Egyptian Irrigation: A Study of Irrigation Methods and Administration in Egypt

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UFFICI, i)¥ BSPSRIMiKT STATIC NiUBULI.lTIH NO. 130,

S:?V. "350 15 Oia009T7 Gb

j EGYPTIAN lUHlGATlOX^

A STUDY OK III|;|(;ATI(IN MKTIKIIIS AJVll ,|-- >i
ADMIMSTKATIIlN IN WiVPT. y' -'

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U. S. DKI'ARTMKNT OF ACiRlCULTURE.

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN NO, 130.

EGYPTIAN IHHIGATIOX:

A STUDY (IF llililGATION JIETllODS AND
ADMI.MSTIiATION IX EGYPT.

('I,,\KE.\C'E r. .roIINSLON.

WASIIIXfiTOX;

IIKN'T I'KIN'TINli l)Fb'ICK.

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

A. C. TiUE, Ph. 1)., JHrcrtor.

E. W. Allen, Ph. 1)., AssisUntt J>irn-tor.

IKKKJATIOX INVESTKtATIONS.

Elwood Mead, Chirf.

C. T. Johnston, ^issistmit Chief in Ch(tr(je Central District.
Samuel Fortiek, Agent and Expert i}t Charge Pacific District.
C. (t. Elliott, Agent and Expert in Charge' of Drainage LireMigations.
R. P. Teele, Editorial Assistant.

C. E. Tait, Assistant in Charge of Maps and Illnstrationx.
«>

LinTI:R OF TRANSMITTAL.

V. S. Depaktment of AauiruLTURE,

Office of Experiment Stations,

W((s/u:?ir/ff>f}, />. C Jf(f?/20, 100:L

Sir: 1 have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for
publication a report on Egyptian irrigation, prepared under the direc-
tion of Ehvood Mead, chief of irrigation investigations of this Office,
by C. T. Johnston, assistant chief.

This report gives the results of observations made by Mr. Johnston
during the winter of lV^ol-2 on the irrigation works, practices, and
administrative s^'stem of t^gypt, under authority of the act of Con-
gress making appropriations for the irrigation investigations of this
Office, which provides, among other things, for investigation and
report upon '''the laws '^ * * and institutions relating to irriga-
tion and upon the use of irrigation water at home or abroad.''

The bulletin is illustrated by twenty-tive full page plate illustrations
and nine text figures, all of which are necessary to a complete elucida-
tion of the text.

Respect fullv,

A. C. True,

Hon. James Wilson,

Sfcn torn nf Aijr't culture.

lHv3901

LiriTHR op SIRMITTAL.

V. S. Department of Agriculture,

Office of Experiment Stations,

W(f.s/ih)(/toN, I). C% Jfai/20, 1003.

Sn:: T have the honor to sulmiit herewith a report on Etryptian
irrigation, prepared by C'hirence T. Johnston, assistant chief of irri-
pition investi^i^ations of this Office. Air. Johnston spent the winter of
VM)l-*l in Egypt, makino* a study of irrigation methods and laws.
This repoi't gives the results of his observations and in({uiries.

In the valley of the Nile irrigation has been practiced for thousands
of years, and if time and experience were in themselves sufficient w^e
ouiiht to find water distributed with more skill and used with better
results there than in anv other countrv. Such, however, is not the
case. On the contrarv, the irrirators of this countrv have little to
h^arn from Egypt so fur as practical methods are concerned. The
nnisoiis for this are not obscure. On<* is the lack of inventive and
mechanical skill on th(^ part of the fellah. lien* every implement used
in agricultun* has Ixhmi sul)ject to constant change and improvcmcMit;
the Egyptian still uses a crooked stick for a plow and beats out his
corn as did his ancestors in the time of the Pharaohs. In this country
we have already (»volved special machinery for the construction of
canals, buildino- of laterals, and cleaning* out and enlaro'ino- of ditches;
in Eii'vpt manv canals are still cleaned bv throwing- the mud out bv
liaiul. The le.sson'> of Egypt, therefore, so far as irrigation [)ractice
is concerned, are of nei»'ativ<' vahie. T1hm-(* is another reason whv this
i> so. Irrigators in Egypt are paid IT) c(Mits a day. Their methods
:ire i)()s>il)h» onlv with this low waj^-e rate, hence tlu^v c-an not l)e
adopttul in a country like ours, whei"e higher wages ai'e [)ai(l.

The showii^g of th(» yield and pi'oiits of irrigated land in Egv})t is,
liowe\(M*, full of significance and promi>e to the arid conunonweallhs.
It !-> oidv on irrigated laud that the axcrau'e net ictui'ii from >Uiiar
caiK* reacluvs J^SO to S^.') an acre. The re\-enues of the Egyptian ( iov-
♦ Tinnent from tin* areas dexoted to (late> runs from Sin to '^4.^ an aci'e,
and the net ])i()tit to tln^ cultnatoi' a|)proximates Sl.^o an tu-i'e. This
little tia<"t i^i an'ricultural land, no larii'er than the iiTiijabK* art a of

.)

6

California, supports between 5,000,000 and 6,00(),000 people, pays the
expenses of a costly government, and meets the interest on a national
debt half as large as our own from the returns on agriculture alone.

Three sul)jects have a vital relation to the future extension of irri-
gation in this country. These are storage, drainage, and the utiliza-
tion of water ])y pumping. The great storage works of Egypt have
especial interest to our Government eng'ineers; but Egypt lias few
examples of the small storage works such as are being built in lar^e
numbers ])v private parties in the West and which are destined to be
an important feature of our irrigation systems. The accumulation of
alkali in the surface soil, which has alreadv ])ecome a troublesome
feature in Western irrigation, at one time rendered unproductive
large areas in lower Egypt. These are lu'ing reclaimed by drains
which carry ofl the excess of salts and tend to prevent their further
accumulation. So far as lifting* water from wells or streams is con-
cerned, the devices in Egypt are inferior to the gasoline and electric
engines and centrifugal pumps now extensively used in the Wesit.
Some of the simpler and cheaper devices of Egypt are efficient for the
lifting of small quantities of water, and there are many places in this
counti'v where such machines can ])e used to advantao-e.

Mr. Johnston's description of the dams ))uilt ))y the French and
English (lovernments will have nuich interest. Their success from
an engineering standpoint and the great ])enetits which have come to
the people from this expenditure of government funds are unques-
tioned. But it is dou])tful if we can adopt the administrative methods
employed in Egypt. Political and economic conditions in thatcountry-
ditfer so widelv from our own that methods which are there useful
are clearly inapplicable here. Egypt is governed by a foreign power,
which has assumed arbitrary control ovei* the water supply, recot^niz-
ing no rights "Jis ])elonging to the users of this water. Such a system
has ])rought a])out an efficient use of the Nile, but it is repugnant to
American ideas. It is a success in Egypt because of lack of means on
the part of the agricultural population and lack of the experience in
business and political affairs, needed for the successful operation of
irrigation systems under private ownership. The American farmer
has both the economic al)ility necessary to the management of irriga-
tion works and the political power and the intelligence to create insti-
tutions for controlling the water supply which will be in harmony
with our ideas of free government. The study of Egyptian laws and
administrative methods, while interesting, is of little value as an
example to be followed.

liespectfully submitted.

EiAvooD Mead,

Ch !ef of Irr!(/ation In vtstigntiojis,

A. C. Tkue, ]>h\vi(>r.

CO XT H NTS.

Page.

Introduction 11

A general viow of Ej?ypt 12

The Nile ' 20

Nile ^^ajjes 26

Agricultural seasons 27

I'^irnis and villa<res 29

C( )st of raising en >i)s and value of farm products 31

I)evel()})nient of E^ryptian irrijration 82

The canals of the Nile Valley 84

( 'nnstruction an<l maintenance of canals and levees 39

Water-raisin^r devices 40

The shaduf 40

The sakiveh 41

The Archimedean screw 43

The natali 44

l*umping 44

Duty « )f water 45

Tlie Cairo barrage 47

Reservoirs 49

The Assuan reservoir 52

The Assiut dam 58

Drainage 59

Laws and regulations (il

Conditions to he considered 61

Authority of <jfiicials 61

Causes of litigation (io

I rriiration and drainage laws ()7

Installation of water-raising devices 72

Drainage 74

The corv/'e 74

Reform of the c< >rvi'e system 7S

Conclusions SI

A])|)endix I S3

Powers of the governors and inspectors of irri^^ation SI}

Canals and levees s5

Order of the Minister of the Interior of July 16, 1S9S 94

Appendix II 9»>

Installation of machines for elevating water 9<)

Appendix III t»;»

Drainage of swamps and marshes 99

I

ILLUSTR ATIOXS.

PLATES.

Page.

Manniia Canal Frontispiece.

Pi.ATK I. Map of Egypt, showing provinces and irrigation circles 12

II. Fig. 1. — Plowing with ox and buffalo. Fig. 2. — Plowing land which

has been baked bv the sun lt>

III. Cleaning a large canal 16

IV. Fig. 1. — Irrigation basin near Pyramids of Gizeh. F'ig. 2. — Irriga-

tion ])asin west of Cairo, water returning to Nile in channel 28

V. Fig. 1. — Irrigating strawberries. Fig. 2. — Perennial irrigation, wheat

field under check system of irrigation 28

VI. Fig. 1. — Thrashing Indian corn. Fig. 2. — Thrashing wheat 28

VII. Plat of the village of Talbia, showing town and tributary farms 28

VIII. Map showing irrigation works in a portion of the province of Keneh 32
IX. Fig. 1. — Camels carrying ruins of village to be used for fertilizer.

Fig. 2. — Cleaning a small canal 82

X. Map of the Nile Valley from Cairo to the Delta showing the location

of the barrages and the head works of the principal canals 86

XI. Fig. 1. — Lateral head gate. Fig. 2.— Head gate of Manufia Canal. .. 40

XII. Theshaduf 40

XIII. Fig. 1. — Sakiyehs. Fig. 2. — A steam i)ump on a scow 44

X I V. Archimedean screw, showing interior construction at right 44

X V. The natali 44

XVI. Fig. 1. — The Damietta barrage from eastern bank of the Nile. Fig.

2. — Rosetta barrage from western bank of the Nile 48

XVII. Details of the Cairo barrage 48

XVIII. Map comparing the Nile Valley with that of the Platte River 52

XIX. Map showing the Assuan <lam across the Nile 52

X X . The Assuan dam 52

XXI. Western end of Assuan dam from downstream,- January 7, 1902 52

XXII. FIl'. 1. — Cast-iron lining for sluiceways being put in place at the
Assuan dam. Fig. 2. — Deep foundation work near western end of

Assuan dam 5(i

XXI II. DiviM>ion dam across the Nile at Assiut (>0

XXIV. Map of lower Egypt, showing j)rineii>al canals and <lrains 60

TEXT FKiCRES.

Fi(.. 1. DiaL'ram showing discharge ol the Mississipi»i at St. Louis and of the

Nil.- at Assuan 22

2. DiaLMaiii showing discharge of the Nile at As>uan and of {\iv Missouri

at Kansas ( 'ity 2. J

:'.. Spur t<» prevent i-iosion of river l)aiiks 25

4. Nilninetei- nn the Elephantine Island 2«i

5. Diairrain >h< »\\ inix inaccni'acy «»f land nuni^urements '.){)

'». Typi<al cr« •>> se«-tion of the Nile \'alley .>."'»

7. Ib'e u>etl by native farmers :»!»

S. Cr« ><-s >e<-ti« m\ nf Assuan dam 5.5

9. Details iti aj'paratus im rai>inLr ^ates, A>-nan «lam 5-4

9

EGYPTIAN IRRIGATION.

INTRODUCTION.

Tho studies on which this roport is ))asod wore made durino* the
winter of li>ol-i> as a part of the work of the irrigation iiivestioations
of the r. S. Department of Agriculture. The object was not the com-
piling of an exhaustive treatise on Egyptian irrigation, ))ut rather
the study of agricultural practices, engineering works, and adminis-
trativt^ measures for comparison with American works and luethods.
with a view to the improvement of the latter, giving especial attention
to administrative methods.

The plan followed was to become conversant with the irrigation law
of Egypt, then follow its application in the field. Such a study of
irrigation administration can best be carried on with Cairo as a base.
All the engineers having charge of the division of water have their
otiices there, and it is easy to reach any other part of the countrv from
that city. Fortunately the laws had })een compiled in French during
the year ItMil. and copies could be had for the asking.

The inspector of irrigation was absent from Cairo during the winter
of llM)l-i>. and his duties were attended to })y the inspectors of Lower
and Upper Egypt. Tiider any circumstances these two officers and
the chief of the technical department, who has charge of the installa-
tion of water-raising devices and the inspection of steam })oilers used
in connection with puiuj)s, shoulder a large part of the responsi})ility.
These officers gladly gave such information as they had in their pos-
s(v-sion, and referred such innuiritvs as thev could not answer directlv

1 ft ft

to those who were informed on the sul)ject.

The great Nile dams would naturallv Ix* examined })v one interested
in irrigation, and the canals can })e studied with profit. One feature
of Egyptian irrigation which is almost lacking in America is the use
of wat(M'-raising devices. The Egyptian fai'mer seldom is a})le to
secure enough fall to permit the delivcu'v of water })v gravity alone.
The prol)l(Mn of raising water from some of the streams of the United
States will have to ))e soIvchI in the near future. Wherever a river
flows m a canvon or wherc^ the o'rade of a stream is small it is often
advantageous to lift the vvatiM* to the h(»ad of a canal instead of build-
iiiir a loniT or difficult line. It also makes the maintenance of laroe
diversion works unne(*essarv. In view of these facts informtition was

ft

1 1

12

collected relating to the construction and cost of the devices cniplo\'ed,
their efficiency, and cost of operation.

In Egypt as in America the use of water on the liigher lands has
ruined large areas of lower lands by raising the ground water, and with
it the alkaline salts from the subsoil. Work for reclaiming these alkali
lands has gone much farther in Egypt than in America, and Egyptian
methods were, therefore, studied w^ith much interest.

A GENERAL VIEW OF EGYPT.

Northern Africa would be an uninterrupted desert from the Atlantic
to the Red Sea, except for a narrow strip bordering the Mediterranean,
if it were not for the Nile. As it is, there is only a thread of arable
land in the vallc}' of the river, the surrounding desert being absolutel}^
barren.

Egypt proper extends from Assuan to the Mediterranean. (See
map, PI. I.) South of Assuan is Nubia, which extends as far south
as Khartum. " The valley of the Nile is very narrow. But little culti-
vated countrv is found from Assuan to Luxor; -the width of the vallev
between Assuan and Cairo varies^ from practically nothing to 9 miles,
and there are a number of places where the desert touches the Nile on
either bank, as at the point where the (xebel Silsileh hills cross the Nile.
Between Edfu and Assuan there are many places where the drifting
sands from the desert are encroaching upon the agricultural land.
From Assuan to Edfu, a distance of a})out IJO miles, the agricultural land
is about equall}' distributed on either bank. From Edfu to Erment, a
distance of about 80 miles, the agricultural land is nearly all on the
western shore, having an average width of 8 miles. From Erment to
Assiut, over 200 miles, a large part of the agricultural land is on the
left bank. From Assiut to Cairo the agricultural land is i)ractically
all on the left bank. At a point about GO miles above Cairo the valley
reaches its maximum width of about Ss mile<, near where the Yusef
Canal crosses the Lvbian Desert into the Fayum. The ddta proper
begins some* 1:^ miles below Cairo, and is triangular in shape, being
nearly 1:^0 miles on each side. The greater part of the irrigabh^ land
of Egypt lies in the delta, but only about half of th(^ land tiiat is
actually fanned at the present time is found tli(M-e. TIk^ ivniainmg
lands are being brought under cultivation l)y drainage and other
reclamation works. The total agricultural area of Egypt is .').(M)0,(K)0
acres or about four times the aiva of the State of Uhod(^ Island.

The writer arrived in Alexandriti in tln^ early part of December,
l|)ol. An Egyptian winter compares favorably with a Colorado
summer. Evervthino- is in summer o'arl), the ve^'ettition Ixmuo' more
attractive than it appears during the preceding hot months. Even
the natives prefer tiie winter season, although they feel the chill of
the nii»"ht air and sutler from an occasional shower.

Map of Eg^pt, Showing Pi

13

.Vfter pjissint^ tho ciistoin-house at Alexandria and drivintr throu<^h
narrow streets to tho railway station the train for Cairo is ))()arded and

ft.

soon the eoiintrv is rwirhed where pahn trees wave their tops on
oither side. Lower E^ypt in the vicinity of Alexandria is not attrac-
tive. Much of the land needs draining and a large part of that visible
from the railway train is devoted to the growing of forage grasses.
Open drains can })e sihmi on either side and occasionally large canals
parallel the track. The Mahnioudia Canal, which supplies the city of
Alexandria with fresh water, lies on the north side of the railwav and
it is visible a part of the time during the tirst half-hour's ride toward
Cairo, A roadway is provided on the banks of the canal and the
native traitic is fullv as interestiniif as the countrv through which the
railwav has been built. Long lines of camels loaded with cotton are
followed })v others carrvino* hui:e ])undles of cotton stalks to he used
for fuel. The stalks completely cover the camels so that it appears as
if the burden fui'nished its own means of locomotion. The sails of
tlu* boats on th(* canal are seen when the banks of the canal are low or
where the railway grade is high, and at times a view of the hulls and
the cargoes is obtained. Cotton, fruit, straw, sugar cane, and vege-
tables seem to be thi^ chief articles of exchange. Between 15 and 20
miles from Alexandria the first cotton lields are seen on the south side
of the railwav. Farther on camels are Iving in the lields while the
farmer loads on their })acks farm products of different kinds in readi-
ness for a trip to some nearby market. The cotton is pressed into
))al(\'-. which are left on the ground to })e carried later to a water front
and thence to AU^xandria. In (lualitv the cotton is second onlv to
American Sea Island cotton and the I'nited States secures from 40 to
i'}^^ \)vv cent of the entin^ Egyptian staple. The towns and villages
are all on higher ground than is the surrounding farming land. This
may be due in ])art to the selection of the site and in part to the
(gradual elevation of the villaofes as th(* ))uil(liniifs crum})le and new
ones are erected in their places. The markets are well supplied with
fruits, among which the mandarin and other oranges seem to predom-
inate. Dates, tigs, l)ananas, and other fruits are connnon. The cul-
tivated land crrows richer as the Hosetta I) ranch of th(^ Nile is
aj)pr()ached. The tig tree, the le})l)ek, the eucalyptus, and several
varieties of the ])alm add nuu'h to th(» ))eaut3' of the landscape. Acacia
trees of several vai'ieties are st'cn here and there and the nndberrv

ft

and numerous kinds of thorn trees a))Ound. Vines of ditlerent l.inds
trail over l)uildings wherever coriditions permit.

The Kosctta })ranch of the Nile is reached aftei* a ride of nearlv two

ft

hours. It is iV^ miles })v rail from Alexandria. The river is bi'oad

ft

and is covered with craft of various kinds. Just bmond i-; the viilaire
of Kafr-ez-Zaivat. The countrv M-reatIv im])roves bevond the Uosetta
branch of the NiU*, and the f tinning scenes around Tanta can not l)e

14

surpassed in Egypt. Farmers are in tlicir tields cultivating the ground
and cleaning away cotton stalks and other vegetation of the summer
season. Here and there are oxen pulling wooden plows and fanner^
are cultivating by hand the land which can not be worked conveniently
in any other wa}'. Along some of the canals water-raising machine^
are in operation. Here and there two sturd}^ men are swinging a basket
and lifting water from a canal for the irrigation of nearby farms.
(See p. 44.) Herds of water l)uffalo, cattle, sheep, and occasionaUy
horses can be seen grazing in the iields of clover.

A number of large canals, many of which are ))ranches of the Mauu-
fia Canal, which leaves the Nile at the head of the delta, are seen from
the train. The Damietta branch of the Nile is crossed, and after pass-
ing a few small towns and crossing a deep canal, which has been com-
pleted since the occupation b}^ the English, the Pyramids, 20 miles
awa}', come into view, and Cairo is reached.

Many interesting scenes can be witnessed in Cairo itself, showing
the methods employed b}' farmers and gardeners. Between Cairo and
Old Cairo to the south are a number of small tracts of farming land
where the native may be seen at work. Across the ri\'er from (yairo
a trolley line runs to the P} ramids of Gizeh. Along this for a distance
of 6 or 7 miles one can see farmers working in the iields almost any
time. The farms spread out on either side resemble but little those
with which we are familiar in the United States. No fences are seen
and no houses have been provided on the farms themselves. The
farms are narrow, and it is impossible to use a mowing machine
or a binder on some of them for this reason. Dwelling houses are
found only in the villages, except where perennial irrigation has been
practiced for many years.

Early in December wheat and })arlev are just sprouting from the
ground in places while some lands are being prepared for the seed.
Clov^er and beans arc usualh' well advanced. Corn is piled here and
there along the levees where it is to })e husked during the later winter
months. The tields of clover on either side are dotted with buffalo
and other live stock. The farmer himself is a picture not to be for-
gotten. His long-tiowing black or white gown, while not appearing
to be designed for the convenience of a laborer, lends attractiveness to
the farming scenes.

The view from an}- point along the road to the Pyramids is full of
interest. To the east is the village of Gizeh, the Nile, and, beyond it,
Old Cairo and the hills of the Arabian Desert on the horizon. Either
to the north or south nothing can be seen but green fields, canals,
levees, and villages of sun-dried brick, sheltered by palms and other
trees. To the west is the Lybian Desert, the Pyramids of Gizeh, and k
the Sphinx. The latter looks over the farming lands below and across
the Nile, as it has for 2,800 years. It is supposed to represent the

15

Lino-, Amenemhet III, thi^ great })iiilder luid the reformer of the practice
)f irrigation in Egypt. It seems that the famous monument to him
Yiis plaimed so that it should })e a permanent witness of the career of
he felhih and of the progress of irrigation.

The fellah, although he has been ruled by one foreign power after
mother, has been almost as unchanging as his surroundings. ^V^hether
from lack of ingenuity or because he is satisiied with the appliances
jf his forefathers, the Egyptian makes very little progress in the con-
struction or use of agricultural or scientific instruments. The writers
jf the hieroglyphs on the temples constructed four thousand or five
thousands-ears ago might have received their inspiration from scenes in
the fields to-day. The fellah plows his ground with a wooden plow or
stirs it with a hoe or with a more primitive wooden implement. (PI.
II.) He cultivates the growing crops with a hoe and harvests them with
a sickle or pulls the stalks from the ground \>y hand. The grain is
either beaten out with a flail or trodden and chopped out by means of a
wooden sledtjfe furnished with rollers carrving disks and drawn bv oxen.
Egyptian agricultural methods would not look so nuich out of place
were it not that at the present time considerable areas are owned by
foreigners who have adopted modern methods. An improved th-rash-
ing machine may be at work in a field adjoining a plat where a native
farmer is wearing out the straw in thrashing the grain by a primitive
method w^hich antedates biblical times. It is not uncommon to see a
steam plow and one pulled by a camel and a buflalo working in adjoin-
ing fields. An immense modern steam pumping plant may be operated
alongside a shaduf or a sakiyeh, and the native when interviewed will
point with pride to the superior machine he employs.

After visiting the great barrage below Cairo and noting how the
structure is maintained by the government, how it scu'ves as a })ridge
across the Nile as well as a diversion work, how well the navigation
interests of the Nile and the large canals have been conserved, and
how beautifully the grounds of the southern extremity of the delta in
the vicinity of the dam have been laid out in parks, the writer made
arrangements to visit the Fayum j)rovince at the extremity of tin* Bahr
Yusef Canal (the water of Joseph), some 75 miles southwest of ( airo.
The province can best be reached hy rail, going from C airo 4(> miles
up the river to Wasta and there changing cars for the ('a])ital cit}^
Medinet el Fayum. The morning fixed upon for the trip happcMied
to be fogg}^ and cold for Egypt. But little could l>e >een exec^pt the
country lying near the railroad. Sugar cane, date-palm trees, and
wheat fields abound and occasionallv fields of clover and beans could
l)e identified. After leaving Wasta it requires a run of only a few
minutes to reach the margin of the cultivated lands. Soon the desert
was entered and no sign of vegetiition could be seen. Along the mar-
gin of the valley the hdls break ofl* abruptly and the i-ountry is rather

16

rolling*, bat as soon as one leaves the slope toward the Nile the do.-^on
is comparatively iiat and uninteresting^.

After traversing* the desert for about thirtv minutes siy-ns of culti-
vation began to appear, although the land showed that the water sup-
ply had not been ade(|uate. As the soil is sandy, nmch water is needeci
to maintain plant growth. But few trees have been planted in thi>
district and the houses of the farmers are scattered here and there,
indicating that their location had not been tixed by any prearraiig-ed
plan. As the flood of the Nile does not reach the Fayum, the village
life so common in the vallev of the Nile is not essential. As Medinet
el Fayum is approached the country takes on new life and the soil
changes to a black loam which yields all kinds of crops in abundance.
The town is situated along the bank of Joseph's Canal, which furnishes
the life of the province and adds much to the attractions of the town.

The country around the town is very productive, and aflords an
excellent opportunity for studying Egyptian agricultural methods.
The entire province slopes toward a lake which lies along the margin
of the desert to the northwest of the capital. The fall of the countiy '
is considerable, enabling the farmer to irrigate his field ))y gravit3', as
is done in the l^'nited States. ]VLanv lifting devices are found along:
the canals, however, which serve for the irrigation of lands lying
adjacent to them. To the east of the town the canal is less attractive
than it is within the limits of the capital, ])ecause it is more tortuous '
and the material which has been taken out in cleaning the channel has
been deposited in heaps along the banks. The thrifty appearance of
all growing crops is sufficient evidence of the fertility of the soil and
the effectiveness of the irrigation svstem. Manv trees seldom seen in
the valley of the Nile can })e found in this j)rovince. Among these
the olive predominates. Date palms, oranges, and ligs are extensively
grown and the vine is well represented.

The conditions of the Fayum have changed but little, as far as we
have any authentic history, since the time Lake Moeris disappeared to
give place to an agricultural communit}'. For over three thousand
years the province has l^een cultivated and the people have enjoyed
more of peace and prosperity than have the farmers in the valley of
the Nik\ The ruins of ancient Crocodilopolis lie to the south and
west of the present capital, and to the east on the edge of the deseit
pyramids and ruins of inmiense temples are found.

In returning to Cairo the day was clear, and the entire panorama of
desert and cultivated land was spread out as the train sped along.
Farmers were out in the fields, some plowing with their curious wooden
plows, others digging with the hoe, and others clearing the land or
cleaning small ditches. Here and there steam plows belonging to
some larger plantation took the place of the more primitive native
implements. Drainage work was in progress in places, and occasion-

Fig. L-PloWiNO with Ox a%d Buff

"■f...

17

ally a piece of land was beino- leveled; crude wooden scrapers drawn
l)y oxen were alternately tilled from the higher places and emptied
into the depressions. Some farmers had finished plowing and were
driving oxen attached to heavy framework drags to break the clods
and smooth the surface of the fields.

'^rhe iournev from Cairo to Assuan can be made either bv rail or by
^vator. By rail one sees the canals and irrierated fields and the different
methods employed in tilling the soil and cleaning water channels. B}^
boat the diversion works at the heads of canals, the water-raising devices
and irrigation structures near the river can ])est be studied. The
journey ])y water has some advantages over the trip by rail. The
boats have regular stopping places, where the surrounding country can
be studied, and as the valley is in no place more than 9 miles wide, a
ronsiderabJ(» portion of the farming land between the river and the
desert can be examined in a few hours.

Ijcaving Cairo in the morning b}' rail, Assuan is reached the next
afternoon. The road runs south, on the west side of the river, parallel-
ing the Ibraimia Canal as far as Assiut; it continues then to Nagi
Ilamadi, 373 miles from Cairo, where the river is crossed. The
southern terminus of the road is at Chellal, miles south of Assuan.
Probably the most interesting part of the trip, to one making a study
of irrigation and agriculture, is between Cairo and Assiut, a distance
of 240 miles. The broad Ibraimia Canal parallels the railroad for
some distance Ixdow Assiut. During the winter it is dry for a short
time, when the channel is hurriedlv cleaned. Laborers carrvino-
basket>, which are filled })v means of the hoe, swarm tlie ))anks and
i)ott:oms of the canal. The side slopes are formed accui'ately and
smoothed with that instrument in a wa}' seldom e([ualed in the United
States. There are no plow marks along the banks and runways for
teams are unnecessary, while the bare feet of the laborers t(Mid to
smooth rather than scar the surface of the ground. The matei'ial to
be excavated has been cross-sectioned and each man or compiuiy of
men is required to remove a certain volume. (See PL 111.) The
more industrious make the better wa^es.

The regulating works at Dirut can best be examined by stopping at
the station for a few hours. These are representative* of tlie \H'st
regulators in P^gypt. Two large and two small canals })cgin at this
))laco. The former are the Bahr YuN(»f and tlie li)raimia canals, while
the latter are the Dalgawi and Dirutieh canals. Running direct fioni
the Nile and supplying water during the Hood is the Saheliyeii (anal.
The masonry works run frcmi the ])()int where this canal ent(M's the
cliunnel above the regulators to the Il)raimia, tlienc(* to the Dirutii^h,
tlnMice to the Bahr Yusef, and end just bi^vond the point wIkmh^ tlie
Dak^jiwi Canal has its head. The works ai'e substantiallv ))uilt and are
nmintained in good condition. One man can operate the li'ates of anv

277r):>-N(). 130 03 i>

18

of the canals })v means of a travelino- winch. On the east bank of tb'
chiiniiel, about 500 feet a})ove the entrance of the inlet gates of th^
Saheliyeh Canal, is a waste gate which discharges surplus water intos
channel connecting with the Nile. The Dalgawi regulator has tw«
gates, each nearly 10 feet wide. The Bahr Yusef has live, the DirutieL
has three, the Il)raimia has seven, and the entrance regulator of tht
Saheliyeh Canal has two gates. The wastewa}" has live gates. Tlii?
latter, as well as the regulators of the two large canals, are supplied
with locks which permit the passage of such ])oats as are emplo\^ed on
these waterwavs.

The Ibraimia Canal will henceforth ])e supplied at all times of the
year from the new headw^orks at Assiut, which have been built in
conjunction with the reservoir work at Assuan and the diverting* dam
at the former place. The latter structures are described elsewhere in
this report.

The farming country })ecomes narrower as one ascends the river i
from Assiut. No perennial irrigation is practiced above Assiut except I
on the lands lying near the Nile, which are served b}" water-raisint'
devices of various kinds. The Arabian desert breaks off abruptly od
the eastern bank of the river in many places, and the principal areas
of farming lands are found on the western side of the river.

Large sugar plantations are common, and at the principal towns
sugar mills are in operation. Light railways have been })uilt through-
out P^gypt wherever demand for transportation facilities walrrants the
outlay. These are narrow-gage roads, and the rolling stock is of the
lightest.

