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EGYPT,  CYPRUS  AND  ASIATIC  TURKEY. 


EGYPT, 


CYPRUS  AND  ASIATIC  TURKEY. 


BY 

J.    LEWIS    FAELEY, 

KNIGHT   GOLD   CROSS    OF    THE    SERVIAK   OBDER   OP   THE   TAKOVO ; 

CORRESPONDING    MEMBER    OF   THE   INSTITUT   EGYPTIEN   OF  ALEXANDRIA; 

AUTHOR   OF    "  THE    RESOURCES    OF    TURKEY," 

"TURKS  AND   CHRISTIANS," 

ETC.,  ETC. 


LONDON: 

TRtiBNER    &    CO.,    LUDGATE    HILL. 

1878. 


[The  Right  of  Translation  is  reserved.^ 


LOKDOK : 
ClATTON   XVT)   CO.,   TEMPLE  PRINTINO   WOEKS, 
BOUTBRIE   STREET,    WHITEFRIARS. 


SRLQ 


TO    THE    MANY    FBIENDS, 


BOTH    MUSSULMAN    AND    CHRISTIAN, 


WHOSE    KINDNESS    AND    HOSPITALITY 


RENDERED    HIS    SOJOURN    IN    SYRIA 


SO   ACtREEABLE, 


^!)ts  iSooli 


IS     DEDICATED    BY 


THE    AUTHOE. 


PEE  F  A  C  E. 


Some  explanation  is  due  to  the  readers  of 
this  volume  for  what  may  be  justly  considered 
the  want  of  continuity  in  its  pages.  The  fact 
is  that  when  I  commenced  the  first  chapter, 
my  only  purpose  was  to  direct  attention  to  the 
attractions  of  a  winter  residence  in  Egypt,  of 
spring  in  Syria,  and  summer  on  the  Bosphorus. 
As  I  proceeded,  however,  I  could  not  fail  to 
remember,  what  many  persons  now  appear  to 
forget,  that  Palestine  and  Syria  form  part  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  and  are  justly  entitled  to 
whatever  privileges  the  convention  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  Porte  may  in  the  future 
bring  to  Asia  Minor.  Having  resided  many 
years  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  given  special 
attention  to  its  resources,  and  to  the  deplorable 


VUl  PEEFACE. 

condition  of  its  populations,  I  felt  that  the 
British  Protectorate  was  a  subject  which  I 
could  not  well  pass  by  in  silence.  My  views 
thereon  consequently  fill  a  considerable  portion 
of  this  volume. 

Our  recent  acquisition  of  Cyprus  has  also 
given  occasion  for  a  few  passing  observations. 
I  have  visited  the  island,  and  resided  during 
two  years  on  the  neighbouring  coast  of  Syria; 
and  was,  at  the  time,  led  to  believe  that  Cyprus 
was  one  of  the  healthiest  islands  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. If  it  has  not  proved  to  be  so  for  our 
troops,  the  imprudence  of  the  authorities  in 
charge  is  to  be  largely  blamed. 

The  future  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  the 
effect  which  the  British  Protectorate  may  have 
upon  that  future,  are  questions  upon  which  I 
do  not  presume  to  be  dogmatic.  I  trust,  how- 
ever, that  my  long  experience  of  the  country 
will  impart  some  practical  value  to  my  views. 

14,  Cochspur  Street,  Pall  Mall,  S.W., 
Nov.  7,  1878. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


Pages. 


Winter  in  Egypt — The  land  of  the  Khedive — Alex- 
andria, Cairo,  and  Suez  Canal — Progress  of  Egypt 
— Products — Cairo  as  a  winter  residence — 
Climate — Travelling  on  the  Nile — The  Dahabeah 
— The  Nile  steamer — Ruins  of  Luxor  and  Kar- 
nak — Dancing  girls  of  Esneh — Cost  of  journey  to 
Philee  and  back       ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  1 — ^ 

CHAPTER  II. 

Travelling  in  Palestine  and  Syria — Mistakes  made 
by  travellers — Climate — Most  economical  way  of 
seeing  the  country — Tent  Life — Beyrout — Re- 
markable places  to  visit — Best  months  in  which 
to  visit  Palestine  and  Syria — Beyrout  as  a  pied- 
a-terre — Routes  from  London  ...  ...  9 — IJ 

CHAPTER  III.     "^ 

Beyrout  —  Climate — Comparison  of  the  climate  of 
Beyrout  with  that  of  Hyeres,  Nice,  Naples  and 
Madeira — Beyrout  under  the  Romans — Its  former 
greatness — Approach  to  Beyrout  by  sea — Sce- 
nery of  Beyrout  and  Mount  Lebanon — Historical 


CONTENTS. 


Pages. 


reminiscences — Celebrated  places  in  vicinity — 
Society — Cost  of  living — Advantages  of  Beyrout 
as  a  health  resort — Ras-el-Beyrout — Hotel  de 
Belle  Vue — Improvements  in  Beyrout    ...  ...       14 — 27 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Beit -Miry  on  Mount  Lebanon — Druses  and  Maronites 
— Scenery — The  Plain  of  Beyrout — The  Nahr-el- 
Beyrout — Luxuriant  vegetation — Brumanah      . . .       28 — 34 

CHAPTER  V. 

Mount  Lebanon — Climate — Effect  of  the  climate  in 
restoring  health — Journey  to  Grhazir,  Harisa, 
and  Antoura — Cave  of  St.  George — Dog  River — 
Village  of  Juneh — Scenery  of  Mount  Lebanon — 
Maronite  hospitality — Maronite  princess — The 
tantoor — Arab  horses,  their  training  and  saga- 
city— ^Monastery  of  Harisa — Lebanon  wine^ 
Monastery  of  Beit- Cash-Bow — College  of  An- 
toura— Education  on  Mount  Lebanon — Syrian 
courtesy — Salutations  in  various  countries — Con- 
vent of  Deir-Beshara — The  nuns — Village  of 
Zook — The  Nahr-el-Kelb — Dinner  at  the  Hotel 
Pittoresque — The  Dog  River  by  moonlight — Re- 
turn to  Beyrout  by  water  ...         ...         ...         ...       35 — 53 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Beyrout  to  Jerusalem — Jaffa — Plains  of  Sharon — 
Ramleh — Esdouad — Azotus — Gath — Lydda — Aj- 
alon — Kirjath  -  Jearim — Elah — Emmaus — Beth- 
any— Jericho — The  Jordan — Solomon's  Pools — 
Hebron  —  Jerusalem — Beyrou  t    to    Damascus — 


CONTENTS.  XI 

Pages. 
The  Damascus  Road — Its  success — The  Beyrout 
Water-  Works  Company — Its  failure — Damascus         64 — 6  7 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Beyrout  to  Nazareth — Kaiffa — Mount  Carmel — Route 
from  Kaiffa — Plains  of  Esdraelon — The  Bedawins 
— Costumes  of  the  people — Convent  of  Terra 
Santa — Hospitality  of  the  monks — Church  of  the 
Annunciation — The  Virgin's  well — St.  Joseph's 
workshop — Scenery  round  Nazareth — Associ- 
ations— Cana  of  Galilee — Mount  of  Beatitudes 
— Tiberias — Mount  Tabor — The  monk's  dream — 
Church  of  the  Transfiguration — Plains  of  Za- 
bulon  68—67 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

A  day  with  the  Bedawins — The  tribe  of  the  Ha- 
waras — Salihl-Aga — The  village  of  Abilin — 
Marriage  festivities — Breakfast  with  a  Bedawin 
Chief — Arab  hospitality — Sham  -  fight — Casting 
the  djerreed — The  Bridegroom — Fight  for  the 
love  -  token — Arab  customs — Dancers — Ride  to 
St.  Jean  d'Acre — Fortifications — Mount  Carmel — 
Convent  of  St.  Elias  68—75 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Syi'ia — Ancient  Syria — The  Phoenicians — Tyre — Syria 
under  the  Romans — Under  the  Khalifs — Wealth 
and  splendour  of  its  cities — Occupation  by  the 
Turks — Mussulman  and  Turk  not  synonymous 
terms — The  Arabs — Civilization  of  the  Mussul- 


XU  CONTENTS. 


Pages. 


man  East — The  Moors  in  Spain — Superiority  of 
the  Arab  race — The  Arab  and  his  Turkish 
masters — Desire  for  independence — The  restora- 
tion of  the  Holy  Land — Syria  and  Palestine  as  a 
field  for  immigration — Commercial  improvement 
— Future  importance  of  Beyrout *?& — 85 

CHAPTER  X. 

The  British  Protectorate  of  Asiatic  Turkey — Lord 
Beaconsfield  and  the  Empire  of  the  East — What 
is  the  British  Protectorate  ? — Reforms — The  Tur- 
kish Pashas — Fuad  and  Midhat — Regeneration 
of  Asiatic  Turkey — Internal  administration — 
Turkish  justice — The  judges  and  the  local  coun- 
cils— The  elective  principle — Collection  of  taxes 
— The  usurer,  tax-farmer,  and  Turkish  officials 
— Condition  of  the  agricultural  population — Diffi-  • 
culties  of  the  task  undertaken  by  the  British 
Government...  ...  ...         ...  ...  ...     86 — 106 

CHAPTER  XI. 

The  resources  of  Asiatic  Turkey — Mineral  wealth — 
Coal  mines  of  Heraclia — The  valleys  of  Kosloo 
and  Soungoul — Metalliferous  minerals — Copper 
mines  of  Eleon,  Bakyrkurchai,  Tireboli,  Argana- 
Maden,  and  Tokat — Silver  mines  of  Gumush- 
Khaneh — Lead  and  silver  mines  of  Balgar- 
Dagh,  Akdagh-Maden,  Esseli,  Kure-Maden,  and 
Helveli — Agricultural  resources — Area  of  Turkey 
in  Asia — Syria,  Palestine,  and  Asia  Minor  as  a 
field  for  immigration — Hints  to  immigrants — 
Visit  to  a  model  farm — Profits  on  grain- farming 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

Pages. 
— Sheep — Vine  culture  and  wine-making — The 
mulberry  and  rearing  of  silkworms — Asiatic 
Turkey  as  a  field  for  British  capital  and  enter- 
prise— Public  works — The  future  of  Syria,  Pales- 
tine and  Asia  Minor  ...  ...  ...  ...   107 — 120 

CHAPTER   XII. 

Railways  in  Asiatic  Turkey — Defective  appliances  for 
the  transport  of  merchandize — Narrow  -  gauge 
railways — The  Smyrna  and  Aidin  Railway — The 
Smyrna  and  Cassaba — The  Varna  and  Rustchuk 
— Roads — Samsoun,  Sivas,  Angora,  and  Sinope 
— Anatolia — The  Trebizond  road — The  Persian 
transit  trade — Railway  from  Batoum  via  Kars 
to  Tabreez — Harbours — Canalization  of  rivers 
— Smyrna — Beyrout — Jaffa — The  desideratum 
for  Asiatic  Turkey 121—132 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  Euphrates  Valley  Railway — Mr.  W.  P.  Andrew's 
project — Mr.  Latham's  project — The  gi'eat  scheme 
of  Sir  Macdonald  Stephenson — Cost  of  Mr.  An- 
drew's projected  railway — Practicability  of  the 
Euphrates  Valley  route — Superiority  of  the  Ti- 
gris route  over  that  of  the  Euphrates  Valley — 
Alexandretta — Aleppo — The  gi^and  idea  of  Sir 
Macdonald  Stephenson — Railway  from  the  Bos- 
phorus  to  the  Persian  Gulf — Cost  of  the  railway — 
Distance  from  the  Straits  of  Dover  to  Bussorah 
— Relative  merits  of  the  different  schemes — Pro- 
posed routes — Dividend-paying  value  of  the 
traffic  133—148 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 


Pages. 


Beyrout  to  Cyprus — Lamaca — Pamagusta — Siege  by 
the  Turks — Fate  of  Marcantonio  Bragadino — 
Population  of  Cyprus — Uncultivated  land  in 
Cyprus — Products — Mineral  and  agricultural 
resources — Archaeology — Health  of  the  Island — 
Sickness  of  British  troops  caused  by  imprudence 
and  want  of  ordinary  precautions — Best  preventa- 
tives against  intermittent  fever — Suggestions  to 
our  Government — Public  works  ...         ...         ...  149 — 164 

CHAPTER  XV. 

The  island  of  Cyprus — Its  area — Soil — ^Agriculture — 
Products — Mineral  products — Salt- pits — Manu- 
factures —  Ports — Roads — Commerce  —  Popula- 
tion— Condition  of  the  inhabitants  ...         ...  165 — 164 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

Cyprus  to  Constantinople — Rhodes — The  Knights  of 
St.  John — Patmos — Cos — Samos — Scio — Smyrna 
— Ruins  of  Ephesus — Climate  and  society  of 
S  myma — Mitylene — Lesbos  — Tenedos — Darda- 
nelles— The  site  of  Homeric  Troy  ...         ...  166 — 171 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Summer  on  the  Bosphorus — First  view  of  Con-stanti- 
nople — Improvements  in  Stamboul — Galata  and 
Pera — Hotels — Salubrity  of  Constantinople — The 
ancient  Byzantium — Oracle  of  Apollo — Chalcedon 
— The  Emperor  Constantine — The  Eastern  Em- 
pire— Last  of  the  Paleeologi — The  fall  of  Con- 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGES. 

stantinople — Mohammed  II. — The  Crescent  and  the 
Star — Constantine  the  Great — Extent  of  the 
Eastern  Empire — Winter  and  summer  in  Con- 
stantinople— The  Bosphorus — Climate  and  scenery 
— Palaces  of  the  Sultan — The  palace  of  Beylerbey 
— Prinkipo  and  Buyukdere — Sweet  "Waters  of 
Europe  and  Asia — Scutari — The  Giant's  Mountain 
— Turkish  women,  their  status  and  treatment — ■ 
The  laws  of  the  Koran  in  reference  to  women — 
Objects  of  interest  to  be  seen  in  Constantinople 
— Mosque  of  Saint  Sophia — The  Hasne,  or 
Imperial  treasury — The  bazaars — Howling  and 
Dancing  Dervishes — The  Sultan  going  to  Mosque 
— Routes  from  Constantinople  to  London  ...  172 — 192 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

The  future  of  the  Ottoman  Empire — Tradition  of  the 
Turks — Retirement  of  the  Turks  to  Asia — Deci- 
sions of  the  Berlin  Congress — Dismemberment 
of  Turkey — The  Osmanlis  as  conquerors — Their 
decline — Support  of  the  Turks  by  successive 
British  Governments — The  integrity  of  Turkey 
— The  Grand  Hellenic  Idea — Disappointment  of 
Greece — Independence  of  Servia,  Montenegro, 
and  Roumania — Detachment  of  Bulgaria,  Bosnia, 
Herzegovina,  and  the  Dobrudsha — Austria  and 
the  Slaves — Struggle  between  the  Slaves  and  the 
Greeks — Constantinople,  the  future  capital  of  a 
Greek  or  Slavonic  Empire — The  British  Protec- 
torate of  Asiatic  Turkey — Probable  complications 
— Promises  of  reform  by  the  Sultan — The  Turkish 
Pashas — Reformation  of  Asiatic  Turkey  by  the 


XVI  CONTENTS. 


Pages. 


British  Government — Asia  Minor — Aspirations 
of  tlie  people  of  Palestine  and  Syria — The  acquisi- 
tion of  Cyprus — Its  future — Annexation  of  Pales- 
tine, Syria  and  Asia  Minor  to  Great  Britain 
— Our  Indian  Empire — Afghanistan — Persia — 
Future  of  Asiatic  Turkey 193—21 7 


APPENDICES. 

I.  The  Suez  Canal      219—227 

II.  Fuad  Pasha's  Political  Testament  228—245 

m.  Law  Granting  to  Foreigners  the  Right  of  Hold- 
ing Real  Property  in  the  Ottoman  Empire     . . .  246 — 264 
IV.  The  Trade  of  Cyprus          255—263 


EGYPT,  CYPEUS,  AND  ASIATIC  TURKEY. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

WINTERING   IN   EGYPT. 


The  land  of  the  Khddive  is  likely  soon  to  rival 
in  greatness  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  the  Pha- 
raohs and  the  Ptolemies.  Modern  Egypt  cannot, 
it  is  true,  compare  with  ancient  Egypt  in  the 
number  of  its  inhabitants  or  the  splendour  of 
its  cities ;  *  but  what  successive  sovereigns,  from 
Sesostris  to  the  Khalifs,  failed  to  effect,  or  ac- 
complished only  in  part,  has  been  completely 
achieved,  under  the  rule  of  the  Khddive,  by 
the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal, f  while  Alexandria 
and  Cairo  are  fast  becoming  cities  of  palaces, 
and  the  wealth  of  the  country  itself  is  every 
day  increasing. 

*  Herodotus  tells  us  that  in  the  reigu  of  Araasis  there 
were  20,000  cities  in  Egypt,  while  Diodorus  says  that  in  his 
time  there  were  30,000  towns  and  villages. 

f  See  "  Suez  Canal,"  Appendix  I. 

B 


2  EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

Western  prejudice  attributes  the  present  igno- 
rance of  the  Mussulman  population  of  Turkey 
to  Islamism,  and  concludes  that  the  religion  of 
Mahommed  is  a  bar  to  all  human  progress.  Any- 
one, however,  who  visited  Egypt  fifteen  years 
ago,  and  could  now  see  the  vast  improvements 
that  have  been,  and  are  still  being  made  by 
the  Khedive,  would  at  once  have  his  prejudices 
very  much  modified,  if  not  altogether  removed. 
He  would  see  the  harbour  of  Alexandria,  tha 
finest,  probably,  in  the  world,  crowded  with  the 
shipping  of  all  nations ;  with  a  new  breakwater 
and  new  docks  in  course  .of  completion;  ware- 
houses filled  with  cotton,  grain,  and  other  agri- 
cultural produce,  ready  for  export;  railways  in 
operation  or  in  course  of  construction;  every- 
where, in  fact,  the  signs  of  increasing  civiliza- 
tion and  prosperity.  He  would  see  Alexandria 
itself  more  like  an  European  than  an  Eastern 
city,  with  its  magnificent  buildings  and  its 
*' Place  des  Consuls,"  that  exceeds  in  size  and 
beauty  any  square  to  be  found  in  Europe.  He 
would  see  the  land  irrigated  by  the  Nile's  over- 
flow, or  by  means  of  machinery,  everywhere 
teeming  with  rich  crops  of  wheat,  maize,  barley, 
beans,  and  peas;  clover  and  flax;  rice,  sugar- 
cane, tobacco,  and   cotton;    coffio^  indigo,  and 


WINTERING    IN   EGYPT.  6 

madder;  the  gardens  producing  apricots  in  May; 
peaclies,  plums,  apples,  pears,  and  caroubs  in 
Jime;  graj)es,  figs,  and  prickly  pears  in  Jnly; 
pomegranates,  lemons,  and  dates  in  August; 
oranges  in  October;  sweet  lemons  and  bananas 
in  November;  and  the  mulberry  and  Seville 
orange  in  January.  In  old  times,  we  know, 
there  was  "corn  in  Egypt;"  now  there  is  also 
"cotton  in  Egypt,"  and  cotton,  too,  of  the  best 
description.  Even  ten  years  ago,  there  were 
not  less  than  two  hundred  steam  ploughs  at 
work  in  cotton  cultivation.  Every  mechanical 
aid  to  production  has,  in  fact,  been  made  use 
of,  and  the  result  is  an  enormous  increase  of 
wealth  both  to  the  people  and  their  ruler. 

The  long  sea  passage  deterred  many  persons 
from  visiting  Egypt ;  but  now  that  the  journey 
from  Brindisi  to  Alexandria  can  be  made  in 
three  days  and  a  half,  the  superiority  of  Lower 
Egypt  over  the  South  of  France  or  Italy  as  a 
winter  residence  will  become  better  known  and 
appreciated.  Cairo  is,  par  excellence,  the  most 
perfect  Arab  city  of  the  present  day,  and  one 
in  which  its  inhabitants  have,  perhaps,  attained 
to  a  higher  degree  of  civilization  than  in  any 
other  city  in  the  East.  The  climate  of  Egypt 
is   salubrious   during  the   greater  part   of    the 

B  2 


4  EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

year,  and  in  Alexancbia,  even  the  heat  of 
summer  is  seldom  oppressive,  being  tempered 
by  a  fresh  northerly  breeze.  The  Khamseen, 
or  hot  south  -wind,  however,  which  prevails 
in  April  and  May,  is  at  times  unpleasant ; 
and  the  inundations  from  the  Nile  render  the 
latter  part  of  the  autumn  less  healthy  than 
the  summer  and  winter.  In  summer,  the  vil- 
lage of  Eamleh,  four  miles  from  Alexandria, 
is  a  charming  residence;  while  Cairo,  from 
its  clear,  dry  atmosphere  and  equable  tem- 
perature, is  now  admitted  to  be  one  of  the 
most  desirable  winter  resorts  for  invalids.  The 
Khedive,  too,  who,  from  his  immense  wealth, 
his  splendid  hospitality,  and  liberal  patronage 
of  art,  is  justly  entitled  to  be  called  the 
Haroim-al-Easchid  of  modern  times,  is  fast 
rendering  his  capital  as  luxurious  as  it  is 
interesting. 

One  of  the  principal  advantages  which  invalids 
derive  from  a  winter's  residence  in  a  favourable 
climate,  is  that  they  are  enabled  to  take  daily 
and  efficient  exercise  in  the  open  au*.  At  Cairo, 
the  invalid  or  tourist  can  be  constantly  in  the 
open  air,  either  on  foot,  donkey-back,  horseback, 
or  in  a  can-iage.  The  atmosphere  is  not  subject 
to  any  sudden  change,  nor  is  there  danger   of 


WINTEEING   IN   EGYPT.  5 

vicissitudes  of  temperature  such  as  are  experi- 
enced in  many  places  in  the  South  of  Europe, 
nor  cold  cutting  winds  such  as  frequently  prevail 
during  winter  and  spring  at  Nice  and  Naples. 
The  complete  change,  too,  from  the  habits  and 
customs  of  Western  Europe  to  those  of  an 
Eastern  city  like  Cairo,  is,  I  am  convinced,  of 
immense  importance  to  valetudinarians,  for 
impressions  made  upon  the  mind  react  upon 
the  body,  and  the  novelty  of  the  neAV  style 
of  life  in  Egypt  gradually  weans  one  from  a 
too-frequent  thought  of  self.  Who  could  think 
of  dyspepsia  or  hypochondriasis  while  beholding 
the  lovely  sunrises  and  glorious  sunsets,  which 
in  our  foggy  and  comparatively  dismal  climate 
are  never  seen,  or  while  contemplating,  as  at 
Thebes,  the  ruins  of  a  civilization  that  existed 
long  before  Athens  and  Eome  were  founded,  or 
the  history  of  Greece  had  even  been  begun  ? 

The  pleasantest  months  for  a  residence  at 
Cairo  are  December,  January,  and  February. 
The  inundations  of  the  Nile,  having  subsided, 
leave  the  fields  in  November  covered  with  a 
fresh  layer  of  rich  deposit;  then  the  lands 
are  put  nnder  cultivation;  and  during  our 
winter  months,  Avhich  are,  in  fact,  the  spring 
months   in   Egypt,    the   Delta,    as   well   as  the 


b  EGYPT,    CYPIIUS,    AKD   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

Valley  of  the  Nile,  looks  like  a  deliglitfiil 
garden,  teeming  with  verdure,  and  beautiful 
with  the  blossoms  of  trees  and  plants.  It  very 
seldom  rains  at  Cairo,  probably  not  more  than 
three  or  four  times  in  the  year.  Dr.  Abbot 
records  a  few  drops  of  rain  on  December  26 ; 
slight  rain,  January  25 ;  heavy  rain,  January 
30;  a  few  drops,  February  9  and  16;  and  a 
few  drops,  March  6  and  14.  The  thermometer, 
on  the  average,  in  the  month  of  December, 
ranges  from  56°  to  64°  at  9  a.m.,  and  from 
68°  to  77°  in  the  afternoon.  In  January,  52° 
to  69°,  and  64°  to  79°.  In  February,  56°  to 
69°,  and  65°  to  75°.  In  March,  60°  to  76°, 
and  60°  to  78°. 

The  romance  of  travel  in  Egypt  is,  however, 
fast  disappearing.  A  new  bridge  has  been 
recently  built  over  the  Nile,  by  the  Khedive, 
so  that  travellers  can  now  go  direct  in  carriages 
from  their  hotel  to  the  Pyramids  without  being 
obliged,  as  formerly,  to  cross  the  river  in  boats, 
and  finish  the  excursion  on  camels  or  donkeys. 
The  old  'Dahabeah,'  or  Nile  boat,  is  giving 
way  to  the  comparatively  luxurious  Nile 
steamer ;  and  the  charms  of  that  dreamy  Epicu- 
rean life,  floating  up  and  down  the  great  river, 
will  soon  become  a  memory  of  the  past.     No 


WINTERING   IN   EGYPT.  7 

more  encampments  beneath  the  myriad  stars 
and  the  wondrous  sky  of  an  'Egyptian  night, 
amidst  the  labyrinth  of  pillars,  obelisks,  and 
fallen  temples  of  Luxor  or  Karnak.  Instead  of, 
as  heretofore,  passing  the  night  on  land  under 
a  tent,  the  traveller  now  sleeps  in  his  comfort- 
able berth  on  board  the  Khedive's  steamer,  and 
''does"  the  Nile  in  three  weeks  instead  of  three 
months,  as  in  the  palmy  days  of  the  Dahabeahs. 
13efore  the  steamers  began  to  ply,  the  price  for 
a  first-class  boat  was  from  £90  to  £120  a 
month,  for  three  months ;  while  now  the  voyage 
— 685  miles,  from  Cairo  to  Philse,  a  few  miles 
above  the  First  Cataract — and  back  again,  can 
be  made  at  a  cost  of  £44,  including  steamer, 
living,  guides,  and  all  other  necessary  expenses. 
Of  course,  those  who  have  plenty  of  time  and 
money  at  their  disposal  can  have  no  difficulty 
in  obtaining  Dahabeahs,  if  they  prefer  that 
mode  of  locomotion;  but  to  such  as  are  limited 
in  these  respects,  the  steamers  will  be  found 
more  convenient.  The  latter  are  small,  carry- 
ing from  fourteen  to  seventeen  passengers,  and 
stop  at  all  the  places  worth  seeing  between 
Cairo  and  the  First  Cataract — viz.,  Beni-Swaif, 
Minydh,  Eeni-Hassan,  Syout,  Girgeh,  Keneh, 
Luxor,   Karnak,   Esneh,  Edfou,   Koam-Embou, 


8  EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

8nd  Assouan.  A  day  and  a  half  is  spent  at 
Assouan  and  Philse,  and  three  days  at  Luxor 
and  Kamak. 

My  readers  would  not,  I  am  certain,  thank 
me  for  a  description  of  Cairo,  its  squares, 
streets,  mosques,  and  bazaars ;  for  has  not  each 
remarkable  spot  in  that  famed  Arab  city  been 
''done"  over  and  over  again  by  book-making 
travellers  of  every  stamp  ?  Has  not  every 
one,  too,  gazed  in  imagination  on  the  Sphinx, 
and  ascended  the  Great  Pyramid,  that  covers 
an  area  equal  to  the  entire  of  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields,  and  is  one-third  higher  than  the  ball 
of  St.  Paul's?  Have  not  the  Ghawazes,  or 
dancing-girls,  of  Esneh  been  pictured  in  glow- 
ing words,  and  painted  on  undying  canvas? 
And  have  not  the  wonders  of  Thebes,  ''the 
city  with  a  hundred  gates,"  and  all  the  tem- 
ples, colossi,  sphinxes,  obelisks,  and  tombs  of 
Luxor,  Karnak,  Philee,  Syout,  Abydos,  and 
Dendera  been  made  familiar  by  Heeren,  Lepsius, 
Kenrick,  Wilkinson,  and  Gliddon?  My  object 
is  not  to  describe  the  scenery  of  the  iNile,  but 
simply  to  direct  attention  to  the  climatic  advan- 
tages of  Egypt,  and  to  Cairo,  the  city  of  the 
Khddive,  as  a  suitable  winter  residence. 


CHAPTER  II. 

TRAVELLING   IN    SYRIA. 

No  one  who  has  passed  the  winter  in  Egypt 
should  return  to  Europe  without,  if  possible, 
visiting  Syria  and  Palestine ;  and,  in  my  opinion, 
the  pleasantest  months  for  doing  so  are  March, 
April,  and  May.*  In  autumn,  the  country  is 
parched  by  the  scorching  sun  of  July,  August, 
and  September;  but  in  spring,  everything,  re- 
freshed by  the  rains  of  January  and  February, 
looks  green  and  pleasant.  Nature  is  then  seen 
in  her  most  brilliant  aspect,  while  the  tempe- 
rature corresponds  to  that  of  a  fine  English 
summer. 

A  great  mistake,  however,  which  most  tra- 
vellers have  hitherto  made  when  visiting  the 
Holy  Land  is  in  following  the  old  beaten  track 

*  The  French  steamers  leave  Alexandria  in  the  evening, 
and  arrive  at  JaiTa  on  the  following  morning.  Starting 
again  aljout  4  p.m.  they  reach  Beyrout  at  daybreak. 


10         EGYPT,    CYPEUS,    AJJD   ASIATIC  TUEKEY. 

by  first  lauding  at  Jaffa;  thence,  via  Eamleli, 
to  Jerusalem ;  from  Jerusalem,  by  K^ablous  and 
Samaria,  to  Nazareth ;  from  Nazareth  to  Tiberias 
and  Damascus ;  from  Damascus  to  Baalbek ;  and 
from  Baalbek  to  Bey  rout.  This  journey  occu- 
pies about  five  weeks ;  but  although  it  has  many 
attractions,  and  possesses,  for  the  romantically 
inclined,  an  indescribable  charm,  it  has,  on  the 
other  hand,  many  disadvantages.  The  wander- 
iDg  life,  from  day  to  day,  under  a  pure  and 
cloudless  sky,  and  the  encampment  at  night, 
on  the  brow  of  a  hill,  or  in  some  sheltered 
valley,  beneath  the  dome-like  vault  of  heaven, 
are  replete  with  pleasurable  sensations  unknown 
to  the  tourist  in  Europe;  but  there  are  many 
incidental  drawbacks,  not  the  least  beiug  the 
fatigue  which  every  one  has  not  the  strength 
to  bear.  Tent-life,  for  those  who  enjoy  physical 
strength  and  mental  energy,  accompanied  by  a 
spii'it  of  adventure  and  enterprise,  is  certainly 
very  delightful;  but  not  at  all  suited  to  ladies 
or  invalids.  Another  disadvantage  is  the  diffi- 
culty of  thoroughly  examining  the  country,  and 
becoming  perfectly  acquainted  with  the  man- 
ners, habits,  and  customs  of  the  peoj)le.  The 
dragoman  generally  agrees  that  the  journey 
shall  be  completed  within  a  specified  number  of 


TRAVELLING   IN    SYRIA.  11 

days.  lie  is  bound  to  supply  tents,  food,  ser- 
vants, horses,  and  everything  actually  necessary ; 
for  this  he  receives  a  certain  sum  per  head,  as 
mentioned  in  the  contract  which  is  signed  and 
sealed  at  the  British  Consulate.  It  is,  there- 
fore, his  interest  to  finish  the  journey  within 
a  stipulated  time;  and  thus  many  lovely  spots 
out  of  the  beaten  track  are  imobserved,  and 
many  opportunities  for  enjoying  the  beauties  of 
nature  are  lost.  Moreover,  the  inconvenience 
and  anxiety,  particularly  Avith  ladies,  attached 
to  carrying  a  quantity  of  luggage  from  place  to 
place,  are  very  great;  and  the  expense,  unless 
where  the  party  is  numerous,  becomes  consider- 
able. 

The  most  economical,  and,  from  my  own 
experience,  the  pleasantest  way  of  seeing  the 
country,  is  for  the  tourist  to  establish  his  head- 
quarters at  Beyrout,  as  excursions  can  thence 
be  made  to  the  most  interesting  places  in  Syria 
and  Palestine  at  a  comparatively  trifling  cost, 
and  with  little  or  no  fatigue.  The  Hotel  de 
Belle  Vue,  on  the  sea-shore,  a  short  distance 
from  the  town,  is,  in  every  respect,  excellent; 
the  apartments  are  clean,  the  food  unexception- 
able, and  the  attendance  all  that  could  be 
desired.     The  air  is  pure   and  refreshing;   the 


12         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

house  commands  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the 
Mediterranean;  while,  on  the  right,  looking 
from  the  balcony,  over  Beyrout  and  Saint 
George's  Bay,  there  is  a  picture  of  surpassing 
loveliness  which  I  have  never  seen  exceeded. 
Frequent  excursions  can  be  made  to  Mount 
Lebanon.  The  celebrated  palace  of  Bteddin, 
built  by  the  Emir  Beehcr,  is  only  six  hours', 
and  the  villages  of  Beit-Miry  and  Brumanah, 
two  hours'  distance  from  Beyrout.  The  Nahr- 
el-Kelb— Dog  Eiver — is  two  hours  by  land,  or 
an  hour  and  a  half  by  water.  The  route  to 
Baalbek  lies,  for  some  way,  along  the  new 
Damascus  road,  and  the  famed  "City  of  the 
Sun''  can  now  be  reached  with  little  diffi- 
culty. Zahleh,  Zibdany,  Djezzin,  and  Deir-el- 
Kamr,  in  the  southern,  or  "mixed  districts" 
inhabited  by  Druses  and  Maronites,  are  also 
well  worth  a  visit.  The  scenery  of  the 
Kesrawan,  or  northern  portion  of  the  Leba- 
non, inhabited  exclusively  by  Maronites,  is, 
however,  not  at  all  inferior  to  that  of  the 
Druse  districts,  and  the  hospitality  offered  in 
the  numerous  monasteries  to  be  met  with  in 
this  part  of  the  mountain  renders  travelling 
there  more  easy  and  agreeable. 

The  months  of  March,  April,  and  May  can 


TRAVELLING    IN    SYllIA. 


be  very  agreeably  spent  by  making  the  Hotel 
de  Belle  Vue  one's  pied-d-terre^  and  visiting, 
from  time  to  time,  the  various  places  of  interest 


in  the  neighbourhood. 


CHAPTEE  III. 

BEYROUT. 

It  has  often  been  to  me  a  matter  for  surprise 
that,  considering  the  number  of  persons  who 
yearly  seek  the  South  of  France  or  Italy  for 
the  benefit  of  their  health,  so  few  choose  Syria 
as  a  residence.  The  climate,  particularly  of 
Beyi'out,  is  superior  to  many  places  in  Europe 
frequented  by  invalids;  while,  for  those  pre- 
disposed to  pulmonary  complaints,  it  affords  ad- 
vantages that  can  hardly  be  found  elsewhere. 
Hydros  has  long  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  being 
an  excellent  locality  for  persons  suffering  from 
bronchial  affections;  yet  it  is  much  exposed  to 
the  mistral  J  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of 
protecting  hills  on  the  north-west,  and  in  winter, 
spring,  and  autumn,  cold  north-easterly  winds 
prevail  to  a  considerable  extent.  Nice  has 
enjoyed  a  still  higher  celebrity,  although  the 
inconstancy   of   the  winds   is   very   great — the 


BEYROUT.  16 

temperature  being  subject  to  violent  changes 
which  are  extremely  trying  to  delicate  or  ner- 
vous organizations.  The  invalid  is  tempted  out 
of  doors  by  a  brilliant  sun,  and  then  attacked 
by  a  cold  piercing  wind  that  neither  clothes 
nor  flannel  can  keep  out.  Dr.  Meryon,  who 
passed  a  season  at  Nice,  declares  that  "there 
are  more  natives  who  die  of  consumption  at 
Nice  than  in  any  town  in  England  of  the  same 
amount  of  population."  Naples,  although  pos- 
sessing many  advantages,  cannot  boast  much  of 
its  climate,  which  is  exceedingly  changeable 
during  winter.  Cold  cutting  winds  prevail  in 
the  spring,  while  the  sirocco,  by  its  relapsing 
and  paralyzing  influence,  renders  persons  inca- 
pable, during  its  continuance,  of  either  mental 
or  bodily  exertion.  Even  Madeira,  which  has 
long  been  considered  the  paradise  of  invalids,  is 
not  so  favourably  situated  as  is  popularly  sup- 
posed. Drs.  Heineken  and  Gourlay,  who  prac- 
tised in  the  island,  state  that  no  disease  was 
more  common  among  the  native  population  than 
consumption ;  and  Dr.  Mason  says  that  "  affec- 
tions of  the  digestive  organs  are  a  frequent 
cause  of  death  with  the  majority  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, and  there  are  few  places  where  the  system 
is  more  liable  to  general  disorder." 


16         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUBKEY. 

The  climate  of  Bey  rout,  on  the  contrary,  is 
always  moderate,  and  subject  to  less  change 
thaa  any  of  those  places  I  have  named.  Asthma, 
bronchitis,  and  pulmonary  disorders  are  un- 
known ;  the  temperature  is  not  subject  to  sudden 
vicissitudes  of  cold  and  heat;  and  the  wind, 
from  whatever  quarter  it  may  blow,  never  pos- 
sesses any  bleakness  or  ungenial  chill.  January 
and  February  are  the  only  unpleasant  months 
in  the  year,  as  then  the  heavy  rains  come  on ; 
but  the  air  is  always  balmy,  and  the  blue  sky 
is  seldom  obscured  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time.  March,  April,  and  May  are  delightful 
months,  as  all  nature,  refreshed  by  the  showers, 
looks  bright  and  cheerful;  the  *' green  herb  and 
the  emerald  grass  "  are  once  more  renewed,  the 
cactus  overhangs  the  roads  with  its  clustering 
blossoms,  and  the  orange-tree  puts  forth  its 
chaste  and  simple  flower,  loading  the  air  with 
perfume.  The  months  of  July,  August,  and 
September  are  very  hot  in  Beyrout;  but  the 
vicinity  of  Mount  Lebanon  affords  means  of 
varying  the  temperature  to  any  extent  that  may 
be  desired.  Some  of  the  foreign  residents  remain 
in  Beyrout  during  the  entire  summer,  but  the 
greater  number  send  their  families  to  the  vil- 
lages of  Beit-Miry,  Brumanah,  or  Shemlin.  Beit- 


BEYEOUT.  17 

Miry  is  distant  about  one  hour  and  a  half,  Bru- 
manah  two,  and  Shemlin  five  hours.  October, 
November,  and  December  are  like  May  in 
England. 

Beyrout  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and 
became  of  considerable  importance  under  the 
Eoman  emperors.  Justinian  called  it  the 
Nurse  of  the  Law,  and  conferred  on  it  the 
privilege  of  teaching  Eoman  jurisprudence  in 
its  schools.  Traces  of  the  magnificent  baths 
and  theatre,  erected  by  Agrippa,  were  to  be 
seen,  some  few  years  ago,  on  the  north  of  the 
town;  and  even  now,  portions  of  tesselated 
pavement  and  columns  of  perfect  finish  are 
found  in  the  gardens  and  on  the  sea-shore. 
The  Eomans  gave  the  name  of  Felix  to  the 
city,  and,  after  its  destruction  by  Tryphon,  it 
was  rebuilt  by  Augustus,  who  thought  it 
worthy  to  bear  the  name  of  his  favourite 
daughter  Julia. 

The  view  of  Beyrout,  as  the  traveller  ap- 
proaches from   the  sea,   is  very   fine.*     While 

*  There  are  three  routes  "by  which  travellers  can'  reach 
Beyrout  from  London  : — First,  vid  Brindisi  to  Alexandria, 
and  thence  by  steamer.  Second,  vid  Vienna  to  Trieste,  and 
then  by  the  Austrian  Lloyd's  line  of  packets.  Third,  vid 
Paris  to  Marseilles,  and  thence  by  French  steamer. 

C 


18         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    ANB   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

still  at  a  distance,  the  peaks  of  Mount  Lebanon 
are  seen  in  mid -air,  surrounded  by  the  bold 
outline  of  its  undulating  ridges.  Gradually 
the  outline  becomes  more  and  more  distinct. 
Yast  ravines  are  seen  between  the  chasms 
that  divide  rock  from  rock,  and  huge  masses 
loom  forth  like  sudden  creations  out  of  chaos. 
Specks  appear  on  the  mountain  side  that 
presently  expand  into  hamlets  and  villages ; 
while,  on  higher  points,  the  towers  of  numerous 
monasteries  stand  aloft  in  bold  relief  against 
the  sky.  The  mountainous  surface  of  the 
interior  slowly  spreads  out  like  a  diorama, 
and,  as  the  steamer  holds  her  way,  the  scene 
seems  to  unfold  itself  as  if  by  enchantment. 
The  houses  scattered  over  the  plain  gleam  in 
the  morning  sun  from  amidst  their  suiTounding 
foliage,  and  the  breeze  from  the  shore  comes 
laden  with  sweets  from  groves  of  citron  and 
orange.  To  the  left,  in  the  distance,  is  the 
snow-capped  summit  of  Jebel-Sunnin  ;*  and,  in 
front,  Beyrout  herself,  charmingly  situated  on 
the  slope  of  a  hill,  her  head,  as  it  were,  in 
the  clouds,  her  feet  bathed  by  the  sea.      The 


*  Jebel      .     .     Mountain.         Deir    .     .     Monastery. 
Nahr     .     .     Eiver.  Mas.     .     .     Cape. 


BETROUT.  19 

houses,  witli  their  slender  arches  and  flat  roofs, 
surmounted  with  embrasures  of  stone  or  balus- 
trades of  wood;  the  picturesque  rocks  along 
the  shore;  the  white -mulberry  gardens  and 
orange  and  citron  groves;  the  terraces  filled 
with  flowers;  the  palms  towering  towards  the 
sky ;  the  various  and  lively  colours  of  the  walls ; 
the  minarets  of  the  mosques ;  the  grand  and 
noble  mountain;  the  atmosphere  serene  and 
bright; — all  blend  into  a  picture  the  most 
beautiful  I  ever  beheld. 

There  are  few  places  that  can  compete  with 
Beyrout  in  the  various  inducements  which  it 
offers  both  to  the  traveller  and  the  invalid. 
The  country  all  round  is  historical.  There  is 
scarcely  a  spot  on  which  the  foot  treads,  or 
over  which  the  eye  wanders,  that  is  not  rich 
in  the  brilliant  memories  of  the  past.  Cyprus, 
on  the  one  side,  recalls  the  classic  days  of  old, 
when  the  lovely  goddess  arose  out  of  the  sea 
at  Paphos ;  Tyre,  on  the  other,  awakens  visions 
of  princely  argosies  at  anchor  beneath  marble 
palaces  stretching  to  the  water's  edge.  Farther 
on  is  Acre, — before  the  mind's  eye  the  Eed  Cross 
of  the  Crusader  sinks  beneath  the  Crescent 
of   Salah-ed-din.      Opposite    is    Carmel,    whose 

"flowery  top    perfumes    the   skies;"    and   six 

c  2 


20         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY, 

hours  thence  is  Nazareth,  Mount  Tabor,  and 
Genesareth.  Twelve  hours  from  Beyrout  is 
Damascus  the  beautiful;  Baalbek  is  but  forty- 
miles  distant ;  the  Druse  and  Maronite  villages 
of  Mount  Lebanon  are  in  the  vicinity;  a  visit 
to  the  Cedars  forms  a  pleasant  excursion ;  while 
the  Kahr-el-Kelb  and  cave  of  St.  George  are 
only  an  afternoon's  ride. 

Life  and  property  are  perfectly  secure  in 
Beyrout.  Murder,  robbery,  and  other  crimes 
so  frequent  in  European  cities,  are  nearly 
unknown,  and  a  visitor  might  travel  over  all 
the  surrounding  country  without  the  least 
danger  of  molestation.  During  my  residence 
in  Beyrout,  I  rented  a  small  house  for  the 
months  of  May  and  June,  completely  isolated 
on  the  borders  of  the  Little  Desert,  and  a 
considerable  distance  from  any  European  habi- 
tation. My  horse  was  picketed  at  night  in  the 
open  air ;  my  servant  went  home  in  the  evening 
to  his  family,  and  I  slept  with  much  more 
security,  than  I  should,  probably,  have  done 
under  similar  circumstances  in  the  suburbs  of 
London.  I  have  often,  too,  ridden  by  moon- 
light, attended  only  by  an  Arab  groom,  from 
the  Nahr-el-Kelb  to  Beyrout;  and,  at  other 
times,  from  Beyrout  to  Beit-Miry  with,  certainly, 


BEYROUT.  21 

no   fear,    and,    decidedly,    more   safety   than   in 
many  rural  districts  in  England. 

The  society  of  Beyrout,  although  limited,  is 
agreeable.  The  foreign  residents  are  very  hos- 
pitable; many  of  the  married  ladies  having  a 
special  evening  in  each  week  for  receptions. 
There  are  two  principal  hotels;  one  in  the 
town,  the  other,  some  little  distance  on  the 
shore,  at  Eas-el-Beyrout.  The  latter,  although 
not  comparable  with  English  hotels,  is  exceed- 
ingly clean  and  comfortable.  The  terms  are  ten 
shillings  per  day,  wine  of  Lebanon  included. 
Rents  vary  from  twenty-five  to  sixty  pounds 
a  year,  and  furniture  of  a  plain  description  is 
easily  procured.  Servants'  wages  are — for  a 
good  cook  about  two  pounds,  and  a  groom 
(Egyptians  are  the  best)  twenty-five  shillings 
a  month.  A  serviceable  horse  may  be  purchased 
for  eight  to  twelve  pounds,  and,  as  barley  is 
cheap,  it  can  be  kept  for  about  two  pounds  per 
month.  The  necessaries  of  life  are  all  very 
moderate.* 

Those  animals  that  minister  to  the  Avants  of 
man  are  abundant.  The  goats  are  large,  and 
yield  miPv  of  superior  quality.     The  sheep  attain 

*  Now  that  Beyrout  is  becoming  a  sanitarium  for  our 
troops  at  Cyprus,  the  cost  of  living  will  no  doubt  increase. 


22        EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

an  unusual  size,  and  their  tails,  terminating  in 
a  ball  of  fat,  become  so  heavy  that  they  can 
hardly  drag  them  along ;  their  flesh  is  excellent. 
Fish  and  game  are  plentiful.  Grouse,  partridge, 
snipe,  quail,  and  wild  duck  are  abundant  in  the 
season.  Vegetables  of  every  description, — beans, 
peas,  lettuces,  onions,  melons,  cucumbers,  &c. 
The  gardens  are  filled  with  the  citron  and 
orange.  Aleppo  sends  the  far-famed  pistachio 
to  market.  Jaffa  produces  the  delicious  water- 
melon; Damascus, — opiums,  cherries,  peaches, 
and,  above  all,  the  apricot,  called,  by  the 
Persians,  the  Seed  of  the  Sun.  In  short,  every- 
thing is  there  in  profusion  to  satisfy  material 
wants,  to  soothe  Jihe  senses,  and  charm  the 
imagination.  In  its  ethereal  atmosphere,  mere 
existence  becomes  enjoyment,  for  you  have 
only  to  live  to  be  happy;  only  to  open 
your  eyes  to  behold  the  brightest  skj  and 
loveliest  landscapes;  only  to  stretch  out  your 
hand  to  pluck  the  sweetest  and  fairest 
flowers,  and  gather  the  most  delicate  and  lus- 
cious fruits. 

To  the  stranger,  everything  in  Beyrout  con- 
trasts remarkably  with  what  he  has  been 
accustomed  to  in  Europe.  The  Maronite, 
Armenian,   and  Druse;   the   Turk,   Greek,  and 


BEYfiOUT.  23 

Arab;  the  BedawinSj  with  their  picturesque 
costume  and  wild  restless  eye;  the  novel 
phases  of  Eastern  life  daily  seen  in  the  ba- 
zaars;— all  afford  an  ever-changing  scene  of 
amusement.  In  nothing,  however,  is  the  con- 
trast greater  than  in  the  climate.  November 
in  London  and  ISTovember  in  Beyrout;  from 
damp  and  fog,  and  copper-coloured  stifling 
vapour,  to  blue  sky,  clear  atmosphere,  and 
bright  sunshine. 

"  If  all  were  free, 
Who  would  not,  like  the  swallow,  flit,  and  find 
What  season  suited  him  ?     In  summer  heats 
Wing  northward ;  and  in  winter  build  his  home 
In  sheltered  valleys  nearer  to  the  sun." 

Syria  has  manifold  attractions ;  but,  after  all, 
her  great  charm  is  the  sun.  Until  you  visit 
the  East,  you  can  hardly  say  you  have  ever 
seen  the  sun;  comparatively,  there  is  but  twi- 
light elsewhere.  In  Syria,  you  see  and  feel  it ; 
your  heart  is,  as  it  were,  filled  with  it — it  is 
reflected  everywhere.  All  your  sensations  give 
token  of  the  change;  and  every  feeling,  every 
thought  becomes  brighter  and  gayer.  The 
cares  which  may  have  hitherto  beset  you  appear 
to  be  lifted  from  off  your  heart ;  you  feel  raised 
above  the  earth,  and  breathe,  in  reality,  the  air 


24         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

of  heaven.  There  is  no  glare,  for  the  sun 
shines  with  a  soft  and  mellow  light  that  makes 
the  landscape  look  as  if  it  calmly  slept.  No 
wonder  the  Parsees  worshipped  him. 

The  favourite  walk  is  to  the  west  of  the  town, 
along  the  sea-shore  at  Eas-el-Beyrout.  There, 
at  the  various  cafh^  the  pedestrian  can  observe 
the  picturesque  costumes  of  the  people,  as  they 
sip  their  coffee  or  inhale  the  fragrant  tobacco  of 
Djebail ;  some  seated  at  the  doors,  others  reclin- 
ing on  the  grass,  or  on  the  rocks  overhanging 
the  sea, — everywhere  forming  groups  the  most 
various  and  picturesque.  The  hotel,  I  have 
already  mentioned,  is  situated  on  the  Eas-el- 
Beyrout,  and  thence,  towards  evening,  one  of 
the  finest  views  of  the  town  and  mountains  may 
be  obtained. 

"  Now  upon  Syria's  land  of  roses 

Softly  the  light  of  eve  reposes, 

And,  like  a  glory,  the  broad  sun 

Hangs  over  sainted  Lebanon; 
Whose  head  in  wintry  grandeur  towers, 

And  whitens  with  eternal  sleet ; 
Wliile  Summer,  in  a  vale  of  flowers, 

Is  sleeping  rosy  at  his  feet." 

At  this  hour,  nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty 
of  the  view.  To  the  west,  the  sky  is  one  sheet 
of  burnished  gold,   shedding  its  brightness  for 


BEYROUT.  25 

miles  over  the  waters.  Here  and  there,  the 
descending  sun  throws  streaks  of  light  across 
the  many-coloured  houses  of  Beyrout,  and  be- 
yond, the  varied  and  ever-changing  tints  of  the 
mountains, — now  bright  green,  now  purple;  at 
one  moment,  the  deep  gorges  revealed  to  the 
eye,  the  next  lost  in  impenetrable  shade;  here 
the  monasteries  standing  out  in  bold  relief,  there 
lost  to  view  as  if  by  magic, — all  form  a  picture 
which  even  Poussin  or  Claude  Lorraine  has 
never  realized.  Passing  the  Hotel  de  Belle  Yue, 
a  narrow  path  winds  along  the  rocky  shore  until, 
arriving  at  the  potteries,  it  becomes  wider,  and 
then  forms  a  delightful  promenade  to  the  ex- 
treme point  of  Eas-el-Beyrout  where  the  cliff 
rises  two  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  walk  is  pleasantly  varied  by  proceeding 
over  the  sands  and  through  the  winding  lanes, 
bordered  by  the  cactus  and  numerous  flowering 
shrubs,  to  the  Grande  Place  and  the  barracks, 
whence  there  is  a  beautiful  view,  overlooking 
the  town,  St.  George's  Bay,  the  IS'ahr-Beyrout, 
and  Lebanon.  Often,  from  this  barrack  hill, 
have  I  admired  the  wonderful  light  and  shade 
on  the  mountains,  and  the  various  changes  in 
the  colour  of  the  sea.  In  the  morning,  the 
mountain    casts   its   immense   shadow   over  the 


26         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

waves,  which  then  appear  of  a  deep  blue,  lightly- 
tipped  with  foam;  at  mid-day,  they  are  like 
billows  of  gold  in  the  distance,  and  silver  in  the 
foreground;  in  the  evening,  when  the  breeze 
lulls  and  the  sun  declines,  the  sea  is  one  vast 
mirror,  where  the  gigantic  form^  of  the  moun- 
tains are  drawn  with  a  softness  of  shading  and 
distinctness  of  outline  most  remarkable  and 
perfect.  Then,  as  the  sun  sinks  more  and 
more,  the  waves  change  from  blue  to  violet, 
from  violet  to  purple,  through  every  gradation 
of  colour,  until,  at  length,  darkness  comes  with 
tropical  suddenness  upon  the  scene,  and  all  is 
wrapped  in  gloom. 

