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ELECTRIC TRACTION

FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Published by the

Mc G r&w - Hill B ool^ Comp eiriy

^Succe^sorvS to tkeBookDepartraervts of tKe

McGraw Publbhing Company Hill Publishing Company

Publishers of Books for

Electrical World Tlie Engineering and Mining JourHa!

Engineering Record' Power and TKe Engineer

Electric Railway Journal' American Machinist

Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering

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ELECTRIC TRACTION

FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

A BOOK FOR STUDENTS, ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS, SUPERINTENDENTS OF MOTIVE POWER
AND OTHERS INTERESTED IN THE DEVELOP-
MENT OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR
RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE.

EDWARD P. BURCH

CONSULTING ENGINEER; MEMBER NEW YORK RAILROAD CLUB; MEMBER AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS; LECTURER ON ELECTRIC RAILWAYS, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

239 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK

6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E. C.

1911

LAW

PilHOOtCAL

McGraw-Hill Book Company

Printed by

The Maple Pi.:s

York, Pa.

;)CI.A297213

FREDERICK S. JONES

DEAN OF YALE COLLEGE

GEORGE D. SHEPARDSON

PROFESSOR OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

CALVIN S. GOODRICH

PRESIDENT, TWIN CITY RAPID TRANSIT CO., MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA

JOHN T. McCHESNEY

PRESIDENT, EVERETT IMPROVEMENT CO., EVERETT, WASHINGTON

IN RECOGNITION OF THE AUTHOR'S INDEBTEDNESS

PREFACE,

A development in electric traction for railway trains is in progress
the extent of which is scarcely realized except by those engaged in elec-
tric railway engineering.

The work of electrification now completed by four large steam rail-
roads, the New York Central, the New York, New Haven & Hartford,
the Long Island, and the Pennsylvania, at their New York terminals,
and by the Great Northern Railway and the Spokane and Inland
Empire Railroad in the state of Washington, presents notable examples
of this application of electric motive power. It has led other important
railway companies in this country to consider the advantages of electric
power, both for old steam roads and for all new railways.

The opportunity which has been given railroads to utilize the advan-
tages of electric motive power has already resulted in a remarkable
growth. No more striking display of progress in electrical engineering
can be obtained than that shown in the illustrations of the various
types of electric transportation equipment built since 1906. Equipment
has been strengthened commensurate with the needs; details of design
and control have been perfected; manufacture, maintenance, and in-
spection have been simplified, until the motive power of electric trains
now presents no serious difficulties in modern railroad operation.

No publication relating particularly to the subject of electric traction
for railway trains has appeared in America, because the men who were
qualified by experience and knowledge to write have not found time, or
have been prevented by business reasons. In the writer's opinion such
a work is needed, and this book has been published in the hope that it
may meet this need. It is not, however, intended as a popular treatise
upon the subject, for it is assumed that the reader has a good knowledge
of steam and electric railway practice.

The substance of the work was delivered in 24 lectures on electric
railway transportation, in 1908-9-10-11, to the senior students in elec-
trical engineering at the University of Minnesota.

The material has been systematically collected since the year 1900,
which marked the close of seven years' service as electrical engineer for
the Twin City Rapid Transit Company, operating the electric railways and
long interurban lines in and near Minneapolis and St. Paul. This was
followed by much valuable experience on steam locomotive tests and on

vii

viii PREFACE

dynamometer cars, and later in electrification plans for several steam
roads. Electrification work throughout the country has been inspected
and studied for use in consulting practice, the data thus collected being
used as a basis for the material contained in the book. Viewpoints have
been obtained from many sides and angles. Ideas of steam railroad offi-
cials, of superintendents of motive power, of steam and electric locomotive
enginemen, of manufacturers, and of skeptical bankers have been weighed
and sifted. Facts, comparisons, descriptions, statistical tables, leading
opinions, results in operation, and references to the best current litera-
ture have been collected to constitute a book of reference for engineers.
Manifestly all of the material and tables could not be presented, but
special effort has been made to avoid passing judgment or stating con-
clusions without presenting the important issues and sometimes the
details of the case.

In the use of the work as a text-book, emphasis should be given to a
study of statistical tables to bring out conclusions, when, in considera-
tion of the present status of electric railway transportation, it is possible
to do so. Classification in itself is not valuable and stress should be laid
on the function of the relations of the elements involved. The limitations
on practical electrification must be observed to get good foundations for a
study of economic problems and efficient methods of train operation.
Technical reports by students on the relative merits of mechanical
connections, electric systems, train equipment, on methods of develop-
ment, and on economies of train operation will bring out good results if
they are criticised, revised, and discussed pro and con, by the students
themselves.

The book is further intended as a guide for those who desire to follow
the development and practical application of electric traction on Ameri-
can trunk-line railroads. The history and present status are carefully
outlined to give a preliminary survey; and in general the subjects are
treated from the view point of steam railroad men who desire to study
electric motive power. Data on cars, trucks, power station design,
substation practice, manufacturer's data, wiring diagrams, etc., are not
presented. Electric traction for street railways is not considered, and
details of interurban railways which do not run cars in trains are omitted.
The subject has been limited, as the title indicates, to Electric Traction
for Railway Trains.

Minneapolis, t-i ti -o

September, 1911. EdWARD P. BuRCH.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

First-hand information has been received from a host of raikoad men,
from consulting engineers, and from managers of properties; and their
courtesies are appreciated, as otherwise parts of the statistical tables and
operating data, ordinarily kept '^behind a stone wall," could not have
been reviewed. The writer is indebted to the leading steam and electric
railway papers, the Railway Age Gazette and the Electric Railway
Journal, for reliable, up-to-date information, and especially for the
stimulus received from their able and comprehensive editorials.

DEFINITIONS.

There are four terms, frequently used herein, to be explained:

Railways refer to all kinds of roads where vehicles are moved on metal-
lic rails by steam or electric motors.

Railroads refer particularly to those railways which have 4 feet 8^.
inches track gage; a private right-of-way and private terminals; freight
and passenger traffic, with cars in trains; and the Master Car Builders'
standards, for interchange of equipment with other railroads.

Tons refer to weights of 2000 pounds; not to British or metric tons,
of 2240 or 2204 pounds.

Mileage refers to single-track miles, not route miles.

TEXT -BOOKS ON THE SUBJECT OF ELECTRIC TRACTION.

Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways," Van Nostrand, 1909.

Parshall and Hob art: "Electric Railway Engineering," Van Nostrand, 1907.

Ashe and Keiley: "Electric Railways." Two volumes, Van Nostrand, 1905.

Wilson and Lydall: "Electric Traction." Two volumes, Arnold, 1907.

Gotshall: "Electric Railway Economics," McGraw, 1904.

Herrick and Boynton: "American Electric Ry. Practice," McGraw, 1907.

Armstrong: "Electric Traction," in Standard Handbook, McGraw, 1910.

" International Electric Congress, St. Louis," McGraw, 1904.

" Berlin-Zossen Electric Railway Tests of 1903," McGraw, 1905.

" Report of the Electric Railway Test Commission," McGraw, 1906.

ELEMENTARY BOOKS FOR TRAINMEN AND BEGINNERS.

NoRRis: "Study of Electrical Engineering," Wiley, 1908.
Houston and Kennelly: "Electric Street Railways," McGraw, 1906.
Parham and Shedd: "Shop Tests on Car Equipment," McGraw, 1909.
Aylmer-Small: "Electrical Railroading," Drake, 1908.
GuTMANN-GouLD : "The Motorman and His Duties," McGraw, 1907.

LITERATURE AVAILABLE FOR GENERAL STUDY.

Electric Railway Journal, New York.

Electric Traction Weekly, Chicago.

Railway Age Gazette, New York.

The Electrician, London.

Zeitschrift Des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, Berlin.

State Railroad Commission, Annual Reports.

Interstate Commerce Commission, Annual Reports.

American Electric Railway Engineering Assoc, Reports.

Census Bulletin on Electric Railways, 1902-1907.

American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Transactions.

CONTENTS.

I. History and Present Status of Electric traction ... \^

II. Characteristics of Modern Steam Locomotives .... 50

III. Advantages of Electric Traction for Trains .... 86 ^^^

IV. Electric Systems Available for Traction 126

V. Electric Railway Motors for Trains 158

VI. Motor-car Trains 224

VII. Characteristics of Electric Locomotives 266 f>^

VIII. Technical Description of Direct-current Locomotives. 302

IX. Technical Description of Three-phase Locomotives . . 338

X. Technical Description of Single-phase Locomotives . . 354

XI. Power Required for Trains 400

XII. Transmission and Contact Lines 432

XIII. Steam, Gas, and Water Power Plants 466

XIV. Procedure in Railroad Electrification 496 ^

XV. Work Done in Railroad Electrification 530

Index 571

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR
RAILWAY TRAINS

CHAPTER I.
HISTORY AND PRESENT STATUS OF ELECTRIC TRACTION.

Outline.

Introduction. Third-rail Lines.

First Electric Railways. Subways and Tunnels.

Practical Street Railways. Motor-car Trains.

Experimental Work. Mountain-grade Lines.

Interurban Electric Ra/lways. Railroad Terminals.

Competition with Steam Roads. Switching Yards.

Private Right-of-Way. Freight Service.

Elevated Railways. Electric Locomotives.

Electric Traction by Electric Railways for Ordinary Service.
Electric Traction by Steam Railroads for Special Situations.
Electric Traction in General Use for Trains for Economic Reasons.
Earnings and Mileage of Railways Operating Electric Trains.
Steam and Electric Railway Statistics Summarized.

INTRODUCTION.

The history of electric traction for railway-train service is studied
in order to understand the progress which has been made during the past
twenty years in transportation methods, and to understand the service
conditions surrounding the application of electric power. This study
gives a proper view point for a perspective, it gages the value of present
endeavor, and it outlines the magnitude of some of the problems
which are now before railway companies.

The history of transportation shows clearly that improvements in
motive power and methods are attained only by slow development and
careful experiment; also that railway service demands economy of power,
ample capacity, reasonable designs, flexibility, and interchangeable
equipment; for without these things the best results are not obtained,
and investments are not most productive.

The history of railway electrical engineering may state the sequence
and nature of the development, but it should also review both the

2 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

mistakes and the triumphs of the past; and when the elements in the
advancement of transportation are so presented, they form an induce-
ment to present thought and endeavor.

In a study of railway electrical engineering it is well to acquire specific
information on approved modern engineering methods, and a good
knowledge of the technology of railways. A study should develop the
relations of separated features, and bring out the economic principles
underlying all transportation work.

FIRST ELECTIC RAILWAYS.

The years 1830 to 1860 mark the first period of experiment in the
application of electrical energy for transportation. The work of experi-
menters was limited to the application of permanent magnets and recip-
rocating motion, and by the lack of serviceability and capacity from
chemical batteries.

About 1835, Thomas Davenport, of Brandon, Vermont, made over
100 models of electric railway motor cars, which he operated by batteries.
One patent specified "the production of rotary motion by repeated
changes of magnet poles," and the use of a commutator. Third-rail
conductors and track-return circuits were used. Elec. World, Oct.
6, 1910.

In 1842, Davidson built a 7-ton, 2-axle car for the Edinburgh-Glasgow
Railway. Each axle carried a wooden cylinder on which were fastened
three bars of iron, parallel to the axle. Four electromagnets were arranged
in pairs on each side of each cylinder. Current was produced by
an iron-zinc sulphuric acid battery. The electromagnets attracted the
bars on the cylinder, then alternately the current was cut off and on, and
rotation was produced. A speed of four miles per hour was obtained.
Aspinwall, to Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1910.

In 1847, Lilley and Cotton, of Pittsburg, and also Moses G. Farmer,
of Dover, N. H., operated small cars in which, with electricity from a
battery, alternate attraction and repulsion of magnets produced motion.

In 1851, Thomas Hall, of Boston, exhibited an electric motor car
at the Mechanics' Fair. An electro-magnetic armature revolved between
the poles of a permanent magnet.

In 1851, C. G. Page, of Washington, D. C, employed a 100-cell nitric-
acid battery. His car received motion from two solenoids, or hollow
magnets, which alternately attracted cores on a plunger. This recipro-
cating motion was transmitted to the wheels by means of a crank. A
speed of 19 m. p. h. was attained, yet very few improvements were made,
and the car was dubbed the ''electro-magnetic humbug."

Between 1860 and 1866, dynamos or electric generators were being

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 3

developed; yet it was some time before it was discovered that an electric
generator could drive a similar machine, now called a motor.

In 1867, Moses G. Farmer operated a car with a motor and dynamo.

In 1879, Siemens and Halske, at the Berlin Industrial Exhibition,
propelled a miniature locomotive and three cars, with electric power
from a dynamo. The track rails, 1000 feet long, formed a 160-volt circuit.
Spur and bevel gears were used to transmit the power from a 3-h.p.
motor. This demonstration was repeated at Brussels and Dusseldorf,
also at Frankfort, in 1881. See photograph in St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 8, 1904,
p. 536.

In 1880, Thomas A. Edison at Menlo Park, New Jersey, ran a small
locomotive, using power from a dynamo. See section on electric loco-
motives in this chapter.

Fig. 1. — Electric Motor Car and Train. Van Depoele, Toronto, 1884.

In 1881, Stephen D. Field ran a large motor car at Stockbridge,
Massachusetts, using a dynamo, a positive wire enclosed in a conduit, and
a track-rail return.

In 1881, Siemens operated cars at the Paris Exposition with current
from an overhead slotted tube in which a contact shoe slid, and power
was transmitted by the motor to the axle thru a chain; and, in 1885, at
the Vienna Exposition, a 150-volt Siemens dynamo supplied current thru
two insulated rails to a motor in a car.

In 1883, Van Depoele built experimental and exhibition lines at
Chicago, and used an overhead trolley wire, an over-running trolley wheel,

4 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

held in position by ballast, the trolley wheel being connected to the car by
means of a flexible cable.

In 1884, Van Depoele ran an electric railway train at the Toronto
Exposition, using a 1000-volt contact line in an underground conduit,
3000 feet long; and again in 1885, on a one-mile road. Van Depoele used
an under-running trolley, and patented the scheme.

In 1884, Daft built an electric railway on one of the piers at Coney
Island; and used the track rails for the two conductors. This was repeated
at expositions in Boston and in New Orleans.

First Public Electric Cars for City Streets (1880-1888).— In 1881,
Siemens and Halske constructed a short commercial road, at Lichterfelde,
near Berlin. Two insulated track rails were used in a 180-volt circuit.

_.;t!__

Fig. 2. — Daft Electeic Motok Car, Baltimore, 1884.

The wheel tire was insulated from the hub by a wooden band. Later an
overhead trolley line, with a rolling contact at the wire, was used. See
photograph in St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 535. The road is now
running as a 600- volt trolley line.

In 1883, Siemens cars were operated in Paris, London, and elsewhere,
by storage batteries with 5-h.p., 100-volt motors.

In 1883, Siemens and Halske constructed a third-rail, narrow-gage
line, 6 miles long, the Portrush Railway near the Giants' Causeway, in
northern Ireland, obtaining from a water-fall the power for operating a
250-volt, direct-current dynamo.

In 1884, E. M. Bentley and Walter H. Knight operated in Cleveland,
Ohio, a road having two miles of underground conduit, placed between
the rails. This installation was perhaps the first in which the cars were

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 5

driven by a series motor, placed under the car floor. Wire-rope and
sprocket-chain drive, and later, bevel gearing, were tried. The road was
operated about one year. See Martin and Wetzler's ''The Electric Motor,"
1887; St. Ry. Journ., Feb., 1889; Bentley, Elec. World, March 5, 1904.

In 1884, Daft operated a pioneer line, 2 miles long, for the Union
Passenger Railway Co., between Baltimore and Hampden. Two 3-ton
motor cars were used to haul trailers. The over-running trolley and a
third-rail contact were both installed. The motors were a series, 130-
volt, direct-current, single-geared type. Elec. World, March 5, 1904.

In 1885, John C. Henry built an electric railroad in Kansas City.

f'iG. 3. — Electric Locomotive Car and Train. Van Depoele, Minneapolis, 1883.

There were two cars, each equipped with a 7-h.p., 250-volt, direct-
current motor. The overhead trolley wires were 10 inches apart, and
two pairs of over-running trolley wheels were held by springs in lateral
contact with each wire, the trolley w^heels being mounted on a single
carriage, and connected with the motors by means of flexible cables.
The creditors received 8 cents on a dollar. Elec. World, Oct. 20, 1910,
p. 934.

In 188G, Van Depoele, working at Minneapolis for the Minneapolis,
Lyndale and Minnetonka Railv/ay, which had been obliged to discontinue
the use of steam locomotives in the business portions of the city, equipped
an electric locomotive car for hauling trains.

6 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Fig. 4. — Standard Street Car and Motive Power, 1870-1890.

Fia, 5. — Uaft Electric Motor Car. Mansfield, Ohio, 1887.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

A Wesfcon bipolar, 20-h.p. motor, with spocket-chain drive to an axJe, was
located above the floor line of a 4-wheeled open car. Current was taken from an
overhead copper wire by means of an over-running, ballasted trolley, which was
attached to the car body by flexible cables. A 12x18 slide-valve engine, belted to an
electric generator, furnished energy, which was transmitted from 2 to 3 miles.
Four 10-ton open excursion coaches, having a loaded weight with passengers of about
60 tons, were hauled on the level, but two were a load for the curves and grades.
The trial line was 1.5 miles long, and contained one long 3.5 per cent, grade and two
sharp curves. Mr. Thomas J. Janney, superintendent of the road, recently stated to
the writer that, while the equipment was crude, it had many of the elements for
success. The president of the road decided that the overhead construction at curves
and the serious arcing at the rail joints could not be remedied. The heavy main-
tenance expense and lack of capacity in the electric motor caused it to be condemned,
and it was abandoned for a soda motor. St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 560. <1

A summary on public street railways to i888 shows that cars were
generally propelled by horses or mules. Animal power was expensive to
operate, depreciation was rapid, service was slow, and sufficient drawbar
pull and speed were not available. Experiments without number had
been tried with steam engines, electric motors, gas, hot-air, and chemical
motors, as the motive power for local railway transportation. Electric
street railways were simply an experiment.

EARLY ELECTRIC STREET RAILWAYS IN AMERICA. ^

Year Month.

Engineer.

Miles.

Cars.

2.0

1.0

0.5

1.5

1.2

5.0

2.7

1.0

3.7

5.0

1.0

Motors.

Location of road.

1884 I July I Bentley and Knight.

1885 i Aug. I Leo Daft

1885 John C.Henry

1885 JohnC. Henry

1-14 h.p

1-8

1-7

1885

1885
1885
1886
1886
1886
1886
1886
1886

Oct.

Jan.

June

July

Sept.

Oct.

C. J. Van Depoele. .

C. J. Van Depoele.

S. H. Short

C. J. Van Depoele,
C. J. Van Depoele,
C. J. Van Depoele,
I C. J. Van Depoele,
I C. J. Van Depoele,
F. E.Fisher

1886 Nov. C. J. Van Depoele.

1886 Nov. I C. J. Van Depoele .
1886 Dec. ' Leo Daft

1-5
1-10

1-8

1-20

1-10

1-15

1-10

1-15
2-12

Cleveland, O.
Baltimore, Md.
Kansas City, Mo.
Orange, N. J.

South Bend, Ind.

Toronto, Ont.
Denver, Colo.
Minneapolis, Minn.
Windsor, Ont.
Appleton, Wis.
Port Huron, Mich.
Detroit, Mich.
Detroit, Mich.

Scranton, Pa.

Montgomery, Ala.
Orange, N. J.

See references on early electric railways at end of this chapter.

8 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

EARLY ELECTRIC STREET RAILWAYS IN AMERICA.— Con^m?/ed.

Year. Month.

Engineer.

Miles.

Cars.

Motors.

4.0

1-15

4.0

6
1
1
1

1.0

1-18

4.0

7.0

2-7

4.0

1-12

3.0

1-20

1.0

■ 2

2-7

4.4

Location of road.

1887

July

1887

Aug.

1887

Aug.

1887

Aug.

1887

Sept.

1887

Sept.

1887

Nov.

1887

Oct.

1887

Oct.

1887

Oct.

1887

Oct.

1887

Nov.

1888

Jan.

1888

Jan.

C. J. Van Depoele

Leo Daft

F. J. Sprague

F. E. Fisher

S. H. Short

W. M. Schlesinger

C. F. Adams

C. J. Van Depoele

Leo Daft

John C. Henry. . . .

Leo Daft

Bentley-Knight . . .

Lima, Ohio.
Los Angeles, Cal.
Mansfield, O.
St. Joseph, Mo.
San Jose, Cal.
Columbus, O.
Huntington, W. Va.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Wichita, Kansas.
St. Catharines, Ont.
Asbury Park, N. J.
San Diego, Cal.
Ithaca, N. Y.
Allegheny City, Pa.

PRACTICAL STREET RAILWAYS.

The first practical electric street railway embodied many of the essen-
tial features of modern practice. It was installed by the Sprague Elec-
tric Railway & Motor Co. for an 11-mile railway, with 10 per cent, grades,
at Richmond, Va., and was operated in February, 1888. Energy was
furnished from a central station by a 300-h.p. steam engine and a 450-
volt direct-current, belted generator, and was transmitted by copper con-
ductors to small cars, each equipped with two 7-h.p. series-wound motors.
Thirty cars were in operation by July, 1888.

Mr. Frank J. Sprague in the Transactions of the International Elec-
tric Congress, St. Louis, 1904, Vol. Ill, p. 331, has summarized the
features of this now historic road at Richmond.

''Distribution was effected by an overhead line circuit over the center of the
track, reinforced by a continuous main conductor, in turn supplied at central dis-
tributing points by feeders from a constant potential plant, operated at about 450
volts, with reinforced track return. The current was taken from an overhead line,
at first by fixed upper-pressure contacts, and subsequently by a wheel carried on a
pole supported over the center of the car and having free, up-and-down, reversible
movement. The motors were centered on the axles, and geared to them, at first by
single, and then by double-reduction gearing, the outer ends being spring-supported
from the car body so that the motors were individually free to follow every variation
of axle movement, and yet maintain at all times a yielding touch upon the gears in
absolute parallelism. All the weight of the car was available for traction, and the
cars could be operated in either direction from either end of the car. The controlling
system was at first by graded resistances, afterward by variation of the field coils
from series to multiple relations, and series-parallel control of armatures, by a sepa-
rate switch. Motors were run in both directions with fixed brushes, at first laminated
ones placed at an angle, and later solid metallic ones with radial bearings."

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 9

The Development of Practical Street Railways (1888- 1896). — Sprague
md his associates now proceeded to convince street railway managers that
electric power could be made an economical substitute for animal, steam,
md cable traction. Sprague electric railway lines in 1890 included
Minneapolis, with 100 cars; St. Paul, 80 cars; Cleveland, 99 cars; St.
Louis, 80 cars; Tacorha, 56 cars; Pittsburg, 45 cars; Richmond, 42 cars;
n all 89 roads and 2080 motor cars. Electrical Engineer, N. Y., April
10, 1890.

Thomson -Houston Electric Co. absorbed the Van Depoele interests in
L888. Its equipment was similar to that used by Sprague, and included
^wo double-reduction, geared motors per car. One distinguishing feature
kVas an excellent controller, for parallel and later for series-parallel opera-
ion of motors, in Avhich a magnetic blow-out devised by Elihu Thomson
vas used. Its first lines were in practical service at Revere Beach, Bos-
ton, with one car, July 4, 1888; at Washington, D. C, also at Seattle in
L888; and at Minneapolis in 1889. St. Ry. Jour., 1889, p. 374. Thom-
son-Houston railway lines in 1890 included Boston, with 127 cars running
md 130 ordered; Omaha, 30 cars; St. Paul, 8 cars; in all 61 roads and
131 motor cars. Electrical Engineer, N. Y., April 16, 1890.

Short Electric Co., which had built lines in Denver in 1885,
ntroduced single-reduction, geared and gearless, motors in 1891.

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., of Pittsburg, entered'
Me electric railway field in 1890 with single-reduction, geared motors.

General Electric Co., of Schenectady, was formed in 1891 as a con-
solidation of the Thomson-Houston, the Edison General Electric, the
sprague, and other companies. It obtained the patent rights to the
nventions of Van Depoele, Bentley, Knight, Thomson, and Sprague.

General Electric and Westinghouse Companies have fostered most of
:he important American electric railway development since 1893. Patent
itigation was stopped when the two companies entered into contracts, in
1896 and 1899, w^hich embodied an exchange of licenses for the joint use
)f the patents of each company. This interchange was advantageous,
'or it developed a high degree of co-operation in engineering and in
nnanufacture.

Allis-Chalmers Co., which consolidated E. P. Allis & Co., Bullock
Electric Manufacturing Co., and others, about 1896, has furnished much
3f the power-plant equipment, but little of the electric motor and trans-
mission equipments for railways.

Conduit railways, which avoid overhead wires by placing the trolley
::;onductor in a conduit, as in cable railway systems, were successfully
installed and operated in Budapest in 1889, in Washington, D. C, in
1895, and in New York in 1896. Few roads have been built in America,
because the construction cost exceeds $60,000 per single-track mile.

10 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Conduit roads have been built in Paris, Beriin, Brussels, Vienna, Lyons,
Nice, Bordeaux, and London.

Suburban roads were a simple development of the street rail-
way. These lines which ran to the territory bordering the limits of
the city at first were 3 to 5 miles long, but they now extend even 12
miles. Electric lines running on public streets from the heart of the
larger European and American cities gave rise to numerous resident
and manufacturing districts situated a considerable distance from the
city. The suburban roads resulted from the increase in population and
an appreciation by the public of electric transportation. Frequent ser-
vice, rather than high speed, was the distinguishing feature.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK.

Experimental Work of all Kinds was Done until 1895. — Electricity
had now been recognized as an improved power for street railway trac-
tion. The cost of the development of equipment was so expensive, how-
ever, that it could not be borne by the inventors themselves, or by
the manufacturing companies, and much of it was assumed by energetic
electric railway companies. To such an extent, indeed, did they burden
themselves in this way, that it is remarkable that more of them did not
fall into the hands of receivers. Motor equipment which was started
with confidence often proved too expensive to operate. It was there-
fore abandoned, and replaced by an entirely new equipment, sometimes
on the suggestion of a manufacturing company, but generally on the
recommendation of the electrical engineer and the master mechanic of
the operating company. Large sums of money were allowed for experi-
mental purposes by the managers of these pioneer electric railways.
Engineers and operators were put on their mettle, and their courage,
ingenuity, and ability produced results. It was their opportunity and
their duty to progress in this new field. Valuable improvements were
readily accepted; apparatus was superseded when better was developed.

In these early days, after the advantages of electric power were appar-
ent, the stockholders and the public were willing to have improvements
tried, provided they were not greatly inconvenienced thereby. The
manufacturer who now-a-days installs equipment which has not been
thoroly tried, or who plans experiments on a large scale at the expense and
inconvenience of the public, is condemned.

About 1896, stockholders of electric railways began to receive divi-
dends on their investments. Suitable and economical power plants
were built, overhead construction was simplified, insulation of electric
motor windings was improved, cost of maintenance of equipment was
reduced, service became reliable, and experimental work was lessened.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 11

A SUMMARY OF DISCARDED IDEAS IN ELECTRIC TRACTION.
"Count your Failures, not your Successes."

Many engineering ideas were well tried, and then abandoned, between
1885 and 1895, certain apparatus was found to be unsuitable for ordinary
electric railway work; and the following have not since been used:

Batteries, primary and storage.

Over-running trolley; rigid or inflexible trolley contact; two trolleys
for city streets.

Unprotected third rail; a third rail between track rails; or a third-
rail on elevated posts.

Conduit systems for ordinary electric railway traffic; and surface
contact systems, to avoid the use of the trolley.

Track rails for conducting the positive electric current.

Insulation of track rails from the earth.

Rail returns, without adequate bonding at the rail joints.

Use of the soil, rivers, or lakes for a heavy return-current circuit; and
the artificial grounding of rails.

Magnetic braking, in ordinary railway-train service.

Magnetic adhesion increasers between rails and wheels to improve
the tractive friction or the economy of operation. See Elec. Ry. Journ.
Dec. 13, 1909, p. 1240; electric gearing, Elec. World, July 21, 1910, p. 166.

Magnetic systems, wherein alternate attraction and repulsion of
magnets produced reciprocating motion, to propel the car.

Motors placed above the floor at the end of passenger cars.

Continuous rotation of armature to retain its kinetic energy.

Connection between armature and car axle by means of a magnetic
coupling and quill, or a friction clutch; friction wheels, pulleys, grooves,
and disks; wire rope, belt, and chain drive; sprockets and links; cranks
near the middle of the axle; bevel gear, worm gear.

Long-distance transmission of direct-current power.

Direct-current series systems. — Short experimented at Denver, 1885.
See: Sperry, A. I. E. E., June, 1892; Dalemont, Elec. World, Oct. 14,
1909; Adams, Elec. Ry. Journ., Sept., 1900, page 810.

Regeneration of direct-current power.

Shunt-wound and compound-wound motors; one motor per car.

Control of motors with liquid resistance, — S. D. Field, about 1886.
Control of motors with wire resistance on field magnets. Control of
motors by a variation of field coils from series to multiple relation, —
Field, in 1886; Sprague,in 1888. Control of motor speeds by weakening
the field. Control of motors involving two commutators per motor.

Brushes of copper; variation of position of brushes with load or direc-
tion of motion; positions other than radial. Relatively large magneto-
motive force in direct-current armatures.

12 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Field poles without field coils mounted thereon. The well-known
'' W. P." motor of 1891 had consequent poles.

Armatures with a large diameter, and fly-wheel effect. Gearless
armatures, mounted on the axle without an elastic coupling to absorb
switch and crossing shocks, curve thrusts, and track variations.

Motor frames insulated from axles, supports, or rails; motors unpro-
tected from dust, snow, and water of roadbed; motors with unnecessary
dead weight, and motor mounting without spring supports.

Mechanical and electrical equipments which were suitable for city or
interurban trolley lines, for electric train service.

INTERURBAN ELECTRIC RAILWAYS (1890).

Interuban railways were a development from the street and suburban
railways. In the whole history of transportation, no development has
been more important and wonderful than that of the electric interurban
railways. It comprises the period from 1890 to 1894, when many short
interurban lines were built, then the period of hard times, from 1893 to
1896, when many of these lines were in the hands of receivers, followed by
the period, from 1897 to 1907, characterized by gradual increase in the
length and capacity of interurban roads, by the use of larger cars and
heavier motors, by greater investments and more economical power
plants; and, still more recently, by a development which, following steam-
railroad practice, involves the use of a complete private right-of-way from
terminal to terminal, the operation of motor cars in trains, freight ser-
vice with motor cars and electric locomotives, and the thru routing of
interstate traffic.

Interurbans several years ago reached the limit of their development
for local traffic, and their present advance is toward long-haul freight and
passenger traffic in competition, or in conjunction, with steam railroads.
They fill an important position between the street railway and the steam
railroad. Some interurbans are mere trolley lines; others have nearly
every function of a railroad.

The development of long interurban roads was impossible until after
the introduction of economical long-distance power transmission by the
Tesla three-phase, high-voltage system. Niagara power was not sent to
Buffalo, only 22 miles away, until November 16, 1896.

Car service has been perfected to outlying amusement parks, and to
bathing beaches, where recreation is obtainable at a minimum expense.
By improving the facilities for travel, they have provided for a diffusion
of city population, and have so developed country life that rural land
values have increased.

Interurban passenger service, between many cities of the central and
western states, equals, in passenger equipment and speed, that of the

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

steam railroads of the district; and, in convenience and frequency of
service, excel them beyond comparison. The long, vestibuled cars,
M. C. B. trucks, high-speed motors, service with a limited number of
stops, two-car trains, dining-car service (as on the Chicago & Milwaukee
Electric R. R., Aurora, Elgin & Chicago R. R.), roadbeds of stone ballast,
standard Tee-rails, a complete private right-of-way including terminals,
adequate power houses, telephone dispatching, block signals, and auto-
matic brakes render possible a high degree of speed with absolute safety.
These interurban roads are profitable and permanent investments.

Interurban railways are often common carriers, with the right of
eminent domain, and are subject to the reasonable control and police
power of the municipalities which they connect and thru which they are
operated, and to the state railroad commission.

The historical development in America is now tabulated briefly.

INTERURBAN RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT, 1890-1910.

Name of railway.

Terminal cities.

Miles.

Year.

Twin City Rapid Transit

Lake Shore Electric

Minneapolis — St. Paul

1890

Sandusky — Norwalk

1893

Toledo — Norwalk

62
19

1900

Toledo — Norwalk — Cleveland

1902

Cleveland, Berea, Elyria

Cleveland — Berea

1894

Cleveland — Berea — Oberlin

1901

Akron, Bedford & Cleveland. .

Cleveland — Akron

1895

(the first real interurban)

Cleveland — Akron — Canton

1901

International Traction

Buffalo — Niagara Falls

Lowell — Lynn, Mass

St. Paul— Stillwater

22
26

1895

1896

Minneapolis St. Paul Suburban.

1898

Puget Sound Electric

Seattle — Tacoma

1902

Boston & Worcester

Boston — Worcester . .......

1903

Terre Haute, Ind. & Eastern. .

Terre Haute — Indianapolis

1906

Terre Haute — Indianapohs — Rich-

140

1907

mond.

Spokane & Inland Empire. .*. .

Spokane — Moscow, Idaho

1907

Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley.

Ft. Wayne — Lafayette

114

1907

Indianapolis & Columbus, and

Indianapolis — Louisville, Ky

117

1907

Indianapolis & Louisville.

Indiana Union Traction

Indianapolis — Ft. Wayne

124

1907

Ohio Electric Railway

Ft. Wayne— Lima— Toledo

137

1907

Toledo — Lima — Dayton, 0

164

1907

Toledo — Lima — Columbus, 0

187

1909

Western Ohio Electric

Toledo— Dayton, Ohio

162

1907

Illinois Traction

St. Louis — Springfield — Peoria

St. Louis — Springfield — Danville . . .

172

1909

2 7

1908

14 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

INTERURBAN RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT, 1890-1910.— Continued.

Name of railway.

Terminal cities.

Miles.

Year.

Spveral coniDanies

Toledo — Dayton

162
187
125
173
160
175
145

1908

Thru service

Toledo — Columbus, Ohio

Chicaffo — ^Freeport, 111

1908
1908

Indianapolis — Michigan City, Ind. .
Cleveland — Lima, Ohio

1910
1910

Cleveland — Detroit

1910

Detroit — Kalamazoo

1910

See: ''Historical Interurban Roads," Elec. Ry. Journ., 1909, p. 571.

Exclusive of street railways, there are in Indiana 2300 miles, in Ohio
2600 miles, and in Illinois 1500 miles of interurban road.

Illinois Traction Company has the longest interurban routes and the
heaviest freight service; and has operated sleeping cars for six years.

Indianapolis is the great interurban railway center.

Pacific Electric Railway has 560 miles of track, operates one- to five-
car passenger trains, and 58 freight trains, out of Los Angeles daily, on
fourteen 10- to 40-mile electric routes.

INTERURBAN RAILWAY PASSENGER TRAFFIC, 1910.

Name of principal ci'.y.

Population
in 1910.

Radial
routes.

Cars
dailv.

Los Angeles

Indianapolis

Cleveland

Toledo

Detroit

Dayton

Rochester

Buffalo

Columbus, O

Ft. Wayne

Milwaukee

Minneapolis — St. Paul

319,000
233,000
560,000
168,000
466,000
116,000
218,000
424,000
181,000
64,000
374,000
516,000

14
12

650
318
155
173
190
155

116
100

100

The development of the most important interurban railways in each
state is shown by the tables which follow.

The order of listing of tables is geographical, east to west.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

Fig. 6. — Map of Interurban Lines in new England States, 1910.

INTERURBAN RAILWAYS.

Name of terminal cities.

Distance

between

cities.

Track mileage.

Name of electric railway.

Inter-
urban.

Grand
total.

Lewiston, Augusta & Waterville

55
35
40

300

140

Atlantic Shore Line

view Hampshire Electric

Portsmouth — Townhouse

110
110

Massachusetts Electric Co. :

933

Boston & Northern Division

Old Colony Southern Division

Boston & Worcester Electric

Boston — Worcester

16 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

INTERURBAN RAILWAYS— Continued.

•

Track mileage.

Name of terminal cities.

Distance

between

cities.

Name of electric railway.

Inter-

Grand

urban.

total.

New York, New Haven & Hartford:

1500

The Rhode Island Company

The Connecticut Company

Providence — W^orcester

200

319

City and interurban

300

780

Shore Line Electric

New Haven — Ivoryton . . .

Albany Southern R R

Albany — Hudson . .

62*

Hudson Valley Ry ....

Troy — Glen Falls

48 1

Saratoga — Warrensburg

35}

149

Delaware & Hudson, and New York

Albany — Troy — Cohoes

Central, and United Traction Co.

New York Central & Hudson River:

500

800

New York State Rys Co

The Mohawk Valley Co.

Utica & Mohawk Valley Ry

Utica — Little Falls

127

West Shore R. R

Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville R. R.

Gloversville — Schenectady

Ostego & Herkimer R.R

Rochester, Syracuse & Eastern

Syracuse — Rochester

105

165*

Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester

Rochester — Lockport

International Traction. . .

Lockport — Buffalo

Buffalo — Niagara Falls.

374

Buffalo & Lake Erie

Buffalo — Erie

173

Dominion Power & Transmission

Hamilton — Beamsville — Oak-
land— Brantford.

107

Mahoning & Shenango

^^estern Pennsylvania

149*

Pittsburg, Harmony, Butler & N. C . .

Pittsburg — New Castle

West Penn Ry

McKeesport — Connellsville

Philadelphia — Norristown

125

Philadelphia & Western R. R.

40*

Public Service Corporation

Traction lines, New Jersey

Wilkes-Barre — Scranton — Car-

200

720

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley

50*

bondale.

Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton

Hazelton — Wilkes-Barre

Philadelphia — Allentown

Washington — Baltimore

32
100

Lehigh Valley Transit.

144

Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis . .

100

Maryland Electric Rys

Baltimore — Annapolis short line.
Cleveland — Ashtabula

35*

Cleveland, Painesville & Eastern

Northern Ohio Traction

Cleveland — Canton

59 1
38/

Canton — New Philadelphia

215

Cleveland, Southwestern & Columbus .

Cleveland — Wooster

57 1

150

243

Cleveland — Bucyrus

116 J

Lake Shore Electric

Cleveland — Toledo

119

170

215

Ohio Electric

65 ""

Lima — Toledo

72
40

Lima — Defiance

Lima — Springfield — Columbus. . .

110

450

850

Dayton — Richmond

Dayton — Cincinnati

Dayton — Columbus

Columbus — Zanesville

Western Ohio

Dayton — Toledo

Findlay — Celina

150

68/

113

Eastern Ohio Traction

Cleveland — Garrettsville

Columbus, Delaware & Marion

* These roads operate passenger cars in trains, and handle freight under the Master Car Builders
rules of interchange.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION
INTERURBAN RAILWAYS— Continued.

Distance

Track mileage.

Name of electric railway.

Name of terminal cities.

between
cities.

Inter-
urban.

Grand
total.

Scioto Valley Traction

Columbus — Chillicothe

Cincinnati, Georgetown & Portsmouth.

Cincinnati — Georgetown

57*

Cincinnati & Columbus Traction

Cincinnati — Hillsboro

Windsor, Essex & Lake Shore

Windsor — Leamington, Ont

40*

Detroit United Ry

Detroit — Port Huron . . .

74]
125

Detroit — Bay City

Detroit — Toledo

56^
76 J

247

750

Detroit — Jackson

68 \
37/
59

Jackson— St. Johns

125

254

Toledo & Western R.R

Toledo — Pioneer — ^Adrian

Toledo, Fostoria & Findlay

Toledo — Findlay

100

121

Fort Wayne & Northern Indiana

Fort Wayne — Lafayette

114

150

212

Terre Haute, Indiana p'l's & Eastern.

Indianapolis — Terre Haute

72"

Indianapolis — Richmond .

349

400

Indianapolis — Crawfordsville ....

52.

Indianapolis — Greensburg

Indianapolis — Connersville

49^

58 J

i .

112

Indiana Union Traction

Indianapolis — Union City

Indianapolis — Bluffton

90^
99

Indianapolis — Wabash. ...

314

373*

Indianapolis — Logansport

Indianapolis — Peru ...

Indianapolis — Fort Wayne

124

Indianapolis, Crawsfordsville & West-

Indianapolis — Crawfordsville

Indianapolis, Columbus & Southern
Indianapolis & Louisville.

Indianapolis — Louisville

117

ill

68
65

Indianapolis, New Castle & Toledo

Indianapolis — New Castle

100

Chicago, South Bend & Northern

Michigan City — South Bend ....

40 1
30 /
65

78
42

78
85

117*

Winona Interurban

Goshen — Peru

70*

Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend. . .

Aurora Elgin & Chicago

Chicago — Aurora — Elgin

160*

Illinois Traction

172 1
123 1

425

560*

East St. Louis & Suburban

25
52

100
60

181*

Rock Island Southern

Rock Island — Monmouth

82*

Chicago & Milwaukee Electric

Evanston — Milwaukee

186*

Milwaukee Electric Ry. & Lt

Milwaukee — Watertown

51 1
36

Milwaukee — Burlington

35 '
33

100

356*

Milwaukee — Kenosha

Milwaukee Northern

Milwaukee — Sheboygan

64*

Milwaukee Western

Milwaukee — ^Fox Lake

Iowa & Illinois

Clinton — Davenport, Iowa

Inter-Urban Ry

Des Moines — Colfax

24 1

Des Moines — Perry

35/

Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern. .

Fort Dodge — Des-Moines

126

141*

Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern

Waterloo — Cedar Falls — Waverly

100*

Northern Texas Traction

Sherman — Dallas

86*

Colorado & Southern Ry

Denver — Boulder

Colorado Springs — Cripple Creek.

* These roads operate passenger cars in trains, and handle freight under the Master Car Builders'
rules of interchange.

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS
INTERURBAN RAILWAYS.— Continued.

Name of terminal cities.

Distance

between

cities.

Track mileage.

Name of electric railway.

Inter-
urban.

Grand
total.

Salt Lake & 0"-den R R

Salt Lake — Ogden

35
20
37
64
40
70
80
97
50
6

80
64
70
75
80
102
50
30

55*

Spokane — Medicine Lake — Cheny
Seattle — Tacoma

108*

200*

New Westminster — Chilliwack . . .
Portland — Cazadero

150*

Portland Ry Light & Power

472*

Portland — Salem — Eugene

Portland — Tillamook

80*

United Rys. Company

Northern Electric ... ...

100

Sacramento — Orville

130*

Central California

51*

San Francisco, Oakland & San Jose . . .
Southern Pacific Company

San Francisco — San Jose

Oakland — Berkley

64*
200*

Visalia Electric Ry

Visalia — Lemon Cove ....

Los Angeles Pacific Company

Los Angeles Ry. Corporation

Los Angeles — Santa Monica, etc

260*

Los Angeles — Coast Cities

386

600*

* These roads operate passenger cars in trains, and handle freight under the Master Car Builders'
rules of interchange.

THE NEW YORK— WISCONSIN ELECTRIC RAILWAY TRIP.

Stations.

Miles.

Via.

Hudson to Albany, N. Y

Albany to Schenectady

38
16
29
28
23
49
86
56
25
88
33

129
137
55
44
56
76
14
6
74
61
51

Albany Southern R. R.

Schenectady Railway.

Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville R. R.

Little Falls and Johnstown R. R.

Utica and Mohawk Valley.

West Shore R. R., Oneida Div.

Schenectady to Johnstown

Johnstown to Little Falls

Little Falls to Utica

Utica to Syracuse

Syracuse to Rochester

Rochester, Syracuse & Eastern.
Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester.
International Railway.
Buffalo & Lake Erie Traction

Rochester to Lockport

Lockport to Buffalo, N. Y

Buffalo to Erie, Pa . .

Erie to Conneaut, Ohio

Conneaut to Ashtabula \
Ashtabula to Cleveland /
Cleveland to Toledo

Conneaut & Erie Traction.
Pennsylvania & Ohio Railway.
Cleveland, Ashtabula & Eastern.
Lake Shore Electric Railway.
Ohio Electric Railway.
Ft. Wayne & Wabash Valley.

Toledo to Ft. Wayne, via Lima . .
Ft. Wayne to Peru

Peru to Warsaw

Warsaw to South Bend . .

Chicago, South Bend & North Indiana.
Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend.
Chicago City Railway.
Northwestern Elevated R R

South Bend to Pullman

Pullman to Chicago

Chicago to Evanston

Evanston to Milwaukee

Chicago & Milwaukee Electric R. R.
Milwaukee Northern Ry.
Milwaukee Electric Ry.

Milwaukee to Sheboygan, or. . . .
Milwaukee to Watertown

See route maps in E. R. J., Sept. 24, 1910; Jan. 7, 1911

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

When Traveling in the Central West Use the Electric Lines

LOW RATES— FREQUENT SERVICE — FAST- LIMITED TRAINS — NO SMOKE— NO DUST

ACROSS CENTRAL OHIO

on the Liniited Trains of the
OHIO ELECTRIC RAILWAY

Shortest Route Between

Zanesvllle, Newark, Columbns,5prinK-

neld, Dayton, Richmond and

Indianapolis.

2S0 MILES IN 9 HOURS TIME

Alao Frequent Service Between

SprinKfleld-Urbaoa— Bellelontalne.

Lima— Ft. Wayne. Lima— Defiance.

Lima— Toledo— Cincinnati— Dayton.

Dayton— Union City.

LIMA

ROUTE

NORTH and SOUTH

Through Western Ohio

Fourteen Limited Trains Dally
Between

TOLEDO -Bowling Oreen—Flndlay
--Lima— Cellna-Wapakoneta~Sldney
— PIqua— Troy— SprlnKfleld— TIppeca-
.noe City and DAYTON

T^' !?.■ A*i'. Ry. 163 MILES WITHOUT CHANGE OF CARS

D. « T. El. Ry.

The Southwestern Lines

Connect

CLEVELAND

Elyria Beare

Norwalk Lorain
Ashland Mansfield

With

Oberlin Wellington

Medina Wooster

Crestline Galion Bucyrus
Frequent Service Fast Limited Trains

THE CLEVELAND, SOUTHWESTERN & COLUMBUS
RAILWAY COMPANY

376 MILES IN INDIANA and ILLINOIS
VU

Terre Bante, Indianapolis & Eastero Traction Company

Lebanon, Crawfordsvllle, Frankfort,
Lafayette, Danville (Ind.), Greencastle,
Brazil, Terre Haute, Sullivan,
Paris, III.; Martinsville, Greenfield,
Knightstown, Richmond and Dayton,0.

FAST LIMITED TRAIN SERVICE

TERRE HAUTE, LAFAYETTE. NEW CASTLE.

RICHMOND. DAYTON. C. and PARIS. ILL.

Local Prelebt and Express Service Between All Points

INDIANAPOLIS

aod

THROUGH THE HEART OF ILLINOIS

LLINOIS TRACTION
SYSTEM

CORN BELT LIMITEDS

ST. LOUIS to

Limitedx and

SLEEPING CARS

St. Louis to

MILES

SPRINGFIELD

DECATUR

CHAMPAIGN

DANVILLE

223 Miles In t,Vz Hours

I SPRINGFIELD
PEORIA
BLOOMINQTON

CleveIand"ToledO"Detroit

LORAm—SANDUSKT— NORWALK— FRBHONT

Lake Shore Electric Railway

SEVEN LIMITED TRAINS
180 Mllet In S Hoiirs
cr Through Tickets a^d t<ow Rates to aU Points In

The Northern Ohio Traction & Light Co.

6 Limited Trains Daily CLEVELAND— AKRON

3 Limited Trains Dally CLEVELAND- CANTON

Rerular Ixxsal TtBlna XireiT Half-hoar

Connections at AKRON

for j

Connections at CANTON for

CUYAHOGA FALLS,
KENT, RAVENNA,
BARBERTON, WADSWORTH.
MASSILLON,
CANAL DOVER,
NEW PHILADELPHIA,
.UHRICHSVILLE.

Ft. Wayne & Wabash Valley Tract'n Co.

116 MILEtt — ALONQ— 4 HOURS

"The Banks of the Wabash"

In Our Parlor Buffet Cars

Connecting;

FT. WAYNE, HUNTINGTON; PERU, WABASH,

LOGANSPORT and LAFAYETTE.

"FT. WAYNE-INDIANAPOLIS LIMITEDS"
13« Mlles-4'/a Hours

INDIANA UNION
TRACTION COMPANY

SUPERB TRAIN SERVICE

Between

Indianapolis, Anderson, Marlon, Wabash, Muncle, Union City,
Bluffton, Ft. Wayne, Kokomo, Peru and Logansport.

''INDIANAPOLIS-FT. WAYNE SPECIALS") .,„.,„ „^ ^^^^
' INDIANAPOLIS-MARION FLYERS" \ NONF SO (1001)

"INDIANAPPLIS-MUNICE METEOR- i '^"'^»- *'" UUUU

—FAST FREIGHT and EXPRESS SERVICE)—

Northern Illinois to Southern Wisconsin

By the great
THIRD RAIL ROUTE

AURORA. ELQIN & CHICAGO R. R.

From the heart of Chicago to

WHEATON— AURORA— ELGIN— BELVIDERE

ROCKFORD— FREEPORT— BELOIT-^ANESVILLP.

125 Miles. 4</x Hours.

CHAIR CAR S B UFFET SERVICE

Fig. 7. — Advertisement U.sed by Interurban Railways.

20 'ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

COMPETITION WITH STEAM ROADS.

Competition between steam and electric roads became active in 1890.
Interurban and suburban electric railways took most of the local passen-
ger business, which formerly was a great part of the steam railroad
passenger traffic; and the total number of passengers carried by many
steam railroads radically decreased between 1895 and 1900.

The paralleling of steam roads by electric roads resulted always in a
financial loss to the steam road. Even where the facilities for handling
traffic were equal, the public discriminated in favor of electric traction.
The freight traffic of electric railways grew; and, as the capacities of the
power houses and lines were increased, the handling of carload freight
originating along the line was found to be profitable. This naturally
created bad feeling on the part of the steam railroads, because of the loss
of a monopoly of the mileage and passenger business.

Action by the steam railroads then followed:
' They leased both their profitable and unprofitable branch lines to
electric roads, rather than have these branches paralleled.

They leased their tracks or right-of-way for local electric passenger
service but, in most cases, reserved the use of the tracks for thru passenger
and freight trains, hauled by steam locomotives. This action gave them
greater returns on the capital invested, and it prevented the building
of a parallel line, and a division of earnings. The joint use of tracks was
thus an economical procedure. Examples of this are noted:

Canadian Pacific R. R. lease of Hull-Aylmer division, near Ottawa, Ontario,
for 35 years.

Erie Railroad lease of Buffalo & Lockport Division for 999 years.

Chicago Great Western Railway lease of Sumner-Denver Jet. branch to Waterloo,
Cedar Falls & Northern Railway.

Minneapolis and St. Louis R. R., also Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul R. R.,
leases of branch lines to Twin City Rapid Transit Co.

Northern Pacific R. R. lease of Everett branch to Everett Railway and Elec. Co.

Southern Pacific Co. leases of branch lines to Pacific Electric Railway, Peninsula
Railway, etc.

Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific R. R. leases of Monmouth-Galesburg 20-niile
road, for 25 years to Rock Island Southern Railway.

They electrified their branch lines, to head off trolley competition.
An investment of $6,000 to $8,000 per mile, for trolley and electric power
equipment, was made by the existing steam road; while not only this
investment, but an additional $12,000 to $15,000 would have been
required for the road and equipment of a new electric railway. Projected
roads, which would be competing or paralleling, were often headed off in
this manner by steam railroads.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 21

They familiarized themselves with the use of gasoline power and
electric power, and studied their economic advantages for branch lines.

They reduced the passenger fares between competing points.

They purchased competing lines, branch lines, and feeders, and con-
solidated them, to control the financial or railway situation. Some steam
railroads (Boston & Maine, New Haven, New York Central, Delaware
& Hudson, Colorado & Southern, Great Northern, Northern Pacific, and
Southern Pacific), to protect themselves, have purchased several thou-
sand miles of interurban railways, thus destroying some competition.

New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R. had acquired, to 1909, about
1500 miles of trolley line in New England. The reason for this enormous
trolley acquisition was given in 1909 by President C. S. Mellin, as follows:

"The thought of our company when it first acquired an interest in Massachusetts
trolleys was not the suppression of competition, for we do not believe there is any
serious competition between the two systems of traction, electric and steam. Rather,
it is our thought that all systems will ultimately develop into the electric, and the
street railways, so called, become adjuncts to, or supplementary to, the present
trunk lines, which are now operated by steam, but which we believe are later going
to be transformed into electric lines."

New York Central has purchased about 750 miles of interurban
road in the Mohawk Valley. This proved advantageous to the public.
The service was bettered by expenditures for double track, terminals,
improved electric motive power, more private right-of-way, higher speed,
and better management. Close co-operation, the making of one business
the auxiliary to the other business, has resulted in better public service.
Later on, much wdll be gained by joint construction and maintenance of
power plants. A desire exists to operate two- and three-car trains, and a
study is now being made of the local limitations that prevent better electric
service, viz., short-sighted city ordinances, short-radius curves, long
fenders, weak bridges, etc.

Delaware & Hudson has followed the examples set by other railroads.

The advantages accruing thru the acquisition of the United Traction Company
of Albany, the Hudson Valley Railway (owned by the United Traction Company),
the Troy & New England Railway, the Plattsburg Traction Company, and a half
interest in the Schenectady Railway (the other interest in which is owned by the
Mohawk Valley Company on behalf of the New York Central & Hudson River), can
best be understood by showing the relations between these electric roads and the
steam railroads controlled by the Delaware & Hudson.

The electric lines furnish a complement to the service provided by the steam
railroads; and the full benefit of this is derived when the running schedules of the
electric roads are made to conform to those of the steam roads so as to afford the best
service possible for the patrons of the respective companies.

The construction of trolley lines, even where parallehng the steam railroads,

22 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

may materially increase the traffic on the latter. The steam roads cannot afford to
make the frequent stops which are made by the electric lines, and the traffic is mainly
new business created by the increased transportation facilities afforded.

Competition between electric and steam roads was the indirect cause
of the adoption of electric power by many short steam roads, and of
parallel suburban steam roads; and it was the direct cause of the elec-
trification of the following steam roads:

Mersey Railway near Liverpool, 1903.
Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, 1904.
Manhattan Elevated Railway, New York, 1903.
Some of the elevated roads in Chicago, 1896.

Reference :

The result of these electrifications was rapid recovery of gross earn-
ings, a decrease in operating expenses, and the improvement of a bad
financial situation.

Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway regained a very large traffic, which was pre-
viously taken away by competing electric lines, after it was electrified in 1904, accord-
ing to the testimony of J. A. F. Aspinwall, General Manager and Engineer, in an
address to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1909.

Manhattan Elevated Railroad, operated with the best compound steam locomo-
tives, might have failed, so severe was the competition of the electric railways which
paralleled it. After the road was electrified in 1903, the traffic was recovered.

Competition with steam railroads still exists, to a limited extent.
Much of the heavier passenger and light freight business of the steam
railroads has been taken, and will be held by the long electric railways,
until the steam railroads in turn adopt electric traction. Competition
in the future will therefore be interesting.

Patronage Will Depend on the Following Determining Features :

— Routes on a private right-of-way, including city terminals, because
schedule speed, not distance, will be paramount. Interurban roads
which use the city streets will be excluded from this race.

Accessibility to the starting point and destination of passengers.
Probably, in the future, few elevated structures will be allowed on city
streets. Many railways will therefore be required to use subways and
tunnels under city streets. These tunnels will facilitate the gathering
and rapid distribution of freight at terminals.

Frequency, convenience, and comfort in passenger-train service.
Facilities for handling traffic with flexible motive power at terminals.

Ownership of the competing, and of the feeding lines.

Economy in train operation.

Freight tariffs will seldom govern in the competition.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 23

PRIVATE RIGHT-OF-WAY.

One important development in the history of electric railways was
due to the use of a private right-of-way. This became necessary for safe
operation at high speeds, and for thru traffic on the interstate roads
which, since 1900, have developed so rapidly. Important electric rail-
ways on a private right-of-way are not to be classified with interurbans
which run along the public highways. The use of a private right-of-way
contributed greatly to the development of the following early railways:

Akron, Bedford & Cleveland Railroad, 1895.
Buffalo & Lockport Railway, which leased its 21 -mile road, 1898.
Albany Southern Railroad, a third-rail road, 1901.
Seattle-Tacoma Interurban Railway, a third-rail road, 1902.
Wilkes- Barre & Hazelton Railway, a third-rail road, 1903.
Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley Railroad, a third-rail road, 1903.
Scioto Valley Traction Company, a third-rail road, 1904.
Aurora, Elgin & Chicago Railroad, a third-rail road, 1903.

The development is outlined in St. Ry. Jour., Jan. 2, 1904, p. 26.

The first electric railways on a private right-of-way and e\ en branch
lines of electrified steam railroads used city streets as terminals so that
passengers could be received and delivered nearer the heart of the cities.
Important electric railways, which operate two- or three-car trains, now
prefer a private right-of-way to their own passenger terminals, and a
loop around the cities for the thru freight traffic.

Lack of a private right-of-way, and the use of turn-pikes, highways,
and state roads, retard the development of many interurban railways,
particularly those in New England and some of those radiating from
Albany, Detroit, Indianapolis, Columbus, etc. In these cases the short
radius street curves limit the length of cars, the grades require excessive
power, the roadbed is crooked and badly drained, the running of trains is
prevented, the schedule speed is slow, and the necessary results of these
restrictions are limited traffic and poor car service.

Electric roads, in many states, operate under the general state rail-
road laws, and are authorized to take and appropriate private property
for a right-of-way thru, under, and across any land needed for the con-
struction, maintenance, and operation of the road, and may do so by
instituting condemnation proceedings. Consult: U. S. Census Report on
Street and Electric Railways, 1902, p. 136.

Advantages of a Private Right-of-way are Found to be :

High speed, which is practical from terminal to terminal. This secures business
in competition. In heavy electric traction, running time is often as important as
frequent service. The suburbs of large cities are determined and measured on a

24 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

time basis instead of by distances. Steam railroads which have electrified their
suburban lines have an opportunity to get, or regain, the bulk of the passenger trafiic,
particularly where the electric zone extends more than 15 miles from the city. High
speed on city streets and country highway is dangerous.

Dead mileage on city loops and streets is eliminated.

Cars used on a private right-of-way have the standard width of 10 feet, thus
allowing comfortable cross seats.

Trains of two or more passenger cars can be operated. There is a reasonable
objection to two- and three-car trains on city streets, and they are seldom allowed.

Third rails and high- voltage trolleys can be utilized to decrease the cost of trans-
missions and the loss of power.

Track construction may be better, or may cost less, because of the route, the
drainage, the higher elevation, and the absence of paving. Tee-rails supersede girder
rails, and the special work required is cheaper.

Maintenance is decreased. Cost of tie renewals, bridge up-keep, and track repairs
is lower. Removal of snow is facilitated. Maintenance of equipment per seat-mile
and per ton-mile is less with longer cars, heavier switch work, and long-radius curves.

Subways and tunnel roads at the terminals may deliver freight and passengers
to convenient points in the city.

Franchises are not required from counties and from some municipalities, altho
reasonable speed and police restrictions may be enforced. Delays, uncertainty,
expense, limitations, and unreasonable restrictions may be avoided.

Freight and express traffic may be facilitated. There is a reasonable objection
to freight cars on city streets, day or night.

Trainmen's wages, the heaviest expense per car mile, per car-hour, or per ton-
mile are reduced by the increased schedule speed, and by the use of two- and three-car
trains. Accident and legal expenses are also reduced.

Cost of power is decreased. A two- or three-car train requires from 70 to 60 per
cent, of the power of a single car train, per ton moved. The power required is decreased
also because the grades and sharp curves of the city streets are avoided and because
the cleaner Tee-rail reduces the frictional resistance. The load factor of the power
plant is improved when freight train service is added.

Economic results from these advantages are the ability to secure and
retain business, on the time-honored principle that "facilities create
traffic," and the reduced cost of handling a given volume of business, by
utilizing the physical advantages incident to the private right-of-way.

Disadvantages to be noted are that passengers may not be delivered
at convenient terminals; public bridges may not be utilized; the cost of
the road on the private right-of-way may be higher; and transfers to
other lines or roads may not be practicable.

The importance of the matter is shown by the U. S. Census reports on
electric railways. In 1902 there were 3802 miles on a private right-of-
way, or 16.8 per cent, of the total electric mileage, while in 1907 this had
increased to 10,972 miles, or to 31.9 per cent, of the total electric mileage.
The importance of the train service determines the percentage of the
mileage on a private right-of-way.

Many steam railroads have now been changed to electric, and their

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 25

track is on a private right-of-way, including good private terminals in
the heart of the cities.

ELEVATED RAILWAYS.

Elevated railways have adopted electric motive power for their train
service, to utilize the physical advantages of electric traction. The
capacity of the elevated roads was thereby increased, because longer
electric-car trains could be operated, and at higher speeds. The shearing
and deflecting strains on the structure and the vibration due to reciprocal
strokes of the engine were lessened. The dirt, ashes, and gas, and the
noise from the exhaust steam of a locomotive, were eliminated.

Many elevated railroads experimented with electricity prior to 1890,
but most of these tried electric locomotives. Rapid progress was made
after the multiple-unit car control system was developed in 1898. Third-
rail conductors, motor-car trains, and the 600-volt, direct-current system,
are now used by all elevated railways.

At the Columbian Exposition, Intramural R. R., at Chicago, in 1893,
fifteen 4-car trains were successfully operated, on a 6-mile elevated road,
using the electric locomotive-car scheme.

Liverpool Overhead Railway was the first elevated railway in Eng-
land to use electric power. This was in 1893.

Metropolitan West Side Elevated R. R., Chicago, equipped its road in
1895, using the electric locomotive-car plan and, later, the motor-car plan.

The Brooklyn Bridge and its terminals followed in 1896.

Chicago and Oak Park Elevated R. R., formerly the Lake Street
Elevated R. R., began operation on the electric-locomotive plan in 1896,
but soon changed to the motor-car plan.

South Side Elevated R. R., Chicago, was originally equipped with
steam locomotives. It was one of the first railroads operating trains of
cars to adopt electric propulsion. About 150 tons of anthracite coal,
costing about $4 . 50 per ton, were burned daily by the steam locomo-
tives. When electricity was adopted, in 1898, the amount of coal burned
in the power house was less in tonnage than the coal burned in the loco-
motives, and cost less than $1.50 per ton. This one saving helped to get
the railroad out of the hands of a receiver.

Manhattan Elevated Railroad, New York City, a large steam railroad,
did not adopt electric traction until 1902.

Data on length and equipment of elevated roads follow.

26 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

TRAIN SERVICE ON ELEVATED AND UNDERGROUND ROADS.

Name of electric railroad.

Trains per
hour.

Boston Elevated

Manhattan Elevated

New York Subway

Hudson and Manhattan

Brooklyn Union Elevated

Philadelphia Rapid Transit

Chicago Union Elevated loop

Metropolitan District, London

Baker Street and Waterloo, London. . . .
Charing Cross, Euston & Hempstead. . .
Great Northern, Piccadilly & Brompton

35
60
32
40
60
20
150
68
72
80
60

THIRD-RAIL LINES.

Third-rail lines represent an interesting development. Overhead
trolley wires at first were often too frail or too expensive for direct-
current, 600-volt, railway train service, and this led to the adoption of a
rugged third-rail conductor of steel with large capacity and ample con-
tact area. The chronology is briefly outlined.

In 1879, Siemens and Halske operated a short 180-volt, third-rail
line at the Berlin Exposition; in 1883, a 6-mile, 250-volt, third-rail line
for the Port rush Railway in Ireland.

In 1880, Edison used a third rail for his Menlo Park locomotives.
Elec. World, June 10, 1899; Sprague, A.I.E.E., May, 1899, p. 245.

In 1883, Daft built the 12-mile Saratoga & Mount McGregor, and,
in 1885, a 2-mile, 130-volt road at Baltimore.

In 1893, Intramural Railway, of the World's Columbian Exposition,
at Chicago, developed by H. M. Brinckerhoff, was the first commercial
third-rail road of the present type. This 6-mile elevated road used
direct current at 500 volts.

In 1895, Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railway, of Chicago, was
the first permanent electric third-rail line. The insulation first used was
paraffined wood. Other elevated roads followed.

In 1895, Baltimore and Ohio R. R. adopted a trough-shaped overhead
contact line, flexibly suspended from the roof of the Baltimore tunnel.
The contact shoe pressed downward on flanges of Z-bars. Mechanical
troubles at curves, bad alignment, rigidity, and arcing, due to rapid cor-
rosion from coal gas and steam from locomotives, caused the company to
abandon the plan. It then placed an expensive sectionalized third rail

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 27

near the track, which in turn was abandoned for a simplified type of third
rail on reconstructed granite blocks. Later the clamps for the rails
were corroded. At present the rail rests on porcelain without clamp
fastenings.

In 1896, New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R. applied the
third rail on its Nantasket Beach line, near Boston. The insulated
third rail was placed near the center of the track. This was followed by
40 miles of road in Connecticut, equipped with the third rail at the side
of the track. (St. Ry. Journ., June, 1897; Sept., 1898; Aug. 25 and Sept.
8, 1900.) The third rail w^as badly placed and unprotected. Some
fatalities and injuries followed and, by a decree of the Superior Court,
June 13, 1906, the Company was compelled to abandon all third rail
operation in Connecticut, and revert to steam locomotives.

In 1901, Albany & Hudson R. R. installed the finest third-rail road
in the country, on a private right-of-way between Albany and Hudson.

In 1903, Wilkes-Barre and Hazelton R. R. installed a third-rail line
for heavy traction. The line is 26 miles long, on a private right-of-way.
The rail was protected by pine guards. St. Ry. Journ., March 7, 1903.

In 1907, West Jersey & Seashore R. R. built an extensive protected
third-rail contact line, 65 miles long, on its double track road between
Camden and Atlantic City, N. J. The application was of a substantial
character, for passenger train service comparable with ordinary steam
railroad traffic.

In 1907, New York Central R. R. began the use, at New York, of an
under-running third-rail contact. Heretofore all large installations had
used the over-running contact. The scheme was patented by Sprague
and Wilgus, under whose direction the installation was made. St. Ry.
Journ., Nov. 9, 1907, p. 954.

In 1908, Hudson & Manhattan R. R., and Interboro Rapid Transit,
adopted for a third rail an inverted channel in 60-foot lengths, weighing
75 pounds per yard.

In 1909, Pennsylvania Railroad, for its six tunnels and thirty-six
parallel tracks at its New York terminal, and for part of the Long Island
Railroad, used a 150-pound Tee-rail.

See third rail, under ''Transmission and Contact Lines."

Statistical tables which follow show the extent, present status, and
importance of railways using the third-rail conductor.

28 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

THIRD-RAIL LINES IN AMERICA.

Year

No. of

Present

Location

Gage

Hne to

third-rail

center.

Name of railway.

service
started.

motor
cars.

third-rail
mileage.

above
track-rail.

Boston Elevated

1901

225

6.00''

20.375"

New York, New Haven & Hart. :

Nantasket Beach Division

1896

1.50

Center

New Berlin, Connecticut

1897

1.50

Center

New York Division, leased. . . .

1908

/ 4 1

\ 43L/

2.75

28.25

Brooklyn Rapid Transit, Elev. . .

1895

659

107

r6.75
16.00

20.50
22.25

Manhattan Elevated R. R

1902

895

119

/7.50
14.50

20.75
22.00

Interborough Rapid T., Subway.

1904

910

4.00

26.00

Hudson & Manhattan R. R

1908

200

4.00

26.00

New York Central:

Hudson and Harlem Divisions.

1906

/137 1

I 47L/

/2.75
13.50

28.25
27.50

West Shore R. R.:

Utica-Syracuse Division

1906

114

2.75

32.00

Pennsylvania R. R. :

Long Island R. R

1903

322

150

3.50

27.50

West Jersey & Seashore

1907

144

3.50

27.50

New York Terminal Division. .

1910

33 L

3.50

27.50

Albany Southern R. R

1900

6.00

27.00

New York, Auburn & Lansing ....

1911 •

Philadelphia Rapid Transit

1904

150

6.00

23.00

Philadelphia & Western

1907

6.00

26.625

Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton

1903

5.00

28.00

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley.

1903

3.00

20.375

Baltimore & Ohio R. R

1895
1910

12 L
6L

9
19

3.30
2.75

30 . 35

Michigan Central R. R., Detroit.

28.25

Scioto Valley Traction

1904

6.00

28.00

Michigan United Railway

1904

100

6.00

21.205

Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & M.

1902

5.75

20.375

Intramural R. R., Chicago

1893

13.00

30.000

Chicago & Oak Park Elevated ....

1896

6.50

20.125

Metropolitan West Side Elevated.

1895

225

6.25

20.125

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago R. R. . .

1902

115

126

6.31

20.125

Northwestern Elevated R. R. . . .

1900

288

6.50

20.125

South Side Elevated R. R., Chi. . .

1898

200

6.75

20.125

Twin City Rapid Transit

1907

6.00

30.00

Puget Sound Electric

1902

100

7.50

20.00

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION
THIRD-RAIL LINES IN AMERICA— Continued.

Year

No. of

Third-

Location

Gage

Hne to

third-rail

center.

Name of railway.

service
started.

motor
cars.

rail
mileage.

above
track-rail.

Northwestern Pacific R. R., Cal.

1908

6.00

27.00

Central California Traction;

uses 1200 volts, on third rail.

1909

3.00

29.50

Northern Electric Ry., California.

1906

130

5.56

25.50

M. C. B. recommendation.

1904

Over

contact

3.50

27.00

Under

contact

2.75

27.00

The last line is the longest. It handles heavy freight and passenger traffic.
THIRD-RAIL LINES IN EUROPE.

Name of railway.

Year
service
started.

No. of

motor

cars.

Third-
rail
mileage.

Location

above
track-rail.

Gage

line to

j third-rail

center.

Central London

London Electric Ry. :

Metropolitan District ,

Baker Street & Waterloo. .

Charing Cross, E. & H

Great Northern, P. & B . . .

Great Northern & City

Great Western, M. & W. L. . .

Metropolitan Ry., London . . .

City & South London

Waterloo & City

Mersey Railway

Lancashire & Yorkshire
Liverpool-Southport

Liverpool Overhead

North-Eastern Railway

BerUn Overhead and
Underground.

Serlin-Gross Lichterfelde . . . .

Fribourg-Morat, Switzerland.

Paris-Metropolitan

Paris-Lyons- Mediterranean . .

Paris-Orleans

Paris- Versailles (Western) ....
Paris North-South Electric. . .
Fayet-Chamonix-Martigny . . .
Mediterranean Ry.

Milan- Varese-Porto Ceresio.

1900

168

1904
1906
1907
1906
1904
1906
1905
1890
1898
1903

1904
1893
1904
1897
1907
1903
1902
1900
1900

1900

1901
1910
1902

1901

197
36
60
72
35
40

130
52
20
24

80
44
62

139

548

/lOO
\ 11 L
10 L

80
20

7
11
60
15

3
10

82
13
82
16
10
15
18
63
40

1.50
3.00

3.00
3.00
1.25
level
6.00

3.00
1.50
3.25
7.10
19.05
12.625
5.375
5.75
9.00
/ 7.875
16.00
7.875

9.055
7.60

Center
16.00''

11.25

16.00

14.50

Center

22.25

19.25

Center

19.25

13.25

16.00

33.50

26.00

12.75

23.00

23 . 625

22.00

25.625

23 . 00
26.50

30 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

SUBWAYS AND TUNNELS.

Subways and underground roads have also found electricity advan-
tageous, primarily because of the absence of smoke, gas, and condensed
steam. In underground roads and subways, motor-car trains are used for
passenger service; while m tunnels locomotives are generally employed for
freight and passenger train haulage.

Underground railways in England, called tube railways, have a total
length of 100 miles, all double track. The tubes are deep, and require
150 passenger elevators at fifty stations.

Paris subways are important, and they have a greater traffic than the
New York Interborough Subway. Elec. Ry. Journ., Dec. 11, 1909.

New York Central R. R. terminal at New York, and the Boston
terminal stations, have been arranged for the operation of motor-car
trains in sub-tracks below the elevation of the main-line tracks.

Subways and tunnels under city buildings and streets, to reach a
convenient city terminal, for the purpose of delivering freight and
passengers, are a recent development. (Hudson & Manhattan R. R.)

Subways have been considered for freight service at New York City;
also for local passenger service at Montreal, Toronto, Pittsburg, Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago, Minneapolis, St. Louis, and Los Angeles.

Cost of subways at New York with equipment is $1,100,000 per mile
of single track. Subways without motive power equipment cost from
$600,000 to $900,000 per mile. Cost of tunnels under rivers without
equipment varies from $1,200,000 to $1,800,000 per mile. Elevated
structures, without equipment, cost $200,000 to $300,000 per single-
track mile; conduit railway lines without equipment, from $80,000 to
$120,000 per single-track mile. New York Rapid Transit Commission
Report of 1908.

Tunnel roads now use electric traction. Steam locomotive drivers
slipped on the greasy rails in tunnels. Condensed steam and soot deposits
were a nuisance. Gas and steam-laden atmosphere required long blocks,
and was a menace to safe operation. Exhaust fans seldom successfully
cleared the tunnel of gas and smoke. Oil firing was a poor expedient, and
coke formed a suffocating gas. Formerly trains waited for hours until
the tunnel was cleared of gas pockets, formed by variable winds; and if
traffic was dense, congestion followed. The capacity of tunnels, in cars
per day, was generally doubled by the introduction of electric hauling of
the freight and passenger trains.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

UNDERGROUND ROADS USING ELECTRIC POWER.

Inside section.

Name of railroad.

Route

Double

Grade

Elec.

! miles.

track.

p.c.

Height.

Width.

power.

Roston Subwav

4.4

Yes

20 5

23 3

1895

New York Interboro Subway . . .

25.0

2 and 4

11.5

12.4

1904

Philadelphia Rapid Transit

1.4

Yes

14.5

13.3

1905

Illinois Tunnel, Chicago

62.0

2 and 4

7.5

6.0

1900

Central London

: 6.5

Yes

11.7

diam.

1895

London Electric

100.0

Yes

11.7

diam.

1905

City & South London

3.4

Yes

10 5

diam.

1890

Paris — Orleans

2.4

Yes

1.1

1900

Papjs — Metropolitan

31.0

Yes

15 0

23 4

1900

Budapest, Hungary

2.3

Yes

9.0

20.0

1896

Berlin, City of

Hamburg, City of

Boston & Maine R. R.

12.0

Yes

1902

^ 4.0

Yes

1910

4.75

Yes

0.3

22.7

24.0

1911

Hoosac Tunnel, Mass.

Lackawanna and Wyoming Val-

1.00

1.0

22.0

17.0

1905

ley, Scranton Tunnel

Hudson & Manhattan R. R. ...

2.50

Yes

15.25

diam.

1908

Pennsylvania R. R. :

15.0

19.00

diam.

1910

New York to Hoboken, N. J. .

Yes

1.30

New York to Long Island ....

1.92

Belmont Tunnel, East River

Yes
Yes

1911

Interborough Rapid Transit

15.0

12.5

1908

New York to Brooklyn.

Baltimore & Ohio R. R.

1.2

Yes

1.5

1895

Baltimore Belt Line.

Grand Trunk Railway

1.2

2.0

19.80

diam.

1908

Port Huron-Sarnia Tunnel.

Michigan Central R. R.

1.5

Yes

2.0

20.0

diam.

1910

Detroit River Tunnel.

Great Northern Railway

2.6

1.7

22.0

16.0

1909

Cascade Tunnel, Wash.

Spokane & Inland Empire
Local tunnel at Spokane.

0.8

Yes

1910

Severn, England

4.3

19.0

28.0

Mersey, England

4.0

Yes

2.0

19.0

26.0

1903

Bernese Alps Ry.

8.5 i

Yes

2.7

19.8

26.4

1911

Loetschberg Tunnel.

Swiss Federal Ry.

12.3

0.7

19.0

16.5

1908

Simplon Tunnel.

St. Gothard, Switzerland

9.3 1

Yes

0.5

20.5

26.0

Mont Cenis, Switzerland

7.9 i

Yes

3.0

20.5

26.0

1910

Arlberg, Austria

Italian State Ry.
Giovi near Genoa.

6.5

Yes

1 5

2.5

Yes

2.9

1909

Height noted is from the top of track tie to crown of arch.

32 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The handling of freight trains thru tunnels was accompanied by
great danger. In the event of a train breaking in two, on the level or a
grade in the tunnel, the time necessary to re-couple and release the auto-
matically applied brakes, or to repair a defect, exceeded the time interval
within which the steam locomotive could safely stay in the tunnel with-
out suffocating the train crew. Electric trains can remain in the tunnel as
long as required, and trainmen have such confidence in electrical opera-
tion that the long tunnel has ceased to be a terror to them.

Carrying capacity of tunnels was often doubled by electrification,
because of the shorter blocks, absence of gases, and much greater loads on
the grades. Time was saved and delays were avoided.

All long tunnels with heavy traffic now use electric traction.

References on Subways and Tunnels.

Holden: "Setting of Tube Railways," London, 1907.

Prelin: "Tunnelling," third edition, New York, 1909.

Boston, History of Tunnel Development: S. R. J, Feb., 1903, p. 332.

Hoosac Tunnel of Boston & Maine, Electrification: Shaad, E. R. J., Oct. 24, 1908.

Rapid Transit Subways in Metropolitan Cities: Maltbie, Smithsonian Report No.
1647 for 1904.

New York Subway compared with Paris Subway: Whitten, E. R. J., Dec. 11, 1909.

Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, S. R. J., March, 1903, p. 495, 1004; Jan. 11, 1908;

Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal Railway, A. S. C. E., Alfred Noble, Sept., 1909.
Clarke, Parker, Green, Aug., 1910; Brace & Mason, Dec, 1909.

Baltimore & Ohio R. R., S. R. J., 1892, p. 416, 459.

Philadelphia Subway, St. Ry. Review, July, 1905.

Scranton, Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley R. R., Dennis, A. S. C. E., March, 1906.

Davies: Railroad Tunnels, New York R.R. Club, Dec. 20, 1900. , -

Chicago Freight Tunnels, E. W., Dec. 23, 1909.

Woodworth: Subaqueous Tunnel Construction, Ry. Age Gazette, 1909; Pittsburg
Railway Club, Dec, 1909.

Great Northern Railway (Cascade), Hutchinson, A. I. E . E., Nov., 1909; S. R. J., Nov.
20, 1909, p. 1052, Ry. Age Gazette, Nov., 1909.

London Electric Railways, Fortenbaugh: S. R. J., March 4, 1905, Dec. 4, 1909.

Fox: Tunnel Construction, International Railway Congress, June, 1900.

Alpine Tunnels, Simplon, St. Gothard, Mont Cenis, Arlberg: Francis Fox, in Smith-
sonian Report No. 1355 for 1901; Henning, to International Railway Congress,
June, 1910; Ry. Age Gazette, Aug. 5, 1910.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS.

Steam railroads in passenger and freight service use multi-car trains
with a locomotive at the head of the train. Electric railways in heavy
passenger service use motor-car trains with motors under each car, or
under some of the cars of the train. There had been a rapid develop-
ment in motor-car train service, caused in part by the competition be-
tween electric roads. A passenger at once notices the great difference be-
tween the good riding qualities, equipment, comfort, and service furnished

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 33

in a 2- or 3-car electric train, and the riding qualities and service of an
ordinary interurban car.

Motor-car passenger trains are seldom allowed on the city streets.
Exceptions are to be noted on some lines of the Connecticut Company,
the Rhode Island Company, and at Hudson, Buffalo, Louisville, Mil-
waukee, Des Moines, Seattle, and Tacoma.

Motor-car trains are now used by all elevated and underground roads,
and in important suburban and interurban passenger service; and also for
important freight service in trains on North-Eastern Railway of England,
Long Island R. R., West Jersey & Seashore, and some interurban roads.

Control of the many motors used on a motor-car train was difficult.
At first one controller was placed at each end of the train, and the main
current was carried by heavy electric cables from motor car to motor car.
Then control systems called ^'master controller" and ^'double header"
were developed by Parshall, Darley, and others for motor-car trains;
but the Sprague multiple-unit control scheme placed the development on
an economical and on an operative basis. The scheme embraces second-
ary control, and main currents do not enter the motorman's controller.
It was first used, in 1898, by South Side Elevated R. R., of Chicago, for
120 cars. Westinghouse and General Electric Companies followed with
multiple-unit control equipments on the Brooklyn Elevated Railway,
in 1898 and 1900. The first British railway to use the multiple-unit
control was the City and South London, in 1904.

Car equipment and multiple-unit control systems are detailed in the
Chapter on '' Motor-Car Trains."

MOUNTAIN-GRADE LINES.

Mountain-grade lines have now been radically improved by the use of
electric power on about 200 miles of road in Europe, particularly in and
near Switzerland. In America, however, not a single trunk-line rail-
road has equipped its mountain grades with electric power, altho the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy R. R. has so equipped a branch between
Leads and Deadwood, S. D., 4 miles long on a heavy grade, and the
Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek District Ry. of the Colorado & South-
ern R. R., has installed electricity on an interurban line 18 miles long
which has an average grade of 3 per cent. Great Northern Railway
installation was for a tunnel and yards.

In mountain-grade service, steam locomotives show low economy.
The speed is but from 6 to 10 miles per hour; and on single track, conges-
tion of traffic frequently cannot be avoided'. The remedy for much of the
trouble was found in the use of electric power, which greatly increased
the train hauling and track capacity, and improved the economy of
operation. Long tunnels and snow sheds are common in the mountains.
3

34 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Water power is frequently abundant. The regeneration of electrical
energy has been worked out, and is used in America and in Europe to
promote safety on down-grade lines by preventing the heating of brakes-
shoes and the straining of the brake rigging, and the use of air is restricted
to cases of emergency.

A list of heavy mountain grades, where water power and electric
locomotives could be used advantageously, is given under Chapter XIV,
in which there is a complete discussion of the subject.

RAILROAD TERMINALS.

Railroad terminals of some of the important railroads and scores of
steam terminal railways within large cities have now been electrified.
See lists of electric locomotives. Primarily this was for the purpose of
obtaining better freight terminal facilities, better motive power, and
economy in operation. Incidentally with electric power the smoke
nuisance, the fire risk, the noise from exhaust steam, and the fogging of
signals by steam are absent. The use of motor-car trains, for suburban
passenger service from these terminals, is now an approved practice.

RAILROADS USING ELECTRIC TRACTION AT TERMINALS.

Paris-Orleans, at Paris, 1900.

Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, England, 1904.

New South Wales Railway, Austraha, 1906.

Havana Central Railroad, Cuba, 1906.

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Baltimore tunnel yards, 1895.

New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, New York, 1906.

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, New York, 1908.

Pennsylvania Railroad, New Jersey, New York, Long Island, 1910.

Michigan Central Railroad, Detroit and Windsor, 1910.

Congestion of traffic at terminals, where freight is transferred from
one line to another, always presents a serious situation. Delays are
caused by "protection" inspection at the point of interchange, and also
by steam motive power which is unwieldy. The cost of the motive
power at terminals is also high due to the nature of the operation of the
boiler and engine in common switching locomotives.

New York Dock Commission completed plans in 1910 for the estab-
lishment of a $100,000,000 electric railway freight terminal near the
North River in Manhattan; the New York Central in 1911 announced
its determination to use electric traction for its freight terminals.

Massachusetts Railroad Commission has recommended the electrifi-
cation of all the railroads at the Boston terminal, stating:

" The number of tracks in stations is limited. The cutting of the 3-minute head-
way between steam trains to 2-minute, with electric service, would increase the termi-
nal capacity of the Boston Station 50 per cent, by decreasing switching, increasing
acceleration, and more rapid movements."

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

Buffalo terminals should be electrified by the several railroads,
according to a comprehensive report made in 1908 by the Buffalo Com-
mercial Club. The city council by ordinance has required all the rail-
roads within the city to electrify their lines prior to 1913.

Montreal, Toronto, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis
are now considering electric power for railroad terminals.

Terminal electrification is always carried out with improvements in
track elevation or depression, added terminal sidings, rearrangement and
reconstruction, block signaling, etc., which items frequently represent a
greater expenditure than the electrification of the terminal.

Railroads have found that electricity can meet all physical and
mechanical demands for terminals. Transportation problems, however,
are far reaching, the amount of money involved is large and often hard
to get, and established conceptions are persistently adhered to. Argu-
ment for electric traction are now based on economic considerations to
win adequate recognition.

SWITCHING YARDS.

Many steam railroads in freight districts of our cities have now
been equipped with electric locomotives. However, many of the installa-
tions noted in the last table, " Railroads using Electric Traction at Ter-
minals," were in the vicinity of good resident districts. Further, good
resident districts grew up around these railroad yards after electric
traction abolished the exhaust steam noise and the smoke nuisance.
Hundreds of such cases might be cited, and the agitation for more of this
work is evident in every large city. Switching of short and long freight
trains is now performed economically and effectively with electric loco-
motives. Some of the American railways using electric switching
locomotives for common switching yards are listed:

Havana Central Railway, 1906.
Slia\vinigan Falls Terminal Ry., 1908.
Montreal Terminal Railway, 1908.
Claremont (N. H.) Railway, 1908.
Bush Terminal Ry., Brooklyn, 1904.
Hoboken Shore Railway, N. J., 1898.
Brooklyn Rapid Transit, 1907.
Nashville Interurban Railway, 1909.

Chicago & Milwaukee Electric Ry., 1898.
Illinois Traction Company, 1900.
Kansas City & Westport, 1902.
Portland (Ore.) Railway, 1904.
Gallatin Valley Ry., Montana, 1910.
New York, New Haven & Hartford, 1911,
Harlem River and New Rochelle Yards.
Pennsylvania, Sunnyside Yards, 1910.

FREIGHT SERVICE.

Freight service on electric railways is a very recent development.
Street railways, from the first, hauled small packages, and often larger
commodities, in the vestibule, as an accommodiation, not for profit.
Interurban railways carried mail and ordinary express almost from the
beginning. The service was appreciated, and the traffic grew. Motor

36 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

cars were then given over exclusively to the handling of perishable fruit
and meats. Flat cars were often run as trailers, to carry lumber, stone,
sand, and construction materials. Motor cars were soon used to carry
coal, building, and track material. As the interurban roads grew in
length, it was found convenient to use the forward quarter of each passen-
ger car for an express compartment to carry merchandise, trunks, and
baggage. In addition to this service, thousands of electric motor cars
are now operated exclusively for handling express, freight, and farm
commodities. Milk cars are used on the morning and evening runs.
Steel baggage cars are now used at the head of many motor-car trains.

Freight haulage on city streets has been objected to, but its conve-
nience was also recognized, and, in some places, the merchants have in-
duced city councils to allow freight traffic at night. Ore from the mines
has thus been hauled by electric motors thru the streets of Butte, Mon-
tana. Freight haulage became so important after 1900 that electric rail-
ways secured a private right-of-way around cities, so that long freight
trains could be hauled by electric or steam locomotives. Extensive
yards have been built at the outskirts of some cities.

Interurban roads are well adapted and organized for the haulage of
coal, building material, grain, and live stock, in car loads, at regular
steam-road rates. The investment has already been made in the power
house and tracks; and freight equipment may be used, particularly at
night, with a very small additional expenditure for organization and
power. The freight load, when handled in many trains at night, equalizes
the work and increases the economy of the power plant.

Net earnings of many well established interurban lines can neither
be increased by a larger passenger business nor by future economies in
operation; but the net earnings are now being increased by developing
the freight traffic, and the passenger business is being made an advertise-
ment for the freight traffic department.

The volume of electric interurban freight business is noted.

Toledo & Western Railroad, with 84 miles of track, hauled 6759 carloads of
freight in 1908. The freight rates are the same as for steam roads. The thru freight
trains are operated daily in each direction between Toledo and Pioneer, Ohio, and
Adrian, Michigan. The company has 22 station agents, operates in 18 towns, and
has adopted steam-road, rather than interurban-railway methods in acquiring and
conducting its business. Its equipment consists of five 30- to 50-ton electric loco-
motives, 4 electric express cars, and 93 box, flat, stock, and gondola cars. Operation
would be improved if the western terminals were larger. St. Ry. Journ., Sept. 2,
1905, p. 328; Sept. 18, 1909, p. 424; E. T. W., June 18, 1910.

Western Ohio Railway has developed an important fast freight service, and
particularly a double daily thru service between Toledo and Dayton, 162 miles.

Ohio Electric Railway has 210 cars in freight service; Indiana Union Traction
has 129; and Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern has 134 cars equipped with train
brakes and automatic couplers; and has built freight loops around the larger cities.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 37

Illinois Traction Company, on its 600 miles of interurban road, operates 18
express motor cars, 40 express trailers, 30 electric locomotives, 25 grain cars, and 500
coal gondolas of 80,000 pounds capacity. Freight trains carrying high-class freight
run in four- to eight-car trains. Coal aggregating 1500 tons is hauled daily. Low-
grade commodities are hauled in carload lots. The traffic is largely between St.
Louis, Springfield, Peoria, Champaign, and Danville. Thirty cars of package freight
are taken in and out of St. Louis daily. The service between these points is so much
quicker than that given by steam roads that it competes successfully even when the
steam roads have the short-line mileage. The freight traffic is, for the most part,
confined to localized business, centering around the larger cities, for which it receives
a higher rate (1.2 cents) per ton-mile or double that for thru shipments.

Fig. 8. — Rock Island Southern Railway Express. Car.

Freight loops have been built around Decatur, Springfield, and Edwardsville, III.
The freight terminal at St. Louis covers 24 acres of land.

Joint traffic agreements exist between this company and the Chicago & Eastern
Illinois, and other intersecting steam roads. Foreign cars are handled on the usual
per diem basis, under M. C. B. rules, and the company is allowed the same division of
the rates as a steam road similarly situated, the originating or delivering road receiv-
ing at least 25 per cent, of the total freight charges.

This road now handles 3,000,000 tons of freight, and the revenues therefrom are
$500,000 per annum, or 20 per cent, of its gross earnings. This represents new
business. The road is an important feeder and distributor for the steam roads.

Spokane & Inland Empire R, R., with 500 freight cars, and 242 miles of road,
use 3 six 52-ton and eight 72-ton locomotives to haul 300-ton freight trains over
heavy grades.

Puget Sound Electric Railway handles 20 cars of coal per day on a 12-mile haul
from Renton. Its freight earnings are about $175,000 per year. Its freight equip-
ment consists of 12 express motor cars, 286 hopper, flat, and gondola cars.

38 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Portland Railway L. & P. Co. has 8 electric locomotives and 353 freight cars.

Oregon Electric Railway has 100 freight cars and two 50-ton electric locomotives
for general freight haulage. It has established, from any point on its 70 miles of line,
eastbound transcontinental freight rates to all eastern common points in connection
with the Spokane, Portland & Seattle Railroad and the Southern Pacific, The
basis is 10 cents per 100 pounds arbitrary over Portland. E. T. W., May 14, 1910.

Northern Electric Railway of California has 6 electric locomotives and 600
freight cars. Its 1910 freight revenue was $139,860 or 27 per cent, of its total.

Pacific Electric Railway, of Los Angeles, Cal., with 600 miles of track, has freight
agencies in 32 cities and towns. The bulk of the business is local freight for points
within 40 miles of Los Angeles, and averages 250 car loads each way per day. The
rates average 8/10 cents per ton-mile for less than car loads, and 5/10 cents per ton-
mile for car loads. The company has a double- track, private right-of-way into the
city. Trains are composed of from 4 to 25 cars. Express motor-cars are used for
the bulk of the work, and some of these motor-cars are equipped to handle 10 trailing
cars; but heavier trains are hauled by electric locomotives. Car-load business is
transferred from private sidings and shipping houses and other points, on the city
streets, at night. The freight equipment includes 18 electric locomotives, each of
350 h. p.; 20 freight motor cars rated 300 h.p., each hauling 10 loaded cars; 600 box
and other freight cars, and 300 steel freight cars of 100,000-pound capacity. Its
freight revenue in 1910 was $444,564 or 9 per cent of its total revenue.

Express business is usually conducted by national express companies.
U. S. Express Company and Southern Ohio Express Company handle the
express business for the principal electric railways of Ohio and Indiana,
their contracts covering 2600 miles. In all, they now operate on 6000
miles of electric railway route in the United States, Basis of agreement
is usually 50 per cent, of the gross earnings/or 25 cents per cwt. for local
hauls, and a definite guarantee per mile per year, to the electric railway.

Interstate Commerce Commission, in 1908, considered the needs of
shippers on different electric lines, and concluded that where there was
sufficient traffic the Commission was justified in establishing thru routes
and joint thru rates. It therefore required the establishment of such
rates. The basis, in general cases, is not more than 10 per cent, of the
class and commodity rate of the steam railroads between distant points
and common points on the electric line, for the transpqrtation of inter-
state traffic. Prior to this time, the steam railroads contended that the
electric railway companies legally were not railroads, and, because they
could not reciprocate with exchange equipment, the steam railroads were
not benefited by such interchange of traffic and joint rates. Interstate
Commerce Commission decided that the needs of the shipper could not
thus be set aside. In March, 1911, the Commission ordered the steam
roads to supply electric roads with switching connections and thru rates,
E. R.J,, Aprils, 1911, p. 637.

Financial advantages of electric haulage of freight are argued in
Chapter III. The present status is indicated by the present gross revenue.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 39

ANNUAL FREIGHT REVENUE OF ELECTRIC ROADS.

Name of railway.

Mile-
age.

Year
noted.

Freight
revenue.

Per

track
mile.

Massachusetts Electric

Old Colony

Rhode Island Company

Connecticut Company

Fonda, Johnstown & G.ville. . . .

Schenectady Railway

Hudson Valley Railway

Toronto & York Radial

Buffalo & Lockport Ry

Utica & Mohawk Valley Ry. . . .

Albany Southern R. R

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley
Grand Rapids, Holland & Chi. .
Grand Rapids, Grand Haven & M

Lake Shore Electric

Cleveland, Southwest & Colum . .

Eastern Ohio Traction

Ohio Electric Ry

Toledo Urban & Interurban. . . .

Western Ohio Ry

Toledo, Port Clinton & Lakes . . .
Cincinnati Interurban Ry. & T. .

Scioto Valley Traction

Toledo & Western

Dayton & Troy Electric

Indiana Union Traction

Indiana, Columbus & Southern . .
Cincinnati, Georgetown & P . . .

Toledo & Indiana

Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley. .

Indianapolis & Cincinnati

Terre Haute, Indiana & Eastern .

Illinois Traction

East St. Louis & Suburban

Chicago & Milwaukee Electric . .

Milwaukee Northern Ry

Waterloo, C. F. & Northern

Portland Ry. Light and Power. .

Puget Sound Electric

Spokane & Inland Empire

Los Angeles — Pacific

Electric Ry., Canada

Electric Ry., United States

Steam R. R., United States

932

1907

! 49,400

381

1910

$63,980

319

1909

169,580

755

1908

224,292

1909

223,752

133

1907

46,000

149

1908

127,000

1909

47,316

1908

98,251

114

1908

115,638

1907

57,948

1909

52,164

1909

56,000

1909

56,000

215

1909

58,596

213

1908

62,000

1909

73,621

850

1909

207,553

1908

28,000

112

1909

54,823

1909

23,281

116

1909

52,378

1910

50,934

1909

81,000

1909

26,777

365

1909

181,168

1908

20,000

1909

56,365

1909

34,651

212

1909

56,706

116

1909

44,213

400

1909

180,662

530

1909

400,000

181

1908

63,619

186

1909

58,855

1909

16,772

100

1909

90,226

472

1909

153,631

200

1909

143,686

201

1910

472,918

260

1910

207,778

988

1909

575,000

34,405

1907

7,438,582

327,975

1907

1,936,000,000

$ 53.

168.

531.

290.
2632.

347.

852.

584.
3930.
1014.
1000.
1043.

691.
1143.

272.

291.

775.

244.

400.

489.

423.

451.

653.
1012.

546.

496.

309.

989.

619.

267.

381.

451.

755.

351.

300.

262.

902.

325.

718.
2362.

799.

572.

216.
5903.

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The freight revenues of electric roads doubled between 1902 and 1907, and are
now increasing at a rapid rate.

References on Interurban Freight Traffic: U. S. Census Report, 1907, pp. 92 and
138; annual reports of railway companies; Elec. Ry. Journ., July 11, 1908, Oct.,
10, 1908; pp. 824 and 1069; Oct. 8, 1910, p. 610.

FREIGHT REVENUE OF ELECTRIC ROADS.

Last Report of State Railroad Commission.

State.

Miles of
road.

Passenger
earnings.

Freight
earnings.

Freight
per cent.

Rhode Island . . .

393

S5,284,716

$157,351
175,000
700,000
910,000
533,329
426,000

3.0

Massachusetts

Indiana

9,538,776
11,000,000
10,458,000
13,350,000

7.6

Ohio

2794

8.3

Michigan

5.3

Illinois

1303

3.2

Railroads use electric locomotives for freight haulage in regular service
notably on the Baltimore & Ohio since 1895; Hoboken Shore Line, 1898;
Buffalo & Lockport, 1898; Paris-Orleans, 1900; St. Louis & Belleville,
1901; Cincinnati, Georgetown & Portsmouth, 1903; Grand Trunk, 1908;
New York, New Haven & Hartford, 1910; Michigan Central, 1910.

In America, about 310 electric locomotives are now used for freight haulage.

In England, North-Eastern Railway, has used six 55-ton electric locomotives
and also multiple-unit cars for freight and express service since 1904. The cars are
55 feet long, have four 125-h.p. motors, and handle luggage, parcels, and fish; and
they are coupled to either an electric or a steam-driven train.

ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

A brief history of electric locomotives is presented:
In 1880, Edison ran a number of experimental locomotives at Menlo
Park with power from a dynamo. The 1880 locomotive is now at Brook-
lyn Polytechnic Institute. In 1882, Henry Villard, President^ of the
Northern Pacific R. P.., contracted for an electric locomotive for freight
service in the Dakotas. It was equipped by Edison with a series belted
220-volt, 10-h. p. motor and hauled three-car trains, power being supplied
thru the two track rails. Hammer, in Elec. World, June 10, 1899, and
Elec. Review, July 23, 1910, gives photos, drawings, and maps.

In 1883, Edison, Field, Mailloux, and Rea operated a geared and
belted 3-ton electric locomotive, "The Judge," using a third-rail con-
tact line, over 1550 feet of track at the Chicago Railway Exposition and
at the Louisville Exposition. A Weston dynamo and motor were used.
St. Ry. Journ., March 5, 1904, p. 451; December 10, 1904, p. 1035.

In 1883, Daft ran a successful small standard-gage locomotive

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

Fig. 9. — Edison Electric Locomotive, 1880,
Positive and negative rails; armature belted to axle.

mm^^.

' y4

^ "fWL :/

.^xsss^

Fig. 10. — Improved Edi.son Electric Locomotive, 1882.
A steam locomotive designer had been employed.

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

between Mt. McGregor and Saratoga, N. Y., 12 miles, and hauled a
regular 10-ton steam passenger car. A double-belted, 130-volt, 15-
h.p. motor with countershafts was used, and a third rail.

In 1884, Daft operated locomotives and coaches, in experimental work,
on a 2-mile road between Baltimore and Hampden. The motors on two
electric locomotives were a 130-volt, direct-current type. The gearing
used was single-reduction, with cut steel pinions and cut cast-iron gears.
The third rail was used, also an underground trolley. Horatio A. Foster
installed the equipment. Elec. World, March 5, 1904. See Fig. 2.

Fig. 11. — Daft Electric Locomotive "Ampere".
Saratoga, Mt. McGregor and Lake George Railroad, 1883.

In 1885, Daft developed a 2-mile, third-rail line for the Ninth Avenue Elevated,
New York, from Fourteenth to Fiftieth Streets. A 10-ton, 4-wheel locomotive was
equipped with a 75-h. p., single-reduction, 450- volt motor. The truck had two 48-inch
drivers and two 33-inch trailer wheels. Four-car trains were hauled at night experi-
mentally, for a long period. The locomotive called the "Franklin" was re-equipped
in 1888 with 4-coupJed drivers and a 125-h. p. motor and hauled an 8-car train at
10 miles per hour. The "Franklin" avoided the use of belts, gears, and cranks,
power being transmitted by friction from wheels on the armature to wheels on the
axle. The armature shaft carried a 9-inch diameter friction wheel, with a 4-inch
ground face, which bore down upon a 36-inch friction wheel, keyed to the axle of the
drivers. The friction was varied by means of screw pressure. See Martin and
Wetzler, "The Electric Motor," second edition, p. 79, for drawings; St. Ry. Journ.,
Oct. 8, 1904, p. 529; A. I. E. E., June, 1899.

In 1888, Johnston, Sprague, Hutchinson, and Field designed and
operated a heavy experimental side-rod locomotive on the Second Avenue
line and Thirty-fourth Street branch line of thejNew York Elevated Road.
Martin and Wetzler, ''The Electric Motor," 2d Edition, 1888, p. 204.

In 1890, City and South London began the use of Mather and Piatt,
single-truck, 15-ton gearless locomotives in its 11-foot diameter tube
railways, each locomotive hauling three 8-ton coaches. There are now
58 locomotives, and they are in heavier service.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION

In 1893, Chicago Columbian Exposition exhibited a General Electric
30-ton, 4-wheel freight locomotive.

Length was 16 feet, wheel base 66 inches, drivers 44 inches. Motors were 240-h. p.
500-voIt units, supported on spiral springs resting on the locomotive truck frames.
Armatures were iron- clad, gearless, quill-mounted, and connected to axles by flexible
couplings. Series-parallel controllers were used. At 30 m. p. h., the rated drawbar
pull was 6000 lbs. Maximum drawbar pull was 13,000 lbs. In tug with a steam
locomotive having a greater weight on drivers, the electric locomotive showed the
greater tractive effort. Description and photo in Electrical Engineer, July 12, 1893.

€

HB^

Iwl

■■!

S^M^^SSfi

^^^^HH

^Hw

m^m

^^^Q

^^^^^H

^^^

^^!a

^TT^^^BBi^^js^^^HMBMl^^^^^^w

■^Hb

Fig. 12.— Electric Locomotive. S. D. Field, 1888.

The armature was crank-connected to the side rod. Motor was spring mounted on the truck.

Weight 13 tons; drivers 42-inch. Direct current at 800 volts. Third rail.

In 1893, the North American Co., Henry Villard, president, had a loco-
motive built by the Baldwin and the Westinghouse companies, under the
supervision of Messrs. Sprague, Duncan, and Hutchinson, for experi-
mental work in freight hauling and switching at Chicago.

The locomotive weighed 60 tons. There were four sets of 56-inch coupled
drivers. The rigid wheel base was 15 feet. The connection between the armature
shaft and the drivers was by means of gearing. Motors used were four 200-h. p.
Westinghouse, iron-clad type, 225 r. p. m., direct-current, 800-volt, 250-ampere units.
Series-parallel control was used. Magnets were compound wound, but the shunt
field had only sufficient turns to keep the speed within reasonable limits at light loads.
The motors were designed to return current to the line when running down grades.
See drawings and descriptions in Electrical Engineer, July 12, 1893; Oct. 8., 1893,
p. 339; Baldwin- Westinghouse publication, ''Electric .Locomotives," 1896; Elec,
World, March 5, 1904

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

In 1895, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad began the use of five 96-ton.
1040-h.p. electric locomotives for hauling all ordinary passenger and
freight trains thru its Baltimore Belt Line tunnel and terminal. These
are still in active service and seven freight locomotives have been added.
The steam railroad field was practically uninvaded until this date.

In 1898, Buffalo & Lockport Railway began the use of two 640-h. p.
locomotives for the haulage of ordinary freight, in 8- to 12-car trains,
between Tonawanda and Lockport, N. Y. They are still in active service.

In 1900, St. Louis & Belleville Electric Railway, a pioneer electric
freight road, began the use of two 50-ton locomotives. For ten years,
720-ton, 16-car coal trains have been hauled in regular service.

.;^- •>-■>'*>.?#**■-*" ■•-',-,'; '..iimIiS'^'P>'K-!t'..«MBi^i

Fig. 13. — St. Louis and Belleville Electric Railway.
Fifty-ton locomotive and ordinary 720-ton coal train.

In 1900, Central London Railway, an underground tube road, in-
stalled 40 locomotives each equipped with 4 GE-56, gearless, direct-
current, 170-h.p. motors. The armature core was built directly on the
axle. The locomotive weighed 48 tons, about 13 tons spring-bourne and
35 tons not spring-bourne. The rigid construction of these locomotives
shook and damaged the buildings above. They were superseded by
locomotives equipped with 4 GE-55, geared, 150-h.p., motors. The
gear ratio was 3.3 and the weight was 34 tons. There was still some
vibration, and the locomotives were abandoned for 7-car motor-car
trains with 500 h. p. per train. St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 11, 1902; Nov. 7,1903.

Mr. W. J. Clark, in the U. S. Census Report on Street and Electric
Railways of 1907, has listed 558 steam locomotives on 126 roads which
were replaced by electric units on electric railways; also 863 additional
steam locomotives which were replaced by electrical equipment on 24
steam railroads. Many steam locomotives have since been discarded.

^'Electric Locomotives" form the subject of succeeding chapters.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 45

ELECTRIC TRACTION BY ELECTRIC RAILWAYS.

Electric traction by electric railways for ordinary service forms one
step in the advance in the art of transportation. Electric power was
first used for freight and passenger service by roads which were not
formerly steam railroads, but which were organized to build and operate
new railways with electric motive power. The best first examples of
the American roads are listed.

Albany & Hudson R. R, Buffalo & Lockport Railway.

Lake Shore Electric Railway. Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley R. R.

Scioto Valley Traction Co. Indiana Union Traction Co.

Terre Haute, Indianapolis & East. Ohio Electric Railway.
Aurora, Elgin & Chicago R. R. Chicago & Milwaukee Electric R. R.
East St. Louis & Suburban Ry. Illinois Traction Co.
Puget Sound Electric Railway. Spokane & Inland Empire R. R.

ELECTRIC TRACTION BY STEAM RAILROADS.

Electric traction was first used by steam railroads for special situa-
tions. Physical and financial advantages were gained. Many of the
special situations have been listed, viz:

Prevention of competition.

Elevated lines, subways, and tunnels.

Mountain grade lines for heaviest service.

Terminal railways, with congested traffic.

Freight service for local railways.

Utilization of water power. See ^^ Power Plants."

Electric locomotives for terminals, switching yards, factory service.

Motor-car trains in place of steam locomotive-hauled trains, for
heaviest rapid transit and suburban railway passenger service.

Change in motive power to improve a bad financial situation, to
regain traffic and to reduce expenses. This is considered in ^^ Advantages
of Electric Traction," and in '^Procedure in Railroad Electrification."

ELECTRIC TRACTION IN GENERAL USE FOR TRAINS.

Electric traction now receives consideration for economic reasons, and
for passenger and freight train service, by electric railway corporations
and by steam railroad corporations.

This is the work of the present and future. The tendency at present
is to systematically consolidate the electric railways, to increase the long
runs, to run two-car trains in place of long single cars, to obtain better
management, to effect economies, and to standardize. Great savings are
being effected as railways are brought under one financial and engineering
management. Thru electric-train service between the leading cities.

4G ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

St. Louis, Springfield, Terre Haute, Indianapolis, Chicago, Cincinnati,
Cleveland, Buffalo, Albany, Boston, New York, and Washington, is being
developed by interurban railways; and this will be followed by the
electrification of trunk lines.

Steam railroads electrify their lines for economy of operation and to
regain lost traffic. It is a noticeable fact, frequently impressed, that as
the steam railroads electrify, the work is of a most substantial character.

Electric power will first be adopted, to the financial advantage of the
public and of the steam railroad, in zones around our great cities: Boston,
New Haven, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Baltimore, Pitts-
burg, Albany, Buffalo, Montreal, Toronto, Chicago, Rock Island, Minneap-
olis and St. Paul, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Co-opera-
tive plans for the generation of electricity will effect large savings in
capital. Water powers of the Cascade, Rocky, and Sierra Nevada Moun-
tains will be used by railroad corporations to haul their electric trains,
at first near Denver, Salt Lake, Spokane, Seattle, and in the Columbia
and Sacramento River Valleys. Passenger trains will use electric
traction first, but for economy freight haulage must be added.

In the early days, 1860, passenger traffic produced the larger part of
the earnings of steam railroads, but the freight earnings soon exceed the
passenger earnings. The freight earnings of electric railroads will, like-
wise, soon exceed the passenger earnings, both in amount and in profit.

The history of steam railroads shows that there was at first no idea
of interchange of traffic, involving the use of cars and locomotives; but
that in 1878 a standard gage for track, interchangeable (M. C. B.)
couplers, brakes, heating pipes, and signals, were adopted. Likewise,
electric railroads are now being systematized so that coaches, coupled as
in ordinary railroad trains, will have automatic brakes, standard heating
apparatus, etc. Electric trunk-line roads must standardize, and use
interchangeable electric systems, voltage, cycles, and phase, so that
direct-current and alternating-current service may be used for any train.

Regarding the work done, an index, in the first part of Chapter XV,
of all steam railroads using electric traction for trains, shows that
not one per cent, of the total mileage has yet been electrified.

Electric power has economic advantages which are being utilized to
improve transportation methods. The idea is not merely to supersede
steam-locomotive traction, but rather it is to assist in producing efficient
transportation by new methods.

The importance of electric railway transportation in the United
States may be shown by statistics; and when these are compared with
other statistics they show that the capital invested and the gross earn-
ings of electric railways are more than twice as large as those for all
other public electric utilities combined.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 47

EARNINGS AND MILEAGE OF RAILWAYS OPERATING ELECTRIC TRAINS.

Gross

Elec.

Name of electric railway.

earnings

mileage

1908.

1909.

1910.

1911.

Boston Elevated

$14,074,696 5614.993.853

485

Massachusetts Electric

7,809,010

8,052,355

8,560,949

934

The Rhode Island Company

4,217,022

4,192,958

4,502,922

319

The Connecticut Company

6,961,436

6,841,425

7,235,729

780

Interboro Rapid Transit

25,279,470

27,160,036

28,987,648

Long Island R. R

9,818,544

10,898,371

9,779,116

263

Hudson & Manhattan R. R

743,701

2,237,459

Albany Southern R. R

267,777

480,062

Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville . .

809,925

773,849

904,751

Utica & Mohawk Valley.

1 151,031

1,193,806 •

1,257,621
503,218

127

Rochester, Syracuse & Eastern. . . .

310,958

382,037

168

Windsor, Essex & Lake Shore

35,585

85,273

106,225

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley . . .

524,509

555,402

576,029

Michigan United Rys

573,439

1,026,796

1,248,889

254

Cleveland, Southwestern & Colum.

775,737

827,898

955,591

243

Northern Ohio Traction

1,890,473

2,177,642

2,437,426

214

Mahoning & Shenango

1,747,927

1,966,066

2,251,482

149

Eastern Ohio Traction

259,172

270,759

Toledo & Western

236,538

301,618
558,374

Western Ohio

441,791

490,328

112

Scioto Valley Traction

355,000

383,053

422,914

Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley

1,322,720

1,414,526

1,526,587

212

Indiana Union Traction

1,902,330

2,103,018

2,364,628

373

Indianapohs, Columbus & Southern

344,694

385,424

418,287

Indianapolis & Cincinnati Traction .

200,355

214,990

448,099

112

Cincinnati, Georgie. & Portsmouth.

164,493

167,514

174,530

South Side Elevated R. R

2,214,690

2,234,973

2,457,489

Metropolitan West Side Elevated . .

2,746,840

2,818,430

3,069,945

Chicago & Oak Park Elevated

869,892

825,453

840,378

Northwestern Elevated R. R

2,463,188

2,540,883

2,632,039

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago

1,408,892

1,467,215

1,608,438

160

Illinois Traction Co

4,089,621

4,752,082

6,106,250

550

East St. Louis & Suburban

2,009,514

2,035,790

2,364,142

181

Chicago & Milwaukee Electric

597,977

921,019

945,152

166

Milwaukee Northern . ...

85,444
91,438

287,848

Rock Island Southern

76,191

Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern.

432,540

450,747
234,072

140

Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern .

217,103

251,834

Northern Texas Traction

1,080,577

1,259,551

1,442,807

Spokane & Inland Empire

1,146,177

1,269,100

1,763,614

287

Puget Sound Electric

1,694,973

1,869,096

1,915,289

200

Oregon Electric

554,819
512,992

Northern Electric. . . ....

422,901

138

48 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILWAY STATISTICS SUMMARIZED.

Statistics from government
reports

Steam railroads
1907.

Electric railways
1907.

Ratio
electric
to steam.

Passengers carried

Rides per inhabitant per year.

Total car mileage

Receipts from passengers

Income from freight

Income from operation

Operating expenses

Net earnings

Taxes and fixed charges

Net income

Dividends

Surplus

Capitalization, at par

Total mileage

Passenger cars

Freight cars, etc

Total cars

Locomotives

Motor cars

Horse-power capacity

873,905,133

29,652,000,000

$564,606,342

1,936,000,000

2,649,731,911

1,749,164,649

900,567,262

420,717,658

479,849,604

227,394,962

252,454,642

18,885,000,000

327,975

43,973

1,991,557

2,126,594

51,891

5,000,000

9,533,080,766

1,618,343,584

$382,132,494

7,438,582

429,744,254

251,309,252

178,435,002

138,094,716

40,343,286

25,558,857

14,781,429

3,774,000,000

34,404^

70;016

13,625

84,000

1172

68,874

2,475,000

10.900
10.000
.054
.677
.004
.162
.143
.200
.325
.084
.113
.059
.200
.105
1.600
.007
.040
.007

490

^ The mileage of electric railways in 1911 is about 36,000 miles.
^ The number of electric locomotives in 1911 is about 430.

LITERATURE.

References on Historical Development of Electric Railways.

Kramer: "Elektrische Eisenbahn," Vienna and Leipzig, 1883.

Reckenzaum: "Electric Traction on Railways and Tramways," Biggs & Co.,
London, 1892.

Martin & Wetzler: "The Electric Motor," Johnston, N. Y., 1887-8.

Crosby & Bell: "The Electric Railway," Johnston, N. Y., 1892.

Houston & Kennelly: "Electric Street Railways," McGraw, N. Y., 1906.

Bentley: The First Electric Car, E. W., March 5, 1904.

Pope, F. L.: Early Electric Railways, E. W., Jan. 31, 1891.

Griffin: Development of Electric Railways, Electrical Engineer, Sept. 16, 1891.

Daft, Sprague, Lamme, Griffin, Dodd, Bentley, and others, in S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904;
S. R. J., Dec. 26, 1903.

Reid; Electric Traction History, Cassiers, August, 1899.

Sprague: Historical Notes, Electrical Review, N. Y., Jan., 1901; Electrical Engineer,
N. Y., March, 1890; April, 1891; E. W., March 5, 1904; History and Develop-
ment of Electric Railways, International Electrical Congress. Section F., St.

HISTORY OF ELECTRIC TRACTION 49

Louis, 1904; S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 581; The Electric Railway, A Resume

of Early Experiments, Century, N. Y., July, 1905.
Parshall: Sprague Electric Motor, S. R. J., Aug., 1899; A. I. E. E., May, 1890.
Shepardson: Electric Railway Motor Tests, A. I. E. E., July, 1892.
Martin: U. S. Census Report on Street and Interurban Railways, 1902, p. 161.
Historical Interurban Railways, E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909, p. 571.
Review on Heavy Electric Traction, E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909, p. 583.
Helt: First Electrified Steam Roads, S. R. J., June, 1897; Sept. 1898, Aug. 25 and

Sept. 8, 1900.

CHAPTER II.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES.

Outline.

Introduction on Railway Practice.
Locomotive Classification.
Data Sheets on Proportions.
Physical Characteristics :

Self-contained poWer units, water supply, coal, boilers, center of gravity,
wheel base, simple engines, design for service conditions, weight, capacity,
heating surface, tractive effort, piston speed, horse power.

Operating Characteristics :

Furnace conditions, high rates of evaporation, heat radiation, stand-by losses,
weather ratings, operation by enginemen, unbalanced forces, track destruction,
friction losses, speed of trains, mechanical strains, locomotive repairs, con-
densation, superheat, steam consumption, economy of coal.

Speed -Torque Characteristics :

Indicator diagrams, short strokes, piston speed, initial steam pressure, losses
in pressure, indefinite point of cut-off, clearance, back pressure, expansion of
steam, mean-effective steam pressure, relation between speed and torque,
work done in cylinders.

Compound Locomotives.

Mallet Locomotives.

Turbine Locomotives.

Cost of Operation, fuel, repairs, total.

Literature.

CHAPTER 11.

INTRODUCTION.

Modern steam locomotives in railroad practice to-day are accepted
as the approved motive power for the transportation of ordinary trains,
because steam traction has certain physical and economic advantages.
Where coal is cheap and service is infrequent, the steam locomotives
will continue to hold the advantage.

Steam locomotives represent the result of seventy years of crystallized
experience, in which much has been learned about design and perform-
ance, and this may be used as a foundation for still further advance.

Improvements or changes in the motive power used for railroad
trains cannot be entertained until after there is a complete understanding
of the physical characteristics and the economic performance of the
modern steam locomotive. An intimate knowledge of the good and bad
physical features, and of the operating results, is needed. Practical
experience in round houses, in service tests, and on dynamometer cars
is the most profitable means of collecting the information.

A study will now be made of the furnace and boiler, the limitations
in design, the indicator cards, the relation of speed to drawbar pull, the
dynamometer records, the result of weather conditions, the effect of
railway grades, the effect of underload and overload, and the economic
results from ordinary and special locomotives. The nature of the facts
is of greatest importance. The data contained in the following pages
summarize, for general use and for comparative purposes, some of the
essential facts and conditions concerning present-day steam locomotives.

LOCOMOTIVE CLASSIFICATION.

Locomotive classification is made with reference to the number and
arrangement of the wheels. The number of driving wheels of steam
locomotives is generally limited to two or three pairs in passenger service
and to four pairs in freight service. The number and diameter of side-
connected drivers establish the length of the rigid driving-wheel base.
Leading wheels are required to ease the shock, to guide the locomotive
in the curves, and over variations in track alignment — a two-wheeled lead-
ing truck for freight engines, and a four-wheeled leading truck for high-
speed passenger engines. A pair of trailing wheels often supports the
heavy fire-box.

Switchers have 4, 6, 8, or 10 small driving wheels, a rigid truck frame,
and are usually without leading or trailing wheels.

Prairies have 2 leading truck wheels, 6 large driving wheels, and 2
trailing truck wheels, over which there is a deep and wide fire-box.

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

This type is common for heavy passenger or fast freight service on
prairie divisions.

Moguls have 2 leading truck wheels and 6 driving wheels, and they
are used for heavy freight service.

Consolidations have 2 leading truck wheels and 8 driving wheels, and

Fig. 14. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Mogul Type.

are a standard for heavy freight service. This type is frequently a 2-
or 4-cylinder compound. The wheel base is long. Speeds are not high.

Decapods have 2 leading truck wheels and 10 driving wheels giving
the maximum wheel base. Few are used.

Eight -wheeled, or Americans, have 4 leading truck wheels and 4

Fig. 15. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Eight-wheel or American Type.

large driving wheels. This is a light-weight, simple locomotive, for
ordinary passenger service.

Ten -wheelers have 4 leading truck wheels and 6 driving wheels, and
are used for both passenger and fast freight service. Twelve-wheelers
or mastadons are seldom used.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 53

Atlantics have 4 leading truck wheels, 4 driving wheels, and 2 wheels
at the grates to carry a large fire-box. This type is used for medium-
sized passenger trains, maintaining high speed with few stops.

Pacifies have 4 leading wheels, 6 driving wheels, and 2 at the grates,
for the heaviest passenger trains.

Fig. 16. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Pacific Type,

Balanced have Atlantic or Pacific wheel arrangement. The front
driver axle is generally a crank axle. A good balance of the reciprocating
efforts of the three or four pistons is obtained, and this eliminates most
of the hammer blow and allows a greater dead weight per driver axle.

m > -,

%^m^^

Fig. 17. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Ten-wheel Type.

making it a desirable high-speed passenger locomotive. See page 64.
Mallet articulated have 2 sets of cylinders on each side of the loco-
motive.working in compound, articulated or hinged trucks, each with 3
or 4 pairs of driving wheels, generally with leading and sometimes with
trailing truck wheels. There is one boiler, rightly attached to the rear
truck and supported on the front truck by means of sliding bearings.

54 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWyVY TRAINS

Fig. 18. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Atlantic Type.

Fig. 19.— Typical Steam Locomotive, Pbaihie Type.

Fig. 20. — Typical Steam Locomotive, Consolidation Type.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 55

CLASSIFICATION.

Classification of steam locomotives is represented in numerals by the
number and arrangement of the pairs of wheels, commencing at the front.

Fig. 21.

-Typical Steam Locomotive, Mallet or Articulated Type.
The Delaware & Hudson Company. — ^Freight service.

STEAM LOCOMOTIVE CLASSIFICATION.

Type of
Locomotive.

Order of
wheels.

No. of
wheels.

Wt. on
drivers.

Heating
surface.

Ordinary service.

Switcher

Prairie

Mogul

Consolidation ....

Decapod

American

10-wheel

Atlantic

Pacific

^000

/^oOOOo

^oOOO

^oOOOO

Z^oOOOOO

zLooOO

^ooOOO

zlooOOo

Z.00OOO0

/LooOOo

Z_oOOO-000

0-6-0

2-6-2

2-6-0

2-8-0

2-10-0

4-4-0

4-6-0

4-4-2

4-6-2

4-4-2

2-6-6-0

100%

75%
86%
88%
90%
65%
75%
55%
60%
57%
90%

1200-3000
2000-3800
2000-2400
2200-3600
2300-4200
1600-2400
2000-2600
2600-3300
3000-3800
2700-3400
3300-7800

Local and helper.
Heavy passenger.
Heavy freight.
Heavy freight.
Heavy freight.
Light passenger.
Passenger and freight.
High-speed passenger.
Heaviest passenger.
High-speed passenger.
Mountain freight.

Balanced

Mallet

The data are from various sources. Some from a paper by L. H. Fry, before the New York Rail-
road Club, with which the data on more recent installations have been averaged, and some from the
American and Baldwin locomotive catalogues.

STEAM LOCOMOTIVES USED IN THE UNITED STATES.

Reports of Interstate Commerce Commission, June 30, 1907, 1908, 1909.

Service.

1907.

1908.

1909.

Cylinder.

1907.

1908.

1909.

.! 12,814

. 32,079

9,258

1,237

13,205

33,840

9,529

1,124

13,317

33,935

9,695

1,123

51,891

1,727
945
825

54,230

1,714

923

831

54,835

Freight

Switching. . . .
Unclassified . .

Four-cylinder compound. . .
Two-cylinder compound . . .
Unclassified

1,603

888
744

Total

.: 55,388

57,698

58,070

55,388

57,698

58,070

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Locomotive

Single expansion.

Four-cylinder compound.

Two-cylinder compound.

type.

1907.

1908.

1909.

1907.

1908.

1909.

1907.

1908.

1909.

Switcher

Prairie

Mogul

Consolidation.

Decapod

8-wheel

7,703

990

5,333

15,025

10,041

9,666

613

1,401

640

409

8408

1,152

5,510

15,987

9,718

10,202

708

1,490

789

492

8,335

1,082

5,502

16,311

9,401

10,067

1,003

1,530

1,069

447

222
142
422

8
374

262

254

130

352

348

262

255

301

5
336

272

181

394

22
36

178

387

157

379

256

10-wheel

12-wheel

Atlantic

251
49

249
43

Pacific

Balanced

Other types . .

241

299

274

0
923

Total

51,891

54,230

54,835

1J27

1,714

1,603

945

888

On an average, about 3000 locomotives or 5 per cent., are added per year.
Changes from one type to another show the appreciation of certain types.

DATA SHEETS ON PROPORTIONS.

PROPORTIONS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES.
Weights, Lengths, Heating Surface,

Locomotive
Classification.

Weight in tons.

Wheel base in feet.

Tons

per

axle.

Tons per foot.

Heat,
surf,
sq. ft.

H.P.

Driv.

Eng.

Total.

Driv.

Eng.

Total.

Driv.

base.

Eng.
base.

Loco,
base.

per
ton.

Switch

Prairie

Mogul

Consolidated .
American ....

10-wheel

Atlantic

Pacific

Balanced ....
Articulated . .

77
75
66
84
40
65
52
60
50
150
200

100

175

230

120
160
130
160
115
140
155
175
170
250
350

11-3
11-4
15-0
16-3

8-6
14-6

7-0
12-4

7-0
10-0
16-6

11-3
29-0
23-3
24-6
24-0
26-0
27-0
32-0
30-0
45-0
52-0

40-0
55-0
53-0
55-0
50-0
54-0
58-0
60-O
60-0
83-0
100-0

25.7
25.0
22.0
21.0
20.0
21.5
26.0
20.0
28.0
25.0
25.0

6.2
6.6
4.3
5.2
4.7
4.5
7.4
4.9
7.1
7.5
6.1

6.2
3.4
3.2
3.9
2.7
2.7
3.3
3.1
3.3
3.9
4.4

3.0
2.9
2.4
2.9
2.3
2.6
2.7
2.9
2.8
3.0
3.5

2000
3000
2200
3000
2000
2300
3000
3300
2600
5585
7000

7.2
8.0
7.3
8.0
7.5
7.1
8.3
8.1
7.0
9.6
8 6

Data are from Sinclair's "Twentieth Century Locomotive"; McClellan's article to A. I. E. E.,
June, 1905, p. 565; L. H. Fry's New York R. R. Club paper of Sept., 1903; catalogues of American
and Baldwin locomotives.

Average and ordinary units are considered. Maximum tons per driver axle frequently exceed
32, in large locomotives; average tons per driver axle are 30 per cent, greater than European practice.

See comparable table under Electric Locomotive Design.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 57
GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY STEAM LOCOMOTIVE DATA.

Wt.

per

axle.

Locomotive Wt.

Locomo-

Let-
ter.

Wheel
arrange.

Heating
surface.

Diam.
driv.

Cylinders,
dimensions

tive type.

Engine.

Total.

Mallet . .

2-6-6-2

3914

20&31x30

41,667

288,000

451,000

Mallet . .

2-6-6-2

5700

21i&33x32

52,667

355,000

503,000

Atlantic .

4-4-2

3488

15&25X26

50,000

208,000

356,000

Prairie . .

. .! Jl

2-6-2

3488

22x30

53,000

209,000

357,000

Pacific . .

. . H3

4-6-2

3058

25x30

53,000

227,000

375,000

Pacific . .

4-6-2

3931

22x30

53,000

227,000

375,000

Pacific . .

.. HI

4-6-2

3466

21x28

54,000

207,000

346,000

Mastodon

.. G5

4-8-0

3332

21x34

43,000

212,000

308,000

Mastodon

4-8-0

2307

20x26

33,000

156,000

242,000

Consolidat FIO

2-8-0

3340

21x34

49,000

216,000

312,000

Consolidat . F8

2-8-0

2767

20x32

45,000

195,000

318,000

Consolidat . Fl

2-8-0

1596

19x26

30,000

136,000

222,000

10- Wheel . . E13

4-6-0

1713

19x24

110,000

192,000

10-AVheel . .

4-6-0

2113

19x26

40,000

152,000

272,000

Mogul

2-6-0

1600

19x26

38,000

130,000

216,000

8- Wheel . .

B23

4-4-0

1600

18x24

94,000

168,000

Switcher . . AlO

0-6-0

1846

19x28

45,600

137,000

212,000

Switcher . .

0-6-0

785

16x20

23,300

70,000

112,000

This is merely a good representative list of locomotives, for reference.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.

Modern steam locomotives in common railroad service have the follow-
ing physical characteristics:

A self-contained power unit with water supply, coal supply, boiler,
and two complete engines, is embodied. It is a power house on wheels,
mounted on trucks and moving over track at speeds up to 60 m. p. h.

The water supply comes from many lakes, streams, and wells, and
pumping stations are located 10 to 20 miles apart. Since alkali and
mineralized waters must be used in many cases, they must be treated
to prevent bad scaling, blistering of plates, foaming, and water in cylinder.

The best coal, bituminous screened lump, is used. Coal substations
with handling machinery are located 20 to 50 miles apart. Energy is
required to haul about 60 tons of water and coal supply with the train.

Coal for northern roads, those near Lake Superior and Lake Michigan, is pur-
chased each year about April first. Youghiogheny run-of-pile is used, which has
run over a 3/4 inch screen at the mine. The run-of-pile contains about 25 per cent,
of good screenings, formed by the handling at the lake docks. The price paid by
the railroads has increased from $2.30 to $3.00 per ton, or 30 per cent., within the

58 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

last seven years. The coal used by these northern railroads costs about $4.20 per
ton dehvered on the locomotive tender. (Youghiogheny screened lump costing, $3.50
at the dock, is sold by the coal companies to those manufacturing companies which
are located at some distance from the railroad or which have poor facilities for burning
coal. The screenings are burned by power plants which have stokers.)

Coal for railroads near and just west of Chicago is generally the best Illinois
screened lump. The screenings and duff are burned on stokers in railway and
manufacturing plants in the larger cities within 500 miles of the Illinois mines. Coal
for eastern roads comes from Pennsylvania and Indiana. Fuel oil is commonly used
on locomotives in the Southwest and on the Pacific coast. Anthracite coal is used
by some roads with economy.

Statutes of states and municipal restrictions frequently compel the
use by locomotives of an anthracite coal, coke, or fuel oil for switching
and city service, and near flour mills, factories, forests, etc.

The cost of hauling an ordinary 60-ton coal and water tender as dead
weight, in a freight train, at 10.005 per ton-mile, for an ordinary 133-mile
trip is $4; and in a passenger train varies from $8 to $11 per trip.

The cost of locomotive fuel depends, therefore, upon the price, heat
units, location of the road, cost of handling, etc., and on furnace economy.

Compact boilers of the fire-tube type, with fire-box furnaces for hand
firing, have been universally adopted. A steam pressure of 200 pounds
is used, not so much for econoniy as for capacity. Steam pressures of
150 pounds with superheat are now used to increase the economy, by
reducing the radiation and condensation. The ratio of heating to grate
surface depends on the grade of coal, and approximates 65 for ordinary
bituminous coal. On a long run, the grates often burn several different
kinds of coal, while the size of the grate, and the exhaust nozzle, are
suited to but one grade of coal; and this is the cause of some complaints
of firemen regarding poor steaming. The draft and the rate of combus-
tion are proportional to the quantity and the pressure of the exhaust
steam discharged thru the smoke stack. A draft at the smoke-box of
about 3.7 inches by water gage is required to burn 100 pounds of bitu-
minous coal per square foot of grate per hour.

Center of gravity is high, for the track gage. The center of gravity
is in the boiler, which is above the top of the drivers. The diameter of
the driving wheels of ordinary passenger locomotives is 60 to 84 inches;
of freight locomotives is 51 to 63 inches; of switch locomotives is 48 to
51 inches, or less than one inch per mile per hour of maximum speed.
The bearings on each axle of steam locomotives are between the wheels.
The bearing spring centers are only 42 inches apart.

Rigid driving-wheel bases of passenger engines are from 10 to 13 feet
long; of common freight engines, 10 to 17 feet. Longer rigid wheel
bases for 4 and 5 sets of drivers are most destructive to curved track.

Simple engines and two cylinders are in general use. Only 5 per

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 59

cent, of all locomotives are compound, and these are used for special
conditions. Two-cylinder compounds have increased the economy of
fuel; but this type has its limitations in speed and power. In high-
speed service, compounds are not economical, and are seldom used.

Cylinder diameters are so proportioned that, at 80 per cent, cut-off
and with a 25 per cent, coefficient of adhesion between the rails and the
weight on the drivers, the steam pressure will slip the drivers. The
length of the stroke is 26 to 34 inches, the longer stroke for heavy freight
service, the 26-inch for passenger service.

Cylinder diameters are designed for sufficient tractive power. Large
cylinders, often compounded, are well separated, and there is a constant
disturbance of the locomotive in a horizontal plane called '^ nosing"
which is due to the alternate pressures and their lever arms.

Designs of the steam locomotive require that the materials and the
power production be w^orked to the highest safe limits. The character
of the labor must be considered. Complication is not tolerated. Mechan-
ical stokers, coal crushers, feed-water heaters, superheaters, fire-brick
arches, water-tube boilers, and economizers, which are desirable, are not
used on ordinary locomotives, because economy of space and simplicity
are essential. Quickness of repairs on the road is important. Expenses
of maintenance and repairs at shop must be a minimum.

Steam locomotive service cannot be continuous. Its design requires
time for blowing down, cooling off, and washing out the boilers, cleaning
of tubes, adjusting gear of machinery, filling the boilers and the coal
and water tender, and waiting for fresh fires.

Stationary engine practice cannot be used, as conditions of operation
are essentially different. In the locomotive engine, steam passages
cannot be short; piston and port clearance volumes' cannot be small, and
compression cannot be used to best advantage because, to a great extent,
the exhaust nozzle and the draft required govern the back pressure.

Steam turbines, which are now the motive power used for electric
railroads, have characteristics which are widely different from engines.
The use of poppet valves avoids loss of pressure, superheat prevents con-
densation on the cylindrical walls, and a high vacuum is utilized to con-
vert the maximum number of heat units into work.

Weight is prescribed, in the design, by the length of the connected
wheel base allowed on curves; by a weight of 20 to 28 tons per axle to be
borne by the rails; and by a weight of 3 tons per linear foot of track.

Weight efficiency, as shown by the table on ''Proportions of Modern
Steam Locomotives," is from 7 to 10 h. p. per ton. Weight efficiency is
particularly low on large steam locomotives, because high speeds are not
possible with complicated heavy reciprocating parts. Mallet designs
with four cylinders and separated trucks distribute the weight.

60 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Capacity is limited by design, as is outlined below:

Driving wheels are first loaded to the greatest allowable or safe weight
the rails will bear — about 90 tons for 30-foot, 90-pound rails, or about
50,000 pounds per axle, when the track is reinforced. The number of
drivers is generally limited to 4 pairs in freight and 3 pairs in passenger
engines. Rigid driving-wheel bases must be limited to 13 feet in pas-
senger engines, and 17 feet in freight engines to avoid destructive thrusts
and mounting of curves. Driving wheel diameter is such that the
reciprocating machinery will not work at a higher speed than 600 to
1300 feet per minute, depending upon the piston weight and diameter.

The boiler is placed above and clear of the drivers; yet it is dangerous
to let the center of gravity exceed a height of 8.0 feet, for the 4.71-foot
wheel gage. The boiler is provided with enough heating surface, in its
diameter and length, to supply the steam. The boiler must be planned
without lengthening the wheel base beyond the permissible limits noted.
About 150 Santa Fe special freight locomotives use 19.5-foot rigid wheel
bases, with close-coupled drivers, but that limit exceeds good practice.
Mallets are more flexible, and use 10- to 16-foot rigid wheel bases.

Grates must have ample size to burn the coal. Fire-boxes must have
ample length and depth, so that the flames will be kept from contact
with the plates until some part of the combustion is completed. Good
design of fire-boxes is exceedingly diflScult on account of the required
support and shape, and the expansion and warping. The track gage
is not wide enough for good proportions, especially where large boiler
capacity is needed.

Large steam locomotives are thus hard to design, and. are often
unsatisfactory. The failures in such locomotives multiply as the
size increases. The men operating the complicated moving boiler and
engine plant are not sufficiently skilled, nor can they give the machinery
sufficient attention. Repairs and renewals cannot be made in the usual
way, with jacks, wedges, and chain blocks.