The Sohag Canal, which was pr()])a))lv once a channel of the river,
irrigates a large area ))etween Assiut and the town of Sohag during
the llood of the Nile. In the winter it lies high and dry, while the
adjoinino" fai-nis are ci*reen, as a result of inundation. At Dendera.
farther u[) the river, where ruins of the celebrated temple bearing the
same name have been found, the agricultural lands showed that a sea-
son of a(lc(|uate wat(M' supply had becMi enjoyed. The temple w^a.^
nearlv buried bv the crumbling' nmd bricks of a villa^'e which ofrew
up a])out it, and has onlv recentlv been thorouulilv excavated. The
farming lands reach to the base of the temple, and during the flood
season the water almost toueiies its foundation. The giant temple of
Anunon at Karnak was orioinallv surroundtnl bv a liioh embankment,
but this lias be(Mi destroyed in [)]aces, so that now during the flood
water stands to a considiM'abU^ (h^pth around it. The ruins cover an
area i,H(»o feet long and -loo feet wid(\ not counting some of the
smaller and less im])()rt{uit sti'uctures. The farms extend to the orig-
inal pi'otecting wall of eartli. Detween Karnak and Luxor can be
seen an escape gate which is opcMied to p(M"nut the watm* of the basin
to flow l)aek into the Nile as hioh water riH-edes. Across the river the

19

Colossi of ]\Ieiiinoii .stand in ti cultivatod tield watered by wells fur- '
iiished with sakiyehs.

From Luxor to Assuau the vallev eontaiiis hut little of interest.
The famous (juarries where the Silsileh liills reach th(» water's edge on
either side give one an idea of the immense quantity of stone wliich
has })een taken out for all kinds of masonry work. A narrow fringe
of pahii trees lines the ))anks of the river in many places, and the area
of the agricultural land is limited on either side.

Assuan, lying on the right bank of the river just ))elow the first
cataract, is t\\e Mecca of the traveler in Upper Eg3^pt. The Ele-
phantine Island, lying opposite the town, in the river; the rough, ster-
ile deserts on either side; the granite points on land, and rocky islands
in the rapid currents of the cataract each add to the interesting fea-
tures in the vicinity of the town. The granite quarries in the desert
to the east and north of Assuan show how that material was taken out
in the early days of Egypt, and at the head of the cataract ondy 4
miles up the river one can see how through modern engineering appli-
ances the same material is now handled. In less than four years the
engineers of the Egyptian Government have built a dam containing
1,000,000 cubic yards of granite masonry. Machinery has supplanted
slave labor; and wdiere thousands of men were formerly required to
transport large volumes of stone from on(* place to another the task is
now easily accomplished ))v employing great derricks, steam engines,
and improved cpiarry tools.

Bv the river it is but 4 miles from Assuan to the head of the cala-
met, where the great dam has l)een erected. A footptith follows the
Nile, another passes through the desert in a direct line, while the rail-
road runs alono- a former channel of tli(^ river farther to the east.
The dam is seen tirst if one goes })y either footpath, while if the train
is taken the island of Philae is in view as soon as the traveler aliuhts
at Chellal. No one can forget the tirst glimY)se of this island and the
temples with which its surface is covered. All other islands in I he
vicinity of Philae ar(^ high and rocky, while this particular one i> flat
and well adapted for the purpose to which it htis been diHlicated.
Two miles downstream is the dam.

The entfineers in charii'c of the construction of the dam wi^re A\illin<>'
and anxious to i^xplain the construction work in ])rogr<'^> and make
rlear the function of tlu^ rcs<'r\'oir when compIet(Hl. Some of the
eno'ineers had Ixmmi at As>uan from the dav th(^ lirst wnvk conunenced.
They enjoyed an ideal climate during the wiiit(M', hut -utl'ei'jMl nuich
from the continuous heat n[' the summer. The thermometer raiig(\s
above I0(l F. in the sliad<' betwe<Mi the early spring and laU^ fall
months. It often reaches li^n and at times liJn during the smumer.
But little relief i^ alh»i"(le<l at night, as the granite ro<'ks gi\ <' oil" (In^
heat thev ha\c ah^orhed <luiinL|- the da\ .

20

Ten thousand workmen were engaged on tlie construction of the dara
during the winter of llM)l-!>. These men were poorly paid compared
with the wages of those employed on simihir work in the United States.
Tliey furnished their own sulrsistence and no slielter had l)een provided
for them.

Th(^ best view of the dam is o))tained f rom a position on the left bank
of the river, just downstream of the structure. From this point its
entire length is visible. Over it can l)e seen the neighboring islands
in the river, l^eyond wliicli is Philae and its ruined temples. In the
foreground are numerous islets which break the river into many small
waterwavs.

THE NILE.

The Nile is among the longest rivers in the world, being in this
respect in the same class with the Amazon, the Kongo, and the Missis-
sippi, but in discharge it is much below many rivers having shorter
courses. The following comparison of the discharges of large rivers
shov.s the relative position occupied by the Nile:

OniijMirixoti. of discJidi-fjex of fh<: XUt, (taiige.^, IrnnnffJtJi/, TinfJiinnjxifni, (ind Misf^isi^qqn

rirerx.

Kivcr.

Nile (at Assuan)

(JaiiKos (British India)

Irravvaddy (Burma )

Brahma]>utra (British India)
Missis^ipl)i (at St. Louis) '>

Discliarue.

>»'iitrth.

—

—

Drainage

Maxinitun.
Cohirjt.

Mininnim.

Ctihirft.

Mean.

area.

(Juhicjt.

^fih.■<.

j)f r s'<\

jt< r .</('.

])(!' !<er.

Square mil^o.

:-;. 800

459.000

lO.OOO

12S, 000

l,30(),ax»

1.557

401,000

o(), 000

141,000

391,0<>3

2,5:V_'

"1,000,000

"M.OOO

:i50, 000

150, m

1 . 100

l.SOO. 000

140,000

520, 000

361. m

1.200

DO 1.000

33. 000

120. 000

1,226,40(1

' E'>;tiinat»,-d. ''Head of Missouri to inotitli of Mississippi.

Tile White Nile I'ises in Lake Victoria, in central Africa, and'How.s
northerly, emptying into tlie Mediterranean, ?),P)<m) miles from its
souive. From Lake Victoria to Kliartum. where it unites with the
Blue Nile, is a distance of 2.1(Mi miles. The onlv tributarv flowing
into the Nile below tlu^ junction of the two main feeders is the Atbara
River, about VM) miles farther north. Both the Atlxira and Blue Nile
rise in the Abvssinian Mountains and How northwt^sterlv. From the
point where the Saubat River joins ilw White Nil(\ ii,3T0 miles from
the ^iediterranean, only two trihutari(\s add to its discharge, and for
more than l,(Hio miles the river passes through an absolutely barren
country. Even after it enters Egypt the width of the cultivated land
can almost be disregarded in com})aris()n with the bi'oad expanse of
desert on eitlier side.

High water of the Whit<^ NiU^ appears during June, and the flood
does not I'ecc^le until OctolxM*. It furnishes a more uniform flow^ to
the ii'i-ii^ators of Nubia and Ei-vpt than anv otJKM' triljutarv. It derives

21

it.-s supply from the heavy rains in the eijuatorial re<i:ions where it lias
its source. The hiy-h- water season of ))oth the Blue Nile and the Atl)ara
))etrins with July and ends with September. These two streams fur-
nish nearly all of the sediment which has })uilt up the valley of the
river in Egypt and maintained the fertility of the soil. The etiect of
the hio'h water from all sources is felt at Cairo soon after the Lst of
Aut>ust. l)ut owino' to tin* demand for water in upper Egypt during
the late summer and earlv fall months extreme high water does not
reach Cairo until toward the end of 8epteml)(M\ when the basins ha\e
dix-harged into the river.

While the Nile varies each vear in dischar^'e it is a singultirlv steadv^
stream, and in this resjx^ct is unlike the rivers with which we are
familiar. It has hut one hio-ji-water smison each vcnir, and this h(»gins
and ends so regularly that irrigators kn»)w when to prepare for the
tlood. Although the stream is remarkal)l(^ in this respi^ct, its varia-
tions in discharoe in difl'erent vears allect agriculture greatlv. During
years of low Nile larger annis go unirrigated. In average^ vears the
Nile furnishes suflicient water to bring prosperity to Egypt. Once
in fifteen or twenty vear> it is luuisuallv HIljIi, wIumi large ai'cas are
devastated ))v floods. If a sudden rise should occur in the Nile, as so

ft.'

often happens in many of our A\'estern streams, it would Ix^ a grcnit
curiosit}' to the natives.

The accompanying chart (tig. 1) makes a comparison })etween the
discharge of the Nile at Assuan and of the Mississippi at St. Louis.
It will be seen that the discharge of the Mississippi is veiy irregular.
High water may appear at St. Louis at any time ])etween April and
June, and this maximum discharge may range from i?r)(),(Mi() to nearly
1.000,000 cubic feet per second. The maxinuun discharge of the Nile
varies from 30'),0o0 to 4:^0, dOO cubic feet per second. If the Nile
varied as the Mississippi does at St. Louis, agricultural Egy[)t
would soon cease to exist, unless the great volumes of water which
would descend at flood times could l)e stor(Ml and the flow of the river
equalized.

Fig. 2 shows the relation Ix'tween the discliargi* of the Nik* at
Assuan and of the Missouri at Kansas City for i\w four vears begin-
ning with 1897, giving the maxinuun, mininuun, and metni yearly
discharges for theses four years. Both streams flow through arid
countries. The Nile rises in a region of ti'opical niins, jdthoiigh a
considerable portion of its supj)ly conuvs from the Abvs>iiiian Moun-
tains and the ranges of central Africa. The Missouri has its source
in the snow-covered Rockies. It will ))e noticinl that the high-water
])eriod of the ^lissouri nray occur at almo>t any time between tin*
middle of April and the 1st of July, while the Nih* reaches its maxi-
mum near the l>t of September. The di>charg(* of the two streams
is about the same during January and February and during the lirst

.).)

DIAGRAM

SHO^MNG DISrUARGES OF THE

MISSISSIPPI AT ST. LOUIS

AND THE NILE AT ASSUAN

DITUNG ^TLARS OF
EXTREME HIGH AND LOW WATER

Fi'.. 1.— JiiaLTuui -h'Avin^^' disdiare:''- <u" tile Mii=i--ip]'i at St. Louis and of the Nile at Assuan.

28

nxrt of Au^ifust. It will l)o observed that the discharge of the Nile is
oiniKii'titivelv luiit'oi'ni. whilt* that of the ^Missouri is exeeediiiolv

C»b*« ii«t p*» — W l.

y n$f9ftt9fiin

iiT('i(ular. Tlie al)>enee of <^reat lluetuation in tlir (lisrhar<^*e of th(»
Nile can probably Ik* explained by the fact that there are but few

24
tributarie.s to the main stream and no local precipitation in Nubia or

The ancient P^gyptians worshipped the Nile and the sun. All V)ene-
lits came from these two sources. The inscriptions on main' of the
temples show the Nile in different phases of its discharge, and many
of the scenes pictured there represent the rulers or priests navigatintr
the river. Unfortunately, the tourist seldom sees the Nile in flood.
Instead of a ofiirantic river he sees a slutriri^^h stream of muddv, unin-
vitinof water. Its channels are tilled with manv sand bars. Its banks
may be protected ))y riprai)pino-; they may ))e rocky or sandy to the
waters edge, or supporting a luxurious growth of wheat, clover, or
beans. As the river falls crops are planted wherever possible to the
water's edire until (^xtreme low- water level is reached. The tourist
observes shadufs and other water-raisino- devices })v thousands, but
unless he travels otherwise than by ))oat he has })ut little opportunity
to examine these curious devices for carrying water over the high
banks of tln^ Nile, nor does he see nuich of the land which is watered
in this way. He often leaves Egypt without understanding wh}' the
Nile should be known as the Father of liivers and one of the most
remarkal)le in tlie world. To an American it looks like the Missouri
})elow Omaha at low water. The similaritv would l)e even more strik-
ini*- if the bluffs bordering the ^lissouri were barren sand hills instead
of l)eing covered with vegetation.

The low-water period of the Nile continues until the middle of July.
The critical season is between the middle of ]\Iav and the middle of
Julv. The sun shines from a cloudless skv and the air is tilled with
dust. Land not perennially irrigated" is cracked with heat and thor-
oughly sun })aked. Both man and beast suffer for water except where
the Nile, the perennial canals, or wells can be easily reached. Even
the ))i-anches()f the Nile in the delta are practically dry in many places,
the water all being divert(Hl at th(^ barrage or pumped from the chan-
nids of the river ])elow this structure. During the tirst part of July
all are anxiously awaiting the tirst appearance of high water. About
the 12th or ir)tli of August the basins of Upper Egypt begin to receive
water. The canals for i)erennial irrigation in ])oth Upper and Lower
Egvpt are then running bank full and everyone is irrig-ating the crops
so lately threatened with drought.

Al)Out the 1st of SeptembcM" the Nile is a mighty torrent, having
increased from l!^,iH)0 cu))ic feet per sc^cond to 4(H ),()()() cubic feet per
second or more. Upper Egv])t, with the exception of the land peren-
niallv irriii'atcd, is a lake dotted with island villages for thirtvto forty-
five days. After thirty days have expired people are anxious for signs
of retreating waters and eagerly await reports from Assuan and other

'/

LhikIh alon^ deep canals which always carry water are irrigated throughout the
ar, hence the terms "perennially irriv:ated,'' ''perennial irrigation," etc.

25

plrtoi's. It i-s lioiioved that if tlio water stiiiids on tlio laiul more than
ft irt\ diiy.s instvts will lii' plentiful and i-rops will )«■ jKirtially destmyed.
liy iin>ionf,'pd hijrii water the planting sea^ion is much delayed and the
harvest extended into the hot spring months, whieh greatly rednee:^
tlie yield. The liasins. however, can not lie di'ained until the Nile
iM-'gtris to fall, iluring all this time the k'vee> must lie watched and
an army of iiieii working without compensation is called out for this
dut\-. Ahout the 1st of Oftolier the flood is generally over and the
liasius hegiii to empty. This is not only a difficult opeiiition in itself,
!>ut the volume of water turned linek into the Nile causes high water
uii the lower reaches of t!ie river and lengthens the period during
which the haidis have to he guarded. In the .!elta tlie Nile runs ahove

BAKK OF RIXTTB

TH^

^.

Z^

the level of the surrounding agi
the emhatikiueut-. mean- au ini
eountry.

Changes take place in ihc cham.el ..f the Nile during !■;
high water. Often the <-urrent will change, and wlier
foniierlv heen a gnulual slnp>. and eonsiderahh' agri.'
a steep, caving hank will n^niain. The lowland- and the
Nile which are far'med .■ach year vury consideralily in ai
sea.son to another. The agiicidtuial land adjacent to
perennially irrigated, and therefore highly productive
the Nile hanks ai'e lined with Imildings and expcn-L
iiiuchiiiery. To protect the land an<l improvements (he

tiad
land
■ the

2C,

must cither build a mason ly wall ov reduce the slope and riprap it. I:
is quite common to put spurs in the banks some distance above th^
points threatened to throw the cui-rent farther out in the streaii].
This is often a dangerous expedient, as the current thus deflected niav

do considerable damage at other point>.

Fig. 3 shows one of these spurs con-

y>

C

2 CM.

e

300.e32 FeeC.

s ructed l)v the trovernment.

NILE OAGES.

308.976 Feet.

308.320 I^«t.

307.664 Fe^.

r^Iuch has been written al)out the How
)f the Nile, vet it has never been care-
I'ullv measured until recentlv. AlthoucrL
Nile gages, now known as '' nilonieters."
were estal^lished at an early date, the
relation Ix^tween the gage heights and
the discharoe was never determined until
during the last half centurv. The meas-
urements lirst made, even by person?
qualified for such work, were rough and
can l)e regarded as only 'approximate.
The use of th(^ current meter has finallv
permitted accurate gagings to be made,
and it will doul)tless not be long until
enough of these have been taken tc
give vahie to the gage heights already
recorded.

On many of the rocks along the Mlt
in Nubia extreme high-water levels have
))een recorded. Such marks were doubt-
less? -Jhe earliest gages of the Nile. Dur-
ing 4*lie past few years some old gage?
have been discovered at Assiut and other
points along the river. The most inter-
(\sting and among the most ancient of
the gages are on the island of Philae.
The two which can l)e seen to-day are on
the west sid(^ of the island. Thev cod-
sist of a narrow stairway leading by a short sul)termnean passage
from the surface of the ground on the island to the river. The
gages are placed on the walls of this passageway and are in section?
of ?) or 4 feet each. The ancient gage is graduated in cubits or
pics and kirats. On the Nile gag(^ toward the south end of the island
of Philae there are a number of ditierent scales, the most modevD
one being graduated in meters and centimeters, similar to the gage
on Elephantine Island, as shown in the accompanying cut (fig. 4).

1 307.008 Feet
abeTe sea leTeL.

Fig. 4.

-Nil'inictrr uii liie Klphaiitiiu-
l->lan(l.

27

Iiisti'ad of taking the })ed of the river as the zero of the scale, it is
referred to mean sea level at Alexandria/' It is impossible, therefore,
to tell the depth of the water l)y reading the scale. The gage on the
south end of Elephantine Island is of the same character as those on
the island of Philae. The modern gage is carefully constructed, being
inscri})ed on pieces of white mar))le. The gages at Philae are the
most reliable, as the channel of the river there is composed of granite,
and from the records of a great manv vears it is found that the aver-
ago heights of the river have varied but little. The gages on the
Lower Nile are of little value in comparison, as the bed of the river
is constantly changing.

By far the most celebrated of the gages on the Lower Nile is the
one on the island of Khoda. The graduations are on a pillar which
stands in the center of a well, the l)ottom of which is connected with
the Nile by a passage. This column is of stone, octagonal in cross
section, and the well in which it stands is about IT) feet square. The
nilometer is graduated in pics and kirats.

At the present time the irrigation engineers depend for their first
news regarding the stage of the Nile on telegraphic reports from
Khartum. The people, however, look to Assuan for their informa-
tion and are scarcely satisfied until reports are received from that
})lace. From ap]:>roximate gagings made of the Nile at Assuan the
writer has prepared a rating table, from which the yearly discharges
of the river have been computed, as shown in ligs. 2 and 8. These
diagrams are trustworthy oidy in so far as tlu* gagings are assumed
to l)e correct.

The English engineers have estal)lished gauges at a number of points
along the Nile above Assuan, among which are those at Khartum, Ber-
ber, Wady Haifa, and Lake Victoria. From the reports received from
thcvse gaging stations the engineers V^now approximately what kind of
a flood to expect each year, and the irrigator is advised accordingly.

AGRICULTURAL SEASONS.

There are three agricultural seasons in Egypt. The land not receiv-
ing perrennial irrigation can take advantjige of but one. This ])egins
a.s early as the middle of Octol)er and ends with March. The crops
grown then under the basin svstem are sown innuediatelv after the

ft. ft.

suljsidence of the flood, hence the time of })lanting depends upon when
the fields become dry enough for the seed (PI. IV). The lands in
southern Egypt are generally ready for the seed about the begiiming
of November. In the Delta crops are often planted as late as the 20th
of December. Wheat is tin* principal winter crop, although clo\er,

" In the name inaiiiuT the hei«:ht of a dam or other structure is usually uivt'U l»y
ri'ferrinjj to the actual elevation of its base and toj) above sea level.

28

barley, heiins, and many otlior products aro ciuite commonly rai.-^ei

The ground is seldom plowed before the wheat is planted. Th
seed is scattered over the still moist soil l)v hand, and it is eithe
tramped into the oround by the cattle or pressed in with a priiuitiv
w ooden roller. Sometimes the ground is beaten with a piece of avoO'.
and the grain actually driven into it. The harvest in extreme iippt.'
Egypt begins in February and is in progress down the river until tb
middle of April. In upper Kgypt the winter harvest is the uio.^t
important of the 3'ear ))ecause a large -part of the land there depends
wholly upon the ancient system of Hood irrigation.

The sunnner crops are grown between April and August (PI. Y).
However, a great many crops arc^ })lanted in April and May ^'hich
are not harvested until the following fall or winter. Among these are
cotton, sugar can(% and rice, the most valua])le crops grown iii Egf\'pt.
Kice is generally planted in May and is not harvested until the follow-
ing November. During (exceptionally dry seasons a ditferent variety,
which ripens in from sev(Mity to one hundred days, is planted quite
late in the sunnner. Owing to the short time recpiired for its growth
it is known as sebani ric(\ meaning seventv-dav rice. Cotton is sown
in April and picked in Xovem])er or December. Sugar cane is planted
about the same time, and harvested in the following Januaiy and
Februarv.

The third season has a length of about eighty days, running from
August to October and sometimes until November. During this time
considerable sorghum is raised, the stalks of which the nativ^es eat
Corn is the chief crop grown, and is second oid\^ to wheat among
Egyptian cereals in 3 ield. It is probably the most valuable crop to
the poorer classes. As soon as it ripens it is cut or pulled up by the
roots and piled on the levees, where the stalks dry thoroughly and
where the corn is husked. The corn on the ears is then piled on the
o-round where the earth is tirm and the grain is beaten from the cob
by heavy sticks in the htuids of the farmers. (PI. VI, tig. 1.) The
corn is next o-roiuid or crushed and bread is made directlv from it, or
it is mixed with bean flour l)efore l)eing prepared for food. Wheat
is thrashed l)v a method almost as crude. A sledge furnished with
rollers carrying metal disks is pulled by oxen, which travel around a
stack of wheat until the straw is thoroughly chopped and the grain is
separated from it. (PI. VI, iig. 2.) The whole mass is then tossed in
the air and the wind })lows awav the lighter material while the grain
falls to the ground. This latter process is very tedious, as the straw
has to be handled many timiNs before the grain is all separated and
cleaned.

FiQ. 2.— Irrigation Bas[n

1. __

Id

■Ml

?

•■ , W- -™ w

m^

:^*«

-rr

b. r>-.)t. ' •' A^-- , B-. . ' :C, O" ^-r ■. ' £•>._>:. S*.^*.

Plate VII.

29

FARMS AND VILLAGES.

The term 'Sillago'' as used in Kgypt refers generally to an area
of land surrounding and including a town. The farmers have their
dwellings in the towns. In the portions of Egypt subject to inunda-
tion they are obliged to retreat to the towns during high water. A
frontage on the river or other source of water .supply is alwavs desir-
able and these channels are generally boundary lines of farms, the
dimensions of which are as unusual as the tools used in cultivating the
ground. To enable the greatest number to enjoy the advantages of a
water front the width dimension of the farm usuallv lies alono- the
river or canal. Where water channels do not exist it has become the
custom to establish a few lines b}^ permanent monuments. These lines
then become the end ])oundaries of the farm. When a small area is
sold its length is the same as that of the original tract and its width is
laid ort' along the lines fixed by permanent monuments. As the area
owned or cultivated bv each fellah is small, their farms are lono- and
narrow. A square piece of land containing the same area could be
worked to much ofreater advantagfo.

The accompanying map (PI. VII) shows the su))divisions of the farm-
ing lands of the village of Talbia, near Cairo. The holdings are small
In the neigh])orhood of this village and the land is (piite productive.
Tile areas of ten farms, selected more or less at random, ranged from
<>.<>2 to 1.0 J: acres.

Any small district throughout which the productiveness uul there-
fore the rate of taxation is umisuallv uniform is known as a liod. The
farms of each hod are numbered independently. The ofiicial i(H*ords
therefore may refer to farm No. 10, hod No. <>, of the village of Talbia.
I he maps compiled from govermnent surveys show the farms and
hods with their numbers, ])ermitting any particular farm to })e identi-
hed. Fences are not provided along farm })oundaries, as they would
occupy too nuich land.

In the surveys for the tinance ministry, villages are mapped inde-
pendently. It is almost impossible^ to make up from thest^ separate
surveys a general map showing a munber of villages, as the ))oundaries
<>t the villages are irregular and discrepancies always occur inapi)rox-
nnate work of this kind. A survey of the ))oundary })etween two
villages defined by a canal or otluM* water course may be made during
^he season of h\A\ water. At th(^ tinu^ it mav ]>e imoossibh^ to locate^
I'n^ water channel accurately on the map. If the adjoining village be
surveyed during low water, it is easy to see that maps mad(^ from the
surveys would not fit when api)lied to each otluM*. Outside of these
survey.s, the Government possesses littU^ information regarding the
topojrraphv of the countrv.

^ nder the French occupation some general surveys wei'e made, but
i^o moiuunents were estai)lishe(l. The Kni^lish (Migineei's nvr niMkiu"'

80

a siirvov of Etrypt and are ostablishiiitr monuments in some cases. It
is doubtful whether these will have any great permanent value as they
are not tied to guide meridians or standard parallels. The lack of
monuments in the survevs of the villages makes it necessary for the
farmers in the districts inundated to resurvey their lands after each
su})sidence of the water. A few ])ermanent monuments may al\vav<
be found in the villacres and from these the rest of the land is laid out.

The work is repeated until a majority are satisfied that the land ha-
been properly measured. It would cost the farmer only 5 or In
cents per stone to establish permanent monuments at the corners of
his farm, but so fixed has become the custom of remeasuring* the land
each year that it is preferred to a more convenient system.

Elnglish engineers in the survey department are handicapped not
only by their inability to secure the })est kind of assistance in the field,
but by existing surveys recognized by the native farmer. His ances-
tors measured land to their satisfaction, and he is content to follow
their example, not oidy in the surveys but in the computation of field

Fk;. .'i. — Dia.irram showing inaccuracy of land measurements.

notes. The Egyptian has a spiu-ial formula for computing the area of
land to which Iw adherens with a steadfastness which w^ould be praise-
worthy in a Ix^tter cause. For instance, when a triangular piece of
o'round is to be survt^ved, only the lenji'ths of the sides are taken. To
compute the area flic liMigths of two adjacent sides are added, the sum
is divided by 2, and this <|uotient is multiplied b^^ the length of the
remaining si(l(^ divided i>v '2. If the tigure happens to be a quadri-
lateral, the two ()p])osite sides arc added together and divided br-
and the (|uoticnt is inuhi])ruHl by the two remaining sides added
tou'c^ther and vdixidcd bv '2. Putting- tlic fornuda in figures and refer-
rinu* to the acc()nn)anvin<_;" diau'rani. the inaccuracy of the method mav
be phiinly sccmi (tig. 5 ).

Area ol trianu'le - . Xv

2 :2

. ,. ... , al) + cd ac + bd
Area of (juadrnateral - X .

81

The formula for the area of a trian<>'le never oivos accurate result^<.
The fornuila for a (|iuidrilator{il is corroct only when the figure is a
rectangle.

A few years ago an investigation was made to determine the av^erage
size of the hind holdings in Egypt. At the same time considerable
information was gathered regarding the number of farms and as to
whether the owners were natives or foreigners. It was found that
foreigners owned 5,18t) farms, having a total area of 283,838 acres.
The average size of these farms was therefore 45.87 acres. There
were 22,61)9 farms owned by natives who, having considerable influ-
ence, had secured titles to large areas under the conditions prevail-
ing prior to the occupation of the English. These people held
1,420,1S7 acres, the average size of the holdings being 02.59 acres.
There were 502,810 farms l)elonging to the peasantry. They owned
2,752,500 acres, making the average size of their holdings 5.47 acres.
The tottil number of farms in Egypt was 530,548. The total culti-
vated area exclusive of state lands and the area administered })v the
Daira Sanieh was 4,4(M),525 acres. The average size of an F^gyptian
farm was therefore 8.3 acres. The total population of Egypt at the
time the census was taken was 0,754,(^50, so that one person in lw(4ve
was a landowner, while SO per cent of the landholders owned less than
10 ac n»s each.

COST OF RAISING CROPS AND VALUE OF FARM PRODTJCTS.

The cost of raising diti'erent crops, as well as the yield of tlie sjime,
varies greatly throughout Egypt. Crops grown in lh(» winter on
lands employing the basin system of irrigation can i)e matun^l nuicli
chea})er than those grown under })erenniaT irrigation when^ water must
be lifted. In the best agriculturtil districts of U})[hm- Egypt sugar
cane is the most valuable^, crop. In pre[)ai*ing tlie ground for seed and
sowing the same an outhiy of about S7 [mu* acre must be met. The
seed costs from Slo to ^12 per aci"c, ii-rination about >^Io, culti\atin<'*
and harvesting '^14, making tlie total cost per aen^ amount to Sjo or
S45 per acre. If the land recjuinvs f(»rtiliz(M"s the cost of thest» may
make the vearlv ex])ense S2.5o hielier. The xield of suoar cane a\'er-
ages about 32 tons per acr(\ which is worth S12s. The net ])rollt from
an acre of sugar cane is, therefore, l)etween '"rso and >^^.') ])er acre. If
tlie land is rented the tenant i)robably piiys from one third to one-half
of the crop to the owner. The landowner |)ays betweiMi >-.') and >^{i) in
taxes each year on such land. The cost of raiding eotloii in r])per
Egypt is about one-third as much as foi* i"ai>ing sugar eane. while tln'
net profit approximates s.^n per acre, or al)out tiNe-eighths a> much.
The cost of raising other cro[)s luns from >^[ to >^«*» per acre in rp[)er
Egyi)t. The principal crops gi'owii there in ord^-r n\' their importance
are sugar cane, cotton, wheat, Inditm coin, millet, \ eii'etaljh's, beans.

32

and clovor. Sohk^ fruit is orrown, especially in the Fayum, Avhere
oranges, lemons, limes, olives, etc., are c^iiite connnon.

In the southern half of the delta sut»iir cane is orown principally
for eating purposes. The cost of raising the cane there is about the
same as in Upper Egypt, hut the net protit derived from the grouni
is about twice as great. Fruits of diti'erent kinds are among the ino>t
profitable crops of this portion of Egypt. The date is grown exten-
sively, and a si)ecial tax is levied on this fruit. When a tree is cut
down another nuist be planted in its place. The government revenue
from an acre devoted to raising dates runs fi-om SIO to §45 per acre.
The cost of cultivating the ground approximates §^50 per acre, while
the not protit is a})Out ^ir)() per acre, ('onsiderable land is devoted
to the growing of different vegetiLi)les. The cost of raising vegetables
averages about ^15 per acre, while the net protit from the ground is
about ^55 per acre.

While some cotton is grown in the northern half of the delta, this
portion of Egypt must be regarded as essentially a rice district. The
net profit from the cotton fields is about >^2i) per acre, while rice pays
from ^() to ^is p(»r acre only. Much of the rice grown in this portion
of Egypt is planted on groiuid which is being rechiimed and put in
condition for the i)roduction of more valuable crops. Indian corn,
barley, wheat, and clovei- are the other crops grown in the northern
portion of the delta. Some fruit is produccnl in the vicinity of the
towns jind villag(\s.

DEVELOPMENT OF EGYPTIAN IRRIGATION.