As  I  have  said  of  Cairo,  so  also  it  can  be  said 
of  Beyrout,  that  the  great  benefit  which  an 
invalid  may  derive  from  a  residence  there  is  the 
facility  of  taking  constant  exercise  in  the  open 
air.  The  early  morning  walk,  when  the  birds 
begin  their  song,  is  healthful  and  invigorating ; 
the  sun  is  not  then  too  powerful ;  the  air  is  cool, 
and  the  flowers,  refreshed  by  the  dew,  give  forth 
an  exquisite  perfume.  In  the  afternoon,  again, 
about  two  hours  before  sunset,  a  breeze  from  the 
west  springs  up,  and  then  every  one  is  on  horse- 
back or  donkey-back  in  the  Pine  Forest, — the 
Rotten  Eow  of  Beyrout.     Dr.  Lee,  whose  works 


BEYKOUT.  27 

on  the  climate  are  well  known,  says,  *'  A  principal 
advantage  which  invalids  derive  from  a  winter's 
residence  in  a  favourable  climate  is  that  they  are 
enabled  to  take  daily  and  sufficient  exercise  in 
the  open  air;  which,  by  causing  free  expansion 
of  the  lungs,  by  improving  the  functions  of 
digestion,  and  exciting  those  of  the  skin  to 
greater  activity  than  would  be  the  case  in  persons 
who  remained  indoors,  as  also  by  inducing  a 
more  cheerful  tone  of  mind,  tends  materially  to 
rectify  any  abnormal  condition  of  the  blood,  and 
by  these  means,  better  than  any  other,  to  obviate 
the  consequences  of  such  abnormal  condition 
Avhen  they  have  not  been  allowed  to  proceed  too 
far."  The  climate  of  Beyrout  appears  to  me  to 
fulfil  all  these  requirements  for  the  invalid,  as  its 
mildness  and  beauty  attract  him  constantly  into 
the  open  air;  and,  when  not  walking  nor  on 
horseback,  he  can  sit  on  the  terrace  of  his  hotel, 
or  on  the  rocks  overlooking  the  mountains,  lulled 
into  a  peaceful  and  delicious  reverie  by  the  low 
murmur  of  the  tideless  sea. 


CHAPTEE  lY. 

BEIT-MIEY. 

Beit-Miry,  one  of  the  ''mixed  villages"  of 
Mount  Lebanon — inhabited  by  Druses  and 
Maronites — is  the  favourite  summer  resort  of 
the  European  residents  of  Beyrout.  During 
the  months  of  July,  August,  and  September, 
when  the  heat  in  the  plains  is  excessive,  a 
sojourn,  even  for  a  few  weeks,  at  Beit-Miry 
is  of  great  advantage  to  health.  The  air,  par- 
ticularly at  night,  is  cool  and  invigorating,  and 
the  change  of  temperature  bracing  and  agreeable. 
The  scenery,  too,  all  round  this  part  of  the 
mountain  is  grand  and  impressive.  Deep  ravines 
and  rising  eminences  on  all  sides,  the  latter 
clothed  with  the  richest  vegetation ; — the  fig 
and  the  olive;  the  oak  and  the  cedar;  the 
fir-tree  and  the  aloe;  the  citron  and  orange; 
the  mulberry  and  the  vine.  The  paths  over  the 
hills    are   flanked  with   the   vine   and   fig-tree, 


BEIT-MIRY.  29 

which  flourish  in  wild  luxuriance,  without  any 
assistance  from  man.  Often,  when  riding  from 
Beit-Miry  to  Brumanah,  I  have  plucked  the 
clustering  grapes  from  branches  so  closely  fes- 
tooned overhead  as  to  almost  shut  out  the  sun 
at  mid-day.  Even  in  more  elevated  parts  of 
Mount  Lebanon,  where  nature  seems  to  afford 
nothing  for  the  sustenance  of  the  people,  nu- 
merous Christian  villages  flourish,  and  every 
inch  of  ground  is  utilized.  Fruit-trees,  mul- 
berry plantations,  vineyards,  and  fields  of  grain 
abound,  though  there  is  scarcely  a  natural  plain 
of  twenty  feet  square  to  be  seen.  The  inhabi- 
tants, however,  meet  this  difficulty  by  building 
terraces,  and  thus,  while  retaining  the  water 
requisite  to  irrigate  their  crops,  secure  a  portion 
of  level  ground  sufficient  to  prevent  the  earth 
being  swept  down  by  the  winter  rains.  By  dint 
of  skill  and  labour,  the  Maronites  have  compelled 
a  rocky  soil  to  become  fertile.  To  avail  them- 
selves of  the  waters,  they  have  made  channels 
by  means  of  a  thousand  windings  on  the  decli- 
vities, or  arrested  the  streams  by  embankments 
and  reservoirs  in  the  valleys.  At  other  places, 
they  have  propped  up  the  earth  by  terraces 
and  walls,  so  that  the  mountain  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  staircase  or  amphitheatre,  each 


30         EaYPT,    CYPRrS,    and   ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

tier  of  which  is  a  row  of  vines  or  mulberry 
trees,  and  of  which  one  hundred  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  tiers  may  be  counted  from  the 
bottom  to  the  top  of  a  hill. 

It  is  enchanting  to  sit  upon  the  brow  of  a 
hill  at  Beit-Miry,  sheltered  from  the  sun  by  a 
fig-tree  or  vine,  and  contemplate  the  sublimity 
of  nature  apparent  on  every  side. 

*'  For  now  the  noonday  quiet  holds  the  hill : 
The  grasshopper  is  silent  in  the  grass : 
The  lizard,  with  his  shadow  on  the  stone, 
Rests  like  a  shadow,  and  the  cicala  sleeps, 
The  purple  flowers  droop :  the  golden  bee 
Is  lily-cradled." 

To  the  west,  the  plain  of  Beyrout  stretches 
out  before  the  eye,  covered  with  the  orange, 
the  date,  the  pomegranate,  and  the  banana; 
the  palms,  here  and  there,  rearing  their  tall 
stems  and  slender  branches  in  the  air;  the 
pines,  so  dark  and  solemn,  contrasting  with  the 
bright  colour  of  the  sands;  the  hills  around 
rising  higher  and  higher,  dotted  with  villages 
and  monasteries;  and  to  the  north,  the  Jebel- 
Sunnin  rearing  its  snowy  crest  towards  heaven. 
Few  places,  indeed,  can  surpass  that  glorious 
plain  of  Beyrout.  There  is  the  orange-tree, 
whose  flowers  have  been   compared  to   silver, 


BEIT-MIRY.  31 

and  its  fruit  to  gold;  the  fig,  with  its  foliage 
of  glossy  velvet;  the  plane,  with  its  rich  and 
brilliant  bark;  the  luxuriant  growth  of  the 
pine ;  the  graceful  flexibility  of  the  palm ;  the 
rich  verdure  of  the  humbler  plants,  and  prairies 
bright  with  the  colours,  and  fragrant  with  the 
scent  of  hyacinths,  anemones,  and  gilly-flowers. 
Beyond  are  the  hills,  with  tlieir  varying  tints, 
their  contrasts  of  light  and  shade;  afar  off  is 
the  sea,  with  its  glittering  wave-crests  and  deep 
azure,  reflecting  on  its  surface  every  hue  that 
fleets  over  the  sky ;  while,  standing  out  in  bold 
relief  against  the  clear  horizon,  are  the  frown- 
ing masses  of  the  mountains  bounding  the 
prospect  in  the  distance.  Towards  evening, 
when  the  wind  sets  in  from  the  sea,  a  curious 
phenomenon,  forming  the  most  exquisite  dis- 
solving views,  is  sometimes  observable  at  Beit- 
Miry.  Vast  layers  and  wreaths  of  cloudy  mist 
arise  from  the  waters  and  the  plains,  and,  as 
they  increase,  unite,  and  thicken,  they  take 
the  appearance  of  irregular  accumulations  of 
foam,  or  enormous  heaps  of  wool  that  Titans, 
or  Cyclops,  or  some  fabled  giants  might  be 
supposed  to  have  shorn  from  multitudinous 
flocks,  numerous  as  the  sands  on  the  sea-shore. 
Everything  beneath  is  hidden  from  sight.     After 


32         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

a  time,  these  misty  clouds  descend  gradually  as 
they  arose; — the  hills  and  trees,  villages  and 
monasteries,  appearing  to  rise  up  out  of  a  sea 
of  foam,  as  if  in  the  magical  phantasmagoria  of 
a  dream. 

In  some  of  the  valleys  near  Beit-Miry,  the 
vegetation  is  so  thick,  and  so  completely  covers 
the  sloping  sides,  that  it  seems  as  if  the  very 
mountains  were  alive  with  herbage  and  verdure. 
An  intermingled  mass  of  fragrant  plants,  shrubs 
of  delicate  foliage,  bunches  of  heather,  and  tufts 
of  fern,  are  twined  together  with  innumerable 
creepers,  whose  tendrils  stretch  everywhere  and 
cling  where  they  extend,  their  festoons  hanging 
from  branch  to  branch  or  from  stone  to  stone ; 
while,  here  and  there,  the  ivy  mats  itself  into  a 
thick  green  coating  up  the  side  of  the  rock.  In 
some  places  are  little  spots  covered  with  lichens, 
growing  in  one  dense  mass, — the  ground  often 
covered  a  foot  deep  with  a  soft  and  close  vege- 
table carpet,  varied  with  every  shade  and  hue, 
and  far  surpassing,  in  vividness  and  beauty,  the 
fantastically-figured  fabrics  of  Turkish  looms. 
All  through  the  valleys,  too,  spring  up,  in  wild 
profusion,  the  most  beautiful  flowers,  whose 
lively  colours  and  exquisite  perfume  diversify 
the  landscape  and  embalm  the  atmosphere.     The 


BEIT-MIRY.  OO 

myrtle  and  oleander  are  there  substitutes  for 
our  holly  and  thistles.  The  hyacinths,  jonquils, 
and  tulijDS  fill  the  parterres;  the  lilies,  so  ex- 
tolled in  Scripture  for  their  purity ;  the  anemone, 
said  by  the  poets  to  have  sprung,  near  this 
very  spot,  from  the  blood  of  Adonis;  and  the 
narcissi, — 

"  The  fairest  among  tliem  all, 
Who  gaze  on  their  eyes  in  the  stream's  recess 
Till  they  die  of  their  own  dear  loveliness." 

Each  feature  of  the  landscape  seen  from 
Beit-Miry  is  lovely  and  sublime  in  itself, 
and  all  taken  together  make  up  one  fascinating 
and  incomparable  tableau.  The  diversified  sur- 
face of  plain,  valley,  and  mountain,  with  every 
variety  of  light  and  shade,  every  possible  tint 
and  colour  of  foliage  and  of  rock,  every  form 
of  tree  and  herbage;  the  river  of  Beyrout 
wandering  like  a  shiny  serpent  through  the 
vale;  the  wide  expanse  of  sea;  the  eternal 
and  stupendous  mass  of  Lebanon,  with  its 
crags  and  forests;  the  snowy  peaks  that  shoot 
up  and  gleam  in  the  sun  like  silvery  steeples? 
the  joyous  though  inarticulate  voice  of  birds, 
and  the  hum  of  innumerable  insects ;  the  dis- 
tant   lowing    of    kine,    nnd    the    strange   bleat 

D 


34         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

of  the  camel;  the  vast  azure  canopy  of  the 
firmament,  against  which  the  crags  of  the  moun- 
tain, and  the  giant  trees  that  seem  to  emulate 
the  hills,  are  all  mixed  and  blended  into  a 
gorgeous  scene  that  might  be  taken  for  fairy- 
land. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

MOUNT     LEBANON. 

The  southern  portion  of  Mount  Lebanon,  called 
tlie  Chouefat,  the  Chouf,  and  the  Meten, — 
*' mixed  districts,"  inhabited  b}'^  Druses  and  Maro- 
nites — is  that  generally  yisited  by  travellers. 
The  Kesrawan,  or  northern  portion,  inhabited 
exclusively  by  Maronites,  is  less  known,  although 
its  scenery  is  not  at  all  inferior  to  that  in  the 
vicinity  of  Zahleh,  Zibdany,  Djezzin,  or  Deir-el- 
Kamr.  Frequent  excursions  can  be  made  from 
Beyrout  to  every  part  of  the  mountain,  but 
there  is  one  excursion — to  Ghazir,  Harisa,  and 
Antoura  in  the  Kesrawan  —  which  will  be 
found  of  especial  interest.  I  remained  only  one 
night  at  each  of  these  places,  but  I  should 
advise  any  person  that  may  follow  the  route 
indicated  in  the  present  chapter,  to  spend,  at 
least;  an  entire  day  at  Ghazir  and  Beit-Cash- 
Bow,  as  well   as   at  Harisa  and  Antoura,  thus 

D  2 


36         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

extending  the  excursion  to  eight   days   instead 
of  four. 

It  would  take  months  to  travel  over  the 
Lebanon,  to  stop  at  all  its  lovely  sites,  and  visit 
all  its  romantic  villages.  It  is  everywhere 
mountainous,  it  is  true,  but  some  variety  or 
some  new  featui'e  is  always  presenting  itself. 
I  know  of  nothing  more  curative  in  its  effect,  or 
more  likely  to  benefit  the  health  of  a  dyspeptic 
invalid,  than  a  residence  at  Bey  rout,  and  an 
occasional  ride  over  those  beautiful  hills.  It  is 
well  known,  as  I  have  already  said,  that 
impressions  made  upon  the  mind  are  influenced 
materially  by  the  condition  of  the  body,  and  the 
one  constantly  reacts  upon  the  other.  It  is 
proverbial  that  the  objective  world  takes  the 
tone  and  tinge  of  our  mind — that  the  sun  has  no 
brightness  and  the  flower  no  beauty  for  the 
unhappy;  while  if  the  heart  is  light,  hope 
sanguine,  and  our  prospects  brilliant,  the  deepest 
gloom  of  a  winter's  night  cannot  sadden  us. 
Every  one  of  any  sensibility  must  have  ex- 
perienced this,  and  we  have  well-known 
illustrations  of  the  fact  in  such  instances  as  the 
imbecile  torpor  into  which  the  great  Chatham  fell 
when  the  hereditary  malady  that  had  so  long 
racked  his  body  seemed  to  retire  inwards,  and 


MOUNT   LEBANON.  37 

paralyze  his  mind — when  he  retired  to  Hayes 
and  could  not  even  hear  business  mentioned 
without  an  attack  of  the  nerves ;  in  the  anecdote 
about  Eavaillac,  or  some  other  regicide,  who 
declared  that,  if  he  had  taken  the  cooling 
medicine  he  required,  he  should  not  have 
attempted  the  king's  life :  so  true  it  is  that 

"  Infirmity  doth  still  neglect  all  office 
Whereto  our  health  is  hound  ;  Ave  are  not  ourselves 
"When  nature,  heing  oppressed,  commands  the  mind 
To  suffer  with  the  body." 

No  doubt  the  tone  and  state  of  the  mind  are  often 
the  result,  not  merely  of  the  condition  of  our 
physical  organism,  buc  of  external  influence  and 
circumstances.  There  is  a  continual  reciprocal 
action  going  on  between  the  outer  world  and  our 
mind  and  feelings.  Now,  in  Syria,  the  climate 
and  scenery  have  all  the  elements  for  restoring 
any  derangement  of  our  corporeal  functions. 
Skies  ever  sunny  and  serene;  an  atmosphere  pure, 
translucid,  and  exhilarating;  the  entire  aspect  of 
nature  combining  the  elements  of  the  grand  and 
the  beautiful;  the  impressions  produced  by 
mountains  towering  to  the  skies,  and  landscapes 
replete  with  gentle  loveliness  ; — all  impress,  with 
their  various  and  cheering  characteristics,  the 
minds  of  those  who  are  within  their  influence. 


38         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

The  traveller  over  those  mountains  feels  a 
buoyancy  that  seems,  as  it  were,  to  lif  fc  him  from 
the  earth ;  and  turn  which  way  he  will,  there 
are  objects  admirably  adapted  to  soothe  and 
charm  the  senses,  to  excite  and  ravish  the  ima- 
gination. No  wonder,  then,  that  he  should  be 
free  alike  from  indigestion  and  low  spirits,  from 
lassitude  and  ennui ;  that  the  joyous  brightness 
and  beauty  without,  should  light  up  a  cheerful 
serenity  within ;  that  his  mind  should  be  in  the 
healthiest  and  happiest  state  for  receiving  the 
gayest  and  most  pleasing  impressions,  and  that 
these  should  fix  themselves  in  his  memory,  and 
be  ever  after  recurred  to  with  delight. 

I  have  good  reason  to  remember  my  first  ex- 
cursion to  Mount  Lebanon.  Previous  to  visiting 
Syria,  I  had  been  for  two  years  in  the  "  doctors' 
hands,"  and  many  persons,  unhappily,  know  what 
that  means.  A  sedentary  occupation  and  over- 
work had  produced  dyspepsia  of  a  severe 
character,  which  the  prescriptions  of  several 
"  eminent ''  medical  men  only  tended  to  intensify 
and  confirm.  The  voyage  from  Marseilles  via 
Alexandria  to  Beyrout  was  of  considerable  benefit ; 
at  the  expiration  of  a  month  in  Beyrout,  I 
re-commenced  to  enjoy  existence,  and  this  first 
excursion  to  Mount  Lebanon  was  the  turning- 


MOUNT   LEBANOX.  39 

point  ill  that  complete  restoration  to  health  which 
I  have  since  enjoyed. 

When  travelling  in  Syria,  it  is  always  advis- 
able to  start  on  a  journey  before  daybreak,  so  as 
to  be  able  to  rest  during  the  heat  of  the  mid- day 
sun.  This  precaution  is  specially  necessary  when 
riding  over  the  plains,  although  not  of  the  same 
importance  on  the  mountains.  The  sun  had  not 
risen  when  we  quitted  our  hotel,  and  walked 
through  the  deserted  bazaars  to  the  Grande  Place, 
where  we  mounted  our  horses.  In  about  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  we  passed  the  sj)ot  where,  it 
is  said,  St.  George  slew  the  dragon.*     A  little 

*  Some  persons  are  so  sceptical  as  to  disbelieve  the  story 
relative  to  this  terrible  dragon,  whose  daily  meal  was  a 
youthful  virgin  sent  from  Beyrout;  until,  at  length,  the 
beautiful  princess,  on  whom  the  lot  had  fallen,  was  fortunately 
rescued  by  St.  George.  These  unbelievers  even  assert  that 
the  marks  shown  on  the  wall,  near  the  cave,  are  not  the 
marks  left  by  the  Saint  Avhen  he  washed  his  hands  after  the 
combat,  but  merely  stains  left  by  the  hand  of  Time.  It  is, 
however,  undoubted  that  St.  George  was  a  Knight  of 
Cappadocia,  of  good  family,  and  suffered  martyrdom  during 
the  reign  of  Diocletian,  a.d.  290.  It  has  been  stated  that 
the  Saint  was  held  in  great  estimation  among  the  English 
even  in  the  Saxon  period ;  but  I  am  inclined  to  assign  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.  as  the  epoch  when  we  became  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  hero,  as  he  was  then  raised  to  the  rank 
of  first  tutelar  saint  in  the  calendar,  upon  the  marriage  of 


40         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TUEKEY. 

further  on,  we  crossed  the  old  Eoman  bridge 
over  the  !N'ahr-Beyrout,  and  a  canter  of  an  hour 
and  a  half  on  the  Mediterranean  shore  brought 
us  to  the  Nahr-el-Kelb,  or  Dog  Eiver,  where  we 
refreshed  our  horses,  and  then  pushed  on  to 
Juneh,  which  we  reached  in  about  forty  minutes. 
The  village  of  Juneh  is  a  favourite  resort  of  the 
Beyroutines  during  the  bathing  season.  The 
houses  are  built  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre 
on  the  side  of  a  hill,  facing  the  sea, — terrace 
above  terrace,  to  a  considerable  height,  affording 
from  each  the  most  exquisite  views  of  water,  plain, 
and  mountain.  We  breakfasted  in  a  charming 
little  cottage  overlooking  the  bay,  and,  after  a 
couple  of  hours'  rest,  commenced  the  ascent  to 
Ghazir. 

There  is  no  actual  road  from  Juneh  to  Ghazir, 
but  the  difficulties  of  the  journey  are  amply 
repaid  by  the  magnificent  scenery  met  with  in 
ascending  the  mountain.  On  the  slopes  and 
acclivities,  tufts  of  shrubs  and  clumps  of  trees 
assume  the  most  picturesque  and  even  fantastic 
forms ;  some  growing  in  the  shape  of  a  cone, 
others  spreading  out  like  an  umbrella,  or  forming 

Henry  with  Eleanor,  daughter  of  William  of  Aquitaine,  who 
died  lighting  for  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  whose  patron  saint 
was  St.  George. 


MOUNT  LEBANON.  41 

a  thick  tangled  mass  of  luxuriant  foliage,  like  a 
colossal  bush.  Every  variety  of  tint,  shape,  and 
size  of  leaf,  too,  is  to  be  seen ;  a  vast  variegated 
labyrinth  where  the  deep  hue  of  the  orange,  the 
bright  yellow  of  the  lemon,  the  dark  colour  of 
the  cypress,  the  leaden  green  of  the  delicate  leaf 
of  the  mulberry,  the  beautiful  pomegranate, 
innumerable  parasitic  plants  hanging  from  over- 
arching branches, — all  mingle  in  a  thousand  wild 
and  charming  combinations,  as  novel  as  they  are 
lovely.  The  ground  itself  is  a  soft  carpet  of 
greensward  strewn  with  the  brightest  flowers ; 
while,  here  and  there,  plots  of  barley  wave  and 
bend  to  the  breeze,  or  the  spreading  caroub  covers 
the  sylvan  homestead  of  a  peasant,  with  its 
garden  full  of  brilliant-coloured  plants,  and  its 
porch  shaded  by  a  clustering  vine,  under  which 
you  are  invited  to  take  rest  and  shelter.  Milk, 
with  bread  and  fruit,  is  offered  to  you,  and  a 
nosegay,  at  parting,  testifies  the  good-will  of 
the  humble  but  hospitable  little  household. 
Continuing  to  ascend  the  mountain,  the  horizon 
beyond  the  plain  seems  to  recede  and  widen, 
while  the  terraces  left  behind  have  a  charming 
effect,  which  I  can  compare  to  nothing  so  much 
as  a  brilliant  cloth  or  tissue  of  many  colours,  all 
blended   and   arranged  so  as  to  present   a   sort 


42         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

of  symmetrical  disorder;  a  wild  spontaneous 
harmonizing  of  vegetable  forms,  the  beauty  of 
which,  without  being  seen,  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  realize. 

Two  hours'  ride  up  the  mountain  from  Juneh 
brought  us  to  the  monastery  of  Beit- Cash-Bow, 
where  we  received  a  cordial  welcome  from  the 
Armenian  fathers.  An  excellent  dinner,  served 
in  European  style,  with  wines  of  Mount  Lebanon 
and  France,  was  in  due  time  placed  before  us, 
and,  after  a  pleasant  chat  over  our  pipes  and 
coffee,  I  retired  to  a  comfortable  bed,  and  slept 
more  soundly  than  I  had  done  for  years.  The 
next  morning,  Sunday,  we  had  an  excellent 
opportunity  of  seeing  the  Maronites  in  their  fine 
church,  and,  afterwards,  walked  across  the  hills 
to  the  Jesuit  college  at  Ghazir.  Our  guide  was 
the  village  doctor,  but  his  professional  emolu- 
ments, I  fancy,  were  very  trifling,  as  he  willingly 
accepted  six  piastres  (one  shilling)  at  parting. 

Eeturning  to  the  monastery,  we  encountered  a 
Maronite  princess,  attended  by  her  maidens, — 
forming  one  of  the  prettiest  living  pictures  I  had 
ever  seen.  The  princess's  dress  consisted  of  a 
blue  silk  pelisse,  fringed  with  gold  cord,  over  a 
pink  silk  vest  embroiderel  in  gold  ;  a  rich  shawl 
bound  round  her  waist,  loose  trousers  of  yellow 


MOUNT   LEI3AN0X.  43 

silk,  and  yellow  leather  papooshes.  Her  face 
was  concealed  by  a  white  veil,  which  hung  from 
the  tantoor,*  but,  as  we  stood  admiringly,  she 
withdrew  the  veil  for  a  moment  to  take  a  look  at 
the  frangl^  disclosing  a  complexion  exceedingly 
fair,  and  a  face  of  perfect  beauty.  The  dresses 
of  her  maidens,  although  less  rich,  were  scarcely 
less  picturesque.  The  costumes  of  the  men  were 
also  very  brilliant,  consisting  of  a  short  red  or 
blue  embroidered  cloth  jacket  over  ii  gay-coloured 
silk  vest ;  a  rich  scarf  round  the  waist,  contain- 
ing silver-inlaid  pistols  or  ivory-haftcd  daggers  ; 
loose  trousers  fastened  over  the  shoe  by 
embroidered  gaiters ;  and  the  head-dress  of  the 
country — the  red  tarbush. 

The  road  to  Hariza  discloses  beauties  of  a 
different  nature  from  those  seen  in  the  ascent 
from  Juneh  to  Ghazir  ;  more  wild  and  grand,  yet 
revealing,  here  and  there,  some  charming  spots 

*  The  tantoor  is  a  conical  tube  of  silver,  from  a  foot  to 
two  feet  in  length,  and  about  three  inches  in  width  at  the 
bottom,  and  one  inch  at  the  top.  It  is  secured  to  a  pad  on 
the  head  by  two  silken  cords,  which  hang  down  the  back, 
and  terminate  in  large  tassels  or  knobs  of  silver.  The  narro^v 
end  projects  over  the  forehead  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  and 
supports  a  long  white  veil  that  falls  gracefully  round  the 
shoulders,  and,  when  reriuired,  covers  the  face.  The  tantoor 
is  worn  only  by  married  women. 


44         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

of  surpassing  loveliness.  It  seems  like  an  effort 
of  nature  to  group  into  one  great  maze  the  most 
diversified  and  opposite  characteristics  of  oriental 
scenery.  Every  emotion  of  our  aesthetic  faculties 
— our  sentiment  of  the  beautiful,  our  conception 
of  the  sublime — are  here  all  called  forth  together, 
and  arise  in  the  mind  at  once.  For  hours  over 
these  heights,  the  place  of  destination  is  con- 
tinually in  sight,  yet  seems  to  recede  as  you 
approach ;  or,  as  we  read  in  fairy  tales,  as  if 
your  horse  seemed  to  move,  or  your  feet  perform 
the  function  of  walking,  without  any  progress,  or 
one  step  in  advance  having  been  made.  Distance, 
seen  across  the  vast  expanse  of  open  valley  and 
through  the  clear  transparent  atmosphere,  is 
almost  inappreciable.  "We  know  that  the  in- 
experienced eye  of  a  person  confined  in  a  cell 
from  birth  would  take  no  cognizance  of  per- 
spective, and  see  nothing  in  the  finest  landscape 
but  a  variously  coloured  surface.  It  is  only 
when  the  sense  of  sight  is  rectified  by  the  other 
senses,  and  confirmed  by  judgment — uncon- 
sciously, it  may  be,  and  without  our  taking 
notice  of  it  at  the  time— that  we  are  able  to 
judge  of  distances.  Thus,  on  visiting  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland  for  the  first  time,  the  mighty 
masses  of  mountain  and  open  sweep  of  moor  and 


MOUNT   LEBANON.  45 

water  make  a  stronger  impression  upon  a  stranger 
than  on  a  person  ^Yh.o  has  been  accustomed  to 
range  over  the  hills,  and  whose  eyes  have  become 
familiar  with  the  prospect.  The  stranger  is  not 
so  well  able  to  judge  of  distance  and  relative 
size,  because  he  finds  himself  amidst  scenery  that 
is  new  to  him ;  and  his  power  of  appreciating 
perspective,  acquired  from  the  top  of  Primroso 
Ilill  or  the  heights  of  Gravesend,  altogether  fails. 
From  a  little  hillock  called  Belmont,  at  Stanmore, 
and  also  from  Brockley  Hill,  on  the  St.  Albans 
Eoad,  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham  can  be 
seen,  when  the  day  is  sufficiently  clear — which, 
however,  seldom  happens — and  it  is  difficult  to 
believe  that  the  edifice  is  at  the  distance  we 
know  it  to  be.  On  Mount  Lebanon,  this  effect 
is  heightened  by  the  extreme  clearness  and 
transparency  of  the  atmosphere,  places  seen  over 
vast  tracts  of  valley  seem  close  at  hand,  when,  in 
fact,  they  are  many  hours'  journey  off.  The 
traveller  is  thus  often  out  in  his  reckoning  ;  but 
even  when  deceived,  he  is  not  disappointed,  for 
he  certainly  would  not  surrender  a  step  of  the 
way, — leading  as  it  does  through  a  natural 
garden,  where  the  spontaneous  efforts  of  nature 
surpass  all  that  art  has  ever  accomplished. 

Sometimes  the  path  lies  along  the  course  of  a 


46         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

torrent,  the  bed  of  which  has  been  dried  up  by 
the  summer  heats.  On  either  hand,  rocks,  to  the 
height  of  four  hundred  feet,  rise  like  perpen- 
dicular avails.  Gigantic  blocks  and  boulder-like 
masses  lie  scattered  irregularly  in  every  variety 
of  position,  as  if  shot  down  and  strewn  about  the 
surface  at  random.  Some  rest  on  their  broadest 
side,  firm  and  solid  as  a  pyramid,  and  seem 
destined  to  remain  fixed  for  ages ;  while  others 
sit,  fantastically,  upon  their  apex,  with  such 
apparent  instability  that  they  appear  as  if  a  child 
could  push  them  ever.  On  emerging  from  these 
rugged  gorges,  you  come  out,  from  time  to  time, 
into  some  shady  highland  valley,  —  a  little 
paradise  of  verdure;  while,  here  and  there, 
green  flights  of  stairs  lead  up  to  eminences,  like 
the  steps  of  some  vast  altar  erected  to  nature  in 
one  of  her  most  favourite  haunts. 

Tillages  appear  perched,  like  birds'  nests,  on 
ledges  of  the  cliff,  or  seem  to  hang  upon  the 
mountain's  shelving  side.  Two  of  these  villages 
will  be  so  close  together  that  a  stone  may  be 
thrown  from  one  to  the  other,  yet  a  deep  chasm 
intervenes,  the  path  round  which  it  will  take  a 
long  time  to  traverse.  Ascending  still  higher 
up  the  mountain,  more  extensive  views  of  sea 
and  plain  are  obtained.     Spread  out,  too,  as  in 


MOUNT   LEBANON. 


4-7 


a  maze,  are  wooded  knolls  and  grassy  valleys ; 
waterfalls  glittering  in  silver  showers  and 
bounding  in  spray  from  rock  to  rock.  In  one 
direction,  perhaps,  a  wreath  of  mist  envelops 
the  landscape;  while  in  another  you  see  the 
welcome  turrets  of  a  monastery  through  the 
trees,  and  your  attention  is  arrested  by  the  rude 
harmony  of  the  shepherd's  pipe  and  the  tinkling 
of  the  sheep-bells.  Suddenly,  the  path  seems 
brought  to  an  end  by  a  craggy  ledge  of  rock, 
the  side  of  which  goes  sheer  down  for  some 
hundreds  of  feet;  but  the  guide  points  out  a 
narrow  winding  way  betAvecn  rugged  masses, 
where  the  utmost  caution  is  necessary,  as  a 
single  careless  step  might  send  you  headlong 
into  an  abyss  so  deep  that  escape,  with  life, 
would  be  impossible. 

On  these  occasions,  it  is  prudent  to  leave  mules 
and  horses  to  their  own  judgment  and  discretion, 
and,  when  not  tampered  with,  they  are  rarely 
known  to  stumble.  It  is  usual  to  account 
for  their  surefootedness  by  saying,  "It  is 
instinct ; "  but  this  explanation  is  about  as 
intelligible  as  that  of  the  doctor  in  the  French 
comedy,  who,  being  asked  Avhy  laudanum  put 
people  to  sleep,  replied,  "  Because  it  possesses  a 
soporific  quality."     It  is  curious  to  see  how  the 


48         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

animals  examine  the  path  they  are  traversing, 
and  how  careful  they  are  in  making  good  their 
foremost  foothold  on  the  rock,  before  moving 
another  step  in  advance.  It  would  indeed  seem 
as  if  their  mode  of  acquiring  experience  was  very 
much  the  same  as  our  own.  The  sagacity  of  the 
Arabian  horses,  and  their  almost  human  qualities, 
have  become  proverbial,  but  their  extraordinary 
degree  of  polish,  so  to  speak,  arises  from  their 
constantly  sharing  the  society  of  their  masters, 
and  from  the  education — for  it  is  an  education — 
which  they  receive.  They  may  be  said  to  eat, 
drink,  and  sleep  with  their  owners— are  their 
companions  at  home  and  abroad,  share  their 
habitations,  and  carry  them  with  speed  over  the 
desert  sands,  into  which  an  English  horse  would 
sink  nearly  to  his  knees.  The  colt  always  attends 
its  dam,  runs  by  her  side  when  on  a  journey, 
and  shares  the  caresses  of  her  master  and  his 
family.  By  thus  following  the  actions  of  its 
mother  over  the  treacherous  footing  of  the 
desert  or  the  precipitous  paths  up  the  moun- 
tain, it  acquires,  almost  without  artificial  train- 
ing, a  degree  of  sagacity  and  dexterity  that 
is  almost  incredible.  During  my  residence  in 
Syria,  I  possessed  an  Arab  horse  that  cariied 
me   everywhere.     He   was   wild   like   his  race. 


MOUNT   LEBANON.  49 

and  yet,  with  me,  as  gentle  as  a  lamb.  At 
the  slightest  motion  of  my  hand,  he  would  fly 
like  the  wind,  or  stop  in  an  instant.  When 
tired,  we  have  lain  down  together,  my  head 
pillowed  on  his  shoulder.  He  would  follow  me 
like  a  dog,  and  stand  perfectly  quiet  for  me  to 
mount,  yet  it  was  a  most  dangerous  feat  for  any 
one  else  to  try  to  get  into  the  saddle.  When 
leaving  Beyrout,  I  parted  from  many  friends,  but 
from  none  with  greater  regret  than  from  my  horse, 
Duroc. 

Eigh];  hours'  ride  from  Ghazir  brought  us  to 
the  monastery  of  Harisa,  where  we  received  even 
a  more  hearty  welcome  than  that  at  Beit-Cash- 
Bow.  We  dined  with  the  brothers  in  the 
refectory,  and  the  repast,  though  not  so  varied 
as  the  one  of  which  we  partook  on  the  day 
previous,  was  exceedingly  good;  the  hospitable 
Prior  producing,  for  our  special  consumption, 
some  exquisite  old  Lebanon  wine,  which,  ho 
said,  had  lain  in  the  cellar  for  a  number  of 
years.  Lebanon  wine,  I  may  mention,  is,  when 
fully  matured,  equal  in  flavour  to  the  finest 
East  India  Madeira. 

Early  next  morning,  we  started  on  our  journey 
from  Harisa ;  some  new  beauty  in  the  scenery 
displaying  itself  at  every  step,  until  in  the  midst 


50         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

of  a  site  teeming  with  a  luxuriant  flora— the 
mulberry,  the  fig,  the  orange,  the  sycamore,  and 
the  pine — the  charming  village  of  Antoura  lay 
in  a  valley  before  us.  At  each  turn  in  the 
descent,  its  wonderful  fertility  and  profuse 
vegetation,  its  picturesque  position,  surrounded 
"with  lofty  mountains,  astonished  and  delighted 
us,  and  the  exclamation  of  the  Eastern  poet  came 
to  my  lips  :  "If  there  be  a  paradise  on  earth,  it 
is  this — it  is  this  !  " 

We  were  courteously  received  by  the  superior 
of  the  Lazarist  college,  and  shown  over  the 
school-rooms,  dormitories,  dining-hall,  and  play- 
grounds. The  pupils  to  the  number  of  three 
hundred  come  from  Bey  rout,  Aleppo,  Damascus, 
and  other  towns  in  Syi'ia,  Persia,  Egypt,  and 
even  from  Nubia  and  Abyssinia.  They  are 
boarded,  lodged,  and  educated  for  fifteen  hun- 
dred piastres  (about  £12  10s.)  per  annum ; 
or  including  all  extras,  with  the  exception 
of  clothes,  for  two  thousand  piastres  (about 
£16  13s.  4d.);  and  are  taugbt  the  French, 
Italian,  Latin,  Greek,  and  Arabic  languages; 
writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  usual  branches  of  an 
European  education.  "We  dined  with  the  boys, 
at  the  professor's  table,  and  found  the  food 
excellent.     The    following    morning    I    had    a 


MOUJJT   LEBANON.  51 

delicious  breakfast,  as,  on  opening  my  bed-room 
window,  I  found  the  golden  fruit  of  an  orange- 
tree  banging  like  bunches  of  grapes  within  my 
reach. 

It  added  much  to  the  picturesqueness  of  the 
scene,  as  we  rode  over  the  hills  on  leaving 
Antoura,  to  meet  some  of  the  pupils  returning 
after  vacation,  mounted  on  horses  or  mules,  and 
followed  by  camels  bearing  their  brightly -painted 
boxes.  As  the  boys  passed,  they  all  saluted 
after  the  manner  of  the  country, — a  form  of 
salutation  which  is  much  more  graceful  than  that 
prevailing  in  many  other  countries.  At  JN'ew 
Guinea,  the  mode  is  certainly  picturesque; 
for  the  people  place  leaves  of  trees  upon 
their  hands  as  symbols  of  peace  and  friend- 
ship. An  Ethiopian  takes  the  robe  of 
another  and  ties  it  round  his  own  waist,  leaving 
his  friend  partially  naked — a  custom  which  in 
a  cold  climate  would  not  be  very  agreeable. 
Sometimes  it  is  usual,  as  a  sign  of  humility,  for 
persons  to  place  themselves  naked  before  those 
whom  they  salute; — as  when  Sir  Joseph  Banks 
received  the  visit  of  two  Otaheitan  females. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  Philippine  Islands  take 
the  hand  or  foot  of  him  they  salute,  and  gently 

rub   their  face  with  it — a  proceeding  which  is, 

E  2 


62         EGYPT,    CYPRUS^    AND    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

at  all  events,  more  agreeable  than  that  pre- 
vailing with  the  Laplanders,  who  have  a  habit 
of  rubbing  noses,  applying  their  own  with  some 
degree  of  force  to  that  of  the  person  they  desire 
to  honour.  The  salute  with  which  you  are 
greeted  in  Syria  is  at  once  graceful  and 
flattering.  The  hand  is  raised,  with  a  quick 
but  gentle  motion,  to  the  heart,  the  lips,  and 
the  forehead;  thus  intimating  that  the  person 
who  salutes  is  willing  to  think,  speak,  and  act 
for  you. 

At  a  distance  of  about  an  hour  from  Antoura, 
we  rested  at  the  convent  of  Deir-Beshara,  where 
sweetmeats,  confections,  and  mountain  wine  were 
cheerfully  placed  before  us.  The  nuns  could  only 
speak  Arabic ;  but,  from  their  retreat  behind  a 
screen,  they  conversed  for  some  time  by  means 
of  an  interpreter.  Passing  through  the  little 
village  of  Zook,  where  the  superb  gold  and  silver 
brocades,  sold  in  the  bazaars  of  Beyrout,  are 
manufactured,  we  soon  arrived  at  the  Nahr-el- 
Kelb,  and  rested  under  the  pleasant  shade  of  the 
''  Hotel  Pittoresque."  Here,  after  a  little  time, 
we  partook  of  a  simple  repast,  consisting  of  fish, 
caught  iu  the  river  after  our  arrival,  pilaff,  and 
fowl.  Figs  from  Smyrna,  pistachios  from  Aleppo, 
oranges  from  Jaffa,  and  apricots  from  Damascus, 


MOUJS'T    LEBANOX.  63 

formed  our  desert,  with  wines  of  Cyprus  and 
Lebanon  cooled  in  pressed  snow  from  the  peaks 
of  Jebel-Sunnin.  Before  wo  rose  to  depart,  the 
sun  had  disajipeared  below  the  horizon,  and,  as 
there  is  little  or  no  twilight  in  Syria,  the  shades 
of  night  suddenly  closed  around,  wrapping 
mountain,  sea,  and  ri\er  in  the  deepest  gloom. 
The  moon,  however,  was  near  the  full,  and  soon 
began  to  brighten  up  the  landscape ;  its  soft  and 
gentle  light  presenting  a  marked  contrast  to  the 
fiery  glow  of  the  sun,  and  displaying  a  wonderful 
scene  of  loveliness  and  grandeur.  On  every 
object — in  the  sky,  on  the  dark  frowning  masses 
of  the  mountain,  in  the  broad  and  shining  bosom 
of  the  sea — was  written,  ''  Behold  the  Eternal." 
The  very  air  breathed  the  spirit  of  devotion — the 
earth  and  the  heavens  seemed  instinct  with  the 
power  and  presence  of  the  Omnipotent,  unseen 
yet  felt. 

We  sent  our  horses  home  by  the  shore,  and 
returned  by  water.  The  sea  was  perfectly  calm ; 
the  Arab  boatmen  sang  their  favourite  songs,  and 
a  pleasant  row  of  an  hour  and  a  half  brought  us 
to  Beyrout. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

BEYROUT  TO   JERUSALEM   AND    DAMASCUS. 

An  excursion  to  Jerusalem  can  very  easily  be 
made  from  Beyrout.*  The  Austrian  Lloyd's  and 
French  steamers  leave  frequently  during  each 
week,  arriving  the  following  morning  at  Jaffa, 
where  there  is  an  hotel  —  Howard's  Hotel  — 
pleasantly  situated  near  the  sea.  The  position  of 
Jaffa  is  very  fine,  and  the  port,  the  southernmost 
in  Syria,  is  the  entrepot  for  Jerusalem,  Nablous, 
Gaza,  and  the  interior  of  this  part  of  the  country. 
To  it  is  brought  the  whole  surplus  produce  of  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan  for  shipment,  and,  as  cultiva- 
tion is  largely  on  the  increase,  Jaffa  will  probably 
become  a  very  important  emporium  of  trade.  A 
railway  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem  would  be  a  great 
boon  to  travellers,  as,  at  present,  the  only  wheeled 

*  I  purposely  omit  any  description  of  Jerusalem  or 
Damascus.  The  tourist  can  consult  his  "  Murray's  Hand- 
Book." 


BEYROUT   TO   JERUSALEM   ANU    DAMASCUS.        55 

conveyance  is  a  small  omnibus  that  performs  the 
journey,  three  times  a  week,  in  about  fourteen 
hours.  It  is  more  preferable,  however,  to  hire 
horses  at  Jaffa,  as  the  ride  over  the  flowery  plains 
of  Sharon  should  not  be  omitted.  Kamleh,  the 
first  station,  is  about  four  hours  from  Jaffa,  and 
the  traveller  can  there  obtain  refreshment  and 
rest  for  the  night  with  the  hospitable  monks  of 
the  Latin  convent.  From  Eamleh,  excursions 
can  be  made  to  Esdouad,  the  Ashdod  of  Samuel, 
where  Dagon  fell  before  the  ark ;  Azotus,  where 
Philip  was  found  after  baptizing  the  eunuch ; 
Gath,  the  town  of  Goliath ;  and  Ludd,  the  Lydda 
of  the  Acts.  Starting  in  the  early  morning,  en 
route  from  Eamleh,  you  reach  the  valley  of  Ajalon 
in  about  three  hours,  and  three  hours  and  a  half 
more  bring  you  to  Kirjath-Jearim,  or  ''  City  of 
the  Woods,"  where,  it  is  said,  the  ark  rested  for 
twenty  years.  At  a  little  distance  is  the  valley 
of  Elah  ;  at  two  hours,  Emmaus ;  and  then,  about 
twenty  miles  farther,  is  seen  the  Holy  City  of 
Jerusalem.  There  are  now  two  very  good  hotels 
in  Jerusalem :  the  "  Damascus  Hotel,"  near  the 
Holy  Sepulchre ;  and  the  '^Mediterranean  Hotel," 
near  the  British  Consulate.  Four  days  will 
suffice  to  see  the  principal  objects  of  interest  in 
the  city,  and  excursions  can  be  made,  at  leisure, 


56         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

to  Bethany,  Jericho,  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea, 
Solomon's  pools,  and  Hebron;  returning  to 
Bcyrout  via  Jaffa. 

The  excursion  to  Damascus  will  be  found  very 
pleasant,  as  there  is  now  an  excellent  road 
between  that  city  and  Bey  rout.  The  making 
of  this  fine  carriage  road,  a  distance  of  about 
seventy  miles,  has  been  of  the  greatest  benefit, 
not  only  to  its  terminal  cities,  but  to  the  whole 
district  through  which  it  runs.  Viewed  as  a 
specimen  of  civil  engineering,  the  work  is  highly 
creditable ;  the  road  being  carried  across  the 
range  of  the  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  by 
easy  gradients,  at  the  respective  elevations  of 
6000  and  4000  feet,  and  at  a  cost  which  makes 
the  working  of  the  road  a  highly  remunerative 
business  to  the  shareholders.  The  company 
have  the  monopoly  of  all  wheeled  conveyances 
over  the  road  for  a  term  of  fifty  years ;  and  the 
traveller  between  Beyrout  and  Damascus  is  now 
able  to  engage  a  seat  in  a  well-appointed  dili- 
gence— the  time  occupied  being  only  twelve  to 
fourteen  hours — while  the  merchant  can  send  his 
goods  in  the  company's  covered  waggons  with- 
out entertaining  a  doubt  as  to  their  due  arrival 
in  good  order  and  condition.  It  is  a  rather 
curious  coincidence  that  this  road  company,  under 


UEYKOUT   TO   JERUSALEM    AND   DAMASCUS.       57 

French  direction,  should  be  a  great  commercial 
success,  Avhilc  the  Beyiout  Water  -Works 
Company,  under  English  direction,  has  turned 
out  an  utter  failure.  Demetri's  Hotel  at 
Damascus  is,  next  to  Missirie's  at  Constanti- 
nople, the  most  comfortable  hotel  in  the  East, 
and  provides  every  accommodation  that  can  be 
reasonably  desired.  Two  days,  at  least,  should 
be  devoted  to  visit  the  bazaars,  khans,  baths, 
mosques,  churches,  and  other  sights  of  this 
ancient  city,  which  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  in  the 
world. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

BEYROTJT  TO   NAZARETH. 

The  route  indicated  in  the  present  chapter  is 
out  of  the  ordinary  track  of  tourists,  and  will 
serve  to  show  the  facility  with  which  excursions 
can  be  made  from  Beyrout. 

Leaving  Beyrout  by  the  Austrian  Lloyd's 
steamer,  at  10  o'clock  p.m.  on  Friday,  we  landed 
next  morning,  after  a  pleasant  passage  of  eight 
houi's,  at  Kaiffa,  the  ancient  Sycaminum  of  the 
Eomans,  beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Carmel.  Here,  my  excellent  friend.  Her 
Majesty's  Yice-Consul,  gave  us  a  hearty  wel- 
come, and,  after  breakfast,  we  mounted  our 
horses,  and  started,  at  one  o'clock,  en  route  for 
IS'azareth.  The  road  from  Kaiflta  winds,  for 
some  time,  through  fields  and  gardens  to  the 
village  of  Belled-esh-Sheikh,  which  is  reached 
in  about  an  hour.  Half  an  hour  thence  is 
the  village  of  Yahoor,  near  the  river  Kishon, 


BEYROUT   TO    NAZAKETH.  59 

which  we  forded,  and  au  hour  and  a  half  more 
brought  us  to  El-Hartie,  about  midway  be- 
tween Kaiffa  and  Nazareth.  Leaving  El-Hartie, 
we  entered  a  forest  of  dwarf  oaks  intermingled 
with  trees  bearing  white  blossoms  like  the 
orange ;  the  ground  being  one  carpet  of  flowers, 
in  which  the  anemone  was  most  conspicuous. 
It  was  a  delightful  spot — 

"  A  seat  where  gods  might  dwell, 
And  wander  with  delight." 

Passing  through  this  forest,  we  came  in  sight 
of  the  plains  of  Esdraelon  and  the  mountains 
of  Gilboa.  In  an  hour  from  El-Hartie,  we 
rode  at  a  canter  through  the  village  of  Jeidah, 
and  half  an  hour  more  brought  us  to  the 
spring  of  Semunieh — the  Simonias  of  Josephus.* 
As  we  reclined  to  rest  ourselves  here,  several 
women  approached  to  draw  water  at  the  spring, 
clad  in  their  picturesque  costume,  and  appear- 
ing in  every  respect  as  in  the  time  of  Christ. 
Nearly  two  thousand  years  have  passed,  and 
the  dress,  habits,  and  customs  of  the  people 
remain  unchanged. 

Many  of  the  wandering  Bedawins,  armed  to 

*  It  was  in  this  place  that  the  Eomans  attempted  during 
the  night  to  seize  Josephus. 


60         EGYPT,    CYPEL'S,    ASJ)   ASTATIC   TUEKEY. 

the  teethj  looked  very  formidable  as  they  passed 
on  their  fleet  horses,  but  we  greeted  tbem  with 
civility;  and  here  I  may  remark  that  I  have 
never,  in  any  part  of  Palestine  or  Syria,  re- 
ceived aught  but  courtesy  and  respect  from  the 
natives.  If  they  are  treated  kindly,  they  will 
be  respectful;  but  many  travellers  think  it 
necessary  to  assert  a  claim  to  superiority,  and, 
in  some  instances,  suffer  in  consequence.  In 
another  hour  and  a  half — six  hours  altogether 
from  Kaiffa — we  rode  down  the  steep  hills  that 
encompass  Nazareth,  and  alighted  at  the  hospi- 
table dwelling  of  the  monks  of  Terra  Santa.  The 
sun  had  set;  night  had  quickly  succeeded  day, 
and  the  town  looked  picturesque  as  the  lights 
twinkled  in  the  darkness.  The  heart  quivered, 
and  awe  crept  over  the  frame,  for,  here,  we 
stood  on  holy  ground.  On  this  very  spot, 
perhaps,  our  feet  trod  in  the  footsteps  of  Christ, 
for  here  His  youth  was  passed,  and  over  these 
hills  He  wandered. 

The  next  day,  Sunday,  w^e  visited  the  Church 
of  the  Annunciation — second  only  to  that  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre — the  Greek  Church,  the 
Well  of  the  Virgin,  the  Mensa  Christi,  the 
presidents  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  communi- 
nities,    &c.      On    Monday,    as    the    rain — the 


BEYROUT   TO   NAZARETH.  61 

"  latter  rain "  of  Scripture  —  prevented  our 
going  to  Tiberias,  we  paid  a  visit  to  the  supe- 
rior of  the  Church  of  the  Annunciation,  who 
received  us  with  every  courtesy,  and,  after 
coffee,  sent  one  of  the  brothers  to  conduct  us 
over  the  chapel  built  on  the  site  of  St.  Joseph's 
workshop.  Above  the  altar,  in  this  chapel, 
there  is  a  most  exquisite  painting.  In  the 
centre  stands  Joseph  in  his  workshop,  holding 
the  handle  of  a  carpenter's  axe,  the  edge  of 
which  rests  on  a  block  of  wood;  his  eyes  are 
directed,  with  a  mingled  expression  of  affection 
and  reverence,  toAvards  the  child  Jesus,  who, 
with  a  book  in  his  hand,  the  contents  of  which 
he  is  evidently  expounding,  sits  on  a  low  stool 
in  the  foreground.  On  the  left  sits  the  Yirgin, 
eagerly  listening  to  her  son,  and  casting  upon 
him  looks  of  tenderness  and  love.  It  Avas  a 
picture  of  home,  and  recalled  in  full  force  to 
my  imagination  the  early  scenes  of  our  Saviour's 
life.  In  that  very  room  where  I  stood,  our 
Lord  had  sat,  and  talked,  and  was  obedient  unto 
his  parents.  There  Tie  assisted  Joseph;  there 
He  grew  up  to  manhood  ere  He  went  forth  on 
that  saving  mission  whicli  ended  with  his  death. 
In  and  about  Jerusalem,  the  remembrances  are 
sad  and  gloomy,  but  at   Nazareth,  they  tell  of 


62         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

happiness  and  peace.  I  could  not  soon  tear 
myself  from  the  place  made  sacred  by  these 
associations,  and  I  do  not  envy  the  man  who 
could  stand  there  unmoved.  I  plucked  a  wild 
flower  from  the  garden  trodden  by  our  Saviour's 
steps, — a  mute  memento  of  the  hallowed  spot. 

The  clouds  which  had  hung  over  the  valley 
during  the  morning  being  now  dispersed,  we 
rode  to  the  hill  that,  from  the  west,  overlooks 
!Nazareth,  and  on  which  stands  the  lonely  wely, 
or  tomb,  of  Neby  Ismael.  There  is  a  glorious 
prospect  from  the  summit  of  this  hill,  and  the  air 
is  deliciously  pure  and  fresh.  The  western  part 
of  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon  stretched  out  at 
our  feet.  To  the  left.  Mount  Tabor  towered 
above  the  intervening  hills.  On  the  west 
Gilboa  and  Hermon,  and  the  mountains  of 
Samaria  stretching  from  Jenin  to  the  chain  that 
extends  from  Carmel.  Mount  Carmel  itself,  with 
the  town  of  Kaiffa  on  the  shore  beneath,  and  the 
town  of  Acre,  washed  by  the  Mediterranean,  on 
the  shore  beyond.  To  the  north,  extends  one  of 
the  vast  plains  of  Palestine,  called  El-Buttauf, 
which  yields  a  tributary  stream  to  the  Kishon. 
To  the  south,  can  be  seen  a  large  village  on  the 
side  of  the  hill,  the  ancient  Sepphoris,  now  called 
Seffilrieh.     Beyond  the  plain  of  El-Buttauf,  ex- 


BEYROUT  TO   NAZARETH.  63 

tend  long  ridges  of  hills  running  east  and  west, 
and,  in  the  extreme  distance,  stands  Safed,  "the 
city  set  upon  a  hill."  To  the  right,  there  is  a 
curious  grouping  of  hills  and  mountains,  above 
which  a  still  loftier  chain  rises  in  the  distance 
far  away. 