"The time out of service and the repairs per 1000 ton-miles hauled are out of
direct proportion to increased weight. Large broken castings become common.
Leaky flues are troublesome. Its own extra dead weight, with coal and water tender,
must be propelled. Two firemen become necessary. Condensed steam in the large
cylinders of compounds decreases the efiiciency. Compression troubles and conden-
sation demand numerous relief valves. Leaks surround the engine with clouds,
which are annoying and dangerous. The large locomotive boiler is wrong in principle."
Railway Age, April 3, 1903.

" The men in charge of the railways in this country have struggled for nearly
15 years with the greatest problem of our times, how to move a load whose weight
increases from 10 to 15 per cent, a year with a locomotive whose power increases at
about 2 1/2 per cent, a year. The limit of safe, speedy, and reasonable service with
existing facilities has been reached." J. J. Hill to Kansas City Commercial Club,
Nov., 1907.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 61

Heating surface of locomotives for switching and local passenger
service ordinarily varies from 1200 to 1500 square feet; for ordinary
passenger and express service from 1500 to 2500; for heavy passenger
and way-freight, from 2200 to 2500; for heaviest passenger and heavy
freight, from 2500 to 3200; for steep grades, from 3200 to 3500; for
mountain grade service, and as pushers, from 3500 to 8000 square feet.

Total equivalent heating surface is based on the tube and plate heating surface,
plus 11/2 times the superheating surface.

The horse power of a steam locomotive, the grade of coal and the
design being fixed, depends upon the boiler heating surface.

The torque, or the tractive force at the rim of the drivers, or the
drawbar pull plus the pull for the engine friction, expressed in pounds,
is proportional to the product of the steam pressure of the boiler, in
pounds per square inch, P; the ratio of mean-effective pressure to boiler
pressure, Y; the cross-sectional area of one cylinder, in square inches,
0.7854 X D^; and the length of piston stroke, in inches, L; divided by the
diameter of the drivers, in inches, W.

The running drawbar pull, or torque, for the locomotive and train is

FxPXi)'X.7854xLx4 YxPxD'xL.
= m pounds.

The maximum drawbar pull, or tractive force, or torque, is
YXPXD^XL/W, in pounds. The variable Y, at slowest speeds, is
about .80 of the boiler pressure, and at highest speeds, is from .30 to
'.20 of the boiler pressure. The reciprocating pressure from the several
pistons furnishes a variable tractive effort.

Reference: Carpenter: Railway Age Gazette, Jan. 28, 1910.

The maximum drawbar pull, by design, is made equal to about 25
per cent, of the weight on drivers, assuming good conditions, and sand.
The draft gear of the cars in a train, in common practice, is limited in
strength to about 45,000 pounds. Articulated Mallet compounds, which
may exert 70,000 pounds drawbar pull as a maximum and 50,000 pounds
at very slow speed, are generally used as pushers.

The piston speed, in feet per minute, is simply

M.P.H. X5280X2 L ,^ „ ,, ,, L

Horse power, or rate of work, of steam locomotives is generally com-
puted on the basis of 12 pounds of steam per hour per square foot of
boiler heating surface, and 28 pounds of steam per indicated h. p. hr.
Horse power = 0.43 X square feet of heating surface. Goss.

62 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Horse power is always the product of the pull or push, in pounds,
times the speed, in feet per minute, divided by 33,000.

_Pull X F.P,M._Fu\\ X 5280 Pull X M.P.H.
' *~ 33,000 ~ 33,000X60" 375

Indicated horse power of two simple cylinders is the product of the
mean effective steam pressure, Y times P, in pounds; area of one piston
face, in square inches, D^XO.785; length of the stroke, in inches, L;
strokes per revolution, 4; number of revolutions of the drivers per minute,
divided by 33,000.

r 7? p yi/f

^.P. = rxPXi)'X0.785X — X 4X-^^ — '- (Do not reduce.)

12 33,000 ^

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF STEAM LOCOMOTIVES.

Furnace conditions in locomotive boilers are such that combustion is
not perfect. Hydrocarbons which are distilled from the coal by the
furnace heat ignite, and the carbon in the flame combines with the oxygen
and becomes an invisible gas, provided there is a fraction of a second in
which combustion may be completed; but in a locomotive furnace the
time is short, and the distance from the coal to the steel is short, and these
carbon particles in the flame, with a temperature of about 2000° F.,
come in contact with the relatively cold fire-box plates and the tubes;
and cooled carbon cannot unite with oxygen, but passes out of the
stack as black smoke.

Fire-brick arches over the furnace steady the furnace temperature,
prevent flame contact with the steel, and improve the combustion of the
gases; but they are seldom used, because they require water tubes which
fill with mud, burst, and kill firemen; and the arches are in the way,
interfering with flue repairs. Fire-brick arches are smoke preventers;
they decrease the warping in the furnace, and reduce the tube failures.

Lake Shore Railroad is almost alone among the railroads in having nearly all of
its locomotives, including switch engines, fitted with fire-brick arches. Its success
is largely due to the use of brick in small units, supported on arch tubes, these tubes
being kept clean by a hydraulic tube cleaner. The Lake Shore Railroad has demon-
strated beyond a doubt the advantages of these arches. The estimated saving in
fuel per annum amounts to a half-million dollars, in addition to a large saving \\^hich
is due to reduction in tube repairs. The life of the arch, in passenger engines, averages
one month, in freight engines 11/2 months, and in switching engines 4 to 5 months.
Consult: Ry. Age, March 4, 1910, p. 504; June 2, 1911, p. 1264; Sci. Ame., April 24, 1909.

Smokeless operation of furnaces, by stokers or by hand firing, requires a some-
what uniform load; yet on a locomotive the load is most variable. Mechanical
stokers feed coal with regularity, but require much space and for ordinary locomotives
are compHcated. With hand firing, the coal is carried and is thrown too far for
efficient distribution; and air holes and chilled furnace gases are common. The
smoke nuisance, caused by these furnace conditions in modern heavy service, is an
uneconomical feature.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 63

High rates of evaporation are required. The coal consumption with
the maximum continued rate of serving runs up to 200 pounds of bitumi-
nous coal per square foot of grate per hour; and the actual water then
evaporated is about 4.5 pounds per pound of coal, while with economical
rates of firing, the ratio is increased to 6.4 pounds, or 42 per cent. The
economy decreases as the rate of work increases.

The water evaporated per pound of best Illinois coal, with 12,000
B. t. u., per square foot of grate surface per hour in modern steam loco-
motives, is given below, in a table based on average results with feed
water at about 60° F., evaporated into steam at 200 pounds pressure.

COAL CONSUMPTION AND EVAPORATION RATIO.

Rate of consumption.

Coal per

square ft. of

grate per hour.

Ratio of evaporation.

Actual.

From and at.

Maximum rate

200 lbs.
160

4.50

5.46

High rate

4.85 5.90

Ordinary rate

Averasre rate .

100
80
65
60

5.33 6.47
6 . 00 7 . 28

Economical rate

6.40 7.77

Central power-plants rate

7.00
to 8.00

8.50
to 10.00

With high rates of evaporation, particularly with foaming waters, low
water is carried in the boiler to prevent an excess of water and spray
from reaching the cylinders.

Heat radiation from about 500 square feet of the external boiler sur-
face of a moving boiler, about one-third of which can be lagged with
mineral wool, requires 60 pounds of coal per hour in the mildest weather.
Much fuel is consumed while coasting and stopping, but particularly
while waiting. Freight locomotive records, which have been averaged
for several divisions, show that 30 per cent, of the time is spent in waiting.
Cold weather increases the pounds of coal used per ton-mile, a large part
of which may be accounted for by radiation. Condensation on the
cylinder walls and piston rods also increases rapidly in winter.

Stand-by losses require that each boiler, nearly full of hot water, be
blown off daily, and heat is wasted. The tubes are then washed out and
i cleaned. Firing-up requires 500 pounds of coal in small locomotives,
800 in medium, and from 1,200 to 1,600 in the largest locomotives. An
engine does not go into service when the boiler is up to full pressure, for
the train dispatcher prefers to have many locomotives ready for service.
AVhile waiting, the coal burned may equal the coal utilized for the run.

64 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Weather ratings, or relative tonnage hauled by locomotives, vary.
The table used by the Great Northern Railway follows:

Temperature between 25° and 0° 100 per cent.

Very frosty or wet; 25° to 5° above zero 90 per cent.

5° above to 10° below zero 80 per cent.

10° below and colder, and not windy 75 per cent.

Capacity is decreased by the chilled furnace, radiation of heat/ con-
densation of steam, increased friction, etc. See data by Henderson,
page 82, on '^Pounds of Coal per 1000 Ton-miles."

Operation of locomotive boilers and engines depends primarily upon
the attendants. The complicated machinery may not get proper atten-
tion from the engineman and fireman. They are occupied with the
combustion of fuel, the production of mechanical power, the care of the
reciprocating mechanism, and the heed which must, as a matter of safety,
be given to the track and signals. Reliability of service takes precedence
over both economy of operation and careful attention to machinery. A
locomotive that cannot be operated successfully by an ordinary engine-
man, is not adapted to common train service.

Unbalanced forces from common drivers are large. The horizontal
reciprocating forces, which vary from 6 to 10 tons per piston, and the
weight of the rods, cross head, and wrist pin may be neutralized by a
counterbalance. The centrifugal force, however, acting on the counter-
weight, varies as the square of the speed, and produces a violent unbal-
anced vertical force, which, when the speed is high, may cause the wheels
to first deliver a terrific blow on the rails, followed by a tendency to lift
from the rails at every revolution. The centrifugal forces at maximum
speed must not exceed 80 per cent, of the weight on the rail, or the wheels
will not be maintained solidly on the rail. The counter-balance in the
drivers can be suited to but one speed. Track pounding necessarily
results.

Balanced locomotives are worthy of much consideration because of
the decreased track maintenance, increased safety, and greater allowable
rail pressure per wheel. Cranks in the middle of the driving axle are
objectionable. Few balanced locomotives are used, because, with the
limited space for the crank axle the design is difficult. See Walker, on
Compensated Locomotives, Ry. Age, Aug. 14, 1908.

American Locomotive Company has recently built many 100-ton Atlantic
engines with four simple, or four compound cylinders, arranged on the balanced
principle. The crank axle is the front driver axle. This type of engine has been
selected by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad for high-speed passenger
work, because it is easier on track and bridges. Atkinson, Topeka & Santa Fe uses
171 balanced 4-cylinder compounds. See Ry. Age, Dec. 23, 1910; Jan. 7, 1911.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 65

Track destruction of roadbed and bridges is not caused by the loads
from the many heavy steel cars. It is caused largely by unbalanced
forces of locomotives, combined with excessive weight, concentration of
weight, rigid wheel bases, and nosing. Track pounding wastes power;
it destroys special work; it produces broken rails. The terrific reaction
and the vibration rack the engine frame as well as the roadbed. Broken
driver axles and crank shafts frequently cause wrecks. Locomotive
weight per horse power is excessive, and it is general^ concentrated.
Engines with a long, rigid wheel base are hardest on curves; the oiled
flanges of drivers wear rapidly, while flanges of car wheels wear slowly.
Nosing of engines, caused by an alternating force of many tons from
steam pressure on the piston, and the leverage from the widely spread
cylinders, on each side of the locomotive, is also destructive, for it loosens
the spikes, spreads the rails, and is a source of danger in transportation.

Friction losses of steam locomotives are caused by the wear of heavy
reciprocating pistons, rings, rods, cross heads, valve gear, and connecting
links. The wear of valves and cylinders is excessive, both because of
lack of lubrication and because of scaly and foaming water.

"Even with a good means of supplying lubricant, there appears to be
a high percentage of the power of a locomotive engine using high-
pressure steam absorbed in overcoming internal resistance." Sinclair.

" The internal friction of the simple locomotive cylinders is equivalent
to 3.8 pounds mean-effective pressure." Goss. This is a large part of
the total mean-effective steam pressure. Seven per cent, is allowed for
the internal friction of compound locomotives, and more, when superheat
is attempted. Friction in Mallet compounds, in practice, is such that a
Mallet without steam will not, drift in going down a 1.2 per cent, grade, or
the friction exceeds 24 pounds per ton. Great Northern Railway 252-ton
Mallets, used in pushing service on the Cascade Division, will not drift
down a steeper grade.

The power required to propel the simple steam locomotive is large,
because the weight, internal friction, and head-end resistance are
excessive. Note the following:

'^ Aspinwall found that the 10-wheeled locomotive with tender absorbed
32 per cent, of the total power of the train. Mr. W. M. Smith has given the
result of his experiments as about 36 per cent, of the total power; and
Mr. Druit Halpin has found that the engine and tender on the Eastern
Railway of France absorbed 57 per cent, of the total power developed;
Dr. P. H. Dudley gave it as 55 per cent.; Mr. Barbier as 48 per cent.
These figures appear much too high. .Probably 35 per cent, is a proper
allowance for ordinary trains, the actual figures depending upon the speed,
the wheel base, the unbalanced effort, the service, and the load behind
the engine and its coal and water tender." Inst, of C. E., 1901, p. 197.
5

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

LABORATORY TEST ON FRICTION OF ATLANTIC TYPE LOCOMOTIVE

Cylinders, 20^x26; drivers 80-inch; weight on drivers 55 tons; heating surface
2320 sq.ft. Test by Pennsylvania Railroad, 1910.

Rev.

Piston

Miles

Drawbar

Cyl-

Draw-

Loss in

Steam

per

speed

per

pull

inder

bar

friction

per

min.

f.p.m.

hour.

pounds.

h.p.

i.h.p.h.

22,000
16,768

346

19.0

940

850

32.3

120

520

28.5

12,384

1075

940

135

28.0

160

694

38.0

9,602

1150

975

175

26.3

200

866

47.6

7,894

1220

1000

220

24.9

240

1040

57.0

6,428

1240

975

265

24.4

280

1213

66.5

5,325

1250

945

305

24.0

Machine friction, with oil lubrication of driver axle bearings, was fairly uniform,
and was equal to about 1687 pounds drawbar pull.

ROAD TEST ON FRICTION OF PACIFIC TYPE LOCOMOTIVE.

Cylinders, 22x28; drivers, 79-inch; weight on drivers, 80 tons; rigid driver-
wheel base, 17 feet. Test by New York Central Railroad, 1909.

Friction of mechanism and head air resistance of a Pacific type locomotive on
the "Twentieth Century Limited" was tested with the following results:

A 5-car, 315-ton train, at 70 m. p. h. required 3617 pounds tractive effort or
11.5 pounds per ton for the cars, and 4551 pounds or 22.7 pounds per ton for the
200-ton, 22x28 locomotive.

An 8-car, 505-ton train at 62 m. p, h. required 4950 pounds or 9 . 8 pounds per ton
for the cars, and 4055 pounds or 20.3 pounds per ton for the locomotive.

A 9-car, 564-ton train at 60 m. p. h. required 5335 pounds or 9.5 pounds per ton
for the cars and 3959 pounds or 19.8 pounds per ton for the locomotive; in other
words, about twice as much per ton for the locomotive as for the cars.

Pacific type locomotives on New York Central '' Twentieth Century Limited"
trains in 1911 show the following:

Boiler combustion chamber 4 feet long; heating surface, tubes and fire-box, 2915
square feet, superheating tubes 493 square feet, total equivalent heating surface
3655 square feet. Center of boiler above the rails, 9 feet, 9 inches. Driving-wheel
base, 14 feet. Cylinders, simple, 22x28. Drivers, 79 inches.

Boiler pressure 205 pounds, dry pipe pressure 185 pounds, steam chest pressure
170 pounds, drop in pressure thru superheater 15 pounds, superheat 185° F.

Weight of locomotive 212 tons, of engine 131 tons, on drivers 85 tons. Trailing
load 7 steel Pullman cars, 443 tons; weight of locomotive, 32 per cent, of total
weight; speed on level, 60 miles per hour. Ry. Age, March 31, 1911, pp. 785 to 795.

Speed of trains is limited by the heating surface of the boiler. The
power developed by the cylinders is restricted, because the rate of steam

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 67

generation is fixed. The tractive effort cannot be maintained as the
speed increases. The mechanical power developed is a minimum on
the heavy grades, because of the low cylinder efficiency with half cut-
offs; while it is at a maximum on the level, or for light loads, and at high
speed, as is explained later. A constant rate of steam being available,
speed is to be increased only when the drawbar pull is decreased.

About 60 m. p. h. is the limit with a Pacific type locomotive, with
tender, weighing 200 tons, and a train of 6 modern 55-ton steel coaches.

American Railway Engineering Association constants for resistance of a steam
locomotive with 125 square feet of cross- section, at 60 m. p. h., show:

Head end or air resistance R = .002V^A, or 900 pounds.

Internal friction between cylinder and drivers, R = 18.7 T -f SOX or 1830
pounds.

Engine and tender truck resistance is R = 2.6 TT + 20 XX, or 720 pounds.

Total resistance of locomotive at 60 m. p. h. is 3450 pounds; or 550 h. p. is re-
quired for the minimum friction of the locomotive. It increases greatly in winter.

The tractive resistance of six 55-ton coaches at 10 pounds per ton is 3300 pounds;
and the total resistance of the train is 6750 pounds. At 60 miles per hour, the train
then requires 1080 h. p. On a very light gradient, 10.5 feet per mile, or 0.2 percent.,
the resistance due to the grade is 2120 pounds. The total h. p. is then 1420.
This requires at least 1420/0.43 or 3300 square feet of heating surface.

A locomotive with greater heating surface increases rapidly in weight of engine
and of coal and water tender, and cannot propel a train at a higher speed.

Limitations are also imposed at high speed by the valve and the valve gear which
allow only a small volume of steam to get into the cylinder and cause a high back
pressure in getting the steam out thru the exhaust nozzle.

Reference: Ry. Age Gazette, Editorial and data, Dec. 24, 1909; Nov. 11, 1910.

Mechanical strains in the boilers are interesting. Frames can hardly
be made strong enough. The boiler, with all its bracing and binding,
is not self-sustaining. With varying track alignment, it yields from its
own weight and from the cylinder strains. Where the belly braces are
riveted to the barrel of the boiler, the sheets around the edge of the
rivets become grooved, because of continual motion. This chafing at
the braces of boilers indicates the resistance offered to mechanical strains.
Braces must be more or less yielding. Shocks, collisions, and ordinary
bumps are harder on the boiler than on the engine and frames.

Temperature strains in the furnace and boiler cause unequal expan-
sion and contraction, which are of a serious nature. The steam pressui-e
in the boiler varies daily from zero to a maximum.

Locomotive repairs are of a pai'ticular nature. Mechanical vibi-ation
at high speeds destroys the metal by fatigue and crystallization. Temper-
ature strains are destructive. Fire-box repairs, caused by excessive
temperature strains, always inci-ease i-adically in wintei'. Stay bolts are
l)]'oken by the constant bending l)a('k\vard and foi'ward, from the diflei'-

68 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

ence in expansion between the shell sheets and the fire-box. They are
the most expensive and troublesome things about the boiler. Broken
stay bolts, combined with low water and hot crowns, are the most pro-
lific cause of explosions.

Tube troubles are caused by temperature strains and by incrustation
and corrosion from bad and varying waters. The scale formed is fre-
quently of a hard, strong, porcelain nature, and lowers the boiler efficiency
and capacity. The scale must be washed out after each 500-mile run.
The use of soft water, during rainy seasons, or at other times, and the
use of compounds loosen the scale, which may lodge and fill the space
between the tubes, or on the lower tubes, to their disadvantage. Corro-
sion from compounds and acidulated water reduce the strength of mate-
rials and cause leaky tubes. Bad water west of the Mississippi River
appreciably increases the cost of maintenance.

General overhauling in the back shop is required of modern freight
locomotives about every 60,000 miles, and of passenger locomotives
about every 80,000 miles, during which 200 to 300 flues, about 0.12 inch
thick, are removed, cleaned, and renewed, and the stay bolts renewed.

The nature of these operating facts is of importance.

"Repairs of large engines are usually very expensive. Their fire-box plates are
so severely tried by the fierce combustion, and by expansion and contraction, as to
require frequent renewal. Strenuous endeavors are made to secure the best material
for this purpose, yet a sheet has been known to show more than 150 cracks after a
short service. Also, the great weight of the reciprocating parts aggravates the
destructive effect of a lack of balance in those parts, and consequently these monsters
soon pound flat places in the tires of drivers, and must be sent to the shop to have
those defects turned off." E. E. Woodman.

" Running repairs of compound locomotives have cost nearly double as much as
the simple engines per mile; also by spending so much time in the shop their annual
mileage is very much less. This must not be thought to apply to all compounds,
but as a general proposition it indicates' the value of simplicity in minimizing the
cost of repairs." Henderson.

"Few master mechanics are satisfied with the performance of large cylinder
locomotives, the complaint being heard on all sides that they are not nearly so good
for their inches as smaller engines." ''The steam ports are seldom proportionately
as large. A serious proportion of the added power is lost by friction. A great por-
tion of the steam is condensed by the increase of cylinder area. Rubbing surface
in a cylinder induces a greater friction and causes much greater internal resistance
than any other part of the engine, except the slide valve, consequently every effort
should be made to reduce this surface." Sinclair.

Opinions of many operators affirm these facts.

The writer advocates large locomotives with compounding and super-
heat. It is true that the large locomotives are unsatisfactory, that
the large compounds, of some types, are hard to keep out of the shop,
that superheat increases the valve and engine friction, and that the main-

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERNISTEAM LOCOMOTIVES 69

tenance expense per mile is greater in proportion to the weight and
hauling capacity than with smaller locomotives; but the transportation
department is getting the freight hauled -at a lower cost per ton-mile.

Condensation in the cylinders is evident because the hyperbolic curve
of expansion is not followed. The refrigerating influence of the cylinder
walls and of the exposed piston rod is large. Steam jacketing is imprac-
ticable, and good lagging is only a partial preventive. The cylinder acts
first as a condenser and then as a re-vaporizer of steam.

The discovery that the great difference between the weight of water
fed into the boiler and the weight of the steam accounted for by the indi-
cator card, a difference which is due to the weight of the steam condensed,
is accredited to Isherwood.

'' Leading engineers, who have devoted much attention to investi-
gating the extent of cylinder condensation, have shown that, in engines
cutting off steam earlier than half-stroke, the loss from cylinder conden-
sation is seldom less than 20 per cent, of all the steam entering the cylinders,
and that it often rises to 50 per cent, and upward." Sinclair.

Superheat reduces the cylinder condensation, and, while it requires
additional coal, ultimately increases the economy of fuel. Superheat is
advantageous on long, steady runs and on long, steep up-grades. The
advantage is small for runs composed of up- and down-gradients, or on
runs with frequent stops. Capacity may be gained to haul heavier loads
on mountain grades.

Superheat requires piston valves, to prevent excessive warping, fric-
tion, and cutting, which, in simple engines, rapidly increase the leakage
thru the valves and past the main pistons, and therefore increases the
coal consumption.

Reference: Ry. Age Gazette, Jan. 20, 1911, p. 110.

Superheat on compound locomotives is advantageous; but it causes
greater friction in the larger cylinders, and, in common operation, radically
increases delays and maintenance expense. A gain is made with super-
heat by lowering the steam pressure to decrease the radiation, but the
weight and friction of heavy reciprocating pistons are thereby increased.
Superheating is desirable, and with temperatures of 560 to 660° F.,
gains are being made in economy.

Steam consumption per indicated h.p. hour for simple engines
which are new or in good condition averages about 30 pounds; for simple
engines in ordinary conditions it is about 36 pounds. When the locomo-
tive furnace, boiler, and cylinder are chilled in cold weather and on over-
loads or underloads, the steam consumption increases rapidly. In a
pamphlet recently issued by the Baldwin Locomotive Works, Mr. W. P.
Evans gives some figures relating to actual efficiency of modern locomo-

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

tives, and calls attention to the improved economy of 4-cylindei' com-
pound locomotives.

"The weight of steam per h.p. hour, for the single-expansion engine,
is 34.12 pounds, and for the balanced compound, 29.2 pounds, represent-
ing a saving of 17 per cent. The other important improvement in loco-
motives is superheating, which is claimed to have saved, in freight
service, 26.7 per cent., and in passenger service, 22.8 per cent., according
to a Canadian Pacific Railway test."

St. Louis Exposition tests of 1906, in a building, showed better
results; and, for slow-speed service, a gain was shown by compounding.

An average consumption of about 10 pounds of steam per h.p. hour is
obtained with steam turbines.

Economy of coal cannot be attained in locomotive practice. The
ordinary use of coal shows an enormous waste. The U. S. Geological
Survey, thru its technologic branch, has conducted many tests on loco-
motives to determine how the waste in operation could be avoided.
Prof. W. F. M. Goss reported, November, 1909, in Bulletin 402, that 20
per cent, of the total coal production of the country, costing the railroads
$170,500,000 per year, was used by 51,000 steam locomotives. The
following statistics are taken from the government report:

COAL WASTE BY LOCOMOTIVES.

Coal.

Tons.

I P.C.

The locomotive coal used in 1906 was

Lost through heat in gases from the stacks

Lost through cinders and sparks

Lost through radiation and leakage

Lost through unconsumed coal in ashes

Lost through incomplete combustion of gases

Used in starting fires, keeping hot, standing at sidings

Total losses and waste

Used for hauling trains

90,000,000

100.0

10,080,000

11.2

8,640,000

9.6

5,040,000

5.6

2,880,000

3.2

720,000

18,000,000

20.0

45,360,000

50.4

44,640,000

49.6

Professor Goss thus shows that one-half of the coal is wasted. He
suggests small improvements, such as increased grate area, brick arches,
greater care in selecting fuel, less loss of fuel by dropping thru grates, and
more skilled firing.

'^Locomotive boilers are handicapped by the requirements that the
boiler and all its appurtenances must come within rigidly defined limits
of space, and by the fact that they are forced to work at very high rates
of power."

"Future progress cannot be rapid or easy, and must be from a series

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERiN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 71

of relatively small savings, which, if made by a large proportion of the
locomotives of the country, would constitute an important factor in the
conservatism of the nation's fuel supply."

Load factor of steam locomotives is low, and as a direct result econ-
omy of coal is low. Boilers have fairly good efficiency; but the engines have
that economy which is usual with prime movers having small limits of
expansion, large clearance and condensation, and an efficient load for
25 to 30 per cent, of the total hours in service.

SPEED-TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF STEAM LOCOMOTIVES.

The speecl-torque characteristics of steam locomotives are seldom
referred to in text-books on steam locomotives. The information herein
presented was obtained at first hand from indicator diagrams, operating
data, dynamometer records, reports on locomotive tests, and from master
mechanics and superintendents of motive power of steam roads. The
data represent averages, yet may be readily modified for local conditions.

Fig. 22. — Study of Indicator Cards of Simple Steam Locomotives.
Cards 1-8 were taken during the passenger locomotive test, noted below. The lower card, 116, is
from an indicator card taken at one end of the cylinder during the first three revolutions while a
2().x32 freight locomotive was starting.

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Characteristics are studied and compared by means of curves which
show how speed, torque, and power vary with respect to each other.
(The relation of time to speed, known as acceleration curves, ar-^
important in a study of suburban service, but relatively unimporta
in main-line railroad work.)

Speed-torque curves show the results obtained from the steam after
it leaves the boiler, and they are of fundamental importance.

Indicator diagrams furnish a record of the action of steam in the
locomotive cylinder. Many of the features of the indicator diagram of
the steam locomotive are due to the variable speed requirements, and
the limitations of space between the rail gage lines and within the rigid
wheel base. Economy of material, and maximum capacity within a
given space, are essential. A complete and simple power equipment,
suitable for hard and reliable service, is the first necessity.

TEST OF A SIMPLE ENGINE.

Locomotive weight, including a 50-ton tender, 130 tons. Cylinders, 20x26
inches. Drivers, 80 inches. Heating surface, 3016 square feet. Load, a 450-ton
all-coach passenger train.

Card

Boiler

Cylinder

pressure.

Cut-off

Train

Piston

Horse

No.

press.

mean.

per cent.

inches.

speed.

power.

195
190

182.3
120.0

93.5
63.1

21.00
10.75

546

1256

195

99.1

50.8

12.00

728

1383

185

76.3

41.2

11.25

910

1331

185

63.3

34.3

10.75

1092

1325

170

52.7

31.0

10.75

1183

1195

180

47.7

26.5

8.50

1274

1165

175

55.2

31.2

10.75

1274

1338

Ordinary indicator cards, as in the accompanying figures, show:

Strokes are short, 24 to 32 inches, commonly 26 or 30.

Piston speeds are high, 1000 to 1400 feet per minute. Large com-
pounds do not exceed 600, because the friction of heavy pistons at
higher piston speed is excessive. The revolutions per minute depend
upon the diameter of the drivers.

Initial steam pressure is 200 pounds per square inch, to obtain capacity.
With superheat, a lower pressure is used.

Loss of pressure occurs between the boiler and the steam chest, vary-
ing from 1 per cent, in starting to- 7 per cent, at a piston speed of 700
feet, and to 13 per cent, at 1400 feet per minute. The abnormal loss in
pressure is caused by wire-drawing, thru the ports and passages.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 73

Indefinite points of cut-off, of release, and of compression are noted.
These are due to inertia of the steam, loss of pressure between the steam
'■'^st and the cylinder, and friction thru the valves.

Clearance between the piston and the valve seat is from 8 to 10 per
cent, of the volume of the stroke. Large clearance is necessary in design
to prevent damage by water; but is accompanied by a material reduction
in efficiency.

Back pressure is high, because of the restricted exhaust and the
necessity of producing a draft for the fire; and it requires 10 to 15 per
cent, of the initial pressure. Back pressure limits the mean effective
steam pressure and the speed of the locomotive.

Expansion of steam indicates an uneconomical utilization of steam
by the engines. The number of expansions is seldom over four.

Walschaert, Allen, Wilson, and other, valves and gearing show that
designers recognize the importance of giving the steam ample opportunity
for rapidly entering and leaving the cylinders, the object in view being
to raise the steam line and lower the exhaust or back pressure line. The
valve openings produced by the best mechanism are unsatisfactory.
The small port openings limit the steam at high speed and early cut-offs.
Compression begins near the middle of the return stroke, not as in Corliss
engines.

" Some good, practical valve motions have been produced embodying
the idea of giving a prompt opening and closure of the steam ports, and
permitting steam to be put in the cylinders of locomotives more quickly;
but there is no evidence that they effect any economy in the use of steam."
Sinclair.

References : Report of American Railway Master Mechanics' Association, June,
1907; Walschaert Valve Gear, Railway Age Gazette, Sept. 2, 1910.

Mean efifective pressure decreases as the speed increases. — Note that:

At low speed there is the largest card, the greatest mean-effective
pressure, and a high back pressure.

Increased speed, with 3/4 to 1/2 cut-off, is accompanied by a decrease
in the initial pressure received at the cylinder, an increase in back pressure,
and a reduction in the mean effective pressure as the steam expands.
The reduced mean effective pressure limits the capacity of the locomotive
for high-speed passenger service.

High-speed cards show a comparatively small area, and a further
reduction in mean effective pressure.

When the piston speed exceeds 1000 feet per minute, the valve gear
will not admit steam fast enough. The loss in pressure because of wire-
drawing and condensation decreases the mean effective pressure faster
than the mechanical gain due to the increase in piston speed.

74 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

A definite relation exists between the mean effective steam pressure
and the piston speed, as a collection and tabulation of results from a great
number of indicator cards show. The general relation is exhibited in the
accompanying curve. The data for the curve were first obtained from
F. J. Cole, Mechanical Engineer of the American Locomotive Company's
Engineering Dept., Schenectady, N. Y. Mr. Cole states: '^This curve,
showing the relation between the mean effective pressure and the piston
speed, was plotted on a large scale, from many hundred indicator diagrams,
and represents an average result, taken from different types of locomotives
under various conditions of service. The data are for a wide-open
throttle, when presumably the cut-off was adjusted so that the locomotive

100 300 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1:300 1300 1400 1500
Piston Speed Feet per Minute, M

Fig. 23. — Characteristic Curves of a Simple Steam Locomotive.

was doing the best work at that speed. The curve represents the average
best maximum mean effective pressure for different piston speeds under
ordinary conditions, with simple locomotives. There are, of course,
limitations due to the capacity of the boiler, size of pipes, kind of valve .
gear, and the builds of different locomotive companies." |

The curve has been carefully checked by data from indicator cards
taken from Baldwin and Schenectady locomotives with 26-inch strokes
for passenger, and 28-, 30-, and 32-inch strokes, for freight locomotives.

The relation exists between the mean effective pressure and the
piston speed, and there is no general relation between mean effective
steam pressure and revolutions per minute, independent of the piston
stroke, as some early writers have thought.

The locomotive has one point of cut-off for a given speed, at which point the
engine will develop its greatest power. As the piston speed increases, the length of

CPIARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 75

the cut-off is decreased, and the expansion curve prolonged, so that, at the time of
release, the pressure will be sufficiently reduced to allow the exhaust to take place
without undue back pressure. If the cut-ofT is too great for the piston speed, the
mean effective pressure will be decreased by port friction and back pressure.

Work done in the cylinders, expressed in h. p., is the product of the
mean effective pressure, times the area of one cylinder, times the
length of the stroke in feet, times the number of strokes of both cylin-
ders per minute, divided by 33,000 foot-pounds per minute.

The product of the ordinates of the mean effective steam pressure
curve, times those of the train speed curve, gives the power curve,
shown in the accompanj'ing curve. All data are in per cent., at the
varying piston speeds. Only a small increase in power is obtainable
after the piston speed exceeds 600 feet per minute.

The work done, or the h. p., is quite constant for all normal running
speeds. The load diagram of steam locomotives, when plotted on a
time base, is therefore nearly a horizontal line.

COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES.

Compound locomotives must be noted briefly. Only 5 per cent, of
all locomotives are compounds, and these are generally used on heavy
grades. Four-cylinder Baldwin compounds, and two-cylinder American
cross-compounds are in use. They are started as simple engines.

The general relation of mean effective pressure to piston speed, which
was explained, holds also for compounds.

The compound engine results from a desire to economize in fuel, by
reducing the condensation and by decreasing the extremes of temperature
in each of the two cylinders used in a combination.

D. K. Clark, the eminent engineer, showed 60 years ago, regarding
operation of simple engines, that ^'expansive working was expensive
working," because the cylinder acted alternately as a condenser and
a revaporizer. It is also evident that, when live steam is condensed
into spray by the refrigerating influence of relatively cold cylinders
and rods, the steam loses its power to do mechanical work.

Compound locomotives ought to be in general use in freight service,
to reduce the cost per ton-mile hauled. Economy of steam and saving
in fuel are fundamentally necessary in transportation.

The real objections to compounds are the added weight, the compli-
cated machinery, the expensive maintenance; and the delays, when
repairs must be made on the road, subject the improved equipment to
criticism by the operating department. Another point is that the engine-
man and fireman are already loaded with work, forcing the furnace, pro-
ducing steam, and watching the track or signals in order to move the
train with safety. Furthermore, most of them are not sufficiently good

76 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

mechanics to operate the improved machinery, and they are unfriendly
to a type of locomotive which increases their burdens.

Economy of compounds, when new, is about 15 per cent, better than
that of simple engines of the same weight, age, and service. In time
the blows and the leaking of steam past the various packing rings of the
valves and pistons, which are difficult to repair, reduce the economy of
compounds. -• In all cases, the exhaust pressure of about 5 pounds must
be maintained to cause a draft thru the fire.

Lack of economy on the down-hill trip offsets the better economy on
the up-grade; and a uniform stretch has been found most advantageous.

Compound locomotives, with two cylinders, on the Chicago, Burling-
ton & Quincy Railroad, when tested and compared with simple engines,
were found to be 15 per cent, more economical in heavy freight service,
and about 30 per cent, less economical in passenger service.

MALLET LOCOMOTIVES.

Mallet, a French engineer, in 1876, furnished a practical design for a
compound articulated locomotive with two sets of engines under one
boiler. The Pennsylvania Railroad imported one, in 1889, built from
designs of F. W. Webb, of the London and Northwestern Railway.

American Locomotive Company, in 1904, built for the Baltimore
& Ohio Railroad the first one constructed in America.

About 100 Mallets were built prior to 1909, 162 in 1909, and 249 in
1910, or 5 per cent, of all locomotives built in these years.

Mallet compounds are now the largest steam locomotives. The
articulated plan reduces the rigid wheel base and the individual weights
of the moving and wearing parts, and distributes the weight on the
roadbed. Mallet locomotives are frequently used in pushing service for
freight on mountain grades. Lighter Mallets are used for road service on
1 per cent, grades.

The high-pressure cylinder on each side is located near the middle,
and the low-pressure cylinder at the front end, of the locomotive. A
cylinder ratio of about 2 . 4 is used. The speed of the heavy piston must
be kept very low. The two trucks which support the boiler and cylinders
are independent. Their drivers are independent; yet uniformity of
tractive effort is obtained by the compensation of the steam pressures in
the compound cylinders; if slipping occurs, even while operating simple,
in starting, the low-pressure cylinder at once receives less mean effective
steam pressure, and further slipping is prevented. The maximum tons
per axle are 24 to 28. Enormous tractive efforts result from the com-
bination of two sets of engines. Great heating surface is obtained in
the long boiler.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 77

High speed is not practical with Mallet compound locomotives as
now designed, because there is a heavy leading truck swiveled on a pin
behind its rear axle and carrying its load on a transverse shoe along which
the load must be shifted for considerable distance to permit the radial
movement of the truck; and this cannot be accomplished with safety at
high speed or on rough or crooked track at medium speeds. Mainte-
nance of the steam piping, heavy pistons, and of the mechanism in-
creases most rapidly as the speed increases.

MALLET ARTICULATED COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVE DATA.

Name of
railroad.

Wheels.

No.

Cylinders,

Dri-

Wt. on

Wt. of

Total

Heating

vers.

drivers.

engine.

weight.

surface.

57"

334,000

480,000

5585

454,000

412,350

462,500

660,000

7839

268,000

3.76,500

610,000

4756

412,500

462,500

700,000

6621

394,000

426,500

610,000

6393

297,500

339,000

510,000

3906

350,000

518,000

5651

316,000

355,000

504,000

5658

263,350

302,650

460,000

3906

360,000

378,000

526,000

5040

313,500

350,000

500,000

5608

256,000

302,000

5586

404,000

438,000

6393

409,000

3433

360,000

520,000

4905

360,000

390,000

540,000

5894

304,500

361,600

515 900

5094

Rigid
base.

Baltimore.%0.
Santa Fe

Southern
Pacific

Great North-
em.

Northern
Pacific.

Erie R. R. . .
Norfolk &
Western.
C. B. & Q.

0-6-6-0

0-8-8-0

2-8-8-2

4-4-6-2

2-8-8-2

2-6-6-2

2-6-8-0

2-6-6-2

2-8-8-2

0-8-8-0

2-8-8-2

2-6-6-2

20
26
26
24
26
26

&32x32
&41x32
&38x32
&38x28
•&38x34
&40x30
21.5&33x30
23 &35x32
-21.5&33x32
20 &31x30
23 &35x32
21.5&33x32
20 &31x30
26 &40x30
25 &39x28
24.5&39x30
24.5&39x30

23 &35x32

lO'-O'

15-0
12-8
16-6
15-0
10-0

10-0
9-10
15-0
10-0

14-3
15-6

11-

Reference: Railway Age Gazette, April 21, 1911, p. 954.

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad used the first Mallet articulated locomotive
built in America for pushing and hauling freight trains on the Connells-
ville Division.

Engine weight, 167 tons, is distributed over twelve 57-inch drivers, a 30-foot 6-inch
wheel base, and a 10-foot rigid wheel base, resulting in minimum wear and tear on
the roadway. Excessive weights are not concentrated on the wheel base. Ceuter
of gravity is high, so that the vibration of the locomotive, due to variations in surface
alignment elevation, and curvature of track can be absorbed by the weight suspended
over the driver springs. Sets of drivers do not slip at the same time. Operating
and maintenance expense is 24 cents per mile. Muhlfeld, to New York R. R. Club,
Feb., 1906; S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906.

Great Northern Railway Mallet compound locomotives have a heating surface
of 5658 square feet and a grate suilace of 78 square feet. The v/eight, on 12 drivers,
is 316,000 pounds; weight of engine, 355,000 pounds; weight of loaded tender, 149,000
pounds; total weight, 504,000 pounds. Length is 73 feet. Boiler tubes are 2.25
inches by 21.0 feet long. Two firemen are required. Steam pressure is 200 pounds.

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The cylinders on each side are 2L5 inches and 33 inches, by 32-inch stroke. About
100 Mallets are used.

These locomotives were designed to push or pull an 800-ton train at 8.5 to 9
miles per hour up a 2.2 per cent, grade and around 10-degree curves.

Coal consumption, with 11,000 B. t. u. coal, is given as 4.5 pounds per h. p.
hr.; to be compared with 5.5 for 2-cylinder compounds, and 6.33 for simple engines.
As much coal maybe used while standing as during the run. When the Mallet runs
above or below the most economical speed, 11 m. p. h., the efficiency drops rapidly.

Horse power at the drawbar, at 9 m. p. h., is only 1260, or 5 h.p. per ton.

GREAT NORTHERN MALLET LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING
CHARACTERISTICS.

Miles per

Drawbar

Per cent.

Piston

Drawbar

Traihng

hour.

pull.

of pull.

speed.

h.p.

tons.

55,000

85.0

880

54,000

84.0

169

700

880

52,500

81.7

304

1260

825

50,500

77.8

338

1345

815

44,500

69.0

507

1780

725

38,000

59.0

676

2050

570

30,500

47.5

845

2040

420

22,500

35.0

1014

1800

270

12,500

19.3

1183

1170

100

1J50

Trailing tons include a 74-ton tender. Operation is at best efficiency
on 2.2 per cent, grades, at 11 m. p. h., hauling 800-ton trailing load; but
in service the speed is 9 to 7 m. p. h., and 900- to 1,000-ton trains are hauled.
Toltz: New York Railroad Club, Dec, 1907.

Operation above 16 m. p. h. is dangerous. Increase of speed for long
runs is obtained by reducing the trailing load.

Note the rapid decrease in drawbar pull as the speed increases.

The light load carried greatly increases the number of trains run. If
the number of train-miles could be reduced one-half, by using more
powerful engines, the net saving, with 6 trains per day per 100-mile
division, of only 20 cents per train-mile, would be over 130,000 per year.

Santa Fe Mallets, built by Baldwin, are used to haul passenger trains, at express
speed, over mountain grades of Southern California and Nevada. Boiler tubes, 294;
length, 19 feet; diameter, 2.5 inches. Drivers are 73 inches. Engine wheel base is
52 feet. Feed water heater raises water temperature to 300 degrees. Superheater
and reheater are used. Length of locomotive 105 feet. Fuel oil is burned.

Southern Pacific Mallet type locomotives are used on the Sacramento 140 -mile
division, over the Sierra Nevada Mountains. There 's a 1.47 per cent, average grade
for 83 miles, and a 2.4 per cent, ruling grade. Two Mal'ets, or four consolidation
engines are used to haul a 2,000- to 2400-ton trailing load. The running speed is ordi-
narily 10 to 7 miles per hour. Fuel consumption is one gallon of oil per h. p. hour.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 79

AVheel base; driving, 39 feet 4 inches, locomotive, 56 feet 7 inches, total, 83 feet
6 inches. AVeight of engine, 426,000; on 56.5-inch drivers, 394,000; total 600,000.
The cab is on the front end of Southern Pacific locomotives.

^i^-~*-

-,-..i^

laoi

'"""«■■ "' „„;'.

:3^^^K

^s. . ,^

Fig. 24. — Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. Mallet Articulated Locomotive.

C^-linders 24 and 38 by 28; heating surface 4756 square feet; weight 610,000 pounds, with 12,000

gallons of water and 4000 gallons of oil.

Fig. 25. — Southern Pacific Mallet Articulated Locomotiv

Cylinders, 26 and 40 inches by 30 inches. Locomotives are equipped with water
heaters and superheaters. Boiler heating surface, 5173 square feet. Steam pres-
sure, 200 pounds. The cut-offs at 12 miles per hour are 79 per cent, of full stroke,

SOUTHERN PACIFIC MALLET LOCOMOTIVE OPERATING
CHARACTERISTICS.

Miles ]Der

Tractive

Piston

Indicated

I.h.p.

hour.

power.

s])eed.

h.p.

per cent.

90,000

86,055

147.5

1147

45.1

77,136

297

2057

82.3

59,349

445.5

2373

94.9

51,796

535

2486

99 . 4

42,090

594

2245

89.8

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Comparative tests of simple and Mallet locomotives of the consolida-
tion type, on the Southern Pacific grade over the Sierra Nevada Moun-
tains, were published in part in Railway Age Gazette, January 14, 1910,
p. 81. The deductions from these service tests, comparing simple engine
No. 2564 with Mallet compound No. 4001, are that on the 1.47 per cent,
up-grade run, the Mallet was more economical than its competitor.

—1400—1
I.H.P.

I.H

innn

SIMPLE

CONSOLIDATION

2564

Tractive
Effort

40000
20000

■

SmlRs'

0 1

30 3

X) 3(

)0 4

K) 500_G

X) 7

)0 8C

0 9

DOPJP.M

/lp

[.R

I.H.R

CH\l\C\

-LET
GROUND
sISOLIDATION
1

-18(

cor

400

- 16(;u

Tractive

Effort

80000

60000

40000

■^^

'^'^

)

182

M.]

■i

\ 1

100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Piston Speed in Feet per Minute

Fig. 26. — -Operating Characteristics op Simple and Mallet Compound Locomotives.

Southern Pacific Co.

Tractive effort is assumed at 29.4, plus 6.6, or 36 pounds per ton.
Mechanical h. p. equals tonnage times tractive effort per ton, times
speed in miles per hour, divided by 375.

Note the low speed, which increases the trainmen's wages; the
light train, with a locomotive weighing 30 per cent, of the train
weight; the maximum h. p., and the friction. The results of tests
are discouraging.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 81
SOUTHERN PACIFIC MALLET LOCOMOTIVE TESTS.

Locomotive.

Simple.

Number

Pounds of steam evaporated

Pounds of steam evaporated f & a 212°. . . .
Average speed up 1 .47% grade, m, p. h. . .

Weight of train

Weight of locomotive

Total weight of train, tons

Mechanical h. p. for the train

Indicated h. p

Loss between indicated and drawbar power
Average number of hours, for 87-mile run. .
Pounds of steam per drawbar h. p. hour. . .
Pounds of steam per indicated h. p. hour. . .

4,001

2,564

365,500

197,183

445,000

237,500

9.91

13.42

1,006

478

298

164

1,304

642

1,248

833

2,000

1,150

37.5%

38.0%

8.75

6.47

40.60

44.20

25.50

35.00

STEAM TURBINE LOCOMOTIVES.

A turbine locomotive was built in 1909 by the North Bristol Loco-
motive Company of Glasgow. It has an ordinary locomotive boiler
with a superheater. The steam which is generated is fed to a 3,000 r. p. m.
impulse-type turbine. The latter is coupled to a direct-current, com-
pound-wound, variable-voltage electric generator, which supplies current
at from zero to 600 volts to 4 series-wound traction motors built on
the driving axle of a double-truck locomotive. The exhaust steam from
the turbine is condensed by an ejector condenser and the water so con-
densed, and free from oil, is used over and over again. Forced draft
from a fan is used for the furnace. The service is express passenger
work on the main line. Railway Age Gazette, July 22, 1910.

Another turbine locomotive, built in 1910 by a Milan firm, has two
axles driven by a direct-action steam turbine. The blades are S-shaped
and the motion is reversed by reversing the flow of steam. The drive
is thru gearing, and speed changes are effected by means of a crown
wheel which carries several rows of teeth. The economy at the rated
load is 35 pounds of steam per h, p. hour.

The construction of these turbine locomotives shows clearly the
desire of steam locomotive builders to avoid the reciprocating motion,
to decrease the cylinder condensation and the relative consumption of
fuel and water, and to produce more efficient results at the drawbar.
The complication of a complete generating plant on each moving loco-
motive and the lack in capacity make it impractical.
6

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

COST OF OPERATION OF STEAM LOCOMOTIVES.
Operating expenses of steam locomotives exceed one-third of the total
operating expenses of steam railroad transportation. In general, the total
cost of operation, from Interstate Commerce Reports, includes:

Maintenance of ways and structures

Maintenance of all equipment

of which the maintenance of locomotives is 11%

Conducting transportation,

of which engine and round house wages are 11%

of which fuel for locomotives alone is an added . . . 12%
Totals 34%

22%
22%

56%

100%

Where the traffic is heavy, on mountain grades, or where compound
locomotives are used, the items of repairs and renewals of locomotives
greatly exceed the average. Cost of coal is frequently high, and fuel
expense greatly exceeds 12 per cent. Where water is bad, both fuel
and repairs greatly exceed the above averages.

Expenses vary with the work done; up-hill or level, slow or time
freight, express or ordinary passenger trains; and with the weather,
management, etc. These elements change the performance and mainte-
nance cost of steam locomotives on the same railroad. General data are
valuable to show the averages, but managers and engineers find that, in
practice, actual results are needed for each branch or division studied

The general data available are presented.

POUNDS OF COAL BURNED PER 1000 TON-MILE.

Name of railroad.

New York, New Haven
& Hartford (New York
Division).

Pennsylvania R. R

Chicago & Northwestern.

Chicago & Northwestern .

Delaware & Hudson . . . .

Rock Island

Great Northern

Gr,eat Northern

Great Northern

Norfolk & Western

Chicago & Alton

Northern Pacific

Six western roads

Ordinary sinijjle loco-
motives.

Kind of Service.

Express — Local. . .

Express

Freight

Ordinary freight . .

Freight

Freight pusher. . . .
Fast passenger. . . .
Mountain freight.
Mountain freight.

Level freight

Freight— Mallet. .
Freight — Mallet..

Freight

Heavy passenger. .
Heavy freight. . . .
Freight

Passenger on level
Freight on level . . .
Freight on grades.

Joal per M.

Train

ton-miles.

tons.

335

527

194

314

169

931

1 60

all

255 to 280

185 to 210

226

410 to 470

1431

238 to 287

500

380

1050

251

1600

130 to 94

2000

890

810

273

1500

•230

160 to 206

590

131 to 162

2050

215

1200

235

1200

270

1200

250

500

150

1500

250

1000

Remarks f nd authority.

Murray, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25,

1907, p. 148.
Year 1906.

Good average on tests.
In winter. Henderson.
In summer. Henderson.
2-year average. Henderson.
Ry. Age, May 27, 1910.
Ry. Age, Jan. 6, 1911.
Consolidation.
Mallet compounds.
Illinois coal, Supt. M. P.
1.35% grade. Pomeroy.
Ry. Age, May 19, 1911.
Ry. Age, June 16, 1911.
Ry. Age, June 22, 1910.
Ry. Age, June 22, 1910.
October, 1909.
November, 1909.
December, 1909.
Author.
Author.
Author.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 83
POUNDS OF COAL BURNED PER I. H. P. HOUR ON TEST.

Railroad.

Service.

Coal.

Coal used, lbs.

Authority.

f Freight

"Mountain \ Passenger and Ft.

I [ Freight

Mountain Freight

Ordinarv'

New York, New
Haven & Hart :

Pennsylvania

Electric. . . . •

Ordinary'

Suburban

Passenger

Freight

Passenger Express
Passenger Local. . .

Freight

Electric plants. . . .
Turbine plant.5. . . .

San Coulle.
Montana. . .
High-grade.
Pittsburg . .
Pittsburg . .
Pittsburg . .
Pittsburg . .
Pittsburg . .
Pittsburg . .
Pittsburg . .
Pittsburg. .
Pittsburg . .
Pittsburg . .

12.3 to 14.0]

10.6
9.6to 11.2
4 . 0 to 8.0
6.0 to 12.0
6.5to 7.0
3 . 8 to 4.0
4.8 to 5.0
4.06 to 4.37
4 . 68 to 4 . 61
4.35 to 4.71
2.70 to 3.00
2.00 to 2.20

f PomeroJ^

A.I.E.E.

November, 1909.
Road tests.
Road tests.
On test.
On test.
On test.
Murray.

A.I.E.E., .Jan. 25, 1907.
Ry. Age, June 21, 1910.
Potter, 1905.
Guarantee.

Cost of coal burned per train-mile, from such data as are available,
approximates that for all trains in Massachusetts, 17 cents. Cost of
coal for Mallet compounds in mountain service reaches 57 cents. It
varies with stops per mile, weight, speed of train, temperature, etc.

Pounds of coal burned per locomotive-mile averages about 104 for
passenger service, 208 for freight, 130 for mixed and non-revenue, 108
for switching, and about 150 for all service.

Cost of operation per ton-mile varies from 5 to 6 mils for ordinary
freight service up to 17 mils for mountain-grade work. The cost varies
with the character of service, grades, load, nature and amount of repairs,
as well as the cost of labor, fuel, and supplies.

Cost of maintenance and repairs per ton -mile is 2.0 to 3.5 mils
for ordinary freight locomotives, up to 7.1 for Mallet compounds.

Cost of maintenance and repairs per locomotive -mile for ordinary
roads reporting to Railroad Commissions averages a little over 7 cents,
but this excludes data for mountain divisions on which the cost of
maintenance runs up as high as 57 cents. The road that has given
efficiency methods the most thoro tryout, the Santa Fe, reported that
the cost of repairs and renewals in 1910 was 10.75 cents.

Cost of maintenance and repairs per locomotive -year for three years
prior to 1909 averaged about $2200, while for 1909 the average, from
the annual reports of 15 common roads, was about $2600. Roads in
the mountains average higher than those in the central states.

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

OPERATING EXPENSES FOR REPAIRS AND RENEWALS OF STEAM
CARS AND LOCOMOTIVES.

1 Name of railroad.

Per passen-
ger car-mile.

Per freight
car-mile.

Per locomo-
tive-mile.

Per locomo-
tive-year.

Boston & Maine

1.38^

.66^

6.15^
14.60

Boston & Albany

Delaware & Hudson

2821

New Haven

1.35

1.14

1.48

1.19

1.37

.98

1.08

1.28

.89

3.70

.73

.77

.84

.76

.81

.84

1.08

1.23

.66
.90
.60

1.07
.89
.79
.79
.76
.52

1.33
.23
.30
.51
.77
.60
.69
.80
.71

7.93

7.72
6.76
8.54

10.05
9.22
8.98

10.56
8.82

10.78
8.47
8.37
6.30
7.65
5.98
8.27
6.88

10.75

New York Central

2128.

Lackawanna

1732

Central of New Jersey

Pennsylvania

2694

Baltimore & Ohio ....

2889

Lehigh Valley

2185.

Erie

Wabash

Philadelphia & Reading

Toledo, St. Louis & Western. . . .

Chicago & Alton

Chicago & North Western

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy. .
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul. .
Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific

Minneapolis & St. Louis

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. . .
Denver & Rio Grande

2300.
2376.
2361.
2530.

2541.
3156.

Illinois Central

10.21

7.72

3085

Mpls., St. P. &St. S. Marie

2320.

Southern Pacific

3343

Union Pacific

3593

Northern Pacific

8.21
9.41

1916.

Great Northern

2240

LITERATURE.

Weekly and Monthly Papers.

Railway Age Gazette, New York. Railway and Locomotive Engineering, New
York; Railway Master Mechanic, Chicago; American Engineer and Railroad
Journal, Chicago ; Railway and Engineering Review, Chicago ; American Ry.
Master Mechanics' Association, Proceedings; Master Car Builders' Associa-
tion, Proceedings; American Maintenance of Way Association, Proceedings;
Western Railway Club, Chicago, Proceedings; Western Society of Engineers,
Chicago, Proceedings; New York Railroad Club, New York, Proceedings.

Text -Books.

Goss: "Locomotive Performance," Wiley, N. Y., 1907.
Henderson: "Locomotive Operation," Wilson, Chi., 1907.
Henderson: "Cost of Locomotive Operation," Railway Age, 1906,

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN STEAM LOCOMOTIVES 85

Reagan: "Simple and Compound Locomotives," Wiley, N. Y., 1907.
Sinclair: ''Twentieth Century Locomotive," Ry. & Loco. Engr., 1903.
Sinclair: "Development of the Locomotive," Sinclair Pub. Co., 1907.
Woods: "Compound Locomotives," Railway Age, 1893.
Pennsylvania R.R., "Tests at Louisiana Purchase Exposition," 1905.
Railway Age, "Locomotive Dictionary," Railway Age Gazette, N. Y., 1909.

References of General Interest.

Baldwin Locomotive Works. Handbooks and Records.

American Locomotive Works. Catalogs and Pamphlets.

Walker: Compensated or Balanced Locomotives. Ry. Age Gazette, Aug. 14, 1908.

Dodd: Locomotive Data. Proc. A. I. E. E., June, 1905.

Goss: The Effect of High Rates of Combustion. N. Y. R. R. Club, Sept., 1895.

Fry: The Proportions of Modern Locomotives. N. Y. R. R. Club, Sept., 1903.

Kennedy: Walschaert Valve Gear on Locomotives. N, Y. R. R. Club, Sept., 1906.

Superheaters.

Toltz: N. Y. R. R. Club, Sept., 1907: S. R. J., Sept. 28, 1907.

Schmidt: Ry. Age Gazette, July 17, 1909.

Converse: Ry. Age Gazette, Nov. 20, 1908.

Fry: Ry. Age Gazette, March 5, 1909.

Report: International Railway Congress, June, 1910; Ry. Age Gazette, June 22, 1910.

Report: A. S. M. E., 1909, XXXI, p. 989; Ry. Age Gazette, Jan. 20, 1911.

Goss: A. R. M. M. Assoc, 1909-10; Ry. Age Gazette, Feb. 24, 1911.

Vaughan: Superheat on the Canadian Pacific Ry., N. Y. R. R. Club, April, 1906.

Cost of Operation of Steam Locomotives.

Ry. Age Gazette: Tests at St. Louis Exposition, 1904.

L. H. Fry: Cost of Handling Locomotives, R. R. Gazette, Feb. 19, 1904.

C. & N. W. Ry. : Cost of Repairs on Each Type of Passenger and Freight Locomotive,
A. E. & Ry. Journal, Sept., 1904.

Murray: N.Y., N. H. & H. Tests, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907, p. 148; Nov. 8, 1907,
p. 1682; April, 1911.

Armstrong: Steam and Electric Locomotives, A. I. E. E., Nov. 8, 1907, p. 1662.

Courtin: European Locomotive Practice for Very High Speeds, International Rail-
way Congress, 1910.

References on Mallet Engines.

Mellin: Articulated Compound Locomotives, A. S. M. E., Dec, 1908.

Emerson: On Great Northern Mallets, A. S. M. E., XXX, p. 1029, 1908.

Hutchinson: Mallet versus Electric, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909.

Southern Pacific Locomotives and Tests: Railroad Gazette, Aug. 17, 1906; Ry. Age

Gazette, Jan. 14, 1910.
Santa Fe Locomotives: Ry. Age Gazette, Nov. 26, 1909; Apr. 14, 1911, p. 906.
Track: Latter-day Development of Amer. Steam Locomotives, Eng. Magazine, Nov.

and Dec, 1909.
Scientific American: Papers on large steam and electric locomotives, Vol. 62 — 25,678;

25,698; Sup. 22 and 29, 1906.
Dean: Mallet Locomotives, Railway Age Gazette, June 10, 1910.
Caruthers: Development of Articulated Locomotives, Ry. Age Gazette, Sept., 1910.
Table on Mallet Locomotives, Ry. Age Gazette, Apr. 21, 1911, p. 955.

CHAPTER III.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS.

Outline.

Basis.

Physical Advantages :

Capacity, flexibility, simplicity, safety, reliability, improved service.

Financial Advantages :

Gross Earnings Increased. — Motive power characteristics, passenger traffic
attracted, freight service of high-grade, freight service for trunk lines, terminal
traffic, delivery of freight and passengers, branch line electrification, frequent
train service, suburban service.

Operating Expenses Decreased. — Maintenance of ways and equipment, wages
and time saved, fuel and power, train-mile and ton-mile data.

Investments decreased or increased.

Earning Power and Net Earnings.

By-products of Electrification.

Advantages in Business Depressions, and in Competition.

Social Advantages :

Safety in travel, time saved, hard labor decreased, conservation of natural
resources, cost of transportation, cost of living, esthetic enjoyments, social
conditions improved.

Objections to Electric Traction :

Conservatism, crude presentation of situations, investments necessarily larger,
complication, number of electric systems, interchangeability, danger, depend-
ence on power plants, transimission losses, interference with signal lines, dis-
card of steam locomotives; Illinois Central Railroad case, experimental for
important service, a luxury, the financial problem.

Literature :

Physical advantages of electric traction, financial data on operation.

CHAPTER III.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS.

BASIS.

The advantages of electricity for traction form the basis of electric
railway economics. These advantages will now be outlined in a sys-
tematic manner for reference, and to facilitate a study and comparison
of the operating features of steam and electricity for train haulage.

PHYSICAL ADVANTAGES.

All of the advantages of electric traction depend primarily on the
application of the physical characteristics of electric power. This appli-
cation of electric power requires the utilization of the heat of burning
fuel, or the energy of falling water, as a primary source of energy, which
is then converted into electric power, and transmitted by wires over long
distances to motors which propel the trains on the railway division.
This plan is now used in modern transportation, and it provides:

Capacity, flexibility, simplicity, safety, and reliability ; and an improved
service produces two definite results:

Financial advantages and social advantages.

CAPACITY.

Ample capacity is a very useful physical advantage in transporta-
tion. In dealing with heavier traffic, capacity must be increased in
every direction, in the motive power, and also in the efficient use of the
cars, tracks, and terminals.

Capacity in electric motor power is obtained from central power
stations, from which energy is transmitted in large amounts, over great
distances, to electric motors which have great power per unit of weight,
and which are able to withstand heavy overloads.

Electric motive power for railway train service means ample drawbar
pull, and good speed. Electric motors on the locomotive frame, or dis-
tributed on the passenger-car trucks, provide the maximum possible
tractive effort for heavy tonnage, or for rapid acceleration.

The hauling capacity of important roads having frequent and heavy
trains is often limited by the long tunnels, the heavj^ grades, the support
for the roadbed, the single track, and the terminal facilities.

The tendency of modern methods of freight transportation is to use
cars in 2000- to 3500-ton trains. In ore and coal trains, the rated load
of each car runs up to 140,000 pounds with the usual 10 per cent, over-
load allowed under M. C. B. rules. The drawbar pull for heavy trains
on the up-grades is enormous. Slow speed is the present handicap and,

88 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

while a high speed is not desired, a moderate, sustained speed on the up-
grades has economic advantages. • *

Passenger and mail coaches of steel now weigh 50 to 70 tons each.
The best steam railroad locomotive, of the Pacific type, weighing 200
tons, with 4200 square feet of heating surface, 22x28 cylinders, and
79-inch drivers, as used on the "Twentieth Century Limited," lacks in
capacity, and can haul only six (6) steel cars at 60 miles per hour.
(Railway Age: Editorial and data beginning Dec. 24, 1909.)

Examples are given to illustrate and to prove that ample capacity is
available with electric traction.

New York Central Railroad, in and near New York City, uses electric
traction. The important results of this notable electrification were, an
increase in the length and weight of the trains, an increase in the number
of trains, an increase in the schedule speed, the ability to use locomotives
with greater hauling capacity and speed, and therefore an increase in
the capacity of the terminal. The capacity could not be increased to the
satisfaction of the stockholders and the public by using more and heavier
steam locomotives. Wilgus, St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 8, 1904.

Manhattan Elevated Railroad, of New York, was formerly, in point
of earnings, one of the largest steam roads in the country. Steam
locomotives hauled, at most, 4- or 5-car trains at 11 to 10 miles per hour.
The elevated structure could not be rebuilt or increased in strength; nor
was there any way of improving the train service and capacity except by
a change in motive power. Electric power was introduced in 1902, the
installation being completed in June, 1903. The substitution of elec-
tric power made possible an increase of 33 per cent, in the carrying
capacity of the road, as was proved by the actual increase in mileage
and in passenger traffic. The electric trains now have 6 or 7 cars, running
at 15.0 to 13.5 miles per hour. Incidentally, between 1901 and 1904,
the operating expenses dropped from 55 to 45 per cent., and the traffic
which had been lost, because of competition, was regained.

New York Subway of the Interboro Rapid Transit Company is a four-
track road. Ten-car passenger trains are now dispatched on the local
and the express tracks on 108-second headway. About 666 cars pass a
given point per hour in each direction. Electric-pneumatic brakes stop
the train, running at a speed of 40 miles per hour, in a distance of 365 feet.
Each 10-car train is equipped with motors equal to 3200 h.p. or more
than twice the horse power used on steam locomotive-hauled trains.
The number of seats per train is 500 and the service requires platforms
of the full train length, 510 feet, and three side doors per car.

Steam railroads cannot even approach these results. Illinois Central
Railroad, at Chicago, has less than 1000 cars in 24 hours.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 89

Long Island Railroad electrification work ^^ greatly increased the
capacity of the line, and especially that of the Brooklyn terminal, which
could not be operated by steam up to its present capacity." Gibbs.

" In the average steam terminal it was rarely possible to place, load,
and dispatch more than 5 or 6 trains per hour from any track. But
with multiple-unit equipment, it was possible to increase this to 8 or 10
trains per hour, the equipment of some 4 or 5 of them being that of trains
that had come in and unloaded their passengers on that track. A multi-
ple-unit shifting crew makes but half the number of movements as com-
pared with steam service and, with a crew of two, easily accomplishes
the work. of two yard engines." McCrea, General Superintendent.

Great Northern Railway, in 1909, equipped its main line thru the
Cascade tunnel with electric power, for the purpose of avoiding the smoke
and the gases which retarded traffic thru the tunnel, and the capacity
of the Cascade Division.

^^The great increase in the speed of trains with electric traction and
the consequent increase in the capacity of a single track will operate to
postpone for a long time the necessity of double tracking. This double
tracking in the mountains is a very expensive piece of business, and the
saving alone will, in some cases, more than offset the cost of electrical
equipment." Hutchinson, before A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909.

Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway of England, in 1904, electrified its
Liverpool-Southport passenger branch. The results were:

Thirty steam locomotives with tenders, and 152 coaches, having a
seating capacity of 5084, were replaced by

Thirty-eight 60-foot electric motor cars, and 53 coaches, having a
seating capacity of 5814.

Frequency of passenger trains was doubled; acceleration and average
speed were increased; and two of the four tracks, on the section used for
passenger service, were appropriated for freight service. The number
of passengers increased 14 per cent., yet the ton-mileage decreased 12
per cent.

''The electrification of the line from Liverpool to Southport, 26
miles, will double the carrying capacity of the line and also practically
double the terminal accommodation." J. A. F. Aspinwall, Manager.

North -Eastern Railway, out of Newcastle, England, 82 miles of track,
with an average distance between station stops of 1.25 miles, was elec-
trified in 1904. Motor cars are used for freight and for passenger
haulage. Train haulage on this road has since increased about 100 per
cent., yet the ton-mileage has actually decreased.

Much more work is now done at the terminal stations, as there
are no engines to attach or detach. Trains are dispatched at one-
minute intervals. Signal operations were reduced about one-half.

90 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Higher acceleration was realized which decreased the running time
between stations 15 to 19 per cent. It would have been impossible to
carry by the steam service the number of passengers now electrically
conveyed. Harrison^ to British Inst, of Civil Engineers, November, 1909.
Capacity Can be Gained without Electric Operation. — However, that
may require an increase in the weight and heating surface of steam
locomotives to increase the drawbar pull and the accelerating rate; or
a long and wasteful cut-off in the steam cylinder to get faster accelera-
tion or higher speed. It may require the use of double-end, tank types,
or concentrated weights in steam locomotives; an increase in the rolling
stock; an increase in the number of trains; or heavy expenditures for
double tracking and grade reduction. Expenses are increased by the
unnecessary or undesirable increase in the ton-mileage of the steam
equipment, and often the increased operating expenses and interest
charges cannot be balanced by an increase in the net earnings.

FLEXIBILITY.

FlexibiHty is a valuable physical advantage, since it contributes to
the economic superiority of electric traction. Examples are reviewed:

Electric locomotives in 1000-h.p. units are used to haul ordinary
250-ton trains, while two coupled locomotive-units are used for heavy
550-ton trains in thru train service (New Haven Railroad). This is
often done with steam locomotives, but not to advantage, for it is hard
for 2 enginemen and 2 firemen to control 2 independent steam
locomotives. The 2 electric locomotive units are controlled from the
front cab by one operator. Again, two 66-ton coupled electric loco-
motives are operated as one unit for 1000-ton freight trains, while one
66-ton electric locomotive is used for a 200- to 350-ton passenger train
(Grand Trunk Railway) . Again, one type and size of electric locomotive
is often inherently suited for either'passenger or freight service. (New
Haven 1300-h. p. freight locomotives).

'' On the New York Central electrification one of the results was to
replace the dozen types and sizes of locomotives formerly used within
the territory determined for electric operation by a single type and size
of electric locomotive with such a capacity and capable of such control
as to meet all the requirements of speed and power, whether switching in
the yards or hauling the heaviest trains at schedule speed." Sprague.

Electric locomotive frames, superstructures, and wheels are sym-
metrical, which provides flexibility in operation and eliminates the
great expense at the turn-table. With steam locomotives the coal and
water supply must trail, for safety. With electric equipment, the most
advantageous use of cars, tracks, and terminals becomes possible,
particularly for concentrated working of express and freight service.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 91

Motor-car trains provide for absolute flexibility of train operation.

Controllers of the automatic type may be located for use at either end
of each electric locomotive, motor-car, or coach — whichever happens to
come at the head of the train. Similarity of equipment of motor-cars
is such that they may be coupled up in any combination, whatever the
nature of the service or length of the train. Head- and tail-switching are
abolished. Electrically controlled trains, by reason of the mechanical
flexibility are economical, and are adapted to frequent service and to
rapid changes in the traffic.

SIMPLICITY.

Simplicity is evident. Compare the moving parts, the rotating motor
armature in one case, and the eccentric strap, rocker arm, valve gear,
reciprocating valves and stems, pistons, piston rods, cranks, and unbal-
anced driving wheels in the other case. Boilers and furnaces are absent
in electric trains. Fewer parts reduce the wear, tear, and maintenance.

SAFETY.

Safety to life and property, and reliable service, are promoted by
electric railway transportation. Simplicity and safety in the operation
of electric locomotives and of the motor-car train are discussed at length
under the following headings:

Design of electric motors avoids track pounding.

Control circuits prevent accidents.

Automatic devices safeguard operation.

Speed may be decreased with safety, or limited, by design.

Long wheel bases are avoided on trucks.

Vigorous tests are easily made.

Regeneration of energy in braking prevents accidents.

Tunnels are made safer.

Boilers are avoided.

Fire risk to property is decreased.

Exhaust steam and smoke are absent.

Enginemen are not distracted with other duties.

Electric meters assist in operation.

Weights are not excessive, so as to spread rails.

Design of electric motors is such that there is an absence of that track
pounding which in steam locomotives is caused by the reciprocating
motion and unbalanced forces. After a single trip of the Pennsylvania
18-hour, New York to Chicago train, 20 broken rails were reported.
This did not reflect so much on the integrity of the rail manufacturer, or
upon the design of the rail section or weight, as on a characteristic of
the steam locomotives.

The distribution of weight and the uniformity of the tractive effort in

92 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

electric motors contribute to safety on the roadbed, curves, and bridges.
Broken rails and driver axles, common sources of wrecks, are decreased.

Control circuits prevent accidents. The section terminals in the
regular signal towers of the New Haven and other electric rail-
roads are 2 to 3 miles apart, and are placed in charge of signal men.
This introduces a new element in the safe running of trains, because a
signal man can stop a train by cutting off power at his end of the section
and telephoning the signal man at the other end to do the same. Power
circuits can be opened to prevent accidents by providing distant control
of circuits at the signal stations, substations, or power plant.

Automatic devices are provided on the controller's in the cabs of
electric trains to shut off the power instantly, if the engineman for any
reason — death^ collision, etc. — removes his hand from the control handle.
This is a further safeguard to the traveling public.

The accelerating rate is controlled automatically, independent of the
operator. Controllers are often so arranged that the train cannot be
started if the air reservoirs have not sufficient pressure for braking.
Other devices automatically shut off the power and apply the brakes if
the train passes its signals. Elec. Ry. Journ., March 5, 1910, p. 419.

Speed may be increased safely as was proved by Berlin-Zossen tests,
where speeds of 130 m. p. h. were attained. In motor controllers, speed
limiting devices are in common service. Synchronous motors have -a
fixed maximum speed.

Long rigid wheel bases are not required, and thus the curves are
taken smoothly, and safely, at high speed.

Vigorous tests to detect troubles on electric power equipment can be
made with ease, and in a simple way, by using a voltage 3 or 4 times the
normal.

Regeneration of energy provides for electric braking on down-grades.
Electric trains in the mountains are so controlled, regularly, and not in
the emergency; and the air brakes are used for reserve. It is very
advantageous to run down the grade with the train under full control.
Air-braking in the mountains causes shoes to wear out quickly, defective
brakes, brake-rigging, and loosened wheel rims. A decrease in the
number and in the cost of wrecks is important.

Tunnels are made safer with electric power. This is the universal
experience. The walls are lighted and whitewashed; the rails are not
greasy or slippery from condensed steam; the smoke and gases do not
suffocate; and little danger exists if the train stalls. Long tunnels may
be operated as safely as short ones. Electric locomotive operation on
the steepest and longest tunnel grades is practical. Enginemen and
trainmen have confidence in electric power, and the long mountain
tunnel has lost its terrors.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 93

x\ir brakes, or electric brakes, can be used on electric trains on heavy
grades in tunnels where 'formerly it was necessary to use hand brakes.
With a break-in-two of a steam train in a tunnel, the air could not be
released or the train recoupled, because the trainmen were suffocated
by the locomotive gases.

Boilers present dangers from furnaces, high pressures, explosions,
scaldings, water in cylinders, damage from reciprocating pistons and
mechanism, which are avoided in electric trains.

Fire risk is decreased and loss is avoided with electric traction as
there are no sparks to set fire to valuable forests, buildings, docks,
snow sheds, grain and hay, freight cars, and their contents. There is
less risk of fire in case of a wreck.

Exhaust steam clouds, the cause of many expensive railroad accidents,
following the inability of the lookout to see the signals and the track,
in the tunnel or in the open, are absent in electric traction.

Enginemen of electric trains have clearer judgment. They are placed
in a cool and comfortable situation. The view between the cab and the
track and signals in foggy weather is clearer. Electrical control allows
them to put their mind on the safe piloting of the train, without the
distraction due to steam-power generation and the care of mechanism.
The importance of this is evident to one who knows the strain on an
engineman in watching for signals and listening to the train motion.
Safety is also promoted by the quietness which is due to the absence of
exhaust steam, the pounding of reciprocating pistons, and unbalanced
drivers. Judgment of enginemen of electric trains is thus clearer in
emergencies.

Electric meters assist in intelligent operation of the motive power
and this is recognized as a great advantage accompanying electric
traction. The exact service performance of each electric generating
unit at the station, and of each feeder section, is obtained by a glance
at indicating meters, or a study of curve-drawn power sheets, and the
integrated record of the energy supplied. Meters in the cab indicate the
h. p. which is supplied to the railway motors. A glance at the meter
shows the rate at which the train is accelerating. Tests are not needed;
the facts are instantly apparent, and the engineman is posted, is fore-
warned, and acts intelligently to remove the cause of any defect. He
gains confidence while the equipment is in operation.

Enginemen on the electric locomotives of the New York Central, the
New Haven, the Grand Trunk, and other roads, use the indicating meters
to advantage, and particularly so if the overload is great. When the
snow is deep and the tractive effort is high, the meter is particularly
advantageous; and if trouble is suspected, the meters in the cab furnish
valuable information. Steam locomotive enginemen, by long experience

94 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

under set conditions, know the drawbar pull and the h.p, developed and
the boiler overload, but only in a general way.

Weights are not excessive with electric traction. Weight per foot of
total wheel base varies from 6000 to 7000 pounds and is only 10 per
cent, less than in steam locomotive practice; but the total weight of an
electric locomotive is about one-half that of a steam locomotive per
h. p. developed. In motor-car trains the weight is only one-third, and
its distribution is excellent. The decreased strains promote safety.

RELIABILITY.

Reliability in electric traction results from simplicity. Reliability
of service has been radically increased by electric roads, particularly on
trunk lines and in terminal service. This fact is particularly noticeable
in times of snow storms and extremely cold weather. Duplication, of
boilers, generators, transmissions, and motors is necessary for reliability,
but generally these do not add to the total cost of the equipment needed.
A single motor of many in a train may burn out, yet not affect the service.
Controllers are complicated yet are wonderfully reliable.

Results on electrified roads furnish this evidence:

Manhattan Elevated Railroad was a good example of a well managed
steam road from 1872 to 1902. Records fairly compared show double
the car-mileage per train-minute delay, with electric power. ''The
delays in traffic with electric power were less than 40 per cent, as numer-
ous as when steam power was used." Stillwell.

New York Central records for the New York terminal service for
four months, July, August, September, and October, 1908, show a total
train delay of only 160 minutes.

New York Central records for 1909 state that 177,802 trains were
handled by electric motors with a total train-minute delay of 36,563, or
an average detention of 12 seconds per train, a record unequalled in the
history of railroading.

''New York Central electrical service during 1908 showed there was
not one minute delay because of the power station, substations, or trans-
mission lines. The delays from feeders were 7 train minutes; from third-
rail, 150 train minutes; from electric locomotives, 400 train minutes, out
of a total locomotive mileage of 1,000,000 and a total multiple-unit train
mileage of over 3,500,000. The average delay was 1 minute for each
3,000 train miles travelled. The average train movements per day in
and out of the Grand Central Station was 450." Katte, before New York
Railroad Club, March 19, 1909.

Long Island Railroad records: " Motor-car miles per detention, 9514."

West Jersey & Seashore: "Motor-car miles per detention, 6118.''

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 95

Interborough Rapid Transit records, noted in St. Ry. Journ., March
28, 1908, show that an average of 257,759 car-miles were operated per
1-minute delay in power supply on the Manhattan or Elevated division.
Figures showing such a reliability of power supply have never been pro-
duced by any steam railroad.

Hudson and Manhattan Railroad motor-car train service between
New York, Jersey City, and Hoboken, averages about 72,CO0 car miles
per 1-minute delay. The service is severe, with the recognized dis-
advantage of underground operation, a headway during rush hoxirs of
60 seconds, 2200 trains per day on a double track, more passengers per
car-mile than any rapid transit line, numerous sharp curves, and grades
from 2.0 to 4.5 per cent.

Grand Trunk Railway locomotives are in severe tunnel-grade service
for freight and passenger traffic between Port Huron and Sarnia, and
each makes over 100 miles per day. Records recently given by the elec-
trical engineer to the writer show one 8-minute delay in one year.

New York, New Haven Hartford records made for the year 1910
show that the electric locomotive failures per train-mile were only two-
thirds as frequent as those of the former and existing steam locomotiyes.
The average mileage per detention, many of which only elightly exceeded
one minute duration and include all mechanical trouble, is 2 to 3 times
better than with steam locomotives.

The reputation of a railroad for reliability of schedule speed, and for
safety, determines the amount of traffic, in some measure. The weak
roads, the ones with inferior power and delayed trains, are known and
avoided. Reliable service and ample capacity are determining features
in passenger and freight haulage, when there is a choice of routes.

Improved service results from these physical advantages — capacity,
flexibility, simplicity, safety, and reliability.

That electric traction can meet all the physical requirements for train
service is now an established fact.

FINANCIAL ADVANTAGES.

The physical characteristics outlined contribute directly to definite
commercial and economical advantages. Electric traction, however,
always necessitates a large outlay of capital, and therefore the increased
capital charges must be met by a combination of increased gross earnings
and decreased operating expenses.

GROSS EARNINGS INCREASED.

The adoption of electric traction for train service has generally in-
creased the gross earnings. Electric roads have increased their business
per mile of track moi-e rapidly than other roads. Patronage has l)oen

96 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

attracted and traffic has been developed, so that electrically operated
trains now monopolize the suburban traffic, and without changes in fares
and rates secure the interstate business and local freight haulage.

Gross earnings are increased when the facilities offered, methods of
transportation, and rates are satisfactory to shippers and to travelers.

In general, it is more practical in railway transportation, electric or
steam, to increase the net earnings by an increase in gross earnings than
by a reduction in the operating expenses.

Motive power characteristics of any road influence the amount of
traffic or business. The railroad which handles the heaviest freight- and
passenger-train service most advantageously will find that preference
is given to it, and that business is routed via its road. Electric power
can provide for increased train loads, with the same or higher speed,
and facilitate the handling at terminals; and thus the profits on the in-
creased or competitive business may overbalance the increased interest
charges for electrification.

Electric roads certainly have acquired and retained traffic, -and are
progressing rapidly in train haulage.

Railways create their own business and this is increased when the
traffic is attracted by the motive power, excellent operative results,
rapid acceleration, high schedule speeds, safety, cleanliness, increased
conveniences, and comfort.

Passenger traffic is attracted by electric trains and to such an extent
that, with equal fares, speed, and equipment, the public seems to even
discriminate in favor of electric motive power wherever it can be obtained.

Freight service of a high grade is provided by electric trains, and is
used by manufacturers, shippers, and merchants. Ample motive power,
rapid work, and convenient transportation facilities induce traffic.
These advantages are steadily increasing the amount of the fast or
time freight business of electric railways. With the heaviest traffic,
and on grades, the freight service is neither bunched nor throttled,
because, with ample central station capacity, it is not necessary to reduce
the loads or the speed, or to delay the switching. Freight traffic is thus
expedited.

Electric roads have now equipped freight cars with electric motors
on the trucks; and these cars, when loaded, are hauled in three-car or
longer trains for the local service on lines 30 to 100 miles long. Box
cars with motors on axles are loaded with freight, and haul other cars.
Hundreds of 30- to 50-ton locomotives have been put in service.

Trunk lines in freight service can increase their gross earnings by
adopting electric power. The laws of induced traffic apply equally
well to trunk-line freight and to branch-line passenger traffic.

The present method of operation, with steam traction, calls for a.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 97

train load which the locomotive can just drag up the ruling grade. The
locomotive works overloaded, at 1/2 to 3/4 stroke; it runs at 6
to 12 miles per hour; it delays all overtaking and opposing traffic;
and, during 30 to 80 per cent, of the time, it is held at sidings, to avoid
other traffic. The result is not only waste of fuel, high maintenance per
ton-mile, waste of time of men, but a loss of time by other trains, in effi-
cient use of track, procrastination in freight delivery, extra investments,
car and locomotive shortage, dissatisfied shippers, and disappointment;
but a heavy tonnage per train appears on the office records.

At present freight service is not satisfactory to shippers, and gross
earnings,' or business offered, are reduced when longer, slower trains are
operated. The capacity of the road in relation to the rest of the system
is restricted by the opposing freight trains, particularly in stormy weather.

The value of a reduction in train-miles is evident, provided speed is
well maintained. Expenses of operation are per train-mile, and amount
to 50 to 60 cents for transportation expense, exclusive of fixed charges,
office and general expense; so that on a 100-mile division with 10 trains
per day, or 3,650,000 train-miles per year, the expenses are about
$1,825,000 per year. Any small reduction in train-miles by more power-
ful motive power makes the capitalized saving a large item.

Low-grade freight service may be considered as traffic well estab-
lished and somewhat set in its ways. In this service, longer trains can
be hauled by electric power, to reduce the expense per ton-mile hauled.

Electric locomotives improve the present methods of operation, and
haul heavier tonnage at a higher schedule speed. Traffic is not delayed,
and congestion is prevented. The equipment may be limited, but
worked efficiently. When tonnage is carried at higher speed, the
shipper remembers which road delivers the goods on time — winter and
summer — and has efficient and powerful equipment.

Traffic can be induced because most traffic is competitive. Traffic
is given to the trunk line with adequate motive power, electric or steam.
New business and manufacturing is started along a trunk line, when its
reputation for service is good. Business is attracted by service.

The central idea is to create new business, and to increase the gross earn-
ings by simply providing better service, and higher speed, for the tonnage.
The greatest field for electric power is in heavy steady freight traffic,
because the amount of business, and the economies to be effected in fuel
and labor, are larger than that with the fluctuating passenger service
alone.

Terminal traffic is made attractive by the use of electric locomotives

and motor-car trains. Flexibility is also available for freight terminal

service. The yards can be cleared as the freight accumulates; and thus

the best facilities for concentrated working at congested terminals are

98 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

provided. Extra movements are not required for switching and
coupling; the acceleration rates used save time; signal operations are
reduced one-half; and complication is avoided.

Terminal traffic is ordinarily dense; real estate is expensive, and track-
age is limited. Minutes or even seconds saved, per train, by electric
power may therefore be important, in order that the limited trackage
may be used efficiently.

Boston & Albany Railroad has considered electric traction for its
Boston terminal. A. H. Smith, Vice-president, reports that if electricity
were used as a motive power there would be an increase of 50 per cent, in
terminal facilities; and incidentally, the cost of rolling stock would be
reduced 20 per cent.; the running cost decreased 30 to 50 per cent.; and
the repairs to rolling stock reduced from 10 to 50 per cent. Report to
Massachusetts Board of Railroad Commissioners, 1908, on Electrification
of Boston Steam Terminals.

Boston Transit Commission, George C. Crocker, Chairman, reporting
to the Legislature in April, 1911, contended that the increased traffic
certain to follow the adoption of electricity within the Boston district
would render the change financially profitable to the railroads. The total
traffic at the steam railroad terminals at Boston exceeds 60,000,000
passengers per year — or three times the terminal traffic at the Grand
Central Station at New York. An increase of 20 per cent in the traffic,
assuming that each passenger travels ten miles within the electrical
district, at 1.6c. per mile, would add $2,000,000 to the gross earnings
the first year, and more thereafter, which would pay 5 per cent, on the
estimated cost of $40,000,000 required to electrify all the lines in the
metropolitan district. The saving in real estate and its advantageous
use would add greatly to the gross earnings.

Grand Central Station terminal at New York, with steam service,
had a car capacity of 366, while with electric service it will have 1149.
The terminal track mileage is 32 miles, with 46 tracks against platforms.
The new terminal has 46 . 2 acres on the main level and 23 . 6 on the sub-
urban level. Electricity as a motive pow^r changed old conditions, and
it is now only necessary to provide sufficient head room for the trains.

Terminal capacity of most railroads is limited. Many railroads have
already adopted electric power at terminals to increase their gross earn-
ings. Congestion has been derceased, and train movements simplified.
The matter is important because the cost of increasing terminal space
and facilities is enormous, the cost being decidedly greater than the entire
cost of electrification of existing terminals.

Gross earnings are increased at terminals when ample capacity and
increased drawbar pull per pound in the electric motive power allow
heavier tonnage and faster schedule speeds than is possible in steam

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 99

traction. Electric service provides for much greater ton-mileage with-
out an increase in track, terminals, or car equipment. The improve-
ment is of a magnitude and character impossible with steam service.
The increased facility for handling business always results in augmented
traffic and increased use of the given trackage, roadbed and equipment.
The efficiency of a road is proportional to the ton-miles of freight, or the
passenger car-miles hauled in a unit of time.

Terminal yardage in some roads is ample; and additional cars would
mean congestion of traffic. What is wanted to prevent congestion is
not more trackage, or more locomotives, but efficient switching service.
With electric traction a high degree of efficiency in this respect is possible.

Delivery of freight and passengers is facilitated and oftentimes is
made practical only with electric traction. Convenient terminals are
important for long distance traffic; and they are very advantageous for
short-haul traffic or rapid transit near large cities, since the convenience
of the passenger and freight terminals increases the gross earnings.
Interurban electric cars which pass thru city business districts now
carry the bulk of the short-haul passenger traffic and much of the light
freight. Problems concernings grade-crossings, terminals sites, and the
best use of real estate are often to be solved by the use of a subway
leading to a convenient terminal. Good facilities for passenger and
freight delivery, especially where the traffic is competitive, are paying
investments.

With steam traction, passengers are often carried to a terminal very
far from the business and resident center of the city, and a ferry trip, a
trolley transfer, or a long walk is required. Electric trains make possible
a more convenient and less expensive terminal, and this is especially true
if a subway, tunnel, or elevated approach is utilized.

Branch line electrification is often advantageous because with electric
power on the main line, its use on the branch line, with electricity supplied
from the central power stations to locomotives and to motor-car trains,
is practical. Freight or passenger cars, wholly or partly equipped with
electric motors, may be attached to, or taken from, the main thru train
at a junction point. This plan increases largely the facilities for service,
induces new traffic, and results in decreased cost of operation per train-
mile on the branch line.

Joint use of tracks by both steam and electric trains is now common
on the same right-of-way, and without embarrassment to either. The
track, the terminals, the labor, the management, and the capital are
thus utilized to increase the gross earnings.

Frequent train service is commercially practical with electric traction,
and results in increased earnings. Ordinary steam railroad traffic must
for economy of operation be concentrated in several heavy trains per day.

100 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

In steam service, the irreducible elements entering into train-mile cost
are so large that, in practice, a passenger train must earn at least 50 cents
per train-mile. In electric service, the cost per train-mile is radically
reduced. Frequent freight train service is furnished without a propor-
tional increase in expense and, for times of light traffic, short freight
trains may be run with economy. This reduction in the cost of trans-
portation makes possible a more frequent freight and passenger service,
to increase the gross earnings.

In ordinary long-distance electric railway traffic, the method of opera-
tion is to use many short or long trains for first-class fast-freight traffic,
and to run them at frequent intervals, instead of long trains at infrequent
intervals. This is the most economical method in a small electric rail-
way, but it is not essential with 20 or more trains each way per day.

The load on the electric power station furnishing service for frequent
trains with long runs is much more uniform or steady than for infrequent
service; and the operating expenses and amount of equipment are thereby
reduced per ton-, or per train-mile, so that the cost of power is not neces-
sarily greater than for less frequent, longer trains operated with steam
locomotives. In practice, it is found that frequent passenger train service
and the steady pull of the thru freight trains, on long lines, provides a
most desirable load on the power station.

Suburban trafSc earnings increase in amount and profit, and growth
of suburban districts results when electric power is furnished from a central
station for frequent train service. Suburban business is generally com-
petitive business. It is steady and dependable; it is not affected by
hard times, and requires small organization.

There is at present almost universal complaint on the part of steam
roads that subrban service does not pay. On the other hand, it is uni-
versally accepted as a fact that electric suburban lines on a private right-
of-way, with termini in large cities, 'pay handsomely, when in the hands
of skilfully managed electric railway organizations. Steam railroads are
now seldom willing to give up their alleged money-losing suburban
service to an electric railway lessee; nor should they, in the light of
recent electric railroad experience.

''Economy of operation derived from the running of short and frequent
trains will benefit the public and the railroads. Short, frequent trains
are exactly what the suburbanite needs. The flexibility of electric
power will give more frequent service at reduced cost; the elimination of
switching will be advantageous, and overcrowding will be diminished.
With more frequent and cleanly service, population will be attracted to
the suburban territory as it is not under the present regime. The
traffic will be generally increased by the introduction of electric service."
Report of United Improvement Association, Boston, 1910.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 101

Suburban lines of steam railroads will certainly be gradually con-
verted to electrical operation, to get more satisfactory results for the
stockholders and for the public. The work already done, and the econ-
omic results thereof, justify this statement.

Electric trains on city streets radiating from our large cities will take
the business away from the steam roads until they in turn use modern
motive power for suburban train service extending from 10 to 30 miles
out from cities; yet the steam railroad, with its superior right-of-way,
requires a much smaller investment to attract this business, or to regain
what has been lost. A commuter on the train of an electrified steam
road can be assured of a comfortable seat, and decidedly better service.

" The 'present cost of doing suburban business upon our lines is excessive,
it is only by largely increasing the volume that we can hope for remuneration.
To handle the same as at present is a burden, and to increase the volume
and reduce the cost thru the substitution of electricity for steam seems the
only solution.'' President Mellin, of New York, New Haven & Hartford
Railroad in annual report, June, 1904.

FINANCIAL ADVANTAGES— OPERATING EXPENSES DECREASED.

Statistics on classification and proportion are first presented.

OPERATING EXPENSES OF STEAM RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Interstate commerce commission report for
Year ending June 30.

1908

Maintenance of way and structures :

Repairs of roadway

Renewals of rails

Renewals of ties

Repairs and renewals of bridges, culverts. . .
Repairs and renewals of fences, crossings . .
Repairs and renewals of buildings, fixtures.
Repairs and renewals of- docks and wharves

Repairs and renewals of telegraph

Other expenses

Maintenance of equipment:

Superintendence

Repairs and renewals of locomotives

Repairs and renewals of passenger cars. . . .

Repairs and renewals of freight cars

Repairs and renewals of work cars

Repairs and renewals of marine equipment,

Repairs and renewals of shop machinery

Other expenses

10.720%

10.834

1.322

1.145

2.901

2.388

2.374

1.984

.487

.407

2.181

2.288

.254

.224

.142

.211

.472

.175

.632

.567

6.208

7.664

2.164

1.932

7.038

9.114

.210

.276

.247

.196

.512

.657

.584

.658

102

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

OPERATING EXPENSES OF STEAM RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES

Continued.

Interstate commerce commission report for
Year ending June 30.

1899

1908

Conducting transportation:

Superintendence

Engine and roundhouse men

Fuel for locomotives

Water supply for locomotives

Other supplies for locomotives. . .

Train service

Train supplies and expenses

Switchmen, flagmen^ and watchmen..

Telegraph expenses

Station service and supplies

Car mileage — balance

Loss and damage

Injuries to persons

Clearing wrecks

Operating marine equipment

Outside agencies and commissions

Rents for tracks, yards, and terminals, etc.

Other expenses

General expense

1.767

1.761

9.690

9.366

9.478

11.471

.619

1 .670

.536

.631

7.583

6.389

1.527

1.597

4.149

4.509

1.906

1.763

8.206

7.022

2.010

1.427

.734

1.477

.874

1.229

.147

.348

.868

.667

1.975

1.300

2.388

2.023

2.574

1.894

4.521

3.736

Grand Total 100.000

100.000

Operating expenses of steam railroads, given in the accompanying
table, are changed by electrical operation about as follows:

COMPARISON OF EXPENSES OF STEAM AND ELECTRICAL OPERATION.

Motive power.

Steam.

Electric.

Maintenance of roadway and rails

11.98%

7.66

9.37
11.48
59.51

,10.00%o
4.00

Repairs and renewals of locomotives

Engine and roundhouse wages

6.00

Fuel and power for trains •

6.00

All other items

56.00

Repairs and renewals of overhead work

1.00

Totals

100.00%

83.00%

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 103

Repairs, wages, and fuel of many steam railroads are frequent!}^ 30
per cent, higher than the average.

The exact amount which can be saved in the above items by the use
of electric power depends largely upon the density of traffic, the cost of
coal or water power, and the local situation; but, in general, competent
engineers hold that many railroads can reduce the percentages noted for
steam operation to those noted for electric operation. The conditions
are even more favorable for a reduction in operating expenses A^hen a
new road is built and operated with electric power.

Comparable conditions of operation must be considered, including
all of the freight and passenger service, and a sufficiently long run.

Decrease in operating expenses, with electric traction, is now found to
amount in the aggregate to a relatively large sum. The subject was
first analyzed by Mr. William Baxter in a technical article in the Elec-
trical Engineer, New^ York, February 19, 1896. The writer of this book
presented the subject in greater detail in a paper before the Northwest
Railway Club in January, 1901 (St. Ry. Review, Jan. 15, 1901, p. 39;
St. Ry. Journ., March 9 and 30, 1901, p. 328). Messrs. Lewis B. Stillwell
and Henry S. Putnam have treated the subject comprehensively in a
paper on ''The Substitution of the Electric Motor for the Steam Loco-
motive," to American Institute of Electrical Engineers, January, 1907.

The classification of operating expenses in the Interstate Commerce
Commission's annual reports are often used as a basis for comparisons
of the cost of steam operation undei* existing conditions with the probable
operating results by electricity. Heretofore the latter were estimates
by operating engineers or engineers for electrical manufacturers. Many
were biased. However the records of the Long Island, West Jersey &
Seashore, New York Central, New Haven, Erie, Grand Trunk, Great
Northern, and many other railroads are actual. The records are now
being compared with results from steam traction; and some general
facts regarding the financial value of electrification are thus being
established. Some facts are being furnished to electric traction engineers
and to the technical press.

The physical advantages of electric power, when properly applied to
railways, have actually decreased the operating expenses and increased
the net earnings. The matter therefore deserves study. The best of the
meager financial data which are now available will be considered briefly,
and reasons given for the conclusions reached.

OPERATING EXPENSES.

Cost of maintenance of way, particularly of the roadway and rails,
is reduced when electric power is used, for several reasons:

104 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

a. Rotary motion and steady continuous effort of balanced armatures
of spring-mounted motors cause less track shifting, rail spreading, damage
and breakage at switches, at special work and at curves, and less loss to
roadbed, masonry, steel bridges, heavy grades, and trestles, than is
caused by the steam locomotive, with its long rigid wheel bases, its con-
centration of weight per axle, the pounding of its unbalanced drivers,
the varying reciprocating effort of its pistons, and its enormous thrusts
and nosing effects.

b. Weight of electric locomotives is about one-half of the weight of
steam locomotives, per h..p. developed. See tables pages 56 and 291.

c. Distribution of the weight of the electric locomotive and of the
motor-car train is materially better than that of the steam locomotive
hauled train.

''Mersey Railway records for three years of steam traction fairly
compared with three years of electric traction, show that the effect
of electric traction on the maintenance of the permanent way has been
to reduce the cost of maintenance per ton-mile from 0.0416 cent to
0.0240 cent; and as regards the life of rail under the two systems, the
average rolling load over the track before the rails require renewing is
increased from 32,000,000 to 47,500,000 tons." J. Shaw, before British
Institution of Civil Engineers, November, 1909.

Burgdorf and Thun Railway, a steam road, electrified in 1896, has
found that the expense for track maintenance has decreased. Tissot.

Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railroad, Chicago, reports:

"The fear that renewal of track, frogs, switches, armatures, commu-
tators, gears, pinions, etc., might after a certain period become expensive
has not been realized after 10 years of constant heavy service. At the
same time the service has been immensely improved in frequency, speed,
and general desirability." Brinckerhoff, to A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907.

Non-spring-borne weights of motors, with low center of gravity, on
small driving wheels are harder on the special track work, crossings,
and curves than on the main track. Ordinarily, however, the service
with electric trains is at least double that of steam; and the cost of main-
tenance of way and structures, and of rails, increases as the car or ton-
mileage increases. The additional hammer of the small wheel when
going over the intersecting gap of the crossing, coupled with the non-
spring-borne weight of the motors, has been found to decrease the life of
the crossing. On the straight track, no definite opinion can be formed
that there is an increase or decrease. The difference is not very marked.
If acceleration rates with steam locomotives were high, the weight would
be increased, making steam locomotives more severe on the track.

In high-speed electric railroad train service, weights of large armatures
and motors must be spring-borne.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 105

Cost of maintenance and repairs of equipment is decreased with
electric power for the following reasons:

1. Simplicity of moving machinery and apparatus is evident.

2. Friction of electric power equipment is smaller.

3. Depreciation rate is therefore much slower.

4. Inspection required to maintain equipment is less.

5. Repairs and renewals of electric locomotives and motor cars are
less than with steam locomotives, as is detailed later.

6. Coal and water supply substations, with labor to maintain
them, are not needed. These are concentrated for economy at one
station.

7. Fewer locomotives are required to do an equal amount of work.
Three electric locomotives will ordinarily replace five steam locomotives.

8. Wrecks are fewer, and the expense in connection therewith is less.
Wrecks are decreased by automatic electric devices, meters, circuit
control, etc., as described under Safety.

9. Cleaning and renovating of car equipment is a smaller item.
Steam locomotive smoke, dirt, and cinders, when mixed with condensed
steam, cling tenaciously to cars, seats, varnish, and paint; and their
removal is expensive, and wears the materials.

10. Painting and cleaning of cars, stations, overhead bridges, and
tunnels are less in the absence of locomotive gas and smoke.

11. Corrosion of steel in structure, viaducts, telegraph wires, signal
cables, pipes, rails and spikes is also less.

These items, except the last, are considered in detail in other chapters,
under Maintenance of Electric Locomotives, and Motor Cars.
Wage expense is reduced where electric traction is used.

1. Locomotive and roundhouse work is less. The cost of maintenance
of the electric locomotive is about 50 per cent, of that of the steam loco-
motive. The inspection and repairs are less; time is not required for
drawing fires, washing flues, cleaning boilers, etc.

2. Locomotive enginemen do not receive the same high rate of wages
on electric locomotives as on steam locomotives. Electric locomotive
operation is simpler and requires less skill than the running of a compli-
cated power house on wheels. On many electrified roads the same wages
are paid now as before, but this may not be continued. The New York
Central zone rates are 38.5 cents for enginemen on electric and steam
trains, 23 cents for^firemen on steam trains and 21 cents for helpers on
electric trains.

3. Helpers are generally superfluous with electric locomotives, altho
one helper is always necessary on heavy trunk-line, high-speed service.
There is some work, in terminal yards, on work trains, construction work,
branch lines, etc., where one locomotive man is ample. On some German

106 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

and Italian railways the train conductor rides with the electric locomotive
operator; and is competent to take his place in an emergency.

Motor-car passenger trains require only three men per 6- to 10-car
train, a motorman, conductor, and brakeman; and the total wages paid
are about one-half of what was formerly paid for the same service with
locomotive-hauled trains.

New York Central motor-car trains run at high schedule speed in the
electric zone from the Grand Central Station to North White Plains, 24
miles, and to Hastings, 20 miles; and with a car mileage of 4,000,000 per
year, a large saving is made. Similar results are obtained on other elec-
trified steam roads,

4. Automatic devices, like the dead-man's handle, and interlocking
devices on control mechanism, make two men in the cab unnecessary in
many cases. Meters in the cab facilitate intelligent operation.

5. Ton-mileage per day with electric traction for freight trains is
also greater. A saving of 25 per cent, is to be expected in wages, because
of the higher schedule speed of freight trains, particularly so on heavy
grades. Electric passenger locomotives make double the mileage of
steam passenger locomotiveson the same line, because there are fewer
and quicker switching movements and less time is spent in repair and
inspection, in building fires, in washing out, etc.

6. Increased hauling capacity with electric traction makes a remark-
able saving in the wages of the engineman and the fireman, and also in
the wages of the entire train crew, because, with the longer train at some-
what higher speed, the wages paid per ton-mile hauled, or per train-mile
run, are less.

7. Double-heading of electric locomotives does not require a duplica-
tion of the locomotive crew, because the control is so arranged that one
engineman operates both units.

8. Time is not wasted, with electric power, in delays caused by lack
of good coal, inefficient steaming, bad water, and cold weather; and less
time is needed for road repairs.

9. Electric locomotives can perform more continuous service, and
wages expended in shopping are saved.

10. Less time and labor are required for switching service.

11. Labor is more efficient, because a better class of skilled men and
laborers are attracted by electrical operation. Cleanliness and skilled
mechanical work are contrasted with washing of hot boilers, removal of
boiler mud and scale, dirt and smoke, and ash and clinker cleaning.

The wages paid at the central electric power station and on trans-
mission line repairs are in themselves a large item; but they are a small
item per train-mile, or per ton-mile hauled.

12. Speed of suburban trains is increased, 25 to 50 per cent. It is

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 107

clear that higher speed saves in wages. In service with frequent stops^
the rapid acceleration of trains radically increases the schedule speed.
In fact, electric railway operators join in stating that steam locomotives
could not handle the now^ largely augmented traffic and the present sched-
ules, without prohibitive expenditures for terminal trackage, locomotives,
cars, trains, and wages.

Fuel and motive power expenses per ton-mile or per train-mile hauled
are reduced about 50 per cent, with electric traction, because:

1. Cheap w^ater power reduces the cost of fuel, and for that reason
water power has been adopted by a large number of electric railways.
The subject is detailed under Steam, Gas, and Water Power Plants.

2. Cheap fuels reduce expenses. The cheapest fuels are burned on
suitable stokers of large boilers with ample draft in modern power plants
The lowest grades of fuel, lignites, culm, cheap screenings, and waste
products can be burned under properly designed boilers and in gas pro-
ducers. It is predicted that many important railway power plants will
be built at coal mines to use the abundant low-grade fuel which is now
wasted and that the power will be transmitted by wires, rather than by
high-grade bituminous or anthracite coal, or fuel oil for service near
terminals, tunnels, resident districts, flour mills and factories where
cleanliness is necessary; and at forests, wharves, sheds, and yards where
the fire risk must be reduced.

3. Power is produced efficiently on a large scale, by means of eco-
nomical apparatus, in one plant, and not in many relatively wasteful small
locomotive plants.

''Railroads will have to come to electricity, not only to get a larger
unit of motive power, but on account of fuel. We have to use fuel to
carry our fuel and there are certain limitations here, particularly when
we consider the distribution of the coal-producing regions with respect
to the major avenues of traffic. This great saving, resulting from the
use of electricity is apparent, quite aside from the increased tractive
power and the train load.'^ E. H. Harriman, Elec. World, March,
1907, p. 538.

4. Furnace efficiency of boilers is high because: Furnaces and grates
are properly designed to burn the bituminous coal available; coal is fed
and ash is removed continually, not intermittently; sufficient and proper
draft is provided; firemen are skilled; combustion space is ample; fire-
brick arches further combustion before the gases reach the boiler surfaces;
load is uniform or does not change quickly; nor is it necessary to have
great overloads at a central station. The opportunity to burn common
bituminous coal efficiently, in an individual locomotive furnace, does not
exist. A central station furnace which smokes is seldom found, and

108 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

indicates gross negligence, lack of common engineering skill in design,
or lack of money to build properly.

5. Utilization of the power produced is efficient because there is a
reduction in the amount of power required.

a. Weight of the electric locomotive is only one-half of the weight of
the steam locomotive and tender, as was explained. The excess weight
of a common 170-ton steam passenger locomotive, over a 100-ton electric
locomotive, with equal weight on drivers and with equal capacity, is
large. Many electric locomotives weigh less than a loaded coal and
water tender. If hauled 100 miles per day, 300 days per year, at a net
cost of $0,003 per ton-mile, the saving of 70 tons, made possible with
electric power, is $6300 per year per locomotive. An additional saving
of 15 to 45 per cent, in weight, is made by the motor-car train.

b. Power is transmitted to the axles with minimum friction, by
means of economical motor drive, and not by cumbersome mechanism.
Head-end, bearing, and rubbing friction are less.

6. Regeneration of energy on the down grade and in braking, which
is practical, represents a large possible saving.

Fuel saving is discussed qualitatively under ^^ Electric Locomotives."

INVESTMENTS INCREASED OR DECREASED.

Investments are generally increased with electric traction. This is
clearly a set-off. Net earnings are reduced by the added interest, the
depreciation, and the taxes on the investment in the power plant, trans-
mission lines, and motor equipment.

Capitalization per mile of track is not an indication of high or low net
earnings. The important point in operation is to utilize the investment
in the road to the highest degree and to reduce the capital charges by
providing the maximum tonnage per mile of track. Ample capacity and
economical power with electric traction favor this plan of operation.

Higher investment in electric motive power equipment is a drawback,
but the cost of electric motive power is only a fraction, about 20 per cent.,
of the total cost of a railway, as is detailed in Chapter XIV.

Investments are decreased in many cases:

a. Immense investments are unnecessary when, with reasonable
investments in electric motive power, existing facilities and expensive
terminals suffice for decidedly greater traffic.

b. Terminals and entrances to our larger cities, for both freight and
passenger tracks, may be made underground, or by superimposing the
tracks, either above or below the ground level.

c. Grades may be steeper, and total investments be decreased,
because the height and length of bridges may be less, and roads may be

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 109

shorter. The Colorado Springs and Cripple Creek Railway is 19 miles
long, with 5 per cent, ruling grade and 3 per cent, average grade; while
the steam railroad, with low grades between the same terminal points,
17 miles apart by air line, is 52 miles long. E. T. W., Sept. 25, 1909.

d. Limiting grades are higher on electric railroads. The steeper
grade may result in a shorter route, or in reduction in the amount of the
cuts and fills. The traffic is not throttled or congested at the mountain
division. The '^ruling grade" becomes an obsolete term and, in place
thereof, the longer trains are limited by the "ruling curve."

e. Roadbed may cost less. Narrow-gage railways, which are com-
mon in Europe, use electric power where steam locomotives would not
have the requisite capacity for heavy and long trains.

f. Substructures may be lighter with electric power, because of the
weight distribution and the absence of reciprocating machinery.

g. Motive power equipment and rolling stock are used efficiently.
More work is accomplished over a given track, or tunnel section, or over
a mountain division. Time is saved by higher speed and by efficient
and simple movements, to prevent further investments for double tracks,
bridges, tunnels, and rolling equipment. The cost or amount of rolling
stock needed is frequently reduced 20 per cent, by advantageous use.

h. Three electric locomotives replace five steam locomotives, because
the former can be kept almost continuously in operation.

i. Round-house equipment is reduced, by the substitution of inspec-
tion sheds for round houses, turn-tables, heating plants to wash out boilers,
coaling plants, pumps, water tanks, and piping.

j. Heavier traffic on 2.2 per cent, grades is practicable with electric
power; and this prevents immense investments for double tracking or
for grade reduction. As an example of the latter:

Bernese-Alps Railway, Switzerland, has recently bored a new double-
track tunnel, the Loetschberg, thru the Alps, for a direct north and
south line between London and Milan, via Berne and the Simplon Tun-
nel. Two distinct plans for handling the traffic were under consideration
— a 1.5 per cent, grade route with a tunnel 13.1 miles long, and a 2.7 per
cent, grade route with a tunnel 8.5 miles long. Steam locomotives would
have required the low-grade route. Electric locomotives are used and
they saved about $6,000,000 in the cost of the tunnel.

EARNING POWER AND NET EARNINGS.

The ratio of gross earnings less operating expenses to investment is a
measure of the earning power of railways. It is therefore essential that
gross earnings be larger, or that operating expenses be smaller, in order
that net earnings shall be in proportion to the total capital invested.

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Analysis is simpler when the increased net earnings are compared with
the increased capital required to furnish the electrified track or other
improvements.

Gross earnings are easily compared; but a comparison of operating
expenses, before and after electrification, is difficult. It is practically
impossible to compare directly the cost of steam and electricity per train-
mile. The introduction of electricity generally alters the type and size
of the train. Each steam locomotive-hauled train with five to ten
passenger cars is changed to several 3- or 4-car trains, operating on the
multiple-unit system. In freight service the trains may be either
decidedly longer, or have a higher schedule speed.

Comparison should be made on the basis of good service, on the basis
of traffic hauled, per seat-mile, per car-mile, per ton-mile, but not per
train-mile. In some cases it is found that the cost of service by electricity
is higher than for service by steam, because of the faster rate of acceler-
ation, higher speed, better care of equipment, and the better service
provided; but all of these may radically increase the gross earnings. It
is recognized that there is an increase of traffic, and a changed condition
of business, when electric power is used on a large scale or main lines.

INCOME ACCOUNT OF STEAM RAILROADS

OF THE UNITED STATES.

Item.

Total, 1908. Per track-mile.

1908.

1907.

Gross earnings

Operating expenses

$2,458,000,000
1,670,000,000
788,000,000
459,000,000
228,000,000
101,000,000

$7,366

5,005

2,361

1,377

682

302

100%
68
32
19

100%
66

Income from operation

Interest on debts, paid

Dividends paid

Available for improvements

16
9
9

Cost of road and equipment was $19,472,650,000 for 333,646 miles
of single track or $58,363 per mile. The year 1908 represents a lean
year while 1907 was more prosperous.

EXAMPLES OF FINANCIAL ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION.

Data per mile of track on a prairie division:

Motive power Steam Electric

Investment $30,000. $36,000.

Gross earnings $5000 . $6000 .

Operating expenses 2800. (56%) 3000. (50%)

Net earnings 2200. 3000.

Interest on investment at 6% 1800. at 7% 2520.

Net income 400. 480.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 111

Estimate for a proposed 200-mile road:

Assets: January 1st. 1910 1912

Cost of road and equipment $8,000,000 10,000,000

Materials and cash on hand 400,000 430,000

Total cost of road . 8,400,000 10,430,000

Liabilities:

Capital stock 4,000,000 4,000,000

Funded debt 4,000,000 6,000,000

Surplus 400,000 430,000

Total 8,400,000 10,430,000

Year ending Dec. 31. 1910 1912

Motive power • Steam. Electric.

Gross earnings from operation 1,000,000 1,250,000

Less operating expenses and depreciation 650,000 (65%) 750,000 (60%)

Income from operation 350,000 500,000

Deductions from income:

Interest on funded debt, 5% 200,000 300,000

Net income or net earnings 150,000 200,000

Dividends on stock, 3% 120,000 120,000

Surplus from operation 30,000 80,000

Electric traction increases the cost of road and equipment, and thus the interest
charges on funded debt are greater. Gross earnings increase, and expenses decrease.

Manhattan Elevated Railroad Company statistics are presented:

Comparison :

Operating expenses, per cent. . . .

Passengers carried

Car mileage

Receipts per car-mile

Operating expense per car-mile. .
Operating expense per passenger

Steam, 1896.

58.1
185,138,000.
43,241,000.

21.60^

12.20

2.92

Electric, 1904.

41.2

286,634,000.
61,743,000.

22.95^
9.50
2.04

Operating expenses per car-mile:

Steam 1901

Electric 1904

Maintenance of way and structures

0.927?i
1.304
10.046
12.277

1.047^
1 325

Maintenance of equipment and plant

Power supply, for transportation

Total operating expense per car-mile

7.096
9.468

112 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

London, Brighton & South Coast Railway, electrified in 1909, reports
that there has been, as compared with the corresponding period of the
last year of steam operation, an increase of 55 per cent, in the number
of passengers carried, and a recovery of practically the whole traffic
abstracted by the local electric tramways.

West Jersey & Seashore Railroad, running between Philadelphia and
Atlantic City, increased in traffic at a rate of less than 2 per cent, per
year until it was electrified in 1907. The first year showed an increase
in gross earnings of 20 per cent, over the preceding year of steam opera-
tion; and operating expenses were decreased. See Chapter XV.

New York Central Railroad terminal division at New York, where
economy could hardly be expected because of the short distance and
the time electric power had been used, to Sept., 1907, shows a decided
decrease in operating expenses after allowing for the increased capital
charges for electrification; the prediction is made of still larger savings.
Wilgus, A. S. C. E., March, 1908.

Long Island Railroad was the first steam railroad company to use
electric power on a large scale over a considerable portion of its line.
Operation began in 1905. The 1909 mileage was 120; the number of
motor cars, used in 3- to 6-car trains, was 136. The annual report of
President Peters for the year ending December 31, 1908, endorsed the
electric railway service, which had been in operation for about four years.
In addressing the stockholders he stated:

'^The extension of electric service from Queens to Hempstead was
put in service May 26, 1908, and all train service to Hempstead branch
has since been operated by electric power. The results therefrom are
very satisfactory both in increased business and in economy. The
general results on that portion of your system which has been electrified
fully justified the expenditure made in accomplishing that result."

Long Island Railroad has recently announced that, as a result of
the electrification, the road was operating at a cost sufficiently below
that of steam operation to pay the interest on the extra investment
and to yield a handsome surplus. The steam road had been operating
with an annual deficit. The results were a pleasant surprise, in view of
the incompleteness of the installation and the large expenditures at termi-
nals, power stations, etc., from which only a small advantage could be
at once derived.

BY-PRODUCTS OF ELECTRIFICATION.

By-products, or incidental advantages, often accompany electric
traction. For example, several by-products of the New York Central
electrification were the following:

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 113

Underground or sub-tracks were used for all suburban railway trains,
the level being retained for main-line trains. This saved, at the ter-
minal station, two city blocks, valued at $50,000,000.

There was a saving of $200,000 per year in current for lighting
terminal yards, power for isolated service, and for freight elevators.

There was a saving of $114,000 per year on switching, now carried on
during the period of non-peak loads at the power station.

Safety devices in connection with signals allowed a greater degree of
automatic control of train movement. The second engineman was
superfluous, even for checking signals. A great saving in labor resulted.

Railway plant service by electric power combined effectually with
electric lighting, air compressing, water pumping, exhaust steam heating,
and power service, to reduce materially the fuel, labor, and maintenance
cost of these services.

Double decking of freight tracks in buildings and freight storage
warehouses will economize in real estate, and in freight handling.

Streets again occupy the space over many depressed tracks leading
from the railroad terminal. Frequently these cross streets are several
blocks long, and give to the public very valuable and increased facilities
for normal street traffic.

Buildings were placed over the tracks to use the valuable real estate
for immense office buildings, substations, a Government Post Office, etc.

Hudson & Manhattan terminal building, which is one of the most
important office buildings in New York City, is located over subterranean
railway loops.

Real estate salvage following electrification generally amounts to
large sums, since the abolition of the steam locomotive enables sweeping
changes to be affected along the route, and in the terminals and yards,
allowing the construction of new streets, and the building of commercial
structures, union stations, post office substations, etc., immediately
above the electrified trackage. Real estate and property along the
right-of-way generally show a great increase in value for residential
and office purposes, resulting from cleanliness and the absence of noise
from exhaust steam.

ADVANTAGES DURING BUSINESS DEPRESSIONS.

Advantages during business depressions, such as the financial flurry
which began in October, 1907, and ended aboy+ May, 1909, are noted.

The Commercial and Financial Chronicle of iviu,. ' 1908, gives the
January, 1908, losses by steam railroads, compared with thobt. of January,
1907; and the Electric Railway Journal of April 4, 1908, quotes the gains
of electric railways for the same period.
8

114 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

COMPARISON OF EARNINGS

Railways.

103 representative steam
roads.

29 representative electric
roads.

Gross earnings

Net earnings . . .

12.9% loss.
22.9% loss.

5.3% gain.
10.0% gain.

Statistics recently compiled show that electric railways fared much
better than steam railroads during the late depression.

Returns from 203 electric railways show an increase in both gross and
net earnings in 1908 over 1907. The gross earnings for 1908 were
reported as $280,262,681 against $278,387,557 in 1907, and net earnings,
$117,441,782 as against $114,406,399 in 1907.

The gross earnings of 164 steam railroads in 1908 decreased 11.89
per cent, compared with 1907, while electric railways increased their
gross and net earnings. If the record had been on heavy electric rail-
ways in place of strictly passenger lines they would have been more
comparable. Voegelin, in Railroad Age Gazette, Dec. 24, 1909.

ADVANTAGES IN COMPETITION.

Advantages in competition are obvious at this time. Lower fares
and freight rates will be the rule with electric trains because the cost of
operation with electric power is lower; because the method of operation
is improved; and because, cumulatively, the density of increased traffic
makes for economy. The product of the lower fare by the number of
passengers, and the product of the lower freight tariff by the tonnage are
both greater than the corresponding income from less business at higher
rates, when the railway uses a motive power having the greatest physical
advantages and economy of operation.

Mersey Railway, of England, Manhattan Elevated Railroad, and scores of steam
railroads have been compelled to adopt electric power to avoid bankruptcy.

Boston & Albany, Boston & Maine, and the New Haven road have recently been
subject to such competition by the growth of suburban electric railways at Boston
that, to regain their traffic from their terminals and to handle business with economy,
they are now considering the electrification of large zones radiating from the North
and South stations at Boston.

A very large traffic, which was previously taken away from the Lancashire &
Yorkshire Railway by electric lines which ran parallel to it, was regained, after the
road was electrified, according to J. A. F. Aspinwall, General Manager and Engineer.

The subject of competition and patronage was reviewed on pages 20, 21, 22.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 115

SOCIAL ADVANTAGES.

One advantage of electric traction, which the broad-gage engineer
should not fail to see, is that by its use human society is distinctly bene-
fited. Engineers are employed primarily to save money for stockholders.
There is, however, real and legitimate gratification when the engineer
realizes that, with the reduction of the cost of freight and passenger
transportation by the use of better and more economical motive power,
he has effected safety, health, and comfort in travel, a conservation of
natural resources, and improved social conditions. Professional success
of the engineer may well include fame and honor and the accumulation
of wealth, all of which are worthy ends; but if engineering is a worthy
art, it must also include the promotion of welfare and happiness of others,
and a bettered condition of humanity.

There is no work which gives such gratification in transportation
service as the making of provision for greater safety to property, and
particularly to life. Safer travel, fewer wrecks, and a saving in time
furnish to all society pleasures, contentment, and freedom from anxiety.
The engineer often has an opportunity to prevent social unhappiness
incidental to economic waste. There is an incentive in such work.

Conservation of natural resources results from efficient use of coal.
Much of the coal mined is now used very wastefully in locomotive fur-
naces. The coal useH at the central electric railway power station is
burned economically, by mechanical stokers, and the records show that
50 per cent, of the cost of fuel is saved, per ton-mile, in transportation.
Coal is expensive; it is generally hauled 500 to 1000 miles before it is
used, and it should be burned in an economical manner.

Labor is decreased, as a result of the efforts of the engineer to save
coal, which now requires so much brutal labor and drudgery.

The governments of Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy use
water powers and lignite coal fields in order to prevent the necessity of
importing foreign coal. This plan, in connection with the electrification
of their railways, w^ill conserve the natural resources, and, moreover, will
keep the nation's money in the country. Many railways in America
will consider the installation of electric power stations at coal mines to
utilize the waste coal, culm, duff, dust, lignite, and screenings.

Reduction in the cost of freight transportation will follow the reduction
already made in the cost of fares. Electric power, with its physical
advantages, reduces the cost of transportation by reason of the economies
effected. More scientific and efficient methods can be used in operation.
Lower freight rates allow the movement of low-grade freight, and improve
the ''business situation" on which most of the people of the country are
more or less dependent.

116 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Cost of living is decreased when electric lines make suburban and
country districts accessible, by frequent service, fast schedule, and low
fares. Lower rent, good health, and reduced prices for vegetables, fruit,
and transported food will prevail. (It is, however, not the trolley car
which will carry the suburban resident, but the high-speed electric
train on the private right-of-way with a terminal station in the heart
of the business district. Distances are really measured on a time basis,
and the time of regular daily travel should not exceed one hour.)

Esthetic enjoyments are realized when electric traction is used.
Cleanliness and fresh air contribute to the pleasures of travel, and
consequently to the welfare of the public. Ventilation of steam trains
is bad, for it is necessary to exclude the locomotive gas, smoke, and
cinders. It is not practical to ventilate even sleeping and dining cars in a
suitable manner. The majority of travelers do not ride in the sleeper,
but in the crowded coaches and their health must be conserved. The
Lackawanna Railroad uses anthracite coal, and therefore advertises
cleanliness via the '^ white way." Travelers remember the cleanliness
of electric roads, from Philadelphia to Atlantic City, from New York to
Stamford, to White Plains, and to Yonkers, the tunnel connections
from New York City to distant points on Long Island and New Jersey,
Rochester to Syracuse, Chicago to Aurora, Chicago to Milwaukee,
Springfield to St. Louis, etc.

Smoke from locomotives is a nuisance not to be tolerated in business
and resident districts. The injury to persons, to their health, and to
their property is large. Smoke is a hindrance to the development of civic
beauty and refinement. The sociological importance of cleanliness is
well understood. The financial importance of the subject is becoming
known. The cost of cleaning smoke and dirt from the body and the
grime and soot from the clothing "is large. The traveling public includes
those who journey for pleasure and- necessity, but all want fresh air and
cleanliness. Black smoke from the stacks of locomotives is especially
a nuisance. The use of fuel oil, coke, smokeless and anthracite coal, is
expensive, and not a practical remedy. It is ^possible to operate loco-
motives without smoke, but it is not economical to do so, on account of
the labor involved, and the additional maintenance cost at the furnace.

Lives of millions of people are shortened by the necessity of breathing
gases and soot arising from the use of steam locomotives in cities.

Noise from exhaust of steam locomotives disturbs sleep, particularly
that of nervous or sick people, young or old. Portions of cities, even at
some distance from steam railroad tracks, are now rendered by this noise
absolutely undesirable for homes. The noise from train movement is
not objectionable, but that from the harsh, unmuffled exhaust is detri-
mental to public welfare.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 117

Property close to steam roads suffers from cinders, smoke, noise, and
dingy conditions, caused by the steam locomotives; it is not desirable
for offices or residential purposes. Windows cannot be kept open, and
not only cleanliness, but also good health is affected adversely. When
roads are electrified, property increases very much in value, and apart-
ments which were uninhabitable can be occupied without disturbance.
Real estate dealers recognize this fact.

Ordinances now prohibit the use of steam locomotives within large
parts of Annapolis, Brooklyn, Hoboken, and New York City. Similar
ordinances will soon govern in Boston, Washington, Buffalo, Cleveland,
and Chicago.

Social conditions are improved, as a result of low passenger rates and
decreased cost of living. These two items affect largely the comfort,
welfare, and amount of recreation of the inhabitants of cities. In some
American and in many foreign cities, millions are saved every year, in
hospital bills alone, to say nothing of happiness, health, and improvement
in social conditions, where the inhabitants of the congested districts get
to the country, to the suburbs, and to the lakes cheaply and frequently.

With the more frequent and cleanly service which can be furnished
with economy in electric traction for railway trains, population will be
attracted to the suburban territory many miles from the city, as it is not
under the present conditions.

OBJECTIONS AND OBSTACLES TO ELECTRIC TRACTION.

There are objections and obstacles which prevent a general applica-
tion of electric power to railways. Reasons for these are here outlined.

Conservatism is generally a marked characteristic of railway men, to
whom, naturally, the untried electric railway is not attractive. Capital
ah:o is shy and hard to interest in a new investment. Electric railways
have usually been built by successful promoters, men with daring, enthu-
siasm, and resourcefulness, men who have waited and worked for years
to carry out their plans.

Crude presentations of situations, made by enthusiasts, young
engineers. New York-Chicago air-line promoters, and men without
experience in railroading, have been responsible for much opposition and
distrust. Electrification plans must be well presented.

Lack of ample information on the part of the promoter, of his engin-
eers, and of conservative capitalists, frequently results in the abandon-
ment of deserving propositions. There may be simply a lack of facts on
operation, and experience and resources with which to surmount obstacles.
There are, however, conditions which make electrification impractical,
as detailed in Chapter XIV, ''Procedure in Railroad Electrification."

118 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Investments are always larger with electric traction than with steam
traction, and there is an added annual charge for interest, taxes, and
depreciation. The extra investment may be justified by increased net
earnings, but the initial outlay required is often a handicap.

Some American railroads have already issued stocks and bonds up to
the limit of their average earning capacity. Other roads can raise the
funds, but the terms would bring an undesirable burden, too heavy to
be carried comfortably. Money for improvements of undoubted value
is frequently unobtainable when large amounts are needed. Increased
economy, with electricity, may be in sight, but it is quite another thing
to take advantage of electric traction.

Many vested interests are deeply concerned in the railroad, as one
finds when the electrification of a road is considered. The business
interests of the country and of the railroad are not separated, but are
dependent on each other, and sometimes these interests are opposed to a
change in motive power.

The actual cost of the electric power equipment required is, however,
generally a small portion of the total cost of a railroad. This is not always
understood by those who oppose investment for electric traction.

In many cases electrification was or will be compulsory, and estimates
and reports made by railroads have been and certainly will be adverse, in
fact a railroad is not expected to minimize its difficulties when a large
possible expenditure confronts it.

Complication is suggested by the central electric power station,
electric generators, transmission lines, distribution at high voltages,
transformation and utilization of power by motors, in place of a multitude
of simple steam locomotives. The necessity exists for different tools,
and trained labor for the inspections, maintenance, and repairs of the
electrical equipment. Added standards, patterns, castings, and also
office records are needed if the two motive powers are combined on a
steam and electric railway. Technical skill of a different grade is required
with electric traction.

Systems of electrification are confusing, for there are advocates of the
third-rail vs. trolley, direct current at 1200 volts with many substations
vs. alternating current at 6000 or 11,000 volts; 25 vs. 15 cycles; single-
phase vs. three-phase current; series-compensated vs. series-repulsion
motors. Some electric systems are not interchangeable. Moreover, each
system has been so successfully applied to train service that the best is
not easily selected. Steam railroad engineers, after 50 years of splendid
experience, are still unsettled on the relative merits of different mechani-
cal types and frames; singe vs. compound engines; 2- vs. 4-cylinder
compound; balanced engines vs. track pounders; and there are to-day
may distinct kinds of locomotives advocated for common railroad service.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 119

Danger to employees and to the public, from the use of electric power, is
to be considered. Accidents occur from unprotected third rails and from
crude overhead high-potential construction.

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad has over 100 miles of
11,000-volt trolley in regular freight and passenger service on its New
York Division. There have been accidents and fatalities, and a few
trainmen have been killed by contact with the trolley wires; but no
trainmen has ever been killed in the locomotive or motor cars.

Prussian State Railway has made tests on its high- voltage railway lines to deter-
mine the liability of fire and the danger to life resulting from cars coming in contact
with broken trolley wires. Passenger cars with standard wooden bodies were forced
in contact with live wires. Tests showed that every contact between the car and
the wire produced a short circuit which instantly tripped the circuit breaker in the
substation and automatically cut off the power. In a few cases imperfect short
circuits were established, and fire resulted; but if there was the slightest movement
of the car there was a complete short circuit and the power was cut off. Tests made
inside the car showed that in no case was any leakage produced which could be
detected by the human hand or body. In practice, grounding wire are provided on
car roofs to make sure that there will be sufficient current to open the automatic
circuit breaker and thus prevent risk to trainmen and passengers.

Electric motive power at practical voltages will always be dangerous;
high pressures on steam locomotives are always dangerous; but all are
necessary for economy.

Dependence on electric power plants for the entire motive power of
important railways may seem unwise. The break-down of a steam loco-
motive cripples only a short section of the division. A failure of electric
power means that the expense continues as usual, but with a loss of
earnings, a loss of reputation, and demoralization of the men, management,
and traffic. The capacity of a division of a railway which uses electric
power is decreased by an accident to the transformers, .controllers,
transmission, or contact line; and, in some measure, trains will be
bunched.

There is, however, in common power plants, because economy and
physical reasons require it, a duplication of boilers, turbo-generators,
transformers, and feeders. The important exception is the overhead
contact line, and it is essential that simplicity should govern here because
on single-track roads this is the only equipment which cannot be easily
duplicated. Reliability of service in practice has not been questioned.
Prudence dictates that two separate power plants be erected for important
long trunk-line railroads.

Transmission losses, with large amounts of power, were so large,
until about 189G, that power transmission for railroad service was not
practical. Power could not be furnished directly from one central
power plant to 15 scattered electric locomotives until the power could

120 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

be transmitted economically at least 30 miles. Electric traction for
trunk-line service required that high voltages — above 5000 volts — be
utilized on the contact line. High-voltage transmission and contact
lines have been so perfected that reliable electric power is now delivered,
with very small loss, to distant railroad trains.

Interference with signal systems, blocks, and telephone and telegraph
lines is no longer caused by electric currents. Apparatus has been
devised to effectually prevent interference from high-voltage lines, by
leakage, induction, static discharges, or ground currents. Reference:
Taylor, to A. I. E. E., Oct., 1909; G. E. Review, Aug., 1907.

Discard of steam locomotives is not necessary when electric traction
is adopted. Steam locomotives are short-lived at best, and 12 years is a
long life if the equipment is really used. Steam locomotives may be
used advantageously on other divisions. Renewals of locomotives by
purchases of equipment are charged to maintenance, not to construction.

Illinois Central Railroad case is here considered briefly. Upon demand
of the Chicago City Council in 1909 that all suburban lines be changed
to electric power, it gave four reasons why electrification could not be
undertaken.

First. — The state of the art is such that electric operation of large
freight terminals at Chicago is impracticable.

Second. — Operation by electricity would not result in economies
sufficient to pay an adequate return on the large additional investment.

Third. — Interchangeable electric motive power equipment for motor
cars and locomotives has not yet been developed.

Fourth. — Smoke nuisance can be avoided by using coke as fuel for
locomotives and gasolene as fuel for motor cars, and this improvement
would suffice in place of electric operation.

Extensive freight terminals are now electrically operated by the
Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, England; by Grand Trunk Railway
at its Sarnia Tunnel; by Michigan Central, at Detroit; by Hoboken
Shore Railroad, and a score of small terminals listed in Chapter I, which
use electric locomotives for freight haulage. The matter of size or
degree does not radically increase the difficulty of the situation, but
sometimes improves the financial prospect.

Data on cost of operation presented by the railroad were based on
82 . 9 per cent, operating expenses for steam and 66 per cent, for elec-
tricity. Increase in traffic and in gross and net revenue which were
not admitted in the Illinois Central report, can be anticipated to a very
large extent.

The cost of electrification of 52 miles of suburban road was estimated
at $154,000 per single-track mile, a sum which was certainly based on

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 121

improvements much more far-reaching than were actually required for
providing electric motive power and equipment. Rearrangement of
tracks and terminals was certainly advisable, but there was no reason
why the substitution of electric power for steam power should necessitate
track changes, particularly so w^hen overhead conductors are used.

The financial results from operation on the New York Central and
Long Island Railroads are held to have increased the net earnings more
than sufficient to pay the interest on the added investment for electrifi-
cation; and if this is true with passenger traffic from a terminal, addi-
tional economies will be effected when the whole road is electrified and
the freight and yard work is added.

The third objection reported by the Illinois Central Railroad officials
was that at New York City the New York Central and New Haven
equipments were not interchangeable, and that the Central could not
send its direct-current electric trains over the long-distance 11,000-volt
electric lines of the New Haven road. This objection is true. New
Haven single-phase, electric motor-car trains and freight and passenger
locomotives can, however, run anywhere over the New York Central,
Long Island, and Pennsylvania Railroad electric tracks.

Finally, the use of coke and of gasolene for heavy work is an experi-
ment; and, up to this time, there is little to indicate that either fuel would
be physically successful. Gas from the coke, and the noise and odor
from the gasolene, would be a nuisance; economy would probably not
result; and traffic would not be increased with such a motive power.

An important meeting of railroad officials with the transportation
committee of the Chicago City Council was held December 8, 1909, at
which the electrification of the terminal lines was considered. The rail-
road men contended that ^^electrification was impracticable: first,
because of cost; second, because of danger to employees; third, because the
science of electrification is not sufficiently matured to make it applicable
to the freight terminals."

The Illinois Central could adopt electric power to realize higher
economy and greater net earnings; but that would precipitate a situation
on all the steam roads. The example at the New York City terminals
already worries the railroads entering Chicago.

In February, 1911, all of the steam railroads having terminals at
Chicago agreed to a 2-year study of the electrification problem, by a
Commission of 17 steam railroads executives, city officials and business
men, under the auspices of the Chicago Association of Commerce. The
scope of the work embraces the following investigations: The necessity
for electrification; the mechanical feasibility considering all engineering
possibilities and problems; and the financial feasibility, whether the cost
is prohibitive and the results commensurate with the cost.

122 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Electric railroads are often called an experiment for heavy freight
and passenger service. The following railroads are exceptions:

New York, New Haven & Hartford, in trunk-line service.

New York Central, in heavy switching and terminal wcTrk.

Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, in tunnel and suburban service.

New York Subway for 10-car trains, in real rapid transit.

Pennsylvania Railroad, in heaviest terminal service.

Long Island Railroad, for dense main- line traffic.

West Jersey & Seashore Railroad, for heaviest passenger service
between Camden and Atlantic City, on a double-track, 65-mile road.

Baltimore & Ohio, in heaviest freight traffic thru a tunnel.

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line, for common railroad service.