Originally all of the agi'icultural lands along the Nile, except a
narrow strip, de})ende(l ui)on the flood of the river for irrigation. But
one* cr()[) could ))e grown each year. a!id this in the winter time. Dur-
ino- tlu^ remainder of the vear the land I'cmaitied fallow. Most of the
laro'c canals wer(^ built durinu* the twelfth dvnastv (2200-1000 B. C.).
Ij(^ve(^s w(M*e ])uilt alonji' the Nile and the farminj'* land was divided into
l)asins, which were HIUhI with water from canals when the river rose
to a niarkcMl Y)lace at th(^ head of the El Khalig Canal at Cairo. As
soon as this luMght was readied word wtis sent throughout Egypt:
th(^ temporary earthen embankiiients ;it tlu^ lunuls of the canals were
tlien broken, and the water ran to the basins. If the Nile failed to
rise sufHcicMitlv hio-li to furnish watcM* for the ])asins, considerable
suiiering resultc^l. If the river was too high, (unbankments would
l)reak, le\(H's would be washed away, and Avidespread desolation would
result. It was not only necessary to lill the basins with water, but the
water had to be red with silt from the mountains and plains of Abys-
sinia. If th(» land failiMJ to I'eceive th(» deposit of red mud, the yield
would be reduced. Enii)tynig the basins was e\'en more difficult than
tilling them. The lower ba^ms had to be emptied tirst, or, if good

U. b. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130 Off ce of Expt. Stations. Inigation Investigations.

Plate VIII.

>

X

o

Z

>

H

c

z

o

z
>

c

H

c

Z

H
I
n

■D

c
<

Z

o

rn

o

-n

7:

n

z
m
I

i^^J^^W^^^^wjiifi.^^kip^

J

Fig. 2.— Cleaning a Small Canal

83

rociflllator^^ were provided between them, the water from all eould l>e

mil at onee. If one of the embankment> of an ui)per ba>in ))roke, it

mount devastation to evervthinir below. The basins could not be

eiii|^tied until the Nile betfan to rei-ede. and there was nearly a> much

cliiii*»"(^r in havinor the flood continue tix) lonuf as in not havinir -i -^uffi ^

cieiit supply of water. This system has >urvived to the present time.

AVhile the basins tirst laid out were rrude. they have develop*^! after

iiiuny years ri experience into wcll-rrtrulated >y stems. Expensive

i*o<jfulators have been constructtMl and canals havi* been maile large

eiiouirh to carry wati'r to supply the Ituid they were intended to serve.

Tlio escapes into the Nile have been perfected. The land near the

^"ile is above the level of the adioinincf farms (tiir- ♦*>). For thi> n^ason

it is difficult to till th(^ basins neai* the Nile embankmt^its. The irrade

of the Nile varies from one-half to onc^-third of a foot p(^r mile.

Owing to this slight fall the canal> hiwe to be (juite large. Ixn-ause

thcdr irrade nuist be less than that of the river. Even under the most

favorable conditions thev can not ufain more than a small fi'action of a

^^ET 5,000 10,000 lg,000 20,000 2g.OOO 30.000 .35.000 40,000 4g,000 gO.OOO

Fi«i. ♦'.. — Typical crnss sfotion of tlu- Nile V»illry.

foot ])er mile over the river. When a canal reaches the edge of the
desert, or, in other words, covers all of tlie arable land except the Nile
berin, it follows the desert until a new canal is taken out. when the
tirst canal siphons under the ncnv one and covers the high land along
the river. The second canal proceeds in the same way and siphons
under the third. Bv this svstem canals can ))e made to serve the

■ ft

entire area of agricultural land.

PI. VIII shows a portion of the Nile \'alley in the province of Keneh
where the river has a general course from east to west. The strip of
irrigated land, bounded })y right line>. is in no [)lace over T miles wide.
It will be seen that the Kannan Canal heads at the rioht. on th(^ south
bank of the river, and that the Marashdah Canal siphons under it just
below the point of diversion. The latter cantd is on a higher line at
their intersection and waters the elevated lands along the berm of tin*
Nile for 12 miles below the siphon. The Kannan Canal continues
westerlv and soon covers all the land to the border* of the desert. Just

27752— No. 130—08 :]

34

before it reaches the Heu Escape, which was built to empty the basin-
above the south side of the river, it divides, one branch serving- thf^
high lands along the desert and the other furnishing water to the
basins near the Nile. The basin })oundaries are shown by dotted lines
The canal and basin system on the north side of the river are also
shown. There are small areas here and there in Upper Egypt which
are irrigated from w^ells. but the larger part of the land is still flooded
bv the Nile and enriched bv its sediment, as it has been for thous^and-
of years past.

But this ancient S3'stem of irrigation has one great drawback — but
one crop can be raised each year, while all other conditions, except
the water supply, favor the raising of several crops. Recogriizino^
this, Mohammed Ali in 1S3T began reforms looking to the supplvin^r
of water to crops during the whole year. The greak barrag"e at the
head of the delta was })egun in IS-t^, as a part of the plans for peren-
nial irrigation. The tirst perennial canals were in the delta and the
Fayum, but tlie system is })eing gradually extended to the south, the
country between Cairo and Assiut being in a state of transition, and
the recent great works at Assuan and Assiut })eing for the purpose of
increasing the area supplied with water throughout the year.

The returns from the soil have been greatly increased by the adop-
tion of |)ei'ennial irrigation. However, this system is accompanied
with certain drawbacks. Only by the old flood-irrigation system can
the land receive anv c()nsidera))le amount of rich Nile silt, and when
two or three croi)s per year are taken from tlie ground the soil deteri-
orates (juite i-apidly. Artiticial fertilizers are necessar}^, and these
are ex})en.sive in Egy])t. The principal supply of fertilizer at present
is from the ruins of old towns and villages. This is simply the Nile
deposit which has ])ee!i used in times past in the manufacture of brick
for th(^ construction of houses, impregnated with more or less fertiliz-
ing matter derived from the village wastes. Long lines of camels
may ])e seen carrying this material to the farms. (PI. IX, fig. 1.)
Sometimes it is to })e transported in or 15 miles or farther, each camel
carrving about (KM) pounds, distributed between two wicker panniers
thrown across his ])ack.

THE CANALS OF THE NILE VALLEY.

As has just been pointed out, thiu'e are at the present time two
kinds of canals in Egypt. First, the perennial canals of the delta,
which date from the time of Mohammed Ali; the Ibraimia canal, and
the canals of the Fayum, built like those in the United States, with
the idea of receiving water throughout the year or whenever crops
need irrigation. The water of tlnv^e canals gen(U'ally runs below the
level of the irrigated lands. Second, the flood canals, for filling the
basins in Up])er Egypt, which letnc^ the river on a much higher level
relative to its bed.

35

III the province of Assuau there are two canals on the left and four

n the right bank of the river. These supply all the basins in that

'jorovince during the flood season. The only area watered throughout

tihe year is a narrow strip bordering the Nile and other water courses

€jarrying a supply at all times. In the province of Keneh there arc 8

<'iinals taking water from the west bank of the river and 18 diverting

^vater from the east bank. In the province of Girgeh 11 canals divert

\\iiter from the left and 5 from the right bank.

Among those on the left bank is the great Sohagia Canal, one of the
oldest water channels in Egypt. It supplies 340, (KK) acres of land.
At its lower extremitv the Yusef Canal betrins, i)einiif a continu-
ation of the Sohagia. So ancient are these channels that thev have
lost much of their resemblance to the canals of to-day and arc now con-
sidered natural channels. They are very tortuous, and run at but
slightly higher levels than the Nile. At its head the Sohagia is 230
feet wide oli the bottom, 278 feet wide on top, and carries a maxi-
mum of 18 feet of water in depth. Its discharge is about 15,000 cubic
feet per second. The canal is separated by embankments from the
first basins it supplies. In the basins farther north the canal
embankments are omitted. Here the canal is not a boundarv line
between basins, but flows through each. The length of the canal is
about (]0 miles. Just below its point of diversion from the river an
immense masonrv head crate has ])een erected. It is manv times too
larire for the volume of water carried bv the canal, and it would look
much more in keeping with the surroundings if the canal wore two or
three times larj^er. The head oate contains 214 arch wa vs. each of
which is nearly lo feet wide. The foundation, which rests upon sand
and gravel mixed with Nile mud, is 131 feet wide and i)k feet thick.
The superstructure is of brick, except the corner.s and other exi)osed
parts, which are of stone. The piers are (It fe(^t thick, and are about
20 feet high from the foundation to the springing lin(^ of the arch-
wavs. The dischar^je is reo-ulattnl bv raising* or lowcrin*:' flashl)oards
by means of a winch carried on a car running alo!ig the to[) of the
structure. The basins fllU'd by the canal iin' emptied at an escape
not far from Assiut. Until rerentlv thev were drained bv sinn)lv
making a cut in the basin dike, permitting the water to How back into
the Nile. This was a very dangerous and destructive practice^ and has
been reformed by the installation of a masonrv escape.

In the province of Assiut two canals divtM't water from the left and
eight fnmi the right bank of the river. On tlie left bank then' are
also six laterals of the Ibraimia Canal. Tlu^ Yusef Catial is now
supplied b}^ the Ibraimia at the town of Dirut, r)4 miles north of Assiut.
The Ibraimia Canal was never supplied with ahead gate until recently,
when the construction of the Assiut dam made it nec(\^sarv that the
discharge of the canal be controllinl at Assiut, where innnen>e masonry

36

regulators iind division crtitos have been put in. At Dirut there is a
wasteway in the canal, through which the surplus water can flow back
into the Nile. Just ])elow the wasteway the division gates are located,
and at this point the Yusef and two less important canals begin. The
length of the Ibraimia Canal from Dirut to its lower terminus is about
130 miles. It flows almost parallel to the Nile, and in no place is it
ovei* 2 or 3 miles from the river. At Dirut the width of the canal on
the bottom is about <)5 feet, and the slopes of its banks are 2 horizontal
to 1 vertical. The depth of water in the canal when full is about 30
feet. The water supplied to the Ibraimia Canal at Assiut serves to
irrigate over 1,()()0.()0<) acres of land. About 0(M),0()0 acres of this is
still irrigated under the ancient basin svstem.

The Yusef Canal supplies a luimber of ])asins along its course, but
its principal duty is to furnish the Fayum province with water for
pereiuiial irrigation. The cross-section dimensions of this canal are
very irregular. It averages a))out 175 feet in width on the bottom and
has a depth of ai)out 20 feet. There are levees on each side, however,
which enal)le it to carrv ^-^O feet of water at high Nile. Durinsf Mav
and June it carries a})out ()(M) cubic- feet of water per second. During
high Nile the discharge is about 80,000 cubic feet per second. Dur-
ing low water summer cultivation is prohibited along the canal except
in the Fayum province. The entrance to this province is between two
desert plateaus, and the low ga[) is closed by a dike which completely
separates the province from the Nile Valley proper. The Yusef Canal
crosses this dike on a masonry structure composed of three arches.
The Favum province was formerlv cultivated as the vallev of the Nile
had always been, but peiennial irrigation is practiced at the present
time, owing to the increased supply of water furnished by the canal.
At tiie town of Mcnlinet the canal separates into many smaller ditches,
and a large ])art of the province is watered by these. About 250,000
aci'es are cultivated in the province. The slope of the land in the
Fayum is greater than in any other farming district of Egypt. All
the land in the province drains into Lake Kerun, which is 130 feet
below the level of the Meditei'ranean.

In the province of ]Minieh three canals divert water from the rigW
bank of the river. Tiie three canals on the left bank are laterals of
the Ibraimia Canal. These are quite important among the distributing
w^orks of the province, hi the province of Benisouef six canals take
water from the left and two from the right bank of the river. There
is one important 1)ranch of the Ibrainiia Canal in this province. In the
province of (rizeh three canals tak(» water from the left and one fronJ
the right bank of the river. Hidow Cairo there are many canals (?!''•
X and XXIV). The principal ones are those leaving the Nile at the
barrai»e and the Ismailia Canal, which diverts water from the river at
Cairo.

,\

\J. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Office of Expt. Stations. Irrigation Investigations.

Plate X.

Map of the Nile Valley from Caiho tj the Delta. Showing t^e Location of
THE Barrages and the Head Works o" the P:;inc!Pal Canals.

37

The Isniailia Canal deserves special inentioii because it was con-
st riu* tod wholly l\v contract and in one piece. The Egyptian (lovefn-
meiit entered into an agreement with the Suez Canal Company to
construct a navigable waterway from the Nih^ to some point on the
Suez Canal. The canal was not only to be navigable, l>ut was to be
capable of furnishing fresh water to the towns along tlie main canal and
the branch beginning at Ismailia and ruiming parallel with the Suez
Canal to the town of Suez. In addition, the canal was to sui)ply water
for the irrigation of a considerable area ceded l)y the government to
the company. The contract stipulated that the canal should b(} so con-
structed as to contain 8 feet of water in depth during Hood season of
tlie Nile, 6^ feet at mean discharge, and 3i feet at low water. The
canal has two head gates, the older one being in the city of Cairo. The
second head gate is about 4^ miles north of Cairo, from which point a
branch canal 2^ miles long connects with the main channel 5^ miles
northeast of Cairo. For some distance the canal runs northeasterlv
along the edge of the desert, after which it turns to the east through a
gap in the desert hills and continues to the town of Ismailia. For some
40 miles from Cairo it runs above the level of the surrounding country,
and the water is confined between two parallel embankments. This
has resulted in considerable seepage, which has destroyed large areas
adjoining the canal. Some work has been done toward draining a por-
tion of this count rv. Just before reaching Ismailia a branch of the
canal takes off to the south and terminates at the town of Suez. In
digging the canal some traces of an ancient channel leading in the same
direction were discovered. Historical accounts of an older canal have
been found. About 600 B. C, King Nekos })egan the construction of
a navigation channel running between the east arm of the Nile and the
Red Sea. The channel was never finished, although l:^oj)00 natives
employed upon it lost their lives in the undertaking.

The length of the Ismailia Canal from Cairo to Lake Timsali, near
the town of Ismailia, is about 80 miles. The length of the branch
leading south from Ismailia to Suez is al)out 53 mih^s. The bottom
width of the main canal is about 40 feet. The slopes are 3 to 1. The bot-
tom width of the branch canal leading to Suez is onlv ai)out 25 feet, but
tlie channel was not well excavated and the width is not uniform. In
places it does not exceed 16 feet. Many important masonry struc-
tures are found throughout the length of the canal. Swing bridges
are numerous, and substantial head gates and regulators are found
wherever the discharge of the canal has to be changed. Owing to the
^1^'pth to which the canal has been dug, and the necessity for keei)ing
it cleaned out so that it will carrv sutticient water for navigation dur-
iiig low stages of the Nile, large (juantities of silt have to be removed
t'ii^'h year. Formerly this deposit frei[uently amount(Hl to H.'>0,000
tubic yards each season. It has l)een reduced to ai)out 1 ♦;(!.( mo cubic

38

yar(l> hv partially closintr the hoad orates of the main canal durine
hi^h water and supplyintr it throutrl*^ the smaller canal already- referred
to, diverting water 4^ miles north of Cairo. Considerable work i^
required each year at the head <rate of the supply canal. It is over a
quarter of a mile fnmi the Inuik of the river. The channel leading to
this head trate tills with back water from the river during hig'h Nile
and inmiense <|uantities of nuul are deposited.

Maiiv of the canals in the delta are ancient river channels. Those
taking water from the Nile at the barrage are artificial. Among these
latter i> the Manufia Canal (frontispiece), which is one of the most
celebrat(*d in Egypt. It furnishes water for the irrigation of nearly
all the land in the delta Iving between the two branches of the Nile.
The head gate of the canal is similar in design to the bari'ag'e itself.
(PI. XI, lig. 2.) A lock has ])een provided at the head gate, and the
canal furnishes an important waterway for the internal commerce of
the delta. The canal is from lOo to 175 feet wide on the bottom, and
at higli wat(u* carries nearly 3n feet of water in depth. Its summer
dischai-ge is nearly 4jmh> cubic f(H^t per second.

The Tewtiki Canal diverts water from the Damietta ])ranch of the
Nile at the ea>tern (extremity of the bai'i*age. It was begun many
yejir> ago. but was not liiiished until after the occupation by the
Enirlisii. It furnish(\s wat(M' for a large area Iving east of the Danii-
etta bi'anch, and its construction has added greatlv to the value of this
region through tln^ introduction of p(»rennial irrigation. The Beheru
Canal lea\ (^s the Rosetta branch of the Nile at the western extremity
of the ])ari'age. It is about i\o feet wide on the bottom, with .slopes of
2 to 1. It runs for a considerable distance along the margin of the
desei't, hence recei\'es large volunu\s of sand which, w^th the silt
de])o>ited during hioli Nile, have to be cleaned from the channel each
yv'dv. Cntil recentlv ninu'lv 1, 000. Odd eubie vards had to be removed
aniuially. and, in spite of the enormous amount of work performed,
the canal carried less than ^\^>^^ cui)ic f(H't of water per second. The
Behera Canal is aljout rir* mil(v> long. At its lower extremitv the
Katat))eli Canal l)et»-ins. It has about the same dimensions as the
Helieia Canal. It su])plie> all tlu^ smaller canals to the north and
west. The suri)lus watei* from tlu^ drainage of the land it serves flows
into Lak(^ Mareotis. The Mahmoudia Canal begins 84 miles from the
barrage^ of the Kosetta branch of the Nile. This canal runs for about
15 miles to the northwest and en(l> at Alexandria. It supplies fresh
water for that citv besides furnishing water for irrigiating a lai'g^
area. The Mahmoudia Canal has for a long time l)een supplied with
wat(»r by means of immcMisi^ pum})s located at Atfeh. Since the repair
of the barrage the pum})s of Katatbeh have been removed to M^^^'
which station keeps down the level of Lake Mareotis.

39

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF CANALS AND LEVEES.

Nearly all hir^e public works in Egypt have been consU^ucted b}^ the
c<>rvee (See p. 74.) The s\'stein was niiich abused when the English
l>c»oran their occupation in 18S2. As soon as possible some relief was
afforded the corvee by direct appropriations, under which a part of
these employed on pu})lic works were paid for their labor at a price
Hxed ))v the government. These appropriations were increased until
in 18vSl^ all work of cleaning canals was paid for. Since that time the
corvee has been called out only for the protection of the Nile levees
during" Hood season, a period of from sixty to ninety davs. While thou-
sands of men are thus compelled to give tlieir time without compensa-
tion, it is for the public ])enetit, and the length of their service is short,
sc^ldoni loncrer than fifteen or twentv davs. Hut little complaint is now
heard, as the work is necessary and the service nnist be compulsory to
be efficient. The time will doul>tless come when this service* will also
be paid for.

The manner in which the native dijjfs or cleans canals is interestin<r.

His one tool, which resembles a hoe, is illust!'ated in the accompanying

sketch (tig. 7). The engineers measure the material which is to be

removed, and (»ach man or party

excavates a certain section contain

ing a known yardage. (PI. III).

Fre(|uently a number of men will

work t(^gether, one using a hoe and

the others cari'vint^ baskc^ts holdino*

about half a cubic foot of earth.

The earth is loosc^ned and the liaskets tilled bv the us(* of the hoe.

Where drv sand is encountered tlu* hands are used to iiil these Ivaskets.

Children are often seen carrviiii** the baskets, ])iit the hoe is nearlv

alwavs handled bv the men. lender this method of excavation canal

sections are made smoother and more reo-nlar than under the methods

t'ommonly employed in the TnittHl Stat<'s. Steps of earth arc left in

the banks, enalding those carrying material to walk with (•()nsi(l('ral)le

oa^e. On the smaller canals and laterals the earth is often loosened

^vith the hoe and thrown out bv hand. Sonn^tinies it is necessarx" to

elean these when a foot or mor(* of water i^ standing in tlu^n. in

which case the material, if pla-^tie, can be easily handled. Wheie the

hanks are higher, the earth mav be thcown bv a man in X\\o bottom of

the ditch to another on tln^ ])ard<, and l)y him pitciied out.

Near Medinet el Fayum a photogra])h was seeui'e(l of a numl>er of
natives cleaning a small ditch. (IM. IX, tig. i\) The soil \va> a black
l*>am, thoroughly saturatinl with watiM*. The men loos<Mie(l the mate-
rial with their hoes whei'e ni^M^ssai'v and riMuoved it bv hand. Tin*
uiaterial was sufficiently plastic so that i^ach htuidful n^tained its foi'ui

iM...

■Hni' iiMMJ l)v nnlivr fiirincr

40

after being deposited. After a day or so in the sun these become dry
and hard and are of no value in the )>ank of the ditch. On an averaofe
one man can excavate about 3 cubic vards of earth a dav if the lift be
not too great. For this service he is paid about 15 cents, which admits
of the cleaning of a canal at the rate of 5 cents per cubic yard. This
is the cheapest method of performing the work under Egyptian con-
ditions. It costs about 15 cents per cubic 3^ard to clean a canal with a
steam dredge, owing to the higher price of labor necessary to run the
machine and to the cost of coal. The large canals are usually cleaned
after the water has been drained out and thev have dried. When it is
impossi))le to drain them completely the unpleasant features of the
work are greatly increased.

WATER-RAISING DEVICES.

As has been before stated, most of the water for irrigation, except
in that portion of Egypt which still retains the ancient basin system,
flows l)elow the level of the land to be irrigated, the necessary lift
varying with the stage of the river. The native machinery for lifting
water has l)een designed to work regardless of this fluctuation. While
none of this machiner}^ is eflacient, it servos for the irrigation of a large
area. The shaduf and the sakiveh are used when the fluctuation is
great or where the lift is over 5 or 6 feet. Both are of ancient origin.
They can be applied to almost any lift, are easy to construct, and do
not require many repairs.

But little is known regarding the lifting machines used by the ancient
Egyptians. Probably the tirst devices invented bv them were much
more primitive and not as efticient as those used to-day. Man^ of
these machines have l^ecome obsolete l)ecause it was found that they
did not have as wide a range of application as have the devices now
generally employed. It may be that the scarcity of the material from
which the lifting devices were l)uilt has largely aflected the change in
design.

THE SHADUF.

The shaduf consists essentially of two vertical supports about 5
feet apart connected by a horizontiil crosspiece some 5 feet from the
ground, a pole hung on this crosspiece like a well sweep, and a bucket
suspended from this pole. In many places the uprights supporting
the crosspiece are made of small sheaves of cornstalks stiffened with a
coat of Nile nuid. Sometimes the nuid is used alone. The pole is hung
6 inches ])eneatli this crosspiece, as shown in PL XII. This pole is
not ])alanced, l)ut is supplied with a counterweight on the shorter end,
which extends away from the water. Suspended from the other end
is a long pole to which a bucket is attached. This bucket is usually
''lade of leather stifl'ened near the top by a wooden hoop. Its capacity

s

^

41

is approximately '2^ gallons, or one-third of a <-ubie foot. The eoiinter-
weio^ht is generally a piece of sun-dried Nile mud hehl together with
stra\v, cornstalks, or sugar-cane leaves. The woodwoi'k is generall}^
roug-h and the whole structuie shows a lack of neatness. The operator
throws his weight on the sweep, the bucket tills, and the counterweight
raises it to the channel into which it is to he poured. The ground
where the water falls is protected from erosion hy a matting of vege-
tal >le liher. A single shaduf can lift water only T) or i\ fe(»t, hut it is the
custom to install them in series of three oi- four, which work togethei',
niisiii^ the w^ater from 20 to 80 feet. A number of shaclufs so oper-
ated need not necessarily be in a line. It is (piite connnon to tind the
lo>ver shaduf 5(» or even loO feet up or down stream from th<^ others,
hut it is better to get them as close* together as possi})h», to i-(»ducr the
loss })\ seepage.

A shaduf operated by one person can raise about '4 cubic feet of
water per minute. A man usualh^ works two hours at a time, juul
two men relieving each other put in about ten hours a day. rhe\'
can. therefore, with one machine, raise 1,S(M) cubic feet of water i)er
day. Assuming that at each irrigation the land is covei'cul to a de})th
of 1 inch, a device of this kind woidd irrigates about half an aci'c a day.
The following table shows tlui efficiency of ji mmiber of shaduf> on
which data were obtiiined:

KtJif'i* fff'ff of fin sltfifhff '/.< ^/ //v/M r-m i.<i itn fl* rtct .

Height

«.f lift.

N'niii

of vj

•liif-
>erit

her
la-
in

CoKt of

rnnninj.'

inachiiu"'

I.er 'lay r»f

ten hour*.

• Area irri-
Kate'l in
ten
hour-.

a<

•f <;ifh

irriLM-
tioii.

I»-

1"

•r <
/■'■

1,1 ;..

Are,
fi.-l<l

.1' '

-1 of

irri-

1 ■,

( <.-! |.<-r
ii'T* ;or

•,l<il loot

"1 , i : ' .

2.S leet

r'. •>»

"i.Jl

?1. i.'.

II ( «,

(

1 '.("

i'i.:.I

ii.:; I«-et

••/

. 1 '

l.?-*

')♦,

1

L.'l

. ■'/

H.;i I'-el

..,u

. ; J

1 . .'.-

"7

1

1 I"

l-

'Vj fcvt

. .-;' 1

. '.-J

1 . :.-

II 1

1

L J<«

. • 1

4. -J 1%-el

_''.♦

A • »

1 ■.'■:

II 1

•1

. V.

.').7 feet

J

■H

\',7

1 •♦

1

1 1 -
I.I'

I '

•"» n-*'l

. ■,' 1

' 1

_'. "O

"i

» i • «

. J;

y.i f.-el

■')■ '

■ f

J '_'

J

1

1 n't

.1

Ill \ ie.-r

' -'i

]')

♦ 1 . ' l"

»

J

; '■;

\

1''.* iVvi

. '.->

\ t t

' . o

1 .;

' »

. t,

iy..i feet

>,ii

H *

*, »-7

■ ;

■i.

■',\

1'.'.4 >et

t',

I 1

'.' .'.

{'

•-il S feet

»*,

|H

'." 7

' .',

/

'*'

211 f^t

1

4

-

--

•>•■* •'♦-»- T

---♦ l^-'t

'

THE SAKIYEH.

The >akiveh i.> a> c(jmmoii ;i- tii»- -iki'mii'. It i- «'-tifi;at»'i tf.;it !.,♦••»-
are l:^jHH>of them in di:it })uit of th«- 'l»lta •.••r.'. .-^i. *:..• ',]n\.>-\.^-- of
the Nile. There are pr<;bubly .",<». mmm a iro;j'-r, '..-:• ;., K;/- pt. I /.»•
machine i."* constructed a^ follow-: A ;.oii/,ofir;i. -.'.o :••.'. ■:.••••. )''o.r
1<' feet in diameter, furni-h*-''! uith •o'/- \)vr^-c\\\/j .« '^>'.^ - .\> rj«- f :'»;;.
iU circumference. i< ^ui>p<>rrM.l «,ri i '.^-iri.-il -r.afr. * .• .'» '-i »•/. : of

■ ^

which is pointed and rests on ji wooden bearing. The upper end of
this shaft is o-onerally of small diameter and is thrust through a hole
in a horizontal beam 22 or 28 feet long and supported at its ends hv
columns of sun-dried bricks or masonry. Sometimes wooden posts
or ev(^n two small pieces of wood crossed and tied together are substi-
tuted for these coUunns. Projecting radially from the horizontal
wheel is an arm to which is hitched the animal furnishing the power.
The teeth on the horizontal wheel engage similar teeth on a vertical
wheel, the shaft of which passes underground to a second vertical
wheel over the watei* to ])e lifted. The details of this wheel and the
earthen jars it carries are shown in the accompan3^ing illustration (PI.
XIII, tig. 1). Where the lift exceeds half the diameter of the wheel
thc^ jars are attached to a l>elt which passes around a small wheel in the
water or simply hangs by its own weight. Sometimes the sakiyeh is
})uilt on a masoiu-v foundation. The shaft of the horizontal wheel
then has a stone i)earing and the beam supporting the shaft rests on
the masonry walls. Whih^ the wooden parts have to })e replaced quite
often, the masonry work is practically permanent.

An ox or a buti'alo is usually employed to work the machine. P2ac*b
animal is relieved evcM'v thrin* hours and generalh^ works two periods
per day. Sonu^inn^s two animals are driven together. This is common
when a d()u))lc belt. furnisluHl with jars (piite close together, is used,
or whei'c tlu^ lift is vcrv hio*h. In the Favum the sakivehs are often
turned }>v the current of tli<^ canals. In the delta the vertical wheel
carrying the jars is fre(|uently r(^})laced by one having small compart-
ments built in its circumference. The jars ordinarily used on a sakiyeh
weigh about 2A^ })<)unds each and hold about half a gallon. A sakiyeh
will raise from VIO to lS(i cu})ic fc^et of water per hour, depending upon
the heio'ht of tli(» lift. Ttie cihcitMicv of the device is reduced bv its
lifting' th(^ water liiniuM' than necessarv i)v about a third of the diameter
of th(^ wheel. It has b(MMi estimatinl that one sakiyeh will do the work
of four shadufs. This is a})pr()ximate and is doubtless too high.

A number- of iin})ro\'enients have been made in these machines
rcHMMitly and they are now manufactured by British tirms and imported
into Egypt. Being constructtnl of iioiu the rtrst cost is often prohibi-
tiv(\ n^})airs are ditticult. and it is not easy to install them where the
sites lia\<' IxMMi (lesii»*ne(l for lai"o(M" >akivehs.

Tlu^ cost of operating ji sakiyeh. using one animal at a time, is about
^I.Tji^ per acre each irrrigation, for lifts not (exceeding 12 feet. From
12 to IS feet the cost will })robably reach !^2.4(> per acre, and from 20
to 'in feet, ''^^>.^^u pei' acre. If the animals used are owned by the irri-
gator, the cost will be consideral)ly reduced. The sakiyeh itself may
cost all the way from ^10 to Sir)0, depending upon the location, the
cost of the material of wliich it is constructed, the price of labor, and
whether or not masonry is used in the walls and foundation. The fol-
lowing table has })een prepared from notes taken in the field:

43

Efficiency of the sakhjeh as a irater-rahhuj device.

Heigrht of lift.

Number
of

animals
working

two or
two and a
lialf hour

periods.

Cost of

running

machines

per day of

ten hours.

SO. 60
.60
.63
.58
.51
.69
.60
.57
.49

.,H2

1.05

Area

irrigated

in ten

hours.

Acre.
0.74
.66
.66
.78
.65
. ()5
.64
.57

. (;6

.47
.49

Cost per
acre each
irriga-
tion.

SO. 80
.90
. 95
.74
.80

1.06
.94

1.00
.74

1.74

2.14

Discharge
per day.

Acre-foot.
'0.24
.23
.24
.21
.21
.20
.23
. 2()
.20
.17
.16

Area of
field irri-
gated.

Cost per

acre for

each foot

of lift.

