limnoria also known as gribbles. Limnoria are related to the shrimps and
lobsters and are world-wide in distribution. They are normally found attacking the
surface of submerged wooden structures in shallow waters (harbors). However,
materials other than wood, such as the gutta-percha coverings of submarine cables
at a depth of about 360 feet in the ocean, have been penetrated by Limnoria lignorum.
One species of Limnoria off the coast of Japan is known to inhabit depths of approxi-
mately 1,000 feet. It is suggested 5 that the absence of suitable edible materials
in the deep-ocean environment may be one of the limiting factors which confine
Limnoria to shallow water.

Species of Sphaeroma, also a crustacean, are found burrowing into sandstone
in San Francisco Bay and into sea walls made of clay stone in Hawk Bay, New Zealand.
Sphaeroma are less important economically than Limnoria in the amount of damage
they cause to engineering materials.

Mollusks

The mollusks responsible for extensive damage to various types of engineering
materials in the sea include species of Teredo, Bankia, Xylophaga, and Martesia.
These mollusks are related to the clams and the oysters and are world-wide in distribution.

They are normally found attacking submerged wooden structures in harbors, or
burrowing into rocks, coral, and mud on the ocean floor. Because of their ability

to attack varied materials from soft wood to hard rocks, it is anticipated that under-
sea construction materials which serve as a source of food and shelter to these animals
will be susceptible to attack and destruction.

One of the early engineering materials exposed in the deep-sea environment
was the submarine cable. Numerous reports and articles have been published per-
taining to damages inflicted upon these cables at various depths, and an extensive
bibliography has been compiled by Clapp and Kenk. © Most of the attacks upon
submarine cables were confined to the coverings of jute and hemp, although a few
observers report attacks on the gutta-percha insulation of the cables by the mollusks
belonging to the family Teredinidae. These attacks have occurred from depths of
a few feet of water to a depth of 7,200 feet. Roch” in his paper on Mediterranean
Teredos refers to Teredo utriculus obtained from a depth as great as 10,000 feet. A
species of Xylophaga was found ranging from a few feet of water to 6, 000 feet or
more; some have been found burrowing into the insulation of submarine cables,
causing physical damage and short circuits.

In a recent report, 8 mention is made of a species of Martesia boring through
the outer solid-lead sheath and subadjacent insulation of an electrical conduit cable
(off the coast of Florida), producing a blowout which seriously interrupted urban
electrical service.

Martesia striata has been responsible for attacks and penetration of solid-lead
sheathing of a submarine power cable (in Boca Ciega Bay, Florida) resulting in an
electrical short. The exposed lead sheathing was riddled with holes. Some holes
were about 6 mm in diameter and 2 mm in depth. In another instance, a 4-mm-thick
solid-lead sheath covered with two layers of asphalt-impregnated jute which served
as a bedding for a single layer of galvanized-steel armor wire was penetrated by
Martesia striata and Barnea truncata 300 feet from shore in 3.5 feet of water where
the bottom was muddy.

Even concrete has not been immune to attack by marine animals. Inspection
of concrete-jacketed wooden piles in Los Angeles Harbor revealed the presence of
7 to 8 burrowing animals per square foot of concrete. Of 18 piles, 16 jackets were
found to be attacked by rock-boring animals such as Pholadidae penita, Platyodon
cancellata, Lithophaga plumula, and Botula talcata. Burrows in the concrete
averaged 1-3/4 inches in diameter. The concrete jackets, which had an average
thickness of 2-1/3 inches, consisted of cement mortar with no coarse aggregate.

The crushing strength of a 2-1/2-inch by 3-1/2-inch by 4-1/2-inch concrete
specimen was 1, 726 pounds per square inch. It is suggested ? that a good concrete
containing aggregates of gravel and broken stones would offer greater resistance to
attack by these rock-boring animals.

Marble columns which were part of the cargo of a Roman ship wrecked in the
Mediterranean Sea in the first century B. C. were found riddled by the rock-boring
animals Lithophaga and Pholas, producing a spongy appearance.

Fiber mooring ropes which held buoys and mooring floats to anchors were
damaged by Teredo morsei Bartsch, and some ropes were entirely severed mainly at
the lower ends (near the attachments to the anchors).

Marine Bacteria

The marine bacteria's indispensible function in the biological cycle of the sea
is primarily one concerned with transformation of organic and inorganic substances.
The characteristics, distribution, and function of marine bacteria have been described
in great detail by ZoBell. 10 Some are autotrophic bacteria and are able to build
carbohydrate and protein out of simple substances such as carbon dioxide and
inorganic salts. One group of autotrophes, the chemosynthetic bacteria, derive
their energy from the oxidation of various inorganic compounds such as hydrogen
sulfide, sulfur, or ammonia on the sea bottom where there is insufficient light for
photosynthesis. However, the majority of marine bacteria are heterotrophic bacteria
which obtain their energy and carbon source by the oxidation of organic compounds.
During bacterial metabolism the organic substances in the sea water and sediments
are transformed into carbon dioxide, water, ammonia, and minerals. These bacteria
convert from 30 to 40 percent of the carbon of organic compounds into bacterial
cell substances. |! Other geochemical changes which take place during the bacterial
metabolism include consumption of oxygen, production of heat and hydrogen sulfide,
and changes in hydrogen-ion concentration.

Marine bacteria are found in sea water and in bottom sediments from shallow
depths to the deepest portion of the sea. The greatest number have been found in
coastal waters where the greatest abundance of plant and animal life is also produced;
however, the greatest density by far of bacterial population is found on the bottom,
where millions of cells per gram of wet mud may occur. !2 The aerobic bacteria,
which require free oxygen for growth, are found in sea water and in the first few
inches of bottom sediment. The anaerobic bacteria, which are able to grow in an
environment where free oxygen is absent, are usually found in areas where relatively
heavy accumulations of organic matters are found, such as in marine bottom sediments,
under deteriorating organic coatings of various materials, and in minute pits found in
corroding metal surfaces.