Most  persons  have  probably  felt,  at  some  time 
or  other,  how  much  the  pleasure  derived  from 
scenery  is  enhanced  by  certain  familiar  reminis- 
cences, and  how  much  more  attractive  nature 
appears  when  associated  with  the  remembrance 
of  some  dear  friend,  or  the  forms  of  those  we 
loved.  If  such  be  the  case,  what  pleasure  must 
be  felt  in  the  contemplation  of  scenes  like  these, 
where  every  spot  is  hallowed  by  recollections 
dear  to  our  hearts,  and  where,  at  every  step, 
remembrances  of  Him  who  loved  us  appeal  so 
strongly  to  our  imagination.  Every  place  near 
Nazareth  is,  in  fact,  full  of  interest,  but  the 
road  to  Tiberias  is,  perhaps,  more  so  than  any 
other.  Passing  by  Kefr-Kenna,  the  Cana  of 
Galilee — where  the  house  is  shown  in  which  the 
miracle  was  performed  of  turning  water  into 
wine — we  come  to  the  Mount  of  Beatitudes. 
Further  on  is  the  scene  of  the  miracle  of  the 
loaves  and  fishes,  and  then  before  us  is  Lake 
Gennesareth.     There  is  little  in   Tiberias  itself 


64        EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC    TURKEY. 

worthy  of  observation,  if  we  except  the  church, 
which  is  said  to  have  been  built  on  the  spot 
where  stood  the  house  of  Peter. 

It  is  the  associations  in  the  mind  that  invest 
everything  around  with  interest,  for  although 
doubts  may  be  cast  on  many  traditional  sites, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  on  these  waters  our  Lord 
walked  in  the  stillness  of  the  night;  on  these 
waters  the  tempest-tossed  ship  of  the  disciples 
laboured  amidst  the  storm.*  At  Tiberias,  there 
is  little  or  no  accommodation  for  travellers.  The 
best  way,  therefore,  to  visit  Gennesareth  is  to 
leave  Nazareth  at  daybreak,  going  north-east 
over  the  hills  to  Er-Eeineh,  a  small  village  half 
an  hour   distant,    and  thence  to    Kefr-Kenna; 

♦  In  the  Church  of  the  Annunciation,  I  asked  the 
brother  who  attended  us  if  he  were  certain  that  the  grotto 
under  the  altar  was  really  the  place  where  the  Angel 
Gabriel  saluted  the  A^irgin,  and  he  replied,  "I  really 
cannot  be  certam,  for  I  do  not  know  of  my  own  knowledge ; 
but  when  I  find  that  it  and  several  similar  places  have, 
from  the  earliest  days  of  Christianity,  been  pointed  out  and 
held  sacred;  when  I  find  that  in  those  early  days,  piety, 
in  order  to  commemorate  and  hand  them  down  to  posterity, 
erected  costly  churches  over  them;  and  when  these  have 
been  destroyed  by  the  enemies  of  our  faith,  the  piety  of 
succeeding  ages  has  again  restored  them, — I  see  no  reason 
to  doubt  the  truth  of  the  traditions  thus  so  clearly  marked 
and  handed  down  to  us." 


BEYROUT   TO    NAZARETH.  65 

then  passing  the  village  of  EI-Meshad,  situated 
on  a  high,  hill  to  the  left,  and  so  by  Liibieh. 
to  Tiberias; — returning  the  same  afternoon  in 
time  to  reach  the  summit  of  Mount  Tabor,  and 
behold  the  magnificent  view  and  glorious  sunset. 
When  I  visited  Mount  Tabor,  a  solitary  hermit 
had  made  his  home  on  the  summit.  He  had 
lived  in  the  Crimea;  but,  having  dreamt  that 
he  should  pass  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
prayer  and  meditation  upon  a  mountain  in 
Palestine,  ho  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land,  and  wandered  till  he  came  in  sight  of 
Mount  Tabor,  which  corresponded  exactly  in 
appearance  with  the  mountain  he  had  seen  in  his 
dream.  After  some  time,  he  discovered  the 
ruins  of  the  Church  of  the  Transfiguration, 
which  had  been  destroyed  in  a.d.  1263,  by  the 
Sultan  Bibars.  He  excavated  until  he  reached 
several  chambers,  some  of  which  he  roofed  in 
and  occupied.  From  Mount  Tabor  to  Nazareth 
is  a  ride  of  an  hour  and  a  half. 

The  attention  and  hospitality  of  the  monks  of 
Terra  Santa,  during  our  visit,  could  not  be 
exceeded.  The  bed-rooms  in  the  monastery 
were  neat  and  clean,  and  the  fare  placed  before 
ns  was  excellent.  We  left  Nazareth  early  on 
Wednesday  morning,  and,  after  an  hour's  ride, 


66         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

came  to  the  fountain  of  Seffurieh,*  which,  was 
peaceably  occupied  by  women  washing  clothes 
in  the  stream.  The  women  of  N^azareth  and  the 
neighbourhood  do  not  veil  their  faces,  but  walk 
erect  wdth  a  graceful  and  elegant  carriage.  They 
are  tall  and  handsome,  the  profile  being  really 
beautiful,  with  that  line  of  forehead  and  nose  we 
see  in  the  masterpieces  of  Ancient  Greece.  Their 
head-dress  is  peculiar.  Instead  of  the  gold  or 
silver  coins,  worn  in  their  long  tresses  by  the 
women  of  Beyrout,  the  Nazarene  women  wear 
a  multiplicity  of  coins — overlapping  one  another 
and  attached  to  a  pad  on  the  head — so  placed 
that  they  form  a  sort  of  frame,  through  which 
their  faces  appear  as  in  a  picture.  Bracelets 
and  silver  anklets  give  a  further  addition  to 
the  pictiiresqueness  of  their  costume.     In  half 

*  It  was  here,  in  a.d.  1187,  tliat  the  flower  of  the 
Christian  chivalry  assembled,  to  the  number  of  fifty  thousand, 
before  the  fatal  battle  of  Hattiu.  Count  Raymond,  of 
Tripolis,  advised  that  they  should  remain  encampei  near 
the  fountain,  and  await  Salah-ed-din ;  but  the  proud  and 
impetuous  Grand  Templar  prevailed  upon  the  weak  king, 
Guy  de  Lusignan,  to  march  towards  Tiberias,  and  the  result 
was  a  final  blow  to  the  power  of  the  Crusaders.  A  few  days 
after  the  battle  of  Hattin,  the  victorious  Salah-ed-din 
encamped  at  the  fountain,  whence  he  continued  his 
triumphant  march  to  Acre. 


BEYfiOUT  TO   NAZARETH.  67 

an  hour  from  the  fountain,  we  reached  the 
village  of  Seffurieh — the  Sepphoris  of  Josephus 
and  Diocaesarea  of  the  Eoraans — which,  in 
the  time  of  Herod  Antipater,  was  the  largest 
and  strongest  city  of  Galilee.  Leaving  the 
ruins  of  the  church,  built  on  the  site  of 
Joachim  and  Anna's  house,  to  the  right,  we 
shortly  entered  the  flowery  plain  of  Zabulon, 
and,  ascending  the  hills  near  Shefa-Omar,  came 
in  view  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  town  of 
Acre.  Crossing  these  hills,  we  descended  into 
the  plain  of  Abilin,  and,  on  reaching  the  heights 
above  the  village — four  hours  from  Nazareth — 
we  unexpectedly  came  upon  an  encampment  of 
Bedawins  under  the  command  of  Salihl  Aga,  by 
whom  we  were  most  hospitably  received. 


p  2 


CHAPTEE  YIII. 

A   DAY   WITH   THE   BEDAWlNS. 

I  HAYE  seldom  beheld  a  more  animated  or  pic- 
turesque scene  than  that  which  presented  itself 
as  we  suddenly  halted  on  the  hill  overlooking 
the  village  of  Abilin.  The  dark  tents  of  the 
Hawaras  dotted  the  hill  sides,  and  stretched 
far  away  into  the  plain  beyond.  Crowds  of 
handsome,  though  rather  wild-looking  men — 
some  reclining  under  the  tents,  others  saun- 
tering up  and  down,  or  placidly  smoking  their 
chibouks ;  while,  apart,  on  a  rich  Persian  carpet, 
sat  Salibl-Aga,  chief  of  the  tribe,  suiTounded 
by  his  principal  officers,  numerous  secretaries, 
with  silver  ink-holders  stuck  like  daggers  in 
their  scarfs,  and  several  distinguished-looking 
Arabs,  who,  I  subsequently  learned,  were  rela- 
tives and  guests.  As  we  hesitated  to  advance, 
Salihl-Aga  at  once  sent  his  first  lieutenant  to 
beg  us  to    alight,    and,    almost    at    the    same 


A   DAY   WITH  THE   BEDAWINS.  69 

moment,  our  horses  were  taken  possession  of 
by  the  grooms,  while  we  willingly  obeyed  the 
chief's  request.  As  I  aiDproached,  Salihl-Aga 
and  his  officers  arose;  the  latter  giving  place 
to  me  on  the  right  hand  of  their  chief,  whoso 
graceful  salutation  I  returned  by  bending  low, 
and  placing  my  hand  on  my  heart,  my  lips, 
and  my  forehead.  Taking  our  seats  on  the 
carpets  spread  upon  the  ground,  Salihl-Aga  and 
I  repeated  our  salutation,  and,  then,  according 
to  Oriental  etiquette,  I  saluted  each  officer  in 
due  form,  one  after  the  other,  beginning  with 
the  one  nearest  to  me,  every  man  responding 
by  a  bow,  and  laying  his  hand  on  his  mouth 
and  forehead.  Two  Nubians  then  approached 
with  two  nargilehs  exactly  alike,  and  presented 
them,  at  identically  the  same  instant,  to  me  and 
the  chief,  who  bowed,  as  if  he  would  render 
to  me  the  homage  due  to  a  superior.*  Coffee 
was  then  brought  to  us  in.  china  and  silver 
filigree  cups,  the  same  ceremony  being  observed 

*  In  tlie  East,  paradoxical  as  it  may  appear,  the  guest  is, 
for  the  moment,  the  host.  When  a  Syrian — Mussulman  or 
Christian — receives  you  into  his  house,  he,  for  the  time, 
ceases  to  be  master.  He  places  himself,  his  servants,  and 
his  house  at  your  disposal,  and,  while  he  suppUes  all  your 
wants,  he  appears  rather  as  the  guest,  and  you  as  the  host 
and  superior. 


70         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

as  with  the  nargilehs — the  chief  and  I  emptying 
our  cups  and  returning  them  simultaneously  to 
the  attendants,  so  as  to  make  our  salutations  at 
the  same  time.  Coffee  was  afterwards  handed 
to  the  officers,  who,  as  they  returned  the  cups, 
again  saluted ;  and,  the  sti-ictness  of  etiquette 
being  apparently  relaxed,  conversation  became 
general.  Salihl-Aga  then  informed  us  that  they 
were  celebrating  the  wedding  of  his  son,  Mo- 
hammed Ali,  with  the  daughter  of  his  brother, 
Akili-Aga ;  the  bridegroom  having  attained  his 
eighteenth  year,  and  the  bride  having  seen 
fourteen  summers. 

After  a  little  time,  servants  approached  with 
silver  jugs  containing  cold  water,  which  they 
poured  over  our  hands,  while  other  domestics 
presented  fine  napkins  richly  embroidered  in 
gold.  This  ceremony  completed,  a  huge  dish  of 
boiled  rice,  with  a  boiled  lamb  on  the  top,  was 
placed  before  us.  Leben,  or  sour  goats'  milk, 
was  poured  here  and  there  into  the  rice,  a  small 
quantity  of  which  was  taken  up  in  the  palm 
of  the  hand,  rolled  into  the  form  and  size  of 
a  pigeon's  egg,  and  then  transferred  to  the 
mouth.  We  had  neither  knives  nor  forks; — 
the  lamb  being  torn  and  eaten  with  the  fingers. 
I  enjoyed  this  breakfast  immensely.     The  rice 


A   DAY   WITH  THE   BEDAWlNS.  71 

was  well  boiled;  the  lamb  tender;  the  tail 
delicious;  and  having  ridden  during  four  hours 
in  the  pure  morning  air,  I  was  decidedly  hungry. 
At  first,  I  was  rather  shy  of  the  tail ;  but  the 
chief  lieutenant  tore  a  piece  off  and  presented 
it  to  me — an  act  of  special  courtesy, — and  it 
was  really  excellent.  To  Europeans,  this  eating 
with  the  fingers  seems  unpleasant,  but  the 
ablutions  so  scrupulously  performed,  before  and 
after  meals,  prevent  any  idea  of  uncleanliness. 
After  breakfast,  native  musicians  and  dancers — 
the  latter  being  dressed  as  women — appeared 
upon  the  scene.  The  performance,  although 
novel  and  graceful,  was  rather  sensuous,  and  I 
was  not  sorry  when  Salihl-Aga  gave  the  signal 
to  mount  our  horses,  and  proceed  to  the  more 
stirring  business  of  the  day. 

The  chief,  at  the  head  of  about  five  hundred 
horsemen,  now  led  the  way  down  a  hill  to  a 
plain  of  considerable  extent,  where  an  opposing 
force  of  similar  strength  was  drawn  up  under 
the  command  of  his  son,  Mohammed  Ali.  The 
women  and  children  assembled  on  the  heights, 
and  the  combatants,  as  they  faced  each  other, 
looked  as  if  they  had  met  to  decide  the  fate  of 
Abilin.  For  some  moments  not  a  man  moved. 
At  length,   Salihl-Aga   advanced  leisurely  and 


72         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

alone  towards  tlie  ranks  of  the  enemy,  and, 
brandishing  his  long  spear  almost  in  their  faces, 
cliallcngcd  them  to  the  combat.  Three  of  the 
enemy,  one  after  the  other,  put  spurs  to  their 
horses,  and  sprang  forward  to  capture  the 
challenger,  who  instantly  wheeled,  then  turned 
suddenly,  again  wheeling,  and  leaning  so  low 
over  his  horse's  neck,  to  evade  the  enemy's  blow, 
as  to  be  for  a  moment  lost  to  sight ;  then  rising 
and  reining  in  his  splendid  Ai'ab,  he  discharged 
his  pistols  at  the  foe  as  they  passed  in  their 
headlong  speed.  Pursued  again,  he  turned  once 
more,  and,  throwing  the  reins  on  his  horse's 
neck,  unslung  his  carbine,  discharging  it  in  the 
face  of  his  would-be  captor  as  he  advanced  upon 
him ;  then,  seizing  the  reins,  guided  his  horse 
at  full  speed  into  the  ranks  of  his  own  men, 
who,  in  their  turn,  advanced  to  the  attack,  and 
charged  the  enemy  up  to  the  opposite  line.  Thus, 
in  a  short  time,  the  entire  forces  on  both  sides 
were  engaged,  and  the  whole  field  became  the 
scene  of  a  great  battle,  in  which  the  eye  followed 
the  two  principal  figures — the  chiefs  of  the  con- 
tending hosts.  The  young  bridegroom  exhibited 
wonderful  skill  in  eluding  the  attacks  of  his 
pursuers ;  wheeling  in  an  instant  on  his  nearest 
foe,  the  bridle  thrown  carelessly  on  the  neck  of 


A   DAY    WITH   THE   BEDAWlNS.  73 

his  stccdj  while  he  -unsliing  his  carbine,  which 
in  a  real  contest  would  have  brought  down  many 
an  antagonist.  Salihl-Aga  himself,  in  the  excite- 
ment of  the  fight,  let  fall  his  turban  and  gold- 
embroidered  cloak, — exhibiting  his  shaven  crown, 
with  one  long  plait  of  hair  floating  in  the  wind ; 
and,  as  he  led  on  a  charge,  uttering  his  shrill 
war-cry,  it  was  difficult  to  fancy  the  combat 
otherwise  than  real.  The  prancing  and  excited 
horses ;  the  brilliant  and  various  costumes  of  the 
combatants;  the  white  burnouses  streaming  in 
the  air ;  the  clatter  of  steel  and  silver  housings ; 
the  shouts  of  the  men,  and  loud  reports  of  pistol 
and  musket ;  the  chivalric  bearing  of  Salihl-Aga, 
and  the  noble  mien  of  Mohammed  Ali ;  the 
women  and  children  on  the  heights  between 
the  village  and  the  plain ; — all  made  up  a  scene 
more  wild  and  exciting  than  any  I  had  ever 
before  beheld. 

The  sham-fight  over,  the  sport  of  casting  the 
djerreed  commenced,  the  activity  required  in 
Avhicli  exceeds  even  that  with  the  spear  and 
pistol.  Each  horseman  singles  out  an  adversary, 
against  whom  he  hurls  his  djerreed  with  con- 
siderable force,  the  skill  consisting  in  catching 
it  at  the  critical  moment,  and  flinging  it  back 
again   before   the    attacking   party   can   escape. 


74         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

This  sport  is  not  unattended  with  danger,  as  a 
well-directed  blow  from  a  djerreed  has  frequently 
been  fatal.  Sometimes,  when  it  is  found  impos- 
sible to  catch  the  djerreed,  the  Bedawy  almost 
throws  himself  from  the  saddle,  and,  holding  on  to 
his  horse's  neck,  lets  the  vreapon  pass  over  him ; 
then,  swiftly  wheeling,  pulls  the  djerreed  from 
the  ground,  and  hurls  it  at  his  retreating  anta- 
gonist. The  horse  performs  a  conspicuous  part 
in  this  tourney,  as  upon  his  sagacity  and  perfect 
training  depend  much  of  his  rider's  success. 

The  bridegroom,  having  now  proved  his 
valour,  returned  in  triumph  to  the  village. 
Most  of  his  men  had  dismounted  and  followed 
on  foot  with  drawn  swords,  two  of  the  prin- 
cipal officers  walking  at  either  side  of  his 
horse ; — their  swords  crossing  over  the  animal's 
shoulders.  Mohammed  Ali  held  a  bouquet  in 
his  right  hand — a  love-token  which,  according 
to  Bedawin  custom,  he  must  bring  back  to  his 
bride,  otherwise  the  marriage  could  not  be 
consummated.  Instances  have  occurred  where  a 
rival  has  attacked  the  bridegroom  and  carried 
off  the  love-token,  and  as  its  possessor  can 
claim  the  bride,  this  part  of  the  day's  ceremony 
always  possesses  a  special  interest.  As  the 
cortege  advanced,   a  band  of  men,  armed  with 


A   DAY   WITH   THE    BEDAWlNS.  75 

swords,  rapidly  descended  the  hill,  while  an 
equal  number  of  the  young  chief's  followers 
rushed  to  the  front.  For  a  second  or  two  they 
stood  facing  each  other,  the  bright  steel  glitter- 
ing in  the  sun,  and  then  the  swords  clashed, — 
beating  time,  with  alternate  strokes,  to  a 
strange  wild  dance,  as  they  all  proceeded 
towards  the  village.  The  crowd  beat  time 
with  their  hands,  uttering  shrill  cries  of  heli- 
li-li-li-li-li-li,  until  the  bridegroom  alighted, 
and,  being  taken  possession  of  by  the  women, 
disappeared  from  sight. 

We  bade  farewell  to  our  kind  host,  and, 
leaving  Abilin,  entered  the  fertile  plain  of 
St.  Jean  d'Acre,  through  which  a  pleasant 
canter,  over  delightful  green  turf,  brought  us, 
in  three  hours,  to  the  town  itself,  where  we 
passed  the  night.  The  next  day,  Thursday,  we 
inspected  the  fortifications,  and  then  rode  round 
the  bay  of  Acre,  about  eight  miles,  to  Mount 
Carmel,  where  we  were  hospitably  received  at 
the  monastery  of  Elias, — the  finest  in  the  Holy 
Land.  On  Friday,  at  8  a.m.,  we  embarked  at 
Kaiffa  on  board  one  of  the  Austrian  Lloyd's 
steamers  for  Beyrout. 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

SYRIA. 

"When  Greece  was  in  her  infancy,  and  long 
before  Eome  had  even  been  founded,  the  coast 
of  Syria  was  covered  with  magnificent  and 
wealthy  cities.  On  the  north,  stood  Aradus 
(the  modern  Eouad);  eighteen  miles  to  the 
south,  Tripolis;  at  a  similar  distance,  Byblos 
(Djebeil),  with  the  temple  of  Adonis;  again 
further  south,  Berytus  (Beyrout);  at  a  like 
distance,  Sidon;  and,  finally,  about  fifteen  miles 
farther  stood  the  "Queen  of  the  Waters,"  the 
stately  Tyre.  From  the  latter  city  arose  com- 
merce, civilization,  the  arts  and  sciences,  and, 
above  all,  that  great  instrument  of  social 
progress,  the  gift  of  letters.  To  its  inhabitants, 
the  Phoenicians,  we  are  indebted  for  the  know- 
ledge of  astronomy  and  arithmetic,  as  well  as 
for  the  discovery  of  weights  and  measures,  of 
money,  of  the  art  of  keeping  accounts,  or  book- 


SYRIA.  77 

keeping,  for  the  invention,  or  at  least  for  the 
improvement,  of  ship-building  and  navigation, 
and  for  the  discovery  of  glass.  They  were  also 
famous  for  the  manufacture  of  fine  linen  and 
tapestry ;  for  the  art  of  working  in  metals  and 
ivory ;  for  their  skill  in  architecture,  and, 
especially,  for  the  manufacture  of  that  rare  and 
costly  luxury,  the  Tyrian  purple. 

A  formidable  rival,  however,  at  length  com- 
peted with  Tyre,  and  the  trade  of  the  latter 
was,  to  some  extent,  transferred  to  Alexandria — 
that  great  city  founded  by  the  Macedonian 
conqueror.  Nevertheless,  Syria  lost  nothing  of 
her  material  prosperity,  for,  when  subsequently 
reduced  to  a  Eoman  province  (b.c.  65),  the 
commerce  which  had  created  her  wealth  received 
an  unexpected  impulse,  and  found  a  new  source 
of  profit  in  the  luxurious  habits  of  her  masters. 
Another  and  more  remunerative  market  was 
immediately  opened,  as  the  conquerors,  having' 
once  tasted  the  delights  of  Asia,  soon  felt  wants 
unknown  to  their  frugal  forefathers,  and  eagerly 
demanded  her  perfumes,  her  silks,  and  her 
precious  stones,  which  they  paid  for  with  the 
spoils  of  the  world.  The  ports  of  Syria  con- 
tinued to  send  forth  ships  filled  with  rich  and 
costly  merchandise;   with  gold,  silver,  tin,  and 


78  EGYPT,    CYPRUS,   AND   ASIATIC  TUEKEY. 

other  metals ;  pearls,  precious  stones,  and  coral ; 
mules,  sheep,  and  goats ;  wheat,  balm,  oil,  honey, 
spices,  woven  silk,  and  wine.  Berytus  (Beyront) 
was  famous  for  its  immense  exportation  of  corn, 
oil,  and  the  choicest  wines.  The  cedars  of 
Lebanon  furnished  the  Eomans  with  wood  for 
the  domestic  architecture  of  the  rich,  and  the 
adornment  of  the  temples  of  their  gods.  The 
dates  of  Syria  were  well  known;  for  Galen,  in 
one  of  his  treatises,  mentions  their  properties, 
and  compares  them  with  those  of  Egypt.  The 
plums  and  other  fruits  of  Damascus  appeared, 
among  yarious  exotic  luxuries,  upon  the  tables 
of  epicures;  and  Yii-gil  tells  us  of  a  delicious 
species  of  pear,  the  cultiYation  of  which  had, 
in  his  time,  been  introduced  from  Syria  into 
Italy. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Eoman  ascendancy  (a.d. 
638),  this  wondrous  and  classic  land  became 
the  scene  of  many  contests,  and  the  battle- 
field on  which  the  destinies  of  many  dynasties 
were  decided.  Under  the  reign  of  the  Xhalifs, 
however,  commerce  again  revived,  and  civiliza- 
tion made  greater  progress  in  two  centuries 
than  the  world  had  ever  seen  before.  The 
cities  of  Syria  were  re-embellished,  an  archi- 
tecture of  the  highest  order  gave  a  charm  to 


SYRIA.  79 

the  buildings,  and  everything  that  human  in- 
genuity could  accomplish  was  effected  for  the 
welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  country.  His- 
tory records  the  grandeur  and  magnificence  of 
Haroun-al-Easchid,  and  the  astonishment  of 
Charlemagne  at  the  presents  sent  to  him  by 
the  Khalif;  amongst  which  were  perfumes, 
pearls,  jewels,  rich  stuffs,  arms,  and  a  mechani- 
cal clock,  worked  by  water,  that  then  appeared 
to  be  a  Avonder  in  Europe.  Haroun-al-Easchid, 
although  he  had  to  pay  an  army  of  five  hun- 
dred thousand  soldiers,  and  had  built  many 
palaces  in  difl*erent  parts  of  his  empire,  was 
yet  able  to  give  his  son,  Al-Mamoun,  two 
millions  four  hundred  thousand  denarii  of  gold ; 
and  when  that  prince  was  married,  a  thousand 
beautiful  pearls  were  placed  upon  the  head  of 
his  bride,  and  a  lottery  was  opened  in  which 
each  prize  was  either  a  house  or  a  piece  of 
land.  Al-Mamoun  was  the  Augustus  of 
Islamism. 

But  all  the  glories  of  the  Khalifs  vanished 
before  the  hordes  of  Othman;  and  with  the 
occupation  of  Syria  by  the  Turks  (a.d.  1517) 
set  in  a  night  of  darkness,  unrelieved,  during 
more  than  three  hundred  years,  by  a  single  ray 
of    light,   or  a    single    gleam   of   hope.      This 


80         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASTATIC  TURKEY. 

horde  of  Tartars,  descending  from  the  fastnesses 
of  the  Altai  range  into  the  fair  plains  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Syria,  rushed  like  tigers  upon  their 
prey.  They  laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword, 
destroying  utterly  whatever  they  could  not  ap- 
propriate ;  setting  fire  to  whatever  would  burn, 
and  razing  to  the  ground  whatever  could  be 
overturned.  Statues,  buildings,  books,  all  shared 
in  one  common  destruction.  Every  work  of  art 
and  every  useful  contrivance,  the  appliances  of 
science  and  the  implements  of  trade,  all  disap- 
peared together,  like  a  crop  of  vegetation  after 
a  visit  of  locusts.  They  found  a  garden,  but 
they  made  a  desert ! 

There  is  an  Arabic  proverb  which  says  that, 
"If  a  Turk  could  even  excel  in  the  knowledge 
of  every  science,  barbarism  would  still  remain 
inherent  in  his  nature,"  and  this  is  as  true 
to-day  as  it  was  five  hundred  years  ago.  The 
habit,  however,  of  using  indifferently  the  words 
"Mussulman"  and  "Turk"  has  led  to  <nuch 
misconception,  as  most  persons  imagine  that 
"Mussulman"  and  "Turk"  are  synonymous 
terms,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  whole  Mussul- 
man people  are  credited  with  the  brutalities 
and  the  vices  of  their  Turkish  masters.  On  the 
contrary,  the  Mussulman  possesses  many  natural 


SYBIA.  81 

virtues,  and  it  is  unfair  to  accuse  him  of  the 
vices  and  crimes  with  which  all  classes  of 
Turkish  functionaries  are  justly  charged.  It 
is  not  Islamism,  but  the  Turk,  that  is  a  bar  to 
human  progress. 

When  the  Christian  West  was  still  sunk  in 
comparative  barbarism  and  ignorance,  the  Mus- 
sulman East  was  the  home  of  civilization,  of 
literature,  of  science,  and  of  art.  The  Crusa- 
ders, it  is  well  known,  brought  with  them,  on 
their  return  to  Europe,  the  proofs  of  a  civiliza- 
tion which,  to  them,  had  been  hitherto  un- 
known. The  glories  of  Granada  and  the  won- 
ders of  the  Alhambra  are  written  in  the  annals 
of  Spain ;  and  when  Abou- Abdullah,  com- 
monly called  Boabdil,  stood  in  the  pass  of 
Apaxarras,  and  looked  for  the  last  time  on  the 
towers  and  spires  of  his  lost  capital,  the  most 
enlightened  empire  of  that  day  passed  away 
for  ever.  Chivalry  had  its  root  in  Spain, 
whence  Charlemagne  transplanted  it  to  the 
centre  of  Europe.  The  tournaments  and  jousts, 
the  troubadours  and  knights-errant,  Castilian 
pride,  courtesy  towards  ladies,  serenades,  single 
combats,  generosity  towards  the  vanquished, 
faith  in  plighted  word,  respect  for  hospitality ; — 
all    were   borrowed    from   the    Mussulmans   of 

G 


82         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

Spain.  Even  in  the  present  day  there  is  a 
great  similarity  between  the  Spanish  character, 
in  Andalusia,  and  that  of  the  Arabs,  who 
still  possess  many  of  the  qualities  which  dis- 
tinguished the  warriors  of  Granada.  I  have 
sat  under  the  tents  of  the  Bedawin,  and  par- 
taken of  their  hospitality,  and  I  can  verify 
that  there  is  not  a  finer  or  more  naturally  noble 
race  in  the  universe.  When  I  was  in  Syria, 
I  could  not  avoid  contrasting  the  physique  of 
the  Arab  with  that  of  the  Turk,  and  I  have 
often  asked  the  former  how  it  was  that  such  a 
superior  race  should  submit  to  the  crushing 
rule  of  men  who  were,  in  every  way,  their 
inferiors.  The  answer  was  always  the  same: 
*'We  could  live,"  they  said,  "in  peace  and 
amity  with  our  Christian  brethren,  for  we  are 
all  of  the  same  land,  and,  if  left  to  ourselves, 
would  soon  drive'  out  the  Turk.  But  we 
know  that  if  we  made  the  attempt,  the  fleet  of 
England  would  soon  be  o:ff  our  coast,  and  the 
soldiers  of  England  be,  perhaps,  landed  on  our 
shores.  Let  the  day  come  when  we  shall 
be  free  from  foreign  interference,  and  we — 
Mussulman  and  Christian  together — will  make 
short  work  with  our  Turkish  masters." 

The  events  which  have  recently  taken  place 


SYEIA.  83 

in  European  Turkey  continue  to  attract  the 
attention  of  the  civilized  world  towards  the 
East.  Some  millions  of  human  beings,  crushed 
for  centuries  under  the  iron  rule  of  the  Turk, 
have  at  length  been  liberated ;  bnt  the  Osmanlis 
still  dominate  over  that  sacred  region,  endeared 
to  the  Arab  and  the  Jew  as  the  birthplace  of 
their  common  Father  Abraham,  and  to  the 
Christian  as  the  theatre  of  the  Saviour's  mis- 
sion, and  the  scene  of  the  Saviour's  death.  The 
civilization  which  had  its  birth  in  that  land 
was  driven  away  by  rude  and  ignorant  bar- 
barians, and  found  a  refuge  in  the  "West.  What 
nobler  task  could  the  West  now  propose  to 
itself  than  that  of  restoring  civilization  to  its 
ancient  home,  and  giving  freedom  to  historic 
races  that  have  for  ages  been  oppressed?  The 
energies  of  the  people  have,  it  is  true,  been 
kept  down  under  the  blighting  regime  of  the 
Turk,  but  the  land  itself  is  as  productive  as 
of  old,  and,  with  the  aid  of  Western  science, 
Palestine  and  Syria  might  soon  be  restored  to 
its  ancient  Avealth  and  splendour.  No  country 
in  the  world  could  offer  more  favourable  con- 
ditions to  the  immigrant  for  the  enjoj^ment  of 
a  happy  existence  than   the  beautiful  plains  of 

Palestine  and  Syria,  now  lying  untilled  and  fal- 

G  2 


84        EGYPT,    CYrRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

low.  Comparatively  close  to  our  own  shores, 
they  possess  an  exceptionally  fertile  soil,  a 
salubrious  climate,  and  are  capable  of  producing 
in  abundance  every  necessary  for  the  wants  of 
man. 

For  some  years  past,  a  considerable  improve- 
ment in  the  commercial  prosperity  of  Syria  has 
been  apparent ;  and  if  the  traffic  between  Europe 
and  India  returns  to  its  more  direct  course  by 
the  Mediterranean  and   Persian  Gulf,  this   im- 
provement Avill  naturally  continue.     The  royal 
cities  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon  are,  it  is  true, 
no   more,  and  the   mean  towns   of   Mosul   and 
Hillah  alone  mark  the  places  where  they  stood ; 
but  the   great  rivers,   the   Tigris   and  the   Eu- 
phrates, which   contributed   to   their   grandeur, 
are  still   capable   of  being  made   great  arteries 
of  trade.     The  Jordan,  although  only  sixty  feet 
wide,  is,  in  some  places  twenty  feet  deep,  and 
might  easily  be  rendered  navigable;  while  the 
Orontes  rushes  through  the  plain  with  a  velocity 
that  has  induced  the  Arabs  to  call  it  El'-Asy, 
or  the  Eebel.     The  maritime  cities  of  Syria  are 
despoiled   and   neglected.     Tyre,   whose    "  mer- 
chants   were   princes,    and    her   traffickers    the 
honourable    of    the    earth,"    has     become    "a 
place  for  the  spreading  of  nets  in  the  midst  of 


SYRIA.  85 

the  sea;"  but  the  old  Berytus  still  remains, 
bereft  of  her  artificial  splendour,  yet  possessing 
those  natural  beauties  which  time  cannot  destroy, 
and  reviving,  by  her  increasing  trade,  the 
memory  of  the  vast  commerce  she  once  enjoyed, 
and  the  greatness  to  which,  from  her  advan- 
tageous position,  she  is  likely  again  to  attain. 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE   BRITISH   PROTECTORATE  OF   ASIATIC   TURKEY.* 

It  has  been  said,  on  apparently  good  authority, 
that  the  aim  which  our  Government  hopes  to 
carry  out  b)''  virtue  of  the  Anglo-Turkish  Con- 
vention, is  to  establish  the  reign  of  justice  within 
the  Asiatic  possessions  of  the  Sultan.  The  task 
is  a  noble  one,  but  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of 

*  Few  persons  appear  to  understand  the  motives  which 
have  actuated  Lord  Beaconsfield  in  undertaking  the  Protec  - 
torate  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  Some  thirty  years  ago,  however, 
Mr.  Disraeli  visited  tlie  East,  and  in  his  book,  "  Tancred ;  or, 
The  'New  Crusade,"  occurs  the  following  passage  : — "  I'll  tell 
you,"  said  the  Emir  to  Tancred,  "  the  game  is  in  our  hands, 
if  we  have  energy.  There  is  a  combination  which  would 
entirely  change  the  Avhole  face  of  the  world,  and  bring  back 
empire  to  the  East.  Though  you  are  not  the  brother  of  the 
Queen  of  England,  you  are  nevertheless  a  great  English 
prince,  and  the  Queen  will  listen  to  what  you  say;  especially 
if  you  talk  to  her  as  you  talk  to  me,  and  say  such  fine 
things  in  such  a  beautiful  voice.  Nobody  ever  opened  my 
mind  like  you.  You  will  magnetize  the  Queen  as  you  have 
magnetized  me.     Go  back  to  England  and  arrange  this.    Let 


THE   BRITISH   PROTECTORATE.  87 

its  accomplishment  are  so  considerable  that  I  am 
not  surprised  so  many  of  our  statesmen  shrink 
from  undertaking  it.  To  regenerate  Turkey  in 
Asia  is  a  Avork  of  which  Englishmen  might  well 
feel  proud ;  for  there  is,  probably,  no  country  in 
the  world  that  possesses,  in  an  equal  degree,  the 
raw  material  of  national  greatness.  From  all 
antiquity  the  land  has  been  famed  for  its  richness 
and  fertility,  yet  for  centuries  it  has  been  com- 
paratively untouched  and  fallow.  It  possesses 
harbours  on  thi'ee  seas,  but  they  are  entirely 
neglected.  There  are  splendid  rivers,  but  they 
have  become  useless  for  transport.  Illimitable 
forests  cover  the  mountains,  but  they  are  un- 
productive. Mines  of  coal,  iron,  copper,  lead, 
and  silver  abound,  but  they  are  unworked.     On 

the  Queen  of  the  Enghsh  collect  a  great  fleet,  let  her  stow 
away  all  her  treasui-e,  bullion,  gold  plate,  and  precious  arms ; 
be  accompanied  by  all  her  court  and  chief  people,  and  transfer 
the  seat  of  her  empire  from  London  to  Delhi.  There  she 
will  find  an  immense  empire  ready  made,  a  first-rate  army, 
and  a  large  revenue.  I  will  take  care  of  Syria  and  Asia  Minor. 
The  only  way  to  manage  the  Afghans  is  by  Persia  and  by 
the  Arabs.  We  will  acknowledge  the  Empress  of  India  as 
our  suzerain,  and  secure  for  her  the  Levantine  coast.  If  she 
like,  she  shall  have  Alexandria,  as  she  now  has  Malta :  it 
could  be  arranged.  And  quite  practicable;  for  the  only 
difficult  part,  the  conquest  of  India,  Avhich  baffled  Alexander, 
is  all  done  ! " 


88         EGYl'Tj    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

the  announcement  of  the  Anglo-Turkish  Con- 
yention,  it  was  stated  that  a  new  El- Dorado  had 
been  opened  to  the  enterprise  and  energy  of 
Englishmen ;  and  it  is  quite  true  that,  the 
conditions  being  favourable,  there  is  scarcely  any 
other  country  in  the  world  which  would  offer  so 
wide  and  profitable  a  field  for  British  capital  and 
industry  as  the  possessions  of  the  Sultan  in  Asia. 
But  confidence  is  not  a  plant  of  rapid  growth ; 
the  soil  in  which  it  takes  root  must  be  cultivated, 
and  the  atmosphere  in  which  it  grows  must  be 
genial.  Capital  cannot  be  productive  in  a 
country  where  justice,  law,  and  order  do  not 
exist;  and  it  is,  therefore,  idle  to  talk  of  directing 
enterprise  into  this  new  channel,  until,  at  least, 
the  elements  from  which  confidence  may  ulti- 
mately spring  shall  have  been  first  created. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  understand  what  the 
British  Protectorate  really  means.  Is  it  a 
Protectorate  of  the  Turkish  Pashas,  or  is  it  a 
Protectorate  of  the  populations  of  Asiatic  Turkey  ? 
If  it  is  the  former,  then  nothing  but  disaster  will 
come  of  it ;  if  the  latter,  then  our  Government 
must  take  the  entire  internal  administration  into 
its  own  hands.  The  Sultan's  ministers  will 
"  accept "  the  reforms  proposed  by  Sir  Austin 
Layard,  but  those  reforms  will  never  be  carried 


THE   BRITISH   PROTECTORATE.  89 

out.  The  position  of  Asiatic  Turkey  at  the 
present  moment  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Egypt 
under  the  rule  of  the  Mameluke  Beys,  who 
trampled  on  the  rights  of  the  people,  and  used 
all  jDower  for  their  own  selfish  ends.  But 
Mehemet  All,  at  one  blow,  struck  down  this 
tyranny,  and  from  that  day  Egypt  commenced 
to  progress.  The  oligarchy  that  rules  at  Con- 
stantinople is  not  less  corrupt  and  tyrannous,  and 
as  long  as  that  rule  lasts,  there  will  be  no  hope 
of  prosperity  and  peace  for  the  down-trodden 
populations.  I  am  very  far  from  asserting  that 
there  are  no  honest  men  in  the  Grand  Council  of 
the  Sultan,  but  they  are  in  such  a  minority  as  to 
render  their  e:fforts  useless;  and  even  if,  as  his 
friends  assert,  the  mantle  of  Fuad  Pasha  has 
fallen  upon  Midhat,  he  will  not  be  able  to  succeed 
where  Fuad  and  A'ali  failed.  Fuad  was  called  a 
Ghiaour,  and  in  the  letter  which  he  wrote  to 
Abdul  Aziz,  from  his  death-bed  at  Nice,  he 
said :  "I  know  that  the  greater  part  of  our 
Mussulmans  will  curse  mo  as  a  Ghiaour  and 
an  enemy  to  our  religion.  I  forgive  their  anger, 
for  they  can  understand  neither  my  sentiments 
nor  my  language.  They  will  one  day  come  to 
know  that  I,  a  Ghiaour,  an  '  impious  innovator,' 
have  been  much  more  religious,  much  more  truly 


90         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AXD   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

a  Mussulman,  than  the  igaorant  zealots  who 
have  covered  me  with  their  maledictions.  They 
will  recognize,  but  unhappily  too  late,  that  I 
have  striven  more  than  any  other  martyr  to  save 
the  religion  and  the  empire  which  they  would 
have  led  to  an  inevitable  ruin."*  So  it  will  be 
with  Midhat  if  he  attempt  reforms  in  Asiatic 
Turkey.  He  will  at  once  be  branded  with  the 
name  of  Ghiaour,  and  may,  possibly,  meet  with 
the  same  fate  as  has  befallen  Mehemet  Ali,  in 
Albania.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
people  in  Asiatic  Turkey  have  no  part  whatever 
in  the  government  of  the  country.  They  are — 
Mussulmans,  Jews,  and  Christians — mere  slaves, 
subject  to  the  caprice  and  passions  of  the  ruling 
classes;  and  this  army  of  vampires,  who  have 
lived  on  the  life's  blood  of  the  "hewers  of  wood 
and  drawers  of  water,"  will  not  give  up  their 
prescriptive  rights  to  plunder  and  oppress  with- 
out a  determined  struggle. 

The  utter  hopelessness  of  the  regeneration  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  by  the  Turks,  is  evident  from 
the  simple  fact  that  the  entire  body  politic  is 
rotten  from  the  head  to  the  extremities.  The 
whole  art  of  government  is  all  for  self,  and. 
nothing  for  the  country.      Every  one   enrolled 

*  See  Fuad  Pasha's  "Political  Testament."    Appendix  II. 


THE   BRITISH   PROTECTORATE.  91 

among  tlie  privileged  brotherhood  that  prey  upon 
the  people,  is  permitted  to  do  as  he  pleases,  and 
men,  without  any  regard  to  their  qualifications, 
are  promoted  to  the  highest  offices  of  the  State. 
Mohammed  Ruchdi  Pasha,  ex-Grand  Yizier,  waa 
a  private  soldier,  and  he  is  now  ''  trois  fois  million- 
nairey      Eiza  Pasha,  ex-Minister  of  "War,  was 
a  grocer's  boy  in  a  shop  at  Stamboul,  and  every 
one  in  Constantinople  knows  the  means  by  which 
he   acquired  the   favour   of    Sultan    Mahmoud. 
Mahmoud  Pasha,  ex-Grand  Yizier,  acquired  an 
enormous  fortune  during  his  tenure  of  office  as 
Minister  of  Marine ;  and  Midhat  Pasha  himself 
was   a   poor  man  when   he  went   as   Governor- 
General  to  Bulgaria,  but  he  returned  one  of  the 
richest  men  in  Europe.     In  most  countries  public 
functions  are  generally  given  to  those  who  are 
deemed  to  be  the  most  worthy.     But  it  is  other- 
wise in  Turkey.     The  caprice  of  the  Sovereign 
or  his  ministers,  or  the  influence  of  the  harem, 
can  raise  any  one  to  the  highest  dignities  without 
creating   any   astonishment   or  remark.     If  we 
were  to  go  through  the  list  of  Grand  Yiziers,  we 
would  find  in  it  men  who  had  been  cdiquedjies^  or 
boatmen ;  bacals,  or  grocers ;  hamals,  or  porters  ; 
charcoal    burners,   and    carpet   makers.      "We 
might,"  says  Prince  Pitzipios,  "  take  by  chance 


92         EGYPT,    CYPEUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

a  hundred  individuals  amongst  the  men  invested 
with  the  highest  positions  in  the  State,  and 
examine  the  means  by  which  they  have 
attained  those  dignities,  and  we  would  find  that, 
with  few  exceptions,  they  were  obtained  through 
the  caprice  and  the  shameful  passions  of  those 
who  preside  over  the  destinies  of  the  nation." 

It  would  be  impossible  to  fully  describe  the 
corruption  and  peculation  that  prevails  in  Turkey. 
It  exists  in  every  department  of  the  State,  from 
the  highest  to  the  lowest.  The  employes  arc 
numbered  by  thousands,  the  majority  of  whom 
have  been  engaged  in  every  menial  occupation  in 
the  households  of  the  different  Pashas  who  have 
from  time  to  time  filled  the  post  of  Minister ; 
these  men  are  ill -paid,  and  are  consequently 
obliged  to  secure  a  livelihood  by  any  and  every 
means  at  their  command.  No  business  can  be 
transacted  at  a  public  department  without 
bribing  the  subordinates,  while  the  country  is 
deprived  of  the  muscle  of  a  vast  number  of  men 
who  would  be  far  more  worthily  occupied  in 
tilling  the  soil,  than  in  earning  the  right,  by 
every  conceivable  baseness  and  humiliation,  to 
watch  for  the  crumbs  that  fall  from  the  rich 
man's  table.  Every  Pasha's  house  swarms  with 
crowds  of  parasites,  very  few  of  whom  receive 


THE   BRITISH  PEOTECTOIiATE.  93 

regular  wages,  but  the  majority  of  whom   are 
fed  and  clothed,  getting  every  now  and  then  an 
occasional  backsheesh ;  all  waiting  until  they  can 
be  placed  in  some  public  employment,  to  which 
they  are  no  sooner  nominated,  than  from  unpaid 
servants  they  become  wealthy  functionaries  of  the 
State.    Thus,  menials  of  rich  Pashas  are  preferred 
to  provincial  and  district  governments,  or  other 
civil  posts ;  but  before  they  have  time  to  study, 
even  if   they   were  so  inclined,   the   character, 
exigencies,  and  resources  of  the  people  and  the 
country  to  which  they  are  sent,  or  to  learn  the 
duties  of  their  office,  they  are  removed,  or  pro- 
moted   to    some   new   service,    with    an   entire 
disregard  to  fitness,  character,  or  education.     A 
state  of  utter  confusion  prevails  in  every  pro- 
vincial  administration,   for   no   one   knows    the 
duties  he  is  appointed  to  perform,  while  each  new 
arrival  has  always  a  system  peculiarly  his  own, 
diversified  at  times  by  some  special  instructions 
from  his  chiefs,  or  from   Constantinople.      The 
first  aim  of  a  governor  of  a  province  is  to  undo 
everything  that  has  been  done  by  his  predecessor, 
and  the  second  is  to  amass  a  fortune  as  speedily 
as  possible.     He  knows  that  his  tenure  of  office 
may  be  short,  and,  having  neither  patriotism  nor 
honour,  he  goes  in  for  plunder.     He  is  at  Aleppo 


94         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

to-day,  to-morrow  he  may  be  at  Beyrout.  The 
prosperity  of  Aleppo  is,  therefore,  of  little  con- 
sequence to  him,  and,  accordingly,  he  sells  justice 
to  the  highest  bidder,  so  that  he  may  be  able  to 
bribe  the  officials  at  the  Porte.  The  disease 
which  has  eaten  into  the  vitals  of  Turkey  is 
widely  spread,  being  rooted  in  the  highest  ranks 
of  official  life,  and  thence  progressing  in  inten- 
sity to  the  lowest  functionaries.  It  cannot  be 
supposed  that  subordinate  agents  will  be  guided 
otherwise  than  by  those  around  and  immediately 
above  them,  and  it  is  absurd  to  believe  that,  when 
the  higher  State  functionaries  are  not  imbued 
with  more  elevated  notions  of  their  respective 
duties  and  moral  responsibilities,  any  hope  of 
improvement  among  the  lower  can  be  expected. 

A  glance  at  the  internal  administration  of 
Asiatic  Turkey  will  show  the  difficulties  of  our 
Government  in  enforcing  reforms,  if  these  reforms 
are  left  to  be  carried  out  by  the  Turks. 

Turkey  in  Asia  is  divided  into  vilayets,  or 
governments-general,  each  of  which  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  Pasha,  who  is  nominated  by  the 
Porte.  These  vilayets  are  again  divided  into 
sandjaks,  governed  by  kaimakams,  or  lieutenant- 
governors.  The  sandjaks  are  subdivided  into 
kasas,    or  districts,   placed    under   the  rule   of 


THE   BRITISH   PROTECTORATE.  95 

mudirs,  who  frequently  hold  their  appointment 
from  the  Governor-general,  and  the  kasas,  again, 
are  divided  into  nahiz^hs,  composed  of  villages, 
or  hamlets. 

The  mudirliks,  many  of  which  are  without 
any  fixed  emoluments,  and  dependent  upon 
precarious  legal  fees  to  render  them  remunerative 
are  eagerly  solicited,  and  are  among  the 
numerous  sources  of  wealth  which  ojficial 
position  is  heir  to  in  Turkey.  The  nomination 
is  usually  left  to  the  choice  of  provincial 
governors,  subject  to  approval  by  the  authorities 
at  Constantinople,  but  it  is  supposed  to  be  biassed 
by  the  wishes  of  the  population  of  each  division, 
when  expressed  by  mansar  or  memorial.  This, 
however,  is  frequently  defeated,  if  ever  attained, 
as  the  mudirlik,  ostensibly  the  award  of  popular 
suffrage,  is  only  too  often  the  recompense  of 
successful  bribery  or  intrigue.  For  instance, 
a  few  of  the  most  influential  men  of  a  kasa 
nominate  one  of  their  party  for  the  mudirlik ; 
a  mansar  or  memorial  is  got  up  in  his  favour, 
to  which  the  bulk  of  the  population  is  forced  to 
subscribe,  and  this  memorial,  backed  by  sundry 
douceurs,  procures  the  appointment.  In  plain 
language,  the  place  is  sold;  and  the  amount  paid 
necessarily  constitutes  a  tax,  to  be  got  back  in 


96         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

some  shape  or  form  from  the  local  population. 
Once  confirmed  in  his  post,  the  mudir  cannot  be 
arbitrarily  removed  by  the  Governor- general 
without  sufficient  cause  being  shown;  but 
although  it  would  be  easy  to  procure  evidence 
of  the  kind  required,  transgressions  of  the  law, 
or  neglect  of  duty,  by  public  servants,  are  more 
frequently  overlooked  than  punished,  owing  to 
the  facility  with  which  plenarj^  indulgences  for 
such  offences  may  be  purchased.  The  mudir's 
functions  are  purely  executive,  and  he  is  respon- 
sible for  the  due  transmission  of  the  revenue 
when  collected ;  though  this  branch  of  his  duties 
is  in  most  cases  transferred  to  a  saraff,  or  banker, 
who  is  usually  one  among  those  who  have 
contributed  to  his  nomination.  Under  these 
circumstances  it  may  be  readily  imagined  that 
the  mudir  is  frequently  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands 
of  a  party,  and  his  weakness  and  ignorance, 
constituting,  perhaps,  his  strongest  recommen- 
dation to  office,  contribute,  when  once  invested 
with  his  new  dignity,  to  make  him  the  cypher 
contemplated  by  his  supporters.  Holding  the 
executive  power,  he  is  responsible  for  all  official 
acts  of  oppression  within  the  kasa ;  but  if,  as  is 
invariably  the  case,  the  medjlis,  or  local  council, 
be  with  him,  that  body  is  ever  ready  to  sanction 


THE   BRITISH   PROTECTORATE.  97 

his  proceedings,  and  shield  them  by  opportune 
masbatas  and  gilded  arguments  if  by  any  chance 
they  should  be  questioned  by  his  superiors. 

The  mudir,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  presides  at 
the  medjlis,  or  local  administrative  council,  which, 
besides  the  cadi,  or  legal  authority,  and  the 
mufti,  or  priest,  includes  two  or  more  azas,  or 
deputies  of  the  Christian  faith,  if  the  resident 
number  duly  qualify  them  for  the  privilege. 
These  latter,  however,  dare  not  dissent  from  an 
opinion  emitted  by  the  Mussulman  members. 
The  medjlis  meets  twice  a  week  for  the  discussion 
of  local  affairs,  to  receive  complaints,  and  to 
judge  all  causes  brought  before  it.  Its  fiat  is 
not  decisive,  as  the  mudir  may  on  his  own 
responsibility  refuse  to  execute  its  decisions. 
The  council  is,  nevertheless,  of  great  local 
importance ;  its  members  possess  immense  in- 
fluence within  their  respective  districts,  and, 
under  a  corrupt  and  weak  government,  naturally 
all  lean  one  way.  Their  whole  study,  with  rare 
exceptions,  is  to  decide,  not  on  the  justice  or 
sanctity  of  the  causes  brought  before  them,  or 
with  reference  to  the  general  welfare  of  the 
community,  but  how  they  can  best  advance  their 
own  private  interests,  and  escape  clear  of  the 
intrigues  that  are  constantly  in  movement  around 

H 


98         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

them.  Supported  by  his  council,  the  mudir  can 
act  boldly ;  without  the  executive  at  command, 
the  influence  of  the  council  would  dwindle  down 
to  zero.  Their  interests  being  thus  mutually 
blended,  the  medjlis  of  each  kasa,  with  the 
addition  of  a  few  non-oiSeial  men  of  weight, 
constitutes  a  camirilla,  and  holds  in  its 
hands  the  whole  power — deliberative,  judicial, 
financial,  and  executive — in  the  district. 