All elevated roads, including the Manhattan Elevated, formerly one
of the largest steam roads in the country.

Albany Southern Railroad, for freight and passenger work.

W^est Shore Railroad, between Utica and Syracuse.

Erie Railroad, on its Rochester-Mt. Morris Division.

Michigan Central Railroad, for all Detroit River tunnel trains.

Grand Trunk Railway, for traffic thru the Sarnia Tunnel and grades.

The thru interurban roads of Ohio, Indiana, and New York.

Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend Railway, for excellent traffic.

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago Railroad, for high-speed rapid transit.

Chicago, & Milwaukee Electric Railroad, for 2-car train service.

Illinois Traction Company, for general freight work and for sleeping
car service between St. Louis and Peoria, 172 miles.

Colorado & Southern, for heavy work on grades near Denver.

Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad, freight and passenger service.

Great Northern Railway, for a tunnel on a heavy grade.

Puget Sound Electric Railway, for 3-car passenger train service.

Southern Pacific Company, for suburban traffic near San Francisco.

Huntington roads in California, for heavy trains.

Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, between Liverpool, Southport, and
Crossens, 82 miles of single track, for a large amount of ordinary suburban
and terminal service, much like that of the Illinois Central Railroad.

North-Eastern Railway, of England, 82 miles of track for excellent
service with electric trains, in both freight and passenger traffic.

Central London Railway, which carries 60,000,000 passengers per
year and operates 3-car trains on less than a 3-minute headway.

London, Brighton & South Coast Railway, on 62 miles of 2- to 7-track
road, in heavy suburban service.

Paris Subway, which has heavier service than the New York Inter-
borough.

Paris-Orleans Railway, between the Quai d'Orsay and Orleans

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR TRAINS 123

station^ where all main-line and overland trains are hauled by electric
locomotives.

Bernese-Alps Railroad, with heavy thru freight and passenger trains.

Valtellina Railway, of Italy, for light freight and passenger service.

Giovi Railway of Italy, for heaviest freight service with twenty-five
2000-h. p. locomotives, on heavy mountain grades.

A luxury which the people must pay for is an objection given at Boston;
but electric transportation history shows that when the capital has been
wisely invested for improved motive power on electric roads the people
are willing to pay for it; and they have usually furnished such an increase
in passenger and freight traffic, and in gross and net earnings, that the
improvements were not paid for by any increase in rates.

The financial problem is reduced to this: Will electric traction for
heavy railway service be capable of earning a greater percentage of
interest on the invested capital?

In general, it is practical for electric traction to supersede steam
traction only where scientific reasons and technical judgment make it
clear that the physical adva7itages, capacity, flexibility, simplicity, and
safety will produce a definite commercial advantage.

Electric traction may be used to prevent or to meet competition, to
promote traffic, or to improve the welfare or civic conditions of a city.
In special cases, efficient and economical operation may not be para-
mount, yet even here there must be some financial necessity.

In the business world electric traction is not a matter of sentiment,
policy, safety, or cleanliness except when these produce, for the whole
railway, greater financial returns.

LITERATURE.

References on Physical and Financial Advantages of Electric Traction.

Crosby: Limitations of Steam and Electricity in Transportation, A. I. E. E., May,

1890; E. E., May 28, 1890.
Sprague: Elevated and Suburban Problems, A. I. E. E., June, 1892; May, 1897.

Multiple-Unit Systems, A. I. E. E., May, 1899; S. R. J., May 4, 1901.

Facts and Problems on Electric Trunk-line Operation, A. I. E. E., May, 1907.
Baxter: Electricity to Supplant Steam Locomotives on Trunk Railways. Electrical

Engineer, Feb. 19, 1896 (excellent article).
Boynton: Electric Traction Under Steam Railway Conditions (N. Y. N. H. & H.),

A. I. E. E., Feb., 1900; S. R. J., May 14, 1904.
Burch: Electric Traction for Heavy Railway Service, Northwest Ry. Club, Jan.,

1901; S. Ry. Rev., Jan., 1901; S. R. J., March 9 and 30, 1901.
Potter: Developments in Electric Traction, N. Y. R. R. Club, Jan., 1905; S. R. J.,

Jan. 28, 1905; A. I. E. E , June, 1902.
Stillwell: Electric Traction Under Steam Road Conditions, S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904;

A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907.
White: Arnold: Siemens: International Elec. Cong., St. Louis, Sept., 1904, S. R. J.,

Oct. 29, 1904.

124 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

De Muralt: Heavy Traction Problems in Electric Engineering, A. I. E. E., June, 1905,

p. 525; S. R. J., May, 1903.
Smith, W. N.: Practical Aspects of Steam Railroad Electrification. A. I. E. E.,

Nov., 1904; Dec, 1907.
McHenry: Advantages of Electric Traction, S. R. J., Aug., 17, 1907.
Carter: Technical Considerations, Inst, of Elec. Eng'rs., Jan. 25, 1906,
Street: Electricity on Steam Railroads, Western Ry, Club, May, 1905; S. R. J., May

27, 1905.
Vreeland: Problems on the Electrified Steam Road, S. R. J., June 25, 1904.
Brinckerhoff : Elevated Railways and Heavy Electric Traction, S. R. J., Oct. 20,

1906; N. W. Elev. R. R. results, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907.
Harriman: On Electric Traction, E. W., March 16, 1907, p. 538.
Darlington: Substitution of Electric Power for Steam on American Railroads, Eng.

Mag., Sept., 1909; Financial Aspects, Feb., 1910.
Fowler: Value of Electrification to Railroads, E. W., March 21, 1908.
Electrification of Steam Railroads, New York R. R. Club, annual discussion at the

March meeting.
See literature on Characteristics of Electric Locomotives, Chapter VII.

NOTES 125

CHAPTER IV.
ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION.

Outline.
Classification.
Direct-current Systems :

Generation as three-phase current, transmission at high voltage, transfor-
mation to low voltage, conversion to direct-current, substation with attend-
ants along route, 600 and 1200 volts, one overhead trolley, third-rail contact
line, two-wire circuits, three-wire circuits, polyphase generation, motor-
generators, 1200 volts from converters, converters vs. motor-generators,
mercury gas rectifiers.

Three-phase System:

Generation and transmission, number of substations, two overhead trolleys,
750, 3000, 6000 volts, 15, 25, 60 cycles, transformation at substations or on
locomotives.

Single -phase Systems:

Generation, single- or three-phase; transformation if required for transmission,
substations if required, no attendants, one overhead trolley, 600, 3000, 6000,
11,000, 15,000 volts, 15, 25, 60 cycles.

Combinations of Electric Systems :

Leonard-Oerlikon, direct-current single-phase, three-phase direct-current,
single-phase, three-phase, direct single-phase, three-phase, single-phase
rectifier plan, gas-electric plan, storage batteries.

Interchangeable or Universal Systems .

Relative Advantages of Each System :

Generating equipment, power transmission, railway motor equipment, cost
of complete equipment, operation and maintenance.

Conclusions and Opinions.

Literature.

12C

CHAPTER IV.

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION.
CLASSIFICATION.

The development of electric traction systems preceded an extensive
use of electric power for railway train service. The progress made
between 1890 and 1910 will be outlined, and a summary of the present
status of each system will precede the details of the development.

Commercial systemis are first classified.

Direct-current, 600, 1200, 1500, or 2000 volts.

Three-phase, alternating-current, 3000 or 6000 volts.

Single-phase, alternating-current, 3000, 6000, 11,000, or 15,000 volts.

Combinations of these three systems; their use with current rectifiers;
their use with steam or gasoline power, etc.

The choice of an electric system is necessary in every electrification,
and obviously, each system has its advantages. The final choice, often
a compromise, is influenced by existing systems, by manufacturers'
standards, by financial interest, and by the real needs of the situation.

Essential features which should receive consideration are:

Service — trolley, interurban railway, or railroad.

Traffic — density, frequency, weight of individual trains.

Power characteristics — source, cycles, conversion, transformation.

Power plant load factor — the effect of diversity of load on economy
when heavy individual train loads are widely separated.

Cost of electrical equipment — motor cars and locomotives, feeders
and contact lines, and substations.

Cost of maintenance — substation equipment, transmissions, and
motors per ton-mile or per passenger-mile.

Distance between stops, and total distance, are not essential features.

DIRECT-CURRENT SYSTEM FOR RAILWAYS.

Direct -current systems now have the following status: With a
potential between the trolley or the third-rail and the track rails, direct-
current at 600 volts is used by all street railways, most of the interurban
railways; the New York City terminals of the New York Central, the
New Haven, the Pennsylvania, and the Long Island Railroads; also for
one important tunnel where there are heavy grades on the Baltimore &
Ohio, and one on the Michigan Central Railroad. The only example in
common long-distance passenger-train service is on the West Jersey and
Seashore Railroad, a 65-mile road between Camden and Atlantic City.

127

128 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

All subway lines, elevated roads, and terminal railways, in local passenger
service, have adopted the direct-current, 60D-volt, third-rail system.

Direct current at 1200 volts is now usedby 14 American interurban
railways, and by 7 European railways. No railroad yet uses 1200 volts
for train service, except the Southern Pacific, with an overhead trolley,
for its suburban work, partly on city streets, in and near Berkeley and
Oakland, California.

Direct current when used by railroads at low voltages requires an
excessive investment and a large loss in the transmission, conversion,
and transformation of the electrical energy. Direct current at 1200
to 2000 volts allows an increase in the length of the electrical zone,
since the loss in the local contact line is reduced.

The generation of energy, for the direct-current, 600- or 1200-volt
system, for railway-train service, is not as direct current, but as three-
phase alternating current; the latter is generally transmitted at high
voltage, then transformed to low voltage, and then changed by rotary
machinery to direct current, at 600 or 1200 volts, in substations along
the route of the railway.

OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIRECT-CURRENT SYSTEMS.

Generation, transmission, and utilization of direct current came first.
The development began with 75 volts, was soon 200, and, by the year
1895, had increased to 600 volts, a standard which is now used by over
95 per cent, of the street, interurban, and elevated railways of this country.

The 1200-volt, direct-current, two-wire system, first tried in 1907,
requires that the insulation be doubled at generators, trolley wires, con-
trollers, motor-windings, and commutators. Voltages which are higher
than 600 volts are not used across the commutators of railway motors or
rotary converters. At the substations, two 600-volt generators, or
two 600-volt rotary converters are connected in series. On the cars,
two 600-volt, interpole-type motors, each insulated for 1200 volts, are
connected in series, and each pair is arranged for series-parallel operation.

Central California Traction Company is the exception. It uses four 1200-volt,
G. E., No. 205 motors, rated 75 h. p. each, for 35-ton passenger cars. In the city
streets, 600 volts are used; on the right-of-way current is collected at 1200 volts,
from a 40-pound third-rail. This road has 7 motor cars.

A table which follows, on the development at higher direct-current
voltages since 1904, shows that about 20 small railways in Europe have
adopted the two-wire 750- to 2000-volt direct-current system.

Three-wire systems are those in which the track is used as a neutral
line, not for the return of the main current. Track feeders and bonding
may be reduced. Electrolytic troubles may be done away with. The

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 129

full advantage of the three-wire system is realized when the load on the
two sides is balanced, and the minimum current is returned via the neutral
or tracks. A balance of the load on the feeders can be obtained by
splitting the various sections and dividing the grades or heavy service
portions of the line, by means of double-throw switches.

The three-wire, direct-current system, with 600 volts between the trolley and the
track, was used for a short time, in 1894, by W. C. Gotshall, at St. Louis, on a road
with 250 cars. The S3^stem was also used in Portland, Oregon, and in Pittsburg;
see St. Ry. Journ., July, 1899, p. 426. City and South London, see St. Ry. Journ.,
Aug. 16, 1902, p. 229. With the introduction of three-phase, high-voltage trans-
missions, about 1896, the use of 1200-volt, three-wire systems decreased rapidly.

Within the past ten years the two-wire and the three-wire 1200-volt
system has again received serious consideration, as is shown below.

DIRECT-CURRENT RAILWAYS USING 750 TO 2000 VOLTS. EUROPEAN.

Name of railway or
location.

Name of
country.

Installa-
tion by.

Voltage.

Mile-

Reference or notes.

City & South London. .
Grenoble-Charpareillan .
Iselle Mining District . . .
St. Georges- La Mure.. .

Paris North-South

Mozelle-Maizieres Saint
Marie.

Villefranche-Bourg Mad-
ame

Cologne-Bonn

Berlin Elevated

Castellamare

A.nhalt Coal

Stuttgart-Dagerloch

Hamburg City

Salzberg Tramway. .

Nuremberg

Berchtesgaden

Vienna City

Tabor- Bechyne, . . .

Trient-Male

Montreux-Bernois.. .
Bellinzona-Mesocco .
Brian tae Electric. . .
Bresciana Electric. .

England . .
France. . . .
France. . . .
France. . . .

France ....
France. . . .

France. . . .

Germany .
Germany. .
Germany. .
Germany .
Germany. .

Germany. .
Germany. .
Germany
Austria . .
Austria...
Austria . . ,
Austria . . .
Swiss. . . ,

Swiss

Italy

Thury . .
Thury . .
Thury . .

Thury . .
Siemens

Alioth .

Siemens.
Siemens.
Siemens.
Siemens.
Siemens.

A.E.G ...

Krizik. .
Krizik. .

Alioth . . .
Rieter . .
Gen. Elec.
Gen. Elec.

500*
600*
2,000
1,200*

750*
2,000

850

990
750
825
900
800

800

900

550*

1,000

1,500*

700*

800

850

1,500

1,200

15
26

4
9

18
16
12
4
18

13
8
18
16
40
39
19
16
33

Electric Review, Feb. 13, 1909.
E. R. J., Oct. 31, 1903.
55-ton, 550-h.p. locomotive
To be changed to 2 400- volt,

two-wire.
London Elect., Dec. 9, 1910.
Described in Chapter VIII.
Third-rail line.

S.R.J., May 2, 1908.

Shunt motors. Regeneration.

Year 1909.

1909.

S.R.J. , July 1, 1905,

Nine 120-h.p. cars.

S.R.J., Nov. 3, 1906.

S.R.J., Dec. 10, 1904.

15.

S.R.J., Nov. 13, 1909.
S.R.J., Nov. 4, 1905.

18 cars; 45-h.p. motors.

* The star indicates that the three-wire system is used.

The voltage given is that between the trolley and the rail.

Complications are experienced with lighting, comprrasor, controller, and contactor circuits.

Four 550-volt motors are used in series, on 2000 volts. Series-parallel control is abandoned.

The road^ listed are city or interurban trolley lines.

130 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

DIRECT-CURRENT RAILWAYS USING 1500 VOLTS. AMERICAN.

Name of railway.

Mile-
age.

Equip-
ment.

Motor
h.p.

Elec. Ry. Jour,
reference.

Piedmont & Northern ...

125

23 MC

4-90
4-14L

May 20, 1911, p. 885.

Ten 500-kw. motor-generator sets are to be used. Locomotives weigh 55 tons
and will haul 800-ton freight trains on long steep grades between Charlotte, N. C,
and Greenwood, S. C. Westinghouse equipment is used.

DIRECT-CURRENT RAILWAYS USING 1200 VOLTS. AMERICAN.

Name of railway.

Mile-
age.

Motor
cars.

Motor
h.p.

Elec. Ry. Journal
references.

Indianapolis & Louisville ....

35
25

24
12

9
60

20
70

550

10
16

2
10

65
39
15
15

4
2
1

7
30

3
10

4-75
4-75
4-75
4-75

4-125

Jan. 4, 1908, p. 4.
Jan. 16, 1909, p. 92
July 13, 1907.
April 17, 1909, p. 738.

Feb. 4, 1911.

Pittsburg, Harmony, Butler & New C .
California Midland

Central California Traction

Stockton-Lodi, third-rail.
Southern Pacific Co., Oakland, Cal. .
San Jose & Santa Clara, California . .

Milwaukee Electric Ry . . .

4-125
4-75

4-75
4-50
4-75
4-50

4-50
4-75
4-125
4-50

4-75

March 13, 1909,p.460.
July 16, 1910, p. 102.

Sept. 3, 1910.

Waukesha Beach to Watertown.

St. Martins to East Troy.

St. Martins to Burhngton.
Southern Cambria Ry., Johnstown, Pa.
Aroostook Valley R. R., Maine

Albuquerque Traction Co., N. M . . .

Sapulpa, Oklahoma Interurban

Washington, Baltimore & Annapohs

Shore Line Electric Ry., New Haven

Meriden, Middleton & Guilford, Conn.

3-wire system. Aban-
doned in 1907.

See single-phase roads.

Dec. 4, 1909, p. 1133.
May 20, 1911.

Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern. .
Total — 14 roads

247

4-75
4-125

Jan. 14, 1911, p. 81.

Equipment for the above trolley line lines was furnished by the General Electric
Company, which had advocated the 1200- volt system since 1908, when it abandoned
the manufacture of single-phase series-compensated and series-repulsion motors.

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 131

General Electric Company's annual report, January, 1909, stated:
"The continued successful operation of our 1200-volt direct-current
railway apparatus fully demonstrates the reliability of this most valuable
system, which fulfils the requirements of railway companies for extensions
and for interurban service beyond the economical limits of 600-volt dis-
tribution, avoiding the complication incidental to single-phase, alterna-
ting current equipments when operated over direct-current lines."

''Prior to January, 1911, over 85,000 h. p. of 1200-volt direct-current
G. E. motor equipment was in service or on order."

DIRECT -CURRENT SYSTEM, WITH POLYPHASE GENERATION.

Generation and transmission of three-phase current at 60, 35, or 25
cycles, at high voltages, and its utilization, after its transformation, and
its conversion by rotary converters, to direct current at 600 volts, at many
substations, for electric railway service, was an important development.
A historical outline is presented.-

DEVELOPMENT OF POLYPHASE CURRENT FOR DIRECT-CURRENT

RAILWAYS.

Taftsville, Conn., 2500 volts, 300 h. p., 3.5 miles, 1894.

One 50-cycle synchronous motor, belted to a 250-k. w. railway generator, was
installed by the Baltic Power Company, under the direction of Dr. Louis Bell
and Mr. H. E. Raymond, and furnished power to about 16 cars on 16 miles of
road, for the Norwich Street Railway.

Lowell, Mass., 5500 volts, 800 h. p., 15 miles, 1895.

This is said to be the first three-phase transmission plant with direct-current
converters. Four 75-k. w., 900 r. p. m., 30-cycle converters were installed
for railway work. The power was used by the Lowell & Suburban Street
Railway.

Portland, Oregon, 6000 volts, 2000 h. p., 13 miles, 1895.

Two 450-k. w. rotary converters on a 33-cycle, three-phase circuit were used
for railway work. The cycles were adapted for rotary converters and also
for the arc and incandescent lighting service of this pioneer company. Dr.
Louis Bell, S. R. J., Sept., 1898, calls this the first railway converter installation.

Sacramento, California, 11,000 volts, 3000 h. p., 23 miles, 1895.
Two 60-cycle synchronous motors ran railway generators.

Fresno, California, 19,000 volts, 900 h. p., 35 miles, 1895.
A 60-cycle motor ran a railway generator.

Bakersfield, California, 10,000 volts, 1000 h. p., 12 miles, 1896.
One 100-k. w., 60-cycle synchronous converter was used.

Niagara Falls, N. Y., 11,000 volts, 3000 h.p., 21 miles, 1896. 22,000 volts, 6,000 h.p.
21 miles, 1899. 60,000 volts, 14,000 h.p., 160 miles, 1907. Two 450-kilowatt,
600-volt, 25-cycle converters, placed in service at Niagara Falls, and at
Buffalo, in 1896, were quite successful. They marked a decided improvement
over 60-cycle converters, most of which, up to the year 1902, were failures.

Minneapolis, Minn., 13,200 volts, 4000 h. p., 9 miles, 1897.

Electric power aggregating 4200 k. w. was transmitted to three substations in

132 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Minneapolis and St. Paul, entirely underground, in three-phase, paper-insulated

cables. Six 600-k.w., 35-cycle railway converters were placed in service.

The engineering work was carried out by the writer.
Mechanicsville, N. Y., 12,000 volts, 5000 h. p., 14 miles, 1898.

Use of 38-cycle power for electric railway at Schenectady.
Helena, Montana, 45,000 volts, 8000 h.p., 57 miles, 1898.

Two 60-cycle, 300-k.w. converters were used in Butte.
Redlands, California, 33,000 volts, 4000 h. p., 80 miles, 1898.

One 100-k.w., 50-cycle converter was used at Los Angeles.
Chicago & Milwaukee Railroad, 5500 volts, 650 h.p., 9 miles, 1899.

Four 125-k.w., 25-cycle converters were used. E. W., Apr. 8, 1899.
Union Traction Company, 22,000 volts, 4000 h.p., 30 miles, 1900.

This was for a modern interurban railway in Indiana.
Snoqualmie Falls Company, 33,000 volts, 8000 h. p., 40 miles, 1900.

Four 60-cycle, railway rotary converters were used in Seattle and Tacoma.
Metropolitan Street Railway, N. Y., 6600 volts, 15,000 h. p., 1901.

This became at once the largest installation. Twenty-six 900- k. w. converters

were installed. The use of 25 cycles was now established.

GENERATORS FOR 1200- TO 1500- VOLT, DIRECT-CURRENT SYSTEM.

1 200 -volt .rotary converters are not used for heavy railroad work.
At the present state of the development, two 600-volt generators or two
rotary converters are operated in series, in 1200- to 1500-volt systems.
The generators are designed as follows:

1. Large interpoles are used, which are far below saturation until a
very heavy overload is reached; and the poles must be so proportioned
that they will follow any sudden change in load. The interpole coils must
not be shunted with resistance or impedance, otherwise they will not be
effective on short circuit. The danger from a heavy rush of current due
to short circuit will always be greater in 1200-volt railway systems than
in a 600-volt system. The danger from flashing at the 600-volt commu-
tator is also large where two generators operate in series as one unit; for,
if either commutator should flash in case of a short circuit, then 1200
volts are thrown across the other commutator to flash that commutator;
and the disturbance is liable to flash the other machines in the same sub-
station and do much more damage than in the case of 600-volt service.
In a rotary converter, commutating poles can seldom be made large
enough for short-circuit conditions.

2. A large number of commutator bars are used between neutral points
or brushes, to decrease the flashing tendency in case of a short circuit, as
with ordinary 600-volt generators; but 600-volt converters flash viciously
on a short circuit, regardless of the number of commutator bars per pole;
and what is safe in a generator will not prevent trouble in a converter.

3. Standard direct-current generator designs are used for the magnetic
field structure. This design embraces a cast iron field yoke and laminated
poles, When a short circuit occurs or flashing exists across the brushes.

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 133

the fields are quickly demagnetized. In rotary converters the yokes are
of steel, which have about four times the conductivity of cast iron for sec-
ondary currents, and the pole faces are solid and provided with dampers.
This standard design, which is necessary for converters, allows heavy
secondary currents to be induced, and these tend to maintain the mag-
netization and current during flashing or short circuit. The converter
is tied to the alternating-current system which can feed excessive cur-
rent to the commutator; and further, after the alternating-current cir-
cuit breaker opens, the flashing with the reduced direct-current field is
found to be decidedly severe. The converter may even pull out of the
service and drop back again with reversed polarity. This makes in
all a relatively bad showing for a converter in case trouble arises.
Naturally more short circuits will arise from railway motor flashing and
from break-down of insulation with 1200-volt than with 600-volt circuits
Mercury-arc or other types of rectifiers, placed at frequent intervals
along the line may be developed, to do away with rotating apparatus
and attendants at substations.

THREE-PHASE ALTERNATING -CURRENT SYSTEMS FOR RAILWAYS.

Three-phase systems have the following status: With 3000 or 6000
volts and with 15 and 25 cycles, they are used by three railroads in Europe
and one in America, for heavy railway train service. The four roads are
here described briefly.

1. Three lines of the Italian State Railway:

Valtellina, with 67 miles of main track between Lecco, Sondrio, and
Chiavenna, was electrified in 1902, for operation with two 3000-volt
trolleys. The equipment, built by Ganz, includes ten 58-ton, 300-h.p.
motor cars with coaches and six locomotives. Five to six trains are
in service at one time. This road is being extended 25 miles to Milan.

Giovi Line, north of Genoa, with 13 miles of double track, and 3.5 per
cent, ruling grades, including a 2.6 mile tunnel with a 2.9 per cent, grade,
was equipped in 1909 with the 15-cycle, 3000-volt, three-phase system.
The equipment built by Westinghouse includes twenty 67-ton, 2000-h. p.
locomotives, which are used in pairs to haul 420-ton trains, at 14 or 28
m. p. h., up 2 . 9 per cent, grades. The service is the heaviest in Europe.

Savona-Ceva, or Savona-San Giuseppe Line, 13 miles long, in service
since 1909, uses 10 locomotives similar to the Giovi.

Mt. Cenis Tunnel, between France and Italy, built in 1910, was
equipped with 10 locomotives similar to the Giovi.

2. Swiss Federal Railway equipped its Simplon Tunnel and terminal
yards, 14 miles of road, in 1907, with the 15-cycle, 3000-volt, three-phase
system. The equipment, manufactured by Brown, Boveri & Company,

134 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

includes three locomotives, for hauling 730-ton freight trains, at 22 m. p. h. ,
on 0.7 per cent, grades.

In the installations noted above, the 3000 volts are used directly on
the motor field windings.

3. Santa Fe-Gergal road, in southwestern Spain, a mountain road, 15
miles long, uses five 320-h. p., three-phase, 15-cycle locomotives, built
by Brown, Boveri & Company.

4. Great Northern Railway electrified, in 1909, 4 miles of main track
and 2 miles of terminal track, at the Cascade tunnel, in Washington,
using the 6000-volt, three-phase, 25-cycle system. The equipment
consists of four 115-ton, 1700-h. p. locomotives which haul 1800-ton
trailing loads up the 1.7 per cent, grade at one speed — 15 m. p. h.

The complication of the necessary double overhead contact wires had
debarred this system from all high-speed interurban railways, and from
large railroad switching yards.

OUTLINE ON DEVELOPMENT OF THREE-PHASE SYSTEM FOR

RAILWAYS.

Generation, transmission, transformation, and use of three-phase
current at 15 and 25 cycles, and at 3000 and 6000 volts, followed the
direct-current system, for railway train service.

Alternators, with revolving fields and large transformers for high
voltages, had been developed in Europe by 1896. Three-phase induction
motors, with and without collector rings, had been developed by Tesla
and others, and the time had come for the development of a new system
to utilize and adapt this equipment for heavy railroading.

Siemens & Halske exhibited at Chicago Exposition, in 1893, a three-
phase, 600-volt, 50-cycle, 1400 r. p. m., 11 to 1 geared, railway motor,
which had been used on an experimental track at Charlottenburg.

Brown, Boveri & Company equipped a street railway in Lugano,
Italy, in 1896; three mountain railways in Switzerland, in 1898; and an
interurban line between Burgdorf and Thun, 26 miles, in 1899. The
voltages used were from 500 to 750.

Ganz Electric Company installed this system for railway service
between London and Port Stanley, Ontario, 27 miles, in 1905. Two
1100-volt, 65-h. p. motors were used per motor car. Trailers were hauled.
The line loss was heavy, and, on the grades at the ends of lines, the motors
simply died down or fell out, when overloaded, because of lack of draw-
bar pull. Had additional transformer stations been installed, the motor
trouble would have been avoided; but this experience showed that, with
the low voltage necessarily used with a two-trolley, three-phase system,
substations must be frequent. St. Ry. Journ., Dec. 9, 1905, p. 1026.

Ganz Electric Company must, however, be credited with the first real

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 135

advance in the application of the three-phase system for railroads.
Its initial electrification was in 1902 for the Italian State Railway. The
number of cycles used was 15, which was advantageous for the motors.
The voltage between the 2 trolleys and the rails was 3000, which
voltage has not since been exceeded in Europe. It is a safe pressure for
collecting devices from 2 overhead conductors which must be insulated
from each other in railroad switching yards, terminals, and bridges; and
for the controller and motor wiring; and it is safe for stator and rotor
windings of motors on locomotives, but not on motor cars. The 3000-
volt three-phase installation required substations 6 miles apart.

Berlin-Zossen tests, made at Berlin in 1903, for the study of high
speeds on railways used the three-phase system. Speeds up to 130
m. p. h. were obtained. Experimental motor-car equipments built by
Allgemeine Elektricitats-Gesellschaft and by Siemens-Schuckert were
designed for 10,000 volts, and 50 cycles. The overhead construction,
with three 10,000-volt trolley wires in a vertical plane, would not be
practical in railroading.

Brown, Boveri & Company, in 1907, equipped the Simplon Tunnel.

Westinghouse Company of Italy, in 1909 and 1910, equipped the
Giovi, Savona-Ceva, and Mt. Cenis Tunnel roads as detailed.

Technical descriptions of all locomotives are given later.

THREE-PHASE RAILROADS— EQUIPMENT AND MILEAGE.

Name of railroad.

age.

Locomo-
tives.

H.P. per
locomotive.

Cycles
used.

Trolley
voltage.

Burgdorf-Thun 26

Italian State:

Valtellina 70

Giovi 38

Savona-Ceva i 13

Mt. Cenis Tunnel 5

Swiss Federal :

Simplon 1906 14

1909

2
2
5
4

300
600
1200
1500
1980
1980
1980

1100

1700

320

1700

15
15
15

16
16
15
25

750

3000

3000
3000
3000

3000
3000 •

Santa Fe-Gergal 15

Great Northern 6

5500
6000

Street railways and rack and pinion railways are not listed.

Burgdorf-Thun Railway has six 60-h.p. motor cars, each of which hauls one or
two coaches. Valtellina Railway has ten 300-h.p. motor cars.

Great Northern locomotive rating is 1900-h.p. with forced draft. The motor
voltage is only 500. In the European motor-car and locomotive installations, the
full trolley voltage is used directly on the motor fields.

136 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

SINGLE-PHASE ALTERNATING -CURRENT SYSTEMS FOR RAILWAYS.

Single -phase systems now have the following status: They are used
with 3000 to 11,000 volts, and 15- and 25-cycle alternating currents for
many interurban roads and particularly for the haulage of heavy indi-
vidual train units in trunk-line work. In America, the 11,000-volt, 25-
cycle system was selected, in 1906, by the New. Haven road for the electri-
fication of its New York-New Haven Division, 73 miles. The first half,
to Stamford, is now in successful operation, and plans have been devel-
oped for its use in all freight and passenger work for the balance of the
division. The single-phase system is also employed by these other roads :
Rochester branch of the Erie Railroad, which has used 11,000 volts since
1907; Indianapolis and Cincinnati line, 116 miles, since 1904; Baltimore
& Annapolis Short Line, 35 miles; Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad
which, since 1906, has used 6000 volts for ordinary freight and passenger
service over 162 miles of track; Visalia Division of the Southern Pacific
Railway; Denver-Boulder branch of the Colorado & Southern Railroad;
Rock Island-Galesburg Division, 52 miles, of the Rock-Island Southern
Railroad; and Grand Trunk Railway, for the Sarnia-Port Huron tunnel,
where 41 freight and passenger trains per day are hauled thru the yards
and up the 2 per cent, grades in the tunnel.

In Europe, the single-phase system has been adopted by these roads:
Swedish State Railways; Midland Railway of England; London, Brighton
& South Coast; Bavarian State Railway; Mariazell Railroad; Blank-
enese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorf, and other lines of the Prussian State Railway;
Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen Railway; Weisental Railway; Bernese-
Alps Railway; and Midi or Southern Railway of France. The freight
and passenger equipment is tabulated in the tables which follow, and
the locomotive equipment is described in Chapter X.

OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEMS.

Generation, transmission, and utilization of single -phase, alternating-
current, at 15 and 25 cycles is a recent development.

In September, 1902, at an A. I. E. E. meeting, Mr. B. G. Lamme
presented a paper which advocated the use of single-phase alternating-
current for railways. The details of the new system had been developed
by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, of Pittsburg.
This system marked a great advance in the struggle against the economic
limitations imposed by the direct-current system on the transfer and
distribution of power to widely separated, heavy, individual train units.
Heretofore there had been heavy transformation and conversion losses,
also an excessive cost for substation equipment, maintenance, and
feeders.

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 137

Many engineers had been working along this line, the objects of their
study being:

1. An alternating-current system for electric railways.

2. Prevention of electrolysis of rail-base metal, water-supply pipes,
and of lead casing of the underground feeders, the maintenance of which,
and of the track bonding, was excessive.

3. Single-phase feeders from three-phase generators, with a lower
investment in feeders for suburban lines and branches of steam railroads.

4. Elimination of the rotary-converter substations.

5. Single-phase motors, without commutators, for railways.

The writer conducted many experiments on a single-phase system in 1898.
He was then electrical engineer for the Twin City Rapid Transit Company, which
operated 250 miles of electric road in and between Minneapolis and St. Paul. The
power system then used was the best. Alternating three-phase current, at 13,200
volts, was transmitted from an 8000-h.p. central station to four substations, each
containing from one to three 600-k.w. rotary converters. There were heavy losses
in large 660- volt, direct-current feeders, and substation maintenance was expensive.
Experiments were made in Minneapolis. Power was obtained from a 175-kw.,
10-cycle, 380- volt, single-phase alternator. (A 660- volt, direct-current, bipolar
Edison railway generator was used, and two collector rings slipped over the com-
mutator, were properly connected and insulated.) Power was fed to an ordinary
trolley line. Two 15-h.p. Sprague, 600-volt, series, direct-current, "standard"
street railway motors were used on an ordinary street car. These direct-current
motors were used on the single-phase, alternating-current circuit.

The results from these motors were of course disappointing. The inductive
effects with the solid wrot iron fields, the 812 turns of No. 12 wire in series on the two
field coils, and the long air gaps, so reduced the input, that the torque and the output
of the motor were practically nil. "Weight efficiency" was certainly bad. Sparking
and heating existed at the commutator, at any position of the brushes, from the
e. m. f. induced by the armature coils short-circuited by the brushes.

Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft in 1903 used single-phase motors on a
public road at Spindlersfield, near Berlin.

Mr. B. J. Arnold^ of Chicago, experimented in 1903 with a single-phase, alter-
nating current motor combined with an air compressor. A. I. E. E. proceedings,
June, 1902, p. 1003. See locomotive drawings. Western Electrician, Jan. 2, 1904;
E. E., 1904, p. 83.

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company placed the first single-phase
system and single-phase railway motor equipment in commercial service in December,
1904, on the Indianapolis & Cincinnati Traction Company's Interurban line. The
original 82 miles of track were soon increased to 116 miles.

Four years later there were 1000 miles of single-phase road, equipped with 246
motor cars and 64 electric locomotives, with a capacity of 137,000 h.p. in railway
motors. In Europe there were approximately 900 miles in service in December,
1908; and at that date over 250,000 h.p. in single-phase railway motors had been
sold in America and in Europe. This represents a most wonderful development.

The installations to the present year are Usted. The data were collected by
visits, by correspondence, and from descriptive items in technical papers.

138

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS,

25-CYCLE, SERIES-COMPENSATED

MOTORS. AMERICAN.

Name of railway.

Year
opend.

Mile-
age.

Trolley
voltage.

A.C.
D.C.

Equip-
ment.

Motor
h. p.

Westinghouse :

Indianapolis & Cincinnati

1904

112

3,300

Yes

25 MC

4-100

Westmoreland County Trac-

1905

1,200

4 MC

4- 50

tion, Derby to Latrobe, Pa. . .

San Francisco, Vallejo & Napa

1905

3,300

9 MC

4-100

Valley, California.

2 MC

2- 75

Warren & Jamestown

1905

3,300

6 MC

4- 50

Long Island R. R. :

Sea Cliff Division.

1905

2,200

6 MC

2- 50

Spokane & Inland Empire R.R.

1906
1908
1910
1907

162

6,600

Yes

25 MC
6 L
8 L
4 MC

4-100
4-125

4-170

Fort Wayne & Springfield

6,600

Yes

4- 75

Pittsburg & Butler

1907

6,600
11,000

Yes

13 MC

4-100

Erie R.R

1907

6 MC

4-100

First steam railroad to use single-

phase system, Rochester-Mt. Morris

Division.

Windsor, Essex & Lake Shore.

1907

6,600

8 MC
1 L

2-100
4-100

New York, New Haven &

1907

100

11,000

Yes

41 L

4-240

Hartford, New York Division,
23 miles of 4- track road.

1908

Yes

1 L

4-315

1909
1910
1911
1911

Yes
Yes
Yes
No

4 MC
1 L
1 L
14 L
4 MC

4-150

2-675

8-174

Harlem River freight yards . .

4-150

Visalia Electric Ry., California

1908

3,300

6 MC

4- 75

(15 cycles).

1 L

4-125

Grand Trunk Ry. :

Sarnia-Port Huron Tunnel. . .

1908

3,300

6 L

3-240

Hanover & York Ry., Pa

1908

6,600

Yes

5 MC

4- 75

Baltimore & Annapolis S.L. . . .

1908

6,600

12 MC

4-100

Colorado & Southern:

Denver & Interurban R.R.. . .

1908

11,000

Yes

16 MC

4-125

Chicago, Lake Shore & South

1908

6,600

24 MC

4-125

Bend.

7 MC

2- 75

Rock Island Southern:

1910

11,000

6 MC

4-100

Rock Island to Monmouth. . .

4 MC

4-125

New York, West Chester &

1911

11,000

100 MC

4-150

Boston.

Boston & Maine:

Hoosac Tunnel

1911

25
1039

11,000

5 L

4-315

Total — 20 roads

296 MC
86 L

Most of the installations are for railroad train service.

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 139
SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 25 CYCLES. AMERICAN.

Name of railway.

Year
opend.

Mile-
age.

Trolley
voltage.

A.C.
D.C.

Equip-
ment.

Motors
h.p.

General Electric :

Schenectady Ry.:

Ballston Division,

1904

16*

2,200

Yes

2 MC

4-50

(compensated motor).

Illinois Traction Co :

Bloomington-Peoria. . . .

1905

38*

3,300

10 MC

4-75

Springfield-Mackinaw . .

1907

57*

3,300

20 MC

4-75

Toledo & Chicago Ry

1906

3,300

Yes

7 MC

4-75

Milwaukee Electric Ry. :

Waukesha-Oconomowoc ;

1907

68*

3,300

Yes

15 MC

4-75

BurHngton & East Troy.

Richmond & Chesapeake

1907

6,600

4 MC

4-125

Bay (repulsion motor).

Anderson Traction, S. C.

1907

3,300

Yes

3 MC

4-75

New York, New Haven &

1908

11,000

2 MC

4-125

Hartford, Stamford-

4 MC

4-125

New Canaan Branch.

Shawinigan Ry., Quebec

1908

6,600

Yes

r L

4-150

30 and 15 cycles.

Washington, Baltimore

1908

87*

6,600

Yes

22 MC

4-125

and Annapohs.

Total 9

354

266

89 MC
68 MC
21 MC

Abandoned* 4

In service 5

General Electric Company used three sizes of single-phase motors. GE-604,
50-h.p.; 605, 75-h.p.; 603, 125-h.p. For data on the latter see A. I. E. E., May 21,
1907, p. 701.

Cost of these alternating-current direct-current motor equipments is stated to
have been nearly twice that of direct-current equipment.

A 15-cycle, 400-h.p. experimental locomotive built in 1909 is described under
electric locomotives.

General Electric single-phase railway equipments have, in most cases, been
discarded, as noted below:

Schenectady Railway claimed unsatisfactory operating results.

Illinois Traction abandoned single-phase equipment, because the motor operation
was unsatisfactory, and to standardize the electric power system. Elec. Ry. Journ.,
Jan. 22, 1910, p. 142.

Milwaukee Electric Railway and Light Company abandoned the system in 1909.
President John I. Beggs is quoted:

" I have been forced to this action very reluctantly, as this type of apparatus is,
in my judgment, a commercially operating necessity thru sparsely settled territory
on long outlying lines, the amount of business on which does not justify the mainten-
ance of substations at frequent intervals with constant manual attention. The

140 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

alternating-current equipment does fairly well when operated as single units, but on
our lines, during seasons of heavy traffic, we are compelled to attach anywhere
from one to three large trailers which our single-phase apparatus had not the power
of starting."

''We are substituting for the alternating-current equipment, the 600-1200-volt
system, which reduces very considerably the objectionable features of direct-current
substations at such frequent intervals. We have arranged for thirty 4-motor,
125-h.p., direct-current equipments of this type (on 40-ton, 53-foot cars) to replace
the fifteen 4-motor, 75-h.p. alternating-current equipments (on 41-ton, 53-foot cars)
operated by us for nearly two years past."

(In other words, the 75-h.p. electric motors were too small for the overloads.)
The watt-hours per ton-mile were materially less for the alternating-current than
for the direct-current system. References: E. R. J., May 1, 1909, p. 823. S. R. J.,
Aug. 3, 1907, p. 158; March 13, 1909, July 16, 1910.

Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis Railway installed the single-
phase system in 1908 for its interurban line, but abandoned it in 1909
for the 1200-volt direct-current system. The road was placed in the
hands of a receiver, who reported:

"The cause of the present condition can be summed up by stating that the
amount of the company's present liabilities, for which it has not been able to issue
securities, is made up entirely of the amount which it has been required to put into
its construction account, and the deficit caused by the large percentage of operating
expenses under the alternating-current system."

The writer investigated, and found that the road, which runs from Washington
to Baltimore, has 33.5 miles of double track, and also a 15-mile single-track branch
from the middle of the line to Annapolis. The road, except in the cities, is largely
on a private right-of-way. It began electrical operation in February, 1908, as a
single-phase trolley line. Motors were number 603-A, repulsion type, four 125-h.p,
units per car, with plain rheostatic control on 600-volt direct-current, and with
potential control, two motors being in series, on 113 to 450- volt single-phase circuits.

The Washington terminal was 2.75 miles from the heart of the city, and a transfer,
with delays, was required to reach the city via the local trolley cars, a handicap
which accounted for the fact that the traffic and earnings fell short of the estimates.

At Washington, the trolley runs in an underground conduit. The complication
was indeed great, with the direct-current system, the alternating-current system, the
overhead trolley, and the conduit trolley. Moreover, the limited strength of the
conduit and track yokes would not support a 45-ton trolley Ga;r, and smaller cars
were required to take 50-foot radius curves in Baltimore and Washington. The
large interurban cars were sold, viz.: 23 cars, 62-foot, 66-seat, 57-ton with 4-125-h.p.,
alternating motors, and replaced by 33 cars, 50-foot, 54-seat, 39-ton, with 4-75-h.p.,
direct-curren motors. Vibration on the alternating motors was excessive when the
load was heavy, and caused open circuits in armature leads. Some bar winding
connections had to be riveted. Vibration even destroyed the cast-steel gears. The
alternating-current motors had to be nursed. Sparking was bad, and required fre-
quent commutator turning. Brush expense was heavy. Carbon dust in the motor
case caused many short circuits or flash overs. Brush-holder losses and cleaning
entailed heavy maintenance expense.

One of the above alternating-current equipments was redesigned in 1909, with
new contactor boxes, simplified control, drop-out overload contactors, a speed limit

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 141

relay, and one transformer in place of two. Weight was decreased over four tons.
These early troubles were very interesting.

The company in 1910 adopted the 600-1200-volt direct-current system for the
city and interurban sections of the line and cars now run into each city. The 7
single-phase transformers formerly used were sold. Five new substations contain
sixteen 300-kw., 600- volt rotary converters connected two in series, in pairs. The
saving in cost of power, after the change, was 10 per cent, per car-mile in favor of the
1200-volt direct-current system. Since the advance of fares, March 1, 1910, net
earnings have increased.

SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 25 CYCLES. EUROPEAN.

Name of railway.

Name of
country.

Year
opend.

Mile-
age.

Trolley
voltage.

Equip-
ment.

Motor
h.p.

Westinghouse :

Midland

England. .

1908

6,600

1 MC

2-150

Thamshavn-Lokken . .

Norway . .

1908

6,600

3 L
1 MC

4- 40

2- 40

Swedish State:

Sweden. . .

1905

3,300

1 L

2-150

Stockholm.

18,000
18,000

1 L

2 MC

3-115
2-120

Tergnier-Anizy

France . . .

1909

3,300

3 L
3 MC

2- 40
2- 40

Rom a-C i v i t a-Castel-

Italy

1905

6,600

3 L ..

4- 40

lana.

8 MC

2- 40

Salerene-Pompeii

Italy..,..

1908

6,600

20 MC

2- 40

Brembana Valley. . . .

Italy

1907

6,000

5 L

4- 75

Siemens — Schuckert :

Midland

England. .

1908

6,600

2 MC

2-175

Swedish State

Sweden. . .

1905

18,000

1 L

3-110

Rotterdam-Hague-S . .

Holland. .

1908

10,000

25 MC

2-175

Prussian State:

Blankanese-Ohlsdorf

Germany .

1907

6,000

14 MC

2-125

Oranienburg

1909

6,000

1 MC

2-175

Haute- Vienne

Austria. . .

1910

10,000

35 MC

4- 60

St. Polten-Mariazell . . .

Austria. . .

1909

6,600

17 L

2-250

Parma Provincial

Italy

1909

4,000

10 MC
8 MC

2- 75
1- 60

Roma-Civita-Castel-

Italy

1906

6,600

4 L

4- 40

lana.

4 MC

2- 40

A. E. G. (Winter-

Eichberg) :

Prussian State:

Germany .

1903

6,000

2 MC

2-100

Spindlersfeld.

2 MC

2-200

Oranienburg, Berhn.

Germany .

1906

6,000

1 L
1 L

3-350
2-350

Blankanese-Ohlsdorf

Germany .

1908

6,000

54 MC
42 MC

3-115
2-200

142 ELICCTMC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 25 CYCLES. EUROPEAN.— Continued.

Name of railway.

Name of
country.

Year
opend.

Mile-
age.

Trolley
volts.

Equip-
ment.

Motor
h.p.

Swedish State :

Stockholm

Sweden. . .
Norway. . .

1905
1908

5
36

6,500
11.000

2 MC

2-115

Thamshavn-Lokken . .

4- 80

Albtal Ry. :

Germany .

1909

8,000

4 L

4- 85

Karlsruhe-Herrenalb . .

7 MC

2- 85

Padua-Fusina

Italy

1909

6,000

13 MC

2- 80

Naples-Piedimonte. . .

Italy

1909

10,000

2 L
9 MC

4- 80
4- 80

Pamplona-Sanguesa. . .

Spain

1909

6,000

5 MC

4- 80

London, Brighton &

England. .

1909

6,600

16 MC

4-115

South Coast.

1910

30 MC

4-150

Oerlikon :

Valle-Moggia :

Swiss

1907

5,500

3 MC

4- 60

Locarno-Bignasco . .

1 L

Brown-Boveri :

Seethal Railroad:

Lucerne- Wildegg . . .

Swiss

1909

5,000

10 MC

4-100

SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 15 CYCLES. EUROPEAN.

Name of railway

Name of

Year

Mile-

Trolley

Equip-

Motor

country.

opend.

age.

voltage.

ment.

h.p.

Westinghouse :

Lyons Tramways

France.. .

1909

6,600

15 MC

2- 50

Midi, or Southern

France. . .

1910

12,000

6L
30 MC

2- 800
4- 125

Bergmann :

Prussian State:

Magdeburg-Leipzig

Germany

1910

10,000

1-1500

Siemens — Schuckert :

Bavarian State:

Murnau-Oberammer-

Germany

1905

5,500

2- 175

gau.

4MC

2- 100

Prussian State:

Magdeburg-Leipzig . . .

Germany

1910

10,000

IL
IL
1 L
IL

1- 800
1-1100
1-1800
2-1250

Baden State:

Germany

1909

10,000

10 L

2- 525

Weisental-Basel-Zell..

2-1200

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 143
SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS, 15 CYCLES. EUROPEAN.— Continued.

Name of railway.

Name of
country.

Year

Mile-

opend.

age.

1905

1909

1907

1910

1911

1910

1911

1909

1910

1911

1905

1909

1910

1911

1909

1907

1909

Trolley
voltage.

Equip-
ment.

Motor
h.p.

Vienna-Baden

Waitzen-Budapest-

Godollo.
Seebach-Wettingen. . .
Bernese- Alps

Rhatisch Mountain. . .
Swedish State

A.E.G. (Winter-
Eichberg) :
Rjukan

Prussian State:

Magdeburg-Leipzig.

Bavarian State:

Saltzburg-Berchtes-
gaden.

Midi or Southern

Bernese Alps

Mittenwald

Vienna-Pressburg

Austria
Austria

Swiss..
Swiss. .

Swiss . .
Sweden

Norway. .
Germany

Germany
France.. .
Swiss. . . .
Austria. .
Austria. .

Oerlikon :

Swiss Federal:

Seebach-Wettingen.

Bernese Alps

Prussian State

Rhatisch Mountain . . ,

Brown -Boveri :

Baden State

Vienna-Baden

Martigny-Orsieres . . . .

Swiss. . . .
Swiss. . . .
Germany
Swiss . . . .

Germany
Austria.. .

Swiss . . . .

10,000
10,000

15,000
15,000

10,000
15,000

10,000
10,000

10,000
12,000
15,000
10,000
10,000

15,000
15,000
10,000
10,000

10,000

8,000

20 MC

4L
11 MC

1 L

3MC

2L
13 L

3L
2L
IL
IL
1 L

IL
1 L
6L
3 L
5 L

1 L
IL
1 L
1 L
3 L

2MC
2 L
4 MC

4- 60
4- 240
2- 150
6- 225
4- 220
2-1000
1- 600
1-1000
2-1000

4- 125
2- 125
1-1000

1- 800

2- 950

2- 800
2- 800
1- 800
1- 800
1- 600

4- 500
2-1000
1-1000
1- 600
1- 300

4- 40
4- 90

Siemens-Schuckert Company has sold prior to 1909, single-phase 15- and 25-
cycle railway motors aggregating 33,490 h.p.; prior to September, 1910, 105,000 h.p.

Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft had sold, prior to 1909, single-phase,
15- and 25-cycle railway motors aggregating 42,480 h.p., and prior to January, 1911,
100,000 h.p.

Prussian, Swiss, Sweden, and Austrian State Railways changed in 1910 from 25-
to 15-cycles.

Seebach-Wettingen was abandoned in 1909. Two electric locomotives ran 78,000
miles, but traffic was too light for economical electrical operation.

144

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS
SUMMARY OF ALL SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAYS.

25-cycle.

Manufacturer.

Mileage.

Locomotives.

Motor cars.

Roads.

American

European

Total

Westinghouse .
Gen. Electric . .
Westinghouse .

Siemens

A.E.G

Oerlikon

Brown

1003

150

229

259

1791

1676

22
8

134

290
21
35
99

187

645

19
5

7
8

9 '
1
2
51

Net

. 15-cycle.

Manufacturer.

Mileage.

Locomotives.

Motor cars.

Roads.

American

European

European ... . .

European

Total

Westinghouse .
Westinghouse .

Siemens

A.E.G

Oerlikon

Brown

Bergman

360

315

119

1041

735

2
9
7
3
3
1
26

Net

Grand total net

2399

202

734

COMBINATIONS OF ELECTRIC SYSTEMS.

Combination, and mixed systems are noted briefly.

1. Leonard has designed a system which uses single-phase alternating
current on the contact line, which is converted on the locomotives, by
a high-speed light-weight motor-generator set, to direct current for the
motors. The generator field strength is varied to provide ideal control.
The scheme is used by important mine hoists, by battle ships, and for
rolling-mill work. One locomotive was built by the Oerlikon Company.
Its disadvantage is in the weight of the electrical equipment per h.p.;
while the advantages claimed are efficiency of the system and the perfect
control of the speed and torque of the motors.

This motor-generator plan, and the rectifier plan, may be used when
three-phase 60-cycle power must be used. The conversion of 60-cycle
current to direct current, on the locomotive, presents many handicaps.

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 145

Leonard, A. I. E. E., July, 1892; St. Ry. Journ., June 7, 1902, p. 735.
See description of Leonard-Oerlikon locomotives, which follows.

2. Direct current and single-phase current are used, as on the New
York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad between New York City and
Stamford, direct current from the 600-volt third-rail for local and ter-
minal service, and single-phase alternating current at 11,000 volts for
trunk-line service outside of New York City. The combination requires
the use of alternating-current, single-phase commutator motors.

3. Three-phase direct -current motors are used when both currents are
supplied for railway service. The field, or primary, of the motor is then
the stator. One of the star-connected three-phase legs or windings is
rearranged and utilized for excitation with direct current, while the other
two, in series with the first, are utilized as compensation windings to
assist direct-current commutation. The rotor may be an ordinary
direct-current armature with three-phase tappings to 3 or 4 slip rings.
The field and armature are connected in series. On alternating current
the brushes must be lifted from the commutator and cascade operation
would not be practical, except by placing motors in series. A three-
phase, 600-volt, 1000-ampere, 25-cycle, 730-r. p. m. motor, on direct
current, could be rated at 53 per cent, voltage, full current and 62 per
cent, speed. London-Pt. Stanley (Ontario) Railway, a 27-mile road,
built in 1905, used a three-phase, direct-current system. St. Ry. Journ.,
Dec. 9, 1905, p. 1026. Wilson and Lydall, '^Electrical Traction," Vol.
II, p. 46.

4. Single -phase current for variable-speed service from one of two
trolleys, and of three-phase current for 1-speed thru-passenger and freight
service, is used. Example: Stansstad-Engelberg Railway, Switzerland.

5. Direct -current at 600 or 1200 volts from a third-rail; single-phase
current from one trolley; and three-phase current from two trolleys, could
be used for trains on the same section of track, with power supplied from
the same three-phase bus-bar at the power station; and from the same
transmission line and transformers, which may feed both rotary con-
verters and high-voltage contact lines.

6. Rectifier plans include a single-phase, alternating-current system,
a 12,500-volt overhead line, a locomotive on which a special permutator
converts the power into direct current at an e. m. f. adjustable at will
between zero volts and 600 volts, and the use of power by ordinary
direct-current motors. (The permutator is a revolving commutator.)

Paris, Lyons & Mediterranean Railway is now trying this permuta-
tor, or rotating commutator, on a single-phase locomotive. See tech-
nical description of the locomotive which follows in Chapter IX.

7. Mercury arc rectifiers, which convert single-phase alternating current
to direct current without the use of rotating apparatus, may be placed at

146 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

intervals along the railway line or on the locomotive. This rectifier
requires 25 or higher cycles. It may prove to be highly desirable, in
electric systems.

8. Steam or gasoline may be combined with electric power. A prime
mover on the car, or locomotive, may drive a generator, which in turn
may drive motors connected to the axles.

The Glasgow steam-turbine locomotive has been described, page 81.

General Electric Company's gasoline -electric cars are used for light
service on branch lines. A gasoline engine is direct-connected to a very
high-speed direct-current, variable-voltage generator. The fields of the
generator are energized by a separate constant voltage exciter, controlled
by a Tirrill regulator. The generator delivers current to the four 90-h. p.,
600-volt standard-geared railway motors on each axle. The gasolene
engine runs continually. It is started by means of compressed air.
The entire control is by means of the Leonard plans of varying the field
and voltage of the generator. The simplest kind of controller is used
and the efficiency of control is high. Where the car can run on a 600-
volt trolley line the gasoline engine is taken out of service.

9. Storage batteries are not yet used for railway trains. Develop-
ments are being made for light traffic having in view a decrease in peak
loads, improvement in motor economy during acceleration by using volt-
age variation to prevent rheostatic losses, and the elimination of about
50 per cent, of the power plant and all line and substation expenditures.

The objections to storage batteries are the high first cost; added dead
weight; chemical deterioration; destruction by shock in passing over
switch work and in small collisions; time lost in charging the batteries;
an efficiency of 50 to 60 per cent, when new; maintenance expense, 12 to
15 per cent, per annum; and lack of capacity.

INTERCHANGEABLE SYSTEMS.

Interchangeable or universal systems of electrification have received
much consideration. It is physically possible, practical, and for economy
it is necessary to devise a motor which is interchangeable on alternating-
current and direct-current systems.

Single-phase, series, alternating-current, commutator motors are the
nearest approach to this much-desired, interchangeable or universal
system, since they may be used on 660 to 1500 volts direct-current
circuits by placing 2 or 4 single-phase commutator motors in series;
on 3,000 to 12,000 volts, by the use of a step-down transformer on the car
or locomotive; on a single-phase contactor of a three-phase line; and
on both 15 and 25 cycles, if the latter be necessary.

The ultimate interchangeable system will probably embrace:

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 147

1. A single contact line, because of the importance of simplicity in
railroad switching yards.

2. Voltages between 6000 and 12,000 volts, in order to transfer large
blocks of power with a minimum contact line loss and with a low first cost
of equipment, and catenary construction for safety in operation.

3. An alternating-current, single-phase commutator motor, which is
interchangeable on direct- and alternating-current circuits.

A commutatorless, single-phase induction motor may be designed for
practical railroad service. Experiments in 1911 so indicate.

The rectifier may be developed for heavy service.

Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft manufacture single-phase
motors of the repulsion type, which cannot be used on direct-current
circuits, and these have been successful in England and Germany.

RELATIVE ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMS.

Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of the Principal Electric Systems Used for

Electric Railway Trains.

The systems compared, in short form, are the direct-current 600-
1200-volt; three-phase 15-25-cycle, 3000-6000-volt; and single-phase
15-25 cycle, 6000-1 1,000-volt.

Generating equipment, so far as the prime mover is concerned, is not
greatly affected by the electric system.

Direct-current generators are relatively expensive, but they are sel-
dom used for heavy railroad work.

Alternating-current generators are cheaper, since they can be built
in larger sizes and for much higher speeds than direct-current commu-
tator machines. Economy of insulation generally required the use of
Y-connected alternators, with an e. m. f. of about 11,000 volts.

Generators for single-phase systems may be either single-phase or
three-phase. The former, altho more common, are more expensive, since
one leg or one-third of the windings is not utilized. The higher cost is
offset, however, by lower cost of switchboards.

"It is not much more expensive to use three-phase generators for
single-phase distribution, as the new type of dampened field cuts down
the rising voltage on the idle phase, making it possible to use three-phase
for commercial requirements." Murray, A. I. E. E., Nov. 12, 1909.

Three-phase generators for single -phase systems are used in the
following four ways :

Neutral points of the three-phase generators are connected to the track,
and the 3 phases or legs are connected to the 3 sections or divisions of
the trolley contact line. (Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen.)

Two legs of the three legs of a Y-connected generator are used for

148 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

the electric railway; but the three legs are available for transmission
lines to transformer substation, etc. This makes an unbalanced system.

Three-phase two-phase transformation can be used.

Two-phase generators may be used, with one leg of each connected
to the track, and each leg connected to insulated sections of the line.

Power transmission is not practical with direct current for heavy
traffic over distances greater than about 5 miles.

The limitation is in high-voltage commutation, but if this limitation
did not exist the minimum pressure to be adopted for ordinary railroad-
train service would be 6000 volts.

''The idea of transmitting large blocks of power by means of direct
current is a forced idea," as stated by Behrend.

Direct-current power must be generated as three-phase, high-
potential, alternating current, and transmitted to substations where it is
transformed and converted to direct current. About 50 per cent, of the
energy generated is distributed to the motor. Single-phase, alternating
current distribution losses run from 5 to 15 per cent., where three-phase
distribution losses run from 10 to 20 per cent., generally speaking.

The practicability of an electric power system depends upon its
ability to transmit, collect, and utilize large blocks of power in an efficient
manner. The transmission and distribution of the energy outweigh all
other electrical items in electric traction for heavy individual train loads
widely scattered on a railway division.

Economy of copper is higher Jor equal weight of overhead copper
with single-phase distribution than with polyphase arrangements.
Murray, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1908. See Transmission and Contact Lines.

Motor control losses in direct-current and three-phase motors during
acceleration are large. The efficiency of control of single-phase motors
is high, as will be detailed later.

Motor efficiency when compared shows that the losses in large direct-
current motors used on motor-car trucks are about 12 per cent., and for
single-phase motors are 14 per cent.; and that the losses in motors used
on large locomotives are 8 per cent, for direct current and three-phase
motors and 10 per cent, for single-phase motors. Much depends upon
the speed, design, and service.

Weight of the single-phase motor is the heaviest because the magnetic
heating and commutator losses are the largest; but the motor weight is
a small part of the total train weight. See chapter on Railway Motors.

SUMMARY.

Principal advantages of the direct -current system :

Direct-current motors are standard, well-tried, have good operating
characteristics, and may be used on 600- and 1200-volt circuits.

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 149

Danger is not involved with the low voltages used.

Storage batteries may be used directly to smooth out the load.

Transformers are grouped in rotary-converter substations, not on
the moving motor car and electric locomotive.'

Disadvantages of the direct -current system :

Voltage of line is low, and this causes high transmission, conver-
sion and contact line losses.

Substation and transformer equipment cost is high.

Operation and maintenance of substations are expensive.

Electrolysis qf underground structures occurs.

Efficiency of energy transmitted to tra ns is generally the lowest.

Regeneration of energy is not practicable.

Principal advantages of the three-phase system:

Commutators are not used on motors.

Efficiency of the motor is the highest.

Constant speed may be used for some service.

Regeneration of energy is most practicable.

Principal disadvantages of the three-phase system:

Two overhead trolleys involve danger, particularly around switching
yards and for high-speed service. Common overhead catenary con-
struction parallel to the two trolley wires is expensive.

Low contact-line voltages are used. In the three European railroad
installations, 3000 volts are used; and in America, on Great Northern
Railway, 6000 volts are used. Substations must be frequent, because of
the low voltages used on the trolley line.

Motor characteristics are not satisfactory in regard to variable speed,
efficiency during acceleration, drawbar pull with reduced voltages, and
load factor of motor and generator in constant speed service.

Principal advantages of the single -phase system:

Transmission and contact line losses are a minimum.

Transformer and substation expenditures are reduced.

Transformation facilities are perfect.

One trolley w^ire is used. Simplicity governs the weakest element
of the system — the one element which cannot well be duplicate. Sim-
plicity and safety are gained at switching yards and terminals.

Energy required from the power plant is the lowest.

High efficiency is obtained during train acceleration periods, and the
motor potential can be varied without rheostatic losses.

Variable speed is obtained from motors. The speed is varied by
changing the relation of the secondary and primary taps at the trans-
former.

Drawbar pull of motors depends directly upon the voltage; if the line

150 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

voltage is low, the motor voltage may be raised by changes at the step-
down transformer.

Transformer substation load factor is very high, because each sub-
station (and often the generating station) reaches out and furnishes
power to the diversified load of heavy individual train units, which are
widely scattered. (The substation does not carry two 1000-h. p. trains
in a 10-mile division, but twenty 1,000-h. p. trains in a 50-mile division.
The load is diversified and becomes uniform. The load factors of the
transmission line, transformers, and contact line are thus relatively high
and the cost per train-mile, ton-mile, or passenger-mile is relatively low.
This advantage is of great economic value in railroading.

Disadvantages of the single -phase system :

Equipment cost for all short roads is higher.

Maintenance cost of motors is higher.

'^Reduced output of both generator and motors; the reduced
efficiency; the impaired regulation; the increased heating and less
stability of the single-phase motor and generator, and the increased cost
resulting from the greater amount of material required." Behrend, 1906.

The single-phase system was first installed for train haulage in 1907.

COST OF COMPLETE EQUIPMENT.

The cost of the complete equipment can only be stated in general
terms. The cost varies for any given train service. Heavy trains and
infrequent service always favor the alternating-current systems; while
light trains and frequent local service always favor the direct-current
system. Multiple-unit operation, distance between stops, and length
of road affect the cost of electrical equipment to a great extent.

Cost of the direct -current system is extremely high for electric train
service because of the greater investment in secondary feeders, sub-
stations, transformers, converters, and switchboards. If, however, these
could be reduced by the use of a mercury gas rectifier, the situation would
be bettered.

Cost of the three-phase system is low for light railway work. In
Italy where 3000 volts are used, a catenary cable does not support
the two trolleys at frequent intervals, as with the single-phase sys-
tem. For heavy, high-speed railroad work, the cost of equipment
with 3000 or 6000 volts is high, because numerous substations are
necessary, and catenary construction parallel to the two trolley wires
is necessary.

Cost of the single -phase system for heavy work is relatively low
because of the use of high voltages and the simplicity in construction.
In most cases, the absence of line transformers much more than offsets

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 151

the higher cost of motors used on motor cars and locomotives. The
peak load at the substation is relatively low because the high-voltage
distribution from each substation reaches many trains to equalize the
load and this decreases the investment for the average output or work.
Cost of equipment is detailed in '^Procedure in Railroad Electrifica-
tion."

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE.

There is a reasonable difference of opinion on this subject. Care
should be taken to avoid the comparison of data on maintenance of
interurban and terminal railways which use 600 and 1200 volts with
railroad trains which require higher voltages. They are not comparable.
Further, the depreciation of the first alternating-current roads, so recently
installed, was larger than it will be in the future.

Direct-current systems are the most expensive to operate, until the
interest and depreciation charges become a small part of the operating
expense, as in the case of rapid transit service, where the greater part of
the investment is in multiple-unit car equipment.

Three-phase operating and maintenance costs may or may not
be higher than others. The motors are simple, and the overhead
construction is not much more expensive to maintain, but the cost of
power will be higher for constant-speed service.

Single-phase maintenance cost, at the present state of the de-
velopment, is somewhat higher than that for the direct-current, but
eventually there will be little difference. Heavy railroad transmission
losses will be lower than with other systems, probably from 15 to 20 per
cent, lower. The absence of converter substation maintenance is an im-
portant matter. In many cases transformer substations will be unneces-
sary. The combined savings will make the cost of maintenance and
operation of the single-phase system 4 to 8 per cent, lower than the
direct-current system and probably lower than the three-phase system.

Indianapolis & Cincinnati Traction Company, with two divisions from
Indianapolis, one to Connersville, 58 miles, and one to Greensburg, 50
miles, and a total mileage of 116, has used the single-phase electric power
system since December, 1904. Fifty-ton, 55-foot cars with four 100-
h.p. motors are used. Unfortunately, it is compelled to use direct cur-
rent at terminals, thus requiring a double-control equipment.

In the operation of the power plant ^^ the alternating-current system
saves under present conditions about $16,000 or 23 per cent, per annum
in operating expenses over what would be the cost of the same operation
with direct current." A. D. Lundy, Consulting Engineer, 1907.

H. M. Hobart discussed this subject before the British Institution of

152 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Mechanical Engineers in July, 1910, and stated as the result of his cal-
culations, based on what purported to be accurate data, ^Hhat the cost of
current plus the interest, on the investment in rolling stock, was 6 cents
per train-mile higher for single-phase than for direct current in moderate
service. The advantages of direct current over single-phase current
were more apparent the higher the schedule speed and the shorter the
distance between stops."

J. Dalziel, of the Midland Railway, in the same discussion stated:
"Single-phase in suburban work must have very serious disadvantages
to warrant its being discarded when its many advantages for main-line
operation are admitted. Much of the trouble with single-phase appa-
ratus was due to the complication involved by attempting to operate
single-phase motors on direct-current sections. With regard to efficiency,
comparative figures proved that the single-phase motors on the Midland
Railway consumed 20 per cent, less current than direct-current motors
on the Liverpool-Southport line when running at the same schedule speed."

Midland Railway of England equipped its Heysham-Lancaster Branch with
single-phase equipment in 1908. The traffic is ordinarily light and consequently
expensive to operate by steam ; but there is a heavy summer traffic tending to congest
the main-line trains. Motor cars are required on a service and schedule very similar
to that of the former steam locomotives.

" The single-phase apparatus is equally as capable of working such services (high-
speed, frequent stop, suburban-interurban) as direct-current apparatus ; the weight of
the single-phase train is only a very small percentage greater than that of correspond-
ing direct-current trains," Dalzel and Sayer, to Inst, of Civil Engineers, Nov., 1909.

CONCLUSIONS AND OPINIONS.

Prussian State, Swedish State, Swiss Federal, and Austria-Hungary
Railroad Administration, during the past 5 years have had a commission
of noted engineers studying the question of the best system. These
commissions have inspected installations, discussed technical and
financial data, made long reports, and in each case have finally decided
that the 10,000-volt, 15-cycle, single-phase system is best suited for
traction on main lines, altho direct-current and the three-phase system
have been found applicable under certain conditions. Attention has
been called to the fact that the single-phase system complied with tjie
desire for unity of systems in simplifying international communication.

Italian State Railway favors the three-phase system. The chief
engineer of the electrical department, Mr. Verola, stated in 1909:

"The decision to use the three-phase system is not final and absolute for our
administration, but the latter considers it preferable as a beginning for the lines at
present under electrification. The possibility of using single-phase systems in other
cases, which may better lend themselves to it, is thereby not excluded. In the case
of the three lines (Pontedecimo Busalla, Bardonecchia Modane and Savona-Ceva),

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 153

the service is extremely heavy, trains of 440 tons and over having to be hauled up on
long grades of 2.5 to 3.5 per cent, at a speed of 45 km. per hour. With the three-
phase system it is possible to comply with these conditions by using two 67-ton,
2000-h. p. locomotives. The three-phase system has the advantage that in running
downhill the speed cannot exceed a certain limit, while recuperation of energy is
possible. The advantages of wider speed adjustment in running and better efficiency
of the single-phase system in starting are not of importance, since the grades are long
and fairly uniform, and the distance between stations is great. Other lines will be
worked single-phase. One of these is the Turin-Pinerolo-Torre-Pelice, where widely
different speeds are necessary, the maximum being 80 km. per hour for 112-ton
passenger trains."

Sprague stated before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
November, 1909, what to the writer appears to be an excellent summary:

''It is not deemed wise first to decide upon a system, but rather to
ascertain the costs of locomotives (and motor cars) by various systems
which could perform a service determined as essential to effective opera-
tion, and then to collate all the facts, advantageous and otherwise, affect-
ing capital cost and cost of operation, after which the best system to meet
the existing conditions could be determined. We are passing thru that
inevitable stage of development and elimination essential to final correct
decisions and permanency of results. However critical we sometimes
feel as to the inadequacy of any system in some particular application,
every installation is welcomed which promises to further the effective and
economic application of electricity to trunk-line operation."

Stillwell was more definite, and his remarks on systems are recom-
mended for consideration:

'' Standardize with respect to those things which are essential to inter-
change of rolling stock, by (1) careful study by a competent commission
of the broad problem of railway electrification, (2) selection of that sys-
tem which present knowledge points to as best adapted for a general
solution, and (3) concentration of efforts in perfecting the details of a
system selected."

This method is contrasted with selections of systems for a specific
problem which ignore the obvious fact that the horizon of the present
''zones of electrification" is sure to expand in the near future and that
these horizons in many instances are certain to overlap before the expira-
tion of the proper period of amortization of the capital invested in the
apparatus selected.

Four conclusions on systems are now well established.

The direct-current 600- or 1200-volt rotary-converter substation
system can best be used to distribute and collect large amounts of energy
for dense, local traffic. It is not an efficient system for ordinary rail-
way train service.

The three-phase system will give good results when low-speed, heavy

154 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

train service and regeneration of power on grades are combined. It is
not adapted for motor-cars, frequent acceleration, and switching.

The single-phase system combines simplicity, flexibility, economy in
power transmission, variable speeds, lowest cost for service with heavy
individual freight and passenger trains, and the motors used can be run
on sections equipped for three-phase or for direct-current operation.

The best system for train service is not one adapted to individual
cases, but one which is adapted to the electrification of complete railroads.

The choice of the electric railway system is an important matter.
The details and the application of the systems of railway electrification
offered must be carefully compared from all physical and financial
standpoints. The decision is of importance because it affects safety,
capacity, and interchange of equipment; it commits the railway to better
or poorer results in operation. Standards should be adopted soon, which
will decrease the excessive cost of changing from steam to electric opera-
tion, and in order that the public may obtain the benefits of improved
transportation facilities and service.

LITERATURE.
References on 1200-Volt, Direct-current System.
See references accompanying lists of roads.
Eveleth: 1200 Volts for Interurban Roads, with cost sheets, A. I. E. E., Jan 10, 1910;

E. T. W., July 13, 1909; G. E. Review, June, 1910.
McLenegan: 1200-Volt Railway Equipment, E. T. W., June 26, 1907.
Hill: Operation of 1200-Volt System, G. E. Review, June, 1909.

Milwaukee Electric Railway: E. R. J., Aug. 3, 1907, p. 158; July 16, 1910, p. 102.
See references on pages 129 and 130.

References on Three-phase System.
Waterman: Three-pliase Traction, A. I. E. E., June 19, 1905.
Steinmetz: Polyphase Traction, E. W., Jan. 1, 1898.
Gibson: Polyphase Traction, E. W., July 21, 1900.
Valatin: Comparison of Motors, S. R. J., Jan. 4, 1908.
Davis: Control of Motors, E. W., Jan., 1898.

Danielson: Combinations of Polyphase Motors, Characteristics, A. I. E. E., May, 1902.
De Muralt: Systems of Electrification, S. R. J., Feb. 17, 1906.

References on Three-phase Railway Installations.
Wilson and Lydall: "Electrical Traction," Vol. II, particularly, p. 110.
Berlin-Zossen: ''Electric Railway Tests," McGraw, 1905.
Berlin-Hamburg: S. R. J., May 16, 1903, p. 736; June 7, 1902, p. 720.
Lugano Street Ry.: S. R. J., 1896, p. 307.

Gorner-Grat Railway: S. R. J., 1898, pp. 36, 166; 1899, 873; 1902, 694.
Jungfrau: S. R. J., 1902, p. 699.

Stansstad-Engelberg: E. W., Feb. 18, 1899; S. R. J., June 7, 1902, p. 697.
Burgdorf-Thun: S. R. J., Sept. and Dec, 1899, pp. 583, 855; June 7, 1902, pp. 696,
720; S. R. R., Sept. 15, 1900; Wilson, B. I. M. E., July 20, 27, 1900.

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 155

Italian State: Hammer, A. I. E. E., Feb., 1901; Waterman, A. I. E. E., June, 1905;

Nov., 1909; S. R. J., 1900, p. 1137; 1901, p. 344; May 2, 1903, p. 663, 788;

Aug. 5 and 26, 1905; April 6, 1907; Jan. 4, 1908.
Giovi Line, Italy: Electric Journal, May, 1910.
London Tubes or Inner Circle: S. R. J., 1898, p. 139; Dec. 7, 1901, p. 842; Wilson

and Lydall, ''Electrical Traction," Chapter I, p. 53.
Miami-Erie Canal Road: S. R. J., Nov. 7, 1903, p. 830.
London-St. Stanley, Ontario: S. R. J., Dec. 9, 1905; photos of motor.
Simplon Tunnel: S. R. J., Feb 3 and 24, 1906; E. W., Oct. 27, 1906; Elec. Review,

Nov. 13, Dec. 4, 1909.
Great Northern: Hutchinson, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909; see discussion of paper.

References on Direct- current Versus Single -phase System.

Eichberg: E. R. J., Aug. 7, 1909, p. 223.

Sprague: Trunk-hne Operation. A. I. E. E., May 21, 1907.

Westinghouse : Direct-current vs. single-phase current system for New York Central.

S. R. J., and E. W., Dec, 1905; Railroad Gazette, Dec. 22, 1905, p. 579.
Lamme: Single-phase Railways, A. I. E. E., September, 1902; Alternating Current

for Railway Trains, N. Y. R. R. Club, March, 1906; S. R. J., March 24, 1906.
Potter: Unit Cost of Electric Railways. B. I. M. E., July, 1910; E. R. J., July 9, 1910.
Davis: Destinies of 500- volt d. c, 1200- volt d. c, and 6600- volt a. c. motors, E. R. J.,

Sept. 24, 1910.

References on Alternating-current Systems, in General.

Dawson: Electric Traction on Trunk Lines. S. R. J., Apr. 7, 1906.

Lamme: A. I. E. E., Sept., 1902; N. Y. R. R. Club, March, 1906; S. R. J., March 24,

1906; Elec. Journal, Feb. and April, 1906.
Blanck: Single-phase Railways. A. I. E. E., Feb., 1904; S. R. J., Mar. 12, 1904.
Hobart: Single-phase Traction. S. R. J., May 4, 1907.
Arnold: International Elec. Congress, St. Louis, Sept., 1904.
Davis: Alternating- vs. Direct-current Systems, A. I. E. E., March, 1907.

References on Westinghouse Single -phase System.

Lamme: A. I. E. E., Sept., 1902; S. R. J., Jan. 6, 1906; Elec. Journal, Jan., 1909.

Renshaw: S. R. J., March 26, 1904; Elec. Journal, Dec, 1908.

Scott: Amer. St. Ry. Assoc, Sept., 1905; Elec. Journal, July, 1905.

Lincoln: Elec. Age, Feb., 1904; Westinghouse Bulletin, 7020, June, 1904.

Westinghouse: N. Y., N. H. & H., S. R. J., Dec 23, 1905.

European data on Traction Systems: L 'Industrie Elec, Jan. 10, 1909.

Electotechnische Zeitschrift: Proceedings of German Institution of Electrical Engin-
eers, July, August, and September, 1907.

Storer: Single-phase Railways, E. R. J., Jan. 1, 1910.

Darlington: Economic Considerations Governing the Selection of Electric Railway
Apparatus, Western Society of Engineers, Oct., 1910; Elec. Journal, Feb., 1910.

References on Electric Generators in Systems.

Waters: Single-phase Generator for Railways, A. I. E. E., July, 1908.
Armstrong: Single- versus Three-phase Generators, S. R. J., June 29, 1907.
Ayers: Generators and Connections, E. W., Dec. 23, 1909, p. 1522.

156 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Hallberg: Comparison of Alternating-current Systems, E. W., Jan. 14, 1905, p. 99.

Roedder: "Elektrische Fernbahnen," p. 199.

Editorial: Selection of Generators, S. R. J., Nov. 11, 1905.

References on Single -phase Railways, Descriptive.

See references and descriptions of electric locomotives, power plants, motor cars, and
work done by prominent roads in chapters which follow.

Westinghouse Installations — Best References.

Indianapolis & Cincinnati: E. W., Feb. 18, 1905, pp. 335 and 510; S. R. J., Jan., Feb.,

May, 1905, pp. 300 and 502.
San Francisco, Vallejo & N. V.: S. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908.
Long Island R.R., Sea CHff Division: S. R. J., Dec. 16, 1905.
Windsor, Essex & Lake Shore: S. R. J., Jan. 11; July 25, 1908; E. W., Jan. 11,

1908.
Baltimore & Annapolis: E. R. J., July 4, 1908; Whitehead: A. I. E. E., June, 1908.
Denver & Interurban R.R.: S. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909; E. T. W., Sept. 25, 1909.
Chi., Lake Shore & S. Bend: E. R. J., April 10, 1909, for map, stations, line, cars.
Rock Island Southern R.R.: E. R. J., July 16, 1910; Electric Journal, Oct., 1910.

General Electric Installations — Best References.

Illinois Traction: E. W., Mar. 25, 1905, p. 579; May 6, 1905, p. 841; Hewett, S. R. J.

April 25, 1905, p. 565 and 812; E. R. J., Jan. 22, 1910, p. 142.
Toledo & Chicago; S. R. J., Oct. 13, 1906.
Milwaukee Elec. Railway: E. W., March 10, 1906; S. R. J., March 13, 1909, p. 102;

E. R. J., May 1, 1909, p. 823; July 16, 1910.
Richmond & Chesapeake Bay: S. R. J., March 7, 1908; Ry. Age, March 13, 1909.
N. Y., N. H. & H.: New Canaan Branch, E. W., Jan. 18, 1908, p. 139; E. R. J., May

15, 1909, p. 901.
Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis: E. R. J., Feb. 15, 1908; Ry. Age, March 13,

1908; Motors: E. R. J., Jan. 18, 1908, p. 82; Cars: Oct. 12, 1907; Hewett, G.E.

Review, Nov., 1910.

References on Single -phase European Railways.

See references and descriptions on motor cars, locomotives, and work done by promi-
nent roads, in succeeding chapters.

Midland Railway, England: E. R. J., July 4, 1908: Elec. Age, Aug., 1910.

London, Brighton & South Coast: E. R. J., March 6, 1909.
Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways," 1909,
Resuhs: London Electrician, Sept. 9, 1910; B. I. C. E., March 1911.

Swedish State: See Chapter XV.

Thamshavn-Lokken, Norway: Ry. Age, Sept. 2, 1910.

Rotterdam-Hague Scheveningen: Ry. Age, July 8, 1910. See Chapter XV.

Blankanese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorf : E. W., Nov. 18, 1909; S. R, J., March 17, 1906.

Oranienburg: E. R. J., Dec. 25, 1909. See Chapter X.

Magdeburg-Leipzig: Elec. Zeit., April 21, 1910.

Valle Moggia: S. R. J., March 24, 1906. '

Murnau-Oberammergau : S. R. J., April 1, 1905, p. 591,

Wiesental Railway: Basel-Schopfheim-Zell, E, R. J., Dec, 11, 1909, p. 1177.

Rome-Castellana: E. R. J., June 27, 1908.

Milan Exhibition, Elec. Review, Dec. 12, 1903; E. R. J., Aug. 11, 1900.

ELECTRIC SYSTEMS AVAILABLE FOR TRACTION 157

References on Combinations of Systems.
Zanzig: Rectifiers and Permutators, Description and action of tlie Rouge-Fazet

rectifier, Elec. Review, Dec. 4, 1909.
Leonard System: Motor-generator Combination; A. I. E. E., July, 1892, p. 566.
Huber: Oerlikon Converter Locomotive, S. R. J., June 7, 1902, p. 733.
Gasoline-Electric Trains: E. W., July 22, 1911, p. 217.

References on Relative Cost of Electrification.

Davis: 600 and 1200 volts d. c, 6600 volts single-phase, A. I. E. E., 1907, p. 387.

Eveleth: 600 versus 1200 volts for interurbans, A. I. E. E., Jan. 11, 1910.

Slicter: Cost of equipment at 25 and 15 cycles, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907, p. 131.

Dahlander: Swedish State Ry., S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906.

Sprout: Data on Costs, a. c. versus d. c, E. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908.

Potter: Unit Cost of Elec. Ry., B. I. M. E., July, 1910; E. R. J., July 9, 1910.

See literature on Cost of Electrification under Procedure in Railroad Electrification.

CHAPTER V.
ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE.

^ Outline.

Introduction :

Historical development, voltages, currents, classification with systems.

Direct or Continuous Current Motors.

Three -Phase Alternating -Current Motors.

Single -Phase Alternating -Current Motors.

Comparison of Motors.

Rating of Motors:

One-hour and continuous ratings, comparisons based on ratings, ventilation
of motors, ratings of motors with forced draft, selection of requisite capacity.

Mechanical and Electrical Data:

Names and ratings, weights, speeds, dimensions, field and armature data.

Development of Motor Design:

1. Magnet frames. 2. Pole pieces. 3. Field coils. 4. Air gap. 5. Arm-
ature core. 6. Armature winding. 7. Commutator. 8. Brushes. 9. Arm-
ature speed. 10. Bearings. 11. Gearing. 12. Axles. 13. Suspension,

Speed -Torque Characteristics of Motors:

Direct- and alternating-current motors; effect of voltage, gearing, drivers.

Choice of Cycles for Motors, 15 Versus 25.

Control of Motors.

Literature.

158

CH.\PTER V.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE.

INTRODUCTION.

A study of electric railway motors embraces types, rating, mechanical
and electrical design, running characteristics, and control. Commercial
considerations demand capacity, reliability, and low maintenance, for
economy in transportation.

The electric motor is but one link in the electric railway; yet it is of
first importance. The essential contributing items are ample and eco-
nomical prime movers, generation at a suitable voltage, cycle, and phase,
and a simple and efficient method by which large blocks of energy may
be transmitted and transformed. The motor receives the electric power,
and simply translates it into the requisite drawbar pull and speed.

Fig. 27. — Standard Truck and Motor. Bentley-Knight, 1885.

Motor suspension on axle bearings and on a truck crossbar — nose suspension.

Double reduction gears.

Historically the first general observation made regarding motors for
use on passenger and freight cars is that, about 1890, one motor per
truck was mounted on the first double-truck electric cars. About 1898,
electric motor cars had become heavier, rapid acceleration and high
speeds were used, and coaches were hauled; and the service then required
the use of ''4-motor equipments." When electric trains are operated
in place of single cars, the air resistance and also the rail friction per ton
on the private right-of-way are reduced, and two motors per car generally

159

160 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

furnish sufficient capacity. A study of the statistical tables, in " Motor-
car Trains/' shows exceptions to this rule, particularly where heavy
motor cars are used to haul heavy coaches.

Improvements in direct-current motors since 1900 have been few.
They include commutating poles and slotting of mica between commuta-
tor bars. Three-phase motors were well developed prior to 1902, since
which time few changes have been made. Single-phase railway motors
have been developed since 1904; they have been rapidly improved, and
are well perfected. The commutator troubles on all motors now sold are a
minimum, maintenance expense has become a small item, and the
depreciation rate is remarkably low.

Voltages for direct-current motors were 75 volts as used in 1883 by
Field and Edison; 125 volts used in 1884 by Daft with his compound-
wound 8-h. p. motor on the Baltimore Union Passenger Railway; and 450
volts used in 1888 by Sprague for two 7-h.p. motors per car at Richmond,
Va. The standard voltage for direct-current street railway motors is
now 550. Voltages of 600 to 660 volts are used for heavy railway-train
service and voltages of 1200 volts with two 600-volt motors connected
in series are used by 14 interurban American railways.

Three-phase motors in Europe since 1902 have used 3000 volts on the
trolley and on the motors. This limit will not be greatly increased
because of the difficulty of insulating motor windings; and because
complicated terminal and switching yards with two overhead trolleys
involve danger. In America, the Cascade Tunnel of the Great Northern
Railway uses three-phase, 6000-volt contact lines, but the controllers
and motors use 500 volts.

Series-alternating motors use 250 to 350 volts, and repulsion types
use from 250 to 800 volts, or even higher on field windings. The high
voltage on the contact line, 3000, 6000, or 11,000 volts, is reduced by
transformers on the car or locomotive.

The cycles used on American alternating-current railways are 25,
while both 15 and 25 cycles are used in Europe, as previously detailed.

Classification of railway motors for electric trains is usually made
with reference to the several electric systems. Equipment generally
includes prime movers, three-phase generators, transformers to raise the
generator voltage, if it is necessary for the power transmission, trans-
formers to reduce the voltage at substations to either 3000, 6000, or
11,000 volts for the three-phase or single-phase trolley contact lines, or
to about 410 volts for rotary converters which change the energy to
direct current, ordinarily at 660 volts, for the contact line. With an
interchangeable single-phase motor, a railway may use direct current
for short-distance, rapid-transit, or terminal service from a third-rail
contact; or single-phase current for infrequent, heavy, and concentrated

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 161

long-distance freight and passenger traffic from one high-voltage trolley
of a single-phase or three-phase line.

DIRECT -CURRENT MOTORS.

Direct-current, 600-volt motors are well established. These motors
are series wound, have commutating poles, and are enclosed in a steel
frame.

The potential between the contact line and the track rail, 550 to 660'
volts, is used by motors on about 95 per cent, of the 36,000 miles of
American electric railways. The potential is 1200 volts on about 550
miles of American interurban railways, and, while the motors are
insulated for 1200 volts, they run two in series on the 1200-volt line,
except in the' case of 1200-volt, 75-h. p., G.E.-205 motors used by the
Central California Traction Company, in which the number of commu-
tator bars is approximately double, the creepage distances on the com-
mutator and brush holders is double that of standard 600-volt motors,
and the field is wound with double insulation on the wire.

The 1200 volts are used ^outside of large cities and 600 volts within
the city limits. The 1200-volt motor is now advocated for heavier work,
in competition with the alternating-current motor.

Series motors of both direct-current and alternating-current types
have been quite universally adopted, because series motors have great
magnetic pull, or tractive effort, for starting trains or for running up
grades. The tractive effort of the series motor varies approximately
inversely as the speed, and thus the load on the motor and on the line is
somewhat more uniform than would be the case if the tractive effort and
speed were each maintained. Power is proportional to the product of
the tractive effort and the speed.

Advantages of direct-current series motors :

Speed-torque characteristics enable them to automatically protect
themselves from electric heating, which varies as the square of the current
input. Since the speed is not maintained with the tractive effort, the
motor is of smaller size, weight, and cost, for a given or average amount
of work.

Safety is obtained wdth the low trolley voltage used.

They are standardized and have been adopted for city service.

Two 600-volt motors may be used in series on 1200-volt lines.

Compared with single-phase motors, commutation is better, efficiency
is higher, armatures are smaller, speed is lower, weight is less, cost is less,
and maintenance expense is lower.

Disadvantages of direct -current series motors :

Cost of the complete system is highest because of the trans-
it

162

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Fig. 28. — Allis-Chalmers 501 Electric Railway Motor.
Fifty-h. p. on 690 volts; 42-h. p. on 500 volts, direct current. Interpoles are shown in the open

field frame.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 163

Fig. 29. — Allis Chalmers 501 Electric Railway Motor.
View is from suspension side, and with closed field frame.

Fig. 30. — Buffalo and Lockport Railway Motor for 1898 Locomotive.
Cover removed. Capacity 160 horse power.

164 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

formations, 600-volt converter substations, extra labor required, and
expensive local distributing feeders for railroad-train service.

Insulation of 1200 volts in motors and controllers increases the size,
weight, and cost. Flashing from commutator to brush holders and tt)
nearby frames, increases the operating expense and liability of
trouble.

THREE-PHASE MOTORS.

Three-phase motors are now established for a limited use. They are
known as constant-speed motors to distinguish them from series or
variable-speed motors; yet the speed of three-phase motors can be
varied in several ways, as will be detailed under Control of Motors. The
acceleration of three-phase motors is at a full rate up to full speed, and
this characteristic calls for high-power peaks on the motor, the line, and
the power plant.

The speed of rotation depends upon the frequency of the cycles of the
generator, which is practically constant. When the motor is rotating at
maximum speed, it is at synchronous speed. The speed slows down
2 to 5 per cent, on full load. When resistance is inserted in the rotor
circuit of three-phase motors, there is a negative "slip," or difference
between the rate of rotation of the rotor and of the power generator.
When the rotor is forced above speed, in down-grade running, there is a
positi-ve ''slip," and energy can be regenerated and returned to the
source of supply.

Three-phase motors are not used for frequent stops or rapid transit
service, or for switching, because either the efficiency or the drawbar pull
is poor during the acceleration period. Their use is limited, funda-
mentally, to long-distance running. For installations on railroads, see
''Electric Systems," Chapter IV.

The stator of the motor consists of a steel casting which holds a lam-
inated magnetic ring. Electrically, the stator is the primary of a trans-
former, while the rotor or armature is the secondary. Alternating three-
phase current is supplied from the power plant to the primary winding,
and three-phase current is induced in the rotor or secondary. The inter-
action produces the torque and drawbar pull. The rotor may have
collector rings, in order that resistance may be inserted to limit the induced
current, and to increase the torque; or the rotor may be of high resistance
but of the short-circuited, "squirrel-cage" type.

Three-phase motors have no commutators, and would be ideal for
railroad work if they could be used with a single-phase high-voltage
contact line, but when so operated they lose their best characteristics.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 165

L. C. de Muralt, publisher of a monthly leaflet (Electric Trunk Line
Age) which advocates the three-phase system, announced in May, 1909,
that there had been designed and operated in practical service, at the
University of Michigan, a good three-phase motor for electric railway
purposes which ran successfully on single-phase circuits. If this were
true, an important development might be expected, because it would
place the three-phase induction motor on a different basis.

A three-phase motor, operating single -phase, with two of its terminals
connected to the single-phase mains, runs as a single-phase induction
motor. The third terminal must be connected to a phase-displacing
device to get the necessary cross magnetization for producing torque by
its action upon the induced secondary energy currents. The torque of the
three-phase induction motor on a single-phase circuit is zero in starting,
or the motor will not start. Resistance may be inserted in the secondary,
as in three-phase motors, to increase the torque. When well above half-
speed, torque will be delivered until the motor is overloaded, after which
it will die down.

McAllister: "Alternating-current Motors," 3rd Ed., p. 58.

Garlecon: Polyphase Motors run Single-phase, Electric Journal, Aug., 1905.

Advantages of three-phase motors :

1. Electrical efficiency of three-phase motors is high. An efficiency
of .91 is obtained, where .90 is common with direct-current, and .87 with
single-phase motors. The energy lost — 9, 10, 13 per cent. — must be
radiated. The reasons for the higher efficiency are:

a. Laminated fields and cores which are used are not saturated, air
gaps are very short, and the iron losses are low.

b. Commutator losses are absent.

c. Maximum efficiency of radiation is possible.

Losses in three-phase motors are produced chiefly in the distributed
stationary windings in the shell of the motor, and the heat reaches the
outside or radiating surface easily and quickly, particularly so with
overloads. Losses in direct-current and single-phase alternating-current
motors are chiefly in the rotating element, and the heat must pass
thru the field or external structure to reach the external radiating sur-
face. The windings of three-phase and single-phase motors are more
evenly distributed than the windings of direct-current motors.

2. Energy required for the three-phase system is low; but the motor
losses are generally overbalanced by the high line losses, making the
power required about the same as for the single-phase system, as is shown
by an example which follows.

166 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

POWER REQUIRED WITH DIFFERENT ELECTRIC SYSTEMS.

Motor or system.

3-phase.

1-phase.

Direct.

W eight of cars in train, in tons

1000

96 to 93

1093

37.5

1200

3500

85 to 88

1421

100

1000

131

1131

37.5

1300

11000

1427

100

1000

Weight of locomotive, in tons

Total weight of train, in tons

Speed of train, in m.p.h

Efficiency of electric motors, per cent

Power required from contact line

100

1100

37.5

1222

Voltage on contact line

1200

Efficiency of contact Kne, per cent

Efficiency of transformers, per cent

Horse power required from power plant

Relative power required per train

1672

117

The example is fair for a common 1000-ton freight train at 37.5
m. p. h.^ or a 500-ton passenger train at 65 m. p. h.^ the train resistance
being 10 pounds per ton. The constants will vary with the amount of
money expended for transformers and feeders. On short routes and
light trains, the showing of the 1200-volt direct-current system is
improved.

.3. Energy can be restored to the electric line during braking.

4. Safety is gained by means of electric braking during regeneration
of energy. Wrecks which are now caused by excessive wear of brake
shoes, breakage of brake rigging, and overheated wheel tires in heavy
trains on the long down-grades, can be prevented.

5. Weight efficiency of three-phase motors themselves is high. The
lighter motor reduces the weight of supporting frames, the dead load
hauled, the cost of motors, and the cost of track maintenance. Some
three-phase locomotives for freight haulage require ballast.

6. Maximum torque may be obtained, from the start to the full speed,
which is a physical advantage in train acceleration. This is offset by
the greater cost of power, and the greater losses in control and in the
motors, during acceleration.

Objectionable characteristics of three-phase motors:

1. One-speed characteristics are a limitation. For some situations
both unification of speed and a fixed maximum speed may be advan-
tageous, but not under present methods in railroading. A distinct loss
is evident when the "velocity head" cannot be utilized. The speed of
three-phase motors cannot be varied economically. See Motor Control.

2. Heavy loads are imposed by the constant-speed motor character-
istics, and these increase the cost, the size, and the weight of the motor

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 167

per average h. p. developed. 'The power required for constant speed on
the up-grade increases rapidly and this requires a relatively high 1- hour
or continuous capacity in thi-ee-phase motors. See diagram below.

"'Polver] at bonstant Speed -t)o^tedlj

Power, at

Variat)le Speed- Full

...

„„ 1 .L 1

...

VariaDie

Speea

... },.,

Constant

—

Speed

—

■^

-0

3000

2000

Horse
Power

1000

2^ Speed

20 M.P.H.

15
10

Profile
^ Grade

20 Miles 30

Fig. 31. — Diagram of Horse Power from Motors on Constant and on Variable Speed when
Working on Different Grades.

The total train weights are equal, 1000 tons. The average speed, 25 m. p. h.;
and the running time are the same. The average horse power of the locomotive
motors must therefore be equal. The comparison noted in the diagram is fair.
Constant-speed locomotive motors are heavier and of greater rated capacity than
variable-speed locomotive motors.

3. Air gaps which are used, 1/8 to 1/16 inch, require long bearings
or frequent renewals, in all heavy work. With the gears or cranks, and
often collector rings on the shaft, sufficient length for bearings is not
available. A short air gap clogs with dust and prevents ventilation.

4. Two overhead wires are required with a three-phase motor. This
increases the line cost, complication, maintenance expense, and danger.

5. In design, a 15-cycle, 2-, 4-, 6- or 8-pole, three-phase motor runs
at a speed of 900, 450, 300 or 225 r. p. m., whereas a series, single-phase,
or direct-current motor can run at higher variable speeds, for service in a
rolling country, and may thus be lighter and cheaper.

Mr. N. W. Storer, in making calculations for motors to fulfil the conditions of the
New Haven Ralhoad service, found that to accelerate the loads, and to give the
maximum speed of 65 m. p. h. now provided by the 1000-h. p., single-phase locomo-
tives, a 1500-h. p. three-phase locomotive would have been required.

168 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

6. Efficiency of three-phase motors during the starting period is low,
and this is a drawback in railroading where trains are constantly starting
and stopping, and where the motors are working at their full speed and
efficiency for a small fraction of the total time. The rheostatic losses
in the rotor circuits are such that the average efficiency of the power
from start to full speed is below 50 per cent, in practice.

Efficiency is reduced at loaded running speeds by the stray fields
from primary and secondary circuits, and also by the iron loss in the
secondary, in which the frequency of alternations is about 6 times the
frequency of the supply. The iron loss is proportional to the 1.5th
power of the maximum induction and to the frequency. Considering
both the primary and secondary, the iron loss of the motor when loaded is
three times its iron loss when running light. Wilson and Lydall, II, 22.

7. Torque or drawbar pull of three-phase motors varies as the square
of the voltage impressed upon the motor, while the torque of series
motors is quite independent of the voltage impressed upon the motor=

The contact line voltage, 3000 to 6000 volts, which must be used with
the three-phase system is relatively low, and the line must be designed
with many substations and sufficient copper to prevent low voltage.
Three-phase induction motors on low line voltage fall out, or die
down, or do not start when overloads occur in freight service.

A 20 per cent, line loss results in a 36 per cent, loss in drawbar pull.
The maximum voltage is necessary for efficient and ample drawbar pull,
and a lower voltage is desirable for running, or exactly the opposite of
what is furnished under normal conditions.

Torque or turning effort of three-phase induction motors requires a
given amount of power to develop it, regardless of the speed at which
the motor is running. At full speed most of the electrical power applied
to the motor appears as mechanical output; but, at fractional speeds, the
same electrical power applied delivers mechanical power in proportion to
the speed, the balance being wasted in heat.

The starting torque of three-phase motors, with starting resistance
in the rotor, for a given current, is the same as the running torque;
while the starting torque of a short-circuited or squirrel-cage rotor is far
less than the running torque for the same current.

8. Motor-car train operation involves difficulties because:
Diameter of three-phase motors is large, and thus the wheel diameter

and height of the car body are increased.

Length of axle is not sufficient for twin motors, used with two-speed
cascade operation.

The load on each motor varies with the diameter of its set of drivers.
About 4 per cent, difference, or 1.6 inches for 42-inch drivers, makes 100
per cent, variation in work done by a motor. Danger from overloads of

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 169

the individual motors in the train is thus increased as the drivers wear,
or are changed; not so with series-wound alternating- and direct-current
motors.

SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS.

Single-phase alternating-current motors for the haulage of trains are
a recent development. The first installation for railroad trains was made
in 1907. See "Electric Systems."

Single-phase motors are best adapted for railroads, where the amount
of power required is large and concentrated in trains, and where the dis-
tances are long. The largest users of such motors are:

New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad; Erie Railroad,
Rochester Division; Grand Trunk Railway, Port Huron-Sarnia Tunnel;
Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend Railway; Rock Island Southern
Railroad; Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad; London, Brighton &
South Coast Railway; Swedish State Railway; Southern Railway,
France; Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen, Holland; Prussian, Bavarian,
Baden State Railways; St. Polten-Mariazell Railroad, Austria; Bernese-
Alps Railway, Switzerland.

Types of single -phase motors are two :

Series motors, with a commutator, for use on either single-phase or
direct-current circuits, a direct-current motor adapted for alternating-
current working. The main current or part of it usually flows thru
both the field and the armature.

Repulsion motors, with a commutator, for use exclusively on single-
phase or one leg of three-phase circuits. This motor is built by General
Electric Company in America and by Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesell-
schaft in Europe. Repulsion motor armature e. m. f. and current are
produced by electromagnetic induction, as in the rotor of the three-phase
motor. The conductors on the armature form the secondary of the
transformer, and the primary is wound on the motor fields.

Repulsion motors are used advantageously where the railroad ter-
minal is not handicapped by direct current.

Commutatorless single-phase motors which might reduce the main-
tenance- expense, weight, complication, and valuable space now needed for
commutators, may yet be developed for electric traction.

Sub-types of single-phase railway motors are legion.

In the diagram of connections, the field circuits, the compensating circuits, and
the armature circuits are shown. The primary and secondary circuits and the vari-
ous taps at the transformer are not shown.

(A) Series motor, with simplest and poorest connections.

(B) Series motor, with reverse series compensating winding, often called a con-
ductively compensated series motor.

170

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

(D) Series motor, inductively compensated with secondary compensation.

(E) Induction motor, simplest connections (Elihu Thomson). Brushes are given
an angular lead and armature is short-circuited.

Fig. 32. — Simplest Type of Single-phase Railway Motors.

(F) Induction motor, plain, with short-circuited armature.

(G) Induction motor, with secondary excitation.
(H) Induction motor, series type.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 171

References on Connections.

New Haven direct-current-alternating-current Locomotives, E. R. J., Aug. 24, 1907

p. 280; Murray, A. I. E. E., April, 1911.
Alexanderson motor: A. I. E. E., Jan., 1908; E. W., Jan. 18, 1908, p. 145; as used
on N. Y. N. H. & H. motor cars, E. R. J., May 5, 1909, p. 900.

(B) Erie Railroad, S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907, p. 661.

(H) London, Brighton & South Coast, in Dawson's "Electric Traction for Railways,"
pp. 139 and 161. Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesell., E. W., July 21, 1910, p. 146.

V-wwv

Fig. 33. — Diagram of Connections for Bernk-Lotschberg-Simplon Single-phase A. E. C

Locomotive Motors.
Transformer voltage 15,000. Motor voltage 420.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ALL SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS.

Laminated magnetic fields are used, the laminated steel ring core
being held by an independent steel enclosing case.

Field windings are distributed in slots, in the entire inner circum-
ference of the field core, and there are no salient poles.

Armature windings or coils are made up and connected to the com-
mutator in the sanie way as in direct-current motors. Resistance leads
are placed between the coils and commutator of series motors to reduce
the short-circuit currents induced in the coils by the transformer action
of the main field, paiticularly when the motor is starting. This resistance
is not always used with repulsion motors.

Sparking exists at the commutator brushes largely because the rever-
sals of current occur at the top of the current wave, which is about 40
per cent, higher than the mean effective value.

Compensation or auxiliary series windings in the slots in the pole

172

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Fig. 34. — Details of Connections for Allgemeine Elektricitats-Gesellschaft Single-phase

Repulsion-type Motors.

Seque

ncc

of S»tche

S<«p

Swiuhn

•1

>o.

Fig. 35.

1 & No. 2 T i T No. 3 & No. 4

itor Cutout I I Motor Cutout

9 Out 10 Out 11 Out 12 Out

Fig. 36. — Details of Connections for Westinghouse Single-phase, Series-compensated Type

Locomotive Motors.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 173

Fig. 37. — Visalia Electric Locomotive Motor.
Single-phase, 15-cycle, 125-h. p., Westinghouse motor. Two views.

174

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

faces are required to oppose the inductive elements and thereby maintain
the power-factor of the motor.

Air gaps are short and fields are weak, to reduce the self induction.
Air gaps are much longer than those on three-phase motors.

Transformers are necessary to reduce the trolley voltage, ordinarily
11,000 volts, to from 250 to 800 for the motor. Much higher voltages
could be used for the fields alone.

Potential control is used, and the motor terminals are shifted from
tap to tap of the step-down transformer.

...,. 'i 'i

1 ' V /y^fv''

/ jBV^^^^^k^H '

U... " ^^.

^^^Oi

^:h

l-jil^BJ

Mji ^'s^^

l^^^pj

" J

1 tfi^feU,

,m-^l^^\

^^^^•^

'^ '§Ml0i- :

-M

Fig. 38. — Grand Trunk Railway Locomotive Motor.
Single-phase, 25-cycle, 240-h. p., geared, nose and axle mounted. Driver diameter 62 inches.

Repulsion motors generally have these added features:

Brushes are placed 180 electrical degrees apart and short-circuited
upon themselves. Brushes are given a location about 15 degrees from
the line of polarization of the primary magnetism. Two pairs of brushes
are often used, placed at 90 degrees from each other, and one pair is short-
circuited on itself; and may be varied in position, in motor control.

Open stator slots are used in place of closed slots.

Power factor is higher and may approach unity.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 175

Air gaps are longer than those in series motors.
Voltages used across the motor are higher.
Number of poles is reduced and speed is lower.
Weight and space efficiency are sometimes improved.

COMMERCIAL SINGLE -PHASE MOTORS.

Commercial motors used by single-phase railways are noted:
Compensated-series motors of the Westinghouse Company.
Compensated-repulsion motors used by the General Electric Company

Fig. 39. — Winter-Eichberg Single-phase Railway Motor.
Showing main magnetizing coils and commutating coils in stator.

prior to 1907. The motor has a short-circuited armature and an extra
set of brushes for compensation, and to obtain a high power-factor.

Series-repulsion motors of the General Electric Company, the Alex-
anderson motor of 1907, which embodied many of the features of the
repulsion motor and of the compensated-series motor. In presenting

176

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

'^ A Single-phase Railway Motor," to the A. I. E. E., January, 1908, Mr.
Alexanderson stated: "In the series-repulsion motor, the problem of
commutation has been solved"; and Mr. Steinmetz in comment stated:

"It appears, therefore, that the second and last serious problem of the alter-
nating-current motor which still remained — the problem of commutation — has been
solved by the work recorded. The alternating-current, single-phase motor is in prac-
tically as good shape as the direct-current motor, and the second period in the devel-
opment of the alternating-current motor is concluded." A. I. E. E., Jan., 1908, p. 38.

Fig. 40.-

-WlNTER-ElCHBERG (A. E. G.) 25-CYCLE, SiNGLE-PHASE, 120-H. P RAILWAY MoTOR ArmATURE.

ShoAving ventilating duct, core and commutator.

Winter-Eichberg Motor, briefly, has two sets of brushes on the armature, one of
which sets is short-circuited on itself, and carries the equivalent of the working
current, while the other carries the magnetizing or exciting current which is supplied
to the armature winding instead of the field. The arrangement is such as to give
about the same effect as a commutating pole or commutating field. When starting,
the field flux is decreased and the armature ampere-turns increased. On the
Blankanese Ohlsdorf Railway: ''Motors have a 1-hour output of 200 h. p. at 500
r. p. m. The continuous rating is 100 h. p.; the weight including gear case, 7260
pounds ; the gear ratio, 3.05. The single-phase stator winding has 6 poles. The work-
ing winding is in series with an interpole winding, and each of the poles consists of 3
coils. Every second pole has a commutating coil. For low speeds the commutating
coils are in series with the working coils. For high speeds the commutating coils
receive energy at a certain pressure from taps on the exciter transformer. The air-
gap is 3 mm., yet the power factor remains almost unity. The rotor winding is a
normal direct-current winding. There are 8 brush holders, 6 of which are short-
circuited on themselves and 2 are used for exciter brushes."

Deri single-phase motors of Brown, Boveri & Company are also of the repulsion
type. The rotor is similar to the armature of a direct-current motor. The brushes
short-circuit the armature and are so arranged mechanically that the brush axis may

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 177

be set at various angles with the axis of the stator field. Two sets of brushes are used,
one being fixed in the polar axis of the stator, and the other so adjustable as to make
different angles wdth the fixed brushes. The movable brushes are not short-circuited
on each other, but each is short-circuited on its corresponding fixed brush. If their
angular distance is 180 degrees, the armature winding acts as the short-circuited
secondary of a transformer and no torque is exerted. As the angular distance between
the fixed and movable brush is varied from no degrees to 180 degrees, a torque is
exerted; and if the armature is allowed to run, the current decreases and the power
factor increases. The effect of shifting the brushes is analogous to changing the
impressed voltage on direct-current series motor.

Fig. 41. — Winter-Eichberg (A. E. G.), 25-cycle, Repulsion Type, 750-volts, 120-h. p., Single-
phase Railway Motor.
Used on Blankanese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorf and on London, Brighton and South Coast.

The stator of the motor is fed from the line, and even for small motors a pressure
of 3000 volts may be used on the field. The rotor is entirely independent of the line
and has no connection whatever with the stator circuit. Torque, direction of rotation,
and speed of the motor are regulated by means of the movable set of brushes. Vari-
ation of speed is attained by changing the potential of the supply current to the field.
The windings are simply reduced to two. The commutator is only half as wide as
on compensated-series motors of equal capacity, and with the same number of poles.
References: Electrotechnischer Anzeiger, Jan. 2, 1910; Dr. Gisbert Kapp to Inst, of
Elec. Engineers, Nov. 11, 1909; E. W., July 8, 1911, p. 104.

Advantages of single -phase commutator motors :

1. Cost of equipment and of electric systems are reduced.

2. Cost of operation of the electric system is reduced,

3. Potential control is more economical than rheostatic, or concat-
enation, or series-parallel control; it is of a decidedly superior type; it is

178 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

uniform and does not subject the train to jerks, caused by changing the
combinations of motors or the poles of motors.

4. An interchangeable series motor can be provided for either
alternating- or direct-current circuits, for long distance or for city service
or for use on three-phase circuits. (Increase in weight and the complica-
tion of the control for interchangeable circuits must be considered.)

5. Power required for single-phase motor trains is usually less than
with direct-current motor trains. Dawson has shown this with various
average speeds from 20 miles per hour to 28 miles per hour. He assumed
for the 500-volt direct-current trains a weight of 147.3 tons, and for
corresponding 6000-volt alternating-current trains, 162.6 tons. The
equipment used in the trains was eight G.E.-66 direct-current motors
and eight W.E.-51 single-phase motors. Each train then had 1000-h. p.
capacity. The load on each train was 16 tons and the distance 3/4 mile.
The energy consumption per train-mile for the alternating-current train
was always less than that of the direct-current train when the speed was
above the average of 20 miles per hour.

Disadvantages of single -phase commutator motors :

1. Heating of motors is greater.

2. Weight per horse power is high.

3. Torque is pulsating and is lower.

4. Power factor is not unity.

5. Cost of motor is higher.

6. Cost of motor maintenance is higher.

References.

Parshall and Hobart: "Electric Railway Engineering."

Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways," Chapters on single-phase motors.

McLaren, in Electric Journal, August, 1907.

Some of these disadvantages are now discussed briefly.

1. Heating is greater with single-phase motors than with direct-
current motors on account of the following four reasons:

Magnetic losses are larger, because there are well-saturated magnetic
circuits in the armature of the motor.

Commutation losses are larger with single-phase than with direct-
current motors, because the current is commutated at the peak of the
current wave, which is 40 per cent, higher than the average current shown
by an ammeter. Commutator difficulties are overcome in several ways:

(a) Commutation coils are used to induce a counter voltage of suitable phase
and strength and to destroy the armature reaction.

(b) Resistance or preventive leads are placed between armature windings and
commutator bars, to limit the current between any two sets of coils when the carbon
brush short-circuits the coils. (Brushes must be set to avoid short-circuiting.)

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 179

(d) Diameter or length of the commutator is increased for the proportionately-
greater current per bar.

Current losses are larger because the power factor is not unity. The I R heat
losses in the copper windings are thus greater.

Efficiency is lower than in other motors because of these larger magnetic, com-
mutator, and current losses.

Forced ventilation of alternating-current railway motors has been adopted; and
it is so effective that heating is not a limiting feature.

2. Weight of single-phase motors per h. p. is higher because heating
is greater, and lower voltages and larger commutators must be used.
Efficiency is lower and dimensions are larger.

Weight of single-phase motors of 200 to 800 h.p. varies with the ratio
of gear reduction and the peripheral speed used in design, but it is clear
that the weight, with or without forced draft, is 40 to 85 per cent, heavier
than comparable direct-current motors, and this forms a serious handicap.

Midland Railway of England uses single-phase motors which are
about one-third heavier than the corresponding direct-current motors;
but w^hen the whole train is taken into consideration, the additional
weight amounts to from 12 to 3 per cent., depending on the cars per
train. This difference would be reduced if the rolling stock were made
for thru running. Deely, in London Electrician, July 30, 1909.

3. Starting torque of single-phase motors is lower than with direct-
current motors. (Starting torque of three-phase motors is much lower
than that of direct-current motors, but for entirely different reasons.)
Starting torque depends upon the current; therefore, to increase the
starting torque it is usual to use a low voltage for the armature, com-
mutator, and motor.

"Drawbar pull per pound of motor weight of the single-phase alternating-
current motor must necessarily be lower than that of the direct-current motor,
because in the alternating-current motor the magnetic field pulsates between zero and
a maximum. The same motor, when energized by direct current, with the same
maximum magnetic flux, would give 41 per cent, more output." (Steinmetz.)

Starting torque is ample in existing designs, as shown by the records
of the New Haven passenger and freight locomotives, the motors of
which are frequently called upon to exert twice their hour rating torque
in starting, which is more than is expected of direct-current motors of
equal size; and by the Grand Trunk locomotives which start 1000-ton
trains on a 2 per cent, grade without taking the slack out of the train.
The heavy currents used have in no way affected the preventive leads.
The method used by the General Electric and Westinghouse Companies
to dampen out the pulsating torque or vibration will be discussed under
''Drawbar Pull of Electric Locomotives" in the first part of VII.

180

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Where the vibration is not dampened, a decided handicap exists,
particularly on overloads, in small 15-cycle motors. Springs in the
pinion or gear seem to be mechanically impractical; but where dampen-
ing springs are used, on locomotives and large motor cars, or where the
motors are spring mounted, the vibration presents few difficulties.

COMPARISON OF SINGLE-PHASE AND DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS.

Sprague, "Electric Trunk Line Operation," A. I. E. E., May, 1907.

Items.

Direct current.

Alternating current.

Magnet frame

Field coils

Integral

Laminated and less rigid.

Freely ventilated

Strains of one character

Large for ample bearings

Two to four

Imbedded in field magnet.
Rapidly variable; alternating.
One-third of direct current.
Four to twelve.

Strains

Polar clearance

Poles and brushes. . . .

Magnetic flux

Armature

Gearing

Mean torque

High saturation and torque. .
Moderate sized, slow speed . .
Low reduction, large pitch. .
Maximum torque of a con-
tinuous character.

Direct to commutator

None, due to low speed. ....

Reliable

Unity, per pound of weight . .
53% of one-hour rating

Weak field, low torque.
Large diameter, high speed.
High reduction, weak pitch.
Half of maximum, and variable

Armature coils

Gearing

without special devices.
Resistances between coils.
Gearing generally required.
Not reHable.

One half, for same weight.
35% of one-hour rating.

Electric braking

Capacity

Continuous rating . . .

Steinmetz, referring to the single-phase motor, says :

"A single-phase commutator motor with a good power factor must have few
field turns, many armature turns, a weak field with a strong armature. The armature
reaction and self induction must be neutralized by a compensated winding; a coil
surrounding the armature as close as possible and energized either by the main current
in series and in opposite direction to the armature current or closed upon itself and
energized by its secondary induced current, — the conductively compensated, and the
inductively compensated.

"This means that the alternating-current motor has to be designed with 8 to 12
poles, where the direct-current motor would have 4 to 6 poles. It means that the
alternating-current motor has to be supplied with a very large commutator to receive
the current at 200 volts, while the direct-current motor commutates much smaller
currents at 600 volts. So weight and size must be sacrificed to get reasonable com-
mutation." A. I. E. E., Jan., 1908, p. 36.

Steinmetz, referring to single-phase motors in a discussion on the
New Haven electrification to A. I. E. E., Dec. 11, 1908, p. 1683, states:

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 181

"It is especially gratifying to see the statements which have been made by
unbiased engineers, based upon theoretical considerations, have now been verified by
practical experience, and that heavy railroad work can be handled by single-phase
alternating-current motors, tho obviously not with the same high drawbar pull per
ton of locomotive weight, and possibly, at least for the present, not with quite the
same reliability of service.

"This I believe establishes the single-phase alternating-current motor as one of
the pieces of apparatus by which the future electrification of our country's railway
systems will be accomplished."

The force of the comparison by Mr. Sprague has already been lost,
following great improvements in design since 1906. The handicap in
railroad-train service of a heavier motor weight and higher maintenance
has been overbalanced by the elimination of expensive feeders and
rotary converter substations with attendants.

High cost of electrical equipment had to be reduced before heavy
concentrated loads could be handled in long-distance railroad work. The
single-phase series and repulsion types of motor were necessary in the
development of the art. It was fruitless to try to block the way; but it
was wise to state the handicaps which then existed, and to present the
worst side of the single-phase commutator motor.

COMPARISONS OF MOTORS.

Railway motors are compared in a pertinent and relevant way when
placed on the following basis:

Weight per h.p. at a given peripheral speed.

Weight of transformers and of all auxiliary apparatus.

Weight of complete motor equipment for a given train weight.

Dimensions; motor clearance for a given driving wheel.

Peripheral speed of armature for a given train speed.

Air gap; bearing lengths and area; weight on bearings.

Power factor at all loads.

Design, size, and guarantee on commutator and brushes.

Time during which 150 per cent, of full-load torque can be sustained
(a) with motors locked, (6) at low speeds, in starting a freight train.

Operation — heating, sparking, vibration, efficiency.

Performance — speed-torque-current relation.

Control scheme to obtain variable speed and uniform acceleration;
efficiency of control, if in rapid transit service.

Cost of the equipment for the electric system — the motors, trans-
formers, contact line, and rotary converter substations.

Cost of the power service per ton-mile or per seat-mile, based on the
stops per mile, cars per train, schedule, etc.

182 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

RATING OF MOTORS.

Railway motor rating has for its basis the mechanical h.p. output
which the motor will deliver for 1 hour, with a rise in temperature above
the surrounding air not exceeding 90° C. at the commutator and 75° C.
at any other point of the motor. This 1-hour rating indicates the
maximum output which the motor should be called upon to develop
during acceleration.

A. I. E. E. standardization rules call for rating by tests, with natural
ventilation, in a room having a temperature of 25° C, with the motor
covers removed, and at the rated voltage and cycles. The h.p. is
measured at the drivers, and gear and bearing losses are part of the motor
losses. Factory tests are made on typical runs under cars or locomotives.
Tests have now been made under all conditions of railway service.
Service conditions are calculated and the heat developed in the motor,
and the conduction and convection of this heat thru the frames, for a
series of typical runs, can be estimated closely. The heat losses are those
caused by the current in the field, armature, and brush contacts, the
friction of air, brush, and bearings, and the magnetic losses in the iron.
The root-mean-square of the heat units which are lost in a given time or
run must be balanced by the radiation from the frames.

The capacity required in a motor is measured by the load which it
will carry continuously, at a fixed voltage, with a rise in temperature
within safe limits. The motor is then suitable for any service in which
the square root of the mean square current at any equivalent voltage
are less than this continuous capacity. The instantaneous loads must
also be within the commutating limits. This capacity is determined by
a shop test, made with covers open, in which the rise in resistance of the
motor windings at the end of a 1 hour run will not exceed 40 per cent.
The rise in temperature of any part except the commutator will not exceed
75° C, by thermometer. Owing to the improved ventilation which is
obtained on a moving locomotive or car, the rise in temperature-
of the windings at the end of a 1-hour run will not exceed about
75° C, as determined by increase in resistance, or about 55° C. by
thermometer.

Comparisons based on the one -hour rating are misleading until the
following matters are considered:

a. Weight affects rating. A heavy motor has a large thermal storage
capacity, and requires more heat units to raise its metal to a given tem-
perature in an hour than a light-weight motor of the some rating. The
continuous capacity of the lighter motor under forced draft will be the
greater.

b. Covers are to be off, by the Institute rules, but in service covers

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 183

are either solid or full of large holes. The 1-hour capacity is about 20
per cent, less with covers on than with covers off.

c. Temperature measurements with a thermometer on the core sur-
faces of the motor show a lower temperature than that determined by
the rise in resistance. The latter gives an accurate average of internal
and surface temperature.

d. Speed-torque characteristics may confuse the ratings. For
example, series motors are rated at less than one-half their maximum
speed, while three-phase motors are rated at their maximum speed.
Thus the 1-hour h.p. rating of direct-current and single-phase appears
at a great disadvantage in such comparisons. The New Haven geared
freight locomotive (071) has a continuous capacity of over 1120 h.p.,
corresponding to a tractive effort of 12,000 pounds, and a speed of 38
m. p. h., yet the maximum tractive effort in starting is over 50,000
pounds. A three-phase, two-speed locomotive having this maximum
tractive effort and this maximum speed might be called a 2500-h.p.
locomotive, and yet it would not have greater service capacity than the
single-phase locomotive.

e. Voltage affects rating. For example, the G.E.-205 direct-current
motor is rated 90 h.p. on 500 volts, 100 h.p. on 600 volts, and only 75
h.p. on 1200 volts, more insulation being required for the latter voltage.
Again, the G.E.-69 motor is rated 200 h.p. on 500 volts, 240 h.p. on 600
volts, and 260 h.p. on 660 volts.

Continuous capacity of railway motors is recognized by the American
Institute in the following:

^'The continuous capacity of the motor is given in terms of the
amperes which it will carry when run on a testing stand — with covers on
or off, as specified — at different voltages, say, 40, 60, 80, and 100 per cent,
of the rated voltage, with a temperature rise not exceeding 90° at
the commutator and 75° at any other part, provided the resistance
of no electric circuit in the motor increases more than 40 per cent."

The author recommends that specifications allow the use of a definite
quantity of forced air, at a specified air pressure, for cooling; and further
that the run be at full rated voltage, since in practice it is found that
runs on lower voltages, either alternating or direct, are decidedly mislead-
ing, and, in alternating-current practice, are generally valueless.

Ventilation of motors raises the capacity because the permissible
output is limited by the maximum temperature rise. In the S. K. C.
type of motor, designed by Dodd, natural ventilation was obtained by
leaving both ends of the armature open for the entrance of air, and there
were ducts thru the frame of the motor, which registered with the
ducts in the armature perpendicular to the shaft. As a result of un-
usually good ventilation, the 10-hour rating of this motor was about

184 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

50 per cent, of its 1-hour rating, with the same heating, as compared
with a 10-hour rating of but 35 per cent, of the 1-hour rating for small
railway motors.

Artificial circulation of air, by forced draft from a fan located either
on the armature shaft or external to the motor, is used to drive out the
heat. Artificial ventilation, however, does not increase the rating more
than 10 per cent, during the first hour's run, but it is of great value during
the subsequent hours of continued service.

Ventilation by means of fans in each motor, on the armature shaft, is
not satisfactory for series motors, because as the load increases the speed
and amount of air cooling is greatly decreased. Ventilation of railroad

^p^ •

<^^^p

jUj

Fig. 42. — Pennsylvania Railroad Motor Equipment and Forced Draft Fan.

Used on motor-car trucks in New York-Long Island service. Axle centers 8 1/2 feet. Entire

axle enclosed. Motors, direct-current, 215-h. p. each.

motors and transformers is therefore performed by independent motor-
driven centrifugal blowers. These furnish air to the motors, at low
pressure and velocity, thru a flexible conduit made of wire reinforced
canvas. Clean air from points below the roof is used.

Ventilation by forced draft is effective for cooling, not only while
the motor is on the heavy or up-grade service, but while the motor is
running without current on the down grade, or is standing or waiting to
take another load in regular service or up the grade.

Pennsylvania Railroad motors on cars for service on the New York Division use
forced draft obtained by means of a blower outfit, consisting of a l^h.p., 2,250 r. p.m.
motor, to the shaft of which at each end, a blower fan 9 inches in diameter
and 3 inches wide is attached. Each of these fans is capable of forcing between
400 and 500 cubic feet of air per minute thru the motor, to which it is flexibly con-
nected. The motor is mounted on the truck below the bolster. The installation is of
particular interest as being the first where forced ventilation has been used for car
motors on such a large scale. The 1-hour rating of the motor is 215 h.p. but this
is raised by means of forced ventilation to about 250 h.p.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 185

RATING OF LARGE ELECTRIC MOTORS COMPARED.

Name of railroad
company.

Current

volts

cycles.

Ventila-
tion.

Continu-
ous h.p.
rating.

1-hour

h.p.

rating.

Ratio of

continuous

to 1-hour h.p.

New York Central

Natural . .

1200

2200

.55

600 V
\ DC

1166
475

2200
1100

.53

Michigan. Central

Natural . .

.43

Baltimore & Ohio, 1910.

/ 600 V
DC

Pennsylvania

Natural . .

1600

2500

.64

650V

3-P
15-C

3-P

1200

2060
1500

.58

Valtellina

Natural

Gio\'i ....

Forced . . .

1150

1980

Simplon ....

Natural .

1700

16-C

3-P

25-C

Great Northern

Natural . .
Forced . . .

1000
1500

1700
1900

.59

.•79

New Haven : Passenger .

1-P

Forced . . .

800

960

.83

Freight....

25-C

Forced . . .

1120

1260

.89

Freight

Forced . . .

1130

1350

.84

Grand Trunk

1-P
25-C

Forced . . .

570

720

Spokane: 1906 Freight. .

1-P

Forced . . .

385

500

.77

1908 Freight. .

25-C

Forced . . .

560

680

.83

Pennsylvania, 1907

1-P
15-C

Forced . . .

620

940

.66

Southern Ry., France. . .

1-P
15-C

Forced . . .

1200

1600

.75

Baden State, Weisental. .

1-P
15-C

Forced . . .

780

1050

.74

A. E. G

1-P
25-C

Forced . . .

1000

1400

.71

New York Central is estimated by Hutchinson and by Sprague.

Pennsylvania normal field conditions are distinguished from full field.

Alternating-current direct-current motors are here rated on alternating current.

Giovi locomotive motors are rated by resistance measurements.

Forced draft requires closed motor frames.

The table was compiled with care, yet in some cases the accuracy is questioned.

A. I. E. E. 1-hour rating is not in general use for large 600-volt direct-current,
closed locomotive motors, nor for alternating single-phase and three-phase motors;
and the rating is often on forced draft, which is 5 to 16 per cent, higher.

186

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

RATINGS OF LARGE RAILWAY MOTORS WITH FORCED DRAFT.
Comparison: Temperature of air 25° C; of motor 100° C; A. I. E. E. rules.

Motor.

Direct.

Alternating.

1-hour rating, natural draft

100

105 to 110

44 to 64

70 to 83

100

1-hour rating, forced draft

105 to 118

Continuous rating, natural draft

50 to 58

Continuous rating, forced draft

73 to 88

The data are approximate, yet they are valuable for comparison.
Results are affected by the shape, size, and system, as is shown later.

The ratio of ratings of alternating-current motors with and without
forced draft is not greatly affected by the size, but for direct-current
motors the ratio depends largely on the mechanical design of the frame.

The increase in the continuous rating by the use of forced draft is
about 55 per cent. This great increase indicates clearly that in the
future all large railway motors, including direct-current motors, will use
forced draft because of the lower cost and weight, and safety of insulation.

All railway motors for train service should be given a continuous
rating on forced draft. That is the real basis for comparison.

Single-phase motors are rated on their output with alternating
current, but when they are designed for interchangeable work, both
alternating-current and direct-current rating are given.

The ratio of 300-volt direct-current to 235-volt alternating-current
rating or output is about 1.50 on an average.

Ratings are often compared by commercial engineers as follows:
Eighty per cent, of the 1-hour A. I. E. E. rating gives the continuous
rating with forced draft.

Direct-current street car motors, with natural draft, have a continu-
ous rating of 33 to 43 per cent, of the 1-hour rating.

Ratings based on a continuous load or tractive effort are preferable
for electric locomotives which make long runs.

Selection of the requisite motor capacity involves a careful study or
comparison of the following:

Service: single car or train; city street or right-of-way; express or
local; freight or passenger; city, suburban, interurban, or railroad; stops
per mile; time of stops.

Routes, distances, grades, curves.

Weights of motor cars, locomotives, coaches, and freight cars.

Speed schedule, and layovers.

Equipment: motors per train, gearing, drives.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 187

The capacity required of motors for a given service cannot be con-
sidered in this work. Authorities to be recommended:

Parshall and Hob art: "Electric Railway Engineering," Chapter IV.
Dawson: "Electric Traction for Railways," Chapter IV.
Wilson and Lydall: "Electrical Traction," Chapter XVIII.
Carter: Predeterminations in Railway Work, A. I. E. E., June, 1903.
Renshaw: Railway Motors in Service, A. I, E. E., June, 1903.
Armstrong: High-Speed Railway Problems, A. I. E. E., June, 1903.
Armstrong: Heating of Motors (valuable curves), A. I. E. E., June, 1902.
Hutchinson: Temperature Rise of Railway Motors, A. I. E. E., Oct., 1903.
See "Power Required for Trains" and Literature which follow.

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL DATA.

NAMES AND RATING OF MOTORS.

Years 1885 to 1895.

Direct-current, 500-volt, Standard-gage Street Railway Motors.

Name of

Motor

1-hour

Year

Location, type, or detail of

manufacturer.

number.

h.p.

built.

construction.

Daft

1
5

1885
1888

Baltimore, Md.

Sprague

Richmond, Va.

l^^i tu^ VJ.Vy . .........

1890

Many cities.

Thomson- Houston

F-30

1889

Double-reduction gear.

SRG 30

1890

Single-reduction gear.

SRG 50

1891

Single-reduction gear.

WP 30

1891

S.R.G. and well enclosed.

AVP 50

1892

S.R.G. and well enclosed.

Wenstrom

4-pole

1890

Slotted armature core.

Short- Walker

15-25

1890

Gearless.

1895

Geared.

80-100

Years 18

1890
30 to 19C

Brooklyn Elevated.
)0.

Westinghouse ....

1890

Double-reduction geared.

1891

Open-type ; series-connected ;
machine-wound coils; 4-pole.

12-A

1893

Open type, cast iron.

1895

Open type, cast iron.

38-B

1899

Laminated poles.

50-B
56
69

150

1897

Steel frames. Replaced 3 and 12.

68
76

38
75

188

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

NAMES AND RATING OF MOTORS.— Continued.
Years 1890 to 1900.

Name of

Motor

1-hour

Year

Location, type, or detail of

manufacturer.

number.

h.p.

buiit.

construction.

Westinghouse ....

110

92
93

101

121

800

85
27

General Electric . .

1892

Enclosed 4-poie motor.

1000

1894

1200
2000

38
125

1893
1893

Intramural Ry., Chicago.

1896

Four-pole. Replaced by G.E. 73.

1896

Ventilating ducts in armature,
core. Replaced G.E. 800.

160

1896

Nantasket Beach, near Boston;
Buffalo & Lockport, New York;
Akron, Bedford & Cleveland.

1897

58
64
67

37
60
38

1899

Replaced G.E. 1000.

175
35

DIRECT-CURRENT, 600- VOLT, COMMUTATING-POLE RAILWAY MOTORS,

1911.

Horse power.

General Electric.

Westinghouse.

Allis.

50
60

202-213-216-219

307-3 12-3 19-B

306-316

305-310

501

210-218
214

304-317

303

303-A

100

205

110

125

206

140

302

160

207-211

175

301-B
300-B-308

225 •

208-212

69
209

240

275

1000

315

The 100 h.p. G.E.-205 motors are rated 75 h.p., and the 160 h.p. G. E.-207
motors are rated 125 h.p., when used two in series on 1200 volts.

ELECTRIC RAILAYAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 189

STANDARD THREE-PHASE RAILWAY MOTORS. ^

YesiT 1911.

1-hr.
h.p.

General
Electric

Westinghouse
Electric.

Ganz
Electric.

Brown
Boveri.

150

Burgdorf Thun.

225

Valtellina

250

Valtellina (m.c.)

425

Great Northern.

550

Simplon.

600

Valtellina

850

Simplon.

990

Giovi

1200

ValtelHna

1500

Valtellina

Voltage is 3000, except Great Northern, which is 500.

SINGLE-PHASE 25- AND 15-CYCLE RAILWAY MOTORS.

1-hr.
h.p.

No. of
cycles.

General Electric.
Used by

Westinghouse Electric
Used by

Siemens Brothers.
Used by

A.E.G., Berlin.
Used by

50
75

100

115

125

150

170

200
225
240

315

400
675

75
90
100
125
150
175
200
220
460
525
800
1000

1200

25
25

25
25
25

25
25 •

15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
15

604. Ballston

605. Toledo & Chi
Illinois Traction

Long Island

135. Ft. Wayne &

Springfield.
132. Windsor; Erie;

Rock Island.
Swedish State

Thamshavn

Swedish State.

603. Milwaukee;

Annapolis;

New Canaan.
609. Illinois Trac-
tion.

148. Spokane & In-
land; Chicago, L.S.
& S.B.

156. New Haven m.c
Swedish State.

151. Spokane

Hamburg-Alt.

Midland.

Oranienburg.
Rotterdam.

Experimental.

Grand Trunk

New Haven passen-
ger locomotive.

403. New Haven,
freight locomotive.

New Haven, freight.

Visalia, m. c.
135. ..*

132. Visalia, locomo.

Oberammergau . .
French Southern

French Southern m.c.
144. Pennsylvania R.R.
French Southern

Oberammergau
Bernese- Alps. .
Wiesental

Bernese- Alps. .
Swedish State.
Wiesental

Italian State.

Prussian State, etc.

151. Hamburg-
Altoona.
London, B. & S.C.

London, B. & S.C.

Prussian State.

Oranienburg.

Norway.

French Southern.
Bernese- Alps.
Prussian State.

General Electric motors were withdrawn in 1909.

The list of users, given under ''Electric System," is more complete.

190

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

WEIGHT OF DIRECT-CURRENT 500- AND 600- VOLT RAILWAY MOTORS.

1911.

General Electric.

Motor
No.

Rated

h.p.

1-hour.

Wt.

of
arm.

Wt.

of
motor.

Wt. of 4-

motor
equipment.

Notes on motor, or on use by
railroads.

54
67

98
87
74
73
66

65-B

69-B

65
70

202-13

216-19

218

210

204

214

205

206

207-11

208

212*

209

50
50
60
65
75
125

160

175

200

240

250
360
550

100

125

160

225

275

395
600

704
677
768
845
1175
1327

1550

1526

2000

1800

2840
9500
7640

600
662

805

894
"1052

3000

1830
2400

2975
3275
3510
3535
4137
4375

5415

5152

5302

12975

6230

8855

12400

2600
2887
3200
3440
3080
3820
3950
4250
4740
6380
6230

11600

8500

14140
15870
16710
17190
19250
21250

27050

26000

48000

35400

30700

35700
51900
67700

12846
14060
15425
15680
16252
18000
19200
20600
23738
31520
30700

46400

Weight of all motors listed includes
gear and gear case, box-type motors
and multiple-unit. M. control.

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago.
/ Buffalo & Lockport;
\ St. Louis &Belleville.

/ Boston Elevated;

I Central London, gearless.

Baltimore & Ohio, 1903 geared.

MetropoHtan District ;

Interboro Rapid Transit.
Paris-Orleans, geared.
Baltimore & Ohio, 1895 gearless.
New York Central gearless; weight of

armature without axles and drivers.
Motors above No. 200 are interpole.

Motor 205, rated 75-h.p. on 1200 volts.

/ Michigan Central, locomotive, 1910.
\ Baltimore & Ohio, locomotive, 1910.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 191

WEIGHT OF DIRECT-CURRENT 500- AND 600-VOLT RAILWAY MOTORS,

1911.