ZoBell and Morita found millions of viable bacteria per gram of sediments
taken from gue exceeding 33,000 feet on the Danish Galathea Deep-Sea
Expedition. |! Many deep-sea species are able to grow well at a temperature as
low as 0 centrigrade. The high hydrostatic pressures which prevail at great depths
are not a deterrent to bacterial life; ZoBell found that some bacteria are actually
barophillic or pressure-loving bacteria and reproduced only when subjected to 400
to 1,000 atmospheres. !3 (See Figure 1 for method of converting atmospheres to
pounds per square inch. )

Because marine bacteria are able to live in various marine environments and
can utilize various materials for growth, they are one of the major biological agents
of deterioration and fouling of various organic and inorganic materials and equipment
in sea water and in marine sediments. Marine bacteria play an important role in the
fouling of submerged surfaces by (1) affording a foothold for other animals, (2) dis-
coloring glazed or bright surfaces, (3) becoming a source of food for barnacles, etc.,
and (4) promoting the deposition of the carcareous cements of sessile animals. !9
The effect of fouling by marine organisms (including the bacteria) on the acoustic
efficiency of submerged sonar equipment is extremely serious, resulting in an average
attenuation of about three decibels per inch of fouling thickness.

Pits between 10 and 37 mils in depth were formed beneath the growth of fouling
organisms (barnacles) on the surface of monel metal immersed in sea water at
Port Hueneme, California. These pits may have resulted from localized oxygen-
concentration cells due to barnacle growth. Bacterial film (produced as a result
of abundant bacterial growth) may form a protective layer over an antifouling
coating normally toxic to fouling animals, thereby affording these animals a foothold
for growth. 14 |t may be possible that a simple rapid test to determine the effective-
ness of antifouling paints can be developed by testing antifouling paint against marine
microorganisms.

Marine cellulose-decomposing bacteria are responsible for millions of dollars
worth of damage to fiber nets, seines, and lines used by commercial fishermen. The
average useful life of this equipment is less than two years. 15 Manila ropes and
cotton fishing nets have been destroyed after 14 months in sea water. Also present
in the sea are cellulose-destroying fungi found infesting natural fibers and wood. 16, 17
Rubber products including rubber hoses, chlorinated rubber paints, rubber gaskets
and similar materials used at sea, either submerged or subject to frequent wetting with
salt water, are decomposed by the action of marine bacteria. Rubber is generally
regarded as biologically inert, but highly purified rubber, both natural and synthetic,
as well as various rubber products are susceptible to bacterial oxidation in the presence
of mineral and moisture. Corks used at sea as floats by commercial fishermen and
others also are decomposed by marine bacteria, which slowly destroy the buoyancy

by rupturing the cell walls of the cork which is composed of lignocellulose suberin
complex filled with air spaces. Petroleum hydrocarbons such as gasoline, kerosene,
lubricating oil, crude oil, and other petroleum products are oxidized by microorganisms
inhabiting sea water and marine bottom sediments as well as on land. In a laboratory
test, samples of crude oi! added to marine sediments were rapidly destroyed by the
hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria of Proactinomyces, Actinomyces, Pseudomonas,
Micromonospora, or Mycobacterium. Bacteria which utilize hydrocarbon might be
instrumental in causing undesirable changes in petroleum products stored over water.
Kerosene and gasoline in storage tanks were decomposed with the formation of
methane and possibly ethane. When combined with air, these gases could form
explosive mixtures which might account for spontaneous oil fires. 18 In a laboratory
test, neither polyethylene plastic nor neoprene was affected by either aerobic or
anaerobic marine bacteria; however, polyvinyl chloride plastics were susceptible to
bacterial decomposition according to the way in which they were plasticized.

Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria

The sulfate-reducing bacteria are strict anaerobes which obtain their energy
by the reduction of sulfates and sulfites in water in the absence of free oxygen. The
end product of their metabolic process is hydrogen sulfide. These bacteria are widely
distributed in the marine environment and have assumed particular significance since
it was discovered that they are agents of deterioration of organic and inorganic
materials, !9,20,21,22 ZoBell found from 10, 000 to 1, 000, 000 sulfate-reducing
bacteria per gram of bottom sediment from the Pacific coast of California. 10

In the Black Sea, oxygenated water is found from the surface down to
approximately 600 feet, and is inhabited by plants and animals. However, between
600 feet and the bottom at approximately 6, 600 feet, the water contains large
quantities of hydrogen sulfide (6.04 ml/liter at a depth of 3, 300 feet), and only
microorganisms inhabit this area. 3 The high content of the hydrogen sulfide does
not visibly inhibit the capacity of microorganisms to use organic matter and other
materials in their life process. They participate in the overturn of carbon, nitrogen,
sulfur, and phosphorus in the sea. A bacteriological examination of one gram of
mud taken from the deepest parts of the Black Sea floor produced 100, 000 colonies
of bacteria on a suitable medium. The large microbial population in the hydrogen-
sulfide zone consists chiefly of filamentous purple-sulfur bacteria.

The aqueous hydrogen-sulfide environment is detrimental to many materials;
for example, it may produce the erratic behavior of steels known as "sulfide-stress
cracking." This is the spontaneous fracturing of steel subjected simultaneously to
a corrosive hydrogen-sulfide aqueous medium and a static stress less than the tensile
strength of the metal. 24 Polyethylene insulating compounds used in ocean telephone
cables are essentially impervious to sea water and oxygen; however, they can be
permeated by hydrogen sulfide found in ocean-bottom sediments. 29

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Sulfate-reducing bacteria were found to be responsible for a severe external
anaerobic corrosion of a ship's hull which laid on mud banks of a river estuary for
several months after launching. Pitting and black corrosion products were observed
on rivet points and plates. The liquid extracted from inside the paint blisters on the
ship's hull have been reported to contain sulfate-reducers, and their deleterious
action is considered to be more widespread in marine corrosion than has been previously
suspected. 26 Anaerobic corrosion is one of the several important types of corrosion
which cause metal loss estimated at between 5 and 6 billion dollars annually in the
United States. 27 In studies 28 wherein steel test samples were immersed in sterile
sea water (bacteria-free) for 6 months, the corrosion rate was 0.0294, 0.0397, and
0.066 gram per square meter per hour; however, samples of steel exposed to the
action of natural marine bacterial populations in the North Sea showed a 20 to
25 percent increase in the deterioration rates. This increase was attributed to
increased acidity of the liquid medium and changed electric potential of the metal
due to the metabolic activity of marine bacteria. It was demonstrated that micro-
organisms isolated from corroding steel samples attacked newly submerged steel
samples more aggressively than those bacteria normally found in sea water.