The  cadi  is  named  by  the  Sheikh-ul-Islam,  or 
chief  of  the  IJlema,  and  can  only  be  dismissed  or 
removed  by  the  same  dignitary.  At  the  M^kemd, 
or  justice  court,  taking  cognizance  exclusiA'^ely  of 
suits  judged  by  the  Shereat,  or  old  law,  he 
presides  and  decides  summarily,  giving  his  elam, 
or  sentence,  in  writing.  At  the  medjlis,  which 
has  jurisdiction  on  all  cases  indiscriminately, 
whether  of  the  Shereat  or  of  the  Canon,  the  cadi 
sits  as  local  legal  authority,  subject  to  the 
correction  of  the  mufti;  and  the  Governor,  or 
President  of  the  Council,  is  bound  to  execute  the 
sentence  pronounced.  The  cadi  usually  joins  the 
dominant  party  in  the  kasa,  for  to  oppose  it, 
when  allied  with  the  executive,  would  reduce 
him  to  a  cypher,  and  sweep  off  most  of  his  fees, 
or  other  precarious  emoluments,  a  vlittle  or  no 
attention  would  be  paid  to  his  decisions,  which, 


THE   BRITISH   PROTECTORATE.  99 

wlien  not  evaded,  under  numerous  pretences 
by  the  medjlis,  would  be  unenforced  by  the 
executive.  The  natural  consequence,  then, 
would  be,  that  few  cases  would  be  brought  before 
his  special  tribunal,  the  Mdkdmd.  On  the 
other  hand,  to  be  at  variance  with  the  legal 
authority  of  the  place  would  bo  highly  incon- 
venient to  the  dominant  party,  by  preventing 
many  of  their  iniquitous  deeds  having  a  legal 
stamp  upon  them.  Their  mutual  interests,  there- 
fore, attract  them  towards  each  other.  Frequently, 
too,  the  ignorance  and  weakness  of  the  mudir 
allows  the  cadi,  with  his  superior  endowments,  to 
gain  the  ascendancy;  and  with  the  valuable  co- 
operation of  the  medjlis,  his  power  is  then  un- 
bounded, and  his  means  of  acquiring  wealth  is 
restricted  only  by  his  conscience  and  the  resources 
of  the  population.  ]^[o  registry  is  kept  either  of 
the  discussions  or  decisions  of  the  medjlis, 
although  such  records  of  its  acts  are  required  by 
law.  Hence,  two  similar  cases  will  frequently  be 
decided  differently,  according  to  the  interests  to 
be  decided  by  them.  A  decision  at  one  sitting 
is  not  infrequently  revoked  or  denied  at  another, 
and  the  most  flagrant  injustice  is  thus  constantly 
committed  with  impunity,  without  the  remotest 

chance   of   a    reprimand   or  punishment.      The 

11  2 


100     EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

decision  of  the  medjlis  ma}'-  be  referred  to  the 
higher  provincial  court,  which,  similarly  con- 
stituted, affords  little  hope  of  redress.  These 
appeals  are,  nevertheless,  by  no  means  of  rare 
occurrence,  and  are  encouraged  by  the  provincial 
courts,  as  forming  an  important  item  of  their 
emoluments.  As  the  recognition  of  the  legal 
claims  of  the  weaker  party  would  expose  the  other 
to  severe  censure  or  disgrace  for  dereliction  of 
duty,  so  each  party  to  a  suit  habitually  prosecutes 
or  defends  his  cause  by  the  preliminary  precaution 
of  purchasing  protection  among  the  various 
members  in  power;  and,  naturally,  the  more 
wealthy  of  the  litigants  invariably  parries  the  day, 
and  crowns  his  triumph  by  the  incarceration  or 
reprimand  of  his  antagonist. 

In  theory,  the  elective  principle  is  at  the  base 
of  the  whole  administrative  system  in  Asiatic 
Turkey;  but  its  influence  for  good  is  entirely 
set  at  naught  by  the  corruption  and  venality 
existing  at  the  seat  of  Government  itself,  which 
sanctions  the  grossest  oppression  and  injustice. 
Enslaved  by  those  whom  the  theory  of  the  con- 
stitution has  placed  in  the  position  of  protectors, 
the  peasantry  have  learned  to  submit ;  and  those 
chosen  from  among  them  to  fulfil  the  duties 
of    guardians  of    the    rights    and    liberties   of 


THE   BRITISH   PEOTECTOEATE.  101 

tlieir  fellow-subjects,  yield  tlirough  fear  to  the 
orders  of  the  governors.  The  judicial  office, 
consequently,  is  everywhere  j)rostituted,  and  the 
interests  of  the  people  are  cruelly  sacrificed. 

The  manner  in  which  the  taxes  are  collected 
affords  another  means  of  oppression;  and  when, 
as  is  usually  the  case,  the  tithe-farmer,  backed 
by  the  mudir  and  saraff,  combines  with  the  cadi 
and  medjlis,  it  may  be  easily  conceived  what 
powerful  destructive  engines  may  be  brought 
to  bear  upon  a  hapless  peasantry.  In  fact,  it 
is  the  same  dismal  story  throughout  the  country ; 
the  whole  art  and  science  of  rural  administration 
being  to  ring  the  changes  upon  the  various  State 
dues,  and  to  tax  ingenuity  in  devising  new  and 
patent  modes  of  fleecing  the  people. 

As  punctuality  in  the  transmission  of  all  local 
contributions  is  the  grand  test  of  a  governor's 
capabilities,  so,  provided  the  Imperial  exchequer 
is  not  kept  in  arrears,  it  matters  little  what  may 
be  his  other  qualifications  for  the  post.  The 
mudir,  therefore,  has  pretty  much  carte  hlanche, 
and  the  unfortunate  peasant,  taxed  by  the  central 
Government,  and  cheated  by  its  employes^  is 
obliged  to  submit,  or  incur  all  the  risk  which 
springs  from  opposition.  Should  he,  however, 
sue  for    redress,   in  the  hope    that    from    the 


102      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

administration  of  the  law  he  will  at  least  obtain 
the  semblance  of  justice,  what  is  the  treatment  in 
store  for  him?    With    the    presentation   of    a 
memorial  to  the  Yicegerent's    Court,  he   gives 
utterance  to  his  complaints.     The  memorial   is 
received,  and  from  the  manner  of  its  reception 
redress     appears    more    than    probable.      The 
requisite  information  is  obtained,  and  the  whole 
bearing  of  the  question  apparently  sifted.     His 
accusation  made,  the   peasant   must   enter  into 
bonds    for    the    consequences.      The  mudir,  or 
offending    party,    is    then    sent    for,    but    the 
bombashee  cannot  somehow  prevail  on  any  of  the 
plaintiff's  witnesses  to  come  forward  ;  cautioned 
and  forewarned,  they  deny  all  knowledge  of  the 
case.     The  mudir  and  his  subordinates  already 
chuckle  at  the  certain  discomfiture  of  the  foe, 
and  the  poor  peasant  is  dismayed  at  the  altered 
tone  in  which  he  is  addressed.     The  defendant, 
supported  by  numerous  suborned  witnesses,  brings 
counter-charges   against  the  plaintiff,  and  these 
charges  are  sure  to  be  confirmed  by  the  never- 
failing  mazbata.*     Some  member  of  the  medjlis, 

*  The  mazbata  is  a  petition  against  an  individual.  It  is 
seldom  the  voluntary  result  of  independent  action,  but  more 
frequently  is  obtained  by  threats,  or  through  fear  of  the 
authorities. 


THE   LRITISH   PROTECTORATE.  103 

perhaps,  feebly  espouses  his  cause,  to  be  over- 
ruled by  his  colleagues;  this  is  quite  orthodox  and 
regular.  The  case  is  dead  against  the  plaintiff, 
who  is  imprisoned  for  penalties  inconsiderately 
incurred,  and  punished  for  slandering  his  superiors. 
Such  is  the  ordinary  course  of  justice,  diversified 
at  times  by  the  complainant's  intention  of  appeal 
becoming  known,  when  it  is  summarily  swamped 
by  a  course  of  prison  and  courbash  that  speedily 
brings  him  to  his  senses. 

In  many  sections  of  the  country  the  resident 
proprietary  have  been  entirely  stripped  of  all 
moveable  capital,  and  have  nothing  remaining 
but  the  bare  land,  and  the  miserable  roof  that 
affords  but  nominal  protection  against  the  incle- 
mencies of  the  weather;  and  these  are  heavily 
encumbered  with  debt.  Eeduced  to  this  pitiable 
state,  the  prosecution  of  their  farming  labours 
becomes  impracticable,  and  they  are  consequently 
compelled  to  obtain  relief  by  a  system  which 
virtually  converts  them  into  the  bondsmen  of  the 
usurers  enriched  by  their  prostration.  The 
usurer — banker  or  merchant,  according  to  the 
title  he  may  assume — enters  into  a  stipulation 
with  the  elders  of  a  village,  whereby,  for  certain 
considerations,  he  engages  to  supply  the 
villagers  with  funds  and  materials  necessary  for 


104      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

agricultural     purposes.     In     thus     constituting 
himself  the  village  banker,  he  charges  a  monthly 
interest  on  his  running  account,  and  takes  his 
reimbursement  out  of  the  produce  raised, — with 
the  option,  if  the  value  of  such  produce   exceeds 
the  debt,  of  appropriating  the  whole  at  opening 
prices.     Accordingly,   he    furnishes    seed,   pro- 
vender, and  all   the  materials  for  domestic  and 
agricultural  use,  loaded  with  a  premium  of  fifty 
to  a  hundred  per  cent.,  and  advances  the  money 
which  may  from  time  to  time  be  requisite  for 
payment  of  taxes  and  other  incidental  claims, — 
exacting  interest  for  each  advance  at  rates  varying 
from  two  to  five  and  six  per  cent,  per  month.     To 
such  a  dependent  state  are  the  farmers  reduced 
that  they  are  frequently  without  oxen  or  ploughs, 
and  these  are  sold  to  them,  in  the  ploughing  season, 
by   the   banker,    for   a   stated   sum,    bearing    a 
monthly  interest,  and  afterwards  repurchased  at 
a  fifth  or  sixth  part  of  the  amount.     "When  the 
crops  are  matured  and  the  villagers  assemble  to 
fix  the  opening    prices,  if   the   usurer  remains 
without  a  competitor — as  is  usually  the  case, — 
the  produce  passes  into  his  hands  at  so  low  a 
valuation  that  it  is  impossible  to  discharge  his 
claims;    and    thus   a   portion   of    his   advances 
remains  in  the  form  of  a  permanent  debt,  which 


THE   BRITISH   PROTECTORATE.  105 

enables  him  to  impose  more  onerous  conditions 
for  the  ensuing  season.      If  competitors  should 
offer  for  the  produce,  and  threaten  to  drive  up 
the  opening  prices — a  circumstance  that  rarely 
happens — he  demands  immediate  restitution   of 
his  advances,  with  the  alternative  of  arrest  and 
imprisonment ;  and,  what  may  appear  incredible, 
he  actually  possesses  the  power  to  imprison  at 
once  every  male  in  the  village.     Unless,  therefore, 
his  rivals  are  themselves  prepared  to  acquit  the 
debt,  their  superior  offers  are  rejected,  and  they 
are  compelled  to  retire  from  the  field.     This  is 
the  more  easy  to  enforce,  as  the  varied  crops  in 
Asiatic    Turkey    being    matured    at    different 
periods  of  the  year,  the  value  of  ready  produce 
for  which  the  casual  buyer  bids  will  not  cover 
the     aggregate     disbursements     or    cancel    the 
claims  of  the  local  banker.      Thus  the  village 
debt  is  never  liquidated,  and  varies  in  amount 
according  as  good  or  bad  harvests  predominate ; 
the  inevitable  result  being  that  the  whole  of  the 
fixed    productive    property   eventually   changes 
hands.     In  some  sandjaks,  whole  districts,  and 
in  others  detached  villages  are  in  this  deplorable 
condition,  and  once  entangled  in  the  meshes  of 
these  usurers,  the  independence  of  the  peasantry 
is  irrevocably  lost. 


106      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

Such  is  the  unhappy  condition  of  the  people 
of  Asiatic  Turkey, — Mussulmans  as  well  as 
Christians — the  whole  administration,  in  fact, 
being  so  arranged  that  the  entire  agricultural 
population  is  a  prey  to  the  usurer,  the  tax-farmer, 
and  the  Turkish  officials.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
how  difficult  is  the  task  undertaken  by  our 
Government.  No  reforms  are  possible,  if  their 
execution  be  left  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the 
Turks;  and  without  the  direct  supervision  of 
British  administrators,  all  attempts  at  reform 
will  prove  futile.  To  create  order  out  of  this 
chaos,  to  establish  the  reign  of  justice  where 
hitherto  it  has  not  existed,  to  give  liberty — 
civil  and  religious— to  a  down-trodden  people, 
is  a  noble  ambition ;  but  it  will  be  a  Hercu- 
lean labour.  The  British  statesman,  however, 
who  succeeds  in  its  accomplishment,  will  earn 
the  gratitude  of  millions  of  human  beings,  and 
make  for  himseK  a  name  in  history  that  will 
last  as  long  as  the  Pyramids. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

RESOURCES   OF   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

The  actual  statistics  relative  to  the  mineral 
resources  of  Asiatic  Turkey  are  very  limited, 
although  its  mineral  wealth  is  known  to  be 
great  and  varied.  The  mines  of  Asia  Minor 
are  famed  in  history  for  their  richness,  and, 
although  their  prosperity  declined  with  the 
civilization  to  the  necessities  of  which  they 
ministered,  the  strata  where  the  ores  lie  imbed- 
ded still  remain,  and  only  await  the  advent  of 
steam,  skill,  and  capital  to  furnish  tangible  proof 
of  their  undoubted  value.  At  the  present  time, 
silver  and  lead  are  extensively  found  in  the 
Asiatic  division  of  the  Empire,  and  the  Taurus 
range  is  celebrated  for  the  abundance  of  its 
copper.  Coal  is  also  found  in  the  districts  of 
Asia  Minor  forming  the  southern  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea.  It  is,  however,  quite  impossible 
to  estimate  the  extent  of  the  coal  measures  in 


108      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUBKEY. 

Asia  Minor,  as  the  only  coal-field  of  which  we 
have  any  definite  information  is  that  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Heraclia.  In  this  district, 
the  mineral  crops  out  on  the  surface,  and  the 
seams,  which  vary  in  thickness  from  three  to 
eighteen  feet,  have  been  inexpensively  worked 
by  adits  into  the  side  of  the  mountain ;  but, 
through  unskilful  working,  they  do  not  give, 
either  in  quantity  or  quality,  a  tenth  part  of 
what  they  are  capable.  The  best  coal  has 
hitherto  been  procured  from  the  valley  of  Kosloo, 
which  is  in  immediate  vicinity  to  the  coast, 
and  most  eligibly  suited  for  coaling  vessels 
from  shoots,  without  any  intermediate  boat 
carriage.  The  Kosloo  could,  without  any  extra- 
ordinary effort,  yield  about  thirty  thousand 
tons  of  coal  per  annum,  and  of  a  quality  equal 
to  the  very  best  Newcastle,  having  a  loss  of 
only  seven  per  cent,  in  clinker  and  ashes. 

In  the  valley  of  Soungoul,  wliich  adjoins 
Kosloo,  the  coal  seams  are  from  nine  to  twelve 
feet  in  thickness,  and  the  coal  itself  is  quite 
equal  in  quality  to,  and  much  harder  than,  the 
Kosloo.  In  fact,  the  whole  of  the  Soungoul 
valley  contains  excellent  coal,  which  might  be 
shipped  in  the  same  way  as  Kosloo,  without 
the  necessity   of   boating   off.     This   important 


RESOURCES   OF   ASIATIC   TURKEY.  109 

coal  district  is  situated  about  130  miles  from 
the  entrance  to  the  Bosphorus,  and  is  in  every 
respect  most  eligibly  situated  for  water  trans- 
port ;  but  the  unhealthiness  of  the  place,  arising 
from  malaria  generated  by  undrained  lands,  is 
a  serious  drawback  to  continuous  operations. 
The  coal  at  Xosloo  is  brought  to  grass  at  about 
six  shillings  per  ton,  but,  being  rather  soft 
in  grain,  is  much  deteriorated  in  quality  when 
it  reaches  market,  owing  to  the  clumsy  and 
unworkmanlike  manner  in  which  it  is  mani- 
pulated by  the  natives,  who  alone  are  available 
for  the  work.  In  forming  an  opinion,  however, 
as  to  the  value  of  Heraclia  coal,  it  is  necessary 
to  remember  the  surface  character  of  the  mineral, 
and  the  mixture  of  inferior  with  superior  sorts 
inseparable  from  an  extensive  employment  of 
unskilled  labour.  The  coal  is  easy  to  win,  and 
is  large  and  merchantable.  In  depth,  the 
quality  will  without  doubt  improve,  while  if 
steam  colliers  were  employed  in.  its  transport, 
instead  of  the  small  sailing  craft  now  in  use, 
a  marked  difference  would  soon  be  observable 
in  the  size  and  general  appearance  of  the  coal 
when  delivered  for  consumption.  This  splendid 
property  will,  however,  remain  unproductive  to 
the    Government    until    foreign    enterprise     is 


110      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

invited  to  do  that,  for  the  accomplishment  of 
which  the  capital  and  industry  of  the  country 
itself  is  inadequate. 

The  metalliferous  minerals  are  also  compara- 
tively unworked.  No  less  than  eighty -two  mines 
of  various  ores  have  been  discovered,  hut  of  this 
number  few  arc  now  in  operation  ;  and  of  these, 
not  one  is  worked  to  the  full  limits  of  its  capacity. 
Five  silver  mines,  one  of  lead,  and  four  of  copper, 
were  six  years  ago  worked  by  the  Government — 
the  first  only  producing  about  570,000  okes,  the 
second  175,000,  and  the  third  965,000.  Of  the 
mines  worked  by  private  persons,  those  of  El(ion, 
near  Trebizond,  yield  250,000  okes  of  copper, 
and  those  of  Tokat,  300,000.  In  the  year  1862, 
more  than  440,000  kilos,  of  copper,  valued  at 
about  1,000,000  francs,  were  shipped  to  France. 
The  copper  mines  of  Bakyrkurchai,  which  in  the 
time  of  Mahmoud  II.,  enabled  Ismail  Bey,  the 
then  Turcoman  chief  of  Sinope,  to  pay  a  yearly 
tribute  of  200,000  ducats,  are  now  completely 
neglected.  The  mines  of  Tii'eboli,  which  formerly, 
under  very  bad  management,  yielded  from  150  to 
200  tons  of  copper  annually,  are  now  practically 
unproductive,  though  i^ossessing  every  advantage 
of  situation  and  abundant  fuel  that  mining  enter- 
prise could  require.    The  silver  mines  of  Gumush- 


RESOURCES   OF   ASIATIC   TURKEY.  Ill 

Khaneh,  near  Trebizond,  once  the  most  famous 
of  all  the  silver  mines  in  Asia,  are  now  also 
nearly  forsaken,  their  annual  net  produce  seldom 
averaging  more  than  90  lbs.  The  only  mine  in 
Asia  anything  like  a  success  is  the  -vvell-known 
Argana-Maden,  which  produces  nearly  400  tons 
of  copper  annually.  The  average  ores  in  this 
mine  contain  12  to  15  per  cent,  of  pure  metal, 
and  the  profits,  under  good  management,  ought 
to  be  considerable.  The  mines  of  Balgar-Dagh, 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Taurus,  are  also  exceediugly 
rich;  the  ores  containing  21  per  cent,  of  lead, 
giving  428  grammes  of  silver  and  four  of  gold 
per  100  kilogrammes.  The  yield  at  present  is 
trifling,  but  the  mines  are  capable,  under  im- 
proved management  and  with  good  machinery, 
of  producing  12,000  tons  annually,  while  the 
cost  of  extraction  is  estimated  at  only  30  francs 
50  cents,  per  ton.  Argentiferous,  galena  exists 
also  in  great  plenty  at  Akdagh-Mad^n,  in  the 
district  of  Tokat ;  but  though  the  veins  crop  up 
in  the  very  midst  of  forests,  and  labour  is  cheap 
and  abundant,  little  of  the  ore  is  at  present 
iitilized. 

On  the  slope  of  the  Ishik-Dagh,  in  the  pashalic 
of  Angora,  similar  wealth  invites  enterprise; 
as  also    again  at    Desek-Maden,    in   the   same 


112      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TTJEKEY. 

province,  •within  ten  miles  of  the  river  Kissil- 
Irmak.  At  Eldhen,  too,  some  twenty  miles 
south  of  Tireboli,  large  deposits  of  copper  ore 
are  known  to  exist,  but  no  effort  has  been  made 
to  turn  the  discovery  to  account ;  while  at  the 
silver  mines  of  Esseli,  Kur^-Mad^n,  and  Helveli, 
the  method  of  working  is  so  defective  that  the 
resultant  yield  for  the  whole  is  only  a  yearly 
total  of  some  250  tons. 

The  agricultural  resources  of  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor  are  also  very  great,  but  those  which 
remain  dormant  are  so  vast  as  to  be  practically 
unlimited.  The  whole  stretch  of  country  between 
the  Syrian  coast-range  and  the  Euphrates  is 
capable  of  cotton  production  to  an  extent  hardly 
conceivable,  except  by  those  who  are  acquainted 
with  the  topography  of  the  district,  while  the 
uncultivated  area  of  Asia  Minor  is  also  very 
large.  The  natural  advantages  possessed  by 
these  provinces,  in  their  climate  and  geographical 
position,  are  enjoyed  by  few  other  countries  in 
the  world,  and  enormous  tracts,  where  water  is 
plentiful  and  the  soil  most  fruitful,  might  be 
easily  obtained ;  and  when  it  is  considered  that 
Turkey  in  Asia  has  an  area  of  six  hundred  and 
seventy-three  thousand  seven  hundred  and  forty- 
six  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  but  sixteen 


RESOURCES   OF   ASIATIC   TUEKEY.  113 

millions  and  fifty  thousand,  giving  only  23-8 
to  the  square  mile,  it  may  be  imagined  what 
a  vast  extent  of  fertile  land  is  there  lying  un- 
productive. For  example,  the  Pashalic  of  Da- 
mascus, which  extends,  North  to  South,  from 
Haraah  on  the  Orontes  down  to  the  deserts  of 
Arabia  Petraja,  south-east  of  the  Dead  Sea — a 
length  of  about  four  degrees  of  hititude  —  is 
capable  of  supporting  a  population  of  six  millions 
of  souls,  whereas,  at  present,  the  population  is 
not  more  than  five  hundred  thousand.  There  is, 
however,  little  room  for  labourers  or  artizans; 
it  is  the  wide  spread  of  uncultivated  land,  and 
that  only,  Avhich  affords  a  field  to  foreign  settlers, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  to  agriculture  that  immi- 
grants should  direct  their  energies.* 

l!^ext  to  the  possession  of  some  practical  know- 
ledge of  agriculture,  and  intelligenco  to  apply  it 
to  local  circumstances,  capital,  sufficient  for  the 
work  he  proposes  to  undertake,  is  the  first 
requisite  for  an  immigrant.  His  land  will  cost 
him  little,  but  he  will  find  no  buildings  on  it, 
and  working  stock  and  implements  have  to  be 
purchased.  He  will  require,  -moreover,  about 
three  times  as  much  arable  land  as,  with  the 
same  views  regarding  extent  of  culture,  he 
*  See  Appendix  III. 


114      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

would  undertake  in  England.  Because,  1st, 
manure  cannot  be  pui'cliased;  2nd,  the  raising 
or  fattening  of  stock  does  not  assume  the  pro- 
minence in  Turkish  which  it  does  in  English 
farming ;  3rd,  the  manure  made  by  his  working 
stock  will  be  in  full  demand  for  the  portion  of 
the  farm  amenable  to  irrigation ;  therefore,  bare 
fallow  has,  as  a  rule,  to  supply  the  place  of 
manure,  and  due  allowance  for  this  must  be 
made  in  the  area  of  land  obtained  or  purchased. 
Further,  no  immigrant  farmer  should  trust 
altogether  to  native  labourers ;  not  only  would 
their  comparative  apathy  thwart  the  energy  he 
might  himself  possess,  but  theii'  "  feast-days " 
would  be  a  perpetual  hindrance  to  him  whether 
they  were  Moslems  or  Christians.  He  should, 
therefore,  take  with  him  a  sufficient  staff  of 
labourers,  with  their  families,  to  conduct  the 
ordinary  work  of  the  farm ;  if  possible,  making 
the  enterprise  a  co-operative  one.  Then,  he 
should  also  bear  in  mind  that  grain-growing, 
though  comparatively  a  tame  pursuit,  to  an  enter- 
prising man,  is  almost  a  certainty  in  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor,  and  that,  with  ordinary  care,  it  is 
fairly  remunerative ;  but  that  cotton,  tobacco, 
sesg^me,  flax,  and  other  summer  crops,  though 
perhaps  more   tempting,   require   special   study 


RESOURCES   OF   ASIATIC   TURKEY.  115 

and  local  experience.  The  culture  of  tlie  vine 
and  wine-making,  as  well  as  that  of  the  mul- 
berry and  rearing  of  silkworms — if  undertaken 
with  an  adequate  amount  of  knowledge — are, 
however,  quite  as  safe  as  grain -farming,  and 
much  more  profitable.  It  would  be  useless  for 
an  isolated  person  to  attempt  to  make  his  way ; 
but  by  co-operation  in  large  bodies,  composed  of 
British  capitalists  and  workmen,  success  might 
be  looked  upon  as  certain. 

Major  G.  de  "Winton,  in  his  account  of  ''A 
Visit  to  a  Model  Farm  in  Asia  Minor,"  published 
in  Fraser^s  Magazine^  gives  the  following  details 
of  the  profits  on  grain-farming: — "The  farm 
of  Arab-Tchiftlik,"  he  says,  "  was  purchased  by 
the  father  of  the  present  proprietor,  fifteen 
years  ago,  for  one  thousand  pounds  sterling. 
It  contains  about  ten  thousand  acres,  of  which 
upwards  of  four  thousand  are  now  under  culti- 
vation. There  are  two  villages  on  the  estate — 
one  on  the  south,  and  the  other  on  the  north 
side  of  a  promontory;  the  population  of  the 
two  together  being  about  fifteen  hundred.  The 
distance  from  Smyrna  by  water  is  about  six 
hours,  and  by  land,  five  hours  by  mule.  The 
inhabitants    are   all   Greeks;    the   Kavasses    or 

guards,  ten  in  number,  only  being  Turks.     The 

I  2 


116      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 


number  of  acres  in  cultivation  is — ^wheat,  1500; 
barley,  500;  vines,  100;  garden  crops,  2100. 
Of  live  stock,  there  are  4000  sheep;  400 
horned-cattle,  and  200  horses.  The  mode  of 
letting  the  land  is  as  follows: — The  land  is 
let  in  small  farms  of  30,  60,  and  90  acres  for 
wheat  or  barley;  and  half  the  corresponding 
number  of  acres  for  garden  produce.  The  seed 
is  given  by  the  landlord,  who  receives  one-half 
the  produce  in  kind;  one-tenth  in  kind  is  paid 
to  the  Government  as  tithe.  The  average  price 
of  wheat  is  3s.  6d.  a  bushel.  The  account  of 
a  man  farming  thirty  acres  would  stand  as 
under: — 


30  acres,  at  18  bus- 
hels an  acre:  540 

.  "busli.  at  3s.  6d.     £99  10  0 

15  acres  of  spring 
and  garden  crops 
(average).     .     .     .45     0  0 


£144  10  0 


To     landlord     (one- 
half)    .     .     .     .    £72  5  0 
To  Government   .     .746 
Balance     .     .     .  G5  0  6 


£144  10  0 


In  general  a  man  farms  about  ninety  acres ; 
keeping  two  farm  servants,  to  whom  he  pays 
wages  £8  and  including  rations,  about  £20  a 
year.  In  this  case  the  account  would  stand 
thus : — 


RESOURCES   OF   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 


117 


90  acres,  at  18  bus- 
hels an  acre:  1620 
busli.  at  3s.  6d.  £298  10  0 

45  acres  of  spring 
crops,  at  £3  an 
acre 135     0  0 


£433  10  0 


To  landlord.     .    £216  15  0 

To  Government    .    20  5  0 

Two    Servants    at 

£20  each  ...    40  0  0 

Balance.     .     .  156  10  0 


£433  10  0 


Sheep  are  taken  upon  the  following  terms : — 
The  owner  gives  the  sheep  and  grazing  ground, 
receiving  twenty-five  per  cent,  in  cash  as  the 
value  of  the  sheep  yearly;  the  farmer  being 
bound  to  return  an  equal   number  of   sheep  at 

the  expiration  of  the  contract.      Mr.  B has 

expended  a  large  sum  on  his  property.  In  the 
southern  village  he  has  built  a  handsome  Greek 
church,  capable  of  containing  four  hundred  per- 
sons, at  a  cost  of  £2500,  and  he  has  also 
established  schools  in  both  villages.  So  far  as 
I  was  able  to  judge  from  the  short  period  I  re- 
mained at  Arab-Tchiftlik,  the  villagers  appeared 
to  be  in  a  more  prosperous  condition  than  that 
of  any  of  the  labouring  classes  I  have  seen  in 
this  or  in  any  other  country,  with  the  exception, 
perhaps,  of  I^ew  South  "Wales.  The  require- 
ments of  the  people  are  few,  and  drunkenness 
is  a  crime  but  little  known.  The  population  is 
rapidly  increasing,   the  land  under  cultivation 


118      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

increases  every  year,  and  one  hundred  acres  have 
just  been  apportioned  for  making  vineyards.  The 
village  has  a  priest  and  a  doctor,  but  no  lawyer. 
The  intendant  arranges  small  disputes;    graver 

cases  are  referred  to  Mr.  B ,  who  settles  them 

on  the  occasion  of  his  periodical  visits ;  and  if  I 
may  judge  from  his  decisions  in  general  by  those 
given  on  the  occasion  of  my  visit,  I  should  say 
they  were  satisfactory  to  all,  as  both  parties 
appeared  to  go  away  contented.  The  rentals  of 
the  estate  are  now  between  £2000  and  £3000 
a  year.  ...  I  should  mention  that  the  farm 
of  Arab-Tchiftlik  is  perhaps  the  only  one  of  its 
kind  in  Asia  Minor,  and  I  fear  there  are  but  few 

proprietors  like  Mr.  B .  The  experiment  made 

by  him  is,  however,  a  very  interesting  one,  and 
proves  that,  with  a  little  attention,  farming  can 
be  carried  on  in  Asiatic  Turkey  with  great  ad- 
vantage both  to  the  landlord  and  tenant.  There 
are  thousands  of  acres  of  rich  lands,  now  un- 
tilled,  to  be  bought  at.  a  nominal  price,  which 
the  Turk  will  not,  and  the  rayah  cannot, 
cultivate."  * 

There  is,  besides,  scarcely  any  country  in  the 

*  I  have  recently  received  offers  for  the  sale  of  fertile 
land  in  Palestine  and  Syria,  most  eligibly  situated  for 
colonization. 


EESOUECES   OF   ASIATIC   TURKEY.  119 

world  wliicli  offers  so  wide  and  profitable  a 
field  for  British  capital  and  industry  as  the 
possessions  of  the  Turks  in  Asia.  Good  roads 
and  inexpensive  railways  are  required  to  improve 
the  communications  between  existing  business 
centres,  and  open  up  vast  tracts  of  country 
which  have,  at  present,  no  outlet  for  their  pro- 
ducts. The  obstacles  to  the  navigation  of  many 
rivers  demand  removal,  so  as  to  facilitate  the 
transit  of  produce  from  the  interior.  Wharves 
require  to  be  built  to  save  costly  transhipment 
of  merchandise ;  tracts  of  country  to  be  drained 
in  order  to  bring  theai  into  proper  condition  for 
the  growth  of  cotton;  towns  to  be  lighted  and 
cleansed;  agriculture  and  manufactures  en- 
couraged, and  the  immense  mineral  wealth  of 
the  country  developed.  Here  then  is  a  vast 
field  for  British  skill  and  capital ;  and  which  we 
may  now  command.  The  future  of  Palestine, 
Syria,  and  Asia  Minor  is  in  our  hands,  and  it 
depends  upon  our  Government  whether  these 
splended  countries  shall  still  remain  a  com- 
parative desert,  or  whether  they  shall  be  thrown 
open  to  foreign  enterprise  that  will  not  only 
enrich  those  whose  labour  and  capital  are  ex- 
pended, but  also  contribute  to  the  happiness  and 
prosperity  of  the  populations  themselves.     One 


120       EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUBKEY. 

tiling  is  wanting,— that  the  rule  of  the  Turkish 
Pashas  should  cease,  and  a  reign  of  law,  justice, 
and  liberty  should  take  its  place.  Then  would 
revive  the  ancient  grandeur  of  the  Khalifs.  The 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  would  again  water  cities 
equal  to  the  Nineveh  and  Babylon  that  once 
stood  upon  their  banks.  A  new  Tadmor  would 
rival  the  glories  of  Palmyra.  The  Orontes  would 
carry  treasures  to  a  restored  Antioch,  the  "  Star 
of  the  East."  Smyrna  would  once  more  become 
the  "Gem  of  Asia;"  and  the  maritime  cities 
of  Syria  would  recall  the  splendours  of  Sidon  and 
of  Tyre. 


CHAPTEK  XII. 

RAILWAYS   IN   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  point  to  an  instance  in 
which  the  injury  caused  by  defective  appliances 
for  the  transport  of  merchandise  exceeds  that 
from  which  Asiatic  Turkey  is  at  present  suffer- 
ing. In  its  effects,  the  state  of  the  transit  has 
the  same  tendency  as  the  inland  and  export 
duties,  in  narrowing  the  circle  of  the  country's 
productive  capabilities.  Hence  wheat  and  other 
commodities  which  might,  under  more  favourable 
circumstances,  be  brought  down  to  the  ports, 
have,  in  some  places,  a  mere  local  value.  In- 
stances are  numerous  where  the  population  have 
been  in  a  state  of  comparative  famine  in  one 
part  of  the  country  from  scarcity  of  breadstuffs, 
while  in  others,  wheat,  &c.,  might  be  purchased 
at  nearly  nominal  prices.  In  two  particular 
cases,  it  has  been  estimated  that  to  bring  grain 
down  36  and  150  miles,  the  average  cost  of  trans- 


122      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

port  was  respectively  4s.  and  16s.  per  quarter, 
whereas  over  good  roads  this  sum  might  be 
reduced  to  Is.  and  4s.  a  quarter;  the  difference 
being  upwards  of  13  and  112  per  cent,  on  the 
farmer's  gross  receipts. 

In  dealing,  however,  with  the  means  of  trans- 
port and  communication  in  Turkey,  a  grave 
error  has  been  committed  by  railway  concession- 
naireSj  who  have  misled  the  public  by  apparently 
splendid  schemes,  and  induced  capitalists  to  em- 
bark their  money  in  enterprises  which  carried 
with  them  the  seeds  of  their  own  failure.  It 
is  fatal  to  such  undertakings  to  judge  them  by 
the  standard  of  results  in  England,  and  other 
equally  advanced  countries.  The  scale  of  such 
works  is  far  too  much  in  advance  of  the  state 
of  agricultural  development;  whereas  a  good 
system  of  narrow-gauge  railways  would  at  once 
induce  an  immense  increase  of  traffic,  and  would 
not  require  the  costly  outlay  necessary  in  the 
ordinary  railway  system.  Such  railways  have 
already  been  adopted  in  Russia,  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, Australia,  New  Zealand,  India,  and  South 
America ;  while  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
narrow-gauge  railways  have  been  commenced, 
or  are  being  projected,  in  almost  every  State 
and  territory  from  the  eastern  to   the  western 


EAILWAYS   IN   ASIATIC   TUKKEY.  12  O 

seaboard.  The  Ottoman  Eailway  (Smyrna  to 
Aidin),  80  miles,  was  built  at  a  cost  of  £1,784,000 
or  £22,300  per  mile;  the  Smyrna  and  Cassaba, 
61  miles,  £800,000,  or  £13,115  a  mile;  the 
Yarna  and  Eustchuk,  140  miles,  £2,158,975, 
or  £15,421  a  mile ;  while  in  America,  the  Den- 
ver and  Rio  Grande  narrow-gauge  railway, 
running  from  Denver,  in  Colorado,  to  the  city 
of  Mexico — 1750  miles  in  length — has  not, 
except  in  the  mountain  districts,  exceeded  14,000 
dollars  a  mile,  including  stations,  engine  and 
carriage  buildings,  workshops,  &c.  If  this  latter 
system  were  adoj)ted  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  there 
would  be  little  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  capital 
requii'ed  to  build  her  railways.  In  fact,  the 
introduction  of  such  a  system  must  precede  any 
further  great  increase  of  trade ;  and  as  the  safety 
of  investments  depends  upon  the  power  of  the 
debtor  to  pay,  it  is  obvious  that  any  means 
which  can  tend  to  augment  that  power  on  the 
part  of  the  Porte  must  operate  as  an  additional 
guarantee  for  the  faithful  observance  of  its 
obligations. 

In  that  portion  of  Asia  Minor  fi*om  which  the 
great  bulk  of  the  exported  produce  is  drawn — 
and  of  which  Samsoun  on  the  Black  Sea  and 
Smyrna  on  the  Mediterranean  are  the  principal 


124      EGYPT,    CYPEUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

shipping  ports — the  roads  are  everywhere  in  a 
most  primitive  condition,  and,  during  the  winter 
months,  in  many  parts  almost  unavailable.  The 
whole  of  the  Samsoun  district,  which  may  be 
described  by  straight  lines  drawn  from  Samsoun 
to  Sivas,  thence  to  Angora,  and  northward  again 
to  Sinope,  is  celebrated  for  its  fetility ;  yet  there 
is  not  a  single  trunk  road  in  the  entire  area. 
Immense  quantities  of  grain,  as  well  as  tobacco 
and  other  produce,  could  be  raised  in  the  interior ; 
but,  without  the  means  of  transport,  profitable 
cultivation  is  out  of  the  question.  The  port  of 
Samsoun  is  capable  of  being  made  one  of  the  best 
in  the  Black  Sea,  and  its  exports  should  not  be 
less  in  importance  than  those  of  Odessa ;  but  in 
order  to  ejffect  any  great  improvement  in  the 
harbour,  so  as  to  render  it  safe  and  commodious, 
engineering  works  of  rather  an  extensive  charac- 
ter would  be  necessary. 

Northern  Anatolia  has  a  practical  monopoly  of 
the  transit  trade  with  Persia,  but  although  this 
trade  yields  an  important  revenue,  and  the 
country  itself,  if  even  partially  cultivated,  would 
largely  increase  the  income  from  the  tithe,  there 
was  not  until  very  recently  a  good  road  over 
which  produce  could  be  safely  transported  through 
the  winter  months.     There  is  a  road  which  enters 


RAILWAYS   IN   ASIATIC  TURKEY.  125 

Kars  from  Eussia,  passes  througli  to  Erzeroum, 
andj  dividing  thence,  branches  north  to  Trebizond, 
and,  in  a  westerly  direction,  to  Tokat;  but,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Trebizond  road,  these  are 
mere  bridle  tracks,  carried  sometimes  through 
swamps,  and  sometimes  over  mountain  summits. 
The  valleys  of  the  Tcharaki  and  Eaibut  are  all 
that  could  be  desired,  and,  at  intervals  not  far 
removed,  there  are  depressions  in  the  mountain 
chains  through  which  roads  could  be  carried 
without  involving  the  neoossity  of  works  of  an 
expensive  character.  But  road-making  is  not 
the  forte  of  the  Turks.  The  Trebizond  road 
took  twenty  years  to  make,  and  its  history  is 
remarkable.  It  was  commenced  in  1852  by 
Ismail  Pasha,  but,  with  the  exception  of  two  or 
three  kilometres  outside  Trebizond,  the  project 
remained  in  abeyance  until  1864.  The  small 
piece  made  in  1852,  together  with  the  repair  of 
the  old  road  as  far  as  Khosh-oglan,  a  town  two' 
hours  from  Trebizond,  cost  the  Government  no 
less  than  ten  millions  of  piastres,  a  sum  that 
frightened  them  out  of  completing  the  work.  In 
18G4,  however,  they  took  heart  of  grace,  and  a 
body  of  European  engineers  was  despatched  to 
survey  the  route  and  recommence  the  works. 
From  1864  to  1868,  a  length  of  twenty  kilo- 


126      EGYPT,    CTPE¥S,    AND   ASIATIC  lUEKEY. 

inMres  was  finished,  and  about  350  more  sur- 
veyed. The  estimate  for  the  completion  of  the 
road  was  fixed  at  seventy  millions  of  piastres, 
but  the  Porte  thought  the  estimate  too  high,  and 
the  engineers  were  recalled.  About  this  time, 
however,  Mustapha  Pasha,  Mushir  of  the  4th 
Army  Corps  (Anatolia),  being  at  Constantinople, 
undertook  the  construction  of  the  road,  on  the 
corvee  system,  within  four  years,  for  the  sum  of 
ten  millions  of  piastres.  The  conditions  were 
accepted,  and  the  Pasha  started  for  Trebizond, 
and,  within  the  given  time,  completed  the  road. 
Owing  to  the  completion  of  this  road,  the  Persian 
transit  trade  must  necessarily  for  some  time  to 
come  remain  in  possession  of  Turkey.  But  as 
soon  as  the  projected  railway  shall  be  constructed 
from  Batoum  to  Ears,  and  thence  by  Erivan  to 
Tabreez,  the  merchants  of  Erzoroum  and  Trebi- 
zond will  find  that  their  trade  and  profits  have 
departed. 

With  numerous  roadsteads  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Black  Sea,  Turkey  does  not  possess  one 
really  good  harbour;  and  although  roads  from 
the  interior  to  the  coast  would  be  in  themselves 
an  inestimable  blessing  to  the  population,  yet 
they  would  be  to  a  large  extent  useless  without 
proper    harbours   for   the   shij)ment   of   surplus 


RAILWAYS   IN   ASIATIC   TURKEY.  127 

produce.  If  it  were  possible  to  complete  a 
good  road  from  Samsoun  to  Sivas;  to  clear  out 
the  river  Sakaria — which  waters  a  country 
between  Angora  and  the  Black  Sea,  abounding 
in  natural  riches  of  the  most  varied  character — 
and  to  canalize  fifty  miles  of  the  Sarabat,  which 
flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna,  the  resulting 
advantages  both  to  the  people  and  the  Govern- 
ment would  be  so  apparent  that  an  impetus 
would  be  given  to  the  initiation  of  similar 
works  elsewhere,  and  less  difficulty  be  experi- 
enced in  their  accomplishment.  The  Maritza, 
the  Orontes,  the  Jordan,  and  other  rivers  in 
Asia  Minor  and  Syria  might,  in  little  more 
than  a  twelvemonth,  be  cleared  from  the  snags 
and  sandbanks  which  now  render  them  useless 
for  transport,  and  float  down  such  wealth  of 
produce  to  the  sea  as  would  enrich  the  popula- 
tion and  all  concerned  in  this  development  of 
the  country's  splendid  resources. 
•  A  great  portion  of  the  produce  of  Anatolia 
intended  for  export  is  brought  to  Smyrna  for 
shipment;  yet  from  this  latter  point,  again, 
the  roads  into  the  interior  are  at  times  impass- 
able. At  the  best  they  are  suited  for  camel 
transit  alone;  and,  but  for  the  construction  of 
the  two   lines   of   railway — the  Aidin   and  the 


128      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASTATIC   TURKEY. 

Cassaba — the  prospects  of  the  Smyrna  trade 
would  be  anything  but  satisfactory.  "Whatever 
may  be  the  result,  however,  in  respect  of  the 
profits  which  may  be  earned  by  these  lines, 
the  policy  of  encouraging  the  formation  of 
expensive  railways,  while  the  roads  in  the 
interior  remain  in  their  present  condition  is,  to 
say  the  least,  questionable.  If  the  same  amount 
of  energy  and  capital  had  been  expended  on 
road  construction  as  have  been  spent  on  the 
Aidin  and  the  Cassaba  railways,  the  trade  of 
Smyrna  would  ere  this  have  been  sensibly  in- 
creased by  an  influx  of  produce  from  districts 
which  are  at  present  practically  shut  out  from 
the  seaboard. 

Beyrout,  which  is  the  port  of  Mount  Lebanon 
and  Damascus — in  fact,  the  principal  maritime 
outlet  for  Syria — is  in  a  deplorable  condition,  as 
far  as  harbour  accommodation  is  concerned.  The 
port  is  simply  an  open  roadstead,  from  which 
ships  have  frequently  to  run  for  shelter;  all 
goods  require  to  be  lightered  from  vessels  riding 
at  anchor,  and  there  is  not  accommodation  at  the 
custom-house  for  the  goods  which  are  at  times 
discharged.  The  damage  done  to  property  by 
reason  of  insufficient  landing  facilities  is  fre- 
quently a  severe   tax  on   importers,   while   the 


RAILWAYS   IN   ASIATIC   TURKEY.  129 

risk,  consequent  on  the  lighterage  of  cargo,  is 
such  as  should  not  be  imposed  on  any  mercantile 
community.  Yet  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in 
the  construction  of  an  efficient  breakwater  and 
a  commodious  quay,  to  the  cost  of  which  the 
merchants  of  Beyrout  are  quite  willing  to  con- 
tribute. Jaffa,  too,  which  is  the  southernmost 
port  in  Syria,  and  the  entrepot^  for  Jerusalem, 
Nablous,  Gaza,  and  the  interior  of  Palestine,  is 
without  any  satisfactory  harbour  accommodation. 
The  only  landing-place,  both  for  passengers  and 
goods,  is  a  very  unsuitable  erection  of  a  few  feet 
in  length.  There  is  a  natural  breakwater  eight 
hundred  feet  long,  but  it  is  so  silted  up  as  to 
be  available  only  for  coasting  craft,  larger  vessels 
being  obliged  to  anchor  in  the  roadstead.  That 
the  port  of  Jaffa  is  capable  of  being  made  good 
and  safe  for  vessels  of  average  sea- going  tonnage 
does  not  admit  of  doubt,  and  works  of  substantial 
and  enduring  character  could  easily  be  under- 
taken. A  railway,  or  well-made  road,  between 
Jaffa  and  Jerusalem  would  be  a  great  boon  to 
the  travelling  public,  as  well  as  to  the  thousands 
of  pilgrims  who  annually  toil  over  the  track  by 
which  the  two  places  are  connected.  A  good 
road  is  also  much  wanted  from  Nablous  on  the 
north,  and  from  Kerek  across   the  ford  of  the 


130        EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

Dead  Sea,  through  Gaza,  on  the  south;  such 
roads  as  these  running  into  Jaffa  would  be  of 
material  service  in  the  transjDort  of  produce.  If 
the  port  were  put  in  good  condition,  with  a  new 
breakwater  and  serviceable  quays,  and  a  road 
driven  in  a  north-easterly  direction  by  way  of 
Nablous  into  the  Pashalic  of  Damascus,  Jaffa 
would  soon  become  a  great  emporium  of  trade. 

Well-made  roads,  good  canals,  and  inexpensive 
railways  are  desiderata  for  Asiatic  Turkey,  as 
so  long  as  the  present  defective  system  of  in- 
ternal communication  exists,  the  full  develop- 
ment of  the  country's  agricultural  resources 
must  be  seriously  retarded.  Eivers,  harbours, 
and  highways  there  may  be  in  abundance ;  but 
if  the  first  of  these  be  simply  tortuous  tori'ents, 
the  second  a  compound  of  mud  and  gullies,  and 
the  third  mere  bridle  paths,  composed  of  iron- 
bound  ruts  in  summer,  and  all  but  impassable 
sloughs  of  mud  in  winter,  their  utility  is  but 
of  minimum  value.  Good  roads,  serviceable 
canals,  and  economically-made  railways  arc, 
besides,  civilizing  agents  of  the  highest  order, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  their  absence  restrains 
enterprise,  diverts  trade,  and  lessens  cultivation. 
When  locomotion  is  slow,  expen  \  e,  and  at 
times  impossible,  community  of  interest  and  senti- 


RAILWAYS   IN   ASIATIC   TUEKEY.  131 

ment  in  the  population  is  effectually  prevented ; 
the  different  parts  of  the  machinery  of  govern- 
ment cannot  work  in  unison,  and  the  entire 
community  languishes  for  want  of  arterial  cir- 
culation. Of  what  value  are  bursting  fields  of 
cotton  if  the  cost  of  transport  would  render  its 
shipment  to  a  foreign  market  profitless  ?  None ; 
for  in  such  a  case  poverty  must  be  the  fate  of 
the  cultivator.  It  is  in  vain  to  issue  edicts 
having  for  their  object  the  amelioration  of  the 
common  lot,  if  the  producer  is  unable  to  place 
his  commodities  within  reach  of  the  consumer; 
and  it  is  equally  futile  to  expect  any  great  in- 
crease in  the  revenue  of  the  State  when  merely 
the  coast  line  of  the  Empire  is  capable  of  effective 
utilization.  A  string  of  laden  camels  wending 
its  way  from  the  interior  of  Anatolia  to  the  coast 
is  not  an  edifying  spectacle  in  these  modern  days ; 
nor  is  one  of  the  loaded  skin-rafts  of  the  Tigris, 
floating  on  the  current  from  Diarbekhr  to  Bag- 
dad, in  any  sense  a  proper  substitute  for  the 
means  of  carriage  which  engineering  science 
could  provide.  It  is  true  that  efforts  have  from 
time  to  time  been  made  by  the  Porte  in  the  con- 
struction of  roads ;  but,  either  from  the  fact  that 
imperial   interests   have  been  made   subservient 

to   individual  aggrandisement,  or  that  the  diffi- 

K  2 


132      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

culties  of  the  task  have  been  under-estimated, 
these  efforts  have  almost  invariably  resulted  in 
disappointment.  Effective  administration  of  the 
internal  affairs  of  an  empire,  and  defective 
means  of  communication  between  its  several 
parts,  cannot  co-exist.  Practically,  justice  can- 
not be  administered  in  a  community  where  an 
appeal  to  the  source  from  which  it  flows  is  a 
physical  impossibility ;  while  without  transit 
facilities  for  barter,  the  intelligent  skill  of  a 
people  is  worthless,  and  the  accumulation  of 
individual  wealth  impracticable.  So  evenly 
balanced,  however,  are  the  topographical  advan- 
tages of  Turkey  in  Asia,  that  there  is  no  one  spot 
so  situated  as  to  preclude  the  transport  of  its 
produce  to  a  profitable  market,  provided  there 
exist  good  roads  and  railways,  serviceable  canals, 
and  renovated  sea-ports. 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 

THE   EUPHRATES  VALLEY   RAILWAY. 

The  British  Protectorate  of  Asiatic  Turkey  has 
again  directed  attention  to  the  great  enterprise 
of  an  iron  highway  from  the  Mediterranean  or 
the  Bosphorus  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  which  has 
been  for  more  than  five-and-twenty  years  before 
the  public.  Three  projects  have  been  proposed 
with  this  view ;  the  first,  that  of  the  Euphrates 
Valley  route,  proposed  by  General  Chesney,  Sir 
John  Macneill,  and  Mr.  "W.  P.  Andrew;  the  second 
(though  latest  in  order  of  time),  that  of  Mr. 
Latham ;  and  the  third,  the  grander  if  more 
difficult  scheme  of  Sir  Macdonald  Stephenson. 
The  first,  so  long  and  ably  agitated  by  Mr. 
Andrew,  has  never,  I  believe,  been  put  forward 
as  one  likely  in  itself  to  be  remunerative,  but 
rather  as  an  undertaking  essential  to  our  own 
national  interests.  Mr.  Latham's  modification  of 
the    scheme,   although    undoubtedly  possessing 


134      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TUPiKEY. 

some  special  merits,  has  liithorto  lacked  the 
influential  sponsorship  necessary  to  its  success ; 
while  Sir  Macdonald  Stephenson's  great  enter- 
prise was  deemed  by  many  an  impossibility,  as, 
at  the  time  it  was  mooted,  no  more  advanced 
European  starting-point  could  be  found  than 
Yienna.  K'ow,  however,  that  the  Eoumelian 
railway  will  in  time  unite  the  Straits  of  Dover 
with  the  Bosphorus,  half  the  practical  argument 
against  Sir  Macdonald's  project  will  be  removed, 
and  it  is  fast  becoming  probable  that  the 
prophecy  made  by  him,  twenty  years  ago,  will 
be  an  accomplished  fact  before  the  world  is 
another  decade  older. 