\\ feet

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
4

Acres.
10.3
8.6
8

9.4
7.3
7.6

/

6.1
7.2
5.3

4.8

SO. 27

.5 f<*et

.18

r> .'*<) feet

.17

r. feet

7.7.'> feet

.*> 7.5 feet

.12
.10
.12

10 feet

.09

12 .5<.) f et't

.08

\k\ \'ee t

.05

1*.» feet

.09

5 fee t

.09

THE ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW.

In the delta a numlnn- of unusual methods are euiplo^ed for rai.sing
water from 1 to 4 or 5 feet. One of the most striking* of these, and
one the least to l)e expected in Egypt, is the Archimedean screw.
Around an iron shaft some 14 or 15 feet lonef is })uilt a screw, made
up of thin pieces of wood so fitted together as to be practically water-
tight. A water-tight wooden cylinder is constructed around the screw.
The diameter of the cylinder is ordinarily al)out 14 inches, and its
length does not often exceed S or t> feet. The pitch of the screw is
ahout 1 reyolution to 1^ diameters. The screw is so attached that it
will not reyolye on the shaft. The shaft projects from both ends of
the cylinder and is supported near its extremities ])y posts. The
screw inclines 30 degrees or less to the horizon, with its lower end in
the water. To the upper end of the shaft a craidv is attachinl. This
lifting deyice is shown in the accompanying illustration. (PI. XIV.)
One or two men usually operate a screw, but in rare cases, wh(Mi the
screw is especially large or tlie lift considerable, a small cMigine is
employed. High lifts are practically impossible on account of the
difficulty of supporting a screw of great length. This deyice^ is more
efficient than the lifting machines contriyed by the natiyes. One man
can irrigate from 1 to 2 acres a day with this machine, proyidiul the
lift be not oyer 2 feet. The efficiency of th(^ Archimed(nui screw is

«

shown in the foUowino- table:

KfficioH'ff of the ^[rcJiimedeaii .sv/v/'' ^/.^' ti iiafei'-i'tii.'<iii'/ '/erirt

Height of lift.

Niimh«.r

of men

working

periods

of two

hours.

Cost of

OlHTiltioll

per (lay ol
ten h(»nr.s

Area Cost per
irrigated acre each
ill ten I irriga-
liours. I tioii.

3.3 feet.
"*5feel.
4.6 feet.
•■»1 leet.
5 y feet.

«o. :>1
. - (

.27
. 29

A(n
1.
1.
1

1.
1.

n

.■J I
. •_•( »

, 2('.

A 1 ca I M _ '. _

icM irri
gatc>i.

)iv< Marge ,. , , . .,.. acre lor

. .. J .. llCK HI- , c ,

per <ia\ . . , each toot

o

f lift.

<■;•' f'niif.
(I. 47

. .'v_»
.4'»
. tl

. I'VV .v.
1 J.'J
111. ^

10

r.. t

11.7

So. OS
.05

. 01
.06
.04

44

THE NATALI.

In the delta a o'vent deal of water i.s raised by means of another
curiou.s device, known as a natali. Two men operate a bucket to
which is attached four cords. These cords are held by the men and
the bucket is alternately tilled and emptied with remarkable dexterity.
PI. XV shows this device in use. But little preliminary construction
is needed l)efore the work of raising water can be commenced. A
channel is generally dug from the water into the bank of the canal
and platforms aie made for the men to stand on. Where the water is
poured into the ditch heading to the fields the bank is protected, as in
the case of shadufs, })v a matting of vegetable fiber. Two men can
raise about lOO cubic feet of water per hour to a height of 3 or 4 feet.
The accompanying tai)le gives some information relative to the
efBciencv of this contrivanc(»:

Ktjiciencii i>J flu iidtaii */.<< «/ intti r-rni»iny derive

HeiKlit ui lift.

0. 7 foot
0. H foot

1.0 fool
\.h fro I
l.C) Wv\
!.•> U'vX

2. 1 fi-vt
2.8 feet
2. 7 fert
2. S feet

NiunhiT

I

of llU'll

('(

)St of

Area ir-

Cost per 1

Area of
field irri-
gated.

Cost per
acre for

working

OJK

'ration

rigated

aere each

Discharge

periods

per (biy of

in ten

irriga-

j>er day.

each foot

of two

ton

hours.

hours.

tion.

of lift.

hours.

- -

Arr>.

Acn-ftnti.

Acrtit.

•_>

SO. 2s

0. 94

SO. 80

0. 27

6

SO. 43

•J

.80

.9S

.81

. 2(;

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.27

PUMPING.

Small piun])ing ])huits are becoming common and some expensive
and well-e([uip])ed pumping stations have been erected in various parts
of E<jfvi)t. The desion most commonlv met w^ith is an 8-inch centrif-
ugal pump propelled hy an (S-horsepower steam engine. Coal is
usuallv burned in these enofines. althouirh corn.stalks and sti*aw are
substituted for it in Upper Kgypt. Coal costs ^7 per ton at Alexan-
dria, the price increasing with the distance from that port.

As (^arly as iss:^ there were i?,()-l:5 pumps and engines lifting water
from the Nile and from canals. The engines had a total horsepower
of 21^453. Of the plants 2,22<> were movable and 410 were stationary.
The stationary engines had a total horsepower of 9,382, while the
movable engines had a horsepower of 2(>J>T1. Nearly all of these
pumping plants were located in the delta, although there were a num-
])er ])etween Cairo and Assiut. Above that there were no movable
olants and only 17 stationary engines and pumps. The number has
ot increased appreciably since that time, but modern pumps have,

F'G, 2. -A STE4M Pump on a Scow.

I

45

in many cases, Ihhmi substituted for tlioseoriofinally employed. Pump-
ing plants are frequently seen on seows on the river. (PI. XIII, tig. :2.)
Those go from place to place and furnish water under contract.
Where the lift is not over 8 or 10 feet and where the owner of the
field is a part owner in the plant, steam ])umps furnish water at a])out
^I.IH) per acre for each irrigation. If the farmer is not interested in
the plant the cost per acre may run as high as ^3.75 or ^4 for each irri-
iration. Cotton has to be watered four or five times durin"* the ijfi'ow-
ing- season. AA'heat, maize, and all fodder crops are generally twice
irrigated. Figures quoted ])V engineers as to the cost of pumping
water vary greatly. The outlay for this service depends largely upon
the local practice of the irrigator. ]\Ir. Thorwald L. Smith, agricul-
turist of the Societe du Behera, which controls a considera])le area in
the delta, has furnished the following information regardino- the char-
acter of the pumps employed )>y the society, together with their dis-
charge, the quantity and cost of coal consumed, etc. The pumps
employed are either of English or French manufacture, and are not
superior in any way to those made in the United States. A detailed
description of them is therefore unnecessary.

Kxpcnsc of ofieralion per (l:iy of \v\\ Total cost ikt
liour>. dav.

I)»MTii»ti<)ii of ct'iitrifiignl pump DischarLrt' — —

and eiiuiiie. por sccoii.l. Coal.'' ljil)ri- Kiiuim-fr

('ain>« an<l aixl

I'ouihK. Co^t. .sundries, tiiviuaii.

Tell Twelve
hours, hours.

17. r..; 1. •_»!•_> :>. 1.') .is \.-i:\ c. s.") «.. i:-{

17.r,h \.-lVl .'>.!■'> AS \.i:\ »;. s:; s. 13

Ciiltic Jut.

20-inch direct-noting" pnmponnd
<<»n<lensiii|r Gwynncpnmp i 17.<>r. \.'1\-1 ^:^.\'^ .^o. is .fl.J:i S-t-. ^:^ ?s. 13

■2()-inch Riistonand Proctor. driven
h.v l)oli from semiportable com-
pound condensing engine by
^anie makers

1*^ inch Diimont pump, driven by
hilt from a Rnston-I'roctor com-
pound condensing portable

Ifi-inch Rnston-I'roctor pinnp,
driven by belt from compound
<f>ndensing portable by same
makers '. ' lo. r.o 77_> :i. 17 .is I.l'o l.^f. .">. s;i

l.i-inoh Gwynne pump, driven by .
belt from single cylinder non
condensing portable t;. 7(» iw;2 J.'.t^ .Is ].•_':; i.sc, r.. s;i

"Tests running from lS95-P.to]; lift. t;.."> feet. ''Coal at 8^.94 per ton.

DUTY OF WATER.

Some tests have })een made in ))otli Tpper and Lower PLgypt to deter-
niine the dut}' of water. The lack of careful measurements of the
^'ater supplied for irrigation discredits mtmy reports which would
otherwise be valuable. The rated capacity of the pum])s i.-< too ofttMi
Used in computing the vokune of water furnishiul. When gaugings
are made to check the pumps, it is generally found that the diM-harge
"as been overestimated. The watiM- is u^uallv measured on thc^ ])()rder

46

of tho field, so that hut littk^. h)ss occurs hetween the pump and the
irri^iitcd hind. In hjwer Et'-ypt it has been found that a depth of
wat(n' of 2..');*) feet is sufficient for the irrigation of cotton. A depth of
4.3 f<»et is reipiired for rice. The winter crops, which have ali*eady
been ('luinierated, (hMnand from 1.6 to 2 feet. Although the growing
«easoii of suj^ar cane, the most vahia))Ie crop in upper Egypt, covers a
period of nine months, a depth of water of 2.5 feet suffices for its
needs.

Th(* following- diseus>ion of the dutv of water under some of the
pumi)in<i- phuits of the Societe du Behera, in Lower Egypt, has been
furnished by ]\Ir. Tliorwald L. Smith:

ft

* * * Tlie losy throuirh ♦.'Viiporation and absorj)ti()n varies greatly according to
the foiloNviiiir conditions:

(1) (Quality of soil: (a) Sandy; (1)) niedinni; (c) heavy.

(LM Tinu' of year: ^a) Hot: (h^eold.

(.*>) Nundn'i' ot days elapsed since last watering.

(4) Oistanccof lield I'roni }>nnip: [a) Water carried in old permanent channel; (b)
carried in temporary channel lor that jnirticular crop.

As to the lirst, we tind that in [ix) sandy soil (pure alluvial deposits) the quantity
of water rc«inirc<l for each watering is about double that wanted for heavy (c). On
the other hand, such soil cracks less, and, consecpiently, there is not so much loss,
shoidd tlie time between two waterings be ]>rolonged, as there is in heavy soil where,
after a lonu' drouLrht in summer, tlu' cracks (nidess tlie land be frequently hoed)
will contlmie to al»sorl> all the water for some minutes and will conduct it to the sub-
soil, w hich is salt, where it can be of little use to the surface-feeding crops.

Second. Time of year makes a difference in two ways: First, because in summer a
lot (»f water is lost by evaporation so soon as it is spread in a thin layer over the
baked land, and second, bt'cause in the c«.)oler months the canals are all generally
running full and conse(|uently all Knv lands can be irrigated by gravitation and are
more or less w attM-l(»g*jfcd. especially where drainage is bad. In fact, for winter crops
the only time when ptnnps are ust'd for such lands is when the upper reaches of the
canals have been closed lor clearance and the water in the lower reaches falls below
the ground le\ el.

Thii'd. The number of days between each watering for cotton should be an aver-
age of lifteen. but thiough want ol water this is frequently prolonged to thirty or even
nioic. Xatmally from causes mentione<l ab(tve, i. e., cracking, and from the fact
that e\aporation dii-ectl\' and through the i>lants has been going on continually, the
lar.d takt's mori' water to show any sign on the surface. For the rice crop these last
conditions can not obtain, foi- water must be changed in rice tields while the crop is
youHLT at least evei-y four days, and w hen stn»nger at a maximum of eight days on
good soil. ( Wlu're the lan<l is very salt the i-rop would suffer very much, if not die,
in an eiudit-day inti'rval. ) On the other hand, as the rice land is continually wet
the absorption at tlu' time of watering is much less, and of course there are no cracks.
However, as the water is on the surface there is great evaporation from sun and wind,
especially so l(»ng as the j)lant is small and does not shade its own roots.

In caltulating ( tluM)retically ) the amount of water necessary for each watering,
about o.'.*4 inches in dei)th would apjiear to be sutlicient. Indeed, in the case of
cotton w hich is sow n on riilges, one might think that the area of the furrows only,
into which the water runs, i. e., about half the total area, would be the figure on
whicli to base the (piantity necessary. But the ridges, being made up entirely of
loose soil, soak up water at once, especially the first watering or after a hoeing, and

47

carry almost as much as a furrow. I may say at once that the 3.94 inches over the
whole area for cotton, even when the ground is not much cracked, is quite insufficient,
and in a long furrow that quantity would not reach the end. Of course, to equalize
the supply to each plant the field is divided longitudinally into narrow belts and
these belts crossways into short beds. This division is made after the field has
been prepared and ridged up, the original ridges stretching from one end of the
field to the other. Between each belt is a small water channel, which is what I
refer to in 4 (b). In these channels a good deal of water must be wasted. As to
the permanent waterways we calculate a mean loss of 10 per cent for absorption
and evaporation. * ^ * ^

THE CAIEO BAEEAGE.

In 1798 and 1799, during the French occupation, Napoleon called
attention to the advisability of constructing dams across the Rosetta
and Dainietta branches of the Nile. Perennial irrigation had probably
not occurred to him, but he saw the advantage of being able to turn
the whole discharge of the river down one branch or the other so that
the lands along either might receive the benefit of the entire flow.
The dam would probably not have been built had this been its only
function, but his suggestion may have led Mohanmied Ali to intro-
duce perennial irrigation in Lower Egypt.

In 1833 Mohammed Ali favored building a stone dam across the
Rosetta Branch so that it might })e c^ntirely closed. This would raise
the level of the water considerablv at the site of the dam and ali'ord a
better supply to the canals taking water from the Damiettti Branch,
along which was the larger irrigated area. Before work was begun
he was persuaded to change his plans. It was suggested to him that
in place of building a dam across the Rosetta Branch one be erected
on each branch 6 miles ])elow their point of divergence. The kh(Hlive
approved this plan and ordered that the stone be taken from the Pyra-
mids. All protests against this latter scheme were without avail until
Linant Pasha, a government engineer, showed that, as the Pyramids
were built from the bottom to the top, they would have to ])e dis-
mantled from top to bottom, and that the stone thus procured would
he more expensive than if taken from new quai'ries opened near Cairo.
Everything seemed now to promise speedy completion of the dam.
>>orkshops were erected and some material for construction had ])een
delivered on the ground, when Mohammed Ali again changed his
mmd and stopped the work. Nothing more was heard of the barrage
project until 18-12, when ]\Iougel Bey, a French engineer, was called
to Egypt and his plans, as altered by the khedive so as to inclucU^ the
lortifications, led to the construction of the barrage as it stands to-day.
The dam was finally completed in I8<)1 at a cost of ^9,()00,U(M), not
^'ounting the services of the corvee. Tln^ additional cost of fortitica-
"Ons, canal head gates, and incidentals made the total outhiv about
*19,000,0<X).
After this vast expenditun^ the dam was of no valuer i\\ce})t as a

48

highway across tho Nile. Only the Ro.setta Branch of the barrag-e was
siippli(»d with g-ates. The additional head produced b}^ closing* these
caused enough pressure to crack the masonry of the dam. At the
same time water ran under the structure and a number of springs
appeared below. During the reign of Ismail Pasha nothing was done
toward repairing the hariage. Suggestions that it might be put in
condition to hold ))ack water for the irrigation of lower Egypt were
never considered seriou>lv.

The barrage is shown in the accompanying illustrations (Pis. XVI
and XVII). The Kosetta dam has iM archways, while the Damietta
Branch has 71. The hei^fht of the archwavs is 41.82 feet from the floor
of the structui-e to the crown of the arch, or 32. S feet to the spring" line
of the arches. The archways are 16.4 feet wide, and the piers support-
ing them are H.r>0 feet thick. The original foundation of the dam was
sin)ply a layer of concrete 111 feet wide and nearly 9 feet thick, cov-
ered ])v a stone and ])rick floor 1.^)4 feet thick. As work on each

ft

section was undertaken, sheet piling was driven to keep the water
quiet while the concrete was ))eing laid. The piers w^ere constructed
on this floor. Locks were ])uilt at both ends of each dam and at the
head gates of the three canals. The flow of water through the sluice-
ways was to have ])een regulated ])y gates of a new^ design, but they
never proved satisfactory, although a few still remained in the dam
until IStM). The gati\s now used close tightly, but a grating, through
which the water flows at all times, is l)eneath the sills on which the
gates rest.

Since the English have ])een in control of Egypt repairs to the barrage
have been going on almost constantlv. A new floor was laid, widenins:
the foundation 80 feet on the downstream and 78 feet on the upstream
side. It w^as thought better to widen rather than deepen the founda-
tion, l)C(ause the material did not improve with depth. After this
work was compk^ted new gates were put in the dam throughout.
These were made of wrought iron and provided with rollers, and they
slide in cast-iron grooves made fast to the piers. The gates are lifted
by a traveling winch. One rail for supporting the car carrying the
lifting device was put on the upstream parapet of the dam. Brick
towers were ])uilt on the piers to support the second rail. These
towers, with the gates now employed, are show n in PI. XVII.

Until 1SJM> the springs on the downstream side of the dam continued
to flow. Some water came through the gratings, but a large volume
flowed under the piers. In iSiH) repairs were begun which will doubt-
less make the l)arrage an enduring structure. Through holes 5 inches
in diameter, drilled from top to bottom of the piers and lined with
iron pipes, clay or cement mortar was rannned. it was found in this
work that large cavities existed under the foundation, and as much as
40 ])arrels of cement were used for a single pier. The total cost of

49

those repairs amounted to ^300,000. Another safeguard has })een
added to the ))arrage. Across eaeh branch of the Nile below the bar-
rat^fe low dams have been built, raising* the surface of the water there
• and corresponding'l}' reducing* the pressure to which the larger works
are subjected.

The Egyptian Government had many times prior to 188:^ discussed
the matter of repairing the barrage. At one time a scheme was on
foot whereby it was thought that an expenditure of ^6,200,0(K) would
make the structure servicea})le. Luckilv, the Ara})ic custom of not
making repairs prevailed in this instance. Another scheme which
rei'oived the attention of the government was to pump water into the
canals instead of relying on the barrage at all. This would have
necessitated an expenditure of nearly ^8. 5(10 J Mio for the estaf)lishment
of the pumping plant, and an annual outlay of a))out Sl.r^.'iOjKH) to
keep it in'operation. The government actually made a contract with
a company to pump water into one of the canals during low water,
and bound itself to pay at least J^l'JS.ooo a year for this service. So
successful, however, were the engineers in repairing the dam that by
Isi^'i the canals heading there were fully supplied. The barrage fur-
nishes water at a much less cost than a pumping plant, and, as the
flow is regulated during the season of high water as well as at other
times, a great reduction is made in the volume of silt which has to
be removed from the canals each vear. However, until after the
occupation of the English, lal)or had i)ut little value, and this item
was probaldy not taken into consideration.

As early as 1884 the ))arragt^ performed some beneticial service for
the irrigators of the delta. The alterations which tirst put the dam in
working order cost about §2,*jr)(),(Mio. One hundred and tifty thousand
dollars are requirv*d each year for maintenanei^ and operation. While
the repairs were being carried on, the Tewtiki Canal, taken out at tiie
eastern end of the Damietta ])ranch of the barrage, was (•oni])lei(Hl.
Alanv auxiliarv canals and ditches wcm'c du^- and considcra))U^ ri^t'oi'm
was })rought about in the drai?iagc system throughout tlie delta.

RESERVOIRS.

I'he construction of ri^servoir^ i> a new dei)artui"c on tlu^ pai't of the
^^.vptian Government. Storinu' water at As>uan diiiiiiu' the winter
for the })enetit of the irrigator durino' the months of ^(*ar»*itv will
necessitate changes in th(^ in'igation systiMUs iu)w existing if the >m)-
ply thu?5 made available is to })c (li>tril)ute(l to the be>t a<l\anlage.
The water supply atforded by the Nib* i> ^uch that storage woi'k> c;ui
'>e extended almost indetinitt^lv. or until all of tln^ arai)le land of Kuv])t
is served by perennial iirigation.

I'ho total area of Egypt proper, emi)racing the gi-eat Lybian Desrrt,

27752— No. Vdo—iK] 4

.'•I »

whi.h «i»r:ta::-- hvr «ri^-. :•:. i :t lur^» |iart of the Sinai Peninsula, is
a'*»««;t :*.>•.••-• -^.lair^- ::.:!»--. Of ir.i-* ir-*^ than 3 ]^r c-ent. or about
K.«»-...-*i :i.r»*^. •a!! ^-v»r '•• .-if.iivai* 'i. The aci-t.>nipanying map (PI.
X^ !!!• ♦'i!a'»:— a i-onqrir :--•:. t*» '*»e ma-ie of the Nile Valley with that
of th»- P!art»' Kiv^r. It a :!1 '••- i^.tio-vl that the mouths of the Platte
ani the Ihi:i;i»-tta ''Ttin'-h **t th«- NiU- aiv e<»ineident. The two rivers
cr«»^- X:.*' ii«»rth ''N.m.inry »'f C"»»l«»ra !«• nr-ar th»* '^mie point, and Denver
an«i A-Miai: Vu- oi:ly a f»w n.i:.- ajxirt. Etrypt prop)er, therefore, has
a^Miiit the --iinie leni^ih a- th»- P'.att*- VaiK*y iroin Denver to the Mis-
s<:>ur: Kiver. The wiith *>i th*- P'atte ^'al^•y in NehnLska is abotit the
>an.e a- that <»f the Nile fr«»:ii A— iian to Cairo. Only 5.145.WO acres
are ii«»w ciiitivattii in the val!»'V of rh»* Nile. A similar area of agrri-
ciiltund land in N»''»ni-ka wmd i iiavt* pHniueed in l^Hu-rops having
a total value of a'H»i;t ^i'»'..' »'•••.•»"«». The faniiincr lands of Eg-ypt pay
Uh>v*' than thi- in tax»*^ i-a* h y»tir. Nehni-ka rei^-eived in liXM» a little
uvt-r 25*'».« M H »j H H I XT" *u\ all it^ --4 »u!Vt - i»f revenue. Egypt received about
^r.o J H N I I M M I. N»'hra-ka ha^ m* 'HtiKied inde}itedne>> and bnt a small
fl(»at!nLr drht. EL''y]>t ha-- a ronipliration of financial troubles, owing
in til*' aL'^LT^'L'^^tf s.m»;jhm»jmh«. ,.i- s^ni for each acre of aGrricultural
hunL

r)iit lirtlr anr«h' hind in Ippt-r EL'"ypt remains imreclaimed. aiid the
ar»-a ^-nioyinL'' pt-rrimiu! irriiration can not he extended imtil reservoirs
arc pi-oviif'd to ^t<»re the water whirh i^ nee«ied in May and June.
With tlh' growth of th^' re-crvoir ^y-teni l>a>in irrigation will disap-
p»ai". There ai"e now 11'" (»t the^-e 'm-in^ in I'pper Egypt, varying in
.'-izf fr<»!n .".oo to o;».ooo inre-. Karli vear nianv of these basins fail to
rcMcive the vohnnc of water nei'drd anvi the yield of the crops is cor-
r('-p<»n'iniL'"ly reduced. Taxes on -ui-h land have to l»e remitted, entail-
iiio- a lo-- to rlie trea-iirv i^i s-j-ui^iutw annuallv. Althoiiofh -the basin
sv-teni ha- hren L'"reatlv ini]>roved diiriiiL^ the past twentv vears, vet
SO evi(h-nt are rht^ advantaLTe-^ <»t* ]>ereniHal iri'iL^ition that the demand
io] re-ervoir- ha- i)eon growing. In Lower Egypt 1.3oojXK) acres can
})e rerdainie(l when water for irrigation i- made available. According
t<.) a roiiLfh rh'ternnnation of tlit^ <hitv of water, made l>v engrineers. it
will re(|uire :);;j'<io r-uhic feet per -ec()nd. or 7."..4«"> acre-feet per day,
to iii'iL;'at<* thi- land.

'ihe Mjcan di-charee of the Nih' for Januarv is about 14(M)00 acre-
feet ixM- dav. For February it i- al»out l<»4.«»<»o. and for March it is
T.*^.<'<'" acr('-fe(.'t per day. in thi- month falling helow the volimie which
will he n<*r*d<*d when all tlie irrigable land in Egypt is brought under
cultivation. In A|)i"il and June the mean discharge per da^' is alx)ut
51JMIO acre-feet. In May it fall> a^ low as 44.5i»u acre-feet per day.
The mean di-chartrc in acre-feet per dav for Julv is 182,000. While
some >hortarr<^* inav occur verv earlv in this month, vet it is not one of

51

the critical months. During the remainder of the year the river always
furnishes more water ttan is needed.

Mean dMuinje of the Xile, 1873-189^.

Month.

Acre-feet.

-iMiumry ' 4, 192, C.oO

Ftttruarv
Man-h
April..
May...
Tuiit' ..
Julv ..

3, lln, 728
2, 210, 8.3S
1,538,460
1,335,114
1,538,400
5, 484, (500

Month.

Acre-feet.

Augrnst

September.
October . . .
November
December .

17,684,508
20,020,106

19, 050, sm

9, 329, 700
5.899,014

Total 92. <;01, 224

The reservoir system would, during average years, have to supply
li!0,O()U aore-feet in March, 799,000 acre-feet in April, 1,()0l>,0(H» acre-
feet in Ma}', 799,000 acre-feet in June, and probably 120,000 acre-feet
during the first few davsof Julv. The reservoirs Avould have to store
a total volume of 2,852,000 acre-feet in order to furnish water for the
irrigation of this land. Even in low-water years the Nile supplies
plenty of water to fill a reservoir system of much larger i'aj)acity. If
the reservoir system could be made large enough to maintain a uniform
flow in the river throughout the year, it would at all times discharge
about 257,280acre-feet per day, or about 130, OOO cubic teet per second.
The Nile furnishes an average volume of 92,()O0,0OOucre-feet annually.
Disregarding losses in storage and transit, it is estimated tluit 27.521,000
acre-feet of water would irrigate all of the ao^ricultural land. Tnder
this assumption the land would be covered to a deptii of 4.27 feet.
This would leave G5,200,o0o acre-feet of Avater unused when Egypt
was fully supplied. It will be seen that the building of the Assuan
reservoir, with an estimated capacity of 8()o,400 tu-re-fect. is only the
tirst step in the construction of storage works. The Wady Kyan site
alone could probably store al)out 3, 000,000 ucre-feet, enough water to
supply Egypt, but it could l)e used only in Lower Egypt; but the nat-
uml flow of the Nile furnishes more watiM* than is needed for ri)i)er
Egypt. If this site were impioved. the Assuan reservoir would not
be needed; hence, it will very likely Ix^ tlu» policy of the govertmient
to build a number of storat^c works similar to the Assuan resiM'voir
farther up the river. That tlu^ (\\piMise of maintaining these jind the
(lifliculty of controlling the discharge of water from them will l)e nuich
greater than for one large reservoir, can not be doubted.

If reservoirs are construcl(Hl farther up the Nile, tlu\v nuist be
farther from Egyptian territory, and conMHiuently !nore ditiieult to
control. Much discussion has oecurriHl us to thi^ finisibility of utilizing
lakes Victoria and Albert in central Africa as rexM-voirs. i^ut little^
has been done toward making survevs in that localitv and no tiiiures
are available as to the cost of convertiui:- the lakes into -«tora<re works.

52

THE ASSUAN BESEBVOIB.

Tho entifineers of the Eofvptian (jovernment have realized for a long
time that it would }>e necessary to store some of the Nile water ])efore
I'pper Ktifvpt could receive the ))enetits of perennial irrigation or a
large area of Lower Egypt be reclaimed. For ten years before work
was undertaken toward building the reservoir preliminary surveys
were made and manv reservoir sites were discussed. Investiofators
resorted to ancient history and brought forth all the known facts
regarding Lake Moeris, which occui)ied part of the basin now known
as the Fayum pi'ovince. One American engineer, who had studied
this subject and made some survevs, held that the Wadv Rvan was
formerlv Lake Moeris. Whether or not this })e true does Pot matter

«

at this time. To-day it is the only practicable reservoir site ))etween
the Mediterranean and Assuan. (See PI. XIX.)

Farlv in 1S1>4, after considerable discussion as to how reservoir con-
struction should be carried on and what sites should be utilized, a
technical commission was appointt^l. This commission consisted of
Sir HiMijamin Baker, tin Englishman: Auguste Boule, a Frenchman,
and (liacomo Torricelli, an Italian. Thev left Cairo Februarv '2^'^-
and leturned March liH, having examined all the sites in less than a
month. The Wadv Hvan and a number of Nile vallev reservoirs were
discussed, th(* majority of the commission finally agreeing upon the
Assuan site.

Th(^ Nile, from the town of Assuan to the dam site, is broken into
manv ii'reuular chaniu^ls. The bed and banks of the river are larsfelv
com])<)S(Hl of grtmite. The first cataract of the Nile begins where the
water first encounters tlu^ granite. Engineers agreed that the dam
should ))e built in this localitv. but as to its exact line there was a
gi'eat (leal of discussion. ^Ir. Willcocks reconnnended that it be of
irreuular alignnuMit, run!iifii»' from one island to another, where his
studies indicated that tht* granite was solid, thus afl'ording a good
foundation: but the dam a^ tinallv built is straio'ht, and crosses the
ri\'e]' where rapids lir>t ap])ear. It was originally planned to make
the dam l<Mi feet high, but when it was found that a dam of this
height would cause the sui)mersion of the temples on the island of Phila^
it wa> detei-mined. in view of the ptotests of those interested in the
presiM'vation of these* luiii^. to re(hue the height 30 feet, although it
is possible that it may still ))e raisiul to 1(M) f(»et. This would give the
r(\sei*voir a storage eapaeity two or three times greater than it now
has, whili* the* latio bi»tween the cost of the work and the volume of
water im})ound(Ml would be greatly reduced. (Pis. XX and XXI.)

The dam is To feet high. 6,4oo fVet long, !i3 feet wide on top, and
S2 f(H't wide on th(* bottom at the diH^pest })art. It contains approxi-
mately 1.0(10.000 cui)ic yaids of masonry. The depth of water at the

Map Comparing thc Nili

I

Plate XIX.

i

53

dam will be 65.6 feet when the reservoir is full. The cross section of
the dam shown herewith (fi^. 8) needs hut little explanation. The
road^vay running along* the top of that portion of the dam containing
>luireways is 1().4 feet wide. A large part of the eastern end of the
dam, containing no sluiceways, is narrower, and the roadway there is

Radius 21.664 Ft.

Scale In feet.