Concrete sewer pipes and buried iron conduits are severely damaged by sulfur
bacteria (genus Thiobacillus). These bacteria utilize elemental sulfur, thiosulfates,
and hydrogen sulfide as sources of hydrogen or energy, oxidizing these substances
eventually to sulfuric acid. The acid attacks concrete and iron conduits, causing
severe deterioration.

Fish, Sharks, and Sea Urchins

Certain varieties of marine fish are attracted to white polyethylene-covered
cables and lines. Nibbling by these fish has caused considerable damage to
insulations. It is suggested 2? that the use of black polyetheylene-covered cables
in the sea is advantageous since they do not attract fish. There is a report about
sharks which like to test their teeth and jaws on submarine cable sheathings, often
leaving their teeth embedded clear through the copper core.

The purple sea urchins, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, were blamed for the
destruction of steel H-beam piles in 30 feet of water about 1,500 feet from shore.
Of the 42 steel piles (oil-well pier) pulled, about half were damaged by these
urchins. The abrasive action of the sea urchins kept the rust cleared, leaving the
bare metal continuously exposed to the corroding action of sea water. The adjoining
pits made by the urchins became large holes; as these holes merged, the damaged
isolated sections of the steel piling finally fell before the forces of the surging sea.

DEEP-SEA ANIMALS

The knowledge of the existence of animal life in the deep sea was first provided
by a broken submarine cable that was brought up for repairs from a depth of over
6,600 feet in the Mediterranean in 1860. Attached to this cable were bivalve
mollusks, gastropods, hydroids, alcyonanians, and worms. Recently the Danish
Deep-Sea Expedition (1950-52) in the research ship Galathea obtained living
animals of several phyla, in addition to viable bacteria, from a depth of greater
than 33, 000 feet in the Philippine Trench. The animals obtained at this great depth
included about 40 actinians, 5 echiurid worms, 80 myriotrochus, 1 elasipod holothurian,
5 bivalves, and species of amphipods and tanaids. 30

Much of the animal life in the deep sea is truly endemic, as shown by the
presence of vast numbers of species and genera found consistently in the deep zones.
However, many deep-sea species are eurybathic; that is, they endure great ranges
of depth. These animals are of great biological interest because of their adaptability
to conditions of depths. Some of the more outstanding eurybathic forms which are
able to inhabit the ocean from shallow to great depths are: (1) pennatularians — to
11, 900 feet, (2) polychaetes — to 16, 500 feet, (3) bivalves — to 14, 500 feet,

(4) snails — to 9,900 feet, (5) starfish — to 8,000 feet, and (6) sea urchins — to
16, 000 feet. 3

Species of marine fish are also capable of inhabiting the environment of total
darkness, low temperature, and high hydrostatic pressures which prevails in deep
waters. In this area of very little or no light penetration, there is a marked increase
in reddish and dark-colored animals. Abyssal fishes are characterized by strange
and weird anatomical adaptations. These adaptations are concerned with structural
modifications fitting the animals better to survive in faintest light or in utter and
perpetual darkness. They are mainly along three lines: (1) tactile structures,

(2) food-procuring contrivances, and (3) light production. The following are a few
of the deep-sea fishes that were obtained on various deep-sea expeditions:

(1) Macropharynx longicaudatus, length 15.1 cm, from 11,500 feet, (2) Gigantactis
macronema, length 13.3 cm, from 8,250 feet, (3) Linophryne macrodon, length

5.3 cm, from 5,000 feet, (4) Malacostus indicus, length 8 cm, from 3,000 to

8, 250 feet. 3 3!

PROPOSED FIELD AND LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS

The ocean environment is so broad and complex with so many factors involved,
such as marine life, depths, pressure, temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen con-
centration, and bottom sediments, that a single test procedure cannot be expected

to yield all the necessary information on the problem of biological deterioration of
materials in the deep ocean. Field, as well as laboratory, studies are essential.
The data obtained from these two approaches can then be compared and correlated,
and a more useful body of information on the behavior of each engineering material
to biological deterioration can be accumulated. This information would provide
marine engineers and designers with valuable data on the merits of each material
for use in the deep-sea environment.

As a part of its total program of deep-ocean studies, the Laboratory is planning
a series of investigations along the following lines.

Exposure of Materials in the Natural Sea Environment

Deep-Ocean Exposure Test. Selected engineering materials to be exposed will
be secured aboard a Submersible Test Unit (STU), shown in Figure 2, and placed on
the bottom of the sea off Port Hueneme, California, at a depth of approximately
6,000 feet. For example, commercially available plastic rods and tubes will be
assembled in a rack as shown in Figure 3. A portion of each rod will be wrapped
with jute fiber and coal tar, another portion will be taped, and the remaining
area.will be left smooth. At the midpoint of the rods, an untreated piece of pine
wood will be fitted around the test samples to act as bait to lure marine organisms
into direct contact with the specimens and thus determine whether or not they will
attack the plastic rods directly from the water. The assembled rack will be attached
to the STU in such a way that the lower ends of the rods will be buried in the bottom
sediments and the upper portions exposed to the sea water. This is to determine the
effect of mud dwellers, including bacteria, on plastics buried in the sediments, and
the effect of other marine organisms on plastic rods exposed above the mud line.
Various materials such as concrete, metals, rubber, electrical wire cables, and coral
concrete will also be placed aboard three STU's. The first STU will be retrieved
after 6 months, the second after 12 months, and the third after 24 months' exposure
in the deep ocean. The biological effects, if any, upon these materials then will
be carefully inspected and evaluated. Materials and devices placed on the STU by
other engineers and scientists for exposure to the effects of the deep-ocean environ-
ment will also be inspected for biological deterioration and any live specimens
found attached to these materials will be preserved for later biological study.