Westinghouse.

Motor
No.

Rated
voltage.

1-hr.
h.p.

Wt. of
armature.

Wt, of motor
and gears.

Wt.of4-motor
equipment.

R.P.M. at
rating.

12-A

12- A

92-A_

68-C
101-A

38-B

89
101-D

93-A
305
305
112-B

85
121-A

70
119
133
114 \
134 /

86
113
103
315

500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
500
600
500
500
500
550
550
550
550

550

550
550
600
600

25
30
30
35
35
40
40
40
50
50
55
55
55
63
75
75
75
75
85
115
125
150

160

200

300

1000

360
345
385
475

505

585
524

650

585
720

778

825

860

995

1220

1340

1525

1980

5300

10950

2205
2270
1950
2265
1925
2270
2730
2350
2900
2900
2730
3000
3490
3550
3550
3400
3480
4500
4300
4800
4600
5500

5300

.5900.

6700

11500

45000

10,250

9,100

10,700

10,700
12,500
12,150
14,200
14,200
12,500
14,600
15,000
16,280
16,280
16,000
19,000
21,640
19,400

21,080

26,800

40,000
Two motor.

525
700
553
530
550
565
520
500

468
495
600
630
495
495
620

640

625

610
Penn. R. R,

R.P.M. =M.P.H. X gear ratio X 336 ^ driver diameter.

192

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

WEIGHT OF DIRECT-CURRENT RAILWAY MOTORS, 1910.
Allis-Chalmers.

Motor

Rated

1-hr.

R.P.M. at

Wt. of

Wt. of motor

Wt. of

No.

voltage

h.p.

rating.

armature.

and gears.

4-motor
equipment.

501

600
500

50
40

. 2720

12,560

301

550

2630

12,300
12,200

R-35

500

523

660

2490

R-50

500

575

760

2870

14,100

R-75

500

510

1140

3770

18,500

Siemens Brothers.

54-S

92-L

17-30

92-S

150

500

750

500

750

900

130

545

400

1840

475

640

2870

520

640

2870

490

540

2325

800

665

3175

710

735

3540

700

5500

WEIGHT OF THREE-PHASE RAILROAD LOCOMOTIVE MOTORS.

1-hr.
h.p.

Motors

Wt. per

Speed

used.

motor.

R.P.M.

11,000

128

8,800

300

11,000

300

14,950

358

25,000

224

27,800

224

27,520

270

27,000

224

Wt. of all
elec. equip.

Manufac-
turer.

Railroad
installation.

150
150
225
425
550
600
85.0
990
1200
1500

73,200
65,000
66,000
78,000
60,000

54,000

Ganz

Brown . . .

Ganz

G.E

Brown . . .

Ganz

Brown . . .
Westing . .

Ganz

Valtellina, 1902
Burgdorf.

Valtellina(motorcars).
Great Northern.
Simplon, 1907.
Valtelhna, 1904.
Simplon, 1909.
Giovi.

Valtellina, 1906.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 193

WEIGHT OF SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAY MOTORS.
Westinghouse, 25 Cycles.

Motor
No.

1-hr.
h.p.

Wt. of

armature.

Wt. of

motor

and gears.

Wt. of
4-motor
equipment.

Installation for
railroads.

50
75

100

125
135
150
150
170
225
240
315
675

Long Island: Sea Cliff Div.
Bergamo-Brembana.
( Baltimore & Annapolis.

135

. . 4500

132

148

156

0
94

0
150

0
360

1865

5000
. . 6100 . .

\ Rock Island Southern.
Chi. Lake Shore & S. Bend.

133
156

2705
1500

6025
7950
13830
10420
15660
16710
19770
41600

41,200
55,405

Spokane & Inland loco.
New Haven motor-car.
New Haven Switcher.

151
137
130
403

3570
5095
5850

47,557
3 motors.
66,840
79,000
83,200

Spokane & Inland loco.
Grand Trunk locomotive.
New Haven passenger.
New Haven geared freight.
New Haven crank-type,
two motors, freight.

Westinghouse

, 15 Cycles.

135-A

90 ....
125

4500

5300

7468

19500

31,000
35,650
54,100

132

Visalia locomotive.

156
144

150 ....
460 ....
800

2250
9350

Weight with quill.
Pennsylvania R.R. gearless.
French Southern, 2-motor

59,200

freight locomotive.

WEIGHT OF SINGLE-PHASE RAILWAY MOTORS.
General Electric, 25 Cycles.

Motor
No.

604
605
603

609

1-hr.
h.p.

Wt. of
armature.

Wt. of

motor

and gears.

Wt. of

4-motor

equipment-

Installation for railways.

125

125
150

1200

2000

4500
5000
7000

6000
8200

Schenectady-Ballstoh.
Toledo & Chicago.
Milwaukee; Annapolis;

New Canaan.
New Haven, motor-car.
Illinois Traction.

Weight of New Haven 4-motor, No. 156, 25-cycle equipment without direct-
rent control equipment is 47,250 pounds.
13

cur-

194

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

WESTINGHOUSE MOTORS. ELECTRICAL DATA.

Direct-current, 500-600 Volts.

Motor

No.

1-hr.
h.p.

Arm.
diam.

Bore of
poles.

Field

coil

turns.

Size of wire
or strap.

Field
Res.,
ohms.

Arma-
ture
slots.

Coils
per

slot.

Armature
turns; sized
wire or bar.

Arm.
Res.
ohms.

92-A

13 3/8

125

5/16x1/2

.340

3 turns 10

.340

101-B

14 3/8

110

5/16x5/8

.296

3 turns 9

.290

93-A

15 3/8

3/64x1 1/4

.166

3 turns 10

.148

112-B

15 3/8

1/16x1 1/4

.094

2 3/64x1/2

.090

121-A

17 3/8

1/16x1/4

.087

1 3/64x5/8

.070

119

125

17 7/16

3/32x1 3/8

.051

1 1/16x5/8

.050

114

160

17.5

7/64x1 3/4

.035

1 1/10x1/2

.037

113

200

19 1/2

1/8x2

.025

1 1/8x1/2

.030

Commutator data.

Armature bearings at

Motor

Brush

Shaft

No.

Diam.

Length.

Bars.

Brush-
es.

section.

Commutator.

Pinion.

at pinion.

92-A

3 5/8

123

1/2x1 1/2

3 x7 1/2

3 x6 1/2

2 3/4

93-A

10 1/4

4 11/16

135

1/2x2

3 3/4x8 7/16

3 1/2x7

3 3/8

112

12 1/2

5 1/2

225

1/2x2

3 3/4x8 7/16

3 1/2x7

3 3/8

121

14 1/2

205

1/2x1 3/4

4 xS 1/2

3 3/4x7

3 3/4

119

14 1/2

6 23/32

185

1/2x2

4 xlO

3 3/4x7

3 3/4

114

14 1/2

6 3/4

165

5/8x2

4 1/2x10

3 3/4x7 1/4

4 1/8

113

16 3/4

9 11/16

155

5/8x2 1/4

4 3/4x10

4 x7

4 3/8

Length of commutator is from end to lug. Two brushes are used per holder.
Wedges are used to hold armature coils of 25- to 75-h. p. motors, and bands on
larger motors, with 4 to 5 bands on the core, and one band at each end of coils.
Several modifications exist for each motor.

DEVELOPMENT OF RAILWAY MOTOR DESIGN.

In general, railway naotor design must embrace machinery which
furnishes the greatest possible output at the least expense in first cost
and in performance. This involves the best materials, the highest
practical speeds, and the best arrangement of the materials in the design.
Steel with very high permeability, 100,000 lines per square inch, in both
solid and sheet form is utiHzed. Mica and asbestos are the insulating
materials having the greatest heat-resisting qualities. High speeds are
economical when expensive constructive features are reduced. Weight
may be decreased by more efficient materials, interpole motors, artificial
cooling, and lower cycles. When weight of motors used in rapid -transit
service is over-reduced, mechanical and electrical excellence are sacrificed.

Some of the details of development follow:

1. Magnet frames of direct-current motors were originally bipolar,

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 195

and of cast iron. Sprague motor frames were of good wrought iron.
Enclosed Thomson-Houston waterproof motors of 1891, and the G.E.-
800 motor of 1892, and all modern motors have used cast steel frames
largely because the improved magnetic qualities of steel allowed a reduc-
tion in the weight and space. Some of these had consequent poles, but
they were soon abandoned for the standard, 4-pole motor, which was
introduced in the AYestinghouse No. 3 open motor of 1891.

Field frames of direct-current motors are divided as follows: Small
motors, 30- to 80-h.p., have the cast steel frames divided horizontally,
and the center lines of the 4 poles are at an angle of 45 degrees with the
horizontal; and larger motors either have their frames split, at an angle of
45 degrees, and 2 poles set horizontally and 2 vertically, or a box type frame
is used which is not split. Small motors are opened by swinging the lower
half downward, to the repair pit, on hinges which are placed on the side
opposite the axle. Armature bearings are bolted to the upper or to
the lower field. Large motors are inspected by running the truck out
from under the locomotive or car. If the field is divided, the upper half
is opened to get at the fields and armature. Box type or solid fields
require that the motor be removed entirely from the truck and the arma-
ture to be taken out at one end. Some motor frames, G.E. 70 and 74 of
1904, are split horizontally, w^ell above the center line, to get a small
upper frame, for facilitating quick repair work.

Box type frames were introduced about 1898. They have a single
magnetic casting of soft steel, in the form of a cube with well rounded
corners. Maximum capacity, minimum space, rigidity of frame, and
perfect alignment of brush-holders and bearings are obtained. Housings
for the bearings are bolted against well-fitted cylindrical heads on the
field frames. Armature, field coils, and pole pieces are removed thru
the end of the frame. The armature is taken out by removing one frame
head and then lifting and sliding the armature horizontally thru the
opening; or the motor is set on end and the armature lifted vertically;
or, again, the motor is put in a lathe, the armature is supported on'its
center line, and the motor frame rolled parallel to the shaft. '

Magnet frames of alternating -current motors consist of an outer steel
casing forming a structural frame for the motor. The frame encloses
a cylindrical field ring or stator built up of thin annular laminations,
insulated from each other by j apan or enamel , and securely bolted together.

Single-phase and three-phase fields of 50- to 150-h.p. motors are made
in one piece, and cannot be divided like those of direct-current motors.
Armatures are taken out as in box type frames.

Gearless motor fields and frames are split horizontally and are removed
in halves, the field windings being disconnected for that purpose. New
York, New Haven & Hartford motor frames for gearless passenger

196

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

locomotive are split, but the geared and the crank type freight loco-
motive motor frames are solid. The frames of the motors for the freight

locomotive are built up of steel plates and structural angles. The motor
is stiff, and light in weight, and the field laminations are well exposed.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 197

Enclosure of the entire motor has finally been effected, at first by
protecting it with canvas or galvanized jron, and then by the use of most
of the magnet frame, in the ''waterproof motor" of 1891. Finally the
frame entirely enclosed the motor. The covers over the commutators
of small motors are closed, while the covers of large motors and also the
upper frames often have many half-inch holes. See Ventilation.

The axle is enclosed on the Pennsylvania motor cars to keep out dust.

Forced draft has been adopted to keep out the dust, to ventilate, and
to cool large motors. Examples: 210-h.p., direct-current types for Long
Island Railroad; 275-h.p., direct-current types for Michigan Central
Railroad; 240-h.p. single-phase types, for New York, New Haven &
Hartford Railroad; 325-h.p., three-phase types, for Great Northern
Railway. Motors located up in the locomotive are not enclosed.

2. Poles of direct -current motors were originally of cast or wrought iron
or steel, but are now of laminated steel with magnetically saturated faces,
bolted on the cast-steel field frame. This plan w^as introduced in the
Westinghouse-38 motor of 1899.

Commutating poles were developed about 1907. A small auxiliary
interpole or commutating pole placed between the main poles, holds the
neutral point and thus reduces the sparking. Non-commutating pole
motors cannot be relied on for more than 50 to 75 per cent, overload, to
make up lost time or to accelerate on heavy grades, while commutating
pole motors will take care of from 150 to 200 per cent, overload for
emergency intervals without destructive sparking. Commutating pole
motors, without other changes, allow the use of about 50 per cent,
greater voltage per bar; but the proportion of copper to steel is increased.

Poles of alternating-current motors are enclosed by a cylindrical steel
ring. They are built of thin, annular laminations held by bolts which
run parallel to the shaft. The interior portions of the punchings are
shaped to form four or more poles, which are slotted for the reception of
the field windings. They are often split between the middle of two field
coils (not between adjacent coils), and only a single connector of the
compensation windings is disturbed. St. Ry. Journ., Aug. 28, 1907, p. 281 .

There are no inner projecting poles in single-phase motors. There
are no fixed poles in three-phase motors, since the field revolves or pro-
gresses electrically.

Sparking at commutators is the cause of most all motor trouble. It
disintegrates brushes, burns copper, and increases the brush friction. The
copper and carbon dust works into windings, brush holders, and insula-
tion, and causes flash-overs and breakdown of insulation. With good
commutation, soft high-grade carbon brushes are used, brush tension and
vibration are greatly reduced, and a high glaze, which prevents commuta-
tor wear and increases the life of the brushes and commutator, is formed.

108 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

3. Field coils with both shunt and series windings were found in the
first direct-current railway motors. Series motors of 1885, built by
Field, and the 1888 Sprague motors had 2 fields and 6 field coils
which, in starting a car, were first connected in series, partly for use as
resistance, and then in multiple groups. Thomson-Houston motors used
field loops by means of which the turns per coil were varied. Magnets
were horseshoe-shaped and had two coils until about 1891. Railway
motor field coils were simplified about 1890 by a change to a plain
series winding on brass spools. The cotton-covered, wire-wound coils
were changed to mica- and asbestos-covered copper straps.

The modern coil is of the mummified type; and it is heavily wrapped
and made complete without any outside metallic retaining spool, except
for some locomotive motors. The coil is placed in a vacuum which
exhausts the moisture and air, after which the insulating compound,
which is forced in, penetrates every part of the coil. High temperatures
and a long time are required for this treatment. The coil then resists the
action of water and air to which it is exposed, yet radiates the heat. It
is compact, and vibration and chafing of wires are prevented, yet it will
not warp when heated repeatedly by overloads. Outside protection
against mechanical injury is obtained by wrapping tape, or cotton web-
bing thoroly filled with japan. The coil is clamped to the frame by
heavy, flat spring hangers after the pole pieces are bolted in the motor.

Field coils of three-phase motors are similar to those of generators
and are insulated with tape and mica, and are mummified. The coils
are of the distributed type. See specifications of Giovi locomotives.

Field coils of single-phase motors are distributed windings, carried in
slots in the pole faces. The field windings are in two independent sec-
tions, the main field for energizing and producing the effective magnetic
field and the other, an auxiliary, or compensating winding, which simply
balances the armature reaction on the field. In other words, the com-
pensating windings counteract the armature inductance, and improves
the commutation by compensating the armature reaction; and the field
distortion is thereby reduced. The coils of the main exciting windings
are connected in parallel to reduce the self induction. Many methods
of winding are used in the repulsion and series type of single-phase motors.

4. Air gap length, between the armature and stator, are grouped.
Direct-current designs use 6/32 inch for 75-h.p.; 7/32 inch for 125-h.p.;
8/32 inch for 160- to 225-h.p.; 6/32 inch for 275-h.p. Michigan Central
locomotive motors; 8/32 inch for 550-h.p. New York Central and 9/32 for
1250-h.p. Pennsylvania locomotive motors.

Single-phase motor designs use about 4/32 inch for the 240-h.p.
New Haven passenger locomotive motors; 3/32 inch for 390-h.p.
Weisental locomotive motor; and for G. E.-603, 125-h.p. motors.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 199

Three-phase motor designs use smaller air gaps. Valtellina 200- to
600-h.p. motors use 1.5 mm., Simplon Tunnel 450-h.p. motors 1.5 mm.,
while Great Northern Railway 425-h.p. motors use 1 /8 inch or 3.2 mm.

Air gaps for comparable motors are:

Direct-current, 1/4 inch or .250 inch.

Single-phase, 1/8 inch or . 125 inch.

Three-phase, 2.1 mm. or .083 inch.

The proportion is as 1000 to 500 to 333.

In the 15-cycle motor, a considerably larger air gap can be used than
on the 25-cycle, without reducing the power factor below desirable limits.

5. Armatures of small motors were at first of large diameter. The
armature of the Short 35-h.p. gearless motors of 1890 were heavy, rigid,
and inaccessible, and of large diameter — about 36 inches. The famous
^^W.P.," 25-h.p. single-reduction geared motor of 1891 had a diameter
of 19 1/4 inches; and the flywheel effect, in starting and stopping, of such
armatures was a bad feature. Cores were soon reduced in diameter
and increased in length to permit rapid acceleration and retardation.
The clearance between frame and roadbed was thereby increased. Ven-
tilation of armature cores by means of radial slots did not receive suffi-
cient consideration until the Walker motor No. 4 was developed in 1895
and the G. E.-52 motor in 1896. See Ventilation, under '^Rating of
Motors.'^ See '^ Armature Speed," in section 9, which follows.

Armature cores of direct-current, single-phase and three-phase
motors are made up of soft laminations, often insulated with japan.
They are generally mounted by fitting and carefully forcing the laminated
core and commutator shell on a one-piece, cast-steel spider. The shaft
is then independent, and is forced on under a pressure of 30 to 70 tons
and keyed to the spider. Armatures frequently take up most of the
space between the drivers. Armature core dimensions are given in the
next table.

6. Armature windings of the first railway motors had hand-wound
surface coils. These have been superseded by machine-wound coils with
straight-out barrel winding imbedded between teeth of a slotted arma-
ture; and they are formed and insulated before being placed in the core.

Wire-wound armatures of 50- to 90-h.p. motors have three or two
turns per coil and usually three coils per slot. Bar- or strap-wound coils
are used on large motors, and have one or two coils in the same slot
assembled and insulated together. The insulated wire or strap is vacuum-
impregnated, treated with insulating compound, tapped, and sealed.

Armature windings of single-phase motors are generally series-drum
windings with three coils per slot, as in direct-current motors. The one
turn used per commutator segment reduces the inductive effect and the
sparking. Great care is taken to secure extreme rigidity.

200 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Strap-wound coils of large armatures are generally divided at the rear.

Binding is required to hold the coils in place, No. 14 to 17 B. & S.
gage, tinned, steel wires being used, the number and width depending
upon the size and speed of the armature.

Insulations used for motor windings are doubled cotton, tape, paper,
asbestos, linseed oil, varnishes, and particularly mica. All of the insula-
tions except asbestos and mica become brittle and char at 100° C. The
highest temperature on factory tests, which is safe, is about 100° C.
Under service conditions, with the better ventilation, coils run cooler.

7. Commutators were originally of small diameter and poorly insu-
lated, but are now long, of large diameter, and have ample stock.

Commutator bars are generally of hard-drawn copper, built up on a
cast-steel sleeve, with a steel cone ring and nut for small motors, and a
number of tap bolts between two V-rings on larger motors. The wearing
depth is from 7/8 to 1 inch. The coil leads are soldered into the bars.

Commutators for single-phase motors conform to direct-current prac-
tice, but are larger and wider. Connections between the armature wind-
ings and the commutator bars sometimes require resistance leads to reduce
the short-circuit current. These leads are insulated like the main arma-
ture winding, and are placed in slots beneath the armature winding proper.
They are a source of danger when the motor is overloaded for long periods,
yet good results are being obtained. Commutators on New Haven
locomotives run 100,000 locomotive miles before being turned.

Slotting the hard mica between commutator bars is a recent develop-
ment, to increase the life of the commutator and the brush. Slotting
to a depth of 1/16 of an inch by simple automatic tools increases the life
of old motors about 800 per cent., and of new motors 300 per cent.

8. Brushes were originally of copper set at an angle with the com-
mutator. Van Depoele introduced carbon brushes in 1884. Good
carbon was used as early as 1889.

Sparking at brushes is no longer destructive. The relation of the
field magnetism to that of the armature is understood; and the use of the
commutating pole in direct-current motors and of compensating coils in
single-phase motors keep the neutral point absolutely at the brush con-
tact. The commutating-pole motor has doubled the life of brushes. For
data on life and wear, consult Elec. Ry. Journ., June 19, 1909, p. 1108.
The life of carbon brushes averages 15,000 car-miles for direct current,
and 8000 for single-phase motors. New Flaven locomotive brushes
have a life of about 32,000 locomotive miles.

Armatures are so connected in standard four-pole direct-current
motors that one pair of brushes holders suffice, where two pairs are re-
quired in single-phase motors. The field is often reversed to change the

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 201

direction t^f motion, and to keep the positive lead connected to the same
brush. The Deri induction brushes are shifted mechanically.

Brush-holder design has been well perfected by the use of rigid
supports, by longer creepage distances to prevent flashing thru carbon
dust, by the use of mica tubes for internal insulation and of porcelain
rings for external protection, and by the use of light but uniform brush
pressure over the working range of wear.

Brushes suitable for one motor are not satisfactory for another.
Manufacturers offer a complete range of brushes for each motor, and have
collected the data required on brush holders, brush sizes, current density,
hardness, abrasive qualities, commutator speed, and the commutation or
other peculiarities of each motor.

9. Armature speed with the first motors was high. It has been
reduced by modifj'ing the magnet frames, increasing the number of poles,
and lengthening the armature core. The tabular data on speeds given
below are of interest in design, particularly those on the comparative
peripheral speed of armatures in feet per minute.

SPEED OF

ARMATURES

OF RAILWAY MOTORS.

Nanle of

Motor

Car

Gear

Motor

Driver

Arm.

Core

Periphera

railway.

h.p.

m.p.h.

ratio.

r.p.m.

diam.

width.

speed arm.

Early electric

12.00

2447

12.0"

10.0"

7690

Modern electric. .

4.00

1221

15.0

12.0

4800

Interurban

3.50

1780

15.0

16.0

2225

Interstate

125

3.00

1680

17.0

7480

New York Central

240
550

50
60

1.88
Direct

877
458

New York Central

29.0

19.0

3470

X. Y. N. H. & H.

150
240

50
60

3.30
Direct

1320
320

42
63

X. Y. X. H. & H.

39.5

18.0

3310

X. Y. X. H. & H.

315

2.32

187

39.5

13.0

1935

X. Y. X. H. & H.

675

Crank

206

76.0

13.0

4100

Pennsylvania.. . .

1250

Crank

280

56.0

23.0

4100

Michigan Central.

275

4.37

1070

25.0

11.5

7005

Grand Trunk-. . . .

240

5.31

1007

30.0

14.75

7910

Great Xorthern..

475

4.26

358

35.75

16.25

3374

Valtellina

1500

Crank

225

68.0

4000

Simplon 1907

550
850

43
43

Crank
Crank

238
320

61
49

Simplon 1909

43.3

3250

Giovi 1909

990
250

28
60

Crank
2.23

224
917

42
49

Paris-Orleans.. . .

23.5

12.00

5650

B. & 0., J895 . .

270
200
275

26
35
35

Direct
4.26
3.25

146

1195

750

60
42
50

B. & 0., 1903 . .

B. & 0. 1910 .. .

25.0

11.50

4888

Bernese Alps. . . .

1000

3.25

530

47.0

6500

Weisental

390

Crank

337

59.0

5200

202 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Armature speeds of three-phase railway motors do not ex-ceed the
fixed synchronous speed for which the motors are designed.

Armature speeds of single-phase railway motors generally run 10 per
cent, higher than that of the direct-current motors.

R. P. M. =M. P. H. X gear ratio x 336 -i- driver diameter in inches.

The feature which limits the speed of trains is generally the armature,
not the track.

Peripheral speeds of armatures, geared to or mounted on driver
axles, are generally less than the linear train speed in feet per minute.

10. Bearings have been improved by changes in the material, dimen-
sions, and in the method of lubrication.

In Westinghouse practice, for 60-h.p. motors, solid bushings of cast
iron are used for armature bearings, and split malleable iron bushings,
lined with babbit metal, for axles. Large motors have solid phosphor
bronze shells for armatures and split shells for axles, and 1/10 inch of
babbit soldered to the bronze. All bearings are lubricated by oil-
saturated wool waste as in M. C. B. boxes in steam railroad practice.

In General Electric practice solid brass sleeves, with a thin lining of
babbit metal, are used. In case the babbit is melted by overheating,
the armature does not rub on the poles. The axle bearings are split.
All brasses are cut away so that the oily wool waste comes into contact
with large surfaces.

Armature bearings are generally restricted by the available space.
After the armature core and winding have been provided for, and the
commutator or collector has been added, little room may be left on the
shaft for bearings; and it has been customary, since 1897, to place the
bearings under the armature windings and also under the commutator.
These restrictions do not apply where the motor is mounted above the
drivers, and the shaft may extend clear across the locomotive.

Grease was the lubricant in the early days. The change to oil
reduced the cost of inspection and maintenance, doubled the life of
bearings, and decreased the danger of armatures rubbing on the poles.

Data on bearings of single-phase quill-mounted motors are given in
Elec. Ry. Journ., Dec. 12, 1908, p. 1558.

Seats of armature bearings in the field frame are often bored 1/16
inch above the pole center to allow for long wear.

Three-phase motors have very small air gaps, 1/8 to 1/16 inch and
in heavy service, long bearings or frequent renewals are required.

11. Gearing from 1888 to 1891 was double-reduction, and entailed
high maintenance expense. In the early Sprague roads the small motors
ran at a normal speed of 1300 to 1500 r. p. m. Four-pole motors, in-
troduced by Wenstrom, Short, and Westinghouse about 1890, allowed
single-reduction gearing. The ratio of gearing was soon changed.

ELECTRie RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 203

from about 12 to 1, to 4 to 1. Pinions of rawhide, sheet steel, bronze,
etc., have been replaced by forged steel. The gears are now enclosed in
gear cases. Spur gearing has won out in the competition with bevel
gearing, worm gearing, hydraulically connected gearing, belts, wire rope,
links, chains, etc.

Gears are used at each end of the armature shaft on the freight loco-
motives of the Baltimore & Ohio, Michigan Central, Great Northern,
New Haven, Bernese-Alps, and other railroads.

Gearless motors are used on the passenger locomotives of the New
York Central, Baltimore & Ohio, New Haven, etc., the motor being
mounted on the axle or on a quill surrounding the axle.

Gear diametrical pitch is 3 teeth per inch for 35- to 75-h.p. motors,
2.5 for 90 to 250-h. p. motors, and 13/4 for 315-h.p. freight locomotive
motors on the New Haven. The face is 5 to 5 1/4 inches wide.

Gears may be in one piece or split, and of cast steel which may be
bolted, keyed, pressed, or shrunk on either the axle or an extension of
the wheel hub. Split gears with 4 bolts are used on motors up to 75 h. p.

Gears for heavy railway motors consist of a forged steel rim mounted
on a cast steel center. The rim may thus be replaced when worn out.

Pinions are now used which have great strength and uniformity of
metal without sacrificing toughness. The steel is reheated after being
machined, to gain in wearing qualities. A cast-steel gear ordinarily
outlasts three soft pinions, but with improved types the pinion lasts as
long as the gear. A great saving is thereby made in the cost of renewals.

Railway motors have notoriously noisy gearing, which is a disturber
of the peace, and ordinarily is a nuisance. The vibration and noise
indicate wasted energy. The noise comes from rapidly repeated blows
of teeth, which cause friction and rapid wear. Gearing in which the
teeth are not parallel to the shaft, e. g., helical gears which have sliding
contact, should again be tried out. Some improvement is needed.

Gearing is not used advantageously for motors, above 2300-h.p. size
for high-speed passenger locomotives in heavy service. Even when
lubricated with oil under pressure, the teeth of spur gears are not able
to withstand the shock and wear. The bearings wear and soon change
the gear teeth diameters and alignment.

12. Motor axles of open-hearth steel, with 80,000-pound tensile
strength, 20 per cent, elongation, and 25 per cent, reduction in area, have
been standardized as follows:

204 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

SUMMARY OF AXLE AND GEAR DATA.

Journal

Motor

Gear

Wheel

Distance

Center of

Maxi-

Horse

Length of

Diameter

size.

fit.

bet. hubs.

journals.

mum wt.

power.

gear seat.

gear hub.

3 3/4x7

4 1/2

5 1/2

5 7-16

15,000

45-45

6 1/8

4 1/4x8

5 15-16

19,000

45-65

6 1/4

4 1/4x8

5 1/2

5 15-16

22,000

65-100

6 1/8

5 x9

6 15-16

27,000

100-150

6 1/8

9 1/2

5 x9

6 1/2

6 15-16

31,000

150-200

6 1/8

9 1/2

5 1/2x10

7 15-16

38,000

200-250

6 1/8

10 1/2

8 xl3

16 15-16

70,000

315-

13. Suspension of motors was provided in the first motors by mount-
ing them on the car floor and connecting them to the axles by belts, wire
rope, or sprocket chains and often thru a friction clutch. A direct drive

Fig. 44.

-New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Passenger Locomotive Motors, 1906.
Motor is quill mounted on axle and spring mounted in drivers.

between motors and axles by means of gearing, and also by means of
crank rods, was soon developed. An outline is presented:

a. Nose suspension began with the Bentley-Knight motors of 1884. One end
of the motor and half of the weight were supported directly on the axle bearings, and

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 205

the opposite or armature end rested on a cross bar, supported by the side frames
of the truck; and m such a way as to provide parallelism between the armature shaft
and the axle; i.e., the distance between the centers of the gear pitch circles was fixed.
Nose suspension is the simplest and it has superseded all others.

b. Cradle suspension was used in the Westinghouse motors of 1890. The entire
motor was placed on levers or horizontal bars at each side of the motor, and all of the
motor weight was transmitted to the axle and frame indirectly thru springs. Two
motors per truck were used, and one motor balanced the other. Each motor formed
a lever fulcrumed at the axle. This scheme became obsolete due to the higher first
cost and the inaccessibility for repairs.

c. Side-bar suspension used on the General Electric No. 800, 1200, and 2000
motors of 1893 removed the dead weight of the motor from the axle. The side bars.

Fig. 45. — Gibbs Cradle Motor Suspension.
As used on Metropolitan Railway, London.

resting entirely on springs, carried the motor. One lug on either side was so placed
that the suspension was thru the center of gravity of the motors. There was no
weight resting on the axle boxes. In addition to the eUmination of pounding, the
alignment used was advertised by the General Electric Company as preventing the
wear of the boxes and of the gears.

d. Yoke suspension was a modification in which the weight of the motor was
largely suspended from points in line with the axis of the armature shaft, or practic-
ally the center of the weight of the motor. The motor was virtually balanced.
General Electric bulletin 4113, of July 28, 1902, stated: "The yoke suspension is
especially recommended, as with this suspension the weight of the motor is carried on
springs placed on the side frames of the car track," and because the hammer blow of
the track is reduced to a minimum.

e. Walker spring suspension of 1895, while not in use, deserves a description.
The motor, M, is suspended entirely on springs at S and T. Side bars, F, are jour-
naled on the axle, A, and at the armature shaft; and they are not connected to the
motor frame, and simply keep the pinion and gear in mesh. The nose bar, C, sup-
ports half of the motor weight, thru springs located on the truck cross bar. Bearings
ran longer, the hammering of the track was less, the strains and shock on the pinion

206

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

and gears were decreased, the crystallization of wires and insulation was eased, and
the total maintenance expense was decreased.

Nose suspension is an unsatisfactory plan, because, with one end of
the motor mounted rigidly on the two axle bearings, and the other end
or nose on the cross bar, there will always be heavy, non-spring-borne
weights from axles, drivers, and bearings. The entire weight of the motor
should be mounted on suspension springs, which can be placed at the
center of gravity, or, better, at the center of rotation of the motor. A
special helical spring could be inserted between that part of the motor
casting surrounding the axle and the axle bearings — the C. J. Field

Fig. 46. — Diagram of Walker Method of Motor Suspension.

scheme, used in 1885. If such suspension springs Avere used, to ease and
attenuate the shocks or track pounding, the present excessive cost of
maintenance and renewals at track crossings, switchwork, and curves,
and of the motors themselves would be greatly decreased. Track main-
tenance cost is not higher with electric than with steam power, at least
this is not often admitted; but that the cost of maintenance of special
work on electric roads is excessive has been definitely proved.

Suspension of motors for gearless locomotives involves a field frame
independent of the truck frame, or a part thereof, but, in either case,
spring-suspended. The armature of gearless locomotive motors at first
was placed on the driver axle. Its dead weight, combined with a low
center of gravity, was soon found to destroy the crossings, switches,
curves, and badly aligned track.

In 1891, the City and South London Railway placed gearless arma-
tures directly on the locomotive axle, but the plan proved to be a failure.
In 1895, Baltimore & Ohio gearless locomotives used quill-mounted
armatures which were flexibly connected to the driver axle. The field
frame was spring-suspended. The improvement was at once noted.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 207

Fig. 47. — Baltimorii; and Ohio Railroad Quill-mounted Motor Armature on 1895 Locomovive.

i '^ '^^^HH^^Jw^ iMiM

l3'-l!'Mi

m •>',

S.-J

^^^ J ^^

Fig. 48. — Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Motor Field and Armature on 1895 Locom(

208

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

New York Central gearless locomotive followed, 10 years later.
Motor armatures weighing 7640 pounds each are mounted directly on
the axle, and the total dead weight, about 13,000 pounds per axle, is
practically the same as on an ordinary steam locomotive; and, tho there
are no unbalanced weights or forces, track maintenance expense is high.
The weight of the motor frame itself rests on, and forms part of, the
locomotive truck frame, and is spring-mounted.

.«£^

^^H^BHHjjJPJUIJJIp

I iPiiliiliii

''*.■«'•• • ■

Fig. 49. — Pennsylvania Railroad Motor, 1910.
Direct-current, 650-volt, 1250-h. p. on 157-ton locomotives. The frame is well braced, and the

cranks are counter-balanced.

Quill suspension of armature involves the mounting of the armature
on a hollow motor axle which encircles the driving axle, the inner shaft
being held concentric with the outer shaft by means of spiral springs.
See technical description of Baltimore & Ohio, New Haven, and Valtel-
lina locomotives, and New Haven motor cars which follow.

Berlin-Zossen motor cars, in the high-speed tests of 1903, used four
three-phase, 6-pole, 435-volt induction motors of 250-h. p. each. Siemens
and Halske motors, for an 85-ton car, were mounted rigidly upon the
driving axles; while A. E. G. motors, under a 99-ton car, were mounted
on a hollow shaft, and spring-supported from the driving wheels. The
latter plan greatly reduced the track destruction.

[^ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 209

Crank rod locomotive motor suspension involves motors with cranks on
the armature shaft, which transmit the power to the drivers, or to a jack
shaft and then to the drivers. The motor is mounted high on the loco-
motive frames, and is spring-mounted. Mechanical connections of
locomotive motors will be treated under ^^ Electric Locomotive Design,"
and under '^Technical Descriptions of Locomotives."

Fig. 50. — Valtellina Locomotive Motor on Italian State Railway, 1906.

Three-phase, .3000-volt, 15-cycle, 1200-h. p., 3-speed. Length of body 51 inches, length of shaft

101 inches, diameter of body 74 inches, diameter of collector rings 12 inches.

14. Trucks on which motors, cars, and locomotives are mounted
could advantageously form the subject of a book. Technical descrip-
tions of trucks for the principal electric locomotives will be given.
Catalogs of trucks are valuable for data. See references on trucks.

SPEED-TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTORS.

Characteristic curves of a motor are those which show the relation
of power to the speed and torque. Speed-torque curves are plotted by
using the kilowatts, or amperes at a fixed voltage as a base, and the
14

210 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

corresponding speed and torque in the vertical scale. For comparative
purposes, and to note the general form of all curves, the abscissae and
ordinates should be plotted in per cent, of rated power, speed, and torque.

One set of such curves is needed for direct-current motors, one for
three-phase, one for single-phase series, and one for single-phase repulsion
motors. Other curves are used to analyze the relation of power to speed
and torque with variable voltage to the motor, or variable resistance in
the rotor circuit; and also for different cycles, number of poles, windings,
turns on fields and armature, magnetic circuits, air gaps, gear ratio,
position of brushes, etc. Still other curves may be used to show the
power, speed, and torque characteristics with two or more motors
grouped in series-parallel or in concatenated relation; and with resistance
or inductance in all or part of the field or rotor circuits. Other curves and
combinations will be suggested for special cases.

Torque of direct -current motors is proportional to the number of
lines of force threading the armature; the number of turns or conductors
on the armature; the current in the armature. It is independent of the
motor voltage. The lever arm extends thru the crank, gear, and drivers.

Torque of single -phase motors is proportional to the square of the
impressed voltage, approximately; and the ratio of the reactance of the
rotor winding at standstill to its resistance, approximately, and in
practice this ratio varies from 6 to 25.

Torque of three-phase motors varies directly as the square of the im-
pressed motor voltage; for the flux density of the magnetizing field is rel-
atively small, and the iron is much under-saturated, in order to reduce the
iron loss and magnetic leakage. The starting torque is less than the
maximum, and thus it is common to increase the voltage across the
stator terminals in starting and to reduce it in running by a change at
starting from delta to star connection, which changes the voltage in the
ratio of 1.00 to 1.73; or to reduce it by means of a booster transformer,
or by variable taps on the transformers. The torque is proportional to
the magnetization, M; to the slip, S; to the resistance of the rotor, R;
and inversely proportional to the total impedance of the motor.

The maximum torque in running, and the current corresponding
thereto, are not changed by the resistance in the motor armature. The
resistance decreases the speed at which the maximum torque is reached.
The pull-out torque of slow-speed three-phase railway motors is usually
made from 250 per cent, to 325 per cent, times the continuous torque.
It is usually extremely hard to obtain over 300 per cent, for railway
motors, altho 400 per cent, is obtained for high-speed stationary motors.

Steinmetz: "Alternating Current Phenomenon," 1st Ed., pp. 220-225.

Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways," p. 115.

McAllister: "Alternating -current Motor," 3d Ed., Commutator Motors, p. 201.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 211

Speed of direct-current motors varies almost directly with the voltage
appHed to the armature. The speed curve or the counter electromotive
force curve is the reciprocal of the magnetization curve. The limits on
the ordinates of the speed curves are set first by no saturation of the
magnetic circuit, in which case the product of the speed and the current
is constant, or at one-half the normal current the speed would be twice
the normal speed; and second, by a magnetic field well-saturated, in
which case the ordinates, which vary inversely as the magnetization
curve, are nearly parallel to the abscissa.

Speed curves of single-phase alternating-current motors are a modifi-
cation of the continuous-current motor curves. With an alternating-
current motor it is necessary to keep the magnetic circuit well below the
saturation point of the steel in order to reduce the magnetic losses.

Speed curves of three-phase motors are practically parallel to the
axis of abscissa, the variation from no load to full load being less than
five per cent.

Voltage affects the speed, but not the torque characteristics of direct-
current motors; but in single-phase motors, voltage affects the speed and
torque as just detailed; and voltage affects the motor capacity as noted
under '^Rating of Motors."

Voltage affects the torque, but not the speed, of three-phase induction
motors, and it affects other characteristics as follows:

Case "A," voltage 10 per cent, above normal:

a. Magnetizing current increases directly as the square of the voltage.

b. Iron loss increased 18 per cent., since the induction in the iron, which varies
with the voltage, is 10 per cent, greater.

c. Copper loss in primary is smaller because the current required per h. p. is
smaller; copper loss in secondary is only 86 per cent, because of the smaller slip, which
for the same h. p. and apparent efficiency varies inversely as the square of the voltage.

d. Efficiency increases slightly, because of smaller losses.

e. Power factor is reduced 2 per cent.

f. Torque in starting and also the pull-out or maximum torque are 21 per cent,
greater, on account of the reduced leakage.

Case " B," voltage 10 per cent, below normal:

a. Iron loss is reduced 15 per cent, by the lower flux density.

b. Copper loss in primary is 22 per cent, larger, on account of increased current;
copper loss in secondary is 20 per cent, greater, on account of larger sHp.

c. Power factor is increased .7 per cent, by the smaller magnetizing current.

d. Starting torque is about the same, but the pull-out torque is decreased 17 per
cent by the larger leakage.

Case " C, " voltage 27 per cent, below normal :

a. Starting torque and pull-out torque are about 50 per cent, of normal.

b. Capacity is reduced one-third, because of the excessive temperature rise from
the larger copper losses.

212 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Gearing ratio and driver diameter affect the torque of the motors.
They of course affect the speed of the car or locomotive and the work
done. See references on Gearing, page 22 L

CHOICE OF CYCLES.

Engineers favor both 25 and 15 cycles for heavy railway services.
The 25-cycle system is in general use in America and in England.
See ''Electric Systems."

Comparison of 15-cycle with 25-cycle single-phase motors shows
there is an increase of from 25 to 40 per cent, in the output of a. given
motor when a proper increase is made in exciting ampere turns. The
gain for large railroad motors is about 30 per cent. It is in the feature
of increased induction that the principal gain with lower frequency
is found; and the increased induction is obtained with less short-circuiting
of armature coils and also with less exciting voltage in proportion to the
counter electromotive force, and consequently with higher power-factor.

The limitation in the 25-cycle motor is caused largely by the increase
in iron necessary to keep down the inductive element and consequently
to secure a reasonable power-factor. Higher efficiency, better commuta-
tion, and less weight are obtained in 15-cycle, single-phase motors.

The power-factor of series-compensated, 25-cycle motors of 75 to
250 h.p. is 85 to 90 per cent.; of 15-cycle 75- to 500-h.p. motors is 88 to 93.

A 500-h,p., 15-cycle motor, designed for equally good performance
on 25-cycle, produces 360 h.p. at best rating.

''A comparison of 4-motor Westinghouse equipments made up of
75-h. p. motors at 25 cycles, and the same motors adapted for 15 cycles,
giving 95-h.p., showed, in the latter case the electrical apparatus per car
to be 5 per cent, heavier, the car weight to be 1.6 per cent, heavier, and
the h.p. gain to be 26 per cent." Lamme.

Even with increased transformer weight, the 15-cycle equipment, in-
cluding trucks and frames, is usually lighter.

New York, New Haven & Hartford engineers considered both 15 and 25 cycles
for their 1906 passenger locomotive designs. The motors would have been some-
what lighter and the transformers would have been somewhat heavier on 15 cycles.
It was found that the 15-cycle locomotive had the advantage of 5.2 per cent, in weight
and about 3 per cent, in cost, and was slightly better as to its efficiency and power
factor. Based on 1911 conditions and experience in manufacture and design, it is
fair to state that 15 cycles would now make a difference of 10 per cent, in weight and
8 per cent, in cost. If the locomotive weight was 30 per cent, of the train weight, it
would mean a saving of 3 per cent, in the total weight of the train, but in passenger
trains there would be a saving of less than 1 per cent. The 25-cycle system was
chosen because standard apparatus had been adapted for this frequency (so far as
generators and induction motors were concerned), and because 15-cycle trans-
formers might have cost 40 per cent, more than 25-cycle transformers.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 213

Results with 25, 30, and 60 cycles on the same three-phase motors:

Case "A," frequency increased from 25 to 30 cycles.

Starting and pull-out torque reduced 17 per cent.

Efficiency and power-factor improved.

Friction and windage about 45 per cent, higher.

Iron loss decreased 13 per cent.

Copper loss and slip the same.

Leakage is greater.

Case " B," frequency increased from 25 to 60 cycles:
Pull-out torque reduced in the ratio of 3.6 to 1.5.
Starting torque reduced in the ratio of 2.5 to 0.5.
Efficiency slightly decreased.
Iron loss decreased 50 per cent.
Copper loss slightly increased.

Case "C," frequency reduced from 60 to 25 cycles, at rated voltage:

Operation is impossible on account of the high induction required to produce the
necessary torque for the same output and 42 per cent, normal speed. At 2.4 times
the normal density of the iron, the iron loss is doubled and the magnetizing current
will be nearly as great as the energy component. The resulting current makes the
copper loss prohibitive.

The torque is proportional to the product of the secondary flux and the second-
ary current. At 120 per cent, flux, the secondary current should be unchanged
The speed varies with the number of cycles.

Abstracted from article by Werner, Electric Journal, July, 1906.

Disadvantages of 25 cycles compared with 15 cycles:

Cycle change from 60 cycles is decidedly less convenient in design.
The ratio of cycle transformation is odd,»viz., 12 to 5 in place of 4 to 1.

Field saturation in the motor is 30 per cent, lower and therefore the
counter-electromotive force of the armature, the power factor, the output,
and the torque are decreased in proportion.

Air gaps must be smaller to raise the field saturation and power factor.

Weight runs up rapidly on larger motors (250 h. p. or over) and is 33
per cent, heavier than that of direct-current motors; while it is only 15
per cent, heavier with 15 cycles.

Capacity, power factor, commutation at time of starting and on
overloads, are poorer at 25 cycles.

Cost for given results is higher with 25 cycles.

Speed of large steam turbines must be higher.

•

Disadvantages of 15 cycles compared with 25 cycles:

Field ampere turns for a given induction are increased.

Transformers are more expensive and heavier but this is offset partly
by higher power factor and efficiency.

Vibration of 15-cycle railway motors requires special at leads and
connections, and often requires riveting in place of soldering; and it
causes crystalization of bars and wires.

214 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILAVAY TRAINS

Other induction motors on transmission lines are more expensive.
These include shop motors, cycle changers, transformers, converters, etc.

The low cycles are not so well adapted for electric lighting.

Torque pulsation decreases the output, and this must be dampened
by the inertia of springs.

The use of 15 cycles is advantageous for single-phase series motors.
The fewer reversals of magnetic flux and induced e. m. f. under the
brushes decrease the sparking, heating, and energy loss at the commu-
tator. A motor may be designed, however, which is just as efficient at
25 cycles as at a lower frequency, the weight and cost being the handicap.

Drawbar pull of locomotive motors on 12.5 and 25 cycles is noted:

Locomotive No. 9 on the Westinghouse Interworks Railway was tested with
25 cars back of the dynamometer car. The locomotive was started and after the
controller was at full position the brakes were applied to the cars only. Both acceler-
ation and deceleration of the train were zero when the tests were recorded. The test
at 12.5 cycles was with a line voltage of 3500 and a motor voltage of 160 volts, am-
peres, 3000, and .60 power-factor. A drawbar pull of 30,000 pounds was obtained
before slipping began. The test at 25 cycles was with a Une voltage of 6000, and a
motor voltage of about 160, amperes 3100, and .57 power-factor. A drawbar pull of
30,000 pounds was obtained. The indications are roughly that the point of slipping
for 12.5 cycles is practically the same as that for 25 cycles. Test by L, M. Aspinwall.

6o-cycle locomotives or motor cars are not used on any railroad.
There have been several 50- and 45-cycle experimental equipments
and street railways; and 40 cycles are used in the Burgdorf-Thun three-
phase interurban. Engineering reasons which prevent the commercial
use of higher cycle motors by railroads are listed below:

Losses in copper transmission lines are greater.

Losses in track rail circuits are greater.

Regulation of inductive and control circuits is poorer.

Single-phase motors cannot use the wide range of cycles which is possible with
three-phase motors.

Higher cycles compel greatly decreased magnetic induction in the iron of motors
by design, and therefore:

Output and torque are proportionately increased.

Higher speeds are required to follow the higher cycles.

Decidedly larger frames are required for motors.

Ratio of output to dimensions is greatly increased.

Drawbar pull per ton is lower with higher cycles.

Air gaps are smaller; or the power factor is lower.

Price per h. p. is higher with 60 cycles.

(The last four reasons govern, in railroad train service.)

CONTROL OF MOTORS.

Control of trains will be considered under ^'Motor-Car Trains."
Control of motors involves the starting of the motors, the acceleration

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 215

to full speed, definite time limits, uniformity of motion, and economy.
The problem varies with the class of service. The time during which
power is applied is involved in frequent-stop railway service. The rate
of acceleration desired depends upon the service and the length of the run.
L^niformity of motion is desirable in rapid transit, but it is necessary
when freight trains are started, i. e., the control resistances or voltage
variations must be so proportioned that the power is not applied with
jerks. Economy is always involved. Magnetization or speed curves of
the motor and the speed-torque characteristics are also involved.

Controllers involve various kinds of apparatus, automatic and hand,
safety devices, interlocks, etc., all of which cannot be considered.

Designs of motors can be varied to make a permanent change in the
speed by a change in air gap, windings, gear ratio, driver diameter, etc.

Control of direct -current motors in practice is carried out by means of
voltage variations, brought about in three ways:

a. Resistance is connected in series with motors or with groups of
motors. This resistance is external and is made of cast-iron grids.
Liquid resistance, introduced by Field in 1889, is used by Italian State
Railways.

b. Circuit control is also involved. Resistances and motors may be
grouped and cut in and cut out by opening and rearranging circuits, by
shunting, or by bridging. The latter scheme prevents sudden rise in
voltage and the jerk caused by opening and closing circuits.

c. Motor grouping, in Avhich two or more motors are electrically
connected in series, then in series and parallel, and later in parallel
arrangement, by which each motor receives 25, 50, or 100 per cent,
respectively of the line voltage.

Series -parallel motor control became common in 1891. The first
British patents were issued to Hunter, June 7, 1882. The U. S. patents
issued to Hunter, June 26, 1888, embraced:

" The combination of an electrically propelled vehicle having two electric motors,
a source of electric supply, and switches for coupling up the motors in series or
multiple with the source of supply to vary the speed or power of the motors."

'' Series-parallel motor control was in practical use on the Lehigh Valley Avenue
Line in Philadelphia in May, 1890." Hopkinson.

Thomson-Houston Electric Company devised a series-parallel control scheme
about 1892 with contractors operated mechanically by means of long shafts. So
imperfect were the mechanical means of throwing the contractors out and in that it
was soon abandoned by the several roads.

A series-parallel controller was perfected in 1893 by Wm. Cooper, F. R. Springer,
and the author of this book. It was effective and simple, and one in which all parts,
including the rheostat, were enclosed in one box. A semicircular Thomson-Houston
rheostat was used, with an 8-inch break of Portland cement insulation across the
middle. Magnetic blowouts were also used. As the contact shoe passed across the
cement break, the motors were changed from series to parallel by means of ordinary

216 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

switch blades. This controller was used from 1893 to 1899, on all Minneapolis and
St. Paul cars, and was discarded because of its bulky and out-of-date appearance.

The efficiency of series-parallel control, during the time the cars are
accelerating, is about 66 per cent., while the efficiency of ordinary rheo-
static control is about 50 per cent. Additional savings arise from the
higher motor and line efficiency, and the motor maintenance is also
radically reduced.

The accompanying equations show the efficiency of control in direct-
current practice.

Plain Resistance. Series-parallel. Series, Series-parallel, Parallel.
IR IR IR

I R is the drop of voltage in the motor and E is the line voltage.

d. Field control is obtained in two ways:

By connecting field coils in series and in multiple combinations. This
is the commutating field scheme used in the 1883 Edison locomotive and
1888 Sprague motors. Parshall, A. I. E. E., April, 1892.

By shunting part of the field current to reduce the field strength.
Large motors on the New Haven and Pennsylvania Railroad locomotives
use field control, i. e., normal field and full field. Field control is now
utilized with interpole railway motors to increase the efficiency by
decreasing rheostatic losses for service requiring frequent acceleration in
congested districts and yet to obtain high speeds for long runs. With
field control, direct-current locomotive motors now have 8 efficient run-
ning notches instead of the 3.

Control of three-phase motors is effected in the following ways:

Resistance can be inserted in the rotor circuit to vary the torque;
but, like placing resistance in the armature circuit of a shunt motor, this
is a wasteful plan. The efficiency is lower than when resistance is
inserted in direct-current series motor circuits. The starting torque of
the three-phase motor is low, and the starting current is excessive unless
such resistance is so used. Motors may be run above the synchronous
speed, on the down grade, by inserting resistance in the motor, but this
also is wasteful. With few stops, the average efficiency for the run may
not be materially reduced by inefficient acceleration.

Simplon Tunnel locomotive motors now use squirrel-cage armature, with a
resistance about 5 times as high as for ordinary armatures of the same size and type,
and, while the motor efficiency is lower at all times, the control is simplified and is
somewhat automatic.

An efficient induction motor is substantially a synchronous machine and operates
normally with a small slip. If the driving wheels are of unequal size, due to unequal
wear, or if two locomotives with wheels of different sizes are coupled together in a
train, there will be an unequal distribution of the load. If one driver is 5 per cent.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 217

smaller than another, the motor connected to the larger driver may be operating at
double load, while the motor connected to the smaller driver may be doing no work
or may even be operating as a generator or as a brake.

Mr. A. H. Armstrong's patent of June 28, 1905, provides means for independently
adjusting the torque of several motors, so that the load may be equally distributed
at all times, by inserting independent adjustable resistances in series with the secon-
dary ^\dndings of each motor.

Giovi locomotives have an arrangement of this nature, but the regulation of the
resistance (see description on page 345) is automatic. In either case the resistance
loss represents a direct and unavoidable waste.

2. Pole change is used to vary the speed of three-phase motors.

Example: N-S-N-S-N-S-N-S for 8 poles.
N N-S S-N N-S S for 4 poles.

This involves an increase in the complication at windings, particularly
so for motor-car trains. When the power is thrown off and the number of
poles, and the transformer voltage, are changed by the controller^ jerky
tractive efforts result, and this may break a train in two. Simplon
Tunnel and Giovi locomotives are arranged for two speeds. Some of
the Valtellina and latest Simplon locomotives have three and four speeds.
See Hellmund: Multi-speed, Squirrel-cage Induction Motors, E. W., Oct. 13, 1910.

Cascade control requires the use of two motors having the same or a different num-
berof poles, speeds, and electric windings. The two motors may be on one axle or on dif-
ferent axles. The primary of the first motor is connected to the line, and the secondary
or rotor is connected to the primary of the second motor, thru collector rings, while
the secondary of the second motor is closed thru adjustable resistances. The syn-
chronous speed of the first motor is the frequency of the supply divided by the number
of pairs of poles. Thus, if the cycles are 25 per second and the number of pairs of
poles is 2, the synchronous speed of the first motor is 750 r. p. m. The frequency of
the supply from the rotor of the first motor to the stator of the second motor may be
25 or any other number of cycles. Assuming that it is the same, then, since the
r. p. s. of the first motor are 12.5 and the number of pairs of poles of the second motor
is 2, the synchronous speed of the second motor is 6.125 r. p. s., or 375 r. p. m., while
running in cascade; and if the motors are on the same shaft or coupled, the speed of
both motors will be 375 r. p. m. When the motors are operating in cascade at
above half-speed on the down grades, energy is regenerated.

In practice, the auxiliary motor is seldom connected to the line; its function is to
use the energy produced by the first motor, and therefore its capacity is 60 to 90 per
cent, of the main motor because of the losses thru the main motor, and because the
auxiliary motor is or may be out of action the greater part of the time during which
the main motor is working. Generally one motor is used alone and then the other.
The capacity of the locomotive is the capacity of the larger motor.

For suburban service three motors would be required to provide economical
running speeds and a high maximum velocity to obtain a high rate of acceleration.

Cascade control is often used with two motors which have a different number of
poles. The motors must be geared to the same sized drivers. If the motors are to
be used separately, they may be unequally geared; but this plan introduces complica-
tions and is of Httle practical value.

Cascade control is as efficient as the direct-current series-parallel control, in watt-

218 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

liours per ton-mile, or in maximum kilowatts per ton during acceleration. The
power-factor is low, 50 to 60 per cent, with half-speed cascade operation. The weight
of the three-phase motor equipment with the cascade-single or cascade-parallel plan
is 45 to 60 per cent, heavier than direct-current series-parallel equipment.

General rule for choice of concatenation or pole change: Where the
principal speed is the high speed, use concatenation for half speed;
where the principal speed is the low speed, use the pole-changing plan
for double speed.

4, Voltage control consists of employing varying potentials on the
primary or the stator of the motors. (Giovi Locomotive.)

A high voltage is required in starting to increase the drawbar pull,
after which, in running, the voltage can advantageously be reduced.
The drawbar pull varies inversely as the square of the motor voltage.
This control requires that the transformer be carried with the train.

Another control plan is to wind the primary for delta connection
for accelerating, and to reconnect it in star for running; this reduces the
voltage applied, in the ratio of 1.73 to 1.00. Brown, Boveri Company's
Simplon locomotive control embodies a change from an 8-poIe, delta-star
connection to a 16-pole star connection, and incidentally a change in the
voltage per pole in the ratio of 1/2 to 1/1.73, or as 100 to 106.

Great Northern locomotives are controlled by first starting with a
Mallet steam locomotive; by varying resistance in the rotor; by varying
the voltage to the stator; and by using first two motors and then four.

Single -phase alternating-current motor control is obtained by con-
necting the motor to different taps on a transformer, and thus varying
the voltage across the motor. The transformer may have its primary
winding connected to the trolley and to the earth, and at the earthed end
various taps from the primary may be brought out to give suitable volt-
ages; or taps from the coils of an ordinary secondary winding are con-
nected to the motor. The circuit connections are made by means of
contactors energized by a master controller, and the motor runs at the
speed corresponding to the connection from the transformer, but without
rheostatic loss. The Deri induction motors on European locomotives
are controlled by shifting the brushes, from the cab, by means of shafts
and levers.

Efficiency of control schemes, for starting trains, averages about 66
per cent, for series-parallel control; about 65 per cent, for concatenated
three-phase control; and about 75 per cent, for potential control.

Leonard's control scheme embodies a single-phase generating and
transmitting system, conversion of single-phase current to direct current
by a motor-generator on the locomotive, and means for varying the speed
by varying the voltage applied to the train motors, from zero to maximum
value, without wasteful rheostatic losses.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 219

LITERATURE.

Text-books on Electric Railway Motors.

Steinmetz: "Elements of Electrical Engineering." McGraw, 1909.

Steinmetz: ''Alternating-current Phenomena," McGraw, 1908.

McAllister: ''Alternating-current Motors," McGraw, 1909.

Punga: "Single-phase Commutator Motors," Whittaker, 1906.

Goldschmidt: "Alternating-current Commutator Motors," Van Nostrand, 1909

Crocker and Arendt: ."Electric Motors," Van Nostrand, 1909.

Wilson and Lydall: "Electrical Traction," Arnold, 1907.

References on History.

See several articles in S. R. J., Oct. 4, 1904.

Dodd: Evolution of Electric Railway Motor, S. R. J., Dec. 26, 1903. Development
of Railway Motor Design, S. R. J., Nov. 21, 1903; Dec. 26, 1903; Oct. 8, 1904.
Hutchinson: Development of Railway Motors, Cassiers, Aug., 1899.

References on Direct-current Motors for Railway Trains.

Hanchett: "Railway Motors," St. Ry. Pub. Co., N. Y., 1900.

Lundie: The Electric Railway Motor, S. R. J., Oct. 13, 1900.

Parshall: Sprague Motor, S. R. J., Aug. 1899; A. I. E. E., May, 1890; Apr., 1892.

Shepardson: Electric Railway Motor Tests of 1892, A. I. E. E., June, 1892.

Atkinson: Theory of. The Electrician, March 25, 1898; Inst, of C. E., Feb. 22, 1898.

Anderson: Economy, Equipment, and Schedules, S. E. J., Oct, 20, 1£06.

Hutchinson: Rise in Temperature and Ry. Motor Capacity, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1902.

Potter and Gotshall: Discussion, A. I. E. E., Oct., 1903.

Sprague: Motor Characteristics, A. I. E. E., May, 1907, p. 700.

Potter: Selection for Railway Service, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1902.

Renshaw: Operation in Ry. Service, A. I. E., E. June, 1903; S. R. J., June 29, 1907.

AVestinghouse Motors: 38 and 101, Elec. Journal, Jan., 1906.

Condict: Interpole Railway Motors, S. R. J., April 21, May 26, 1906.

Anderson: Commutating Pole Motors, A. I. E. E., June, 1907.

Bedell: Commutating Pole Motors, A. I. E. E., May, 1906.

Davis: Interpole Railway Motors, Elec. Journal, Oct., 1910.

Hippie; Auxiliary Pole Motors, Elec. Journal, May, 1906.

References on Three-phase Motors.

Waterman: Three-phase Motors on ValteUina Ry., A. I. E. E., June, 1905.

Danielson: Combinations of Polyphase Motors, A. I. E. E., May, 1902.

De Muralt: A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907; E. R. J., Nov. 28, 1908.

Goldschmidt: Distribution of Conductor Windings in Three-phase Motors, Effect on

Torque, Elek. Zeitschrift, Apr. 18, 1901.
Lamme: Three-phase Motors and Systems, S. R. J., March 24, 1906, p. 451.
Specht: Motors for Multispeed Service with Cascade Operation, A. I. E. E., July, 1908.
Helbnund: Multispeed Induction Motors, E. W., Oct. 13, 1910.

References on Single -phase Motors in General.

Lamme: Single-phase Motor, A. I. E. E., Sept., 1902, S. R. J., March 24, 1906;
E. W., Dec. 26, 1903, p. 1043; Single-phase Fields, Electric Journal, Sept., 1906.

220 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Hanchett: Principles of the Repulsion Motor, S. R. J., May 28, 1904.

Steinmetz : Single-phase Commutator Motors, International Elec. Congress, St. Louis,

Sept., 1904; A. I. E. E., Jan. and Sept., 1904.
Armstrong: Alternating-current Single-phase Motors, S. R. J., Dec. 24, 1904, p. 1111.
Eichberg: Single-phase Motors, International Electric Congress, St. Louis, 1904.
Dennington: Commutation of Compensated Repulsion Motors, E. W., Dec. 12, 1908.
McLaren: Advantages of Single-phase Motors, Electric Journal, August, 1907.
Dawson: Single-phase Motors, London Electrician, May, June, and July, 1908.
Fynn: Factors Affecting Theoretical Design of Single-phase Induction Motors, E. W.,

Dec. 9, 1909, p. 1416.
Kapp : Review of Single-phase Motors, British Institute of Elec. Engineers, Nov., 1909.

References on Single-phase Motors. General Electric.

General Electric: Series Compensated Single-phase Motors, S. R. J., Aug. 27 and

Sept. 3, 1904, pp. 280 and 309.
Milch: Repulsion Motor, A. I. E. E., May, 1906.

Shchter: Characteristics of Repulsion Motors, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1904.
Alexanderson : Series-repulsion, A. I. E. E., Jan. 10, 1908; S. R. J., Jan. 18, 1908,

p. 82; E. W., Jan. 18, 1908, pp. 127, 138, 144; Oot. 28, 1909, p. 1036.
Alexanderson: Induction Machines for Heavy Single-phase Motor Service, A. I. E. E.,

June, 1911.
Morecroft: Single-phase Induction Motors, G. E. Review, May, 1910.
See references on "Electric Systems."

References on Single -phase Motors — Westinghouse.

Lamme: New Haven Locomotive Motors, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1908, p. 21; S. R. J., Aug.

24, 1907, April 14, 1906.
Lamme: Single-phase Motors, A.I. E. E., Feb., 1908; Jan. 29, Sept. 14, 1904, S. R. J.,

Jan. 6, 1906, p. 22; E. W., Feb., 1904, p. 316 and 479.
Patents: Lamme, S. R. J., Feb. 13, 1904, p. 261; Mar. 5, 1904, p. 479.
Newbury: Operation of A. C. Motors, Elec. Journal, Feb., 1904; March, 1905, Sept.,

1906, Feb., 1906.
Renshaw: Power Factor at Starting of A. C. Series Motors, Elec. Journal, April, 1904.
Bright: Test on Single-phase Motor Equipment, Elec. Journal, Nov. and Dec, 1905.

References on Single -phase Motors — European.

Latour: Motors, S. R. J., Feb. 10, 1906, p. 239.

Finzi: Motors, S. R. J., Aug. 11, 1906, p. 230.

Siemens: Motors, S. R. J., Feb. 1, 1908.

Winter-Eichberg ; A. E. G., Characteristic Curves and Diagrams, S. R. J., Oct. 17, 1903.

Deri: Kapp to Inst. E. E., Nov., 1909; E. W., July 8, 1911, p. 104.

References on Comparisons of Railway Motors.

Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways."
Hobart: "Electric Trains."

References on Rating of Railway Motors.

Hutchinson: Motor Capacity of Railway Motors, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1902.
Storer: Elec. Journal, July and Sept., 1908, S. R. J., Jan. 5, 1901.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 221

Spout: La Liiminere Elec, Sept. 5, 1908.

Ashe: Elec. Review, Oct. 14, 1906.

Armstrong: Study of Heating of Motors, A. I. E. E., June, 1902.

References on Motor Ventilation.

Dawson: Serial in London Electrician, year 1907.

Parshall and Hob art: ''Electric Railway Engineering," Chapter IV.

Hobart: "Heavy Electrical Engineering," Chapter IV.

Sprague: Comparison of Motors on a Thermal Basis, A. I. E. E., May 21, 1907, p. 702.

References on Trucks and Suspension of Railway Motors,

Car Builders' Dictionary, Waite: Ry. Age Gazette, 3rd Ed., 1908.

Uebelacker: Trucks for Interurban Service, S. R. J,, Oct. 4, 1902.

Heckler: Foundation Brake-gear Design for Electric Cars, S. R. J., Nov. 30, 1907.

Dodds: On Weight Distribution and Suspension, A. I. E. E., June, 1905.

Cough: Distribution of Motors, S. R. J., Oct. 6, 1906.

Taylor: Brake Rigging, S. R. J., Feb. 1, 1908.

Heron: Relation of Car Length, Weight, Truck Centers, S. R. J., Feb. 8, 1908.

Vauclain: Electric Motor and Trailer Trucks, S. R. J., Apr. 4, 1908.

Eaton: Motor Mounting, etc., Electric Journal, Oct., Nov., Dec, 1910.

See description of Flexible Coupling between Motor Sleeve and Driver Axle, on

Fayet-Chamonix Motor-cars, S. R. J., Feb. 7, 1903, p. 206.

See "Motor-car Trains" for Cars and Trucks; see "Descriptions of Locomotives."

References on Mechanical Gearing.

Litchfield: Gearing, A. S. M. E., Dec, 1908; E. R. J., Dec 12, 1908.

Huffman: Gearing, S. R. J., Oct. 29, 1904.

Hobart: "Gear Ratio," "Electric Railway Engineering," p. 82.

Storer: Gear Ratios, Elec. Journal, Sept., 1908.

WilHams: Ry. Motors, Gears, and Pinions, E. R. J., July 2, 1910.

Eaton: Manufacture of Gears, G. E. Rev^iew, June, 1911.

References on Electrical Construction and Windings.

Data on Motors, Commutators, Rheostats, S. R. J., Dec. 14, 1907, p. 1138.
Diagrams of A. E. G. Windings and Connections, E. W., July 21, 1910, p. 146.
Windings of Armatures, E. T. W., Feb. 2.0, 1909.
Windings of Fields. Electric Journal, Sept., 1904.
Valatins' Data on Railway Motors, E. W., Nov. 18, 1905.
Webster: Railway Motor Construction, Elec. Journal, Feb., 1906.
Jordon: Winding of Direct-current Armatures, Elec. Journal, Jan., 1906.
Dodd: Mechanical Aids to Commutation, Elec. Journal, May, 1906.
Robertson: Winding a Ry. Motor Armature, Elec Journal, June, 1904.
Wayne: Railway Motor Windings, Elec. Journal, July, 1904.
Davis: Railway Motor Construction, Elec Journal, Oct., 1910.

References on Choice of Cycles.

Scott, C. F.: Electric Journal, March, 1907.
Stillwell: A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907.

222 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Elec. Zeit: Data on, July 15, 1909.

Armstrong: A. I. E. E., June, 1907.

Storer: A. I. E. E., June, 1907; S. R. J., June 21, 1907.

Lamme: A. I. E. E., Jan. 10, 1908, p. 27; Feb., 1908, p. 148, June, 1908.

Slichter: Cost of Equipment, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907, p. 131.

References on Speed-torque Characteristics.

Parshall and Hob art: "Electric Railway Engineering," Chapter IV.

Steinmetz: '^ Elements of Electrical Engineering," 3rd Ed., p. 287.

Steinmetz: Speed-torque Characteristics of A. C. and D. C. Motors in Railway Work,

A. I. E. E., Sept. 26, 1902, p. 31; Sept. 14, 1904, p. 624; Repulsion Motor

Curves, A. I. E. E., Jan. 29, 1904.
Alexanderson : on G. E. Series Repulsion Motor of 1908, A. I. E. E., Jan. 10, 1908,

pp. 1-42.
Slichter: Characteristics of Repulsion Motors, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1904.
Sprague: Motor Characteristics, A. I. E. E., May, 1907, p. 702.
Dalziel: Speed-torque Curves: Institution of Electrical Engineers, April, 1910.
Reed: Speed-torque Curves of Polyphase Motors, E. R. J., Nov., 1906.
Danielson: Three-phase Motor Characteristic and Control, A. I. E. E., May, 1902.
Winter-Eichberg: A. E. G., Characteristic Curves, S. R. J., Oct. 17, 1903.

References on Control of Railway Motors.

Cooper: Motor Control, E. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1109; Elec. Journal, Feb., 1906.
Jackson: Single-phase Control; Elec. Journal, Sept. and Dec, 1905, p. 525 and 762.
Dodd: Proper Handhng of Controllers, S. R. J., Aug., 1897.
Valatin: Three-phase Motor Control, S. R. J., Apr. 6, 1907, p. 576.
Hammer: Valtellina Motor Control, S. R. J., March 16, 1901, p. 345.
Hellmund: Multi-speed Squirrel-cage Induction Motors, E. W., Oct. 13, 1910.
Crocker and Arendt: "Electric Motors, Direct-current Series Motors," part II.
Parshall and Hobart: "Electric Railway Engineering," p. 75.

References on Tests of Railway Motors.

Shepardson: Electric Railway Motor Tests, A. I. E. E., June, 1892.
Stillwell: Tests of Interboro. N. Y., Subway Motors, S. R. J., Mar. 21, 1903.
Bright: Tests on Single-phase Motors, Elec. Journal, Nov. and Dec, 1905.
Fay, Beach, Cooper: Tests of Railway Motors, Elec. Journal, Sept., Dec, 1906.
Edwards: Tests of Locomotive Motors, E. R. J. June 10, 1911, p. 1011.

References on Specifications for Railway Motors.

Specifications for Motors; A. S. &I. Ry. Assoc, 1908, E. R. J., Sept. 22, 1906; Oct. 14,

1908, p. 1013.
Specifications for Brooklyn Rapid Transit Motors, E. R. J., June 12, 1909, p. 1073.
Specifications and standardization, S. R. J., Sept. 22, 1906.

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTORS FOR TRAIN SERVICE 223

This page is reserved for additional references and notes on Electric
Railway Motors for Train Service.

CHAPTER VI.
MOTOR-CAR TRAINS.

Outline.

Definition.
Development.
Motor-car Train Service.
Characteristics :

Flexibility, acceleration rates, high schedule speed, distribution of weight and
strains, distribution of motive power, reliability of service, similarity of equip-
ment, independence, safety, capacity.

Economy of Operation :

Maintenance of ways, maintenance of equipment, wages, fuel, and power,
maintenance per car-mile, total cost per car-mile.

Cost of Motor-car Equipments.

Motor-car Versus Locomotive -hauled Trains.

Motor Cars on Trains Versus Single Motor Cars.

Arrangement of Motor Cars and Coaches in Trains. , |

Control of Multiple -unit Trains and Locomotives. | ,|

Technical Descriptions of Motor Cars :

New York Central & Hudson River; Long Island-Pennsylvania; New York, '
New Haven & Hartford; Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend; ValtelHna
Railway of Italy.

Installations on Railways. Tables :

Direct-current, three-phase, single-phasr?

Literature.

224

CHAPTER VI.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS.

DEFINITION.

A motor-car train is defined as a group of mechanically connected
cars equipped with and propelled by electric motors under some or all
of the cars of the train. It is generally controlled by an operator,
at the head of the train, on the multiple-unit plan of secondary control.

THE DEVELOPMENT.

The development shows that, since 1885, single-truck motor cars
frequently have hauled light trailers for heavy morning and evening
street-car service. Interurban and suburban traffic required a double-
truck car. At first there was one 50-h. p. motor on each truck; but
the weight on the drivers was not sufficient, and the wheels slipped,
causing a waste of power and also of time. Four-motor equipments
were then adopted, about 1898-1900. The limit in the seating capacity
of a suburban car was soon reached, because, when the car was over

Fig. 51.— Metropolitan Elevated Railway, Chicago, Motor-car Train.

55 feet long it could not be turned on a short radius curve at a street
intersection. Two-car trains, a motor and a coach, or two motor cars,
operated by ofie motorman and one conductor for heavy traffic was an
economic development which soon followed; but city councils generally
prohibited the use of an interurban 2-car train on city streets; and trains
15 225

226 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

of 2, 3, and 4 cars were compelled to use a private right-of-way, within
the city limits.

Locomotive cars, loaded with passengers, hauled trains at Chicago
for the Columbian Exposition, in 1893, and for the Metropolitan West
Side Elevated Railroad in 1895. The plan was not satisfactory because
the locomotives did not have the tractive effort which is required for
rapid acceleration. The dead weight was then increased, and the tractive
effort and motor capacity were made sufficient for a long train, but
were too great for shorter trains. The plan was neither flexible nor

Fig. 52. — Boston Elevated Railway Motor-car Train.
Car body length, 60 feet. Seating capacity, 64 pas?engers. Weight, 54 tons.

economical. The electric locomotive cars for train haulage gave way
to the motor-car train when^ about 1898, a practical control scheme
was perfected.

Economy in wages and power, high-schedule speed, and safety
soon required that cars in trains be hauled on a private right-of-way.
Clean rails on the right-of-way, and the greatly reduced air resistance
per ton when cars ran in trains, decreased the power required, and there
was ample tractive effort and speed with only two motors per car.
Simplicity and maintenance caused the location of the two motors on
one truck. Steam railroads, when they first adopted electric power for
suburban train service, simply equipped each passenger coach with
two electric motors on one new truck.

MOTOR-CAR TRAIN SERVICE.

Electric locomotives are used for freight haulage, switching service,
thru passenger service, and for passenger terminals.

Motor-car passenger trains are in general use for all elevated rail-
ways; underground and tube railways; and for heavy suburban trains on
a private right-of-way.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

227

Fig. 53. — New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Motor-car and Truck.

Truck weight 8 tons. Wheel base 7 feet. Wheels 36 inches. Swinging bolster supported by double

elliptic springs. Truck frame supported from semi-elliptic springs over the journal boxes by

spring hangers.

228

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Motor-cars in local freight trains are a recent and a very important
commercial development. For example:

North-Eastern Railway of England uses multiple-unit cars for
freight service. Each car is 55 feet long, has four 125-h.p. motors, and
handles luggage, parcels, and fish. These cars are coupled into either
an electric- or steam-driven train.

Paris-Orleans Railway uses heavy motor cars, of the baggage-car
type, loaded with supplies and high-grade freight, to haul trains.

Fig. 54. — Hudson and Manhatten Railroad Motor Car.
Length 48 feet; seats 44; weight 35 tons; builder, Pressed Steel Car Company.

Many American railways now employ motor-cars in trains to haul
ordinary freight, baggage, building material, and ore. Special motor
cars, which carry theatrical scenery, express, milk, fruit, etc., are used
in a train, or to haul coaches in local service.

New York Central Railroad for its New York terminal service
uses 47 electric locomotives, of 2200 h.p. each, while there are 137
motor cars, of 480 h.p. each. These motor cars haul 63 coaches. Each
motor car weighs 53 tons and each coach weighs 41 tons. The motor
capacity of each motor-car train exceeds the motor capacity of each
locomotive. In 1908 the locomotive mileage was 1,000,000 while the
motor-car- mileage was 3,500,000. The importance of the motor-car
train service is at once recognized.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTOR-CAR TRAINS.

The characteristics of electric motor-car trains are, in part, identical
with those for electric locomotives. In addition, other characteristics
are those noted in the following ten headings:

1. Flexibility is the most important feature, as is shown in operation.
Cars are quickly added to or taken from trains to suit the volume of
traffic. Single motor cars may be attached for the inbound trip at any

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 229

terminal, junction, or branch; on the outbound trip, the train may be
split up, and single cars detached for the branch line. Express or
passenger cars may even be cut off, or put on the rear end of a train,
near any siding or station, without stopping the train, when each car
or group of cars has its independent motive power equipment.

This plan to serve the station without delaying the train by a stop, now in prac-
tice on many steam passenger trains in England, saves much time, and also the energy
required to stop the entire train; but it is somewhat dangerous without an independ-
ent source of motive power on the cars which are to be cut on or off.

Flexibility in operation reduces the dead mileage. It allows that
concentration of car movement so often desired. Changes are made
with dispatch. Motor cars or trains may be added to or taken from the
schedule; yet both the speed and economy are maintained. This is
not possible with the overloaded or underloaded steam locomotive-
hauled train.

2. Acceleration rates are rapid and uniform in practice. The ac-
celeration rate used with electric power was one of the first great advan-
tages which attracted the attention of the traveling public. Schedules
for train service seldom call for the high rates of acceleration which are
possible. American electric roads use rates of 1.2 to 1.6 m.p.h.p.s.

Steam railroad trains cannot gain speed as rapidly as electric motor-
car trains, because high rates of acceleration require an enormous weight
on drivers, and a large amount of energy. The use of heavy engines,
and steam at long cut-offs, in frequent stop service, is expensive.

The reasons for high acceleration of motor-car trains are:

a. Weight of the motor-car train is on the drivers to a great ex-
tent. A drawbar pull is provided which is ample, and proportional to
the weight and length of the train. The slipping of drivers is avoided.
The fastest car movement is possible with the greatest percentage of
weight on the drivers; and this may be 4 to 6 times greater than when
locomotives are used.

b. Motive power for the train is increased gradually, with the varying
length, and number of cars in the train. This feature provides for a
constant acceleration rate, yet there is absolute freedom in arranging
train intervals and schedules for rapid transit and for changes in traffic.

c. Capacity from the central power station is fully sufficient to meet
the requirements for rapid train acceleration.

d. Energy required for propulsion of motor-car trains at a given
schedule is least when they are started and stopped at the maximum
rate of acceleration and retardation. This is because, first, the maxi-
mum speed needed is less with a high acceleration which saves a small
amount in train resistance, and, second, the speed at the beginning
of braking is less and, consequently, less energy is absorbed and lost

230

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

in braking. Economy requires that electric trains making frequent
stops be equipped for starting and stopping as rapidly as possible and
that train coasting be utilized. This requires the highest rate of ac-
celeration^ the greatest drawbar pull per ton of train weight, and that
the motive power be placed at intervals thruout the train.

DRAWBAR PULL ON STEAM LOCOMOTIVES AND MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

AS USED ON MANHATTAN ELEVATED RAILROAD, NEW YORK, AND IN

HEAVY ELECTRIC TRAIN SERVICE IN MANY LOCATIONS.

No. of

Motor

Drawbar

Weight

Drawbar

Ratio of

cars

pull per

elec.

steam

pull per

drawbar

per

train

equip.

locos.

train

ton

pulls

train.

elec.

steam.

(tons).

elec.

steam.

elec.

steam.

per ton.

27,000

12,000

365

143

2.5

40,500

12,000

101

104

401

115

3.5

54,000

12,000

128

124

422

4.3

54,000

12,000

148

144

366

4.4

54,000

12,000

168

164

329

4.5

51,000

50,000

100

137

205

372

244

1.5

51,000

50,000

100

172

240

296

209

1.4

76,500

50,000

100

223

275

343

182

1.9

102,000

50,000

100

274

310

272

161

1.7

102,000

50,000

100

309

345

330

145

2.3

127,500

50,000

100

360

370

344.

135

2.5

127,500

50,000

100

395

405

315

124

2.5

Manhattan elevated coaches weigh only 20 tons. The second set of figures,
wherein the coaches weigh 35 tons, should be use for o^^dinary train service.

The difference in weight is small except when there are few cars per train.

When unusually rapid acceleration is required, as on Hudson and Manhattan
R. R., all of the cars are motor cars. If few stops are to be made, three motor cars
are sufficient for a 5- or 6-car train.

3. High schedule speed is practical because there is great drawbar
pull for rapid acceleration, and a central station power supply. Ade-
quate service is provided for the ordinary, congested, n:iorning and
evening traffic, with frequent stops in which a high schedule speed is
absolutely essential. Rapid acceleration to full speed in the minimum
time allows a lower maximum speed.

High speeds, 75 miles per hour or more, are hard to attain with
trains hauled by steam locomotives. Berlin-Zossen electric passenger
cars repeatedly attained a speed of 125 m. p. h., an interesting record.
The high speed which is possible with electric power exceeds that which
can be obtained safely from a locomotive having reciprocating effort
and unbalanced motion.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 231

"The power increases at a higher ratio than the square of the speed at higher
speeds, and it would be necessary to use steam locomotives of such large dimensions
that a large part of the motive power would be used in driving them alone, and thus
the service could not be commercially practicable. The steam locomotive has there-
fore not been considered in these projects for the high-speed railway, and electricity
has been provided as motive power for the hauling of trains."

4. Distribution of weight of the train on the rail is excellent. This
decreases the intensity of pressure and of strains by distributing them
along the roadbed, bridge, or elevated structure. Distributed weights
and strains decrease the first cost of the road and the cost of track main-
tenance, and increase the safety in operation. Total weights of motor-
car and steam locomotive hauled trains were compared in Chapter III;
and motor-car and electric locomotive hauled trains in the last table.

5. Distribution of motive power thruout the train is ideal, in practical
operation. Power is not concentrated in one or two locomotives at the
head of the train. Strains transmitted to the supporting structures, along
the car bodies, and thru the couplers are reduced. Capacity in trans-
portation can thus be a maximum.

6. Reliability of motor-car service must be admitted. The duplication
of motors provides for a reserve in case of accident to individual motors.
Controllers are complicated, but work remarkably well in practice.

Interborough Rapid Transit Company, of New York City, operated 119 miles of
elevated track and 80 miles of subway track, and in 1907 maintained 1439 motor cars and
994 trailers. It was necessary for each car to run on an average 4000 miles per month,
and to make 10,000 stops and starts during that time. Under these conditions, the
average car mileage per delay due to electrical and mechanical causes was 32,642 in
the case of the subway and 41,792 in the case of the elevated road.

New York Central electrical zone records for 1908 showed that the multiple-
unit cars traversed 3,500,000 miles with train delays of 830 minutes, about equally
divided between electrical and mechanical causes. Katte, to New York Railroad
Club, March 19, 1909.

Hudson and Manhattan Railroad trains between New York and New Jersey,
in March, 1911, ran 112,000 car-miles per delay of 1 minute. The service is severe,
with a recognized disadvantage of underground operation, a headway during rush
hours of 90 seconds, more passengers per car-mile than any rapid-transit line, numerous
sharp curves, and grades from 2 to 4 1/2 per cent. The monthly car mileage exceeds
600,000.

Performances of this kind are unparalleled in steam transportation,
and they deserve consideration and study.

7. Similarity and duplication in equipment is an asset from an invest-
ment and from an operating standpoint.

8. Independence of each car is a most valuable physical advantage,
to be utilized in varying the schedule, to cut out the dead mileage, to
split at junctions, etc.

232

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

9. Safety is assured in the operation of motor-car trains. The sub-
ject as detailed under ''Characteristics of Electric Locomotives/' follows

Fig. 55. — West Jersey & Seashore Railroad Motor-car Train.

Altantic City-Cam den, New Jersey.

Direct-current, third-rail equipment, 1906.

Fig. 56. — Motor-car Truck used by West Jersey & Seashore Railroad.
Baldvvin truck and General Electric 240-h. p. motors.

a. Design of electric motors decreases strains and pounding.

b. Control circuits prevent accidents.

c. Automatic devices on controller safeguard operation.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

233

d. Speed is increased with safety, by the design of motors.
Speed may be limited by design or by control devices,

e. Wheel bases which are long and rigid are avoided.

Fig.

57.— West Shore Railroad Three-car Train.
Third-rail road, Syracuse to Utica, N. Y.

f. Tests of equipment are facilitated and are rigid.

g. Regeneration of energy in braking prevents accidents,
h. Air brakes are used in tunnels with safety.

Fig. 58.

-Pittsburg, Harmony, Butler & New Castle Two-car Train.
1200-volt, direct-current railway.

i. Boilers and reciprocating mechanism are avoided.
j. Exhaust steam and smoke are absent.
k. Fire risk to property is decreased.

234

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

1. Enginemen are not distracted with other duties,
m. Meters are used to assist in intelligent operation,
n. Weights are not excessive, and are distributed.

Fig. 59.

-Maryland Electric Railway. Baltimore and Annapolis Short Line Motor Car.
Single-phase 6600-volt railway.

Fig. 60.

-Pittsburg and Butler Motor-car Trai
Single-phase 6600-volt railway.

A recent practice in motor-car train service is to place a steel baggage
car at the head of each passenger train, so that, in case of collision or
derailment, the safety to life will be increased.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

235

10. Capacity is a prime characteristic of motor-car trains. The
subject was treated in Chapter III, ''Advantages of Electric Traction."
In addition:

Fig. 61. — Erie Railroad. Rochester Division Motor-car Train.

Fig. 62. — Rock Island Southern Motor-car Train.

Motive power from the central station is available for the ordinary
C- to 10-car train, the power supplied to which is usually larger than that
required by the electric locomotive hauled train. Rapid acceleration,
which is so often desired, requires abundant motive power.

236

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Terminal capacity is increased by more efficient train movements,
absence of the locomotive turning, and rapid acceleration.

ECONOMY OF OPERATION.

Economy in transportation is of vital importance. It requires ability
to furnish capacity, speed, and unexcelled service; to induce traffic, to
prevent complaint, to get business in competition, and to hold it, are all
advantageous, because business should be developed on a large scale to
be most profitable.

Fig. 63. — Salt Lake and Odgen Railway Motor-car Train.

Economy of operation with electric motor-car trains is higher than
with any other scheme of operation yet offered in railroading. This
has been proved by results, and by use of such trains for the bulk of
the suburban passenger train service from many large cities.

The reasons for economy are grouped as follows:

1. Maintenance of ways and structures is less because of the distribu-
tion of train weight, stresses, and motive power.

2. Maintenance of equipment is a minimum because of simplicity,
lower cost of inspection, higher mileage, and higher rates of acceleration
which allow a lower maximum speed.

For comparison,— New York Subway in 1909 had 735 motor cars
each equipped with two 240-h.p. motors, or an equipment of 350,000
h.p. This would be equivalent to about 350 locomotives of 1000 h.p.
each. Compare the small Interborough repair shop in use at the end of
its line with the tools, machinery and the men, the round houses, shop

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 237

equipment, washing plants, cinder pits, turn tables, etc., 'which would
be required for 350 steam locomotives.

Terminal charges would cost about $1.50 per steam locomotive, as
compared with 22 cents per motor car. Maintenance and repairs in
the two cases would show a cost from $2250 to $2750 per year per steam
locomotive, and from $100 to $120 per year for a 400-h.p. motor-car
equipment; or, including the steam and electric power plant, the total
cost per motor-car is from $225 to $275 per car per year.

Motor inspection and overhaul are made after every 1200 to 1500 miles.

Manhattan Elevated Railroad records show that while the road was
operated by steam until 1906, the cost of maintenance was 4.2 cents
per train-mile, while with electric traction the cost is 2.1 cents per train-
mile. Its data also show, — ^for steam operation a cost of .39 cent per
car-mile; for electric operation a cost of .28 cent per car-mile. Had
the weight and speed not been increased with electric traction, the
results would have been .20 cent per car-mile. Stillwell.

Twin City Rapid Transit Company, which operates the electric
railway and interurban lines in and between Minneapolis, St, Paul, Still-
water, and Minnetonka, 378 miles of track, with eight hundred 23-ton
48-foot motor-cars, and 21 freight motor cars, each equipped with 240-
to 300-h.p. per car, shows the following:

"With a passenger car mileage of over 2,000,000 miles per month, we are doing
very little rewinding of either armatures or fields. We are not having any trouble on
account of motors overheating. During the year 1909, we have not averaged two
men working as ^vinders per day and a great many days we have not had a single
man working on armature windings." J. W. Smith, Master Mechanic. E. T. W.,
VI, 32.

3. Wages are saved in the operation of trains for many reasons.

The rate paid per hour is lower because the work is simple, more
automatic, and less dangerous. The rate now paid by the New York
Central, 38.5 cents per hour, is the same for handling either electric
or steam trains; yet on less important traffic the wages are reduced.

One engineman or motorman is used in place of two men, to hand e
a train of 4 to 12 motor cars.

Heavier trains are hauled with electric power. The increased weight
and length make a saving in the cost of wages per ton-mile, per train-
mile, and per passenger-mile.

Faster tra'ns are hau'ed with the available capacity, which re-
duces the trainmen's wages per passenger carried, or per ton of freight
hauled. See table on ^'Schedule Speed of Trains, Increased by Elec-
tric Traction," in Chapter XL

Maintenance and inspection are greatly decreased. These and other
reasons have been detailed in Chapter III under ''Wages."

238

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

4. Fuel and power are saved in operation as is explained in Chapters
III and VI. Four reasons for the sav.'ng are, briefly,

Power is produced, and utiUzed efficiently.

Dead weight is reduced.

Fuel is used advantageously, and the total cost of fuel is reduced
fully 50 per cent, in ordinary cases.

Water power is often available to reduce the costs.

Fig. 64. — Spokane and Inland Empire Railroad Motoh-car Tkain.
The 6600-volt, 25-cycle system. Four 100-h.p. motors per 42-ton motorcar

Fig. 65. — London, Brighton and South Coast Railway Motor-car Train.
The 6600-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase system. Four 115-h. p. motors per motor car; two 55-ton
motor cars ond one 35-ton coach per three-car train. Four 175-h. p. motors per motor car; two 60-
ton motor cars and two 35-ton coaches per four-car train.

5. Cost of maintenance and total cost of operation must be placed
on a comparable basis, i. e., per car-mile, ton-mile, seat-mile, etc., rather
than per train-mile. Comparisons with similar tables on the maintenance
cost of electric locomotives are valuable where the two classes of service

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

239

are worked together. Operating cost for motor-car trains is presented
quantitatively in the tables which follow.

MAINTENANCE EXPENSE OF MOTORS PER CAR-MILE.

Name of railway.

Elec.
equip.

Boston Elevated

Boston & Worcester !

Manhattan Elevated 0.25^

New York Subway 25

Brooklyn Rapid Transit, Elev j .16

New York Central [

Long Island R. R .76

West Jersey & Seashore .66

Philadelphia Rapid Transit

Washington, Bait. & Annapolis .24

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley .84

Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton .39

Montreal Terminal Ry

Hudson Valley \

Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville.

Buffalo & Lockport .79

Michigan United

Indianapolis & Cincinnati .75

Sixty street rys

Twenty heavy electric rys

Twenty electric heavy ry. power plants

Scioto Valley Traction

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago

Chicago & Oak Park

Metropolitan Elevated

Northwestern Elevated

South Side Elevated

Minneapolis & St. Paul Suburban

Spokane & Inland

Central California Traction, 1200 volts

Havana Electric Ry

Ordinary electric locomotive per mile

Ordinary steam locomotive per mile

1.84(

3.00

2.14

1.32

1.63

1.00

1.01

1.78

1.00

Reference or authority.

Mass. R. R. Commission.
Annual report.

E. R. J., March 28, 1908.

Gibbs, 1910.
Wood, 1911.
Annual Report, 1909.
E.R. J., May, 1911, p. 913.

1.78 Annual Report, 1909.

2.20 Annual Report, 1909.

2.00 Annual Report, 1909.

2.90 Annual Report, 1909.

Annual Report, 1909.
Renshaw, June, 1910.
Mass. R. R. Com., 1908.
Street, to New England

R. R. Club, 1904.
Annual Report, 1909.
111. R. R. Com., 1908.
111. R. R. Com., 1908.
111. R. R. Com., 1908.
111. R. R. Com., 1908.
111. R. R. Com., 1908.
Minn. R. R. Com., 1909.
Annual Report, 1909.
E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909.
Annual Report, 1909.
See data. Chapter VII.
{ See data. Chapter II.

Some of the reports on electric equipment are per electric-car mile, and appar-
ently others are per motor-car mile.

New York Subway motor cars are overhauled every 65,000 miles. Inspection
every 1200 miles costs 0.5 cent per car-mile.

Long Island Railroad motor cars are overhauled every 60,000 car-miles. Inspec-
tion every 100 car-miles costs 0.61 cent per car-mile. The cost of the same item
for a .steam train is 1.14 cents.

240 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

MAINTENANCE EXPENSE OF ELECTRIC CARS PER CAR-MILE.

Name of railroad.

No. of'
motor
cars.

No. of

electric

cars.

Electric car
repairs and
renewals.

Electric

car
mileage.

Cost per

car-mile.

Cents.

New York Central

137

132

837

951

288

200

219

$33,897
65,632

3,500,000

4,945,719

4,552,531

44,000,000

34,000,000

304,666

0.96

Pennsylvania-Long Island

West Jersey & Seashore. .... .

1.34
1.01

New York Subway, 1907

Paris Subway, 1907

ErieR. R. (1909) '.

12
37

7
36
17

388
78

11,286
6,838
14,660
10,877
74,375
23,770
149,593
39,311

3.70

Norfolk & Southern

Boston & Maine

746,857
310,647

1.90

Wilkes-Barre & Hazleton

Lackawanna & Wyoming Val . .

Scioto Valley

Northwestern Elevated

Chicago & Milwaukee

Rock Island Southern

3.50

1,164,821
12,550,306

2,878,864
232,099
550,897

2.04
1.20
1.38
1.32

Waterloo, Cedar F. & Northern

8,488

2,840

118,855

1.54

Colorado & Southern

383

908

Spokane & Inland

3,157,401

2.66

London Underground .

1.00

Data for the first roads listed are from special I. S. C. C. reports, for 1908, 1909 or
1910; other data are from annual reports of the railroad companies, and from other
sources.

Cost of maintenance does not include depreciation or superintendence. Main-
tenance expense varies with the number of cars operated, and with the number of
stops per mile.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

241

TOTAL OPERATING EXPENSE OF MOTOR-CAR TRAINS PER CAR-MILE.
Includes Maintenance and Repairs, and all Items Except Fixed Charges.

Name of railway.

Cost per
car-mile
electric.

Cost per
car-mile
steam.

Reference, notes or
authority.

Boston Elevated

$.1850
.1556
.1005
.0974
.1607
.1858
.1653
.1780
/ .2046
\ .1819
.1120
.1900
.1800
.1190
.1580
.1548
.1320
.1660
.1510
.1100
.1070
.0910
.1100
.1170
.1360
.1970
.1610
.1980
.2067
.1750
.2670
.1610
.1260
.1950

Annual Report.
Annual Report.

The Connecticut Company

Manhattan Elevated

.3900

Public Service Com.

Interborough Subway

Brooklyn Rapid Transit, Ele.
New York Central

Annual Reports.

E. R. J., Jan. 14,1911, p. 69.

Hudson & Manhattan

.2795
.2230
.2500

Annual Report, 1910.
Gibbs. 144-ton trains, 1908.

Long Island R. R

West Jersey & Seashore

Wilkes- Barre & Hazelton

Gibbs. 163-ton trains, 1908.
Wood, 166-ton train, 1910.
Annual Report, 1909.
E. R. J., May, 1911, p. 913.

Wash., Bait. & AnnapoHs

Erie R. R

Lyford. A. I. E. E., 1908.
Annual Report, 1909.
Indiana R. R. Com., 1908.

Michigan United

Indiana interurbans

Lake Shore Electric

Annual Report, 1910.

Average.

Annual Report, 1909.

Illinois R. R. Com., 1908.

Fifty-five electric roads

Scioto Valley Traction

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago .......

Chicago & Oak Park Elevated. . .

Illinois R. R. Com., 1908.

Metropolitan Elevated, Chicago .
Northwestern Elevated, Chicago.
South Side Elevated

Illinois R. R. Com., 1908.

IlKnois R. R. Com., 1908.

.1060
.1174

Brinckerhoff. See p. 104.

Lake Street Elevated

Illinois R. R. Com., 1909.

Rock Island Southern

Illinois R. R. Com., 1909.

lUinois Traction Company

Milwaukee Northern .

Illinois R. R. Com., 1908.

Wisconsin R R Com , 1910

Waterloo, Cedar F. & Northern.

Annual Report, 1909.
Iowa R. R. Com., 1909.

Ft. Dodge, Des M. & So

Minneapolis & St. Paul Suburb.

Minn. R. R. Com., 1910.

Spokane & Inland

Annual Report, 1909.
E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909.

Central California Traction. . . ,

Mersey Ry., England

Underground Electric, London 1

.2730

Shaw, B.I.C.E., Nov., 1909.
Annual report, 1908.

Long Island did not make a radical change in length of trains when a simple
substitution was made from steam to electric power.

West Jersey & Seashore under steam operation ran twice as many cars per train,
for express service, usually with a few stops; electric trains are shorter, 3 to 4 cars,
and make frequent stops. The showing is, therefore, the more remarkable, since
it costs decidedly more to run a short train with many stops than a thru train.
16

242

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The expenses include power, maintenance of power plant, transmission lines,
substations, contact lines, cars and motors, wages of all operators, traffic and gen-
eral expense, and all operating expenses of the railway.

The cost per car-mile wdth electric traction should be high because of the larger
number of stops per mile, higher schedule speed, and greater power per train.

COST OF MOTOR CARS WITH MOTOR EQUIPMENT.

Name of railroad.

Year
noted.

No. of
seats.

Length Wt.
of car. tons.

Motors & h.p. Kind of
of motor. current.

Estimated
cost.

Notes.

1911
1911
1910
1905
1909
1906
1906
1911
1910
1909
1911

4-150
2-240
4-200
2-165
4-150
2-240
2-240
2-240
2-200
2-210
14-240

Alternate.. $30,000
Direct .... 17,829

Direct j 16,850

Direct

Steel.

Boston & Albany. . .
Boston & Eastern. . .
Boston Elevated

Steel

55 ft.

33
87
54
48
52
41
75
350

76
68

70
60
56

New York Central...
West Jersey & S. S.

Direct [

Direct 12,214

Direct ; 19,5C0

Direct

Steel.

Wood.

Steel

Long Island

500

510

Steel.

Pennsylvania

Interborough

Direct 18,500

Direct 110,000

Steel.
Steel.

Cost of converting a 38-ton steam coach to a motor car, about $3800.

Cost of cars with 4-motor, 125-h.p. equipment, and multiple-unit control, direct current
$19,000; and alternating current $24,500; ditto 50-h.p., direct-current, for interurban service,
$6000; one truck, $1000. See cost of steam cars, Ry. Age Gazette, Sept. 30, 1910, p. 578.

MOTOR-CAR VERSUS LOCOMOTIVE -HAULED TRAINS.

Comparisons of motor-car trains and locomotive hauled trains show:
Drawbar pull of electric motor-car trains has been shown to be from
1.5 to 4.5 times greater than steam locomotive-hauled trains.

Weight of a motor-car train is less than that of an electric locomo-
tive hauled train. The difference amounts to about 44 per cent, for
a 2-car train; 30 per cent, for a 3-car train; and down to 12 per cent,
for 6-, 8-, and 10-car trains. This is shown by the examples below:

> COMPARISON OF TRAIN WEIGHT, ELECTRIC AND STEAM.

Based on the same Tractive Effort and Number of Seats.

Service.

Light suburban.

Heavy railway.

Motive power.

Electric Motor-car
locomotive. trains.

Steam loco-
motive.

Motor-car
trains.

Wt. of loco, tons .
Wt. of cars, tons .
Wt. total, tons. . .

Saving with

3@36, 108
200

3 cars.
2 cars.

3@46, 138
138

31%

44%

165

6@60, 360

525

6 cars.

7 cars.

6@75, 450
450

14%
10%

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

243

COMPARISON OF TRAIN WEIGHTS, ELECTRIC AND STEAM.
Based on Ordinary Suburban Service.

New York Central &
Hudson River R. R.

Steam locomotive
service.

Motor-car train
service.

Wt. of steam locomotives, tons. .

Wt. of motor cars, tons

Wt. of coaches, tons

Wt. of passengers, tons

Wt. total, tons

138

6-200
12

350

4-216

2- 82

"310

Weight was reduced 40 tons per train, for the same number of seats. S. R. J.,
Nov. 4, 1905, p. 837.

AYeight of motor cars is increased gradually and in proportion to the
train length. Fixed dead weight of locomotive and tender are cut out,
and an economy is effected in the ton-mileage. North-Eastern Rail-
way of England, which electrified its steam road in 1904, has in-
creased its train-mileage 100 per cent., yet its ton-mileage has not been
increased.

Weight distribution is excellent. Shearing and deflecting strains on
structures are reduced.

Flexibility of motor cars decreases the cost of shunting or switching.
Space is saved in restricted yards.

Acceleration for any train combination is the most rapid. ^^ Equal
acceleration, speed, and equality of work from each motor car whatever
the number of cars in a train. " Sprague.

Lowes: maximum speed is obtained with a given schedule speed.

Highest schedule speed is obtained with a given maximum speed.

Fuel expenditure per car-mile is lowest with motor cars.

Cost of operation is also lowest with the motor-car train.

Unless it is practical to operate trains with a fixed number of coaches,
the motor-car train equipment has all the major operating advantages.

Investment for motor car trains is greater; but is compensated by im-
proved facilities for handling traffic and increased gross and net earnings.

See ''Advantages of Locomotives over Motor-car Trains," Chapter VII.

MOTOR CARS IN TRAINS VERSUS SINGLE MOTOR CARS.

The proper choice for a given service, which may be supplied either
by 2- or 3-car trains, or by more frequent service with single cars, is
determined by gross earnings or traffic productivity and operating
expenses.

244

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Traffic may be attracted by greater comfort or better accomodations.
For example, seats may be offered in place of straps; or several cars per
train to provide smoother riding qualities.

Economy of operation is higher with trains than with single cars, per
seat-mile and per ton-mile because:

Wages are saved. The saving increases with the train length.

Power consumption is greatly decreased because there is less friction
per ton. See ^Tower Required for Trains."

Maintenance is less per ton-mile because less power and fewer motors
are required for train service than for single cars.

ARRANGEMENT OF MOTOR CARS AND COACHES IN TRAINS.

Arrangement of motor cars and coaches in trains is detailed in the
tabular data at the end of this chapter. One example is cited:

Long Island Railroad has 23 different types of local and express
train runs, over 13 different routes. The distance between stops for
local trains varies between 1.6 and 1.0 miles; and for express trains, the
distance between stops is as much as 9.6 miles. On an average there
are 3 to 4 cars per train.

Motors on 136 motor cars consist of two 200-h. p. direct-current
units. A gear ratio of 2.32 is used. Weight of motor car is 38 to 41
tons, and coaches weigh 31 tons.

MOTOR CARS PER COACH IN LONG ISLAND R. R. TRAINS.

Number of cars.

Local service.

Express service.

Two-car train

Two motor cars

One motor car.

No coaches

One coach.

Three-car train

Two motor cars

Two motor cars.

One coach. . .

One coach.

Four-car train

Three motor cars

Two motor cars.

Five-car train

One coach.
Three motor cars

Two coaches.
Three motor cars.

Two coaches

Two coaches.

Six-car train

Four motor cars . ...

Three motor cars.

Seven-car train

Two coaches.

Four motor cars

Three coaches.
Four motor cars.

Eiffht-car train ....

Three coaches.
Five motor cars

Three coaches.
Four motor cars.

Three trailers

Four coaches.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 245

CONTROL OF MULTIPLE-UNIT TRAINS AND LOCOMOTIVES.

Train control for electric cars was systematized in 1898. Mr. Frank
J. Sprague should be given the credit for this work, which was of greatest
importance in the history of electric traction.

In the early days, motor cars hauled trailers. Then followed a period
when two mechanically coupled motor cars were required, each operated
by a separate motorman. Electric wires running from car to car were
then tried, but that plan was expensive and the space in a car for a con-
troller which could handle the power for several cars was not available.
Predictions were made that the electric locomotive would be used for
local trains. When plans were made for the first electric trains in
Chicago, in 1896, the General Electric engineers and the Westinghouse
engineers reported that the multiple-unit motor-car train scheme was
impossible, not practical if it were possible, and therefore valueless.

With the assistance of Mr. F. H. Shepard, who developed the details,
Mr. Sprague perfected his multiple-unit plan, demonstrated the success
of the scheme, and got it adopted by the South Side Elevated Railroad of
Chicago. The first British road to use multiple-unit control was the Great
Northern and City Railway, in 1904. Elec. World, March 5, 1904.
Most of the electric trains in America and Europe are now operated by
multiple-unit control equipment on motor cars and locomotives. More
recently, the apparatus used has been adopted for large cars, many of
which do not run in trains.

Multiple-unit train operation is defined by Sprague:

"A semi-automatic system of control which permits of the aggregation of two or
more transportation units, each equipped with sufficient power only to fulfill the
requirements of that unit, with means at two or more points on the unit for operating
it thru a secondary control, and a train fine for allowing two or more of such units,
grouped together without regard to end relation, or sequence, to be simultaneously
operated from any point in the train." A. I. E. E., May, 1899; S. R. J., May 4, 1901.

Multiple-unit control is complicated, yet the units in the mechanism
are so perfected that, like those in a clock, they form a reliable aggregate.
The control equipment is wonderfully reliable.

Hudson and Manhattan Railroad in April, 1910, ran 504,565 car-miles
in the severest motor-car train service in America; yet there was one
delay per 72,081 car-miles, and one detention chargeable to control equip-
ment per 168,188 car-miles.

Train control is distinguished from single-car control, as in the latter
the switch contacts in the drum controller are usually operated by hand.
In train control the contact switches are placed under the car and are
controlled either by solenoid action on main-circuit contactor switches
as in the Sprague-General Electric method; or by electro-magnetic action

246

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

oil valves, and compressed air pressure which closes niain-circuit con-
tactor switches, as in the Westinghouse electro-pneumatic method.
General Electric control embodies the Sprague control. A train cable
which carries a small line current connects the control circuits thruout
the train. The contactors, which are simply heavy switches, are operated
by power from this cable. The line voltage must exceed one-half the

normal voltage before the switches
will operate. The magnetic opera-
tion of the contactor causes a
quick make and break of the cir-
cuit. The control scheme is posi-
tive and automatic. The rate of
acceleration is fixed and, with the
limit devices, a safe, continuous,
and efficient action is provided,
to prevent damage to field and
armature.

The master controller is placed
at each end of each car. The
small current in the control circuit,
about 2 amperes per motor car,
passes thru the master controller
to the several points along the train
thru a 10-wire train line.

The master controller does not
act directly, but governs the opera-
tion of motor controllers or con-
tactors under each car, which in
turn control the rheostats, switch-
ing, grouping of motors, parallel-
ing, reversing, etc., in the (inde-
pendent) power circuits on each
car. Energizing the proper wires -
of any master controller on the
train causes the corresponding
switch contactors to move simultaneously on all the motor cars.

Auxiliary apparatus for each motor car includes switch contactor
groups, cut outs, current relays to prevent overload, potential relay to
open motor circuit in case of no voltage, circuit breakers, jumpers, etc.
Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company developed the
multiple-unit train control under the name of the electro-pneumatic
system. The first road to adopt the Westinghouse plan was the Kings
County Elevated Railway of Brooklyn in 1898. A description of the

Fig. 66. — General Electric Train
Controller.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

247

early apparatus was given in St. Ry. Journ., October, 1899. This
apparatus was perfected by F. H. Shepard and Wm. Cooper.

Westinghouse electro-pneumatic system involves the operation of

Fig. 67.

Fig. 68.
Figs. 67-68. — Electric Train Control Cable and Coupler Sockets.

circuit controlling switches by means of compressed air from the brak-
ing system. Small air cjdinders, which close the motor circuit switches,
operate against powerful springs, and when the air pressure is removed
the springs quickly open the switch. Admission and release of air are

248

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

governed by electrically operated valves, the current for which comes
from a 14-volt storage battery on each car. Line voltage is not
brought into the car, cab, or controller. The train line carries only the
14-volt battery current. The motor circuit in each car is independent,
and all wiring is well grouped at the motor truck end of the car. Master
controllers are placed at each end of each car. All of the current which
is used for the operation of all of the switches on the train goes thru the
master controller which is being used, but the current for operating
the switches on each motor car is obtained from the battery. Auxiliary

Fig. 69. — General Electric Contractor Box.

apparatus includes a current limit switch for each motor, switch con-
tactor groups, cut outs, circuit breakers, and car jumper connections.

Multiple-unit control equipments for light trains have recently been
improved, and are superseding platform control. They are reliable, and
remove all power wiring and heavy current-carrying parts from the
vestibules, thus increasing the safety to employees and passengers.

Advantages of independent storage batteries versus line voltage, for automatic
control systems:

Ability to reverse and buck motors, with quadruple equipment, when air brakes
fail, and when power is off the line or when trolley leaves the contact wire.

Controller is independent of low line voltage

Fuses in control circuits, which may blow and render control inoperative in
emergencies, are eliminated.

Trouble with defective insulation in train line, and false operation, are reduced.

Burning and scoring of contact fingers is reduced.

Danger from high line voltages in the cab is reduced.

Disadvantages of electric-pneumatic control:
Complication is caused by the additional equipment used.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 249

Batteries, charging relays, and terminals must be mounted on rubber cushions,
to prevent %dbration from breaking the more delicate parts.

Air valves and pneumatic switches become clogged by scale in the air pipes, and
a little dirt under the controlling fingers can prevent action in the low- voltage circuit.

Control of locomotives involves the same principles as control of
motor-car trains; but the capacity of each motor is greater.

Acceleration must be relatively more uniform to prevent breakage of
couplers, and strains on equipment. With uniformity of application, a
very much greater effort can be exerted than when the pull is irregular.
The controller must therefore have about double the number of points
or fcteps used for passenger trains. The design is such that the current is
not taken off the motors after it is once applied, i. e., the circuit is not
opened to change motor combinations from series to parallel, or to con-
catenation, or to change the number of poles. The so-called "bridging"
plan of connection is desirable, not the open-circuit plan. Transformer-
tap control is perfect, when there is a reasonable number of steps. In-
duction regulator control is ideal. Water rheostats, used on European
locomotives, provide absolutely uniform graduations of resistance.

Results are a failure in railroading if the accelerating force is not
properly applied to the train. In passenger service, an acceleration rate
which varies from 1.2 to 1.6 m. p. h. p. s. is disagreeable, while a steady
acceleration rate of 2.0 m. p. h. p. s. is not disagreeable. These matters need
consideration, because the gain by uniform and rapid acceleration is
so important. In locomotives for freight service, variation in control
rate is sure to result disastrously, to jerk out drawbars, and to cause ac-
cidents and delays.

Control systems must be semi-automatic in action, and must also
provide a check on the rate of acceleration, yet allow any lower rate
which is desired. Should locomotives or cars break apart, the control
current must be automatically and instantaneously cut out from the
other locomotive or motor cars. The ability of the engineman to control
the locomotive or train must not be lost, if the train cable is short-circuited.

Multiple -unit operation with polyphase motors under the ordinary
conditions of railroad operation, was at first difficult because of the
small air gaps and the difference of duty with varying driver diameters.
Consult: St. Ry. Journ., March 24, 1906, page 462.

" Multiple-unit grouping and operation of three-phase motors is ordinarily imprac-
ticable because of the small slip." Sprague, to A. I. E. E., May 21, 1907, p. 706.

Later experience modifies the above statements. It is necessary to
have motor-car wheels or locomotive drivers of about the same diameter.
The wheels which have the slightly larger diameters, on any car or loco-
motive, whether coupled or not, will tend to run faster; and thus, by slip

250 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

and wear, the diameters tend to equalize. In the shop, some attention
must be given to see that wheels do not have widely varying diameters.

Ganz Electric Co., on installations for Italian State Railway, and
General Electric Company, for the Great Northern Railway locomotives,
simply insert a small, but wasteful, resistance in the rotors of the motor.
This is done automatically, on the Giovi locomotives.

Italian State Railway and Swiss Federal Railway have made tests with
coupled three-phase locomotives, also with a locomotive placed at each
end of the train, and on old and new locomotives having widely different
driver diameters but with the same rated speed; and the record published
shows that no serious difficulties have been encountered due to over-
heating of particular locomotives or motors.

Simplon locomotives, manufactured by Brown, Boveri and Company,
use a squirrel-cage rotor, with a 7 per cent, drop in speed from no load to
full load, which allows considerable variation in driver diameters.

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF MOTOR-CAR TRAINS.

New York Central motor-car trains provide for suburban service fr- .
the New York terminal (Grand Central Station) to North White Plai ^ ,
23.5 miles north on the Harlem Division; also to Hastings, 19 miles no: i
on the Hudson Division. About 137 motor cars are used, each weighi ^
53 tons, and 63 coaches, each weighing 41 tons. Eight-car trains, 5 mo' :
and 3 coaches, have 2400-h. p. in motor equipment. Such a train wei^ s
over 420 tons and in accelerating at the rate of 1.3 m. p. h. p. s. requi: i
a drawbar or tractive effort of about 138 pounds per ton or 55,200 poun i
total. Almost twice this amount is available for traction, or, the accelerj t
ing rate could be doubled without slipping the wheels. One truck
each motor car is equipped with two 240-h. p., 660-volt, direct-currei ,
interpole motors, with a 1.88 gear ratio. See Figure 53.

Pennsylvania Railroad in 1910, for its New York tunnel and termir .
service, began the use of 157-ton 2500-h.p. electric locomotives; al
450-ton, 6-car, 2520-h.p. motor-car trains for its New York-Lo:
Island, suburban service; and in 1911 to Newark, New Jersey. T
motor-car train requires greater energy than the locomotive becau
of the continuity of service, the higher acceleration, and the freque-iu
stops.

Motor-car train equipment already purchased consists of about 225 steer motor
cars, for passenger service. Pennsylvania standard trucks are used with side-extended
bolster springs and 8.5-foot wheel bases. Power equipment per motor car consists of
two Westinghouse 215-h.p., direct-current motors. Forced draft is used to cool and
to keep out the dust and grit. The entire axle is enclosed to keep the dust out of
bearings. The motor equipment was described under Ventilation of Motors. See
Figure 42, page 184. Each car is a motor car and weighs 53 tons.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

251

Long Island Railroad, a subsidiary company, operates 138 steel 38- to
41-ton passenger motor cars, with two 200-h.p. motors per car, for
suburban service west of Brooklyn to distant points on Long Island.

Fig. 70. — Long Island Railroad Motor-car Train. Steel Coaches

- New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad purchased, in 1909,

]_ notor cars and 6 trail coaches for its local service between New York

J Gy and Stamford, Connecticut, 34 miles. The motor cars are designed

pull 2 trail cars. Steel cars, built by the Standard Steel Car Company,

Fig. 71.-

-New York, New Haven and Kartford Multiple Unit 87-ton Motor Car.
Operated in train.s on the New York Division, 1909.

are 70 feet long. Seats are arranged for 76 passengers. Motor car weighs
87 tons and coaches 50. These are the heaviest motor cars yet built.
The electric system employed is the 11,000-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase.

252

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Motors per car consist of four 150-h.p., 600-ainpere, 235-volt West-
inghouse units, with a 3.30 gear ratio. The gear is mounted on a quill
which surrounds the axle (with 9/16-inch clearance). There are 4 drive
pins which fit into pockets in the drivers, and helical springs which sur-

FiG. 72. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Truck Used on Motor-car Trains.
Truck for two single-phase, 150-h. p., quill-mounted, Westinghouse motors; used on New York
Division. Trucks built by Standard Motor Truck Company. ;

round the driving pins and carry the weight of the quill, gear, and half of
the motor, and transmit the driving action or torque smoothly to the car
wheels. This plan increases the weight and cost, and the diameter of the

Fig. 73. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Truck used on Motor-car Trains.
Truck for two single-phase, 125-h. p., nose-mounted. General Electric motors used on New Canaan

Branch.

gear seat and motor axle bearings. The motor is entirely spring-sup-
ported to effect good riding qualities and to minimize track destruction.
Control scheme used is the electro-pneumatic. Automatic accelera-
tion is provided at the rate of .5 m. p. h. p. s. when hauling 2 coaches,

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

253

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTOR CARS ON NEW YORK,
NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD R. R., NEW YORK DIVISION.

Current
amperes.

Power
factor.

Speed
m. p. h.

Tractive
effort lb.

Power
h.p.

Notes or conditions.

4000
2400
1800
1200
1130

.830
.925
.952
.970
.975

17.5
25.3
30.4
41.0
45.0

17,600
8,800
5,600
2,700
2,000

820
600
448
290
240

Gear ratio 3.3; wheels 42 in.
One-hour rating at 235 volts.
Continuous capacity with

forced ventilation.
Four motors per motor car.

Aspinwall, Tests, Elec. Journal, Nov., 1909; Trucks, E. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908.

Motor-car trains with 3 cars weigh 187 tons and have 600-h.p. niotor
capacity; while the locomotive-hauled trains with 6 cars and double the
seating capacity weigh about 402 tons and have 960-h.p. niotor capacity.
Significant comparisons may be made for suburban service.

Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend Railway uses 4 single-phase, 125-
h.p. motors per car and 3-car passenger trains. Cars weigh 56 tons.
Trolley voltage is 6000 normally, but 600 volts alternating in the cities.
Motors operate in series-parallel, 2 motors on each truck being in series.

A 250-kw. oil-insulated, self-cooled auto-transformer varies the volt-
age to the motors by means of a series of 8 taps. The master controller
is operated with current from two 15-volt batteries. Manipulation of
the controller handle operates magnets, which operate controller air
valves, which in turn operate contactors in a main switch group to vary
the voltage from the transformer from 62 volts to 250 volts.

Coaches without motors are equipped with master controllers. Snow
plows not fitted with motors are designed to be pushed by motor cars and
are equipped with master controllers and brake-train valves so that any
number of cars can be coupled back of a plow and controlled from the
look-out deck.

An 11-car train, made up of six 500-h.p. motor cars and 5 coaches,
and operated by multiple-unit control, recently made an 80-mile run on
this road. Incidentally, with the extremely small loss on the 6000-volt
contact line, long trains can be operated successfully over long
distances.

Valtellina Railway of Italy uses 58-ton motor cars which haul five 22-
ton coaches, making a 168-ton train. There are 2 twin 250-h.p., 15-
cycle, three-phase gearless motors, mounted on a hollow shaft, per motor
car. Power is transmitted to 46-inch drivers by flexible couplings. See
drawings in Parshall and Hobart's ''Electric Railway Engineering."

254 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Fio. 74. — Valtellina Railway, Italy, Motor Truck for Passenger Cars, 1902.

Fro. 75. — West Jersey & Seashore Railroad, Motors Mounted on Brill Trucks.
G. E., No. 69, 240 h. p., 600-volt, direct-current motors.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

255

Fig. 76. — Motor-car Truck used on the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad.
Wheel base 78 inches. Wheels 34 inches. Weight of truck, 11,750 pounds; with two 160-h. p.

motors, 22,750 pounds.

Fig. 77. — J. G. Brill Company'.s M<

oK-CAR Truck for Heavy Cars in High-speed Passenger
Service.

256

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. PART I.

Geographical Distribution. Direct-current 600-volt System.

Largest city terminals.

Number of cars.

Number of miles.

Name of railway.

Motor

Coach.

Total.

Between
terminals.

Right-
of-way.

Mileage.

Boston & Maine

Concord-Manchester. .

Boston Elevated

Boston suburbs

225

316

Boston & Worcester. . .

Boston- Woicester . . .

New York Central

f N.Y.-N.WhitePlains
N. Y.-Hastings.

137

200

24 1
19/

152

Manhattan Elevated . .

Manhattan- Bronx . . .

895

759

1754

119

Interborough Subway.

Manhattan-Brooklyn .

910

336

1246

Hudson & Manhattan .

New York- Jersey C . .

200

Brooklyn Rapid Trans.

Brooklyn

659

269

928

107

Pennsylvania R.R.:

Long Island R.R ....

Brooklyn-Long I

1.36

225

164

Pennsylvania Tun-

New York- Long I . . . .

225

nel & Terminal.

Jersey City-Newark. .

West Jersey & Sea.

Camden- Atlantic C. . .

108

154

Philadelphia Rapid Tr.

Philadelphia Elev

150

Philadelphia & West'n.

Phila.-Norristown. . . .

Albany Southern R.R. .

Albany-Hudson

West Shore R.R

Utica-Syracuse

114

Rochester,Syracuse&E.

Syracuse- Rochester . .

265

Buffalo, Lockport & R.

International Ry

Lackawanna & Wyo-

Lockport-Buffalo .

Wilkes- Barre-Car-

361

ming Valley.

bondale.

Wilkes-Barre & Hazel-

Wilkes-Barre-Hazel-

ton.

Mahoning & Shenango .

New Castle- Warren. .

149

Washington, Balti-

Baltimore- Washing-

100

more & Annapolis.

ton.

Michigan United Rys . .

Jackson-Kalamazoo .

159

125

254

Grand Rapids, Grand

Grand Rapids-Muske-

Haven & Muskegon.

gon.

Dayton & Troy

Dayton-Troy

Lake Shore Electric . .

Cleveland-Toledo . . .

119
50

215

Scioto Valley Traction.

Columbu«-Chillicothe.

850

Indianapolis, Col. & S.

Indianapolis-Louis-
ville.

117

1 55

Indianapolis&Louisv

Illinois Traction

St. Louis-Danville . . .

600

223

550

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

257

RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS, 1911. PART I.
Direct-current 600- volt System.

Name of railway.

Largest city terminals.

Number of cars.

Motor

Coach.

Total.

Number of miles.

Between
terminals.

Right-
of-way.

Mileage.

Aurora, Elgin & Chi-
cago.

South Side Elevated. .
Chicago & Oak Park
Metropolitan West Side
Northwestern Elevated
Chicago & Milwaukee
Milwaukee Electric ....

Milwaukee Northern . . .
Fort Dodge, Des Moines

& Southern.
Waterloo, Cedar Falls

& Northern.
Interurban Ry

Northern Texas . . . .
Denver & Interurban .
Salt Lake & Ogden . .
Spokane & Inland . . .

Puget Sound Electric. .

Oregon Electric

Portland Railway

Northern Electric

Southern Pacific

San Francisco, Oakland

& San Jose.
Los Angeles Pacific ....

Pacific Electric

Chicago- Aurora . . .
Chicago-Elgin. . . .
Chicago-Freeport .

Chicago

Chicago-Milwaukee. . .
Milwaukee- Water-
town.
Milwaukee-Sheboygan
Ft. Dodge-Des. M

Waterloo- Waverly

Des Moines-Colfax . . .
Des Moines-Perry ....
Ft. Worth-Sherman . .

Denver- Boulder

Salt Lake-Ogden

Spokane-Hay den Lake

Spokane-Colfax

Spokane-Moscow

Seattle-Tacoma

Portland-Salem

Portland-Cazadero . . .
Sacramento-Chico. . . .
Alameda-Oakland ....
Oakland suburbs

Los Angeles-Santa

Monica.
Los Angeles -Coast . .

115

200

225

288
50
30

12
20

100
24
30
42

100
38

121

200

280

100

225

115

400

505

388

113
25
30

150
24
63
42

160
78

486

675

40
42
125

57
86

80
65
45
15

160
47
20
57
51
186
137

64
140

100

72
86
54

287

200
80
472
130
100
35

214

600

258

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. PART I.

Direct-current 600-volt System.

Largest city
terminals.

Number of cars.

Number of miles.

Name of railway.

Motor.

Coach.

Total.

Between
terminals.

Right-
of-way.

mile-
age.

Central London

London

68
383
197

40
130
0 -

172

525

235

■72

146

210

170

240
908
432
108
150
218

70
120
340
170

London Electric

168

25
3
8

10
4
5

15
5
40
7
35
18
14
31

25
5 ,

2
15

5
40

7
35
18
14
31

Baker St. & Waterloo

Charing Cross E. & H. ...

London

Great Northern, P. & B .

London

Great Northern & City . . .

Great Western, M & W L

London

Metropolitan Ry

London

City & South London

London . .

Waterloo & City

London ....

London & North Western

London. . . .

Mersey Ry

Liverpool-Birkenhead
Liverpool-Southport. .
Liverpool-Seaforth . . .
NewCastle-on-Tyne..

Cologne-Bonn

Berlin

24
80
44
62
10
139
570

37
52
7
44
10
52
381

61
132

51
106

20
191
951

Lancashire & Yorkshire .
Liverpool Overhead .....

North-Eastern

Rhine Shore

82
13
82
30

Berlin Overhead & Under

Paris-Metropolitan

Paris

Paris-Lyons-Mediter-

Paris

ranean.
Paris-Orleans .-

Paris-Juvisy

West of France

Milan- Varese-Porto
Ceresio

Milan-Porto Ceresio. .

Fig. 78. — Cologne-Bonn Railway. Motor-car Train.
Two 32-ton motor cars each with two 130-h. p., 500-volt, direct-current, interpole, Siemens
motors, operating on a 1000-volt trolley line, and two 18-ton coaches per four-car train, 1906.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

259

RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. PART II.
Direct-current 600- volt System.

Name of railway.

No. of
motor
cars.

Motors No.
and
h.p.

Tons,

motor

car.

Tons

per

coach.

Train made of

Motor

Coaches. Total

Boston & Maine

Boston Elevated

Boston & Worcester

"New York Central

Manhattan Elevated

In terbo rough Subway

Hudson & Manhattan

Brooklyn Rapid Transit

Pennsylvania R. R. :

Long Island R. R

Penn. Tunnel & Terminal... .

Newark Rapid Transit

West Jersey & Seashore

Philadelphia Elevated

Philadelphia & Western

Albany Southern

West Shore R. R

Rochester, Syracuse & Eastern .
Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester.
Lackawanna & Wyoming Val.

Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton

Washington, Baltimore & An-
napolis.

Lake Shore Electric

Grand Rap ids, Grand Haven & M

Scioto Valley Traction

South Side Elevated, Chicago..

Chicago & Oak Park

Metropolitan West Side

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago

Northwestern Elevated, Chicago
Chicago & Milwaukee Electric

Milwaukee Electric

Indiana Union Traction

Indianapolis & Louisville

Illinois Traction

Ft. Dodge, Des Moines & South.

Puget Sound Electric

North Shore Ry., California. . .

Southern Pacific Company

San Fran. Oakland & San Jose.
Los Angeles Pacific

12
225

60
137

895

910
200
659

136
225

50
93
15

150
28
45
21
82
19
35
6
40
3
20
30
17

200

65
225
115
228

30
285

10
600

20
100

37
100

38
121

4-40
2-175
4-50
2-240

2-125

2-240
2-160
2-200

2-200

2-215

2-160

2-240

2-125

4-75

4-80

4-75

4-125

2-150

4-125

4-100

4-125

4-90

2-150

4-125

2-52

2-90

2-160

4-125

2-160

4-75

4-125

4-85

4-75

2-100

4-75

4-125

2-125

4-125

2-125

4-75

31
43
39
43
41

47
43

260 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. PART II.

Direct-current, 600- volt System. 2Q00-pound Tons.

Name of railway.

No. of
motor

cars

Motors

No. and

h. p.

Tons

motor

per

car.

coach.

i2|
46/

511

25 r

Train made up of

Motor cars.

Coaches

Total.

Central London

London Electric Railway Co.:

Metropolitan District

Baker Street & Waterloo. . . .

Charing Cross, E. & H

Great Northern, Pic. & B. . . .
Great Northern & City

Great Western, M. & W. L. . . .

Metropolitan, London

Waterloo & City

Mersey Railway

Lancashire & Yorkshire
Liverpool-Soathport.
Liverpool Overhead

North-Eastern

Cologne-Bonn

Berlin Overhead & Underground

Berlin-Gross Lichterf elde

Paris-Metropolitan

Paris-Orleans

Milan- Varese-Porto Ceresio. . . .

197

36
60

72
35

130

20
24

139

248

100
20

4-65

2-150

2-130

4-75

2-125

2-240

4-125 \

2-175 /

4-160

City and South London has fifty-two 464-h.p. locomotives; Metropolitan Railway, London,
has eleven 800 h.p.; North-Eastern, six 640-h.p.; and Paris-Orleans eleven lOOO-h.p. locomotives.

Fig. 79. — Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen, Motor-car Train.
TwQ 54-ton motor cars, each with two 175-h.. p., single-phase motors and one 34-ton coach per

three-car train.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

261

RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS, 1910. PART III.
Three-phase System. 2000-pound Tons.

Name of railway.

No. of
motor
cars.

Motors

No. and

h.p.

Tons,

motor

car.

Tons

per

coach.

Train made of

Motor cars.

Coaches.

Total.

St 1 n i^^tn f? - Fin frplliprs?

2-35

4-64

4-250

2-65

2-150
4-150
2-250

1
1

100

1
1

1
0
0

Zossen Tests of 1903

London-Port Stanley, Ontario,
1905.

Valtellina, 1902

53
32

30
20
21

2
1
1

2
5

3
3

Fig. 80. — Blankanese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorp Motor-car Train.
Two 69-ton motor cars each with two 200-h. p., single-phase motors.

262

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Fig. 81.-

-Bavarian State Railway. Murnau-Oberammergau Link Motor car Train.
Two 100-h. p., single-phase Siemens motors per motor car and coucli.

Fig. 82.— Vienna-Baden Railway. Motor-car Train.
Four 60-h. p., single-phase motors per motor car.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS

263

RAILWAYS OPERATING MOTOR-CAR TRAINS. PART IV.
Single-phase System.

Name of railway.

No. of
motor
cars.

No.

coaches.

Motors

No. &

h.p.

Tons

motor

car.

Tons

per

coach.

Trains made of

Motor.

Coaches. Total

New York, New Haven«&H.:

New York-Stamford. . . .

New Canaan-Stamford . .

Harlem River Branch . .

New York, Westchester &

Boston.
Long Island: Sea Cliff Div.
Baltimore & Annapolis

Short Line.
Erie R.R. : Rochester Div.
Windsor, Essex & Lake S.
Ft. Wayne & Springfield. .
Indianapolis & Cincinnati.
Chicago, Lake Shore &

South Bend.

Rock Island Southern

Colorado & Southern: i

Denver & Interurban . . . |

Spokane & Inland Empire .

Visalia Electric i

San Francisco, Vallejo and
Napa Valley.

Midland Ry., England ....

London, Brighton & South

Coast.

French Southern

Rotterdam-Hague-Sche-

veningen.
Blankanese-Hamburg-

Ohlsdorf.

Bernese Alps

Vienna-Baden Interurban.
Parma Provincial

/24

2
9

/I
12
16
30
30
25

110

3
19
10

4-150

4-125
4-150
4-150

2-50
4-100

4-100

2-100

4-75

4-100

4-125

4-75

4-100

4-125

4-100

4-75

4-100

2-150

2-180

4-115

4-175

4-125

2-175

2-200

4-220

4-60

2-70

/■3

40
50
56

41
45
55
60
61
54

59
40

Mileage of all single-phase roads is given in "Electric Systems," Chapter IV.

LITERATURE.

References on Motor-car Trains.

Hobart: "Electric Trains," Enghsh practice, Van Nostrand, 1910.
Hill: Historical Data, S. R. J., May 4, 1901.

References on Train Control.

Cooper: Direct-current Motor Control, Elec. Journal, Jan. and March, 1906; Elec.

Review, April 8, 1905; E. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1109.
Townley: City Traffic and Train Control, Elec. Journal, March, 1907.
Wilson and Lydall: "Electrical Traction," Vol. II, on Three-phase Motor Control.

264 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Slichter : On Three-phase Motor Control. Discussion of Great Northern Electrifica-
tion, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909.

Jackson: Single-phase Car Control, Elec. Journal, Sept. and Dec, 1905.

Krass: Control for Single-phase Trains, and editorial, E. W., Dec. 30, 1909.

Sprague: A. I. E. E., Aug., 1888; May, 1899; S. R. J., July, 1899; Nov. 3, 1900; May
4 and Oct. 1, 1904.

Sprague G. E., Latest Practice, E. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1093; G. E. Review, Nov.,
1908.

Westinghouse, Electric-pneumatic, S. R. J., Jan. 3 and Sept. 26, 1903.

James: Electro-pneumatic Control, Elec. Journal, April, 1905; Jan., 1906.

Cooper: Electro-pneumatic Railway Apparatus, Elec. Journal, March, 1907.

McNulty: Electro-pneumatic Control, Elec. Journal, April, 1905.

Renshaw: Multiple-unit Control, E. R. J., Oct. 7, 1909; E. T. W., July 9, 1910;
A. S. & I. Ry. Assoc, Oct., 1909; Elec Review, Oct. 7, 1909.

Leonard: Multiple-unit Voltage-speed Control, A. I. E. E., June, 1892, p. 566;
Feb. 18, 1894; Nov. 21, 1902; S. R. J., Nov. 29, 1902.

Motor-generator Schemes, E. W., Aug. 1, 1908, p. 229.

Practice on Oerlikon locomotives, S. R. J., Nov. 26, 1904, p. 951; Dec. 8, 1906.

Cutler-Hammer, Multiple-unit System, S. R. J., Dec. 10, 1904, p. 1050.

Dick, Kerr & Co. Control, London Elec, April 19, 1907; E. R. J., June 6, 1908.

Regeneration of Power and Control.

Henry: Regenerative Control, General, S. R. J., Apr. 7, 1900.
Cooper: Regeneration of Single-phase Power, A. I. E. E., June, 1907.
Wilson and Lydall: "Electrical Traction," Vol. I, Chapter 12, describes:

Johnson-Lundells' Scheme, with double-wound armatures and two commutators.

Raworth's Scheme using compound-wound direct-current motors.

References on Motor Cars and Trucks.

Boston Elevated: S. R. J., Oct. 1, 1904, p. 479.
Boston & Maine: S. R. J., Dec. 6, 1902, p. 921.
N. Y., N. H. & H., New York Division: Aspinwall, Elec Journal, Nov., 1906; Nov.,

1909; Trucks, E. R. J., April 14, 1906; Dec 12, 1908, and March 26, 1910; New

Canaan Division, E. R. J., June 13, 1908; May 15, 1909.
New York Central: S. R. J., Nov. 4, 1905, p. 837; April 28, 1906.
Manhattan Elevated: S. R. J., Dec 6, 1902, p. 907; wooden cars, S. R. J., Dec. 6, 1902;

steel cars, S. R. J., June 4, 1910, p. 1010.
Interboro Subway: S. R. J., Sept. 20, 1902, p. 382; Aug. 15 and 22, 1903, p. 264;

Oct. 8, 1904; March 14, 1908; June 18, Oct. 22, 1910.
Hudson & Manhattan: E. R. J., June 8, 1907, p. 1028; Oct. 2, 1909; June 24, 1910.
Erie Railroad: S. R. J., July 14, 1906.

Brooklyn Rapid Transit: S. R. J., Feb. 8, 1908; E. R. J., July 22, 1911.
Long Island R. R.: S. R. J., Nov. 4, 1905, p. 832; Aug. 11 and 18, 1906.
Pennsylvania-Long Island: E. R. J., June 17, 1911, p. 1057; June 17, 1911..
West Jersey & Seashore: S. R. J., Sept. 1, 1906; Nov. 10, 1906.
Philadelphia Elevated: S. R. J., Oct. 13, 1906, p. 567.
Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley: S. R. J., Aug. 4, 1906.
Ohio & Indiana Interurbans: S. R. J., Oct. 13, 1906, p. 625.
Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend: E. R. J., April 10, 1909.
South Side Elevated, Chicago, E. T. W., Feb. 18, 1911.