15 20 2S

3p 3^

Fig. s. — Cross section of A-snan dam.

reduced to 9.8 feet. The ruhhh^ masonry of the IkkIv of the dam is
laid in 4 to 1 cement mortar, and the downstream slope is faced with
S(juared rubble laid in the sanu^ mortar and pointed in '2 to 1 cement
mortar. The upstream slope, being submerged a large ])art of the
year, is faced with scpiared rubble laid in 2 to I cement mortal* and
pointed in the same. The batir of the lower slope of the djun is 1 to XL

54

Buttiewsps :-i.7r) fi'ct ttiuk miil 'Hi feet wide aiv located Ix'tween each
set of 1" .-tiii(c\v!u>. i>r alwut ^4" ffet a|»irt. The Imttres.WiS were
iiddi'd nitliei- for tlic suke of appeainnee than to incitase the strength
of the Willi. The fimi- locks at the western end of the dam are each
■2i\U feet \<m<f and :U fe.-t wide. Thev will enable small l>oafcs to jm^s
at near-lv anv tinte durin-r tile veur.

There are isii sliiieewavs thi'<.u<.di tlie dam
idared with tlieir .-ills i-raeticallv im a level v
Forlv of these low sliiie.-wavs ai-e lined with <■:
all others Iwinjr lin-'d with a-hlar niasonrv.
sidered as diiralde us the .irranile. Imt l.y en
iiiiieh iiastciied, sc, that the sluicewav- eomi

Of tiiese fiS have been
lith the bed of the river.
»-tiion(Pl.XXn,%.l),

The ea^t iron is not ooa-
iployin^ it the work wim
:ieiiei'd at tlie end of one

55

hi^ich- water season could he tinished before the flood attain appeared.
Soventv-flve sluieewavs have their sills 14. 7H feet a})ove the bed of the

ft- ft-

river. Of the hitter 25 are supplied with roller gates and the remain-
ing- 50 have simph' sliding gates, to be operated only Avhen the head of
water against them is small. Eighteen sluiceways have been placed
27. 8s feet and 22 sluieewavs 41 feet above the bed of the river. All
of the sluiceways except the upper 40 are 6.5(> feet wide and 22.1^6
feet high. The upper sluieewavs have the same width ])ut are only
one-half as high. The rollers lie between paths on the gates and paths
fastened to the niasonrv of the dam. The gates themselves are ])uilt
up of steel plates, stift'ened l)y rolled steel joists, Avhich in tui'n are
bolted to the cast-iron roller path beams. The following description
of the gates and gearing for raising them has been furnished I)}"
Kansomes & Rapier, Limited, the manufacturers:

The jrates are siLspended l)y stt't^l-wire rope:^ pat*siiijr aroiiiul pulleys so as to give
10 partvS of rope. The two ends of the rope are Avound upon a crah barrel i)laeed at
the side of the roadway at the top of the dam. The era)) gear is sueh that one man
can operate each gate with the full head of water against it, the gate not being in
any way couiiter])alanced. ( Fig. 9. )

Cast-iron grooves are built into the dam in order to provide the necessary space
for the gates to work in. These are cast in sections and ))olted together in place. A
cast-iron sill piece and a cast-iron lintel form the toj) and l)ottom of the sluiceway
o{)ening. An arclied roof casting supports tlie masonry over the entrance to the
culvert in front of the sluicewav.

Owing to the cutting nature of the silt in the Nile water, it has been thought advis-
able to provide stanching rods (»n each sidt* of the gate and also in the lintel casting.
These rods will make the gates ])ractically water-tight when shut down.

In the case of the 50 sluiceways 14.7<> feet alcove the be<l of the river, which are
without rollers, the gates slide against the planed faces of the groove castings and
are made water-tight against the faces, and als(» on the sill when the gates are com-
pletely lowered. The top is rendered water-tight l)y an adjustal)le l)ar l>olted to the
gate which lowers onto a pngection from the lintel when the gate is in its tinal
IM)sition.

The location of the sluiceways on the high level will permit the
water of the reservoir to be controlled Avithout its ))eini^ necessarv to
manipulate the other gates, which will withstand a ])ressure of 8o0
tons when the reservoir is full. Toward the 1st of Dei-ember of each
vear the lowest 65 and the 5o ordinarv aates 14. T<) feet above will l)e
closed. The reservoir will innnediatclv i)e£fin to hll, and the 25 sluii-e-
wavs furnished with Stonev j^ates will be sh)wh' closed as the discharoe

ft. • ^^ • r^

of the Nile warrants. It is hoped that in this way the reservoir may
be entire!}' tilled without appreciably atlccting the flow of the river.
The upper gates Avill be the last to be closed while tlie rcscM'voir is
filling and the tirst to be opened when the water is turned bjick into
the Nile in Mav. The shiicewavs furnished with StoniM' Liate^ will

• ft, ft. »^

next be graduall}' opened, and all the gativs will 1k^ raised by the
niiddle of July, when high water appetirs. Th(\v will remain opiMi

56

until the flood has practically disappearea and comparatively clear
water again flows in the Nile.

Work on the foundation and lower parts of the dam had to be prose-
cuted during low Nile. The numerous channels into which the river
is divided at the head of the first cataract favored this work. Tempo-
rary dams thrown across one chaimel turned the water into others,
and, by thus 'changing a))out, each part of the foundation was com-
pleted and put in shape so that the next flood ^ould pass over it with-
out injury. Along the west margin of the river immediately above
the dam it was found necessary to resort to riprapping, as the mate-
rial is rather line and the current sets in against that bank during
high Avater. The greatest difficulty in the construction of the dam
was to find stable material upon which to place the foundation. In
one of the channels the partly decomposed granite had to be excavated
to a depth of 00 feet ])elow the bed of the river (PI. XXII, fig. 2), mak-
ing the total height of the dam at this point over 120 feet. The
neighboring country supplied a fine ([uality of granite in unlimited
(|uantities. The Egyptian Railway connects directly with steamers at
Alexandria, and cement was delivered at Shellal, within 2 miles of the
dam site. The contractor built light railways from the dam to Shellal
and to the (luarries. In this way the stone, cement, and other sup-
plies wen^ i)rought to the point where needed and were lifted direct
from the cars to their final positions in the dam. The rubble masonry
stone of which the interior of the dam is composed was carried up
inclined planes ])y natives to the masons. The cement mortar for
this work was mixed alongside the dam and handled in the same man-
ner. The large dimension stone of which the face of the dam is con-
structed was cut at the (|uarry and shipped as needed. The edges of
the stone were protected by wooden frames, and other precautions
were* taken to keep the corners true while the heavy blocks were being
handl(Kl.

The first cost of the dam was Si), 740,000, wliich, with interest, will
be paid i!i ()0 semiamuial installments of $382,845.31 each, the first
])avnient to l)e due Julv 1, 11M)3. This makes the final cost of the dam,
including interest, $22,t)7o,Tl8.Gn. The cost of the work, not includ-
ing the purchase of land which the reservoir covers or the repairs
made to the temples of Philae. amounts to $11.20 per acre-foot of
ca})acity. The ultimate cost to the people of Kgypt, including inter-
est charges, will be §2().r><) per acre-foot. Egypt has also raised
$5,740,000 for improving canal systems, especially those of Upper
Egypt, so that the Avat(M- supplied by the reservoir may be distributed.

As the water stored bv tlu^ reservoir could not serve all the land
which might be reclaimed in Egypt, it was decided to furnish water
to the areas alread}^ under cultivation Ijut which sulfer from drought
during the months of scarcity. That part of the valley l^'ing between

Fig. 2. -Deep F.'UN!

IN End ^'F Abhr-'N D■>^

L

9

57

Assuan and Assiut was allotted 137,800 acre-feet. The lands between
Assiut and Cairo were allotted 482,400 acre-feet. Gizeh province
alone, near Cairo, was allotted 08,900 acre-feet. The territory north
of Cairo, principally in the delta, was allotted 243,200 acre-feet. The
sum of these figures is 863,400 acre-feet, thi^ estimated capacity of the
reservoir.

The engineers have estimated that about 70,000 acres can l)o irri-
gated from the reservoir between Assuan and Assiut, giving this area
about 2 feet in deptli, the water })eing measured in the reservoir and
no allowance made for loss either through evaporation or seepage.
One authority states that only one-third of the land is cultivated in
an\' one season, which allows 210,000 acres to be served. It is
extremely doubtful if over 70,000 acres can ))e served in this portion
of Egypt during the three seasons of the year. If this area can ])e
changed from flood to perennial irrigation the amuial yield of the land
will })e increased at least §700,000. If 210,000 acres could be brought
under perennial irrigation in this part of Upj)er Egypt, it would mean
an increase in the returns to the farmer of al)out li^2, 100,000 and in
the revenue of the state of a})out >^(>0.000 p(»r year.

The engineers hope to bring under peremiial irrigation 458,000 acres
of land lying between Assiut and Cairo. Tliis would make an annual
increase in the returns to the farmer of about $5,7oo,0OO and in the
revenue of the government of about §950,000. It is estimated that
100,000 acres can })e brought under perennial irrigation in (rizeh
province alone, yielding an annual increase in agricultural products of
nearly §1,000,000 and about §300,000 to the government. By the
perennial irrigation of 12n,(K)0 acres in the delta it is hoped to increase
the annual returns from agriculture there by about §3,0OO,O(mi and
the revenue through taxation by about §4(M),ooO.

In addition to the direct benetits from the reservoir, it is estimated
that an average of §1,000,000 will be savi^l each year on the cotton
crop. One year in live the Nile is so low that al)out §5,(Mmijm)0 is lost
b\' a failure of a portion of this crop. Besides this, about §.*>,( mio, (MM)
will ultimately be realized fiom the sale of government land brought
under perennial irrigation. It is Ijelievcnl that the water stored in the
Assuan reservoir will add annually to the wealth of the country a total
of §11,(M)0,000. Land which can be pereiuiially irrigatiul rents about
§5 per acre higher than that which de])end> upon inundation alone.
As shown above, the taxes on ])erennially irrigated land are nuieh
higher than on land not so watered. It is ex])ected that the semian-
nual payments on the reservoir will ))e met by the increased revenue
from the lands deriving benefit from the stored water. In the words
of Sir Alfred Milner. ''The Egyptian (Jovernment is relieved from
the difficulty of paying for the works until return is riM-eivcd from
them; until, in othiM- words, they ])ay for thems(^ly(»s."

58

There is no doul)! but that land values have increased greatl}^ .since
the construction of the reservoir })egan, and almost any irrigation
project in l^pper or Lower Egypt has no trouble in securing financial
})acking. This demand for farming land and the increasing number
of capitalists interested in Egyptian agriculture led to a number of
inciuiries regarding the actual capacity of the reservoir. Engineer's
were detailed from foreign countries to visit the site of the reservoir
and obtain figures to satisfy capitalists that the reservoir would accom-
plish what it was advertised to do. In this wa}', and through the
annual reports of the government engineers, the Assuan dam has
probably l)ecome better known throughout the world than any other
work of (Hjual importance. However, outside of the surveys in the
immediate vicinity of the site of the dam, little has })een done to deter-
mine the actual capacity of the reservoir. A survey was begun
durin^jf tlie winter of 1901-2 to establish the boundary line of the
reservoir when full.

THE ASSIUT DAM.

The dam at Assiut was constructed for the purpose of raising the
level of the water so that it would flow into large canals supplying
water to land on the west side of the river. But one canal leaves the
river at the dam. At Dirut, a few miles below Assiut, a wasteway
has been }>uilt and a number of masonry regulators have been provided.
At this place another channel comes in from the river. This latter
cliannel is used only during high Nile. A number of divisions of the
Ibraimia Canal at Dirut furnish water for the only perennial irriga-
tion in Upper Egypt imtil the Assuan reservoir shall have become
availal)le. The most important canals below the regulators are the
Ibraimia, running parallel with the Nile, and the Yusef, which parallels
the Ii)raimia for a distance, and ends in the Fayum province.

The Assiut dam resembles the barrage ])elow Cairo somewhat, and,
like the barrage, is foimded u])on soft material, which necessitated a
very broad foundation. The gcMieral character of the dam is shown in
PI. XXIII. Its total length is 2jU(\ feet or about half a mile. The
height of the roadway above the l)ed of the river is •i'l:. 5 f eet. The piers
supporting the roadway are ().5f> feet thick. Every ninth pier is 13.1
feet thick. The sluiceways are 1<).5 feet wide. The depth to which
water will iiow through the archways during high Nile is 33.5 feet.
Two gates, each T.S feet high, were provided for each sluiceway. When
these aie in position they are ca|)ableof increasing the depth of water
about in feet. The i^ates are raised ])V a traveling winch which can be
moved to any point along the dam. It is the supposition that the
gates will not need to be lowered until the latter part of April each
year, and they will ])e raised ])efore the appearance of high water in
Tulv. Durino" liiiih Nile all sediment which mav have collected above

59

the dam between April and fluly will be washed away. A lock has
been provided at the western end of the dam.

This design has proved to be the best for dams where the material
on which the foundation rests is not solid. It would doubtless nrive
good service in the Platte, Arkansas, and other American river> where
the beds of the streams are similar to that of the Nile north of Assuan.

The Assiut dam cost $1,9S6,()3(). The stone was transported from
quarries farther up the river and the cement and ironwork were brought
from England. The Ibraimia Canal head gate, located on the west
side of the river just upstream of the dam, cost $370,(>O(). It is of the
same general type as the dam except that it is provided with gates
which are designed to withstand the flood water. As reser^ oir con-
struction progresses on the upper reaches of the Nile, dams similar to
the one just completed at Assiut will have to be erected wherever large
canals are taken from the river.

DRAINAGE.

In Eg3"pt, as elsewhere, irrigation and drainage go together. The
Nile and the canals deposit material along their courses, and, after
running in one channel for a long period, this deposit raises the chan-
nel above the level of the surroundino-c-ountrv. The water ultimatelv
overflows their banks and runs across the low adjacent country, making
for itself shorter routes to the sea. This chanofe in channels has ttiken
place many times since Egyptian history was lirst recorded.

The delta is almost entirely separated from the sea by lakes which
are supplied l)y rainfall, by water escaping from the river, by water
from the canals, and by drainage fi-om the tields. The I boundary
betw^een these lakes and the sea is maintained bv wave action of the
Mediterranean. The process of draining them would be compara-
tively simple were it not that in some cases their surfaces are ])elow sea
level. Before perennial irrigation was g(Mierally extended throughout
the delta, evaporation alone kept down the l?vel of these lakes and
they did not injure the bordering farming lands. Many drains had
been dug, however, by the earlier irrigators. During the periods
when Egypt was occupied by Turks. Arabians, and others, who paid
but little attention to tin* condition of the farminof class or to the sue-
cess of agriculture, many drains wiu-e abandoiu^d. while others were
used as canals. Laro-e areas, once oood farming:" lands, reverted to
salt marshes. It is with oreat difticiiltv that this land is ))cinof
I'eclaimed at the present time. Into such a state of disordi^r had
things drifted when the Knglish took charge in Issii that many of
those earlv drains weri^ used for canals {ind canals for drains. Manv
thousand acres w^hich had previously b(MMi agricultural land reverted
to the oriofinal swampv condition. rhes(^ an^ biMno* slowlv reclaimed.

60

Immense pumping plants have been installed to remove the water
from the surface, and drains have been dug. The surface of the
ground is pulv^erized l)efore fresh water is applied. After the water
has dissolved some of the salts it is allowed to flow away. That which
is absorbed by the soil reaches the drains and runs away by gravity or
is lifted hy pumps. This is an expensive and tedious process, but as
soon as a portion of the salts are removed rice can be grown, and by
careful use of the water the land continues to improve in tjuality.
Much land has been thus treated and is now growing cotton and the
more vahia))Ie crops of Egypt.

Since the occupation of the English $5,000,000 or $6,000,000 have
been spent in drainage work. After the barrage was put in condition
for service perennial irrigation in the delta was greatly stimulated,
and it became necessary to provide for removing the added volume of
water drained from the rtelds. Much of this water ran into channels
tributary to the lakes. (PI. XXIV.) The level of these gradually rose
and threatened liirgi* areas of adjoining farming lands. Some of the
lakes were drainc^d by constructing simple works which permitted them
to flow into tlie sea whenev(»r there was sufficient difference in level.
Lake Edku }»el()ngs to this class.

Lak(» ]\hircotis, near Alexandria, has probably given the most
tr<)u])lo. Its surface varies from T)^ to 11 feet below the sea level.
Unless it can be maintained at least S feet below sea level large areas
of adjoining lands already drained revert to their original condition.
Until 1S1)2 (evaporation kept the li^vel of the lake at a satisfactory
height and j)umping was not practiced. A pumping plant \vas
installed in thi* winter of 1S<)2-1)3, but, in spite of the fact that it
discharged 2iH) cubic feet i)er si^cond, the level of the lake was higher
the following vcar than it had been for ten vears before. This rise is
attributed to an increased rainfall as well as to the increased volume
of wat(4- from the irrigated lands. Soon after the installation of the
first pumps others wcM'e added, until now th(» ])lant has a capacity of
1,200 cu])ic feet i)vv sc^cond. The pumps are of the centrifugal pattern
and are reciuired to raise the water only about lo feet. They operate
from November until the followin<r Mav or June. The cost of
pumping is a])out 2o cents ])er acn^-foot, or about (>() cents per
1,000,000 gallons.

T!i(^ g()V(M'nnient owns two pumping plants })esides the one at Lake
]\Iareotis. One of thc^se is for drainino- the* Wadv Tumilat, a narrow
strip of land in a gap in the Arabian desert northeast of Cairo, where
a considerable area has been injured by infiltration from the Ismailia
Canal. The station is located at Kassasin. The otliei* station, located
at Atfeii and i)reviously referred to, pumps watcM* from the Nile into
the Mahmoudia Canal.

U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 130, Off cc ot Exot. St..: nn^. If gation .■ vest gatior.^,

Plate XXIV.

>

o
-fi

r
o

m

:c

m

o

-<

H

CD

I

o

z
D

■0

z
o

>

O
>

z
>

r

05
>

z
o

D

>

z

CD

I

HI

LAWS AND REGULATIONS.
CONDITIONS TO BE CONSIDERED.

Eg"3'pt was the granary of the world four thoiLsand years ago, and it
is natural to look to such a country forniodel irrigation laws. Unfortu-
nately irrigation in Egypt has developed under conditions diti'erent
from those of any other country. The character of the Nile flood is
such that until perennial irrigation was introduced there was no need
of laws and reofulations. Beyond some recent reforms therefore, the
irriofation code of Egypt is as inapplicable to American conditions as
aiv the saki3'jeh and the wooden plow. While the present irrigation
law of Egypt provides that certain canals, drains, and other improye-
monts are the property of the goyernment, the rights of neither the
state nor the irrigator in the water of the Nile are defined. There are
no special regulations regarding the use or the distribution of water,
and no legal limit is placed on the volume applied to the fields.
Pleasuring flumes and weirs are unknown. A reform is slowly being
brought a})out through the gradual regulation of the capacity of the
lifting devices, but it will be years before these furnish water in ratio
to the area of the land irrigated. When one of these raising devices
has to be replaced by a new one, or an altogether new plant is installed,
the government prescribes the size of the pump, and in this way limits
to some extent the volume of water furnished to the lands. Many
large pumping plants have })een installed, which will for years con-
tinue in use practically as they are to-day. Nearly all of these furnish
water in excess of the quantity actually needed. The native farmer
generally raises water by some of the ancient devices, and hence it is
that he suflfers by the introduction of the large pumping plants which
rapidly deplete the water supply.

AUTHORITY OF OFFICIALS.

To enable the positions of the Egyptian in'igation ofiicers to be
understood it will })e necessary to descrilie briefly the character of the

ft ft-

government at the present time, treating only incidentally the com-
plex foreign relations which have })een entered into during the past
thirty years. Egypt is divided into fourteen provinces: six of these are
in the delta and eight in Upper Egypt. The Fayum is one of the latter,
and includes two oases in the descut. Two oases are also included in
the province of Assuit. Egypt, as a whole, may be compared to one
of our smaller States, and the provinces with our counties. The
accompanying map shows the location of each of these provinces and
also the irrigation circles oi- districts. (PI. 1.)

The chief oflicer of each province i> the governor. Under him is
the council, which is made up of the vict^-governor. the tax gatherer,
a clerk, an accountant, a superintendent of police, a supervisor of

62

canals and pu])lic' works, a head physician, and a supreme judge, who
is a representative of the Mohammedan Church and is the authority on
religious affairs. Some of the larger towns have independent gov^ern-
ments similar to that of the provinces. Each province is divided into
districts, over each of which there is a chief officer who is at all times
under the orders of the governor of the province. Under these dis-
trict officers come the sheiks, who are mayors or local magistrates.
The larger towns are also divided into precincts, each of which has its
mairi^tnite.

In theory the government of Egypt is one of the most complicated
in the world: in practice it is comparatively simple. Tha British niin:r
ister plenipotentiary and his advisers are the real government. Native
Egyptian officers have certain duties, but the English have all the
authority. The theoretical heads of the government are the Sultan
of Turkey, represented by the khedive; a number of foreign nations,
including (ireat Britain: while the third and most important is Great
Britain alone. The government therefore has three heads, only one
of which is authoritative. Apparently the khedive is an absolute
monarch: in reality he has no authority except such intluence as the
local representative of the Mohanmiedan Church in a Mohammedan
country would naturally have. Then again, Egypt is a dependency of
Turkey and pays S2.*2i>2,ni)0 annually in tribute to Turkey, receiving
nothing in return. While the Sultan has no political influence in
Egypt, he is at the head of the ]Mohanunedan Church. The tinances
of Egypt ar(^ largely controlled by a commission made up of represen-
tatives from foreign countries. Foreign judges sit in the mixed tri-
bunals. Criminal suits airainst foreiirners are tried in consular courts
of the national it V of the accused, or he is returned to his own country
and tried by a conii)etont court there.

A (leciHM* of tli(* kliedive has no weiirht unless sanctioned bv the
British minister: neither can Ik^ veto a measure au*ainst the advice of
that official. Before any nunisurc can ])ecome a law it is prepared in
the shape of a decree by oni^ of tlie seven ministers. The minister of
the interioi" is tin* prime minister and president of the council of min-
isters. Under him are the minister of public works, the minister of
public instruction, the minister of foreign affairs, the minister of
finance, the minister of justice, and th(^ minister of war and marine.
These ministers are native Egy])tians, but the undersecretaries are
British and control the i)()licy of each department. These under-
secretaries an^ advised by the British minister, and in this way his
influence is felt through every department of the government. After
a decree has ]>een prepared by one of the ministers it is submitted to
the council of ministers and the British financial adviser, or his dele-
gate, who has a I'ight to attend the meetings of the council. Any measure
which provides for a change in the financial affairs of the government

63

this official has a right to veto. His power in this particular is abso-
lute, and he is not required to give a reason for his actions. The
business affairs between Egypt and Turkey are conducted hy the prime
minister and a special commissioner from Turkey.

Egypt has no popular government. No elections are held; hence the
public takes little interest in the affairs of the government. In fact,
pu})lic sentiment does not exist. Under the organic law of May, 1S83,
a representative assembly is provided for, but the same act contains
so many restrictions that the functions of this body are entirely
advisory. Some of the larger towns of Egypt and the fourteen prov-
inces have something like local govenunent,.but, owing to the compli-
cated nature of the control of P^gypt, privileges of this kind can not
be much extended. About all the advantage enjoyed by the provinces
or these cities is that their local councils or assem})lies mav discuss
measures which affect their conmnniities. The council of ministers
considers their recommendations wlien it meets, and in this wav becomes
acquainted with public needs as nearly as the council can interpret
them.

The legislative council, composed of thirty members, meets at Cairo
about once a month. Fourteen of the members of this council are
named b}^ the government, and the government reserves the right to
delegate any other ofhcial to attend its meetings. Nothing can origi-
nate in this council, but it can examine th(» estimate of expenditures
and discuss decrees which affect internal administration. The gov-
ernment is not required to accept amendments made by the legislative
council, but the reasons for rejecting any amendment must be sub-
mitted in writing.

In addition to the legislative counc 11, there is a ))odv known as the
'^general assembly.'* It is composed of the ministers of state, the thirty
members of the legislative council, and forty-six delegates, of whom
thirty-five are chosen from the fourteen provincial assemblies and
eleven are selected ])v the oovcrmnent. Before this l)odv can meet
the khedive must issue a decrei^ callinii' for a s(\ssi()n. The assemblv
should convene every two years: in practice its sessions are irregular,
and when it meets its sittings ai"e short and the l)usiness coniino' before
it is of minor importance. It has no legislative pi-ivileges. but can
veto any measures relating to taxation. N\> ncnv taxes can be im})osed
without obtaining the consent of the geniu'al asseml)ly. In fact, this
is its only real power.

Regardless of the seemingly complicated nature of the government,
the lawmaking power is (|uite simple. After the council of minist(\rs
has approv^ed a decree it is transmitted to the khedive. It makes ])ut
little difference whether he signs it or not. His power of veto can not
l)e exercised when it conflicts with the advice of the British minister.
As these acts or decreiv'^ originate with the ministers, and th(^ ])olicies

64

of each inini.stor are dictated bv a British iindersecretarv, it is but
seldom that measures are introdiu-ed that have not the indorsement of
the Enoflish. .

The irrigution officials are under the minister of public works and
include an insjx^ctor-genei"iiI of irrigation, one ins|)ector of irrigation
for Upp<'r Egypt and one for Lower Egypt, and an in.sj^ector -general
of reservoirs. These officials are all English, and all hut the inspector-
general of reservoirs have jxM'manent |X)sitions. and his will doubtless
last until reservoir construction has been completed. In the same
i*ank with these officials stand six heads of the irrigfation adniinistra-
tion, who are native Egyptians. The head of the technical service
is an Egyptian, and this branch is closely allied with the irrigation
administration. To him are referred all technical questions relative
to the issuance of licenses for pumps and other lifting devices. The
survey department is in a way connected with the irrigation work. It
has an English director. Two other departments, one dealing with
towns and buildings and the other with antiquities, hav^e but little to
do with the irrigation administration. The two inspectors for Upper
and Lower Egypt and the heads of the dniwing and mapping divisions
have their offices at Cairo.

Egypt is divided into irrigation districts, which, for convenience,
are known as circles, and each circle has an inspector. The inspectors
of the first and second I'ircles have their offices at Cairo, the inspector
of the third circle is at Alexandria, of the fourth at Mineh, of the
tifth at Keneli, and oi the sixth at Sohao'. The directors of the first,
third, and fourth cinles are English. The remaining three are Egyp-
tian. The inspectors of the circles have immediate charge of cleaning
canals. l)uilding smaller diversion works, repairing masonry structures,
keeping gauge heights on the Nile and on canals, and dividing the
water among canals in accordance with the area under each or as the
inspector-general may otherwise instruct. Under these men are other
ottieiais, most of whom are natives, who travel about and see that the
instructions of the inspectors of the circles are carried out. Ordinarily
the responsibility of the engineer ends when the water is turned into
th(^ canals.

Every canal which serves more than two villages is held to be public,
and comes dinn-tlv under the irrigation administration. There is
nothing in the law which re(iuire> a certain discharge to be supplied in
the canal during any part of the year. There is nothing to prevent an
irrigation official closing- oni^ canal or all at his pleasure. When water
is suppli(Ml the canal th(^ irrigator can use as much as he can lift and
convev to his land. What In^ does not need he is free to waste. Ii

«

the canal supplies too much water and floods adjoining land, or it it
fails to supply enough to iri'igate the farms depending on it, the h'Yi-
gator has no recourse except to apply for a remission of a part or all
of the tax ordinarily paid.

()5

Durintr the sousons of sciin'itv time rotiitions arc onfuived, over
which the enginoor has ahnost ti))S()hito control. Tlio purpose of the
adnihiistration is rather to sa\"e the more vahuihle crops than to ])ro-
tect the irriiJ^ators uniformly. This insures a maxiirium return to the
treasury through taxation, ])ut seldom affords an impartial and equi-
table division of the water. For instance, during some seasons rota-
tions occur everv four days; that is, irriojitors are allowed to use the
water a certain length of time and then he de})riyed of it for four
davs. Durino- the warm seasons of the year, in June and July, four
days of drought is sulHcicMit to kill rice. The fcdlah who has planted
this ci-op is the sufferei*. and, although his taxes tiri^ remitted, he has
no income from his land and nmst earn his liyin<>- in some other way.
It has been found necessary to modify the rotations under some of the
lont^er canals because it often occurs that the water never reaches the
lower end of a canal. Usually when water is turned into a canal it is

«

allowed to run for a day before any one is ])ermitted to divert it. In
this way it will run a considerable distance before the volume is dimin-
ished to any great extent.

ft i7

CAUSES OF LITIGATION.

0^ving to the fact that the government controls the diversion and
division of water there is no litio-ution })etween ii'riu'ators as to water
rio'hts. Cases arc occasionally bi-ought ao-ainst the o-overnment
because the water supply is short or ])ecause the size of the pump the
engineers have permitted to he installed does not sufiice for the irriga-
tion of the lands it was intended to serve. These cases are becomintr
rare, as the engineers can generally show that the water was distributed
as generously as the supply furnished ])y the river would warrant and
that the volume made available by pumping, if i)roperly used and
distributed among the irrigators, would have suthced for all.

Such suits, if the amount of money involved is small, oo lirst before
the native courts, where, at present, a government ofhcer is usually
looked upon with suspicion. For this reason an engineer outside of
the gfovernment service can often oreatlv annoy tiie administration ])y

^^ ^1 ft^ « •

making adverse reports or giving t(vstimony in contradiction to that
presented by the govermnent cngincH'rs. As the irrigation cases in the
courts are nearly all small and ndatc generally to riohts of way and

ft, ^^ ft « ft.

similar questions, the engineers have never had to give thi^n nnich
attention, and as the Fnulish have slowly instituted reforms in the

' <^ ft

court proceedings, just decrees and decisions are now the rule rather
than the exception. The Kgyptian enginetu's are also favored by the
absence of any specitic hiws or n^guhitions which would limit them to
<*ertain prescribed duties. \\\X\\ the power behind them which secured
them their positions in the tirst phice. they are enabled to take what-

277r>i>— No. i:^>()-();; :»

66

ever dcfisive uctioii is necessarv and to institute such reforms as, in
their judgment, are plainh^ necessarw

Another question which often leads to lawsuit against the govern-
ment is the remission of taxes on the irrigated land or the reduction
of taxes on the lands where the water has to be pumped. For
instance, during the summer of 1901, only 38 acres out of a 50-acre
farm were covered during the Nile flow, leaving 12 acres to be
watered by pumping. As the owner failed to notify the govern-
ment at the time that the water was not high enough to irrigate all
of his land, he was taxed for the entire 50 acres as though it had all
received the benefit of the high Kile. The government taxes on land
which has to be irrigated ])y pumped water are only half as much as
where the land is flooded. A suit of this kind is often expensive, and
the testimony is generally (piite voluminous. If a native brings the
suit, and the area is small, involving a loss of less than $500, the case
goes to a native court. If the land l)elongs to a foreigner the case
goes to the mixed tribunals. In the former court the proceedings are
in Arabic, and the records are published in Arabic and English. In
the mixed tri])unals the proceedings are generally in English, French,
or Italian, and the proceedings are always published in French or Ital-
ian. If an ai)peal is taken from the decision of the mixed tribunals,
the case goes to the court of appeals at Alexandria, where the pro-
ceedings are in French and are published in French.