Shallow-Water Exposure Test. Because of the wide differences in water
temperature, hydrostatic pressure, etc., between shallow and deep-ocean depths,
it is expected that the number, activity, and species of marine animals found will
be quite different in the two environments. However, it is possible that some species
which attack materials in shallow water may be eurybathic. A comparison of species
found deleterious to submerged materials (other than wood) in these two environments
will be made and the rates of deterioration due to biological action will be determined.
No further investigation other than the exposure test is planned in this environment.

12

Height: 14 ft

Cross section: 2-1/2 x 2-1/2 ft
Base: 13 x 13 ft

Weight: about 3,000 Ib

Capacity: about 2,000 |b of mtls
and test equip.

Figure 2. Sketch of Submersible Test Unit (STU) designed to test the
behaviors of engineering materials in deep-ocean environments.

13

2 x 2 x 2 x 30-in. channel iron

~ 3-ft plastic rods 2x 4x 30-in. pine wood

connecting iron

2 x 2 x 2 x 30-in. channel iron

connecting iron

front view

side view

Figure 3. Sketch of special metal rack to hold plastic rods and tubes for
deep-ocean exposure.

14

The preferred location for the shallow-water exposure test would be in tropical
waters such as at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, where the biological activity is intense. In
addition to the species of Teredo and Limnoria, a pholad, Martesia striata, is present
in these waters. Martesia striata is found throughout the world in nearly all temperate
and tropical regions and this invertebrate may prove to be the most destructive and
difficult to control of all the biological agents, especially since it is able to attack
various chemically preserved woods, hard tropical woods, and even solid lead sheaths
of submarine cables. Species of Martesia have been found in waters around the coasts
of North Carolina, Florida, Texas, Cuba, the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, the Philippine
Islands, and Australia.

Commercially available plastic rods and tubes and other selected materials
will be exposed in the sea. The plastic rods will be assembled in a rack very similar
to the ones assembled for the deep-ocean exposure test. The lower ends of the rods
will be in marine sediments and the upper portions will be exposed to the sea water.
The rack with the test materials will be raised and inspected for any biological
deterioration after 6, 12, and 24 months' exposure in relatively shallow water.
Other selected engineering materials will also be exposed in this environment.

Laboratory Investigations

The Effects of Hydrostatic Pressure on Materials and their Resistance to
Biological Action. It is anticipated that some materials may undergo structural
changes under the influence of high hydrostatic pressure; i.e., changes in perme-
ability, density, elasticity, etc. Some materials which are normally resistant to
biological deterioration may become highly susceptible to biological action when
these changes take place.

Hydrostatic pressures (up to 15,000 psi) will be applied to various organic
materials in a high-pressure test vessel. The biological-deterioration studies upon
these materials will take place in standard BOD bottles containing sea water and
bottom sediments and utilizing marine microorganisms as biological agents. This
laboratory test is essentially a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) type of test in
which the ability of marine bacteria to utilize organic compounds as the only source
of carbon for growth is determined. It is considered primarily a screening test. The
BOD-type test consists of two separate bioassay procedures. In one method, the
oxygen consumed by the aerobic bacteria is measured; in the other, a metabolic
by-product (hydrogen sulfide) resulting from anaerobic bacterial activity is measured.
With minor changes, the BOD-type test follows the procedures employed by Snoke 32
in biological-deterioration tests of various organic materials and elastomers utilizing
marine microorganisms.

A Conductor Test to Determine Biological Deterioration of Organic Coatings

and Insulations. Various organic coatings and insulations for wire conductors designed
for use in shallow and deep water will be evaluated for biological deterioration.
Hydrostatic pressures (up to 15,000 psi) will be applied in a high-pressure test vessel
to organic insulating materials coated on a wire conductor and to commercially
available insulated wire conductors. Coils of pressure-applied and nonpressure-
applied test materials will be placed in separate covered glass jars containing sea
water and marine sediments, and results will be compared and evaluated. This
medium will also contain species of viable microorganisms normally found in sea

water and bottom sediments. Insulation resistance measurements will be taken
periodically to indicate any changes in dielectric strength. Microscopic examinations
of the insulations will be performed when electrical failure has occurred, and it will
be determined if breakdown of wire coatings occurred in the sediment or in the water.
Conductors will be placed in sterile sea water and sediments to serve as controls.

It is believed that valuable and readily applicable engineering data can be obtained
by using this test technique.

Studies on Deterioration of Metals by Marine Microorganisms. This investigation
will consist of basic research on the effects of marine microorganisms on the corrosion

of various metals. Because bacteria are capable of inhabiting varied marine environments
and are able to utilize various organic and inorganic materials from the sea for growth,

it is expected that marine bacteria (including the sulfate-reducers) would be one of

the major biological agents of deterioration of various engineering materials in sea

water and in marine sediments.

The marine anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacteria which reduce sulfates and
sulfites to hydrogen sulfide during their metabolic process have assumed particular
significance since it was discovered that they are agents of severe deterioration of
iron and steel in the sea. It is felt that any information obtained from this study on
the mechanism of corrosion of metal due to bacterial action or its metabolic by-products
will aid researchers in developing methods of prevention and control of deterioration
of various organic and inorganic materials for use in the sea environment.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Extensive field and laboratory studies have been performed and considerable
published information exists about the deteriorating effects of marine wood-boring
animals upon wooden structures in shallow protected waters. However, there have
been very few controlled field or laboratory studies made about the biological
deterioration of materials other than wood in either the shallow or the deep-ocean
environments. Thus there is virtually no published data on the behavior of materials

such as plastics, concrete, coating resins, wire insulation, elastomers, ceramics,
metals, and other nonligneous materials exposed to the natural biological population
of the sea and its bottom sediments.

2. Materials such as lead sheaths of submarine cables, concrete, rocks, and steel
pilings have been penetrated by marine animals at various depths; therefore, it is
highly possible that other engineering materials will also be susceptible to attack
if they were available as a source of food or shelter for these animals in the deep-
ocean environment.

3. The marine microorganisms capable of inhabiting extreme sea environments can
be expected to be important agents of deterioration of materials in the ocean. The
sulfate-reducing bacteria which produce hydrogen sulfide under anaerobic conditions
have assumed particular significance as agents of deterioration of various engineering
materials.