MOTOR-CAR TRAINS 265

Chicago & Milwaukee, Cafe Parlor Cars: E. R. J., May 15, 1909; Dining Cars, E. R. J.,

Oct. 8, 1910, p. 618.
Illinois Traction, Sleeping Cars: E. R. J., March 19, 1910, p. 476; Oct. 8, 1910, p. 618;

Baggage-, E. R. J., Feb. 11, 1911; Interurban Cars, July 8, 1911, p. 76.
Aurora, Elgin & Chicago, Dining Cars: E. R. J., Oct. 8, 1910, p. 618.
Twin City Rapid Transit: S. R. J., March 1, 1902, p. 237; Oct. 6, 1906.
Spokane & Inland: S. R. J., Nov. 10, 1906, p. 951.

Southern Pacific Trucks, E. R. J., Oct. 22, 1910, March 18, 1911, p. 470.
Southern Pacific Motor Cars: E. R. J., June 17, 1911.
Gas-electric Cars: G. E. Review, Feb., 1908; E. W., July 22, 1911, p. 217.

London Electric Railways, Underground: E. R. J., July, 1910.
Central London Underground: S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1902, p. 604.
London, Brighton & South Coast: E. R. J., March 6, 1909; Oct. 12, 1910.
Mersey Railway: S. R. J., April 4, 1903.
Great Western, England: Aug. 3, 1907.
Cologne-Bonn: S. R. J., May 2, 1908.
Paris-MetropoHtan, S. R. J., Sept. 6, 1904.
Parma Provincial: E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 951.

Fayet-Chamonix, with flexible coupling between motor and axle: S. R. J., Feb. 7
1903.
See single-phase railways, at end of Chapter IV.

CHAPTER VII.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

Outline.

Introduction :

Electric locomotives not a primary power.

Comparison of steam and electric locomotives.
Physical Characteristics:

Capacity. — Drawbar pull, its quality and amount; drawbar pull at high speeds;

acceleration rates utilized, speed and unification of speed, mileage of locomo

tives and cars, power developed per ton.

Other Physical Features. — Mechanical efficiency, simplicity, safety in opera-
tion, reliability in service.
Commercial Considerations :

Traffic and earnings, car movement, terminal capacity, loads, freight haulage

Maintenance and repairs, wages and time saved.

Economy of Power. — Utilization, effective and efficient, regeneration of power,

water powers, economy of fuel, cost of service, earnings from investments.
Advantages over Motor-car Trains:

Independent units, use as freight cars, danger to passengers, high voltages in

motor, design of motors, cost of equipment, cost of maintenance.
Electric Locomotive Design :

General review, mistakes in design, center of gravity, mechanical data, weight

factor, weight analysis.
Mechanical Transmission of Motive Power:

Methods outHned, driver diameters, gearless motors, geared motors, cranks

and side rods, cranks with jackshafts and side rods.
Cost of Electric Locomotives.
Literature.

2G()

CHAPTER VII.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

INTRODUCTION.

The application of electric locomotives as a motive power for railroad
train haulage is now considered.

Locomotives are only a part of a motive power equipment. — Steam
locomotives require a repair shop; round house for frequent washing of
flues; stations distributed along the route, with men and machinery to
store and handle the coal, and to pump the water to tanks; locomotives to
haul and distribute coal to these stations; and a loaded coal and water
tender in each train. Electric locomotives require a repair shop and
an inspection house. The coal is not hauled with the train, but it is
carried to one central point, if water power is not used. Electric loco-
motives also require a central power plant with a complete equipment of
boilers, steam turbines, alternating-current generators, reliable trans-
mission and contact lines, and sometimes rotary converter substations.

Comparison of steam and electric locomotives with reference to their
physical characteristics, and the financial results therefrom, is advanta-
geous because on an important railroad division the ultimate limit of the
economical load is generally prescribed by the power and other qualities
of the locomotive. Such a comparison indicates the nature and also the
extent of the improvements which are possible thru the substitution of
electric for steam traction.

Steam locomotives are prime movers, that is, energy-generating
machines as contrasted with electric locomotives which are simply
energy-collecting machines. This fundamental difference affects operat-
ing characteristics and features of design.

Electric locomotives do not yet operate in the best fields, on long
divisions in dense freight traffic and on long mountain grades. The devel-
opment in design is not the result of long years of experience, and
electric locomotives are generally not handled by such well-trained
motive-power men as found in steam railroad organizations. The
demonstration of results must be made by argument, in part, because
in some cases an opportunity has not yet been given to show the full
measure of the financial advantages.

See Electric Locomotive History, to 1895, under History. See Speed-torque
Characteristics of Electric Locomotives under Motors. See Techical Description
of Electric Locomotives in the next three chapters.

267

268 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS.

Physical advantages of electric locomotives arise from the inherent
characteristics of electric motive power.

Capacity is the most important of these advantages because as already
explained capacity bears directly upon economy of train operation.' The
capacity of steam locomotives is too limited.

"The gage is too narrow for admitting a properly designed boiler upon a large
locomotive. Many steam locomotives have reached the limit of their capacity
because the limited gage prevents the boiler being made larger." Angus Sinclair.

There is a reasonable objection to the heavy and complicated Mallet
compound, if a simple and efficient design of electric locomotives, un-
limited by track gage, is available.

"The men in charge of the railways of this country have struggled for 15 years
with the greatest problem of our times — how to move a load whose weight increases
10 per cent, a year with a steam locomotive whose power increases but 2 1/2 per
cent, a year. The limit of safe, speedy, and reasonable service with existing facilities
has been reached." James J. Hill to Kansas City Commercial Club, Nov. 16, 1907.

"Expenses are per train-mile and receipts are per ton-mile," a statement of
economists, is a valuable one to apply, if sufficient power is provided to move the
heaviest tonnage per train on the level and up the grades at a reasonable speed.
The statement is valueless without good speed, since the economical use of the equip-
ment, the track, and the terminals are vital factors in the cost of transportation;
further the cost of trainmen's wages, which varies with the train speed, equals the
cost of fuel for steam locomotives.

" The traffic which American railroads have to handle is continually increasing.
But it is difficult for us to increase our facilities in the same ratio. We are up against
the matter of motive power, and in that we have reached the limit of development
under steam, so long as the present gage is employed. Widening of the gage would
increase the capacity of our engines. But it is hardly possible to think of rebuilding
the railroads. Electricity is the next best thing, and I believe we will come to that
to increase our power and our train load." E. H. Harriman, October, 1907.

Three months prior to the death of Mr. Harriman, which occurred September 10,
1909, it was announced that all suburban trains near Oakland would use electric
power to give immediate relief to the crowded traffic conditions ; and further that the
Sacramento Division of the Southern Pacific Company would ultimately be electrified
to increase the train load and speed.

Increased locomotive capacity offers immediate relief from congested
traffic conditions that seem almost hopeless under some existing circum-
stances. A modern steam locomotive is a splendid piece of apparatus,
but where conditions of service have grown beyond what can be handled
efficiently by steam locomotives, the powerful electric locomotive steps
in and takes up the task, and solves some of the railroad problem^s.

" Whenever traffic is dense enough, electric traction not only materially decreases
the operating cost per ton-mile, but either accomplishes this end with a material
decrease in the motive power equipment, or can handle as much as 50 per cent, more
traffic than can be handled under the most favorable conditions of steam operation."
Graham, Third Vice-president, Erie Railroad, 1910.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 269

Capacity is available with electric traction because the source of
energy is a large central station, where, for important service and for heavy
grades, ample power and great temporary overloads may be advantage-
ously employed. The steam locomotive has its source of power upon its
back. The electric locomotive has a power station behind it.

The backbone of railroad business, the freight traffic, now calls for
heavier trains and faster schedules. Railway managers demand this
because expenses are per train-mile and per train-hour. This demand
cannot be met by the steam locomotive, for its capacity and weight per
ton, per axle, and per foot of wheel base has reached uneconomical and
undesirable limits.

Capacity is all-important in railroading, for the public and for the
investor. Service is demanded, to transport freight and passengers
safely, rapidly, and in very heavy trains.

Capacity in the electric locomotive results from:
Drawbar pull, its quality and amount.
Drawbar pull at high speed.
Acceleration rates.
Speeds utilized.
Mileage of locomotives.
Power developed per ton.

Drawbar pull, its quality and amount, governs the tonnage hauled
in each train. The matter is therefore of fundamental importance.
When the weight on the drivers, the motor design, or the steam pressure,
piston area, leverage, and condition of the rails are fixed, the amount of
the drawbar pull depends entirely on the character or quality of the effort.

Reciprocating efforts of a steam locomotive, during each revolution
of the drivers, cause a variation in tractive effort of from 25 to 45 per
cent, from the average effort. Circumferential efforts obtained from
motor armatures are uniform, and there is no tendency of drivers to slip
at particular points.

The maximum drawbar pull of the steam locomotive, with its varying
reciprocating effort, is about 22 per cent., of the weight on drivers, while
comparable values for the electric locomotive are from 26 to 34 per cent.
Based on total weights, including the tender, the drawbar pull of electric
locomotives is from 40 to 50 per cent, greater than steam locomotives.

Mallet-compound steam freight locomotives weighing 250 tons, with
158 tons on drivers, ordinarily develop a drawbar pull of about 60,000
pounds, while electric freight locomotives weighing 115 tons, all on
drivers, ordinarily develop 60,000 pounds.

New York Central steam locomotives of the heaviest Altantic type,
with the tender, weigh 150 tons, of which 47 tons are on two pairs of
drivers; and those of the heaviest Pacific type weigh 175 tons, of which

270 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

67 tons are on the three pairs of drivers. Its electric locomotive, of 1909,
weighs 1 15 tons, of which 71 tons are on four pairs of drivers. The steam
locomotive weighs 15 to 10 pounds while the electric locomotive weighs
about 7 pounds per pound of effective drawbar pull.

Grand Trunk Railway 66-ton locomotives develop 45,000 pounds
drawbar pull or .34 of the weight, before slipping the drivers.

Slipping of drivers is easy to avoid with electric traction, yet tractive
forces cannot be used which are greater than that indicated by the prod-
uct of the coefficient of tractional friction and the weight on the drivers.

TORQUE OF MOTORS.

Direct-current motors when connected in series have double
their normal drawbar pull per kilowatt input. Compound steam loco-
motives, when connected for starting conditions as simple engines,
develop double their normal drawbar pull, but with double the steam
input which is used in compound. Two electric locomotives when
coupled at the head of a train are operated on the multiple-unit plan, by
one engineman; and the control of each locomotive is automatic and
synchronous, and thus equal tractive effort from each unit is provided.

Three-phase motors furnish a drawbar pull which in its amount varies
directly as the square of the impressed line voltage. Thus, with a 10
per cent, drop in voltage, due to line loss, the drawbar pull is reduced 19
per cent.; and with a 20 per cent, drop, is reduced 36 per cent. The
trouble is cumulative since the drawbar pull in starting is a maximum,
the power factor of the motor is very low, a heavy volt-ampere input
is required for the work, and the heavy current produces excessive line
drop. Transformer substations on 3500-volt, three-phase railroads must
be placed 3 to 5 miles apart to prevent a large line loss. The drawbar
pull is low because the magnetic field strength is lowered by design to
reduce the steel losses and the magnetic leakage. The drawbar pull is
increased by decreasing the air gap, or by inserting wasteful resistance in
the rotor in starting.

Single-phase series motors produce a pulsating effort.

" The torque of the motor pulsates at twice the circuit frequency and the electrical
torque varies from its maximum value to zero and may even assume a negative value
if the field flux is not in time-phase with the armature current. This condition does
not exist with reference to the mechanical torque which reaches the drivers, because
of the inertia and of the elasticity of the medium between the electrical and mechani-
cal torque. When the drivers are stationary the torque is transmitted thru springs
at a certain definite value. In order that the mechanical torque may reach zero
fifty times per second, it would be necessary for the field armature structures to be
returned by the springs to the zero torque an equal number of times in this period.
The inertia of the moving armature and the elasticity of the springs causes a vibra-

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 271

tion thru very narrow limits, and the torque which reaches the drivers and which
fluctuates with the electrical torque will be almost constant at a value equal to about
one-half of the maximum electrical torque. Observations show that the mechanical
torque exerted varies only slightly, and that the slipping of the drivers is almost
impossible." St. Ry. Journ., April 14, 1906, p. 591.

Methods used for smoothing out the pulsating torque or drawbar pull of single-
phase motors are to employ flexible spring couplings between the armature shaft and
the axle. In the 15-cycle, 125-ton locomotive built by the General Electric Company
in 1909 (see Elec. Ry. Journ., May 8, 1909), a series of leaf springs, arranged radially
around the armature shaft, provides a flexible coupling which is interposed between
the armature shaft and the crank-shaft. In the New Haven gearless type, 25-cycle
passenger locomotives and motor cars, each end of the quill-mounted armature shaft
is provided with 6 pins which connect to the drivers thru helical springs. In the New
Haven geared type freight locomotives, pinions are placed at the ends of the armature
shaft and they mesh into gears which are mounted on a quill surrounding the axl,e,
and each end of the quills is provided with 6 driving arms and helical springs to equal-
ize the torque. Incidentally, but of greatest importance, the transmission of strains
and shocks from the track to the motors is avoided. In the New Haven crank-type
freight locomotive, heavy helical compression springs are interposed between the
split spider of a large radius armature and the spider mounted on the motor shaft.

Shouldering or nosing seldom exists in electric locomotives. The
drawbar pull is forward and effective, not an alternating right and left
thrust. Therefore the loosening of spikes, the maintenance of the rail
gage and alignment, and the care of the roadbed are decreased. Oscilla-
tions, caused by the coned surface of driver treads, may not be avoided,
but are easily dampened by side springs, and are not destructive.

Temperatures in winter do not decrease the drawbar pull of electric
locomotives and delay the service. Steam locomotives have less tractive
effort in winter on account of a decrease in the mean-effective steam
pressure, condensation on the cylinder walls and piston rods, radiation
of heat from boilers, chilled furnaces, etc. Rating Tables were given
under ''Operating Characteristics of Steam Locomotives," page 64.

Electric locomotive drawbar pull and speed are increased by cold
and windy weather, at the time when the increased friction requires
greater power to haul the train. On many roads this increased capacity
has been found to be of great value and ''the aggregate delay has been
less, a fact particularly noticeable in times of snow storms." Sprague.

Drawbar pull is effective in hauling the cars, because the mechanical
friction of electric locomotives is less, particularly so in high-speed
service; because the higher tractive effort requires less dead weight;
and because the 30- to 60-ton coal and water tender are eliminated.

For example, in the New York Central electric zone, the common
electric passenger locomotive weighs 100 to 115 tons; it hauls the same
train which, outside of the electric zone, is hauled by a 171-ton steam
locomotive. To show the saving in non-revenue-bearing ton-mileage,
each steam locomotive averaged 25,620 ton-miles monthly of which 49

272

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

per cent, was useful car-ton-miles, while each electric locomotive averaged
33,210 ton-miles monthly, of which 65 per cent, was useful car-ton-miles.
The total saving in weight is reported as 11 per cent. Note also:

STEAM AND ELECTRIC TRAIN WEIGHTS, NEW YORK CENTRAL.

APRIL, 1905.

No. of
coaches.

Tons for
coaches.

Tons for
elec. loco.

Tons for
steam loco.

Tons for
train.

Wt. of motive power
per cent, of total.

307
256

413
345

123

100

407
437

513
516

393

24 . 5 for electric.

171

40 . 4 for steam.

100

19.5 for electric.

171
0

33 3 for steam.

68 . 7 for electric.

This comparison between electric-locomotive- and steam-locomotive-
hauled trains is favorable to the former; and the last comparison, with
motor-car trains, is even more favorable to the electric train.

Drawbar pull is well sustained at high speed in electric locomo-
tives. In steam locomotives it falls off rapidly as the speed increases
because the fixed power of the boiler requires a reduction in the mean-
effective steam pressure as the number of revolutions increases.

Drawbar pull of series-wound alternating-current and direct-current
electric motors decreases much more rapidly than the speed increases
and, as a result, high speeds are often accompanied by reduced work.
Series motors must therefore have ample continuous capacity, also
means for speed regulation, by field or potential variation; and the
electric locomotive must be sufficiently heavy, to compare favorably
with a steam locomotive having a large heating surface.

Statements are often made which place the drawbar pull of steam
locomotives in a too unfavorable light. For example, one ordinary
Mallet compound, with 150 tons on drivers and 5000 square feet of heat-
ing surface, rated 2150 h. p., shows a higher continuous drawbar pull at
15 miles per hour than three Michigan Central locomotives, each having
100 tons on drivers, and a continuous rating of 500 h. p. on forced draft.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 273

DRAWBAR PULL OF STEAM AND ELECTRIC FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES.

i
1
Locomotive. Electric.

Electric.

Steam.

Company.

Michigan
Central.

Great
Northern.

Grand
Trunk.

New
Haven.

Great
Northern.

Type or Direct
kind. current.

Three
phase.

One
phase.

Mallet
compound.

Consolida.
simple.

H.p

Tons, total.

on drivers
D.B.pull,lbs:

starting.
5 m.p.h..

10 m.p.h..

11 m.p.h. .

12 m.p.h..

13 m.p.h..

14 m.p.h..

15 m.p.h. .

16 m.p.h..

17 m.p.h..

18 m.p.h..
20 m.p.h..

500
100
100

50,000

48,000

33,000

24,000

18,700

14,500

10,500

9,500

7,200

5,000

1500
115
115

52,000
52,000
52,000
52,000
52,000
52,000
52,000
47,500
0

1140
132
132

50,000
50,000
50,000
50,000
45,000
40,000
32,500
29,500
24,000
22,000
19,000
16,000

1120

135

51,000
50,000
48,000

2150
252
158

60,000
55,000
50,500

1450
156

108

50,000
44,000
39,000

45,600

40,000
37,600
35,500
33,600
29,600

44,500

33,300

38,000

26,500

Michigan Central, Great Northern, Grand Trunk, and New Haven electric loco-
motives were designed for mixed passenger and freight service. Ordinary conditions
are considered, and continuous horse power.

274 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

DRAWBAR PULL OF STEAM AND ELECTRIC PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVES.

Locomotive

Steam

Electric

Company.

Penn-

New York

Simplon

New

Penn-

sylvania

Central.

Tunnel.

Haven.

sylvania.

Number

5266

2797

3401

367

041

3977

Type or

Atlantic

Pacific

Direct

Three

One

Direct

kind

simple.

Simple.

current.

phase.

current.

H. p., cont. . .

1,000

1570

1166

1365

800

Tons, total

161

171

115

102

157

on drivers.

100

D.B. pull, lbs.:

starting

22,000

33,500

26,400 .

19,200

69,300

10 m.p.h.. .

15 m.p.h.. .

16 m.p.h.. .
20 m.p.h.. .
25 m.p.h.. .

20,000

33,500

35,000

26,400

18,500
18,000
16,000

32,000

35,000

26,400

31,000

35,000

21,200

30,000

35,000

21,200

. -

21,000

• 13,500

24,000

35,000

18,050

17,000

60,000

30 m.p.h. . .

12,000

19,500

35,000

18,050

13,500

28,000

33 m.p.h.. .
35 m.p.h.. .

11,000
10,500

34,000
32,000

12,350
12,350

12,000
11,000

21,000
44,500

16,000

40 m.p.h. . .

9,000

14,000

20,500

12,350

9,000

29,500

45 m.p.h.. .

8,300

12,600

13,000

9,470

7,400

21,000

60 m.p.h. . .

6,200

10,000

6,000

4,300

10,000

ACCELERATION RATES.

Acceleration rates commonly used with electric trains are about
twice as high as those used for steam trains, and the character of the
tractive effort is uniform, so that the average is raised. The speed-
torque characteristics of electric locomotives, noted in the last table, show
that high acceleration rates can be well maintained. Direct-current
locomotives have a high tractive effort available for acceleration up one
half of the rated speed; single-phase locomotive drawbar pull falls off
somewhat faster; but three-phase locomotives have a small decrease in
drawbar pull and acceleration rate with its lower speeds. In freight
and passenger service with few stops, a high acceleration rate is not an
important matter, but good suburban service demands high accelerating
rates in order to attain full speed in the minimum time, to use the lowest
maximum speed for a given schedule speed, to increase the coasting and
to reduce the loss in braking. See ''Motor-car Trains." Complete data
on acceleration rates are given under "Power Required for Trains.''

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 275

SPEED AND ITS UNIFICATION.

Speeds of electric locomotives may be high, both maximum and
schedule speed, for the following reasons, a to e:

a. Motion is rotary, not reciprocating; it is balanced, not unbalanced.
The hammer blow of the counterbalance is eliminated. High speeds do
not rack the locomotive and destroy the roadbed. The maximum speed
may be increased with safety on weak roadbeds, trestles, and bridges,
because of the absence of the unbalanced efforts, and because of the
decreased weight on the drivers.

b. Center of gravity is lower and thus the safety of movement is
increased, provided that (1) weights and motors are distributed, (2)
weights are spring-mounted, and (3) two- or four-wheeled guiding
trucks are used for high-speed work. On the other hand, a center of
gravity, 8 to 10 feet above the 4.71-foot gage track, as used on high-
speed steam locomotives, seems to be dangerous. (See data on center
of gravity in this chapter under Electric Locomotive Design.)

c. Acceleration rates are higher by design, as noted.

d. Central stations are used to supply power to the motors. The
speed of the train can be maintained with heavy loads. High drawbar
pull at high speeds as used with electric power is a valuable asset.

e. Unification of train speeds becomes possible with electrically
hauled freight and passenger trains. Motors which will run at a much
more uniform speed, regardless of the grades and load, can be used with
economy. Unification of train speed improves the efficiency and the
safety of operation and the capacity of the track. The complication
from non-uniformity of speed among the various trains over the same
tracks is apparent, especially so on well-loaded trunk lines with varying
train weights and service. Uniform speed is not a characteristic of
steam locomotives: a 1600-ton train is hauled at 25 to 28 m. p. h. on the
level, at 10 to 12 m. p. h. on 1.0 per cent, grade, and at 5 to 7 m. p. h.
on the 2.0 per cent, grade.

Electric locomotives are able to maintain the speed with varying
drawbar pull independent of the load or grade, up to the overload limits
of the motors. A three-phase locomotive speed is nearly uniform, inde-
pendent of the load or grades; the single-phase locomotive speed is
maintained in a measure as the load increases by simply raising the trans-
former voltage delivered to the motor; and the direct-current locomotive
speed is maintained, to some extent, by varying the field of the motor.
Unification of speeds simply requires ample motor capacity, rather than
motor characteristics.

The advantages of ample motor capacity, to produce a much more
uniform speed, are apparent. One speed for all trains is not practical,

276 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

and the same speed for up-grade and down-grade is most undesirable
from a commercial standpoint, yet greater uniformity of speed among
the several trains on a division makes for simplicity of train dispatching
and for the economical movement of heavy traffic on a single-track road.

Mileage of Locomotives is increased by:

Ample capacity in the motor and in the central station.

Rapid acceleration whenever it is practical.

Drawbar pull to maintain the speed of heavier trains.

Higher maximum and schedule speeds.

Fewer delays, from greater simplicity.

Quicker movements at terminals and switching yards.

Less time in repair shops and inspection sheds.

Time saved in washing out and cleaning boilers.

Time saved in coaling, watering, and turning.

Availability for service with minimum delay.

Unification of train speeds.

Increased motor capacity in windy, storm}^, and cold weather.

"New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad electric locomotives on the New
York-Stamford electric zone cover an average of 210 miles per day, while statistics on
115 steam locomotives on the same inter-division service showed an average of 158
miles." Murray, March, 1909.

New York Central electric locomotives make fully 25 per cent, greater daily
mileage than steam. Wilgus, A. S. C. E., March, 1908.

Valtellina Railway records show the annual mileage of steam locomotives is
17,213 and the annual mileage of electric locomotives is 35,120. "One electric loco-
motive is actually doing the work of two steam locomotives of the same capacity."
Valatin.

Mileage of cars in freight service is increased by the use of electric traction.
Freight cars on steam roads average but 24 miles per day, or 10 m. p. h. when moving.
Steam locomotives in freight service, on account of the operating and traffic conditions,
make less than 100 miles per day; but these limitations do not apply with equal force
to the electric locomotives, and greater mileage per month is realized. The reason is
not entirely on account of the ability to raise the schedule speed, for example from
10 m. p. h. to 17 m.p.h. ; the improvement is cumulative; because overtaking trains and
opposing trains do not compel the slow freight trains to take the sidings, and wait for
long periods. The dispatcher would have minimum trouble and avoid many delays
if all speeds were more nearly uniform. The raising of the freight train speeds, and
the surety that the electric locomotives will be on time, make a radical reduction in
the time wasted on sidings and increase the monthly mileage per locomotive.

Greater locomotive and car mileage per day raises the efficiency of the investment
of the railroad in rolling stock, main tracks, and terminals,

POWER DEVELOPED PER TON.

The capacity, in horse power per ton, of electric locomotives is twice
as great as with steam locomotives. This is proved by comparing the
tables on "Weight Factor of Electric Locomotives," given later, with
the table, page 56, Chapter II, on " Horse Power per Ton of Steam Loco-
motives." The weight of electric trains may thus be doubled without

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 277

increasing the unit stresses from the locomotives on the bridges and rail-
way structures. • The greater horse power per ton results from:

a. Absence of coal and water tender, 25 to 30 per cent, of total.

b. Absence of furnace and boiler.

c. Greater proportion of weight on the drivers. (Many steam locomotives use a
pair of wheels to support the fire box.)

d. Greater tractive effort per ton on drivers.

e . Electric motor designs, which show great power per ton. Electric locomo
tives are designed for the average work and they may be safely overloaded 50 per
cent, for hours, or 100 per cent, temporarily. Steam locomotives are designed for
the maximum work, and the limit of their capacity is in the boiler. The limit for the
electric motor is the heating of the insulation on wires, and this requires several hours.
Intermittent service allows cooling, and the capacity is raised in windy, cold weather.

ADDITIONAL PHYSICAL FEATURES.

Advantages of the electric locomotive, as a machine, with reference
to smoke, noise, dirt, fire, gas, mechanical efficiency, simplicity, safety
and reliability, w^ere detailed in Chapter III.

Increased capacity and good operating features may be obtained by
electrification; but capacity may also be gained by grade reduction,
tunnels, double tracking, elimination of curves, track elevation, block-
signals, more track at terminals, more cars, and heavier steam locomotives.
A broad-gage railroad management studies the initial cost, operating
features, and expenses of all the physical improvements which are possible
and asks for that combination which will give the greatest net return
from any added investment.

COMMERCIAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The use of electric locomotives results in important commercial
advantages, which are worthy of consideration.

1. Traffic and earnings are increased as a result of ample capacity and superior
power service. Items 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 were detailed in Chapter III.

2. Car movement is facilitated to a very great extent.

3. Terminal capacity is increased — a great advantage.

4. Heavier loads are hauled, and at good speed.

5. Freight-train haulage becomes practical.

6. Maintenance and repairs are decreased.

7. Wages and time are saved.

8. Utilization of power is effective and efficient.

9. Regeneration of power is practical.

10. Water power can often be utilized.

11. Economy of fuel is obtained.

12. Cost of service is decreased.

13. Earnings from investments are enhanced.

278 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS.

Maintenance is decreased, for the reasons given below :

a. Simplicity of electric motive power equipment and the smaller
amount of moving apparatus reduce the wear and tear. The material
and labor required for repairs is reduced to two-thirds of that for steam
locomotives.

b. Depreciation is slow as a result of simplicity. In America about
450 electric locomotives are now in service, and the indications for the
first 10 to 15 years' service are clear. The steam locomotive is short lived,
and, after being sent to the back-shop about five times, to rebuild the
boiler and furnace, the good metal and machine work are worn out;
and after the engine has been in operation at real hard work for 10
years, it becomes a drag on the service. Depreciation of central station
boilers, the steam or hydraulic turbines, and the electric locomotives,
when combined, is relatively small per h. p. hour delivered or per ton-
miles hauled.

c. Mechanical friction of electric motors, motor cars, and locomotives
is relatively low, because of the reduced number of moving elements, less
frictional resistance, and a 50 per cent, reduction in the dead weight.

d. Cleaning and inspection work is decreased. Electric locomotives
and motor cars are inspected after each 1200- to 1500-mile run, or about
every 8 days; the equipments are blown out with compressed air,
are cleaned, inspected, gaged, and oiled; and without further delay are
ready for service. The great saving in round-house labor is apparent.
Steam locomotives, after each day's run of about 150 miles, are cooled,
blown off, washed out, and cleaned; then coaled, watered, and fired up,
in addition to the inspection.

e. Coal and water tenders, which must be hauled by steam loco-
motives, add to the cost of maintenance and repairs, but this is avoided
with electric traction. The numerous water-pumping plants, the coal
supply sheds, and the fuel and labor necessary to maintain them, and to
supply the tenders, are dispensed with, and this work is concentrated
at the central station.

f. Fewer locomotives are used with electric traction. Data from
the installations made, and those under way on a larger scale, indicate
clearly that three electric locomotives will replace five steam locomotives
because the former have larger capacity, lower weight per h. p. developed,
greater daily mileage, and fewer units in the repair shops.

The cost of maintenance and repairs is now considered.

Stillwell states: "The maintenance and upkeep of electric loco-
motives may be placed at 2 1/2 per cent, per annum, while the rate for
steam locomotives is 20 per cent, per annum."

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES

279

Van Alstyne, Vice-president of the American Locomotive Company,
stated to the Northwest Railway Club : " After a careful consideration, I
believe that the repairs and maintenance on electric locomotives could
not exceed one-half of those on steam locomotives."

Pomeroy gives this comparison of maintenance costs:

Locomotive.

Steam.

Electric.

Boiler

Running gear

Machinery

Lagging and painting. .

Smoke box

Coal and water tender.
Total ..

23%

100

New York Central saved 20 per cent, net, in repairs and fixed charges.
The average cost of interest, depreciation, repairs, inspection, and hand-
ling was about $4750 per year for steam locomotives and $3800 per year
for electric locomotives, according to Wilgus.

New Haven steam locomotive records per locomotive-mile are:
Passenger locomotive maintenance, $.017; repairs, $.039; total, $.056.
Freight locomotives, maintenance, .014; repairs, .067; total, .081.
Its electric locomotive maintenance and repairs have been high because
the installation, made in 1907, was of a radical and untried character;
but the maintenance and repair expense is now decreasing rapidly.

Grand Trunk Railway reports in effect that the maintenance cost
for steam locomotives at the Port Huron tunnel, where the service is
heavy and severe, averaged 13.6 cents per locomotive-mile in 1908;
while that of the electric locomotive was 4.3 cents per locomotive-mile.
Maintenance and repairs for 1909 were 55 per cent, of the steam cost.

Maintenance and repair records of locomotives are not easily obtained.
Accounts show a general uniformity, but rules of each railroad govern.
Cost depends upon the kind of water used, the class of enginemen
employed, the thoroness and efficiency of the shop work, which in turn
may be affected by labor troubles; the condition of the roadbed, the train
loading, the policy of the company regarding improvements, and safety
in train service. After a wreck, locomotive repairs may be charged to
accidents. Renewals of old locomotives may be charged to equipment.

Passenger locomotives in steam service require general repairs about
every 100,000 miles; freight locomotives, every 70,000 miles; yet this
depends on the service, not on the miles. Records should extend over
many years and, should be fair, should be based on the ton-miles hauled.

280 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR COSTS PER ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE MILE.

TABLE I.

Name of railroad.

Cost per
mile; cents.

Authorities and reference
quoted.

Buffalo & Lockport

Baltimore & Ohio

0.79
6.00
0.60
1.60
1.26
4.60
5.00
7.46
4.30
1.50
2.24
2.30
5.00
1.54
1.38
1.80

Stillwell, A.I.E.E., Jan. 1907, p. 62.

Muhlfield, S.R.J., Feb. 24, 1906, p. 307.

G.E. advertisement.

G.E., first 50,000-mile test.

G.E., 100,000-mile test.

Interstate Commerce report, 1908.

A.I.E.E., Jan. 25, 1907, p. 150.

1909 records by Kirker.

1908 Elec. Review, March 6, 1909.

Bevoise.

1910, approximate.

Dubois, S.R.J., May 20, 1905.

Cserhati, S.R.J., Aug. 26, 1905, p. 303.

Stillwell, A.I.E.E. Jan. 1907, p. 62.

St. Louis & Suburban

New York Central

New York, New Haven & H.
Grand Trunk . .

Hoboken Shore

Illinois Traction

Paris-C)rleans

Paris- Versailles

Paris-Metropolitan

Valtelhna

TABLE II.

Name of railroad.

No.

locos.

Locomotive

repairs and

renewals.

Annual

locomotive

mileage.

Cost per
mile;
cents.

Data

for

year.

Baltimore & Ohio

10
21
35

10
41
47

12
41

47
4

$16,475
27,660

45,888

7,775

256,704

31,319

200 000

500,000

1,000,000

170,000
2,000,000
1,000,000

180,000

2,136,500

1,100,000

50,150

8.2
5.5
4.6

4.5

12.8

3.1

1908

New York, New Haven & H.
New York Central

1908
1908

Baltimore & Ohio

1909

New York, New Haven & H.
New York Central ....

1909
1909

Baltimore & Ohio

1910

New York, New Haven & H.
New York Central

140,983

6.6

1910
1910

Great Northern

30,534

5.00

1910

Repair and renewal data are from Interstate Commerce Commission Report for
1908, p. 181; for 1909, p. 137; annual reports of railroad companies, and other sources.
See maintenance data for Steam Locomotives, and for Motor-car Trains.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 281

Some railroads believe in wearing locomotives out, as fast as possible,
in hauling trains, and few extra locomotives are kept in service; loco-
motives are continually replaced with more modern machines. This plan
gives better results than to operate locomotives which are 15 years old.

In studying maintenance cost, care should be taken to get the basis
of the book-keeping and all comparable data on service. Complete in-
formation is seldom obtained.

WAGES.

Wages and time are saved with electric service.

Locomotive and roundhouse work is decreased.

Rate of wages paid is reduced.

Firemen are not required.

Automatic devices and meters increase safety.

Locomotive mileage is greater; shopping is less.

Heavier trains require less labor per mile run.

Double heading does not require duplication of men.

Time is utilized efficiently in actual running.

Service is more continuous with electric locomotives.

Less work and time are required for efficient switching.

Labor is more efficient, and is of a better class.

Speed of freight trains on grades is higher.

These points have been detailed in Chapter III, under the heading,
'^ Decreased Operating Expenses — Wages."

Grand Trunk Railway records show a saving, following the St. Clair
tunnel electrification, of 15 and 23 per cent, in the wages paid to locomo-
tive crews and train crews respectively.

New York Central uses one motorman for a 6- to 10-car multiple-unit
train in place of an engineman and a fireman on a steam locomotive.

Metropolitan and Metropolitan District Railway, London, reduced
the wages of drivers 20 to 25 per cent, with the advent of electric traction.

Lancashire and Yorkshire electric express trains have only two
trainmen, one driver and one conductor; while the heavier local trains
require one driver, one conductor, and one rear man.

In England, Germany, and France the same general fact is noted:
Electric train service requires less wages per train mile.

ECONOMY OF POWER.

Utilization of the power produced at the central station is effective
and efficient when electric locomotives are used, as explained in Chapter
III, under "Decreased Operating Expenses."

Regeneration of power which effects an economy in operation is con-
sidered under "Power Required for Trains."

Water powers can be used. See "Water Power Plants."

282 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

ECONOMY OF FUEL.

Steam locomotives burn approximately the following coal per 1000
ton-miles: Switching, 1300; suburban, 500; ordinary passenger, 250;
ordinary freight, 150. The pounds of coal per i. h. p. hr. approximate:
Suburban, 6.75; ordinary passenger, 4.0; ordinary freight locomotives,
3.0; and modern steam power plants, 2.0 pounds. See page 82.

Electric traction, with energy supplied from a central station, is now
compared with the steam locomotive:

FUEL SAVING AVITH ELECTRIC TRACTION.

Fuel of cheaper grades, saves 30 to 10%

Furnace and boiler economy 35 to 30

Radiation and condensation 20 to 10

Cylinder or steam economy 30 to 25

Friction of mechanism 12 to 6

Total saving (not the sum), ' 60

Generator and transformer loss 5 to 8

Transmission and contact line 2 to 8

Transformation 3 to 6

Motor and control 10 to 6

Total loss approximates 25

Net saving in fuel (1.00 -.60) x 1.25= 50

The fuel savings include those due to stoker in furnace, water-tube
boilers, superheaters, feed water heater, less radiation, less stand-by and
banked-fire losses, gain at poppet valves, greater expansion of steam in
turbines, condensing operation, and power production on a large scale.

Economy of fuel, which is naturally expected with electric traction,
was considered in Chapter III under ^^ Decreased Operating Expense."

Efficiency of simple steam locomotives was explained in Chapter II.
Efficiency is lowest with the late cut-off required on grades, and in start-
ing or accelerating a train. The fuel consumed by steam locomotives
while standing idle, or waiting at a meeting point, is a large percentage
of the total. Each locomotive, without doing any useful work, may
burn 300 to 800 pounds of coal per hour or 15 to 25 tons per month.
Almost all of this is saved in electric traction.

The superior efficiency of a modern steam power plant is evident.
Power can ordinarily be generated, delivered, and applied in a wholesale
manner more effectively than by an individual steam locomotive.
Modern power plants employ high-grade engineers to manage the fur-
naces and stokers and to burn cheapest fuels, under clean water-tube
boilers. Efficient steam turbines, minimum internal losses, ample water
for condensation, feed-water heaters, and econom'.sers are utiHzed.
Losses in electric generators, lines, and transformers are compensated by
the decreased friction and the lighter weight of the electric locomotive.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES

283

The saving of 50 per cent, of the cost of fuel is realized. Fuel cost is
11 per cent, of the operating expenses of steam railroads and is thus an
item affecting economical transportation.

^J'ew York Central Railroad furnishes data on fuel saving, of interest.

''For road tests, steam locomotives require 1.22 pounds of coal per
car-ton-mile; electric locomotives, after allowing for power plant charges
and expenses at 2.6 cents per kw. hr., save 28 per cent, of the fuel item."
It formerly paid for coal, used on steam locomotives in terminal service,
$5.00 per long ton, and in road service, $3.50; while at its Mt. Morris
power station, coal with equal B.t.u. costs less than $3.05 per ton.

Pennsylvania Railroad's electric power station in Long Island City
burns low-grade screenings efficiently on modern stokers.

Grand Trunk Railway, for its Port Huron tunnel, formerly used
anthracite coal under its steam locomotives. These results are reported:

" The fuel bill for steam locomotives during the last six months in steam service
averaged $4,956 a month. The fuel bill for the first six months of electric service
averaged $1,152.60 a month. ' Hard coal, costing $6 a ton, was used on the steam
locomotives. Bituminous coal, costing $2 per ton, is used in the power station."
Kirker, in Elec. Review, March 6, 1909, p. 423. The 1909 records, with cheaper
grades of coal, give the fuel cost as 39 per cent, of that under steam operation.

South Side Elevated Railroad, Chicago, in 1898 operated modern Baldwin com-
pound locomotives, weighing 28 tons, to haul 5-car trains. The road was electrified
and the saving in coal was $500 per day.

Manhattan Elevated Railroad under most favorable conditions with its steam
locomotives used 1 pound of coal to produce 2.23 ton-miles, or 1.50 ton-miles when the
weight of the cars only was considered. Four years later, when electricity was used
exclusively, 1 pound of coal burned at the power house produced 3.83 ton-miles.
Therefore the ratio of ton-mileage per pound of coal in favor of electric operation was
2.57 to 1; or, since under electrical operation the average speed was 2 m.p.h. greater,
the ratio of ton-mileage per pound of coal was 3 to 1. This saving in coal consump-
tion is 1,000,000 tons of coal per annum. (Stillwell.)

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad tests, as reported by Murray,
electrical engineer, to A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907, p. 147, show the coal and the ton-
miles required during 18 months for the run between New York and New Haven, in
steam railroad service, were as follows:

Kind cf railioad service.

Lb. of coal

per average

i.h.p. hr.

Lb. of coal

per revenue

ton-mile.

Average

tons per

train.

Passenger-express

Passenger-express-local ....
Freight service

4.06 to 4.37
4.68 to 4.61
not taken

0.194
0.335
0.169

527
314 ,
931

Tests were made in August when track and temperature favored good results.
Murray estimated, in January, 1907, that the saving of coal with electric traction

284 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

would be 40 per cent. Two years later he wrote : " By far the most interesting feature
of the investigation, which has been continued, is now. to find that, by actual opera-
tion, the saving in coal for electric passenger operation, as against steam, for the same
service, is just 50 per cent."

Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, of England, J. A. F. Aspinwall, General
Manager, has recently reported that on its Liverpool-Southport branch, 37 miles,
which now uses electric traction, the saving in coal per train-mile is 48 per cent.

" Mersey Tunnel Railway of England, with steam traction, required 1 ton of coal
costing $4.00 per ton to move 1 ton of train load 2.21 miles at 17.75 miles per hour;
while with electric traction, it required 1 ton of coal costing only $2.18 per ton to
move 1 ton of train load 2.29 miles at an average speed of 22.25 miles per hour."
The net saving was 55 per cent. J. Shaw, B. I. C. E., November, 1909. I

Cost of service per ton-mile is reduced because electric locomotive
units haul faster and heavier trains in a given time; save in fuel, labor,
and maintenance; utilize the cheapest coal, or water powers; decrease
the non-revenue-bearing ton-miles of locomotives; and utilize the energy
produced to great advantage, in common service or on mountain grades.

Earnings from investments are enhanced when the tracks, equipment,
and rolling stock are used efficiently; when more work is done in a given
time; and when the ton-mileage is increased by an efficient motive power.
The increased load, the increased speed, the shorter delays, and the
greater mileage of locomotives and cars, also save in investments
which would otherwise be required in an ordinary single-track road, at
bridges, tunnels, grades, and congested terminals.

An increased investment is required with electric traction; but it is
evident that if twice the horse power can be utilized efficiently on a given
length of line, to double the work or the receipts from the same track,
and if this can be done with an extra investment of a small part of the
total cost of the road, the business proposition is worth consideration.

Increased efficiency and capacity, and other physical advantages of
electric traction, result in a financial advantage; otherwise electric power
should never receive consideration for important railway service.

ADVANTAGES OF LOCOMOTIVES OVER MOTOR-CAR TRAINS.

The electric locomotive has some advantages in train haulage not
possessed by motor cars.

Independent units are obtained by the use of locomotives. The
division of the equipment between the locomot ves and the coaches
facilitates different classes of care and inspection. Locomotive motors,
in heavy service, after running several hours on an extreme overload,
may be cooled by forced draft; or another locomotive may be utilized.
With motor-car trains this is not so practical.

Locomotives are used as freight cars by the Paris-Orleans Railway,
by the North-Eastern of England, and by American interurban roads.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 285

Such locomotives, of the baggage-car type, weighing 20 to 60 tons, are
loaded with express, mail, merchandise, perishable goods, etc., and
haul freight cars or passenger coaches.

Locomotives are needed for thru passenger and freight-car haulage.

Danger to passengers is decreased when the motors are placed on the
locomotive only. It is more difficult to avoid some of the dangers of an
electric shock, from leakage, fire, or short circuit, whenever high voltages
required in railroading pass thru steel conduit wiring under each electric
car of the train. In case of a head-end collision, the danger is decreased
when a locomotive, or a steel baggage motor car, is at the head of a train.

High voltages can be used on the field windings. Three-phase,
3000-volt locomotive motors do not require a step-down transformer,
and the locomotive weight is greatly reduced. Leonard's motor-
generator locomotive plan, which embraces a high-voltage, single-phase,
60-, 25-, or 15-cycle, high-speed motor, driving a direct-current gene-
rator, which in turn supplies current at varying voltages to 600-volt
direct-current motors, may be used. High voltages are not practical
with motor-car trains, without the use of step-down transformers.

Designs of motors for locomotive service are better, because the space
between or above large drivers, or above the frames, may be used. In-
sulation of motors can be used more liberally or more advantageously.

Cost of equipment is reduced with locomotives. Larger motors are
used, the installation is concentrated, and few changes are required in
existing passenger and freight cars.

Maintenance of equipment is lower than on motor-car trains Fewer
motors are placed on the locomotive trucks or frames; cleanliness is
obtained, and insulation is not easily damaged by moisture. Motor
equipment is more accessible and can receive better supervision and
inspection to prolong its life. The number of parts is less with the larger
motors and thus the cost of repairs and inspection of motors and con-
trollers is less. The total maintenance cost of motors of locomotives
per ton-mile or per passenger-mile hauled is less than 60 per cent, of the
maintenance cost of motors on cars.

ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE DESIGN.

Modern electric locomotives for railroad trains represent the cul-
mination of numerous efforts in design, beginning even before the pioneer
days at Baltimore, in 1895. A general review will assist in gaging the
value of the work done and will classify some of the features which
follow in "Technical Descriptions of Electric Locomotives."

Up to the year 1905, there had been few attempts at standardization
of frames or of mechanical motion, for either freight or passenger service.
Each new locomotive had special features in design; but almost every

286 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

conceivable wheel arrangement, dr'ving mechanism, and general pro-
portion had been tried out, in an effort to create ideal types.

It is a notable fact, that, following the adoption of electric locomotive
power by the leading steam railroads, since 1906, the character of the
construction and the mechanical arrangement of the electric locomotive
frame, truck, wheels, etc., have been rapidly improved, and standardized
to some extent.

E'ectric locomotives are energy-collecting and transmitting machines,
as contrasted with steam locomotives which are prime movers, that is,
energy-generating machines, a fundamental difference which affects opera-
tion and design. This inherent difference is such that steam practice
and experience cannot be utilized. The boiler, furnace, and fuel and
water supply, and the reciprocating strains are absent.

Designs of e ectric machines generally embrace a box-shaped sym-
metrical cab or superstructure, double-end operation, flexible fn^mes,
light-weight plate and rolled-steel shapes in side framing, transmission of
forces and strains of freight locomotives thru articulated trucks, lower
center of gravity, geared and direct connection of motive power to axles,
and, except in Pennsylvania type locomotives, journals outside of the
driving wheels. In braking, the energy of rotation stored up in large
heavy motors require more powerful brakes, larger brake shoes, and
tires to dissipate the stored energy. In electric freight locomotives
ballast is often added to get the desired tractional adhesion.

Electric locomotive design, as a matter of prime importance, embraces
a machine which is capable of performing the same kind of service which
the modern steam locomotive now performs; which exceeds the steam
locomotive in its power capacity; and which is adapted for branch lines,
light passenger and heavy freight service. George Westinghouse, 1910.

Mistakes made in the design of early electric locomotives were caused
by lack of experience, by not appreciating the problems, by a desire for
simplicity, and by unsatisfactory compromises between steam and elec-
tric locomotive designers.

1; Low centers of gravity were used, which at high speed caused the curves to be
slewed.

2. Heavy dead weights were not spring-mounted, and the track was destroyed
by the intensity of the blows at low joints, badly aligned spots, and special work at
crossings and switches. Side springs were not used between motors and frames to
ease the blow on the curves. G earless motors increased the cost of track mainte-
nance, when they were not spring-mounted.

3. High speeds were attempted without locomotive guiding truck wheels. Lead-
ing trucks are necessary and they must carry a considerable vertical load (20,000 to
28,000 pounds per axle), otherwise high-speed running becomes hard and dangerous.
Rigid frames and symmetrical disposition produced severe nosing effects.

4. Concentration of power on a shoit driver-wheel base produced strains with

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 287

great intensity of pressure and with suddenness of application. Electric locomotives
pitched and rolled, with the best track alignment.

5. Bearings on motors were not long enough and, with the added heat radiated
by the motor, they ran hot.

6. Motors were not accessible for inspection, nor easily removed from the loco-
motive, for overhauling and repairs.

7. Ratings of motors on the one-hour basis were misleading and deceiving; and
ratings based on continuous performance or for many hours' run were not known.
Trouble and disappointment followed until some of these things related to design
were understood and corrected.

Types of locomotives are classified with reference to trucks:

1. Rigid wheel base types (a) without leading and trailing trucks, (b) with
leading and trailing trucks. Examples: Grand Trunk; New York Central.

2. Separated bogie truck types (a) symmetrical and (b) unsymmetrical, the
trucks being connected thru the upper frames. Examples: New Haven, passenger;
Great Northern.

3. Articulated trucks, wherein two sections are hinged back to back. Examples:
Pennsylvania; Michigan Central.

Other classifications can be made with reference to motor mounting, the
mechanical transmission of power between the motors and driving axles, etc.

Mr. George Gibbs tested many types of electric locomotives for the
Pennsylvania Railroad Company in 1909, to determine the relative riding
qualities of high-speed ocomotives. He states:

'' It was found that all types of locomotives were practically steady at speeds
under 40 miles per hour, but that above this speed marked differences appeared;
that the steadiest riding machines were those with (a) high center of gravity and (b)
with long and unsymmetrical wheel base. In other words, that the nearer steam
locomotive design is approached in wheel arrangement, distribution of weight, height
of center of gravity, and ratio of spring-borne to under-spring weight, the less the side
pressures registered on the rail head. In addition to the excessive side pressures on
the rail head, due to the oscillation and "nosing" of a low center of gravity machine,
abnormal track effects may be caused by the vertical pounding due to a large non-
spring-borne motor weight, or to weights with imperfect spring cushion. A remedy
for all of these defects appears to mean a combination of driving and cairying wheels,
an unsymmetrically disposed wheel base and the setting of the motors on the main
frames above the axles." Electric Locomotives. International Railway Congress, 1910;
Ry. Age Gazette, March 25, 1910, p. 830; E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 961.

Mr. Sprague thinks that nosing on New York Central, and other
electric locomotives, is caused by the driver treads, which are cones, and
these try alternately to mount or ride on the flange side of the tread,
producing a swinging or lateral motion. These vibrations are dampened
by time-element springs, and the blows of the wheels are attenuated.

Mr. Sprague states emphatically that the hard riding qualities of the New York
Central locomotives are not due to their low center of gravity and symmetrical base,
but rather to the absence of sufficient resistance in the pony-truck centering springs
to prevent nosing. A. I. E. E., July 1, 1910.

288 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Center of gravity of electric locomotives is usually low.

CENTER OF GRAVITY OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

Name of railroad.

Kind

of
service.

Speed

Year

Wt.

Diam.

Armature

first

center

m.p.h.

used.

tons.

Arm.

Drivers.

above rail.

1895

62"

31.0"

1903

22.1

1910

25.0

26.1

1906

29.0

22.0

1909

115

29.0

22.0

1907

39.5

31.0

1909

102

39.5

31.0

1909

140

39.5

63.7

1910

135

76.0

91.0

1904

68.0

41.0

1905

28.0

1909

100

36.0

1910

157

56.0

93.5

1908

30.0

31.0

1909

115

35.75

30.0

1909

100

25.0

25.1

1900

23.5

24.5

Center of
gravity-
above rail.

Baltimore & Ohio .

New York Central
New Haven

Valtellina, 1904 ....

Pennsylvania 10,001

10,003

Pennsylvania

Grand Trunk

Great Northern

Michigan Central . . .
Paris- Orleans

Passenger. . . .

Freight

Passenger. . . .
Passenger. . . .
Passenger. . . .
Passenger. . . .
Fgt. geared . .
Fgt. side-rod.
Passenger. . . .
Experimental
Experimental
Passenger. . . .

All trains

All trains . . . .
All trains . . . .
Passenger. . . .

The tendency is to use larger driver diameters to get a longer life from the tires.
Steam locomotives in passenger service have a center of gravity about 72 inches
above the rails.

No diversity of opinion would exist regarding the advantage of a low
center of gravity, nor would the track maintenance be higher, with a low
center of gravity, provided (1) The track and rails were level tangents;
(2) the weight and power of the locomotive were well distributed, not
concentrated; (3) the two or four guiding wheels were not omitted, and
(4) the armature and motor frame weights were not rigidly mounted.

A four-wheeled leading truck turns on its pivot and instead of
attempting to at once turn the mass of the locomotive, the forward
wheels act as a guide, with the rear as a fulcrum. V^heels are not rigidly
mounted in bearings, but they traverse slightly, in any direction, without
moving the whole mass of the locomotive.

Electric machines with low center of gravity have less tendency to
topple over, but have greater resultant side thrusts on the rail head.
Electric locomotives in high-speed service must be properly guided,
and must have a high center of gravity, for service over ordinary irregular
track. The locomotive then heels over at the curves and increases the
vertical pressure on the rails, rather than the side thrust.

The nosing of the motor cars is held to be small because the product of the lever
arm about the center pin of the rear truck, and the mass on front of the rear truck
make a small moment to produce lateral components or harmonic vibrations, com-
pared with the moment arm of the car body.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES

289

MECHANICAL DATA AND WEIGHT OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

Name of railroad.

Year
built.

1-hour,
h.p.

Wheel
order.

Tons
motors.

Tons
total.

Tons on
drivers.

Pounds per
driv. axle.

Baltimore & Ohio

New York Central

1895
1903
1910
1906
1909
1910
1909
1907
1909
1902
1904
1906
1909
1909
1908
1908

1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1911
1906
1910
1910
1911
1910
1911
1911

1080

800

1100

2200

2500

1100

1700

600

1200

1500

1980

1700

720

670

960

960
1260
1350
1396

600
1050
1050
1600
2000
1600

800
2000

OO-OO

00-00

oOOOOo

ooOOOOoo

ooOO-OOoo

OO-OO

oOOOo

OOOO

OO-OO

oOOOo

OOOOO

00-00

ooo

OO-OO

oOO-OOo

ooOOOOoo

OO-OO

00-00

oOOOo

oOO-Obo

000-000

oOOOo

oooo

000-000

22.0
21.0
25.0
25.0
43.0
22.3
25.0
27.0
22.0
27.5
27.3
27.0
30.0
23.5

33.4
33.4
40.0
41.6

16.0

30.0
21.0
30.0

115

157

100

115

102

140

135

116

103

. 88

110

96
80
92
68
71
100
100
50
76
52
47
47
67
115
66
72

77
96
92

48,000
40,000
46,000
33,500
35,500
50,000
50,000
33,333

Michigan Central

Simp Ion

Valtellina

38,000
26,000

Giovi

Great Northern

Grand Trunk

31,340
31,340
26,800
57,500
44,000
36,000

48,000
38,500
48,000
46,000

Spokane & Inland

New Haven:

Passenger, 020

Passenger, 041

Freight, 071

Freight, 070

Freight, 069

Switcher, 0200

Oranienburg

Baden State

80
66

40,000
33,000

Bernese Alps, A. E.G.. .
Oer.

French Southern

Prussian State

Swedish State

75
97
61
64
110

37,500
33,600
40,600
36,500
36,666

The weight per driver axle for high-speed electric locomotive service
should not exceed 40,000 with ordinary track and 50,000 with very good
rail, bridges, and road bed — even in slow-speed service. The lower
weight per axle greatly decreases the cost of track ma'ntenance. Euro-
pean practice indicates 35,000 to 40,000 pounds per axle. German gov-
ernment has specified a maximum of 36,000 pounds per axle.

Dead weight per driving axle of New York Central electric locomotives
is 13,000 pounds; of Michigan Central is 14,000 pounds; of Great North-
ern is 18,300 pounds.

290

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

MECHANICAL DATA ON TRUCKS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

Name of railroad.

1-Hour
h.p.

Tons
total.

Wheel base.

Rigid.

Total.

Lbs. per ft
total base.

Baltimore & Ohio. . . .

New York Central. . . .

Pennsylvania

Michigan Central

St. Louis & Belleville.
Buffalo & Lockport. . .

Hoboken Shore

Illinois Traction

Paris-Orleans

Milan-Gallarate

Simplon

Valtellina

Giovi

Great Northern

Grand Trunk

Spokane

New Haven 041

071

070

069

0200

Oranienburg

Baden State

French Southern

Bernese Alps, A. E.G. .
Bernese Alps, Oerlikon

1080
800

1100

2200

2500

1100

640

400

800

1000

640

1100

1700

600

1200

1500

1980

1700

720

680

960

1260

1350

1396

600

1050

1600

2000

160

115

157

100

115

102

140

135

116

103

6'-10''
14-6 3/4
14-6 3/4

9-6
13-0

7-2

9-6

6-0

7-2

7-10

6-10

6-9

5-7

6-7

16-1

15-5

10-1

11-0

16-0

8-0

7-0

8 -0

11-0

8-0

10-10

11-6

11-10

9-11

13-5

23^-2 3/4'

14-6 3/4

44 -2 3/4

27-6

36-0

55-11

27-6

20-6

13-0

26-2

23-10

21-4

31-10

26-3

21-9

31 -10

31-2

20-2

31-9

16-0

30-10

38-6

43-6

39-0

23-6

31-5

31-2

31-6

42-2

36-5

8,300
10,990
7,240
6,700
6,390
5,610
7,275
4,900
5,840

4,550
4,520
3,640
4,400
5,800
4,775
4,275
4,400
6,150
7,250
8,250

6,620
7,275
6,210
6,000
6,810
4,200
4,550
5,650
4,880
5,310

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES

291

WEIGHT-FACTOR OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES IN
RAILROAD SERVICE.

Name of railroad. Nameoi
builder

Kind of
service.

Speed
m.p.h.

1-hr.
h.p.

Wt.,
tons.

1-hr. h.p.
per ton.

Cont.
h.p.

Cont. h.p.
per ton.

16
9
26
60
60
10
10
6
30

1080

800

1100

2200

2500

1100

360

400

960

800

1000

115

157

100

11.3

10.0

12.0

19.1

15.9 .

11.0

7.2

6.6
16.0
15.7
16.4

Baltimore & Ohio .... OF,

1 Freight

Freight

Terminal . .
Terminal . .

Tunnel

Switcher. . .
Switcher. . .

Freight

Terminal

Baltimore & Ohio ....
New York Central ....

G.E...
G.E...
G.E...
G.E....
G.E...
West. .
G.E...
T.H ...
T.H...

460
1000
1600

475

5.0
9.0

9.8

Michigan Central

Bush Terminal

4.7

Hoboken Shore

Illinois Traction

Metropolitan

Paris- Orleans

Terminal . .

Weight factor does not refer to efficiency of design. A motor with slow peripheral
speed, or a small switcher, or a slow-speed locomotive cannot be so efficient in
pounds per ton as one for high speed. Most locomotives for freight service are
ballasted, or steel is used liberally in the design, to get maximum adhesion for
traction.

The speed is not at the 1-hour or continuous h.p. but at the rated loads, or trailing
tons on the ruUng grade, given in a succeeding table on driver diameters.

R. p. m. =m. p. h. x gear ratio x 336/ diameter of drivers in inches.

Data on peripheral speed of motor armatures is given in Chapter V.

The tendency to rate railroad locomotive motors on the continuous basis, not on
the l-hour basis, is recognized.

WEIGHT FACTOR OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES IN
RAILROAD SERVICE.

Name of
railroad.

Name of
builder.

No. of
cycles.

Kind of
service.

Speed
m.p.h.

1-hr.
h.p.

Wt.,
tons.

1-hr.

h.p.

per ton.

Cont.
h.p.

Cont.

h.p.

per ton.

Valtellina Ganz ....

1
15 i Freight...
15 Passenger

15 Passenger

16 Freight. . .
16 Freight. . .

19
38
40
28
16

600
1200
1500
1980

320
1100
1700
1700

52
69
69
67
30
70
76
115

11.6
17.4
21.7
29.5
10.6
15.7
22.4
14.8

V'altellina Ganz

Valtellina Ganz

Giovi-Savona.. . . ; West

Santa Fe Brown. . .

1440

21.5

Simplon Brown . . .

16 Freight. . .1 43
16 Mixed 4.*^

Great Northern..

Gen. Elec .

Mixed....

1500

13.0

European locomotives have exceedingly light frames, suitable for medium speeds.
American locomotives haul 3 to 4 times the tonnage per train. Tons of 2000 pounds.
Great Northern continuous rating is on forced draft.

292

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

WEIGHT FACTOR OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES IN
RAILROAD SERVICE.

Name of
railroad.

Name

of No. of

builde

r. cycles.

West.

G.E..

West.

Siemer

IS 25

Siemer

IS 25

A.E.G

West.

G.E..

West.

A.E.G

G.E..

SiemeE

s 15

Oerlikc

m 15

Siemen

s 15

A.E.G

Oerlikc

m 15

Siemen

s 15

Siemen

s 15

A.E.G

Kind of
service.

Speed
m.p.h.

1-hr.
h.p.

Wt.

tons.

1-hr. h.p
per ton.

Cont.
h.p.

Cont.h.p.
per txjn.

West. Interworlcs
Windsor, Essex &

Lake Shore.
Spokane & I. E.
Spokane & I. E.
Grand Trunk . . .
Rock Island. . . .
New Haven 041 .

069.

070.

071.

0200.

Boston & Maine.

Illinois Traction.
Swedish State . . .
Prussian State . . .

Pennsylvania
Visalia Electric.

Shawinigan

French Southern .

General Electric
Swiss Federal

Baden State

(Wiesental)
Bernese Alps. . .

Swedish State . .

Prussian State . .

Mittenwald

Freight. .
Freight. .

Freight. .
Freight. .
Freight. .
Freight. .
Passenger
Freight. .
Freight. .
Freight . .
Switcher
Freight .

Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Passenger.
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight . . .
Freight. . .
Passenger.
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
Freight. . .

40
40

25
15
25
40
70
35
35
35

675

400

500

680

720

500

960

1396

1260

1350

600

1340

600

460

330

1050

920

500

600

1200

1600

800

1350

500

1050

780

1600

2000

2500

1000

800

68
35

102

116

135

140

130

125

103

110

9.9
11.4

9.6

9.5

10.9

10.0

9.6

12.0

9.3

9.6

7.5

10.3

12.0

11.5

8.3

16.0

16.1

12.1

10.6

12.0

13.4

17.0

6.4

16.1

11.1

14.8

11.0

15.5

20.6

18.2

13.0

12.9

12.5

385
560
570

800

1120
1130
450
1180
1180

620

900

780

7.4
7.8

8.0

8.3
8.0
5.7
9.1
9.1

10.1

10.9

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES

293

WEIGHT ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT.
Direct-current, 600-volt Locomotives.

Locomotive
name.

B. & O. ! B. & O.

Xv.xv. I Iv.xv.

B. &0.
R.R.

New York
Central.

Michigan
Central.

Pennsyl-
vania.

Year. . .
Type..
Motors.
H.p...

1895

Gearless.

1080

Weights:

Mechanical

Motors

Electrical parts .
Total weights . . .
On drivers

Per cent:

Mechanical

Motor

Electrical parts .

On drivers

192,600
192,600

100.0

1903

Geared.

800

115,270

35,420

9,310

160,000

72.0
22.2

5.8

100.0

1910

Geared.

1100

130,000

42,240

11,760

184,000

70.8

22.8

6.4

100.0

1908

Gearless.

2200

157,300

50,000

22,700

230,000

141,000

68.4

21.7

9.9

61.3

1909

Geared.

1100

136,000

46,400

17,600

200,000

68.0
23.2

100.0

1910

Crank.

2500

197,000

89,000

28,000

314,000

200,000

62.7

28.3

9.0

63.7

1905
Gearless.

1280

45,000

195,140
195,140

23.1

100.0

Pennsylvania 1909 locomotives were modified, and those built in 1910 weigh 157
tons and have 100 tons on the drivers.

WEIGHT ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT.
Three-phase, Freight Locomotives.

Locomotive
name.

Giovi or j Simplon
Savona. Tunnel.

Simplon
Tunnel.

Valtel-
lina.

Great
Northern.

Year. . .
Type..
Motors.
H.p...

Weights :
Mechanical

Motors

Transformers. .
Electrical parts
Total weights . .
On drivers

Per cent:

Mechanical. . . .

Motor

Transformers. . .
Electrical parts .

On drivers.

100.0

67.0

1909

Crank.

1700

74,000
55,000
13,100
10,000
152,000
152,000

48.7

36.2

8.6

6.5

100.0

1902

Crank.

600

44,000
0

104,000
104,000

42.0
0

100.0

1904

Crank.

1200

68 000
55,600
0
15,000
138,000
94,000

49.1

40.8

10.7

68.0

1906

Crank.

1500

54,600
0

138,000
94,000

68.0

1909

Geared.

1700

111,500

59,800

20,800

37,900

230,000

48.5

26.0

9.0

16.5

100.0

294

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

WEIGHT ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT.
Single-phase Locomotives.

Locomotive
name.

French
Southern

Spokane
& I.E.

Bernese
Alps.

Grand
Trunk.

New Haven
freight.

New Haven
passenger.

Year. . .
Type. .
Motors .
H.p....

Weights :

Mechanical. . .

Heater

Motors

Transformers .
Elec. parts. . .

Total

On drivers . . .

Per cent:

Mechanical. . .

Motor

Transformers .
Elec. parts. . .

On drivers.

1909

Geared

1200

82,960

59,200

18,680

18,020

178,860

123,500

46.4
33.0
10.3
10.3

69.0

1907

Geared.

680

83,379

1910

Crank.

2000

116,560

47,500

6,155

8,126

145,160

57.3

32.8

4.3

5.6

100.0

42,240

24,200

11,000

194,000

60.0

21.8

12.5

5.7

100.0

1907

Geared.

720

69,580

47,557

5,550

9,313

132,000

52.6

36.2

4.2

7.0

100.0

1909

Geared.

1260

169,872

5,590

79,000

14,060

32,349

300,871

188,000

62.5

1908

Quill.

960

89,000

5,000

66,840

} 43,160

204,000
154,000

46.0
32.8

21.2
75.5

New Haven geared freight locomotive vs^as redesigned in 1910 and the weight
reduced to 280,000 pounds.

SUMMARY ON

ANALYSIS OF LOCOMOTIVE WEIGHTS.

Locomotive.

Direct cur-
rent.

Three-phase.

Single-phase.

Motor
generator.

Weight, mechanical

Weight of paotor

ave.

50 to 72 66

20 to 27 24

5 to 10 8

0 0

ave.

48 to 56 51

26 to 40 30

7 to 10 9

OtolO 10

ave.

46 to 59 58

26 to 36 27

7 to 11 8

8 7

ave.
43
30

Weight of electrical parts .
Weight of transformer. . . .

H.p. per ton, about

21
6

A study of this statistical table shows that data must be used with great care.
Note, that thg reason why the mechanical weights of direct-current locomotives
are high in percentage, is because the electrical weights are low. Three-phase motor
weights appear to be high, but this is not true, the fact being that European designers
simply use light mechanical frames. As more data are added, the averages will
become of more value. The 1-hour h. p. per ton is not a fair basis for comparison.
When data on the continuous h. p, per ton are compared the differences decrease.

See table comparing Oerlikon locomotives of Bernese Alps Railway, under
"Technical Description of Single-phase Locomotives," page 395.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 295

MECHANICAL TRANSMISSION OF MOTIVE POWER.

Motor connections to locomotive drivers or axles are provided by
the use of several schemes, as follows :

1. Gearless motors, with armature o?i axle, connected (a) directly or
solid, as in New York Central of 1906; (b) flexibly, by quill over
axle and spring connection to drivers by radial arms, as in Baltimore
& Ohio of 1896 and New York, New Haven & Hartford passenger locomo-
tives of 1907.

2. Geared motors mounted between or over axles for gear connection
to axle (a) directly, with the center line of motor shaft at or just above
the elevation of the center line of the axle, as in motor cars. Great
Northern, Grand Trunk, and Michigan Central locomotives; (b)
indirectly thru a quill surrounding the axle, which quill is flexibly
connected to the arms in the drivers, as in the Boston & Maine geared
freight locomotives, the 4 motors of which are directly over the 4 driver
axles; (c) indirect^, three gears and side rods, as in Oerlikon locomo-
tives on the Bernese Alps Railway.

3. Crank motors mounted over or between the drivers and crank
connected from armature to side rods or to side-rod frames (a) directly,
as in Field's locomotive of 1889 (see engraving of same in history of
electric locomotives); (b) almost directly, but thru a Scotch yoke, as in
the Valtellina and Simplon locomotives, where the 2 motors are con-
nected together and connected to 3 sets of drivers; (c) indirectly
thru countershaft, which engages with side rods, as in the Pennsylvania
Railroad locomotives.

4. Mounting of motors between drivers and connection thereto by
means of wide-faced friction wheels on the armature which engage in
fi-iction wheels on the axle. This scheme, used by Daft in his early
locomotive, has recently been retried by inventors. The pressure
between pulleys is varied by means of compressed air.

Drivers are coupled by side rods to prevent slipping of individual
drivers, from non-uniform application of power by individual motors, or
from varying driver diameters, or from varying tractional friction.
When all drivers are coupled, one or more motors may be disabled, yet
the remaining motors or motor can distribute the available tractive
effort to all of the drivers.

Gears versus cranks, with or without crank shafts, for the mechan-
ical connection between armature and drivers, are frequently debated.
The superiority of either has not yet been generally established.

AVith slow-speed train haulage, gears at each end of an armature shaft
are fairly satisfactory. For high-speed train haulage, large locomotive
motor gears of the ordinary spur type with the best well-machined steel,

296

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

wide faces, and with high-pressure oil lubrication are not able to with-
stand the wear. The repeated shock, as the teeth engage, destroys
them quickly after the axle and motor bearings are worn A gradual
engagement of teeth, which is possible with special gearing, is being
tried out in high-speed service by Oerlikon locomotives on European
railroads.

Relation of speed to driver diameter is now considered.

Observe that high-speed, geared motor armatures, 500 to 1000 r.p.m.,
are advantageous because they decrease the weight and the diameter of
the motor. Speeds of 200 to 500 r.p.m. are required for gearless motors.
See Armature Speed of Motors, under Motor Design, Chapter V.

1000
900

800

700

a COO

I 500

400

300

, 300

100

*//

■4

^^^

/y^.

y ^

l:^^"^

'-^

10 ;iO 30 40 50 60
Miles per Hour

80 90

100

Fig. 83. — Diagram Showing Relation of Revolutions per Minute and Miles per Hour to

Driver Diameter.

Driver diameters are made as large as possible to increase the area of
the rail contact to decrease the intensity of pressure, stress, and wear,
and the maintenance and renewal cost, of both the rail and the drivers.
Lower surface speed of journals is also gained. With geared and crank
types of locomotives, some motor and driver restrictions are removed.

Drivers less than 44 inches in diameter are not practical for large
gearless locomotives. New York Central locomotives with 44-inch
drivers, at 500 r. p. m., run at 66 m. p. h. It would not be practical to
build a larger motor of this type for slow-speed freight service; for, as

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 297

shown by the accompanying diagram, if 44-inch drivers are used, the
speed of the armature would be low. For example, with 250 r. p. m.
or 33 m. p. h., the diameter of the motor would be too large for the
drivers.

New Haven gearless passenger locomotives, with 62-inch drivers, at
380 r. p. m., run at 70 m. p. h., and at 325 r. p. m., run at 60 m. p. h.

Driver diameters are thus involved in the design of the m.echanical
connections between the armature and the axle.

DRIVER DIAMETERS USED IN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

Name of railroad.

Kind of

Power

Trailing

service.

h.p.

tons.

Passenger. . . .

2200

435

Passenger. . . .

1080

900

Freight

800

1020

Freight

1100

850

Passenger

2500

550

Passenger. . . .

960

250

Freight

1396

1500

Freight

1350

1500

Freight

1260

1500

Passenger

1260

800

Switch

600

450

Passenger

2000

280

Freight

1980

209

Passenger

. 720

400

Freight

720

1000

General

1100

900

General

1900

500

Passenger

1200

300

General

1700

440

Balance
speed, m. p. h

Grade,
p.c.

Driver
diameter.

Baltimore & Ohio
Baltimore & Ohio.
Baltimore & Ohio .

Pennsylvania. .
New Haven 41

70...

71. . .

0200.
Bernese Alps . . . .

Giovi

Grand Trunk

Michigan Central

Great Northern. .

Paris-Orleans . . .

implon

60
16
9
26
18.
60
70
35
35
35
45
26
25
28
25
10
10
15
30
43

1.5

2.7

2.0

1.7

0.7

57
63
63
63
53
42
62
62
48
60
49
49

Gearless motors mounted on locomotive axles have, as characteristic
features of design, simplicity of mechanical and also electrical construc-
tion, high efficiency, very heavy dead weight, low maintenance, small
diameter of drivers, low center of gravity, and high track maintenance.
The design is not suitable for freight service. Gearless operation, while
desirable, requires high train speed. Peripheral speeds of armatures
are less than the train speed, in feet per minute.

Gearless motors, mounted on quills surrounding the driver axles have
a higher weight, and cost. Suspension of the stator on the locomotive
frames, and spring-mounting of the armature, greatly reduce the cost of
motor and track maintenance.

Geared motors allow either a partial or a complete spring-mounting
of the motor, and with ordinary drivers, a much higher motor speed,
decreased weight, and lower cost.

298 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Great Northern locomotives, for 15 m. p. h., with 60-inch drivers have a driver
speed of 84 r. p. m. The gear ratio used is 4.26, making the speed of the motor 358
r. p. m. at full load. Gearing is placed at each end of the armature shaft. Armatures
are 36 inches in diameter.

Motor cars with 36-inch wheels, running at 45 m. p. h. maximum, have a driver
speed of 420 r. p. m. Gear ratios of 3 allow a small-diameter armature to run at
1260 r. p. m.

Geared freight locomotives with 62-inch drivers running at 35 m. p. h., or 186
r. p. m., require a gear ratio of 2.3 to 3.0 in order to get a light weight, geared motor
(New Haven freight) ; but if the maximum speed is to be 25 m. p. h., the gear ratio
must be from 4 to 5 in common cases (Grand Trunk, Spokane & Inland, Michigan
Central). Quill and spring connection requires large drivers.

Geared motors with one end mounted directly on the axle are not suitable for
high-speed work, because, with non-spring-borne motors the power exerted by con-
cussion, l/2Mv^, destroys the track.

Crank and side -rod constructions are not a recent development in locomotive
design.

Stephen D. Field's locomotive, which was tried on the Thirty-fourth Street branch
of the New York Elevated Railroad in 1889, had two coupled axles on the rear or
driving truck, as in an Atlantic type steam locomotive. The armature of the motor
had an extended crank which was connected to the middle of the side rod. The effort
exerted was absolutely uniform. Martin and Wetzler, ''The Electric Motor,"
1889, p. p. 190 and 204; Electrical Engineer, Dec. 9, 1891.

North American locomotive, designed by Sprague, Hutchinson, and Duncan, in
1893, had the motors between the drivers, and side rods connecting the drivers, but
the armatures were not crank-connected.

Valtelhna locomotives of 1902 appear to have been next to follow the crank and
side-rod construction, including the use of Scotch yoke. See description of Valtellina,
Simplon Tunnel, and Giovi locomotives, in Chapter IX.

The jackshaft between the crank rod from the armature shaft and the side rod
became a necessity to allow for inequalities in the elevation of the track.

Crank and side-rod construction, or gears, with cranks and siderods, with or
without jackshafts, has these advantages:

1 . Tractive effort is increased by coupling the driving axles. Consult : Dodd, A. I.
E. E., June, 1905; Sperry, A. I. E. E., June, 1910. In case one motor is out of service
the adhesion is furnished by each driver.

2. Center of gravity is high and this is an advantage in relieving the strain on the
head of the rail when the locomotive rocks or cants outward in rounding a curve.

3. Spring supports are practical for the armatures and fields of heavy motors.
The dead weight per axle and track maintenance are reduced.

4. Limitations of space, particularly between the drivers, are removed, and
motor design may be perfected.

5. Distribution of weight is improved, in many cases.

6. Number of motors may be decreased, from three or four to two or three,
which affects cost, weight, and simplicity.

7. Motors are located out of the dust and dirt, and it is not necessary to enclose
them. Motors may then be made independent of the truck, and armatures can
readily be removed without dismantling the motor or taking off a driving wheel.
Insulation space is not limited when large motors and large diameters are used; and
the insulation is not subjected to water from the road-bed. Higher voltages may thus
be used on fields.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES

299

8. Accessibility is obtained for quick inspection and repair work on motors, to
reduce maintenance cost.

9, Bearings of armatures may have proper proportions,

10. Air gaps, when necessarily small, become practical.

11. Efficiency, power factor, and torque are improved.

12. Design of jackshaft (crankshaft) is such that the motor may be located in
about any advantageous position on the frames.

13. Side rods, standardized for steam locomotives, may be used.

Disadvantages of crank design with or without countershaft:

1. Side rods, countershafts, and cranks are heavy, cumbersome, and increase the
friction, and are objectionable mechanically, compared with geared connections.
Simplicity is sacrificed.

2. Strains in countershaft, crank, and shaft are large.

3. Bearings of motor and countershaft must be large, and motor supporting
frames must be wide, to keep armature bearings out from under collectors and com-
mutators. Losses occur in extra bearings, and pounding results from lost motion.

4. Designs of railway motors, smaller than 400-h.p., work out simpler and better,
i. e., the side rod and countershaft are not necessary.

5. Heavy slow-speed motors increase the weight and cost.
Reference: E. R. J., Oct. 6, 1910; Elec. Journal, Sept., 1910.

CRANK AND SIDE-ROD ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

Name of railroad.

No. of,
loco.

Year
built.

No. of

Voltage

No. of

cycles.

used.

motors.

600

660

3,000

15,000

12,000

10,000

11,000

6,000

15,000

10,000

Wt.

tons.

New York Elevated. 1

Pennsylvania 33

Valtellina 4

Giovi and Savona.. 40

Simplon Tunnel 2

Simplon Tunnel I 2

Oerlikon 1

Bernese-Alps 1

Bernese-Alps 2

French Southern. . . 6

French Southern. . . 1

Baden State 10

(WeisentalRy.).. 2

General Electric ... 1

New Haven (freight) 1

St. Polten-Mariazell 17

Swedish State 13

Prussian State 10

Mitten wald 6

1889
1910
1906
1909
1906
1909
1909
1910
1910
1910
1910
1909
1909
1909
1910
1910
1911
1911
1911
1911

Field...
West. . .
Ganz. . .
West. . .
Brown..
Brown .

Oer

A.E.G..
A.E.G..
West. . .
Siem . . .
Siem . . .
G.E....
West. . .
Siemens
Siemens
Siemens
see p. 355

A.E.G.

22
2500
1500
1980
1100
1700

400
2000
1600
1600
1600

780
1050

800
1350

500
2000
1000

800

157

103

125

135

110

300 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

COST OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

Name of railroad.

Electric
system.

Kind of
service.

Year
built.

Wt.

tons.

Total
h.p.

Estimated
cost.

Per
h.p.

Per
lb.

Baltimore & Ohio

New York Central

Pennsylvania R. R

Illinois Traction

Boston & Albany

Milan-Varese

Gait, Preston & H . . .

Great Northern

Simplon Tunnel

XTawt TTnvpn ....

D. C...
D. C...
D.C....
D. C...
D.C....
D.C....
DC...
D.C....
3-P....
3-P . . . .

1-P

1-P . . . .
1-P ... .
I-P . . . .
1-P ... .
1-P ... .
1-P ... .
1-P ... .

Freight. ..
Passenger.
Passenger.
Passenger.
Freight. ..
At Boston
Freight. . .
Freight. . .
General. . .
General. . .
Passenger.
Freight. . .
At Boston
General. . .
General. . .
Switcher. .
General. . .
General. . .

1903

1905

1908

1910

1908
Estimate

1902

1911

1909

1907

1909
Estimate

1911

1908

1911
Estimate

115

157

800
2200
2200
2500

360

119,000
27,000-
33,000
65,000
14,000
34,650
12,000
16,000
40,000
27,500
45,000
60,000
42,500
50,000
26,500
20,000

$23 . 75
12.27
15.00
26.00
38.90

n.9<t

14.2
14.3
20.7
17.5

39
50
115
68
102
140

130
66
80

640
400
1700
1700
1000
1350

1380
720
600

18.75
40.00
23.53
16.20
45.00
44.44

15.4
16.0
17.4
20.2
22.0

Arf>Av TTnvpn

21.5

Boston & Maine

Grand Trunk

OrHinflrv . . .

36.23
36.80
33.33

19.2
20.1
12 5

18.3

28,000

Cost of steam locomotives is about $15 per h. p., and the cost per
pound varies from 6.7 to 8.0 cents.

Electric locomotive motor rating is on the 1-hour basis; with
forced draft the continuous rating is about 80 per cent, of the 1-hour
rating. When reduced to cost per continuous h. p., the cost per h. p.
and per pound is not radically different with different modern designs.

The cost varies with the state of the art, and with the number of
locomotives of a type developed which have been sold. The cost of a small
switching locomotive, per h. p. and per pound, is n^t much less than for
a heavy locomotive in terminal service or in trunk-line haulage.

Reduction in cost is of vital importance and can be accomplished by
the use of cheaper materials, steel plate and rolled shapes in place of
cast steel, less labor in building up steel parts, and standardization.

LITERATURE.
References on Characteristics of Electric Locomotives.

(See references at the end of Chapter III on Physical and Financial Advantages of

Electric Traction.)
Armstrong: Comparative Performance of Steam and Electric Locomotives, A. I. E. E.,

Nov., 1907, p. 1643; S. R. J., Jan. 16, 1904; Nov. 16, 1907; Ry. Age, Nov. 15,

1907.
Arnold: Cost of Steam and Electric Power, New York Central, A. I. E. E., June, 1902.
Burch: Electric Traction for Heavy Railway Service, Northwest Ry. Club, Jan., 1901 ;

St. Ry. Rev., Jan., 1901; S. R. J., March 9 and 30, 1901.
Darlington: Application of Electric Power to Railroad Operation, Elec. Journal, Feb.

and Sept., 1910.

CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES 301

DeMuralt: Heavy Traction Problems in Electrical Engineering, A. I. E. E., June,
1905, p. 525; S. R. J., Jan. 1907, p. 114.

Murray: Data on N. Y., N. H. & H., A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907; Cost of Maintenance,
Steam and Electric, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1907, p. 1680.

Potter: Developments in Electric Traction, N. Y. R. R. Club, Jan., 1905; S. R. J.,
Jan. 28, 1905; May 3, 1905; A. I. E. E., June, 1902.

Proceedings New York Railroad Club, Electric Railroad Discussions, Sept., 1907;
March, 1908-9-10-11.

Stillwell: Electric Motor vs. Steam Locomotive, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907; S. R. J.,
March 16, 1907, p. 457.

Wiigus: Steam versus Electricity, S. R. J., Oct., 1904; Financial Results from Elec-
trification, New York Central, A. S. C. E., Feb., 1908; S. R. J., March 7, 1908.

References on Locomotives for Freight Haulage.

Valatin: Heavy Electric Railroading, E. W., Nov., 1905, p. 860.

Leonard: Why Steam Locomotives must be Replaced by Electric Locomotives,
E. W., Jan. 7, 1905, p. 27; S. R. J., Jan. 27, 1906; Ry. Age, Jan., 1905, p. 185.
Armstrong: Electricity vs. Steam for Heavy Haulage, S. R. J., May 6, 1905, p. 820.
Lamme: Alternating Current for Heavy Railway Service, S. R. J., Jan. 6, 1906.
See technical descriptions of freight locomotives, which follow.

References on Locomotive Design.

Gibbs: Electric Locomotives, International Ry. Congress, 1910; Ry. Age, March 25,
1910, p. 829; E. R. J., March 26, 1910; June 3, 1911, p. 960.

Westinghouse : Electrification of Railways, A. S. M. E., July, 1910; Electric Journal,
July and August, 1910; E. R. J., July 2, 1910, p. 12.

Storer and Eaton: Electric Locomotive Design, A. I. E. E., July, 1910.

Eaton: Electric Journal, Oct. and Dec, 1910, March, 1911.

Dodd: Weight Distribution on Electric Locomotives as Affected by Motor Suspen-
sion and Drawbar Pull. Types illustrated. A. L E. E., June, 1905.

McClellan: Motors in Steam and Electric Practice, A. I. E. E., June, 1905.

See editorial in E. R. J., Jan. 7, 1911, p. 4.

References on Side -rod Construction for Electric Locomotives.

Field's locomotive: Martin and Wetzler: "The Electric Motor," 1888.

For Valtellina, Simplon Tunnel, Giovi, New Haven, Pennsylvania R.R., OerHkon,

General Electric, etc., see technical descriptions which follow.
Pittsburg Street Railway, Side-rod Trucks, S. R. J., Dec. 14, 1907; Oct. 15, 1910.
Motor Mounting on Locomotive: E. R. J., Apr., 1910, p. 667, and Oct. 15, 1910, p.

835.
Motor Suspension: See "Development of Motor Design," Chapter V.

CHAPTER VIII.
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES.

Outline.

Direct-current Locomotives :

No.

Wheel order.

Year.

H.P.

Tons.

1895

1080

1903

800

1910

1100

1898

640

1904

360

1904

200

1898

400

1906

2200

1908

2200

115

1910

1100

100

1907

640

1910

2500

157

1910

400

1907

960

1904

640

1905

800

1900

1000

1904

1000

1906

640

Page.

Baltimore & Ohio R.R

Buffalo & Lockport R.R

Bush Terminal R.R

Philadelphia & Reading Ry

Hoboken Shore R.R

New York Central & H. R. R. R. .

Michigan Central R.R

Pennsylvania R.R.:

Experimental on Long Island .

New York Terminal Division..

Gait, Preston & Hespler Ry

Illinois Traction Company

North-Eastern Ry., England

Metropolitan Ry., England

Paris-Orleans Ry., France

Rombacher-Huette Ry., France .

5
5
2
2
4
1
4
35
12
6

0-4-4-
0-4-4-

0-4-4-0

2-8-2

4-8-4

0-4-4-0

0-4-4-0
4-4-4-4
0-4-4-0
0-4-4-0
0-4-^4-0
0-4-4-0
0-4-4-0
0-4-4-0
0-4-4-0

303
304
306
307
308
309
309
310
310
318

321
322
329
330
331
332
332
332
334

Literature on Other Direct-current Locomotives, 335.

References to Detailed Drawings of Direct-current Locomotives, 336.

302

CHAPTER VIII.

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES.
IN GENERAL.

The number of electric locomotives which use direct -current at

about 600 volts, which the author has obtained by correspondence and
from printed lists, in America is 357, and in Europe is 112, of which 52
are on the City and South London Railway.

The number of electric locomotives on railroads which use three-
phase current in America is 4, and in Europe 56.

The number of electric locomotives which use single-phase current
in America is 90, and in Europe is about 134.

The technical descriptions which follow cover only the most important
and typical installations. The nature of the facts is of importance.

BALTIMORE & OHIO PASSENGER, 1895.

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, in 1895, placed in service 5 gearless
locomotives, between the Baltimore station yards and Waverly, 3.7
miles, including the Baltimore Belt line tunnel, 7200 feet long. About
7 miles of track are electrified. Grades average 1.00 per cent, but the
ruling grade is 1.5 per cent. Curves included seven, from 5 to 11 de-
grees. The locomotives are still doing good work.

The service for which the locomotives were designed was for hauling
freight and passenger trains over the above route, grades, and curves.
Three stops are made by the passenger trains in the 3.7-mile run. About
21 passenger trains are now hauled up the grades per day, but trains
run down without help from the locomotives. The speed up-grades is
about 16 m. p. h. The average passenger train, including steam and
electric locomotive, weighs 990 tons.

Two trucks are used, each with a wheel base of 6 feet 10 inches. The
total wheel base is 23 feet 2 inches. The weight on four pairs of 60-inch
drivers is 96 tons. The locomotive length is 35 feet.

Motor equipment consists of four General Electric AXB-70, 600-volt
direct-current motors, rated 1440 h. p. per locomotive. In order to
reduce the locomotive speed, the motors were designed with 6 poles and
each pair of motors w^as connected permanently in series. The rating
with motors in series is 1080. (G. E. bulletin 4390 gives the rated h. p. as
720.) Gearless armatures are used, spring-suspended on a quill surround-
ing the axle. The field is spring-supported on the frame, and centered
around the armature quill by means of bearings. The torque of the
armature is transmitted from radial arms on the armature shaft to the
spokes in the drivers, thru rubber compression blocks located at the ends

303

304

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

of the radial arms; the arrangement is desirable since it compensates for
variation in track alignment and provides a flexible connection. See
Figures 47, 48.

Tests show that the 96-ton locomotive starts an 1870-ton train from
rest against such a grade as to require a tractive force of 63,000 pounds,
or 32 per cent, of the locomotive weight. The drawbars are stretched,
and the train accelerated to 12 m. p. hr. without slipping the drivers.

Fig. 84. — Baltimore & Ohio Railkoad Passenger Locomotive used Since 1895.

The dynamometer car records of drawbar pull show that the amplitude
of vibrations is, under similar conditions, considerably less than that with
the changing crank angle of steam locomotives.

In design, these 5 locomotives, built in 1895, were too fast for freight
service. It was found that the locomotive wheel base was short, and
the weight was concentrated. Operating results, for over 16 years,
have been excellent. These locomotives were the first heavy railroad
locomotives in America. Their success was remarkable and was of
great importance historically.

BALTIMORE & OHIO FREIGHT, 1903.

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, in 1903, purchased 5 additional locomo-
tives for freight service at Baltimore. Each weighs 80 tons and is rated
800 h. p. Two locomotives are used per train.

The service for which the 1903 locomotives were designed was to haul

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 305

2300-ton freight trains at a speed of 10 m. p. h.; 1800-ton freight trains
at 12 m. p. h.; and 500-ton passenger trains at 35 m. p. h. on the level.

Specifications for the 1903 locomotives required that two units
should work together normally, and be capable of handling a 1500-ton
train, including the steam locomotive, but excluding the electric loco-
motive, on a'maximum grade of 1.5 per cent, at 10 miles per hour, and at
higher speeds on lighter grades. The locomotive was to have sufficient
capacity to maintain this service hourly, running loaded on the up-grade
and returning light.

Weight of locomotive unit is 160,000 pounds, all on drivers. The
adhesion at 25 per cent, is 40,000 pounds or 80,000 for the pair. The

Fig. 85.— Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Freight Locomotives op 1903.

grade, friction, and acceleration require this maximum drawbar pull, and
weight for tract ional effort. The weight, 80 tons per unit, is distributed
over 4 sets of 42-inch drivers. The total and the rigid wheel base of
each unit is 14 feet 6 3/4 inches, and the wheel base of two units
is 44 feet 2 3/4 inches.

Tractive effort at working load and at 8.5 m. p. h. for two units is
70,000 pounds. These locomotives haul, on an average, 28 freight
trains per day with an average weight of 1980 tons, on the above grades.

Motor equipment consists of 4 motors per 80-ton locomotive unit,
type G. E.-65 B, rated 200 h. p. at 625 volts. Gearing ratio is 81 to 19.
Sprague-G. E. type M-C. controllers are used to handle two units.

Operation of these freight locomotives has been successful.

BALTIMORE & OHIO, igio.
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, in March, 1910, placed in service two
additional geared freight locomotives.
20

306

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The service required that 850-ton freight and occasionally 500-ton
passenger trains should be hauled on the level, at 26 and 30 m. p. h.,
respectively, and up the 11/2 per cent, grade at 15.5 and 20 m. p. h.

Specifications required that with two units the drawbar effort up to
15 m. p. h. was to exceed 90,000 pounds.

-^'i^, . ■ .

<«^si5«—

.. » ■ >rtiiifjgl||H|

1 1 ■ :

i : ^' '''^

, ■ ~1/.

Km®

^:i*,i-^

-^m^-^. ^ . ^ ,„ .%=u^

mma \

l£"'

c^^

--Utei

!M^iB^^^@^'^'£.\:'>^

Si^-'z :::'■.

^^M

Fig.

■Baltimore & Ohio. Freight Unit of 1910.

46000

-f6000

46000

460 OO

Fig. 87. — Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Locomotive, 1910.

Two used at Baltimore. 92-ton, 1100-h. p., direct-current, 600-volt. Four motors. Gear ratio

3.25. Forced ventilation. Freight service.

Motors are four G. E.-209, 275-h.p., forced ventilated, geared type
similar to those on the Michigan Central locomotives, to be described.
The gear ratio is 3.25 and gears are mounted on each wheel hub.
Four motors weigh 21 tons. See motor drawings, Figure 43.

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 307

Trucks are two, 4-wheeled, permanently linked together with a heavy
hinge, which allows the two trucks to support and guide one another.

5 tresses, in pushing and hauling, are transmitted thru the truck framing.
The trucks are similar to those of the 1909 Michigan Central articulated
locomotive, described later in great detail. Rigid wheel bases are 9 feet

6 inches; total wheel base is 27 feet 6 inches; drivers are 50 inches.
Journals are 7 1/2x14. The two platform center pins have a slight
longitudinal sliding motion.

The operator works in the center of the cab, where he has the best com-
mand of all apparatus, a fair view of the train behind and of a switchman
at the coupler.

The service of the 12 locomotives per annum amounts to about
200,000 locomotive miles, the hauling of 16,000,000 tons, or of
60,000,000 ton-miles, including electric locomotives, and a total train-
miles of 66,000. The locomotives work only on the up-grade.

References on Baltimore & Ohio Locomotives.

1895: 96-ton, S. R. J., July, 1895; pp. 461 and 827; March 14, 1903; Elec. Engineer,

Nov. 5, 1895, March 4, 1896. Tests, E. W., March 7, 1896. Motors, S. R.

J., March 14, 1903; June 25, 1904.
1903: 160-ton, S. R. J., Aug. 22, 1903; June 25, 1904; Elec. Review, April 26, 1896;

S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906; G. E. Bulletin No. 4390. • A. I. E. E., Nov. 20, 1909,

Davis, in discussion of Dr. Hutchinson's paper.
1910: 92-ton, E. R. J., Nov. 26, 1910; G. E. Review, Dec, 1910, p. 534.
See Michigan Central locomotives, which are similar.

BUFFALO & LOCKPORT.

Buffalo & Lockport Railway Company, a subsidiary of the Inter-
national Traction Company, has operated two electric locomotives
since 1898 in freight service. The road runs from Lockport to North
Tonawanda, N. Y., 14 miles, and was leased from the Erie Railroad for
999 years. Electric passenger service is furnished by motor-car trains.

Locomotives are of the two swivel-truck-type. They were designed
to haul 10 cars, or a 450-ton trailing load at 14 m. p. h. Locomotives
have frames of 8-inch channels, 13-foot truck centers, 6-foot truck-wheel
base, 36-inch drivers, a length of 32 feet, and a weight of 38 tons. Motors
are four G. E.-55, rated 160-h. p. each. A 3.28 gear ratio is used. Each
pair of motors runs in series on a 600-volt direct-current circuit.

Reference. S. R. J., Sept., 1898, p. 535. See motors, Figure 30.

BUSH TERMINAL RAILROAD.

Bush Terminal Railroad of South Brooklyn since 1904 has employed
a 50-ton locomotive for switching at its extensive docks and warehouses.

308 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Ficj. 88. — Buffalo and Lockport Freight Unit. Two used Since 1898.

Fig. 89. — Busii Terminal Railroad Freight Locomotive,

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 309

Two swivel trucks are used, with equalized side-bar frames similar to
those in general use for coal-tender trucks of steam locomotives. The
bolsters are carried rigidly on the side frames, the weight being trans-
mitted thru one semi-elliptic spring on each side. Axles are 6-inch,
drivers are 33-inch. Rigid wheel bases are 6 feet 6 inches; total wheel
base 22 feet; and total length 30 feet.

Motors consist of four 90-h. p., 2-turn, direct-current, 500-volt units,
with a 2.47 gear ratio. A pantograph trolley is used to prevent frequent
reversals, in switching service.

In 1907, and in 1911, locomotives of the same type were purchased.
These are 40-ton machines with the same size of motor. The gear ratio
is 3.53 and the drivers 36 inches. Weight of electrical equipment is
14 tons.

Performance characteristics for the 1904 machine show a tractive
effort of 20,000 pounds at 9 m. p. h., with 800 amperes at 500 volts, and
8000 pounds at 12 m. p. h. wdth 450 amperes; and for the 1907 locomotive,
a tractive effort of 16,800 pounds at 8 m. p. h., with 625 amperes at 500
volts, and 12,000 pounds at 9 m. p. h., with 475 amperes.

Reference. G. E. bulletins 4390 and 4537; G. E. Review, Nov., 1907.

PHILADELPHIA & READING.

Philadelphia & Reading Railway in 1904 placed an electric locomotive
in service on its 7-mile branch road from Cape May Point to Sewell
Point, New Jersey, for freight and passenger service. The locomotive
was built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works.

Weight of locomotive is 20 tons, all on drivers. Frames are of steel
channels, heavily braced. The length over end sills is 23 feet. Two
swivel trucks are used, each with a 6-foot base. Truck centers are 12
feet. Drivers are 30-inch.

Motors are 4, Westinghouse, 38-B., 50-h.p., geared 68 to 14. Con-
trol is AVestinghouse, type K-14. Automatic and straight air are used.

Reference. S. R. J., Description and photograph, Nov. 5, 1904, p. 841.

HOBOKEN SHORE R. R.

Hoboken Shore Railroad since 1898 has operated an extensive freight
terminal at Hoboken, N. J. There are 10 miles of electrically operated
single track. The freight handled comes from the Lackawanna, Erie,
West Shore, Pennsylvania, and Lehigh Valley roads. It is collected and
distributed to industrial sidings, freight warehouses, and to extensive
steamship docks on the Hudson River.

Four geared, swivel-truck, direct-current, electric locomotives are

310

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

used. The service consists of switching and shunting 100 to 150 cars
per 10-hour day. Mileage per locomotive per day averages 130.

The G. E. 1898 locomotive has two McGuire trucks, 40-inch drivers
10,000-pound drawbar pull at 8 m. p. h., weighs 28 tons, and is rated
560 h. p. A 4- wheeled G. E. locomotive, built in 1900, is no longer used.

The Westinghouse 1906 locomotive has Baldwin trucks, 33-inch
drivers, 15,000-pound drawbar pull at 6 m. p. h., weighs 64 tons, and is

Fig. 90. — Hoboken Shore Freight Switching Locomotive.
64-toii, 400-h. p., Westinghouse unit used since 1906.

rated 400 h. p. This is a modern unit. It hauls 800-ton trains up 1 1/2
per cent, grades and around sharp curves.

The G. E. 1911 locomotive has American trucks, 42-inch drivers, and
weighs 80 tons.

C. de Bevoise, Manager, states that the repairs and renewals on
these locomotives during the last three years have been $55 for a new pair
of wheels, and $12 for brushes and commutator turning.

Reference. E. W., Jan. 8, 1898; Elec. Review, July 2, 1910.

NEW YORK CENTRAL.

New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, since Dec, 1906, has
operated 35 electric locomotives, and, in 1908, added 12 locomotives,
making the total number 47. All New York Central trains in and out

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES

311

of the Grand Central Station have been electrically operated since July
1, 1907.

Specifications of contract with General Electric Co., required that:

Cars weighing 450 tons be hauled from Grand Central Station to Croton, 34
miles, in 60 minutes; there to have a 20-minute layover, and then return to Grand
Central Station with a similar train, making one stop in each straight trip.

Cars weighing 335 tons (Empire State Express) be hauled over the same distance,
34 miles, in 44 minutes, then to have a 60-minute layover, then to return to Grand
Central Station with a similar train, then to have a layover of 60 minutes, and to
keep this service up continually.

Cars weighing 300 tons be hauled over the same distance, 34 miles, in 60 minutes,
making 3 stops, with a layover at the end of each 34 miles, of 60 minutes; and this
cycle to be operated continually.

Two locomotives were to haul a total train weight, including locomotives of
875 tons at a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour. Temperatures, measured by
thermometers, to be within A. I. E. E. limits. Acceleration rate to be to 40 m. p. h.
in 121 seconds, or 0.33 m. p. h. p. s.; braking to be at 1.5 m. p. h. p. s.

The service for which the locomotives were designed was for passenger
work at the New York terminal. Trains are now hauled north from the
Grand Central Station, in terminal and switching service, on the

Fig. 91. — New York Central Locomotive.
Drawing of proposed locomotive, 1905.

Harlem Branch, to the Mott Haven storage yards, a distance of 5.1
miles; in express service, to High Bridge on the Hudson Division, a dis-
tance of 7.1 miles; and in express service on the Harlem Division, to
North White Plains, a distance of 24 miles. The run on the last division
is for light trains. The service is not trunk-line work, since the dis-
tances are short. The locomotives are able to work in excess of their
rating, since they have ample time to cool off. At all times, including
the heaviest service for the Hudson-Fulton celebration, October, 1909;

312

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

and on July 4, 1910, there were more electric locomotives than were
needed for the work.

The design of the locomotives is clue to Mr. Batchelder of the General
Electric Company, who created a gearless machine.

''The previously accepted principle of fixity of relation between field
and armature was abandoned, the latter being mounted directly on the
axle and the fields being carried upon and as an integral part of the loco-
motive frame, supported by its springs and hence moving freely, irre-
spective of the armature. Gears and axle bearings are dispensed with,
and the acme of simplicity of motor construction reached. The armature
of course could be spring borne." Sprague, to A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907.

The gearless motor design is somewhat similar to that used in 1897 for the
Paris-Lyon-Mediterranean electric locomotive. See detailed drawings in E. W.,
Feb. 4, 1899.

The wheel arrangement, the base, and the locomotive weight have
been changed in design, as noted in the next table.

MODIFICATIONS IN NEW YORK CENTRAL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE

DESIGN.

Tons

Tons on

Wheel

Year.

Reference or notes on

total.

drivers.

base.

class.

modifications.

2-6-2

1904

Wilgus, S.R.J., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 584.

2-6-2

1904

Sprague, S.R.J., Oct. 8, 1904.

2-6-2

1904

S.R.J., Nov. 19, 1904.

2-&-2

1906

G.E. bulletin 4390.

100

2-6-2

1907

S.R.J., May 13, 1905, p. 867.
Heater, added to 35 locoomotives.
G.E. bulletin 4537.

105

4-6-4

1908

Four truck wheels added. S.R.J.,
Dec. 19, 1908, p. 1620.

115

4-6-4

1909

Change in wheel base and frame for
12 new locomotives. Drive-wheel
base, 13 feet, not changed.

The speed for which the locomotives of the 2-6-2 wheel arrangement
were designed was 60 m. p. h., but the locomotives were not safe at or
beyond that speed, even on the good track and curves in the New York
Central electric zone. The locomotives showed true nosing characteristics,
at high speed until, in 1908, the 2-whefel radial pony trucks were changed
to 4-wheel swivel bogey trucks, or to the 4-6-4 wheel arrangement. Too
much motive power was concentrated on the 13-foot rigid wheel base.

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 313

The total wheel base was increased from 27 to 36 feet. Care was taken to
keep the side-motion friction plates adjusted, to limit the nosing effect.
A disastrous wreck occurred in March, 1907, when two locomotives were

Fig. 92. — New York Central Locomotive.
Longitudinal section of the 1906 type.

hauling a train at high speed, and since that time two locomotives have
not been used to haul one train.

The speed is now limited by the operating rules to 45 m. p. h. on
straight track and 30 m. p. h. on curves.

Fig. 9.3. — New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Locomotive, 1908.

Motors consist of four, GE-84-A, gearless, 600-volt units per loco-
motive, rated 762 amperes each on the 1-hour rating. The accelerating
current is 830 amperes. The locomotive rating is 2200 h. p. at 40 m. p. h.

314

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

and 20,500 pounds tractive effort with 44-incli drivers. The continuous
rating is given as 1166 h.p. by Sprague, 1200 h.p. by Hutchinson, and
920 h. p. by Gibbs. Forced ventilation is not yet used.

Fig. 94. — New York Central, & Hudson River Railroad Locomotive, 1906.

The armature is placed directly upon the axle. The magnetic frames, carrying
two pole pieces per motor, are part of the truck frame. The poles have nearly
vertical faces and the armature has a large free vertical movement in a practically
uniform clearance, without striking the poles.

Fig. 95. — New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Locomotive, 1909.

Weight of the motors is 37,700 pounds, plus 11,900 pounds for the magnet yoke,
which is also the mechanical frame of the locomotive, making the total motor weight
•49,600 pounds. To this is to be added 18,400 pounds for control equipment, rheo-
stats, and wiring, and 4300 for air compressor. Total electrical weight, 36 tons or

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 315

about 31.4 per cent, of the total weight, 115 tons. Each armature and 8.5-inch
axle weigh 7640 pounds. The core is 29 inches in diameter and 19 inches wide.
This dead weight is not spring-mounted, but it is not unbalanced, as in the drivers
of a steam locomotive. The total weight per driver axle is 36,000 pounds. The
dead weight per axle is 13,000 pounds, to be compared with 7000 to 13,000 pounds
for steam locomotives.

21500

2I500 36000 360OO 36000 3600O

2I300

21500

Fig. 96. — New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Locomotive, 1908-1909.

Forty-seven used on New York Division in passenger service. 115-ton, 2200-h. p., direct-current,

600-volts. 4 gearless motors. Axle mounted. Natural ventilation.

Gearless motors in this passenger locomotive service embody sim-
plicity, strength, high efficiency, low maintenance cost, ease of inspection,
and facility in making repairs. The armature with its wheels and axle
can be removed, by lowering it, without disturbing the fields. The
motor is neither waterproof nor enclosed, yet it does not hold water as in
some enclosed types with forced ventilation.

Center of gravity of the locomotive was at first 44.4 inches above the
rails; with the addition of the four leading wheels, it is now about 40
inches above the rails. The locomotive mass cannot swing, but must
follow the rapid variations in the track, and the vertical and side springs
which are used cannot ease the blow on the track. The cost of track
and curve maintenance may therefore be much higher than usual.

Tests on No. 6000, 95-ton; 8-coach train, 336 tons, total 431 tons.

Nov. 12, 1904: Accelerating rate 0.33 m. p. h. p. s. required 1200 kw.
at motor; voltage was 730; speed reached 63 m. p. h. in 280 seconds.

Apr. 29, 1905: Locomotive and one 42-ton coach attained a speed of
79 miles per hour. Acceleration rate with 6 coaches was 0.4 m. p. h. p. s. ;
voltage not specified.

Sept. 30, 1905: Acceleration of a 433-ton train, to 50 m. p. h., with
600 volts pressure, was at the rate of 0.43m. p. h. p. s.

316

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

October, 1905: Endurance test of 50,000 miles, hauling a train of 200
to 400 tons, over a 6-mile track. Maintenance expense, $0,014 per mile.

COST OF OPERATION, STEAM AND ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES. WILGUS.

Item.

Steam locomotive.

Electric locomotive.

Switching.

Transfer.

Road.

Switching.

Transfer.

Road.

Supplies

Wages

Interest, dep. and
repairs.
Total

$8.06
5.34
7.61

21.01

$1.12
0.35
0.52

1.99

$2.03
0.28
0.46

2.77

$6.88
5.25
4.40

16.53

$1.16
0.31

0.28

1.75

$1.37
0.31
0.34

2.02

COST PER YEAR FOR SERVICE.

Item.

Steam locomotive.

Cost.

Rate.

Amount.

Electric locomotive.

Cost.

Rate. Amount.

Interest

Depreciation . .

Repairs

Handling and
inspection.
Total

$15,000

4.25%
5.00

$637.00

750.00

1842.00

1231.00

4,460.00

$30,000

4.25%
5.00

$1275.00

1500.00

704.00

200 . 00

3,679.00

Based on actual observations running over two to three years.

Tests for above, September and October, 1907. Wilgus, A. S. C. E., March, 1908.

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVES.

Current
amperes.

Speed
m.p.h.

Tractive
effort lbs.

Power
h.p.

Notes and conditions.

■

4000

37.0

28,800

2840

Four motors in multiple.

3050

40.0

20,500

2200

One-hour h.p. 2200.

2000

48.0

11,200

1440

Volts, 600.

1500

57.0

6,700

1000

Continuous h.p., 1000.

1250

63.0

5,000

840

Drivers 44-inch.

1000

73.0

3,750

730

G.E. bulletins 4390 and 4537.

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES

317

Comparison of New York Central electric locomotives with steam
locomotives of a corresponding age and type:

. %

Greater daily ton-mileage with electric locomotive 25

Saving in locomotive repairs about 60

Saving in locomotive repairs and fixed charges 19

Saving in dead time for repairs and inspections 18

Saving in locomotive ton-mileage in hauling service 6

Saving in locomotive ton-mileage in switching service 11

Saving in locomotive ton-mileage in road service 16

Net saving in cost of hauling service 12

Net saving in cost of switching service 21

Net saving in cost of road service 27

Net saving of terminal and yard operation, August, 1907 13

..J

ito^v x"

IT'

Pltfe^

1 m\ 6 o 0 o <>

^,!'1^^§I^P^|

mm-^

,S*^ ■ . ■

N^^* . /fe',^^ • 'J. ' r*j;^^^IJ5r;^^^

Wr'

■^li^-^^"^-^^ /

''^-z:^^'-—''^.-"

illW'J^'

,, .,,^^;,. _^..^ ..,^„..../ /: :i:

Fig. 97. — New York Central Locomotive and Seven-car Train.

" In switching service, the economy of electric traction lies in savings for supplies,
and in lower unit fixed charges and repairs due to less lost time for repairs and care.

"In slow-speed hauling, the advantages lie in the lower unit fixed charges and
repairs of the electric locomotive, due to its ability to do more work while busy, and
to less lost time for repairs and care.

" High-speed road service shows advantages for electric traction in all three
items; supplies, wages, and fixed charges and repairs. The small 18 per cent increase
in current consumption for the greater speed of road service, as compared with haul-
ing service, is in marked contrast to the 165 per cent, increase in coal consumption for
steam locomotives.

" The handUng and inspection, including fixed charges and maintenance of land,
structures, boiler, engine, and pumping plant for steam locomotives cost $3.37 per
day, while the same items for the electric locomotive which requires no roundhouse
nor pumping plant to wash out flues, etc., but with its inspection sheds, cost but
SO. 55 per day.

318 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

" Opportunities for large economies lie in the thoro training of motormen in the
manipulation of their controllers, a very simple problem as compared with the
difficulties of teaching both the engineer and firemen on steam locomotives to per-
form their duties so as to result in fuel economy." Wilgus: A. S. C. E., March, 1908.

Economic results also noted by Vice-President Wilgus:

"The net results of electrical operation over steam, for the conditions existing on
the New York Central, would, after including all elements of cost of additional plant,
show a saving in the summer months of from 12 to 27 per cent., depending upon the
character of the service, while even a larger saving might be expected under winter
conditions; that because of less cost of maintenance of electric equipment and less
idle time in the repair shops, the greater cost of extra charges and depreciation for the
system was not only neutralized, but a net saving of 19 per cent, on repairs and fixed
charges over steam equipment was effected; that electric-locomotive inspection and
lighter repairs, as compared with coaling, watering, drawing fires, etc., of steam loco-
motives showed a saving in time in favor of eectiicity of more than 4 hours per
day, equal to 18 per cent.; and that the electric locomotive, when busy, was a much
more nimble and efficient machine than the steam locomotive, showing an increase
in daily ton-mileage of 25 per cent. The question of locomotive weight is a large
factor in a comparison of relative economies in handling passenger traffic by steam and
by electricity, and in the switch service at the Grand Central terminal 65 per cent,
of the total steam ton-mileage was due to locomotive or dead weight, while the electric
locomotive percentage was but 54 per cent." Martin, U. S. Census, 1907.

Mileage of electric locomotives in 1910 approximated 1,190,000
miles, or only 64 miles per day per locomotive owned. The suburban
passenger service is handled largely by motor-car trains, the mileage
of which in 1908 was 3,500,000 car-miles.

References on New York Central Locomotives.

Potter and Arnold: Steam Locomotive Tests, A. I. E. E., June, 1902.

Proposed Locomotives: S. R. J., June 4, 1904.

Controversy on System and Cost: Mr. Westinghouse, Mr. Sprague, and others, S. R. J.,

and E. W., Oct. and Dec, 1905; Ry. Gazette, Dec. 22, 1905, p. 579.
Electric Locomotive Tests: S. R. J., Nov. 19, 1904; Jan. 21, 1905; May 13, 1905.
Locomotive Catechism and Operating Rules: S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907, p. 565.
Wilgus: Steam versus Electric Power, S. R. J., Oct., 1904; A. I. E. E., Nov., 1907.
Locomotive Data: Ry. Age, June 30 and Nov. 18, 1904; Jan. 26, 1906.
Accident and Cause: S. R. J., March 16 and 30, 1907; Scientific American, March

April, and May, 1907; Shearing of Spikes, E. W., March 16, 1907, p.- 539.
Lister: Handling of Equipment, Ry. Age Gazette, June 3, 1910.

MICHIGAN CENTRAL.

Michigan Central Railroad since July, 1910, has used six 100-ton
electric locomotives between the Windsor, Ontario, yards and the
Detroit yards. A double-track tunnel under the Detroit River, with
grades of 1.4 and 2.0 per cent, for 2000 feet at each end of the tunnel,
connects these yards. The length of the electric zone is 6, and the
mileage is 19.

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 319

Specifications called for locomotives for freight and passenger service
in the tunnel, and for switching service at the terminal yards. Two
locomotives w^ere to haul an 1800-ton trailing train thru the yards and
tunnels and up a 4000-foot, 2 per cent, grade at 10 m. p. h., then after a
layover of 15 minutes to repeat this trip, and so on continually without
undue heating of motors.

Design is of the articulated type with two 4-wheeled, coupled trucks,
48-inch drivers, a rigid wheel base of 9.5 feet, and a total base of 27.5 feet.
The trucks are not independent, but form a single arti<iulated running gear.

Fig. 98. — Michigan Central Railroad Locomotive of 1910.

"The system of spring suspension is of the locomotive type, the weight being
carried on semi-elliptic springs resting on the journal box saddles. The system of
equalization by which these springs are connected is interesting. The A end of the
running gear, or what may be called the forward truck, is side-equalized, the two
springs on each side being connected together through an equalizer beam. This
equalizes the distribution of weight between the two wheels on one side, giving to this
truck a 2-point support, and consequently leaving it in a condition of unstable
equilibrium as regards tilting stresses — that is, stresses tending to tip the truck for-
ward or backward. The B end of the running gear, or what may be called the rear
truck of the locomotive, is cross-equalized, the two springs on the rear axle being
connected together through an equalizer beam. The other two springs on this truck
are independent and are connected directly to the truck frame. This results in a
3-point suspension on the rear truck, leaving it in a condition of stable equilibrium,
capable of resisting stresses in any direction, whether rolling or tilting. The
trucks are coupled together by a massive hinge, so designed as to enable the rear
truck to resist any tilting tendency of the forward truck. This hinge combines the
trucks into a single articulated running gear, having lateral flexibility with

320

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

vertical rigidity. Thus the running gear has what may be called a compound
point suspension, while the forward and rear trucks together form an articulated
frame having a 3-point suspension, consisting of the 2-point support of the forward
truck and the independent equalization of the rear truck.

The draft rigging consists of a standard M. C. B. vertical plane coupler, with yoke,
springs^ and follower plates, designed to comply with the railroad company's specifi-
cations." E. R. J., June 19, 1909.

Fig. 99. — Michigan Central Railroad. Elevation of 1910 Locomotive.

Motors per locomotive are 4, direct-current, 600-volt, 400-ampere
G.E. 209-A, commutating-pole units. One-hour rating is 275 h. p. each,
with a forced ventilation, at 2 1/4 inches water-gage pressure, of 400 cubic
feet per minute. The continuous rating is about 123 h. p. Design of
motor embraces 4 main poles, interpoles, a 3/ 16-inch air-gap, an armature
diameter of 25 inches, a core length of 11.5 inches, with forty-one

Fig. 100.

-Michigan Central Railroad. Electric Locomotive at Detroit River Tunnel
Hauling 1400-ton Freight Train.

2x5 /8-inch slots, for five 1-turn coils per slot, and .8x. 08-inch conductors.
Commutator diameter is 22.5 inches, segments 205, brush studs 2, and
brushes three 2 1/4x2 1/2x1 1/16-inch per stud. Pinions are placed at
each end of the armature shaft and there is a 4.37 reduction ratio.
Efficiency of motor including gear loss, at 12 m. p. h., 390 amperes,

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 321

and 600 volts, is 86 per cent.; it raises to a maximum of 88 per cent, at
14 m. p. h. and lowers to 83 per cent, at 10.5 m. p. h. Resistance of
motor at 75° C. is 0.1 ohm. See motor drawings, Figure 43.

Controllers are Sprague-General Electric. Two or more locomotives
are controlled from either end of any cab. Acceleration provided is
particularly uniform, to prevent breaking the drawbars on ordinary 50-
car freight trains. The motors are used 4 in series, 2 in series and
2 in parallel, or 4 in parallel. There are 9 resistance steps in series, 8 in
series-parallel, and 7 in parallel.

Weight of armature is 3000; magnet frame, 3000; 4 main poles and
spools, 1000; 4 interpoles and spools, 500 pounds; motor complete,
10,200; and with gear case 11,600 pounds; electrical equipment, 32 tons;
dead weight per axle, 7 tons. Locomotive weight, 100 tons.

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF MICHIGAN CENTRAL
LOCOMOTIVES.

Current
amperes.

Speed
m.p.h.

Tractive
effort lb.

Power
H.p.

Notes or conditions.

2400

2100

1600

1200

1000

900

835

720

550

440

400

10.7

56,000

11.0

48,000

11.8

35,000

13.0

24,000

14.0

18,800

14.5

16,000

15.0

14,400

16.0

11,500

18.0

7,200

20.0

4,900

21.0

4,000

1600
1410
1100
830
700
620
575
490
345
260
225

Forced ventilation.
Volts 600.
One-hour h.p. 1100.

Drivers 48-inch.
Gear ratio 4.37.

Continuous h.p. 490.

Four G.E-209 motors.

. Baltimore & Ohio 1910 locomotives use this motor and gear, and 50-inch drivers.

References: Drawings in E. W., April 18, 1908; E. R. J., May 18, 1907; March 28,
1908; June 19, 1909; Jan. 14 and 21, 1911.

PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD— EXPERIMENTAL.

Pennsylvania Railroad Company in 1905 and 1907 ordered from the
Westinghouse Company direct-current locomotives No. 10001 and No.
10002, a geared and a gearless type respectively. They were at first
used on the Long Island Railroad and on the West Jersey and Seashore
Railroad, for testing purposes, in freight and passenger haulage, and also
in high-speed service. The design was a symmetrical swivel truck type.

322 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Weight of the geared unit was 87 tons, and of the gearless, 97 tons.
Rigid wheel base, 8.5 feet; total wheel base, 26 feet; drivers 56-inch.

Motors were two per locomotive, direct-current, 600-volt, rated 300
and 320 h. p. The gearless motor weight was 11,500 pounds and the
armature weight 5300 pounds. Natural ventilation was used.

Fig. 101. — Pennsylvania Railroad Experimental Locomotive of 1905.

On test, at speeds above 45 m. p. h., the two-swivel -truck wheel
arrangement was not safe, and track destruction was evidenced. Tests
were continued with unsymmetrical trucks. See alternating-current
locomotive, page 357.

References. S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906, and Oct. 12, 1907, p. 602, plate XXI.

PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD, 19 lo.

Pennsylvania Railroad Company placed in service in 1910 at its New
York Terminal Division, 24 direct-current, 157-ton, 4-4-4-4 type loco-
motives. Cabs, running gear, and mechanical parts were built by the
Company, while the electrical equipment was Westinghouse. In 1911,
nine duplicate locomotives were placed in service.

The electric zone in which these locomotives run extends 12 miles
east from Newark, New Jersey, and thru two tunnels to the terminal in
Manhattan, thence on east 4 miles and thru two tunnels to Long Island

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES

323

City and to Simnyside terminal yards beyond. The New York Connecting-
Railroad will make connections to the New Haven road via the Harlem
River yards. Montauk Point trains between the New York terminal
and points 25 miles east, on Long Island, are handled by electric loco-
motives; while motor-car train service, thru two other tunnels between
Manhattan and Long Island, is handled by the Long Island Railroad.
Motor-car train service between Newark, or Manhatten Transfer, and
Jersey City, over Pennsylvania tracks, is handled by the Hudson and
Manhattan Railroad. Sunnyside yards have 73 miles of tracks.

The service includes the handling by electric locomotives of about
88 thru passenger trains per day in the above electric zone.

Specifications outlined by the Pennsylvania Railroad locomotive
committee, George Gibbs, A. W. Gibbs, D. F. Crawford, and A. S. Vogt,
called for a 2-motor, double American-type articulated locomotive,
which would start and accelerate a 550-ton trailing load (9 Pullmans) on 2

Fig. 102. — Pennsylvania Railroad 157-ton Locomotive of 1910.

per cent, tunnel grades. It was to have a guaranteed tractive effort of
00,000 pounds for one-half minute and 50,000 pounds for two minutes.
(On test a dynamometer between the locomotive and a train, with some
brakes set, showed a drawbar pull of 79,200 pounds or 39 per cent, of
the weight on the drivers.) The normal speed, with load on the level,
was to be 60 m. p. h., yet the locomotive was to be safe at 80 m. p. h.,
for use on a New York-Philadelphia run. Tests called for acceleration
of trains on a 2 per cent, grade with one motor cut out. Controllers
were required to carry as high as 7000 amperes at GOO volts.

Weight of the locomotive is 314,000 pounds of which 200,000 pounds,
or 64 per cent., are carried by 4 sets of 72-inch drivers, and 114,000
pounds by 4 sets of 36-inch bogie wheels,

324

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

D D uj:k\ d

W)'.G)'~

D [Z^M Q Q

^^OiC^ I

[<4'64 6-7^^3-10^5-6

-19-9^-
-23-1

+-€^.

29300 29300 4-9200 4-920O 4-9200 49200 29300 2930O.

Fig. 103. — Pennsylvania Railroad Locomotive op 1910.

Thirty-three used at New York terminal. 157-ton, 2500-h. p., direct-current, 660-volt3. Two

motors, side-rod type. Crank diameter 26 inches. Natural ventilation. Passenger service.

Fig. 104. — Pennsylvania Railroad. Front Elevation of Locomotive.

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 325

In general the locomotive is built in two sections, with two symmetri-
cal running gears, joined at the middle with a permanent coupling of
twin drawbars and friction draft gears so designed that the leading half
serves to guide the trailer, and opposes any buckling action of halves.

Mechanical connections are made by means of rods between cranks
on the ends of the armature shaft of the motor and cranks on a jackshaft,
which is mounted on the frames in the same plane as the driving axles.

Fig.

105. — Pennsylvania Railroad. Running Gear op Locomotive.
The two motors are mounted on the truck frames.

Cranks are necessary, with the great length of the armature shaft used.
The fixed distance between the center line of the jackshaft and the motor
is 7 feet 2 inches. The jackshaft cranks connect to cranks on the drivers
by means of 6-foot side rods. The cranks are in quartered positions,
and counterbalanced. Connecting side rods, which run from the crank
to the two drivers, have the adjustable heads employed on the Penn-
sylvania class E-3 steam locomotive.

Trucks are two, of the articulated type. Truck wheel bases are G feet
7 inches; rigid driver wheel bases, 7 feet 2 inches; wheel base of each half,

326 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

23 feet 1 inch; total wheel base, 55 feet 1 1 inches. Locomotive length over
all is 65 feet.

The center of gravity is 64 inches above the rail.

Frames are of cast steel and of sufficient strength to allow the engine
to be raised by jacks applied at fixed points, with all pedestal binders
removed. The side frames are broad, and furnish bases for the feet of
the electric motor frames, which fit over the heavy flanged top members of
the side frames. The frames are proportioned for a bump equivalent to
the static load of 500,000 pounds (150,000 pounds applied on the center
line of draft cylinders and 350,000 pounds applied on the center line of
platform buffers) which is to produce no stress in the frames exceeding
12,000 pounds per square inch.

Motors consist of two direct-current interpole units per locomotive. The
1-hour rating on 600 volts and 1350 amperes is 1000 h. p. with natural ventilation;
on 660 volts and 1525 amperes is 1250 h. p.; and the continuous rating on 660 volts
and 1070 amperes is 800 h. p. Motors are guaranteed to handle the tunnel and
terminal service and train weights on the grade, with given layover periods. Two
motors can develop 4000 h. p. for 30 minutes. The intermittent character of the
service calls for a root-mean-square all-day load of 1600 amperes at 400 volts, at
which load the rise in temperature will not exceed 60° C.

The armature is 56 inches in diameter, and the core is 23 inches wide. The speed
at 60 m.p.h. is 280 r.p.m. The armature core is so mounted on the spider that in case
of a short circuit or flash-over, between the brush holders, which would act as an
electric brake on the armature, the core will slip on an adjustable clutch on the arma-
ture spider, and prevent the destruction of crank pins or locomotive driving mechan-
ism. Bearings do not extend under the commutator or under the armature windings,
and caps may be lifted vertically. The center line of the motor armature is 25 1/2
inches above the cab floor, and 93 1/2 inches above the rail, and thus the motor is
secure from snow, dirt, and water. Space limitations are largely removed and the
design possesses excellent mechanical and electrical features. The motor shaft
extends well across the width of the cab giving room for ample bearing length.
The motor frames are cast-steel shells, divided horizontally. Natural ventilation is
used. Each motor weighs complete, with the crank, 45,000 pounds and the armature
weighs 10,950 pounds. See figure 49.

Controllers of the electro-pneumatic switch type, i. e., actuated by
air from the brake compressor and operated by electro-magnets, are
placed at each end of the cab. The main power does not pass thru the
controllers or the cab. Three speeds are called for in control, a slow
speed for switching operations, half speed, and full speed. The bridging
scheme is used for passing from series to multiple connection. Motor
fields are reversed to change the direction of motion.

Field control is used on the two motors in addition to the series-
multiple grouping, and a large saving is thus effected in resistors. During
acceleration the power consumption is reduced to 55 per cent, of what it
would be without field control. The design of the poles is such that

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 327

each is wound in 2 sections, the full field being shunted for high speed.
The change from full field to normal field increases the speed 65 per cent,
and reduces the tractive effort 39 per cent., the motor horse power being

Fig. 106. — Pennsylvania Railroad Locomotive and Eight-car Train.

Fig. 107. — Locomotive Hauling the New York-Chicago, 18-hour, "Pennsylvania Special.'

at 1000. A motor load of 1250 h. p. is developed with the normal field
without appreciable sparking; and, when running at 70 m. p. h., on 725
volts, with normal field, the opened and closed circuits caused by gaps
in the third rails do not cause spitting at the brushes.

328

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Switches and control devices must handle, very heavy current inputs,
commonly 7000 amperes at 660 volts and in emergency as high as 9000
amperes. Power-plant switchboards seldom handle such heavy currents
and they are never operated so many times as on a locomotive. The
efficiency of these switches, which are able to rupture the entire current,
is remarkable. Altho the noise somewhat resembles the report of a
pistol, there is hardly a flash on the arcing tips.

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PENNSYLVANIA
LOCOMOTIVES.
Volts, 600; drivers, 72-inch; air gap, 9/16-inch; crank diameters, 26 inches; motors
in parallel; transmission losses not included. Data from Westinghouse publication;
Electric Journal; articles by George Gibbs, J. L. Davis; and other sources.

Speed

Current

Power

Efficiency

Tractive effort

Field

m.p.h.

amperes.

h.p.

p.c.

pounds.

winding.

7000

79,200

Full.

6400

4400

85.0

69,000

Full.

5700

4000

87.0

60,000

Full.

4700

3360

89.0

48,000

Full.

31.5

2700

2000

92.2

24,000

Full.

2050

1540

93.0

16,000

Full.

4200

3100

92.0

29,400

Normal.

3500

2600

93.0

22,000

Normal.

2800

2120

93.5

16,000

Normal.

2650

2000

93.5

14,600

Normal.

2100

1600

93.5

10,000

Normal.

1700

1280

93.0

7,000

Normal.

1500

1120

92.5

5,500

Normal.

Operating voltage is 660, on which there is 10 per cent, greater speed and power.

Service during 1910 has shown the following:

Work on the tunnel grades is severe, and at high speed the air resistance in the
long tubes is excessive.

Locomotive loads of 10 cars in switching and storage service, and 13 cars in
regular passenger trains have been hauled.

Clutches between the armature core and the spider of the motor are set to slip
at 3500 amperes per motor, and when they have shpped they have caused no delay.

Acceleration often requires 2700 amperes.

The rear haK of the locomotive does not seem to articulate well with the front
half. Some action tends to lift the rear half from the tracks.

In acceleration the wheels seem to spin readily on the rear half.

Vibration of the entire locomotive is excessive, and has caused a great deal of
breakage at wire terminals, couphngs, and unions; loosening of the tightest bolts
and nuts; breaking of rheostat grids; loosening of contactor fingers; shaking off of
train Hne control jumpers; and opening of joints at heavy electrical connections.

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES

329

Jackshaft design has not been satisfactory. The weight of the counterbalance
has been increased, but the jackshaft persists in pounding. The jackshaft bearings
and hnings have also given trouble.

Smooth running has not been obtained. The locomotives are known as rollers
and pitchers and have many of the qualities of modern steam locomotives in heavy
high-speed-service.

References.

E. R. J., Nov. 6, 1909; Ry. Age, Nov. 5, 1909.
Scientific American, Dec. 18^ 1909.
Kirker: Electric Journal, Sept., 1910.
Gibbs: E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 960.

Fig. 108. — Galt, Preston & Hespler Locomotive, 1910.

GALT, PRESTON & HESPLER.

Gait, Preston & Hespler Railway locomotive is a good representative
light-weight, inexpensive unit of the two-swivel-truck type with four
100-h.p., 50-ton, geared, 600- volt, direct-current motors, for light
freight train service between small cities. Scores of similar locomotives
are used by interurban railways.

ILLINOIS TRACTION.

Illinois Traction Company has built about G locomotives per year since
1 907 for its freight service in Illinois where it has about 560 miles of track.

The locomotives are of the 2-truck, swivel type, and resemble a
common baggage car. They weigh 40 tons to 60 tons, and have a length

330

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

of 31 to 34 feet. Eight 36-inch drivers are used. Trucks and motors are
purchased, but the locomotive frames are built by the company. The
frames generally consist of six parallel 10-inch 40-pound I-beams, which

Fig. 109. — Galt, Preston & Hespler Locomotive and 1060-ton Train.

are continuous from bumper to bumper. The body framing is of struc-
tural steel shapes, and supports a turtle-back roof. Details follow the
specifications of the M. C. B. Association, in the matter of roof, mounts,
sliding doors, steps, footholds, couplers, draft gear, wheels, axles, pilots.

Fig. 110. — Illinois Traction Company Locomotive of 1910.

Six used in freight service on St. Louis Division. 60-ton, 960-h. p., direct-current, 600 volts.

Four-geared motors, natural ventilation.

automatic air brakes, train pipes, etc. Truck wheel bases are 7 feet 2
inches, and truck centers of 19 feet are used. The inside of the loco-
motive is fairly free from apparatus, and is loaded with merchandise.

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES

331

Motors are direct-current 600-volt. For the older locomotives, there
are four 90- to 150-h. p. motors. Six locomotives built in 1910 have
4 G.E. 66-C, 240-h. p. motors, geared for slow speed, and controlled by
Sprague-G.E. 18-point controllers, with 39 contactors.

References. Description, drawings, and photographs, S. R. J., March 16, and
July 6, 1907; E. R. J., Oct. 8, 1910, p. 646.

NORTH-EASTERN RAILWAY.

North -Eastern Railway, Newcastle, England, since 1904 has used six
locomotives which displaced steam locomotives for freight traffic.

Fig. 111. — North-Eastern Railway, England, Electric Freight Locomotive.

The service and specifications require each locomotive to be capable of
handling a 335-ton train on a level at 14 m. p. h. and-of starting a 166-ton
train on a 4 per cent, grade and running up this grade at 9 . 5 m.p.h. The
electric locomotives are of the double bogie type with central cab.

Frames are of steel section with cast-iron blocks to bring up the weight.
Side soles are 12-inch girders; center longitudinal girders are two 8-inch

332 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

channels, and ends are 15-inch channels. Head stocks are of 8x15-
inch oak. The bolster is formed by .two 6x5-inch girders, of 1-inch sec-
tion, held on upper and lower sides by 3/4-inch plates.

Trucks are of steel-plate frame, in accordance with English railway
practice, strengthened with steel angles, and gussets with swinging bolster.
The latter is supported on two nests of coil springs and is provided with
cast-steel wearing plates, cast-steel center and side-bearing plates. Side
frames are supported on axle boxes by heavy laminated springs.

Motors are 4, a direct-current type, 600-volt, 160-h. p., with 2-turn
armatures, and have a 3.28 gear ratio.

Weight is 55 tons, all on eight 36-inch drivers. Length is 38 feet
and the truck pivoted centers are 20 feet 6 inches. Wheel base is 6 feet

6 inches.

Reference. S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 675 with photograph.

METROPOLITAN— LONDON.

Metropolitan Railway of London has used 10 electric locomotives for
hauling the Great Western trains thru the northern part of the Circle, and
for conveying its freight and passenger trains since the year 1905.
The locomotives are used to haul 170-ton passenger trains at 36 m. p. h.,
and 275-ton freight trains at 27 m. p. h.

The framing resembles that on the North-Eastern. Two trucks are
used, each with a 7-foot 6-inch wheel base. The truck centers are 17 feet
4 inches. Drivers are 36 inches. Total weight is 52 tons.

Motors per locomotive are 4, each 200 h.p., direct-current, 600-
volt, but rated 250 h. p. with forced draft at 4 to 6 ounces pressure.

Reference. S. R. J., Aug. 26, 1905; Sept. 1, 1907.

PARIS-ORLEANS RAILWAY.

Paris-Orleans Railway of France, a steam road, began the use of 8
electric locomotives in 1899, first on a 2.4-mile tunnel section, and in
1904 on a 15-mile section between Paris and Juvisy. Other sections
have since been added.

The first locornotives were 55-ton, 35-foot, of the 2-bogie truck type
with 4 sets of 49-inch drivers. Truck centers were 16 feet; truck bases

7 feet 10 inches, and the total wheel base 23 feet 10 inches.

Three 61-ton locomotives of the ^'baggage carrying" type with 18-
foot 6-inch truck centers were added in 1904.

Service conditions require the locomotive to haul 220-ton trains at a
schedule speed of 43 to 48 m. p. h. and at a maximum speed of 62 m. p. h.
The balance speed on the level with a 300-ton trailing load is 32 m. p. h.

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 333

Fig. 112. — Paris-Orleans Railway Locomotive in Austerlitz Station, 1899.

Fig. 113. — Paris-Orleans Railway Locomotive. Type used Since 1899.
Elevation and plan of 55-ton unit.

334

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Motors on each locomotive are four G.E.-65j or 250-h. p., 575-volt,
direct-current. The armature core is 23 1/2 inches in diameter by 12
inches long. The motors, which weigh 8855 pounds each, are mounted
with one end on the axle and nose supported on the tfruck transom;
and a 2.23 gear ratio is used. Weight of the electrical equipment is 39
per cent, of the total weight of the locomotive,

DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES, 2000- VOLT.

Rombacher-Huette Company of Maizieres, Lorraine, France, has
used 3 Siemens-Schuckert 2000-volt, direct-current, freight locomotives,
since 1906. The road is 9 miles long and connects the Moselheutte blast
furnaces with iron mines at Ste. Marie.

The service calls for the handling of 3000 tons of iron ore per day
over a mountainous road. The ore is hauled up grades averaging 2 1/2

Fig. 114. — Rombacher Huette Railway, Maizieres, France. Freight Locomotive.

per cent, for 2 miles, then a level stretch of 2 miles and then a down-
grade averaging 2 1/2 per cent, for 5 miles. Ruling grades for loaded
trains are 3 per cent. The curves are severe and require slow running.
The trip requires one hour. Cars weigh 14 tons empty and 48 tons
loaded. Trains weigh about 300 tons.

Locomotive weight is 62 tons, on 4 sets of 49-inch drivers. There
are two 4-wheel bogie trucks on 15-foot 9-inch centers, and wheel bases
of 8 foot 6 inch.