When Mohammed Ali undertook the execution of the perennial irri-
gation works in Egypt, he carried on the reform as though he were
the pr()j)rietor of all the land and water in Egypt. He fixed the rate
of taxation, hired engineers to design the irrigation works and super-
intend the construction of the same. Where labor was wanted, he forced
the fellaheen to leave their farms, either to excavate the canals or to
work on the numerous irrigation structures connected therewith. The
Egyptian farmer has long })een used to this kind of treatment. In
fact, he has never seen anvthiup* else until within the last fiftv vears,
and it will take him a long time to entirely recover, even if the gov-
ernment makes it possible for him to do so. It is not surprising that
a wise irrigation code has not developed in Egypt, when all of these
conditions are considered. In a countrv where land titles were un-
known, it would not be presumed that the rights of an irrigator would
be recognized or protectc^d.

Mohammed Ali. w hile not granting permanent title to agricultural
land, instituted manv reforms. Amono- these was the distribution of
fj'om 2^ to 5 or <> acres of land to each person. This was made quite
early in his reign, and in 1842 he permitted the holders to dispose of
their land as they pleased. At no time, however, did they hold any
actual title to the land thev farmed. Tooether with the lack of titles
and the weight of taxation, the fellaheen have in many cases been

67

forced to di.sposc of their land, and nuieh of this is now included in the
large estates.

Lender Ismail large tracts were confiscated hy the government.
About a lifth of the agricultural area of Egyi)t is either directly or
indirectly under the control of the state at the present time. Some-
thing over 500,000 acres have been in charge of the Daira Sanieh,
which company has a contract with the government that stipulates
that the land shall bring a iixed price when disposed of. About t>6
per cent of the tillable land in this area is rented in small parcels to
the peasantry. They pay on an average about ^2i) per acre per year
in rentals. The land remaining unsold in 1JM)5 reverts to the govern-
ment. The land sold prior to that date goes largely to the small
farmer, and whatever profit is made recomi)enses the company for its
bringing the land under irrigation and placing it on the market.
In this way a large area will return again to the fellaheen. About
440,000 acres are still included in tlic^ domains of the state. One liun-
dred thousand acres of this land are located in Cpper P2gyi)t and the
remainder in Lower Egypt. Probably SO.doO acres of this land will
never be cultivated.

While Ismail Pasha inflicted many wrongs upon Egypt, one of his
acts has resulted in ])enetit to the p(^oi)le. lie was indirectly responsil^le
for establishing the flrst titles to farming land in Eg^^pt. He taxed
the people to the limit, borrowed money with whatever credit he
had, and without credit when this was exhausted. In an attempt
to secure ready monc}' he finally issued a decree providing that all
persons who paid their taxes six years in advance would be given
permanent titles to their land. Those who could afi'ord to do so
took advantage of this ofler, and the titles thus o))tained have since
been recognized. The law was repealed in LSSd, however, because it
was not as good a financial nu^asun* as it had promised to be.

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE LAWS.

When the English engineers flrst undertook a study of Egyptian
irrigation it was found that tlie law of Egv])t was fragmentary and it
was diflScult for them to tell what provisions were in force. As early
as December, 1885, the public works ministry issued regulations
defining the respective powers of the governors of provinces and the
inspectors of irrigation. These regulations (see ]). s;^,) are still in
force and are among the flrst reforms in irrigation law. - -*

Such duties as the law of Egypt presi*ril)es for the oflicers in charge
of the division of water are not clearly deflned. The relative ])owers
of the director-general of irrigation and the inspector of Upper and
Lower Egypt and the subordiiititcs ar(^ not set forth. This heaves the
authority wholly with tlu* diivi-tor-gcncral and enables him to take
such stepj^j as may in his judgment ho iicccssai'v during times of cmer-

08

gency. There is notliino- in the law which would orovern the a(*ts of
the officials diirinuf times when rotations are necessary. Thev are not
authorized to distrii)ute the water so as to save any particular crop or
to favor anv locality or person. When a scarcity of water exists the
relations between the governors of the provinces as prescribed by law
have but little force. Water is distributed according' to plans originat-
ing in Cairo and carried into effect by the inspectors for Upper and
Lower Egypt and their su])ordinates. Even during such periods no
attention is given to the necessities of the irrigators. Canals supplying
water to the most valua])le croi)s receive water in rotation, and each
irric^ator may raise and use as much as he can while there is water in
his canal. If waste occurs. Init little attention is paid to it. Under
this system one canal may ))e favored this year and another the year

« * ft^ m.

following, depending upon which serves for the irrigation of the more
yalua])le crops. The irrigator, it will be seen, has no recourse should
his water supply fail. An appeal to the officers of the province might
be heeded, but the engineers of the govermnent would not be con-
strained to alter their ])lan of distribution.

It will be seen that the operation of such a system places all respon-
sibility on the government. The defect in the system is that the i)eo-
ple are not considered as having any rights, but are treated solely as
a revenue-producintr ])odv, and a farmer who receives water one year
has no assurance that he will ])e served the next year. There can be
no stability in land values and no justice in the operation of a land-tax
law under such conditions, although the rate of taxation is, to some
extent, regulated by the value of the farm product's. It seems that
the time must come when the distriluition will ])e fixed permanentl>^
Under such a system the farmer would know, as soon as the stagfe of
the river was reported from Assuan, as to whether he would be sup-
plied or not. The couipletion of the reservoir system will do mucli
toward settling this question, hut it will be fifteen or twenty years
befon^ the farmers of Egypt can (*xi)ect to receive entire relief.

The regulation of December. 1885 (see p. 8):^), fixes the relation
between the governors of provinces and the irrigation officials. Sec-
tion 1 provides that: '" It is the duty of the governor to see that a just
distrilmtion of the water is made in the various districts composing
his province.'' This is followed by a sentence which reduces his
authority to reporting the needs of irrigators to the irrigation inspec-
tors and listening to the complaints of the village chiefs.

The second section recjuires the insi)ectors to report to the govern-
ors, as well as to the minister of i)ublic works, should it be impossil)le
to satisfy all demands for water.

Section 3 defines the duties a!id i)owers of the ins})ectors control-
ling the distribution of water and permits no gate to l)e operated

ithout written orders from tluMn. If the governor does not approve

G9

of the action of the inspector or engineor ho may appeal to the minister
of the interior, but the order of the inspector will stand until coun-
termanded by the hioher official. Durino- hi«h Nile, or whenever
work is necessary to avoid disaster, the orders of the governor super-
sede those of the engineer, and the engineer gives notice that discord
exists, when the governor becomes responsible for what takes place.
As the work is largely of an engineering character, it is only in rare
cases that the governor prefers to take charge in the lield.

The classification of impi'ovement works provided for in articles 9
and 10 is worthy of notice. The governor has nothing to do with
awarding the contracts for excavation reipiiring the services of more
than 1,000 men, masonry work costing more than $1^74, or work where
machinery is necessary. The law provides, however, that the gov-
ernor shall be notilied as to the character of the contract, and he has
the privilege of reporting any failure on the part of the contractor to
the engineer. In smaller improvement works the governor and
engineer work together, selecting the contractor and supervising the
work, the governor being the judge as to the relia))ilit3^ of ])idders.

This regulation not only prepared the wav for thc^ irrigation laws
that were to follow^, but made it nuich easier to introduce reform meas-
ures regarding the corvee. As soon as the contractors on large enter-
prises were brought directly under the minister of public works and
his assistants a solution of some of tlu* la])or prol)lems could be under-
taken. It was su])posed at the tinu* the regulation went into force
that the use of machineiv would tro a lona* wav toward reducinu- the
labor of the corveo, but exp.u'ience ha^ not proven this to i)e the case.
While the need of better laws was evident to the enoineers under
the P^gyptian Govermnent, it was impossible or impracticable to bring
a])out the enactment of a fairly conqnehensive code until I81>4.

The first article of this decree (see p. 85) defines a canal as a water-
way which supplies more than two villages. ThesiMire pui)lic and are
maintained by the government. A ditch is a channel which provides
water for one or two vilhiges, or for land ))elonging to one person or
family, even if located in sev(»ral villages. These latter are private
property and nuist be maintained by those deriving benefit therefrom,
but the government may clean them should the owners neglect t') do
so and tax the cost against the owners. As the number of irrigators
under anv canal incrinise, the necessitv for uovcM'mnent control in
this respect evidently l)ecom(\s greater.

Drains are classified in mueli t\u^ >ame manner as are ditches and
canals. If a drain serves but one or two villau'cs it is considered as a
private work, unless it serves more than 2,O()0 acres. In the latter
case or when it serves more than two xillages it is considered public.
Drains are maintained under the same reo-ulation as are canals and
ditche.s. This is proi)ai>ly due to the difficulty of distri))uting the work

70

of mainteiuuue fairly among the owners. A provision has therefore
been inserted in article *2 under whieh any ditch iiiav be considered as
public property should it serve for the irrigation of as much as 1.000
acres belonging to several persons.

Embankments and levees for i)rotecting' the country against the
flood of the Nile are considen^l public property. These are main-
tained bv the o'overnment.

Article G and manv others of this decree have been recommended by

ft •>

the inspectors. During the tirst ten or twelve years of English occu-
pation the provisions of section <*> would have i)een of great benefit in
many cases. It stipulates that the owners of lands through which a
public ditch passes can not destroy the same in order to make the land
tilla))le without the written consent of the pt^-sons depending on the
canal.

If it is necessary to clost* a canal for repairs or in order to give the
water to others who are in greater need, irrigators can collect no

indenuiitv from the o()vernment for the loss occasioned bv a lack of

« ?^ . »

water.

Article s is ])articularlv interestiniJf to those who have made a study
of public supervision of water. One of the first necessities under
such supervision is that the State shall have authority to limit the
div(^rsion of water wIkmi furthiM' canal construction may injure users
already on the ground. Even in Egypt, where the Nile furnishes an
almost uidimited supply during a large portion of the year, it has
been found necessarv to limit construction work where the rio-hts of
others are threatened. The intent of the law throuofhout is to dis-
tribute the cost of iri'igation works in proportion to the benefits
received ])v each user. This is well illustrated in the article under
discussion. If a permit is grantcnl authorizing the construction of a
ditch others may use the works, providing they pay toward the cost
of construction and maintenance in pro])ortion to the benefits they are
to receive.

The procedure for condemning lands for right of way for canals and
ditches is set forth in article t).

The value of farming land in Egypt is well illustrated by the pro-
vision of article 1(> i*elating to enlargements of existing ditches. A
right of way does not give the canal owners title to land lying on either
sid(* of the channel; hence when (Mdargement is contemplated it is
necessarv to condenm the additional land that must be used for the

ft

enlargement.

Article 12 relates to the diversion of water from canals. No lateral
can ])e taken from a canal without the approval of the inspector, but
if it is desired to install a sakiyeh the chief engineer decides the matter,
and also desiirnates the location of the lateral or sakiveh. Permits are

71

applied for and granted under provisions of the decree of March 8,
1881.

Where a ditch, canal, or drain becomes a detriment to agriculture
in an\" ^va3% it may l)e tilled in at the request of the owners of adjoin-
ing property, providing anothei* watercourse can ])e used in its place
without injuring other lands.

Article 14 illustrated the necessity of limiting the size of ditches and
head gates to the dimensions ni^cessary for serving the lands irrigated
therefrom. If water were measurc^l in P^gypt as it is in some of the
irritfated districts of the United States there would he no necessitv
for such restrictions. The time and money spent in changing the
dimensions of canals and masonry regulating works would go far
toNvard maintaining an adeipiate system of discharge measurements.

The close relation between irrigation and drainage is evident through-
out the decree. Article 15 sets forth the procedure for locating a
drain when the party to be ))enetited and the party through whosV^ land
the drain is to pass fail to come to an understanding.

The provision of article 11) is interesting when compared with the
laws of some of the Western States. The article relates to the break-
ing of ditch banks, embankments, etc., and prescribes that if such an
offense is committed complaint is made to the governor, who refers
the matter to the inspector or chief engineer, who makes an examina-
tion of the 2f round, after havino* given at least fourteen davs' notice of
the examination. If the accused is found guilty he is recjuired to
restore the property or beai* the expcMise of such work as may l)e
necessarv to restore it. In sonu' of our States the fact that the water
has been used is prima facia evidence that a ditch bank has been cut
or a head gate has been tampered with. No notice is necessary and
the water commissioner has police authority and can arrest the offender
at once.

Another example illustrates how slowly the law^ is carried into effect
in Egypt. If in the judgment of the engineer a small gate needs
repairs, forty days' notice must be given the interested parties, that
they ma}' remedy it. If the work is not accomplished in the time,
another period of forty days is allowed. If the i)arties still fail to
perform the w^ork the government has it done at the expense of the
owners.

The decree does not define the rights of irrigators, the unit of meas-
urement, or the basis upon which the water shall i)e divided among
claimants, while other details of seeming less importance to us have
been fully set forth.

The Eg3'ptian government can compel the owner of land through
which a canal runs to rcmov(^ trees which are found to interfere with
the full flow of water in the canal. It })ermits cidtivation of a canal

72

and its ])anks under certain restrictions, hut assumes no responsibility
and no claim can be broutjht against it should the crops be lost or
damaged. If the i)ank is needed for a highwa\' or other purposes, no
procedure is necessary in order to convert it into such, and the farmer
who may have planted crops thereon has no recourse.

The articles relating to otfenses and prescribing penalties therefor
indicate that the engineers who framed the law desired to cover all
otfenses which had i)een called to their attention during the previous
ten or twelve years. The sections referring to navigation are inter-
esting in so far as they show the importance of the canals to the internal
commerce of the country. The decree is given in full in Appendix I.

instaijlation of water-raising devices.

The decree of March 8. ISSl, relative to the installation of machines
for raising water, propelled by steam, by a current of watei*, or by
the wind, provides that persons intending to erect such devices shall
first apply for a permit, which application is approved or rejected, as
the minister of public works or the head of the technical commission
may decide. The decree exhibits })lainly the attitude of the g'overn-
ment toward the user of water. In article 7 it is stated that the
approval of the permit carries with it no assurance from the govern-
ment that water will be supplied the water-raising device. In other
words, the government may approve of the installation of a water-
raising device on a canal or a branch of the Nile where the water sup-
ply is inadetiuate. The government does not kee}) itself informed as
to the actual di^charoe of the various waterwavs which serve the irri-
gator, nor do the irrigation othcials know the capacity of the water-
raising devices which are already in operation. After application has
))een made for a ])ermit to establish a water-raising device one of the
otHcials of the technical department makes an examination of the s'te
whei'c it is proposcnl to erect the machine. The approval or rejection
of the a})plication generally depends u])on the report of this ofhcer.
When th(Mii)})licati()n is granted a permit is given the applicant. The
technical department keeps a supi)ly of the i)ermit ])lanks, which are
bound in book form. The stu))s of these blanks contain the permit in
full, one side of the sheet being i)rinted in French and the other side
in Arai)ic. The permit itself, which is torn from the stuh when the
application is a})})roved, is printed in Aiabic only. On the reverse of
the permit are extracts from the law relating to the installation of
machines for raising water. These extracts are taken from the decree
of March s, IsSl, and from the decree of April 0, iSSl. The form of
permit is as follows:

73

[Form No. L'S T. P.]

Minister of Pubuc Works.
Technical Service.

Permit No.

No:

Regular permit for]
stationary water- ^ Ci'rt

NAME OF APPLICANT.

CAPACITY OF THE DEVICE.

CANAL.

The applieant acknowledges
receipt of this permit, together
with a copy of the agreements
and conditions imposed and of
the design.

Cairo.

1.S9— .

Correetlv translated.

Cairo.

-. 1S9— .

Mr.

-. residing at

raising device, j

province of

ificate.

-, is anthor-

ized, nnder the <ieeree of March 8 and the rules of April d, 1.S.S1,
relative to water-raising devices, and according to the report of
the circle of irrigation, under date of at in

-, province of

water-raising device

a capacity of —

appurtenant to

The device will be

— having
H. P., intended to propel a pump f«»r acres.

on the

according to the design

accepted by the applicant and in conformity with the agreements
and conditions imi>osed by the aforesaid report, a copy of which,
together with a copy of the design, is attached hereto.

The applicant here])y agrees to abide by the i)r<nisions of this
I>ermit and also by the instructions that will be given him l)y the
said circle of irrigation, to which this permit must be shown
whenever it is requested.

A failure to abide by the conditions and obligations im])osed by
this jiermit will release the inidersigncd from all provisions of
this j)errait, without prejudicing the right which the government
reserves to recover damages and reimbursement for expenses
incurred. (Article 4 of the decree of March ft. issi. )

Done at Cairo. . 1S9— .

< 'h it/ of Ti I'h )i inil Srrricf .
Accepted by the midersigned appli<'ant.

Cairo, . ISO—.

Approved.
Cairo.

lV:t-

This permit is of specitil intoivst hoeause it is the only form which
is recognized i)v the Eoyptiun irrigation hnv. It is the only paper
which the ofovernment o-ivcs an irrigator that recognizes in anv wav
the right to divert and use water. It will ])e noticed that the permit
states the horsepower of the engine which propels the pump and the
area of the land proposed to he irrigated. It gives no information
regarding the height of the lift, the size of the pmu}), or the efficiency
of the engine.

The decree relatino- to the installation of water-lifting machinery
other than that just described (Appendix II. }). i)0) is of special inter-
est, and is of a> nuich impoi'tance as any of the laws or regulations
governing the use of water. The original decree was issued in issl,
and its provisions were extended in IStM). Any person may still con-
struct and maintain a sakiyeh, a shaduf, or othiM* water-lifting device,
except those nu^itioned in article 1 of the decree of issi, ui)on the
banks of the Nile. Permission must be obtaintnl from the govern-
ment before water-lifting- devicc^s of anv kind muv i)e erected on the
banks of canals. As the Nih^ in many nvspects di tiers but little from
many of the canals, it i> rather strange that this distinction has been
made. The levees are more difficult to maintain than are the baidvs of
the canals. Both classes of channels are ])ubli(' })i'operty, and most
canals, as well as the rivcM*. are navigabl(\ Navigation inter(\sts. how-

74

ever, are secondary to the needs of the irrigator, as is shown in the
inconvenience to which river boatmen are subjected when the entire
discharge of the Nile is turned into the hirge canals in the delta.

DRAINAGE.

The most important drainage work in Egypt is prosecuted by the
gONcrnment. A large part of the main drains and the largest of the
pumping plants are therefore under its control. However, there are
a iuim))er of large holdings, ])oth in the delta and in Upper Egypt,
where drainage is necessary. The government has also disposed of a
number of tracts under condition that the land be reclaimed and
improved so as to yield a revenue to the treasur3\ There are to-day
large areas in the delta which nuist ])e drained before as much of
Low(M' Egyi)t will ])e cultivated as was farmed before the invasion of
the Turks, who permitted the drainage system to deteriorate. The
Societe du Behera, owning lands near Alexandria, has done much in
the line of i-eclamation through drainage. Water is first drawn oflf by
drains or by pumping, and large volumes of fresh water are applied.
The surface is kept well cultivated, and gradually the salts are removed
to such an extent that rice can be grown. After a few years of rice
cultivation more valual)le crops can ])e substituted.

In 18S() there were about 43S,(MK) acres of public land outside of
that which had recently been acquired from the khedival estates and
put in charge of the Daira Sanieh administration. In 1899 this area
had decreased to 21(>.(HMi acres, the remainder having been sold to
farmers. In 1S80 the Daira Sanieh administration controlled about
5:^0.(K)0 acres. In 1S99 they had but 302,000 acres remaining.

As a consideral)le portion of this land recjuired drainage works, it
})eeame necessarv for the govei'nment to enact laws which should
place the work partially under government control. It was essential
that the government engineers should have authority to direct this
reclamation, so that the systems planned and constructed by private
parties should sup])lement rather than interfere with the work already
performed In' tlie government. Two decrees have been rendered
relating to drainage. One was issued Fel^ruarv 21, 1894, the other
not until April 20, 1900. The decrees in full are given in Appendix
III, p. 99.

THE CORVEE.

The system of forced and unpaid labor known as the corvee has
always ])een an important factor in all kinds of public construction in
Egypt. From Imilding the Pyramids to digging the Suez Canal or the
excavation of a small drain, the corvee has been called into service.
Th(^ labor of the corvee has made Eg^pt renowned for the products of
the soil.

'

75
The conditions under which such a system has obtained a foothold

ft

in Egypt are largely responsible for the adoi)tion of existing laws and
reg'ulations governing tlie use of water. The ditt'erence in the stand-
ing" of farmers in the United States and in Egypt is almost wholly
produced l^v the operation of the eorvee regulations. If we are to
make it clear as to why certain laws and practices are particularly well
adapted to Egypt and not suited to arid An^erica, the relation between
the fanners called into the corvee sei*\ ice and the ooverniuir classes
should be set forth in some detail." Formerlv the corvee was called
upon for all kinds of public and private service. At present the sys-
tem nmst be considered as an intermediate step ]>etween slavery and
freedom; manv changes for the ])etter have ))een introduced durincr
the past one hundred years and the future independence of the Egyptian
farmer seems assured.

But little has been recorded of the character of the corvee during
the earlv historv of Egvpt. The inunense masonrv monuments and
temples, as well as the irrigation works which still exists, show how the
unpaid labor was utilized. Up to the time of Joseph, some 17.">o years
B. C, the practice was recognized, and abuses became connnon after
the svstem of slaverv inaugurated under his administration came into
full effect. The government owned the people and everything in
Egypt from that time until during the early part of the nineteenth
century. Some of the recent reports dealing with the use and abuse
of this free labor enable us to realize to what extent the fellah has ])een
imposed upon. The following report on forced labor by ^Ir. H.
Villiers Stuart in March. 1SS3, sets forth the faults in the svstem at
that time:

FOKCKD I.AHOK IN THE DELTA.

The complaints made Upon this siil>ject are that the apportionment is arl)itrary
and capricious, poor districts ])ein«r re(]uired to furnisli most and wealthy distritts
fewest lalx>rers.

The richer class of landowners is also entirely exemi)t. Thev susjirest that in
lieu of the present system there shoubl be a i>roi>ortionate labor rate upon all land
alike, instead of throwing the burden upon those least able to bear it.

Every landowner nj) to 100 acres is liable to forced labor; but he may, if lu* liki's,
l>ay a substitute. Some^jo and work themselves and some send substitutes. Those
who possess no land are not liable.

Those who are liable get no j>ay whatever for their work; neither does the L'<»vern-
ment provide them with any foo<l whatever. Their friends at home have to send
them food from their villages. Usually bread dried in the sun is their sole nourish-
ment. It is sent in sacks, a (M»uj)le of men from each village being «leputed to convey
it to the scene of operation. They have also to lind their own tools and baskets.

« The system has ha<l great influence on the j)ractice of irrigation and has made
^ necessary the enactment of laws which would not be applicable in countries where
the same conditions do not exist. lu discussing the customs of the i>eople of l^gyi>t
and the irrigation law there in ojieration, it shoul<l be borne in mind that rcLrulations
which might operate satisfactorily there would fail in the Unite*! States where
authority comes from the })eo}>le.

76

As 11 matter of fact, their liandsJ are often their oiilv tool}<. With these thev load the
haekets and excavate the soil. No shelter is j^rovided for them at night nor any
covering. A certain nuniher of overseers are appointed. These are armed with
sticks and superintend the work.

One complaint made universally was that instead of allowing the men of each dis-
trict to work in their own districts the j^ractice was to send them to distant parts of
the province, thus needlessly increasing th.e difficulty and cost of feeding them and
ministering to their wants.

Common sense would seem to suggest employment on the canals and embank-
ments in their own neighborhood by preference, because they would then have a
direct personal interest in the work.

They complained that there was much bribery and corruption connected with the
api)ointment of the forced labor, wealthy comnumities thus purchasing partial
exemi)tions at the expense of those who were too poor to bribe high enough. They
said that this was the real reason why the system of letting each district find the
labor for its own 2)ublic works was not adopted, because that would be an obsta(!le to
these corrupt exemptions.

All admitted forced labor to be a necessary institution in Egypt, the maintenance
of canals and embankments being of vital imj^ortance, but there had been great
abuses, and even now they assured me that men were still forced to labor on the
estates of the government and of the wealthy i)ashas, but they said that now those
so emi)loyed on the privileged lands received pay; 2)reviously they received none.
This abuse, like many others, has been nominally abolished, but nevertheless con-
tinues, the sheiks conniving. Indeed, it is through their instrumentality ah^ie that
these abuses are })ossible.

FOKCEI) l.AliOH IN IPPKK EdYPT.

A cut about 1<S feet deep has been made through *a conglomerate of sand and
gravel; this trench was Hanked right and left l)y high end)ankments, consisting oi
the debris excavated.

From the summit of these ridges to the tloor of the canal was from 85 to 40 feet
dci'}); along the l)ottom and on the slojx's right and left men swarmed thickly like
bees on a honeycoml) for a distance of about a mile in length.

The overseer told nie that the entire forced labor of the i)rovincewas concentrated
there, 40,000 men in all; that they worked from sunrise to sunset without intermis-
sion except a brief interval at midday for a meal consisting of l)read soaked in until-
tei"e(l Nile water. This bread was sent to them bv their relatives, and thev had a
meal of it ])efori' commencing work and another at night. They have also to pro-
vide their own baskets for carrying the excavated soil. They were engaged in lin-
ing these ])askets with gravel (using theii- lingers for the purpose), climbing the
sides of the cut, an<l tij)i)ing thvu\ on the outer sloj)e. The majority had no imple-
ments but their hands. A limitc<l number had short j»icks a foot long, which they
als > hav*' t;) proviJc, the governnuMit contribiitin;j: n.)thing whatever.

The day was exci'ssiveiy hot, and not a breath of win<l. The temperature in niv
cabin with all windows o|)en was <S2 degrees in the shade. At the bottom of that
trench it was much hotter. 1 should estimate it at Hodt-gives. There was al)Solutely
no shade. In this liery heat and glare and amid dust they toiled all daylong.
Thev were clad in calico, mostly reduced to rags by the work they were engager? in.
They wore on their heads felt skull cai)s exactly like those rei)resented as worn hy
workmen in fourth dvnastv has reliefs. Thev were barefooted. Their calico rags
formed their only covering at night, and they slei)t on the bare ground in theopenair
without any kind of shelter, although the niLrhts are often very cold. Among them
were manv overseers armed with sticks, with which thev often struck the men while
carrying loads on their heads, without any apparent reason. Many had sore fingers
and sore feet, for there were sharp flints among the debris.

7 7

I have seen negro slavoM at work on tlu' cotton plantations of (Uiba; I have also
seen the convicts at work at Portland. The conditions nnder which all these labored
were j^reatly preferal)le to those to wliich these K^yi)tian fellaheen were exposed,
and it must be remembered that most of them own farms and constitute, in fact, the
yeomanry of Upper Egypt.

What struck me most as I gazed on the toiling nmltitude was the i)itial)le waste of
human labor, for one-fourth the nund)ei', with i)roi)er tools and ai)i)liancesand sutti-
cient food, and with intelligent and exi»erienced foremen t() direct them, could have
done the work far better and more (pnckly than the ill-directed efforts of that mob
of men, without implements, weak fiom scanty diet and exhausted by hardsliip.
An Knglish navvy woul<l laugh at their work as excavators, but the conditions as to
food, temi>erature, and exposuie under which they work would kill him long before
the month was out. Oplilhalmia is one evil that results. lean not imagine a better
receipt for the wholesale manufacture of this malady than to work men to exhaus-
tion in liery heat and glare and dust ail day and then to expose them at night to the
heavy dew and frosty temperature, lying on the bare ground in their calico dresses.
It must not I )e supposed that because the government pays nothing for it thatthere-
fore forced lal)or, as now conducted, is cheai); on the contrary, it is most costly to
the countrv. Everv man there withdrawn from the cultivation of his farm repre-
sents a familv bv so nmch imi)overished.

One-half of the able-bodied poj)ulation is engaged for ])etween three and four
montlis in the year in forced labor. That means that the second croj) on their farms
is reduced in productiveness by one-half; that on the lands where 4 ardebs (21.76
bushels) i)er acre could have ])een yielded had all the hands remained at lu»me, only
2 are yielded owing to deficient irrigation when half the hands are withdrawn; that
is to say, that it amounts to a tax of 21s. (^5.04) per acre on every acre devoted to
j^econd crops. Where land is rented, not owned, these second croi)s often constitute
all the return tlie cultivator gets, rent and land tax entirely swallowing up thelirst;
the price the government i)ays is the ])auj)erization of the ])eoi»le and the reduction
of their taxpaying capacity, but that is not the whole price. There are not men
enough in Eg;^'j)t to cultivate it i>ii)i)erly or to develoj> its resources fully; the gov-
ernment, grudging the cost of food and implements, is pnxligal only in men, the
very article that most needs heie to be economized. If thev can save the ex])ense of
tools by setting four or live mi-n to do the work whii'h one man with tools and food
could easily accomplish, they send the live men and withhold the tools and food. I
fear, also, that the sacrilice of men is not merely temi)orary; men can not be exposed
with impunity to the hardshi})s which 1 witnesse<l. The constitutions and health of
many must ])e permanently impaired, even their lives shortened. Twenty thousand
men are said to have i)erishe<l in making the Mahmoudia Canal, and I can well
l)elieve it after what I witnessed near Keneh.

It must be accepted for a fact that forced labor exists with the consent of the great
mas.s of the people of Kgyj>t. 1 have heard them comi)lain of this or that tax and
suggest its abolition, and I have lu'ard them comi>lain of the unfair apportionment of
forced labor in their district, but 1 never heard one single j>erson of any class suggest
the abolition of the forced-labor svstem. Thev admit it to be necessarv, but it does
not follow on that account that nothing can be <lone to reform its conditions. The
lirst term of labor should be postponed till the first crops are thrasheil out and sold
and the second croi)S well established and K-ss likely to suffer from defective irriga-
tion. The men should be supplied by the government with nourishing food. Two
or three intervals for f(»od an«l rest should be allowed in thedav, instead of onlv
one. Proper implements for excavating sIkmiM be sui>i»lied to them. Labor-saving
machinery should be introduce*! whcii> possil»le. Skillrd foremen should direct the
works. The men should Ik* divitU'd systeniatically int(» Liangs, i-ach gang with its
own task marked out, instead ot" tlu' de-ultoiy fashions which now prevail, inv they
work in a mob and everv man i< in his m'iglibnr's wav. Sonu' slu-lter ouirhi to be

78

arran^tMl for the niglit, if po!?iJil)le, or, at any rate, they should ho t«uj)plied with a
warm wraj>, no matter liow coarse; oM sacks would l)e better than nothing.

REFORM OF THE CORVINE STSTEM.