4. The inadequacy of the information obtained from the literature survey to meet
the requirements of the Navy's accelerated interest in deep-ocean developments
points up the need for more intensive investigations of the effects of marine organisms
on engineering materials in deep-ocean environments.

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pp 3-21.

17

6. Clapp, W. F., and R. Kenk. Marine Borers, a Preliminary Bibliography,
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7. Roch, F. "Die Teredinidae de Mittelmeeres," Thalassia, Vol. 4, 1940, pp 1-147.

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14. ZoBell, C..E., and Esther C. Allen. "The Significance of Marine Bacteria
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15. Robertson, A. C. "Preservation of Textile Fish Nets." Ind. Engr. Chem.,
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17. Myers, S. P. "Marine Fungi in Biscayne Bay, Florida." Bull. of Marine Sci.
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18. Thaysen, A. C. "Gas Evolution in Gasoline Storage Tanks Caused by the
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19. Starkey, R. L. "The Relationship of Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria to Iron Corrosion
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September 1953, pp 326-327.

20. Scott, W. R. "Some New Concepts of Corrosion from Bacterial Action in
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pp 3-38.

21. Wood, F. E. J. "Marine Bacteria in Relation to Economic Processes." Int.
Congr. Microbiol. Rept. Proc. 6th Congr., Vol. 7, September 1953, pp 350-357.

22. Starkey, R. L. "Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria — Physiology and Practical
Significance." Lecture presented at University of Maryland, College Park,
October 1960.

23. Kriss, A. E. "Microbiology and the Chief Problems in the Black Sea." Deep
Sea Research, Vol. 5, 1959, pp 193-200.

24. Vollmer, L. W. "The Behavior of Steels in Hydrogen Sulfide Environment."
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25. Hazzard, Peggy M. "How Environment Affects Ocean Cables." Bell Laboratory

Record, March 1961.

26. Patterson, W. S. "External Ship Corrosion Due to Bacterial Action." Trans.
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27. Uhlig, H. H. "The Cost of Corrosion to the United States." Chem. Engr.
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28. Nikitina, N. S., and |. B. Ulanovskii. "Some Data on the Microbiological
Factors of the Corrosion of Steel in Sea Waters." (In Russian.) Akad. Nauk SSR.
Murmanskaia Biologicheskaia Stantsiia, Dal'niye elentsy, Trudy No. 3, 1957,

pp 190-200.

29. Pauli, D. C., W. M. Ellsworth, and J. Richards. "A Survey of the Effect
of Ocean Environment on the MONOB Array." Cleveland Pneumatic Industries, Inc.,
Washington, D. C., August 1960.

30. Bruun, A. Fr. "The Philippine Trench and Its Bottom Fauna." Nature, Vol. 168,
October 1951, pp 692-693.

31. Marshall, N. B. Aspects of Deep-Sea Biology. Hutchinson and Co., London,
1958.

32. Snoke, L. R. "Resistance of Organic Materials and Cable Structures to Marine
Biological Attack." The Bell System Tech. Jour., Vol. 36, 1957, pp 1095-1127.

33. Chilton, C. "Destructive Boring Crustacea in New Zealand." New Zealand
Jour. Sci. Technol., Vol. 2(1), 1919, pp 3-15.

34. Anderson, J. "Statistics of Telegraphy. Appendix I. An Account of Marine
Cables Laid." Jour. Statistics Soc. London, Vol. 35(3), 1872, pp 313-321.

35. Mance, H. "Experiments Conducted for the Purpose of Ascertaining Whether
the Teredo Borer Prefers Gutta-percha to India Rubber." Teleg. Jour. and Elect.
Rev., Vol. 3(68), 1875, p 278.

36. Preece, G. E. "On Cable-Borers." Teleg. Jour. and Elect. Rev., Vol. 3(69),
1875, pp 296-297.

37. Bontemps, C. "Telegraphic Sous-Marine: la Destruction des Cables." Nature
(Paris), Vol. 5, Part 2(233), November 1877, pp 387-389.

38. Rivera, V. "Osservazioni e Rilievi Sopra Alcuni Xilofagi Marini Rinvenuti
nell Interno dei Cavi Telegrafici." R. Comitato Talassografico Italiano, Bollettino

Bimestriale, Vol. 5 (1-3), 1951, pp 34-48.

39. Siemens, C. W. "On the Outer Covering of Deep-Sea Cables." Rep. Brit.
Assoc. Adv. Sci. Meeting, Vol. 35 (1865), Trans. 1866, pp 187-190.

40. Andrews, A. "Limnoria terebrans Attacking Telegraph Cable Exhibited. "

Quart. Jour. Microsc. Sci. (n.s.), Vol. 15(59), 1875, p 332.

41. Springer, V. G., and E. R. Beeman. "Penetration of Lead by the Wood
Piddock, Martesia striata." Science, Vol. 131, 6 May 1960, pp 1378-1379.

42. Snoke, L. R., and A. P. Richards. "Marine Borer Attack on Lead Cable
Sheath." Science, Vol. 124, 7 September 1956.

43. Kelly, R. A. "Toughest Splicing Job of All." Popular Mechanics, February 1961,
pp 154-156, 258-259. s

44, Johnson, M. W. "Deterioration Due to Marine Borers." Marine Corrosion
and Fouling Conference, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, April 18-20, 1956.

45. Sadler, W. R., and D. E. Hughes. "Observations on Rock-Boring Mollusks
in Concrete." Engineering News Record, Vol. 93(26), 1924, pp 1027-28.

46. Ludlow, J. W. "Developments in Connection with Concrete Piling." World
Ports, Vol. 12(6), 1924, pp 34-44.

47. Rigdon, J. H., and C. W. Beardsley. '" Corrosion of Concrete by Autotrophes. "
Corrosion, Vol. 14, April 1958, pp 206t-208t.

48. Summer, W. "Microbially Induced Corrosion." Corrosion Tech., Vol. 7,

September 1960, pp 287-288.

49, Oppenheimer, C. H. "Marine Microbiology." Naval Research Review,

April 1961, pp 11-14.