The  practicability  of  the  Euphrates  Valley 
route  was  early  demonstrated  by  a  costly 
survey  made  by  Sir  John  Macneill  and  General 
Chesney;  but  doubts  as  to  its  commercial 
prospects  discouraged  Her  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment from  giving  the  guarantee,  without  which 
capitalists  refused  the  means  to  carry  it  out. 
The  scheme,  as  first  projected  by  General  Chesney 
and  Sir  John  Macneill,  involved  departure  from 
Europe  at  Trieste  or  Brindisi,  whence  steamers 
would  run  to  Suedia  on  the  coast  of  Syria. 
Thence,  a  line  of  railway  would  be  carried  up 
the  Orontes  valley  to  Antioch,  and  on  by  Aleppo 


THE   EUrnKATES   VALLEY   EAILWAY.         135 

to  Ja'bcr  Castle  on  the  Euphrates,  and  finally- 
down  to  the  confluence  of  the  latter  river  with 
the  Tigris  at  Kurnah.  From  this  point,  a  line 
of  powerful  steamers  would  continue  the  com- 
munication to  Kurrachee  on  the  Indus,  from 
which  place  railways  are  now  complete  to 
Bombay,  Madras,  Calcutta,  and  the  North- 
Western  provinces  of  India.  Pending  the 
development  of  the  expected  river  traffic, 
however,  it  was  proposed  to  lay  down  the  railway 
over  only  the  first  section  of  the  route,  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  Ja'ber  Castle,  whence  a  fleet 
of  steamers  Avould  continue  the  communication 
to  Kurnah  and  Bussorah.  By  this  line,  the 
estimated  savin2:  of  time  between  London  and 
Calcutta  would  be  about  sixteen  or  seventeen 
days — once  the  railway  was  complete.* 

*  In  the  report  of  the  Select  Committee  appointed  to 
examine  tlic  subject  of  railway  communication  between  tlie 
Mediterranean  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  published  in  1872,  it 
was  stated  that  "the  sum  of  £10,000,000  would  bo  amply 
sufficient  to  cover  the  expenses  of  the  shortest  route."  At 
that  time,  I  received  an  offer  from  a  combination  of  con- 
tractors and  capitalists,  who  Avere  prepared  to  make  the 
railroad,  on  the  narrow-gauge  system,  and  to  carry  it  from 
Alexandretta,  on  the  Mediterranean,  vid  Aleppo,  to  Bus- 
sorah, at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  for  the  sum  of 
£5,000,000,  or  half  the  amount  of  the  lowest  estimate 
mentioned  by  the  committee,  and  to  guarantee  an  average 


13G      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

The  route  proposed  by  Mr.  Latham  was  to  be 
from  Alexandretta,  instead  of  Suedia,  and  thence, 
by  the  Beilan  Pass  and  Antioch,  to  Aleppo,  and 
across  the  Euphrates  at  Birejik.  But  whereas 
the  original  scheme  of  Messrs.  Andrew,  Chesney, 
and  Macneill  turned  sharp  down  the  river  valley 
from  Ja'ber  Castle,  through  the  arid  wastes  of 
the  south,  Mr.  Latham  proposed  to  go,  at  the 
cost  of  some  two  hundred  miles  of  increased 
distance,  thi'ough  Northern  Mesopotamia,  past 
Orfa,  Mardin,  Jezireh,  Mosul,  and  Bagdad ; 
hitting  the  Gulf  at  Kurnah  or  Bussorah — in  fact, 
the  established  post  and  caravan  route  through  a 
settled  and  cultivated  country.  This  line  would, 
as  I  have  stated,  be  some  two  hundred  miles 
longer  than  that  projected  by  General  Chesney, 
but  it  would,  on  the  other  hand,  have  commercial 
advantages  over  the  latter,  which  would  amply 
counterbalance  the  trifling  difference  of  time  and 
extra  cost  of  construction  involved. 

Alexandretta,  besides,  is  a  fine  natural  har- 
bour, easily  made  at   all  times,   and  affording 

sjDeed  of  thirty-five  miles  an  hour.  I  suhniitted  this  offer 
to  the  'J^urkish  Government,  hy  whom  it  was  referred  to  the 
Turkish  Ambassador  in  London ;  hut  his  Excellency  ex- 
pressed to  me  his  dissatisfaction  at  this  ofier  having  been 
made  to  the  Porte. 


THE   EUPHRATES    VALLEY   RAILWAY.         137 

shelter  in  nearly  every  state  of  the  wind,  while 
it  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  long-established 
outlet  for  Northern  Syria,  through  which  the 
vast  transit  traffic  of  the  interior  has  passed 
for  ages.  A  small  outlay  on  drainage  would 
render  it  as  healthy  as  any  point  along  the 
coast;  while,  inland,  Beilan  presents  no 
considerable  engineering  difficulties  whatever. 
Eastwards,  too,  Mr.  Latham's  proposed  line 
would  have  many  and  weighty  advantages 
over  that  by  the  Euphrates.  The  latter, 
whether  it  were  opened  up  first  by  river 
navigation — the  practicability  of  which  is,  to 
say  the  least,  doubtful — or,  at  once,  by  a  line 
of  railway  throughout,  would  run  through  a 
comparatively  desert  country,  devoid  of  trade, 
and  at  the  mercy  of  the  predatory  Arabs.  In 
fact,  for  many  years,  it  would  have  to  depend 
mainly,  if  not  entirely,  on  its  through  Indian 
traffic  for  support. 

Mr.  Latham's  route,  on  the  contrary,  would 
run  through  a  populous  and  commercially  active 
chain  of  provinces,  past  thriving  towns,  and 
with  resources  for  increasing  trade  everywhere 
abundant.  Mosul  and  Bagdad — not  to  mention 
Diarbekhr,  which  would  be  rendered  tributary 
by   a    good    branch   tramway — are   emporia  in 


138      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

themselves  sufficient  to  feed  a  cheaply  con- 
structed and  carefully  managed  line.  The 
actual  distance,  it  is  true,  by  this  route  "would 
be  some  two  hundred  miles  greater ;  but  this 
would  be  more  than  compensated  for  by  its 
immense  relative  advantages  of  abundant  and 
cheap  laboui',  and  of  material  for  making  the  lino 
throughout ;  as  well  as  by  the  trade  and  industrial 
activity  already  in  vigorous  existence  along  its 
whole  extent,  from  Scanderoon  to  the  Gulf — in 
addition  to  the  Indian  traffic,  which  would 
certainly  not  be  less  than  by  the  torrid  soli- 
tudes of  the  Euphrates. 

The  grand  idea,  however,  of  Sir  Macdonald 
Stephenson,  which,  twenty  years  ago,  was 
deemed  little  more  than  a  splendid  chimera, 
sinks  now  to  the  level  of  practicable  common- 
place in  these  days  of  Indo-European  and  Trans- 
Atlantic  telegraphy.  In  fact,  by  the  progress 
already  made  in  its  fulfilment  since  it  was 
first  (^undated  by  its  eminent  promoter,  the 
project  may  be  said  to  be  almost  half  achieved. 
The  orii^inal  scheme  of  Sir  Macdonald  contem- 
plated  a  continuous  chain  of  railways  from 
Calais  to  Calcutta,  traversing  Europe  to  the 
Bosphorus,  and  hence  across  Asia  Minor  to 
Persia,  Beloochistan,  and  the  Indus;   and,  now 


THE  EUPHKATES  VALLEY  E  AIL  WAY.    139 

that  the  Eounielian  railway  is  progressing — 
which  was  the  first  part  of  Sir  Macdonald's 
idea — the  second  section,  or,  at  least,  that 
portion  of  it  from  the  Bosphorus  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  should  re-attract  attention.  In  an  able 
pamphlet  on  railway  communication  with  India, 
published  by  Professor  Chenery,  the  line  is 
shown  to  be  not  only  practicable,  but  inexpen- 
sive. Some  parts  of  the  route  have  already 
been  surveyed.  A  short  piece  from  Scutari  to 
Ismidt  has  been  thoroughly  done,  and  more 
than  one  route  has  been  examined  into  the 
interior  in  the  direction  of  Eski-Shehr,  Angora, 
and  Afiun  Kara-Hissar.  The  line  now  sug- 
gested is  by  Ismidt,  Kutahia,  Afiun  Kara- 
IIissar,Konieh,  Ak-Serai,Ycni-Shehr,  Kaisaria,  and 
Aleppo.  The  most  difficult  part  of  the  line  would 
be  that  between  Ismidt  and  Kutahia  or  Eski- 
Shehr,  where  there  would  be  a  section,  happily  of 
not  more  than  ten  miles,  on  which  the  works 
would  necessarily  be  of  an  expensive  character. 

From  Afiun  Kara-IIissar,  however,  to  the 
northern  base  of  the  Taurus  there  is  no  extra- 
ordinary difficulty.  That  portion  lying  to  the 
north-east  of  Alexandretta  has  not  yet  been 
surveyed,  but  although  this  is,  perhaps,  the 
most  difficult  part  of  the  line,  there  is  nothing 


140       EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AXD   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

in  it  which  may  not  be  easily  accomplished, 
at  no  excessive  cost,  in  the  present  state  of 
science.  From  Aleppo  to  the  Persian  Gulf  the 
route  is  almost  a  complet  flat,  and  the  only 
addition  to  the  cost  of  the  works  would  arise 
from  the  necessity  of  crossing  the  various 
affluents  of  the  Euphrates,  which,  although 
nearly  dried  up  in  the  summer,  roll  a  consider- 
able torrent  in  the  rainy  season  of  the  year. 
The  entire  line,  constructed  with  proper  solidity, 
and  capable  of  bearing  traffic  at  a  high  rate 
of  speed,  might,  it  is  estimated,  be  made 
through  the  whole  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  from 
the  Eosphorus  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  for  £12,000 
to  £15,000  a  mile. 

The  distance  between  London  and  Constanti- 
nople, on  the  completion  of  the  Eoumelian 
Pailway,  will  be  traversed  in  one  hundred  hours. 
On  the  Asiatic  portion  of  the  line,  assuming  it 
to  be  well  constructed,  the  trains  might  easily 
travel  at  an  average  of  twenty-five  miles  an 
hour,  including  stoppages,  and  that,  for  the 
distance,  one  thousand  five  hundred  miles, 
between  the  Bosphorus  and  Bussorah,  would 
give  sixty  hours,^ — a  total  of  one  hundred 
and  sixty  hours,  or  six  days  sixteen  hours 
from    London   to   the   Gulf.      It    is   suggested 


THE    EUPHRATES   VALLEY    RAILWAY.         141 

that  the  railway  should  be  continued,  in  course 
of  time,  to  Bunder  Abbas,  otherwise  Gombroon, 
a  place  now  belonging  to  the  Imaum  of  Muscat, 
and  formerly  the  seat  of  a  considerable  trade. 

The  distance  from  Bussorah  to  Bunder  Abbas 
is  seven  hundred  miles,  which,  at  twenty-five 
miles  an  hour,  would  be  traversed  in  twenty- 
eight  hours.  Add  to  this,  the  hundred  and 
sixty  hours  before  mentioned,  and  we  have  the 
duration  of  the  whole  transit  between  London 
and  Bunder  Abbas — one  hundred  and  eighty- 
eight  hours,  or  seven  days  twenty  hours.  From 
Bunder  Abbas  to  Kurrachee,  along  the  coast,  is 
a  distance  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty  miles, 
which  might  be  traversod  by  a  steamer  in  less 
than  three  days.  If,  at  any  future  time,  a 
railway  were  carried  along  the  Mekran  coast, 
this  part  of  the  journey  would  be  further  ac- 
celerated. But  taking  Bunder  Abbas  as  the 
terminus,  we  have  the  whole  time,  from  the 
British  capital  to  the  nearest  Indian  port,  about 
ten  days  and  a  half,  instead  of  thirty,  the  time 
now  occupied  by  the  route  through  Egypt. 

In  comparing,  however,  the  merits  of  the 
several  schemes  for  a  railway  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  it  will  be  apparent  that  one  of  the  chief 
advantages  which  that  of   Sir  Macdonald   Ste- 


142      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY, 

phenson  possesses  is,  that  it  will,  no  doubt,  soon 
have  its  first  great  station,  from  Calais  to  the 
Bosphorus,  completed  by  the  construction  of  the 
Eoumelian  lines.  This  is  an  advantage  which, 
though  originally  looked  forward  to  by  Sir  Mac- 
donald,  his  scheme  had  not,  when  first  projected, 
but  which  now,  unquestionably,  gives  it  an  enor- 
mous superiority  ever  Mr.  Andrew's  proposed 
route;  as  the  break  in  the  latter,  between  the 
Italian  coast  of  the  Adriatic  and  Suedia,  is  an 
objection  that  is  impossible  to  be  overcome. 
The  line  proper,  therefore,  from  Scutari,  starting 
with  this  advantage,  will  have  a  certainty  of 
enormous  through  traffic  already  secured  to  it. 
This,  it  is  true,  may  also,  as  far  as  Brindisi,  be 
claimed  for  Mr.  Andrew's  scheme,  but  from  that 
port  to  the  Gulf,  this  latter — with  the  exception 
of  the  short  run  through  ISTorthern  Syria — would 
be  almost  entirely  dependent  on  the  direct  traffic 
alo7ie  for  its  support;  seeing  that  little  or  nothing 
could  be  expected  from  the  long  stretch  of  desert 
to  be  traversed  from  Ja'ber  Castle  to  Bussorah. 
Not  so,  however,  with  Sir  Macdonald  Stephen- 
son's proposed  route  through  Asia  Minor;  as 
from  Scutari  to  Alexandretta,  and  thence  to 
Aleppo,  it  would  run  through  populous  and  well- 
cultivated  districts,  with  a  large  traffic  at  once 


THE    EUPHRATES   VALLEY   RAILWAY.         143 

available,  and  which  would  be  speedily  and 
enormously  increased  by  the  transport  facilities 
afforded  by  such  a  line. 

The  dividend-pay  in  g  Talue  of  this  traffic 
would,  of  course,  depend  on  the  cost  of  the  rail- 
way, but  a  reliable  estimate  of  the  expense  of  its 
construction  states  the  average,  at  the  outside, 
at  not  more  than  the  sum  I  have  mentioned— 
£12,000  to  £15,000  a  mile.  The  success,  too,  of 
the  Smyrna  and  Cassaba  Eailway,  justifies  the 
belief  that  a  large  and  profitable  local  traffic 
would  speedily  become  available,  seeing  that, 
although  the  Cassaba  Eailway  begins  at  an  im- 
portant port,  it  may  be  said  to  end  nowhere ; 
Avhereas  the  Trans-Asia  Minor  line  would  run 
through  and  connect  all  the  most  important  in- 
dustrial and  producing  districts  betvv^een  the 
Bosphorus  and  the  Euphrates.  For  example, 
the  principal  north  road,  which  starts  from  Alex- 
andretta  through  Asia  Minor,  forms  a  junction 
at  Kutahia  with  the  roads  from  Brussa  and 
Angora,  and,  continuing  thence  in  a  still  north- 
erly direction  to  Ismidt,  skirts  the  north-eastern 
shore  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora  to  Scutari  on  the 
Bosphorus.  From  Smyrna,  the  main  road  passes 
through  Ali-Shehr  to  Sandukli  and  Afiun  Xara- 
Hissar,    whence    it    branches,   in   a  north   and 


144     EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

north-easterly  direction,  to  Ismidt  and  Angora, 
and  south-easterly  to  Konieh  and  the  Syrian 
frontier.  These  districts,  too,  are  well-watered 
by  the  Kasalmack,  the  Kizel-Irmak,  the  Sakaria, 
the  Sarabat,  and  the  Bojuk-Meinder,  which  are 
all,  more  or  less,  adapted  for  canalization,  and 
would,  by  such  means,  become  feeders  for  a 
railway  running  from  Scutari  to  Alexandretta. 
Such  a  line,  therefore,  as  proposed  by  Sir  Mac- 
donald  Stephenson,  passing  by  Ismidt,  Kutahia, 
Afiun  Kara-Hissar,  Konieh,  Ak-Serai,  Yeni- 
Shehr,  and  Kaiseria,  would  connect  important 
centres  of  population,  and  speedily  attract  to 
itself  the  goods  traffic  of  the  great  opium, 
silk,  wool,  grain,  and  oil-producing  districts  of 
Anatolia. 

Once  arrived  at  Alexandretta,  Sir  Macdonald 
Stephenson's  scheme,  in  common  with  that  of 
Mr.  Latham,  would  possess  the  great  advantage 
over  Mr.  Andrew's  line  of  pursuing  the  long- 
established  caravan  route  followed  now,  and  for 
centuries  past,  by  the  local  transport  trade,  as 
well  as  by  that  between  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Trans-Euphrates  countries.  Thus,  by  taking 
this  track  instead  of  that  from  Suedia,  the  line 
would  immediately  command  a  large  traffic,  as, 
although  the  distance  between  Aleppo  and  Alexan- 


THE  EUPHRATES  VALLEY  RAILWAY.    145 

drefta  is  only  sixty  miles,  the  present  cost  of 
conveying  goods  for  shipment  is  £6  per  ton,  and 
the  carriage  of  wheat,  17s.  6d.  per  quarter,  or 
double  the  price  of  the  grain  itself.  From 
Aleppo,  however,  Sir  Macdonald's  route,  as  I 
understand  it,  joins  that  proposed  by  Mr.  Andrew, 
and  shares  the  disadvantages  of  the  latter  by 
striking  the  Euphrates  at  Ja'ber  Castle,  and 
thence  following  the  desert  river  valley  down 
south  to  Kurnah,  instead  of  adhering  to  the  old- 
established  track  over  the  Euphrates  at  Birejik, 
and  thence,  across  K'orthern  Mesopotamia,  through 
a  populous  and  productive  country,  and  past  the 
thriving  towns  of  Orfa — further  fed  by  a  tram- 
way or  short  branch  to  Diarbekhr — Mardin, 
Nisibin,  Jezireh,  Zakho,  Mosul,  and  Bagdad. 

Nearly  the  whole  of  this  country  is  rich  in  oil, 
wheat,  barley,  maize,  rice,  tobacco,  madder-root, 
wool,  mohair,  silk,  tallow,  fruits,  honey,  cotton, 
galls,  orpimcnt,  wax,  and  gums ;  but  although  a 
large  trade  at  present  exists,  it  is  as  nothing  com- 
pared with  what  it  might  become  if  more  rapid 
means  of  communication  were  once  established 
between  the  interior  and  the  coast.  It  has  been, 
in  fact,  calculated  that  if  only  one-half  of  the 
surface  of  Mesopotamia  were  put  under  cultiva- 
tion, it  would  yield  grain  equal  to  the  produce  of 


146      EGYPT,    CYPRtS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

the  whole  of  Franco ;  and  that,  if  conveyed  to 
Alexandretta  by  rail,  ample  supplies  could  be 
sold  in  London  at  the  same  price,  if  not  cheaper 
than  that  brought  from  Odessa,  with  the  advan- 
tage of  its  arriving  periodically  in  the  early  spring, 
when  the  price  of  wheat  is  usually  on  the  rise  in 
"Western  markets.*  Up  to  the  very  slopes  of  the 
Kurdish  mountains  the  soil  teems  with  fertility ; 
and  a  settled  and  industrious  population  would 
not  merely  afford  cheap  and  abundant  labour  for 
the  construction  of  the  railway,  but,  at  the  same 
time,  provide  an  amount  of  protection  and  local 
traffic  which  could  by  no  means  be  obtained  on 
the  route  by  Ja'ber  Castle.  Besides,  the  towns 
I  have  enumerated,  as  well  as  the  many  smaller 
ones  which  border  on  this  great  caravan  route, 
would  supply  the  elements  of  safety  and  success 
to  an  extent  such  as  Annah,  Semlum,  Hillah, 
and  the  other  far-between  Arab  hamlets  on  the 
Euphrates  would  be  totally  unable  to  furnish.    It 

*  In  ancient  times,  Mesopotamia  was  so  admirably  adapted 
for  the  cultivation  of  corn  that  it  seldom  produced  less  than 
from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  fold.  *'  The  ear  of  the 
wheat  as  well  as  the  barley,"  says  Herodotus,  "  is  four  digits 
broad,  but  the  immense  height  to  which  the  cenchrus  and 
sesamum  stalks  grow,  although  I  have  witnessed  it  myself,  I 
dare  not  mention,  lest  those  who  have  not  visited  the 
country  should  disbelieve  my  report." 


THE    EUPHRATES   VALLEY   RAILWAY.         147 

is  true,  as  already  stated,  that  this  route  is  longer 
by  about  two  hundred  miles  than  that  by  the 
Euphrates,  but  the  former  possesses  advantages 
which  would  much  more  than  compensate  for  any 
expense  occasioned  by  the  detour  north-eastwards. 
The  trifling  increased  difference  would  continue 
to  the  line  from  Aleppo  to  the  Gulf  all  the 
advantages  of  a  local  traffic  scarcely,  if  at  all, 
inferior  to  that  which  might  be  hoped  for  from 
Asia  Minor — a  consideration,  it  need  scarcely  be 
said,  which  would  give  this  section  an  immense 
economical  superiority  over  the  Euj)hrates  Valley 
route,  without  losing  a  passenger  or  a  ton  of  the 
through  traffic  between  Europe  and  India. 

It  is,  therefore,  not  an  unreasonable  expec- 
tation that  the  lowest  traffic  Vv'ould,  within  a 
year  or  two  after  the  opening  of  the  line,  pay 
four  or  five  per  cent,  on  the  expenditure;  nor 
is  it  extravagant  to  suppose  that  this  would 
be  increased  by  the  passenger  and  through 
traffic,  so  that,  in  a  very  few  years,  the 
earnings  would  amply  cover  any  guarantee 
that  might  be  undertaken  by  our  Government, 
The  traffic  between  India  and  Europe  is  show- 
ing a  disposition  to  return  to  its  more  direct 
and    natural  course ;    and    I  believe  that   the 

proposed  scheme  of  a  railway  from   Scutari  to 

L  2 


148      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

the  Gulf,  with  the  modification  I  have  men- 
tioned from  Aleppo,  possesses  all  the  elements, 
not  merely  of  engineering  practicability  at  a 
moderate  cost,  but  of  great  subsequent  com- 
mercial success.  The  solution  of  this  railway 
problem,  and  the  order  of  it,  I  consider,  then,  to 
be — the  construction,  first,  of  the  Tigris  Valley 
line  from  Alexandretta  via  Aleppo ;  striking  the 
Euphrates  at  Birejik,  and  past  the  towns  of  Orfa, 
Mardin,  Msibin,  Mosul,  and  Bagdad  to  the  Gulf 
at  Kurnah  or  Bussorah.  The  line  would  thus  run 
through  one  of  the  richest  alluvial  valleys  in  the 
world,  which,  with  such  an  outlet  for  its  teem- 
ing produce,  would  soon  become  a  chief  granary 
of  Europe,  and  a  cotton  field  rivalling  India 
itself.  In  fact,  to  those  who  know  the  country, 
the  advantages  of  the  Tigris  over  the  Euphrates 
route,  in  every  respect,  except  distance,  simply 
admit  of  no  discussion.  To  complete  the  link, 
however,  between  the  English  Channel  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  Sir  Macdonald  Stephenson's  Trans- 
Asia  Minor  line,  from  Scutari  to  Alexandretta, 
should  be  subsequently  constructed. 


CHAPTEK  Xiy. 

BEYROXJT    TO     CYPRUS. 

The  traveller  who  has  been  fortunate  enough 
to  pass  the  spring  in  Syria  will  do  well  to  take 
Cyprus,  Smyrna,  and  Constantinople  on  his  way 
home.  The  Austrian  Lloyd's  steamers,  as  well 
as  those  of  the  French  Messageries  Maritimes, 
leave  Beyrout  every  week  for  Smyrna;  but  I 
prefer  the  former,  as  they  call  en  route  at 
Cyprus,  Ehodes,  and  Scio. 

On  arriving  early  in  the  morning  at  Larnaca, 
the  ancient  Citium,  now  the  chief  port  of  Cyprus, 
sufficient  time  is  allowed  to  go  on  shore,  and 
inspect  everything  worth  seeing.  The  streets 
are  clean,  and  the  interior  of  the  houses — mostly 
only  one  storey  high  above  the  ground  floor — 
is  very  comfortable  ;  the  apartments  being  gene- 
rally paved  with  white  marble,  and  the  houses 
themselves  surrounded  by  pretty  gardens,  in 
which  the  Cypriotes  take  great  pleasure.     Lar- 


150      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    A^'D    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

naca  is  the  residence  of  the  European  Consuls, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade;  but  it  is 
strange  its  roadstead  should  be  preferred  to  the 
old  port  of  Famagusta,  which  offers  the  ad- 
yantages  of  a  safe  and  commodious  harbour. 
If  the  marshes  in  the  vicuiity  of  the  latter 
were  drained,  the  harbour  cleared,  and  the  old 
works  to  seaward  reconstructed,  Cyprus  would 
possess  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  Leyant. 
Before  the  Turkish  occupation,  Cyprus  contained 
upwards  of  1,000,000  inhabitants;  but  it  is  now 
estimated  there  are  not  more  than  180,000, 
distributed  amongst  605  towns  and  yillages,  of 
which  118  are  exclusively  inhabited  by  Mussul- 
mans, 248  by  Christians,  and  239  by  Moslems 
and  Christians.  As  a  consequence  of  the  dimi- 
nished population  of  Cyprus,  an  immense  breadth 
of  land  is  lying  waste  and  uncultivated ;  but  if 
the  population  were  sufficiently  increased,  and 
the  soil  were  properly  tilled,  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  estimate  the  future  agricultural  produce 
of  the  country.  This  island  was  formerly  the 
granary  of  the  Levant.  It  produces  wheat, 
barley,  silk,  cotton,  wool,  madder,  flax,  sesame, 
tobacco,  colocinth,  oil,  wine,  figs,  currants, 
honey,  &c.,  and  it  is  known  that  rich  mines  of 
sulphur,    coal,   copper,    and   iron  exist.     Pliny 


BEYROUT  TO    CYPRUS.  151 

tells  us  that,  in  his  time,  the  wealth  of  Cyprus 
arose,  to  a  considerable  extent,  from  its  copper 
mines,  the  most  productive  of  which  were  those 
of  Tamassus,  in  the  centre  of  the  island;  Soli, 
on  the  north  coast;  and  Amathos  and  Cyrium, 
on  the  south.  Gold  and  silver  were  also  found ; 
while  the  precious  stones  of  Cyprus — the  dia- 
mond, emerald,  agate,  malachite,  opal,  and  jas- 
par — were  held  in  high  estimation  by  the  Eomans. 
No  one,  however,  possessing  sufficient  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  subject  has  recently  explored 
Cyprus  in  search  of  minerals,  although  the 
entire  character  of  the  island  promises  most 
satisfactory  results.  There  is  probably  no  place 
where  living  has  been  hitherto  so  easy  as  at 
Cyprus ;  even  the  beggars  —  who  are  mostly 
blind,  maimed,  or  worn  out  by  age,  and  have 
generally  a  small  house  of  their  own — are  able 
to  live  quietly  at  home,  without  begging  more 
than  one  or  two  days  a  week.  The  island,  too, 
has  generally  had  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 
the  healthiest  in  the  Mediterranean,  although 
recent  experience  would  rather  indicate  the 
contrary. 

I  am  nevertheless  inclined  to  believe  that 
it  is  not  so  much  the  climate  as  imprudence 
which  has  caused  the  amount  of  sickness  lately 


152      EGYPT,    CYPEUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

prevailing  at  Cyprus.  No  one  accustomed  to 
the  East  would  think  of  travelling  during  the 
great  heat  of  the  day,  and  the  culpability  of 
marching  troops  under  an  August  and  September 
sun  can  hardly  be  excused.  Lower  Egypt,  from 
my  own  experience,  is  very  healthy,  with  proper 
precautions,  but  if  the  same  imprudence  were 
committed  there,  dysentery  would  inevitably  en- 
sue; in  Syria,  intermittent  fever  would  be  the 
consequence,  and  so  it  has  been  in  Cyprus.  The 
troops  should  have  commenced  their  march  an 
hour  before  sunrise,  rested  during  the  great  heat 
of  the  day,  avoiding  all  stimulants,  and  resumed 
their  march  two  hours  before  sunset.  Had  this 
been  done,  I  am  convinced  that  much  of  the 
sickness  prevailing  among  our  troops  in  Cyprus 
would  have  been  avoided.  Another  mistake 
that  has  been  made  was  in  sending  the  men 
immediately  to  hospital ;  and,  as  practice  is 
better  than  theory,  I  shall  give  a  case  in  point. 
Travelling  once  in  Syria,  I  committed  the  im- 
prudence of  remaining  for  several  hours  under 
the  mid-day  sun,  and,  on  arriving  at  Beyrout, 
I  felt  exceedingly  ill  with  all  the  premonitory 
symptoms  of  intermittent  fever.  Instead,  how- 
ever, of  going  to  the  doctor,  I  went  to  the 
Turkish  bath,  and  two  hours'   sweating  killed 


EEYROUT   TO    CYPRUS.  153 

the  fever.  N'ow,  at  Cyprus,  our  troops,  in  the 
first  instance,  ought  not  to  have  been  marched 
during  the  heat  of  the  mid-day  sun,  and,  in 
the  second,  instead  of  being  sent  at  once  to 
hospital,  they  should  have  been  sent  to  the 
bath.  Occasional  doses  of  quinine,  judicious 
use  of  the  Turkish  bath,  and  protection  from 
the  mid-day  sun,  are  the  best  preventives  of 
intermittent  fever  in  the  East. 

No  preparations  had,  strange  to  say,  been 
made  for  the  reception  of  our  troops,  and,  with- 
out barracks  or  buildings  of  any  kind,  they  were 
obliged  to  bivouac  in  a  manner  most  prejudicial 
to  their  health.  In  a  climate  so  hot  during 
August  and  September,  and  in  a  country  so  ill- 
drained  as  Cyprus  ordinary  tents  are  comparatively 
useless,  and  the  construction  of  buildings  should 
be  entrusted  to  those  who  are  familiar  with  the 
climatic  conditions  of  the  island.  If  our  Govern- 
ment had  had  the  ordinary  foresight  of  consult- 
ing a  native  mercantile  firm,  all  the  necessary 
accommodation  could  have  been  completed  in 
time  so  as  to  have  avoided  the  fiasco  which  has 
brought  so  much  discredit  on  England.  There 
was  no  difficulty  in  finding  such  a  firm,  for 
instance,  that  of  Bustros  is  not  only  known 
throughout  every  port  in  the  Levant,  but  en- 


154         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

joys  a  reputation  second  to  none  other  in 
Europe.  The  Bustros  family  is  one  of  the 
oklest  in  Syria;  and  their  wealth,  popularity, 
and  recognized  position  place  them  beyond  the 
temptations  which  firms  less  fortunately  situ- 
ated might  possibly  be  unable  to  resist  in  execut- 
ing contracts  for  our  Government.  They  have 
establishments  in  Beyrout,  Alexandria,  Cyprus, 
and  London,  the  latter  of  which  is  repre- 
sented by  a  member  of  the  firm  who  has  become 
an  Englishman  by  naturalization.  At  the  present 
moment,  I  learn  that  an  English  sanatorium  is 
contemplated  at  the  village  of  Allay  in  Mount 
Lebanon,  about  two  hours'  distance  from  Bey- 
rout, and  there,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  Syria 
and  Cyprus,  the  Bustros'  family  possess  large 
estates.  The  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  several 
foreign  Princes,  have  been  guests  under  their 
hospitable  roof  at  Beyrout;  and,  from  my  own 
personal  knowledge  of  the  house  of  Bustros, 
extending  over  twenty  years,  I  feel  I  am  doing 
a  service  to  the  English  Government  in  sug- 
gesting the  advisability  of  seeking  the  co-opera- 
tion of  such  a  firm  in  the  construction  of  any 
public  works  that  may  be  undertaking  in  either 
Cyprus  or  Mount  Lebanon. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

CYPRUS.* 

The  island  of  Cyprus  is  separated  from  tlic 
coast  of  Karamauia  by  a  channel  of  about 
tAventy-five  leagues  in  width.  Its  area  ap- 
proximates to  1000  square  leagues,  which  may 
be  subdivided  in  the  following  manner : — one- 
fifth,  having  a  mountainous  character,  is  adapted 
for  the  growth  of  timber;  but  a  portion  could 
be  turned  to  account  for  the  culture  of  the  vine. 
This  mountainous  district  of  the  island  oilers 
immense  resources ;  the  forests  of  Thrados  alone, 
which  lie  in  this  section,  would,  if  properly 
managed,  produce  annually  a  considerable  num- 
ber   of    pine    trees.      Oaks    are    also    seen    in 

*  This  chapter  is  reproduced  from  my  book,  ''The 
Eesources  of  Turkey,"  which  is  now  out  of  print.  As  it 
was  written  at  a  time  when  there  was  no  idea  of  the 
British  acquisition  of  Cyprus,  the  particulars  given  may 
not  be  devoid  of  interest. 


156      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

thousands  on  the  declivities,  that  extend,  for 
five  leagues,  close  to  the  sea.  Two-fifths  of 
the  island  are  occupied  by  hills,  on  which  grow, 
chiefly,  olives,  mulberries,  vines,  and  fruit-trees 
of  all  sorts.  The  remaining  two-fifths  are  com- 
posed of  magnificent  plains  and  extensive  open 
country,  which,  though  wanting  in  rivers  and 
streams,  are  still  very  productive  in  cereals; 
in  fact,  the  eastern  portion  has  always  been 
the  granary  of  the  island. 

Soil. — The  soil  of  Cyprus  is  of  very  great 
fertility,  and  formerly  supplied  the  wants  of  a 
population  of  upwards  of  a  million :  it  still 
kindly  responds  to  the  natural  indolence  and 
want  of  skill  of  its  inhabitants,  of  whom  hardly 
one-fourth  are  devoted  to  agriculture. 

Agriculture. — Labourers  use  a  kind  of  plough, 
a  rude  and  miserable  implement,  without  wheels, 
drawn  by  two  oxen,  and  driven  by  one  man; 
like  the  earliest  plough,  it  scarcely  penetrates 
the  soil  more  than  two  inches.  It  is  used  in 
the  tillage  of  the  plains,  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  vineyards  and  vegetable  gardens.  The 
husbandmen  generally  wait  until  the  autumnal 
rains  have  softened  the  soil,  and  then,  after 
ploughing  up  twice,  they  sow  the  seed,  and 
merely  level   the   earth  with  a  common  plank. 


CYPEUS.  157 

Any  young  man,  though  for  from  able-bodied, 
can  drive  one  of  these  ploughs,  sow,  and,  with 
the  aid  of  the  women,  reap  and  stow  the  produce. 
The  few  districts  in  the  island  which  have  the 
advantage  of  running  water  are  chiefly  devoted 
to  the  culture  of  cotton,  barley,  and  wheat ; 
sesame  and  vegetables  are  but  little  cultivated. 
The  water  is,  at  stated  limes,  distributed  over 
the  different  meadows,  but,  as  these  are  not 
well  levelled,  the  earth  is  unequally  moistened, 
and  the  water  frequently  sinks  away  without 
rendering  any  service. 

Products. — The  island  produces  cereals  in 
abundance,  wool,  cotton,  madder,  silk,  flax, 
sesame,  tobacco,  colocinth,  oil,  wine,  figs, 
currants,  oranges,  honey,  pitch,  skins;  yellow, 
red,  and  green  umber ;  butter,  and  cheese.  These 
products,  which  have  been  more  abundant  in 
later  than  in  preceding  years,  will  continue  to 
increase  with  the  importance  acquired  by 
the  agricultural  population,  as  immense  tracts 
of  waste  land  exist  that  might  be  profitably 
cultivated  for  every  purpose.  The  cultivation 
especially  of  the  vine  and  mulberry  would  be 
followed  by  satisfactory  results.  The  silk- 
worm of  Cyprus  furnishes  two  harvests  in  one 
year;  the    first    generation    produces    the    co- 


158      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

coon  in  the  early  part  of  April,  lays  eggs,  revives, 
and  in  thus  reviving  spins  a  second  cocoon  about 
the  end  of  May.  This  has  often  been  confirmed 
by  experiments.  The  silk  harvest  of  Cyprus 
mil  always  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
hands  engaged  in  that  branch  of  industry; 
mulbeny-trees  flourish,  and  the  silkworm  sheds 
may  be  erected  in  the  open  air. 

Mineral  Products. — The  mineral  products  of 
the  island  have  hithei'to  been  unexplored ;  it  is, 
however,  certain  that  many  mines  "would  be 
discovered  of  sulphur,  coal,  copper,  iron,  and 
perhaps  also  of  gold  and  silver.  Tradition  and 
romance  speak  much  of  treasures  concealed  in 
the  island  of  Cyprus,  l^o  one,  however,  has 
yet  explored  the  island  who  was  cognizant  of 
these  matters;  but,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cape 
Blanc,  sulphur  may  be  seen  on  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  and  the  entire  character  of  the  island 
promises  most  satisfactory  results  to  those  who 
would  develop  its  mineral  productions. 

Salt-pits^  ^c— Cyprus  possesses  two  rich 
natural  salt-pits,  one  of  which  is  situated  half 
a  league  from  Lamaca,  and  the  other  a  third  of 
a  league  from  Limassol.  There  are  also  coloured 
earths,  trees,  and  roots  adapted  for  dyeing ;  pot- 
herbs grow  wild  in  the  fiields  and  prairies,  while 


CYPRUS.  159 

on  the  hills  there  are  rich  pasturages,  which 
would  feed  numerous  flocks. 

Manufactures. — At  Cyprus,  the  arts  and  trades 
remain  stationary;  machinery  and  other  contri- 
vances for  simplifying  work  and  saving  hand 
labour  are  quite  unknown.  At  Nicosia,  Larnaca, 
Killani,  and  some  other  places,  silk  tissues  for 
home  consumption  are  prepared,  which  are  good 
and  solid,  but  of  coarse  execution.  Woollen 
slippers  are  also  made,  especially  the  red  and 
yellow  ones  used  by  the  Turks.  Besides  these, 
there  are  manufactured, — lace,  stuffs,  and  other 
articles;  but  the  production  is  hardly  adequate 
to  the  demand,  and  there  is,  consequentl}^,  a  large 
field  for  speculation  in  various  manufactures, 
metals,  tools,  &c. 

Ports. — Larnaca,  the  residence  of  the  Euro- 
pean consuls,  is  the  chief  sea-port  of  the  island. 
Ships  of  war,  steamers,  and  sailing  vessels  coming 
to  Cyprus,  usually  cast  anchor  in  the  roadstead, 
which  is  formed  by  the  two  capes  of  Pilla  and 
of  Kitti,  and  affords  a  tolerable  anchorage. 
Through  Larnaca  pass  all  the  manufactured 
goods  imported,  as  well  as  almost  all  the  cereals, 
and  a  considerable  part  of  the  wines,  caroubs, 
and  silks  exported  from  the  island.  The  population 
amounts  to  15,000,  of  whom  a  third  are  Turks. 


160      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

Limassol  is  the  chief  port  for  the  wine  and 
bean  trades,  and  has  acquired  considerable  im- 
portance within  the  past  few  years  on  account  of 
the  demand  for  wines  and  spirits.  It  would  be 
difficult  to  calculate  the  possible  produce  of 
Cyprus  if  the  island  contained  a  million  of  agri- 
culturists, for  the  entire  place  is  one  unworked 
mine  of  enormous  wealth.  The  hills  alone  which 
surround  Limassol  might  iDroduce  annually,  to  an 
almost  unlimited  extent,  the  currants  so  highly 
prized  in  Europe;  and,  although  there  is  not  a 
single  vine  in  a  circuit  of  more  than  four  leagues 
from  the  town,  Limassol,  nevertheless,  exports  a 
million  barrels  of  wine  as  the  produce  of  the 
mountains  of  the  province,  of  which  hardly  one- 
tenth  is  cultivated.  The  olive  and  caroub  trees 
grow  together  on  the  chain  of  mountains  encir- 
cling Limassol,  without  any  cultivation  being 
bestowed  on  them,  while  the  hills  are  covered  in 
some  places  with  oaks  planted  in  the  time  of  the 
Venetians.  Limassol  contains  between  5000  and 
6000  inhabitants,  of  whom  one-third  are  Turks. 

Famagusta,  so  famous  under  the  Yenetians, 
possesses  an  excellent  spacious  port,  which,  how- 
ever, is  now  so  choked  up  with  mud  that  it  can 
only  hold  about  a  dozen  small  craft.  It  is  well 
sheltered  from  all  winds,  and,  if  deepened,  which 


CYl'EUS.  161 

could  bo  clone  at  a  small  expense,  would  coutaiu 
hundreds  of  large  ships. 

Roads. — The  roads  arc  rather  better  in  Cyprus 
than  in  most  other  parts  of  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
but  they  still  fall  far  short  of  the  requirements 
of  the  island.  From  Nicosia,  which  is  centrally 
situated,  roads,  varying  in  importance  from 
bridle  paths  to  bullock  tracks,  radiate  to  di:fferent 
parts  of  the  island — one  going  through  Larnaca, 
Limassol,  and  Famagusta.  A  good  road,  how- 
ever, from  the  capital  to  Larnaca  is  much  needed, 
and  before  any  important  expansion  of  trade  can 
take  place,  the  whole  of  the  roads  will  require 
to  be  substantially  improved.  At  present,  with 
only  a  small  proportion  of  the  arable  area  under 
cultivation,  even  the  existing  roads  are  quite 
inadequate.  If  the  agricultural  and  mineral 
resources  of  Cyprus  were  but  fairly  developed, 
the  island  would  yield  a  revenue  which  would 
justify  a  large  expenditure  on  wcrks  of  public 
improvement. 

Commerce. — The  products  of  the  island,  such 
as  cotton,  silk,  madder,  wool,  lambskins,  wheat, 
barley,  commanderie  wine,  caroubs,  linseed, 
colocinth,  sesame,  and  currants,  are  exported  to 
France,  England,  Trieste,  Malta,  the  Ionian 
Islands,  Leghorn,  Genoa,  and  Ycnice ;  the  other 

M 


162      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY, 


products  are  exported  to  Alexandria,  Constanti- 
nople, Smyrna,  Syria,  and  the  islands  of  the 
Archipelago.  To  France  is  sent  all  the  silk, 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  cotton,  madder,  wool, 
sesame,  and  flax-seed.  To  England,  cereals,  and 
madder.  To  Trieste  and  Venice,  commanderie  wine, 
cottons,  madders,  beans,  flax-seed,  colocinth,  lamb- 
skins, sesame,  and  currants.  To  Leghorn,  com- 
manderie wine,  wool,  cotton,  madder,  and  cereals. 
To  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Smyrna,  Syria, 
Karamania,  and  the  isles  of  the  Archipelago, 
common  wines,  brandy,  spirits  of  wine,  beans, 
cereals,  pitch,  tar,  cheese,  onions,  and  vinegar. 
The  present  prices  of  produce  sold  free  on  board, 
including  every  expense,  are  as  follow  : — 

lbs. 


Cotton per  oke  of  2\ 

Madder „  „ 

Wool „  „ 

Silk „  „ 

Flax  seed ....  „  „ 

Sesame ,,  „ 

Colocinth.    ...  „  „ 

Cun-ants  ....  „  „ 

Commanderie  wine        ,,  „ 

Common  wine .    .  ,,  ,, 

I^randy „  „ 

Spirits  of  wine.    .  „  „ 

Vinegar    ....  „  „ 

Beans per  kintal  . 

Wheat per  kilo  .    . 

Barley „ 


7h  piastres. 
6 


250 

21 
-'4 

3 

10 

H 

3 

2 

6 
34 

1 
40 
30 
15 


CYPPvUS.  ib6 

The  imports  are  limited  to  the  mere  neces- 
saries of  local  consumption.  Formerly,  Cyprus 
furnished  to  the  neighbouring  coasts  of  Syria  and 
Karamania  the  articles  which  she  now  imports. 
These  are  sugars,  coffee,  leather,  cotton  yarn, 
copper  boilers  and  saucepans,  iron,  steel,  paper, 
glass,  small  shot,  fowling-pieces,  woollen  clotlis, 
silks,  rice,  soap,  candles,  vitriol,  alum,  logwood, 
sal-ammoniac,  cod-fish,  sardines,  eels,  indigo, 
boards,  &c.  All  cotton  goods  and  indigo  come 
from  England.  France  furnishes  colonial  pro- 
duce, leather,  woollen  cloth,  small  shot,  silk 
stuffs,  gums,  and  cod-fish.  Trieste  contributes 
glass,  steel,  iron,  nails,  wrought  copper,  paper, 
wax,  candles,  boards,  and  sardines.  Eice  comes 
from  Egypt ;  soap  and  eels  from  Syria.* 

Population. — In  the  time  of  the  Yenetians,  the 
joopulation  of  Cyprus  was  upwards  of  1,000,000. 
In  1840,  the  entire  population  of  the  island  was 
only  100,000 ;  it  is  now,  however,  calculated  at 
180,000.  The  number  of  Turkish  families  is 
7299,  and  of  Christian  families  19,215,  making 
a  total  of  26,514  families. 

Condition  of  the  Inhabitants. — Those  inactive 

masses  who  live  from  hand  to  mouth  are  not  to 

be  found  in  Cyprus ;  all  who  wish  for  employ- 

*  See  "Trade  of  Cyprus."     Appendix  IV. 

M    2 


1G4      EGITT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

ment  can  obtain  it.  Tlie  want  of  liand^  is  so 
much  felt  that  any  one,  having  a  distaste  for 
the  calling  of  fisherman  or  boatman,  can  find 
employment  at  once  as  cooper,  porter,  wine- 
ganger,  broker  for  foreign  captains,  &c.  The 
country  cnjoj^s  perfect  tranquillity ;  thefts  are 
very  rare,  and  robberies  are  unknown.  Many 
years  have  passed  since  an  assassination  occurred 
in  the  island ;  and  altogether  Cyprus  enjoys  the 
reputation  of  being  the  most  peaceable  island  in 
the  Mediterranean.  Its  present  state  is  that  of 
a  country  which  once  Avas  celebrated,  rich,  and 
populous;  which  now  is  but  the  shadow  of  its 
former  days,  but  for  which  a  better  destiny  may 
be  reserved. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

CYPRUS   TO    CONSTANTINOPLE. 

Leaving  Cyprus  in  the  afternoon,  the  steamer 
arrives  next  morning  at  Ehodes,  which  is  inte- 
resting on  account  of  its  classical  associations, 
as  well  as  from  its  having  been  the  home,  in 
more  recent  times,  of  the  brave  Knights  of 
St.  John,  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  vast 
treasures  of  art  lie  buried  in  Ehodes;  for, 
besides  the  famed  Colossus,  three  thousand 
other  statues  adorned  the  ancient  city,  one 
hundred  of  which  were  of  such  a  size  that, 
Pliny  says,  the  possession  of  one  of  them  would 
be  sufficient  to  make  any  place  celebrated.  The 
temples  were  also  full  of  the  finest  paintings, 
the  masterpieces  of  Protogenes,  Zeuxis,  and 
other  artists  of  the  Rhodian  School.  Homer, 
besides,  speaks  of  three  Doric  cities  in  the 
island — Liudus,  Camirus,  and  Jalyssus — that 
flourished   long  before  the   city  of  Ehodes  was 


166         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AXD    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

founded,  and  in  which  were  several  magnificent 
temples  erected  in  honour  of  Hercules  and 
Minerva.  The  sites  of  those  ancient  cities  arc 
now  marked  by  the  town  of  Lindos,  and  the 
villages  of  Camiro  and  Jaliso.  For  upwards  of 
two  hundred  years  the  Knights  of  St.  John 
held  Ehodes  against  the  attacks  of  the  Turks, 
until  at  length,  in  1522,  the  Grand  Master, 
Yilliers  de  Lisle  Adam,  capitulated  to  Solyman 
"  the  Magnificent,"  and  retired  with  his  com- 
panions to  the  island  of  Malta.  The  remains 
of  the  fortifications  erected  by  the  Knights  are 
interesting  specimens  of  the  military  architec- 
ture of  the  middle  ages,  but  the  Church  of 
St.  John  has  long  since  been  converted  into  a 
mosque,  and  the  hospitals,  as  well  as  the  palace 
of  the  Grand  Master,  are  now  in  ruins.  The 
streets  of  the  town  are  rather  gloomy,  the  street 
of  the  Knights  Templars  being  the  only  one 
that  may  be  considered  straight  and  well  paved. 

From  Ehodes  the  steamer  takes  its  course  in 
sight  of  Patmos,  celebrated  as  the  place  where 
St.  John  wrote  his  revelations;  Cos,  the  birth- 
place of  Apelles,  Hippocrates,  and  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus ;  then  by  Samos,  the  birthplace 
of  Pythagoras,  to  Scio,  the  ancient  Chios,  which 
it  reaches  at  early  dawn.     Scio  is  celebrated  for 


CYPRUS    TO    CONSTANTINOPLE.  167 

its  excellent  wine,  salubrious  climate,  and  beauti- 
ful women.  It  was  treated  with  especial  favour 
by  the  Turks,  as  it  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the 
Sultana  Yalide,  and,  before  the  Greek  revolution 
of  1822,  was  represented  to  be  u  garden  inhabited 
by  a  happy  and  contented  people.  The  Sciotes 
were  unfortunately  induced  to  take  part  in  the 
insurrection  by  some  turbulent  or  piratical  Greeks 
from  Sam  OS  and  Candia,  and,  on  the  arrival  of 
the  Capitan  Pasha  with  a  large  force,  were  put 
to  the  sword  with  great  slaughter.  Before  the 
revolution,  the  population  of  the  island  amounted 
to  more  than  120,000  souls,  but  in  the  year  1830 
the  number  was  scarcely  20,000.  As  the  births, 
however,  are  in  excess  of  the  deaths,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  healthiness  of  the  climate,  the 
population  has  sensibly  increased,  and  is  now 
estimated  at  70,000.  Scio  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  islands  in  the  Archipelago ;  its  scenery 
is  varied  and  charming,  and  its  inhabitants  are 
enterprising  and  intelligent.  A  large  proportion 
of  the  commercial  establishments  in  Turkey  are 
owned  by  natives  of  the  island,  and  the  richest 
Greek  merchants  in  England  have  nearly  all 
come  from  Scio. 

Smyrna,  formerly  called  the  "  Crown  of  Ionia," 
and  "  Gem  of  Asia,"  is  reached  at  10  or  11  a.m. 


168      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

It  is  delightfully  situated  at  the  extreiuity  of  a 
gulf  about  thirty  miles  in  length,  and  varying 
from  five  to  fifteen  miles  in  breadth,  encompassed 
with,  high  mountains  which  are  in  many  parts 
richly  wooded.  Seen  from  the  harbour,  the 
appearance  of  the  town,  extending  two  miles 
along  the  coast,  and  rising  from  the  sea  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre,  is  very  striking;  the 
houses  in  the  Frank  and  Armenian  quarters  are 
well  built  of  stone,  and  the  streets,  although 
narrow,  are  superior  to  those  of  Constantinople. 
Seven  cities,  it  is  said,  disputed  the  right  of  hav- 
ing given  birth  to  Homer,  but  Smyrna  claims 
that  honour,  and  tradition  asserts  that  he  com- 
posed his  immortal  poems  in  a  grotto  on  the 
bank  of  the  river  Mel^s,  which  runs  at  a  little 
distance  to  the  south  of  the  city.  There  are 
several  very  good  hotels  in  Smyrna,  and  also  in 
the  pleasant  villages  of  Bournabat  and  Boudja, 
to  which  there  are  now  branch  lines  of  railway. 
The  latter  is  a  charming  residence  in  summer, 
and  is  only  five  and  a  half  miles  by  the  Smyrna 
and  Aidin  Eailway,  which  has  a  short  branch  of 
a  mile  and  a  half  to  the  village  from  Paradise 
station.  Smyrna  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being 
the  only  place  in  Turkey,  with  the  exception  of 
Stamboul,  containing  the  termini  of  two  railways, 


CYPRUS   TO    CONSTANTINOPLE.  169 

one  to  Cassaba  and  the  other  to  Aidin.  Near 
the  station  of  Magnesie,  on  the  former  lino,  two 
and  a  half  hours'  journey,  there  is  a  remarkable 
statue  of  Niobe,  supposed  to  be  the  work  of 
Proteus,  son  of  Tantalus,  and  of  which  Pausanius 
and  Strabo  speak.  The  ruins  of  Ej^hesus,  too, 
are  now  particularly  well  worth  a  visit,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  excavations  that  have  been  carried 
on  by  Dr.  Wood  upon  the  site  of  the  great 
Temple  of  Diana.  The  distance  by  the  Smyrna 
^and  Aidin  Eailway  to  Ayasoulouk  is  forty-eight 
miles ;  time,  two  hours  fifty  minutes ;  horses  can 
there  be  hired  for  Ephesus,  and  the  return  journey 
to  Smyrna  made  the  same  day.  Special  trains 
may  be  had  on  moderate  terms  at  short  notice, 
and  parties  of  twelve  or  more  can  obtain  return 
tickets  at  the  rate  of  a  single  fare  by  giving  one 
day's  notice  to  the  station-master  at  Smyrna. 

The  society  of  Smyrna  is  very  agreeable,  and 
the  principal  nationalities  have  each  their  own 
club,  at  which  balls  are  frequently  given;  in 
fact,  Smyrna  has  the  character  of  being  the 
most  hospitable  city  in  the  -Levant.  There  is 
an  excellent  theatre,  and  also  several  caf(^s  at 
which  entertainments  are  occasionally  produced, 
and  where,  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  the  re- 
freshing sea-breeze  may  be  enjoyed  with  a  cup 


170      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

of  fragrant  moclia  and  a  cool  narghile.  A  fear- 
ful accident  occurred  some  time  ago  during  the 
performance  at  one  of  these  caf^s,  known  as  the 
Kivoto.  Attracted  by  handbills  posted  all  over 
the  town,  upwards  of  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
spectators  flocked  to  the  exhibition,  but  about 
10  P.M.  an  ominous  cracking  was  heard,  and 
the  horrified  audience  felt  the  flooring  give  way 
beneath  them.  A  single  piercing  shriek  of  an- 
guish was  heard  to  issue  from  the  caf^,  followed 
by  a  loud  crash,  and  all  was  silent.  The  entire 
edifice,  which  was  built  over  the  sea  and  sup- 
ported on  piles,  had  disappeared  under  the  water, 
a  few  shattered  beams  alone  remaining  to  indicate 
the  spot  where  the  Kivoto  stood.  Upwards  of 
one  hundred  persons  perished,  among  them  being 
all  the  actors  and  actresses  with  the  exception 
of  the  clown.  It  was  a  strange  coincidence  that 
at  the  very  moment  of  the  catastrophe  one  of  the 
performers  was  representing  Death,  and  caused 
much  laughter  by  running  after  another  actor  on 
the  stage.  The  climate  of  Smyrna  is  considered 
to  be  healthy;  even  in  the  month  of  August  I 
did  not  find  the  heat  excessive,  as,  during  the 
summer,  a  breeze,  called  the  "Inbat,"  blows 
from  the  sea,  and  keeps  the  town  cool  and 
pleasant.    When,  however,  the  wind  comes  from 


CYPRUS   TO   CONSTANTINOPLE.  171 

the  north,  which  it  occasionally  docs,  across  the 
hot  plains  of  Anatolia,  the  air  is  oppressive ;  but 
in  the  months  of  May  and  June  the  climate  is 
very  agreeable. 