AVhen the English engineers hegtin their work, in 1883, they found
that all earthwork necessary in the construction and cleaning of canals
was performed I)}- this kind of labor. I'^nder the original basin sy??-
teni, ])efore the farmer had a title to the land he cultivated and while
he was simply a slave, this practice might have been excusable. There
are no good reasons, however, why it should have been continued after
the reforms introduced })y Mohanuned Ali were put in operation.
Under the old system the farmer had nothing to do when there was no
water, and he could do nothing during the flood. Under the perennial
S3'stem some kind of farm work is in progress throughout the year,
and if the farmer is taken awav from his land the results are as serious
to the taxgatherer as to him. Perennial canals require a great deal
more labor to keep them in repair than do the ancient inundation
canals. This is ) because the canals are deeper and carrj^ water through-
out the year. The whole agricultural population was formerly
employed a large part of the 3'ear in keeping these canals in condition,
although ))ut a sniall portion of the people so engaged were directly
interested in them. So long had the system l^een in force in Egypt
that inunediate reform was impossi])le. The increased security to land
titl(\s did nuich toward bringing about a change for the l)etter. The
first khedival decree relating to the corvee appeared in January, 1881.

Articles 1 to 4 of this decree prescribe what works shall be main-
tained i)y the public.

Article 5 provides that all male inhabitants of the countr}^, of sound
health, ])etween the ages of L") and 50 years, with the exception of
thosc^ indicated in the following section, are subject to corvee duty.

Article <>: The following persons are exempt from corvee dut}': Law
students of the Koran; those who recite the Koran; persons engaged
in teaching; studi^its of the moscjues and schools; persons attached to
charital)le institutions, shrines, convents, and hospitals; those in the
service of the mosciues, tom})s, and holv places having distinct offices;
priests, monks, ra))))is, and persons attached to the service of churches,
temi)les, cemeteries of the \ arious sects and holding permanent posi-
tions; peo})le having professions or trades who pay professional taxes
and who exercise their calling; also fishermen and boatmen; the
w^atchmen of the vilhmes.

Article T: Every person who is subject to corvee duty can redeem
himself i)y furnishing a su))stitute. The following persons can redeem
themselves by a payment in cash: Inhabitants of isolated settlements
who have l)een included in th(» census; Bedouins who own lander cul-
tivate the same and who have heri^tofore been exempt from such labor;
the inhal)itants of the villao'cs working:* on the state domain and the

79

Daira Sanieh in Lower E^3'pt, wherever these adininistrations luive
more than 100 acres, on the condition that the land is not rented and
that the ransomed men shall devote their labor to cultivation. Forced
labor is obligatory from the inhal)itants of the villages where rice is
the predominating crop, or where the land tax is adjusted as it is for
such villages, Init the corvee duty of such inhabitants will be only half
of that required from the inhabitants of other villages.

Article 8: Where a cash payment is permitted in lieu of services,
about 86 is required in Lower Egypt and about ^4 in Upper P2gypt.
After the year 18St> the amount of this payment shall be fixed annually,
and the minister of public works shall so notify the governors of the
provinces one month befoi'e the commencement of woi'k. The condi-
tions w^hich shall affect the aniount of this payment are the (piantity of
material to be moved and the time when it is necessary to perform
the work.

Article 9: The minister of public works can, when he deems it nec-
essary, withdraw^ the privilege of the payment of cash instead of la))or
as provided for in article 7, or he can substitute machine work for
hand labor.

Article 10: The money received in each province from this source
will be entered in a special register and deposited in the treasury of
the province and kept at the disposal of the minister of public works.
These sums can be spent only on works which hav(^ for their object
reduction or suppression of the corvee.

Article 11: It is the dutv of the minister of the interior to collect
and keep in service those su])ject to the corvee.

The khedival decree issued in 188:^ permitted the .Vra)) farmers to
redeem themselves from the corvee by u cash paynient, and the same
decree frees the Bedouins from this service entirely. Under the pro-
visions of this decree those having political influence gradually secured
relief from ))oth the payment and the corviM^ service and the whole
burden fell on the poorer classes. Early in 1SS5 some of the fellaheen
of one of the districts applied for an investigation to ))e made of the
corvee conditions. It was found in an examination of the corvee ser\'-
ice from 145,0O(j acres that the entire number of men furnished cami^
from 83.000 acres. The state lands included within this district
redeemed about half of the renters, and the large landholders, who
own about 51J,(MM) acres, paid nothing and furnished no labor.

The partial reconstruction of the barrage in 1885 ])rought about the
first real relief to the fellaheen. This structure not only furnished
water for the farmer during the period of low Nile. ])ut also ena))led
the discharge to be regulated in such a way as to reduce the volumes of
bilt which were aniuially deposit(Ml. In addition to this relief 8ir)(),(M)0
wa« spent in paying those who worked on c(»rtain canals. This was an
experiment to see whether it was pc)'>sii)i(^ to relieve or wholly do away
with forced labor. The work was entirely successful. Not only were

80

the iiihal)itaiits better .sati5;tied to ciirrv it on, J)ut the work was better
done, and the monev reverted to those who bore the l)iirden of the
tax. This kind of work is carried on hy contract, and each person is
paid for the vohnne of earth he removes. Owintr to the improved
quality of hand la])or it was possible to clean canals in which 125,000
cu))ic yards of silt had deposited. At first it was estimated that
machinery would have to be employed when the volume exceeded
oO.ooo cubic vards for anv one canal. In IvSSO the first svstematic
work of cleanintr the canals was undertaken bv the t^overnment, and
this was uraduallv extended until all earthwork was carried on w ith-
out the employment of the corvee. The cost of cleaning the canals
amounts to nearlv ^2.(KK)J)0U per vear. While this is a serious drain
on the treasury of the country, yet it is a long step in advance of the
conditions which existed prior to the initiation of reforu). The corvee
is still called out to watch the banks of the Nile during high water.

A num])er of decrees have ])een issued dealing with details regulat-
ing the corvee service, ))ut they are comparatively unimportant. On
l)ecem])er 19, 18S1^ the followino- decree was rendered:

We, the klietlive «>t E^rypt, at the instance of our eoiiiieil of niinisterH and in view
of tlie <lelil)eration!^ of the jreneral ast^embly, ileereo:
Article 1. The eorvee is suppressed throu^rhout Egypt.

Aktk Li: 2. Tlie guardianship and charge over the dikes and other works, as well
as all urgent measures in ease t)f danger owing to the rise of tlie Nile, shall continue
to ]>e carried out at the expense of the inhabitants.

Akticlk 3. The corvee aud redenii)tion tax are replaced hy the establishment, both
on rslniri and Kharadji lands, of a special tax with a niaxinunn tax of $^0.214 j)er
acre, tlie total produce of which sliall n(,)t exceed §5741,500 per annum.

The assessment of this tax shall be made by a further decree issued on proposal of
our council of ministers, after consideration bv the leijislative council.

Akti(li:4. The i)roduce of this si)ecial tax shall, with the authority of the com-
missioners (»f the debt, ])e employed un<ler the conditions i)rescribed by our decree
of the 14t}i of June, ISSU, for the sum of !^l,2;>5,7n0 provided for in the said decree.
AinuLE 5. ( )ur ministers of linance and i)ublic works are charged, in so far as they
are each concerned, with the execution of the present decree.
l)one at the palace of Abdin the IHth of lX>cend)er, 18S9.

(Siorned) Mkhemet Tewfik.

l>v the Kliedive:

Tlie l*resident of the Council of Ministers.
The Minister of Finance.

(Si<>:ned) Iviaz.

The ^Minister of Pu]»lic AVorks.

(Sitriie<l) ^louAMEi) Zeki.

]\Iany preliminary steps were necessary ))efore this linal decree could
b(» rend(M-ed. Some of the foreign powers objected to increasing tax-
ation for the purpose of relie\'ino- the fellaheen in this work. The
French were particularly active in this opposition.

Althouo'h to-day the fellah is not imposed upon as he was twenty
A'cars ao'o, vet he does not eniov lilxu'tv as we understand it. The
work of watchino- tlu^ Nile lexees durino- hio-h water results in consid-

81

erable hardship to the farmei*. The following table shows the luniiber
of men called out during the twenty years from ISSO to ISOJ),
inclusive:

Xumher of )iieii ra/hd (ni for cftrne dutij, ISSO-lSUt*.

v .« Number ^^ ... Ximiber v ... Number v ... Number

^^'»^- I of men. ^ ^''''- of men. ^^'^'' of men. ^*'^'- of men.

1>S0.
l.vsi.

ISSJ.

1.SS8.

110,8.s5 ' lSS.-> l'J5,9oO 1S90 4S,4S8 1J<95 :ir..7S2

'2.S1,L>H3 ' LSN> yr>.09:5 , isyi 44,9«)1> | lS9t> -J.'). 794

262,9L»a 1SS7 ,s7. 120 1S92 S4.891 1S97 n.0«i9

202,i;r>o , iSNs .')S.7ss ]S9;5 :52.7r>2 i isys :u.770

18M IGo.Ki.'i 1S.S9 49,9(M ' 1894 49. 4SS i 1S99 17.r><;4

The number of men neediMl in this work depends upon the stage of
the Nile dui'ing Hood. Thc^ liigluM" the iiood the moi'e men are reijuired
to watch the banks during this critical period. The difference between
this w^ork and the cleaning of canals is that those em])loyed in the latter
scM'vice receive compensation tixed by the govermnent. Service i<
compulsory in both cases. If an accident occurs to the govermnent
railway line, men are forced to leave their homes und put it in repair,
and are paid for their services as the government may deem sufficient.
It can not be said, therefore, that forced labor luis been abolished.
Those who are l)est aci(uainted with the conditions admit that the sy<-
Unw has simply been modi tied and reformc^d.

CONCLTJSIONS.

The climate of Kgypt i)eing mild, the needs of the people are easily
satisfied; the population is den.se and the individual holdings of land
are small. Labor is cheap, enabling nuich to be accomplished by the u.^e
of crude implements which could be performed protitably in America
onlv by the emi)loyment of modern machinery. The irrigation canals
of Egpyt convey water to the farms, but the irrigator nuist raise
the water for his fields. lie has few other duties which demand his
time and energv during the growing- .season, and therefore can use
with profit machinery which recpiires a large expenditure of labor but
little expenditure of money. In lifting water from the Nile the
Egyptian deals with the same obstacles as the irrigator in many locali-
ties in the West wluM'e watei- can be .secured at depths ranging from
10 to 25 feet, ))ut th(*re tlu* resemblance ceases. The standard of li\'-
ing of the American inigator is higluM", his farm is larger, and the
returns from an acre are h^ss. He can not adopt watcM'-raising de\'ices
of low" efhciency like the shaduf or natal i. The hoe. ])ractically the
only tool used in distributing water over the fields in Kgypt, has no
meiit to the Anu^rican farmer. W'c ran not. therefoi*e. learn nuich
from the Egyptian irrigator.

Many of the irrigation structures of Egypt are models of tlu^ir kind.
The barrage below Cairo is one of the most interesting dams in the
world. Its architecture reflects some of the iccent i)olitical struggles
in Egypt. The towers which emlxdlish tin* dam should be class(»d

27752— No. 180— 08 <;

82

with the ruins bequotithod to the modern world by ancient E^ypt.
The })arrage is a nionunient to the French engineers, while the fortifi-
cations alon^ it lemind us that it was only a few 3'ears ag'O that the
caprice of the khedive overshadowed the designs of the engineer.
The Assiut dam follows the general plan of the barrage )>elovv Cairo.
The design of the dam at Assuan is new in Egypt as >vell as in the
world. It marks the beginning of a great reservoir system which
will ultimately control the waters of the Nile and furnish a supph' to
every arable district of Egypt. The head gates, waste g'ates, regu-
lators, and ))ridges of the larger canals \vi\\ always be objects of study
for irrigation engineers of other countries.

The excellence of the recent irrigation works of Egypt i.s be^'ond
(piestion. Th(* fame of the dam at Assuan has ))een heralded throughout
the civilized world; })ut such works are costlv. Before the distributary
systoius are ])erf(*cted the cost of the system supplied by the Assuan
reservoir will exceed ^57 per acre of land irrigated. Such an outlay
is not at present ])r()titable in the United States. It is advisable,
nevertheless, for us to study the larger irrigation works of Egypt,
because it may be ])ossi])le for American engineers to modify these
desicms to suit the needs of irritration here. Manv of the smaller
details of construction can be leadilv introduced

The Nile is an easy strt^am to divider, hence laws for the economical
distribution of water are not so severely tested as they will be on the
streams of the arid West. Water is diverted only at the lower end of
the Nile, and not from all its i-amifying tril)utaries, as is the case on the
^Missouri and Colorado. In addition, Egy])t is one of the few countries
where the water supply can be made adecjuate for the needs of all by
storage. This will not l)e ])ossi})le in the United States except under
rare conditions, where the area of irriga))le land along a river afford-
ing th(» supply is c()m])aratively limited. In Egypt the demand for
land will in a few vears exceed the demand for water. With us the
uvea of irrigable land will ultimately ))e limited ))y the \vater supply.

Tin* Egyptian irrigation law aims to ))ring about such a distribution
of the wat(M' of the Nile tliat the country as a whole will produce the
hirgest returns and the treasury receipts be the greatest. The irriga-
tion laws of the AN'estern States of the United States are framed to
])r()tect the individual farmer, and not for the ])urpose of producing
revenue. This fundamental ditlerence in the objects to be attained
makes Egypt's administrative system ina])])lic>tble to this country.
Then* does not seem to be any reason for changing our policy. On
th(* contrarv. it seems wise that our irrigation administration should
promot(^ the prosperity of tlu* water user as far as ])racticable, so that
we mav sav in the words of An)eni, as inscribed on his tomb at Beni
Hassan, .50 miles above Cairo, ''And behold, when the inundation was
great, and the owners of the land became^ rich thereby, I laid uo
additional tax upon the lields."

APPEXDICHS.

Appendix 1.

Note. — The lawe as given in tlie!?e appendices are free translations of the texts, as
^iveii in l^a Ix'gislation en Matiere Ininiobiliere en P^gypte, I.e ('aire, Iniprinierie,
Nationale, 1901.

POWERS OF THE GOVERNORS AND INSPECTORS OF IRRIGATION.

[Re^'ilation of December, 1SS5. (ixiiiK tlie relation ]>et\veen the governors and insi»eetorsof irrigation.]

( 1 ) It is the dnty of the governor to see that a just (listril)ution of the water is made
in the various districts composing his province. He will make known at an opj>or-
tune time to the irrigation inspectors aj)pointed V)y the minister of j)u])lic works the
places where more water is needed and at what times, and hear the complaints on
siieh subjects as may he a<ldressed to him by the chiefs of the villages.

(2) It is the duty of the inspectors to satisfy all demands as far as possible, and
where thev can not for anv reason carrv out these instructions thev shall report the
matter to the governor and communicate with the minister of pu])lic works. The
governor on his part shall inform the minister of the interior, and the two ministers
shall together take the matter under consideration and, if necessary. rei)ort it to the
council.

At the beginning of each year the governor, with the agricultural council, which is
assisted by the engineers, shall s|>ecify in the ordinary manner the various works
which are to be executed and shall determine the number of the corvee necessary for
cleaning canals and for construction.

In order that the governor may Ix' able to midertaki* this work with full knowle<lge
of the facts, the chief engineer shall report to him his estimates an<l <alculations some
days before the meeting of the agricultural council.

The governor shall j)Ut himself in direct conununication with the chief engineer on
all questions which may arise during the <*ourse of the year. If he does not o]>tain
satisfaction he may a[>|>eal to the inspector, and, if lu'cessary, to the minister of the
interior.

(3) The technical control of the <listrii)ution of water, the partial or com))lete
closing of gates, belong wholly to the insj)ectors, and nothing may be done without
their written orders. Conseijuentiy, if the governor l)elieves that it would be better
to partially open or close any gate he must address the chief engineer, and, if neces-
sary, the inspector, giving his reasons an<l all possible evidence. The engineer and
inspector may be able to ai>i»rove and act accordingly. If not, they must exjdain to
the governor what facts and evidence the minister of the interior and the minister of
public works should have in case the (juestion is api)ealed to them.

(4) During high water in the Nile, or whenever neci'ssary to avoid disaster, and
when the governor does not have near him an engineer whom he may consult, it is
the duty of the governor to do whatever in his judgment may l)e necessary, wlu^her
to throw stones in the water or to use an\ other means for addin<: to the se<nritv of

84

irrigation worky. In such ca'^es the jj:overnor should telejrraph to the inspector
immediately, re(|uestinj? the aid of the chief eng:ineer.

If the engineer of the province he present, he, and not the governor, directs what
measures to adopt, and he is held responsihle for the same.

If, however, the governor gives orders contrary to those of the local engineer, the
latter must ohey, hut at the same time give notice that discord exists, after which
the governor is responsible for what takes place.

The inspector shall arrange matters so that the governor may be accompanied as
often as possible in his journeys along the levees and canals during high water by
the chief engineer or some one delegated by him,

(o) The engineers are under the minister of public works, but they owe to the
governor the res}»ect due to the i)rincipal representative of the government in the
province. They shouh.l respond to his demands and give him all the information he
may desire. When the gf)vernor has reason to believe that the local engineer acts
without or beyond the orders of the inspector in that which concerns the making of
regulations relative to the use of water, which regulations nuist always l)e commu-
nicated to the governor and publishe*!, he must study with care the conduct of the
engineer, make full incpiiries i-egarding his acts as well as the acts of those under
his orders, and shall make known to the mspector the results of these inquiries.

( () ) No new work may be undertaken without the i)revious sanction of the council
of ministers. Concerning im])ortant improvements which the inspector believes
should be made in the irrigation or drainage of a region, he nnist act in concert with
the governor, and in all cases thev nuist inform the minister of the interior and the
minister of j)ul)lic works, who shall be members of the council of ministers.

In j)ublic im])roven»ents and reforms of less imj)ortance it is the duty of the insj)ect-
ors to i)ersonally inform the governor regarding what they pro)>ose to do, the effects
of the i)roposed changes, and the obstacles which they will have to overcome. Noti-
fication in writing, either English or Arabic, is not suHicient for this, and the inspect-
ors nuist never fail to exi>lain their ideas at least by maps and diagrams. Because
of his special knowledge of the agricultural interests the governor can and should
indicate how the ])roposed work might occasion loss or damage to ^irivate or ])ul)lic
proi)erty. The two ministers and the council must be informed also.

(7) The number of the corvee, as before stated, is determined l)y the agricultural
Council. The governor must decide as to the nund)er of men who should })e inclnded
in the corvee, and agree with theengineer as to the order in which the canals should
be cleaned and the time for said work.

The governor is not to be called up(.n for the technicalcxecutior. of the work; the
chief engineer is alone answerable and bears all responsibility for the completed work.

The governor may, should there be occasion therefor, call upon the chief engineer
to permit those of the corvee who have linished their W(jrk to return home.

( S) When, for any reason, the inspector <lesires to close a canal for more than four-
teen days, he must inform the governor of his intention as soon as possible, so that
the latter may j)resent his objections it he has any.

(1>) Irrujittlon norh. — Irrigation works may be <livided into two classes. The first
class includes those for whi<*h bids are a<lvertised in the otlicial journal, which bids
are su]>mitted under the i)revailing rules of the minister of jniblic works. T/iese
works comprise all excavation reipiiiing more than a thousand men per day, all
masonry work costing more than £200 (>^M74), and all work in which mJichinery is
necessary.

In work of this class the goveinor will not be consulted as to the choice of the
contractor, but he shall be informed regarding the nature of the contract. During
the execution of the work he must, if he deems necessary, call the attention of the
engineer to the manner in which the contractor is executing the work.

85

(10) The yecond eha^s rovers the excavation an<l cleaning of nmall canals^, yniall
works where mat^onry i.s not needed, and repair of masonry works. Contractors
shall snbmit bids to tlie governor for work of this class. The ins])ector shall sub-
mit to the governor a copy of the specifications. The bids shall be opened and a
contractor chosen to the satisfaction of both the governor and the inspector or his
assistant. It is not necessary to accej)t the lowest bid. In work of this class the
governor must always judge as to the reHability of the bidders. The governor
shouM, if possil)le, favor local contractors.

CANALS AND LEVEES.

[Deoroe of February '2'1, iv.M. conci'rniiiK rcKulatious rt'K'anliiiK <'»iiials and U'voes.]

ITHLIC <"ANAJ.S AM) LKVEKS.

Article 1. The word "canal" refers to a water course which serves for the entire
or partial irrigation of the lands of more than two villages. All canals of this kind
are considered public property. They are generally constructed and maintained at
government expense and are a part of the public domain.

The use and occnpation of banks of canals are permitted only under certain
restrictions lai«l down in article 21 of this decree.

I'KIVATE DITCHES.

Article 2. By the word " rigole" is understood a water cijurse which serves for the
irrigation of the land of one or two villages or of land belonging to one person or to
a single family living in one community even if belonging Ux several villages.

All rigoles are considered private property. The cost of construction and mainte-
nance is borne by those who derive profit from the works.

In case of delay in cleaning these works the g<>vernmeiit may perform the work
at the expense of the proprietors. The sum thus !^)cnt will be distributed by the
governor in proportion to the taxes i)aid by each, and it will be collected in con-
formity with the provisions of the decree of March 2o, IS.SO.

However, if a ditch serves for the irrigation of 1,000 acres belonging to one or
several persons it can always, u\nm retjuest of the owners, }>e considere<l a public
waterway.

DliAlNS.

Article 3. The word "<lrain" indicates a channel in the earth for carrvinj; awav
rain water, drainage water, (jr water from irrigated fields.

A drain is i)ublic when it serves more than two villages; ])rivate when it serxesone
or two only, unless it drains a surface of more than 2,000 acres in area, when it is
considered a public work, although it may be situated in one village.

The public drains are maintained by the govermnent and the private drains by
the parties interested. The provisions of the second paragraph of the j)receding
article are applicable to private drains.

WORKS FOR PROTECTION A(iAIXST 1 NT N DA'l'IO.V.

Article 4. "Works for protection against inundation" are levees, transverse and
longitudinal dikes, and all structures serving to j)roti'ct farms and villages from the
overflow of water.

These works are considered j»ublic }»ro|^erty and art' wholly under government
control.

Private levees uixni the banks <jf the Nile, or those which form the l>oundaries of
the basins and which are constructed by the owners, must be maintained at the
expense of those benefited.

86

POWERS OF irri(;ation inspectors and chief engineers.

Article 5. Irrigation insj^ectors are the representatives of the minister of public
works and have under them the chief engineer and all those in the irrigation admin-
istrative service. Their powers and their relations to the governor are fixed by the
regulations of December 31, ISSo.

Pl'BLIC WORKS ON PRIVATE LAND.

Article 6. The owner of land crossed by a public ditch, drain, or other work des-
tined to serve tlie lands of neighbors can not, without tlie written consent of the
owners of the lands served, till the land occupied by such works in such a way as to
destroy the usefulness of the works.

stoppinct of water-raisin(; machines and closing of canals.

Article 7. N<j indemnity can be claimed from the government for loss occasioned
by a reduction or stoppage of the flow of water in a canal resulting from extreme
necessity or having for its object repairs or changes recognized to be necessary, or by
any measure which the irrigation inspector may deem necessary in order to maintain
the volume or regulate the flow of water — such, as for examj^le, the closing of a canal
or the suspension of irrigation for a certain number of days on all or a part of a
canal, so that other i)laces in greater need of water may receive it.

In case it may be necessary to clean or repair a canal the irrigation inspector,
through his agent, the chief engineer of the province, shall determine when water
may best ))e dispensed with for irrigation that these operations may be carried on.
However, having commenced any work of this kind, the irrigation inspector should
act in accord with the governor, as rc(]uired by the provisions of the regulations of
December 81, 1885, fixing the }>owers and relations of inspectors of irrigation and
governors of j)rovinces. •

The governor should notify and consult those intereste*! or tlieir legal representa-
tives.

CONSTKlCTKTiN OK PRIVATE DITCHES.

Article S. If the citizens of a village desire to construct a canal on their own
lands for their own use they shall apply to the governor. He will communicate the
application to the inspector of irrigation, accomi)anying it by his recommendations
and advice, and if the inspector agrees, the governor will approve or reject the appli-
cation as the circumstances may warrant.

Tlie ditch thus authorized shall be constructed at the expense of the applicants
and their associates.

However, })rivilcges so extended shall not permit the parties to debar neighboring
property owners from utilizing the ditch for the irrigation of their lands, even during
low water, after the original applicants shall have receivtHl what they need for their
own lands. These neighl)ors shall in such cases become contributors toward the
cost <•! construction and maintenance in i)roi)ortioii to the extent to which their .
lands mav be benefited bv the ditch.

DITCHES THROrCiH LANDS OF PERSONS NOT BENEFITED.

Article 9. AVhen a property owner finds that, without the construction of a ditch
upon land not l)elonging to him or not served by a Nili " canal or by a ditch already
constructed on the property of others, it is impossible for him to irrigate his own
land, on account of his being unable to arrive at an amicable agreement with the
pror)rietors of tlie private works or their legal representatives, he may make a state-
ment of the case to the governor, who will communicate the same to the inspector of

^'A canal whicli (lows onlv durinjr the Nile flood.

87

irrigratioii, with hin recommendations and advice. The latter will then examine the
situation, on the tjronnd, and will ^ive his decision after hearing the parties interested
or their legal re})resentativcs, should such appear. The chief enofineer of the j^rov-
iiice or his deputy may he dele<rated for this work.

Fourteen days' notice shall he given as to the day and hour *)f the insj)ecti()n.
Biirh notice shall be given either to tlie owners or to their legal representatives, as
the case may ]>e.

I^ut if the ditch or Nili canal is to furnish water either running naturally or elevatwl
hy a machine, and the property owne'rs r)j>pose its construction l)ecause it may injure
the land it traverses, the inspector of irrigation shall go to the i>lace himself and base
his report on a careful survey.

If the rej)ort is favoral)le to the applicant, and the governor, after having acquainted
himself with the facts, agrees with the ins})ector, a decision to this effect shall be
rendered by the inspector. This decision shall l)e transmitted, as })rescril)ed by law,
to tlie opposing {>arties. The latter may, within fifteen days from such notice, a}>peal
to the minister of i)ublic works, whose decision shall be final.

If the governor and inspector of irrigation do not agree, the case shall be submitted
to the minister of public works. The ai)i)licant nuist always pay for the land occu-
pied by the new ditch and the delin<iuent taxes on the same; also indemnity for all
damage occasioned. Tlie amount to l)e j>aid shall be fixed by the comuMssion men-
tioned in article 27 of this decree.

Article 10 of the decree of March <S, ISSl, is hereby repeale<l.

iNsiFKKJKxr srri»Lv oi WATKJ{ IN A orrcu.

Article 10. An irrigator who l)elieves that he does not have sufficient water for
his purposes, should notify the governor, who should in turn comnumicate with the
inspector of irrigation, accompanying his rej^ort by liis reconunendation and such
information as he may deem necessary, so that the inspector may <letermine whether
or not the ditch which irrigates the cultivated land has sufficient capacity, and as to
whether it should be enlarged. The inspector will base his judgment cm the extent
of irrigated land and the character of the irrigated cro})s.

If the neighboring pro})erty holders object to the enlargement of the ditch, as may
be recommende<l by the inspector, the provisions of the preceding article are to be
observed, and if the enlargement is for the passage of summer irrigation water the
regulation set forth in paragraphs 2, 8, and 4 of article 9 shall a]»i»ly.

i:\( irAN(;K ok j)iTrnKs.

Article 11. The rules an<l forms prescribed by article 9 will apply also where a
party desires to irrigate his land during high Xile ))y means of a ditch other than the
one which ordinarily serves him, but during low water no exchange of ditches will
be permitted without the coust'iit of the })arties owning the land through which the
new ditch woul<l j)ass.

COXSTRL'tTIOX OK I ATKUAI.S, oi: 1 NSTA I.LA'IION OK \V ATKK-KAlSl N< , DKVUKS ON CANALS.

Article 12. If a party desires to l)uild a lateral gate, or a sakiyeh, or other elevat-
ing machine on a canal to irrigate the land })ordering the same, he nuist submit his
request to the governor, who will connnunicate it, accompanied by his reconunenda-
tions and advice, to the insi)ector of inigation; the latter will refer the matter to the
rhief engineer of the i)rovince, who, in the case of the sakiyeh, if he ai)j)roves the
request, will furnish the necessary authorization, but if it concerns a lateral will
return the papers to the inspector foi" his aj)}>roval.

In all cases a copy of the authorization shall be transmitted to the governor,
together with a statejuent that the discharge of the canal is sufficient to sui)ply the

88

lateral or the land to be watered by tlie sakiyeh without mjury to those using water
from the same canal below.

The chief engineer shall tirst require the applicant to agree to pay all expenses
incident to and judged necessary for the regulation of the flow of water into tlie
lateral and the maintenance of the banks of the canal in good condition. He shall
designate the location of the lateral or sakiyeh.

Kcgulations for establishing fixed or portable elevating machines operated by
steam, wind, or water power are set forth in the decree of March 8, 1881.

It will not be allowable in any case to install a sakiveh or a tabout without firs?t
securing a j^ermit. This permit will be furnished free of charge.

closing; a OITCH TO PREVENT IN.irKY TO ADJACENT ].ANJ>S.

Artk'le l.S. When, u|)on the claim of the owners interested or their legal repre-
sentatives, the insj)ector of irrigation finds that a ditch \< useless for irrigation, an
obstacle to the drainage of bordering lands, that it absorbs water from bordering-
lands or loses it in transit, or, in fact, that it is a detriment to agriculture in any
way, he should, after consulting the governor and after the latter has heard the
interested parties, comnmnicate his reconnnendations to the minister of public
works, who will order the canal to ])e closed at the end of the harvest and will per-
mit the adjoining property holders to fill it up if it be shown that the land irrigated
by the ditch can ])c watered from another without injuring lands or agriculture in
any way. Tlie tract of land occupied by the ditch thus filled in shall be subject to
tlu* laws relating to such land.

INCHEASIN<; OR DI.Ml NISH IN(; T!IK SIZE OF THE HEAD (iATE OF A OITCH OR CHANGIMi

THE LEVEL OK THE JJOTTOM OK TUE SAME.

Article 14. If the insi)ector of irrigation believes that a head gate of a ditch is too
largo or that its flow ]>crmits the i)assageof a volume of water in excess of that needed
by the land irrigated hy the ditch, heshould so inform the governor, who will invite
the ])arties interested, or their legal representatives, to meet him on a certain day.
After having the oi)inion of the inspector stated to them, they will fix, if they approve
the recommendations of the inspector, the time when changes may be made. The
time should be so chosen that crops will not need irrigation while the work is being
I)ei'formed.

If the parties object to the reconnnendations of the inspector, the case will be
referj'ed by the governor to tlu* minister of ]mblic works, who will act as he deems
exjtedient legarding the j)roposed changes.