50. Starky, R. L. "Transformation of |ron by Bacteria in Water." Jour. of the
Amer. Water Works Assoc., Part II, Vol. 37, July-December 1945, pp 963-983.

51. Caldwell, J. A., and M. L. Lytle. "Bacterial Corrosion of Offshore Structures. "
Corrosion, Vol. 9, June 1953, pp 192-196.

52. Nikitina, N. S., and |. B. Ulanovskii. "Growth of Bacteria on Steel Surface
in Sea Water." (In Russian.) Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR, Vol. 98, 1954, pp 841-844.

53. Irwin, Margaret. "Steel Boring Sea Urchins." Pacific Discovery, Vol. 6,
March-April 1953, pp 26-27.

54. Brouillette, C. V. “Corrosion Rates in Port Hueneme Harbor." Corrosion,

Vol. 14, August 1958, pp 352t-356t.

55. Mendizza, A. "Corrosion — The Constant Enemy of Metal." Bell Laboratory
Record, Vol. 34, December 1956, pp 451-455.

56. Ulanovskii, |. B., and N. S. Niemen "The Influence of Putrifying Aerobic
Bacteria on the Corrosion of Steel in Sea Water." (In Russian.) Microbiologiya,
Vol. 25, January-February 1956, pp 66-71.

57. Atkins, W. R. G., and F. J. Warren. "The Preservation of Fish Nets, Trawl

Twines, and Fiber Ropes for Use in Sea Water." Jour. Marine Biol. Assoc., Vol. 25,
1941, pp 97-107.

21

58. ZoBell, C. E., and Josephine D. Beckwith. "The Deterioration of Rubber
Products by Microorganisms." Jour. Amer. Water Works Assoc., Vol. 36, 1944,
pp 439-453.

59. ZoBell, C. E., C. W. Grant, and H. F. Haas. "Marine Microorganisms
Which Oxidize Petroleum Hydrocarbons." Bull. of the Amer. Assoc. of Petr.
Geol., Vol. 27, September 1943, pp 1175-1193.

60. Coe, W. R. "Destruction of Mooring Ropes by Teredo: Growth and Habits
in an Unusual Environment." Science (New York), Vol. 77, 12 May 1933, pp 447-449.

61. Kodota, Hajime. "A Study of the Marine Cellulose-Decomposing Bacteria. "
Fisheries Series (Japan), Vol. 6, 1956.

62. Defense Research Laboratories. Report No. 192, The Preservation of Ropes
Against Deterioration in Sea Water, by W. R. Hindson. Dept. of Supply, Australia,
May 1953.

63. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Report No. 22, Fishing Gear Preservatives
for Philippine Waters, 1950.

64. Naval Research Laboratory. Report No. $2477, Corrosion and Fouling of
Sonar Equipment, Part |, by J. W. Fitzgerald, M. S. Davis, and B. G. Hurdle.
Office of Naval Research, Washington, D. C., March 1947.

65. Kalinenko, V. O., and N. A. Mefedova. "Bacterial Fouling of the Submerged
Parts of Ships." (In Russian with English Summary.) Microbiologiya, Vol. 25, 1956,
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66. Ragg, M. "The Biological Rapid-Testing of Ship-Bottom Paints." (In German. )
Farbe U. Lack, Vol. 57, July-August 1951, pp 287-291, 352-356.

67. Marine Fouling and its Prevention, prepared for Bureau of Ships, Navy Department,
by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Mass. Contribution No. 580.
Copyright by United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Md., 1952.

68. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Technical Report No. 5, Fouling in
the Western Pacific, by L. W. Hutchins under Office of Naval Research Contract
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69. Turner, Ruth D. "The Family Pholadidae in the Western Atlantic and the
Eastern Pacific." Johnsonia, Vol. 3, Parts | and II, May 1954 and March 1955.

22

70. Schmitt, W. L. Crustaceans in Smithsonian Scientific Series, Vol. 10,
Washington, D. C., 1931, pp 85-248.

71. MacGinitie, G. E. "Ecological Aspects of a California Marine Estuary."
Amer. Midland Naturalist, Vol. 16, 1935, pp 639-765.

72. Yonge, C. M. The Sea Shore. Wm. Collins Sons and Co., London, 1949.

73. Yonge, C. M. "Marine Boring Organisms." Research (London), Vol. 4, 1951,
pp 162-167.

74. U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory. Technical Report 147, Harbor
Screening Tests of Marine Borer Inhibitors — Il, by H. Hochman and T. Roe, Jr.
Port Hueneme, California, 16 May 1961.

75. U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory. Technical Report 048, The Toxicity
of Chemical Agents to Marine Borers — I, by H. Vind and H. Hochman. Port Hueneme,
California, 29 June 1960.

76. Vind, H., H. Hochman, J. Muraoka, and J. Casey. "Relationship Between
Limnoria Species and Service Life of Creosoted Piling." ASTM Special Technical
Publication No. 200. Amer. Soc. Test. Mat., Philadelphia, September 1956,
pp 35-50.

77. Ray, Dixy Lee. "An Integrated Approach to Some Problems of Marine Biological
Deterioration: Destruction of Wood in Sea Water," in Marine Biology, edited by
Ivan Pratt and James E. McCauley. Biology Colloquium, Oregon State College,
Corvallis, 1959, pp 70-87.