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 335

The power system used is as follows: Three-phase current is generated
and transmitted at 5700 volts, and afterward converted to direct current.
Three-phase traction was not used because it required complicated
overhead construction, and a large number of substations. Single-phase
traction at 6000 volts would have been a disadvantage, because the
line was short; and because, wuth the meter gage used, and the long
commutator and the shorter effective core length, a sufficiently large
geared motor could not be placed below the locomotive platform.

Substations are located at each end of the line, and each contains a synchronous,
three-phase, 880-h. p., 375-r. p. m. motor driving a 600-kw., 2000- volt, direct-current
generator. Special care was given to the insulation of the commutator of the gener-
ator and motor; and brush holders are set in compartments and insulated from
the brush rocker, which in turn is insulated from the frame. Commutating poles are
provided. In the switch gear at the station and on the locomotives the air spaces
provided are large. Blow-out coils send the arcs at the fingers outward along con-
tacts arranged in the form of horns. Automatic cut-outs and fuses have reliefs thru
the roof to give a free exit for the arc. Oil switches could not be used, because of
the surging which would be produced in the high-tension, continuous-current system
by the rapid extinction of the arc in the oil. Magnetic blow-outs use horn extinguish-
ers, and the arc is broken at two points, well removed from the contact blades.

A short-circuit switch is provided in the cab, as on some American locomotives,
for earthing the current collector, for the double purpose of protecting men who may
be inspecting or repairing the electrical equipment and to short-circuit the main line
in case an arc in the internal wiring, or in the motor, becomes uncontrollable.

Motors consist of four 160-h.p., 1000-volt, 4-pole, interpole, geared
units, permanently connected in groups of 2 in series. Motors have 61
slots and 183 segments. At 160-h. p. rating, torque is 1700 pounds, speed
is 620 r. p. m., amperes are 125, and motor efficiency is 91 per cent.
Reference. Railway Gazette, London, October and November, 1907.

St. Georges de Commiers a la Mure, France, a similar electric freight
road, 20 miles long, was built in 1903.

The system is the direct-current, 2400-volt, Thury, 3-wire, 2-trolley.
Locomotives weigh 55 tons and haul thirteen 44-ton cars up 2.75 per
cent, grades. There are four 125-h.p., 600-volt, nose-suspended motors
per locomotive. Electric braking is used.
Reference. S. R. J., Oct. 31, 1903. See 750- to 2000-volt roads, Chapter IV. •

LITERATURE.

References to other Direct-Current Locomotives.

Havana Central R. R.: 40-ton, E. W., April 15, 1909.

Boston Elevated Ry.: S. R. J., March 2, 1907.

Canadian Pacific R. R.: Hull-Aylmer Div., freight, E. E., Oct. 7, 1896.

Brooklyn Rapid Transit: S. R. J., March 23, 1907, p. 488; Oct. 1, 1910; Ry. Age, Nov.

11, 1910.
Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley: S. R. J., Aug. 4, 1906.

336

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Toledo & Indiana R. R.: S. R. J., Aug. 4, 1906.

Indiana Union Traction: E. R. J., Sept. 12, 1908, pp. 637 and 747.

Cliicago City Railway: E. R. J., Nov. 21, 1908; E. T. W., Nov. 14, 1908.

Kansas City and Westport: S. R. J., Feb. 16, 1907.

Portland, Oregon, Railway: 7 locomotives, E. R. J., Dec. 21, 1907.

Northern Electric Ry., Cal.: E. R. J., June 10, 1911, p. 1011.

Pacific Electric Ry. : Los Angeles, E. R. J., Oct. 10, 1908, p. 827.

General Electric: Catalog No. 4537, Sept., 1907; No. 3287, Jan., 1905; No. 9139, Aug.,

1905; No. 4390, Oct., 1904; No. 4851, June, 1911.
Westinghouse Electric Circular: No. 7045, of 1906; 1510 of 1910; 1517 of 1911.
Westinghouse and General Electric Data, E. R. J., July 2, 1906, p. 12.

Central London: Forty 48-ton, 680-h. p., E. W., July 21, 1900; Aug. 16, 1902, p. 229.

City and South London: S. R. J., June, 1899; Aug. 16, 1909, p. 229.

Norwegian: Electric Review, Nov. 13, 1909.

France: DuBois, S. R. J., May 20, 1905, p. 911.

Paris-Lyons Mediterranean: 600-h. p. loco, drawings, E. W., Feb. 4, 1899.

Vienna City: 520-h. p.; 1500-volt, d. c, 3-wire, S. R. J., Nov. 3, 1906.

See 1200- to 2000-volt railway references, pp. 129 and 130, Chapter IV.

REFERENCES TO DETAILED DRAWINGS OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

Name of Locomotive.

Maker.

Location.

References.

Baltimore & Ohio 96

G.E

West

G.E

Baltimore & Ohio 03 ... .
Baltimore & Ohio 10 ... .
Bush Terminal

Baltimore

Brooklyn

Boston

N. Y. Terminal . .

Detroit

N. Y. Terminal..
Illinois . .

G.E. Bulletin 4537, 1907, p. 12.
G.E. Review, Dec, 1910.
G.E. Bulletin 4537, 1907, p. 14.
S.R.J., March 23, 1907, p. 489. .
March 2, 1907, p. 388.
A.I.E.E., May, 1907, p. 748.
G.E. Bulletin 4537, 1907, p. 6.
S.R.J., Dec. 19, 1908, p. 1620.
G.E. Bulletin 4537, p. 9.
Ry. Age Gaz., Nov. 5, 1909.
E.R.J., Oct. 8, 1910.

Brooklyn Rapid T

Boston Elevated

New York Central

Michigan Central

Pennsylvania R.R

Pacific Electric

Northern Elec, Cal

Metropolitan

West

T.H

G.E

Los Angeles

Sacramento

London

France

E.R. Rev., July 27, 1907.
E.R.J. , June 10, 1911, p. 1011.
S.R.J., Aug. 26, 1905; Sept. 7, 1907.

Paris-Orleans

Paris -Lyons-M

Paris Terminal. .
1 France

E. W., Feb. 4, 1899, p. 146.
Ry. Gaz., Oct. and Nov., 1907.

Rombacher-Huette

Siemens . . .

DESCRIPTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT LOCOMOTIVES 337

This page is reserved for additional references and notes on direct-current
locomotives.

CHAPTER IX.
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES.

Outline.
LIST OF THREE-PHASE ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

Nams of railway.

Mile-
age.

Year
opend.

No. of
loco.

Power
h.p.

Wt.
tons.

Sets of
drivers.

Speed
m.p.h.

Gear
ratio.

Volt-
tage.

No. of
cycles.

Lugano, Italy. . . .

1896

2-33"

4.0

500

Gornergrat

1898

160

Rack. . .

12.0

500

Jungf rau

1898

180

Rack. . .

500

240

12.6

500

Stansstad-

1898

150

Rack. . .

3-6

5.0

750

Engleberg.

Burgdorf-Thun

1899

170

3.00

750

Interurban.

300

2-48"

1.88

750

Siemens Works . .

1904

1000

6-35"

2.13

10000

Italian State:

Valtellina Line

1902

900

4-55"

Crank

3000

1904

1200

3-59"

Crank

3000

1906

1500

3-59"

Crank

3000

Giovi Line, Genoa

1909

1980

5-42"

Crank

3000

Savonna Line. . .

1909

1980

5-42"

Crank

3000

Mt. Cenis Tunnel

1910

1980

5-42"

Crank

3000

Zossen Tests

1903

1000

100

6-49"

120

No gear

10000

(motor cars) . . .

1903

1000

6-49"

120

No gear

10000

Port Stanley,

1905

130

4-36"

3.27

1100

London, Canada

Swiss Federal-.

Simp Ion Tunnel.

1907

1100

3-61"

Crank

3000

1909

1700

4-49"

Crank

3000

Santa Fe, Spain. .

1908

320

Gear

5500

Great Northern:

Cascade Tunnel.

1909

1700

115

4-60"

4.26

6600

References to detailed Drawings of Three-phase Locomotives, 353

338

CHAPTER IX.

DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES.

The technical descriptions of three-phase locomotives which follow
do not include the small units used in the first five roads.

SIEMENS-SCHUCKERT.

Siemens -Schuckert Works, in 1904, built a large 3-phase, 50-cycle,
4-4-ton locomotive, for experimental work. See accompanying illus-
tration.

The locomotive had two bogie trucks, on the axles of which were four
6-pole, 250-h. p. geared motors. A 2.13 gear ratio was used. Drivers
were 36-inch. The potential between each of 3 trolleys was 10,000 volts.

i
H

Kfir "■*- "is

■P

HK- ■ .

—

, .M ,

Fig. 115. — Siemens-Schuckert Locomotive of 1904.
Three-phase, 11,000- to 1000- volt, 1000-h. p., geared type.

VALTELLINA RAILWAY.

Valtellina Line of the Italian State Railway, between Lecco, Sondrio,
and Chiavenna, uses electric locomotives for 500-ton freight trains, and
motor cars for 6-coach passenger trains. About 60 per cent, of the route
has 2 per cent, gradients, tunnels, and sharp curves.

The system is the 15-cycle, 3000-volt, three-phase; and the road, which
has 70 miles of track, is fed from a 4200-kw. water power plant, thru
nine 300-kw. transformer substations.

339

340 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The electrical equipment, built by Ganz & Company, follows:

Two 600-h. p., 52-ton, 0-4-0 locomotives ordered in 1902.

Two 1200-h. p., 69-ton, 2-6-2 loconiotives ordered in 1904.

Two 1500-h. p., 69-ton, 2-6-2 locomotives ordered in 1906.

Ten 300- to 600-h. p., 32- to 58-ton motor cars, ordered in 1902.

The 1902 locomotives, with 2 swivel trucks and 4 pairs of drivers,
are used for freight service. They have one economical speed, 18.6
miles per hour. Drawbar pull is rated 11,000 pounds. There are four
14-pole, 128 r.p.m., 150-h.p., gearless, axle-mounted motors per locomo-
tive. Motors weigh 22 tons, or 42 per cent, of the total weight.

The 1904 locomotives have 3 driving axles and 2 pony axles. There
are two economical speeds, 37.0 and 18.3 m.p.h., and the rated draw-
bar pull is 7000 to 12,000 pounds.

Fig. 116. — Italian State Railway, — Valtellina Locomotive of 1906.
Three-phase, 15-cycle, 2-inotor unit. Total rated horse power 1500 at 40 m.p.h. Weight 69 tons.

Motors are two 600-h. p. twin units, mounted in pairs on one shaft between the
second and third and between the third and fourth axles ; and drive the axles thru a
Scotch yoke, crank, and side rods. The 3 pairs of drivers are coupled and there is
no danger, with varying loads on the individual motors, that one of the driving axles
will slip. Motor and driving gear are spring-mounted and completely counter-
balanced. Control is so arranged that at half speed the rotors of the 2 primary 3000-
volt motors feed the stators of the two 400- volt motors connected in cascade relation
with the first motors, which are placed on the same shaft. Each pair of motors has
a 1-hour rating of 900 h. p. At full speed the 2 pairs of motors have a 1-hour rating
of 1200 h. p. Width of motors is 51 inches, and diameter is 68 inches. Weight of two
600-h. p. primary motors is 36,800 pounds and of secondary motors 18,800 pounds;
total 55,600 pounds or 40 per cent, of the total weight, which is 139,000 pounds.
Distance between cranks along the axle is 78 inches; distance between axle bear-

DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 341

ings along axle is 57 inches; distance between motor bearings along axle is 34 inches;
width of motor is 51 inches; diameter of motor is 68 inches.

Specifications for the 1904 locomotive required it to accelerate a
448-ton train at 0.34 m. p. h. p. s., and to start a 448-ton train on a 0.3
per cent, grade, and bring it up to a speed of 18.6 m. p. h. every 2 minutes
for 1 hour, without excessive heating; and further that the motors on 10-
hour shop test, at rated speed and load, should not have a temperature
rise in any part exceeding 60° C. above the surrounding air. A 100 per
cent, overload was specified for 200 seconds, and also a 50 per cent, over-
load for 60 minutes, without 40° C. rise above the surrounding air.

Design of 1904 locomotives calls for one fixed middle axle, which is
journaled in the main frames. The other two driving axles have a range

Fig. 117. — Valtellina Railway Locomotive of 1906.

of side movement of about one inch. The locomotive has leading and
trailing pony axles each of which has a radial movement, and one of them
also has a lateral movement at the bolster. The fixed wheel base runs
from the middle driving axle to the bolsters at the middle of the front
truck. The truck design results in great freedom of adjustment and
smooth running at curves. The cra^nks of the two motors are connected
at each end of the motor by a yoke, which again is connected to the crank
of the middle driving axle, but the bearing on this crank has a free ver-
tical movement in the rod.

The 1906 locomotives have the driving axles, the pony axles, and the
connections used for the 1904 locomotives. There are, however, three
economical speeds, in place of two.

342

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Motors are two, a 1200-h.p. and a 1500-h.p. At full speed only one
motor is used and the locomotive is then rated at 1500 h. p. The relation
of drawbar pull to speed is quoted as:

Two motors, cascade relation, 16 m.p.h., 14,500 pounds.
One 12-pole, 1200-h.p., 26 m.p.h., motor 12,100 pounds.
One 8-pole, 1500-h.p., 40 m.p.h., motor 12,100 pounds.
Two motors cannot be operated together at full speed.

DATA ON VALTELLINA RAILWAY LOCOMOTIVES.

Locomotives ordered in

1902

1904

1906.

Number ordered

two
0-4-4-0

two
2-6-2

two

Wheel arrangement

2-6-2

H. p. rating at each speed.

600 @ 18.3 mph.

900 @ 18. 3 mph.

@16 mph.

in m. p. h.

1200 @ 37.0 mph.

1200@25 mph.
1500@40 mph.

Full speed of motor, in r.p.m.

128

225

Pairs and diam. of drivers. .

four 55''

. three 59"

three 59"

Pairs and diam. of truck

none

two 33

wheels.

Wheel base, total

2F-8''

3F-10''

31'-2"

Wheel base, rigid

6'-7''

16'- 1"

15'-5"

Weight, total tons

Weight on drivers, tons. . . .

Weight of motors, tons. . . .

27.8

27.3

References on Valtellina Locomotives, Italian State Railway.

Wilson and Lydall: Vol. I, p. 347; Vol. II, p. 54, for duplex motors on 1904 loco.
Locomotive Tests: S. R. J., March 11, 1905; Aug. 5 and 25, 1905; Electrical World,

Vol. 46, pp. 221 and 766, 1905; S. R. J., May 2 and 30, 1903, p. 663 and 788.
Hammer: Descriptive, A. I. E. E., Feb., 1901.
Waterman and Muralt: A. I. E. E., June, 1905; Nov., 1909.

Kando: Zeitschrift des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure, Jan., 1905 and Jan., 1909.
Valatin: Speed Control, S. R. J., Apr. 6, 1907, p. 575; weight factor, S. R. J., Jan. 4,

1908; Elektrische Kraftbetriebe and Bahnen, 1907, heft 6.

GIOVI RAILWAY.

Giovi Railway, an Italian State Railway, between Genoa, Piedmont,
and Lombard, in 1909 installed electric power for the section between
Genoa and Pontedecimo, 13 miles of double track.

The system is the 15-cycle, 3000-volt, three-phase.

Equipment was furnished by the Italian Westinghouse Company, and
includes 20 locomotives for the Giovi Line; also 20 locomotives for the

DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES

343

Savonna-Ceva Line, about 12 miles west of Genoa; and 10 locomotives
for the Mt. Cenis Tunnel.

The locomotives haul 1100 cars per day over the route and grades.
The tonnage is twice that previously sent over this double track line.
The service is stated to be the heaviest railroad freight traffic in the
world hauled by electric locomotives.

Power station now contains two 6000-kv.a. steam turbines driving
15-cycle, 13,000-volt alternators, and a water rheostat which can auto-
matically absorb a maximum of 4000 kw., if regenerated energy is not

Fig. 118, — Italian State Railway Locomotive. Giovi Line, 1909.

absorbed in useful work. There are four 3000-kw. step-down trans-
former substations along the 12.5-mile line, which reduce the voltage
to 3000.

In general there are two 990-h.p. , 225 r .p.m. motors per locomotive and
two locomotives per train. The locomotives have 2 speeds — 14.5 and
28 m.p.h. There are 5 coupled axles, and the drivers on the middle
axle are without flanges. Front and rear axle have an 0.8-inch lateral
movement. The two motors are placed over and between the axles
nearest the middle of the locomotive and are crank-connected to the
side rods, thru Scotch yokes.

Specifications for the 1909 Giovi locomotive follow:

Weight was not to exceed 67 tons; but the mechanical construction was to carry
an additional 25 per cent, if required for adhesion for heavier trains than specified.

344

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Trains to weigh 418 tons exclusive of the locomotives.

Locomotives to be used in pairs, one at each end of the train.

The road over which the locomotives were to be tested and used to be 12.5 miles
long. The grades to average 2.70 per cent, for a distance of 6.5 miles, the ruling grade
to be 3.50 per cent, for several miles, and a 2.90 per cent, g ade for 2.6 miles in one
tunnel. Curves to have a 540-foot minimum radius.

Speed on the up-grades to be 28 m.p.h., and in regeneration on the down-grades
to be 14 m.p.h. Acceleration to 28 m.p.h. to be carried out in 200 seconds, or at the
rate of 0.14 m. p. h. p. s. Acceleration to 14 m.p.h. with one locomotive hauling
440 tons trailing load, on a 0.3 per cent, grade, and 540-foot radius curve, to be
made 30 times per hour. Time for acceleration or for deceleration to be 2 minutes.

26Q00 26800

26800

2.6800 2680O

Fig. 119.^ — Italian State Railway Locomotive. Giovi Line, 1909.

Giovi Line. 67-ton, 1980-h. p., 3-phase, 15-cycle, 3000-3000-volt motors for side-rod connection.

Forced ventilation. Freight service.

Running time for 12.5 miles, at 28 m.p.h., to be 27 minutes; for the return 54
minutes; for the layover 59 minutes; round trip 140 minutes.

Temperature after 8.5 round trips or 20 hours' run with 418-tons trailing load,
with forced draft, followed by one round trip without forced draft, was not to rise
75° C. by resistance (not by thermometer) .

(Note: Power required on the 2.7 per cent, up-grade is (418 + 67 + 67) X (54 -f 6)
X 28/375 or 2475 h.p. ; and on 3.5 per cent, up-grade is 3134 h.p. Power on the level,
at full speed, is only 247 h.p.)

Motors have double frames, the outer of which is built into the main
locomotive frame and has for its function only the maintenance of the
air gap independent of changes in position of the locomotive frame
members. The outer frame takes the thrust of the connecting rods.
The motor is entirely spring mounted, on four spiral springs, two
on each side of the motor axle boxes. The motors are slipped into
place, in their outer frames, from below. A motor can be removed in
two hours. Two motors weigh 27 tons. See Figure 50.

DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 345

Motors are of the three-phase slip-ring, -S-pole type. Each is rated by
the Italian Westinghouse engineers at nearly 1000 h. p. for 1 hour or
720 h. p. continuous on forced draft, based on 75° C. rise, determined by
resistance measurements. Motors have partly closed slots for protection
of windings in the rotor and stator. These slots are filled with a flexible
insulating compound (which at times gets into the air gap).

Control is by means of the concatenated scheme. The rotor or second-
ary of the first motor delivers a very low voltage to the primary of the
second motor. The secondary of the second motor is then connected
to a compressed-air-controlled water rheostat, the gradual change in

Fig. 120. — Italian State Railway. — Giovi Line.
Locomotives and 440-ton train on 3 . 5 per cent, grade.

which provides smooth acceleration. In order to change from parallel to
concatenated connections or to reverse the direction of motor, a small
3000-volt, air-break switch is used to open the main circuit. Change
is then made in the contact mechanism or connections, so that arcing
does not occur at the controller contacts.

Multiple control is arranged, yet the current in any one motor is
limited and locomotives with widely different wheel diameters and loads
are used together. The pushing locomotive can then carry the larger load,
as is frequently desirable. The current to a locomotive is limited by the
addition of resistance, automatically inserted in the secondary of the
motor by the action of induction regulators, relays, and compressed air
which change the level of the water in the rheostats connected in the
secondary circuits of the motors. Interlocks are arranged for compressed-
air-operated switches, trolley, and rheostats. Bow trolleys with rolling
contact were found to be suitable for the low speeds.

346 ELECTRIC TRACTON FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

References.

Kando: Zeitschrift des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure, 1909, p. 1249, abstracted in

E. W., Aug. 11, 1910. Sprecht: Elec. Journal, Dec, 1908.
London Electrical Engineering, Feb. 9, 1911.
E. R. J., April 8, 1911, p. 631.

SWISS FEDERAL RAILWAY.

Simplon Tunnel Line from Brig in Switzerland to Iselle in Italy was
completed and placed in service, with electric locomotive traction, in
July, 1907. This 12.3-mile tunnel thru the Alps is the longest in the
world. The grade is 0.7 per cent, thru one-half, and 0.2 per cent, thru
the other half of the tunnel. The tunnel is very hot and moist, but it is
ventilated by means of fans, the air having a velocity of 7 m. p. h.

20I6O

31360

3360O

336 00

20I60.

Fig. 121. — Swiss Federal Railway Locomotive, 1907.

Two used on Simplon Tunnel. 70-ton, 1100-h. p., 3-phase, 16-cycle, 3000-3000-volt motors for

side-rod connection. Mixed service.

Water power is used for electric train haulage and comes from two
central stations having a total capacity of 2700 h. p.

The system used is the 16-cycle, three-phase, with 3000 volts on the
contact line, and also on the stator of the motors.

Each locomotive has two motors with cranks on the rotors which
connect thru Scotch yokes to the driver side rods.

Two class 2-6-2 locomotives, built in 1907, each have two 550-h. p.
slip-ring type motors, the control of which is by pole changing in the
primary and resistance in the rotor or secondary. The speed is 21 or
43 miles per hour.

Two class 0-4-4-0 locomotives, built in 1909, each have two 850-h. p.
squirrel-cage type motors, the control of which is by varying the voltage
to the stator. The speed is 16, 21, 33, or 43 m. p. h. Leading and trailing

DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 347

axles are surrounded b}^ liolloAV axles which allow some lateral movement,
and thus the use of pilot axles is avoided.

Locomotive design for the two 1909 locomotives shows a radical
improvement. Experience had taught that four speeds were quite
necessary. Collector-ring rotors were avoided on account of the limita-
tions of shaft space and core width, and the awkwardness of this high-
voltage, current-collecting device. Cascade control was not considered
advantageous; on the contrary, it was cumbersome and complicated.
The ideal three-phase motor was apparently not the bar-wound armature,
with collector rings, and complicated connections.

ZdOSO 38080

38080

Fig. 122. — Swiss Federal Railway Locomotive, 1909.

Two used at Simplon Tunnel. 76-ton, 1700-h. p., 3-phase, 16-cycle, 3000-3000-volt motors for

side-rod connection. Mixed service.

Squirrel-cage rotors were simple and rigid and had a minimum num-
ber of parts to get out of order. They were adopted for the 1909 loco-
motives. It is well known, however, that the squirrel-cage, low-resistance
rotors have a low starting torque, but the windings were designed with
5 times the ordinary resistance to give sufficient starting torque.

Specifications for the latest or 1909 locomotives:

Drawbar pull to exceed 13,000 pounds when running at 40 to 50 m. p. h. and to
exceed 5,500 pounds at a speed of 20 to 25 m. p. h., even should the normal voltage
of 3000 drop to 2700. (Drawbar pull varies inversely as the square of the voltage.)

Locomotives to be capable of bringing a train of a total weight of 448 tons of
2000 pounds from rest to a speed of 20 m. p. h. in 55 seconds on the level; to bring a
total weight of 280 tons from rest to a speed of 40 m. p. h. in 110 seconds; and to be
capabl3 of starting from rest with a total train weight of 280 tons on a 2 per cent,
grade with certainty under all conditions.

348

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Motors, starting resistance, and all electrical details to be proportioned to enable
a train having a total weight of 448 tons to be accelerated from rest to 20 m. p. h.
at least 30 consecutive times, at intervals of 2 minutes, on curves of not more
than 600-feet radii, and with a gradient of not more than 0.3 per cent., without
any part of the equipment sustaining injury from undue stress or overheating.

Motors after a continuous run of 10 hours at rated load, at either working speed,
to have a temperature rise in any part of the motor, including the bearings, not to
exceed 60° C. ; and after a continuous run of 1 hour at 50 per cent, overload, or 200
seconds at 100 per cent, overload, the temperature rise was not to exceed 40° C.

Motor torque and speed are varied by changing from 16 to 12, 8, or 6 poles;
and with 16 poles the drawbar pull is a maximum. The absolute torque is varied by
regulating the voltage impressed upon the rotor. At the instant of starting the max-
imum energy is lost in heat in the rotor, while at full speed only a part of this loss

Fig. 123. — Swiss Federal Railway, Simplon Tunnel Locomotive, 1909.
Three-phase, 3000-volt, 16-cycle units. Brown, Boveri & Co.

exists. The starting torque is proportional to the loss in the rotor circuits, and can
be obtained by using a large resistance and small current as in the collector ring rotor,
or by using a large current and small resistance. The latter scheme is used. The
rotor resistance is placed between the bars and the short-circuiting ring, and so
arranged that temperatures of 250° C, or an increase in resistance of about 50 per
cent., may be used under necessary circumstances. The loss in the stator winding
is somewhat larger than in a collector ring type of motor. In other words efficiency
is sacrificed for simplicity in the design and maintenance.

Parallel operation of different locomotives is not difficult. The maximum wear
of the drivers, with electric braking, is 1.375 inches or about 3 per cent., and the
squirrel-cage motors are designed for about 7 per cent, full-loaded slip.

Service reaches a maximum of 24 trains per day each way. It requires 700 h. p.
more to run in the tunnel than in the open.

DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 349

SIMPLON TUNNEL LOCOMOTIVE DATA.

Locomotives ordered in 1907 1909

Number ordered 2 2

Wheel order 2-6-2 0-8-0

Wt. of passenger cars 326 392

Wt. of freight cars 448 730

H. p. rating at 16 . 1 m. p. li 1300

21.7 800 1100

32.2 1300

43 . 5 1100 1700

R. p. m. of motor, full speed 240 320

No. of axles, total 5 4

Pairs and diam. of drivers 3-64 . 5'' 4-49 . 0"

Wheel base total 31'-11" 26'-3''

Wheel base rigid 16'- 1" 5'-7"

Wt. of electric motors, tons • 25.0 27.5

Wt. of transformers 0 6.6

W^t. of lighting set and compressors 8.0 5.0

Wt. of mechanical parts 37 . 0 37 . 0

Wt. of locomotive, total 69 . 0 76.0

Wt. of locomotive on drivers 50 . 0 76.0

Wt. on each set of drivers 16.6 19.1

H. p. per ton, full speed 15.9 22.4

Ratio drawbar pull to weight on drivers in starting, per cent. . . 35.5 34.5

DRAWBAR PULL AT DRIVERS IN POUNDS.

Lo3omotive of 1907 rated 1100 h. p. at 44 m. p. h.

Number of poles 16 16 8

Miles per hour standstill 21.73 43.47

Pull on the level 17,610 13,000 8,370

Pull on 2.5 % grade 17,610 9,480 5,080

Locomotive of 1909 rated 1700 h. p. at 44 m. p. h.

Number of poles 16 16 12 8 ' 6

Miles per hour standstill 16.46 21.73 32.91 43.47

Pull on the level 26,400 24,800 21,800 16,320 13,250

Pull on 2.5 % grade 26, 400 21,200 18,050 12,350 9,470

References on Simplon Tunnel Locomotives.

S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906; E. W., Oct. 27, 1906; Elec. Review, Nov. 13, Dec. 4, 1909.
Schweizerische Bauzeitung, Oct., 1909.
Zeitschrift des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure, Jan., 1909, p. 993.

GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY.

Great Northern Railway has four 115-ton, 3-phase electric locomotives.
They were ordered June, 1907, delivered February, 1909, and placed in
full service during July, 1909.

The service is trunk-line freight and passenger-train haulage thru a
tunnel in the Cascade mountains. The tunnel is 14,400 feet long and
has a 1.7 per cent, grade. The route is 4 miles long; and the mileage is (5.

350

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Power is derived from a water power plant on the Wenatchee River,
25 miles west of the tunnel. A 600-foot dam runs diagonally across the
river. The water is led to the power house by means of a wood stave
pipe 11,000 feet long and 8 feet 6 inches in diameter. The head is 140
feet. Generators consist of three 2000-kw., 3-phase, 25-cycle units.

Transmission line length is 30 miles. The voltage, which is 33,000,
is stepped down at the tunnel to 6600 volts for use on the double trolley.

Trucks for the locomotives were designed for low speeds on grades,
15 m. p. h. They are of the articulated or hinged type, with 4 drivers on

Fig. 124. — Great Northern Railway Locomotive, 1909.
Four used at Cascade Tunnel. 116-tons, 1700-h. p., 3-phase units. 25-cycIe, 6000-volt line.

Four 500- volt geared motors.

each half of the running gear, and there are no guiding wheels. The hinged
sections are designed to guide each other on curves. Trucks are equal-
ized to distribute the stresses over the springs and to eliminate twisting
stresses in the truck frame and running gear. The truck '"design is
described on page 319. The rigid wheel base is 11 feet, and the total
wheel base 31 feet 9 inches. Drivers are 60-inch.

The framing is made of annealed steel castings. Sides are trussed,
and end frames and bolsters are steel castings of the box girder type
designed for bufhng stresses of 500,000 pounds. Bolsters are hollow and
form part of the air duct for the motor ventilation. The cab is carried
on center pins on each bolster. One of the center pins provides for a
longitudinal variation in the distance between truck centers on curves.

Transformers on each locomotive are two 400-kw., three-phase.

DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 351

They reduce the voltage from 6000 to 500. These transformers and the
motors are cooled by a motor-driven fan which furnishes 9400 cubic feet
of air per minute at 2-ounce pressure.

Motors are four 3-phase, 25-cycle, 120-ampere, 8-pole, 500-volt,
of the slip-ring type units, rated 475 h.p. for 1 hour when supplied with
1500 cubic feet of air per minute at 2-ounce pressure. The diameter of
the armature is 35 3/4 inches, and the width is 16 1/4 inches. Gear
ratio is 4.26, and double gearing is used between the 358 r. p. m. rotor
and the axle. Maximum power factor is 86. Air-gap is 1/8 inch.

Horse power rating per motor is as follows:

Time in hours.

Cooling
j method.

Air
c.f.m.

Volts to
motor.

Power
h.p.

Note

No.

One hour, 75°.. .

Natural

500

425

Forced

0
1500

625
500

One hour, 75°. . .

475

625

550

Continuous, 75°.

Natural

500

250

Continuous, 75°.

Forced

1500

500

375

625

400

Continuous, 40°.

Forced

1500

500

260

Tractive effort at 375 h.p. is 9350 pounds; at 475 h.p. is 11,875 pounds.
Note 1. C. T. Hutchinson data to A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909, p. 1285.
Note 2. E. F. W. Alexanderson data to A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909, p. 1342.
Note 3. G. E. bulletin 4851, June, 1911.
Transformers have a 3-hour rating of 400 kv.a. with forced draft.

Motor control is by means of a variation of resistance in the rotor
circuit. Two motors are used in first starting and four while running.
Weight of locomotive in pounds is:

Two trucks 81,500

One cab 30,000

Four motors, 425-h. p. each 59,800

Two transformers, 400-kw. each 20,800

Compressors and blowers 7,100

Control equipment 13,400

Miscellaneous 17,400

Total weight 230,000

Weight per axle 57,500 pounds; dead weight per axle, 18,500 pounds.

Service consists of the haulage of about 3 passenger and 3 freight
trains each way per day. Trailing tons for freight trains exclusive of
3 electric locomotives are 1750; and for passenger trains exclusive of 2
electric locomotives are 775 tons. Annual locomotive mileage is 50,000.

352 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

This was the first three-phase locomotive equipment in America.
The installation is radically different from the installations made by
Ganz, Brown-Boveri, Westinghouse^ and Oerlikon in the following:

1. Trolley contacts are used in place of pantographs or bows, with cylinders or
sliders. Trolley wheels are held to be a nuisance. The changing of 6 trolleys at the
end of each short run, and in the dark at night, is a nuisance. A simple, wide panto-
graph could be substituted for the contact wheels. Catenary construction, parallel
to the trolleys, was not used to support the trolley in the switch yards. The over-
head pan switch design used is unsatisfactory and is a source of annoyance and
danger, even at the slow speed. See Figures 175 and 176.

Fig. 125. — Great Northern Locomotive and Train, 1909.
Two electric locomotives hauling an ordinary 11 -coach train and steam locomotive.

2. Twenty-five cycles have been tried. If 15 cycles had been adopted, two loco-
motives per freight train might have been used in place of three.

3. Two transformers are located on each locomotive, in place of in a substation
at the side of the road.

4. The locomotive has only one running speed.

5. Slip-ring motors with brush contacts are used in place of simple high-resistance,
squirrel-cage motors.

6. Geared motors are used. The length along the shaft, available for collector
rings and for the gear teeth, is much restricted.

7. Motors are hung on an axle and on a cross bar, as in trolley cars. The center
line of the motors is below the center line of the axle. The dead weight per axle is
18,500 pounds. The track repairs are high.

8. The electric system was laid out for long-distance mountain-grade railroad
service. The locomotives cannot be used for such service without a radical change
in the design.

Service with steam locomotives in the Cascade tunnel was described
by Hutchinson to A. I. E. E., November, 1909:

"Trains east bound from the Pacific coast were from 1400 to 1500 tons trailing
load with two Mallet compound engines. At the west end of the tunnel, at the foot
of the grade, all trains were stopped, fires were hauled and cleaned, the engine took on
a special high-grade coal, new fires were built, the engines remained in the yard for an

DESCRIPTION OF THREE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 353

hour or more, coking these fires in order to get rid of superfluous gas. The train was
divided so that two Mallets took 1,000 tons (up the 1.7 per cent, grade). When
weather conditions were bad it was almost impossible to get trains thru the tunnel.
Sometimes it was necessary to wait 2 or 3 hours after the passage of a train before it
was safe to send a second train thru. Frequently the steam pressure of the rear
Mallet would fall from 200 pounds to 70 pounds or less, owing to the impossibility of
maintaining fires on account of the exhausted condition of the air in the tunnel."

Operating results with electric traction have been reported as both favorable and
unfavorable. The system is new and time will be required to fit the electric loco-
motive to the service on this steam road.

The railway company, having found that electric locomotives could haul much
more than that for which they are guaranteed, proceeded to overload the motors,
and the tonnage in each train, thereby effecting certain economies at the expense of
the electric service.

In going down grades the motors automatically reverse their function and return
power to the line, and thus brake the train without the application of mechanical
brakes. The air brakes are held in reserve.

" "With electric locomotives the operation on a heavy grade becomes as simple as
on a level; the enginemen and trainmen feel much greater confidence in the electric
locomotives and consequently the mountain division ceases to be a terror to them."
Hutchinson.

References on Great Northern Railway Locomotives.

General Electric bulletin 4537, Sept., 1907; G. E. Review, Aug. and Sept., 1910.

E. R. J., Dec. 28, 1907; Oct. 31, 1908; Nov. 20, 1909.

Elec. World, Oct. 31, 1908.

R. R. Age Gazette, Jan. 15, 1909; Dec. 3 and 24, 1909.

Hutchinson: Paper and discussion, proceedings of A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909.

Slichter: Design of Controllers, A. I. E. E., Nov. 1909, p. 1338.

References to Detailed Drawings of Three-phase Locomotives.

Name of locomotive

Maker.

Location.

References.

Italian State

Swiss Federal

Italian State

Great Northern

West

Brown

Ganz

(;.i:

Giovi Line

Simplon, 1907 . . .
Simplon, 1909 . . .

Valtellina

Cascade Tunnel. .

Zcitschrift, 1909, p. 12.

Zeitschrift, 1909, p. 3.

A.I.E.E., July, 1910, Eaton & Storer.

S.R.J. , April 6, 1907, p. 579.

E.R.J., Nov. 20, 1909.

G.E. Bulletin 4537, 1907, p. 13.

CHAPTER X.
TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES.

Outline.
LIST OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES, SINGLE-PHASE 25-CYCLE.

Drivers.

Name of railroad.

No. of
loco.

Name of
builder.

No. of
motors.

Total
h.p.

Wt.
tons.

Gear
ratio.

Trolley

voltage.

Pr.

Diam.

Westinghouse Inter-

West. . . .

675

60"

5.28

6,600

works.

Pennsylvania experi-

West. . . .

920

Zero

11,000

mental.

New York, New

West. . . .

960

Zero

11,000

Haven & Hartford.

West. . . .

960

102

Zero

West

1260

136

2.32

West. . . .

1350

135

Crank

West. . . .

1396

116

West. . . .

600

Gear

Windsor, Essex & L. S.

West. . . .

400

6,600

Spokane & Inland

West. . . .

500

4.24

6,600

F.mpire.

West. . . .

680

5.65

6,600

Grand Trunk Ry.,

Samia Tunnel

West.. ..

675

5.31

3,300

Kock Island Southern.

West. . . .

500

11,000

Boston & Maine

West. . . .

1340

130

4.14

11,000

West. . . .

1340

130

2.32

Illinois Traction

G.E

600

4.95

3,300

(repulsion motors)

Swedish State:

West. . . .

300

42"

3.88

18,000

Stockholm Div ....

West. . . .

460

5.27

Siemens .

330

5.00

Thamshavn-Lokken,

West

160

11,000

Norway.

Siemens .

160

Tergnier-Anizy,

West. . .

3,300

France.

Prussian State:

A.E.G...

1050

4.15

6,000

Oranienburg

A.E.G.

600

2.36

Siemens .

1050

Geared

St. Polten-Mariazell...

Siemens .

500

2.90

6,000

Frieburg

Oerlikon .

600

4.00

AlbtalRy.:

Karlsruhe-Herrenalb

A.E.G. . .

340

6.10

8,000

Brembana Valley,

Bergamo-Bianco . .

5
3

West. . . .

West

Siemens .

4
4

300
160
160

4.66

6,000

Rome-Castellana . .

6,600

Naples-Piedemonte . .

A.E.G...

320

11,000

354

LIST OF ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES, SINGLE-PHASE, 15-CYCLE.

Drivers.

No. of
loco.

Name of
Builder.

No. of
Motors.

Total
h.p.

Wt.
tons.

Gear
ratio.

Trolley
voltage.

Name of railroad.

i
!

pair.

diam.

Pennsylvania

West

920

72"

Gear-

11,000

10003 experimental.

less.

Visalia Electric

West

500

3.89

3,300

General Electric ....

Gen. Elec .

800

125

Crank

11,000

Shawinigan Falls ....

Gen. Elec .

600

4.95

6,600

Swiss Federal:

Seebach-Wet-

Leonard . .

400

3.50

15,000

tingen experi-

Oerlikon. .

500

3.08

mental.

Siemens . .

1350

3.75

Bavarian State:

Siemens . .

350

5.00

5,500

Mumau-Oberam-

mergau.

Prussian State:

A.E.G...

1900

Crank

10,000

Magdeburg-

A.E.G. . . .

1000

Crank

Leipzig.

A.E.G...

800

Crank

Brown. . . .

1600

Crank

Bergmann.

1500

Crank

Oerlikon. .

800

Siemens . .

1100

Siemens . .

1800

Siemens . .

2500

Baden State:

"Wiesental (Basel

Siemens . .

1050

4.15

10,000

-Zell).

A.E.G...

1130

Bernese Alps

Oerlikon. .

2000

C.&G.

15,000

A.E.G... .

1600

103

Crank

Budapest- Waitzen . .

Siemens . .

480

10,000

French Southern.. . .

West

1600

C.&G.

12,000

A.E.G...

1600

Crank

13
2

Brown. . . .
Siemens . .
Siemens . .

2
2

1600
2000
1000

Crank
Oank
Crank

Swedish State:

15,000

Kiruna-

Rik.sgransen.

Mittenwald, Austria.

A.E.G... .

800

• 4

Crank

10,000

Rjukon, Norway. . .

A.E.G... .

500

Gear

10,000

2
3

• 2
3

A.E.G... .
A.E.G... .
A.E.G... .

2
3
5

250
800
600
600
300

Gear
Gear
Gear

Vienna-Pressburg, . .

'.'.'.'.'.'.

10,000

Rhatische Mtn

10,000

Literature.

References on

Detailed Drawings of Single-phase Locomotives, 399

355

CHAPTER X.

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE -PHASE LOCOMOTIVES.

IN GENERAL.

The technical descriptions which follow are for the most important
and typical installations,

WESTINGHOUSE INTERWORKS RAILWAY
Westinghouse Inter works Railway, at East Pittsburg, Pa., used the
first single-phase railway locomotive in America. It was built in 1905
for freight switching work, at 10 miles per hour.

^^^^^^^^IH^^HHHii^b#^<^^ . - .<,.£, j^^,^ y ^.,,

P M ■ 1'f V ^ " '^M

'A*.

^^^te: _

; ^ ' ^ -.., \ ■:^;P::|pa^

Fig. 126. — First Single-phase Locomotive in America, 1905.

Two locomotive units, Nos. 8 and 9, were used in pairs. Each weighed
63 tons, had 3 motors, 3 pairs of 60-inch drivers, and three 8-inch axles,
spaced on 6-foot 4-inch centers, on one truck.

Motors were a single-phase, 25-cycle, 8-pole, geared type, with forced

356

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 357

ventiLation. The capacity of each was 225 h. p. A 5.28 gear ratio was
used. The 6600 volts on the trolley were reduced by a transformer to
from 140 to 325 volts for the motors. The motor armatures were quill-
supported on the axle, and the motor frames were spring-suspended
from the locomotive body. Efficiency and power factor were .866 and
.865 respectively at normal load, and .865 and .955 at half load.

Tests at the yards showed a normal drawbar pull of 48,500 pounds,
and from 65,000 to 97,000 with sand, before slipping occurred, or up to

-±

ZZL

(2 800J0

jTiG. 127. Test Curves Showing Drawbar Pull, Exerted by Westinghouse Single-phase

Electric Locomotive.

Equipped with six 225-h. p., single-phase railway motors, having a 5.3 gear ratio. Diameter of

drivers, 60 inches. Weight of 50-car train, 1162 tons: weight of locomotive, 126 tons; total weight,

1288 tons. Brakes set on the four rear cars.

38 per cent, of the weight on drivers. Dynamometer records were made
while hauling a train with a total weight of 1288 tons. Other tests showed
an acceleration rate, during the first 40 seconds, of 0.25 m. p. h. p. s.,
while hauling an 818-ton train. See accompanying curves.

References.

E.W., May 20, 1905, p. 925; drawings, June 3, 1905, p. 1045; S. R. J., May 20, 1905,
' and June 3, 1905, pp. 923 and 999; Electric Journal, Vol. II, July, 1905,
pp. 359 and 764.

PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD, SINGLE-PHASE.

Pennsylvania Railroad Company had the Westinghouse Company
build a locomotive known as 10003, in 1909, for use in experimental work
on Long Island, to determine the mechanical and electrical requirements
for Pennsylvania Railroad locomotives at its New York terminal.

Specifications called for a passenger locomotive of the Atlantic type,
a maximum drawV^ar pull of 24,000 pounds, a weight of 70 tons, and a rating
of about 1000 h.p., for use on a single-phase, 11,000-volt line, to haul
a 400-ton trailing load at GO m. p. h. on level track. It was also to be

358

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

suitable for speeds up to 80 m. p. h., and the haulage of trains on 2 per
cent, grades in terminal service.

Weight of the locomotive on four 72-inch drivers is 50 tons, and on
four 36-inch pony truck wheels is 20 tons.

Frames are those of an Atlantic type locomotive, with cast-steel
members, sills and cross girders. Frames are placed outside of the
wheels. Truck-wheel base for the drivers is 7 feet 6 inches; for the pony
truck 6 feet 2 inches; total for each half locomotive is 20 feet 7 inches;
total for the two-part, articulated locomotive 56 feet 2 inches.

Motors are single-phase, ]5-cycle, 275-volt, gearless types, provided
with forced ventilation. The 1-hour rating is 460 h. p. and the con-

FiG. 128.^Pennsylvania Railroad. Experimental Locomotive, 1909.
Two single-phase 460-h. p., gearless, quill-mounted motors. Atlantic type locomotive, No. 10,003.

tinuous rating with forced ventilation is 378 h. p. Each armature
weighs 9350 pounds. The motor weight, about 19,500 pounds, is spring-
supported. The armatures are flexibly connected to the drivers in the
same way as the passenger locomotives of the New York, New Haven
& Hartford, to be described. No provision is made for direct-cur-
rent operation. A transformer which reduces the trolley voltage of
11,000 volts is carried under the floor, but over the pony trucks, where
it is entirely out of the way. A 25-cycle locomotive built for the same
work, speed, and grades would have required three motors of approxi-
mately the same dimensions and would have increased the weight of the
locomotive from 70 tons to 92 tons, and the cost probably 30 per cent.
The transformers alone would have cost less, but the control equipment
would have cost enough more to counterbalance this item.

Tests showed that the locomotive could carry 100 per cent, overload
in current for several minutes at a time, when hauling a train with the
brakes set; and there was practically no sparking at the commutator.

Tests were also made to compare several types of electric locomotives,
including the Pennsylvania experimental direct-current locomotives
already described, and steam locomotives of many types, to determine

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 359

the best electrical and mechanical constants. Tests on track pounding,
nosing, safety in high-speed service, and on overhead construction were
conducted on a grand scale. These tests furnished the basis for the
adoption of the present 157-ton Pennsylvania electric locomotives, used
for the New York terminal service.

References.

S. R. J., June 29, July 20, Oct. 26, 1907.

Storer: A. I. E. E., June 1907, pages 1390 and 1405.

Gibbs: E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 960.

Fig. 129. — Pennsylvania Railroad. Experimental Locomotive and Train, 1909.
Single-phase gearless motors.

SPOKANE & INLAND EMPIRE.

Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad ordered from Westinghouse
Company six 500-h.p. locomotives and eight 680 h.p. locomotives in
1906, 1907, and 1909, for ordinary freight service between Spokane
and Colfax, or Moscow, points 80 and 90 miles apart. The single-phase,
6600-volt, 25-cycle system is used.

The 500-h.p. locomotives, which weigh 52 tons on 4 pairs of 38-
inch drivers, have 4 motors with a 4.25 gear ratio.

The 680-h.p. locomotives, which weigh 72 tons on 4 pairs of 50-
inch drivers, have 4 motors with a 4.65 gear ratio. These locomo-
tives are rated on a continuous tractive effort of 16,000 pounds and
are guaranteed to be able to run up 2 per cent, grades indefinitely without
overheating. A tractive effort of 36,000 pounds is used in emergencies.

Motors were at first artificially cooled by fans on the motor shaft;
but, with the series motor characteristics, the cooling effect decreased as
the load increased. Forced ventilation from independent motors is used.

360 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Fig. 130. — Spokane and Inland Empire Railroad Lacomotive, 1906.

Fig. 131. — Spokane and Inland Empire Railroad Locomotive, 1909.

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 361

Fig. 132. — Spokane and Inland Empire Railroad Freight Locomotive, 1910.
One of eight, 72-ton, 680-h. p., geared, single-phase units.

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 680-H. P. LOCOMOTIVE.

Current
amperes.

Power
factor.

Speed
m.p.h.

Tractive
effort, lb.

Power
h.p.

Notes or conditions.

4800
4000
3600
3320
2840

.805
.835
.840
.860
.880
.895
.927
.960

8.0
9.6
10.6
11.6
13.5
15.0
19.0
27.0

39,600
30,000
25,500
22,200
17,200
14,400
8,800
4,200

845
770
720
680
616
560
445
300

Gear ratio 4 . 65.
Drivers 50-inch.
Voltage 6600/220.
One-hour rating, 680 h.p.

2560
2000

Continuous rating, 560.

1400

Motors, 4 No. 151.

NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD.

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Company has used 35
single-phase locomotives, built by the Westinghouse Company, since
July, 1907 and 41 since 1908, for passenger service between the Grand
Central Station at New York City and Stamford, Connecticut, on 34
miles of 4-track road. The company has running rights over the
tracks of the New York Central from the New York City terminal to

362

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Woodlawn, a distance of about 12 miles from the terminal, and is com-
pelled to use the 660-volt, direct-current system in this section. Beyond,
the 11,000-volt, single-phase, 25-cycle system is used.

Specifications required that each passenger locomotive should be able
to handle a 200-ton train (which was formerly the average weight of 75
per cent, of the local trains) in the most severe schedule, on a time-table
corresponding to that of the local express, making 40 second stops every
2.2 miles, and a schedule speed of over 26 m. p. h. The locomotive was

Fig. 133. — New York, New Haven and Hartford. Drawing for Passenger Locomotive, 1907.

to haul this train at 65 to 70 m. p. h., and 250-ton thru express trains at
60 m. p. h. A 300- to 500-ton train was to be operated at high speeds by
coupling two locomotives and operating them on the multiple-unit plan.

Guarantees on the locomotive were that it would have sufficient
capacity to handle a 200-ton trailing load in continuous local service;
a 250-ton trailing load in local service as far as Port Chester, 25.6 miles;
and a 300-ton trailing load in express service, to New Rochelle, 16.6 miles.
The New Haven locomotives were designed, primarily for express service.
See proceedings of A. I. E. E., Dec, 1908, p. 1693.

In service, one New Haven locomotive handles easily a load of 300
tons, and 360 tons have been hauled when necessary. One locomotive

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 363

ordinarily handles a 6-car train, making all the stops from Grand Central
Station to either New Rochelle or to Stamford and two locomotives
ordinaril}^ handle a G- to 10-car train making all stops. Local trains of
7 to 8 cars between Woodlawn and New Rochelle make stops every L4
miles. Express trains of 9 to 12 cars hauled by two locomotives make
12 stops between Woodlawn and Stamford, 33.4 miles. Express trains
do not use the average power required by local trains with their local
service stops. Double heading is required on from 15 to 25 per cent, of
the New Haven trains.

Locomotive frames, of steel, 36 feet long, were built by Baldwin.
The longitudinal members of the frame are deep plate girders reinforced
at the top by channels and at the bottom by heavy angles and plates.

Fig. 134. — New York, New Faven and Hartford. Passenger Motor Truck and Gearless Motor.

The transoms are riveted to the frames, and braced by gusset plates
riveted to the bottom flanges of two sets of channels. The drawbar effort
is transmitted thru the bolsters, center pins, and the side frames to deep
box girders joining the end frames.

Two trucks of the swivel pattern are mounted on 62-inch drivers.
The truck centers are 14 feet 6 inches. The truck wheel base is 8 feet.
Center bearings are 18 inches in diameter. Weights on the journals
are carried by semi-elliptic springs.

Pony wheels added to each locomotive in 1908 improved the riding
qualities and the safety at high speeds. The total wheel base was
increased 100 inches. The pony truck wheels are 33 inches in diameter
and are carried on an extension frame rigidly bolted to the main truck
frame, without a bolster. To provide radial movement of the pony
truck wheels, a bevel brass wedge is placed over the journal box of the
pony truck which allows journal box, axle, and wheels to move laterally

364 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

between the pedestal jaws of the frames; but in so doing, they are met
by the resistance in a bearing plate above the journal box. When the
pony truck wheels move sidewise they lift, thru the bevel-bearing wedge,
all the weight carried by the equalizer bars, and this tends to restore
the pony truck wheels to their normal central position.

Weight of the first locomotive built was 89 tons, altho the estimated
weight was 76 tons. The additional weight put into the locomotive,
including 5 tons of third-rail and direct-current apparatus, mechanical

,//

Fig. 135. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Passenger Locomotive, 1909.

parts, steam heaters, fuel oil, and 2 pony trucks, has brought the weight
up to 102 tons, of which 77 tons are on drivers.

Motors are of the compensated, single-phase, "series type. Four are
used, each of 240-h. p., 1-hour capacity and 200-h. p. continuous capacity
on forced draft. On direct current the rating is about 50 per cent,
higher. Voltage for motors is 220 on alternating current, and 300 on
direct current, see illustration, Figure 44.

Speed of the motors on rated load is 220 r. p. m. and of locomotive is
40.5 m. p. h. The maximum speed of the locomotive is about 75 m. p. h.
Commutator speed at 60 m. p. h. is only 3000 f. p. m. Forced ventilation
is used for cooling and to keep out the dirt.

Frames and fields are split horizontally. There are no projecting
poles. Field windings are uniformly distributed.

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 3G5

Armatures are gearless and are not mounted on the shaft but are
built up on a quill thru which the axle passes, with a 5/8-inch clearance.

Motor mounting is well arranged. The field frame is mounted on
bearings which surround the armature quill. The field is suspended
from the frame of the locomotive by means of four 1 1/4-inch rods,
and only 1000 pounds of the field weight is carried on the quill. The
motor frame is anchored to the truck, both above and below the axle by
these rods, which permit vertical or side motion but prevent excessive
bumping strains. The entire weight of the motor is carried on springs.

25000 38500

3Q500

38500

38500 25000

Fig. 136. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Locomotive, 1909.

Forty-one used on New York Division in passenger service. 102-tons, 960-h. p., 1-phase, 11,000-

220-volt motors. Gearless, quill-mounted type.

Armature connection to the driver is by means of a spider at the ends
of the quill, from which spider 7 round pins project parallel to the shaft
into corresponding pockets in the hub of the drivers. Around each pin
is placed a coil spring about 8 inches in diameter, consisting of 10 turns,
progressively eccentric, of 1/2x1 /2-inch steel. These springs are con-
tained between 2 steel bushings, the smaller of which slips over the
pin and the larger fits in the pocket in the wheel. They carry the entire
weight of the motor and transmit the torque of the motor. A vertical
movement of about 3/4 inch is allowed for track variation. Hammer
blow from the armature, on uneven track, is avoided. Pulsating torque
is prevented by the spiral springs. Additional springs placed outside
of the driving pins steady the side play.

Connections and control of motor circuits are simple. The 4
armatures are arranged in 2 groups, and 2 armatures are connected
permanently in series and controlled as a unit. During direct-current
acceleration the 2 motor units are connected in series and then in parallel.
During alternating-current acceleration, each motor receives power for
different speeds by variable voltage from a step-down transformer, no
resistance being used. The double control equipment is a handicap.

366

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

On direct current the fields are in series with their respective arma-
tures, and they are shunted for high speed; on alternating current the
fields of the motors are placed in parallel to decrease the field reactance
and also the magnetism per armature ampere. (The reactance varies as
the square of the number of field turns on the field, while the strength
of the field varies directly as the number of field turns).

^^^'- ■

^-"^

,-^-

r^--^

_-^

^^_

t "^

r - ^

/" ^.

fei

^fefe--

^-~-^\

P '

iPiffi

H^W^

.-^

.m^

^^^^^ ^.,.--.

>r^

Fig. 137. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Passenger Locomotive and Four-car Train.

CHART ON LOCOMOTIVE PERFORMANCE.

Passenger Locomotives on New York Division. New York to Stamford.

A.-C. performance.

Amperes

D.-C. performance.

Speed in miles per

hour

- -i^peed in miles per hour.

Control steps.

Series.

Shunt 1.: Shunt 2.

Multiple.

per motor.

2000

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

900

800

700

600

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 367

Charts on locomotive performance are placed in the front of each
passenger locomotive, over the controller. A glance at the control step
and at the ammeter gives the running speed.

In alternating-current performance the speed for local and express
trains is nominally 60 m. p. h., but the writer has repeatedly observed
speeds up to 72 miles per hour when lost time was being regained.
Control step No. 6 is commonly used and, with a 6-coach train, about
1000 amperes, corresponding to 62 m. p. h., is an ordinary reading.

In direct-current performance, 30 m. p. h. is the speed allowed by the
New York Central rules, between the Grand Central terminal at Forty-
fourth Street and Ninetieth Street, or in passing any station; and 45
m. p. h. is the maximum speed allowed in the direct-current zone. Con-
trol step marked No. 2 is used for maximum speed, and the meter reading
is commonly 1200 to 1100 amperes. The full speed for which the motors
were designed is not used, due to the speed restrictions imposed.

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE.

4000
3000
2400
2260
2200
2000
1720
1600
1400
1200
1000

.725
.810
.842
.860
.868
.890
.915
.926
.940
.937
.970

21.0
30.5
38.3
40.5
41.5
45.0
51.5
55.0
61.0
68.7
77.5

19,700
13,300
9,800
8,900
8,600
7,400
5,900
5,200
4,200
3,200
2,400

1100
1080
1000
960
950
890
800
760
680
585
495

Four gearless motors, No. 130.
Voltage 11000/220.
Series-parallel operation.
One-hour rating, 960 h. p.

Continuous rating, 800 h.p.
Drivers 62-inch.

Operating notes for service on the New York Division:

Summer schedule calls for about 166 trains per week-day, and tlie autumn
schedule calls for 136.

Electric locomotive miles per engine failure were 14,000, to be compared with
steam locomotive miles per engine failure of 6250.

Average miles per month per locomotive owned exceeds 4000. See page 280.

The commutators, while black, are in a very good condition. Brushes make
from 22,000 miles on an average, and 34,000 miles as a maximum. Commutators
average about 95,000 locomotive miles between turnings.

Tire wear is the principal reason for taking locomotives out of service. Curves
on the New York division are many and severe.

Water on the track, from high winds and tides, has at times damaged the wiring.
One-fifth of the locomotives, on several occasions during 1908 and 1909, were com-

368

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

pelled to run thru water 20 inches deep, for long distances at full speed. The salt
water in the motor casings and ducts could have been dried out by the application
of the lowest alternating current voltages if the alternating current had been avail-
able; but the trouble occurred on the 660- volt, direct-current, third-rail section, and
the wiring of first motor of the four in the series would ground.

Fig. 138. — Two New York, New Haven and Hartford Passenger Locomotives and 15-car Train.

Inspection of electric locomotives are made every 12 days, or every
1600 locomotive miles. Steam locomotives require inspection every
100 miles, and must be sent to the back shop for overhaul every 2
months, or about every 40,000 to 60,000 miles, depending upon the service
and the water used. Electric locomotives seldom require a general
overhaul. The time required for inspection is 4 to 12 hours. Of the 41
passenger locomotives, 3 are in for inspection each day, in summer.

Maintenance expense, which includes all repairs, was at first 7 cents
per locomotive mile, but this has now been reduced to 5 cents, of which
3.5 cents are for labor and 1.5 cents for material.

Locomotive troubles have been detailed and explained by Mr. Murray,
Electrical Engineer for the road, to the A. I. E. E., Dec, 1908; Apr., 1911.
The new designs had many minor troubles, as was expected, but they
disappeared in time. The most wonderful thing about the whole record
was the absolute success of the new single-phase motor.

FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES 1909-1911.

Three locomotives are being tried out in freight service. These differ
from the 41 passenger locomotives in that the motors are mounted above
and either geared or crank and side-rod connected to the driving axles,
instead of being flexibly mounted on the driver axles. The 2-4-4-2 wheel

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 369

Fig. 139. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Geared Freight Locomotive, 1909. [

Fig. 140. — New York, Niew Haven & Hartford Geared Locomotive.
Number 071 hauling the 12-coiich "Boston Express."

370

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

arrangement is used. These electric freight locomotives on the New
York division have much larger capacity than the steam locomotives.

Specifications required each electric freight locomotive to be capable
of hauling a freight train, having a maximum weight of 1500 tons, at a
speed of 35 m. p. h. on level track with 6 pounds per ton resistance;
or, when used in heaviest passenger service, to haul an 800-ton passen-
ger train at a maximum speed of 45 m. p. h. and a schedule speed
of 40 m. p. h. in limited service, i. e. without stops; or to haul a 12-car,
800-ton express-passenger train over the 73 miles between New York and
New Haven in 2 hours and 12 minutes, allowing a total of 5 minutes for
stops; or to haul a 350-ton train in local passenger service, making all
stops, the average of which is not to exceed 45 seconds, over the 73 miles
in 2 hours and 45 minutes. Tractive effort was to exceed 40,000 pounds.

GEARED FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE 071.

Trucks and running gear are planned in accordance with a design
patented by S. M. Vauclain, July 6, 1909. This is described as an articu-
lated locomotive in which the two truck frames are connected by an
intermediate drawbar, one truck to have a rotative motion about its

D D D D D n

^^ :1^^

4600O

48000

4-8000

Fig. 141. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Geared Freight Locomotive, 1909.

One used on New York Division. 140-ton, 1260-h. p., 1-phase, 25-cycle, 11, 000-300- volts. Four

geared motors. Gear ratio 2.32. Forced ventilation. Freight service.

center pin, while the other has a fore-and-aft motion, as well as a rota-
tive motion, to compensate for the angular positions of the truck and
drawbars on curves. Leading wheels are mounted in radial-swing
trucks of the Rushton type. The cab is carried thru springs on friction
plates at the ends of the trucks, not on the truck center pins. This
design also prevents periodic vibration or nosing.

Wheel loads are equalized as in steam locomotive practice, the springs

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 371

of the leading wheels being connected to the driving springs by equalizing
beams. One of the trucks is cross-equalized under the center of the
locomotive. The frame is spring-supported by the cross-equalizer on
each side of the center line. This arrangement promotes steady riding,
and tends to prevent side rolling at high speed.

Truck wheel base of geared freight locomotive is 38 feet 6 inches;
rigid wheel bases are 7 feet; total wheel base for each truck is 14 feet;
truck centers are 24.5 feet; length between couplers is 48 feet. Drivers
are 63-inch, and pony wheels 36-inch.

Frames are placed outside the wheels, and are braced transversely
under the center of the locomotive by heavy steel castings provided with
draw pockets in which the intermediate drawbar is seated. This bar
transmits from one truck to the other the full tractive force developed
by the motors of a leading truck.

Motors for the geared freight locomotive consist of 4 single-phase,
conductively compensated, series, 300-volt, 1000-ampere, 0.93 power-
factor, 315-h.p. units. Each motor with forced ventilation is rated
300-volt, 930-ampere, 0.93-power factor, and 280 h. p. Two motors are
used in series. On 350 volts the rating is, of course, materially higher.

The motors have 12 poles built in a solid frame. The diameter of the
armature is 39 1/2 inches and the width of the core is 13 inches. The
peripheral speed of the armature is high, the armature having the
diameter used in the passenger locomotives.

Weight of each motor with gear and gear case and axle bearing
but without the 1400-pound quill is 6050 pounds.

Gearing has a ratio of 2.32 and teeth have 1 .75 pitch. Gears are placed
at each end of the armature shaft. The unit stresses in the gears are
much lower than in ordinar}^ large railway motors. Doubt is expressed
as to whether there is ample length along the shaft to properly distrib-
ute the wear of the teeth, and as to the sufficiency of gears in high-
speed service.

Control apparatus is of the electro-pneumatic type, designed for use
with either 11,000 volts alternating current or 600 volts direct current.
When operated on alternating current, the motors are grouped in multi-
ple and the control is obtained entirely by changing the connections to
various voltage taps on the main transformer. On direct current the
motors are first grouped in series and then 2 in series and 2 in parallel,
in combination with various resistance steps. Any one of the motors
may be cut out. There are 13 running voltages on the controller or
double the number of steps required for passenger service, and any speed
can be used continually, with the maximum tractive effort. Two or
more locomotives may be coupled and operated from one master controller.

Motor mounting is arranged over the axles, and solidly on the tru(;k

372

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

frames. Each end of the armature shaft is provided with a pinion mesh-
ing with gears mounted on a quill surrounding the axle and carried in
bearings on the motor frame, similar to the usual axle bearings. The
quills are provided with 6 bearing arms on each end, which project into
spaces provided between the spokes in the driving wheels. Each of
these arms is connected to an end of a helical spring, the other end of
the springs being connected to the driving wheels. This arrangement
smooths out the torque pulsations, and it allows for 1 1/2-inch vertical

Fig. 142. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Geared Freight Locomotive, 1909.
Motors and truck for locomotive number 071.

movement of the axles. In addition, flexibility is provided between the
quill and motor shafts, to equalize the torque on the gears. The center
of gravity of the motors is high. The transmission of strains and
shocks from the track to the motors is eliminated.

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF GEARED FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES.

Current
amperes.

Power
factor.

Speed
m.p.h.

Tractive
effort, lb.

Power
h.p.

Notes or conditions.

8000

.660

16.5

36,900

1640

Voltage 11,000/300.

6400

.750

21.5

27,000

1540

Drivers 63-incli.

4800

.835

28.2

17,600

1340

Gear ratio 2.32.

4400

.855

30.3

15,600

1260

One-hour rating, 1260.

3760

.885

35.0

12,000

1120

Continuous rating, 1120.

3200

.910

40.8

8,800

960

Motors, 4 No. 403.

2800

.930

46.0

6,880

845

Locomotive, No. 071.

Tests have been made on the geared freight locomotives as follows;
A 2100-ton freight train was started and hauled up a 0.3 per cent
grade with a 3-degree curve.

A 1600-ton freight train was accelerated at the rate of 0.2 m.p.h.

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 373

p. s., or to a speed of 12 m.p.h. in 1 minute; and an 800-ton train
was accelerated at a rate of 0.4 m.p.h. p. s.

A maximum tractive effort of 51,000 lb. was developed.

SIDE-ROD LOCOMOTIVE 070.

A side-rod locomotive was built in 1910 by the Westinghouse Co.
for service on the New York Division.

Specifications for the side-rod locomotive were the same as those
detailed for the geared freight locomotive.

The design is of the articulated double-cab type. Each half com-
prises 2 pairs of driving wheels and 2 leading pony truck wheels, mounted
on a forged frame of the locomotive type. Crankshafts are placed across

Fig. 143. — New Haven Freight Locomotive, Crank and Side Rod Type. Side Elevation.
One-half of locomotive is shown. Horse power, 1346. Wheel base, 43 feet 6 inches.

the side frames, and 57 inches ahead of the front driving axles, which carry
on each end a crank arm and counterweight casting to which a motor
crankshaft above is connected by means of rods. The two drivers on
each side are coupled to the crankshaft crank pin by locomotive side
rods of the ordinary type. The driving mechanism and frames are sim-
ilar to those on Pennsylvania side-rod locomotives, already described.
Motors are single-phase. Two are used per locomotive. With
forced ventilation the one-hour rating of each is about 673 h. p. They
are arranged for either alternating-current or direct-current service.
Either motor may be operated separately. The motor shaft is 91 in.
above the rail. Motors are slow-speed units, 206 r. p. m. at 35 m.p.h..

374 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

with 57-inch drivers. Armature diameter is 76 inches. Core has no
air ducts and is 13 inches wide. The motor frame is built up of steel
plate and standard shapes, in place. of the usual steel casting, to gain
in rigidity. The rotor is mounted on a quill, and the rotor spider is
in 2 parts, between which the spider of the quill shaft is built. The
pulsating armature torque is transmitted thru heavy spiral springs at
the ends of the spider arms, to smooth out the mechanical effort. Motor
transformers are air-cooled, of 150 0-kv. a. capacity.

GEARED LOCOMOTIVE 069.

A second geared locomotive for main-line freight service was placed
in service in 1911.

Specifications were those detailed above for freight locomotives.

The design embodies eight 42-inch drivers on a rigid driver wheel
base, and four leading and four trailing pony truck wheels. The pony
truck is not pivoted at a bolster, on its vertical center line, but is con-
nected to a V-frame. The pivotal point of the V, and of the pony
truck, is at the apex of the V, within the rigid truck wheel base.

Drivers with axle can be removed from the locomotive frame by
lowering the wheels, as in steam locomotive practice.

Motors are eight per locomotive. It was found that eight geared,
single-phase motors per locomotive made a lighter locomotive than
could be built with two or four motors per locomotive. Armatures are
the same type as those used for motor-car trains, already described. A
single pinion on each armature shaft is connected to a gear wheel which
is flexibly mounted on each driver shaft. The motor voltage is 235, or
470 per pair of motors, and the motors are permanently connected in
series in pairs.

Framing for the fields of each pair of armatures are of the double
horse-shoe shape, mounted rigidly on the locomotive frame.

Weight of this single-phase locomotive. No. 069, is 116 tons, yet this
latest design has 40,000-pounds drawbar pull and greater capacity than
the other freight locomotives described above.

GEARED SWITCHER LOCOMOTIVES.

Switcher locomotives are in service at the Harlem River, 62-mile
freight yards, electrified in 1911. Tests showed that a 600-h.p. 80-ton
unit could handle the yard work.

The design embodies two trucks of the heaviest articulated type,
suitable for heavy buffing strains, for classification and yard work. It
is to be substituted" for a steam locomotive which uses an average of
4600 pounds of water per hour, or at 40 pounds per h. p. hour, averages

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 375

115 h. p.; but since these locomotives develop power for 36.7 per cent, of
the time the average power while working is 313 h. p. Switcher electric
locomotives with 450-h. p. continuous rating will more than handle the
work. The trailing load is 450; the maximum speed, 26 m. p. h.

Motors are four, rated 150-h. p. each for one hour, plain, single-phase
units of the quill, spring-drive, double-geared type, similar to those on
New Haven motor cars, already described under ^^ Motor-car Trains."

COMPARATIVE DATA ON NEW HAVEN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.

Number in service 41

Number i 01 to 041

Service ' Passenger

Wheel order | 2-4-4-2

Motor connection Mounted on

axle quill.

Driver diameter

Pony wheel diameter .

Weight, total

Weight on drivers

Weight of motors . . . .
Weight of armature . .

No. of motors

One-hour h.p

Continuous h.p

Motor voltage

Motor shaft above rail.
Center of gravity, do. .

Diam. of motor

Diam. of armature. . .

Length of core

Gear ratio

Rigid truck wheel base.
Total truck wheel base.
Locomotive wheel base
Length over all

63-inch.

33-inch.

102 tons.

77 tons.

33.4 tons.
5850 lb.

4-No. 130
960
800
220

31. 5 in.
51.0 in.
58. 5 in.
39.5 in.
18.0 in.

zero

8'-0"

12^-2^'

30'-10''

36'-4''

1
071

Freight
2-4-4-2
Geared to
quill.

63-inch.

36-inch.
140 tons.

96 tons.

38.0 tons,
6050 lb.
4- No. 403
1260
1120
300
63.785 in.

.... in.

58.5 in.

39.5 in.

13.0 in.
2.32

14'-0''
38'-6''
48'-0''

070

Freight

2-4-4-2

Crank and

jackshaft.

57-inch
36-inch
35 tons
92 tons
41.6 tons
19000 lb.

2-No. ...
1350
1130
300
91.0 in.
.... in.
102.0 in.
76.0 in.
13.0 in.
zero
8'-0''
18'-0"
43'-6''
53'-3"

069

Freight

4-4-4-4

Geared to

quill.

116 tons

8-No. 409
1396

235

0200
Switch.
0-4-4-0

Geared
to axle

quill.

63 in.

80 tons.

26.0

4-NO.401

600

450

190

60.0 in.

ll'-O"
39'-0"
39'-0"
46'-8"

7'-0"
23'-6"
23'-6"
37'-0"

References on New York New Haven & Hartford Railroad Locomotives.

Passenger Locomotives: Order for 25, S. R. J., Sept. 9, 1905, p. 638.

Locomotive Controversy: Mr. Westinghouse, Mr. Sprague, and others, with reference

to New York Central-New Haven equipment. S. R. J., and Elec. World,

Dec, 1905; Ry. Age Gazette, Dec. 22, 1905, p. 579.
Descriptive: Plans for 72-ton units, S. R. J., Feb. 17, 1906; 85-ton units, S. R. J.,

March 24, 1906; Drawings of 100-ton units, S. R. J., Aug. 17 and 24, 1907;

Pony wheels and frames, E. R. J., Nov. 21, 1908, p. 1424; Motor Characteristics,

S. R. J., April 14, 1906.
Lamme: Descriptive; Elec. Journal, April, 1906.

376

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Motors, for Suburban M. U. Trains, S. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908.
Storer: Performance curves; A. I. E. E., Dec. 11, 1908, p. 1694; S. R. J., Apr. 14,

1906; E. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908, p. 1605. '
Murray: Steam and Electric Performance; A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907. Log of New

Haven Electrification; A. I. E. E., Dec, 1908; E. R. J., Dec. 19, 1908; Steam

Locomotive Fuel and Maintenance; A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907, p. 148; Analysis

of Electrification, A.I. E. E., April and June, 1911.
Sprague: Some Facts and Problems Bearing on Electric Trunk Line Operation.

Criticism of New Haven Locomotives; A. I. E. E., May, 1907; July 1, 1910.
Geared Freight Locomotive: Drawings, E. R. J., Sept. 25, 1909; May 7, 1910, p. 829;

Elec. Journal, Feb., 1910; Ry. and Loco. Engrg., April, 1910; Murray: A. I. E. E.

April, 1911, pp. 732 and 760.
Side-rod Freight Locomotive: E. R. J., May'7, 1910, p. 830.
Switching Locomotive: A. I. E. E., May 1911, p. 760; Ry. Age, July 21, 1911, p. 119.

Fig. 144. — Boston and Maine Railroad. Geared Locomotive.

BOSTON & MAINE RAILROAD.

Boston & Maine Railroad, in the electrification of its Hoosac Tunnel
in 1911, uses 5 locomotives. They are similar to the New Haven geared
freight locomotives No. 071, except that two have a gear ratio of 4.14
in place of 2.32. The design, efficiency, and capacity were raised.

The straight 11,000-volt, 25-cycle single-phase system is used,
without the direct-current complications of the controller and third rail.

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 377
PERFORI^IANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF BOSTON & MAINE LOCOMOTIVE.

Current
amperes.

Power
factor.

Speed
m.p.h.

Tractive
effort, lb.

Power
h.p.

Notes or conditions.

8000
6000
5000
4250
4000

.82
.88
.90
.92
.93
.94
96

12.2
15.1
17.2
19.2
20.0
21.0
25.0
28.6

63,500
43,000
32,800
26,000
23,000
21,000
14,000
10,000

2060
1740
1520
1340
1230
1180
935
760

Voltage 11000/300.
Gear ratio 4. 14.
Drivers 63-inch.
One hour h.p. 1340.

3750
3000

Continuous h.p. 1180

2500

.97

Motors, 4 No. 403

gto^^JL^r-

P^' Al ■ '''■ A

1 •■ ■ ■ ■ „. , , : ::::•.:; _■,....

± jll&v.

1 *■•'--.

Fig.

145. — VisALiA Electric Locomotive of 1906.
Fifteen-cycle motor.s. Swivel trucks

VISALIA ELECTRIC RAILROAD.

Visalia Electric Railroad, owned by Southern Pacific Co., purchased
a swivel-truck type electric locomotive in 1908. It is in service between
Visalia and Lemon Cove, California,over 36 miles of track.

378

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Weight is 47 tons all on drivers. Wheel arrangement is 0-4-4-0,
drivers are 36-inch; rigid wheel base is 7 feet 4 inches.

Motors are single-phase, 15-cycle, the first to be used in America.
Four 125-h.p. motors are used. Gear ratio is 3.89. See Figure 37.

Tests were made by starting a 312-ton trailing load on a 10-degree
curve, at the foot of a 1 per cent, grade, and hauling the load up the
grade; following this test 2 Southern Pacific passenger cars were attached
and the tests were repeated by pushing the train around the curve
and up the grade. Elec. Ry. Journ., Jan. 15, 1901, p. 101.

GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY.

St. Clair tunnel and terminal of the Grand Trunk Railway has used
six 720-h. p. electric locomotives since May, 1908, in and near the St.
Clair tunnel which is under the Detroit River between Sarnia, Ontario,
and Port Huron, Michigan.

Fig. 146. — Grand Trunk Railway Locomotivje for St. Clair Tunnel, 1906.
Six units, 66-ton, 720-h. p. Three 25-cycle, 3000-235-volt, single-phase, geared motors. Tunnel

and yard service.

The tunnel is single-track, is 19 feet in diameter, and has a length
of 6032 feet. The route electrified is 3.66 miles long and including ter-
minals the mileage is 12. Grades of 2 per cent, for 3000 feet run out of
of the tunnel.

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 379

The system used is the single-phase, 25-cycle, with a 3300-volt Hue.
The tunnel was small, and 6000 volts could hardly be used with safety
nor was it necessary. The system was chosen by the consulting en-
gineer, B. J. Arnold, on the score of economy of operation.

Specifications called for a locomotive with a normal drawbar pull of
about 50,000 pounds without sanded track and without slipping the
drivers. Two locomotives were to start a 1000-ton freight train on the
2 per cent, grades in the tunnel without taking the slack out of the
drawbars and without injury to the commutator or motors.

Weight of the locomotive is about 66 tons, on six 62-inch drivers.
Rigid and total wheel base is 16 feet, divided 6 feet 3 inches and 9 feet
9 inches. Weight is equally distributed on axles.

Tractive effort is 3000 pounds at 30 miles per hour; 19,000 pounds
at 13.3 m. p. h., at rated load; and 25,000 pounds at 10 m. p. h.
Each locomotive on a test developed 45,000 pounds drawbar puT (not
tractive effort) before slipping the drivers.

Speed with 500-ton passenger trains varies from a maximum of 25
m. p. h. on the level to 20 m. p. h. up-grade; and with 1000-ton freight
trains it is 12 m. p. h. in haulage up the 2 per cent, grade.

Power plant contains two 3-phase 1250-kw. turbo-generator units,
one of which handles the load. There are four 400-h. p. boilers with
double the usual steam storage space, to handle the fluctuating load.

Power required, as shown by tests, is 600 amperes, 3000 volts, and
1500 kw. during 4 to 5 m'nutes, for a train with 1020 gross tons
on a 2 per cent, grade at 11.3 miles per hour. If the resistance, in the
tunnel, is 10 pounds per ton, the h.p. is then 1020x50x11.3/375 or 1540.
The combined efficiency of transmission and contact lines, motor, and
gearing, is 1540x. 746/ 1500 or 77 per cent.

Motors are 235-volt, 240-h. p., or 220-volt, 225-h. p. units, with twin
gears and a 5.31 reduction. Weight of armature is 5600 pounds, total
weight per motor is 14,500 pounds. Motor frames are of the box type,
and forced ventilation is provided. Armature is 30 inches in diameter,
and the core is 14 3/4 inches wide. (See Fig. 38.)

Speed control is secured by voltage variation, by taps from windings
of the auto-transformer. Sections are small so as not to cause a large
increase of current, or in drawbar pull, while changing taps.

The road is said to handle thru its single-track tunnel the heaviest
railroad traffic in the world. With the constantly increasing traffic, at
times the four 118-ton steam locomotives were taxed in handling the
tonnage, and the capacity of the road was throttled by the tunnel. The
installation of the six 720-h. p., 66-ton electric locomotives provides
a traffic capacity about three times larger than the actual demands.

380 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAND TRUNK LOCOMOTIVES.

Current
amperes.

Power
factor.

Speed,
m.p.h.

Tractive
effort lb.

Power
h.p.

Notes or conditions.

4800
4000
3600
3000
2400

.800
.854
.880
.905
.940
.950
.960
.970
.980

7.7
9.4
10.4
12.1
14.6
15.5
17.2
20.6
25.3

47,700
36,000
30,300
22,300
15,200
13,800
11,000
7,600
4,800

980
900
840
720
590
570
510
417
325

Motors per locomotive, 3.
Drivers, 62-inch.
Parallel operation.
One-hour rating, 720 h.p.

2250
2000

Continuous rating, 570 h.p.

1600
1200

Gear ratio 5.31.
Voltage 3000/235.

"Two single-phase 66-ton electric locomotives handle 1000-ton trains, where the
118-ton steam locomotives handled 750-ton trains. The electric locomotives climb
the 2 per cent, grades at 10 miles per hour while the steam locomotives were barely
able to pull out at 3 miles per hour. The running time from summit to summit is now
10 minutes and the average number of cars per train is 27.3, while under steam con-
ditions the average time was 15 minutes and the average number of cars 19.7."
H. L. Kirker, Electrical Review, March 6, 1909, p. 423.

"Train movements thru the tunnel average 26 freight trains per 24 hours, with
an average tonnage of 924 per train; and 15 passenger trains per 24 hours with an
average tonnage of 281 per train. In freight service two electric locomotives are
coupled; in passenger service one locomotive is used. Passenger train and freight
business are handled without any interruption." J. F. Jones, Supt. Terminals, 1910.

Economy has been obtained with the electric service. Coal cost
with electrical operation was 39 per cent, of the coal cost under steam
operation. Run of mine and slack Indiana coals are used in power
stations, in place of anthracite on steam locomotives. Total service
operating charges are 60 per cent, of the charges under steam operation.
Total service operating charges plus fixed charges were 84.5 per cent,
of the charges under steam operation; and, after adding depreciation,
the^total operating charges are equal. This is a wonderful result from
the first two years' service; with the great investment for a short mileage.
Maintenance and repairs of locomotives were reduced 45 per cent.

Service notes show that 4 of the 6 locomotives are used regularly.
Locomotive inspections are made every third day. Life of pinions is
60,000 miles. Mileage of each locomotive per month averages 2700.

Safety has been gained with electrical operation. On account of
the large number of trains and the severe braking required on long 2
per cent, grades, trains will break in two, with steam or electric operation.
In the event of a train breaking in two with steam, the time necessary
to recouple exceeded the interval within which the steam locomotive

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 381

could be kept in the tunnel without suffocating the train crew. This
trouble is obviated with electric power. It is often necessary for the
electric locomotive to start a train on the long 2 per cent, tunnel grades
and this is done without first taking the slack out of the train.

References on Grand Trunk Railway Sarnia Tunnel Locomotives.

Single-phase Traction: S. R. J. and E. W., Jan. 20, 1906.

Muralt, in criticism: S. R. J., Feb. 17, 1906.

Descriptive: Elec. Journal, April, 1906; Oct., 1908. S. R. J., Nov. 14, 1908.

Power House: Power, June 29, 1909; E. R. J., Nov. 14, 1908, p. 1364.

Kirker: Elec. Review, March 6, 1909, p. 423.

Operation and Shop Methods: S. R. J., April 2, 1910.

Fig. 147. ^General Electric Single-phase, Side Rod Electric Locomotive, 1909.

ig(7)iOvj4ij_;':g^'

miXi^i

2f-a

27-8

6^-6
73-8

5-6-J««-4-6i<- 6-ro^6-4-7^

24-8
27-8

Fig. 148. — General Electric Locomotive.
Geared .side-rod type. Proposed in 1910 for mountain freight service.

GENERAL ELECTRIC SINGLE-PHASE.

General Electric Company built an experimental single-phase loco-
motive in 1909, which had some distinguishing features.

Frames and running gear were similar to those of a Pacific type
steam locomotive with the usual side rods connect'ng the drivers.

382 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Each motor was crank-connected to a jackshaft, set across the locomo-
tive frames, and connected to the driving wheel side rods.

Motors were two 400-h. p., 15-cycle units set up on the locomotive
frames. The design was for passenger service, to deliver 15,000 pounds
tractive effort, at 20 m. p. h., but to have variable speed, up to 50 m. p. h.
Elec. Ry. Journ., May 8, 1909.

A geared and side -rod locomotive design, outlined in the accompany-
ing drawing, was presented at the annual convention of the A. L E. E.,
July, 1910. The design embraces: Spring-suspended motor weight; in-
dependent operation of driving axles requiring the driving of only one set
of wheels at one time; and high weight efficiency due to the introduction
of gearing.

SHAWINIGAN FALLS TERMINAL RAILWAY.

Shawinigan Falls Terminal Railway, about 21 miles long, runs from
Three Rivers to Shawinigan Falls, half way between Montreal and Quebec.

One General Electric single-phase, 4-motor, swivel-truck, 50-ton
locomotive was obtained in 1909 for freight shunting service.

The locomotive is designed for operation on either a 15-cycle or
30-cycle, 6000-volt single-phase circuit.

Motors are rated 150 h. p., 800 amperes, 225 volts on 15 cycles, or
650 amperes and 225 volts on 30 cycles. They have a 4.95 gear ratio.

A trolley voltage of 700 was tried in 1909, but gave trouble in heavy
service due to the impedance in the rail return. On 6600 volts and 30
cycles, or on direct current, the operation is successful.

SWEDISH STATE RAILWAY.

Swedish State Railway has been conducting experiments near Stock-
holm with locomotives and high potential contact lines, since July, 1905.

Westinghouse 18,000-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase, 28-ton, 2-axle
locomotive equipment, with 44-inch drivers, was first tested. It was
designed to haul a 70-ton train at 40 m. p. h., and was equipped with
two 150-h. p. geared motors. A second locomotive had 4 axles, four
44-inch drivers, four 115-h.p., geared motors, and weighed 40 tons.

Siemens-Schuckert furnished a 20,000-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase
freight locomotive, shown in the accompanying illustration. The loco-
motive has 3 driving axles each geared to a 115-h. p., compensated series
motor. The locomotive weighs 40 tons and is designed for hauling freight
trains at 28 miles per hour. The rated drawbar pull is 13,300 pounds,
and on 1 per cent, grades the speed is 15 m. p. h. Drivers are 43-inch.
Transformers are oil-cooled, 300-kw. units, and reduce the contact
line voltage from 20,000 to from 160 to 320, in 10 sections.

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 383

Fig. 149. — Swedish State Railway. Siemens Single-phase Locomotive op 1906.

Fig. 150. — Swedish State Railway. Single-phase Locomotive and Train, 1906.

384

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

In 1909; as a result of the experienced so gained by the Swedish
State Railwa}^, the single-phase, 15-cycle, 15,000-volt system was formally
adopted and an extensive program was started, embracing the use of
water powers and heavy locomotives for mountain freight trains.

Siemens-Schuckert Works will furnish thirteen 2000-h. p., 110-ton,

Fig. 151. — Swedish State Railway. Cjiank and Side Rod Freight Locomotive.
18,000-volt, 15-cycle, single-phase, 2000-h. p. unit.

crank-type freight, also two 1000-h. p., 77-ton, crank-type passenger
locomotives for use on the Kiruna-Riksgransen, 93-mile road on the
Norwegian Frontier. The train loads of the ore trains will be doubled.
Reference: E. R. J., May 6, 1911, p. 788.

Fig. 152.

-Swedish State Railway. Crank and Side Rod Passenger Locomotive.
18,000-volt, 15-cycle, single-phase 1000-h. p. unit.

FRENCH SOUTHERN RAILWAY.

French Southern (or Midi) Railway, in 1911, placed in service one A. E.G.
and six Westinghouse geared locomotives. These are 2-motor, 2-6-2
class, crank and side-rod units, equipped with two 800-h. p. single-
phase, 15-cycle motors, supplied from a 12,000-volt contact line. Freight

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 385

and passenger trains are hauled on a 70-mile, double-track mountain
road.

Specifications required that, between speed limits of 18 and 33 m. p. h.,
when traveling on down-grades, current be returned to the line; also

32000 40000 40000 40000 32000

Fig. 153. — French Southern Railway Locomotive, 1910.

Used between Pau and Montrejean. A. E. G. 94-ton, 1600-h. p., 1-phase, 15-cycle, 12,000-volt

locomotive of the side-rod tj'pe. Forced ventilation. Freight and passenger service.

that a 450-ton train be hauled up a 3.5 per cent, grade at 18 m. p. h. ; a
310-ton train at 25 m. p. h.; and a 115-ton train at 38 m. p. h. On the
level, express passenger trains were to run at 62 m. p. h,, and regular
passenger trains at 40 m. p. h.

3-11-^2-1^

Fig. 154.— Baden State-Weisental Railway Locomotive of 1910.
Ten Siemens-Schuckert units used on the Basel-Zell Line. 71-ton, 1050-h. p., 300-volt motors.

Westinghouse units weigh 89 tons, of whigh 62 tons are on drivers.

A. E. G. units weigh 94 tons, of which 60 tons were on 49-inch drivers.

The cranks work at an angle of 45 degrees with the horizontal, and

the crank circle has a 21.66-inch diameter. E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 962.

386 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

GERMAN STATE RAILWAYS.

Baden State Railway in 1909 obtained from Siemens-Schuckert ten
locomotives for its Wiesental Railway between Basel, Schopfheim, and
Zell, 34 miles of track.

The system is the 15-cycle, 10,000-volt, single-phase. Locomotives
have 3 sets of 47-inch drivers and 2 sets of leaders. Motors are two
525-h. p., 300-volt, mounted upon the locomotive frame and crank-con-
nected to jackshafts and to driver side rods. Weight is 71 tons. Eighty
250- to 540-ton trains per day are hauled up grades of 0.57 per cent.

Other locomotives of about the same capacity, weight, and type
were purchased from Allgemeine Elect ricitats Gesellshaft.

Reference.

Electrician, July 2, 1909; Ry. Age Gazette, July, 1909; E. R. J., Dec. 11, 1909;
Apr. 9, 1910, p. 668; Zeitschrift, Jan., 1909.

Fig. 155. — Bavakian State Railway. Siemens Locomotive on Murnau-Oberammergau Line,

1905.

Bavarian State Railways in 1905 equipped the Murnau-Oberammer-
gau line with two Siemens-Schuckert, 2-axle locomotives for freight
service, each with 175-h. p. 15-cycle motors, with a gear ratio of 5.
The trolley voltage is 5500. Many interesting details of the locomotive,
contact line, and 2-axle freight cars are shown in the illustration.

Prussian State Railway in 1906 ordered from the A. E. G. two 25-
cycle, 6000-volt experimental locomotives. One had three 350-h. p., and
one had two 300-h. p., single-phase motors. The first locomotive, in
service at Oranienburg, is shown in Figure 196. It has geared motors,
56-inch drivers, 10-foot 10-inch bogie truck wheel bases, a 31-foot total
wheel base, and weighs 66 tons.

For the Magdeburg-Leipzig Line, Brown-Boveri, Allgemeine, Oerlikon,
and Siemens Companies have built locomotives of the 2-motor, crank type,

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 387

and the Bergmami Company has built a l-motor, 1500-h. p. locomotive.
These locomotives were designed for 75 m. p. h. in passenger service, and
for 35 m. p. h. in freight service.

The 10,000-volt, 15-cycle system has been adopted.

Allgemeine has furnished an express locomotive of the Atlantic type and 4-4-2
class. One 1000-h. p. motor, mounted in the center of the locomotive, utiHzes
vertical driving rods from its crank shafts, and a crank circle of 23.6 inches. The
crank shaft is side-rod connected to 2 pairs of 63-inch drivers. Rigid driver wheel
base is 9 feet 10 inches, and total wheel base is 19 feet 8 inches. Weight is 77
tons. See Figure 157.

Fig. 156. — Prussian State Railway. A. E. G. Locomotive at Oranienburg, 1906.

Allgemeine freight locomotive is of the 0-4-4-0 class, with one 800-h. p. motor,
crank-connected at 45 degrees to a crankshaft located across the middle of the loco-
motive. The crank circle diameter is 19.7 inches. The crank shaft is side-rod
connected to 4 pairs of 41-inch drivers. Driver wheel base, not rigid, is 15 feet
9 inches, and the total weight is about 64 tons. See Figure 158.

References.

Elec. Zeit., Aug. 4, 1910; E. W., April 9, 1910; E. R. J., June 6, 1908, p. 11.

SWISS FEDERAL RAILWAY.

Swiss Federal Railway has experimented extensively on the Seebach-
Wettingen l^ranch, with Oerlikon and with Siemens locomotives.

An Oerlikon locomotive, built in 1905, is a plain, single-phase, 15-
cycle unit with 2 bogie trucks. It has two 200-kv. a., 15,000 to 600-
volt transformers. Two 250-h. p., 650-r. p. m. forced draft motors, with

388

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 389

390 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Fig. 159. — Swiss Federal Railway. Siemens Locomotive, 1906.

Fig. 160. — Swiss Federal Railway. Siemens Single-phase Freight Locomotive.

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 391

Fig. 161. — Bernese Alps Railroad. A. E. G. Single-phase Locomotive, 1910.
1600-h. p., 103-ton, crank and side-rod units. Crank rods from motors make an angle of only

11 degrees from a vertical.

Fig.

162. — Bernese Alps Railroad. Oerlikon Single-phase Locomotive, 1910.
2000-h. p., 97-ton, crank and side-rod units.

392

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

a 3.08 gear ratio, are geared to a crankshaft located between each pair
of 40-inch drivers, the crankshaft being coupled by side -rods to the
drivers. Weight of electrical equipment is 18 tons and the total is 45
tons.

A motor-generator locomotive is described later in this chapter.

A Siemens freight locomotive. Figures 159 and 160, is a 6-axle, 83-ton,
single-phase, 15-cycle, 15,000-volt, 1350-h.p. unit. Each of six 225-h.p.
motors is geared to its axle, a 3.75 gear ratio being used. E. W., Aug.,
1908, p. 290.

BERNESE ALPS RAILROAD.

Bernese Alps Railroad, in 1910, placed in service several locomotives
on the 52-mile road between Bern, Lotschberg, and Simplon Tunnel.
A. E. G. Locomotive. This unit is of the articulated 2-4-4-2 class.
Specifications caUed for 28,600 pounds maximum tractive effort.

Fig. 163. — Bernese Alps Railroad. Motor and Truck of Oerlikon Locomotive.

and a 1-hour drawbar pull of 17,600 pounds, at 24.8 miles per hour,
for a 2.7 per cent, grade and 280-ton train, or for a 1.55 per cent, grade
and 442-ton train; and for maximum speeds of 47 m. p. h.

The design embraces a unit built in two similar halves, with two 800-h.p. motors
mounted upon the frames, which transmit their energy by crank and connecting
rods, thru crankshaft. Each pair of driving axles is side-rod connected. Leading
wheels are used on a pony truck and the leading axles are sliding axles. The driving
axles can turn independent within narrow limits. The side rods have the usual
knuckle joint. Springs are provided to keep the driving axle at right angles to the

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 393

longitudinal axis of the locomotive, on tangents. Driver wheel diameter is 50 inches ;
leading wheels, 33 inches; crank circle, 21 inches; wheel base, 40 feet 10 inches;
wheel base of one-haK, 17 feet 4 inches; weight on driving axles, 19 tons; on leading
axles, 14 tons; total weight 103 tons; weight of mechanical portion, 49 tons; weight
of electrical equipment, 54 tons; weight of motors, 30 tons.

Motors are two 8-pole 800-h.p., single-phase, 15-cycle units, fed from two
15.000- to 400-volt transformers. E. R. J., April 9 and Oct. 29, 1910. See Fig. 33.

Fig. 164. — Bernese Alps Railroad. Transformer on Oerlikon Locomotive.

Oerlikon Locomotive. This unit is of the two truck 0-6-6-0 class.

The two bogies each have three coupled axles. Weight is 97 tons, all on drivers;
mechanical parts weigh 49 tons, and electrical parts 48 tons. Two 15,000- to 450-
volt, 1000-kv.a. transformers weigh 12 tons. Length is 48 feet. Drivers are 53-inch.
Motors and transformers are located over the two sets of end drivers of each truck;
and the weight on the leading and trailing axles is 14.5 tons, while that on each of
the four middle axles is 16.8 tons. Axle centers in feet and inches are 5-5, 6-0, 8-7,
6-0, 7-5.

394

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Motors are two 12-pole, 1000-h.p., single-phase, 420- volt, 2100-ampere, 510-r.p.in.,
compensated series, 11-ton units. Frames are split horizontally. A 10-h.p. motor
operates a forced draft fan for motors and transformers. Temperature rise is 60° C.
for commutator and stator, and 75° for the rotor. Power factor for speeds above
20 m.p.h. is 95 per cent. Air gap is 3 millimeters and thickness of babbit in
bearings is 2 milh meters.

Motor shafts are 73 inches above the rail. Efficiency is .90 at half and full
load, and .95 at 19 m.p.h. Motors are rated 2000-h.p. Gear shafts are 10.4 inches

Fig. 165. — Bernese Alps Railroad. Oerltkon Locomotive. Motor with Armature Removed.

above the plane of the driver-axle centers. Each gear axle is crank connected to
the further driver axle thru a 9-foot crank rod, which is forked at the driver end,
and connects to a crank pin on the side rod. Side rods connect the three axles.

Gear ratio is 3.25 and gear teeth are waved-shaped, consisting of a double angle
with rounded tips, the sides being at an angle of about 45 degrees. Maximum pres-
sure on teeth is 1850 pounds per square inch. Gear wheels are 57 inches in diameter.
Motors run equally well on direct current at 400 volts and on one phase of a three-
phase circuit. They are the largest motors yet built and have a remarkably high
weight efficiency.

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES

395

References: E. ^Y., Nov. 17, 1910, p. 1191; E. R. J., June 18, 1910; July 29, 1911.

Performance tests show a maximum tractive effort of 33,000 pounds, and a normal
tractive effort of 28,800 pounds at 26 m.p.h. or 2000 h.p. By utilizing a quickly made
modification of the secondary transformer windings, to provide for a higher voltage
3000 h.p. can be exerted for an hour at a speed of 37 m.p.h., and motors then have a
2000-h.p. continuous rating. (Oerlikon Bulletin No. 63, August, 1910.)

Fig. 166. — Bernese Alps Railroad. Armature and Pinion on Oerlikon Locomotive Motor.

COMPARISON OF OERLIKON WITH OTHER LOCOMOTIVES.

Name of railroad.

Name

of
mfgr.

Elec-

One

tric

hour

system.

h.p.

D.C.

2200

600-v.

D.C.

2500

660-v.

3-p.

1980

25-cy.

3-p.

1700

15-cy.

3-p.

1700

25-cy.

1-p.

1340

-25-cy.

1-p.

1600

15-cy.

1-p.

1600

15-cy.

1-p.

2000

15-cy.

Contin-
uous
h.p.

wt.

1-hour

Max.

Wt. of

per ton.

speed

motors

tons.

h.p.

m.p.h.

tons.

115

19.1

157

15.9

29.5

22.4

27.5

115

14.8

130

10.3

18.0

103

15.5

20.6

Wt. of
transf.,
tons.

New York Central .... G .E

Pennsylvania West. . . .

Giovi West. . . .

Simplon Tunnel Brown . .

Great Northern G.E

Boston & Maine West. . . .

French Southern West. . . .

Bernese Alps \ A.E.G . . .

Bernese Alps Oerlikon.

1000
1600
1440

1500
1180
1200

2000

Continuous h.p. rating of alternating-current motors is on forced draft.
Maximum speed must be considered in comparing* the locomotive tonnage.

396 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

ST. POLTEN-MARIAZELL RAILWAY.

St. Polten-Mariazell Railway in lower Austria, a 30-inch gage road, 67
miles long, in 1910 changed from steam locomotives which had a maxi-
mum speed of 18.6 m.p.h. to single-phase, electric locomotives with a
maximum speed of 30 m.p.h. Siemens-Schuckert Works has furnished
17 locomotives. Two units are used with multiple-unit control for all
heavy trains. Each unit has two 6-wheel, swivel trucks.

Motors are two per locomotive, 250-h.p., 250-volt, series type with
forced ventilation, mounted above the truck frame between the mid-
dle and inside driving axle. Motors have a 2.9 gear ratio and are geared
to crankshafts, each of which is outside connected to 3 pairs of drivers
by side rods. The rigid wheel base of each truck is 7 feet 10 inches,
and, as is usual in European practice, the forward driving wheels
are connected to the middle wheels by a side rod thru a knuckle joint.
The total wheel base is 25 feet 10 inches.

Weights are: total, 99,500 pounds; mechanical 46,500 pounds;
motors and gears, 26,500 pounds; two 6000- to 250-volt transformers,
15,500 pounds; control apparatus, 8800; current collectors, 2200 pounds;
each motor, 4400 pounds. Elec. Ry. Journ., August 20, 1910.

LEONARD-OERLIKON.

Motor-generator locomotives usually embrace:

High-pressure single-phase distribution. Single-phase, direct-current,
self-starting, continuous-running motor-generator; driving direct-current
motors connected to axles. Regeneration of energy by field control of
the direct-current generator.

Advantageous features of the motor-generator plan:

Sixty-cycle current may be used if necessary. Wasteful resistance
losses are avoided in acceleration. Smooth acceleration is obtained for
freight-train haulage. Opening of all heavy current circuits is avoided.
Variations in speed may be produced by variation in the shunt fields of
the direct-current generators. Multiple-unit control is simplified.
Regeneration of energy is facilitated.

A motor-generator locomotive was built in 1905 by the Oerlikon
Company for the Seebach-Wettingen Railway of Switzerland. The line
voltage, 15,000, was reduced by two 15-cycle, 200-kw. transformers to
750 volts. The motor-generator set was rated 520 h. p., and consisted
of a squirrel-cage, single-phase motor connected to a 600-volt direct-

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 397

current generator, rated 400 kw, at 980 r. p. m. There were four 100-h. p.,
600-volt, direct-current traction motors, with a 3.50 gear ratio, connected
in pairs to coupled drivers. Drawbar pull was 9000 pounds, and the run-
ning speed was 44 m. p. h. Weights are given below:

Mechanical parts 22 . 2 tons 42 . 6 per cent.

Transformers 3 . 0 tons 5 . 8 per cent.

Motor-generator 11.0 tons 21.2 per cent.

Axle motors 15.8 tons 30.4 per cent.

The total weight was 52 tons, which is only 7.7,h. p. per ton.

References on Leonard -Oerlikon Locomotives.

Leonard, A. I. E. E., June, 1892; E. W., March 5, 1904; July 8, 1905, p. 50.
Oerlikon, S. R. J., April 8, 1905, p. 650; Nov. 11, 1905, p. 888; S. R. J., Feb. 24, 1906;
E. W., Aug. 8, 1908.

PARIS-LYONS-MEDITERRANEAN.

Paris -Lyons -Mediterranean Railway built an experimental locomo-
tive in 1909 which embodied a modified electric system.

A single-phase, alternating-current, 12,000-volt, 25-cycle contact
line delivers power to a locomotive, on which a permutator converts the
alternating current to direct current at an e. m. f. adjustable between
zero volts and 600 volts. The energy is delivered to 4 ordinary direct-
current, 450-volt motors geared to the 4 driving axles of the locomotive.

The regulating permutator which is used consists of a synchronously
revolving commutator which makes one revolution per cycle. The
function of the permutator is to reverse the current every half cycle or
to send the successive half waves of alternating current in the same
direction to a receiving, direct-current circuit. The permutator which
has a normal power factor of 98 per cent, is rated 2200 kw. ; it weighs
20 tons.

The locomotive weighs 140 tons, is 65 feet long, and has 8 axles
of which the 4 central ones are the driving axles. The drawbar pull
exerted is 16,400 pounds at 37 miles per hour and 10,600 pounds at 62
miles per hour. This locomotive and system are used on the Grasse-
Cannes-Mouans-Sortoux line with steep grades and sharp curves.

Reference.

London Electrician, October 22, 1909; March 17, 1911; S. R. J., Dec. 1, 1906.

398

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

REFERENCES TO DETAILED DRAWINGS OF SINGLE-PHASE
LOCOMOTIVES.

Name of locomotive.

Maker.

Location.

References.

New Haven 1906 pass

1909 geared. .

1910 crank. . .

1911 switch. .
Boston & Maine geared . .

West

G.E

New York Div. . .
New York Div. . .
New York Div. . .
Harlem Yards. . .
Hoosac Tunnel

E.R.J., Aug. 17, 1907; Nov. 21, 1908.
E.R.J., Sept. 25, 1909; May 7, 1910.
E.R.J., May 17, 1910, p. 830.
E.R.J., April 15, 1911, p. 667.

Grand Trunk geared ....

St. Clair .

Windsor, Essex & L.S . .
General Electric freight . .

Windsor Ont. . . .

Proposed

Oranieaburg

Magdeburg

France

Basel-Zell

Loetschberg

Austria

E.R.J. , July 25, 1908, p. 340.
A.I.E.E., July, 1910, p. 1788.
E.R.J. , May 8, 1909, p. 874.
Zeitschrift, 1908, p. 17.
E.R.J. , Dec. 25, 1909, p. 1259.
E.R.J., April 9, 1910.
Zeitschrift, Jan., 1909, p. 998.
E.R.J., April 9, 1910.
E.R.J., April 9, Oct. 29, 1910.
E.R.J., June 18, 1910.
E.R.J., Aug. 20, 1910, p. 301.

Prussian State

A.E.G

French Southern

Baden State, Wiesental..
Bernese- Alps.. . . .

A.E.G

Siemens . . .

A.E.G

Oerlikon. . .
Siemens . . .

Bernese-Alps

St. Polten-Mariazell

DESCRIPTION OF SINGLE-PHASE LOCOMOTIVES 399

This page is reserved for additional references and notes on single-phase
locomotives.

CHAPTER XI.
POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS.

Outline.

Power Units and Formulas.
Power for Trains a Function of :

Weight of cars; speed of train; tractive coefficient, character of tractive effort;

tractive resistance, gravity, friction, inertia; acceleration, deceleration.
Elementary Kinematics of Acceleration.
Energy for Frequent Stops.
Power for Auxiliaries :

Light, ventilation, brakes, electric heating.
Losses at Motors :

Mechanical, magnetic, electric, control, contact.
Losses Beyond Motors :

Transformation, conversion, transmission.
Power Curves :

Speed, tractive effort, time.
Watt-hours per Ton -mile.
Regeneration of Energy :

Mechanical and electrical schemes.
Summary on Power Required.
Literature.

400

CHAPTER XI.

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS.
IN GENERAL.

The tractive effort required to overcome train resistance will first be
studied; after which the tractive effort to overcome inertia will be con-
sidered with the subject of acceleration; then motor losses, braking^ and
regeneration will be taken up ; and finally summaries will be made on the
energy and power required for train movements.

POWER UNITS AND FORMULAS.

Energy and power units, used in a study of the starting, moving, and
stopping of trains, will first be reviewed.

Energy is defined as the ability to perform work; and work is the prod-
uct of the force and the distance thru which the force acts. Work is
measured in results; and is expressed quantitatively, in foot-pounds or in
kilowatt-hours.

The unit of energy, in electric traction, is expressed in watt-hours
per ton-mile.

Force refers to pull, or pressure. Force is expressed in gravity units,
that is, in pounds. The force, R, acting on a train, overcomes gravity,
frictional resistance, and inertia.

Speed or velocity is expressed in feet per second, v, or, preferably, in
miles per hour, m. p. h.

Power is the rate at which work is performed. The mechanical unit is
the horse power, 550 foot-pounds per second.

RXv RXVX5280 R X m. p. h.

Horse power = = = ^

^ 550 550X3600 375.

The electrical unit of power is the kilowatt. 1.34 h. p. =1.00 kw.

The word power is frequently used in place of the word energy.

Energy of position or potential energy is illustrated.

A 1000-ton train at the summit of a grade, which is 4000 feet high,
has the ability to perform work in descending a grade, and may even
generate energy and deliver it to an electric transmission line and central
power station. The amount of energy which, on account of the position
of the train, may be generated in descending is

4000X1000X2000 or 8,000,000,000 foot-pounds. If the train runs
down or up the grade in 2 hours or 7200 seconds, at the rate of 15 m. p. h.,
the power, or rate of work, excluding the friction averages

8,000,000,000/ 550/ 7200 or 2000 h. p.
26 401

402 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The force required in braking the train, if the distance is about 30
miles, or 160,000 feet, averages

8,000,000,000/160,000 = 50,000 pounds.
As a check— h. p. -RXm. p. h./375 = 50,000 X15/375-2000.

Energy of motion of a moving train is, by kinematics, the product of
one-half the mass and the square of the velocity. Mass equals weight in
pounds divided by 32, the force of gravity. The kinetic energy of motion
= (1/2)MW2, or M//64, in foot-pounds. Example:

An 870-ton, 25-car train running at 34 m. p. h. (about 50 feet per
second) has stored up as kinetic energy

870X2000X50X50/64 or 68,000,000 foot-pounds.

If the train is to be stopped within 2000 feet, a retarding force of
34,000 pounds is required, or 39 pounds per ton.

Frictional resistance would be about 7.5 pounds per ton, or 6500
pounds in this example, so that the net retarding force would be 27,500
pounds, or 1100 pounds per car, or 137 pounds per wheel. If the average
coefficient of friction is 0.17, the pressure per wheel would be 810 pounds.
Master Car Builders' Association rules limit the maximum braking force
on the 8 wheels of freight cars to 70 to 90 per cent, of the light weight,
to avoid sliding of wheels; or, in the example, about 27,500 pounds.

POWER FOR TRAINS.

The power used for electric trains is a function of:
The weight of the cars hauled.
The speed of the train.
The available tractive coefficient.
The character of the tractive effort.

The tractive resistance or effort per ton, for gravity, friction, and
acceleration.

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 403

WEIGHT OF CARS, FREIGHT AND PASSENGER, ON RAILROADS.

!Name of cars.

Type
or kind.

Dead weight
in tons.

Capacity
in tons.

Box

Box (C. P. R.
Furniture. . . .

Stock

Oil

Flat

Flat...

Flat

Coal

Gondola

Ore

R.).

28 to 30

32 to 34

Ore

Ballast I

Average, Ry. Age, 1911, p. 935.

Coaches, 8-wheel 45 to 60

Coaches, 12-wheel 50 to 60

Coaches, 12-wheel 60 to 70

Mail car 50 to 70

Mail car { 60 to 70

Baggage car, 8-wheel 50 to 60

Baggage car, 12-wheel 66

Dining car 50 to 60

Tourist cars

Sleeping cars 50 to 60

Sleeping cars 60 to 70

Sleepers, Pennsylvania

Six-wheel truck only

Buffet Library cars

Pennsylvania R. R., 18-hour, .
New York-Chicago, six cars

60 to 70

Wood
Wood
Wood
Wood
Wood
Wood
Wood
Steel
Wood
Wood
Steel
Wood
Wood
Wood
Steel
Wood
Steel
Steel
Wood
Steel
Wood
Steel
Wood

Wood
Wood
Steel
Wood
Steel
Wood
Steel
Wood
Wood
Wood
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel

Steel

40
50
60

to 12

to 14

to 17

to 18

to 23

to 21

to 22

to 20

to 19

to 15

to 18

to 11

to 12

to 13

to 23

to 19

to 18

to 22

to 14

to 13

to 20

to 32

to 70

to 45

to 60

to 65

to 75

350

20 to 30

25 to 30

30 to 40

30 to 45

40 to 50

50 to 55

30 to 40

40 to 50

40 to 70

30 to 40

American Railway Association's standard freight car has inside di-
mensions, 30 feet long by 8.5 feet wide by 8 feet high.

European freight cars have four wheels and weigh half as much.

404 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

WEIGHT OF MOTOR PASSENGER CARS ON ELECTRIC ROADS.

Name of cars.

Length
in feet.

Type
or kind.

Weight
in tons.

No. of

seats.

Pounds
per seat.

City

Interurban

Interurban coach

Rapid Transit

Elevated

Tunnel

Hudson and Manhattan . .

New Haven, motor

New Haven, coaches ..'...

Long Island

Pennsylvania-Long Island.
West Jersey & Seashore . .

New York Central

Southern Pacific suburban.

Midland Ry., England

London, Brighton & S. C. .

26 to 32
40
45
50
55
60
60
60
50
50
45
45
50
48
70

51
65
55
55
60
72
60
60

Wood

Steel

Wood

Steel

Wood

Steel

Wood

Steel

Wood

Steel

8 to 12
20
26
30
36
39
50

30 to 45
23 to 45
35 to 50

32
28

31 to 38

35
87
50
38 to 41
53
47
52
54
55
45
57

28 to 34

48
46 to 56

68
116

650
1000
1155
1200
1310
1260
1560
1070
1235
1545
1335
1165
1350
1600
2290
1315
1520
1485
1620
1790
1590

950
1250
1730

See complete tabular data on weights of American and European
motor cars and coaches, near the end of Chapter VI.

In general, the weight of electric cars is 1400 pounds per seat when
arranged for over 60 passengers, and 1000 pounds per seat for 100 or
more suburban passengers; an average is about 1200 pounds. For a
given number of seats, the weight per seat varies directly with the
schedule speed.

Suburban cars, with some side seats, turtle-back roofs, without
monitor decks, are not comparable with cars for railroad service.

Steam railroad coaches weigh from 1700 to 2000 pounds per seat.

References on Weight of Cars.

Curves showing car weights, E. R. J., Sept. 19, 1908; also October 10, 1908, p. 912.
Standardization suggested, dimensions and drawings, S. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1104.
Heron: Relation of Car Length, Weight, Truck Centers, S. R. J., Feb. 8, 1908.
Ayers: Weight and Operating Cost, Amer. Elec. Ry. Assoc, Oct., 1909; E. R. J.
Oct. 7, 1909.

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS
SCHEDULE SPEED OF RAILWAY TRAINS.

405

Name of railway.

M. p. h.

Thru trains, in rolling country

Local passenger trains

Mountain freight trains

Way freight trains

Time freight trains

Quick dispatch and refrigerator special

Stock trains, on prairie divisions

Fast mail trains, without passengers

New York Central, 18-hour train, New York-Chicago . . . .
Pennsylvania R. R., 18-hour train, New York-Chicago . . . .
Ordinary 24-hour train between New York and Chicago

Chicago-Minneapolis passenger trains, 408/13

MinneapoUs-Seattle passenger trains, 1814/56

Chicago- Omaha passenger trains, 492/14.6

Chicago-San Francisco passenger trains, 2279/76

New York Subway, local and express

Manhattan Elevated

Ordinary street railway.

35 to 40

22 to 28

5 to 9

8 to 12

13 to 18
16 to 18
18 to 22
40 to 50

53.5
50.6
40.0
32.0
32.4
33.7
30.0
14 and 30

14 to 15

SCHEDULE SPEED OF TRAINS INCREASED WITH ELECTRIC TRACTION.

Schedule speed.

Name of railway.

Per cent,
increase.

Brooklyn Rapid Transit

Manhattan Elevated R. R

Grand Trunk Ry., Port Huron.
Metropolitan Elevated, Chicago,
South Side Elevated, Chicago. . .
Lake Street Elevated, Chicago. ,
Great Northern Cascade Tunnel
Mersey Ry., England

North-Eastern Ry., England . .

Berlin Inner Circle

Milan- Varese R. R

37
36
66
25
15
20
30
27
20
40
40
50
50

Number of cars per train was increased 50 to 75 per cent, on the
Manhattan; and the number of cars per train on most of the roads listed
was increased.

406 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

TRACTIVE COEFFICIENT.

The tractive coefficient, or coefficient of adhesion, is the ratio between
the maximum tractive effort and the weight on drivers. It depends
largely upon the condition of the rails, and partly on the composition
of the steel in contact.

Coefficients of Friction Between Drivers and Rail :

Most favorable condition 35%, when sanded 40%

Clean dry rail 28%, when sanded 30%

Thoroly wet rail 18%? when sanded 24%

Greasy moist rail 15%, when sanded 25%

Sleet-covered rail 15%, when sanded 20%

Dry-snow-covered rail 11%? when sanded 15%

Character of tractive effort is involved in tractive coefficient.

Steam locomotives deliver a tractive effort which varies from 28 to
50 per cent, above and below the mean, during each revolution of the
driver. The ratio of the maximum available tractive effort to adhesive
weight on drivers is 25 per cent. This is based on a study made by the
Master Mechanics' Association Committee of 1898. Mr. L. H. Fry, in a
paper before New York Railroad Club, Sept., 1903, showed as the result
of tests on 155 locomotives that the ratio averaged 22 per cent.

Mallet compound steam locomotives lack uniformity of tractive
effort from the pistons, during each revolution of the drivers. The two
pistons on each side produce efforts on the drivers of independent trucks,
which efforts may be exerted in any relation or position from zero to
90 degrees apart.

Electric locomotives deliver a uniform tractive effort during the
revolution of the drivers. With smooth application of the power by the
controller, the tractive effort is from 25 to 35 per cent, of the weight on
drivers. However, 22 per cent, is to be recommended as a basis in railway
service; for, even tho high ratios are available with favorable conditions at
the rail, they could not be used with bad weather conditions which fre-
quently govern train service.

Electric locomotives sometimes lack uniformity of tractive effort
during train acceleration. This is caused by the opening of the circuits
in some types of series-parallel, or concatenated controllers; or change
in the number of poles, or crude schemes which require that power be
shut off to change the motor combinations. The cutting in and out
of large blocks of resistance causes jerking of the train, but this can be
obviated by connecting more taps to the resistances or transformer.
Water rheostats which make gradual changes in the resistance, a scheme
used on Field's locomotives in 1883, are used on some European work.

Motor-car trains, even in bad weather and without the use of sand
under the wheels, have ample and uniform tractive effort. The acceler-
ation rate may be high because so much of the weight is on the drivers.

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 407

Tractive effort to overcome train resistance and inertia is thus
limited by the coefficient of adhesion or condition of the rail, the uni-
formity of tractive effort, and the amount and distribution of weight.
The method of suspension of the motors on the truck also affects the
maximum tractive effort. See Eaton: Electric Journal, Dec, 1910.

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE.

Tractive resistance to motion is caused by gravity, friction of the
train, including bearings, rails, curves, air resistance, and inertia.

GRADES.

Grades increase the tractive effort required per ton. Each 1 per
cent, grade increases the pull or lift 1 per cent, of 2000 pounds, or 20
pounds per ton, and this is to be added to the frictional resistance and
to the accelerating resistance per ton.

FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE.

Resistance measurements with dynamometer cars are faulty because
they do not include the head-end resistance of the locomotive or of the
leading motor car. Results from electric meters include head-end
friction, mechanical friction, and electric motor losses. Results derived
from indicator cards of steam locomotives are also correct.

Train friction equations are of the form R = A + BV + CV^, wherein
R is the total resistance to motion, in pounds per ton; V the velocity of
the train, plus or minus the velocity of the wind, in m. p. h.

A stands for journal friction, which increases slightly with the speed
and varies inversely as the square root of the pressure on the journals.
Friction per ton is much greater with empty than with loaded cars; it
varies greatly with the quantity and quality of the lubricant, and
with the temperature. It includes friction of motor bearings, brushes
on commutators, friction of machinery, trucks, spring oscillation, etc.

B stands for rail friction, which varies with the diameter of the wheels,
length of wheel base, cleanliness, dryness and stiffness of rails, the track
soldity or inelasticity, and the flange friction between wheels and rails
caused by concussions and by side winds. Oscillations, concussions, and
waves in rails occur on poor track and cause extra resistance to motion.

C stands for wind or air resistance, and varies with the shape or
contour of the front and rear vestibules, sides, surfaces, cross-section of
the locomotive and cars, and the number of cars, N, in the train.

The numerical values of the constants. A, B, and C, in pounds are:

^=3.0 for 70-ton freight cars; 6.0 for empty freight cars; 4.0 for
passenger coaches and light loaded freight cars; 4.0 for 45-ton, 4.5 for
35-ton, and 5 to 6 for 25- to 15-ton passenger or freight cars.

B = 0. 06 for excellent track; 0 . 1 1 for heavy track; 0 . 10 up to 0 . 15 for
ordinary good track. Data on freight cars indicate that B= .05.

408

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

C is a variable quantity which depends on the shape of the front of
the train, K, and the effective cross-sectional area of the train in square
feet, divided by the total weight of the train. C = Kx Area /Tons.
The values of K, in pounds per square foot, are:

.0010 for parabolic fronts; .0040 for flat fronts; .0020 for wedged fronts;
.0028 for vestibule cars; .0030 for open platforms; .0033 for freight cars;
and higher values for open-end coaches and small electric cars.

Cross-sectional areas are about 85 square feet for a street car; 100
for an interurban car; 120 for a locomotive or a coach; 120 to 140 for a
freight car. To the above, 10 per cent, of the cross-sectional area is added
for each trailing car.

FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE OF TRAINS IN GENERAL.

R =

= A

K X

Area x y

3.0

f .05

r .0020

[ 85

3.5

.10

.0028

100

4.0

+ <

.llxV

. 0030 X =

110x(l-h.lO(N-l))x-^

5.0

.12

.0033

120

6.0

[ .15

. .0040

L 140

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE FORMULAS FOR TRAINS.

Authority.

Value of R — Tractive resistance.

Notes on service.

, 166V j Steam trains.

250V General use.

,150V+(.02 N-25)VVT... j Long trains.

200V+ .48VVT Elevated railways

120 V + (. 0014 +.35/T)Vi« ! Motor-car trains.

160V+ .333VVT I General use.

,130V+(.0040AVVT) (l+.l (N-1)) .. Electric trains.

167V + .0025AVVT Suburban service.

150V +(.020 N + 0.25)VVT Motor-car trains.

I
.030V+(.0020AVVT) (1 + . l(N-l)).. . ' Short trains.

Baldwin 3.0 +

Eng. News 2.0 +

Dudley |-3.5 +

Lundie 14.0 +

Blood '5.0 +

Sprague 4.0 +

Davis, W.J...! 4.0 +
Smith, W. N. .! 4.0 +
Mailloux 3.5 +

5.0

Armstrone; .... ^ +

. V T

Value of R for Freight Trains, Exclusive of Locomotive.

Dennis j 2.41 T+ 90 N

Onderonk I 2.78 T + 114 N

Cole . .
Amer.

Ry. Eng. Association.

1.07 T+138N.
2.22 T + 122 N.

Average of tests, 1904.
Baltimore & Ohio test, 1904.
Penn. R. R. tests, 1907.
Recommendation, 1910.
N = no. of cars per train.

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 409

The last four formulas assume that, between 5 and 30 m.p.h., the
friction is independent of the velocity. It is well to point out that there
is nothing in data of tests to support this assumption. Conclusive
tests show an increase of 50 per cent, between 5 and 30 m.p.h.

Value of R for Steam Locomotives recommended by the American
Railway Engineering Association for the friction between the cylinder
and the rim of the drivers is R = 18.7 T + 80X, where T = tons on drivers,
and X = number of driving axles.

American Locomotive Company's tests show that the mechanical
friction resistance of the engine without tender is equal to the weight on
drivers in tons x 22 . 2 pounds.

Values of Air Resistance Constant, C, in pounds, as detailed by Goss :

C=.2A0V' for locomotive = .002F2xA, where A = 120 square feet.

C= .llOF^ for locomotive and tender.

C= .026F^ for last car of a freight train.

C= .036F^ for last car of passenger train.

C= .OlOy^ for each intermediate freight car.

C= .0201"^ for each intermediate passenger car.

FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE TABLES.

The application of train friction constants to motor-car trains is
show^n in the following Tables on Tractive Resistance. They have been
checked repeatedly for ordinary conditions, on a private right-of-way.
The variable which requires the most consideration is B.

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— SINGLE-CAR OPERATION.

15-ton car R = 6.0+ . 11V+ .SOxV^ (1+0.1 (N-l)/T)

10 m. p. h., R-6.0 + 1.1 + .30X 100/15 = 6.0 + 1.1+ 2.0= 9.1
20 6. 0 + 2. 2+.30X 400/15 = 6.0 + 2.2+ 8.0 = 16.2

30 6. 0 + 3. S+.SOx 900/15 = 6.0 + 3.3 + 18.0 = 27.3

40 6.0 + 4.4+ .30x1600/15 = 6.0 + 4.4 + 32.0 = 42.4

50 6. 0 + 5. 5 +.30x2500/15 = 6. 0 + 5. 5 + 50. 0 = 61. 5

60 6.0 + 6.6+ .30x3600/15 = 6.0 + 6.6 + 72.0 = 84.6

20-ton car R = 5. 5+ . 12V+ .30xV2 (1+0.1 (N-l))/T

10m. p. h., R = 5. 5 + 1. 2+.30x 100/20 = 5.5 + 1.2+ 1.5= 8.2
20 5. 5 + 2. 4+.30X 400/20 = 5.5 + 2.4+ 6.0 = 13.9

30 5.5 + 3.6+.30X 900/20 = 5.5 + 3.6 + 13.5 = 22.6

40 5.5 + 4.8+ .30x1600/20 = 5.5 + 4.8 + 24.0 = 34.3

50 5.5 + 6.0+ .30x2500/20 = 5.5 + 6.0 + 37.5 = 49.0

60 ■ 5. 5 + 7.2+. 30x3600/20 = 5. 5 + 7. 2 + 54. 0 = 66. 7

25-ton car R = 5.0+ . 13V+ .30xV2 (1+0.1 (N-l))/T.

10 m. p. h., R = 5. 0 + 1. 3+.30x 100/25 = 5.0 + 1.3+ 1.2= 7.5
20 5. 0 + 2. 6+.30X 400/25 = 5.0 + 2.6+ 4.8 = 12.4

30 5.0 + 3.9+.30X 900/25 = 5.0 + 3.9 + 10.8 = 19.7

40 5.0 + 5.2+ .30x1600/25 = 5.0 + 5.2 + 19.2=29.4

50 5. 0 + 6. 5+. 30x2500/25 = 5. 0 + 6. 5 + 30. 0 = 41. 5

410 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

35-ton car R = 4.5+ . 13V+ .SOxV^ (1+0.1 (N-l))/T

10 m. p. h., R = 4. 5 + 1. B+.BOx 100/35=4.5 + 1.3+ 0.9= 6.7
20 . 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400/35 = 4.5 + 2.6+ 3.4 = 10.5

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900/35 = 4.5 + 3.9+ 7.7 = 16.1

40 4. 5 + 5. 2 +.30x1600/35 = 4. 5 + 5. 2 + 13. 7 = 23. 4

50 4. 5 + 6.5+. 30x2500/35=4. 5 + 6. 5 + 21. 4 = 32. 4

45-ton car R = 4.0+ . 13V+ .33xV2 (1+0.1 (N-l))/T

10 m. p. h., R = 4. 0 + 1. 3+.33X 100/45 = 4.0 + 1.3+ 0.7= 6.0
20 4. 0 + 2. 6+.33X 400/45=4.0 + 2.6+ 3.0= 9.6

30 4. 0 + 3. 9+.33X 900/45=4.0 + 3.9+ 6.6 = 14.5

40 4.0 + 5.2+ .33x1600/45=4.0 + 5.2 + 12.0 = 21.2

50 4. 0 + 6. 5+. 33x2500/45=4. 0 + 6. 5 + 18. 3 = 28. 8

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 2-CAR TRAIN.

15-ton cars R = 6.0+ . 11V+ .BOxV^ (1+0.1 (N-l))/T

10 m. p. h., R = 6.0 + 1. 1 + .30x 100x1.1/30 = 6.0 + 1.1+ 1.1= 8.2
20 6. 0 + 2. 2+.30X 400x1.1/30 = 6.0 + 2.2+ 4.4 = 12.6

30 6. 0 + 3. 3+.30X 900x1.1/30 = 6.0 + 3.3+ 9.9 = 19.2

40 6. 0 + 4. 4+. 30x1600x1. 1/30 = 6. 0+4. 4 + 17. 6 = 28.0

50 6 . 0 + 5 . 5 + . 30x2500x1 . 1/30 = 6. 0 + 5. 5 + 27. 5 = 39. 0

60 6. 0 + 6. 6+. 30x3600x1. 1/30 = 6. 0 + 6. 6 + 39. 6 = 52. 2

20-ton cars R = 5.5+ . 12V+ .BOxV^xl . 1/T

10m. p. h., R = 5.5 + 1.2+.30x 100x1.1/40 = 5.5 + 1.2+ 0.8= 7.5
20 5. 5 + 2. 4+.30X 400x1.1/40 = 5.5 + 2.4+ 3.3 = 11.2

30 5. 5 + 3. 6+.30X 900x1.1/40 = 5.5 + 3.6+ 7.4 = 16.5

40 5. 5 + 4.8+. 30x1600x1. 1/40 = 5. 5+4. 8 + 13. 2 = 23. 5

50 5. 5 + 6. 0+. 30x2500x1. 1/40 = 5. 5 + 6. 0 + 20. 6 = 32.1

60 5. 5 + 7. 2 +.30x3600x1. 1/40 = 5. 5 + 7. 2 + 29. 7 =42. 4

25-ton cars R = 5.0+ . 13V+ .BOxV^xl . 1/T

10 m. p. h., R = 5. 0 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1.1/50 = 5.0 + 1.3+ 0.7= 7.0
20 5. 0 + 2. 6+.30X. 400x1. 1/50 = 5. 0 + 2. 6+ 2.6 = 10.2

30 5. 0 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.1/50 = 5.0 + 3.9+ 5.9 = 14.8

40 5. 0 + 5. 2 +.30x1600x1. 1/50 = 5. 0 + 5. 2 + 10. 6 =20. 8

50 5 . 0 + 6 . 5 + . 30x2500x1 . 1/50 = 5. 0 + 6. 5 + 16. 5 = 28. 0

60 5. 0 + 7. 8+. 30x3600x1. 1/50 = 5. 0 + 7. 8 + 23. 7 = 36. 5

:4.5+.13V+.30xV2xl.l/T

4.5 + 1.3+.30X 100x1.1/70=4.5 + 1.3+ 0.5= 6.3
4.5 + 2.6+ .30x 400x1.1/70=4.5 + 2.6+ 1.9= 9.0
4.5 + 3.9+.30X 900x1.1/70=4.5 + 3.9+ 4.2 = 12.6
4.5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1 .1/70 =4. 5 + 5. 2+ 7.5 = 17.2
4. 5 + 6. 5 +.30x2500x1. 1/70 = 4. 5 + 6. 5 + 11. 8 = 22. 8
4.5 + 7.8+. 30x3600x1 .1/70 = 4.5 + 7.8 + 17.0 = 29.3

:4.0+.13V+.33xV2xl.l/T
10 m. p. h., R = 4.0 + 1.3+ .33x 100x1.1/90=4.0 + 1.3+ 0.4= 5.7
20 4. 0 + 2. 6+.33X 400x1.1/90=4.0 + 2.6+ 1.6= 8.2

30 4. 0 + 3. 9+.33X 900x1.1/90 = 4.0 + 3.9+ 3.6 = 11.5

40 4. 0 + 5. 2+. 33x1600x1. 1/90=4. 0 + 5. 2+ 6.4 = 15.6

50 4. 0 + 6. 5+. 33x2500x1. 1/90 = 4. 0 + 6. 5 + 10. 0 = 20. 5

60 4. 0 + 7. 8 +.33x3600x1. 1/90 = 4. 0 + 7. 8 4 14.5 = 26.3

35-ton cars .

10 m. p. h., R

45-ton cars .

POWER REQUIRED' FOR TRAINS 411

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 3-CAR TRAIN.

15-tou car R = 6.0+ . 11V+ .SOxV^ (1+0.1 (N-l))/T

lOm. p.. h., R = 6. 0 + 1. 1+.30X 100x1.2/45 = 6.0 + 1.1+ .8= 7.9
20 6. 0 + 2. 2+.30X 400x1.2/45 = 6.0 + 2.2+ 3.2 = 11.4

30 6. 0 + 3. 3+.30X 900x1.2/45 = 6.0 + 3.3+ 7.2 = 16.5

40 6. 0 + 4. 4+. 30x1600x1. 2/45 = 6. 0 + 4. 4 + 12, 8 = 23. 2

50 6. 0 + 5. 5+. 30x2500x1. 2/45 = 6. 0 + 5. 5 + 20. 0 = 31. 5

60 6 . 0 + 6 . 6 + . 30x3600x1 .2/45 = 6.0 + 6.6 + 28.8 = 41.4

20-ton car R = 5.5+ . 12V+ .30xV2xl .2/T

10 m. p. h., R = 5. 5 + 1. 2+.30X 100x1.2/60 = 5.5 + 1.2+ .6= 7.3
20 5. 5 + 2. 4+.30X 400x1.2/60 = 5.5 + 2.4+ 2.4 = 10.3

30 5. 5 + 3. 6+.30X 900x1.2/60 = 5.5 + 3.6+ 5.4 = 14.5

40 5. 5 + 4.8+. 30x1600x1. 2/60 = 5. 5 + 4. 8+ 9.6 = 19.9

50 5. 5 + 6. 0+. 30x2500x1. 2/60 = 5. 5 + 6. 0 + 15. 0 = 26. 5

60 5. 5 + 7.2+. 30x3600x1. 2/60 = 5. 5 + 7. 2 + 21. 6 = 34. 3

25-ton car R = 5.0+ . 13V+ .SOxV^xl .2/T

10 m. p. h., R = 5. 0 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1.2/75 = 5.0 + 1.3+ .5= 6.8
20 5. 0 + 2. 6+.30x 400x1.2/75 = 5.0 + 2.6+ 1.9= 9.5

30 5. 0 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.2/75 = 5.0 + 3.9+ 4.3 = 13.2

40 5. 0 + 5. 2+. 30x1600x1. 2/75 = 5. 0 + 5. 2+ 7.7 = 17.9

50 5. 0 + 6. 5 +.30x2500x1. 2/75 = 5. 0 + 6. 5 + 12. 2 =23. 7

60 5. 0 + 7. 8 +.30x3600x1. 2/75 = 5. 0 + 7. 8 + 17. 3 = 30.1

30-ton car R = 4.5+ . 13V+ .30xV2xl .2/T

10 m. p. h., R = 4. 5 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1:2/90 = 4.5 + 1.3= .4= 6.2
20 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.2/90 = 4.5 + 2.6+ 1.6= 8.7

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.2/90 = 4.5 + 3.9+ 3.6 = 12.0

40 4. 5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1. 2/90=4. 5 + 5. 2+ 6.4 = 16.1

50 4. 5 + 6. 5 +.30x2500x1. 2/90 =4. 5 + 6. 5 + 10. 0 = 21.0

60 4.5 + 7.8+. 30x3600x1 . 2/90 = 4 . 5 + 7 . 8 + 14 . 4 = 26 . 7

35-ton car R = 4.5+ . 13V+ .30xlV2x.2/T

10 m. p. h., R =4. 5 + 1.3 +.30x 100x1.2/105 = 4.5 + 1.3+ .3= 6.1

20 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.2/105=4.5 + 2.6+ 1.4= 8.5

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.2/105 = 4.5 + 3.9+ 3.0 = 11.4

40 4. 5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1. 2/105 = 4. 5 + 5. 2+ 5.5 = 15.2

50 4. 5 + 6.5+. 30x2500x1. 2/105 = 4. 5 + 6. 5+ 8.6 = 19.6

60 4.5 + 7.8+. 30x3600x1 . 2/ 105 =4 . 5 + 7 . 8 + 12 . 3 = 24 . 6

45-ton car R=4.0+ . 13V+ .33xV2xl.2/T

10m. p. h., R = 4. 0 + 1. 3+.33X 100x1.2/135=4.0 + 1.3+ .3= 5.6
20 4. 0 + 2. 6+.33X 400x1.2/135=4.0 + 2.6+ 1.2= 7.8

30 4. 0 + 3. 9+.33X 900x1.2/135=4.0 + 3.9+ 2.6 = 10.5

40 4. 0 + 5. 2+. 33x1600x1. 2/135 = 4. 0 + 5. 2+ 4.7 = 13.9

50 4. 0 + 6. 5+. 33x2500x1. 2/135 = 4. 0 + 6. 5+ 7.3 = 17.8

60 4 . 0 + 7 . 8 + . 33x3600x1 . 2/ 135 = 4 . 0 + 7 . 8 + 10 . 6 = 22 . 4

412 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 4-CAR TRAIN.