If it is lU'ccssary to enlarge the head gate of a ditch or to lower the level of the
bottom of the same so that sulHcient water may be delivered, a certain time shall,
in like maimer, be fixed for the alterations.

In all work of this nature the government will In-ar the ex])ens(\

DRAINS 1'ASS1N(; TIIROldll LANDS OF I'AR'riFS NOP HENEKlTEl).

Article 15. Wheie, in order to drain liis farm, a party lias to construct a channel
acioi-s the land of another, and the parties can not coint- loan amicable agreement, a
coiinilaint shouM be i>resented to the governor, who will transmit it, accompanied
with his recommendations and advice, to the insjtectoi' of irriL'atiou. The latter will
fix the course of the drain; the governor and tlu' inspector <»f irrigation shall agree
as to how the land for the drainaire channel shall be ac(juired. If they fail to agree,
the case shall be submitted to the minister of pul»lic W(»rks, who, if he approves of
the construction of the drain, shall take such steps as he may deem necessary to
accomplish the work. All expenses thus incurred aii<l the indemnity charged must
be j>aid ])y the i>arties benefited. The construction ..f the drain shall not in any way
injure lan<l through whi<'h it i»asse>.

8V»

REPAlRINCi A DITCH OK J)KAIN TO I'KEVENT DAMACJE.

Article 16. A party whose land is injured by a ditch or drain which passes through
it, whether such injury l)e due to a partial filling in of the ditch or drain (^r to inse-
cure construction of the l)anks of the same, may appeal to the governor, who, after
<'Oiisulting with the insj^ector of irrigation or with the chief engineer of the province,
may order the closing of the ditch or drain or may compel the owners to clean it if
he deems this sufficient. If the ditch or drain is essential for serving other lands,
tlie governor will re(juire the owner or owners of the same to keej) it in goo<l condi-
tion or pay damages to those injured.

CHAN(4IN«; THE LOCATION OF A DITCH WHK II DoKS NOT MEET THE DE.NLWDS OF THE

IRRIGATORS rXDER IT.

Article 17. When a party finds that a ditch i)assing through his land makes the
irrigation thereof difficult, and he desires to rei)lace the channel by another, lie may
present a petition to the governor, who will transmit it, accomi)anied ))y his recom-
mendations and advice, to the inspector of irrigation, who, after having consulted
with the governor, will authorize the closing of the ditch and the substitution of
another at the expense of the owner of the land, i)rovidcd that the new ditch is in
all respects as good as the fii'st and fulHlls the re(|uired conditions, and that the origi-
nal channel be not closed until the new one is in comlition to be used.

But if the ditch concerns only the owner of the land through which it i)asscs, he
may rei)lace the same by another channel upon his own land without having t<» obtain
a permit.

DIFFICULTIES WHICH -MAY AlilSE IN CONNECTION WITH THE RECAIR OF DIIXHES.

Article 18. If any i)arty disagrees with his associates as to whether or not a canal
should be repaired, and so notifies the governor, the latter shall delegate the chief
engineer to make investigation on the ground and ascertain the facts. If it is con-
sidered necessary t(^ have the repairs made, the governoi- will notify the interested
parties to do so.

But if the parties are found to be unable to i>erform the necessary work, either for
want of labor or money, the government may defray the expen.^es necessary for
making the rej^airs and reimburse itself for the money so expended by numerous
payments from those ])enefited, the amounts of such payments to be fixed l)y the
province according to the means of the parties. The government may renounce all
claims for reimbursement if tiie i)arties are recognized as l)eing poor.

The minister of the interior will decide as to whether j)Overty exists or not

DEsrRrCTION OF DIKES OR FILLINO IN OF DITCHES OR DRAINS.

Article 19. If any party complains to the governor that one of his associates in an
irrigation ditch or drain maintained at the ex})ense nf those interested, under the
provisions of article 2, has destroyed the l)anks or has filled in or encroached upon
a part thereof, the governor will communicate the grievance, accompanied with his
recommendations and a«lvice, to the inspector of irrigation, who will make a personal
examination of the ground or delegate the chief engineer of the province to do so,
after having given notice to those interested at least fourteen days in advaiu-e. If it
is found that dikes have been ilestroyed or channels filled in, the inspector will make
an estimate of the cost of reestablishing the works as they formerly stood, and the
governor will re(]uire, acconling to law, the offender to restore the proi)erty he has
damaged. In case he refuses he will l)e obliged to bear the exj)ense of such rei)airs.

In case an owner or a tenant complains to the governor that some one has inter-
cepted the water of a ditch wiiich serves him for irrigation, the gcjvernor, as stated
in the foregoing })aragraph, will transmit the ('om))laint, ac(\)mpanied with his recoin-

90

mendations and advice, to tlie in.spector of irrigation, who will visit the place himself
or delegate the ehief engineer of the province to do so, after having given notice to
the intereJ^ted parties at least fourteen days in advance; if it is found that the com-
plainant actually irrigated his land from the same ditch during the preceding year,
the insj>ector of irrigation will so inform the governor, who will take such lawful
measures as may be necessary in order that the water may flow as formerly, and that
nothing may i)revent his use or enjoyment of the ditch. The governor will proce€*<l
immediately in the execution of these measures, all expenses being borne by the
party or parties who intercepted the water. These expenses may be, in all of the
abo\e cases, recovered in the manner prescribed in the decree of March 25, 1880.

REMOVAL OF TREES I'LAXTED ON LEVEES AND CANAL BANKS.

AjiTicLE 20. If it is found that trees planted on levees, or banks, or footpaths of
canals are j)rivate property, and are obstacles to the flow of the water, to navigation,
or to travel on the l)anks, the inspector of irrigation or the chief engineer of the
province shall order the owner to remove them. If he does not do this within eight
days, the insjjector, after having obtained the written consent of the governor, shall
break or cut down the trees, sell the wood, and remit to the owner the receipts from
the sale after deducting ex])enses.

(TLTIVATION OF THE BANKS OR BED OF A CANAL.

Article 21. The customary practice of cniltivating the sides of canals not reached
by the water and the beds of Nili canals will be permitted, but the cultivator of such
land can not claim any damage for injury occasioned by necessary repair or clean-
ing of canals. However, the inspectors will enjoin the agents in charge of the work
to take all possible precautions to prevent loss to the growing crops.

A farmer of such government land will not be required to pay rent therefor w^hen
the croj) shall have been damaged as a result of necessary public work executed
beff)re harvest time. lie will, however, be obliged to bear the loss of the damaged
cr(jps.

MAKIN(; A ROAD ALON(; A Cl'LTIVATED BANK.

Article 22. If it is necessary to use for a public highway the bank of a canal ordi-
narily cultivated, or if for any reason it is desired to stop cultivation thereon, the
ins]>ector of irrigati<jn will re<iuest the governor to inform the farmer that cultivation
will not ])e })ermitted after the crops then growing shall have been harvested. If, in
spite of this notification, the farmer persists in using the bank for raising crops he
will have no claim against the government should the crops be destroyed by order
of the governor, l^ut if the land along the bank yields revenue through taxation,
the trovermnent must remit the taxes thereon and declare it a public highway.

CONSTKl'CTION OR REPAIR <>F I'RIVATE HEAD GATES ALONG THE BANKS OF THE NILE

OR OF A CANAL.

Article 28. If the inspector of irrigation linds a head gate on the bank of the Nile
or of a (;anal, or any other works of [)rotection, badly constructed or in poor condi-
tion, or in any way a source of danger to the banks, he will inform the governor,
who will give orders to the owners of the works to make changes or repairs within a
period of forty days during the winter season. If the owner fails to do this the
inspector will request the governor to set aside another forty days for the accomplish-
ment of the work.

If, after the second notice on the part of the governor, the owner of the head gate
refuses to make the changes or re})airs, tlie governor may have the work done and

^ expense will ])e recovered as provided in the decree of March 25, 1880.

ill

If the construction of the hea<l gate i.s not tniishe*! at the time of hiirh Nile, the
inspector of irriiration may order its immoliate closing and ultimate removal where
tlie i?ecurity of the hanks demand it. He shoulTl be careful to inform the governor
of li is action, an<l to conduct the water in some other way than throuiih this head
^ate to the lands usually irriirated.

WORKS Foli PKOTKCTION A(;aINST INTNDATIoN.

Article 24. AV'hen, to protect the country from inun<lation, it is necessary to occupy
a tract ni land l)idonging to individuals, whether it he cultivated or not, or to destroy
a l>uilding of any kind situated on the said land, the area of the proj>erty so occui>ied
will ))e measured, and the valuation will he lixeii by the commission provi«led for in
article 27. After haviuir lieanl the owner and the insj>ector of irrig-ation the com-
mission will inform the trovernor of the estimated advantages resulting from these
works.

The sum fixed by the commission will be paiil by the mini.'-ter of jmblie works.
No apiK^al can be taken from the decisi<»n of the commi.«^sion.

In case of danger duriuir hish Nile the irovernor may act immediatelv. lie niav
occupy land, whether cultivated or not, destroy a house or any other structure in
the building of works necessary for protection; in this case the estimate of damages
will l)e made by the governor <»r his deputy, acting with tlie chief engineer or the engi-
neer of the ilistrict and four ])rominent j>ei*sons, two of whom shall l>e chosen by the
owners of the property and two by the governor. In case of a tie the governor or
his deputy sliall cast the <leciding vote.

The damages shall be paid by the minister of public works.

( nAN(iK IN THE CorK>K OF THE NILE.

ARTICLE 2''>. If the Nile should form, owing to a change in its cliannel, an island or
a deposit of alluvial soil near a bank uixm whicli is erected an elevating machine
duly authorized bv the irovernment, ami the government should deem it exT>eilient
to sell or rent this island or the tract of land, the owner of the machine shall have a
right to dig a ditch through the alluvial lan<l to ]mu^ water to his machine without
indemniticati(»n to the tenant or owner.

I.OADINO AND rNLOAl)IN(; Ho ATS,

Article 20. Boats will ]>e allowed to load and unload their carirc»es at all times at
the landings established for that })urpose uj*on the banks of the Nile or of canals,
provided that no damage be <lone to these banks and that tra\el alouL' the same l>e
not iinjjeded.

When the landing j)Iaces are separate<l from the water by land ]>i^-IonL:inir to pri-
vate individuals an<l can not be reached ]*y any other route, the owners of the boats
and of the land must ai^ree uj»on the location of a roa<l for the traii>jK»rtation of the
cargoes of the Ik tats, as well as upon a reasonable price for the riiiht of way. If the
owner of the land o]»jects to the road, he will be obliged to accept the }»rice fi»r the
right of way fixed 1>y the c<.»mmission j>rovide«l for in article 27.

Generally, the owners of l>oat- will be permitted to con>truct or rejiair them only
on the footpaths near the water edL'e.

]'.oAl:l) OF AI'FKA1SEK>.

Article 27. A commission is hereby instituted t<' act where parties fail to aL'ree
on the amount of inilemnity due, whether it be f<'r lands neces-ary for the lon-
ftniction of <litches or drain- "T for any oth»T ca-r ••! in<lemnity provided for in this
decree.

92

This comniii?fejion shall be composed of the governor or his deputy, as president,
the chief engineer, and two prominent citizens of the province chosen by each of
the interested parties. •

In case of a tie the president shall cast the deciding vote.

If the chief engineer is absent or hindered from attending, the inspector of irriga-
tion shall appoint the principal deputy engineer to take his place.

OWNERS OF BOATS CAN NOT COLLECT DAMACJES FROM THE (iOVERXMENT.

AiiTicLE 28. The owners of boats or of cargoes can not claim any indemnity against
the government for delay occasioned by the closing of a canal or by insufiicient
water in the canal or in the Nile. They shall be advised of the closing as soon as
possible.

WRECKIXd OK <;RorNI)IN<} OF BOATS.

Article 29. If a }»oat is wrecked or runs ashore along the Nile or in one of the
public canals or in a basin in such a way as to form an obstacle to navigation or to
the free passage of the water, the governor will notify the owner of the boat, who
is held responsible for notifying the owner of the cargo to remove the boat, and if
the latter does not do so within eight days after receipt of the notice the governor
will have the work done at the expense of the owner, and the latter will have no
claim against the government for indemnity for any damage which may be done to
the boat or cargo in the course of such removal.

If the owner does not pay the expense of removing the boat within eight days
after notitication to do so, the governor shall have the right to sell the boat and its
cargo. The returns from such sale shall be remitted to the owner after deducting the
said expenses. If the expense of removal is in excess of the value of the boat and
cargo combined and the owner is una])le to i)ay the difference on account of pov-
erty, such excess shall be borne by the government.

Shouhl a boat founder in a narrow canal or in a lock or in front of the opening
of a lock or head gate, etc., so as to stop navigation or render it diflicult or diminish
the (lisrharge of water in the canal or through a lock or head gate, the inspector
shall take immediate measures for removing the said boat from the passage so ren-
dered damrerous, and at the same time inform the governor regarding the whole
matter.

The exi)ense of removing the boat will be borne by the government, but the owner
will have no claim against the government for any damage which may be done to
the boat, its accessories, or cargo in this work.

As to tlie procedure after the boat has been removed from a channel where it
threatene<l danger to navigation or othei" inteiests, the provisions of the first part of
this article shall apply.

establishment of ffkkies on a canal.

Aktr i.E 1)0. In order to establish a ferry on a canal it is necessary that the pro-
posed i»Uni and site be api)rove<l by the insi)ector of irrigation, in addition to the
j)erniit from tlu' minister of finance.

In rcgaid to ferries already in operation, if the inspector of irrigation believes that
they ari' so located as to be injurious to irrigation or navigation and that they can
be moved to a neighboring site without interfering with traffic, he may notify the
governor to have the change made.

If such change be not possible, the inspector of irrigation and the governor wiHr
after conferring, aj)ply to the ministers of finance and i)ul)lic works, who will decide
whether the ferries should be suppressed oi- not. If they decide that such action
should ])e taken the ferries shall be relieved from taxes and replaced by bridges
which sliall be public highways. The owners of tlu' ferries will have no claim for
"uden\nity airainst the government.

93

Article 31. It is prohiV)ite<l, under tho penalties ]>rescribe(l ])y the native penal
oofle, for anyone to require or collect any payment whatsoever for the priviieores
which authorized })oats have (^f loading and unloading their cargoes on the banks of
the Nile, of a canal, or of a })ublic drain.

OFFENSES.

Article 82. Offenses will be j)unished by inijirisonment from tifteen days to two
lucmths and a tine at least eijual in amount to the damages caused, to be judged by
the minister of j>ublic works, but the line can not in any case exceed twice this
ainount.

First, Those who, without special authorizati<^n —

A. ]Mav have obstructed a water course bv a dike, rocks, or anv other obstacle.

B. May have opened or closed the gates of locks or interfered with any of the
machinery which serves to j)rotect the bridges or hea<l gates.

C. ^lay have broken a dike that was constructed aiToss a canal, with the object of
closing or reducing the discharge.

D. ]May have established on the banks of the Nile, of a canal, or of a public drain
any structure whatever, hydraulic wheel, sakiyeh, pum)^, etc. (all structures or
machines established under these conditions will be iimnediately removed ).

Shadufs, natalis, and Archimedean screws may be established without securing
Iierniits, i)rovided that the banks are not cut oi* in any way damaged.

E. ]May have cut the l»anks of the Nile or of an irrigation canal or drain, or «'ou-
striicted a gate for the passage oi water.

F. Mav have removed the earth forming: the banks.

(t. ]\Iav have changed in anv wav a lock or a gateconstructe<l of mascmrv, whether
the lock or gate be i>ublic oi ]>rivate property, ccnistructed u)>on a bank of the Nile
or of a public canal.

H. May have removed earth, stone, wood, or any other material from the banks
of the Nile or of a canal or from any work of ))r<>tection, or who may have committed
acts which might injiu'e works of art.

The sheiks of the villages who may have taken charge of these works of art will
be Vield legally resp(»nsi]^le by the government for the said acts, unless they have
informed the government that they will no longer act in this capacity, so that
guardians might be api)ointed by the government.

Second. Those who may have interred a body in the banks.

Third. Those who may have taken water from a canal, whether by oi)ening the
gate of a canal or ditch or by making an opening in the bank or by raising the level
of the water during the time the inspector of irrigation or other duly apj>ointed
autliority shall have given notice that water should not be used.

Article o.S. The following offenders will l)e punished by a tine of from 2."S to 2(X)
P. T. ($1.23 to $9.SH) and imi)risonment from five to thirty days:

First. Those who, without written authority from the insi)ector of irrigation, may
have diverted water from a drainage canal to a public canal.

Second. Those who, without sj>ecial authorization, may have c(»nstructed over a
canal any bridge, either permanent or temporary, or who may have estahlishe<l a
pipe or a siphon.

Article 34. The following ((ffenders will be punished by a tine of from 10 to 50
F. T. ($0,49 to $2.47) and nnprisonmcnt fr<>m one to fifteen days:

First. Those who may havt* <leposite<l upon the banks or berms <»f a canal the
material ol)tained from excavating orcleanin^' a <litch, acon<luit to a sakiyeh, or a steam
pump.

Second. Those who mav have damaL'e(l the banks of canals or public <liains bv
ninning water over them fntm the fields or by discharging into tlu' chaniu'l of a
public drain sand or mud carried bv water.

94

Third. Those wlio may have driven .stakes in a eanal to hold fish inj; neii^.

Article 35. Those who may have thrown into the Nile, a eanal, or a public drain
dead animals or any other snbstanee which would taint the water w^ill be subject to a
fine of 200 P.T.( $9. 86).

Those in charge of the guanis must always remove dead bodies from the water
and bnrv them.

Article 8(5. The penalties, fines, and imprisonments provided for in articles 32, 33,
and 34 may be applied separately.

Article 37. In addition to the prosecution for offenses as above i>rovideii for,
offenders will always be required to restore premises to their former condition; if they
refuse, the necessary work will be performed at their expense by the tjovernment,
and the sum expended will be recovered in the manner prescribed in the decree of
.March 25, 1880.

Article 38. Offenders will be tried before a commission composed of the governor,
the chief engineer or his deputy, and three prominent citizens of the province, to be
chosen by the minister of the interior.

A majority vote shall decide.

Xo appeal may be taken if the sentence carries a fine only.

Where the offender is condemned to imprisonment, he may appeal to a special
committee sitting at the ministry of the interior and composed of the under secretary
of state as i^resident, a khedival councilor, and a delegate from the ministry of public
works.

The api^eal must be lodged by a declaration to the province or to the government
within three davt^ after the decision has l)een handed down.

The ai)peal will not be receive<l unless the i>arty condemned has at that time paid
the line and damages imj)osed, subject to refund in case of ac<iuittal.

Articlk 39. SjKHial regulations of the minister of the interior shall fix the pro-
ce<iure to be folhnved, whether before the commission or before the special committee.

Article 40. The sheiks and watchmen of the towns and villages, the overseers of
the chifiiks and ezbehs," of the government lands, and of the Daira Sanieh will be
held responsible for the safe-keeping of the dikes and canals and all works of art
whicli may ])e Icu-ated within their respective jurisdictions and which have been
eonsigne<l to their care. In case of offense they will be held personally liable for
the expense of rei)airing the works should the offenders be not apprehended.

Articlk 41. The fines and other expenses shall V)e collected under the j^ro visions
of the decree of March 25, 1880. In case the fine is not i>aid, the comiemned shall,
in lieu thereof, l>e imprisoned one day for each 30 P. T. ($1.48) nf the fine. Such
imi)risonment will be ordered by the governor.

Article 42. All previous acts in conflict with this decree are hereby repealed.

OBDEK OF THE MINISTER OF THE INTERIOR OF JULY 16, 1898.

Article 1. All infractions of the law of Fe])ruary 22, 1894, relative to levees and
canals, shall bi^ i)roven by testimony drawn uj) and signed by the engineer of the
district ov by a referee appointed by the chief engineer, and signed in adiUtion by
the omdeh '' or by one of the sheiks of the village in the province where the offense
was committed.

'^Chifiiks are concessions of large areas of land related to the Abadieh lands and
ruled by the same decree of 1842. They were given to the vice-royal family exclu-
sively. Tnder Abba Pasha, however, the government ceded some of this land to
several high functionaries of the state.

Ezbehs are hamlets or settlements isolated from neighboring villages, the inhabit-
ants not being included in the census of the villages.

f> An omdeh is the chief of a village; he is superior m authority to a sheik.

95

If the omdeh ami the sheikj^ are absent, the said testimony sliall l)e signed hy the
head officer of the district, or by one of the referees of the i)rovince or of the districts,
or by an agent of })olice, on condition that they have i)resente<i (h'rect evidence of
tlie offense.

In the aV)sence of these otticials (»r of an agent <»f i)once, it will ]>e sufficient in the
prosecution if the testimony be countersigned, or simply signed, without a sec<)nd
signature ])eing necessary, by an inspector of irrigation, a cliief engineer, a director
of public works, a superintendent of contracts, or an engineer ai)pointed by the
inspector of irrigation.

If the chief engineer should a})point a referee, or the inspector of irrigation an engi-
neer, to take testimony in acconiance with the provisions of this article, the governor
should ))e informed immediately of the name of the person so aj)pointed and the
object of his appointment. The authority and duties of a person so appointed shall
concern only a single case or a grouj) of cases or a certain locality, in which the
appointee must spend a fixed period, such as, for example, the ))reaking of regula-
tions concerning rotation in the use of water from a certain canal or in a certain
district during the period of rotation.

Aktici.e 2. The testimony shall be dated and must contain the following infor-
mation :

(1-) The full name, oiH'upation, and residence of the accuse<l.

(2) Proof of the act constituting the offense and of the time and of the i>lace
where committed.

All testimony shall be recorded, together with all the circumstances arising from
the culpability of the accused, and .«hall be forwanle<l within twenty-four hours to
the governor, accomi)anied by a statement fixing the amount of damages.

Artici.k .S. a special register shall be kei)t at the ofHce of the governor by an
eni})loyee, who shall act as recorder for the conunission. In this register he shall
enter immediately —

(1) The date of the receipt of the report.

(2) The date of the taking of testimony.

(8) The full name, occupation, and residenct* of the accused.

(4) The character of the offense.

Article 4. Within twenty-four hours after receipt of the report the recorder shall
summon the accused to ajipear ])efore the commission. This summons, in duplicate,
must contain —

(1) The full name, occupation, and residence of the accused.

(2) The character of the offense.

(8) Citation of the relevant j)rovisions of the law.

(4) The day and hour when the accused shall ajipear.

At least three full days must intervene between the date «»f the summons and the
date of appearance.

Article 5. An agent of tlie government shall bt' appointed to <leliver a duplicate
of the summons to the accused.

He shall make mention of such <leliverv at the bottom of Ixtth the original and
duplicate summons, and shall affix the date of his signature.

The accused shall also sign or stamj) the summons. In casi- of refusal i>r absence
such fact shall be note<l thereon, and the original summons shall be delivered to the
sheik, who shall acknowle<lge receipt thereof.

Article H. The recorder shall enter in the register provided for in article :i the
date of the summons and all j)roceedings to and including the final decision.

Article 7. The accused shall appear before the commission in jierson on the day
and hour specified.

He may not in anv event claim anv irregularitv whatever in the snnim(>ns, for the
fact of his apj)earance would nullify any such claim.

96

Article 8. Testimony duly signed shall be accepted rs fact until proven to the
contrary. The recorder shall read the testimonj^ together with any report which
may accompany it.

Following this the accused will set forth the character of his defense, and, if the
same court tries the case, he will then give his testimony.

The character of the defense and the depositions of testimony shall be briefly
stated by the recorder in a re^xirt. The commission shall, before adjournment, give
its decision, which must })e justified l)y the facts.

Thev mav require additional testimonv if thev believe it necessarv. In such
event they shall lix the day and hour when the new evidence shall be heard, which
nuist be within fifteen days.

Aktulk9. If the accused does not appear at the first hearing, the commission
shall ascertain if the provisions of articles 4 and 5 relating to the summons have
been observed. If any irregularity be found, they shall order a new hearing, which
sliall take i)la<'e within three days.

AjrricLK 10. If the sununous has ])een ))roi)erly issued, judgjnent by default will
])e given, and no a})i)eal may be taken.

Ahtklio 11. Where an api)eal is granted in accordance with the provisions of
articU* 3S of the law on levees and canals, the accused, in making the ap})eal, must
produce a receipt showing that he has deposited in the treasury of the i)rovince the
amount of the fine an<l damages which have been imposed.

The ai)i)eal will not ])e rei'eived if it is not accomj)anied by the said rec^eipt.

The appeal shall ))e transmitted within three days to the minister of the interior,
with the decision and the other papers in the case.

Artki.i: 12. During tlie period of rotation in the sunnner — that is, the period dur-
ing which rotations ai)j)ly to machines and pumps — the commission shall assemble at
least once a week. But if, within three days before the time of meeting, there has
bi'en no sununous, and there is no case of emergency, the governor may give notice
to the mem])ers of the commission that no meeting will be held during the said
week.

AirncLK \'.\. The governor shall l)e charged with the execution of the decisions,
both of the commission ajid of the special committee of a})peal.

ArrKNDix 11.

INSTALLATION OF MACHINES FOR ELEVATING WATER.

[Di'criT of March s, ISM.]

Akticlk 1. Any i>erson, befoie cstalilishing a machine lor elevating water either
for irrigation or drainage, whether the machine ))e stationary or movable, or
proi)elled by steam or by a current of water, or by the wind, nuist receive permi.«sion
from the ])ublic works ministry. This i)ermit carries with it no right or title to the
j)ul)lic or private lands traversed by the pipes, conduits, acpieducts, head gates, or
occupie<l by the i)umj)ing i>lant, in any way whatsoever. The government remains
neutral in ail respects in all disjnites between the people and the person receiving
the permit and lea\('s t»> him all res))onsi})ility resulting from damages which may
occur in the installation of the ])lant or in anv other wav.

Ahti i.K 2. The erection of stationary eU'vating machines will be authorized only
up(»n the banks of the Nile. At the same time the minister of public works may
make exception and authorize the esta])lishment of suc*h nuichines upon certain
canals. The minister is to be sole ju<lge of the ex})ediency of issuing a lermit, and
to him will be left all freedom regarding all agreements and conditions to which it
will be su))jected, as the case may deman<l.

97

xVrticle 8. All machines for elevating water, whether stationary or movaljle, must
be so installed as not to interfere with travel along the banks or the navigation of
the canals, to respect all existing rights, and not add to the expense of maintenance
of the canals or their ))anks, or to the defense of the country against inundation.

Article 4. In case the applicant fails to comply with the conditions and ol^liga-
tions imposed by the permit, it will be canceled without any claim on the govern-
ment on account of such procedure as it may <leem necessary to reimburse itself for
such damage as mav be done.

Article 5. A site for the installation of a machine at a certain place may not be
changed except by the issuance of a new permit, which will be grante<l Avithout
requiring the payment of additional fees.

Article (). The (rovernment retains the right, whenever a i)u))lic utility may
require, such as the execution of public works dangerous to the dikes, irrigation
works, etc., to cause any authorized pumping plant to be removed.

Article 7. The permit given for the installati(m of an elevating machine, whether
stationary or movable, carries with it only the right for the applicants to install the
plant in order to take water from a canal or the Nile. It carries with it no assurance
from the government of a sui)ply of water for the machine, nor does it insure a
passage for the water elevated hy the macthine. The appHcants nuist come to an
understanding with their associates, or the ])eople whose land they must cross, with-
out interfering with the government in any way. In order to conduct water over
waste or other land of the government, the applicant must secure a special permit.
It is prohibited to make ditches to bring the water along the ])anks of the canals or
of the Nile, as well as upon the roads or slo[)es of the ])anks.

Article 8. The ditches or conduits for carrying the water from the machines to
the land will be constructed in such a manner and be of such a kind as not to inter-
fere with travel, the flow of water, or with irrigation, according to the rights reserved
by the people to whom the applicant alone remains responsible. The government
will allow such construction as it deems safe and necessary for permitting the i)assage
of conduits under dikes and roads and under or above canals.

Article 9. For the general good, in case of exceptional low water, or when the
flow of the canal becomes greatly inferior to the ne('<ls of the agriculture which it
serves, the public works ministry, in accordance witli a measure generally a])i>licable
to canals or a single reach of a canal, may or<ler the imme<liate closing of the elevating
machine, or reduce the capacity of the same in accordance with its location, the
relative importance of the machine, the area of the land which it iri'igates, and in no
case will the government incur any responsibility tor damage caused to agriculture.

Article 10. I'liderthe jirovisionsof article 7, the ministry of public works is, under
certain conditions, authorized to permit the use of a j)ublic Nili canal for carrying
water from the elevating machine to the lan<l to be irrigatt^I, under the following
reservations:

(1) Such j)ermission will ))e given only during the season of low water and ends
when the water of the Nik; will flow freely in the canal.

(2) IVrmission will he given only when the i>roprietors of the hnul who use the
Nili canal have given their general consent.

(3) If it is found necessary to construct dams to maintain the level of the water
along a Nili canal, these must he of earth and thev must be l)uilt hv the (»wnerof the
machine, in casc^ of necessity, by the governjuent, but at the ex])ense, risk, an«l ]»eril
of the proprietor, before the water of the Nile can flow freely into the canal.

(4) Finally, the owner of the machine is alone res])orisil>le to the p(M)ple foi- all
damage occasioned by the breaking of dams, percolation, and <lelay in Ituildini: the
dams at the time the supj)ly of water is availahle.

Article 11. Any jx'rson who, contrary to the foreu'oing }>rovisions <»f this decree,
may have installe<l a stationary or a movahle machine without receiving a permit,
must, before August .SI, ISSl, aj^ply for a permit imder the conditions j-rescrihed by

27T5i>— No. VM)—{)?y 7

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONSi

IRR1GATI0N--Craiiiriaed.

Bnl. 119. Hc-pc.ri.of Iiriwilioii InveHtigatiortH ft,r 19fl niid.'r l.ho rtirwtion ol

Meail, rbipf. I'p. *H. Price, 50 <«iils.
lliit. 124. Keport -jf IrrigaHon Investigaiione in Utali, unaer th llrectioii of F.lwo™!

Mp;.,1, ,^hief, SHsiBted t.y R. P. Teein, A. P. Shiver, A. F. Doremoa, J. D.

StaniianI, Frauk Adanie, anH G. L. Sweiidi«-n. Pj.. 330. Price, 11.10.

Hiil. W. rn-icalinti in Hiiiiiii! CliluateB. Ijj i". M King. <'i..\:7.
Hill. UH. Irrigatifm in Fniit tiiwvhia. }\v E. J, Wickson T: .. 4fi.
llul. 138. Irrigatioa iu Fit-Id and Ganjeii. Bj- K. J. Wtr'. ^..i >. «.
I;iil. 158. Hfjwk, Biii/^l Siiiall Irrigation Dik-hes, By G. T. j.,i,nB(<.n sod .1.
Stanniinl. I'ji. M.

lA^