23

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35

No. of

copies
10
1
4
10

SNDL
Code

23A
39B
39D
39E
39F
A2A
A3
A5
B3
E4
E5
El6
F9

Eli7,

F21
F40
F4l
F42
F48
H3

H6
Jl
J3
J4
J19
J34
J37
S46
J48
J60
J65
J84
J90

DISTRIBUTION LIST

Chief, Bureau of Yards and Docks (Code 70)
Naval Forces Commanders (Taiwan Only)
Construction Battalions

Mobile Construction Battalions
Amphibious Construction Battalions
Construction Battalion Base Units

Chief of Naval Research - Only

Chief of Naval Operation (OP-07, OP-04)
Bureaus

Colleges

Laboratory ONR (Washington, D. C. only)
Research Office ONR (Pasadena only)
Training Device Center

Station - CNO (Boston; Key West; New Orleans; San Juan; Long Beach; San Diego;
Treasure Island; and Rodman, C. Z. only)

Communication Station (San Juan; San Francisco; Pearl Harbor; Adak, Alaska; and
Guam only)

Administration Command and Unit CNO (Saipan only)
Communication Facility (Pt. Lyautey only)

Security Station

Radio Station (Oso and Cheltanham only)

Security Group Activities (Winter Harbor only)

Hospital (Chelsea; St. Albans, Portsmouth, Va; Beaufort; Great Lakes; San Diego;
Oakland; and Camp Pendleton only)

Medical Center

Administration Command and Unit - BuPers (Great Lakes and San Diego only)
U. S. Fleet Anti-Air Warfare Training Center (Virginia Beach only)
Amphibious Bases

Receiving Station (Brooklyn only)

Station - BuPers (Washington, D. C. only)

Training Center (Bainbridge only)

Personnel Center

Construction Training Unit

School Academy

School CEC Officers

School Postgraduate

School Supply Corps

36

Distribution List (Cont'd)
No. of SNDL

copies Code
1 J95 School War College
1 J99 Communication Training Center
11 LI Shipyards
4 L7 Laboratory - BuShips (New London; Panama City; Carderock; and Annapolis only)
5 L26 Naval Facilities - BuShips (Antigua; Turks Island; Barbados; San Salvador; and
Eleuthera only)
1 L30 Submarine Base (Groton, Conn. only)
2 L32 Naval Support Activities (London & Naples only)
2 L42 Fleet Activities - BuShips
4 M27 Supply Center
7 M28 Supply Depot (Except Guantanamo Bay; Subic Bay; and Yokosuka)
2 M61 Aviation Supply Office
15 Nl BuDocks Director, Overseas Division
28 N2 Public Works Offices
7 N5 Construction Battalion Center
5 N6 Construction Officer-in- Charge
1 N7 Construction Resident-Officer-in-Charge
12 N9 Public Works Center
1 N14 Housing Activity
2 R9 Recruit Depots
2 R10 Supply Installations (Albany and Barstow only)
1 R20 Marine Corps Schools, Quantico
3 R64 Marine Corps Base
1 R66 Marine Corps Camp Detachment (Tengan only)
7 WIA1 Air Station
32 W1A2 Air Station
10 W1B Air Station Auxiliary
4 Wwi1c Air Facility (Phoenix; Monterey; Oppama; Naha; and Naples only)
4 WIE Marine Corps Air Station (Except Quantico)
1 WI1F Marine Corps Auxiliary Air Station
8 W1H Station - BuWeps (Except Rota)
1 Deputy Chief of Staff, Research and Development, Headquarters, U. S. Marine Corps,
Washington, D. C.
1 President, Marine Corps Equipment Board, Marine Corps School, Quantico, Va.
2 Library of Congress, Washington, D. C.
200 Director, Office of Technical Services, Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C.

37

No. of
copies

1

Oo NM NY NY CO ND

Distribution List (Cont'd)

Chief of Staff, U. S .Army, Chief of Research and Development, Department of the Army,
Washington, D. C.

Office of the Chief of Engineers, Assistant Chief of Engineering for Civil Works, Department of
the Army, Washington, D. C.

Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army, Attn: Engineering R & D Division, Washington, D. C.
Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army, Attn: ENGCW-C, Washington, D. C.

Director, U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Attn: Information
Resources Branch, Fort Belvoir, Va.

Headquarters, Wright Air Development Division, (WWAD-Library), Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio

Headquarters, U. S. Air Force, Directorate of Civil Engineering, Attn; AFOCE-ES,
Washington, D. C.

Commander, Headquarters, Air Force Systems Command, Andrews Air Force Base,
Washington, D. C.

Deputy Chief of Staff, Development, Director of Research and Development, Department of the
Air Force, Washington, D. C.

Director, National Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce, Connecticut Avenue,
Washington, D. C.

Office of the Director, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C.

Armed Services Technical Information Agency, Arlington Hall Station, Arlington, Va.

Director of Defense Research and Engineering, Department of Defense, Washington, D. C.
Director, Division of Plans and Policies, Headquarters, U. S. Marine Corps, Washington, D. C.
Director, Bureau of Reclamation, Washington, D. C.

Commanding Officer, U. S. Naval Construction Battalion Center, Attn: Technical Division,
Code 141, Port Hueneme, Calif.

Commanding Officer, U. S. Naval Construction Battalion Center, Attn: Materiel Department,
Code 142, Port Hueneme, Calif.

Commanding Officer, Yards and Docks Supply Office, U. S$. Naval Construction Battalion Center,
Port Hueneme, Calif.

Dr. Ruth D. Turner, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass.
Mr. V. Bagdon, U. S. Army Engineering Research and Development Laboratories, Ft. Belvoir, Va.

Dr. A. M. Kaplan, Pioneering Research and Engineering Command, Natick, Mass.

Dr. C. Lamanna, Army Research Office, Office Chief, Research and Development, Washington, D. C.

38

Distribution List (Cont'd)

No. of
copies

1 U. S$. Naval Electronics Laboratory, San Diego, Calif.

1 U. S. Naval Ordnance Test Station, China Lake, Calif.

1 U. S. Naval Ordnance Test Station, Pasadena, Calif.

1 President, Beach Erosion Board, Corps of the Engineers, Department of the Army,
5201 Little Falls Road, N.W., Washington, D. C.

1 Hydrographer, U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office, Washington, D. C.

1 National Academy of Science, National Research Council Committee on Oceanography,
Washington, D. C.

1 Office of Naval Research, Geophysics Branch, Washington, D. C.

1 Director, Woods Hole Oceanographic Office, Woods Hole, Mass.

1 Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif.

1 Marine Physical Laboratory, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif.

1 Department of Zoology, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington,
1013 East 40th Street, Seattle, Wash.

1 Lamont Geological Observatory, Columbia University, Pallisades, N. Y.

1 Bingham Oceanographic Laboratory, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

1 Chesapeake Bay Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

1 Hancock Foundation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles

1 Agricultural & Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, Tex.

1 Marine Laboratory, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Fla.

1 Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

1 University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

1 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Mass.