Steamers  leave  Smyrna  several  times  a  week 
for  Constantinople,  calling  at  Mitylene — the 
ancient  Lesbos,  Tenedos,  the  Dardanelles,  and 
Gallipoli.  The  Troad  is  now  more  than  ever 
interesting  to  archeeologists  on  account  of  the 
excavations  commenced  by  Mr.  Frank  Calvert 
of  the  Dardanelles,  and  continued  by  Mr.  A. 
Schliemann,  with  a  view  to  settle  the  long-dis- 
puted question  of  the  site  of  Troy;  the  former 
being  of  opinion  that  if  Homeric  Troy  ever 
existed,  the  probability  is  the  place  now  called 
Hissarlik  marks  the  spot  where  it  stood. 


CHAPTEE  XVII. 

SUMMER   OX   THE    BOSPHORUS. 

For  excellence  of  situation,  Constantinople — the 
ancient  Byzantium — is  not  excelled  by  any  other 
city  in  the  world.  The  first  view  on  rounding 
Seraglio  Point,  as  the  morning  breaks  in  calm 
beauty  over  the  Anatolian  hills,  and  the  sun  tips 
with  gold  the  countless  minarets  of  Stamboul,  is, 
perhaps,  one  of  the  most  exquisite  in  the  world. 
On  one  side,  the  glorious  Eosphorus;  on  the 
other,  the  Sea  of  Marmora ;  in  the  far  distance, 
the  mountains  of  Bithynia,  and  the  snow-crowned 
summit  of  Mount  Olympus;  in  front,  Scutari, 
the  ancient  Chrysopolis,  with  its  melancholy- 
looking  cypress  groves;  then  Kadikeui,  the 
ancient  Chalcedon;  and  nearer,  the  beautiful 
panorama  from  Seraglio  Point,  past  the  Sublime 
Porte,  the  mosques  of  Saint  Sophia,  of  Sultans 
Achmet,  Bajaset,  Soleyman,  and  Mahmoud,  the 
tower  of  the  Seraskeriat,  the  ruined  aqueduct  to 
Eyoub,  and  the  dark  cypresses  of  ''  the  place  of 


SUMMER    ON   THE    BOSnrORUS.  173 

a  thousand  tombs."  It  is  a  cliarming  scene,  and 
the  remembrance  of  its  beauty  romaius  for  ever 
on  the  mind  like  a  dream  that  cannot  be  for- 
gotten. To  sec  Constantinople,  it  used  to  be 
said  that  you  should  enter  the  Golden  Horn 
from  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  steam  up  the  Bospho- 
rus,  and  out  by  the  Black  Sea,  as  when  you  once 
placed  your  foot  on  shore  at  Galata  the  illusion 
vanished.  In  justice,  however,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  so  many  improvements  have  recently 
been  made  in  Stamboul,  especially  when  Server 
Pasha  was  Prefect,  that  this  remark  is  no  longer 
applicable  to  the  same  extent.  The  streets  of 
Galata,  it  is  true,  will  not  bear  comparison  with 
Oxford  Street  or  Cheapside,  and  the  pavement 
of  the  Grand'  Eue  dc  Pera  is  not  conducive  to 
equanimity  of  temper;  but  these  little  incon- 
veniences are  soon  forgotten  when  contemplating 
the  matchless  scenery  of  the  Bosphorus,  or  when 
comfortably  housed  imder  the  hospitable  roof  of 
the  Hotel  d'Angleterrc,  or  the  Hotel  Byzance. 
Missirie,  unhappily,  docs  not  rule  at  the  former 
as  of  old,  and  I  should  now  give  the  preference 
to  the  latter.  At  the  Hotel  Byzance,  in  the 
Grand'  Eue,  the  traveller  will  enjoy  all  the 
novelty  of  the  Eafst,  with  the  case,  comfort,  and 
cleanliness  of  the  West. 


174      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

Constantinople,  like  Eome,  was  built  on  seA^en 
hills,  and  this  is  the  chief  cause,  not  only  of 
its  picturesque  appearance,  but  of  the  healthi- 
ness of  its  climate,  receiving  as  it  does  all  the 
breezes  from  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  the  Euxine, 
and  the  adjoining  plains  of  Thrace.  The  two 
principal  suburbs,  Galata  and  Pera,  are  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  Golden  Horn — connected 
with  Stamboul  by  a  floating  w^ooden  bridge — 
the  former  being  the  commercial  centre,  and  the 
latter  the  place  of  residence  of  the  Christian 
population.  Byzantium  was  founded  in  658  B.C., 
by  Byzas,  King  of  Megara.  Having  left  Greece 
with  the  intention  of  building  a  new  city,  he 
consulted  the  oracle  of  Apollo  on  the  subject, 
and  Strabo  states  that  Phythia  advised  him  to 
erect  it  opposite  to  the  city  of  the  blind.  This, 
Byzas  subsequently  discovered,  or  rather  con- 
jectured, to  mean  Chalcedon  (now  Kadikeui), 
whose  inhabitants  were  foolish  enough  not  to 
have  seen  the  superior  advantages  which  the 
opposite  coast  offered  for  a  settlement.  During 
nearly  a  thousand  years  Byzantium  suffered 
many  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  until,  in  a.d.  330, 
Constantine  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Eastern 
empire,  and  enriched  it  with  treasures  of  art 
taken  from  all  parts  of  the  Eoman  Avorld.     In 


SUMMER   ON    THE   BOSPHORUS.  175 

the  time  of  Justinian,  a.d.  527  to  565,  this 
Eastern  empire  comprised  Dacia,  Macedonia,  and 
the  East  proper,  in  Europe ;  the  Hellespont,  the 
islands,  Anatolia,  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  the  provinces  bathed  by  the 
Euxine,  in  Asia ;  the  entire  of  Egypt,  ^Numidia, 
Mauritania,  and  four  provinces  of  Carthage,  in 
Africa,  together  with  Lusitania  and  Italy.  In 
the  reign  of  Constantino  XIII. ,  however,  the 
empire  consisted  only  of  the  city  of  Constanti- 
nople itself,  with  about  twenty  towns  and  the 
districts  of  the  Morea ;  and  when  the  last  of  the 
Pal^eologi  fell  in  defence  of  his  capital  before 
the  conquering  arms  of  the  son  of  Amurath,  it 
was  no  wonder  he  exclaimed,  GsXw  6aveiv  [zaX- 
Xov  71  Iyjv — "  I  had  rather  die  than  live  !  " 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  when  Moham- 
med II.  took  possession  of  Constantinople,  he 
planted  the  "  Crescent  and  the  Star "  for  the 
first  time  upon  its  walls.  But  the  crescent  was, 
in  fact,  the  ancient  emblem  of  Byzantine  power. 
Philip  of  Maeedon,  who  had  long  desired  to  get 
possession  of  the  city,  took  advantage  of  a  dark 
night  to  surprise  it,  and  his  soldiers  had  almost 
gained  the  walls  when  the  dogs,  which  were  kept 
for  the  purpose  of  warning  the  sentinels  against 
night  attacks,  made  such  a  noise  by  their  unusual 


17G     EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

barking  that  the  Byzantines,  advised  of  danger, 
flocked  to  the  rescue.     Darkness,  however,  pre- 
vented  them   from  acting   until,   suddenly,   the 
moon  became  unveiled,  and  brightened  up  the 
exterior  of  the   city.     The  Macedonians   were 
repulsed,  and,  in  gratitude,  the  Byzantines  chose 
the  goddess  Hecate  as  their   tutelary  divinity, 
and  represented  her  under  the  form  of  a  crescent 
and  a  star.     Constantine  the  Great  adopted  this 
emblem  when  he  transferred  the  seat  of  his  em- 
pire to  Byzantium,  and  the  Ottomans  have  since 
maintained  it.     The  name  of  Byzantium  was,  in 
A.D.  330,  changed  to  that  of  Constantinopolis,  or 
city  of  Coiistantine.     It  was  spoken  of  by  the 
Greeks  as  JI6Xt(;  in  the   same   manner  as  the 
Eomans  styled  Eome,  Urbs ;  and  a  slight  altera- 
tion of  the  words   Eic  ttiv   iro/av    is    supposed 
tD   have    produced   the   name  of  Istamboul,   or 
Stamboul,   by  which   the  city,  as  distinguished 
from  thesuburbs,  is  now  called  by  the  Turks. 

In  some  respects,  Constantinople  is  pleasanter 
in  winter  than  in  summer,  as,  in  winter,  the 
theatres,  opera,  and  other  places  of  amusement 
are  open,  and  balls  are  frequently  given  by  the 
various  foreign  embassies  in  Pera,  as  well  as  by 
the  rich  Greek  and  Armenian  bankers  of  Galata. 
For  those,  however,  who  visit  the  Bosphorus  in 


SUMJIER    OX   THE    BOSPIIORUS.  177 

search  of  health,  or  seek  a  delightful  climate  and 
beautiful  sceuery,  the  months  of  May,  June,  and 
July  are  far  more  preferable.  The  sun  shines 
brightly  every  day,  but  the  heat  is  never  exces- 
sive, as  the  Etesian,  or  north  wind,  blows  constantly 
from  the  Black  Sea,  and  keeps  the  temperataro 
always  moderate.  I  cannot  imagine  anything  in 
nature  more  lovely  than  the  Bosphorns : 

"  The  European  "witli  the  Asian  shore 

Sprinkled  with  palaces ;  the  ocean  stream 

Here  and  there  studded  with  a  seventy-four ; 
Sophia's  cupola  with  golden  gleam  ; 

The  cypress  groves  ;  Olympus  high  and  hoar ; 

The  twelve  isles,  and  the  more  than  I  could  dream, 

Far  less  describe." 

In  May,  most  persons  migrate  from  Pera  and 
Stamboul  to  (he  Prince's  Islands  in  the  Sea  of 
Marmora,  or  to  the  nnmerous  villages  between 
the  Golden  Horn  and  the  Black  Sea.  Kandili, 
on  the  Asiatic  shore,  is  considered  to  be  the 
healthiest  village  on  the  Bosphorns,  but  The- 
rapia  and  Bnyukdere  are  the  most  fashionable ; 
the  palaces  of  the  English  and  French  embassies 
being  at  the  former,  and  that  of  Eussia  at  the 
latter.  In  fact,  both  sides  of  the  Bosphorus  are 
thickly  stndded  with  the  handsome  villas  of  the 
Galata  bankers,  and  the  palaces  of  the  Sultan 
and  his  ministers. 

N 


178       EGYPT,    CYPRUS,   AND   ASIATIC   TTJBKEY. 

It   would  be   difficult   to  say  wliich   of  tlie 
Sultan's   palaces    is   the   most    magnificent,    for 
each   has  some  beauty   special  to  itself.      The 
Palace   of    Dolma-Baghtche   is  the  palace  par 
excellence;  but  the  Kiosk  at  the  Sweet  Waters 
of  Asia,   although  small,  is  particularly  chaste 
and  striking  in  its  exterior   appearance,  while 
the  interior  of  that  at  Beylerbey  is  well  worth 
inspection.     This  palace,  on  the  Asiatic  shore,  is 
situated  upon  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
many  beautiful  spots  on  the  banks  of  the  Bospho- 
rus.    Close  to  the  water,  it  is  on  three  sides  en- 
closed by  a  curtain  of  verdure  which  extends  over 
the  slopes  of  the  rising  hills  that  form  the  foot  of 
Mount  Barougourlu;  and  the  interior  displays  all 
that  luxury  and   magnificence  with  which  Ori- 
ental  monarchs   love    to   surround    themselves. 
Prodigies  of   Moorish  decoration  meet   the  eye 
everywhere;    the  ceilings   and  walls   are   inlaid 
with  gold,  and  fantastic  designs  in  thousands  of 
colours,  blending  harmoniously  together ;  hang- 
ings of  golden  tissue   in  various  patterns  fall 
round  the  windows  and  before  the  doors ;  while 
the  choicest  furniture,  the  cliefs-d? ceuvre  of  Sevres, 
and  the  extraordinary  productions  of  China  and 
Japan  add  to  the  general  effect.     The  principal 
entrance    is  from   the    south,    overlooking    the 


SUMMER   ON   THE    BOSPHOHUS.  179 

garden,  whence  a  rich  staircase  of  a  double 
spiral  form  leads  to  the  grand  drawing-room,  or 
salle  d^honneur.  On  the  left,  there  is  a  large 
room  a  coiipole ;  and  on  the  right,  at  the  side 
next  the  Bosphorus,  is  the  throne-room,  in  the 
Moorish  style,  and  altogether  in  marqueterie,  at 
the  end  of  which  are  large  niches  supported  by 
columns  of  rare  woods  encrusted  with  ornaments 
in  ivory  of  most  equisite  delicacy.  An  ornamen- 
tation of  the  same  kind  decorates  the  different 
panels  forming  the  basement  and  spaces  between 
the  niches ;  while  a  frieze,  composed  of  a  series 
of  small  columns,  divided  by  festoons  in  mosaic, 
runs  round  the  upper  part  of  the  cornice.  At 
the  bottom  of  this  room,  raised  some  height  from 
the  floor,  is  placed  the  throne,  resplendent  in 
gold  and  precious  stones.  From  the  apartments 
you  enter  the  grand  drawing-room,  round  which 
runs  a  colonnade;  splendid  lustres  hang  from 
the  ceiling;  candelabra  of  exquisite  workman- 
ship are  attached  to  each  column;  Persian  car- 
pets cover  the  floor ;  Turkish  divans  of  brocade 
or  embroidered  velvet  are  relieved  by  sofas  of  Eu- 
ropean fashion;  magnificent  pier  glasses  adorn 
the  walls ;  the  whole  combining  "Western  comfort 
with  Eastern  display.     This  saloon  gives  access 

to  the  bath-room,  in  which  there  are  three  com- 

N  2 


180      EGYPT,    CITRUS,    AND   ASIATIC    TURKEY. 

partments.  The  first  is  called  tlie  frigidarium ; 
thence  you  enter  the  tepidarium^  which  is  mode- 
rately heated,  and  then  into  the  third  apartment, 
or  calidarium^  -where  the  temperature  is  at  its 
highest  point.  The  bath-room  proper — that  is, 
tlic  icpidarium  and  calidarium — is  composed  of 
pure  white  marble,  the  ceilings  being  formed  in 
the  shaj)e  of  a  dome,  through  which  the  light  is 
admitted  in  such  a  subdued  and  singular  manner 
that  the  vault  has  the  appearance  of  being  filled 
with  some  translucid  substance.  The  gardens  of 
the  palace,  perhaps  the  most  wonderful  of  the 
whole  as  a  work  of  art,  are  disposed  in  terraces 
rising  one  above  the  other  to  a  great  height, 
each  filled  with  the  choicest  flowers.  On  the 
topmost  of  these  terraces  a  miniature  lake  has 
been  formed,  ornamented  with  grottoes,  and 
shaded  by  the  parasol  pine,  magnolias,  willows, 
and  various  trees  and  shrubs  that  give  forth  a 
delicious  perfume.  The  view,  when  seated  in 
one  of  the  caiques  on  this  lake,  particularly  at 
sunset,  is  most  illusive  and  extraordinary;  for, 
as  nothing  is  seen  beyond  but  the  summits  of 
the  hills,  the  pellucid  atmosphere  above,  and 
the  golden  sky  in  the  distance,  you  can  almost 
imagine  yourself  following  the  sun,  suspended 
in  the  midst  of  the  air. 


SUMMER   ON   THE    BOSPHOIIUS.  181 

Although,  as  I  have  already  said,  summer  is 
the  non-season  at  Constantinople,  there  are  plenty 
of    amusements   suitable   to   the    time   of  year. 
Steamers  ply  all  day  up  and  down  the  Bosphorus, 
as  well  as  to  Prinkipo  and  other  islands  in  the 
Soa  of   Marmora,   while  numerous  caiques  wait 
for  hire  at  every  landing-place.     In  the  evenings 
the   esplanade   at   Buyukderd   is   crowded  with 
promenaders,  and  the  full-dress  toilettes  of  the 
Perote  ladies  give  an  idea  of  an  al-fresco  ball. 
Music  and  fireworks  enliven  the  scone,  and  when, 
on  some  special  occasion,  both  sides  of  (he  Bos- 
phorus are  illuminated,  the  whole  appears  rather 
like  a  dream  of  fairyland  than  a  reality  of  every- 
day life.      On   the   anniversary  of  the  Sultan's 
accession  to  the  throne,  a  splendid  entertainment 
is  usually  given  by  the  Grand  Yizier,  to  which, 
with  a  little  influence,   invitations  may  be  ob- 
tained.    Owing  to  the  late  war,  however,  this  has 
for  the  present  been  discontinued.    Then  there  are 
the  "  Sweet  AVaters  of  Asia,"  and  ''  Sweet  Waters 
of  Europe  " — the  beauties  of  which  have  been  so 
frequently  described — where  the  Turkish  ladies 
drive  in  their  little  gilt  carriages  on  Fridays; 
Scutari,  with  its  dark  cypresses,  and  burial-place 
of  the  English  brave  who  fell  during  the  Crimean 
War;  the  forest  of  Belgrade ;  the '' Giant's  Moun- 


182      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,   AND  ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

tain,"  much  frequented  by  holiday  parties,  and 
from  which  there  is  a  fine  view  up  the  Euxine : 

"  'Tis  a  grand  sight,  from  off  the  Giant's  grave, 

To  watch  the  progress  of  those  rolling  seas 

Between  the  Eosphorus,  as  they  lash  and  lave 

Europe  and  Asia,  you  being  quite  at  ease." 

These,  and  numerous  other  places  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, will  afford  ample  pleasure  and  amuse- 
ment during  a  couple  of  months'  residence  in  the 
"  City  of  the  Sultan."  Besides  the  steamers  and 
daiques,  there  is  now  another  mode  of  locomotion 
— ^namely,  the  railway,  of  which  there  are  two 
lines  running  some  distance  from  Stamboul. 

Although  no  improvement  in  the  condition  of 
the  people  is  apparent  in  the  interior  of  the 
country,  many  changes  have  taken  place  in  the 
capital  itself  during  the  past  few  years.  The 
cars  of  the  tramway  run  in  the  streets  of  Galata, 
the  railway  whistle  is  heard  at  the  Seven  Towers, 
and  the  ironclad  floats  upon  the  blue  waters  of 
the  Bosphorus.*  In  nothing,  however,  has  there 
been  a  greater  change  than  in  the  social  feeling 
and  tone  of  thought  of  the  Turkish  women — a 
change  which  has  been  especially  perceptible  since 

*  It  may  perhaps  be  well  to  state  that  the  tramway  and 
the  railroads  have  been  made  by  foreign  capitalists,  and  the 
ironclads  were  purchased  with  English  money. 


SUMMER   OX   THE   BOSPHORUS.  183 

the  visit  of  the  Empress  of  the  French  iii  the 
year  1869.      There  is  a  great  deal  of    miscon- 
ception in  England  as  to  the  status  and  treat- 
ment  of    women    in    Turkey.       Most    persons 
imagine  that  every  Turk  is  more  or  less  a  Blue- 
beard, with  four  wives  at  least,  and  as   many 
concubines  to  boot  as  he  can  well  afford,-  the 
whole  of  whom  are  the  mere  slaves  of  his  caprice, 
jailered  by  eunuchs,  and  without  domestic   au- 
thority of  any  kind.      IN^o thing   could  well  be 
farther  from  the  reality.     Instead  of  this  para- 
disaic  plurality  being   the  rule,    polygamy,    in 
fact,   is  fast  going   out,  in   consequence  of  the 
expense  which  it  entails.     Odaliques,  again,  are 
the  ''luxury"  of  the  very  rich,  and  a  very  rare 
luxury  too,  for  in  Turkey,  as  here  in  the  West, 
wives  are  jealous  of  their  rights,  and — whatever 
may  have  been  the  laxer  rule  in  the  good  old 
times — they  nowadays  set  their  faces  stoutly  and 
successfully  against  illegitimate  rivals.     During 
my  first  visit  to  Constantinople,  Fuad  Pasha  had 
the  weakness  to  become  enamoured  with  one  of 
the  female  slaves  in  the  harem,  but,  in  a  short 
time,  he  found  it  necessary  to  put  the  Bosphorus 
between  her  and  his  wife,  and  remove  the  former 
to  another  establishment  at  the  village  of  Bebek. 
The   Khanum   is   in  reality   as   much   mistress 


181      EGYPT,    CYrRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

chcz  die  as  any  Western  wife  of  the  day,  and  has, 
if  anything,  more  than  her  fair  sh.^ro  of  authority 
indoors.  The  Turks  are,  unhappily,  not  free 
from  evils,  many  of  which  I  have  already  do- 
scribed  in  a  previous  work,  but  there  is  one 
evil — the  social  evil — which  his  no  home  among 
them.  The  yashmak,  fcridjie,  and  shalwar,  it  is 
true,  still  hold  their  ground,  but  feminine  co- 
quetry has  long  since  displaced  the  old  opaque 
swathing,  tlvat  hid  everything  except  the  eyes, 
for  the  diaphanous  gossamer  through  which  the 
whole  battery  of  the  wearer's  charms  now  play 
as  freely  as  if  no  single  fold  of  muslin  remained. 
The  bright  eyes  flash  and  the  pearly  teeth  dazzle 
beneath  the  veil,  which,  from  the  fineness  of  its 
texture,  no  longer  serves  to  conceal,  but  rather 
adds  an  additional  charm  to  the  natural  beauties 
of  the  wearer.  The  yellow  papoosh,  too,  has 
largely  yielded  to  the  clastic  European  boot; 
but  the  Louis-Quatorze  abomination  is  as  yet 
foreign  to  the  precincts  of  Stamboul. 

The  laws  of  the  Koran  give  especial  protection 
to  women.  Is'o  matter  what  political  change 
may  affect  the  husband,  the  property  of  the  wife 
is  always  secure  ;  under  every  circumstance  it 
remains  her  own,  nor  is  it  liable  for  her  husband's 
debts  any  more  than  the  property  of  a  married 


SUMMER   ON   THE    LOSPIIORUS.  185 

"woman  in  England  when  secured  by  settlement. 
This,  too,  applies  to  all  her  property — not  only 
that  which  she  possessed  before  marriage,  but 
also  that  which  she  may  have  acquired  subse- 
quently ;  while,  if  her  husband  purchase  lands 
or  houses  in  her  name,  they  belong  to  her  abso- 
lutely, and  no  claim  of  any  kind  against  him  can 
reach  them.  With  us,  paternity  being  ignored, 
tliG  woman  alone  has  the  burden  of  natural 
children,  and  the  shame  of  faults  committed 
through  passion;  but  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  Koran,  every  woman  that  bears  a  child  to  a 
man  has  the  right  to  claim  the  benefits  of  pater- 
nity for  her  offspring.  The  prohibition  against 
wine  and  gambling,  too,  is  a  true  safeguard  for 
the  wife  against  the  brutalities  of  a  husband. 
Drunkenness  and  gambling  are  the  destruction  of 
domestic  peace,  and,  in  cursing  them,  Islamism 
procures  for  the  wife  those  positive  guarantees 
which  are  in  reality  m.uch  more  efficacious  than 
the  platonic  recommendations  of  Christian  preach- 
ers. Conjugal  life  is  regulated  by  those  words 
of  the  Koran  (Chap.  II.,  v.):  "  Wives  should  be 
obedient  to  their  husbands  and  perform  the  duties 
devolving  upon  them,  and  husbands  should  treat 
their  wives  Avilli  justice,  but  they  have  authority 
over  them."     The  Turks,  hoAvever,  did  not  make 


186         EGYPT,    CYPKUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

these  laws.  They  are  the  laws  of  the  Koran, 
which  the  Turks  are  bound  to  ohoy  like  every 
other  Mussulman.  The  laws  of  the  Koran  were 
made  by  Mohammed;  but  Mohammed  was  an 
Arab,  not  a  Turk  ! 

The  principal  objects  of  interest  to  be  seen  in 
Constantinople  are  the  Seraglio,  or  former  palace 
of  the  Sultans,  the  Imperial  Treasury,  the  tomb 
of  Mahmoud,  the  old  walls,  the  mosques,  foun- 
tains, and  bazaars.  The  Mosque  of  St.  Sophia 
takes  precedence  of  every  other  mosque,  and 
is  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  edifices  con- 
secrated to  the  service  of  Islam.  It  was  ori- 
ginally built  by  Constantine  in  a.d.  325,  but, 
having  been  burnt  down  in  the  reign  of  Jus- 
tinian, was  rebuilt  on  a  more  splendid  scale  in 
the  year  538.  According  to  Yon  Hammer,  the 
principal  architects  employed  by  Justinian  in 
this  masterpiece  of  architecture  were  Athenius, 
of  Tralles,  and  Isidorus,  of  Miletus.  A  hun- 
dred other  architects  superintended  the  building, 
under  each  of  whom  were  placed  a  hundred 
masons :  five  thousand  of  the  latter  worked 
on  the  right  side,  and  five  thousand  on  the 
left.,  according,  as  it  was  said,  to  a  plan  laid 
down  by  an  angel  who  appeared  to  the  emperor 
in  a  dream.     The  walls  and  arches  were   con- 


SUifMER   ON   THE   BOSPHORUS.  187 

strueted  of  bricks,  but  the  raagniflcence  and 
variety  of  the  marble  coluinas  surpassed  all 
bounds.  E7ory  species  of  marble,  granite,  and 
porphyry — Phrygian,  white  marble,  with  rose- 
coloured  stripes,  which  imitated  the  blood  of 
Atys,  slain  at  Lynada;  green  marble  from  La- 
conia;  blue,  from  Lybia;  black  Celtic  marble, 
with  white  veins ;  Bosphorus  marble,  white  with 
black  veins ;  Thessalian,  Malusian,  Prooonessian 
marble,  Egyptian  starred  granite,  and  Saitic 
porphyry — were  all  employed.  The  tiles  on 
the  arch  of  the  cupolas,  which  astonished  every 
eye  by  their  extraordinary  lightness  and  bold- 
ness, were  prepared  in  Ehodes  of  a  particular 
light  clay,  so  that  twelve  of  them  did  not 
weigh  more  than  the  weight  of  one  ordinary  tile. 
These  chalk- white  tiles  bore  the  inscription : 
"  God  has  founded  it,  and  it  will  not  be  over- 
thrown :  God  will  support  it  in  the  blush  of  the 
dawn."  When  the  building  of  the  cupolas  at 
length  began,  the  tiles  were  laid  by  twelves,  and 
after  each  layer  of  twelve  tiles,  relics  were  built 
in,  whilst  the  priests  sang  hymns  and  prayers  for 
the  durability  of  the  edifice  and  the  prosperity  of 
the  church.  The  bringing  together  and  prepara- 
tion of  the  building  materials  occupied  seven  and 
a  half  years,   the  building   lasted  eight  and  a 


188      EGYIT,    CYPKUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

half  years,  and  the  finishing  of  the  whole, 
therefore,  took  up  sixteen  years.  When  it  was 
finished,  and  furnished  with  the  sacred  vessels, 
the  Emperor,  on  Christmas  Eve,  in  the  year* 
638,  drove  with  four  horses  from  the  palace 
above  the  Augustean  to  the  church  ;  1000  oxen, 
1000  sheep,  600  deer,  1000  pigs,  and  10,000 
cocks  and  hens  were  slaughtered ;  and  during 
three  hours  30,000  measures  of  corn  Avere  dis- 
tributed among  the  poor.  Accompanied  by  the 
Patriarch  Eutychius,  the  Emperor  entered  the 
church,  and  then  ran  alone  from  the  entrance  of 
the  halls  to  the  pulpit,  where,  with  outstretched 
arms,  he  cried,  "  God  be  praised,  who  hath  es- 
teemed me  worthy  to  complete  such  a  work. 
Solomon,  I  have  surpassed  thee  ! "  "When  Con- 
stantinople was  taken  by  the  Turks,  in  May, 
1453,  the  Greeks  fied  for  refuge  to  the  church 
of  St.  Sophia ;  but  the  gates  were  soou  forced, 
and  the  carnage  which  followed  was  fearful.  The 
dead  covered  the  floor  to  the  depth  of  many  feet, 
and  the  massacre  was  only  stayed  by  the  en- 
trance cf  Mohammed  11.  himself,  who  exclaimed, 
"  It  is  enough  !"  The  grand  Pan-Hellenic  idea 
is,  beyond  everything  else,  the  possession  of  St. 
Sophia,  and  the  Greeks  believe  that  the  Cross 
will  one  day  displace  the  Crescent  on  the  mina- 


SUMMER    ON   THE    BOSniORUS.  189 

rets  of  their  ancient  churcli.  It  is  well  known 
that,  at  the  coranienccraent  of  the  Crimean  "War, 
many  Greeks  postponed  the  baptism  of  their 
children  in  the  hope  that  the  triumph  of  Russian 
arms  would  enable  them  to  perform  this  religious 
ceremony  in  the  ancient  basilicas  which  had 
been  transformed  into  mosques.  The  other 
mosques  worth  a  visit  are  those  of  Sultans 
Soleyman,  Achmet,  Bajazet,  Selim,  and  Mah- 
moud,  as  also  that  of  Eyoub,  in  which  the 
Sultans  are  girded  with  the  sword  of  Othman 
upon  their  accession  to  the  dignity  of  Emperor 
and  Commander  of  the  Faithful. 

The  Hasne^  or  Imperial  treasury,  contains  the 
rich  collection  of  ancient  armour  and  coats  of 
mail  worn  by  the  Sultans,  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  is  that  of  Sultan  Murad  II.,  conqueror 
of  Bagdad.  The  head-piece  of  this  suit  is  of  gold 
and  silver,  almost  covered  with  precious  stones. 
The  diadem  surrounding  the  turban  is  composed 
of  three  emeralds  of  the  purest  water,  and  of  about 
seven  to  eight  centimetres  in  size,  while  the  collar 
is  formed  of  twenty-two  large  and  magnificent 
diamonds.  In  the  Hasne  there  is  also  a  curious 
ornament,  in  the  shape  of  an  elephant,  of  mas- 
sive gold,  standing  on  a  pedestal  formed  of 
enormous  pearls  placed  side  by  side.     There  is 


190      EGYPT,    CYPEUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

also  a  table,  thickly  inlaid  with.  Oriental  topazes, 
presented  by  Catherine  of  Eussia  to  the  Yizier 
Baltadji  Mustapha,  together  with  a  very  remark- 
able collection  of  ancient  costumes,  trimmed 
with  rare  furs,  and,  in  some  instances,  literally 
covered  with  precious  stones.  The  divans  and 
cushions  formerly  used  in  the  throne-room  of 
the  Sultans  are  superb,  the  stuff  of  which  the 
the  latter  are  made  being  pure  tissue  of  gold, 
without  any  mixture  of  silk  whatever,  and  em- 
broidered with  pearls  weighing  each  about  3600 
drachmas.  Children's  cradles  of  solid  gold,  inlaid 
with  precious  stones;  vases  of  immense  value, 
in  rock-crystal,  gold,  and  silver,  enriched  with 
rubies,  emeralds,  and  diamonds ;  daggers,  swords, 
and  shields,  beautifully  wrought  and  richly 
jewelled — all  tell  a  story  of  ancient  wealth 
and  grandeur,  when  the  Ottoman  Power  was  a 
reality,  and  Western  Europe  trembled  before  the 
descendant  of  Mohammed  the  Conqueror. 

Among  the  principal  '' sights"  of  Constanti- 
nople are  the  "Howling  Dervishes"  at  Scutari, 
and  the  "Dancing  Dervishes"  at  Galata.  The 
ceremonies  of  the  former  are,  to  my  mind,  rather 
repulsive,  but  those  of  the  latter  are  exceed- 
ingly graceful  and  artistic.  By  far  the  most 
interesting  sight,  however,  is  that  of  the  Sultan 


SUMMER  ON   THE   BOSPHORUS.  191 

going  in  public  state  to  mosque  on  Friday  (the 
Mussulman  Sabbath).  It  is  a  religious  duty 
imposed  on  the  Sovereign  for  the  time  being, 
from  which  under  no  pretence  (unless  in  case  of 
imminent  danger  from  sickness)  can  he  possibly 
be  exempt.  The  present  Sultan  generally  goes 
to  the  mosque  at  Bechiktach,  a  short  distance 
from  his  palace  at  Dolma-baghtch^ ;  and  long 
before  the  appointed  hour  the  neighbourhood 
becomes  thronged  with  a  multitude  of  red-fezzed 
and  turbaned  men ;  whilst  Turkish  women,  clad 
in  snowy  yashmaks,  and  glowing  coloured  fe- 
ridjies  of  every  shade,  line  the  road  at  either 
side,  from  the  grand  gate  of  the  palace  to  the 
mosque  itself.  A  double  line  of  guards  keep 
the  route,  and  at  a  few  minutes  before  twelve 
a  number  of  generals  and  colonels,  riding  two 
abreast,  precede  some  files  of  superior  officers 
on  foot.  Then  come  on  horseback  the  principal 
ministers  of  state,  followed  by  the  Grand  Yizier, 
and,  at  a  short  distance,  the  Sultan  himself, 
mounted  on  a  splendid  Arab  charger,  richly 
caparisoned.  Immediately  behind  His  Majesty 
follow  the  body-guard,  who  are  selected  from 
the  best  families  of  every  race  in  the  empire, 
several  led  horses  in  magnificent  trappings,  and 
an  escort  of  picked  imperial  troops.     As  the 


192      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

Sultan  passes  along,  tlie  artillery  at  the  arsenal 
fire  one  hundred  and  one  guns,  the  bands  sta- 
tioned at  intervals  strike  up  the  Sultan's  March, 
and  the  soldiers  shout,  "  Long  live  Abdul- Hamid ! 
May  he  live  for  ever."  It  is  a  most  imposing 
spectacle,  and  as  the  cavalcade  of  Pashas  of 
every  rank,  with  dazzling  gold  embroidery  on 
their  saddle-cloths,  and  uniforms  studded  with 
medjidies  and  nishan-iftiars,  move  down  the  line 
to  the  music  of  the  imperial  band,  the  ensemble 
compares  favourably  with  any  court  procession 
to  be  seen  elsewhere  in  Europe. 


There  are  three  routes  by  which  the  traveller 
can  return  to  London.  Firsst,  via  the  Danube  to 
Vienna,  stopping  at  Belgrade  and  Pesth  ;  second, 
via  Trieste,  calling  at  Athens  and  Corfu;  and 
third,  by  the  French  Mcssagcrics  Maritimes 
steamer  to  Marseilles. 


CHAPTEE  XVIII. 

THE    FUTUEE    OF   THE    OTTOMAN   EMPIKE. 

The  Turks,  as  we  have  seen,  still  rule  in  the 
city  of  Constantine,  and  the  Crescent  still  gleams 
on  the  minarets  of  Saint  Sophia.  The  Turks, 
themselves,  however,  believe  that  sooner  or  later 
they  will  recross  the  Bosphorus ;  *  and  their  ulti- 
mate retirement  from  Europe  has  been  facilitated, 
in  a  most  signal  manner,  by  the  Plenipoten- 
tiaries who  signed  the  Treaty  of  Berlin.  That 
treaty  has  left  the  Sultan  little  more  than  the 
city  of  Constantinople  itself,  together  with  a 
comparatively  small  garden  in  Thrace;  and  the 
force  of  circumstances  will  now  oblige  him  to 
concentrate  his  attention  upon  those  rich  pro- 
vinces in  Asia  which  have  hitherto  been  so 
neglected.      The  representatives  of   the  Powers 

*  This  traditional  belief  causes  Moslems  to  order  their 
bodies  to  be  interred  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bosphorus, 
that  they  may  not  be  disturbed  by  the  invaders. 

0 


194      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

met  in  the  White  Hall  of  the  Eadziwil  Palace 
but  to  ratify  foregone  conclusions ;  the  indepen- 
dence of  Servia,  Montenegro,  and  Eoumania, 
and  the  detachment  of  Bulgaria,  Bosnia,  Her- 
zegovina, and  the  Dobrudsha  had  been  deter- 
mined upon,  and  the  result  was  the  British 
Protectorate  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  As  long  as 
Turkey  remained  a  Power  in  Europe,  the  idea 
underlying  this  Protectorate  could  hardly  have 
been  carried  out,  and  the  virtual  dismemberment 
of  Turkey  was  therefore  consented  to  by  our 
Government.  It  is  true  that  that  dismember- 
ment could  not  have  been  long  delayed,  as  the 
world  had  at  length  become  aware  of  the  inhe- 
rent weakness  and  corruption  of  Turkish  rule. 
This  enlightenment  was  a  long  time  coming  to 
the  British  nation.  We  had  read  of  the  savage- 
ness  of  the  Turk  as  a  ruthless  and  licentious 
conqueror;  but  the  day  of  conquest  had  passed, 
and  the  general  notions  of  the  Turk  rested  on 
the  reputation  of  his  former  exploits.  His  critics, 
however,  with  a  failing  that  leaned  to  virtue's 
side,  appeared  to  forget  the  past,  and  assumed 
that  his  character  had  been  modified,  toned, 
and  elevated  by  the  influences  of  modern  ideas 
and  civilization.  Never  was  there  a  greater 
delusion. 


THE   FUTURE    OF   THE   OTTOMAN   EMPIRE.       195 

Born  originally  for  an  active  life,  to  lead 
great  herds  into  the  steppes,  and  carry  war  and 
pillage  amongst  their  neighbours,  the  Turks 
became  enervated  since  the  day  when,  driven 
back  from  the  ramparts  of  Vienna,  the  sword 
fell  from  their  grasp,  and  they  retired  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  they  found  their  Capua.  But, 
powerful  to  destroy,  they  have  ever  been  power- 
less to  construct.  The  social,  religious,  and 
political  separatism  which  the  dominant  section 
of  her  population  carried  with  them  from  the 
cradle  of  their  race  in  Asia,  remains  as  rigor- 
ously complete  in  the  days  of  Abdul-Hamid  as 
in  those  of  Amurath  I.;  and  their  absolute  in- 
fusibility  with  the  conquered  populations  has 
shut  out  Turkey  from  those  influences  which 
might  otherwise  have  raised  her  to  a  position 
of  greatness,  usefulness,  and  honour.  The  Turks 
assimilated  many  of  the  vices  of  Byzantine  cor- 
ruption, but  they  borrowed  nothing  useful  or 
good  from  the  civilization  of  Greece.  After 
four  centuries,  they  are  to-day  just  what  they 
were  when  they  first  left  the  plateaus  of  Cen- 
tral Asia.  They  have  simply  become  ejffeminate 
without  ceasing  to  be  barbarous. 

Although  it  may  scarcely  serve  any  practical 

purpose  to  search  too  minutely  after  the  origin 

0  2 


196      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASTATIC   TURKEY. 

and  causes  of  tlie  delusions  that  existed  in  this 
country  in  reference  to  Turkish  character,  it  is 
but  just  to  state  that  successive  administrations 
of  Great  Britain  are  largely  responsible  for  these 
delusions,  in  consequence  of  a  systematic  policy 
of  suppression  of  that  information  which,  had  it 
been  given,  would  have  rendered  misconception 
impossible.     Successive  Ministries,  led  astray  by 
diplomatic  fictions   which  were  dressed  in  the 
high-sounding  phrases  of  pretentious  statesman- 
ship, talked  grandly  of  "  the  balance  of  power  in 
South-Eastern  Europe,"  of  "  the  integrity  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,"  of  *'  the  aggressive  ambition 
of  Eussia,"  of  ''the  dreams  of  Peter  the  Great 
and  Catherine  II.,"  of  ''the  road  to  India;"  and, 
arraying  these  phrases  in  loose  order,  contrived 
to  impress  Europe,   and  England  especially,  in 
favour  of  a  foregone  conclusion  that  would  have 
shown  no  strength  had  its  precise  value  been 
boldly  challenged.     "  The  integrity  of  Turkey  " 
was  the  watchword  adopted  after  this  idle  and 
misleading  parade  of  fiction.     "  The  integrity  of 
Turkey  "  became  the  key-note  of  British  policy ; 
and,  to  justify  this   wretched  programme,   the 
ambitious   designs   of    Eussia   upon   Turkey   in 
general,  and  Constantinople  in  particular,  were 
repeated,  in  season  and  out   of  season,  until  it 


THE   PUTUEE    OF   THE    OTTOMAN   EMPIRE.       197 

became  almost  an  article  of  religious  faith  with 
Englishmen  to  believe  in  this  chimera;  and  a 
part  of  their  settled  policy  to  resist  it  with  all 
the  might,  authority,  and  power  of  Great  Britain. 
The  dissipation  of  these  delusions  produced  a 
reaction.  Englishmen  refused  any  longer  to  be 
presented  to  the  world  as  upholding  the  vilest 
oppression  known  to  the  present  generation,  and 
the  result  of  this  change  in  British  public 
opinion  may  be  found  in  the  protocols  of  the 
Congress  of  Berlin. 

Greece,  unhappily,  considers  herself  betrayed, 
as,  relying  on  the  promises  of  our  Government, 
she  remained  inactive  at  the  moment  when  her 
vital  interests  required  energy  and  decision. 
But  Greece  has  only  herself  to  blame.  When 
Servia  and  Montenegro  declared  war  against 
Turkey  in  July,  1876,  a  treaty  had  actually 
been  signed  by  which  Greece  bound  herseK  to 
support  Servia  in  arms.  Servia  and  Montenegro, 
fully  relying  on  the  good  faith  of  Greece,  did 
take  up  arms,  and  confronted  the  full  strength  of 
the  Ottoman  power :  but  Greece  proved  recreant 
to  her  written  pledges,  and  left  her  allies  to  fight 
their  battles  alone  and  bear  the  full  brunt  of 
Turkish  vengeance.  It  was  only  after  Russia 
had  completely  overpowered  the  armies  of  Tur- 


198      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUBKEY. 

key,  under  Osman  and  Mehemet  Ali  Pashas,  that 
the  Greeks  crossed  the  frontier,  hoping  to  snatch 
an  easy  victory  from  an  already  beaten  foe. 
Noblesse  oblige  ;  and  the  men  who  write  Leonidas, 
Epaminondas,  and  Alcibiades  before  their  sur- 
names, ought  to  have  remembered  that  the 
glorious  deeds  of  their  ancestors  could  not  be 
emulated  when  their  own  acts  were  tainted  by 
weakness  and  dishonour.  Thus  it  was  that  when 
Greece  brought  forward  her  claims  before  the 
Congress,  these  shortcomings,  to  give  them  no 
harsher  name,  were  remembered  against  her,  and 
she  met  with  coldness  in  quarters  where  other- 
wise she  would  have  found  a  warm  and  solicitous 
friendship.  If  the  British  plenipotentiaries  had 
been  sincere,  they  would  have  settled  the  pro- 
posed accession  of  territory  to  Greece  by  a  pro- 
tocol in  the  usual  manner,  instead  of  "  inviting  " 
Turkey  to  come  to  an  understanding  upon  the 
subject.  The  Turk  has  little  of  the  ancient 
Eoman  in  his  character,  and  rarely  commits 
suicide.  He  would  have  submitted  to  the  unani- 
mous decisions  of  the  Congress  because  his 
fatalism  would  have  construed  them  as  the  de- 
crees of  Allah ;  but  it  is  certainly  rather  hard  that 
he  should  be  compelled  to  perform  the  "happy 
despatch"  upon  himself.     "Whether  or  not  that 


THE   FUTURE    OF   THE    OTTOMAN   EMPIRE.       199 

arrangements  shall  be  made  for  a  satisfactory 
rectification  of  frontiers  in  Thessaly  and  Epirus, 
the  "  Grand  Hellenic  Idea  "  is,  I  fear,  destined 
to  disappointment.  Austria  in  possession  of 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and  with  a  right  of 
way  to  Salonica  on  the  -^gean  Sea,  will  ere 
long  enter  upon  her  destiny.  Pushed  out  of 
Germany,  she  will  inevitably  become  a  Slavonic 
Empire,  and  will  aspire  to  Constantinople,  as 
her  capital.  Old  Byzantium  must  ultimately 
fall  either  to  the  Greeks  or  the  Slaves.  With 
Austria  at  the  head  of  the  latter,  and  with  a 
footing  on  the  ^gean,  there  can  be  little  doubt 
as  to  the  result.  Undoubtedly,  there  will  be  a 
struggle  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Slaves. 
The  very  air  of  Greece  is  haunted  with  memo- 
ries of  heroic  deeds,  and  on  her  soil  still  dwell 
"sons  of  sires  who  conquered  there."  Another 
Botzaris  may  arise,  inspired  by  the  traditions 
of  the  past  and  aspirations  for  the  future, 
who  will  lead  his  countrymen  to  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  grand  old  land,  and  to  the  reali- 
zation of  their  cherished  hopes.  In  such  a 
struggle,  the  Greeks  might  rely  on  a  large  and 
generous  sympathy,  and,  perhaps,  on  even  some- 
thing more  than  barren  sentiment. 

Thus,   in  one  way  or  another,  the  dominion 


200      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,   AND   ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

of  the  Turks  in  Europe  is  doomed;  and  British 
policy  is  now  directed  to  strengthen  the  Os- 
manli  in  Asia,  with  a  view  to  their  becoming 
a  powerful  ally  of  England,  and  an  important 
factor  in  the  "Imperial  Policy"  of  the  British 
Government. 

But  the  convention  between  England  and  the 
Sublime  Porte — the  principal  outcome  of  recent 
British  diplomacy  in  the  East — is  by  no  means 
invulnerable  to  hostile  criticism;  although  it 
may,  perhaps,  prove  in  its  ultimate  significance 
one  of  the  most  important  treaties  of  modem 
times.  It  involves  issues  which  even  its  authors 
have  probably  not  fully  estimated — a  reflection 
which  does  not  enhance  general  confidence  in 
the  soundness  of  their  policy,  or  the  wisdom  of 
this  particular  measure.  It  provides  for  the 
British  protectorate  of  Asiatic  Turkey  under 
certain  conditions ;  it  is  a  treaty  pregnant  with 
great  events,  which  may  prove  to  be  abortive, 
or  which  may  develope  into  grand  forces  to  domi- 
nate over  the  future  history  of  civilization  and 
religion.  But  what  is  this  Protectorate  which 
we  have  covenanted  to  assume  under  certain 
conditions?  Eoughly  it  may  be  said  to  be  an 
agreement  whereby  Great  Britain,  on  the  one 
hand,  undertakes  to  protect  Asiatic  Turkey  from 


THE   FUTURE    OF   THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIEE.       201 

encroachment  on  its  territory;  and  Turkey,  on 
the   other,  undertakes  to  introduce  reforms  in 
her  administration,  and  to  purge  herself  of  the 
scandals    of    misgovernment    which    have    not 
only  made  her  a  bye-word  among  nations,  but 
have  been  the  cause  of  those  external  aggres- 
sions  which    have    rent    the    empire    asunder. 
That  is  to  say,   if  the  Sultan  will   henceforth 
fulfil  his  oft-repeated  and  as  oft-broken  vows; 
if  he  will  enforce  good  laws,  abolish  corruption, 
dismiss  the   rapacious  and  sensual  Pashas,  and 
fuse  into  a  happy  and  contented  homogeneity  the 
heterogeneous  elements  of  alien  races  and  hostile 
creeds ;  if,  in  fact,  he  will  make  Turkey  in  Asia 
a  garden  of  Eden,  then  we  will,  on  our  part, 
drive  off  the  Eussian  Bear,  and  protect  the  little 
Paradise  Eestored   by   all   the  force   of  British 
power.    This  cynical  age  will  not  fail  to  discover 
a  strange  incongruity  in  the  terms  of  the  mutual 
obligations  of  this  treaty.    The  world  is  familiar 
with  treaties  offensive  and  defensive,  and  it  is 
easy  to  understand  how  political  considerations 
of  reciprocal  advantages  might  justify,   or  ap- 
pear to   justify,    such  time-honoured   alliances; 
but  how  Great  Britain  is  to  find,   in  the  mere 
amelioration  of  the  Turkish  Government,  a  jus- 
tification for  a  contingent  and  lavish  outlay  of 


202       EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AKD  ASIATIC  TURKEY. 

treasure  and  of  blood,  it  is  hard  to  conceive. 
In  this  case  the  sword  and  shield  of  Great 
Britain  are  offered  as  an  incentive  to  virtuous 
government,  and  as  a  reward  for  respectable 
behaviour.  The  convention  asks  of  Turkey  no 
more  than  is  already  her  duty  to  herseK,  to  her 
people,  and  to  her  international  obligations — a 
duty  which  she  has  shamelessly  neglected,  to 
the  peril  of  European  peace  and  at  the  hazard 
of  her  own  extinction.  What  other  nation, 
contemporaneous  or  historic,  ever  offered  such 
benevolent  protection?  To  what  other  nation, 
barbarian  or  civilized,  would  we,  in  the  pleni- 
tude of  our  Imperial  magnanimity,  offer  an 
alliance  like  this?  Even  the  Mends  and  ad- 
mirers of  the  project  have  but  little  to  say 
seriously  in  its  behalf.  Their  advocacy  is  con- 
fined to  exultation  over  its  "  Imperial  grandeur." 
On  the  other  hand,  its  enemies  oppose  it ;  partly 
because  they  suspect  the  quarter  from  which  it 
has  sprung  upon  the  world,  and  partly,  because 
they  have  a  vague  and  misty  perception  of  the 
terrible  responsibilities  which  may  follow  in  its 
train. 

On  the  very  threshold  of  our  inquiry,  and  at 
the  very  entrance  of  the  path  that  is  to  lead  to 
the  improvement  contemplated  by   the  conven- 


THE    FUTURE    OF   THE    OTTOMAN   EMPIRE.      203 

tion,  we  are  met  with  doubt,  uncertainty,  and  dif- 
ficulty. Does  there  exist  any  intelligent  person 
so  sanguine  as  conscientiously  to  believe  that  the 
Eeforms  which  Turkey  so  blandly  "promises" 
will  ever  be  accomplished?  She  has  promised 
them  a  thousand  times,  and  a  thousand  times 
she  has  forfeited  her  plighted  word.  It  would 
indeed  be  a  grand  consummation  to  see  that 
land  of  boundless  resources  yielding  her  natural 
increase,  to  see  her  people  grow  happy  and 
prosperous  under  the  benignant  smile  of  jus- 
tice and  freedom,  to  see  the  mom,  and  after- 
wards the  day  disperse  the  darkness  of  ages, 
and  brighten  up  the  scene  with  new  hope,  new 
life,  new  joy.  But  the  dream  will  never  be 
realized  under  Turkish  rule,  and  at  least  one 
of  the  contracting  parties  will  fail  in  his 
covenant,  and  thus  release  the  other  from  his 
obligations.  I  write  this  with  the  telegram, 
'^Constantinople,  17th  October,"  before  me  to  the 
effect  that,  "His  Majesty  the  Sultan  gave  Sir 
H.  Layard  renewed  verbal  assurances  of  his 
acceptance  of  the  British  scheme  of  reforms  in 
Asia  Minor."  But  I  have  no  faith  in  the  pro- 
mises of  the  Sultan.  He  cannot  be  a  party  to 
any  scheme  of  reform  which  would  be  accept- 
able to  the   enlightened  conscience  of  "Western 


204      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

nations,  all.  his  "renewed  assurances"  to  Sir 
H.  Layard  notwithstanding.  The  deep,  abiding, 
and  irrepressible  corruption  of  his  satellites  ren- 
ders it  impossible ;  and  the  abuses,  cruelties,  and 
extortions  of  Turkish  administration  will  only 
die  with  the  hated  race  of  Turkish  adminis- 
trators. In  the  preceding  pages  I  have  attempted 
by  unimpeachable  evidence  to  establish  this 
painful  and  humiliating  fact.  But  there  is  a 
fact  even  still  more  discouraging :  Turkish  rulers 
do  not  want  reform,  and  they  would  not  in- 
troduce anything  worthy  of  the  name  even 
if  they  could.  Men  nurtured  in  the  enerva- 
ting atmosphere  of  harems,  of  intrigue  and  cor- 
ruption have  no  appreciation  for  just  laws  and 
wise  administration,  nor  have  they  any  desire 
to  rule  over  a  contented  and  prosperous  people. 
They  have  no  interest  in  government  except  so 
far  as  they  can  make  it  minister  to  their  cupidity 
and  lust.  All  the  higher  aspirations  after  bene- 
ficent rule  they  consider  to  be  chimerical  notions 
for  the  amusement  of  the  ghiaours,  whom  it 
would  be  profanity  to  imitate  and  whom  it  is 
religious  to  deceive. 