25-ton cars R = 5.0+ . 13V+ .30V^ (1+0.1 (N-l))/T

10 m. p. h., R = 5. 0 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1. 3/100 = 5. 0 + 1. 3+ 0.4= 6.7

20 5. 0 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.3/100 = 5.0 + 2.6+ 1.6= 9.2

30 5. 0 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.3/100 = 5.0 + 3.9+ 3.5 = 12.4

40 5. 0 + 5. 2+. 30x1600x1. 3/100 = 5. 0 + 5. 2+ 6.2 = 16.4

[50 5. 0 + 6. 5+. 30x2500x1. 3/100 = 5. 0 + 6. 5+ 9.8 = 21.3
60 5. 0 + 7. 8+. 30x3600x1. 3/100 = 5. 0 + 7. 8 + 14. 0 = 26. 8

30-ton cars R = 4. 5+ . 13V+ .30xV2xl .3/120

10 m. p. h., 4. 5 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1.3/120 = 4.5 + 1.3+ 0.3= 6.1

20 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.3/120=4.5 + 2.6+ 1.3= 8.4

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.3/120 = 4.5 + 3.9+ 2.9 = 11.3

40 4. 5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1. 3/120 = 4. 5 + 5. 2+ 5.2 = 14.9

50 4. 5 + 6.5+. 30x2500x1. 3/120 = 4. 5 + 6. 5+ 8.1 = 19.1
60 4. 5 + 7.8+. 30x3600x1. 3/120 = 4. 5 + 7. 8 + 11. 7=24.0

35-ton cars R = 4.5+ . 13V+ .30xV2xl.3/140

10m. p. h., 4. 5 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1.3/140=4.5 + 1.3+ 0.3= 6.1

20 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.3/140 = 4.5 + 2.6+ 1.1= 8.2

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.3/140 = 4.5 + 3.9+ 2.5 = 10.9

40 4. 5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1. 3/140=4. 5 + 5. 2+ 4.4 = 14.1

50 4. 5 + 6.5+. 30x2500x1. 3/140=4. 5 + 6. 5+ 7.0 = 18.0
60 4. 5 + 7.8+. 30x3600x1. 3/140=4. 5 + 7. 8 + 10. 0 = 22. 3

45-ton cars R = 4.0+.13 V+ .33xV2xl .3/180

10m. p. h., 4. 0 + 1. 3+.33X 100x1.3/180 = 4.0 + 1.3+ 0.2= 5.5

20 4. 0 + 2. 6+.33X 400x1.3/180 = 4.0 + 2.6+ 1.0= 7.6

30 4. 0 + 3. 9+.33X 900x1.3/180 = 4.0 + 3.9+ 2.1 = 10.0

40 4. 0 + 5. 2+. 33x1600x1. 3/180 = 4. 0 + 5. 2+ 3.8 = 13.0

50 4. 0 + 6. 5+. 33x2500x1. 3/180 = 4. 0 + 6. 5+ 6.0 = 16.5

60 4. 0 + 7. 8+. 33x3600x1. 3/180 = 4. 0 + 7. 8+ 8.6 = 20.4

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 6-CAR TRAIN.

25-ton cars R = 5.0+ . 13V+ .30xV2 (1+0.10 (N-l))l/T

10m. p. h., R = 5.0 + 1.3+.30x 100x1.5/150 = 5.0 + 1.3+ 0.3= 6.6
20 5. 0 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.5/150 = 5.0 + 2.6+ 1.2= 8.8

30 5. 0 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.5/150 = 5.0 + 3.9+ 2.7 = 11.6

40 5. 0 + 5. 2+. 30x1600x1. 5/150 = 5. 0 + 5. 2+ 4.8 = 15.0

50 5. 0 + 6. 5+. 30x2500x1. 5/150 = 5. 0 + 6. 5+ 7.5 = 19.0

60 5.0 + 7.8+ .30x3600x1.5/150 = 5.0 + 7.8 + 10.8 = 23.6

35-ton cars R = 4.5+ . 13V+ .30xV2xl.5/T

10 m. p. h., R = 4. 5 + 1. 3+.30X 100x1.5/210 = 4.5 + 1.3+ 0.2= 6.0
20 4. 5 + 2. 6+.30X 400x1.5/210 = 4.5 + 2.6+ 0.9= 8.0

30 4. 5 + 3. 9+.30X 900x1.5/210^

40 4. 5 + 5. 2 +.30x1600x1. 5/210^

50 4. 5 + 6. 5 +.30x2500x1. 5/210:

60 4. 5 + 7. 8 +.30x3600x1. 5/210:

.5 + 3

.9 +

.9 =

= 10,

.5 + 5

.2 +

.4 =

= 13,

.5 + 6.,

.5 +

.4 =

= 16,

.5 + 7.8 +

.7 =

= 20,

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS

45-ton cars R

10 m. p. h., R

= 4.0+. 13 V + .33xV2xl.5/T

= 4.0 + 1.3+.33x 100x1.5/270=4.0 + 1.3+ .2

4.0 + 2.6+.33X 400x1.5/270 = 4.0 + 2.6+ .7

4.0 + 3.9+.33X 900x1.5/270=4.0 + 3.9+ 1.6

4. 0 + 5. 2 +.33x1600x1. 5/270 =4. 0 + 5. 2+ 2.9

4. 0 + 6. 5 +.33x2500x1. 5/270 = 4. 0 + 6. 5+ 4.6

4 . 0 + 7 . 8 + . 33x3600x1 . 5/270 = 4 . 0 + 7 . 8 + 6.6

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 8-CAR PASSENGER
35-ton car R = 4. 5+ . 13V+ .30xV2 (1+0.1 (N-

10 m.

p. h., R

= 4.5 + 1.3+.30x 100x1.7/280=4.

4.5 + 2.6+.30X 400x1.7/280 = 4.

4.5 + 3.9+.30X 900x1.7/280 = 4.

4.5 + 5.2+. 30x1600x1 . 7/280 =4 .

4.5 + 6.5+. 30x2500x1 . 7/280 = 4 .

45-ton car R = 4.0+ . 13V+ .33xV2 (1. +0.1 (N

10 m. p. h., R = 4.0 + 1.3+.33x 100x1.7/360 = 4.
20 4. 0 + 2. 6+.33X 400x1.7/360 = 4.

30 4.0 + 3.9+.33X 900x1.7/360 = 4.

40 4. 0 + 5. 2 +.33x1600x1. 7/360 = 4.

50 4. 0 + 6. 5+. 33x2500x1. 7/360 = 4.

TRAIN.

1))/T
5 + 1.3 +
5 + 2.6+ .
5 + 3.9 + 1
5 + 5.2 + 2,
5 + 6.5+4
-1))/T
0 + 1.3 +
0 + 2.6+ ,
0 + 3.9 + 1
0 + 5.2 + 2,
0 + 6.5 + 3.

17
71 =
63:

89:
53

62:
36:

47:

89 =

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE— 12-CAR PASSENGER TRAIN.

45-ton car R = 4.0+ . 13V+ .33xV2 (1-hO.l (N-l))/T

10m. p. h., R = 4.0 + 1.3+.33x 100x2.1/540=4.0 + 1.3+ .12
20 4. 0 + 2. 6+.33X 400x2.1/540=4.0 + 2.6+ .43

30 4.0 + 3.9+.33X 900x2.1/540 = 4.0 + 3.9 + 1.15

40 4. 0 + 5. 2+. 33x1 600x2 . 1 / 540 = 4 . 0 + 5 . 2 + 2 . 03

50 4 . 0 + 6 . 5 + . 33x2500x2 .1/540 = 4. 0 + 6. 5 + 3. 19

60 4. 0 + 7. 8+. 33x3600x2. 1/540 = 4. 0 + 7. 8 + 4. 62

413

5.5

7.3

9.5

12.1

15.1

18.4

= 6.0
7.8
10.0
12.5
15.5

5.4

7.2

9.2

11.7

14.4

5.4

7.0

9.0

11.2

13.7

16.4

^ ^

vts

^^^

10 20 30 40 50

Miles per Hour

Fig. 167. — Tractive Reslstance Curves.
One to ten electric motor-car passenger trains.

414

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

d40

§1

ly/

30 40

Miles per Hour

Fig. 168. — Tractive Resistance Curves.
One to eight electric motor-car passenger trains, also 20 to 50-car electric locomotive hauled freight

trains.

New York Central trains on the ''Twentieth Century Limited" with
63-ton Pullman coaches and Pacific type steam locomotives (see page 66)
show that the tractive resistance on level tangents is as follows:

Speed,
m. p. h.

Cars in
train.

Wt. of
cars, tons.

Wt. of
loco., tons.

Friction per
ton, cars.

Friction per
ton, loco.

Friction per
ton, total.

70
62
60

315
505
564

200
200
200

11.5

9.8
9.5

22.7
20.3
19.7

15.9
12.9
12.2

TRACTIVE RESISTANCE OF FREIGHT CARS IN TRAINS.

10 cars. 300-tonload. R = 5.0+ .06V+ .33xV2 (1 +0. 1 (N-l))/T

10 m. p. h., R-5.0 + 0.6+.33X 100x1.9/300 = 5.0 + 0.6 + 0.2= 5.8
20 5. 0 + 1. 2+.33X 400x1.9/300 = 5.0 + 1.2 + 0.8= 7.0

30 5. 0 + 1. 8+.33X 900x1.9/300 = 5.0 + 1.8 + 1.9= 8.7

40 5 . 0 + 2 . 4 + . 33x1 600x1 .9/300 = 5. 0 + 2. 4 + 3. 3 = 10. 7

20 cars. 600-ton load. R = 5.0+ .06V+ .33xV2 (1 +0. 1 (N-l))/T

• 10 m. p. h., R = 5. 0 + 0. 6+.33X 100x2.9/600 = 5.0 + 0.6 + 0.1= 5.7

20 5. 0 + 1. 2+.33X 400x2.9/600 = 5.0 + 1.2 + 0.6= 6.8

30 5. 0 + 1. 8+.33X 900x2.9/600 = 5.0 + 1.8 + 1.4= 8.2

40 5. 0 + 2. 4+. 33x1600x2. 9/600 = 5. 0 + 2. 4 + 2. 5= 9.9

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 415

30 cars. 1200-ton load. R=4.0+ .06V+ .SSxV^ (1 +0. 1 (N-l))/T

= 4.0 + 0.6+.33x 100x3.9/1200=4.0 + 0.6 + 0.1= 4.7

4.0 + 1.2+.33X 400x3.9/1200 = 4.0 + 1.2 + 0.4= 5.6

4.0 + 1.8+.33X 900x3.9/1200 = 4.0 + 1.8 + 0.9= 6.7

4 . 0 + 2 . 4 + . 33x1600x3 . 9/ 1200 = 4 . 0 + 2.4 + 1.7= 8.1

1200-ton load.

10 m. p. h.^

, R

2000-ton load.

10 m. p. h.,

50 cars. 2000-ton load. R = 4 .0+ .06V+ .33xV2 (1 +0. 1 (N-l))/T

:4.0 + 0.6+.33x 100x5.9/2000 = 4.0 + 0.6 + 0.1= 4.7

4.0 + 1.2+.33X 400x5.9/2000=4.0 + 1.2 + 0.4= 5.6

4.0 + 1.8+.33X 900x5.9/2000 = 4.0 + 1.8 + 0.9= 6.7

4 . 0 + 2 . 4 + . 33x1600x5 . 9/2000 =4.0 + 2.4 + 1.6= 8.0

40 cars. 2000-ton load. R = 3. 5+ .06V + .33xVMl +0. 1(N-1))/T

10m. p. h., R = 3.5 + 0.6+.33x 100x4.9/2000 = 3.5 + 0.6 + 0.1= 4.2

20 3. 5 + 1. 2+.33X 400x4.9/2000 = 3.5 + 1.2 + 0.3= 5.0

30 3. 5 + 1. 8+.33X 900x4.9/2000 = 3.5 + 1.8 + 0.7= 6.0

40 3. 5 + 2.4+. 33x1600x4. 9/2000 = 3. 5 + 2. 4 + 1. 3= 7.2

Tractive resistance in pounds for the electric or steam locomotive is
to be added, viz.: 22.2 X tons on drivers for locomotive friction; and
0.24 V^ for locomotive head air resistance. Count the tender, if a steam
locomotive is used, as one car.

See data from N. Y. N. H. & H. electric locomotive tests, page 429.

Winter weather will often cause an increase of 60 per cent., over the
resistance given above, which is for ordinary summer weather on ordi-
nary good track.

CURVES.

Curve resistance has been found to vary from 0 . 56 to 0 . 70, but to
average 0 . 60 pounds, per ton per degree of curvature. Steam railroads
use the rule, 0 . 7 pounds per ton for the train and 1 . 6 pounds per ton
for the engine, per degree of curvature. The number of degrees equals
5730 divided by the radius of the curve in feet.

Reverse curves are frequent in rough country. Where grades are
equated for curvature, it is sufficient to use the resistance due to the
grade. When the train is of great length engines are sometimes stalled
on level track by the reverse curves alone.

INERTIA.

Inertia requires the application of force to produce motion, and
generally the force required is many times greater than that to simply
overcome friction. The tractive effort required to overcome inertia
depends upon the rate of change of speed, or the acceleration, which is
to be produced.

The unit of acceleration is the change in speed per mile per hour per
second. One m. p. h. p. s. = 1 .466 feet per second per second.

416

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

ACCELERATION RATES COMMONLY USED FOR TRAINS.

Steam locomotive, long and way freight 1 to .2

Steam locomotive, common passenger trains 2 to .5

Steam locomotive, transcontinental passenger trains 1 to .3

Electric locomotives, common freight service 1 to .3

Electric locomotives, thru passenger trains 2 to .6

Electric locomotives, local passenger trains 4 to .6

Electric motor cars, interurban service 8 to 1 . 3

Electric motor cars, city cars 1 . 3 to 1 . 6

Electric motor cars, rapid transit trains 'l . 3 to 1 . 8

Electric motor cars, highest rates 2 . 0 to 2 . 5

Maximum rate used, coefficient of friction x 32.2 6 . 0 to 8 . 0

ACCELERATING RATES OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY TRAINS.

Name of electric railroad

Tons

per

traia.

H.p.

per

train.

H.p.
per
ton.

Boston Elevated

Boston & Worcester

New York, New Haven & Hartford:

Freight locomotive

Passenger locomotive

Motor car

New York Central:

Passenger locomotive

Passenger locomotiv

Passenger locomotive

Motor cars

Brooklyn Rapid Transit

Manhattan Elevated

Interboro Subway, 1908

Interboro Subway, 1911

Long Island-Pennsylvania

Long Island-Brooklyn

West Shore R. R

Erie R.R., motor car

Metropolitan Elevated, Chicago
South Side Elevated, Chicago
Northwestern Elevated, Chicago

Central London

Great Western

North-Eastem, England
London, Brighton & S. C

Liverpool & Southport

Midland Ry., England

(Dalziel & Sayer's data)

Giovi Ry., Italy; 2.7% grade

Great Northern, Cascade T.; 1.7% grade

2100
200

1260

960

1200

2200
2200
2200
2200
2200
2000
1600
1000
2400
3260
2580
1600
600
800

540

1280

500

640

3000

820

1200

360

300

1980

1700

10.00
8.00

0.91
1.34
2.35
2.67
3.11
3.70

3.14
4.00
5.82
7.90
11.34
4.06
9.00
6.50
6.67
9.33
8.04
7.21
7.50
5.2

3.7
3.3

11.1
6.4
6.4

10.9
6.7
8.0
7.3
7.0
4.4
2.3

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS

417

The acceleration rate is governed by the h. p. capacity per ton, as
well as by the speed-time service requirements. Tons of 2000 pounds.

ACCELERATION RATES OF ENGLISH RAILWAYS.

Name of electric railway.

Specific
acceleration
m. p. h. p. s.

Distance
between
stops, ft.

Time

of
stop.

Schedule

speed
m. p. h.

Running

speed
m. p. h.

Liverpool Overhead

Liverpool & Southport

London Electric

Central London ....

1.79
1.25
1.06
0.90
0.71
0.35
1.00

2145
6535
2555
2540
6000
23500
4300

11
15
20
20
30
120
20

19.5
30.0
15.7
14.7
20.5
26.7
22.0

22.9
33.4
19.2
17 7

North-Eastern

24.1

Midland-Morcambe

London, Brighton & S. C .

33.4

DECELERATION RATES.

Braking commonly used for electric trains 1.6 to 2 . 00

Westinghouse magnetic brakes, Electric Railway Test Com-
mission 2.57

Maximums, Electric Railway Test Commission 4 . 00 to 5 . 00

Boston and Worcester interurban 2.1 to 2 . 77

Brooklyn Rapid Transit (Elevated Division) 1 . 50

Manhattan Elevated R. R • 1.75 to 1.85

Ordinary steam railroad passenger train 1 . 25 to 1 . 60

Ordinary steam railroad freight train 70 to .80

KINEMATICS OF ACCELERATION.

Elementary kinematics governing acceleration:
Pull, or pressure, or force =F, in pounds.

Mass = M = weight /32. 2

Distance or space =s, in feet.

Time =t, in seconds.

Energy = FXs, in foot-pounds. Power = F Xs/550, in h. p.
F = rate of acceleration X mass.

F = aX weight in pounds/32.2 in feet per second per pound.
F = a X5280/3600 X W X 2000/32.2, in miles per hour per second per ton.
F=aX91.1 X No. of tons, in miles per hour per second per ton.
F = aXlOOX tons, allowing 10 per cent, for energy of rotation.

This means that in order to accelerate a train at the rate of 1 mile per
hour per second, a force of 100 pounds per ton is required.
Velocity in feet per second v = s/t

and V = rate of acceleration X time.

Energy of rotation = (1/2) M Xv^ = F Xs.
27

418 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

F = (l/2)W/32.2XvVs, in feet per second per second.

F = 69V^/s, where V is in miles per hour per ton, and s is the distance in

feet within which acceleration or deceleration takes place.

F = 76V^/s, allowing about 10 per cent. (6 to 16) for energy of rotation.^

This means that an accelerating or decelerating force must he 76 pounds
per ton, times the square of the velocity in miles per hour, divided by the
distance in feet.
■ Distance in feet, s= velocity X time; and v = (ave.)aXt.

Distance in feet is s = (l/2)a Xt^, in feet per second and seconds.

Example. — A 1200-ton freight train is started by employing an ac-
celerating force of 18,000 pounds, or 15 pounds per ton, in addition to
the force required to overcome friction.

The rate of acceleration is then 0. 15 m. p. h. p. s.; for to accelerate a
train at the rate of 1 m. p. h. p. s. requires 100 pounds per ton.

The speed in m. p. h. is a Xt, The speed, at the end of a uniform
acceleration period, for example 84 seconds, is 0. 15 X84 or 12. 6 m. p. h.

One m.p.h.p.s. equals 1.466 feet per second. Distance run is
(1/2) Xaxt2 = (l/2)x0. 15x1.466x842-775 feet.

A 300-ton passenger train is started by using an acceleration force of
12,000 pounds, which is 40 pounds per ton; or the rate of acceleration
used is 0.4 m.p.h.p.s. The speed in m. p. h. at the end of 60 seconds is
0.4 X 60, or 24 m. p. h.; and the distance run is (1/2) X0.4X1 .466 X60^
or 1056 feet.

The same 300-ton passenger train in common rapid transit service
would be accelerated at four times the above rate, or at 1 . 6 m. p. h. p. s.
If maintained 30 seconds, the speed would be 1.6X30, or 48 m. p. h.
The distance covered in 30 seconds is (1 / 2) X 1 . 60 X 1 . 466 X 30^, or 1056 ft.

ENERGY FOR FREQUENT STOPS.

When the service requires frequent stops, the subject of energy and
power becomes an important matter.

The kinetic energy in foot-pounds which is required to start or stop a
train is (l/2)Mv2, where M is the mass (pounds divided by 32.2) and
V is the speed in feet per second.

Example. — A 55-ton car running at 60 m.p.h. The kinetic energy is
(l/2)X55X2000/32.2X(1.466X60)^ or 13,000,000 foot-pounds; or
13,000,000/ (550X60X60) =6. 50 h.p. for 1 hour. Assuming that the
efficiency of the motor and of the control plan during the time when the
train is accelerating from zero to full speed is 55 per cent., then the
kw.-hr. to the motors are 746X6. 5/. 55, or 8.8, which might amount
to 10 kw.-hr. at the electric power station. The train can attain full
speed in about 1 minute and thus the average power expended for

^ Storer: Inertia of Rotating Parts of a Train, A. I. E. E., Jan., 1902.

POAVER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS

419

acceleration alone, during each start, is 10 kw.-hr. divided by 1/60
hour, or 600 kilowatts. The cost of energy at the rate of 2 cents per
kw.-hr. is 20 cents, a relatively large sum to be paid per car per stop.

The example is a fair one and shows up the mechanical and the
financial side of train service which requires frequent stops per mile.
Frequent-stop, high-speed service is expensive.

The energy required for common interurban train service varies
widely. For example, it was found that the average energy delivered
from the central station to supply the motors on a 28-ton electric car
which made long runs with very few stops between two cities was 2 . 30
kw.-hr. per car-mile, while the average energy with 10 stops per mile for
service within the city limits was 4.75 kw.-hr. per car-mile.

Efficiency of motors during the accelerating period is low, from 50
to 70 per cent. These losses are not of relative importance when the
number of stops does not exceed one per mile.

Operating expenses are increased by stops. For example the total
operating cost as determined for a common railroad is 55 cents per
average passenger train-mile, and the cost of each extra stop is 80 cents.

Frequent stop service thus increases the amount of energy, total cost
of energy, running time, and cost of truck, car, and motor maintenance.

The energy required for the propulsion of rapid transit trains having
a fixed schedule speed is least when the trains are started and stopped
at the maximum rate of acceleration and deceleration. It is necessary,
therefore, that trains which are to make numerous stops per mile be
properly equipped. High rates of acceleration require that the motive
power be placed at intervals thruout the train; it must not be concen-
trated on a few drivers, or on one or more locomotives.

Tables have been distributed by manufacturers of electric railway
motors showing the average kilowatt input to trains of varying weight
and composition, schedule speed, maximum speed, and stops per mile,
with different motor gear ratios. These tables facilitate determinations
of motor capacities. Such a table is given below.

AVERAGE KILOWATT INPUT WITH VARYING STOPS PER MILE.

Single-car Operation.

Stops per mile.

1/8

1/4

1/2

20-ton car

36
51

29
40

26
36

24
33

23
32

22
31

30-ton car

40-ton car

176

119

50-ton car

195

130

60-ton car

200

140

106

420 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Two-car Trains.

2-20-ton cars

78
104
124
147
165

103

125

144

111

127

103

117

43
62
79
99
115

41
60
77
97
113

40
59
76
95
111

2-30-ton

137
160
183
202

2-40-ton

228
255

282

2-50-ton

2-60-ton

94
110

Three-car Trains.

3-20-ton cars

102
135
164
198
219

76
112
140
172
191

127

155

175

117

145

167

115

142

163

113

139

160

84
111
137
158

3-30-ton

173

200
236
263

3-40-ton

3-50-ton

3-60-ton

280
300
342

110
136
157

Five-car Trains.

5— 20-ton cars

144
196
246
302
352

124
171
216
270
314

110
154
197

250
290

102
145

188
236
280

98
142
183
228
275

97
139
180
225
271

95
137

178
222
266

5-30-ton

238
292
350
400

136

5-40-ton

370

438
497

176

5-50-ton

220

5-60-ton

263

POWER FOR AUXILIARIES.

Lighting and ventilation of cars generally require 1 kilowatt per
passenger car. Swiss Federal Railway allows 2 candle power per seat.
Shops and passenger stations require 1 kilowatt per 100 square feet.

Brakes are seldom electrically operated.

Signals require about 1 per cent, of the total power used for trains.

Heating by electricity is decidedly expensive compared with heat-
ing by coal. Electric heat is used for rapid transit service to obtain
cleanliness, space, and minimum care; or when the cost of electric power
is low. Electric heating during 3 months of the year in the northern
states requires about 400 watts per ton, or 12 kilowatts for a 30-ton
car. West Jersey & Seashore Railroad uses 63 watt-hours per ton-mile,
measured at substations, for summer service, and 100 for winter service,
the difference being used largely for heating the cars in winter. Swiss
Federal Railway allows 156 watts as a n-aximum per seat.

LOSSES AT MOTORS.

To the mechanical power required, the losses at motors, the friction,
magnetic, commutator, contact, control and heating losses, are added.
Motor and gear friction on motor cars is equivalent to about 50
pounds tractive effort per motor.

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS

421

LOSSES BEYOND MOTORS.

These are the losses in transmission and contact lines, transformers,
and substations where used.

Efficiency of transmission, from the power station output to the
rotary converter substation output, is 70 to 85 per cent., varying in-
versely with the output. Third-rail and track-return losses reduce the

Fig. 169. — Typical Curve on Relation of Speed to Time.
Great Northern Railway eight-car passenger train number 1, The Oriental Limited. Curve by

Schalter speed recorder.

above efficiency 5 to 20 per cent., depending upon the distance and loads,
making the total efficiency 50 to 65 per cent. When high-voltage con-
tact lines are used, and substations are omitted, the efficiency varies
from 65 to 85 per cent.

1000 50

800 40

•a coo ^30

400 30

200 10

«<

3^0 TYPICAL CURVES SHOWING RHEOSTAT LOSSES

S«^ I 6 CAR TRAIN 4 MOTOR GARS-1 45 TONS

~±p AVG. BRAKING RATE 1.75 MILES PER HR.PER SEC

PZA STATION STOP 14-SEC.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Seconds
Fig. 170. — Power, Speed, and Time Curves Obtained by Putnam on the Manhattan Elevated

Railway.

POWER CURVES.

To illustrate the change of speed or tractive effort with reference
to time or to distance, power curves are used. See Fig. 169. Illustrative
curves, in simplest form, from Putnam's paper on ''Power Economy on
Manhattan Elevated Railroad," to A. I. E. E., July, 1910, are also shown.

422

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

WATT-HOURS PER TON-MILE.

The energy which is required for trains is generally expressed in
watt-hours per ton-naile. The energy required is proportional to, and
dependent on, the tractive effort required per ton to overcome friction,
inertia, and grades. The energy required per ton-mile does not depend
on the speed. It is not a function of the speed but of the resistance.
High speed, however, increases the friction or tractive effort.

The average numerical value of the tractive resistance, or the values
of the train resistance for different speeds and combinations of cars in
the train, were given in the tables on tractive resistance. The tables
are for trains on a level tangent at uniform motion. The added re-
sistance for the grades, track curves, and rate of acceleration, is readily

1600

1300

800

400

1
i

TYPE OF TRAIN-. 6 CARS (4 MO-QR CARS & 2 TRAILER CARS)

MOTORS PER TRAIN = 8(2 MOTORS PER MOTOR CAR)

WEIGHT OF TRAIN LOADED = 308,000 LB. =154 TONS

TOTAL WEIGHT ON DRIVERS = 137,000 u =68.8 TONS = 44. 6 %

TRACTIVE COEFFICIENT =15%

RATE OF ACCELERATION = 1. 33 MILES PER HR.PER SEC. .

RATE OF BRAKING = 2 MILES PER HR. PER SEC.
TRAIN RESISTANCE =13 LB. PER TON OF TRAIN WEIGHT
TRACK ASSUMED LEVEL - 1775 l-btl LONG
E. M. F. OF UNE = 550 VOLTS

RESULTS

,.,-

— ■

V Ru

nRf^

^av)

RUN

V 1

SCHEDUIEM.P.H.

14.7

15.41

•^

'^^ Run A

FOR RUN

177.1

262.5

.W.-H.™

4.05

5.7i

^ X

-i:^^

.0783

.1105

""""■

^^i^'i^n

2.011

2.84

-J!

(

) 10

30 30 „ 40 50 00 i 170 180
--' pii r ruQ( - Seconds XtAa^^oJ. —

■^ 1/

(o Ft.dz bo.d4

1775 Ft.& 64.5 Sec: ^USec. Stop^, '

Fig. 171.^ — Power, Speed and Time Curves.
Manhatten Elevated Railway. Putnam.

computed from the data given. The energy required to accelerate the
train from rest to full speed can be obtained by computing the value
of 1/2 Mv^ in foot-pounds and in kilowatt-hourrs, as illustrated.

The average tractive effort required to overcome inertia, or to acceler-
ate the train, is most easily determined by diagrams made to show the
tractive force required during the acceleration period. This is governed
partly by the motor characteristics, and also by changes in motors
by series-paralleling, concatenation, pole change, voltage variation, field
variation, etc. The average tractive force during a given period or cycle,
including the time for the train stop, can be determined mathematically
or by diagrams. Hobart: ''Heavy Electrical Engineering," Chapter X.

POAVER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 423

WATT-HOURS PER TON-MILE.

Rule. — The watt-hours per ton-mile are found by multiplying the tractive
resistance, in pounds per ton, by 2. (approx.) Proof:

H.p. = tractive effort in total pounds, R, X speed in m.p.h. /375.
H.p. -hours per ton-mile =R X m.p.h. X hours /(375 X tons X

miles) .
Watt-hours per ton-mile =R X m.p.h. X hours X 746 /(375 X

tons X miles).
= R X 746 /(375 X tons) =Rper tonX2.

The rule is useful for rapid work and quick conceptions of problems.
It applies to grades, curves, and acceleration, and for level tangents.
Power losses in motors, controllers, and transmission line,. are not included.
Example in power and energy. — ^Assume the average tractive resist-
ance due to friction, grades, etc., as 15 lb. per ton; a 600-ton train; a 108-
mile, 4-hour trip at 27 m.p.h. ; motor and control efficiency of 80 per cent.
Mechanical h. p. output averages 600X15X27/375, or 648

Watt-hours per ton-mile average 2X15, or 30

Kilowatt hours of work total .030 X 600 X 108, or 1944

Energy: Kilowatt hours to the motors, total 1944/. 80, or 2430
Power: Kilowatts to the motors, average 2430/4, or 607.5

The motors must be designed with such continuous capacity that the
root-mean-square of the electric power input will not exceed 607.5 kv.-a.
Example. — ^Ascent of the Cascade Mountains by G. N. Ry. eastbound
trains is on a 2.2 per cent, grade for 25 miles. The tractive effort per
ton for the grade is 44 pounds, the friction at usual speed is 6 pounds,
and the total is thus 50 pounds per ton. The work or energy required
at the wheel rim is then 100 watt-hours per ton per mile, quite inde-
pendent of the speed. The 25-mile run with a 1600-ton train requires
.100X1600X25, or 4000 kw. hr. If the average speed is 12.5 m.p.h. for
a 2-hour run, then the average power required at the drivers is 2000
kilowatts. The efficiency of motor, transformers, and lines is about 69
per cent. The power from the water power plant is 2900 kilowatts or
4000 mechanical horse-power.

Three 1700-h. p. electric locomotives are now used to haul each 2000-
ton freight train up the 1.7 per cent, tunnel grades.

Watt -hours per ton -mile required for moving trains equal twice the
tractive resistance in pounds per ton. An average tractive resistance
for many trains approximates 10.5. This is about the resistance per
ton for 10- to 40-car freight trains at 30 to 40 m.p.h.
Three-car passenger trains, 135 tons, at 30 m.p.h.
Four-car passenger trains, 140 tons, at 30 m.p.h.
Eight-car passenger trains, 360 tons, at 35 m.p.h.

424 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The watt-hours per ton-mile at 70 per cent, efficiency for motors and
line are thus (10.5X2)/. 70 or 30.

Grades compensate themselves, and do not materially increase the
energy required, so long as the brakes are not applied too much of the
time. The power required varies with the grade.

Acceleration of trains increases the average watt-hours per ton-mile,
since the energy required in starting is higher than in running, even with
the offset due to the absence of energy while coasting, braking, and stop-
ping. For example, the average energy is estimated in the following table.

Length of the train run in miles 20 15 10 5 4 3 2 1

Watt-hours per ton-mile at station 30 31 33 38 40 45 52 70

The data are good for the wide range of speed noted above.

REGENERATION OF feNERGY.

Regeneration of energy may be effected by mechanical and by electric
methods, as will now be explained briefly.

Compensation for inertia and frictional resistance is often effected
mechanically, particularly in rapid transit service, by elevating the track
at stations where local stops are made regularly, in order to store and to
utilize potential energy. Compensation is not so practical where the
express trains do not stop at the majority of the stations, because smooth
riding may be prevented, if the elevation of the track is appreciable.

Central London Railway uses 1.66 per cent, up-grade approach to
stations to retard the train and to store energy, and uses a 3.30 per cent,
down-grade, half as long, to assist in accelerating the train in leaving the
station. The pull due to the down-grade is 66 pounds per ton, which,
deducting friction, allows a high ratio of acceleration with a small
amount of electrical energy.

Manhattan Elevated Railroad takes advantage of such compensation
at a few stations, where changes of grade are necessary for other reasons.

In rapid transit service about 40 per cent, of the entire energy is
consumed in braking, and theoretically this can be saved by regeneration.

Regeneration by electric motors saves energy which would otherwise
be lost in the friction of brake shoes on wheel tires. Regeneration in-
volves the generation of electrical energy by the driving motors, the
return of this energy to the line, and to other locomotives, or to the power
station. The amount saved depends upon the steepness and length of
the grades, and may vary from 20 to 50 per cent, of the total energy to
the motor. The efficiency of regeneration varies from 60 to 75 per cent,
and increases with the number of trains.

Trains running down grade regenerate energy to haul trains up the

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 425

grade on the other side of the summit of the mountain, thus saving in
line loss when concentrated loads are hauled. With a double track, a
train can advantageously start down the grade when another train starts
up the grade; or with regeneration on a single-track road, trains can meet
advantageously in the middle of a long grade.

The energy available in stopping a train varies as the square of the
speed at the time when brakes or regeneration is applied. The energy is
(1/2) MV^ in foot-pounds. For example, a 1000-ton train at 30 m. p. h.
or a 250-ton train at 60 m. p. h., have equal amounts of stored energy.
The foot-pounds in the later case are (1/2) X250 X2000 X88 X88/32.2,
or 60,000,000. If such a train is stopped in 60 seconds., the power to be
gained in regeneration, or destroyed in braking, averages 1820 h. p.

The down-grade must exceed 0.4 per cent., assuming train friction of
8 pounds per ton, before energy can be generated by the motors. With
1.4 per cent, grade the power generated and delivered to the line at 70
per cent, motor efficiency, by a 1200-ton train at 15 m. p. h., would be
20 (1.4 -. 4) X 1000 X 15 X. 70/375, or 560 h. p.

Where stops are infrequent, the effect of regeneration on economy is
negligible. In any case the torque of the motor approximates zero in
stopping, and air brakes must be used in connection with regeneration.

Regeneration with direct -current motors requires shunt-wound motors.
These were successfully tried in 1887 on the New York Elevated
Railway.

The motor field was weakened to increase the speed, and, in slowing
down, strengthened to send current back to the line and later to a local
rheostat circuit. No brakes were used. But the series motors have too
many physical advantages, among them tremendous overload capacity,
speed, and commutating characteristics and the shunt motors used were
abandoned. Sprague: A. I. E. E., May, 1899, page 239; May, 1907, page
713; E. E., Oct. 18, 1893, page 339.

Sprague showed that a reduction of 40 per cent, could be effected in
the capacity of a central station.

Shunt motors were abandoned because:

1. Motors require fine wire field windings which are not hardy. .The
horse power so developed is relatively low.

2. Equalization of motor characteristics is necessary.

3. Driver diameters must be alike, or some motor will be overloaded.

4. Speed-torque characteristics are not the most desirable for rapid
transit work. They cannot be applied to variable speed railroad
service.

Regeneration with three-phase motors was first commercially devel-
oped about 1902 by Ganz Electric Company for the infrequent service on
grades of the Valtellina Railway in Italy. The regenerative feature, as

426 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

applied, reduces the fluctuations of the load at the power house to 1.8
times the average load. In case of a heavy load on the power house, the
speed of the water wheels and all trains is reduced, and some trains fed
back into the line. The trains constituted the equivalent of a gigantic
flywheel and reduced the power-house fluctuations in load and speed.
The load fluctuations are particularly large with three-phase motors.

Stillwell refers to a test on a 7-car train, to the lack of complication
in running down grades, and to the fact that more than 70 per cent,
of the energy regenerated was restored to the line, and this figure would
have been higher with steeper grades. In a specific case Ganz guaranteed
to regenerate over 20 per cent, of the total energy. Cserhati: St. Ry.
Journ., Aug. 26, 1905, p. 303.

Armstrong notes that, in the case of the Great Northern Railway, two
trains running down a grade could, with recuperative power, haul one
train up the grade on the other side of the mountain.

Regeneration with single -phase motors is effected by varying the taps
on the transformers from which the locomotive motors obtain excitation.
The ratio of transformation, the e. m. f., and the rate of electric power so
generated by the motors on the down-grade are thus varied. Motor
designs have compensating windings to neutralize the armature reaction,
and this permits of a wider range of armature current and field excitation
than is permissible with ordinary series direct-current railway motors.
Wm. Cooper: A. L E. E., June, 1907, p. 1469; St. R. J., p. 1145, June 19,
1907. Single-phase regeneration on grades is carried out to commercial
advantage on European roads; particularly, the French Southern (Midi)
Railway on its long hilly divisions.

Regeneration in practice is applied for safety of operation. Electric
braking or regeneration is used normally, and the air brakes are held in
reserve. Economy of train operation requires coasting after the motors
have attained full speed. On the light down-grades, the tra'n will often
run at high speed. Ordinarily, regeneration will not be desirable.

a. Regeneration of energy has no great advantages, nor can the sav-
ing in energy be large, on ordinary railroads. It has advantages for
service on long, steep, mountain grades.

b. Increased safety on grades makes it a valuable adjunct.

c. Simplicity and reliability are not sacrificed.

d. Motor capacity must be increased for frequent stop or rapid
transit service and the capacity, weight, and cost may even be doubled.
The capacity of motors, cooled with forced draft, in trunk-line mountain-
grade freight service, need not be increased.

e. Regeneration tends to smooth out the load, to increase the load
factor, and economy of power production; and, since the load factor is
low in the three-phase system, regeneration is of economic importance.

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS

427

f. Cost of the generating plant, transformers, and transmission lines
for long trunk-line mountain-freight service, is decreased.
Good data are not yet available.

SUMMARIES ON POWER REQUIRED.

General Consideration. — The motive power equipment of steam rail-
roads of the United States on June 30, 1910, was about 60,000 steam
locomotives. This number divided by the aggregate length of the steam
railroad route length, 240,000, gives .25 locomotives per mile of road; or
divided by the sum of the single, second, third, fourth tracks, yards, and
sidings, namely 350,000 miles, gives .17 locomotives per mile of single
track operated. The average number of square feet of heating surface
is 2053. Using the constant 0.43, the average horse power is about 884.
There were 220 h.p. per mile of road, or 150 h.p. per mile of single track.

Pennsylvania Railroad has about 550 h.p. per mile of route, and
Pittsburg & Lake Erie, and the Bessemer & Lake Erie, which have heavy
freight service, require about 1000 h.p. per mile of route.

The amount of equipment used by electric railroads per mile of track is
noted in the table which follows.

POWER EQUIPMENT USED PER MILE IN SINGLE TRACK.

Locomotives.

Name of railway.

No. ' h.p.

Total h.p.

Motor cars.

No.

h.p.

Total
h.p.

Total.
h.p.

Mile-
age.

Total h.p.
per mile.

New Haven

Boston & Maine

Pennsylvania-Longlsland

Long Island

West Jersey and Seashore

Interboro. Subway

Hudson & Manhattan ....

Baltimore & Ohio

Baltimore & Annapolis . . .

New York Central

West Shore

Erie Railroad

Grand Trunk

Michigan Central

Twin City Rapid Transit.

Rotterdam-Hague-

Scheveningen.
Giovi Ry

960

1260

600

1340

2500

2200

720

1100

200

1980

42,480

54,000

82,500

11,600

103,400

4,320

6,600

400

39.600

225

136

108

910

200

125

600

100

500
250
600

0
430
400
480
480
320

0
400
480
300
400

0
200
240
300
360

3,900

96,750

54,400

51,840

43,680

64,000

4,800

60,000

6,300

2,400

174,000

6,840

46,380

54,000

179,250

54,400

51,840

43,680

64,000

11,600

4,800

163,400

6,300

2,400

4,320

6,600

174,400

6.840

0 39,600

100

95
164
154

18
7

35
150 I
114 !

380
48
26

464

245

1887

332

336

5139

3555

1657

1371

1089

360

347

459

143

1525

Note. — The average steam railroad traffic in the United States passing a given
point in each direction does not exceed 7 trains per day.

428 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

EQUIPMENT AND ENERGY USED BY BROOKLYN RAPID TRANSIT CARS.

No. of

Ave. wt.

Motors no.

H. p. of

Gear

Max.

Watt-

motor

of cars

per car

each

ratio

speed

hours per

cars.

loaded.

and name.

motor.

used.

m. p. h.

ton-mile.

327

4-101 B W

5.00

23.50

157

112

2-93A2 W

4.12

28.75

178

754

2-81 W

4.38

28.25

172

143

2-68 W

4.86

22.00

2-64 GE

4.12

21.50

140

125

4-80 GE

4.36

29.00

164

659

2-300 W

200

3.37

Stop per mile not given. E. R. J., June 12, 1909, p. 1073.

EQUIPMENT AND ENERGY USED FOR MOTOR-CAR TRAINS.

Name of railway.

Cars

per

train.

Weight

tons.

Schedule

speed
m. p. h.

Stops

per

mile.

H. p.

of
motors.

H.p.
per
ton.

Watt-hr.
at car per
car-mile.

London Electric:

MetropoKtan

Bakerloo

Great Northern ....
Charring Cross

4
3
4
4

6
6
5

jio

I 10

141
71

88
85
132
101
200
148
224
361
360

100

165
101

15.7

15.04

16.22

16.05

14.0

22.0

2.1

2.35

2.57

2.1

0.9

800
400
400
400
500

2100
1000
1440
2400
3360

630
1000
1800

600

1000

6.2
5.6
4.5
4.6
3.8
5.0
10.5
7.0
6.5
6.7
9.3

6.3
10.0
18.0

3.6

10.0

2,220
2,270
1,970
2,320

North-Eastern

Boston Elevated

Manhattan Elevated. .

14.7

3.0

2,750

Interboro Subway. . . .

16.2
23.0

19.0
27.0
40.0

2.6

2.0
1.0
0.5

2,890

Armstrong's data:
A I E E., Jan. 1904

p. 70.

ValteUina Ry

Berlin Zossen:
A. E. G. 3-phase.

100.0

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS

429

ENERGY REQUIRED FOR MOTOR-CAR TRAINS PER TON-MILE AND PER

CAR-MILE.

Name of railway.

Miles
per
stop.

Sch.

speed

m.p.h.

Cars

per

train.

Train or service
characteristics.

Watt-hours
per ton-mile.

Watt-hours
per car-mile.

a.c.

d.c.

a.c.

d.c.

BostonElevated

5-8

3-6

6-8

1-3

Elevated

Manhattan Elevated ....
Brooklyn Elevated

0.33

14-15

Elevated

Local service

82
170

2750

Interboro Subway

24-30

79
58

2890

Interboro Subway

Real rapid transit

2260

New York Central

1.25
1.60

Terminal & suburban .

Long Island R.R

^^est Jersey & Seashore

Brooklyn suburban.
Heavy summer traffic .
Light winter traffic,
with electiic heat.

City service

Interurban service ....
E R J., May 1, 1909.

111

84
139

91
126

4040

3280

Lake Shore Electric.

Marion Bluff ton & E.

2710

Chicago, Lake Shore &

South Bend.
Twin City Rapid Transit

Heavy motor-car

trains.
City and interurban . . .
Suburban traffic

98
200

10 0

4750

London Electric

0.44
0.47

15 7 4

2820

Central London

14 7' 7

Suburban traffic

50
55

City & South London

Suburban traffic

Ordinary railroad

4
3
2

3-e

Valtellina Ry. :

Light ry. service

86
62
71

Measurements were made at the a.c. generator bus-bar at the power
plant, and at the d.-c. third-rail or trolley feeders at the substation.

ENERGY REQUIRED FOR NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN AND HARTFORD
ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE HAULED TRAINS.

Location of division.

Length
miles.

Service
noted.

Train
tons.

Speed
m.p.h.

No. of
stops.

Ave.

kw.

Watt-
hours per
ton -mile.

R,per
ton.

Stamford to Woodlawn, N. Y.

20.52

Express
passenger.

488

49.0

1010

30.0

12.0

Woodlawn to Stamford, Cona.

20.52

Express
passenger.

477

44.7

860

35.0

14.0

Stamford to Woodlawn, N. Y.

20.52

Local
passenger.

316

22.1

790

85.4

34.1

Woodlawn to Stamford, Conn .

20.52

Local
passenger.

285

22.1

740

74.2

29.7

New Rochelle, N. Y. to Stam-

16.90

Local

500

26.4

777

58.8

23.5

ford, Conn.

passenger.

New Rochelle, N. Y. to Stam-

16.77

Thru

1428

36.8

1370

25.9

10.4

ford, Conn.

freight.

See foot notes for above table on next page.

430 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Passenger locomotive weight was 102 tons.

Freight locomotive, geared, 071, weight was 140 tons.

Efficiency of the locomotive motors and auxiliaries approximated 80 per cent.
Watt-hours per ton-mile divided by 2.0/. 80 gives the average tractive resistance
per ton for acceleration, grades, curves, and train friction. See also page 414.

Reference: Murray to A. I. E. E., April, 1911. Tests, February, 1911.

Watt-hours per ton-mile are a function of the number of stops,
speed, and air resistance, and number of cars per train.

Power required if all steam railroads used electric power is roughly
7 kilowatts per mile of single track,

Swiss Federal Railway Commission, which has reported on the amount
of energy required to move all of the steam trains in Switzerland, agreed
on the following basis for tractive resistance: In express service, from 12
to 21 pounds per 2000 tons; in passenger service, from 11 to 12.4 pounds;
Gotthart line, with less favorable conditions, 14.8 pounds; for narrow-gage
lines, 24.6 pounds. To the theoretical energy required for starting at sta-
tions and for running, 30 per cent, was added for passenger and freight
trains, and 110 per cent, for express trains, to allow for changes in speed
during running, and for starting after signal stops and slow down.

LITERATURE.

References on Train Resistance.

Electric Railway Test Commission Report, 1905 (McGraw, N. Y.); abstract in

S. R. J., March 25, 1905.
Berlin-Zossen Electric Railway Tests of 1902-3 (McGraw, N. Y.) ; abstract in

S. R. J., Sept. 9 and Oct. 28, 1905.
Henderson: "Locomotive Operation" (Wilson Co., Chicago), Chapter IV.
Proceedings of New York Railway Club; American Railway Engineering Association;

American Electric Railway Engineering Association.
Dynamometer-car tests: Goss, Forsoth, Dennis, Wickhortt, Crawford.
Carter: Technical Considerations in Electric Railway Engineering, Inst, of Elec.

Engineers, Jan., 1906.
Aspinwall: Resistance of Steam Locomotive Hauled Trains, B. I. C. E., Nov., 1901;

Resistance of Motor-car Trains, E. R. J., May 22, 1909.
Davis : Tests on Buffalo & Lockport Railway for Resistance of Single Cars and 2-car

Trains, S. R. J., May and June, 1902; Dec. 3, 1904.
Stillwell: New York Subway, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1904, p. 723; E. R. J., June 6, 1908.
Arnold: Resistance of Steam Locomotive Hauled Trains on New York Central,

A. I. E. E., June, 1902.
Potter: Tests on Motor-cars at Schenectady, A. I. E. E., June 19, 1902, p. 836.
Murray: Tests on New Haven Road, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907; p. 146 April, 1911.
Clark: Test on C. B. & Q. R. R. on Relation of Friction to Speed with Varying Num-
ber of Coaches, Western Railway Club, Jan., 1900.
Blood: Formulas on Train Resistance, S. R. J., June 27, 1903.
Smith, W. N.: Data on Electric Train Resistance, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1904.
Renshaw: Tests on Indiana Union Traction Cars, S. R. J., Oct. 4, 1902.

POWER REQUIRED FOR TRAINS 431

Cole: Train Resistance, Ry. Age, Aug. 27 to Oct. 1, 1909.
McMahon: Tractive Resistance in London Tubes, S. R. J., June, 1899.
Schmidt: Freight Train Resistance, University of IlKnois Bulletin No. 39, May, 1910;
A. S. M. E., June, 1910.

Inertia of Rotating Parts of Trains.
Storer: A. I. E. E., Jan., 1902; Carter, B. I. C. E., Jan. 25, 1906.

Speed -time Curves.

Mailloux: A. I. E. E., June, 1902; S. R. J., July 5, 1902; E. R. J., Feb. 13, 1909.

Valentine: S. R. J., Sept. 6, 1902; Elec. Journal, Jan., 1908.

Carter: Predeterminations in (Suburban) Railway Work, A. I. E. E., June 1903.

Simpson: S. R. J., Feb. 9 and March 23, 1907.

Wynne: Elec. Journal, Jan. and May, 1906.

Gears — Effect of Changes on Schedule, Power, and Heating.

Huffman: Effect of Changing Gears on Motor Equipments, S. R. J., Oct. 29, 1904.
Storer: Capacity of Motors, and Gear Ratios, Elec. Journal, July and Sept., 1908.
Conant: Mechanics of Electric Traction, S. R. Review, Dec, 1901.

High-speed Problems and Effect of Stops.
Armstrong: A. I. E. E., June, 1898; June, 1902; June, 1903.

Braking of Railway Cars.

Parke, Keiley: A. I. E. E., Dec, 1902; S. R. J., Jan. 2, 1904.
Plumb: S. R. J., June 1, 1907.

Rae: Energy Required in Braking, S. R. J., Nov. 5, 1904.
M. C. B. Assoc: Brake Shoe Tests, 1905-6-7-11.

References on Energy Consumption of Cars.

Boston Elevated Railway Tests, S. R. J., Jan. 14, 1905.

Brooklyn Elevated, E. R. J., Jan. 12, 1909.

Long Island R. R. Lyford and Smith, A. I. E. E., Nov. 25, 1904.

Manhattan Elevated Coasting Tests. Putnam, A. I. E. E., June, 1910.

Columbus, O., One- and Two-car Trains, S. R. J., Aug. 31, 1907.

Cleveland Interurban and City Tests, E. R. J., Nov. 13, 1909; Jan. 8, 1910.

Indiana Union Traction. Renshaw, S. R. J., Oct. 4, 1902; A. I. E. E., June, 1903.

Denver & Interurban. E. T. W., Sept. 25, 1910, p. 1026.

London Electric Railway Tests. E. R. J., Aug. 6, 1910.

Swiss Government R. R. Commission Report. S. R. J., Nov. 10, 1906, p. 950.

Gleichman: Power Required for Bavarian Ry. Trains, Elek. Zeit., April 14, 1911.

Ashe: On Train Testing, S. R. J., May 21, 1904; Dec. 1, 1906; Aug. 24, 1907.

Bright: Kilowatt-hours per Car-mile, Elec. Journal, Jan., 1906.

Street: Locomotives vs. Motor Car, Elec. Journal, Oct., 1906.

Ayres: Car weight. Effect on Power, E. T. W., June 19, 1909; Weight and Operating

Cost, E. R. J., Oct. 7, 1909.
Dodd: Power Consumption on Electric Cars, S. R. J., Sept., 1898.

CHAPTER XII.
TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES.

Outline.

Status of Development.
Energy Losses:

Energy losses with low voltages, alternating current for important trans-
missions, energy losses with converter substations, transmission of three-phase
current to motors, transmission of single-phase current to motors, design of
apparatus for high voltages, development of high voltages for railways,
voltages required.

Laws Governing Transmissions.

Impedance and Resistance.

Transmission Line Engineering :

Financial basis, electrical energy, location, voltage and cycle, materials
available, specifications for materials, results to be anticipated.

Insulators.

Data on High-voltage Transmissions.

Data on Steel Towers for Transmission Lines.

Contact Lines :

Voltages used, design of contact lines, collection of current, by trolley, shoes,
pantograph, and bows; two- trolleys wires for three-phase motors.

Catenary Construction.

Third-rail Contact Lines.

Cost of Constructions :

Insulators, poles, towers, bridges, catenary, third rail.

Literature.

432

CHAPTER XII.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES.

STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT.

A study of the development of electric power transmission shows
that the first electric railways used direct current and a potential of 100
to 250 volts, and that the two conductors were the two track rails. An
independent, insulated, positive third rail was soon added, but an over-
head trolley contact line was usually substituted for the exposed third
rail. Practical street railways in 1888 used 450 volts; but since 1896, the
voltage has generally been 600. Direct current, with 660 volts on the con-
tact line, is now used by most of the interurban railways and by electric
divisions of terminal railroads. Where heavy trains are operated,
economy of investment and of energy demand potentials of 3000 to 12,000
volts, the actual voltage depending upon the speed, number, and weights
of individual trains, and the distances involved.

Electrification in the larger sense is chiefly a matter of power trans-
mission; and in the development of the art, energy for electric trains has
been generated and transmitted as alternating current. Three steps in
the development of transmissions are noted.

a. A single-phase power transmission plant was installed in 1890 at Telluride,
Colorado, from which a Westinghouse single-phase alternator of 100 h. p., the largest
then made, transmitted energy at 3000 volts over a distance of 2.6 miles to a similar
motor at the end of a transmission line.

b. Three-phase power transmissions were introduced in 1891 by Ferraris, at the
Frankfort Exposition, when 100 h. p. was transmitted as three-phase current at
20,000 volts, a distance of 112 miles. E. E., Sept., 1891.

c. Three-phase long-distance power transmission for commercial service began
with 11,000 volts about the year 1895 in California, and in 1896 between Niagara and
Buffalo. This at once allowed an extension of electric roads, since several thousand
horse power could be transmitted economically over distances of twenty to thirty
miles. The line voltage could be reduced, at substations along the route by step-
down transformers, and the alternating current could be converted from three-phase
to direct current for standard railway motors. This plan was soon adopted by the
leading electric railway. See details, under "Electric Systems," Chapter IV.

ENERGY LOSSES.

Losses with low voltages are large when, with a reasonable expenditure
for copper lines, electrical energy is transmitted at low potentials, over
distances of several miles for the propulsion of electric trains. For ex-
ample, when 1200 kilowatts are transmitted at 1200 volts pressure, over
a distance of only 12 miles, by twelve 1,200,000 c.tn. copper feeders to
deliver 1200 h. p. to haul one common passenger or freight train, the
28 433

434 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

transmission loss in the feeder and return circuit is 5 per cent, per train.
If 12 trains are to be operated in the division, it becomes necessary to
place expensive rotary converter substations about 12 miles apart, and
to add heavy out-going and return cables. The losses are quadrupled
when 600 volts are used, but are one one-hundredth as large when
12,000 volts are used.

Alternating current at high voltage is required in order to reduce the
losses in long important power transmissions. Electricity then fur-
nished a very efficient, simple, and convenient means for the transmission
of large powers over long distances to heavy, individual train units.
This is an :nherent advantage of electricity over steam, for common
long-distance railroad work.

Energy losses with converter substations are large because of the low
efficiency of normally underloaded rotary converters, storage batteries,
and auxiliaries. The transformation and conversion of the energy to
direct current at many small substations involves a relatively heavy
investment. High efficiency, economy of labor and of investment
require the equipment to have a high load factor and uniform traffic.
Such conditions are seldom found in converter substations.

Examples from the practice of two large electric railroads are given
to show the amount of the converter substation losses.

TRANSMISSION LOSSES ON WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE RAILROAD.

75 miles of route; 8 rotary converter, 675-volt, d.c. substations.

Alternating- current, kw-hr. to transmission lines, August, 1906 2,244,020

Direct-current, kw-hr., from converter substations 1,694,770

Kw-hr. lost in transmission line, transformers, and converters 549,250

Per cent, of energy lost 24 . 4

Alternating-current kw-hr. to transmission lines, March, 1909, 1,850,000

Kw-hr. lost in transmission, transformers, and converters 519,310

Per cent, of energy lost 28

Average loss in 1907 was 27.8 per cent.; 1908,26.2; 1909,21.6; 1910, 20.4 per cent.

Loss in the 675-volt third-rail is estimated at 15 per cent., making
the total loss between station and cars over 40 per cent. A change to
1200 volts would save part of the loss in the third rail and track.

TRANSMISSION LOSSES ON NEW YORK CENTRAL RAILROAD.

Cost of power delivered from power station 0 . 58 ^. per kw-hr.

Cost of power delivered from substations 0. 77 |4. per kw-hr.

Cost of power delivered to locomotive 1 . 09 ^. per kw-hr.

This indicates a loss between locomotive and power house of nearly
50 per cent. The 660-volt, direct-current, third-rail system is used, and
the 45 miles of route require nine rotary converter substations.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 435

These railroads were electrified in 1906, prior to the development of
high-voltage, alternating-current contact lines.

For additional data on transmission and converter losses see tables
on (relative) 'Cost of Steam-Electric Power per Kilowatt Hour," also
'^ Watt-hours per Car-mile, at power plant and from substations."

Interurban railways in Indiana and Ohio with rotary 'converter sub-
stations deliver less than 50 per cent, of the electric power generated
to the motors on the heavy single cars. Analysis of losses show step-up
and -down transformer losses 13 per cent., transmission 3 per cent., rotary
converters 20 per cent., direct-current distribution 21 per cent.

Transmission of three-phase current at 3000 volts and 15 cycles, and
the application of electric power to locomotives, without the use of rotary
converter substations, have been used by several roads in Italy, since 1902.
The voltage used, 3000, is applied directly on the motor field windings.
The use of 3000-volt contact lines for heavy train haulage requires
frequent step-down transformer substations, because the drawbar pull
from the motors decreases inversely as the square of the motor voltage,
and the latter must therefore be well maintained.

Nine substations are required for 66 miles of the Valtellina Railway
with light traffic; 4 substations for 12.5 miles of the Giovi Railway
with heavy traffic; 2 stations for the Simplon Tunnel, a 12-mile, single-
track road; 14 substations on the Burgdorf-Thun, 26-mile, 750-
volt interurban road.

Transmission of single -phase, high -voltage current and its utilization
by railway motors, without transformation and conversion to direct
current, is a development which began in 1904. Westinghouse engineers,
among them Mr. B. G. Lamme, after many engineering struggles, equipped
the first single-phase road, the Indianapolis and Cincinnati Traction,
46 miles of track, with a 3000-volt contact line. The next long single-
phase roads, Spokane and Inland Empire, and others, used 6600 volts.
The use of 11,000 volts on the trolley, directly from the generator, without
line transformers and converter substations, by the New York, New Haven
& Hartford, and many other roads, since 1907, for long-distance haulage
of heavy individual train units, marked an epoch in the transmission
of energy for railroad transportation.

Design of suitable apparatus necessarily preceded the transmission
and utilization of electrical energy at the high voltage required for
heavy, high-speed electric trains.

a. Alternators were changed from a type in which the revolving
element carried the high-voltage coils to a type in which the stationary
element carried the high-voltage coils. This increased the space available
and arranged for improved coil insulation. Voltages above 3500 became
common after 1897, and voltages of 12,000 are now common.

436

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

b. Transformers were improved, about 1896, by a change in design
from the air-blast type to the oil-insulated, water-eooled type. In large
transformers these improvements, with extra insulation on the end coils,
and greater rigidity allowed potentials of 20,000, 40,000, 60,000, and
higher voltages for reliable work.

c. Lightning arresters were designed which protected apparatus and
lines against break-down from static discharges. Improvements were
made in the spark-gap, horn, and electrolytic cell types; also in methods
of installation. Ground wires were strung over the transmission.

d. Insulators of the pin type for 50,000-volt circuits, and of the sus-
pension type for 50 to 100,000-volt circuits, were perfected. This provided
for increased reliability for ordinary service and the factor of safety
during lightning storms.

DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES FOR ELECTRIC RAILWAYS.

Contact line. Transmission line. ^

Year.

Direct- i

current Narae of railway.

voltage.

Three-
phase
voltage.

T ^. . ,. No. of
Location or name oi Ime .,

i miles.

1880

250
450
500
550
550
550
600
600
600
600
600
600
600

Exhibition

Richmond Virffinii

1888

Union Passenger Ry.

1894

Norwich Street Ry

2,500

5,500

6,000

11,000

13,000

33,000

55,000

66,000

110,000

100,000

110,000

125,000

d. c.

100,000

d. c.

Taftsville, Connecticut

Lowell, Massachusetts

1895

Lowell & Suburban

1895

Portland General Electric

Buffalo Ry. Company

Twin City Rapid Transit

Los Angeles Ry ...

1896

1897
1898

Minneapolis-St. Paul

Redlands, California

Helena- Butte

Niagara Falls

Grand Rapids, Michigan

Central Colorado Power

Niagara-Toronto, etc

Commonwealth, Michigan

Indianapolis-Louisville

Southern Power Co., N. C

Mozelle-Maizieres, France ....

■75

1904

Butte, Montana

1906

Rochester, New York

165

1908

Grand Rapids, Mich

1909

Several. Denver

200

1910

Several. Toronto

180

1911

100

1908
1911

1200
1500
2000

Indianapolis & Louisville

20
140

1906

European, see Chapter IV

Year.

Three-
phase
voltage.

Name of railway.

Three-
phase
voltage.

Location or name of line.

No.

miles.

1896

500
750

3,000
11,000

6,000

500
16,000
20,000
11,000
33,000

Lugano, Italy ,

1899

Burgdorf-Thun Ry

1902

Valtellina Ry

1903

Zossen experiment

1909

Geat Northern Ry

Cascade Tunnel, Washington. .

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES

437

DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGES FOR ELECTRIC RAILWAYS.

Continued.

Contact line. Transmission line.

One-
Year, phase
voltage.

Name of railway.

Three-
phase
voltage.

Location or name of line.

No.

miles.

1904
1904
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911

2,200 Schenectady Ry

3,300 : Indianapolis & Cincinnati

6,600 t Spokane & Inland

11,000 ! Erie R. R

11,000 NewYork, NewHaven & Hartford

12.000 j French Southern or Midi

15,000 j Bernese Alps R. R

18,000 Swedish State

22,000
33,000
45,000
60,000
11,000
60,000
60,000
80,000

Ballston Division. . . .

Indianapolis

Spokane-South

Rochester-Mt. Morris
Woodlawn-Stamford .

France

Switzerland

Norwegian frontier . .

16
41
50
154
22
50
60
70

Voltages required for transmission lines in railway work may be deter-
mined mathematically, but this is largely a matter of experience, and
requires a knowledge of the important variables which affect capacity,
losses, cost of equipment, and operating results.

Cross-sectional area of copper line is reduced 75 per cent, when the
voltage is doubled, and therefore the higher practical voltages would be
used to reduce the cost and loss, were it not that operation becomes more
dangerous, and that insulation for generators, transformers, transmission
lines and switches becomes more expensive.

Standard voltages used for common transmission lines in railway
work are 6600, 13,000, 33,000, and 66,000. Generator and also contact
line voltages seldom exceed 12,000 volts. Transmission lines use less
than 1000 volts per mile of line.

LAWS GOVERNING TRANSMISSIONS.

Laws governing transmissions are stated briefly:

a. With unit energy transmitted, the voltage and current generated
will vary inversely.

b. With unit work done, unit loss in line, and fixed voltage at the
terminals of the line, the weight of copper will vary as the square of the
distance; its cross-section will vary directly as the distance; and the
weight of copper will vary inversely as the square of the voltage at the
terminals of the line.

c. With unit cross-section, the distance over which a given amount
of power can be transmitted will vary as the square of the voltage.

d. With unit weight of copper, unit amount of power transmitted,
and unit loss in distribution, the distance over which power can be
transmitted will vary directly as the voltage generated.

438 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Kelvin*s Law which governs transmissions is this:

The annual cost due to line loss and interest charges should be equal;
or the interest should equal the loss. Stated in another way: "The sum
of the annual cost of the energy lost in the line and the annual cost of
interest and depreciation should be a minimum." A consideration of
the variable portions of the two sets of costs greatly simplifies the calcu-
lations on the most economical loss and investment. This subject is
treated at length in many electrical text-books.

IMPEDANCE AND RESISTANCE.

Line Losses are caused by resistance, but the drop in voltage in an
alternating-current line is a function of the reactance. The effective
resultant is called the impedance. • In electric circuits impedance, and
not the ohmic resistance only, must be considered. With alternating
current the impedance of a copper transmission line is about 50 per cent,
higher, and of steel rails is 600 to 800 per cent, higher, than with direct
current; but the current itself is smaller.

Losses, in watts, equal the product of the resistance of the wires and
the square of the current in the wires. The energy loss is transformed
into heat. The drop in the line, in volts, is the product of the line resist-
ance or impedance and the current.

Cycles affect the loss of voltage in transmission lines, and in copper
and third-rail contact lines. The higher the number of cycles used, the
greater is the impedance to the flow of current. With 60 cycles, the
impedance is so high that this frequency is not used in electric railroading.

Resistance of copper wire, in ohms, is found by multiplying the
resistance, K, of 1 foot of copper wire, 1 circular mil in diameter by the
length of the wire in feet and dividing the product by the number of
circular mils". K= 10.35 ohms at 68° F., or 20° C, and increases 0.4
per cent, per degree C. Every third larger sized wire has twice the cross-
section, twice the weight, and one-half the resistance.

Heating of wires must be considered. For a given resistance the
heating effect varies as the square of the current. With fluctuating
loads, the heating effect varies as the root-mean-square of the currents.

Voltage drop or voltage loss in line affects motor characteristics,
drawbar pull, speed, and heating. An average contact line loss of 10
per cent., and a maximum of 20 per cent., are usually provided for
direct-current and single-phase work. These losses must be much
smaller in three-phase contact lines, for a 10 per cent, loss in voltage
causes a 19 per cent, decrease in the drawbar pull of the motor.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES
IMPEDANCE VALUES OF SINGLE-PHASE LINES.

439

No. and
wt. of

No. and
size of

Impedance, total in
ohms per mile.

Rail
cur-

Notes,

rails.

trolleys.

25 cycles.

15 cycles.

rent.

8-100 lb . . .

4-0000

.165

.112

.75

With two 00 feeders.

8-100 lb . . .

4-1000

.189

130

.75

Without feeder.

4-100 lb . . .

2-0000

.310

220

.58

Without feeder.

2-100 lb . . .

1-0000

.553

396

.40

Without feeder.

2-100 lb . . .

1-000

.600

425

.40

Without feeder.

2-100 lb . . .

i Not any.

.030

020

.40

A. c. resistance only.

2-100 lb . . .

Not any.

.025

.58

A. c. resistance only.

2-100 lb . . .

Not any.

.080

048

1.00

A. c. resistance only.

2-100 lb . . .

1-000

.047

028

1.00

A. c. reactance only.

Not any ....

1-0000

.026

026

1.00

A. c. resistance only

Not any

1-000

.470

....

Impedance.

Not any

1-0000

.400

Impedance.

Data which do not specify the relative current in trolley and rail are not valuable.^
Copley's measurements, given in Transactions, A. I. E. E., July, 1908, page 1171,
are based on height of trolley of 22 feet, double catenary, 0000 rail bonds, and 60 to
70 per cent, power-factor.

Rosenthal, in ''Transmission Calculations," has furnished other tables. See also
Dawson, "Electric Traction for Railways," page 451; Parshall and Hobart, "Electric
Railway Engineering/' page 283; Murray, A. I. E. E., April, 1911, p. 751.

Impedance for other sizes of rail can be readily computed. The relative impedance
at 25 and at 15 cycles should be as the square roots of the cycles, or as 1 .29 to 1 .00.
The steel catenary or messenger cable in parallel with the trolley reduces the
above impedance values about 10 per cent.

The ratio of impedance to direct-current resistance of trolley wire, at 25 cycles, is
1 .5 and the ratio for rails is about 6.0, but the current in the rails is small.

The resistance to direct current of two 100-pound steel rails is . 03 ohms per mile.

TRANSMISSION LINE ENGINEERING.

A clear understanding of the real problem involved in a transmission
line must first be obtained. The extent of each item forming a part of a
problem can be studied by means of an outline of the financial, technical,
constructive, and operating features which are involved. Instead of an
extended treatment of the subject, an outline frequently used by the
writer in his work, one suitable for general consideration, is presented on
the next page.

440

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Fig. 172. — Example of Fusxible Steel

Tower for Transmission Line.
Eight-inch channels. Pin type insulators.

OUTLINE FOR STUDY OF TRANS-
MISSION LINE ENGINEERING.

Financial Basis :

Earnings, present and ultimate condi-
tions, effect on smaller undertakings, and
effect on economy of plants.

Value of energy cost per kw-hr. trans-
mitted, total cost of energy delivered.
Competition and reputation ; duplication
of lines, voltage regulation.

Electrical Energy :

Present and future load; power factor
and load factor.

Location :

Accessibility of locality, geography and
elevations, freight charges, frequency of
electric storms, precipitation, right-of-
way and terminals, rivers, valley, swamp,
lakes, special span constructions, fran-
chise and municipal restrictions, cross-
ings over steam railroads.

Voltage and Cycles ;

Length of line, amount of load, type of
insulator, protection of the public, sepa-
ration of wires, inductive effect on line,
impedance constants and losses, effect
on cost of all equipment.

Materials Available :

Conductor: Aluminum or copper, cross-
sectional area, stranding, mechanical
strength, electrical resistance.
Poles : Wood or concrete ; kind and char-
acter, cutting and sap, life and treatment,
length and body.

Towers of Steel: Frame or pipe, angle
or channel, two, three, or four legs.
Insulators : Porcelain, glass, pin types, 2
to 5 shells; steel or wood pins; disk, cone,
and suspension types.

Specifications for Materials :

Quantity, quality, details of design,
tests for acceptance.

Results to be Anticipated :

Guarantees, limitations, lack of funds,
local conditions.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES

441

INSULATORS.
Insulators for high voltage lines are made of porcelain. This is the
only material which is adequate. Best clays are selected, great skill
is used in manufacture, and in burning. By design, porcelain is not
utilized to carry tensile stresses. In compression its strength is
16,000 to 20,000 pounds; in shear, 2400 to 2700 pounds; in tension, 650
to 3300 pounds per square inch.

Fig.

173. — Example op Flexible Steel Tower for Transmission Line.
Latticed angles. Suspension type disk insulators.

Pin type insulators usually consist of 3 or more shells or pieces per
insulator, mounted on one pin. The malleable iron pin has replaced
the wooden pin, which in time was ^'digested" by static currents.

Suspension type insulators were first used in 1907. They have long
and well-interrupted insulating surfaces to limit the surface leakage.

442

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Several 20,000 to 25,000-volt disks or cones are suspended in a series, to
insulate for any potential used.

Advantages of suspension type insulators: Torsional strains on the
cross arms are decreased, but cross arms must be longer, and torsional
stresses on the towers are increased. Flexibility is obtained to reduce
the mechanical stresses. Cost of high-A^oltage insulators is increased.
Factors of safety are raised in power transmission.

Fig. 174. — Two 25,000-volt Units of a Suspension Type Insulator.

The pin type insulator gives fair results up to 50,000 volts. The
suspension type is now practically standard above 50,000 volts. In
either case, an overhead ground wire is used, to assist in preventing the
puncture of insulators by lightning, except on the Commonwealth Power
Company and Grand Rapids-Muskegon, Michigan, transmissions, using
125,000 and 110,000 volts.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES
DATA ON IMPORTANT HIGH-VOLTAGE TRANSMISSIONS.

443

Name of transmission company.

Length

Kilowatts

Voltage

No. of

Year

miles.

delivered.

on lines.

cycles.

built.

Connecticut River Power Company, Vernon, Vt. .

15,000

66,000

1908

Hudson River Electric Power Co., Glen Falls, N. Y. .

5,000

44,000

1901

Schenectady Power Company

12,000

32,000

1909

Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power Company

160

15,000

60,000

1906

Toronto & Niagara Falls Power Company

180

10,000
82,500

60.000

1907

Canadian Niagara Falls Power Company

62,500

1905

Electrical Development Company, Niagara, Ontario .

95,000

60,000

1909

Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester Ry. ; distribution froEi

15,000

60,000

1895

Niagara Falls.

Hydro-electric Power Commission of Ontario (290

180

40,000

110,000

1910

miles of towers).

Shawinigan Water and Power Company

50,000

56,000

1903

Hamilton Cataract and Power Company

25,000
22,500

45,000

1909

Winnipeg Electric Ry. Company

60,000

1904

Rochester Ry . and Li^'ht Company

8,000
30,000

57,000

1907

Pennsylvania Water and Power Company, McCalls

70,000

1910

Ferry, Pennsylvania.

Southern Power Company, Charlotte, North Caro-

50,000

45,000

1907

lina* 1230 miles of tower line.

240

80,000
8,000

100,000

1910

Grand Rapids-Muskegon Power Company, Croton to

72^000

1903

Grand Rapids.

10,000

110,000

1908

Indiana & Michigan Electric Company

15,000
6,000

47,800
40,000

1909

Southern Wisconsin Power Company, Kilbourn,

111

1909

Watertown, Milwaukee.

La Crosse Water Power Company, Wisconsin

4,800

46,000

1909

Great Northern Power Co., Duluth

10,000

60,000

1910

St. Croix Falls Improvement Company, Minneapolis

20,000

50,000

1907

Taylor's Falls.

Northern Colorado Power Company, Denver

126

66,000

1909

Central Colorado Power Company, 430 miles of lines.

153

12,300

100,000

1909

Telluride Power Company, Provo, Utah

20,000

44,000

1898

Helena Power Transmission Company

4,000

57,000

1900

East Helena -Anaconda

20,000

70,000

1908

Great Falls Power Company, Great Falls- Anaconda. . .

150

30,000

100,000

1910

Spokane & Inland Empire R. R. Company

100

40,000

66,000

1907

50,000

1909

Washington Water Power Company, Spokane 450. .

20,000
30,000

63,000

1902

Puget Sound Power Company, Tacoma-Seattle

60,000

1903

Seattle-Tacoma Power Company

110

21,000

60,000

1898

Northern California Power Company

10,000

60,000

1909

Great Western Power Company, Big Bend-Oakland.

154

40,000

100,000

1909

Sierra & San Francisco Power Company, 1400 of lines.

90,000

104,000

1908

California Gas and Electric Corporation, Colgate to

117

Mission San Jose: Electra to Oakland.

145
117

60
50

Pacific Light & Power, Kern River, Los Angeles

30,000

75,000

■1908

Southern California Edison Company

3,000

33,000

1898

444 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

STEEL TOWERS FOR TRANSMISSION LINES.

Name of power transmission.

No. and size
of conductors.

Kilo-
volts.

No.

arms.

. Spread
of

Type and
parts per
insulator.

Normal
length
of span.

Schenectady Power

Niagara, Lockport & Ontario

Ontario Hydro-electric

Southern Power, N.C

Grand Rapids-Muskegon

Commonwealth, Michigan

Southern Wisconsin.

Milwaukee Electric

La-Crosse, Wisconsin

St. Croix Falls-Minneapolis

Great Northern, Duluth

Winnipeg Electric Ry

Telluride (Colorado) Power

Central Colorado Power

Northern Colorado Power

Utah Light & Power

Great Falls Power Co

Anaconda Copper Extension

Washington Water Power, Spokane .

Great Western, San Francisco

Sierra and San Francisco

Los Angeles, Kern River

Arizona Power M. & M

Guanajuato, Mexico

Nexaca, Mexico

6-000 & G

3-00

6-0000 & G

6-00 & 2G

3-2

6-0 & G

3-2 & G

3-0000 & G

6-00

3-0 & 2 G

6-0 & G

6-0 & 2 G

3-0 & G

6-000 & G

3-00

9-0000

6-0

3-1 & G

6-000 & G

110

100

110

125

100

104

17'-0"
7'-0"

6'-0"
8'-0"
6'-0"
6'-0"
6'-0"
6'-0"
7'-0"

6'-0"
12'-0"
10'-4"

10'-4"
10'-4"

13'-0"
8'-0"
6'-0"

lO'-O"
6'-0"
6'-0"

Disk, 2
Pin, 3
Susp., 8
Disk, 4
Disk, 5
Disk, 8
Disk, 3
Disk, 3
Pin, 4
Pin, 3
Pin, 3
Pin.
Susp.
Susp. 4

Susp. 6
Susp. 6

Susp. 4
Susp. 5
Pin, 4
Susp.
Pin, 3
Pin, 3

550'
550
550
600
528

528
528
480
440
400
450

600
600
600

750
800
542

440
500

Conductors are of copper except in the Southern Wisconsin; Ontario Hydro-
electric Power; Niagara, Lockport & Ontario.

G signifies a protecting cable, usually of 7-strand steel, strung over the tower.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES
STEEL TOWERS FOR TRANSMISSION LINES.

445

Name of
transmission.

Name of
manufacturer

Height

of
tower.

No.

legs.

Width

at
base.

Wt. of

tower

lb.

Data
on

posts.

Kind

of
steel.

Schenectady Power

Niagara, Lockport & On-
tario

Milliken

Aermotor

48-71

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
4
4

17'-7"
6'-0"
6'-0"

17'-0"

4350

Gal.

2ix2ixi L

Gal.

Archbold B.
Canadian B .

45-50

Plain.

Ontario Hydro- electric.
McCalls Ferry Power . . .

4000

40-60

40-53

Southern Power, N. C.

Aermotor. . .
Aermotor. . .

Milliken

Aermotor. . .
Aermotor. . .
Aermotor. . .
Aermotor . .
Archbold B.

2400
3080
3500
1700
1900

2150
2250
2200

2140

3x3x3/16 L

Gal

Grand Rapids-Muskegon .
Commonwealth, Michigan

3x3x3/16 L

Gal

12'xl7'

12'-0"

9'-0"

Gal

Southern Wisconsin

Milwaukee Electric Ry. .
St. Croix-Minneapolis
^^innipeg Electric Ry

3x3x1/4
3x3x1/4
9"-13| ch.

Gal.
Gal.
Plain.

Central Colorado

Telluride (Colorado)power
Great Falls Power & T.

Milliken

U.S.Wind...
Amer. Bdge

44
51-58

4
4

13'xl4'
13'xll'
13'-0"
lO'-O"
16'-0"
17'-0"
15'-0"

12'xl3'

9'-0"

4x4x1/4 L

Gal.
Plain.

Anaconda Copper

Washington Water Power,

Aermotor

U.S.Wind...
Milliken ....

50-68
61

4
4
4

4
4
3

3800

3400

[4250

\4950

1125

4x4x1/4 L

Los Angeles, Kern River.

Arizona Power M, & M. .

Guanajuato, Mexico

Nexaca, Mexico

U.S.Wind. .

U.S.Wind...
Aermotor. . .
U.S.Wind...

54-60

33-42
41-47
26-42

4x4x5/16 L
2fx2|xl/8 L

Gal.

Gal.
Gal

14'-0"

3x3xi

Gal

Height of tower is measured from the connection near the surface of the ground to the lowe3t
transmission cross arms. The steel work below the ground is generally less than one-seventh of
the height to the upper cross arm.

CONTACT LINES.

Voltages are usually 600 for third-rail lines, and 600, 1200, 3300, 6600,
and 11,000 volts on overhead trolley contact lines. The current is
reduced proportionally as the voltage is increased.

Design of contact lines for electric railway train service involves
these essentials: Mechanical strength, electrical carrying capacity,
collection of current, and adequate support or suspension.

a. Mechanical strength is gained by the use of 3/0 and 4/0 grooved-
section, hard-drawn copper wire. Smaller sizes are not used in rail-
roading because of the danger from breakage after pitting, arcing, hard
spots, crystallization, and wear. A 4/0 wire has a tensible strength of
7000 pounds, or 5000 at joints, and a working tension of 2000 pounds.

b. Electric carrying capacity is generally many times larger than
necessary to prevent overheating of conductors.

c. Collection of current from contact lines requires that the con-
tact point, line, or surface be ample to prevent arcing.

446 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Trolley wheels, cylinders, or rollers, without seriously burning the
wire and wheel, collect 1200 amperes at 5 m. p. h; 600 amperes at 15
m. p. h. ; 350 amperes, at 40 m. p. h.; and 200 amperes at 60 m. p. h.,
the latter with catenary construction. New cooled contact points are
continually negotiated. A pressure of 30 to 40 pounds is required
between the wheel and the wire, for speeds of 50 to 60 m. p. h. Wheel
collectors are seldom used in electric train service. When a trolley
wheel jumps off the contact line at high speed, the overhead work
suffers; and at low speed the drawbars are jerked out.

Third -rail contact shoes, of malleable iron, at 30 m. p. h., readily
collect 2200 amperes, and at 60 m. p. h., 600 amperes.

Pantographs with a wide sliding shoe are also used for the collection
of heavy current from an overhead line. Brooklyn Bridge Railroad
used pantographs before the third rail was installed. Small pantographs
are used on locomotives to reach overhead third rails in switching
yards. Three-phase and single-phase high-speed railroad trains re-
quire pantographs. In train service, contacts are usually in parallel.

Bows are a modification of the pantograph, in which either a cylin-
drical roller, or a metallic contact shoe of iron or aluminum, shaped as
a bow, is placed between two light-weight supporting pipes. Bows are
made in many styles but they are lighter than pantographs. They are
often compounded, so that the lower part makes the large variations
in elevation, while the small bow, mounted upon the long heavy frames,
easily follows the minor variations in elevation.

Height of contact wire has a great deal to do with the operation of
a trolley, pantograph, or bow-collector. European roads place the
trolley wire 16 to 17 feet above the rails. American roads place the
trolley 22 to 24 feet above the rail. A small change in track alignment
makes a wide lateral change at the contact; and trouble seems to vary
about as the square of the height of the trolley wire above the rail.

The mechanics of current collection from overhead lines is this: A
point must be kept in contact with a line. This contact point travels at
speeds up to 68 m. p. h. or 100 feet per second. During this second,
the contact wire varies 2 to 3 inches in its elevation. The forces acting
on the pantograph or bow, to keep the point and the wire in contact,
vary as the mass and the square of the velocity. Therefore, the ideal
bow or pantograph is one with minimum weight. The velocity referred
to is the rate of change of the contact point in its vertical position.
The ideal line is thus one in which the wire does not sag. The wire
supports between the brackets or bridges are placed at short intervals to
prevent a rapid change in the vertical position, for these changes must
be followed by the bow or pantograph. This involves a taut line, which
requires infinite tension. Since wires stretch, gradually slacken at

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 447

curves, and vary greatly in length with the temperature, an automatic
adjustment in the tension by weights or springs is desirable. On many
European roads the trolley is anchored at one end and attached at the
other end to a weight, hung over a pulley, of 2000 pounds per mile of line.

The contact line support must be flexible in order to prevent local-
ization of the contact pressure of the pantograph at the supporting
points. Intensity of pressure or of blows must be avoided, to reduce the
work of destruction and the maintenance expense. A moving contact
follows a rigid line, with- destructive chattering s^d vibra^tion.

On a 300-foot span, a 5-point suspension, two very light multiple
contacts, and small pressure from a bow, works out about as well as a
20-point suspension, one contact, and heavy pressure from a pantograph.

A large number of types of catenary suspended line have been tried
by the Pennsylvania Railroad. Elec. Ry. Journ., Dec. 12, 1908, p. 1546.

Two overhead trolley contact wires are required with 3-phase motors.
There is a difference of potential of 3000 to 6000 volts between the wires.
Two overhead wires have the following disadvantages :

Tw^o contact wires must be supported and insulated from each other,
and from their mechanical supports.

Catenary line supports parallel to the two trolleys, if used, would
make an expensive construction.

Danger exists, due to the complication and to the short distance
between the two wires. (On the three-phase European roads, real
high-speed service is not attempted.) The use of 6000 or 11,000 volts
between the two wires would thus be at a disadvantage for ordinary,
50 to 60 m.p.h. railroad traffic.

Cost of supports, insulators, switch work, labor, and copper, is about
twice that for the single contact line.

Maintenance cost is greater than with a single contact line.

Poles and overhead construction are heavier, because the weight to
be supported and the strains to be balanced are doubled.

Weight of two wires for the 3000- or 6000-volt, three-phase system is
much greater than that of one wire for the single-phase system at 11,000
volts, because the current per wire is higher for the low voltages.

Current per wire, for an ordinary railway train, or about 1000 kv-a., is
given in the following table.

AMPERES PER CONTACT LINE, 1000 KV-A., 1 AND 3-PHASE SYSTEM.

Potentials used.

One-phase, 1-wire system. Three-phase, 2-wire system.

3,000 volts. 333 amperes. 192 amperes.

6,000 volts. 166 amperes. 96 amperes.

11,000 volts. 98 amperes. | 52 amperes.

448

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The use of 11,000 volts has been well standardized by single-phase
railroads and, except for Great Northern Ry., 3000 volts is used by -all
three-phase railroads.

Contact line losses are higher for the low- voltage three-phase system.

Pounds of copper required for the three-phase system are 14 per cent,
greater than for the single-phase, for same voltage.

One trolley or two trolleys, about 36 inches apart, must be used in
heavy electric railroading. The subject deserves consideration in view
of the cost, the complication, and the danger.

"One object of all engineering is to dispense with complications and unnecessary-
parts, unless some paramount advantage is gained by complication. Everything
points to the ultimate adoption of a single working conductor wherever heavy electric
railroading is to be expected. There are complications enough with only one working
conductor at points of limited clearance to convince railway engineers of the undesir-
ability of increasing the complications by the addition of another conductor."

"It is a vast problem to install, in a switchyard containing a maze of tracks, a
system of electric power supply utilizing a single conductor. Imagine what is to be
done to supply this yard with two overhead conductors in addition to the ground
return. The great difficulty and the enormous complications in overhead construc-
tion in switching is one of the most serious handicaps of the three-phase system
of traction." Steinmetz: General Electric Co., to A. I. E. E.,. June, 1905, page 516.

One great problem in electric traction is the transfer of energy in
large quantities, at high potentials, from an overhead contact line to
a rapidly moving locomotive used on the main line or in freight switch-
ing yards. This transfer of energy is facilitated with one overhead con-
tact line over each track. The cost of one or two overhead trolley
wires is important, but simplicity and safety are paramount.

CONTACT LINES USED ON THREE-PHASE RAILROADS.

Name of railway.

Diameter.

Gage

No.

Circular
mils.

Normal
span.

Height

mm.

inches.

above rail.

Burgdorf-Thun

Valtellina

Simplon, two

Giovi

8.0
8.0
8.0
8.3
11.2

.315
.315
.315
.326
.460

0
0
0
0

4/0

100,000
100,000
200,000
106,000
211,600

115'

100

17'-0''
17'-0"
17'-0''
17'-0''

Great Northern

24'-0''

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES

449

i
, ., 1 Voltage
Name of railway. ,
used.

Wire centers.

normal, curves.

Contactor
type.

Span or
brackets.

Speed
m.p.h.

Burgdorf-Thun...! 750

Valtellina 3000

Simplon 3000

Giovi 3000

36.0"

34.5

39.0

34 . 5''

Bow

Pantograph. . . .

Bow

Pantograph ....
Trolley wheels.

Bracket .
Both.. . .
Span. . . .
Span. . . .
Both

24
40
43

Great Northern... 6000

60.0

Switch work for three-phase overhead construction is complicated
at best, but not impracticable. Certain rules are to be followed:

One wire must not occupy such space that the collector can cause a short circuit
to the other ^vire.

Two or more collectors may be used on a locomotive or along a motor-car train,
but these must not cause a short circuit. In general it is not much more dangerous
to use two collectors per train than one. Valtellina Railway uses two, 38 feet apart
on motor cars, and 23 feet apart on locomotives.

If the two wires have unequal sags, bad alignment, or over- or under-separation,
a foul will be caused by the action of the collectors in running above or at the side of
one wire, or between them.

Mechanical contact must necessarily be continuous in switch work, either by
dead or live wires. Collectors must not travel free in the air as in the case of a
third-rail shoe.

Electrical circuits must be continuous; that is, power must be available at all
times. Trains must be started at all switches. Breaks in the current will cause
drawbars to be pulled out. Power to reverse must be available to prevent accident.

Separation of track sections, for the control of circuits, necessarily increases the
complication.

CATENARY CONSTRUCTION.

Suspension of a contact wire by hangers from a steel messenger
cable, which has several times the strength of hard-drawn copper con-
tact wire, is known as catenary construction The plan is used to ob-
tain long spans, strength, safety, and a level contact wire. In detail:

Supports for the messenger cable are usually structural steel bridges
for long spans, and wood or steel poles for medium spans.

Messenger cables made of double-galvanized plow steel of highest
tensile strength are used, and spans of from 250 to 300 feet are easily
carried. A 1/2-inch 7-strand cable has a minimum elastic limit of about
6000 pounds, which is 60 per cent, of its breaking strain.

Tensile strains in a suspended messenger or catenary cable are

proportional to WLV8D, where W is the weight of the load in pounds

per running foot (about 1 pound for 4/0 trolley, 1/2-inch messenger,

and 15 feet between suspenders), L is the length of the cable span, in

450 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

feet, and D is the sag of the cable span, in feet. In case a support is
broken, L is doubled and the strains are increased about 40 per cent.
Coatings of ice 1/2 inch thick, and wind pressures of about 8 pounds
per square foot must be considered.

Insulators for messenger cables are porcelain; for guys are of impreg-
nated wood in series with porcelain. When the voltage is 6000, wood
may be used in tension, but porcelain is always used in compression.

Suspenders are used between the messenger cable and the contact
line. Suspender links should be flexible, to prevent arcing by the con-
tactor, and bent, looped, curved, or coiled suspenders can be used
as well as straight solid rods. Links must not be loose to wear, or con-
tain cup-pointed set screws which cut the cable; and so bolted clamps
usually connect the ends of the suspender to the cable and contact line.
A horizontal spacing of clamps of 18 to 25 feet is common practice.

Contact lines are built of grooved copper wire, without or with a
steel wire hung below and parallel to the copper wire. With the com-
pound, or multiple catenary construction, great flexibility is gained by
suspending the steel contact wire from the copper wire at points half
way between the suspenders from the messenger. Brackets which sup-
port messenger cables are hinged, to allow slight vertical, and also some
horizontal swing.

Catenary construction for three-phase railways should be similar
to that of single-phase railways if speeds are to be high on the former.
The necessity of insulating the catenary cables from each other, and
from the supporting structure, is evident. Catenary cables, parallel to
the contact line, have not yet been adopted by three-phase roads.

Berlin-Zossen contact line construction with three 11,000-volt wires
in a vertical plane was a failure. The complication and cost were too
great; yet there Avere no switches from the main line. The side pres-
sure between the bows and the contact lines was very light.

Valtellina Railway, and Great Northern Railway trolley wires are
usually supported, near each pair of poles, by two independent steel span
cables, and the latter are spread about 39 inches. When brackets are
used the two trolleys are supported from two independent steel span
cables, spread about 13 inches, each cable supporting a trolley wire
from an insulated hanger.

Simplon terminal yard construction is designed to support two trolleys from two
cross-suspended wires stretched between light tubular steel supports. Vertical steel
supports are in tripod form, and, where they straddle 6 tracks, a horizontal tie bar
is placed between the upper ends of the tripods. The uprights are fixed to earth
plates imbedded in two feet of concrete, and take up a very small portion of the way,
give great stability, are cheap, and do not obstruct the view of signals.

Simplon Tunnel construction involves copper plated steel cross wires stretched
between gun-metal studs grouted into the face of the tunnel, the cross wires being

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES

451

insulated with common porcelain and drawn tight. The studs are 82 inches apart.
The trolley wire is secured by means of ebonite-covered bolts to gun-metal cross bars,
the ends of which are screwed into bell-shaped porcelain insulators, a layer of hemp
and asbestos being interposed between the screws and the porcelain at each end.

Fig. 175. — Great Northern Railway. Insulator Support in Concrete Roof of Tunnel, Paral-
lel TO the Contract Line.

These porcelain insulators are in turn screwed into gun-metal end caps with a layer
of "rubber, which is imposed to give elasticity to the whole insulator and thus to pre-
vent a fracture. The insulators are tested to 40,000 volts, while the maximum
working voltage is 3300.

Fig. 1'i6. — Great Northern Railway, Cascade Tunnel Yards. View of Switchwork.

The tunnel hne is 12 1/2 miles long. Power plants are placed at each end. Two
trolley wires, each 100,000 cm., are used for each phase to avoid the handling of
heavier wire in the tunnel. If one wire breaks or becomes defective it can be cut
away or renewed with facility. The overhead wires are arranged in zigzag fashion, to
equalize the wear along the ollecting bow.

452

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Giovi Railway three-phase contact Une is suspended from two parallel catenary
cables one meter apart. Flat suspender links are used. The catenary and contact
wires are supported by long cantilevers made of two 6-inch I beams extending from
heavy structural steel poles. Light gas pipe like that at the Simplon yards is not
used. Hanger supports are clamped to the under flange of the cantilever I beams
and grip a high-tension, horizontal, spool insulator which is cemented on a 1.5-inch
iron pipe. The wire hangers are clamped to this insulator and to the contact line
below. Each hanger has a pair of parallel-motion links, by which vertical flexi-
bility is obtained. See photographs by Miller in Elec. World, Oct. 13, 1910, page 863.

Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern Railroad, a double-track direct-current road
between Syracuse and Oswego, N. Y., uses catenary construction for direct current.
Bridges span the track at 300-foot intervals. These consist of two "A" frames,
erected in concrete foundations, and connected by a 30-foot truss. Angle braces

Fig. 177. — Great Northern Railway Anchor Bridge for Dead end of Catenary Line.
Trolley poles and trolley wires over each locomotive are 6 feet apart.

connect the frames and trusses. Catenary construction consists of 7/16-inch galva-
nized steel strand supported by a 2-piece 22,000 volt-porcelain insulator. The sag
is 6.5 feet at 100° F., and 5.5 feet at 20° F. The trolley is a No. 4/0 cable, supported
by hanger rods every 10 feet horizontally. Their length varies from 4.5 to 77.5
inches. In 1909, additional catenary construction was erected and a 500,000-cm.
copper feeder cable was used in place of the galvanized steel strand.

Erie Railroad catenary construction on a 37-mile, 11,000-volt, single-phase
contact line between Rochester and Mount Morris, New York, was erected in 1906.

Steel side poles are used around extensive terminal yards. Chestnut poles are
used on the main line. These vary in length from 35 to 55 feet, with an 8-inch top.
The spacing is 120 feet. The pole brackets are of 3x3x108- inch ''T" bars. The
bracket insulators are double petticoat porcelain, 5 inches high. The messenger
cable is of 7/16-inch galvanized steel strand, tested for 2250 pounds. Hangers
are spaced 10 feet apart and consist of 5/8-inch rods. Trolley wire is No. 3/0.
Pneumatically operated pantographs are used.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES

453

The conditions of service are severe, because the line work is badly maintained
and because the steam locomotives of thru trains and all freight trains run on the
track under the catenary. Trouble has been experienced in wind storms due to the
wide swing of the trolley, also from chafing between the hangers and the messenger.

New York, New Haven & Hartford catenary line construction is used on 22 miles
of the 4-track New York division between Woodlawn and Stamford. It was erected
in 1906 for 11, 000- volt single-phase service.

Anchor bridges used on the New York Division of the New Haven road are located
about every two miles on straight track. The posts are 61 feet 10 inches on centers.
The tracks are on 13-foot centers. The base is built up of plates and angles which
rest on concrete pedestals. The latter are 8 feet deep, 7 feet 2 inches wide at the
base, and 4 feet 6 inches wide at the top. The lower cord of the truss is 24 feet and

li* --•^:

Fig. 178. — New Yokk, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. Overhead Construction.

the trolley is 22 feet above the head of the rail. The bridges carry semiphores for
each track, oil feeder circuit-breakers, trolley line circuit-breakers, lightning arresters,
transformers, etc. See drawings in Elec. Ry. Journ., April 14, 1906.

Four-track bridges are used between Woodlawn and New Rochelle and 6-track
bridges between New Rochelle and Stamford.

Steel bridges 300 feet apart carry a double-catenary suspension with two 9/16-
inch, 7-strand galvanized steel cables, which have a 6-foot sag between bridges.

Trolley wire of 4/0 copper is suspended from the two catenary cables,^ being placed
at the lower apex of an equilateral triangle. This plan of suspension prevents side
motion of the trolley wire when the pantograph is swayed by changes in track ahgn-
ment, but it provides a very rigid and heavy construction for the high-speed train
service.

In operation, the pressure from the heavy pantograph which is used formed
hard spots in the hne, and gathered up the slack in the copper in kinks at hangers.
The copper wire wore rapidly at the suspension point, and fractured. In 1908 there
was added a horizontal, grooved, steel contact wire supported by 9-ounce clips from
the former solid copper contact wire, at mid-points between messenger hangers.

454

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The steel does not expand or kink like copper. The tension in this steel wire does
not exceed the elastic limit of the steel at low temperatures.

The maintenance expense per mile of line and per passenger train-mile is reported
to be decidedly less for the catenary construction than for the third-rail construction
used by the Hew Haven for one-third of its run.

Harlem River catenary construcxion, for 62 miles of freight yards, embodies
towers along each side of the tracks on about 250-foot centers, which towers are
cross connected by 7/8-inch steel cable, which usually spans 6 to 9 tracks. Sus-
penders are on 10-foot centers and support a porcelain- insulator, below which are
suspenders for a 2/0 steel contact line. Two additional cross catenary spans connect
the towers to steady the contact line. There is no catenary parallel to the contact
hne. See drawings by Murray, A. I. E. E., April, 1911.

Fig. 179. — New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad Overhead Construction.

New York, West Chester and Boston 4-track catenary construction embodies
steel bridges on 300-foot centers, 7/8-inch main messenger strand, from which 5/8-
inch messenger strand is suspended at two points 50 feet from each tower. Hangers
are placed on 10-foot centers and support a 4/0 copper wire and a 4/0 steel contact
wire. The four messenger cables are cross-connected by 41-foot 3-inch, 5.5-pound
jDer foot I-beams, at points 50 feet each side of each tower.

Boston and Maine 4-track yard construction embodies two latticed steel towers
at each side of the track, top connected by a 5/8-inch steel strand; a large sag;
5/16-inch soft steel strand suspenders; and insulators in the suspenders, below
which is a 4/0 copper wire and a 4/0 contact wire. Between the insulator u,nd the
trolley a 5/8-inch horizontal cross-strand is connected to steady the 4 trolleys,
the ends being connected to the two towers. The catenary, parallel to the trolley,
usually extends from the insulator but on some of the work the catenary is omitted.

Boston and Maine 2-track construction embodies 300-foot spans, 5/8-inch steel

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES

455

messenger strand, suspended from insulators clamped to the lower cord of the bridge
truss, a 4/0 copper trolley wire and a 4/0 phono contact wire.

Catenary construction in the tunnel embodies a catenary suspension wire,
1/2-inch round rod suspended on 10-foot centers, at the bottom of which is a double
hanger for two 4/0 contact wires.

CATENARY CONSTRUCTION DATA.

Name of railwaj'

Type

support.

New Haven: |

1906 Bridge

Bridge . .
Arch. . . .
Cable . . .
Biidge . .
Bridge . .
Bracket .
Bridge . .
Bracket .

Bracket .
Bridge . .

1908

1910

Harlem Yards

N. Y. West. & Boston.. ,

Boston & Maine

New Canaan Branch

Grand Trunk

Erie R. R

Washington, Baltimore

Annapolis

Syracuse, Lake Shore

Northern Bridge . .

Rock Island Southern Bracket .

Chicago, Lake Shore Bracket .

& South Bend

Peoria Ry. & Terminal Span. . . .

Colorado & Southern Bracket .

Galveston-Houston j Bracket .

Seattle & Everett Bracket .

Visalia Electric I Bracket .

Seebach-Wettingen ] Bracket .

Midland, England ! Bridge . .

London, Brighton j Bridges .

& South Coast

Span

in
feet.

300
300
300
250
300
300
150
250
120

150
300
300
150
167

100
120
150
140
120
328

180

Messenger

cable
diameter.

Hanger
centers
usid.

2-9/16"
2-9/16"
4-U
1-7/8"

1-1 & r
i-f"

1-7/16"

1-5/8"

1-7/16"

1-3/8"

1-7/16"

1-3/4"

1-7/16"

1-8/16"

1-11/16'
1-7/16"
1-7/16"
1-7/16"
1-7/16"

2-3/8"

10'

Trolley
wire
No.

No.

of
tracks.

Catenary

sag
normal.

4/0
4/0
4/0
2/0
4/0
4/0
4/0

3/0

4/0
4/0
4/0
4/0
4/0

3/0
4/0
4/0
4/0
4/0
1/0
3/0
4/0

6 to 9

1 to 8

6'-3"

6'-3''

lO'-'J"

8'-0"
8'-0"

6.5' @ 100°
5.5'@20''

6tol0

13'-0"
I'-O"

5.0' ©50"=

Suspenders from single messenger cables usually vary in length from 6 to 20 inches per span.

A copper contact wire is used in all the above cases, except for the 1908 New Haven work
wherein a 4/0 steel contact wire was suspended from the copper wire. The New Haven, Seebach-
Wettingen, Midland, Cologne-Bonn, Blankanese-Ohlsdorf, and London, Brighton & South Coast use a
double catenary. Phono-electric contact wire is used on the Colorado & Soutljern, near Denver.

Grand Trunk uses two 300,000 cm. trolleys in the tunnel, attached to the tunnel shell at in-
tervals of 12 feet.

Brackets are usually 2 1/4x2 l/4x5/16-inch, T-steel, 11 feet long.

Trolley tension is usually 2000 pounds and messenger tension is 2200 pounds.

THIRD -RAIL CONTACT LINES.

American and European third-rail lines with length of track, number of motor
cars, and location of third-rail were listed under ''History of Electric Traction."

A conductor of large cross-section, one which was decidedly more
substantial and which had more contact surface than the overhead
copper trolley, is used to transmit and to deliver low-voltage currents.

456 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The general characteristics of the electric roads which use what is now
called the "third-rail system" are: A positive third-rail contact line,
track rails for the return circuit, low voltage, large currents, direct
current, for local and important traffic, or long-distance and light traffic.

Third rails were at first common track rails, but the rail section has
been changed slightly in shape to suit the contact shoe, and the chemical
composition of the steel has been purified to increase the conductivity,
and modified to obtain a soft steel which wears slowly. The current
carrying capacity and the resistance of a 100-pound steel rail, well
bonded at joints, approximates that of a copper cable which has a cross-
section of 1,000,000 circular mils.

Overhead third -rail conductors were tried by the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad at Baltimore in 1896, but were soon abandoned. An unyield-
ing rigid contact was found to produce chattering and sparking.

The Buda-Pest Stadtbahn Aktien Gesellshaft, an underground road
2.4 miles long, uses two overhead contact rails attached to the roof of the
tunnel for positive and return current, the current being collected by
means of a rather flexible pantograph.

Overhead third-rail conductors are now used in freight switching
yards, for terminals at Brooklyn, for the Steinway tunnel, etc.

Third -rail voltage, between the third-rail and the track rails is com-
monly 600 volts. This voltage does not produce objectionable leakage
of electricity even when the third rail is covered temporarily with
water. A man in normal, healthy condition will not be killed by the
current which will pass from the third rail thru his body to the track
rails or ground, from accidental contact. The danger from contact
by workmen is much decreased, when 660 to 800 volts are used, if the
third rail is protected by plank, terra-cotta, vitrified fibre, etc.

The use of 1200 volts on third rails increases the leakage materially.
Accidental contact with a 1200-volt, direct-current, third-rail line is
most dangerous to life. In mountain roads, where the fall of heavy
wet snow often exceeds 12 inches in a few hours, the ordinary snow
plow could not be used, because the third rail would be in the way;
and even if the third rail were 4 feet away from the track rail it would
still be in the way, and it would not be tolerated by railroad operators.

Insulation for third-rail supports at first was wood, boiled in par-
affine. It wore and burned, and was discarded for reconstructed granite,
which disintegrated. Porcelain has been adopted. The annual breakage
from leakage, blows, rail movement, derailment, etc., is about 1 per
cent.

Supports for third rails rest on the extended ties so that the track-
rail and third-rail alignment remains in the same plane. Insulator sup-
porting distances vary. New York Central uses 11-foot centers; Long

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 457

Island, Pennsylvania, and Michigan Central, 10-foot; other roads, 9-
to 8-foot. The third rail is placed between the double tracks, to
standardize and in order that the off-side may be used for the unloading
of materials.

Disadvantages of the third rail for railroads are:

1. Danger is increased for track employees, trespassers on right-of
way, passengers at stations, trainmen at shunting yards, and teams at
freight terminals. The third rail is located alternately on different
sides of the track to suit cross-overs, curves, and physical restrictions;
and as a result its location is uncertain and danger exists, as the rear
brakeman or guard who is sent back on the run at night to protect
the train soon finds. The coupling of cars and the crossing of yards in
a hurry, are made more dangerous. Risk is necessary during the unload-
ing of freight at sidings, the quick handling of materials, and the
renewals of track, particularly at night. Wrecks become more
dangerous. Derailment of a train may be followed by fires from electric
power. Replacement of rails requires additional time for emergency
repairs.

2. Restrictions are made on clearance of foreign cars, damaged cars,
snow plows, and wrecking cranes, particularly at tunnels and bridges.
The distance from the third rail to the track rail should exceed 32 inches
for car clearance, but this distance is seldom obtained.

3. Complication occurs where complete control of electric power
for trains is absolutely necessary, namely in freight yards and switching
points, at turnouts and crossovers, and at ladder tracks or puzzle switches.
Xo gaps can be jumped in freight service. There is enough of complica-
tion, risk, danger, and hurry, without that which is added by a 600-volt
third-rail at the side of the track. The overhead third-rail construction
required at crossing switches, 22 feet out of the way, is so heavy that the
supporting bridges increase the complication and danger because the
heavy structures near the rails obstruct the view of the track and signals.

4. Derail switches and dwarf switches are harder to install and to
operate; and frequently they cannot be seen, on account of the obstruction
of the view by the third rail.

5. Leakage thru broken insulation increases the danger, particularly
at night. Many insulators are broken by accidental falling of metal
across the third rail. Block signal systems may thus be made tempo-
rarily unserviceable.

6. The use of 1200 to 1500 volts on third rails increases the danger
from fire, danger during snow-plow operation, deaths by shock, leakage
to signal circuits, burning of insulators, etc.

7. Cost of third-rail construction in freight yards is three times as
great as the cost of overhead high-voltage contact lines.

458 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Retuiai conductors are the track rails and supplementary copper
feeders which form the return circuit. The rail resistance loss is often
negligible in high-voltage electric systems wherein a large part of the
current ^'returns" to the power plant thru the earth. With low-voltage
systems the loss usually exceeds 3 per cent, and in the latter case the rail
j oints must be carefully connected by expensive rail bonds, except in three-
wire neutral-track systems.

Automatic block-signal circuits require the use of one of the rails of
each single track.

Fourth rails are used by London Electric Railways Company, to
reduce the loss in voltage drop along the earthbed rail return, which,
by Board of Trade Rules, to prevent electrolysis, must not exceed 7 volts
and must be an insulated return. Fortenbaugh in a paper to A. I. E. E.,
Jan., 1908, states the objections to fourth rails.

A treatise on return conductors would include the following subjects:
Relative resistance of steel and copper; rail bonds, their section, length,
location, life, and maintenance; impedance and resistance; losses in energy;
damage by electrolysis, etc. See references which follow.

COST OF CONSTRUCTION.

Insulators for high-voltage transmission lines are made in several
types as noted below. The factor of safety desired controls the cost.
Factory prices average about as set forth in the following:

12,000- to 22,000-volt, 3-shell, pin-type $ .40 to $ .50

33,000- to 44,000- volt, 3-shell, pin-type 50 to .75

44,000- to 55,000- volt, 3-shell, pin-type 75 to 1 . 00

60,000- to 66,000-volt, 4-shell, pin-type 1 .00 to 1 . 10

20,000- to 25,000- volt, 1-disk, susp.-type 75 to 1.25

60,000- to 75,000- volt, 3-disk, susp.-type 2 . 25 to 3 . 00

20,000- to 25,000-volt, 1-disk, cone-type 1 . 00 to 1 . 50

Each malleable insulator pin, with separate ferrule, extra .35

Each malleable suspender or clamp for disk, link, or cone, extra .25

Cost of poles cannot be stated for a general case. Length, kind of
material, freight, and foundations are the variables.

Towers for steel transmission lines are generally made of angles and
channels of standard section. The cost of fabricated steel, f.o.b cars at
factory, is about 3 cents per pound, and 3 1/2 cents galvanized.

Bridges of fabricated structural steel, used for supporting 2- to 6-
track catenary construction, cost, f.o.b. cars at factory, about 3 cents
per pound.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES

459

COST OF THREE-PHASE HIGH-TENSION TRANSMISSION LINES.

Comparative Data per Mile of Transmission.

Type of construction.

Voltage.

Wooden poles.

13,000

Support, 50 poles or 12 towers

Cross arm, 50 on poles; part of towers. . . .

Telephone line material

Ground wire material

Insulator pins

Insulators

Three No. O wires, erected

Installation of wires, guys, and insulators
Total

$350

100

1000

200

$2000

60,000

$650

380

130

550

1000

200

$3000

Steel towers.

60,000

$1800

100

155

1000

270

g3400

Towers for a 6-wire transmission line cost about $2400.

Estimate omits cost of right-of-way, 15 per cent, for contractor's profit, 5 per
cent, for engineering and 5 per cent, for contingencies. Change for actual size of
wire to be used.

COST OF CATENARY CONTACT LINE.

Name of railway.

Voltage

used

one-phase.

Heaviest interurban 11,000

Light interurban 11,000

Steam R. R. electrification. . . 11,000

Steam R. R. electrification . . 11,000

New York, New Haven & 11,000

Hartford. Main line.

New York. New Haven & 11,000

Hartford. Harlem Yards.

Hamburg-Altoona 6,000

Seebach-Wettingen 12,000

Rotterdam-Hague-Scheven- 10,000

ingen.

Three-phase 6,000

Two 4/0 wires. No catenary. 6,000

Brackets,
bridges
or poles.

Bracket.
Bracket.
Span. . .
Bridge . .

Bridge

Bridge .

Tower and cable .

Bridge

Wooden pole . . .
Latticed pole
and light bridge

Bracket

Span

No.

tracks.

1-2

1
1
2

Yards.
6 to 9

Span

in
feet.

150
150
150
300

.300

300

250

157
164
157

150

Cost per
single-track
mile.

$2150
1800
2300
3000 to
6000
7000 to

10000

17000

with foundations

1800

5000
4100
5450

5600
8000

460

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

COST OF CATENARY CONTACT LINES.

Estimate per mile of Double Track. Comparative.

Poles, span cable hangers, without catenary $1100

Poles, brackets, messenger suspenders, catenary 1300

Bridges, messenger, suspenders, catenary 1700

Add for insulators and miscellaneous 250

Add for two 4/0 copper trolleys 2000

Add for labor and tools 1200 to 1450

Total cost per double-track mile |4800 to $5400

COST OF THIRD-RAIL LINES PER MILE.

Pounds
per yard.

Under- or over-
running.

Cost of

complete

work.

Name of railway.

Material.

Labor.

Total.

Michigan United Ry

Estimate by Armstrong . . .
California Traction, 1200-

volt.
Boston & Eastern

60
70
40

100

Over-running

$3000

$3575
2748

920
552

4475

Under-running
Protected, u -r.

3300
4700

Heavy interurban

Railroad electrification

Protected, o.-r.

4000

Protected, o.-r.

6000

Steel rails, 70 pounds at $35 per 2240-pound ton cost $1950 per mile.

Michigan United Railway Company reports that its third-rail installation cost about the same
as a 4/0 trolley with one 500,000 cm. feeder on 35-foot poles; and that the third rail has 50 per
cent, greater capacity. A 60-pound, low-carbon Carnegie rail costing $35 per ton, had a capacity
of 1,080,000 cm. and a relative conductivity of 6.83. It was installed on vitrified clay block
insulators for a total cost of $3000 per mile.

Cost of maintenance of 142 miles of third-rail contact line on the West Jersey
and Seashore Railroad for 1910 was $10,864 or $77 per year per mile.

LITERATURE.

References on Power Distribution.

Rosenthal: "Calculations of Transmission Lines," McGraw, 1909.

Berg: "Electrical Energy, its Generation, Transmission, Utilization," McGraw, 1908.

Del Mar: "Electric Power Conductors," Van Nostrand, 1907.

Dawson: "Electric Traction for Railways," Chapter XX, Van Nostrand, 1909.

A. I. E. E.: "Commitee Report on High-tension Transmission," McGraw, 1907.

Young: One-phase Power Transmission, A. I. E. E., June, 1907.

Ricker: Substation Location, A. I. E. E., Dec, 1905.

Werner: Spacing of Substations and Tiansformers, A. I. E. E., July, 1908.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 461

Roberts: Transmissions for Elec. Rys. in Sparsely Settled Communities, S. R. J.,

Oct. 20, 1906.
Reports on Power Transmission, A. I. E. E. Committee, 1903 to 1911.
Report on Overhead Line Construction, Amer. Elec. Ry. Assoc, E. R. J., June 3, 1911,

p. 964.
Reports on Power Distribution, A. S. & I. Ry., Eng. Assoc. Committees, 1908-1909.
Data on Trolley Lines and Costs, E. T. W., Oct. 16, 1909.
Sprague: Power Transmission by Direct Current, E. W., Dec. 30, 1905.

References on Copper and Aluminum Wire.

Perrine: Aluminum Wire, A. I. E. E., May, 1900.

Mershon: Drop in Alternating-current Lines, Amer. Elec, June, 1897; A. I. E. E.,

Dec, 1904; June, 1907.
Specifications: Hard-drawn Wire Copper, Amer. Soc for Testing Materials; E. R. J.,

July 31, 1909; Nov. 5, 1910, p. 943; Gen. Elec. Review, Aug., 1909.
Fisher: Data on Conductors and Underground Cables, A. I. E. E., June, 1905.
W^oods: Efficiency of Trolley Wire, E. R. J., Jan. 30, 1909.
Franklin: Copper versus Aluminum, G. E. Review, June, 1909.

References on Electrical Calculations.

Baum: Kelvin's Law: E. W., May 25, 1907.

Sayers: Kelvin's Law, S. R. J., June 16, 1900, page 586.

Scott: Evolution of High- voltage Transmission, Elec. Rev., Jan. 10, 1903. High-
voltage Power Transmission, A. I. E. E., June, 1898; E. W., Nov. 26, 1898;
Transmission Circuits, Elec. Journal, Dec, 1905; Feb. and May, 1906.

Herdt: Size of Conductors in Transmission Lines, E. W., Jan. 2, 1909.

Mershon: Calculations of Lines, Elec Journal, March, 1907.

Copley: Constants of Single-phase Railway Circuits, Elec. Journal, Nov., 1908;
Impedance of Railway Circuits, A. I. E. E., July, 1908, p. 1171.

Pender: Solution of Alternating-current Problems, A. I. E. E., July, 1908, p. 1397;
E. W., Jan. 12, and Sept. 28, 1907; Transmission Line Formulas, E. W., July 8,
1909; June 10, 1909.

Franklin: Transmission Line Calculations, G. E. Review, 1909-10.

Miller: Transmission Line Constants, G. E. Review, 1909-10.

Huldschiner: Voltage Drop with one- and three-phase Railways, Elek. Zeit-
schrift., Dec. 1, 1910.

Murray: Constants of Single-phase Ry. Circuits, A. I. E. E., April, 1911.

References on Transmission Lines.

Specifications for Electric Transmission Lines, E. R. J., Oct. 13, 1910, p. 792.

Bowie: Long Span Pole Lines, E. W., Aug. 25, Sept. 29, Nov. 17, 1906.

Glaubitz: Sags and Tensions in Transmission Lines, E. W., March 25, 1909.

Jenks: Repairs on Live Transmission Lines, E. W., Aug. 5, 1909.

Neall: Towers for Transmission Line, E. W., Aug. 5, 1909.

Neall: Transmission Line Engineering, E. W., July 1, 1909.

Ryan: Transmission Line, A Mechanical Structure, E. W., Feb. 29, 1908.

Schock: Timber Preservation, E. R. J., May 16, 1908.

Winchester: Tests on Wooden Poles, E. W., March 16, 1911, p. 667.

Scholes: Design of Transmission Line Structures, A. I. E. E., June, 1907; June, 1908^

462 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Nachod: Temperature Effects on Spans, E. W., Dec. 9, 1905; Aug. 31, 1907, p. 403; j
June 27, 1910, p. 220. '

Kohlin: Most Economical Span, Elec. Review, Sept. 14 and 21 and Dec. 28, 1906.
Fowle: Sleet Loads and Wind Velocities, E. W., Oct., 27, 1910.

References on Steel Towers — Descriptive.

New York Central and Hudson River R. R. : E. W., Oct. 27, 1906, p. 800.

Pennsylvania R. R.: E. R. J., June 10, 1911, p. 1014.

Connecticut River Power Co.: E. W., Sept. 9, 1909, p. 606.

Schenectady Power Co.: Elec. Review, March 27, 1909, G. E. Review, May, 1909. .

Niagara, Lockport and Ontario Power Co.: E. W., April 29, 1905; April 14, July 21, 1

1906; May 2, 1908; June 6, 1908; Mershon, A. I. E. E., June, 1907; S. R. J., ^

July 14, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907.
Canadian Niagara Power Co.: Buck, A. I. E. E., July, 1907.
Hydroelectric Commission of Ontario:
McCall Ferry Power Co.: E. W., Oct. 20, 1910.

Southern Power Co., N. C: 100,000-volt, E. W., May 23, 1907; G. E. Review, Jan.,

1910; E. W., 1910, p. 741; Elec. Journal, April, 1911; A. I. E. E., June, 1911.

Grand Rapids-Muskegon : 72,000- volt Lines on Wooden Poles, E. W., Sept. 14, 1907;

100,000-volt Lines on Steel Towers, E. W., Nov. 2, 1907; Feb. 4, 1909; Sept. 16,

1909; G. E. Review, 1909, p. 86.
Commonwealth Power Co., Michigan: E. W., July 14, 1910, p. 99.
Southern Wisconsin Power Co., and Milwaukee Elec. Ry. & Lt. Co., E. R. J., Sept.

26, 1908; E. W., Oct. 3, 1908; E. W., Sept. 23, 1909, p. 707; Drawings in Elec.

Review, Aug. 28, 1909; E. W., 1910.
St. Croix Falls-Minneapolis, E. W., Sept. 7, 1907; Dec. 15, 1910, p. 1419.
La Crosse Water Power Co.: E. W., 1910, pp. 783, 803.
Telluride Power Co.: E. W., July 15, 1909, p. 147.

Central Colorado Power Co.: E. W., Jan. 27, 1910, p. 217; June 30, 1910.
Northern Colorado Power Co. : Journal of Electricity, Aug., 1910.
Madison River Power Co., Montana: E. W., Dec. 23, 1909.
Great Falls (Montana) Power Co.: Hibgen, A. I. E. E., June, 1911.
Great Western Power Co.: E. W., Sept. 16, 1909; Jollyman, A. I. E. E., June, 1911.
Sierra & San Francisco (Stanislaus) : Journal of Elec, Sept. 4, 1909.
California Gas & Elec. Corp. : Baum, A. I. E. E., June 28, 1907.
Los Angeles: E. W., Oct. 28, 1909; E. W., Aug. 31, 1907.
Guanajuanto and Necaxa: E. W., Aug. 20, 1904; Oct. 28, 1905, p. 729.

References on Wooden Pole Lines — Descriptive.

Indiana Interurban Practice: S. R. J., June 18, 1904.

Bear River, Utah: E. W., Juae 25, 1904.

Seattle-Tacoma Power Co.: Crawford to A. I. E. E., April, 1911.

References on Insulators.

Dawson: '^Electric Traction for Railway," page 569.
Harvey: Porcelain Manufacture, Elec. Journal, June and Oct., 1907.
Hewlett: General Electric Link Insulators, A. I. E. E., June, 1907.
Weicker: Study of Suspension Type Insulators, Elek. Zeit., July 8, 1909.
Skinner: Specifications and Tests for Insulators, A. I. E. E., June, 1908.
Denneen: Specifications for Insulators, S. R. J., May 30, 1908.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 463

Tests on Trolley, Line Insulators: A. S. & I. Ry. Eng. Assoc; E. R. J., Oct. 9, 1909.
Merriam: Insulator data, G. E. Review, Aug., 1907, Nov., 1908, March, 1909.
Austin: Design and Efficiency, E. R. J., Sept. 24, 1910, p. 465; A. I. E. E., June, 1911.

References on Catenary Construction.

Mailloux: Construction in Europe, S. R. J., Apr. 8, 1905; A. I. E. E., March, 1905.
Varney: Line Construction for High- voltage Railways, A. I. E. E., March, 1905.
Mayer: Catenary Construction, A. S. C. E., Feb. and Nov., 1906; S. R. J., Dec. 1,

1906, p. 1062.
Lyford: Catenary Trolley Construction, A. S. C. E., Oct., 1908.
Cravens: Catenary Trolley Line Construction, Elec. Review, Oct. 2, 1909.
Pender: Relation between Deflection, Tension, and Temperature in Wire Spans, E.

W., Jan. 12, 1907; Sept. 8, 1907; July 8, 1909.
Nicholl: Single-phase Catenary Construction and Installation, S. R. J., Oct. 5, 1907.
Smith, W. N.: Electric Ry. Catenary Construction, A. I. E. E., May, 1910.
Coombs: Overhead Construction for High-tension Electric Traction or Transmission,

A. S. C. E., Feb. 1908; S. R. J., Jan. 4, 1908; A. I. E. E., May 27, 1910, p. 1563.
Shelton: Catenary Construction of Trolley Wire for Operating Electric Railways,

E. T. W., Aug. 15, 1908.
Hickson: Design of Catenary Lines, A. I. E. E., May 27, 1910.
Report on Standardization, A. S. & I. Ry. Engr. Assoc, S. R. J., Oct. 14, 1908.
Eveleth: Relative Advantages, Third-rail and Catenary, S. R. J., May 11, 1907.
Reports of High-tension Transmission Committee, A. I. E. E., June, 1904 to 1910.
Thomas: Sag Calculations for Suspended Wires, A. I. E. E., June, 1911.
Robertson: Solution of Problems in Sags and Spans, A. I. E. E., June, 1911.
General Electric: S. R. J., Oct. 26, 1907, p. 858; G. E. Review, Nov., 1910.
Westinghouse: Varney, A. I. E. E., March 24, 1905; S. R. J., April 1, 1905.
A. E. G.: Standards adopted for European Work, E. R. J., March 5, 1910.

References on Catenary Construction — Descriptive.

Long Island Railroad, Suburban Lines, E. R. J., Nov. 13, 1909.

Pennsylvania Railroad, Experimental Contact Lines, E. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908.

New York, New Haven & Hartford: Murray to A. I. E. E., Jan. 1907; Jan. and

Dec, 1908; April, 1911; S. R. J., April 7 and 14, 1906; March 30, 1907; Dec. 19,

1908.

McHenry: S. R. J., Aug. 17 and 24, 1907.

New Canaan Branch: E. R. J., May 15, 1909.

Stamford-New Haven and New Rochelle extensions, E. R. J., April 16, 1910.

Standard adopted for 600- volt branch lines, E. R. J., April 3, 1909; Feb. 26, 1910.
Boston and Maine, E. R. T., July 1, 1911.
Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern, E. R. J., Oct. 10, 1908.
Erie R. R., E. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907, p. 650.

Denver & Interurban, Lyford, A. S. C. E., Aug., 1909; E. R. J., Sept. 5, 1908.
Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend, E. R. J., April 10, 1909.
lUinois Traction, E. T. W., March 13, 1909.
Visalia Electric Ry., S. R. J., Dec. 7, 1907.
London, Brighton & South Coast, A. I. E. E., Dec, 1908, p. 1700; B. I. C. E., March

14, 1911.
Midland Railway, England: E. R. J., July 4, 1908.
Blankanese-Ohlsdorf, E. R. J., April 6, 1907.

464 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen, Ry. Age Gazette, July 8, 1910.

Seebach-Wettingen, E. R. J., Nov. 6, 1909.

Standardization: Amer. Elec. Ry. Eng. Assoc, S. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1088.

References on Third Rail.

Capp: Data on Conductivity, S. R. J., Oct. 24, 1903.

Fortenbaugh : Conductor Rail Measurements, A. I. E. E., July, 1908, p. 1215.

Langdon: Fourth Rails for English Roads, B. I. C. E., June, 1903.

Report: A. S. &. I. Ry. Engr. Assoc, E. R. J., Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1088.

Eveleth: Relative Advantages and Cost, Third Rail vs. Catenary, S. R. J., May 11,

1907.
Farnham: Protected Third Rail, S. R. J., Jan. 6, 1906.
Sprague: Electric Trunk Line Operation, A. I. E. E., May, 1907.
Baltimore & Ohio R. R., S. R. J., March 14, 1903; July 30, 1904.
New York Central R. R., Sprague, A. I. E. E., May 21, 1907, p. 726; S. R. J., Nov. 9,

1907, p. 954; Sept. 2, 1905; West Shore, June 8, 1907, p. 1002.
Pennsylvania Railroad, Gibbs, E. R. J., June 3, 1911, p. 959.
Philadelphia & Wesern Drawings of Farnham third rail, S. R. J., June 15, 1907.
Michigan United Ry., E. T. W., Dec 11, 1909.
Central California Traction Co., 1200-volt, E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909.
Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton, S. R. J., March 7, 1903.
Underground Electric Rys., London, A. I. E. E., July, 1908, p. 1215.

References on Current Collection at High Voltages.

Somach: Current Collecting for Heavy Rys., S. R. J., April 23, 1904,

Kenyon: High-tension Current Collection, E. R. J., Jan. 9, 1909.

G. E. Data: Recent Improvements in Catenary Line Construction and Methods of

Installation, S. R. J., Oct. 26, 1907, p. 858.
Nachod: Design of Pantograph Trolleys, E. W., June 10, 1905, p. 1078.
Finzi: Pantograph Collectors, S. R. J., Aug. 11, 1906, p. 228.
Siemens: Bow Collectors, The Electrician, June 26, 1908.
Swedish State, E. R. J., Jan. 9, 1909, p. 59. ^^

Referencies on Lightning Protection.

Thomas: Static Strains in High-tension Circuits and the Protection of Apparatus,

A. I. E. E., Feb., 1905; Present Status of Protection, E. W., June 13, 1908,
Jackson: Investigation of Lightning Protective Apparatus, A. I. E. E., Dec. 28, 1906.
Creighton: Lightning Protection, E. R. J., Oct. 14, 1908, p. 997; March 27, 1909.

References on Telephone and Telegraph Disturbances.

Taylor: General Electric Review, Aug., 1907; A. I. E. E., Oct., 1909.
Corey: Railway Signals, Gen. Elec. Review, July, 1907.
Proceedings of Assoc R. R. Tel. Sup'ts., June 19, 1907.

TRANSMISSION AND CONTACT LINES 465

This page is reserved for additional references and notes on transmission
ind contact lines.

CHAPTER XIII.

STEAM, GAS, AND WATER POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY

TRAIN SERVICE.

Outline.

Distinguishing Features :

Capacity, economy of operation, relatively constant load, relatively small
amount of equipment.

Load Factor of Railway Loads :

Train movements per day, hours of service per day, acceleration rates used,
kind of service, length of division, equalization of loads, variety of service,
electric system used.

Steam Power Plants :

Location, water supply, coal supply, coal handling, furnace, grate surface,
heating surface, water-tube boilers, steam turbines, condensers, heat insulation,
supervision, number of plants, reliability of service, cost of all equipment,
cost of power per kw-hr., installations for railways.

Gas Power Plants :

Reasons for limited use, conditions which favor development, present status,
cost of equipment, cost of operation, installations for railways.

Water Power Plants :

Water supply and load, water power available, reliability, cost of equipment,
cost of power per kw-hr., installations for railways.

Technical Descriptions of Installations: j

New York, New Haven & Hartford; New York Central; Interboro Rapid
Transit ; Hudson & Manhattan ; Long Island-Pennsylvania ; West Jersey & Sea-
shore; Commonwealth Edison; Twin City Rapid Transit; Milwaukee Northern;
Great Northern Railway, Cascade Tunnel; London Electric Railways.

Literature.

466

CHAPTER XIII.

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE.

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES.

Power plants which supply energy for electric railway train service
generally have at least four distinguishing features or characteristics:

The capacity of one central power plant is used to provide energy
for propelling many electric trains or is substituted for that of many
steam locomotives. The capacity of the electric power plant is relatively
un imited so far as any train is concerned, and the whole power plant
stands behind the individual electric train. The maximum output
from the central plant is large, compared with the capacity of a steam
locomotive, a power plant on wheels. Electrical machinery has a
limited capacity, but generally this is fixed by the safe heating of the
mica or other insulation around copper conductors, and heavy over-
loads can be carried for long periods with safety. The maximum out-
put of a steam locomotive is limited by its boiler and cylinders.

Economy in operation is guaranteed because the number of prime
movers at the power plaDt which are in service at any one time can be
so varied that each will operate within its most economical range of
load. Operation on a large scale reduces the items of labor, of mainte-
nance, and of fixed charges per unit output. These are the essentials for
economy of power production.

Relatively constant loads exist at the central plant while the power
service furnished by the single locomotive or car varies continually
over a wide range. ''The load factor or average load of trunk-line
railways will be from 60 to 80 per cent, of the maximum load." Stillwell.
The larger the electric zone and the greater the number of the trains in
service, the more constant the plant load becomes, because the loads of
the different trains are distributed, giving a low value for the maximum,
and further, the peaks for acceleration do not occur simultaneously, and
all of the trains are not moving all of the time.

Relatively small amounts of equipment are necessary, for the above
reasons. The power plant equipment has from 30 to 50 per cent, of the
total or maximum capacity of the steam or electric motors used to haul
the trains. The relation of the rated capacity of the electric power plant
to the capacity of the motors in the trains is shown in the table which
follows.

467

468

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

RELATIVE EQUIPMENT OF POWER PLANT AND RAILWAY MOTORS.
Data are for 1910. 1 kw. - 1.34 h.p.

Name of railway company.

Capacity
of power
plant. 24-
hr. h. p.

Capacity
locomo-
tives.
1-hr. h. p.

Capacity

motor-

motors.

cars.

total

l-hr. h. p.

h.p.

6,300

3,900

46,380

60,000

163,400

64,400

96,750 1
54,400 /

233,650

44,640

4,800

2,400

11,600

4,320

6,600

174,000

174,400

5,000

2,800

10,000

Ratio of h.p.,

power plant

to railway

motors.

Boston and Maine

New York, New Haven & Hartford:

New York Division

New York Central:

Hudson and Harlem Divisions.

Hudson & Manhattan

Pennsylvania R. R.:

Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal.

Long Island R. R

West Jersey & Seashore

Baltimore & Annapolis

Erie R. R., Rochester Division

Baltimore & Ohio

Grand Trunk, Sarnia Tunnel

Michigan Central, Detroit Tunnel. . .
Twin City Rapid Transit,

Minneapolis-St. Paul

Colorado & Southern:

Denver & Interurban Division . . . .
Valtellina Ry., Italy

5,333

21,500

53,333
24,000

44,000

10,666
2,400
3,000
4,000
3,333
2,666

67,000

2,680
7,400

6,300

42,480

103,400
0

82,500

11,600

4,320

6,600

400

0
7,200

.85
.46

.33
.37

.19

.24
.50
1.25
.35
.81
.41

.39

.54
.74

A study of this statistical table should include the following:
Reserve equipment in power plant, and in locomotives and motor
cars; method of rating railway motors; relation of kw. to kv-a. output
of power plant; use of storage batteries to equalize the loads; use of steam
power as a reserve for water power; rapidly changing and temporary
conditions; large initial power plant investment for considerable increase
in the train service; size of installation; number of locomotives in service.
A further study of the reasons for the relative amounts of equipment
would include the ratio of average and maximum power plant loads to
the capacity of the railway motor and power plant equipment in service.
For example, on the New Haven road, in October, 1909; the railway
power plant capacity at Cos Cob was 17,100 kw., the peak load was about
11,000 kw., and 1000 kw. were used for lighting, pumping, and other
work, leaving a 10,000-kw. load for 20, of 38, electric locomotives which
were in service in the zone fed by the Cos Cob power plant; thus the
average power plant load for each 1000-h. p. passenger locomotive
approximated 500 kilowatts.

LOAD FACTOR OF RAILWAY LOADS.

The load factor, or the ratio of the average load to the maximum
load, as determined daily or monthly by watt-hour meters, is rela-
tively high at an electric railway power plant; and as a result, the equip-

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 469

merit required is a minimum for a given amount of energy delivered.
(The load factor for a period of 5 minutes differs from the load factor
for 1 hour, 1 day, or 1 year; and for accuracy the period of time should
be specified. Ordinarily the time limit is for a period of 1 hour, because
watt-hour meters at central power plants are read hourly.) The matter
of power factor is of importance because it has a direct bearing upon the
economy of power service.

The load factor of a power plant depends upon the number of train
movements per day; number of hours of service per day; acceleration
rates; kind of service furnished; length of the electric division; equal-
ization of the load with other power plants; variety of service or loads;
electric system used for electrification, etc.

The number of trains is of first importance. There is no advantage
to be gained by replacing steam locomotives with electric locomotives
when there are on'y a few train movements per day. In such cases^ the
interest on the increased cost of the power plant, and the transmission
line, cannot be compensated in any measure by the physical advantages
of electric traction and the saving to be made in fuel; but with 6 freight
trains, 6 passenger trains on thru service, 6 passenger trains in local
service, and 8 switchers, the load factor is raised, and physical and finan-
cial advantages are gained.

Total number of hours of service per day affects the load factor.
In 24-hour electric railway train service the load factor easily exceeds 50
per cent., which is about the maximum obtained in 18-hour street railway
service. Electric lighting plants have the greater part of their load
within a period of 4 hours and the load factor is about 25 per cent.

Acceleration rates used in different kinds of seryice affect the load
factor, but only to a small extent. In railway practice the accelerating
rate varies universally as the train weight, and the tractive effort required
in accelerating heavy trains is not materially different from that of lighter
trains, as is shown in the following table.

TRACTIVE EFFORT FOR DIFFERENT RAILWAY SERVICES.

Kind of train service.

Accelerating

rate in
m. p. h. p. s.

Tons

per

train.

Tractive
ejffort
acceleration.

Tractive

effort at

full speed.

Rapid transit

Short train

1.25
.70
.40
.25
.10
.05

160
250
400
600
1500
2800

20,000
17,500
16,000
15,000
15,000
14,000

2,800
3,500

Local passenger

Thru passenger

4,400

6,000

10,000

16,800

Way freight . .

Thru freight

470 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Tractive effort (acceleration rate X 100) X m. p. h./375 = h. p.

The greater number of trains in rapid transit and suburban service
compensate for the higher tractive effort per train during acceleration.

Kind of service affects the load factor. For example, the load fac-
tor of a passenger terminal of a railroad is low. The passenger service
is hard to handle with economy because trains are bunched during the
morning and evening, and because the total hours of heavy service are
18, rather than 24, per day. Freight service, however, is well distributed
during the night and day. Trains leave early in the morning, between
6 and 7 a. m., and usually arrive at their destination between 4 and
5 p. M., or before the heaviest passenger traffic starts. If a single-
track line is used, or if the traffic is heavy, the train dispatchers keep
the line uniformly busy, during the 24 hours. With a small change in
the schedule, the peak load may sometimes be radically decreased with-
out changing the value of the service rendered.

Length of the division affects the load factor. The load factor of the
power plant which furnishes service for a short division or for a short
terminal is generally low, even with a large number of trains. It might
be 30 per cent, on a 10-mile terminal division, while if two adjacent
divisions were added, forming a total of 100 miles, and if the freight ser-
vice were included, the load factor might be 80 per cent. Obviously
it is about as easy to handle a 50-mile division as to handle a 5-mile
tunnel.

When a large central power plant supplies energy to 40 electric
trains on long freight and passenger runs, day and night, the condi-
tions change and the business is handled with economy.

New Haven Railroad Company's power plant at Cos Cob has a poor
load factor and bad fluctuations in load. About 20 electric locomotives
haul heavy passenger trains on 20 miles of 11,000-volt road. (A short
trolley road with 20 cars has an equally poor load factor.) When the
electric zone reaches to New Haven, and the freight and switching
work is included, the percentage of the fluctuations will decrease; the
load will extend over more hours of the day, and it will not be necessary
to run a 4000-h. p. turbo-alternator from midnight to morning, prac-
tically without load.