1 Yale University, New Haven, Conn.

1 California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif.

1 University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.

1 Director, North Atlantic Fishery Investigation, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Woods Hole, Mass.

1 Director, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass.

] Director, Narragansett Marine Laboratory, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, R. I.

1 Head, Dept. of Meterology & Oceanography, College of Engineering, New York University, New York

] Director, Marine Laboratories, University of Delaware, Newark, Del.

1 Director, Oceanographic Institute, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Fla.

1 Director, Institute of Marine Science, University of Texas, Port Aransas, Tex.

1 University of California, Department of Biology, Berkeley, Calif.

1 University of Washington, Department of Oceanography, Seattle, Wash.

1 Director, Arctic Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 1070, Fairbanks, Alas.

39

U. §. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory.
Technical Report R-182.
THE EFFECTS OF MARINE ORGANISMS ON
ENGINEERING MATERIALS FOR DEEP-OCEAN
USE, by James S. Muraoka.

39 p. illus. 7 Mar 1962 UNCLASSIFIED

A literature survey was made of the effects of
marine organisms on various types of engineering
materials, particularly in deep-ocean environments.
A proposed field and laboratory study to accumulate
further data is presented.

U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory.
Technical Report R-182.

THE EFFECTS OF MARINE ORGANISMS ON
ENGINEERING MATERIALS FOR DEEP-OCEAN
USE, by James S. Muraoka.
39 p. 7 Mar 1962 UNCLASSIFIED

Illus.

A literature survey was made of the effects of
marine organisms on various types of engineering
materials, particularly in deep-ocean environments.
A proposed field and laboratory study to accumulate
further data is presented.

llo

llo
I.

1.

Deep-ocean materials —
Biological deterioration
Muraoka, James S.

Y-RO11-01-042

Deep-ocean materials —
Biological deterioration
Muraoka, James S.

Y-RO11-01-042

U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory.
Technical Report R-182.

THE EFFECTS OF MARINE ORGANISMS ON
ENGINEERING MATERIALS FOR DEEP-OCEAN
USE, by James S. Muraoka.
39 p. illus. 7 Mar 1962 UNCLASSIFIED

A literature survey was made of the effects of
marine organisms on various types of engineering
materials, particularly in deep-ocean environments.
A proposed field and laboratory study to accumulate
further data is presented.

U. S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory.
Technical Report R-182.

THE EFFECTS OF MARINE ORGANISMS ON
ENGINEERING MATERIALS FOR DEEP-OCEAN
USE, by James S. Muraoka.
39 p. illus. 7 Mar 1962 UNCLASSIFIED

A literature survey was made of the effects of
marine organisms on various types of engineering
materials, particularly in deep-ocean environments.
A proposed field and laboratory study to accumulate
further data is presented.

1. Deep-ocean materials —
Biological deterioration
Il. Muraoka, James S.

Il. Y-RO11-01-042

1. Deep-ocean materials —
Biological deterioration

I. Muraoka, James S.

Il. Y-RO11-01-042

Distribution List (Cont'd)

No. of
copies

1 Dr. R. A. Connolly, Bell Telephone Labs., Inc., Murray Hill, N. J.

1 Chief, Bureau of Ships, Attn: Chief of Research and Development Division, Navy Department,
Washington, D. C.

1 Officer in Charge, U. S. Naval Biological Laboratory, Naval Supply Center, Oakland, Calif.

1 Officer in Charge, U. S. Naval Supply Research and Development Facility, Naval Supply Center,
Attn: Library, Bayonne, N. J.

1 Director, Marine Physical Laboratory, U. S. Navy Electronics Laboratory, San Diego, Calif.

1 Chief, Bureau of Naval Weapons, Attn: Research Division, Navy Department, Washington, D. C.

1 Commander, Pacific Missile Range, Attn: Technical Director, Point Mugu, Calif.

1 Commander, Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Attn: Metallurgical Laboratory, Portsmouth, Va.

1 Officer in Charge, U. S. Naval Supply Research and Development Facility, Naval Supply Center,
Bayonne, N. J.

] Commander, Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Attn: Chemical Laboratory, Portsmouth, Va.

1 Commander, U. S. Naval Shipyard, Attn: Rubber Laboratory, Mare Island, Vallejo, Calif.

1 Commander, U. S. Naval Shipyard, Attn: Materials and Chemical Lab., Boston

1 Commander, U. S. Naval Shipyard, Attn: Material Laboratory, Brooklyn

1 U. S. Naval Research Laboratory, Chemistry Division, Washington, D. C.

1 Deputy Chief of Staff, Research & Development Headquarters, U. S. Marine Corps, Washington, D. C.

1 Deputy CCMLO for Scientific Activities, Washington, D. C.

1 Chief of Ordnance, U. S. Army, Attn: Research & Development Laboratory, Washington, D. C.

1 Commanding Officer, Signal Corps Engineering Labs, Fort Monmouth, N. J.

1 Department of Zoology, Duke University, Durham, N. C.

1 Department of Biology, University of Nebraska, Omaha, Neb.

1 Library, Biology Dept., Stanford University, Stanford, Calif.

1 Library, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Calif.

1 Mr. A. P. Richards, The Wm. F. Clapp Laboratories, Duxbury, Mass.

1 Dr. S. R. Galler, Code 446, Office of Naval Research, Washington, D. C.

1 Mr. Carrol M. Wakeman, Port of Los Angeles, P.O. Box 786, Wilmington, Calif.

1 Dr. R. Rabson, Biology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, P.O. Box Y, Oak Ridge, Tenn.

1 Director, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington, D. C.

1 Mr. J. R. Moses, Material Testing Laboratory Code C400, District Public Works Office,
14th Naval District, Navy No. 128, FPO, San Francisco

1 Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Technical Library, Code 245.1D, Bremerton, Wash.

1 Drs. W. M. Bejuki and C. J. Wessel, Prevention of Deterioration Center, Washington, D. C.

1 Dr. D. Isenberg, Department of Defense, Washington, D. C.

1 Dr. J. B. Loefer, Coordinator for Biological Sciences, Office of Naval Research,

1030 E. Green Street, Pasadena, Calif.