It  is  only  an  idle  dream,  therefore,  to  suppose 
that  Turkey  will  e^er  reform  herself,  or  contri- 
bute, by  anything  like  an  honest  fulfilment  of  her 


THE    FUTURE    OF   THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE.       205 

pledges,  to  the  practical  success  of  the  convention 
as  it  now  stands.  It  would  be  a  wilful  self- 
delusion  to  impose  this  belief  on  ourselves,  as 
fidelity  in  this  respect  would  be  contrary  to  all 
the  antecedents  of  the  Turks.  What  then? 
"Will  the  famous  convention  prove  a  diplomatic 
abortion,  or,  at  best,  fall  still-born  upon  the 
world  ?  If  I  understand  aright  its  scope  and 
design,  it  is  not  so  intended.  If  I  understand 
aright,  the  distinguished  framers  of  the  conven- 
tion have  themselves  no  belief  in  Turkish 
reformation ;  nor  have  they,  on  the  other  hand, 
any  intention  to  abandon  the  ''master  policy" 
on  which  they  have  set  their  hearts,  and  to 
which  they  have  to  some  extent  already  com- 
mitted the  nation.  It  is  not  their  intention  that 
a  fiasco  in  Cyprus,  and  a  fiasco  in  Asia  Minor, 
shall  be  seen  down  the  long  vista  of  history  like 
two  weird  witnesses  pointing  to  the  failure  of 
British  diplomacy  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

It  comes  to  this,  then,  since  Turkey  cannot 
and  will  not  reform  herself,  will  we  feel  our- 
selves bound,  either  by  the  terms  of  the  con- 
vention or  by  considerations  outside  of  it,  to 
undertake  the  task  ourselves  ?  Are  we  so  much 
in  love  with  the  reforms  we  desire,  and  so  much 
impressed  with  our  mission  as  to  impose  it  on 


206      EGYPT,    CYPEUS,    AND   ASIATIC  TTJEKEY. 

a  reluctant  Govemment,  and  enforce  it  by  our 
own  authority  and  power?  If  reforms  are  ever 
to  be  enforced,  this  is  the  only  way  by  which 
the  task  can  be  accomplished.  The  real  issue 
which  we  shall  soon  be  called  on  to  decide  is 
— shall  we  accept  the  release  from  our  engage- 
ment that  Turkish  incapacity  will  afford,  and 
retire  disgusted  from  the  enterprise,  or  shall 
we  assume  responsibilites  not  defined  in  the  con- 
vention in  order  to  make  our  Protectorate  a 
reality?  "We  may  be  assured  it  is  already  de- 
termined, for  good  or  evil,  that  we  shall  not 
retire,  but  that  we  are  bound  by  the  require- 
ments of  our  Imperial  policy  to  proceed. 

We  shall  soon  reach  the  critical  point  in 
the  adventure,  and  must  make  our  decision 
whether  the  new  departure  shall  be  to  the  right 
hand  or  the  left.  There  was  a  former  critical 
point  when  we  stood  debating  whether  we  should 
enter  on  the  path  at  all,  but  we  elected  to  pro- 
ceed. The  past  is  irrevocable,  and  we  cannot, 
therefore,  dwell  with  any  practical  advantage 
on  the  decision  which  has  been  made  for  us  by 
our  rulers.  I  am  indicating  now  the  crisis  of 
our  future  career.  Shall  we  turn  to  the  left 
hand,  and  again  drag  the  policy  of  Great  Britain 
along  the  dreary  path  of  Turkish  promises,  and 


THE    FUTITRE   OF   THE    OTTOMAN   EMPIRE.       207 

disappointed  hopes  ?  That  would  save  us  from 
many  a  peril,  but  it  would  scarcely  be  dignified 
for  any  Great  Power  to  pace  that  weary  round ; 
as,  apart  from  its  inherent  humiliation,  it  would 
lead  us  nowhere,  and  leave  us  with  no  other 
result  than  that  the  complicated  maze  of  Turk- 
ish politics  would  become  more  and  more  in- 
volved, and  the  road  more  difficult  to  travel.  If, 
however,  we  should  determine  to  turn  to  the 
right  hand,  and  undertake  the  initiation  and 
confirmation  of  the  reforms  we  consider  essen- 
tial, we  shall  enter  on  a  path  that  will  become 
more  thorny  every  step  we  proceed,  and  beset  at 
every  stage  with  increasing  difficulties,  dangers, 
and  responsibilities.  It  is  important,  therefore, 
that  we  should  fully  realize  the  obstacles  and 
perils  that  await  us,  for,  having  once  entered 
on  the  path,  we  must  persevere  with  unflinch- 
ing courage  and  undeviating  resolution. 

What  would  it  involve  for  us  to  undertake 
the  reformation  of  Turkey  ?  Nothing  less  than 
to  take  into  our  own  hands  the  whole  adminis- 
tration of  the  country,  in  spite  of  the  invete- 
rate opposition  and  hatred  of  the  ruling  caste. 
It  would  mean  that  we  should  set  aside  for 
ever  the  incorrigible  Pashas,  abolish  the  hated 
tax-farmers,  restrain  the  rapacious  usurers,  and, 


208         EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

amid  the  unreasoning  animosities  of  religious 
fanaticism,  dispense  equal  justice  between  man 
and  man,  between  Mussulmans  and  Christians. 
It  would  mean  that  we  should  appoint  and 
maintain  at  their  posts  all  the  judicial  and  ex- 
ecutive officers  of  state  throughout  the  empire ; 
with  this  difficulty,  that  foreigners  do  not  under- 
stand Mohammedan  law,  and  Mussulmans  of  the 
old  school  are  so  hopelessly  corrupt  that  they 
will  not  apply  it  with  equity.  The  first  and 
essential  requirement  is  a  pure  administration 
rather  than  new  legislation.  It  is  the  adminis- 
tration which  is  so  shamefully  defective  in 
Turkey ;  the  law  itself  is  in  many  respects  just 
and  equitable.  But  in  purifying  the  adminis- 
tration, we  should  be  met  at  every  turn  by  the 
jealousy  and  obstructiveness  of  the  officials ;  and 
the  Turks  are  extremely  sensitive  and  jealous, 
and  masters  in  the  art  of  obstruction.  "We  could 
only  accomplish  this  self-imposed  task  by  re- 
ducing the  sovereign  power  of  the  Sultan  to  a 
shadow,  as  we  have  reduced  that  of  the  rajahs  of 
India.  Such  an  encroachment  on  the  prerogatives 
of  the  Sultan  would  be  resented  both  by  himself 
and  any  foreign  allies  which  he  might  summon  to 
his  aid,  and  it  is  hard  to  say  how  many  such  allies 
jealousy  of  England  might  gather  around  him. 


THE    FUTURE    OF   THE   OTTOMAN   EMPIRE.       209 

Now,  if  our  Government  are  determined  to 
make  a  reality  of  the  British  Protectorate  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  we  shall  be  driven  of  necessity  to 
repeat  the  steady  aggression  of  our  Indian  career; 
and  admirers  of  this  Imperial  policy  will  not  bo 
wanting  in  arguments  to  persuade  us  that  this 
is  at  once  our  duty  and  our  destiny.  It  is 
but  seventy-five  years  ago  that  Wellington  and 
Lake,  in  spite  of  themselves,  and  the  restraints  of 
Parliament  and  the  country,  began  that  onward 
and  irrepressible  march  which  has  given  us  our 
colossal  Indian  Empire.  Province  after  province 
we  were  compelled,  or  thought  ourselves  com- 
pelled, to  annex  in  order  to  establish  our  rule, 
and  preserve  inviolate  our  authority  over  the 
districts  previously  under  our  sway.  If  we  are 
to  make  the  Convention  anything  but  a  dead 
letter,  we  must  enter  on  the  same  programme 
of  aggression  and  uncontrollable  development 
in  Turkey,  and  there  can  only  be  one  end  of 
that  programme — the  final  absorption  of  the 
whole  country,  and  the  burden  of  its  entire 
government. 

During  this  century,  in  spite  of  our  constant 
and,  I  dare  say,  honest  determination  to  avoid 
further   encroachments,   conquests,   annexations, 

and  burdens,  we  have  extended  our  Indian  em- 

p 


210       EGYPT,    CYPEUS,    AND    ASIATIC    TURKEY. 

pire  till  it  reaches  from  Cape  Comorin  to  the 
Himalayas  and  the  Indus.  At  this  very  moment 
we  are  driven  by  an  inexorable  fate  to  fight  with 
our  neighbours  the  Afghans,  and  the  probability 
is  that  we  shall  end  by  annexing  their  territory, 
which  we  affect  to  avoid  rather  than  to  court. 
But  if  this  much  has  been  done  in  a  period  of 
time  comparatively  so  brief,  what  may  not  be 
effected  in  a  similar  period  in  the  more  northern 
theatre  chosen  for  our  future  exploits?  Nay, 
more  :  in  this  remarkable  age^  the  acceleration  of 
speed  is  measured  by  geometrical  progression, 
and  at  this  rate  the  whole  face  of  the  globe,  or, 
at  least,  of  Asia,  may  be  changed  in  the  next  fifty 
or  even  twenty  years.  With  Turkey  in  Asia  an- 
nexed, Persia  cannot  long  resist  the  sure  process 
of  absorption;  and  before  men  who  are  now  young 
arrive  at  a  sober  maturity,  "Asiatic  Britain'* 
may  reach  from  the  southern  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea  to  the  southern  point  of  the  Indian  peninsula. 
Incidentally,  I  may  observe  that  every  ancient 
invasion  by  India's  conquerors  set  in  from  the 
north,  and  has  been  in  due  time  swept  away. 
Ours  was  first  from  the  south  and,  though  this 
may  not  be  any  guarantee  for  its  stability,  yet 
it  may  be  the  dream  of  Imperialism  thence  to 
extend  our  sway  from  south  to  north,  oA'er  the 


THE    FUTURE    OF    THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE.       211 

ancient  homes  of  civilization  in  Persia,  Assyria, 
Phoenicia  and  Asia  Minor,  and  thus  consolidate 
an  empire  in  the  East,  which  neither  Alexander 
nor  the  Great  Moguls  ever  dared  to  covet.  This 
dream  has  furnished,  indeed,  the  key-note  of  the 
policy  on  which  the  country  has  been  launched ; 
this  aspiration  is  the  real  motive  of  the  conven- 
tion between  Great  Britain  and  Turkey,  all  duly 
signed  and  ratified. 

The  grand  conception  is  to  create  an  "Asiatic 
Britain"  greater  than  the  one  that  has  stood 
out  so  proudly  and  conspicuously  in  the  his- 
tory of  centuries.  But  "  grand  conceptions " 
do  not  constitute  statesmanship ;  they  are  very 
fascinating,  it  is  true,  but  their  fascination  is 
apt  to  dazzle  and  mislead.  They  are  like  the 
treacherous  ignis  fatuus  alluring  us  into  situa- 
tions of  difficulty  and  danger ;  if  we  retrace 
our  steps,  we  have  to  overcome  again  the  perils 
through  which  we  have  passed,  and  which  we 
have  learnt  to  dread;  if  we  proceed,  we  have 
to  confront  new  dangers  of  which  we  know 
nothing,  and  which  may  be  even  greater  than 
those  we  have  escaped.  Such  a  path  is  the  one 
before  us.  It  is  one  which  no  wise  statesman, 
by  free  and   deliberate  choice,  would  adopt   as 

the  pathway  of  his  country's  career.     We  could 

p  2 


212      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND    ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

only  be  justified  in  pursuing  it  if  a  stem  neces- 
sity should  be  laid  upon  us.     That  necessity  may 
come,  and  if  it  does,  it  will  be  our  only  justifica- 
tion.    Had  we  kept  out  of    Turkish  entangle- 
ments,  it  is  hard  to  see  how  such  a  necessity 
would  have  overtaken  us;   since  we  have  com- 
mitted ourselves  to  the  grand  work  of  Turkish  re- 
formation it  is  hard  to  see  how  we  can  escape  it. 
The  supreme  peril  is  found  in  the  fact,  that 
when  the  promoters  of  this  Imperial  policy  shall 
have    been   removed,  by  death   or  by  political 
changes,    from  the  control  of  affairs,  their   op- 
ponents  and   successors   will   be   compelled    by 
force  majeure  to  carry  on  the  work  which  now 
they  honestly  and   vigorously   condemn.      This 
policy  will  fructify  in  posthumous  events,  and 
its  honour  or  dishonour  will  have  a  final   de- 
velopment when  its  framers  shall  be  gone.     It 
is    one   that   may,   perhaps,    yield    a   charm  to 
adventurous   spirits,    but   it   will   necessitate   a 
mortal  struggle,  in  which  the  great  stake  will 
be  our  Indian  rule,   and  possibly  the  very  ex- 
istence of  our  Empire.     And  this  is  the  policy 
we  have   avowedly   undertaken   in   the  defence 
of  India,  over  whose  teeming  populations,  it  is 
said,  we  are  to  rule  by  the  destiny  of  Heaven, 
and  for  the  good  of  the  Indian  people  ! 


THE   FUTURE    OF   THE    OTTOMAN   EMPIRE.       213 

The  early  incidents  of  the  occupation  of  Cy- 
prus supply  a  forcible  illustration  of  the  diffi- 
culties which  will  spring  up  with  sinister  and 
combative  mien  to  confront  us  at  every  step,  and 
dispute  every  inch  of  our  march.  The  other 
day,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  in  his 
speech  at  Birmingham,  justified  the  acquisition  of 
Cyprus  on  the  ground  that  it  would  enable  us  to 
teach  the  Turkish  community  what  reforms  in 
the  shape  of  administration  and  good  government 
were  expected  from  them ;  and  he  asserted  that, 
setting  aside  military  expenditure,  the  revenues 
of  the  island  would  pay  the  full  charges  of 
administration.  I  have  shown  that  it  would  be 
a  vain  experiment  to  teach  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment by  the  force  of  good  example ;  but  even 
if  it  were  an  effort  less  equivocal,  it  would  cost 
us  both  vexation  and  disappointment.  Cyprus  was 
to  be  an  advanced  post  to  strengthen  our  mili- 
tary and  naval  position  in  the  East.  Hitherto  we 
have  found  it  only  a  lazar-house  and  a  grave 
for  our  soldiers ;  and  authorities  are  divided  as 
to  any  value  it  ultimately  may  possess  if,  after 
immense  cost,  we  should  at  length  convert  it 
into  an  impregnable  fortress.  The  island  was, 
moreover,  to  be  a  new  field  for  British  enter- 
prise;  and    the   development   of    its   resources. 


214      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TUEKEY. 

agricultural,  pastoral,  and  mineral,  was  to  give 
a  new  stimulus  to  our  commercial  activity  and 
revive  our  languishing  trade;  but  these  hopes 
have  not  been  realized.  They  were,  in  fact,  ab- 
surdly sanguine,  built  on  exaggerated  estimates, 
and  disappointment  is  the  natural  consequence. 

It  may  be  that,  after  a  while,  the  trade  of 
Cyprus  will  prove  an  appreciable  item  in  the 
catalogue  of  British  commerce.  It  may  even  be 
that  for  strategic  purposes  the  island  may  prove 
useful  in  the  further  development  of  our  interests 
and  policy  in  the  East.     Time  will  show. 

As  to  the  insalubriousness  of  the  climate,  we 
may^  by  careful  attention  to  the  experiences  we 
have  acquired  in  various  directions,  succeed  in 
banishing  fever  altogether,  or  in  keeping  it 
under  effectual  restraint.  We  may  even  de- 
stroy the  conditions  of  its  evolution  by  planting 
in  sufficient  numbers  the  Eucalyptus  Globulus] 
for  the  rapid  growth  of  this  tree  would  doubt- 
less convert  the  hotbeds  of  fever  into  beautiful 
forests  of  tall  and  aromatic  timber  trees.  In 
Algiers  and  Italy,  the  experiment  has  been 
tried  with  success ;  and  as  for  Australia,  where 
this  fine  species  is  indigenous,  that  country 
probably  owes  the  characteristic  healthfulness  of 
its  climate  to  the  prevalence  of  the  "  gum  tree," 


THE   FUTURE    OF   THE    OTTOMAN   EMPIRE.       215 

which  is  the  popular  name  of  the  Eucalyptus. 
At  the  Antipodes,  by  the  absorption  of  the 
miasma  and  its  transformation  into  a  picturesque 
vegetation,  this  well-known  tree  has  not  only 
beautified  the  landscape,  but  it  has  been  for  ages 
preparing  a  healthful  home  for  the  settlers  of  our 
own  times. 

All  these  results  may  be  attained  in  Cyprus, 
but  it  will  only  be  after  we  have,  at  much  cost 
of  money,  health,  and  life,  triumphed  over  our 
difficulties,  and  achieved  success.  In  like  man- 
ner the  Imperial  policy,  of  which  the  occupation 
of  Cyprus  is  the  first  experiment,  may  bring 
us  to  a  final  triumph  in  Asia;  but  it  will  be 
after  unwonted  prowess,  terrible  sacrifices,  and 
efforts  to  be  undertaken  only  by  a  Titanic  race. 

I  may  here  take  occasion  to  correct  one  mis- 
take which  has  become  prevalent.  When  reform 
in  Asiatic  Turkey  is  now  mentioned,  the  geo- 
graphical area  is  invariably  limited  to  Asia 
Minor.  But  Asia  Minor  is  only  a  part  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  and  the  convention,  according 
to  its  exact  terms,  applies  to  the  whole.  What 
does  this  mean?  That  Asia  Minor  is  the  only 
part  of  the  empire  left  free  to  the  operations 
of  our  reforming  zeal.  France  has  been  our 
faithful  ally  for    many  years,   and    she    claims 


216      EGYPT,    CYPRUS,    AND   ASIATIC   TURKEY. 

a  prescriptive  right  to  the  protection  of  th.e 
Latin  Christians  in  Syria  and  Palestine:  so 
we  have  quietly  dropped  these  "interesting 
countries,"  and  the  reforming  spirit  is  to  be 
confined  to  the  districts  of  Asia  Minor,  with 
respect  to  which  there  are  no  particular  Euro- 
pean susceptibilities  that  we  can  wound.  Yet, 
Syria  and  Palestine  are  sighing  for  emancipation, 
and,  besides  forming  one  of  the  fairest  portions 
of  the  earth,  they  possess  a  native  population  of 
superior  physique^  of  high  intelligence,  and  every 
way  worthy  of  the  freedom  they  desire.  No 
amelioration  of  Turkey  will  be  complete  which 
leaves  them  outside  of  its  provisions.  The  sym- 
pathies of  the  people  lean  towards  England ;  and 
I  can  confidently  affirm  that,  if  a  plebiscite  were 
taken  to-morrow,  the  great  majority  of  the  popu- 
lations, both  Mussulman  and  Christian,  would 
vote  for  annexation  to  the  British  Empire. 

I  cannot  disguise  from  myself,  and  I  have 
not  disguised  from  my  readers,  the  terrible  res- 
ponsibilities which  the  Protectorate  will  bring 
on  Great  Britain.  Nevertheless  it  is  incumbent 
on  me  to  insist  that,  without  the  direct  super- 
vision of  British  administrators,  all  attempts  at 
reforms  will  prove  futile,  and  all  procedure  on 
any  other  basis  will  only  be  a  mockery  to  the 


THE    FUTURE    OF   THE    OTTOMAN    EMPIRE.       217 

populations  themselves.  But  whatever  may  be 
the  contingent  responsibilities  on  our  own  Go- 
vernment ;  it  is  certain  that  if  the  Sublime  Porte 
were  well  advised,  it  would  at  once  not  only  ac- 
cept, but  demand  British  intervention,  for,  other- 
wise, it  will  be  powerless  in  the  face  of  the  op- 
position of  the  Ulemas,  the  Softas,  the  Dervishes, 
and  of  all  those  whose  vested  interests  to  plunder 
would  be  imperilled.  No  tottering  Oriental  or 
other  Empire  was  ever  before  ofifered  safety  on 
the  simple  conditions  now  proposed  to  Turkey. 
But  if  the  Turkish  Government  should  refuse  to 
accept  this  last  chance,  partition  or  annexation 
will  become  inevitable;  and  with  the  fall  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire  will  come  a  new  era  of 
freedom  and  civilization  for  the  down-trodden 
populations — Mussulman  and  Christian — of  Asi- 
atic Turkey. 


APPENDICES. 


APPENDIX    I. 

THE  SUEZ  CANAL. 

The  ITtli  of  November,  1869,  witnessed  the 
historical  apotheosis  of  M.  de  Lesseps.  After 
half  a  lifetime  of  devotion  to  an  idea,  and  faith 
in  his  own  destiny  to  carry  it  out,  he,  on  that 
day,  received  a  triumph  grander  both  in  its  sig- 
nificance and  its  attendant  incidents  than  Koman 
conqueror  ever  enjoyed.  The  presence,  at  the 
opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  of  two  sovereigns, 
half  a  dozen  royal  princes,  statesmen,  ambas- 
sadors, savants^  and  other  celebrities  beyond 
count — besides  thousands  of  less  distinguished 
visitors  from  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  and 
representative  squadrons  from  every  navy  in 
Europe — sufiiced  to  give  an  iclat  to  the  occasion 
with  which  even  a  Frenchman's  passion  for 
"  glory  "  might  be  well  content.     Nor  was  the 


220  APPENDIX   I. 

honour  unearned,  for,  be  the  mere  commercial 
result  what  it  may,  this  union  of  the  two 
seas  will  rank  amongst  the  great  works  of 
the  world,  and  to  M.  de  Lesseps,  more  than 
any  other  living  man,  does  the  credit  of  it 
belong. 

Nor  is  this  lessened  by  the  fact  that  the  idea 
which  was  thus  realized  is  as  old  as  the  Pha- 
raohs. Centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  both 
Hebrew  and  Phoenician  ships  traversed  the  Eed 
Sea  on  their  way  to  Ophir,  and,  during  the 
dynasty  of  the  Ptolemies  and  the  Eoman  do- 
minion, large  fleets  were  sent  out  annually  from 
Berenice  and  Myos-Hormes  to  India.  After  the 
establishment  of  the  Mohammedan  Empire  in  the 
seventh  century,  an  immense  trade  was  carried 
on  through  the  Eed  Sea  with  India  and  China ; 
and,  in  the  period  between  the  twelfth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  the  treasures  of  the  East 
found  their  way  over  the  coral-reefed  Yam-Suph 
to  the  Yenetian  factories  in  Alexandria.  During 
the  long  historic  span  thus  covered,  many  efforts 
had  been  made  to  pierce  the  Isthmus.  Hero- 
dotus, Book  ii.,  chap.  158,  relates  that  Nichos, 
son  of  Psammiticus  (616-600  B.C.),  was  the  first 
who  opened  a  communication  by  means  of  a 
canal  between  the  Nile  and  the  Eed  Sea.     The 


THE    SUEZ   CANAL.  221 

canal  was  large  enough  to  allow  two  trireme 
galleys  to  ago  abreast,  the  water  bsing  taken 
from  the  Nile,  a  little  above  the  ancient  Bou- 
brastis — subsequently  called  Basta — a  city  situ- 
ated on  the  Pelusian  branch  of  the  river. 

The  canal  opened  into  the  Eed  Sea  near  the 
Pithomus  of  Scripture,  the  Patumas  of  Hero- 
dotus, and  the  Hieropolis  of  the  Ptolemies,  the 
site  of  which,  at  the  present  day,  is  to  be  found 
at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Bitter  Lakes, 
not  far  from  the  actual  shore  of  the  Eed  Sea.  It 
must  be  remembered,  however,  that  two  thousand 
five  hundred  years  ago  these  lakes  were  only  an 
extension  of  the  Erythrean  Sea,  and  that  the 
GuK  of  Suez  was  then  called  the  Gulf  of  Hiero- 
polis. The  galleys  were  towed  by  men,  and 
Herodotus  gives  four  days  as  the  time  required 
for  the  passage.  It  appeared,  nevertheless,  that 
this  route  was  not  the  best,  and  that  the  most 
direct  course  would  have  been  to  begin  the  canal 
on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  near  Mount 
Cassius,  which  separated  Egypt  from  Syria,  and 
from  which  the  Erythrean  Sea  was  only  distant 
a  thousand  stadia.  According  to  Herodotus,  this 
was  the  shortest  route.  In  cutting  his  canal, 
King  Kichos  caused  the  death  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand   men ;    but,   having   been 


222  APPENDIX   I. 

told  by  an  oracle  that  the  canal  would  be  the 
means  of  bringing  the  barbarians  into  Egypt, 
he  discontinued  the  works,  and  gave  up  his  pro- 
ject in  despair. 

According  to  Strabo,  the  canal  of  Nichos  com- 
menced at  Phacusa,  and  passed  to  Belbeis,  where 
it  met  the  one  which  washed  the  walls  of  Bou- 
brastis.  From  Belbeis  (Pharbaetus),  it  entered 
the  bitter  lake  below  Hieropolis,  and,  as  this 
canal  was  a  derivative  of  the  Nile,  the  water  of 
the  bitter  lake,  in  receiving  that  of  the  river, 
partook  of  the  character  of  the  sweet  water  of 
the  Nile.  A  century  after  Nichos,  Darius,  son 
of  Hydaspes,  King  of  Persia  (521-485  b.c.) 
caused  the  works  to  be  recommenced;  but  the 
engineers  having  assured  him  that  the  Eed  Sea 
was  of  a  higher  elevation  than  Egypt  itself,  he 
was  so  much  afraid  of  altogether  submerging  the 
country  he  desired  to  improve,  that  the  works 
were  once  more  suspended.  In  fine,  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  King  of  Egypt  (273  B.C.),  finished 
the  canal  joining  the  two  seas ;  and,  in  order  to 
render  the  mouth  of  the  canal  in  the  Eed  Sea 
more  safe,  he  made  a  dam  (Jiizei-orou)  which 
opened  and  shut  at  will.  The  dam  served  at 
the  same  time  to  collect  the  waters  of  the  Nile 
in  the  canal,  and  thus  facilitated  internal  navi' 


THE    SUEZ    CANAL.  223 

gation.  The  canal  of  Ptolemy  entered  the  Eed 
Sea  near  Arsino^ — the  present  Suez — which  after- 
wards took  the  name  of  Cleopatra. 

After  the  battle  of  Actium  (31  B.C.),  Cleopatra, 
seeing  that  the  forces  of  Egypt  could  not  resist 
those  of  the  Eoman  Empire  united  against  her, 
formed  the  singular  project  of  taking  her  fleet 
through  the  canal  into  the  Eed  Sea,  and  thus  fly 
into  some  distant  country.  Some  ships  attempted 
the  passage,  but  were  burned  by  the  Arabs,  and 
Antony  persuaded  Cleopatra  to  abandon  her  de- 
sign, and  defend  the  entrance  to  her  kingdom 
both  by  sea  and  land.  Under  the  Eoman  Empire, 
Trajan  renewed  the  canal  of  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus,  and  even  added  a  branch  which  went  some 
stadia  below  Memphis.  This  extension  of  the 
canal  was  called  by  the  name  of  Trajan ;  Ptolemy 
called  it  Amina  Trajanus ;  Quintus  Cur  tins  named 
it  Oxius,  and  the  Arabs  Merahemi.  Nothing 
further  was  done  until  the  time  of  the  Arabs, 
when,  in  the  year  637  of  the  Christian  era, 
Amrou,  the  lieutenant  of  the  Khalif  Omar,  suc- 
ceeded in  reopening  the  old  channel  as  far  as 
Boubrastis,  on  the  Pelusian  branch  of  the  Nile. 
Volney,  however,  relates,  that  one  hundred  and 
thirty-four  years  later  the  Khalif,  Abou-Djaflat- 
el-Mansour,  destroyed  it  in  the  hope  of  crushing 


224  APPENDIX    I. 

his  rebellious  subjects  by  cutting  off  the  means 
of  transporting  provisions,  and  thus  starving  them 
into  subjection.  From  that  time  no  further  effort 
was  made,  and  the  canal  soon  became  blocked  up 
by  the  then  unconquerable  sands.  So  it  re- 
mained for  a  thousand  years,  until,  in  1798, 
General  Bonaparte,  commanding  the  troops  of 
the  French  Eepublic  in  Egypt,  proposed  to 
cut  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  capable  of  being 
navigated  by  sea-going  ships,  and  the  work, 
which  had  been  begun  upwards  of  two  thousand 
four  hundred  years  before,  would  then  have  been 
recommenced  but  for  the  mistake  of  French  engi- 
neers, who  declared  the  Mediterranean  to  be  con- 
siderably below  the  level  of  the  Eed  Sea,  and  a 
canal  to  be  therefore  impossible. 

From  that  time  the  question  continued  to  be 
agitated  at  intervals;  but  nothing  definite  was 
done  till  1830,  when  Lieutenant  Waghorn — 
then  engaged  in  the  establishment  of  his  Over- 
land Eoute — again  surveyed  the  Isthmus,  and 
found  the  level  of  the  two  seas  to  be  identical. 
Still,  though  interest  was  for  a  time  revived  by 
the  announcement  of  this  fact,  no  further  action 
was  taken  with  reference  to  the  scheme  till  1847, 
when  England,  France,  and  Austria  sent  out  a 
commission  to  solve,  once  for  all,  the  problem  of 


THE   SUEZ   CANAL.  225 

the  sea  levels.  This  commission — on  which  Mr. 
Eobert  Stephenson  represented  our  own  Govern- 
ment— confirmed  Waghorn's  report,  with  the 
sole  variance  of  finding  a  difference  of  five  feet  in 
the  tide — not  the  real — levels  of  the  two  seas  at 
the  proposed  termini  of  the  canal.  Another  exa- 
mination, leading  to  similar  results,  was  made 
five  years  later,  but  Mr.  Stephenson  nevertheless 
pronounced  against  the  feasibility  of  the  canal, 
and  his  opinion — though  at  variance  with  that  of 
M.  Talabot,  the  French  member  of  the  commis- 
sion— being  accepted  by  the  Government  and 
public  of  England,  the  railway  from  Cairo  to 
Suez,  which  he  recommended  instead,  was  the 
result. 

In  the  meantime  another  mind  had  been 
occupied  with  the  scheme  for  nearly  a  quarter  of 
a  century.  When  Waghorn  was  advocating  his 
own  peculiar  enterprise,  young  Ferdinand  Lesseps 
was  an  eleve  in  the  French  Consulate  at  Cairo, 
and,  interested  by  our  countryman's  settlement 
of  the  sea  levels,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  accom- 
plishing the  great  work  which,  years  before, 
Napoleon  had  abandoned.  For  four-and-twenty 
years  of  active  oflB.cial  life  the  idea  kept  firm  hold 
of  his  imagination,  until  being  again  in  Egypt  in 
1854,  he  developed  his  plan  to  the  then  Viceroy, 


226  APPENDIX   I. 

Said  Pasha,  and  finally,  two  years  later,  obtained 
from  him  a  concession  to  construct  a  ship -canal 
across  the  Isthmus  from  a  point  near  Tyneh  to 
Suez.  Of  the  opposition  that  then  began  on  the 
part  of  Lord  Palmerston  and  the  English  press  it 
is  needless  to  speak,  for  is  it  not  all  written  in 
Blue  Books  and  journals  innumerable?  This, 
however,  rather  stimulated  than  discouraged  M. 
de  Lesseps,  while  it  also  stirred  up  the  national 
feeling  in  France,  and,  with  its  help,  enabled  him, 
in  1858,  to  launch  his  "  Compagnie  Universelle 
du  Canal  Maritime  de  Suez,"  with  a  capital  of 
£8,000,000  sterling,  on  nearly  every  stock  ex- 
change in  Europe.  Few  shares,  however,  were 
taken  up  out  of  France,  but  enough  were  placed 
there  to  warrant  his  commencing  operations  in 
the  spring  of  the  following  year,  and  accord- 
ingly, on  the  25th  of  April,  1859,  the  "Presi- 
dent Fondateur  "  and  his  little  band  of  followers 
took  possession,  in  the  company's  name,  of  the 
narrow  belt  of  sand  on  the  northern  coast  of 
the  Isthmus,  between  Lake  Menzaleh  and  tha 

The  subsequent  ten  years'  history  of  the 
scheme  need  not  be  traced.  Enough  to  say  that, 
by  dint  of  perseverance  and  energy,  which  may 
without   extravagance  be   called  heroic,   M.  de 


THE   SUEZ   CANAL.  227 

Lesseps  overcame  difficulties  against  which  few 
living  men  could  have  successfully  battled,  and 
he  now  has  his  reward  in  witnessing  the  com- 
pletion of  an  enterprise  which  will  indissolubly 
link  his  name  with  Egyptian  history. — ^^  Modern 
Turkey.''^     By  J.  Lewis  Farley. 


Q  2 


APPENDIX  II 


FUAD  PASHA'S  POLITICAL  TESTAMENT. 
To  THE  Sultan  Abdul  Aziz. 
[Translation.'] 

Nice,  Jan.  3,  1869. 

SlEE, 

I  have  but  a  few  days,  perhaps  only  a  few 
hours  more  to  live,  and  I  wish  to  devote  them  to 
the  accomplishment  of  a  sacred  duty.  I  desire 
to  lay  at  the  feet  of  your  Majesty  the  expression 
of  my  last  ideas, — sad  ideas,  the  bitter  fruit  of  a 
long  and  anxious  career. 

When  this  writing  shall  be  placed  under  your 
Majesty's  eyes,  I  shall  no  longer  be  of  this  world. 
On  this  occasion,  therefore,  you  may  listen  to 
me  without  mistrust.  The  voice  from  the  tomb 
is  always  sincere. 

God  has  entrusted  you  with  a  mission  as 
glorious  as  it  is  full  of  perils.     In  order  to 


FUAD    pasha's   political   TESTAMENT.        229 

accomplish  it  worthily,  your  Majesty  must  en- 
deavour to  fully  reali2;e  one  great  and  painful 
truth — the  Empire  of  the  Osmanli  is  in  danger. 

The  rapid  progress  of  our  neighbours,  and 
the  inconceivable  faults  of  our  ancestors,  have 
placed  us  at  the  present  day  in  an  extremely 
critical  position ;  and,  in  order  to  obviate  a  ter- 
rible catastrophe,  your  Majesty  is  bound  to  break 
with  the  past,  and  to  guide  your  people  towards 
new  destinies. 

Some  ignorant  patriots  seek  to  make  you  believe 
that  with  our  ancient  means,  we  can  re-establish 
our  ancient  greatness.  A  fatal  error!  an  un- 
pardonable illusion!  True,  if  our  neighbours 
remained  still  in  the  same  state  as  in  the  days 
of  our  forefathers,  our  former  means  might  have 
sufficed  to  render  your  Majesty  the  arbiter  of 
Europe.  But,  alas!  our  European  neighbours 
are  far  from  being  what  they  were.  For  the  last 
two  centuries  they  have  all  been  moving  forward, 
and  all  have  left  us  far  behind. 

Certainly,  we  also  have  made  progress.  Your 
actual  government  is  much  more  enlightened, 
and  possesses  much  greater  resources  than  that 
of  your  ancestors.  But,  unhappily,  this  relative 
superiority  is  far  from  sufficing  for  the  require- 
ments  of   our   age.      To   maintain   yourself   in 


230  APPENDIX    II. 

Europe  at  the  present  day,  you  require  not 
merely  to  equal,  not  merely  even  to  surpass  your 
ancient  predecessors,  but  also  to  equal  and 
proudly  compete  "with  your  actual  neighbours. 
To  express  my  thought  more  clearly,  I  may  say 
that  your  Empire  is  bound,  under  penalty  of 
death  in  default,  to  have  as  much  money  as 
England,  as  much  enlightenment  as  France,  and 
as  many  soldiers  as  Eussia.  For  us,  it  is  no 
longer  a  question  of  making  much  progress;  it  is 
purely  and  simply  a  question  of  making  as  much 
progress  as  the  other  nations  of  Europe. 

Our  magnificent  empire  furnishes  you  amply 
with  all  the  requisite  elements  for  surpassing  any 
European  Power  whatever.  But  to  do  this,  one 
thing  is  absolutely  necessary.  We  must  change  all 
our  institutions^ political  and  eivih  Many  laws, 
useful  in  past  ages,  have  become  injurious  to 
society  as  it  at  present  exists.  Perfectible  man 
needs  to  labour  incessantly  at  rendering  his  own 
works  more  perfect. 

Happily  this  first  law  of  our  nature  is  in  entire 
conformity  with  the  spirit  of  the  Mussulman 
religion.  For  Islamism  combines  all  the  true 
doctrines  which  have  for  theu*  essential  object 
the  progress  of  the  world  and  the  perfecting  of 
humanity.     Those  who   would  assume,   m  the 


FUAD   pasha's   political  TESTAMENT.       23l 

name  of  that  religion,  to  enchain  the  onward 
march  of  our  society,  far  from  being  Mussulmans, 
are  but  insensate  unbelievers.  All  other  religions 
are  bound  up  with  dogmas  and  unchangeable 
principles  which  are  so  many  barriers  against  the 
progress  of  the  human  mind.  Islamism  alone, 
free  from  all  the  trammels  of  mysteries  and 
infallible  churches,  renders  it  our  sacred  duty 
to  advance  with  the  world,  to  develop  all  our 
intellectual  faculties  to  the  utmost,  and  to  seek 
instruction  and  the  light  of  science,  not  in 
Arabia,  not  amongst  Mussulman  nations  solely, 
but  abroad,  in  China,  to  the  farthest  confines  of 
the  globe. 

'Not  must  it  be  thought  that  Mussulman  science 
is  different  from  that  of  foreigners.  Not  so. 
Science  is  one.  One  and  the  same  sun  suffuses 
the  world  of  intelligence.  And  as,  accordrag  to 
otir  belief,  Islam  is  the  universal  expression  of 
all  truths  and  all  knowledge,  so,  therefore,  a 
useful  discovery,  a  new  source  of  information, 
whencesoever  it  may  have  originalted,  amongst 
Pagans  as  amongst  Mussulmans,  whether  at 
Medina  or  at  Paris,  belongs  always  to  Islam. 

Thus,  nothing  prevents  us  from  borrowing  the 
new  laws  and  the  new  appliances  invented  by 
Europe.     I  have  studied  our  religion  sufficiently 


232  APPENDIX  II. 

to  discern  its  true  spirit.     I  have  my  head  still 
clear  enough  to  weigh  the  yalue  of  my  ideas; 
and,  assuredly,  it  is  not  at  the  moment  in  which 
I  am  about  to  abandon  life  in  order  to  present 
myself  before  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  universe, 
that  I  would  venture  to  betray  my  Sovereign,  my 
country,   and  my   creed.     I   assure  you,   then^ 
with  the  most  profound  conviction,  that  in  all 
these  institutions  of  which  Europe  gives  us  the 
example,  there   is  nothing,  absolutely  nothing, 
contrary  to  the  spirit  of  our  religion.     I  solemnly 
declare  to  you  that  the  safety  of  Islamism  demands 
that  we  should  adopt  at  once  those  great  institu- 
tions without  which  no  Power  can  any  longer  exist 
in  Europe.     I  solemnly  declare  to  you,  moreover, 
that  in  thus  transforming  our  empire,  not  only 
will  you  do  nothing  opposed  to  the  holiness  of 
our  religion,  but,  by  such  action,  you  will  render 
to  all  Mussulmans,  the  most  loyal  and  legitimate, 
the  most  praiseworthy  and  glorious  service  that 
could  have  ever  entered  into  the  dreams  of  your 
most  illustrious  ancestors. 

This  great  work  of  our  regeneration  embraces 
a  multiplicity  of  questions  which  it  is  beyond  my 
strength  and  the  little  of  life  remaining  to  me  to 
dilate  upon.  But  your  Majesty  has  still  at  your 
side  the  eminent  man  whose  friend  and  brotlier 


ruAD  pasha's  political  testament.      233 

I  have  been.*  May  God  preserve  liim  to  you! 
for  he  knows  better  than  any  one  the  means  of 
safety  for  your  empire.  I  have  never  given  your 
Majesty  an  advice  without  having  previously 
satisfied  myself  that  it  was  approved  by  his  wise 
judgment,  the  fruit  of  his  ripe  experience.  Con- 
tinue, Sire,  I  beg  of  you,  to  give  him  your  con- 
fidence. Accord  it  to  him  implicitly;  for  the 
confidence  of  great  sovereigns  constitutes  the 
strength  of  great  ministers.  What  I  presume  to 
recommend  to  your  Majesty  is — never  to  suffer 
the  priceless  talents  of  this  devoted  servant  to  be 
hampered  by  ignorant  colleagues.  Nothing  could 
discourage  him  more  than  the  necessity  of  work- 
ing with  men  incapable  of  understanding  him. 

I  must  now  say  a  few  words  with  regard  to  our 
foreign  relations.  It  is  here  that  the  task  of  our 
Government  becomes  truly  disheartening.  Being 
unable  to  contend  with  our  enemies  unaided,  we 
are  obliged  to  seek  friends  and  allies  abroad. 
Their  various  interests,  at  once  jealous  and 
hostile,  unjust  and  powerful,  have  placed  us  in  a 
position  which  it  is  impossible  to  portray.  In 
order  to  defend  the  smallest  of  our  rights,  we  are 
obliged  to  exert  more  strength,  skilly  and  courage 
than  our  ancestors  needed  to  conquer  kingdoms. 
*  A'lili  Pasha;  died  September,  1871. 


234  APPENDIX  II. 

Amongst  our  foreign  allies  you  will  find 
England  always  in  the  first  rank.  Her  policy 
and  her  friendship  are  as  firm  as  her  institutions. 
She  has  rendered  us  immense  services,  and  it 
would  be  impossible  to  calculate  those  which  she 
may  render  us  in  the  future.  Whatever  happens, 
the  English  people,  the  most  steadfast  and  the 
most  wonderful  in  the  world,  will  be  the  first  and 
last  of  our  allies.  /  would  rather  lose  several 
provinces  than  see  the  Sublime  Porte  abandoned  by 
England. 

France  is  an  ally  that  we  must  manage  at  all 
hazards.  Not  only  because  she  can  render  us 
the  most  important  services,  but  because  she  can 
give  us  also  most  deadly  blows.  With  that 
chivalrous  nation  there  is  more  of  sentiment  than 
calculation.  She  takes  a  pride  in  glory  and  great 
ideas,  even  with  her  enemies.  Thus  the  best 
way  to  preserve  the  alliance  of  this  generous 
people  is  to  keep  up  with  their  ideas,  and  to 
realize  such  progress  as  will  strike  equally  their 
imagination  and  their  esprit.  The  day  on 
which  France  will  despair  of  our  cause,  she 
will  herself  bring  about  combinations  hostile 
to  our  interest,  and  will  end  by  causing  our 
destruction. 

Austeia,  embarrassed  by  her  special  European 


FUAD    pasha's   political   TESTAMENT.        235 

interests,  has  been  obliged  up  to  tbe  present  to 
restrain  her  role  in  the  East.  She  committed  an 
immense  fault  during  the  war  in  the  Crimea. 
Driven  out  of  Germany,  she  will  for  the  future 
see  more  clearly  her  danger  from  the  North,  and 
certainly  that  danger  is  not  less  perilous  for  her 
than  it  is  for  our  own  empire.  As  long  as  a 
firm  and  far-seeing  policy  rules  at  Yienna,  Aus- 
tria will  naturally  be  the  ally  of  the  Porte.  The 
great  eyil,  the  ever-recurring  evil  which  has 
troubled  the  East  during  more  than  one  century, 
will  only  be  definitely  eradicated  by  the  active 
alliance  of  Austria,  supported  by  all  our  other 
allies  of  the  West. 

As  to  Prussia,  she  has  been  hitherto  almost 
indifferent  upon  Eastern  questions,  and  it  is  not 
at  all  improbable  that  in  her  hasty  policy  she 
may  even  sacrifice  us  to  her  own  project  of  Ger- 
man unity.  Buc  it  is  quite  certain  that,  after  her 
unity  is  achieved,  Germany  will  not  be  long  in 
perceiving  that  she  also  has  at  least  as  much 
interest  in  the  Eastern  Question  as  any  other 
European  Power  whatever.  Still,  God  grant 
that  she  may  not  have  purchased  the  spoils  of 
Austria  at  the  cost  of  inducing  our  enemies  to 
irrevocably  take  possession  of  our  European  pro- 
yinces. 


236  APPENDIX    II. 

I  come  at  last  to  Eussia,  that  inveterate  enemy 
of  our  empire.  The  extension  of  that  Power  to- 
wards the  East  is  a  fatal  law  of  the  Muscovite 
destiny.  If  I  had  been  myself  a  Eussian  Minis- 
ter, I  would  have  overturned  the  world  to  have 
conquered  Constantinople.  You  must  not,  there- 
fore, be  astonished  at,  nor  complain  of,  the  ag- 
gressive action  of  Eussia.  She  acts  towards  us 
to-day,  only  under  a  new  form,  just  as  formerly 
we  did  ourselves  to  the  Greeks  of  the  lower 
empire.  To  guarantee  us  against  Muscovite  in- 
vasion, it  will  be,  therefore,  childish  to  rely  solely 
upon  our  rights ;  what  we  want  on  that  side  is 
force.  Not  our  old  historic  force,  which  we 
should  try  in  vain  to  revive,  but  that  new  and 
irresistible  force  which  modem  science  and  ideas 
have  placed  in  the  hands  of  every  European 
people.  Since  Peter  the  Great,  Eussia  has  made 
enormous  progress,  and  soon  her  railways  will 
double  her  power.  That  which  alarms  me  most, 
however,  is  that,  in  Europe,  the  mass  of  the 
populations  seem  gradually  to  accustom  them- 
selves with  resignation  to  the  future  encroach- 
ments of  Eussia. 

The  indifference  of  England  to  the  events  of 
Central  Asia  astonishes  and  alarms  me.  "What 
alarms   me  most,  however,  is   the  considerable 


FUAD    PASHA.'S   POLITICAL   TESTAMENT.        237 

change  which  the  pacification  of  the  Caucasian 
provinces  has  brought  about  in  the  position  of 
Eussia.  To  me  it  is  beyond  doubt  that,  in  any- 
future  events,  the  most  serious  attacks  of  the 
Kussians  will  be  directed  against  our  provinces 
of  Asia  Minor.  Your  Majesty,  therefore,  should 
strive  unintermittingly  to  organize  our  forces. 
Who  knows  if  our  allies  will  always  be  free 
to  come  in  time  to  our  aid  ?  A.  domestic  quarrel 
in  Europe,  and  a  Bismarck  in  Eussia,  might 
change  the  face  of  the  world. 

I  can  conceive  of  many  acts  of  folly  of  all 
Governments;  it  is  even  one  of  their  preroga- 
tives to  commit  them.  But  I  confess  I  have 
been  unable  to  fathom  the  profound  wisdom  of 
the  Governments  which,  with  such  strange  in- 
difference, permits  the  most  frightful  despotism 
in  the  world  to  put  itself  at  the  head  of  a  hun- 
dred million  barbarians,  and  arm  them  with  all 
the  appliances  of  civilization;  to  swallow  up  at 
every  step  provinces  and  kingdoms  as  large  as 
France ;  and  while  it  hems  in  Asia  with  its  arms, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  undermines  Europe  by 
the  agency  of  Panslavism,  comes  forward  peri- 
odically protesting  its  love  for  peace,  and  its 
sincere  resolution  no  more  to  seek  for  further 
conquests. 


288  APPENDIX   II. 

EussiA  leads  me  to  say  a  few  words  also  of 
Persia. 

The  Goyernment  of  this  turbulent  country, 
always  swayed  by  Shiite  fanaticism,  has  been  the 
ally  of  our  enemies  from  time  immemorial.  During 
the  Crimean  War  it  made  common  cause  with 
Eussia,  and  that  it  did  not  realize  its  hostile 
projects  is  owing  to  the  vigilance  of  Western 
diplomacy.  At  the  present  day,  the  kingdom 
of  the  Shah  is  dependent  on  the  Cabinet  of 
St.  Petersburg.  So  long  as  the  Sublime  Porte 
has  her  hands  free,  the  Government  of  the  Shah, 
feeble  and  ignorant  as  it  is,  without  credit  and 
without  initiative,  will  never  have  the  courage 
to  seek  a  quarrel  with  us.  But  whenever  we 
"become  involved,  with  Eussia,  no  matter  with 
what  care  and  consideration  w^e  may  treat  Persia, 
her  political  dependence,  and,  still  more,  her 
blind  jealousy,  will  necessarily  place  her  in  the 
category  of  oiu'  bitterest  enemies.  Fortunately, 
in  addition  to  our  material  resources,  the  Sublime 
Porte  possesses  moral  means  more  than  sufficient 
to  keep  in  due  respect  a  country  crushed  by  a 
barbaric  despotism,  disputed  by  various  pre- 
tenders, and,  moreover,  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  Sunnite  populations.  On  this  point  our  inte- 
rests are  affected  by  many  complex  questions, 


FUAD   TASHA's   political   TESTAMENT.       239 

which  are  entirely  unappreciated  amongst  us, 
and  which  A'ali  Pasha  alone  can  explain  to  your 
Majesty. 

Let  us  not  forget  Greece — a  country  insig- 
nificant in  itselfj  but  an  irritating  instrument  in 
the  hands  of  a  hostile  power.  European  poets, 
in  improvising  this  illusion  of  a  kingdom,  have 
thought  they  would  be  able  to  give  life  to  a 
nation  dead  for  the  last  two  thousand  years.  In 
seeking  to  revive  the  country  of  Homer  and 
Aristotle,  they  have  only  succeeded  in  creating 
a  focus  of  intrigues,  of  anarchy,  and  brigandage. 
The  Sublime  Porte  may  find  amongst  the  Greeks 
some  intelligent  servants;  but  the  spirit  of  the 
Hellenic  race  will  always  be  essentially  hostile 
to  our  cause.  The  recollections  of  a  glorious 
history,  although  separated  from  our  Greeks  of 
the  present  day  by  centuries  of  corruption,  igno- 
rance, and  spuriousness,  will  yet  for  a  long  time 
foster  amongst  this  selfish  race  the  hope  of  jug- 
gling once  again  into  existence  the  Empire 
of  the  East,  which  it  formerly  so  degraded 
into  the  Byzantine  Empire,  or  the  Lower  Em- 
pire, as  it  was  so  well  termed.  What  guaran- 
tees us  most  efi'ectually  against  the  attempts  of 
this  false  and  spiteful  people  is  its  revolting 
vanity  and  exclusiveness,  which  render  it,  from 


240  APPENDIX   II. 

day  to  day,  more  odious  to  all  our  Oriental 
races. 

Our  policy  should  be  to  endeavour  to  isolate 
the  Greeks  as  much  as  possible  from  our  other 
Christians.  It  is  of  paramount  importance  to 
withdraw  the  Bulgarians  from  the  domination 
of  the  Greek  Church,  without,  however,  throw- 
ing it  into  the  arms  either  of  the  Eussians  or 
of  the  Eoman  Clergy. 

The  Sublime  Porte  should  never  tolerate  in- 
trigues with  a  view  to  a  union  of  the  Armenians 
with  the  Orthodox  Church.  It  would  perhaps 
be  wise  to  encourage  amongst  our  Christians 
that  philosophic  spirit  so  well  calculated  to  bring 
men  into  closer  harmony  by  withdrawing  them 
from  clerical  influence.  But  I  hasten  to  add  that, 
for  us,  the  best  policy  will  undeniably  be  to  place 
the  State  above  all  religious  questions  whatever. 

In  our  internal  affairs,  all  our  efforts  should 
tend  to  one  sole  object — the  fusion  of  our  various 
races.  Without  such  fusion,  the  maintenance  of 
our  empire  appears  to  me  an  actual  impossibility. 
Henceforward,  this  great  empire  can  belong  neither 
to  the  Greeks  nor  to  the  Slaves,  to  no  single 
religion,  nor  to  any  single  race.  The  empire  of 
the  East  can  subsist  only  by  the  intimate  union 
of  all  Easterns. 


FUAD   PASHA^S   POLITICAL   TESTAMENT.       241 

A  powerful  Germany;  France  with  its  forty 
millions  of  inhabitants ;  England  strongly  fortified 
as  it  is  by  nature — all  these  great  nationalities 
may,  indeed,  for  some  time  longer  maintain  their 
powerful  and  useful  individuality.  But  a  Mon- 
tenegro, a  principality  of  Servia,  a  kingdom  of 
Armenia,  without  conferring  the  slightest  advan- 
tage either  upon  themselves  or  the  world,  can 
never  be  anything  further  than  States  more  or 
less  chimerical,  wretched  fragments  of  former 
convulsions  of  humanity,  inevitably  a  prey  to 
any  new  conqueror,  prejudicial  to  the  progress 
of  mankind,  and  dangerous  for  the  peace  of  the 
world. 

In  the  constitutions  of  modern  States  the  only 
durable  theory  is  that  of  great  agglomerations. 
Thus,  also,  the  only  means  of  preventing  the 
ruin  of  our  State  is  to  reconstruct  it  anew  upon 
a  broad  and  solid  basis,  embracing  all  our  dif- 
ferent elements  tvithout  distinction  of  race  or 
religion.  Here  we  begin  to  encounter  a  some- 
what serious  difficulty.  Our  Christian  popula- 
tions, suddenly  relieved  from  the  sway  which 
held  them  subject,  seem  too  ready  to  replace 
their  former  masters.  The  Armenians  especially 
have  assumed  an  aggressive  character;  and  it 

would  be  but  right  to  moderate  their  ardour  in 

R 


242  APPENDIX   II. 

opening  our  public  careers  only  to  sucli  as  shall 
have  sincerely  adopted  the  Unitarian  principles 
of  our  empire.  All  our  Christian  populations 
have  generally  two  distinct  religions ;  one  moral, 
and  the  other  political.  As  regards  the  moral 
religion,  our  Government  should  ignore  it  com- 
pletely; but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  should  be 
closely  attentive  to  all  that  relates  to  their 
political  religion,  for  the  latter  often  involves 
theories  incompatible  with  our  existence.  In 
the  fact  of  a  Pasha  worshipping  God  according 
to  the  law  of  Moses,  or  after  the  manner  of  the 
Christians,  there  is  no  reason  why  we  should  be 
deprived  of  the  aid  of  his  services.  But  if  this 
same  Pasha,  oblivious  of  the  unity  of  our  country, 
indulge  in  dreams  of  a  Byzantine  empire,  or 
aspire  to  serve  a  kingdom  of  Cilicia,  then  he 
ceases  to  be  a  faithful  servant,  and  should  be 
removed. 

Unity  of  the  State  and  of  the  country ,  based  upon 
the  equality  of  all — such  is  the  sole  dogma  which 
I  would  wish  to  see  exacted  from  all  our  public 
functionaries. 

To  elicit  fully  the  marvels  of  this  fruitful 
principle,  your  Majesty  should  apply  yourself, 
in  the  first  instance,  to  the  organization  of  the 
administration  of  justice.     The  task  is  difficult. 


FUAD    pasha's   political   TESTAMENT.        243 

but  it  is  urgent  and  indispensable.  After  having 
legally  guaranteed  the  lives  and  property  of  all 
citizens,  the  foremost  measure  which  your  Govern- 
ment should  consider  as  an  imperious  duty  is  the 
construction  of  our  roads.  The  day  on  which  we 
shall  have  as  many  railways  as  European  nations, 
your  Majesty  will  be  at  the  head  of  the  first 
empire  in  the  world. 

There  is,  however,  another  question  which  is 
for  us  of  inexpressible  importance — that  of  Public 
Instruction^  the  sole  basis  of  all  social  progress, 
the  perennial  source  of  every  moral  and  material 
greatness.  Army,  navy,  administration  are  all 
involved  in  that.  Without  that  essential  basis, 
I  foresee  for  us  neither  strength  nor  independence 
— neither  government  nor  a  future.  Notwith- 
standing the  eminently  instructive  spirit  of  our 
religion,  education  has  remained  very  backward 
with  us  for  a  multiplicity  of  reasons.  Our  in- 
numerable raedress^s,  and  the  copious  resources 
which  are  consumed  by  tliem  so  uselessly,  supply 
us  with  the  material  ready  to  our  hands  for  a 
grand  system  of  national  education.  If  I  have 
myself  failed  to  carry  this  fine  thought  into 
effect,  it  is  because  I  have  been  diverted  from 
it  by  a  concurrence  of  most  unfortunate  circum- 
stances.    I   bequeath  the  measure   to   my  suc- 

R  2 


244  APPENDIX  IT. 

cessors :  they  could  not  possibly  conceive  of 
any  which  would  prove  more  fruitful  or  more 
glorious. 

I  know  that  the  greater  part  of  our  Mussul- 
mans will  curse  me  as  a  ghiaour  and  an  enemy  to 
our  religion.  I  forgive  their  anger,  for  they  can 
understand  neither  my  sentiments  nor  my  lan- 
guage. They  will  one  day  come  to  know  that 
I,  a  ghiaour  J  an  ''  impious  innovator,"  have  been 
much  more  religious,  much  more  truly  a  Mussul- 
man, than  the  ignorant  zealots  who  have  covered 
me  with  their  maledictions.  They  will  recognize, 
but  unhappily  too  late,  that  I  have  striven  more 
than  any  other  martyr  to  save  the  religion  and 
the  empire  which  they  would  have  led  to  an- 
inevitable  ruin. 

The  first  law  of  every  institution,  human  or 
divine,  is  the  law  of  self-preservation.  And,  in 
all  our  reforms,  what  have  I  sought  but  the 
preservation  of  Islam?  Only  that,  instead  of 
seeking  it  in  blind  submission  to  ancient  pre- 
judices, I  have  endeavoured  to  find  it  in  those 
luminous  paths  which  the  God  himself  of  Islam 
has  traced  before  us,  as  he  has  traced  them  before 
all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

My  weak  and  trembling  hand  refuses  to  pro- 
ceed further.     In  concluding  these  lines,  I  beg 


FUAD   pasha's   political   TESTAMENT.       245 

your  Majesty  will  deign  to  give  your  attention 
to  the  dying  words  of  a  faithful  servant,  "who,  in 
the  midst  of  human  weakness,  always  loved  his 
fellow-men,  laboured  constantly  to  accomplish  all 
the  good  in  his  power,  and  who  now,  broken 
under  the  weight  of  his  responsibilities,  quits 
the  world  without  regret,  and  dies  a  resigned 
Mussulman,  delivering  up  his  soul  to  the  Supreme 
Judge,  who  is  at  once  compassionate  and  merciful. 
— ''  The  Decline  of  Turkey .?"  By  J.  Lewis  Farley. 


APPENDIX    III. 


LAW  GRANTING  TO  FOREIGNERS 

THE  RIGHT  OF  HOLDING  REAL  PROPERTY 

IN  THE  OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 

With  the  view  of  developing  the  prosperity 
of  the  country,  putting  an  end  to  the  difficulties, 
abuses,  and  uncertainties  which  arise  out  of  the 
exercise  of  rights  of  property  by  foreigners  in  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  and  completing,  by  a  precise 
regulation,  the  guarantees  due  to  financial 
interests  and  administrative  action,  the  following 
legislative  enactments  have  been  decreed  by 
order  of  His  Imperial  Majesty  the  Sultan : — 

Art.  1.  Foreigners  are  admitted,  by  the  same 
title  as  Ottoman  subjects,  and  without  any  other 
condition,  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  right  of 
possessing  real  property  in  town  or  country  in 
any  part  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  except  the  pro- 
vince of  Hedjaz,  on  submitting  to  the  laws  and 


THE   RIGHT   OF   HOLDING    REAL    PROPERTY.     247 

regulations  "wliicli  bind  Ottoman  subjects  them- 
selves, as  hereinafter  provided. 

This  enactment  does  not  concern  Ottoman 
subjects  by  birth  who  have  changed  their  nation- 
ality, to  whom  a  special  law  will  apply. 

Art.  2.  Foreigners  who  are  owners  of  real  pro- 
perty, urban  or  rural,  are  consequently  assimilated 
to  Ottoman  subjects  in  everything  which  con- 
cerns such  real  property. 

The  legal  effect  of  this  assimilation  is :  1st. 
To  oblige  them  to  conform  to  all  police  or  muni- 
cipal laws  and  regulations  which  do  now  or 
shall  hereafter  affect  the  enjoyment,  transmission, 
alienation,  and  mortgaging  of  lands.  2nd.  To 
pay  all  charges  and  contributions,  of  whatever 
form  or  denomination,  to  which  real  property  in 
town  or  country  is  or  shall  hereafter  be  made 
liable.  3rd.  To  render  them  directly  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Ottoman  civil  tribunals 
in  every  dispute  relating  to  landed  property  and 
real  actions  of  every  kind,  whether  as  plaintiffs 
or  defendants,  even  when  both  parties  are  foreign 
subjects ;  in  every  respect  by  the  same  title  and 
Tinder  the  same  conditions  and  the  same  forms 
as  Ottoman  owners,  and  without  their  being 
entitled  in  such  cases  to  any  advantage  on  ac- 
count of  their  personal  nationality,  but  with  the 


248  APPENDIX   III. 

reservation  of  the  immunities  attaching  to  their 
persons  and  their  moveable  effects  under  the 
terms  of  the  Treaties. 

Art.  3.  In  case  of  the  insolvency  of  an  owner 
of  real  property,  the  assignees  under  his  insol- 
vency shall  apply  to  the  proper  authority  and 
the  Ottoman  civil  courts  for  an  order  for  the  sale 
of  such  of  the  insolvent's  real  possessions  as  are, 
according  to  their  nature  and  the  law,  liable  to 
the  owner's  debts. 

The  same  course  shall  be  taken  when  a 
foreigner  obtains  from  any  foreign  court  a  judg- 
ment against  another  foreigner  being  an  owner 
of  real  property.  For  the  execution  of  such 
judgment  upon  the  real  estate  of  his  debtor, 
he  shall  apply  to  the  competent  Ottoman  au- 
thority for  an  order  for  the  sale  of  the  property 
liable  to  the  owner's  debts,  and  the  judgment 
shall  not  be  executed  by  the  authorities  and  the 
Ottoman  tribunals  until  they  have  satisfied  them- 
selves that  the  property  proposed  to  be  sold  really 
belongs  to  the  category  of  those  possessions  which 
can  be  sold  to  pay  the  owner's  debts. 

Art.  4.  A  foreign  subject  shall  have  the  power 
of  disposing  by  gift  or  will  of  such  real  pos- 
sessions as  the  law  allows  to  be  disposed  of 
under  that  form. 


THE    EIGHT    OF   HOLDING    REAL   PROPEETY.     249 

With  respect  to  such  real  estate  as  he  shall 
not  have  disposed  of,  or  which  the  law  does  not 
permit  him  to  dispose  of  by  gift  or  will,  the 
succession  thereto  will  be  regulated  by  the  Ot- 
toman law. 

Art.  5.  Every  foreign  subject  shall  enjoy  the 
benefit  of  the  present  law  as  soon  as  the  Power 
whose  subject  he  is  shall  have  assented  to  the 
arrangements  proposed  by  the  Sublime  Porte  for 
the  exercise  of  the  right  of  property. 

Constantinople,  7  Sepher,  1284, 
(June  18,  1867.) 

PEOTOCOL. 

The  law  which  grants  foreigners  the  right  of 
holding  real  property  does  not  infringe  on  any 
of  the  immunities  secured  bv  Treaties,  and 
^vhich  will  continue  to  cover  the  person  and 
moveable  effects  of  foreigners  who  become 
owners  of  realty. 

As  the  exercise  of  this  right  of  property 
ought  to  induce  foreigners  to  settle  in  greater 
numbers  in  the  Ottoman  territory,  the  Imperial 
Government  feels  it  its  duty  to  anticipate  and 
provide  for  the  difficulties  to  which  the  appli- 
cation  of  the   law  might  give   rise   in   certain 


250  APPENDIX   III. 

localities.     Such   is  the  object  of  the  arrange- 
ments which  follow. 

The  dwelling  of  every  person  living  on  Ot- 
toman soil  being  inviolable,  and  no  one  being 
allowed  to  enter  therein  without  the  consent  of 
the  master,  unless  in  virtue  of  orders  ema- 
nating from  a  competent  authority  and  in  the 
presence  of  the  magistrate  or  functionary  in- 
vested with  the  necessary  powers,  the  dwelling 
of  a  foreign  subject  is  equally  inviolable,  con- 
formably with  the  Treaties ;  and  no  peace-officer 
can  enter  except  in  the  presence  of  the  consul, 
or  a  delegate  of  the  consul,  of  the  Power  to 
which  such  foreigner  is  a  subject. 

By  "  dwelling  "  is  understood  a  house  of  resi- 
dence and  its  appurtenances,  that  is  to  say,  the 
offices,  courts,  gardens,  and  contiguous  enclo- 
sures, to  the  exclusion  of  every  other  part  of 
the  property. 

In  localities  distant  less  than  nine  hours  from 
the  consular  residence,  the  peace-officers  cannot 
enter  a  foreigner's  dwelling  without  the  assis- 
tance of  the  consul,  as  stated  above.  The  consul, 
on  his  side,  is  expected  to  lend  his  immediate 
assistance  to  the  local  authority,  so  that  there 
shall  not  elapse  more  than  six  hours  between  the 
time  when  notice   is    given    to   him  and    the 


THE   RIGHT  OP   HOLDING   REAL   PROPERTY.     251 

departure  of  himself  or  his  delegate,  in  order 
that  the  action  of  the  authorities  may  never  be 
suspended  for  more  than  twenty-four  hours. 

In  localities  distant  nine  hours'  journey  or 
more  from  the  residence  of  the  consular  agent, 
the  peace-officers  can,  on  the  requisition  of  the 
local  authority  and  in  the  presence  of  three 
members  of  the  council  of  elders  of  the  commune, 
enter  the  dwelling  of  a  foreign  subject  without 
the  presence  of  the  consular  agent,  but  only  in 
case  of  urgency  and  to  make  investigations 
respecting  crimes  of  murder,  attempted  murder, 
arson,  robbery  with  violence,  burglary,  armed 
rebellion,  base  coining,  and  this  whether  the 
crime  was  committed  by  a  foreign  subject  or  by 
an  Ottoman  subject,  and  whether  it  took  place 
in  the  foreigner's  dwelling  or  outside  it,  or  in  any 
other  place. 

These  regulations  are  applicable  only  to  the 
parts  of  the  property  which  constitute  the 
dwelling  as  defined  above.  Outside  the  dwel- 
ling the  police  shall  have  free  and  imrestricted 
action ;  but  where  a  person  accused  of  a  crime 
or  misdemeanor  is  arrested,  and  such  person  is 
a  foreigh  subject,  the  immunities  attaching  to 
his  person  shall  be  observed. 

The  functionary  or  officer  employed  to  make 


252  APPENDIX   III. 

the  domiciliary  visit  under  the  exceptional 
circumstances  above  described,  and  the  members 
of  the  council  of  elders  who  assist,  are  requii-ed 
to  prepare  a  proces-verhal  of  the  domiciliary  visit 
and  to  communicate  it  immediately  to  the  superior 
authority  under  whom  they  act,  who  shall  trans- 
mit it  without  delay  to  the  nearest  consular 
agent. 

A  special  order  will  be  promulgated  by  the 
Sublime  Porte  regulating  the  manner  in  which 
the  local  police  are  to  act  in  the  different  cases 
above  mentioned. 

In  localities  distant  more  than  nine  hours  from 
the  residence  of  the  consular  agent,  and  where 
the  law  of  the  judicial  organisation  of  vilaets  is 
in  force,  foreign  subjects  shall  be  judged,  without 
the  assistance  of  the  consular  delegate,  by  the 
council  of  elders  discharging  the  functions  of 
justices  of  the  peace,  and  by  the  tribunal  of  the 
caza^  in  disputes  involving  sums  not  exceeding  a 
thousand  piastres,  or  condemnation  in  a  fine  of 
not  more  than  five  hundred  piastres. 

Foreign  subjects  will  have  in  every  case  the 
right  of  appealing  to  the  tribunal  of  the  sandjak 
from  sentences  so  passed;  and  the  appeal  shall 
be  heard  and  decided  with  the  assistance  of  the 
consul,  in  conformity  with  the  Treaties. 


THE  RIGHT  OF  HOLDING  REAL  PROPERTY.  253 

An  appeal  shall  always  suspend  execution. 

In  no  case  shall  the  forcible  execution  of 
sentences  pronounced  under  the  conditions  above 
specified  take  place  except  in  the  presence  of  the 
consul  or  his  delegate. 

The  Imperial  Government  will  issue  a  law 
determining  the  rules  of  procedure  to  be  observed 
by  the  parties  in  the  application  of  the  pre- 
ceeding  provisions. 

Foreign  subjects  in  any  locality  are  authorized 
to  put  themselves  voluntarily  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  council  of  elders  or  the  courts 
of  the  cazas,  without  the  consul's  assistance,  in 
disputes  within  the  jurisdiction  of  those  councils 
or  courts,  saving  the  right  of  appeal  to  the 
sandjakj  which  appeal  shall  be  heard  and  judged 
with  the  assistance  of  the  consul  or  his  delegate. 
The  foreign  subject's  consent  to  have  his 
cause  tried  Avithout  the  assistance  of  the  consul 
ought  in  every  case  to  be  given  in  writing,  and 
before  any  proceedings  are  taken  in  the  cause. 

It  is  to  be  well  understood  that  none  of  these 
restrictions  relate  to  processes  or  to  questions 
affecting  real  property,  which  will  be  tried  and 
decided  according  to  the  conditions  established 
by  the  law. 

The  right  of  defence  and  publicity  of  trial  are 


254  APPENDIX   III. 

assured  in  every  case  to  foreigners  who  appear 
before  Ottoman  tribunals  as  well  as  to  Ottoman 
subjects. 

The  preceding  arrangements  will  remain  in 
force  until  the  revision  of  the  old  Treaties,  a 
revision  respecting  which  the  Sublime  Porte  will 
hereafter  endeavour  to  bring  about  an  under- 
standing between  itself  and  the  friendly  Powers. 


APPENDIX    IV. 


THE   TEADE   OF   CYPRUS. 

The  following  report  by  H.B.M.'s  Consul  at 
Larnaca  on  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the  Island 
of  Cyprus,  for  the  year  1877,  has  just  been 
issued  by  the  Foreign  Office: — 

Shipping. — There  is  a  considerable  falling  off 
in  the  arrivals  of  British  as  well  as  of  foreign 
ships,  as  compared  with  preceding  years.  The 
total  amount  of  tonnage  entered  and  cleared  at 
Larnaca  duiing  the  year,  including  the  native 
coasting  vessels,  is  91,812  tons,  against  92,926 
tons  for  the  year  of  1870.*  With  the  exception 
of  an  occasional  French  steamer,  none  but  the 
steamers  of  the  Austrian  Lloyds'  called  here. 

Trade  and  Commerce. — The  depression  of 
trade  in  Larnaca  during  the  year  1877  is  owing 

*  In  1877  total  tonnage  91,812,  of  which  78,180  Averc 
foreign  and  13,682  Ottoman.  In  1876  total  tonnage  92,926, 
of  which  83,826  were  foreign  and  9100  Ottoman. 


256  APPENDIX   IV. 

to  the  failure  of  the  corn  crops,  on  account  of 
the  continued  drought  during  the  months  of 
January,  March,  and  April,  and  to  a  considerable 
degree  to  the  influence  of  the  war.  The  want 
of  rain  also  affected  the  culture  of  the  locust 
beans  and  the  growth  of  cotton.  The  imports 
for  the  year  1877  amounted  to  £105,277,  as 
against  £150,480  for  the  year  1876 ;  and  the 
exports  to  £150,981,  against  £207,512  in 
1876. 

Grain. — Although  a  very  fair  proportion  of 
land  was  put  under  cultivation,  the  result  of  the 
grain  crops  for  the  year  1877  is  as  follows: — 
800,000  kilos,  of  wheat  against  1,600,000  in 
1876;  1,500,000  kilos,  of  barley  against 
2,400,000  in  1870.  Of  this  a  little  was  ex- 
ported in  the  early  part  of  the  harvest,  and 
when  it  was  thought  that  the  crops  would 
succeed  better  than  they  eventually  did ;  as  the 
season,  however,  advanced  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  import  rather  than  to  export,  and  prices 
of  grain  increased  from  £1  10s.  to  £2  15s.  for 
wheat  per  quarter,  and  from  17s.  to  £1  12s.  for 
barley  per  quarter. 

Cotton. — The  cotton  crop  in  1877  was  very 
fair  as  regards  quantity  and  quality,  and  may 
be  estimated  at  about  2000  bales  of  200  okes 


THE   TRADE    OF    CYPRUS.  257 

per  bale,  the  average  price  being  about  fourpence 
per  lb.  Great  care  and  attention  are  given  to  the 
cultivation  of  this  plant,  which  is  chiefly  of 
American  seed.  Experiments  have  been  made 
with  the  view  of  introducing  the  Bamia  cotton, 
but  it  is  thought  the  dry  nature  of  the  soil  is 
little  adapted  for  its  growth. 

Madder  -  EooTS.  —  The  produce  in  1877 
amounted  only  to  about  250  tons.  It  is  probable 
that  the  root  will  not  be  cultivated  any  longer, 
seeing  that  the  expense  of  growing  it  exceeds 
the  actual  selling  price.  The  cause  of  this  is 
the  late  substitution  of  alizarine  for  madder  roots. 
Prices  averaged  £12  per  ton,  free  on  board. 

Wool. — The  quantity  of  the  wool  produced 
last  year  was  about  330,000  lbs.  The  mildness 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  winter,  and  the 
abundance  of  pasturage,  greatly  contributed 
to  the  growth  of  this  article.  The  number  of 
sheep  is  put  down  at  750,000. 

Skins. — The  trade  in  skins  is  somewhat  brisk, 
though  limited.  Cyprus  exports  a  certain 
number  over  and  above  its  producing  capacity, 
as  some  are  brought  from  Egypt  and  other 
places  to  be  prepared  and  tanned  here.  The 
prices  were  as  follows  :  For  lamb  skins.  Is.  3d. 
each ;  for  sheep,  8d.  each ;  kids,  7d.  each ;  goat. 


258  APPENDIX   IV. 

Is.  3d.  each ;  and  for  bullocks'  hides,  Is.  3d. 
per  oke. 

Wine. — The  manufacture  of  wine  here  is 
greatly  on  the  decrease ;  for,  owing  to  all  sorts 
of  unreasonable  regulations  and  to  the  vexatious 
mode  of  their  application,  cultivators  now  prefer 
making  their  grapes  into  raisins.  The  wine 
produced  in  1877  was  2,400,000  okes,  of  which 
one-fifth  was  commanderial.  Prices  of  both, 
2^  piastres  per  oke  first  cost. 

Olive  Oil.  —  The  produce  in  1877  was 
estimated  at  250,000  okes,  against  200,000  okes 
in  1876.  Prices  ran  from  9  piastres  to  10 
piastres  an  oke.  The  oil-producing  districts  are 
Keryina,  Kythrea,  Larnaca,  and  Limassol.  As 
a  rule,  the  olive  tree  only  produces  abundantly 
once  in  five  years.  The  conditions  required  for 
a  good  yield  are  cold  and  wet  weather,  when  the 
quantity  produced  may  reach  400,000  and  even 
500,000  okes.  It  is  rarely  exported ;  when  it 
is  cheap,  soap  is  made  in  such  quantities  as  to 
supply  Mersine  and  other  parts  of  Caramania. 

Locust  Beans. — The  demand  for  caroubs  being 
yearly  on  the  increase,  the  peasants  are  seriously 
turning  their  attention  to  the  proper  cultivation 
of  the  tree,  which  was  hitherto  somewhat 
neglected.     The  yield  in  1877  averaged  60,000 


THE    TRADE    OF    CYPRUS.  259 

cantars  of  Aleppo,  against  45,000  in  1876.  It 
is  most  abundant  when  the  winter  is  severe.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  season  they  changed  hands 
at  £3  5s.  per  ton,  free  on  board.  The  last 
purchases  were  made  at  £4  per  ton,  free  on 
board. 

Tobacco. — The  monopoly  is  farmed  out,  and 
there  are  eight  depots  in  the  island,  of  which 
four  are  in  Nicosia,  two  in  Larnaca  and  two  in 
Limassol,  opened  in  1874.  Selling  prices  vary 
from  30  to  10  piastres.  The  quality  sold  here  is 
principally  the  lowest,  and  about  6000  okes,  at 
15  piastres  the  oke.  The  quantity  disposed  of 
in  a  year  is  about  100,000  okes,  from  which 
the  Government  nets  1,300,000  paistres.  The 
payment  to  the  Government  was  formerly  made 
in  medjidis,  at  20  piastres,  but  now  caim^  is 
taken  at  par.  Of  the  above  quantity  of  100,000 
okes,  one-tenth  is  exported  to  Syria  and  Cara- 
mania  in  sealed  packets.  The  tobacco  used  here 
is  brought  from  Volo  and  Salonica,  where  it  pays 
an  "octroi"  duty  of  three  piastres  per  oke. 
Cyprus  formerly  produced  about  200,000  okes 
of  tobacco ;  but  now,  on  account  of  the 
vexations  to  which  the  grower  is  subjected, 
the  quantity  grown  does  not  exceed  5000  okes. 

Silk. — The   production   of  silk   has   sensibly 

s  2 


260  APPENDIX    IV. 

diminished  during  the  last  few  years,  owing  to 
disease  among  the  silk-worms,  and  to  a  partial 
fall  in  prices  in  the  French  market.  The  quan- 
tity produced  formerly  exceeded  25,000  okes  of 
reeled  silk.  In  1877  the  estimate  of  dry  cocoons 
exported  is  15,000  okes,  and  of  those  used  in 
the  island  4000  okes.  Price  of  cocoons  3s.  6d. 
per  lb.,  free  on  board. 

Salt.  —  The  salt  lakes  of  Larnaca,  which 
belong  to  the  Government,  can  produce  salt  to 
the  extent  of  20,000,000  okes  per  annum.  It  is 
collected  in  the  autumn,  and  sells  at  20  paras  per 
oke  in  caime.  In  1877  the  quantity  exported, 
principally  to  Syria,  amounted  to  3,734,000  okes, 
and  that  for  internal  consumption  is  estimated 
at  729,000  okes,  making  a  total  of  4,463,000 
okes. 

Sponges. — Sponge  fishing  commences  in  May 
and  ends  in  August.  The  fishers  are  Greeks 
from  the  islands  of  Hydra  and  Castelrossa. 
About  forty  boats  in  all  were  employed  in 
1877,  each  boat  being  manned  by  a  crew  of 
eight  to  ten.  Operations  extend  from  Baphos  to 
Caravostassi,  on  the  south-western  and  western 
coasts,  and  Famagusta  to  Cape  St.  Andrea,  on 
the  eastern  coast.  The  quantity  taken  last  sum- 
mer amounted  to  about  2500  okes,  of  all  sizes 


THE    TRADE    OF    CYPRUS.  261 

and  qualities,  chiefly  of  the  more  common  kind. 
500  okes  were  sold  to  Syrian  buyers  at  20 
francs  per  oke ;  the  remainder  were  taken  away. 

Population. — The  population  of  Cyprus  is 
estimated  at  200,000,  of  which  about  two-thirds 
are  Greeks,  with  few  exceptions,  and  the  re- 
mainder are  Moslems. 

Industry. — Tanning  is  one  of  the  chief  in- 
dustries. The  tanneries  at  Nicosia  turn  out 
from  1500  to  2000  bales  of  leather  per  annum. 
The  manufacture  of  silk  stuffs  is  produced  at 
Nicosia  by  women  to  the  extent  of  about  10,000 
pieces  yearly  for  dresses,  besides  handkerchiefs 
and  sashes.  The  printing  of  English  grey  cloths 
for  divans  and  coverlets  is  also  carried  on ; 
building  and  carpentering  are  entirely  done 
by  Greeks,  who  also  make  good  tailors  and 
shoemakers.  The  trades  followed  by  Turks  are 
those  of  barbers,  butchers,  calico-printers,  shoe- 
makers, and  saddlers. 

Revenue. — The  revenues  for  the  financial  year 
of  1877  are  considerably  under  those  of  last  year, 
in  consequence  of  the  unfavourable  returns  of 
the  crops.  The  tithes  were  administered  by 
Government  officials,  with  a  view  to  remedy 
certain  abuses  complained  of  by  the  peasants; 
but   the   experiment   so   far   has   not    benefited 


262  APPENDIX    IV. 

either  them  or  the  Government.  Of  the  dimes  in 
grain  120,000  kilos,  of  barley  were  sent  to  Con- 
stantinople for  the  requirements  of  the  army, 
and  a  matter  of  30,000  kilos,  of  wheat  were 
given  to  the  poorer  of  the  peasants  for  sowing. 

Public  Works  and  AniiiNiSTRATiON. — Nothing 
has  been  done  in  the  way  of  public  works  during 
the  year,  even  the  carriage-road  between  Lar- 
naca  and  Nicosia,  which  was  traced  out  a  few 
years  ago  at  a  great  outlay,  has  been  greatly 
neglected.  No  other  roads  exist  in  the  island 
save  bridle  paths,  some  of  which  are  also  used  by 
bullock  carts.  There  are  no  wharfs  and  jetties. 
The  only  facilities  for  shipping  are  a  few  wooden 
scalas,  and  these,  as  a  rule,  generally  disappear 
in  winter.  The  promised  reforms  have  not  yet 
been  applied  to  this  island.  The  peasants  con- 
tinue to  be  heavily  taxed,  and  as  their  ability 
to  pay  has  diminished,  arbitrary  measures  are 
resorted  to  for  their  collection.  The  Govern- 
ment does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  fortunate 
in  the  selection  of  its  administrative  and  judicial 
officials  for  Cyprus,  and  as  complaints  have  been 
made  against  some  of  them  the  vali  of  Rhodes 
sent  a  functionary,  accompanied  by  an  efficient 
staff,  to  make  the  necessary  investigations. 

Custom  House. — Complaints  were  lately  made 


THE   TRADE    OF    CYPRUS.  263 

against  the  director  of  the  Larnaca  custom  house 
because  he  insisted  that  all  produce  exported 
from  this  town  should  pass  through  the  custom 
house  instead  of  being  shipped  as  formerly  from 
the  different'  scalas  under  the  supervision  of  a 
custom  house  clerk,  and  after  the  required  for- 
malities of  weighing,  &c.,  had  been  gone  through. 
As  this  was  an  impossibility,  owing  to  the  small- 
ness  of  the  building  and  the  limited  space  in  front 
of  it,  confusion  and  delay  ensued,  to  the  preju- 
dice of  the  merchants  and  of  the  Government. 
This  state  of  things  having  been  brought  to  the 
notice  of  the  superior  authorities  of  Indirect  Con- 
tributions at  Constantinople,  an  inspector  was 
sent  over  from  Beyrout  to  make  a  full  and  com- 
plete report  of  the  grievances  complained  of.  Ko 
result  has  come  of  it  as  yet. 


MR.  LEWIS  FARLEY. 


ME.    LEWIS    FAELEY. 

(Teakslated  from  "The  Golos,") 

Mr.  Lewis  Farley  is  one  of  those  men  whom  Horace 
calls  justum  et  tenacem  propositi  vincm ;  one  of  those  men 
who  do  honour  to  their  country,  and  consider  it  a  duty 
to  contribute  to  the  welfare  of  mankind.  When  we  meet 
with  such  men,  it  is  impossible  not  to  speak  of  them,  and 
when  we  see  their  acts,  it  is  impossible  not  to  respect 
them.  It  is  in  the  nature  of  such  men  to  seek  the  truth, 
and  the  truth  once  discovered,  neither  obstacles  nor  per- 
sonal considerations  can  turn  them.  Mr.  Farley  was 
brought  up  under  the  influence  of  English  traditions,  and 
with  the  parti  pris  of  a  citizen  of  Great  Britain.  In  his 
youth,  he  had  faith  in  Turkey,  and  distrusted  Russia — 
demi-barbarous,  unprogressive,  tyrannous,  and  a  dangerous 
foe  to  the  progress  and  the  civilization  of  Europe.  He 
was  sincerely  convinced  that  it  was  the  duty  of  England 
to  defend  Turkey  against  her  covetous  neighbour,  and  he 
sincerely  admired  Fuad  and  A'ali  Pashas  as  the  repre- 
sentatives of  a  civilized  and  regenerated  Turkey.  Mr. 
Farley  had  held  a  distinguished  post  in  the  Ottoman 
Bank,  and  was  also  a  Turkish  consul ;  he  travelled  in 
Turkey,  and  wrote  letters  to  the  English  newspapers,  full 
of  Turkish  sympathies ;  he  published  two  works,  "  The 
Resources  of  Turkey"  and   "Modern  Turkey,"  with  the 


268 


view  of  proving  that  the  natui-al  resources  of  Turkey  were 
inexliaustible,  and  that  the  germs  of  civilization  only 
required  to  be  cultivated.  .  .  .  Nevertheless,  truth  was 
before  everything  else  with  him,  and,  even  in  1860,  when 
he  was  on  terms  of  personal  friendship  with  Fuad  and 
A'ali,  he  could  not  help  seeing  clearly  what  was  passing 
around  him,  and  he  hesitated  not  to  say  frankly  what  he 
thought.  In  his  letters  published  at  the  time  in  the 
"Morning  Post,"  he  showed  that  the  disturbances  in  Syria 
were  provoked,  not  by  the  Christians  but  by  the  Turks. 
Those  letters  caused  a  rupture  between  him  and  Sir  Henry 
Bulwer,  then  British  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  and 
so  displeased  Lord  Palmerston  that  the  Editor  of  the 
"  Morning  Post  "  requested  Mr.  Farley  to  discontinue  his 
correspondence.  In  his  book,  "  The  Massacres  in  Syria," 
published  in  1861,  Mr.  Farley  graphically  and  truthfully 
described  to  the  English  public  the  horrors  and  the  crimes 
committed  in  Syria  by  the  Turks. 

As  long  as  Fuad  and  A'ali  Pashas  lived,  Mr.  Farley 
continued  to  believe  in  the  possibility  of  a  regenerated 
Turkey,  but  upon  the  death  of  those  statesmen,  his 
illusions  gradually  vanished.  In  January,  1875,  before 
the  insurrection  in  Bosnia  had  broken  out,  he  published  a 
pamphlet,  "  The  Decline  of  Turkey,"  in  which  he  pre- 
dicted not  only  the  bankruptcy  of  the  Ottoman  Grovern- 
ment,  which  took  place  in  the  following  month  of  October, 
but  the  other  principal  events  that  Europe  has  since 
witnessed.  For  many  Englishmen,  however,  this  book 
was  written  too  soon.  Few  could  bring  themselves  to 
believe  in  the  near  approach  of  the  decadence  of  Turkey, 
not  even  when  Bosnia  and  the  Herzegovina  were  in  flames. 
Little  attention  was  paid  to  the  condition  of  the  Christians, 


269 


who  were  considered  simply  in  the  light  of  revolted 
subjects  of  the  Sultan,  and  many  persons  desired  the 
speedy  suppression  of  the  revolt,  which  they  believed  to 
be  directed  against  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  Sublime 
Porte.  Mr.  Farley  made  an  effort  to  show  his  compatriots 
to  what  extent  they  were  deceiving  themselves,  and 
endeavoured  to  prove  the  culpability  of  the  Ottoman 
G-overnment,  and,  at  the  same  time,  arouse  a  sympathy 
for  the  oppressed  Christians.  His  first  public  meeting 
was  attended  by  not  more  than  fifty  persons,  and  even 
the  press  derided  his  attempt.  Mr.  Farley,  however,  was 
not  discouraged.  In  December,  1875,  he  founded  "  The 
League  in  Aid  of  the  Christians  of  Turkey,"  the  object  of 
which  was  to  relieve  the  sufferings  of  the  Rayahs ;  and  he 
sought  the  co-operation  of  all  those  whom  he  thought 
likely  to  understand  the  ends  he  had  in  view. 

At  first  the  success  of  "  The  League "  was  not  much 
better  than  that  of  the  "meeting"  to  which  we  have 
alluded.  But  the  movement  in  the  East  of  Europe  soon 
assumed  greater  extension,  and  Servia  and  Montenegro 
took  up  arms.  The  indefatigable  Mr.  Farley  published 
another  book,  "  Turks  and  Christians,"  in  which  he  de- 
monstrated the  true  character  of  the  Ottoman  Govern- 
ment, and  faithfully  described  the  sufferings  of  the 
Christians,  all  based  upon  facts  of  which  he  had  been  a 
witness  during  a  long  residence  in  the  East.  This  book 
made  a  great  impression,  and  immensely  contributed  to 
the  development  of  the  League.  Public  meetings  were 
held  in  Manchester,  Birmingham,  Darlington,  Edinburgh, 
&c.,  and,  in  July,  1876,  The  League  was  so  powerful 
that  Lord  Derby  recognized  its  authority,  and  received  a 
deputation   from   its    members.     A  great    public  meeting 


270 

was  shortly  after  held  in  London,  which  was  a  triumph 
for  The  League.  The  name  of  Lord  Russell  was  on  the 
list  of  patrons.  Lord  Shaftesbury  occupied  the  chair,  and 
fifty  Members  of  Parliament  gave  in  their  adherence,  of 
whom  twenty-five  occupied  seats  on  the  platform.  .  .  . 
After  all  we  have  said,  it  will]  be  easy  for  our  readers  to 
see  how  much  Mr.  Farley  has  contributed  to  the  success  of 
the  great  work,  and  what  a  great  role  he  has  sustained  in 
the  movement  which  has  enlisted  the  sympathies  of  the 
English  people  for  the  Christians  of  the  East. 


Ci-ATioN  &  Co.,  Printers,  17,  Bouverie  Street,  Fleet  Street,  London. 


ME.  LEWIS   FAELEY'S 
WOEKS   ON   TUEKEY. 


1  Vol.,  Demy  8vo. 

THE  RESOURCES  OF  TURKEY. 

BY  J.  LEWIS  FARLEY. 
Morning  Post. 

This  work  will  well  repay  perusal  by  all  who  take  an  interest  either  in  the 
politics  or  commerce  of  Turkey. 

Levant  Herald. 

Mr.  Lewis  Farley  has  produced  a  trustworthy  and  most  useful  book,  full 
of  accurate  information  on  the  natural  resources,  the  trade,  and  industry 
of  the  Ottoman  Empire;  the  whole  marshalled  with  an  orderly  clearness 
which  renders  the  book  far  superior  to  any  publication  on  the  same  subject. 
Altogether,  we  can  strongly  recommend  the  work  to  our  readers  as  the 
best  popular  guide  we  know  of  to  information  on  subjects  of  the  most 
direct  practical  interest  to  all  who  have  a  stake  in  the  material  well-being 
of  Turkey. 

Daily  News. 

It  woxild  be  difficult  at  the  present  moment  to  hit  upon  a  theme  more 
interesting  than  the  financial  condition  of  Turkey,  and  Mr.  Lewis  Farley 
deserves  the  thanks  of  the  monied  world  for  the  piiblication  of  this  volume. 
Compiled  from  the  most  authentic  sources,  his  work  may  be  thoroughly 
relied  on,  and  it  will,  we  have  little  doubt,  be  quoted  in  fixture  as  the  highest 
authority  on  the  subject. 

Examiner.   . 

Mr.  Lewis  Farley  has  lived  some  years  in  Turkey,  and  spent  two  in 
Constantinople,  where  he  had  peculiar  facilities  for  collecting  the  infoi-ma- 
tion  which  he  has  here  arranged  in  six-and-thirty  short  and  intelligible 
chapters.  The  statistics  are  quite  new  to  the  English  public,  and  must 
be  interesting  to  many  besides  those  who  think  of  joining  in  commercial 
undertakings. 

Illustrated  London  News. 

In  many  quarters,  information  such  as  is  conveyed  in  this  work  will  be 
well  received.  It  is  full  of  statistics  of  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the 
principal  towns  of  the  East,  such  as  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  Salonica, 
Bi-ussa,  Trebizond,  Samsoun,  Galatz,  Ibraila,  Beyrout,  Jerusalem,  Damascus, 
Aleppo,  and  many  more,  while  the  rise  and  progress  of  Turkish  commerce 
is  carefully  detailed. 

Liverpool  Albion. 

In  this  volume  the  financial  position  and  future  prospects  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  are  variously  and  thoughtfully  considered.  The  information  offered 
to  the  reader  is  derived  from  numerous  and  wide-spread  sources,  and  in  so 
small  a  compass  to  give  even  a  comprehensive  idea  of  the  finances  of  an 
empire  is,  in  itself,  a  feat  of  no  small  magnitude.  The  author  goes  system- 
atically through  the  various  commercial  advantages  presented  by  the  different 
trading  and  other  communities  which  constitute  the  Turkish  Empire,  and 
from  the  whole  he  deduces  conclusions  which  mercantile  men  and  capitalists 
would  do  well  to  study. 


1  Vol,  8vo. 

TWO    YEARS    IN    SYRIA. 

BY  J.  LEWIS  FARLEY. 
Daily  Telegraph. 

Mr.  Farley  is  just  the  sort  of  person  to  travel.  He  always  seems  to  act  on 
the  principle  of  "  when  found  make  a  note  of  it,"  and  the  result  of  his 
observations  is  extremely  agreeable.  In  the  work  before  us  he  has  presented 
a  lively,  animated,  and  correct  picture  of  Syrian  men  and  manners,  written 
in  a  temperate  and  unprejudiced  spirit,  and  the  book  is  one  which  we  can 
commend  to  the  best  consideration  of  the  public. 

Illustrated  London  News. 

Mr.  Farley  ia  one  of  those  gentlemen  in  whom  commercial  pursuits  have 
not  deadened  the  sense  of  the  beautiful  and  the  picturesque,  and  whose  voca- 
tion having  called  him  into  the  East,  has  given  to  the  world  his  combined 
experience  as  a  man  of  taste  and  a  man  of  business. 

John  Bull. 

Although  Syria  has  of  late  years  been  much  explored  and  written  upon, 
yet  we  confess  that  Mr.  Farley's  book  brings  no  slight  addition  to  the  already 
acquired  stock  of  Eastern  information.  Throughout  the  work  we  have  ample 
details  of  the  geological  aspect,  social  habits,  and  national  customs  of  the 
country,  interspersed  with  numerous  legends  and  topical  associations.  The 
ancient  commerce  of  Syria,  its  climate,  society,  and  method  of  travelling,  are 
elucidated,  and  in  the  last  subjects  with  special  reference  to  invalids ;  the 
route  from  London  to  Beyrout  fraught  with  the  perpetual  variety  of  costume, 
vehicle,  and  companion;  the  strange  religion  of  the  Druses,  the  quaintness 
of  Syrian  etiquette,  the  ceremonies  of  the  wedding,  feasting,  and  mourning; 
mountain  and  forest,  legend  and  fact,  are  all  blended  in  a  wild  phantasmagoria 
of  narrative. 

Dublin  Freeman's  Journal. 

The  reader  who  is  fond  of  gorgeous  description,  with  which  this  volume 
abounds,  and  who  would  know  a  good  deal  of  the  interior  life  of  one  of  the 
most  interesting  races  in  the  world,  should  tax  the  circulating  library;  and 
we  can  assure  him  excessive  pleasure,  if  he  has  a  taste  for  such  natural 
revels  as  Mr.  Farley  prepares  for  his  enjoyment. 

Levant  Herald. 

We  confess  to  having  opened  this  volume  of  Mr.  Farley's  with  the  ex- 
pectation of  finding  it  of  the  common  kind — old  sentiment,  old  description, 
old  everything,  merely  hashed  up  by  a  new  and  indifferent  cook.  We  have 
found  it  a  genial,  eloquent,  and  original  book,  written  evidently  by  a  man  of 
taste  and  imagination,  whose  own  keen  sense  of  the  beautiful,  and  ready 
power  of  fixing  it  in  fresh  and  vigorous  language,  render  him  independent  of 
every  bookmaker  who  has  already  written  over  the  same  ground,  and  enable 
him  to  charm  his  reader  from  the  first  page  of  his  volume  to  the  last  with 
glowing  pictures  of  nature  and  society  as  he  himself  found  them. 


1  Vol.,  Svo. 

THE  MASSACRES  IN   SYRIA. 

BY  J.  LEWIS  FARLEY. 
Saturday  Review. 

One  point  in  which  Mr.  Farley  and  Lord  Dufferin  coincide,  is  the  absolute 
condemnation  of  the  Turkish  officers  in  command  at  Damascus  and  Beyrout, 
at  the  time  of  the  outbreaks.  .  .  ,  The  complicity  charged  against  the  Porte, 
is  the  immoral  and  suicidal  indifference  which  it  displays  in  virtually  selling 
the  Pashalics  at  the  highest  price  to  officials  who  have  no  sense  of  duty  or  of 
shame,  and  only  at  rare  intervals  a  feeling  of  responsibility. 

Literary  Gazette. 

A  more  horrible  picture  than  that  of  the  massacre  of  the  Christians  of 
Damascus  as  drawn  by  Mr.  Farley,  it  has  never  been  our  misfortune  to  meet 
with.  It  is  a  picture  of  cold-blooded  murder  and  rapine,  unrelieved  by  those 
bright  traits  of  heroism  on  the  part  of  the  sufferers,  which  renders  the 
occasion  of  the  Indian  mutiny-  so  glorious,  though  so  mournful  to  our 
country. 

The  Economist. 

While  we  consider  Mr.  Farley  entirely  mistaken  as  to  the  respective 
merits  of  the  Druses  and  Maronites,  we  do  not  doubt  in  the  least  that  the 
Moslem  fanaticism  of  which  he  speaks  is  a  reality  of  the  most  fearful  nature. 
To  this,  in  connection  with  the  shameful  corruption  of  the  Turkish  officials, 
the  massacre  at  Damascus  is  doubtless  to  be  attributed. 

Le  Courrier  d'Orient  de  Constantinople. 

Le  livre  de  M.  Farley  est  a  coup  sflr  I'oeuvre  d'un  honnete  homme.  II  faut 
une  dose  de  courage  qui  n'est  pas  commune  pour  confesser  la  verite  aveo 
taut  d'assurance  quand  on  a  contre  soi  I'opposition  d'une  politique  egar6e,  et 
quand  on  trouve  ces  obstacles  dans  son  propre  pays,  fortifies  par  I'ignorance 
et  la  passion.  Mais  M.  Farley  sera  crfi:  il  a  defendu  une  cause  juste,  il  I'a 
defendue  avec  talent,  avec  un  accent  de  conviction  sincere,  avec  une  autorite 
qui  porte  la  persuasion  dans  I'esprit. 

L'Impartial  de  Smyrne. 

Nous  recommandons  la  lecture  de  ce  livre  qui  offre  un  veritable  int^ret 
dans  les  circonstances  actuelles.  M.  Farley  s'y  montre  observateur  Judicieux 
et  ecrivain  descriptif  de  talent. 


In  8w. 

BANKING   IN   TURKEY. 

BY  J.  LEWIS  FARLEY. 
Levant  Herald. 

Mr.  Lewis  Farley,  author  of  the  "Eesources  of  Turkey,"  has  just  pub- 
lished an  excellent  little  work  on  this  subject,  with  a  view  to  increase  the 
facilities  for  banking,  on  a  solid  basis,  in  the  ports  of  the  Levant  and  the 
principal  towns  of  Turkey.  The  intrinsic  value  of  this  work  is  considerably 
enhanced  by  several  consiilar  and  other  reports,  carefully  collected,  upon  the 
commercial  position  of  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  Salonica,  Broussa,  Aleppo, 
Beyrout,  &c.,  which  contain  a  mass  of  useful  statistical  information  on  the 
commercial  resources  of  the  places  in  question,  and  furnish  Mr.  Farley  with 
a  large  basis  for  his  thesis. 


1  Vol.,  Demy  8co. 

TURKEY   IN    1866. 

BY  J.  LEWIS  FARLEY. 
The  Times. 

"Turkey,"  by  Mr.  Lewis  Farley,  who  has  been  long  acquainted  with  the 
country,  gives  a  fair  insight  into  its  rise,  progress,  and  present  condition; 
and  in  one  chapter,  furnishes  the  most  coherent  statement  of  its  fiscal  system 
and  financial  liabilities  that  has  yet  been  presented. 

From  His  Highness  the  Late  A'ali  Pasha, 
Grand  Vizier. 

Sublime  Pobte, 

le  17  mat,  186G. 

MONSIEUB, 

J'ai  recju  I'aimable  lettre  que  vous  avez  bien  voulu  m'adresser  en  date  du 
22  mars  pour  me  transmettre  un  exemplaire  de  votre  nouvel  ouvrage  sur  la 
Turquie  ("  Turkey  in  1866  "). 

J'ai  lu  avec  tout  I'interet  qu'elle  merite  a  juste  titre  votre  ceuvre  si  plein© 
de  donnees  precieuses,  d'appreciations  approfondies  et  d'investigations 
savantes. 

Earement  notre  pays  a  ^te  ^tudie  d'une  fa^on  aussi  magistrale  dans  ses 
ressources  multiples,  ses  progres  traces  par  une  plume  aussi  veridique,  son 
avenir  esquisse  par  une  personnalite  aussi  competente. 

Je  couserverai  done  cet  ouvrage  dans  ma  bibliotheque  comme  une 
precieuse  source  d'informatious  a  consulter. 

Recevez,  Monsieur,  avec  mes  sinceres  remerciments,  I'assurance  de  ma 
consideration  distingue  e. 

A'ALI. 


1   Vol.,  Demy  8vo. 

MODERN    TURKEY. 

BY  J.  LEWIS  FARLEY. 
The  Times. 

Mr.  Farley  writes  honestly,  and  he  is  certainly  very  much  at  home  in 
Turkey.  This  is  not  the  first  work  he  has  published  on  the  subject,  and 
what  he  tells  us  now  goes  far  to  confirm  his  remarks  and  prognostications 
of  some  ten  years  ago. 

Daily  Telegraph. 

Mr.  Farley  is  admirably  lucid  and  expressive;  and  we  must  acknowledge 
in  '  Modern  Turkey '  one  of  the  most  useful  books  of  foreign  experience  and 
observation  that  have  been  published  for  a  long  time. 

Morning  Post. 

It  is  indisputable  that  Mr.  Farley  has  aU  necessaary  advantage  of  personal 
knowledge  and  experience  in  dealing  with  the  subject  of  this  volume.  Those 
who  have  only  vague  ideas  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  should  read  the  book,  in 
order  to  have  these  ideas  made  perfect  and  stable,  by  accounts  from  reliable 
evidence. 

Daily  News. 

We  urge  all  to  whom  the  condition  and  character  of  the  Ottoman  Empire 
are  matters  of  interest  to  read  the  statements  made  by  Mr.  Farley,  and  to 
give  due  heed  to  the  fruit  of  his  knowledge  and  experience.  His  book  is 
excellent. 

Saturday  Review. 

Mr.  Farley  has  a  good  deal  of  interesting  information  to  communicate  in 
regard  to  modem  Turkey,  and  he  puts  it  briefly,  clearly,  and  in  an  agreeable 
style. 

Examiner. 

Mr.  Farley  is  to  be  praised  for  the  admirable  manner  in  which  he  has 
marshalled  his  facts  and  arranged  his  matter.  His  style,  too,  is  lucid  and 
agreeable,  and  his  book  shows  very  vividly  the  present  condition  of  a  country 
about  which  great  numbers  of  our  countrymen  are  lamentably  ignorant. 

Levant  Herald. 

Mr.  Lewis  Farley  has  done  more  than  any  other  single  writer  to  accurately 
inform  English  readers  as  to  both  the  natural  wealth  and  the  social  condition 
of  Turkey. 


In  8»o. 

THE   DECLINE   OF  TURKEY. 

(FINANCIALLY    AND    POLITICALLY.) 

BY  J.  LEWIS  FARLEY. 


Monetary  Gazette. 

There  is  not  in  Europe  a  better  authority  on  modern  Turkey,  and  things 
relating  thereto,  than  Mr.  Lewis  Farley.  He  has  laid  the  public  under  great 
obligation  by  a  faithful  expose  of  the  actual  state  of  affairs,  and  he  has 
conferred  a  great  favour  on  the  Sultan,  for  he  has  told  the  truth,  •which  the 
flatterers  that  surround  him  are  not  likely  to  volunteer. 

British  Mail. 

Mr.  Farley  has  been,  on  former  occasions,  the  means  of  inducing  con- 
fidence in  Turkish  securities,  but  as,  owing  to  mal-administration,  there  is  no 
longer  any  real  foundation  for  that  confidence,  he  now  warns  those  who 
might  otherwise  be  misled. 

Financial  Review. 

Mr.  Farley  is  not  merely  an  impartial  critic;  he  suggests  a  remedy  for  tlie 
colossal  evil  he  so  clearly  delineates. 


Morning  Advertiser. 


Mr.  Farley  shows  that  English  influence  has  declined,  and  he  proves  that, 
although  England  has  made  great  sacrifices  for  Turkey,  she  has  received  no 
gratitude.  He  exposes  the  way  in  which  Turkish  loans  are  raised,  and  what 
is  done  with  them.  The  breaches  of  faith  are  startling,  and  ought  to  warn 
British  capitalists  to  hesitate  before  they  lend  the  Turk  more  money. 

The  Bullionist. 

Mr.  Farley  is  an  authority  of  great  weight  on  the  affairs  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire. 


Railway  Record. 


Mr.  Farley  has  knowledge  of  his  subject,  with  force  in  the  expression  of 
his  opinions,  which  should  be  'written  on  the  wall'  in  the  midst  of  the  wild 
dreams  of  autocracy  which  characterize  the  blind  infatuation  of  the  Sultan 
and  his  ministers. 


In  1  Vol.,  Demy  8»o. 

TURKS  AND  CHRISTIANS. 

BY  J.  LEWIS  FARLEY. 
John  BulL 

We  recommend  the  volume  of  Mr.  Farley  to  the  thoughtful  consideration 
of  our  readers.  No  one  can  rise  from  its  perusal  -without  having  acquired  a 
larger  insight  than  he  already  possesses  into  the  state  of  Turkey,  and  a  larf  r 
knowledge  of  the  crimes  of  its  rulers.  At  a  moment  when  the  destinies  of  c 
fellow-Christians  are  in  the  balance,  when  the  injustice  of  the  Turki„ji 
Government  is  arraigned  at  the  bar  of  the  public  opinion  of  Eixrope,  this 
publication  of  Mr.  Farley  is  well-timed.  It  is  temperately  written;  it  abounds 
with  facts,  it  is  suggestive  as  to  the  future,  it  is  in  every  respect  a  valuable 
contribution  to  the  history  of  the  past,  and  a  guide  in  the  intricate  policy  of 
the  present. 

Observer. 

Mr.  Farley's  work  is  opportune.  He  has  seized  the  moment  when  the 
English  public  has  at  length  aroused  itself  from  its  complacent  ignorance  and 
negligent  optimism,  and  has  begun  to  display  an  interest  in  a  political 
question,  which,  for  half  a  century,  has  been  supposed  to  be  of  supreme 
importance  to  it,  but  concerning  which  not  one  Englishman  in  10,000  ever 
troubled  his  head  for  five  consecutive  seconds.  Mr.  Farley  has  seen  a  good 
deal  of  the  East,  and  writes  with  soTne  knowledge.  His  book  contains 
valuable  information. 

Examiner. 

We  have  not  seen  any  description  of  life  in  Turkey  which  gives  so  vivid 
and  realizable  a  pictui-e  of  the  local  government  of  Turkish  provinces.  Mr. 
Farley  has  collected  his  facts  with  much  care,  and  put  them  clearly  together, 
80  as  to  form  a  very  useful  manual — better  than  any  other  which  has  yet  been 
published — of  the  existing  condition  of  things. 

Daily  News. 

Mr.  Farley,  there  is  no  doubt,  has  some  title  to  speak  as  an  autliority  on 
Turkish  affairs,  and  those  interestefl  will  get  much  useful  information  from 
what  he  v,'rites. 


Monetary  Gazette. 


This  mournful  story  is  one  which  every  English  Christian  should  read 
and  consider  well;  Let  Mr.  Farley  tell  his  own  tale  in  his  own  graphic 
language  ;  let  him  speak  through  the  pages  of  the  volume  he  has  so  opportunely 
presented  to  British  statesmen  and  to  the  British  nation,  and  we  are  persuaded 
the  nation  will  rise  indignantly  against  the  oppression  of  its  co-religionists  in 
Turkey.  It  will  withdraw  from  a  policy  of  sustaining  the  debased  and  spend- 
thrift Turk  on  a  throne  he  has  long  usurper!,  but  has  never  filled  either  with 
credit  to  himself  or  with  benefit  to  mankind. 


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