Many railroads have now spent $1,000,000 at tunnels for the elec-
trification of about 6 miles of route, using about 6 locomotives, to haul
all freight and passenger trains thru a long tunnel and over connect-
ing grades, to gain in capacity and to avoid dangerous operation.
The net saving in operating expenses, about $100 per day, cannot
pay one-third of the interest and depreciation on the capital invested.
When a second million dollars has been spent, for the electrification of
an adjacent division and terminal yards, economy will be expected,

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 471

because the load factor of the entire plant will be radically increased,
and because the investment will be utilized during more of the time.

Grand Trunk Railway has a serviceable, reliable, and expensive
power plant at Port Huron. A 1000-ton freight train is accelerated, then
there is a short run on the level, followed by coasting and by a run up
a 2 per cent, grade. The number of trains in operation at one time,
with six 66-ton locomotive units, is not more than two. Economy
cannot be expected until 10 to 20 passenger, freight, and switching
trains are in service at one time to equalize the boiler and turbine loads.
Difficulties and handicaps exist, as with the 6-mile, 6-car street railway,
in 1890. The relative results of electric train operation are, however,
decidedly better than with steam locomotives; but the mileage of the
electric division must be increased for real economy.

Equalization of the loads of two or more power plants which feed a
150-mile or a longer division increases the load factor, if the two plants are
connected thru feeders or even thru the contact line, because the peak
loads or fluctuations of the load on the two power plants will be equal-
ized or divided among the power plants to the East and to the West,
even tho the}'- are 100 miles apart. Incidentally this interconnection
increases the reliability and also the ability to handle peak-load service
under the conditions which arise after a storm has damaged tracks,
bridges, equipment, and transmission lines.

Storage batteries may be used to equalize the load. Plans have been
developed to pump water to heights during light-load periods and to
release it thru Pelton water wheels during the heavy-load periods. Other
plans involve a fly wheel connected to a large motor to store up energy and
return it on demand to carry a temporary peak load. Elec. World,
Feb. 23, 1911, p. 487; Tatum: A. I. E.E., April 12, 1911.

On the Italian State Railway's Mont Cenis three-phase road, between Modana
and Turin, water power is furnished thru the following frequency changer outfit.
One 2200-kv-a., 50-cycle, 48, 500/ 7000- volt, three-phase transformer; one 2500-h. p.,
7000- volt, 50-cycle induction motor; a 44-ton fly-wheel; a 2000-kv-a., 500-r. p. m.,
3500- volt, 16 2/3-cycle, three-phase generator; and one three-phase commutator
motor for regulating the speed of an asynchronous motor between 400 r. p. m., and
500 r. p. m. The fly wheel stores kinetic energy to such an extent that when the
speed drops from 500 r. p. m. to 400 r. p. m., about 1000 h. p. can be given up
for 1 minute to care for locomotive load fluctuations. The three-phase commutator
motor permits the asynchronous motor, with which it is connected in cascade, to
approximate unit load factor.

Variety of service or of loads is an advantage. The load factor is
increased by handling electric service for lighting, street railways, shops,
or city water pumping, coal handling at docks, and hoisting at wharves,
bridges, and elevators located along the line. It is frequently o})served,
in electric railway train diagrams, that there is a sag in the total load

472 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

about 6 p. M. daily; for the freight trains are in, the switchers are rest-
ing, and for an hour or so some of the heavy trains are not started.
This fact can be used to advantage because the peak loads of street and
suburban railways, and the electric lighting loads occur at this time.
The minimum boiler capacity is thus required for the combined peaks
and, with the excellent load factor, economical service can be provided.

The electric system used affects the load factor. For example, when
using the three-phase or single-phase system for regeneration of energy
on mountainous grades, a train going down the grade hauls a train up the
grade, and thus decreases the peak loads. When a sudden load comes
on the power plant, a sluggishly designed governor on the prime mover
causes it to slow down, and the three-phase locomotive assists the power
plant temporarily by a kind of fly-wheel action. The instant the gener-
ators are slowed down by any sudden load, all the motors on the line are
operated temporarily by the inertia of their railway trains, and the power
taken from the line is temporarily decreased.

Waterman states that on the three-phase Valtellina road in Italy,
with 5 or 6 light trains running simultaneously, the ratio of peak to
average load is 1.75, or that the load factor is 57 per cent. Studies of
the Valtellina power plant economies indicate that on account of the
improved load factor the three-phase system can be operated with a
smaller power plant capacity. In real railroading, this gain by fly-wheel
action would be much more than overbalanced by the great overloads
that occur when the speed of three-phase motors is maintained, with the
drawbar pull, on the up-grade work in rough rolling country.

Direct-current and single-phase systems produce the highest power-
plant load factor. The product of speed and torque is such that the power
is nearly constant. Acceleration, and up-grade runs, which require high
torque are compensated by lower speeds. The speed of the series motor
and the power developed depend on the voltage applied to the motor.

Three-phase systems affect the load factor adversely. In the poly-
phase motor the speed remains constant with increase of torque required
on the up-grade; the power rises, and the relation of average to maximum
load becomes lower, which is bad for the economical production of power.
The load varies over wide limits. On a 2.2 per cent, grade it is 5 times
as high as on the level. In accelerating, the power required is 20 per cent,
greater than in running at full load, even when slip-ring motors are used,
and the rate of acceleration is low. Great Northern Railway one-speed
locomotives take full rated power from the instant of starting.

The load factor of a power plant affects the economy in operation, fuel,
labor, maintenance, and investment. This point is obvious. The data
which follow under Cost of Power show the remarkable variation in the
cost of power with a change in the load factor.

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 473

STEAM POWER PLANTS.

Location of steam power plants is governed largely by the water and
coal supply. The power plant may be placed at almost any supply
point on the railroad division, providing it is known that ultimately the
adjacent divisions will be electrified. The center of gravity of the load
is generally not the best point for the power plant since the length and
cost of the transmission lines and the losses in lines do not govern plant
economy, or the total cost of operation.

Water supply which is convenient and suited to maximum economy
of boiler operation is obtained. Sufficient water for condensing the
steam is usually essential.

Coal supply is placed where there is ample storage. It is not rehauled
and redistributed to locomotive units. The coal is of a cheap grade, cost-
ing much less than the lump, or mine-run coal burned on a moving steam
locomotive. In the production and sale of coal, parts called screenings,
slack, and culm are readily burned by using mechanical stokers, but
they cannot be burned on locomotives; yet these screenings can be
obtained for from 20 to 50 per cent, of the cost of lump coal, and they
contain 80 to .90 per cent, of the maximum heat units. Expenses are
thus reduced, and natural resources are conserved, when they are used.

Lignite coal can be utilized where it is abundant and cheap. It slacks quickly
and loses its heat units when broken or exposed during transportation. Lignite
cannot be burned in locomotive furnaces, unless it is treated or briquetted. In the
Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, and Washington, the Northern Pacific, Great Northern,
Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound, and ''Soo" railroads could use to advantage the
immense deposits of lignite for electric traction, and the power plants could be located
at mines. Electrification has repeatedly received consideration by these North-
western roads, which now use Pittsburg coal. Incidentally, the cost of boiler-tube
repairs and of washing out of boilers in which alkali, foaming, and bad waters are
used are now a heavy maintenance expense.

The cost of good coal is ordinarily 50 to 75 cents per long ton at the mine, and the
cost of transportation, rehandHng at docks, coal depots, etc., forms the larger part
of the cost. Power plants can be located to advantage at coal mines or at docks, to
save the cost of handling and of freight haulage. It is obviously cheaper to transmit
the energy from coal by wires than to transport the coal itself on freight cars.

Electric railway plants are now being built at coal mines. Eifel Bahn, a double-
track, 112-mile road which is to run from Cologne to Treves, will obtain power from
lignite coal fields. Many European roads now utilize lignite and peat for fuel.
The money is kept in the state or country. Northern Colorado Power Company
generates power at a lignite coal mine and 6000 kilowatts are transmitted 66 miles
to several raijways, 2000 kilowatts being used by Denver and Interurban railroad.
Electric railway power plants are located at mines near Scranton, Pa., Seattle, Wash.,
Girard, Kansas, etc, and opportunities for similar installations are abundant in
Eastern Pennsylvania and in both Northern and Western Illinois.

Coal- and ash -handling devices are used in steam power plants, to
eliminate the labor required to handle, store, and crush the coal, and to

474 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

remove ashes. Money spent for such equipment pays well. Expert
firemen are obtained to supervise the operation of boilers. The cost
of handling coal from the car to the bunkers is about 8 cents per ton.

Furnaces of modern steam power plants are of the stoker type. The
coal is broken up and is fed to the stoker by machinery, and the ashes
are cleaned out, regularly and automatically, without opening the
furnace doors and chilling the furnace by cold air. The proportions of
air and coal are well regulated, and the draft is varied automatically
to assist in producing maximum economy. Combustion is perfected.
The combustion chamber is high and it is not restricted in volume.
The coal is first volatilized, the carbon is combined at the right time
with the hydrogen of the air; the hydro-carbon then unites with oxygen,
and the carbon which is floating in the hydrogen flame does not come
in contact with the relatively cold tubes or plates until combustion is
completed. As a result, smoke is avoided. The furnace is surrounded
by fire brick and tile. If the tubes and other heating surface are
within 5 feet of the grates, they are covered with tile. After the coal
ignites, the gases travel a distance of 6 to 8 feet under an incandescent
tile arch. Baffles are placed in the combustion chamber to hasten the
mixture of the air and gases as they leave the fire at times of overload,
and the stratification of the gases, which naturally prevails, is prevented.
This furnace design increases the economy and capacity of the boiler.

Grate surface is such that the number of square feet per square foot
of heating surface is several times larger in the stationary boiler than in
the locomotive boiler. A great output for sudden overloads is thus
possible and cheap grades of coal can be burned efficiently.

Heating surfaces of boilers are of ample area, and the gases leave
the boilers at low temperatures. Each boiler unit has from 5000 to
9000 square feet of heating surface and this reduces the cost of the unit.
Radiation and maintenance are a minimum.

Water-tube boilers are used, because it is easy to keep the inside and
outside of the tubes clean, and thus to maintain the high efficiency.
Water-tube boilers are rated at 10 square feet of heating surface per
h. p., but they are capable of withstanding about 100 per cent, overload
continually, and are so operated in the largest central stations.

High steam pressures increase the thermal efficiency of the turbines,
without the excessive repairs and radiation of locomotive boilers.

Superheat, with its thermal advantage for the prime mover, bigcomes
practical in central station boilers and prime movers.

Feed-water heaters and waste-gas economizers increase the efficiency
of the boiler plant from 12 to 20 per cent.

Steam turbines are used in the power plant because of their economy
of steam. They have the following important features:

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 475

Poppet valves with an exact, quick-acting mechanism and minimum
wearing surface, admit the steam thru large openings.

Cylinder condensation is a minimum. The walls are not heated
and cooled as in reciprocating engines.

Utilization of the energy available in the steam is excellent because
of the wide limits which are practical for expansion. The total energy
in steam at 150 pounds gage pressure is about 1195 B. t. u., of which
about 321 B. t. u. can be utilized between this pressure and a 28-inch
vacuum. A gain in energy of 33 per cent, is obtained when the
vacuum is increased from 24 to 29 inches.

Steam turbines in sizes up to 20,000 kw., direct-connected to electric
generators, have superseded engines.

Condensers are used, and they increase the capacity and the economy
of the prime mover fully 25 per cent. The auxiliary equipment to pro-
duce a 28-inch vacuum requires 3 to 4 per cent, of the total output of
the prime mover. A simple jet or barometric condenser is preferable,
but a surface condenser is more often advantageous. When the water
contains salt, sewage, alkali, or minerals, condensed steam can be used
over and over again in the boiler to prevent the foaming which accom-
panies alkali waters, the pitting and corroding of steel, or the deposit of
hard, porcelain scale in the boiler tubes.

Heat insulators surround the furnaces, boilers, piping, and prime
movers. Radiation losses and cylinder condensation, which are large
in steam locomotives, are relatively small. The central plant is pro-
tected from the elements and from the cold winds.

Opei'ators supervise the production of the power, and do not work
by brute force. The firemen can become expert, and their entire time
can be given 'to the economical production of steam. The boiler room
becomes the important place • for the scientific production of power.
Coal and flue-gas analyses, checks on the temperatures, and continual
tests are practical, and of economic value in the large central station.
Meters assist in checking results, and comparative data are readily
and continually obtained.

Number of power plants used depends largely upon the reliability of
service which is desired. Two interconnected, well-separated plants
are necessary for important service. Economical limits of power trans-
mission are not reached by radial feeders 100 miles long, or the length of
a railroad division. Prudence may dictate that two power plants per 150
miles of route are necessar}^; yet many electric railways have only one
power plant for 300 miles of single track.

Railroads must, of course, combine their interests, and use one power
plant to supply many railroads and many routes, to avoid duplication in
power equipment, and also to obtain high load factors and economy in

476 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

power production. Union railroad terminals illustrate the present joint
use of heat, power, and light from one power plant. Many electric rail-
roads now purchase electric power from unaffiliated power corporations.

Reliability of service can be guaranteed in railway power plants. A
number of boilers, turbines, and generator units are required for econom-
ical power production, and trouble at one unit is automatically blocked
off and isolated, so that it cannot affect continuous service from the
plant. Two or more power plants are often tied together by duplicate
transmission lines, so that in case of trouble assistance can be obtained.
The contact line, however, cannot be in duplicate, and it must therefore
be of the simplest character.

Cost of equipment varies with the size and to some extent with the
type of equipment, and always with the degree of reliability which is
desired of the complete installation.

Steam turbines and electric generators are designed to have maximum
efficiency at about rated load. They can carry an overload of 50 per cent,
for 2 hours, following the full rated load, with safety, and can carry 25
per cent, overload continually with a small reduction in efficiency.
Electrical equipment is purchased and is accepted only after a test with
a 24-hour full-load, during which the temperature rise is less than 50° C.
as measured by a thermometer. Insulation of mica, tape, and com-
pounds are not deteriorated by a temperature of 75° C.

The data available show that a complete modern steam railway plant
can generally be constructed for the following:

COST OF STEAM POWER PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT.

100,000-kilowatt plants cost, complete $ 60 per kw.

40,000-kilowatt plants cost, complete 70 per kw.

20,000-kilowatt plants cost, complete 80 per kw.

10,000-kilowatt plants cost, complete 90 per kw.

5,000-kilowatt plants cost, complete 100 per kw.

2,500-kilowatt plants cost, complete 140 per kw.

Station buildings and land add from SlO to 20 per kw.

A large-sized boiler, complete, costs $14 to 20 per h. p.

One boiler h. p. is used for 2 kw., when 15 lb. of steam are used per kw.-hr.
Chimneys cost from $4 to $6 per h. p., depending upon permanence, not on size.

5000-kilowatt turbo-generators cost, complete $30 per kw.

8000-kilowatt turbo-generators cost, complete 25 per kw.

14,000-kilowatt turbo-generators cost, complete 20 per kw.

Large rotary-converter substations cost, complete 40 per kw.

Large motor-generator substations cost, complete 44 per kw.

Large transformer substations cost, complete 8 to 10 per kw.

The relative cost of steam power plants, from an average of the best
comparable data obtainable, is: Water power plants, 100; water and

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 477

steam plants, 125; steam turbine plants, 155; gas producer and engine
plants, 180.

The cost of power will depend largely upon:

a. Load factor or uniformity of load. (See load factor, page 468.)

b. Economy of steam per h. p. hr. Steam turbines in larger sizes
consume 10 pounds of steam per i. h. p. hr., or 15 pounds per kw-hr. ;
compound condensing Corliss engines show at best 12 pounds of steam
per i. h. p. hr. ; modern Mallet compound steam locomotives use 24
pounds per i. h. p. hr. and the ordinary simple steam locomotive in good
condition averages fully 30 pounds per i. h. p. hr. The relative steam
consumption in the four cases is 10, 12, 24, 30.

Steam in turbines expands 28 to 35 times; in Corliss condensing
engines 20 to 25 times, and in simple and compound steam locomotives
3 to 5 times. The ratios are 7: 5:1.

c. Cost of coal per ton. The cheapest grades of coal are used at large
electric power plants.

d. The magnitude of the plant. Many economies are incidental in
operation on a large scale.

e. Interest on the cost of the plant. This forms a large item in the
cost of service, and therefore it is important to reduce the amount and
cost of the equipment used, to have it reliable, and to work it hard.
Since electric railway service is generally increasing, the design of the
plant should be such that equipment can be added as needed, and with
an increase in the economy of fuel and labor.

The cost of steam-electric power varies with the load factor, as is
shown by the following example and table. Basis: Steam power plant
capacity, 10,000; cost per kilowatt installed complete, $100; coal con-
taining 12,000 B. t. u. per pound of combustible, $2 per 2000 pounds;
fixed charges for interest, depreciation, and taxes, 12 per cent, per annum.

COST OF STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PER KW-HR. ESTIMATED FOR
VARYING LOAD FACTORS.

Load

Ratio Steam per

Cost of

Other

Operating

Fixed

Total

Factor.

of evap. kw-hr.

coal.

labor.

items.

charges.

cost.

8.0

24 lb.

.60(^

.13<^

.12<J

.85(^

1.40^

2.25(^

8.5

.45

.07

.08

.60

.56

1.16

9.0

.40

.05

.07

.52

.28

.80

9.0 1 17

.38

.04

.07

.49

.21

.70

100

9.0 16

.36 1 .03

.07

.46

.14

.60

See c

ompanioi

1 table OE

I Cost of

Hydro-el(

metric Po\

ver, page 48

478

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

COST OF STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PER KW-HR.
AT LEADING RAILWAY PLANTS.

•

Cost of
coal per
2000 lb.

B.t.u.

per
kw-hr.

Operating cost at

Total cost at

Load
fac-
tor.

Year

Name of railway.

Power
house.

Con-
tact
line.

Power
house.

Con-
tact
line.

ending
June.

$3.20
4.58

3.75

.76

.60

.58
.56
.60

«^

1910

Boston & Worcester

1 . -

1906

New Haven:

Consolidated, New Haven,

Cos Cob.
New York Central

1.09

1.02

2.60

.48

1908

3.15

2.80
2.51
2.18
2.23

1.00

1909

.70
.59
.54

1.46

1.15

.65

1908

.35

1908

1910

Hudson & Manhattan

Philadelphia R. T

.55
• .65
.60
.62
.73
.53
.69
.51
.65
.64

1908

Harrisburg, Pa

Pittsburg Rys .

1.04
9. 9.F>

1909

International, Buffalo .

Ohio Electric Ry

Indiana Union Traction ....

.91
.91

Kokomo, Marion & West. . .

United Rys., Detroit

1.65

.68

1907
1909
1910
1909

1.80
1.60
1.78
2.74
2.26

28,000
53,306
48,625
44,000

.41

.62
.59
.66

.80

1910

Twin City Rapid Transit. . . .
Paris- Orleans

1.34
2.40

.88

.55

1910
1905

Paris- Versailles

1.24

1905

Manhattan Elevated Railroad records show: Pounds of coal per kw-hr, at the
power house 2.6, or 3.2 pounds of coal per drawbar h. p. at the train. Its former
compound steam locomotives averaged 7 pounds of coal per drawbar horse power.

Cost of power is seldom controlled by the size of the plant, or by the cost of coal ;
but depends largely upon the average daily load factor, as noted in the table,
page 477.

Load factor is defined as the ratio of the average power output for the year to the
maximum output for one hour, both being measured by watt-hour meters.

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 479
COST OF POWER AND OUTPUT OF ELECTRIC RAILROAD PLANTS.

Name of railroad.

Operating

cost of

power plant.

Total

kw-hr.

produced.

Cost per
kw-hr.
cents.

Year
ending
June.

New York, New Haven & Hartford .

$167,098
412,715
126,495
450,059
198,610
149,754
153,450
159,929

2,172,810

1908

1909

New York Central & Hudson River.
Pennsylvania R. R. :

21,800,000

.580

1909
1909

Long Island

West Jersey & Seashore

Hudson & Manhattan

28,500,000
25,300,000
28,312,500

.697
.592
.542

1908
1908
1910
1910

Interboro Rapid TransH

402,085,000

7,982,000

.543

.874

1908

Albany Southern

1909

Erie R. P., Rochester Division

16,154

71,462

724,500

14,000

1909

Baltimore & Ohio

1909

Twin City Rapid Transit

Colorado & Southern

116,868,000

.620

1910
1909

STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT INSTALLATIONS FOR
ELECTRIC RAILWAY TRAINS.

Name of railway.

Kilowatts
installed.

Motor
cars.

Loco-
motives.

Mile-
age.

Boston Elevated Ry. :

Elevated Division

60,000

225

Massachusetts Electric

10,000
18,500

2,015
830

933

Rhode Island Providence

318

Shore Line Electric, New Haven

6,000

Boston & Maine: Hoosac Tunnel

4,000

New York, New Haven & Hartford :

New York Div., 17,000 kw. in 1910. .

33,100

100

New York Central & Hudson River:

Harlem Division, Port Morris . . \
Hudson Division, Kings Bridge. . . /

40,000

137

150

Manhattan Elevated, 74th Street

60,000

895

119

Interborough Subway, 59th Street. . . .

90,000

910

Hudson & Manhattan

18,000

200

Brooklyn Rapid Transit: El. Div

659

107

Pennsylvania R. R. :

Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal \

32,500

361

Long Island R. R. /

164

West Jersey & Seashore

8,000

108

154

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley

5,000

Baltimore & Ohio

3,000

480

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT INSTALLATIONS FOR ELECTRIC
RAILWAY TRAINS.— Continued.

Name of railway.

Kilowatts
installed.

Motor
cars.

Locomo-
tives.

Mile-
age.

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line. .
Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville . . .

Erie R. R., Rochester Division

Grand Trunk Ry. :

St. Clair Tunnel & Terminal

Michigan Central R. R.:

Detroit River Tunnel

Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley

Indianapolis & Cincinnati

Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend . .
Commonwealth Edison, Chicago:
Twin City Rapid Transit

Minneapolis & St. Paul.

East St. Louis & Suburban

Rock Island Southern

Central London

London Electric

Great Northern & City

Great Western, M. & W. L

Metropolitan Railway

City & South London

London, Brighton & S. C. . . .

Mersey Ry

Lancashire & Yorkshire:

Li^verpool-Southport

North-Eastern

1,800
3,000
2,250

2,500

2,000
8,500
3,000
4,500
244,000
46,000

5,500
5,000
7,100

44,000
3,440
6,000

20,500
3,850
Purchased.
3,750

10,750
9,000

12
23

200

2000

800

170
10
68

383
35
40

130

80
62

6
0
0
0
0
2

0
6

85
40

19
212
116
117
1250
380

181
82
13

168
7
11
60
16
62
10

82
82

GAS POWER PLANTS.

Gas engines and gas producers are used to a very limited extent for
electric railway power for the following reasons:

Cost is high because the intermittent action, and instantly applied
high pressures used, increase the strains, size, and weight of the engines.
Cost varies from $150 to $180 per kilowatt for a complete gas and electric
plant, or 50 per cent, more than the cost of a complete steam turbine
plant. Cost of gas engines and producers, without electric generators,
is twice that of turbines and boilers. Speeds are slow in the best designs,
and this increases the cost of the engine, electric generator, foundations,
floor space and the power building.

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 481

Operation with electric generators in parallel is difficult without
excessive rotating weights, but is easier with 15 than with 25 cycles.

Reliability is questioned in all cases. Two spare prime movers are
desirable in gas power plants, w^hile one is usual in steam or hydraulic
service. However, gas engines in the Edgar Thomson Works and in
the U. S. steel plants run for months without an hour's delay.

Manufacturers and users lack experience with the large units of 3000
to 15,000 kilowatts required for railway plants.

Overload capacity of gas engines are small, compared with overload
capacity of steam engines and steam turbines.

Producer and engine manufacturers have not worked together in
the past, but complete outfits are now built by one manufacturer.

Conditions and location which favor the development of power from
gas producers and engines are those wherein:

1. Low grades of coal and lignites are available in original deposits,
or as waste in mining.

2. Cost of power, or fuel, or freight, is relatively high. Transporta-
tion facilities to handle low-grade fuel may not be available, in which
case plants may be located at mines and power may be transmitted by
wires over mountains.

3. Natural gas from coke fields, blast furnaces, etc., is available, and
cheap, and wherever expenditures for gas producers are avoided.

Economj^ of fuel is shown by the records of four 2000-kw. units at the
Illinois Steel Company's plant, operating on blast-furnace gas, wherein
only 15,000 B. t. u. per kw-hr. at the switchboard are used. A gas
producer with 75 per cent, efficiency would raise the unit consumption,
with coal, to 20,000 B. t. u.

GAS-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT INSTALLATION.

Name of railway.

Year

Mile-

No. of

H. p.

Kw.

Name of

Kind of

placed.

age.

units.

total.

engme.

producer.

fuel.

Boston Elevated

1906

1220

700

Crossley . .

Loomis . . .

Bit. coal.

Elmira Water, Light &

R. R.
Warren & Jamestown. . .

1904

1400

750

Crossley . .

None

Nat. Gas.

1905

940

500

West

None

Nat. gas.

Western N. Y. & Penn. .

1906

1500

900

West

None

Nat. gas.

Philadelphia Rapid Tr. .

1911

940

500

West

Wood... .

Anth.coal.

Charlotte Electric Ry . . .

1908

1620

1080

Snow

Loomis . . .

Bit. coal.

Georgia Railway & Elec .

1907

166

3000

2000

Snow

None

Nat. gas.

Milwaukee Northern ....

1907

6000

3000

AUis

Loomis . . .

Bit. coal.

Union Traction, Kansa.s.

1907
! 1908

39
20

1000
672

None

Nat. gas.

Missouri & Kansas

400

Buckeye. .

Nat. gas.

Midland Ry., England. . .

1908

750

450

West

Mond ....

Bit. coal.

482 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

WATER POWER PLANTS.

The general characteristics of power plants which were outlined at
the beginning of this chapter, namely capacity, economy, relatively con-
stant load, relatively small amount of equipment and load factor,
apply to water power plants.

Utilization of water power is a distinguishing feature of electric
traction. Water power is usually cheaper than steam. The energy can
be utilized for 18 or more hours of the day, because the load factor of the
electric railway is higher than for electric lighting. Electric railway
companies can purchase power at a lower rate; or they can afford to pay
more for a given water power development, because they need more and
are able to use it to a better commercial advantage.

Steam railroads are purchasing many of the best water powers in the
country. Their heavy loads, excellent load factor, and the economy to
be gained with hydro-electric power justified this action.

Water supply varies with the season and rainfall, while the total
daily load required for railway trains is relatively constant. Water
turbines are most efficient at full load and the overload capacity is small.
Uniformity of water supply of and demands for power, may be gained in
several w^ays:

a. Water may be stored. Dam sites at the power plant, and reser-
voirs at the upper reaches of the river, provide for the efficient use of the
water and also of the water power investment. Storage of water is often
obtained by flooding pasture land during the winter months only. Stor-
age of water in a 300,000-gallon elevated steel tank is provided by the
Great Northern Railway for its Cascade Tunnel electric railway plant
to equalize the flow and pressure.

b. Electrical energy may be stored in chemical batteries.

c. Mechanical energy may be stored in' fly wheels, as is now^ done in
electric hoisting, for use during short peak loads. (See Load Factor.)

• d. Power may be regenerated by single-phase or three-phase railway
motors on heavy grades, so that a down-grade train will furnish most Oj"
the energy, required to haul the up-grade train.

e. Train schedule may be revised so that trains do not bunch during
a few hours of the day to form a high peak load.

f . Other plans were referred to in the section on Load Factor.
Water power is available in sufficient quantities to provide energy for

most of the train service in Ontario, Northern New York, Michigan, Wis-
consin, Minnesota, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Montana, and the Pacific Coast
states. This energy will be utilized in the future by electric railroads.
In mountainous districts energy can be developed at a low cost and
this is particularly fortunate since the cost of steam power is highest
in mountain service.

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 483

Reliability of water power plants is often questioned. Many failures
have occurred. Some of the causes are listed:

Concealment of facts, or deliberate lying by promotors; incompetent
engineering work by inexperienced men; insufficient detail in plans and
specifications; lack of provision for local and head water storage; lack
of good and uniform foundations; dams built on sand; lack of sheet
piling above, in, below, and running the full length of the dam; lack of
solid material at the ends of the dam; poor cement; bad concrete;
insufficient steel reinforcing; bad setting of good concrete, with poor
management; improperly built, graded approaches to dams; inadequate
provision to prevent damage by ice shoving; insufficient spillway; con-
gested discharge area; high ratio of flood to low water discharge,
especially in small streams and in mountain streams; lack of flowage
data covering many years.

(Note. — In the northwestern states the absolute minimum flowage in winter is
found to average about 0.1 C. F. S. per square mile of drainage area. The low
flowage occurs in February, and averages 0.2 C. F. S. while the average flowage during
the winter months and during the dry summer months averages about 0.3 C. F. S.
per square mile of drainage area. Stillwell gave data, for other parts of the country,
to A.. I. E. E., June, 1910.)

Equipment cost of water power plants for railways varies widely
but depends upon:

Cost of site, reservoir, and flowage lands; head or fall of water; constancy of
flowage; amount of power developed; distance from railway or lake transportation;
permanency of construction; length of transmission; brokerage, risk, and watered stock.

Quantitatively, the cost of complete hydraulic plants averages from
$100 to $200 per kilowatt installed. Relatively, the cost of water power
plants, from a fair average of all available data, is 80 per cent, of the
cost of steam power plants. Installation cost of hydro-electric plants,
including substations, but not distributing lines, varies from $200 to
$250 per kilowatt of delivered power. A reserve steam plant alone costs
an additional $75 per kilowatt. Wooden flumes with a capacity of 200
second feet may cost $30,000 per mile and have an annual charge for in-
terest, depreciation, and maintenance of 20 to 25 per cent. Tunnels in
lieu of flumes may cost $100,000 per mile, but the annual charge is
nearer 7 per cent.

The cost of hydro-electric power varies with the load factor, as is
shown by the following example and table.

Hydro-electric plant capacity, 10,000 kilowatts; cost per kilowatt in-
stalled complete $200; fixed charges: interest, 6 per cent.; depreciation,
4; taxes, 2; total, 12 per cent., or $24 per kilowatt per year.

Operating expenses, repairs, renewals, and wages vary from $17,500
per year with uniform load to $13,000 per year with lightest load.

484

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

COST OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER.

Estimated for Varying Load Factors.

Load
factor.

Operating
charges.

Fixed
charges.

Cost per
kw-hr.

Cost per

e. h. p.

year.

.16^

2.74^

2.90^

$ 18.95

.06

1.10

1.16

18.95

.03

.55

.58

18.95

.02

.37

.39

19.12

100

.02

.28

.30

19.60

Cost of steam-electric power per kw-hr. (see table page 477) is usually lower than
the cost of hydro-electric power when the load factor is less than 25 per cent.

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS FOR RAIL

WAYS.

Name of railway.

Kilowatts
installed.

Motor
cars.

Locomo-
tives.

■
Railway
mileage.

Albany Southern R. R

45
157
150

1
0
0
0

Schenectady Ry

133

Ottawa Electric Ry

West Shore R. R

600

2,250

14,500

1,000

10,500
1,000

750
13,000

2,000
9,600

11,000
8,000
2,700
6,000
3,000

16,000
1,500
4,000
2,000
6,000

114

Ontario Power Co.:

Erie R. R. . . .

Lockport; Rochester; Syracuse

Niagara Gorge Ry. . .

28
950

2
0

3
2

2
2

Niagara Falls Power Co.:

International Ry

374

Tonawanda Ry

Electrical Development Co :

Niagara, St. Catharine & Toronto. .
Toronto Ry. Company

850

30
1000

50
114

Canadian Pacific R. R. :
jHull-Aylmer Division

Montreal Street Railway

224

Grand Rapids, Michigan, Rys

Indiana & Michigan Electric

Illinois Traction (Marseilles)

Milwaukee Electric ...

150

■

600

398

137

Wisconsin Traction Company

T. C. R. T., Minneapolis and St. Paul. .

Duluth-Superior Traction

Winnipeg General Power

800
119

2
0

380
76
40

Denver & Interurban R. R

Montana Power Transmission

16
80

54
50

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 485
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAYS.— Continued.

Name of railway.

Kilowatts Motor j Locomo-

installed. cars. I tives.

Railway
mileage.

Spokane & Inland Empire

Washington Water Power

Seattle Electric. .

Puget Sound Electric

Portland Ry., Light and Power.

Oregon Electric

Great Northern

United Rys., San Francisco. . . .

Los Angeles-Pacific

Pacific Electric

French Southern

Valtellina Ry., Italy

40,000
21^000
15,000

15,000
2,250
7,500

26,800
7,500

38,000
4,150

582

130

289

100

309

425

523

675

14
0

1
10
7
3
4

7
6

287

170

200

472

260

700

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF INSTALLATIONS.

NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD RAILROAD.

Power plant is installed at Cos Cob, on the main line of the New
York division, at an outlet of a river, and on a navigable bay. The
location is 30 miles east of New York. In 1910 the plant -contained:

Twelve boilers, 525-h.p. each, with 125° superheat, 200 pounds
pressure; with Roney stokers. Green economizers, and induced draft;
four Parsons-Westinghouse steam turbines; three 3700-kw., 11,000-volt,
25-cycle alternators; and one 6000-kw., 11,000-volt, 25-cycle alternator.

The alternators are three-phase star-connected. Two legs are used,
the remaining leg being idle. Transformers and substations are not used
between the generators and locomotives, i. e., the station feeds a 11,000-
volt contact line directly.

The 1910 power service included the supply of electrical energy to
about 20 of 42 locomotives and 4 of 6 motor cars for all electric passenger
trains on the 4-track, 22-mile road between Woodlawn, N. Y., and Stam-
ford, Connecticut, and 1000 kilowatts for street railways, shops, pump-
ing, and signals. Energy is purchased from the New York Central for
the service between Grand Central Station and Woodlawn, 12 miles.

In the 1910 power service three alternators, with a single-phase
rating of 3700 kv-a. at 80 per cent p. f., or 5500 kv-a. three-phase,
carried about 1000 amperes at 11,200 to 13,500 volts. The power factor
was .75 maximum,. 65 average, and less for minimum loads. Three alter-
nators were used on the peak loads, during which 1700 amperes ex-
isted for 30 seconds followed by 400 amperes. High peaks occurred on

486 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Saturdays. The peak load was 12,000 kilowatts yet the minimum load
at night averaged 500 kilowatts. The peaks varied from 20 to 30 per
cent, above and below the average load, during daylight hours.

Every passenger locomotive is in service during the evening load.

Economy of the station is low because the line is so short that there
is no railway load from midnight to morning, during which time a 3000
turbo-alternator and all boilers are used; and because the average
number of locomotives in service, about 20, is small. The peak loads
are hard on the furnaces and the boiler economy is reduced.

The extension of the road to New Haven, 73 miles, the electrification
of 63 miles of freight yards on the Harlem River Branch, and the con-
struction of the New York, Westchester & Boston Railroad, in 1911,
required the addition of four 4000 kw. turbo-alternators.

Reference.

Coster: Electric Journal, Jan., 1908; E. R. J., Aug. 31, 1907; Murray: A. I. E. E.,
1908-9-10-11.

NEW YORK CENTRAL & HUDSON RIVER RAILROAD.

The plants of this company are located on opposite sides of Manhat-
tan Island, the Port Morris station on the East River and the Kings-
bridge station on a slip leading from the Hudson River near the load
centers of the Harlem Division, and on the Hudson Division. The
Kingsbridge station is practically a reserve duplicate plant and is used
as a substation.

Each plant now contains 16 of twenty-four 625-h. p. boilers, with
Roney stokers; and 4 of six 5000-kilowatt Curtis, 25-cycle, three-phase,
11,000-volt turbo-alternators.

The energy is distributed at 11,000 volts pressure by underground
cables and by overhead steel transmission towers to 9 rotary converter
substations along the Harlem and the Hudson electric divisions.

The load factor of the plants is only 50 per cent., the routes being
short, and the power being used at present for suburban passenger and
terminal service. The peak load is only 20,000 kw.

References.

S. R. J., Nov. 11, 1905; Sept. 29, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907.

INTERBORO RAPID TRANSIT COMPANY.

The Interboro plants supply energy for the Manhattan Elevated
Railroad from the Seventy-fourth Street station, and for the New York
Subway from the West Fifty-ninth Street station, on Manhattan Island.

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 487

The Seventy-fourth Street station contains sixty-four 500-h. p., B. & W.
boilers with Roney stokers, economizers, and superheaters; and eight
AUis-Westinghouse, 5000-kilowatt engine-generator units.

The Fifty-ninth Street station contains sixty 600-h.p. B. & W.
boilers with Roney stokers at the front and also at the rear of the
boilers. Economizers and superheaters are used. The generating equip-
ment consists of nine Allis-Westinghouse 5000-kilowatt engine generators,
each with a 5000-kilowatt Curtis exhaust steam turbine with induction
generators. The recent introduction of the exhaust steam turbines did
not increase the size of the building, but improved the fuel economy 33
per cent. Pennsylvania semi-bituminous coal is used, which has about
14,250 B. t. u. The thermal efficiency of the engine-turbo unit is 20
per cent.

Generators are 25-cycle, three-phase, 11,000-volt. The energy is
transmitted at 11,000 volts, to direct-current converter substations.
The peak load of the two plants exceeds 177,000 kw.

References.

Manhattan, Pegram and Baker: S. R. J., Jan. 5, 1901; Subway, Van Vleck: S. R. J.,
Oct. 8, 1904; Oct. 12, 1907; Aug. 14, 1909; Stott: Elec. Journal, May, 1905;
Aug, 1907.

HUDSON & MANHATTAN RAILROAD.

The power plant is well located in Jersey City near the center of the
New York City, Hoboken, Jersey City, and Newark load.

The generating equipment consists of two 3000-kilowatt and two
6000-kilowatt turbo-alternators of the vertical Curtis type. Units are
installed on a basis of one chimney and four 900-h. p., B. & W. boilers
per 6000-kilowatt generator. The present plant is designed for 16
l)oilers. Green fuel economizers are used for each group of boilers.

Three substations, each containing four 1500-kilowatt, 600-volt
rotary converters, have been installed.

Motive power is supplied to 200 motor cars of 320-h. p. capacity each
for the most important tunnel and rapid transit service in America.

Reference.
E. R. J., March 5, 1910.

LONG ISLAND RAILROAD.

The power plant is located in Long Island City on the East River
advantageous to fuel, and it is near the center of the combined loads of

488

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

the Long Island Railroad and the Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal
Railroad. Thirty-two 564-h. p. B. & W. boilers have Roney stokers.
Sixteen duplicate boilers can be added in the present building. Natural
draft is used. The cheapest low-grade fuels are burned to advantage in
the furnaces. Three 5500- and two 8000-kilowatt turbo-alternators
deliver 11, 000-volt, 3-phase, 25-cycle energy to transmission lines which
distribute energy to many 660-volt converter substations.
The plant can be extended to house 100,000 kw. capacity.

Load peaks in July, 1910, exceeded 16,000 kilowatts; after the Penn-
sylvania locomotives and Pennsylvania-Long Island motor-car trains
were added, in 1910, the load peak increased to 30,000 kw.

Reference.

E. R. J., Nov. 4, 1905; October 12, 1907; Gibbs, June 3, 1911.

If M i n ij-

"i irynm

Fig. 180. — Pennsylvania-Long Island Railroad Power Plant.
Three 5,500-kilowatt Westinghouse turbines and 25-cycle, 3-phase, 11, 000- volt alternators.

WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE RAILROAD.

The power plant is located on the main line of the electric division of
the road between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, at Westfield, 8 miles
south of Philadelphia.

The station contains eight 358-h. p. Stirling boilers, with stokers.

Generating equipment consists of four 2000-kilowatt, 6600-volt, 25-
cycle, three-phase Curtis turbo-alternators.

The energy is transmitted at 33,000 volts to eight 675-volt converter
substations, located along the 75 miles of road, by 70 miles of duplicate
33,000-volt transmission line. The capacity of these substations is 17,000

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 489

kilowatts. The loss between the station switchboard and the substation
output varies from 20 to 24 per cent.

References.

S. R. J., Nov. 10, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907; Gibbs, Ry. Age Gazette, March 25, 1910.

COMMONWEALTH EDISON COMPANY, CHICAGO.

The main Quarry-Fisk street power plant has these features:

Boiler units are rated 550 h. p. each, but are worked up to 1100 h. p.
Chain grate stokers feed coal under the mud drums, reversing the usual
direction of flue gas travel. The draft which is produced by steel
chimneys is 0 . 75 inches, water gage. Coal used is a high-volatile, Illinois
screening. A boiler efficiency of 63 per cent, is obtained. The coal con-
sumption is 60 pounds per square foot of grate surface per hour.

Steam turbine units consist of ten 12,000-kilowatt and six 14,000-
kilowatt units. The maximum output is 184,000 kilowatts on peak
load in winter. Six 20,000-kilowatt turbines were ordered in 1910 for its
new Northwestern power plant. The economy of the present plants is
stated to be 28,000 B. t. u. per kw.-hr.

Energy is sold lo every railway which hauls electric trains in Chicago,
at $15 per kw-year of maximum demand, plus 0.4 cent per kw-hour.

TWIN CITY RAPID TRANSIT CO., MINNEAPOLIS.

The steam plant has the following equipment :

Twenty-eight 600-h. p., B. & W. boilers, with 150° of superheat,
175 pounds pressure, which on 1-inch draft, operate regularly at 1100-
h. p. capacity; two 3500-kilowatt Allis-Corliss vertical engines; two
5000-kilowatt, and two 14,000-kilowatt Curtis steam turbo-alternators.

In the rebuilding of this plant, erected in 1902, two 16-foot by 220-
foot tile and brick chimneys have been replaced by four 14-foot by
263-foot steel stacks, lined thruout with 4 inches of concrete; the Roney
stokers which are suitable for eastern coals Vere replaced by chain grate
stokers which burn either northern Illinois or Youghiogheny screenings to
advantage; grate areas have been increased 20 per cent. ; coal is now stored
and flooded in concrete cells in place of being allowed to deteriorate in
huge piles; cast iron fittings were replaced by steel fittings and nickel-
l)ronze valve seats for the superheated steam; and the four vertical cross-
compound, condensing Allis-Corliss engines are now being replaced by
14,000-kilowatt 5-stage and 6-stage vertical Curtis steam turbines.
Storage of heat in water under full pressure is planned for peak loads.

Steam consumption of the steam engines is 22 pounds per kw.-hr. ;
of the small steam turbines, 20 pounds; of the 14,000-kilowatt, 14 pounds.

The peak load at the power plant is 35,000 or 50 kilowatts per car.

490

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Two water power plants, with 16,000 kilowatts capacity, near the
steam plant, carry the body of the railway load.

Power has been distributed since 1897 by means of underground
13 200-volt, paper-insulated cables, to 11 converter substations in
Minneapolis and St. Paul, and long interurban lines. The efficiency
between the alternating-current bus and the car is 60 per cent.

Car equipment consists of eight hundred 45-foot, 22- to 25-ton, steel-
framed motor cars, each equipped with from 200 to 300 h. p. in motors;
and there are twenty-two 45-foot motor cars in heavy freight service.

Fig. 181. — Twin City Rapid Transit Co. 5000-kw. Curtis Steam Turbo-alternators.

33-cycle, 13.200-volts.

The 33-cycle, three-phase system was chosen in 1896, at which time
seven 700-kilowatt alternators and five 600-kilowatt 660-volt railway
rotary converters were purchased in connection with the equipment of
the first Water power plant. Plans were made to combine all electric
railway and lighting power plants and interests, and the 33-cycle system
was not only suitable for the railway rotary converters, but for the
arc and incandescent lighting in the city of Minneapolis. Neither 25 nor
60 cycles would have been satisfactory for the combined service.

MILWAUKEE NORTHERN RAILWAY.

This power plant is located at Port Washington, near the middle of
the company's 58-mile road between Milwaukee and Sheboygan, Wis.

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 491

It is one of the very few successful gas producer and gas engine
plants. There are four Loomis-Pettibone bituminous gas producers
which burn a cheap grade of Hocking Valley bituminous slack coal and
deliver gas wdth about 125 B. t. u. per cubic foot. There are three 1250-
kilowatt, 32x42, 4-cylinder, twin, tandem, horizontal, double-acting Allis
gas engines, each direct-connected to 25-cycle, three-phase, 405-volt,
107-r. p. m. alternators. Electric power is furnished, thru transformers
and rotary converters, to a high-grade interurban railway.

Fig. 182. — Milwaukee Northern Railway Power Plant.

Two 12.30 kilowatt gas engines and 25-cycle, 3-phase, 405-volt, 107 r.p.m. alternators, built

by the Allis -Chalmers Company.

Fig. 18:-5. — Great Northern Railway — Cascade Tunnel Power Plant Equipment.

GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY.

The water power plant used to propel trains thru the Cascade Tun-
nel is located 30 miles east of the tunnel. The plant was designed by
Mr. J. T. Fanning of Minneapolis.

The equipment consists of three 4000-h. p. horizontal Smith turbines

492 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

each direct-connected to a 2500 kv-a., 6600-volt, 25-cycle, 375 r. p. m.
alternator. The units have a large overload capacitj^ for train ser-
vice. Four transformers raise the voltage from 6600 to 33,000 volts.
Each transformer is rated 844 kilowatt but will operate at 100 per
cent, overload for 1 hour with a reasonable rise *n temperature.

The head of water is 185 feet. To equalize the pressure due to fric-
tion and inertia of the water in an 8.5-foot stave pipe line, 11,000 feet
long, between the dam and the power plant, a 360,000-gallon steel tank
is connected to the foot of the pipe line. The water is lowered 12 feet
when a 2000-ton train is accelerated, and, when the load is thrown off, the
water is relieved by an inside overflow pipe having a funnel-shaped head.
The regulation of the suddenly applied 5000-h. p. load was the hardest
of the many problems involved. About 21,000 tons of water moving
at the rate of 8 to 10 feet per second cannot be retarded quickly. The
surge tank takes care of the work safely and without waste of large
amounts of energy or of water.

LONDON ELECTRIC RAILWAYS.

The Chelsea power plant of the company in London is one of the
largest electric railway plants in the world. It feeds the Great Northern,
Piccadilly, and Brompton Railway; the Charing Cross, Euston & Hamp-
stead Railway; Baker Street and Waterloo Railway; Metropolitan and
District Railway; and other railway and power loads.

Eight 5500-kilowatt Parsons steam turbo-alternators are installed.

The alternators are 33-cycle 11,000-volt units and feed common
600-volt rotary converter substations.

literature;

Text Books on Steam Power.

Parshall and Hobart: "Electric Railway Engineering," Chapter V.

Hob art: "Heavy Electrical, Engineering," English practice in detail.

Dawson: "Electric Traction on Railways," Chapter XXI, English practice.

Berg: "Electrical Energy," McGraw, 1908, Section II, Efficiency of Prime Movers.

Gebhardt: "Steam Power Plant Engineering," Wiley, 1909.

French: "Steam Turbines," McGraw, 1908.

Weingreen: "Electric Power Plant Engineering," McGraw, 1910.

Reeve: "Energy," McGraw, 1909.

Koester: "Steam-Electric Power Plants," Van Nostrand, 1909.

Ennis: "Applied Thermodynamics," Van Nostrand, 1911.

Cost of Steam Power Plants.

Review in E. W., Feb. 4, 1909; E. R. J., March 27, 1909.

Stott: Power Plant Economies, A. I. E. E., Jan. 1906, Dec. 18, 1909.

Bibbins: A. I. E. E., July, 1908; S. R. J., Oct. 19, 1907.

POAYER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 493

Cost of Power.

Boston & Worcester Ry., S. R. J., May 4, 1907, p. 760.

N. Y., N. H. & H. (Consolidated Rj.), S. R. J., March 3, 1906.

New York Central, Wilgus, A. S. C. E., March 18, 1909.

Harrisburg, S. R. J., Sept. 28, 1907.

West Jersey and Seashore, Wood to A. I. E. E., June, 1911.

Chicago Edison Contracts with Railways, E. R. J., Oct. 31, 1908, p. 1291.

Steam Turbines.

Steinmetz: Theory of Prime Movers, A. I. E. E., Feb. 1909. Discussion of cost of
steam power, economy, investment, reliability, and thermodynamic efficiency.

Berg: Losses in Transformation of Energy in Coal to Electrical, G. E. Review,
July, 1910.

Reports to Amer. Elec. Ry. Assoc, E. R. J , Oct. 15, 1908, p. 1097.

Kirkland: Energy of Steam, G. E. Review, Dec, 1908.

Goodenough: Relative Economy of Turbines and Engines, S. R. J., Oct. 20, 1906.

Bibbins: Recent Developments in Steam Turbine Power Station and Cost of Power,
S. R.J. , Oct. 19, 1907.

Emmet: Steam Turbines, Reasons for Existence, G. E. Review, Jan., 1908.

Burleigh: Steam Turbines, G. E. Review, Nov., 1910.

Text Books on Gas Power.

Junge: "Gas Power," McGraw, 1908.

Juptner: "Heat Energy of Fuels," McGraw, 1909.

Supplee: "The Gas Turbine," Lippincott, 1910.

Levin: "Modern Gas Engine and Gas Producer," Wiley, 1909.

References on Gas-Electric Power Plants.

Catalogs: Allis, Snow, and Westinghouse Companies.

Bibbins: On Design and Operation, S. R. J., Dec. 20, 1903; Sept. 30, 1905.

Alden and Bibbins: on Economy, A. S. M. E., Dec, 1907; S. R. J., Dec. 21, 1907.

Anderson and Porter: Large Gas Engines, Inst, of Elec Eng., London, Feb., 1909;

Elec Review, N. Y., May 8, 1909.
Tuttle: Gas Producers, E. R. J., May 16, 1908.
Harvey: Gas Producers, A. S. M. E., Oct., 1908.

Boston Elevated R. R., Winsor, S. R. J., Oct. 20, 1906; Oct. 19, 1907.
Warren and Jamestown, N. Y.: S. R. J., Feb. 17, 1906; Elec. Journal, April, 1906;
Western N. Y. & Pennsylvania: E. R. J., July 18, 1908.
Charlotte (N. G.) Electric Ry.: A. I. E. E., May, 1910.
Milwaukee Northern: S. R. J., Dec. 7, 1907.
Midland Railway, England: E. R. J., July 4, 1908.

Text Books on Water Power.

Mead: " Water Power Engineering," McGraw, 1908.

Frizell: "Water Power," Wiley, 1908.

Fanning: "Water Supply," Van Nostrand, 1902.

Merriman: "Hydrauhcs," Wiley, 1904.

Church: "Mechanics of Fluids," Wiley, 1898.

Beardsley: "Design and Construction of Hydro-electric Plants," McGraw, 1908.

494 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

VonSchon: "Hydro-electric Practice," Lippincott, 1908.
Hutchinson: "Water Power and Transniissions," Van Nostrand, 1907.
Thurso: " Turbine Practice, " Van Nostrand, 1905.

Lyndon: "Development and Distribution of Water Power," Wiley, 1908.
HoYT and Grover: "River Discharge," Wiley, 1907.
Wegman: "Design and Construction of Dams," Wiley, 1908.
Koester: "Hydro-electric Development," McGraw, 1909.
Adams: "Electric Transmission of Water Power," McGraw, 1906.

References on Water Power.

Reports: U. S. Geological Survey; U. S. Census; Weather Bureau; U. S. Army

Reports.
Stillwell: Conservation of Water Powers, A. I. E. E., June, 1910.
Osgood: Organization and Operation, A. I. E. E., Feb., 1907.
Darlington: Development and Cost, A. I. E. E., April, 1906.
Herschell: Notes on Water Power Plants, E. W., Jan. 14, 1909.
Horton: Redevelopment of Water Power, G. E. Review, March, 1908.
Mead: Valuation of Water Powers; a report to Wisconsin State Commission, Dec,

1909; E. W., Dec. 23, 1909, p. 1514; A. S. M. E., Jan., 1903.
Beardsley: Financial Aspect; A. I. E. E., Dec, 1910.
Burch: Turbine Testing, Elec World, Dec. 22, 1900.

Storer and Rushmore: Load Factor and Design, A. I. E. E., March, 1908.
Henry: High Head Water Powers, A. I. E. E., Sept., 1903.
Adams: Stave Pipe, A. S. C. E., 1898, p. 676.
Sale of Power:

Harvey: Elec Age, Sept., 1906.

Storer: Elec. Age, Aug., 1906; Eng. Record, Nov. 3, 1906.

Parsons: Eng. Record, 54-161; S. R. J., June 30, 1906.

Fowler: E. W., Sept. 7, 1907, p. 456.

References on Water Power Plants.

Niagara Falls: Electric Railway Power Load, E. W., Oct. 21, 1909.

Grand Rapids-Muskegon Power Co.: E. W., Sept. 16, 1909.

Great Northern Power: Duluth, Elec. World, 1900-1908; July 28, 1906.

St. Anthony Falls, Minneapolis: Burch, N. W. Ry. Club, April 10, 1900; S. R. J.,

Aug. 11, 1900; American Electrician, May, 1898.
Twin City Rapid Transit: S. R. J., May, 1898, Mar. 1 and Aug. 11, 1902, E. R. J.,

June 5, 1909.
Great Northern Railway, Cascade Tunnel: Hutchinson, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909.
Southern California: E. W., July 29 and Oct. 28, 1909.
Utah: E. W., July 15, 1909.

Great Western Power Co., CaUfornia: E. W., Aug. 26, Sept 16 and 23, 1909.
Valtellina Ry., Italy: Load Diagrams, etc., S. R. J., Aug. 26, 1905.

POWER PLANTS FOR RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE 495

This page is reserved for additional references and notes on power plants
for railway train service.

CHAPTER XIV.
PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION.

Outline.

Essential Considerations :

Reasons for procedure, impracticable electrifications, opportunities in general,

opportunities on mountain grades, electrification of established steam roads,
Collection of Data :

Maps and profiles, train service, steam locomotives, freight and passenger cars,

operating expenses, limits on the work.
Deductions from Data :

Analysis of the operation of the road, energy required for trains.
Cost of Electrification :

Power plants, transmission and contact lines, substations, electric motors,

cost of steam equipment of steam roads.
Cost of Electrifications Completed.
Errors to be Avoided :

Amount of equipment, freight service, number of substations, maintenance of

both steam and electric service, lack of appreciation of steam railroad problems.
Electrical Engineers for Railroads.
Literature.

496

CHAPTER XIV.

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION.

IN GENERAL.

The electrification of railroads demands a consideration of the rea-
sons for utilizing electric power, and requires information on the methods,
systems, and practice by which definite results have been accomplished.
This information has already been gathered, in some measure, in the
previous chapters.

ESSENTIAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Economy is the primary consideration for procedure in electrification.
The objects in view in electrification are to save coal rather than to gain
relief from smoke; to accelerate a train economically, not at two-thirds
cut-off; to gain speed rapidly so as to reduce the losses in braking which
accompany high maximum speeds; to avoid friction and excessive
weights; to prevent waste in steam when heavy freight trains are hauled
up the grades at good speed; to use rotary motion in place of reciprocating,
because track pounding is decreased; to reduce the cost of labor and
maintenance per ton-mile; to render efficient service at the congested
freight and passenger terminals; to save time in classifying of cars; to
keep the yards cleared so that the freight does not accumulate; and
finally to furnish all practical facilities for safe and concentrated working
at terminals. .

Gross and net earnings are radically increased when electric trans-
portation methods are used, which fact cannot be questioned after a con-
sideration of the results which were outlined in Chapter III. Financial
considerations always demand first attention. Electrification hinges on
the extent of the returns which can be made from a given expenditure.

Financial reasons are generally combined with physical. Electricity
has already furnished a solution of difficult and important transportation
problems. Developments and applications have now furnished the
financial experience needed. Electric passenger trains, to be profitable,
require unlimited tractive effort for rapid acceleration and for grades.
Suburban trains, interurban roads, and local railways, which are feeders
and distributors for railroads, have increased their net earnings by the
adoption of electric service and methods. Electric power for tunnel
service, with steep grades and heavy traffic, furnishes both the physical
and the economical results desired, and these results are very much
better than with steam traction.

32 497

498 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Physical and financial advantages of electric power for train haulage
were discussed at length in Chapter III, and the physical and financial
advantages of motor cars and of electric locomotives were considered in
Chapters VI and VII.

The reasons for the electrification of tunnels, subways, and terminals
are obvious. Elevated roads now operate heavier electric trains, at
higher speeds over light supporting structures. Motor-car trains have
quickly superseded suburban steam trains, because the former are more
flexible, and frequent stops can be made with economy. Water power
was a factor in the electrification of roads near Albany, Buffalo, Grand
Rapids, Minneapolis, Spokane, Seattle, Denver, Los Angeles, in the
mountains, and elsewhere. The solution of many of the problems, in ^^'
real heavy transportation, required an increase in capacity, i. e., drawbar
pull and speed. The reason why electric traction for trunk lines is to rs,
follow, for freight and passenger traffic, is because electric traction has
inherent physical advantages, and can handle traffic comparable with
existing or heavier service with higher economy.

A broad policy exists on the part of almost every railroad to use rs,
improved methods in transportation- wherever it pays.

Reasons for Procedure in Electrification are now Summarized :

Economy of operation on trunk lines. Saving in power, wages, and maintenance.

Cheaper power from fuels; lignite and culm fields, low grades* of coal. Blast furnace
or coke gas for engines. Natural gas for boilers, or for engines.

Cheaper power from water power, for mountain grades and ordinary roads.

Capacity, drawbar pull and speed, for rapid transit and dense passenger service.

Economy and capacity on mountain grade railroads and in heavy freight haulage.

Smoke nuisance, exhaust noise, and fire risk avoided; tunnel and switching railways.
Elevated railways in large cities. Suburban and resident district railways.
Mill, factory, dock, and industrial railways.

Compulsory, for safety and comfort, at railroad terminals and yards.

Passenger and freight traffic on city streets, with electric motive power.

Financial situation relieved. Lost traffic regained; new business induced.

Prevention of competition; control of railway situations.

Policy of general improvement, local or national; water power vs. importation of
foreign coal; standardization for state railways in Europe; saving in time of
passengers and hastening of freight; passenger service made attractive and
enjoyable.

Demand for frequent and rapid suburban service, ''resulting both from the increase
in population and the education which the public has now received; and the
necessity for increasing the carrying capacity and speed of trains, without
excessive capital expenditure." Dawson: re. London, Brighton & South Coast.

Promotion and development of roads, lands, water powers, etc.

These, then, are the reasons which cause rai road engineers to study
the subject of electrification attentively, to think out the best methods
of procedure in the application of electric power and, at an opportune
time, to act for railroads. Specific cases are now cited.

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 499
REASONS FOR ELECTRIFICATION OF STEAM RAILROADS.

Name of railroad.

Route
miles.

Total
mileage.

Primary or important reason for use
of electric power.

Boston & Maine:

Concord & Manchester Division . .

Hoosac Tunnel

New York, New Haven & Hartford:
New York Division

Harlem River Yards

Manhattan Elevated

New York Central

Long Island

Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal .

West Jersey & Seashore .

Delaware & Hudson.
Albany Southern . . . .
West Shore R. R. . . .

Erie R. R

Lackawanna & Wyoming

Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton

Baltimore & Ohio

Baltimore & Annapolis

Grand Trunk Ry., St. Clair Tunnel.
Michigan Central, Detroit Tunnel . .

Toledo & Western

Cincinnati, George. & Portsmouth, .

Illinois Traction Company

East St. Louis & Suburban

Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy

Colorado & Southern

Rock Island Southern

Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern
Waterloo, Cedar F. & Northern ...

Salt Lake & Ogden

Spokane & Inland Empire

Great Northern, Cascade

Northern Pacific, Everett Division.

Northwestern Pacific

Southern Pacific

Pacific Electric

Havana Central, Cuba.

Mersey Ry., England

North-Eastem Ry., England

Lancashire & Yorkshire

2.3

London, Brighton & South

Coast.

Swedish State 93

Paris- Versailles 11

French Southern Ry 65

Bernese Alps Ry., 52

Prussian State Rys

Swiss Federal Rys i 38

Italian State Rys 141

100

119

150

164

154

245

114

460

560

181

141

100

204

287

100

600

110

108

I ^2

I 250

Interurban traffic.

Limiting point of service, Fitchburg Division.

Compulsory for terminal. Economy for
dense, long-distance traffic.

Economy in yard service.

Lost traffic to regain; economy in operation.

Compulsory for terminal service; economy
of land; better service.

Dense local traffic. Economy of operation.

Tunnel grades; city terminals; suburban traf-
fic.

Increased earnings for a long route. To fore-
stall a proposed parallel competitor.

"Largely a protective measure."

Water power; interurban lines.

"Recognizing the evils of competition."

Utilization of existing tracks.

Competition prevented.

Grades; development of a new road.

Tunnel and terminal service.

Many reasons. See Chapter XV.

Tunnel and terminal service.

Tunnel; saving in time.

Inteiurban freight service.

Improvement of road.

New business and interurban traffic.

Coal haulage to and in St. Louis.

Suburban traffic to Evanston, Illinois.

Grades on Black Hills Division.

Use of water power for grades on Denver
Division.

Utilization of waste coal.

General.

General serviceability.

Land development; water power.

Tunnel.

Competition prevented.

General serviceability.

Heavy suburban traffic.

Heavy interurban traffic.

Freight haulage.

Tunnel and to regain traffic.

Increase in capacity.

To regain lost traffic; to furnish frequent and
economical service.

Competition; loss of traffic. Capacity for
dense traffic. Best use of investment.

Water power; economy in freight haulage.

Tunnel grades near terminals.

Water power; mountain freight haulage.
j Water power; mountain grade haulage.

General economic development.

Water power; grades; tunnels.

Water power; mountain grade haulage.

In each case there wa.s a combination of reasons.

500 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Impracticable electrifications must be considered, to avoid waste of
money and effort, particularly so while there are so many good oppor-
tunities for the advantageous application of electric traction. Im-
practicable cases, when analyzed, are generally shown to be" those
wherein the investment for the large electrical equipment cannot be
used regularly.

Traffic may not be sufficiently heavy to give body to the load.
There is no economy operating on a short line; or of making large in-
vestments for a small amount of work.

Railroads must have 10 trains each way per day or haul 1,000,000
ton-miles daily, per 100-mile division, before electrification is practical.

Electric power should not be used on a small scale, ^'to try it out,"
because economies to overbalance the fixed charges cannot be effected;
nor is it necessary any longer to experiment with equipment. Skilled
and experienced men are now available. Calculations can be predicted
with accuracy as in other lines of engineering.

Traffic may not be sufficiently regular. Electrification for passen-
ger service alone, from the terminal of a city of less than 300,000 people,
is financially impracticable. The freight and switching service should
always be added so that during the 24 hours of the day, the entire in-
vestment may be utilized steadily. Traffic cannot be regular with short
roads. Electrification is impracticable for an intermittent traffic,
badly bunched business, heavy Sunday excursion and light week-day
service, infrequent and heavy passenger and freight service; or for ir-
regular train service on long grades. Large power plants, with good
load factors, are necessary for economy. Above all, the powxr plant,
power transmission lines, and electrical equipment must be utilized
regularly to reduce the fixed charges per ton-mile or per train-mile.

Energy required for trains may not be capable of being generated at
a reasonably low sum per kilowatt hour, on account of the traffic limita-
tions, a low load factor, lack of condensing water, etc.

Opportunities generally arise for the use of electric power, or are
favored by those situations and conditions where work can be done ef-
fectively and economically, and where the fixed charges on the added
electrical equipment are a small portion of the operating expenses.
Opportunities of this nature are developed on:

City, suburban, and interstate railways.

Interurban roads on an existing railroad right-of-way.

Railroads with light bridges or structural limitations.

Dense traffic with frequent light or heavy trains.

Roads which are worked up to their track capacity.

Locations where cheap water power or coal or gas is available.

Roads which use large quantities of high-priced coal.

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 501

Roads \Yhere the water supply for locomotives is bad or expensive.

Branch roads when electric power is used on the main line.

Parallel roads, already built to obtain and retain new traffic.

New lines, to prevent competition or to lower rates.

Situations where by-products of electrification can be saved as when
the railroad load can be smoothed out by the use of live steam for power,
pumping, light, production of ice, etc., and of exhaust steam for heating,
during the hours of non-peak load.

Terminal railways to reduce the number of train movements; to
handle traffic in materially less time; to prevent congestion; to utilize
the expensive real estate efficiently, to superimpose tracks, offices, and
warehouses, over the tracks, sub-tracks, etc.

Roads which can carry out electrification on a large scale.

Wherever more than 250 h. p. are required per mile of single track,
the electric locomotive can replace the steam locomotive with decided
economy and advantage. Leonard.

Power equipment used per mile of single track, given in a table on
Steam-Electric Power Plant Installations, page 427, for many railroads
is over 1000 h. p. per mile of single track.

Mountain -grade electrification deserves consideration where there is
heavy traffic because of the physical and financial advantage to be
gained. The work done up to this time has been limited.

Steam locomotives of the largest size, including many Mallet com-
pounds, are now used. In mountain grade service the steam locomo-
tive is unsatisfactory because:

a. Weight per h. p. output is twice that of electric locomotives
and the excessive weight destroys track, trestles, embankments, and
roadbed. Curves must be well crowned to prevent a runaway train
from jumping the curves and, at slow speeds, the well-oiled flanges
of drivers, on 10- to 14-foot rigid wheel bases, grind hard against the
rail head. Curves are soon destroyed by this friction.

b. Complications exist in articulated locomotives with their steam
connections and the multiplicity of mechanical parts. The friction
at operating speeds is high and exceeds 30 pounds per ton. Many
Mallets will not drift down a 1.7 per cent, grade.

c. Maintenance expenses per train-mile are enormously high, and
are out of all proportion to the advantage gained. Excessive tempera-
ture strains are produced in the fire boxes and tubes. The cost of
maintenance in winter is from 15 to 35 per cent, greater than the cost
in summer. The great length, weight, and vibration result in enormous
strains, followed by leakage and breakage, and time lost on the road.

d. Speed is slow because the capacity to haul heavy trains is lim-
ited by the square feet of heating surface in the boiler. Traffic is de-

502 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

layed by slow speeds, the mileage is reduced, and the equipment, track,
and cars are thereby increased. The investment is not utilized to best
advantage. The 250-ton Mallet, with two firemen, and an overloaded
furnace, hauls only 800 to 900 tons trailing load up 2.2 per cent, grades
and then at a speed of only 10 to 8 miles per hour.

e. Radiation of heat and the stand-by losses, on the cold windy
divisions, require a large proportion of the total coal used. The loco-
motives work hard for a short time and are then idle for many hours.

f. Economy of Mallet compound steam locomotives in mountain
service is low because the steam is used at about two-thirds stroke, and
because condensation and friction are excessive. See data on Southern
Pacific and other Mallet locomotives in Chapter II.

Electric locomotives in mountain grade service are:

a. Light in total weight, and in weight per linear foot.

b. Simple in construction, and somewhat automatic in operation.

c. Maintained at a much lower cost per train-mile run, because of
fewer parts and lower friction.

d. Efficient, in that there are no stand-by losses.

e. Economical in the use of steam at the central steam power plant;
economical in the cost of power when cheap low-grade coals are available,
or when water power is available in the mountains.

f. Safe in tunnel operation, safety being promoted by regeneration
of electrical energy in braking on the down-grade. Wrecks are fewer.

g. Capable of hauling the heaviest trains, not at 8 m. p. h., but at 15;
not with one 250-ton locomotive concentrated at the head or behind
the train, but with two 125-ton locomotives controlled by one engineman
and his assistant. While the capacity of the steam locomotive is greatly
reduced by cold windy weather, the capacity of the electric locomotive is
increased. Capacity, light weight, and economy are combined.

Operation on mountain grades and on ordinary but long grades
is an important matter, because the cost of steam service is relatively
high. Economies can be effected; the congestion can be avoided; the
single track can be used to better advantage; the cost of track and loco-
motive maintenance can be reduced; the wrecks can be decreased; and
the high wages paid per ton-mile can be reduced. The limit on the loads
to be hauled, and on the speed, can be placed at the electric power plant.
Railroads on heavy mountain grades can adopt electric traction to best
advantage, when the traffic is heavy and frequent, and the grades are long
and steep.

The following table compiled from an Interstate Commerce Report,
and from other sources, shows the character and the importance of the
work on mountain grades.

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION

503

FREIGHT HAULAGE BY STEAM LOCOMOTIVES ON MOUNTAIN GRADES.

Name of railroad.

Name of
mountain or grade.

Length
in miles.

Grade
in%.

Trains
daily.

Tonnage
per train.

M. p. h. on
down-
grade.

Baltimore & Ohio ....

Buffalo, Rochester &
Pittsburg.

Delaware, Lackawan-
na & Western.

Erie R. R

Delaware & Hudson . .

Pennsylvania .

Western Maryland
Chesapeake & Ohio.

Philadelphia & Read.
Duluth, Missabe &

Northern.
Chicago, St. Paul,

Minneapolis & Omaha
Chicago, Milwaukee

& St. Paul.
Great Northern

Sand Patch, Pa

Grafton, W. Va. . .

Bingham

W. Valley

Clark Summit

Pocono

Cowanda

Big Shanty

Carbondale-Forest C
Forest City Ararat. .
Ararat-Oneonta . .

Bellwood

Tryone

Dunlo

Gallitzen

Pottsville.

Cumberland

Thurmond-Ronce-

verte.
Ron. -Allegheny . . .

Flackville

Proctor Hill |

Hudson, Wise
St. Paul

6.4

6.0

14.0

75.0

8.2

10.0

. 4.5

11.0

4.5

6.5

20.0

Chicago, Milwaukee &
Puget Sound.
Colorado Midland

St. Paul. . .
Butte Hill. .

Cascade

Bitter Root .

Denver & Rio Grande

Hagerman .
UtePass..
Bingham . .

Soldier Summit.

Atchinson, Topeka &
Santa Fe.

Svmny Side I

Tennessee Pass . . . . i

Tehachapi '

Glorieta j

Raton Mt I

Canadian Pacific

Northern Pacific

Phoenix. . .

Livingston .

Helena. . . .

Helena. . . .
i Missoula. . .

Cascade

i Cascade ...
Butte, Anaconda & P. Butte

13.0
5.7
6.0

1.0

1.0
12.0
32.0

4.0

38.2

9.5

9.0

2.0

14.0

. 7.0

18.0

10.0

21.0

30.8

9.8

13.0

15.0

4.0

11.0

16.0

3.0

15.0

10.0

6.0

4.8

1.70
2.20
50
70
48
52
50
2.45
1.36
0.81
1.00
3.31
3.00
3.50
1.70
to 2.38
3.13
1.19
1.70
.36

.57
3.50
2.00

1.50

1.65
2.20
2.20
2.00

3.13
3.50
2.00
4.00
2.20
4.00
2.46
2.50
3.00
2.20
3.00
3.50
2.20
4.50
2.20
2.20
1.61
2.20
2.20
1.42
2.50

60-100
20-40
60-80

60-100

15-22

150
10
10

16
12
10
10
12
18
18
20

1800-3000
1800-2000
2250-2500
1500-1800
2000-2300
1500-2500
1000-1400
1600-1750
1400-1500

1400-2200
1600-2000
1500-1700
1500-2000

700-1000

3000
1000-1500
15,000,000 tons
per year.
1500-2000

900-1500

1300-1520
1200-1850
1000-1500

760
500
600

1800

650

850

1800

800

1000-1500

950-1000

1000

500-800

1400-1600

1600-1800

1000-1500

1000-1100

504

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

FREIGHT HAULAGE BY STEAM LOCOMOTIVES ON SOME MOUNTAIN
GRADES. (Continued.)

Name of railroad.

Name of
mountain or grade.

Length
in miles.

Grade
in%.

Trains
daily.

Tonnage
per train.

M, p. h. on
down-
grade.

Butte, A. and Pacific.

Butte- Anaconda . . .

Anaconda

Rock

8.0

6.7

Many.

18.0

9.3

30.0

70.0

87.0

.41
1.16
2.20
3.30
2.20
2.20
2.20
1.50

Few,

Many.

Many
Many

3400-3600
1900-2000

12-14
6-10

800-1200

900-1400

800-1500

1050-1300

1000-1200

11-12

Shasta

Tehachapi

Sierra Nevada

Roseville-Summit. .

12-15

14-20

7-10

Speeds noted are from trainmen's time tables and show the maxiumm allowed on the down-
grade, which speed is about one-half of the up-grade speed. Tonnage is the ordinary freight train
load behind the head locomotive. Two locomotives are common per train.

See profile of grades of important railroads in Ry. Age Gazette, July 21, 1911, p. 111.

Electrification of established steam roads can be accomplished to much
better advantage by steam railroads than by new, independent, parallel
electric roads, for the following seven reasons:

Money can be borrowed by steam roads at lower rates, on a large scale,
and with minimum delay when an existing road banks its reputation,
past and future, on the outcome.

Traffic already exists and haulage of freight and passenger trains can
be clearly estimated. The economies to be effected are more definitely
predetermined. The records of traffic and interchange are actual, and
what is needed for haulage can be carefully studied.

Roadbed is completed, and electrification s'mply means the better use
of the investment, yet without complication for either steam or electric
service. Bridges, terminals, and buildings may be utilized.

Car equipment is already in service, and ready for haulage with elec-
tric locomotives.

Organization is perfected, and experienced railroad managers, super-
intendents, dispatchers, and well-trained employees govern; not a set of
new, unorganized railroad men.

Investment is required for electrical equipment only, or approxi-
mately 20 per cent, of the total cost of the existing steam railroad. A
new road must obtain a complete outfit — terminal, right-of-way, roadbed,
equipment, offices, organization.

In competition, the steam road which uses electric traction can get
and also keep the business from new or old competing roads.

COLLECTION OF DATA FOR PROCEDURE IN ELECTRIFICATION.

In the engineering work for the electrification of roads, the chief
engineer, the electric traction engineer, the superintendent of motive

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 505

power, and others, usually make a preliminary report to the manager or
president on the use of electric power for train haulage over a division.

The advantages of electric traction are not argued by these men.
They have already in mind, for the specific case under consideration,
some definite physical results to be gained, or which are needed, to
facilitate the handling of traffic.

The work to be done is first outlined, and the limits and character
of the w^ork are specified. In the procedure which follows, steps are
taken to determine, in a logical and definite way, the cost of the elec-
trification and the extent of the financial advantage to be gained.

Data are at once required for a study of the situation. Most of these
are available at the railroad office, but some of the facts and working
conditions must be obtained from inspections along the division; and
the valuable experience of the superintendents, master mechanics, di-
vision engineers, and others in charge of operation, maintenance of ways,
and of construction, is to be used. If the road is not already in oper-
ation, the data cannot be obtained directly, and conditions on many
similar roads must be studied, and predeterminations must be made.
The experience of other roads is always to be obtained.

Information is generally collected on the following:

1. Maps, profiles, locations, stations, grades, curves, general con-
struction, rails used, trestles, bridges, tunnels, sidings, connecting points,
yards, shops, and terminal points where engines and crews are changed.

2. Train service, the character, volume, and direction of existing
and new traffic, and changes which are desirable in methods of working.
Information is needed on the number and weight of all trains; on the
average and the maximum number of trains, on the suburban traffic,
on the intermittent work, fish and silk trains, harvest and state fair
lousiness; on the direction of ore, coal, grain, and lumber traffic; on the
prevailing direction of empty cars; and on the terminal freight and
yard service. The traffic sheets for each class of service are necessary
to get the number of trains, number of cars, and weight of each train.

Speeds of trains — the scheduled and maximum speeds. The speed
records of each type of train, in each direction, are to be obtained from
a Boyer or Shalter recorder.

3. Characteristics of the steam locomotives used, as outlined in
Chapter II, and a classification of the number used on each division,
the heating surface, grate surface, coal and water used, cylinders, dis-
tribution of weights, and the outline drawings.

4. Freight and passenger car data, in general; and details on the
truck equipment, if rapid transit at terminals is involved.

5. Operating expenses, particularly the kind, source, and cost of
different fuels, the costs per ton-mile and per train-mile for each class

506 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

of service; the coal and water for switchers and not tests alone, but
averages.

6. Maintenance and repair accounts for each service.

Other data will be required for consideration of details and for the
particular problems considered.

Limits must be placed on the engineering work involved, because
a clean-cut report is required on the specific work under consideration.
Too many details and side issues often encumber and retard progress
in forming plans and recommendations.

DEDUCTIONS FROM DATA.

An analysis of the operation of the railroad must naturally follow.
Broad problems are outlined first. The relative extent of each service,
the relative cost, and the net profits, are always involved. The real
nature of the business of the road, and of the traffic, is considered.
An estimate of the rate of growth, in the past and for the future, is made.

Lower cost of roadbed, shorter routes; increased capacity of road;
cheaper fuels, coal mines, or water powers which are available; use of
exhaust steam in winter; electric power and light for different shops,
elevators, pumps, manufacturing plants; street railways, branch lines,
and interurban feeders; joint use of power plant by several railroads,
etc., each receives consideration. The financial and physical results
from operation of other roads are analyzed.

The energy required for trains now receives consideration, as out-
lined in Chapter XL The application to the problems of the particular
road are made, and the power data are analyzed.

a. Train sheets are drawn for the proposed service.

b. Tractive effort curves are made for each type of train, showing the
friction at different speeds, the acceleration rates of different trains,
tractive effort for grades, and for a varying number of freight cars or
coaches in ordinary trains. Switching service receives consideration.

c. Speeds to be used must be settled.

d. Power required for each train is now plotted, using first m.p.h.
and then time as the base, and mechanical h. p. as the ordinate of
all curves. (The requirements for ordinary service exceed 100 kilowatts
per mile of single track; and 40 watt-hours per ton-mile.)

e. Load diagrams of all trains are plotted on one sheet with time as
a base and h. p. or kilowatts as the ordinate. On this diagram all
losses are added. The integrated curve is used to determine the total
load at any time of the day, and the energy required.

f . Distribution of the energy and the power required along the railroad
divisions, substations, etc., now receive extended consideration. Trans-
mission lines, feeders, contact lines, control circuits, maximum number
of trains between substations, and other details of the electric power
installation are tabulated and plotted.

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 507

COST OF ELECTRIFICATION.

Cost of electrification is an important subject, because the niinimum
cost for a suitable construction, and naaximum economy in operation, are
the essentials in transportation. High cost of electrical equipment is
one of the chief handicaps which now prevents the general introduction
of electric traction on railroads. The cost of individual items is quite
valueless unless there is a clear understanding of the relation of the
variables which are involved.

The cost of electrification depends primarily upon the following:

1. Density of traffic to be handled.

2. Weight of individual train units, the speeds, the grades, the
reliability desired, and the amount of traffic to be interchanged.

3. Length of the route and tracks to be electrified. Length of route
affects the load factor of the power plant and the best utilization of trans-
mission lines. Length affects the cost of electrification per mile of track'.

4. The electric system employed for the service.

The cost of electric traction equipment to be used is found to vary
between the following limits :

A. Power plants, 25 to 40%, average 30%

B. Lines and substations, 40 to 60%, average 50%

C. Motor equipment, 15 to 25%, average 20%

A. Power plants are either steam or hydroelectric, since the cost of
gas engine equipment is now prohibitive. The cost varies from 25 to 40
per cent, of the total cost of electrification, depending, in the plant, largely
upon the load factor, and relative cost of B and C, which in turn vary
largely with the distance and the density of traffic.

Turbines, three-phase alternators, transformers, and switchboards
require about the same type, size, voltage, and arrangement, for each
electric system, i.e. they are not affected by the system.

Direct-current, 600- or 1200-volt systems generally require greater
power and more energy than other systems because of the larger losses
in contact lines and. rotary converter substations. Single-phase systems
may require the same kv-a. capacity and if two single-phase circuits of
three-phase alternators are used, may require as much electric genera-
tor capacity as other systems; but the boiler and turbine equipment
required for the single-phase system is decidedly less than for other sys-
tems because of the small transmission and substation losses. Three-
phase systems require a decidedly larger power plant equipment where
grades are encountered in ordinary rolling country on a long division of
a common railroad, because the two efficient speeds commonly used cause
greater fluctuations in the load. In order to decrease the amount and
cost of equipment per ton-mile hauled, it is essential that the load factor,
or ratio of the average load to maximum load be high.

508 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

B. Line and substation cost for a given density of traffic varies
from 40 to 60 per cent, of the total cost of electrification.

Direct-current systems using 600- or 1200-volts require expensive
contact lines and rotary converter substations, and are thus handi-
capped for main line railroading. Substations with men to operate
them will not be installed where they can be avoided.

Single-phase systems without substations, or with infrequent sub-
stations and without attendants, require the minimum expenditure.
Overhead contact lines and feeders are decidedly less expensive than the
overhead or third-rail contact line and feeders for a 600- or 1200-volt
direct-current system. The impedance loss per mile at 25 cycles for one
4/0 trolley and two 100-pound track rails is 0.55 ohms. With an ordi-
nary train requiring 2000 kv-a. the 11,000-volt contact line loss is only
1 per cent, per mile, per train. Therefore, for heavy traffic, the number
and cost of transformer feeding substations and the contact line cost
and losses are greatly reduced.

Three-phase systems with 3000 volts between the two trolleys as used
in Europe, or 6000 as used in the Great Northern Tunnel, are expensive
because the cost of two trolleys, insulation, and installation are about
twice as much as for the single-phase system.

If catenary construction, parallel to the two trolleys, is employed for
safety and for mechanical reasons, the cost of three-phase, two-trolley
contact lines is greatly increased. The contact line loss with an or-
dinary train requiring 2000 kv-a., and with 6000 volts between the
contact lines, is 3 per cent, per mile, per train. With 3000 volts between
the conductors, the contact line loss is 12 per cent, per mile, per train.

The drawbar pull of three-phase motors varies inversely as the square of the
voltage applied to the motor. For example, the small loss of 12 per cent, in the volt-
age to the motors, which may be expected, means a decrease of 23 per cent, in the
drawbar pull; it is therefore essential that substation transformers be frequent.

Transformers in substations, or on locomotives and cars, cost less
in single-phase units than in three-phase units, particularly so in large
sizes. The use of 3000 volts directly on the stator of a large three-phase
locomotive motor is practical with careful construction; while with
6000 or 11,000 volts on the line, lower voltages are required on the stator
of three-phase and single-phase motors.

C. Motor equipments for electric traction vary in cost from 15 to
25 per cent, of the total cost of electrification.

Shunt-wound, direct-current motors or two-speed, three-phase motors,
with transformers, cost most, because with constant-speed working, in
ordinary rolling country, the maximum load is decidedly large com-
pared with the average load. They are not used for ordinary rail-
roading, for rapid transit, or for switching yards.

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 509

The heating of motor coils varies as the square of the h. p.; that is,
if the speed on the level were maintained on a 1 per cent, grade, three times
as much power is required as on the level, the heating effect would be
nine times as large, altho the duration of the period of heating might
be reduced one-half as compared with series motors.

Series motors, either alternating- or direct-current, protect them-
selves, b}^ slowing down in some measure as the load increases, so that the
output from the motor is more or less equalized, and a much smaller
investment is required to do an average amount of work.

The weight of three-phase motors is lower, the efficiency is
higher, and the cost is lower per rated h.p. than other motors. Three-
phase motors have the highest cost, per average h.p. output, in service on
ordinary grades in ordinary rolling country. Single-phase motors will
weigh 10 to 20 per cent, more than direct-current and three-phase
motors, because of the extra alternating-current losses at commutators. A
low-voltage rotor in a three-phase or in a single-phase motor does not
increase the cost of the motor, and it increases its reliability.

The weight of single-phase motors, assuming it to be 15 per cent,
greater than others, may add 5 per cent, to the locomotive weight and 1
per cent, to the train weight. In ordinary freight service it is often
necessary to place ballast on direct-current, three-phase, and single-
phase locomotives, otherwise the torque of the motors slips the drivers;
but in passenger service the minimum weight of motors and locomotives
serves to best advantage.

Control of motors affects the cost of motors. Direct-current motors
require resistance to reduce the voltage during acceleration, at which
time they have a low efficiency. Three-phase two-speed motors have
a decidedly low efficiency during acceleration. Single-phase motor
control is efficient, simple, effective, and of low cost.

The cost of electrification bears some relation to the total efficiency
of the system. It is assumed that three-phase and direct-current mo-
tors have higher efficiency than single-phase motors, but the great differ-
ence in motor control, contact line, transformer, and transmission line
efficiency is in favor of the single-phase system. The total equipment,
the amount of power required, and the cost of railroad electrification
are the least with the single-phase system in almost all cases.

Interchange of traffic affects the cost of electrification, since some
interchange will be required in railroading. The motor equipment
can be chosen to run on direct-current terminal lines, and on one
trolley of three-phase lines. The additional cost in some cases must
be paid, in order to reap the advantages of interchange of traffic.
y'^, The cost of electrification of steam and electric railroads is detailed,
beginning page 512.

510

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The cost of equipment of steam railroads in general maybe reviewed.
The Minnesota State Railroad Commission^ after working 30 months,
summarized the cost of reproduction and present value of the railroads, in
Minnesota to June 30, 1907, for 8100 miles of road and 10,437 miles of
single track, as follows:

COST OF STEAM RAILROADS. STATE OF MINNESOTA.

Items listed.

Cost of
production.

Present
value.

Land for right of way, yards, and terminals.

Grading, clearing, and grubbing

Protection work, rip rap, retaining walls

Tunnels

Cross ties and switch ties

Ballast ■

Rails

Track fastenings

Switches, frogs, and railroad crossings

Track laying and surfacing

Bridges, trestles, and culverts

Track and bridge tools

Fences, cattle guards, and signs

Stock yards and appurtenances

Water stations, 0 . 4 per cent

Coal stations, 0 . 2 per cent

Station buildings and fixtures

Miscellaneous buildings -. '

Steam heat and electric light plants

General repair shops

Shop machinery and tools

Engine houses, turntables, cinder pits, 0.6 per cent.

Track scales

Dock and wharves, including coal and ore docks . . .

Interlocking plants

Signal apparatus

Telegraph and telephone lines and appurtenances . .

Adaptation and solidification of roadbed

Engineering, superintendence, legal expenses

Locomotives, 4 per cent

Passenger equipment

Freight car equipment

Miscellaneous and marine equipment

Freight on construction material

Contingencies

Stores and supplies

Interest during construction

Total.

$73,201,757

56,006,782

2,419,292

253,250

17,491,500

9,413,351

33,010,087

5,936,740

1,389,363

5,340,689

19,567,524

201,918

2,768,394

559,896

1,606,164

717,519

'5,855,258

4,344,681

797,484

4,123,119

1,831,671

2,837,988

184,130

6,065,496

403,071

155,766

1,410,574

11,743,007

12,133,641

17,090,953

6,616,170

46,911,106

1,370,166

3,635,535

17,869,703

5,210,010

31,261,419

$411,735,194

$73,201,757

56,006,782

2,419,292

215,262

9,627,539

9,413,351

25,199,668

4,543,054

962,741

5,340,689

14,518,834

151,488

1,403,082

349,759

1,144,535

507,713

4,097,249

3,403,171

656,069

2,959,019

1,484,756

1,874,436

129,474

5,392,960

293,197

126,217

1,065,153

11,743,007

12,133,641

12,608,422

4,554,442

34,068,005

908,682

3,635,535

17,869,703

5,210,010

31,261,419

$360,480,160

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 511

' The cost of the motive-power equipment, steam locomotives, shops,
and water and coal stations was only 5 per cent., and the value was
only 4 per cent, of the total cost of the steam railroads.

Cost of the motive power equipment of steam roads is thus a very
small item in the total cost of the road. Assuming that the total cost
of a railroad without the motive power is $38,000 per mile of single
track, the additional cost for the motive power will be about $2000 per
mile.

Cost of electric motive power and equipment is usually as follows :
Power plants $90 to $100 per kilowatt; contact lines for one, two, and
six tracks, $4000 to $7000 per single-track mile, and for yards $1500 to
$3000 per single-track mile; locomotives for switching, freight, and
passenger service, $20,000 to $45,000 per unit.

Cost of electric power plants, transmission lines, and electric locomo-
tives, runs from $7000 to $12,000 per mile of main line track or $1,500,000
for a 100-mile division having 125 miles of track; yet this is only 11 to 17
per cent., to be added to the total cost of the steam railroad.

There is then a relatively small difference between a steam and an
electric railroad so far as first cost is concerned.

A railroad company which considers electrification, determines
whether the added interest, taxes, and depreciation of $700 to $1200
per mile of track per annum will be more than compensated by an in-
crease in gross earnings and a decrease in labor, fuel, and maintenance.

Electrification expenditures for central power plants, and the cost with
transformers and converters, were detailed under Steam, Gas, and Water
Power Plants; in presenting Transmission and Contact Lines, the costs
of these w^ere given; and under Motor-car Trains and Electric Locomotives,
the cost of the electric motive power equipment was given. The relative
cost of these items, and the things which influence the cost, have just
received consideration. The power plant costs are not variable. Lines
and substations for power distribution form about 50 per cent, of the total
cost of electrification, and this subject therefore requires the greater study.

The cost of electric locomotives with their power plant, shops, and
inspection sheds is three to four times as much as the cost of steam loco-
motives with their coal and water tender, coal and water depots, pumping
plants, elevators, ash pits, trestle tracks, round house, and washing plant.

The cost of electrification for a particular situation requires a study
of the features governing the length of road, density of traffic, number
and weight of individual train units, ratio of average to maximum power,
distribution of power, and the number and kind of substations.

The cost of electrification of steam railroads is being gradually reduced
as the state of the art advances, as experimental work decreases, and as
development charges are spread over larger amounts of equipment.

512

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

COST OF ELECTRIFICATIONS COMPLETED OR PROPOSED.

The actual cost of electrifications completed is extremely hard to get.
Railroads usually keep data on cost of construction behind "stone walls."
Estimates are often required. A statistical study is, however, of value,
and such data as are available are presented. The roads are:

Boston & Eastern page 512

Boston & Albany 513

New Haven, at Boston 514

New York Central:

Hudson and Harlem Div 514

Adirondacks Divisions 515

New York, New Haven & Hartford 516

West Jersey and Seashore 516

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line 517

Grand Trunk Ry., St. Clair Tunnel 517

Ohio and Indiana Interurbans. . . 517

Great Northern Ry:

Cascade Tunnel . 518

Spokane & Inland Empire 518

Southern Pacific Company 519

Paris-Orleans 519

Paris Metropolitan 519

German State 520

Burgdorf-Thun 521

Valtellina 521

Milan- Varese 521

Summary 522

BOSTON & EASTERN RAILROAD, PROPOSED IN 1909.

Item.

Amount. Unit cost.

Total.

P. c.

Power station:

Land, wharf, etc

Building, stack, intake

Boilers, engines, generators.

Other electrical equipment.

Miscellaneous

Transmission line

Third rail

Track bonding

Transmission cable

Terminal houses

Converter substations, 3. .

Cars, with 4-200-h. p. motors.

Total

8000 kw.

16 miles
41.3 miles
41 . 3 miles

7 miles

2
10,000 kw.
50 cars
41 . 3 miles.

$100
4
20
62
4
10
4,000
4,700
500
7,920
3,000
@ 30
@ 16,850
@ 55,270

$32,000

160,000

4^6,000

32,000

80,000 J

64,000

194,100

20,650

55,340

6,000

300,000

842,500

$2,282,590

35.0

28.0

37.0

100.0

The road is now under construction between Boston and Beverly.

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 513
BOSTON AND ALBANY RAILROAD, BOSTON TERMINAL 'ZONE.

The estimates for electrification dated October 31, 1910, included
20.9 miles of four-track road, 9.89 miles of double-track road, and 25.0
miles of single track, and the electrification of all passenger tracks and
some of the local freight sidings on the main line, to handle 3,619 daily
train-miles. The estimates embraced the following:

Item.

Amount.

Unit.

Total.

Re.

Power station and
three substations.
Transmission lines

22,500 kw.
11,350 kw.

$1,859,500

446,500 \

1,068,000 /

554,400 ^

1,105,400 i

336,500 '

350,000 J

100,000

940,000 \

60,000 /

700,000

24.8

Third rail and bonding

Electric locomotives . .

128 miles
16
62
31

@ 8,320
@34,650
@ 17,829
@10,851

20.1

Motor cars

Trail coaches

31.2

Inspection shops

Contingencies

1 3

Track and station changes. . . .

Tidal wave basins to protect
third rail from water.

Automatic block-signal, recon-
struction.

Less credit for :

Steam locomotives

Coaches

13.3

9.3

29
113

128 miles.

14,800
6,000

@ 50,000

7,520,300

429,000

678,000

1,107,000

$6,413,300

100.0

Total for 29 miles of route ....

The Boston and Albany is owned by the New York Central, which
in its report to the Joint Board of Metropolitan Improvements advocated
the use of the third-rail, 1200-volt, direct-current system for the Boston
terminal electrification.

514

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD RAILROAD.
BOSTON TERMINAL ZONE.

The electrification costs dated November 15, 1910, were estimated as
follows :

Item.

Amount.

Unit.

Total.

P. c.

Power station

60,000 kw.

15.46 m. 4-track
128.07 m. 2-track

32.44 m. 1 -track
111.20 m. in yard
461.62 miles total.

@ $100
@40,000
@ 20,000
@ 7,000
@ 4,000
@ 8,340

$6,000,000

18.3

Transmission and overhead

single-phase contact lines.

Terminal, inspection, and

repair shops.
Light passenger locomotives
Heavy passenger locomotives

Multiple-unit motor cars

Multiple-unit trail cars

Spare parts for loco, and cars
Automatic block signaling

3,850,240
1,817,000 ■

4,520,000
2,205,000 ■
6,960,000
5,014,100
635,602
1,750,000
$32,751,942

11.8

113

232

377

@40,000
@45,000
@ 30,000
@ 13,300

64.6

5.3

461 . 62 miles

Total ...

@ 70,950

100.0

Note. — The high cost of electrification seems to be caused by liberal estimates per
unit, also by no credit for 101 steam locomotives and 227 passenger coaches replaced,
and by the heavy peak load for 5 to 6 P. M. passenger trains. If the freight traffic
had been added, the cost per ton-mile would have been radically decreased.

The total daily train mileage .was estimated as 17,286 or 2.5 times that of the New
York Central electric zone.

NEW YORK CENTRAL, MOHAWK & MALONE DIVISION, ESTIMATE.

Item.

Amount.

Unit.

Total.

P. c.

Power station

12,390 kw.

@ $95.00

$1,232,000
2,860,000 \

630,000 /
1,500,000

934,000

7,156,000
436,000

17.2

Transmission and contact lines

Substations

@ 17.50
@ 50,000. 00

48.8

Electric locomotives

Miscellaneous

Thirty

20.9
13.1

Sum

100.0

Less steam locomotives

.... . ...

253 miles

@, 26,561. 00

Net total

$6,720,000

•

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION

515

NEW YORK CENTRAL, CARTHAGE & ADIRONDACKS DIVISION,

ESTIMATE.

Power station, steam

Transmission and contact line .

1,230 kw.

@ $95.00

$117,100
690,000 \
105,000 j
200,000
166,900

9,2

Substations, 16

3,000 kw.
4

@ 17.50
@ 50,000. 00

62.2

Electric locomotives . .

15 6

Miscellaneous

13 0

Sum

1,279,000 .
32,000

100 0

Less steam locomotives

61 miles

@ 8,000.00
@ 20,443. 00

Net total

$1,247,000

NEW YORK CENTRAL, NEW YORK «

fe OTTAWA DIVISION, ESTIMATE.

Power station

840 kw.

@ $95.00

$80,000
678,000 \
105,000 /
200,000
159,000

1,222,000
26,000

6 5

Transmission and contact line .

Substations

@ 17.50
@ 50,000. 00

64.1

Electric locomotives

16 4

Miscellaneous

13 0

SiiTn

100 0

Less steam locomotives

60 miles

@ 19,934. 00

Net total

$1,196,000

NEW YORK CENTRAL, ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS DIVISIONS.

Item.

Amount.

Unit.

Total.

P. c.

Power station, steam I 15,000 kw. @ $95.00 $1,425,000

Transmission and contact line . ' ' 4,228,000 "(^

Substations
Electric locomotives .
Sundry

Sum

Less steam locomotives.

Net total

@ 17.50
@ 50,000. 00

@11,762

840,000 /
1,900,000
1,259,000

9,652,000
494,000

374 miles i @24,486.00 j $9,158,000

14.8

52.5

19.7
13.0

100.0

Two 60, 000- volt transmission circuits with (4 No. 0 wires) and one 11,000-volt
contact line circuit.

"The enormous cost of electric equipment and the heavy increase in annual
operating cost are due to the fact that the service proposed is totally unsuited for
economical electric operation, long hauls, and infrequent heavy units being diametric-

516

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

ally opposite to that required for successful electrification." E. B. Katte, Chief
Engineer of Electric Traction, New York Central Railroad, in a report of New York
Public Service Commission, Second District, 1909.

The estimate is high, at $11,000 per mile for transmission and contact Une; and
for 38 electric locomotives to replace 42 steam locomotives.

NEW YORK CENTRAL, HUDSON AND HARLEM DIVISIONS.

No data as yet available. See totals on page 542.

NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD.
The Electrification Costs on the New York Division to 1911 Approximated.

Item,

Amount.

Unit.

Total.

Per cent.

Power station ^ 12,000 kw.

Overhead construction, 4-
to 6-track bridges.
Feeders and track bonding.

Passenger locomotives

Freight locomotives

Motor cars

Signals, yards, sundry

22 miles

88 miles
41

2
4

Total for 22 miles of route.

100 miles

@ $100
@37,000

@ 342
@45,000
@75,000
@12,500

,$50,000

$1,200,000
814,000

30,000

1,845,000

150,000

50,000 J
911,000

$5,000,000

24.0
16.3

41.5

18.2
100.0

The estimate does not include the Harlem River-New Rochelle yards, 12.13
miles of 4- to 6-track road, the Stamford-New Canaan branch, the New York, West
Chester & Boston, or the Stamford-New Haven extension.

WEST JERSEY AND SEASHORE RAILROAD.

Item.

Amount.

Unit.

Total.

P. c.

Power station:

Bldg., stack, coal handling ,

Equipment

Transmission line, 6 No. 1 . . ,
Substation, buildings

Equipment

Contact line:

Third rail, unprotected . . .

Trolley, temporarily

Track bonding

Cars, wood, 47 tons, 480 h.p.,
Cars, steel, 52 tons, 480 h.p.,
Car repair and in sheds

8,000 kw.
70 m.
7
17,000 kw.

132

1906.
1906.

93
15

Total 150 miles.

@ $80
@ 3,455

@ 25

@ 4,235
@ 4,120
@ 648
@12,214
@19,500

26,300

$354,900

640,000

241,500

72,000

419,560

557,636
80,500

102,659
1,135,900

292,500
46,674

$3,943,829

25.2

37.4

1000

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 517

BALTIMORE & ANNAPOLIS SHORT

LINE.

ESTIMATE.

Item.

Amount.

Unit.

Total.

Per cent.

1 D. c.

! ■

A. c.

D. c.

A. c.

Power station ....

$21,000
65,000

15,000
39,000

$62,000
36,000

3,000

8,000
11,000

75,000
149,300

5.2

18.0

(6 No. 2 wires).
Substation buildings

@17.50 kw.

Bonding

18,000
132,000

107,300

$397,300

^67.8
27.0

) 38.6

Third rail

33 miles
33 miles

@$4000
@ 2273

Catenary trolley, poles, and wire. . . .

43.4

33 miles
33 miles

100

$344,300

100.0

GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY— ST. CLAIR TUNNEL. ESTIMATED.

Item.

Amount.

Unit.

Total.

P. c.

Power station

Contact line

2500 kw.

12 miles

6 units

@ $100
@ 5,000
@ 26,500

$250,000

60,000

159,000

31,000

50.
12.

Locomotive 66-ton

32.

Sundry .

12 miles

$41,666

Total

$500,000

100

The transmission line is short. Single track is used except at termin-
als, where tracks are 4 to 10 deep.

OHIO AND INDIANA INTERURBAN RAILWAYS.

About 5000 miles of track have been built in these two states.
Gross earnings are 29.5 cents and operating expenses 15.8 cents per
car-mile.

Cost of roadbed was $16,000; power plants, $2,200; transmission lines
and substations, $3,000; trolley line, $1,600; cars $1,200; general expenses,
$1,000; total $25,000, per mile. Electrification cost was thus: Power
station, 24.4 per cent.; transmission lines and substations, 33.3 per cent.;
trolley line, 17.9 per cent.; cars, 13.3 per cent.; and sundry, 11.1 per cent.
This average, from 20 typical roads, was obtained in 1909. Darlington.

518 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY, CASCADE TUNNEL. ESTIMATE.

Item.

Amount. Unit.

Total.

P. c.

Hydro-electric power plant

Transmission line, six No. 0 wires,

33,000-volt.

Overhead line material, O. B. Co

Overhead Hne, balance of material and

erection.

Locomotives, 1900-h. p. each

Sundry items

7500 kw.
30 miles

$160 $1,200,000
2,000 60,000

Total, estimate.

6 miles |@, 2,000 j 12,000
6 miles |@ 3,500 i 21,000

4 units

6 miles

@ 40,000 i 160,000
167,000

@ $270,000

10
10

$1,620,000 100

This makes a large total per mile. If the electric zone is extended,
the investment per mile will be decidedly smaller.

SPOKANE & INLAND EMPIRE RAILROAD. ESTIMATES.

Cost of electrification compared.

Power plant, 6000 kilowatts

Transmission lines (60, 000- volt)

Feeders

Bonding of rails

Trolley fine (two No. 0000 conductors)

Trolley Hne (catenary construction)

Transformer substations

Frequency changing stations

Rotary converter substations

Electrical equipment of rolling stock

Total for 162 miles of track

Saving of single-phase over direct-current.

Direct
current.

$122,640

474,600

40,150

343,100

338,548
259,600

$1,578,638

Alternating
current.

$140,000
19,800
40,150

306,600
156,988
106,400

286,250

$1,056,188
$522,450

Electrification plans were based on 146 miles of main line, or 162 miles of track,
and the use of either the 3-phase, 60-cycle, direct-current, 600- volt rotary converter
system; or the 3-phase, 60-cycle, motor-generator, single-phase, 25-cycle, 6600- volt
system.

Power at 60 cycles was available at an electric lighting plant but required that
four 1000-kilowatt frequiency changers be used, consisting of 3-phase, 60-cycle,
4000- volt induction motors coupled to 25-cycle, revolving field, single-phase genera-
tors. Storage batteries were also added to minimize the railway load peaks.

PROCEDURE IK RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION

519

If the frequency changing station had not been used an additional $106,400
would have been saved. Changes were made after the contract for the equipment
was closed, and it is now considered that the saving effected by the single-phase
system was in the immediate neighborhood of $800,000. The generation of energy at
25 cycles at a new water power plant will decrease the unit cost of electrification.

SOUTHERN PACIFIC COMPANY, ALAMEDA, CALIFORNIA: 1910.

12-645-h. p. Parker boilers @ $17 $131,580

2-5000-kw. Westinghouse tarbo-generators @ 38 380,000

2 surface condensers @ 23,000 46,000

44 multiple-unit cars, with 4-125-h.p. motors . . @ 8500 $374,000

6-750 kw., 600-volt, rotary counters @ ....

The work will not be completed until late in 1911.

PARIS-ORLEANS RAILWAY: 1904.

Item.

Amount. Unit.

Total.

P. c.

Power station T 2000 kw.

Transmission Hnes \ 21 . 18 miles.

Transformer-converter substations . . 3

Contact line 37 . 29 miles.

Electric locomotives I 111

Motor cars 5 )

Miscellaneous

Total 37 . 29 miles.

@40,000

$412,000 I
104,000 I
215,000 \ j
463,000 I '

280,000 I

16,000 I

11,490,000

27.6

52.5

19.2

100.0

PARIS-METROPOLITAN RAILWAY: 1904.

Power stations, three

Track equipment

Substations, four

Transmission line

Rolhng stock

Miscellaneous

Total for 15.42 miles of track. . . @ 340,000

2,405,800
218,800
505,800
276,000 J

1,693,200 \
150,400 /

$5,250,000

46.0
19.0

35.0
100^0"

Note the high cost of power stations. Data of 1904' are not valuable.

GERMAN STATE RAILWAYS.

German engineers have been actively engaged in the study of electric
power for the Prussian State Railroad, which includes 21,016 miles of
single track.

520

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The present electrification plans embrace the following:

Central power plants, 125 miles apart, interconnected to allow a
mutual rendering of assistance in case one is disabled.

Transmission line voltage, 50,000; transformers, at intervals of 25
miles along the line, 3000 kilowatt for single track and 5000 kilowatt
for double track. Contact line voltage, 10,000.

Power required for trains, per mile of double track, 200 kilowatt.

Power required for trains, per mile of single track, 120 kilowatt.

Electric locomotives to aggregate 64 per cent, of the number, and to
have 73.8 per cent, of the empty weight, of steam locomotives. Number
of electric locomotives required, 955 at $16,000 each; or $. 1834 per pound.
Steam locomotive? now cost $.1186 per pound.

Estimates on cost.

Per mile
single track.

Per mile,
double track.

Electrification.
Total cost.

Per
cent.

No power plant. Would cost.

Transmission line

Transformer equipment

Contact line, 21,016 miles. . . .

$1530

862
3830

$2490
1436

$42,500,000 1
25,000,000 !>
167,500,000
152,500,000

Locomotives and motor cars. . 7358

Estimates by Pb. Pforr. See. U. S. Consular Report, No. 3411, 1909.

ESTIMATE ON COST OF OPERATION OF GERMAN RAILROADS.

Items.

Proposed
electric
service.

Present
steam,
service.

Steam power 3,481,000,000 kw-hr., @, .833

(including fixed charge on investment).
Depot service oil and waste, and miscellaneous . . .

$29,000,000

8,648,000

10,950,000

8,500,000

11,750,000

4,250,000

1,250,000

$26,000,000
13,398,000

Minor accounts, loss by fire in forests

1,750,000

Enginemen and firemen on trains

15,950,000

Maintenance of rolling stock

10,500,000

Added interest, $235,000,000 @5 per cent

Maintenance of lines @ 2 per cent

Maintenance of transformers @ 5 per cent

Maintenance of water and coal stations

1,250,000

The saving in coal alone is estimated at $4,750,000 per annum.
The saving in the future in the cost of double tracking and by the use
of water power will increase the advantage of electric traction.

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 521

BURGDORT-THUN RAILWAY: 1899.
INTERURBAN RAILWAY.

Items.

Amount.

Unit.

Total. Per cent.

Power plant, estimate 4,500 kw

Transmission line, 15, 500 -volt, 3-phase 24 miles.

Transformers, 14 substations 450 kw.

Contact line, 2-wire, 3-phase, 750- volt. 8-mm.

Motor cars, six 32-ton ; 320 -h. p.

Locomotives, two 33-ton i 300-li. p.

Total I 29 miles

I $450,000

I 26,600

@ $5 30,400
I 66,500

I 44,650

@21,300| $618,150

72.8
19.9

7.3

100.0

VALTELLINA RAILWAY: 1902.

Items.

Amount.

Unit.

Total.

Per cent.

Power plant

Power plant machinery

7500-h. p.

$500,000 \
140,000 /
340,000
260,000

51.6

Line construction . .

27.4

Rolling stock

21.0

67 miles @

$18,500

Total

$1,240,000

100.0

MILAN- VARESE RAILWAY: 1902.

Items.

Amount.

Unit.

Total.

Per cent.

Power plant with storage batteries ' i $240,000 } 21.8

Third rail, etc 1 460,000 | 41.9

Motor cars 25 ; 340,000 \ j

Locomotives j 5 \^ $12,000 60,000 / | '_

'@, $10,400 I $1,100,000 ' 100.0

Total 105.7 miles

Data for 1902 are not verv valuable.

522

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS
COST OF ELECTRIFICATION, SUMMARY.

Name of railroad.

Electric
mileage.

Estimated
cost of elec-
trification.

Cost per

single-
track mile.

Notes on construction.

Boston & Eastern. . . .

41
128

22
461

100
63

125

374

118

120

150

5000

162

$2,282,590

6,413,000

880,000

32,750,000

5,000,000
5,000,000

10,700,000

9,158,000

17,000,000

11,000,000

20,000,000

3,943,829

344,300

500,000

950,000

$55,270
50,000
44,000
70,950

50,000

Proposed 600-volt system.

Boston & Albany

Proposed 1200- volt system.

Boston & Maine ....

Hoosac Tunnel section.

New York, New Haven & H.

to 1911

Proposed Boston Terminal.
Woodlawn-Stamford, Connecticut.

N Y Westchester & Boston

New York to White Plains etc

New York Central

85,600

24,486

144,000

91,667

400,000

29,300

10,433

41,666

50,000

9,000

6,520

200,000

r N. Y. City to North White Plains.
\ N. Y. City to Yonkers.

New York Central

Manhattan Elevated

Elevated R. R.
Brooklyn-Long Island .
Newark, New York, Long Island.
Philadelphia-Atlantic City.
Baltimore- Annapolis.

West Jersey & Seashore

Annapolis Short Line

Grand Trunk

Detroit- Windsor Tunnel.

Average of 20 roads.
Without power plant.

1,056,188
1,200,000
10,000,000
4,000,000
1,490,000
5,250,000

Southern Pacific

Oakland suburban service.

Swedish State

To be completed in 1914.
Completed in 1904.

Paris-Orleans

37
15

40,000
340,400
7,000
21,300
18,500
10,400

Paris-Metropolitan

Completed in 1904.

German State

Without power plant.
Year 1899. Three phase.
Year 1902. Three phase.

Burgdorf-Thun, interurban. .
Valtellina

105

618,150
1,240,000
1,100,000

Milan- Varese

Year 1899. Third rail.

Data are incomplete and approximate. Short lines are hardly com-
parable with long lines, because local or short-haul service requires heavy
investment per mile. In some cases, e. g., Pennsylvania Railroad, all of
the tunnel roads, terminal railways, suburban development, etc., a large
investment has been made and the full use of same will not be obtained
until extensions are completed. In two cases noted, power is purchased,
and 30 per cent, of the usual investment was not made. Cost of cars
which, in reality, should not be charged against the cost of electrifica-
tion, and cost of track and terminal changes or improvements have been
included in the cost of electrification. Other data can be tabulated
on the cost per ton-mile hauled.

ERRORS TO BE AVOIDED.

Errors to be avoided in electrification are noted briefly as follows :

Electrification should not be compulsory at the present time. Rail-
roads should be given time to make an honest study of the application of
electric motive power, as used on similar or longer roads.

Power plant load factor must not be low. This was considered in
detail in Chapter XII, which see.

Electrification for short distances should be avoided. Electrification

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 523

for distances less than twelve miles cannot, from the very nature of the
problem, produce economical results and a profitable financial invest-
ment for the railroad. This has been outlined and emphasized thruout
this chapter and also in the chapter on Power Plants, under load factor.

Freight haulage should not be neglected. Net earnings from freight
are large and persistent, and freight haulage by electric locomotives
deserves consideration in every plan for electrification. The power sta-
tion, if provided for passenger requirements only, will have a large unused
capacity between the hours of peak load, which could be utilized for the
transportation of freight. The occupation and use of the tracks and
electric contact line by passenger trains, during these hours of peak load,
prevent the operation of freight trains at such times; while at other hours
the freight traffic automatically fills in the load valleys. Thus the invest-
ment is utilized to best advantage, i. e., continually, and apparatus is
worked at near the full load.

Amount of equipment planned or purchased for the electric power
plant, lines, substation, and motive power should not be too small for the
maximum service, the holiday and snow storm conditions. Some rolling
stock will alwaj^s be undergoing repairs. Energy is required for lighting,
heating, shops, power, signals, and transmission losses. Power plants
should be so constructed that there is an opportunity to expand symmet-
rically and economically, and without that waste which follows an
unsatisfactory compromise. Rebuilding is expensive, and plans should
be so comprehensive that radical changes will occur at long intervals.

Number of power plants and substations should not be too large.
Ordinarily substations are too near together. This was formerly neces-
sary, to decrease the losses in low-voltage feeder lines. The first result
of such a mistake is to increase the cost of buildings and substation atten-
dants; and the load factor of each substation, and of its feeding lines, be-
comes notoriously bad. On an ordinary railroad with 75 miles of route and
about 16 trains each way per day, electrification plans for which have
been developed by the writer, a total maximum output of about 8,000
kilowatts was required. One substation, or the main station, at the
middle of the line, carrying the full load, would have a load factor of 64
per cent.; 2 substations, a load factor of 35 and 41 per cent.; and 3
substations, 18 to 20 miles apart, a load factor of about 31 per cent.
Amount of equipment required to deliver the average kilowatts, or to haul
the ton-mileage, increases rapidly as the number of substations is in-
creased. This apparently leads to an argument for the single-phase sys-
tem, because the high voltage used on the contact line allows trans-
former substations to be placed long distances apart; and the load is so
equalized that there is the minimum equipment for the maximum work.
The cost of electrification and operation of long railroads would be ex_

524 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

cessive with frequent substations, 1200-volt, direct-current, rotating ap-
paratus, and substation attendants.

Power plants must be used jointly by railroads, whenever it is possible,
to avoid duplication in investment and to obtain higher load factors and
economy of operation.

** The simultaneous maintenance of the facilities and working forces
for both steam and electric service within the same limits will be rarely
profitable for the reason that a large proportion of expenses incident to
both kinds of service is retained, without realizing the full economy of
either. To secure the fullest economy, it is necessary to extend the
electric service over the whole length of the existing engine stage or
district, and to include both passenger and freight trains." E. H.
McHenry, Vice-President, New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad.

One great obstacle to electrification is the large capital required.
The railroad must not pay interest upon a double investment, that for
steam and that for electricity. Terminal electrification is expensive and
no gain is made when one end of a railroad is electrified while the rest is
operated by steam. It is certainly a case of steam plus electricity, which
obviously is an uneconomical procedure. The substitution should in all
cases include passenger and freight operation and yard switching. Par-
tial electrification will always be financially unsuccessful.

Steam railroad electrification should not be started until there is a
proper appreciation of the problems involved. A railroad requires more
consideration than an interurban road, and experience in the latter does
not qualify one for work on the former. Where the traffic is important,
experiments must not be tried. Without proper appreciation of the
problem, reliable and economical service which is needed for freight
and passenger work, damage will result. Enthusiasm cannot be used
as a basis for procedure. Facts must not be concealed, for they may
react to the detriment of those responsible for good operating results,
and often to the embarrassment of the railroad.-

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS OF RAILROADS.

The electric railway engineer's work in the electrification of railroads
requires preparation. This should enable him, first of all, to comprehend
the scope of specific railroad problems. For their solution, the real facts
must be obtained and so fortified with general and detailed information
that they cannot be set aside or questioned. The ability to refer to
authorities, to the recorded experience of others, to collect the data and
facts, and to do it quickly when needed, certainly constitutes a valuable
asset in this engineering work. The engineer's note book or record of
experience is generally very valuable.

The men who have been graduated from a course of study embracing

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 525

electric railway engineering, and who will follow electrification work, need
long experience in practical work, in power-plant operation, construction
of transmission and contact lines, repair shop experience, and an appren-
tice course; to be followed by design of apparatus, and study of cost
of equipment, and cost of operation. A study of statistical tables and
the equipment and methods used on different railways is most advan-
tageous. In electrification work, economical and efficient methods are
of paramount importance.

The electrical superintendent of a road often has charge of the loco-
motives and electrical equipment used on the division. He reports to
the superintendent and engineer of maintenance of way, on the traffic
and construction matters respectively; and to the mechanical superin-
tendent on those things relating to the mechanical details of the
locomotive construction and maintenance in operation. The electrical
superintendent often has under him a road foreman of electric engines and
motor cars, and the chief engineer of the power house.

" The duties of the electrical engineer are to specify the electrical apparatus needed
to satisfy the load or working conditions; to fit this apparatus in with the present
motive power ; to act as interpreter between the railroad and the manufacturer ; to so
arrange that the number of standards used is not unnecessarily increased; further,
to secure the co-operation of the different departments of the transportation system
and to make certain that the new equipment will be properly used and cared for."
W. N. Smith, to A. I. E. E., Dec, 1907.

" The question of electrification of trunk lines devolves upon the engineers of our
railways to determine to what extent electric power is justifiable in heavy trunk-line
service. It is a problem of great magnitude and involves not only technical skill,
but judgment of the highest order, and the solution must, in the final analysis, be
made by railway men, familiar with the intricacies of railway operation and its needs.
Railway engineers should prepare for this economic change that has already begun,
in order that the problems that demand solution may be solved on a sound basis, and
that costly mistakes which ignorance would otherwise impose may be avoided."
L. C. Fritch, President of the American Railway Engineering Association, referring
to the Pennsylvania Railroad electrification at New York City, March, 1911.

ENGINEERS FOR ELECTRIC RAILROADS.

Name of railroad. Name of engineer. [ Title.

Address.

Boston Elevated Paul Winsor Chief Engineer of M. P . . . i Boston.

John W. Corning. . Electrical Engineer Boston.

New York Central J. F. Deems General Supt. of M. P . . . . New York.

E. B. Katte Chief Engineer of E. T . . . New York.

H. A. Currie Ass't Electrical Engineer. . i New York.

W. A. Del Mar .... Ass't Engineer of Electri-i New York.

cal Transmission Dep't.
Wm. G. Carleton.. Supt. Power, Electrical New York.
: Division.

I A. W. Whaley General Superintendent' New York.

of Electrical Division,

526

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS
ENGINEERS FOR ELECTRIC RAILROADS. (Continued.)

Name of railroad.

Name of engineer.

Title. ^

Address.

New York, New Haven & Hart-

E. H. McHenry...
W. S. Murray

Vice President

ford.

Electrical Engineer

New Haven.

C. L. Peterson

Engineer of Power Plant. .

Cos Cob.

H. S Day

Foreman of Shops

Stamford.

H. Gilliam. . . .

Electrical Superintendent.

Stamford.

W.J. O'Meara

Foreman of Electric Locos.

New York.

L. S. Boggs

Supt. Overhead Construct.

New Rochelle.

L. C. Winship

Geo. Gibbs

Electrical Superintendent.
Chief Engineer of E. T. . .
Electrical Superintendent.

L. S. Wells

Long Island.

L. S. Woodruf

Assistant Superintendent .

Long Island.

R. W. Brodmann . .

Foreman of Shops

Morris Park.

F. G. Clark

Superintendent of Power.

Long Island.

Pennsylvania :

George Gibbs

E. R. Hill

Chief Engineer of E. T . . .

New York

New York Terminal Div.

New York.

Hugh Pattison

Supt. of Construction. . . .

New York.

R. D. Combs

Structural Engr. of E. T. .

New York.

West Jersey & Seashore

J. W. Rogers

Electrical Supervisor

Camden, Pa.

B. F. Wood

Assistant Engineer

Altoona, Pa.

J. R. Sloan

Electrical Engineer

Altoona, Pa.

Interborough Rapid Transit. . .

Henry G. Stott. . . .

Superintendent of M. P . .

New York.

J. S. Doyle

Supt. of Equipment

New York.

L. B. StiUwell

Electrical Director

New York.

Hudson & Manhattan

Hugh Hazelton. . . .

Electrical Engineer

New York.

L. G. Smith

Chief Electrician

New York.

J. H. Davis

Electrical Engineer

Asst. Elec. Engineer

L. S. BiUau

Baltimore.

Boston & Maine

W. S. Murray

H. H. Vaughan... .

Canadian Pacific

Assistant to V. P

Montreal.

N. Cauchon

Consulting Engineer

Ottawa.

Delaware, Lackawanna & West-

T. E. Clark

General Superintendent. .

Scranton, Pa.

ern.

T. S. Lloyd

Superintendent M. P

Scranton, Pa.

H. M. Warren

Electrical Engineer

Scranton, Pa.

Delaware & Hudson . .

C S Sims

V P and G M

Albany.

Axel Ekstrom

Electrical Engineer

Albany.

Erie R. R

W J Harahan

V P of Engineering Dept.

New Ycrrk.

D. H. Wilson, Jr. .

Electrical Engineer

Meadville, Pa.

R. C. Thurston ....

Supt. Electrical Service. . .

Avon, N. Y.

Grand Trunk

W. D. Hall

J. F. Jones

Supt. of Motive Power . . .
Supt. of Terminals

Port Huron.

Michigan Central

J. C. Mock ... .

Electrical Engineer

Detroit.

H. B. P. Wrenn . . .

Electric Locomotive Engr.

Detroit.

Lackawanna & Wyoming Val. .

J. H. Murray

Supt. of Transmission ....

Scranton ,

H. G. Burt

Chicago.

George Gibbs

Consulting Engineer

New York

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago

E. F. Gould

Electrical Engineer

Wheaton, 111.

Ff. Dodge, Des Moines & S . . .

H. A. Fiske

Electrical Engineer

Boone, Iowa.

Wabash

A. 0. Cunningham.
W J Bohan.

Chief Engineer

St. Louis.

Northern Pacific

Electrical Engineer

St. Paul.

Great Northern

R. D. Hawkins. . . .

Supt. of Motive Power . . .

New York.

Spokane & Inland Empire ....

A. M. Lupfer

Chief Engineer

Spokane.

J. B. IngersoU

Chief Electrical Engineer.

Spokane.

Northwestern Pacific

F. T. Vanatta

Chief Electrician

Sausalito.

Los Angeles.

Southern Pacific Company ....

Allen H. Babcock .

Electrical Engineer.

San Francisco.

Northern Electric, Cal

J. P. Edwards

Electrical Engineer

Chico, Cal.

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 527
ENGINEERS FOR ELECTRIC RAILROADS. (Continued.)

Address.

London Electric J. R. Chapman . .

A. R. Cooper

Mersey Ry J. Shaw

Lancashire & Yorkshire J. A. F. Aspinwall

North-Eastern, England C. H. Merz

Midland Ry., England J. Dalziel

J. Sayers

London, Brighton & S. C Wm. Forbes

Philip Dawson ....
Swedish State Robt. Dahlander. .

Paris-Orleans

Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean.

Western French

Southern French

Prussian State

Austrian State

Swiss Federal

Bernese Alps

Italian State.

Paul du Bois . .
M. Auvert. . . .

M. Mazen

M. JuUian

G. O. Wittfeld.
M. Krasny . . . .
W. Wyssling .
Charles Wirth
L. Thorman . .
M. Verola

Chief Engineer. [ London.

Electrical Engineer London.

Electrical Engineer. ...... I Liverpool.

General Manager

Consulting Engineer

Ass't. Loco. Supt

Electrical Engineer

General Manager

Electrical Advisor

Chief Engineer

Engineer

Electrical Advisor

Engineer

Secretary

Engineer

Consulting Engineer

Chief Engineer, Elec. Dept.

Liverpool.
New Castle.
Lancaster.

London.

Stockholm.

Paris.

Berne.
Berne.

AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION, COMMITTEE ON

ELECTRIC WORKING.

Name of engineer.

Name of railroad.

George Gibbs Pennsylvania.

E. H. McHenry New York, New Haven & H.

G. W. Kittridge j New York Central

G. A. Harwood

C. E. Linsay . |

E. B. Katte !

J. B. Austin, Jr Long Island

J. A. Savage

A. O. Cunningham i Wabash

L. C, Fritch ; Chicago Great Western

N. E. Baker I Illinois Central

Address.

New York

New Haven

New York.
New York.
New York,
New York.
Long Island City.
Long Island City.
St. Louis.
Chicago.
Chicago.

AMERICAN RAILWAY ASSOCIATION, COMMITTEE ON HEAVY ELECTRIC

TRACTION.

Name of engieer.

Name of railroad.

Address.

W. S. Murray New York, New Haven & H New York.

E. B. Katte New York Central New York.

E. R. Hill Pennsylvania New York.

J. H. Davis Baltimore & Ohio Baltimore.

Hugh Hazelton Hudson & Manhattan | New York.

E. F. Gould I Aurora, Elgin & Chicago I Wheaton, 111.

528 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

MANUFACTURING AND CONSTRUCTING CORPORATIONS.

Name of company. Name of engineer, j Title.

Address.

General Electric

Westinghouse . . .

E. B. Rice, Jr

J. G. Barry

W. B. Potter

A. H. Armstrong...
S. T. Dodd

A. F. Batchelder . .
W. J. Clark. .

B. G. Lamme

N. W. Storer

C. S. Cook

F. E. Wynne

F. Darlington

Robt. L. Wilson . . .

F. H. Shepard

L. E Bogen . .

V. P. and Chief Engineer.
Manager Ry. Department
Ch. Engr. Ry. Department

Ass't Engr. Ry. Dept

Ry. Engrng. Department.
Locomotive Department. .

Mgr. Traction Dept

Electric Engineer .

Schenectady.

New York.

Pittsburg.

Engineer Ry. Division . . .
Mgr. Ry. Department. . . .
Engr. Ry. Project Dept. .

Pittsburg.
Pittsburg.
Pittsburg.
Pittsburg.

All is-Ch aimers

Supt. Loco. Installations .
Special Representative.. . .

Pittsburg.
New York.

Siemens & Halske

Berlin.

AUgemeine Elektricitats

Berlin.

Bergmann Electric

Berlin.

Ganz Electric

Oerlikon

Brown, Boveri

Alioth Electric

Italian Westinghouse

Vado-Ligure.

Thury

LITERATURE.
References to General Articles on Electrification.

Smith, W. N.: Practical Aspects of Electrification, A. I. E. E., Dec, 1907.
De Muralt: Heavy Electric Traction Problems, A. I. E. E., June, 1905.
Fowler: Value of Electrification to a Railroad, E. W., March 21, 1908.
Pomeroy: Electrification of Trunk Lines, I. of M. E., July 29, 1910.
Carter: Electrification of (suburban) Steam Roads, I. of M. E., July 29, 1910.
Westinghouse: Electrification of Railways, I. of M. E., July 29, 1910.
Potter: Unit Cost of Electrification, I. of M. E., July 29, 1910.

(The last four papers were abstracted in American railway papers.)
Dariington: Financial Aspects of AppKcation of Electric Motive Power to Railroads,
Elec. Journal, Feb. and Sept., 1910.

References on Procedure and Cost of Electrification.
Siemens and Halske: Three-phase Electrification, S. R. J., May 16, 1903, p. 736.
Lincoln: Interurban Railways, D. C. vs. A.C., S. R. J., Dec. 12, 1903.
Blanck: Interurban Railways, A. I. E. E., Feb. 16, 1904; S. R. J., March 12, 1904
Davis, W. J.: Interurban Railways, D. C. or A. C, S. R. J., Sept. 7, 1907.
New York R. R. Club: Report of Committee on Electrification of Steam Railroads,

April, 1910 and 1911.
Gotshall and Mailloux: New York & Port Chester, S. R. J., and A. I. E. E., 1904-

1907.
Potter and Arnold: New York Central Electrification, A. I. E. E., June, 1902.
Wilgus: New York Central Electrification, S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904, p. 585.
Sprague: Facts and Problems on Electric Trunk-line Operation, A. I. E. E., May,

1907.

PROCEDURE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 529

Katte: Report Against Electrification of a Division with Light Traffic in the Adiron-
dack Mountains, E. R. J., Aug. 7, 1909.

New York, New Haven & Hartford: Harlem River Freight Yards; Murray, A. I. E. E.,
Apr., 1911; S. R. J., Sept. 3, 1904; New York Division, Dec. 23, 1905.

Boston & Maine: Concord-Manchester Division, S. R. J., Dec. 6, 1902.

Boston & Eastern: E. W., Nov. 28, 1908; S. R. J., July 13, 1907.

Boston-Providence: S. R. J., April 8, 1905.

Long Island: Lyford & Smith, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1904; West. Church, Kerr & Co.,
Bulletins No. 3-4.

West Jersey & Seashore : Wood, Data on Cost of Construction and Operation, A. I. E. E.,
June, 1911.

Baltimore & Annapolis: Whitehead, A. I. E. E., June, 1908.

Cumberland Valley (Pa.) R. R.: S. R. J., Dec. 23, 1905.

Ocean Shore R. R., California: Sprout, E. R. J., Dec. 12, 1908.

Melbourne, Australia: Merz, E. R. J., Oct. 3, 1908, p. 751.

CHAPTER XV.
WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION

Outline.

General Status.

Classification of Development.

Railroads Operating Divisions by Electricity. List.

Train Service of Electric Railroads. List.

Technical Data on Completed Electrifications :

Boston & Maine R. R. ; New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R., New York
Division; New York Central & Hudson River R. R., Harlem & Hudson
Divisions, West Shore Railroad; Pennsylvania Railroad, Long Island Railroad,
Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal R. R., West Jersey & Seashore R. R. ;
Hudson & Manhattan R. R.; Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line; Baltimore
& Ohio R.R; Michigan Central R.R; Grand Trunk R.R; Erie R.R; Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, Colorado & Southern R. R., Denver & Interurban R. R. ;
Spokane & Inland Empire R. R.; Great Northern Ry.; Southern Pacific
Company.

Terminal Railway and Switch Yard Electrification (see Chapter I.)

Proposed Electrifications :

Boston & Albany R. R. ; Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R. R.; Illinois
Central R, R; Canadian Pacific Railway; Butte, Anaconda & Pacific
Railway; other proposed American Railroad Electrifications.

European Railroad Electrification :

England, Sweden and Norway, Spain and France, Germany and Austria,
Switzerland and Italy.

Conclusion and Stunmary.

530

CHAPTER XV.

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION.

GENERAL STATUS.

The general status of electric traction for railway trains is obtained
from technical facts on the extent and character of the constructions which
have been completed. The extent of the progress has been shown by the
number of motor cars and locomotives in use, and the electric mileage.
The character of the construction has been set forth in the technical
descriptions of rolling equipment, transmission and contact lines, and
power plants. Electric traction has been adopted, or is being considered,
by progressive railroads, which are able to do things on a large scale;
second-class, weak roads have not adopted electric train haulage.

Classification of the development under service, traffic, location, and
equipment is first illustrated.

CLASSIFICATION

OF ELECTRIC RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT.

Class of railway

Kind of
service.

Cars

in
trains.

Right-
of-
way.

Owns
term-
inals.

MCB
coup-
lers.

Best examples of a railway
of this class.

Year
equip-

service.

Pass.

Fgt.

ped.

Railroad

Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
No.
No.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
No.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.
Yes.

Yes.

Part.

No.

Yes.

No.

Yes.

Light.

Yes.

No.

All.

Few.

All.

AU.

All.

Few.

Frt.

No.

All.

Part.

All.

Yes.

All.

Part.

All.

Part.

No.

Yes.

No.

Yes.

Part.

Yes.

No.

Yes.

No.

Yes!'

Yes.

Yes!

Yes.

No.

Yes.

No.

Yes.

No.

Frt.

No.

Lancashire & Yorkshire

New Haven, New York Div. . .
Long Island Railroad . . .

1903
1907
1904

New York Central. .

1906

Pennsylvania R. R. . . . .

1910

Freight

Pacific Electric Ry

1898

New Haven, Harlem Division.

Hoboken Shore R. R

Bush Terminal R. R

Baltimore & Ohio. . .

1911

1898

Tunnel

1904
1895

Grand Trunk

1907

Great Northern. ...

1909

Mountain

Parallel

Giovi Ry., Italy

West Jersey and Seashore

West Shore R. R

Erie R. R

Interborough Rapid Transit. . .

Hudson & Manhattan

Aurora, Elgin & Chicago

Manhattan Elevated R. R

London, Brighton & South C. .
Los Angeles Pacific .

1909
1907

Branch

1906
1907

Rapid transit. . .

Elevated

Suburban

Interurban

street

1904
1908
1902
1902
1910
1900

Spokane & Inland Empire ....
Chicago & Milwaukee Electric.
Chicago, Lake Shore & South B.

Illinois Traction Company

Waterloo, Cedar Falls & North.
United States mileage, 36,000.

1906
1899
1908
1903
1900
1911

531

532

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

RAILROADS OPERATING DIVISIONS OR BRANCHES BY ELECTRICITY.

Name, Location, and Mileage.

A railroad uses a standard gage, private right-of-way, M. C. B. couplers, and operates cars in trains.

Elevated, subway, and interurban railways were listed in Chapter I.

Moto cars used on city streets are not listed.

These tables were compiled from the National Railway Guide, American Street Railway Invest-
ments, State and Interstate Commerce Commission Reports, Steam and Electric Railw^ay Journals;
also by correspondence, and personal inspection of properties.

Name of railroad.

Name of division, sub-company
or location.

Motor
cars.

Loco-
mtvs.

Route
miles.

Boston & Maine.

New York, New Haven, & Hart-
ford.

New York, West Chester &

Boston.
New York Central & Hudson River

Delaware & Hudson.

Pennsylvania R. R.

Hudson & Manhattan

Interboro Rapid Transit

Brooklyn Rapid Transit

Bush Terminal

Hoboken Shore

Philadelphia & Reading

Philadelphia & Western

Norfolk & Southern R. R

Albany Southern R. R. ..... .

Erie R. R...

New York, Auburn & Lansing
International Ry

137

Concord-Manchester Branch

Portsmouth- Rye Division

Hoosac Tunnel

Boston-Beverly

New York Division

Stamford-New Canaan

Providence- Warren- Bristol

Rhode Island Company ,

Connecticut Company

Harlem River- New Rochelle

New York-Port Chester

Mt. Vernon-White Plains.
Harlem Division: Grand Central

Station, N.Y. to N. White Plains.
Hudson Division: Grand Central

Station, N. Y. to Hastings. J :

West Shore R. R. (Oneida) \- 21

New York State Rys. Co.:

Schenectady, Rochester, Utica

Syracuse-Geneva Div. (proposed) . .

Putnam Div. (proposed).

United Traction, Albany

Hudson Valley Ry

Schenectady Ry., (1/2) !.....

Long Island R. R., 3rd. rail 361

New York & Long I. Traction

Long Island Electric Ry

Other elec. rys. on Long Island

New York Terminal Division 0

Newark-Jersey City (1/2) [ 50

West Jersey & Seashore \ 108

Philadelphia Terminal

Cincinnati-Lebanon Division

New York-Hoboken- Jersey City . . 216

Jersey City-Newark (1/2) 50

Manhattan Elevated 895

Interboro Subway 910

Brooklyn Elevated Division , 659

Brooklyn i 0

Hoboken, N.J 0

Cape May, Del. Bay & S. P. Div. ... j 12
Philadelphia-Norristown ' 28

Norfolk- Virginia Beach

Albany to Hudson, etc

Rochester-Mount Morris Division

Lansing to Ithaca, N. Y

Buffalo-Lockport Division

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION

533

RAILROADS OPERATING DIVISIONS OR BRANCHES BY ELECTRICITY.

(Continued.)
Name, Location, and Mileage.

Name of railroad.

Name of division sub-company Motor
or location. cars.

Loco-
mtvs.

Route Total
miles, miles.

Jamestown, Chautauqua & Lake
Erie.

Niagara, St. Catharine & Toronto. .

Delaware, Lackawanna & West-
em.

Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley . .

Wilkes-Barre & Hazelton

Baltimore & Ohio

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line.

Hocking Valley Ry

Detroit, Monroe & Toledo S. L. . .

Michigan Central R. R

Grand Trunk Ry. of Canada

Jamestown- Westfield, proposed

Canadian Pacific .

Montreal Terminal

Toledo & Indiana

Toledo & W^estern

Scioto Valley

Cincinnati, Geo. <k Portsmouth. .

Illinois Traction Company

Peoria Ry. & Terminal Company
Rock Island Southern R. R. . . .
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul .

Ft. Dodge, Des Moines & Southern.

Cedar Rapids & Iowa City

Waterloo, Cedar Falls & Northern.

East St. Louis & Suburban

St. Louis Iron Mtn. & Southern. .

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy. . . .

Colorado & Southern R. R

Salt Lake & Ogden R. R

Great Northern Ry

Spokane, Portland & Seattle:

United Rys. Company. . . .

Oregon Electric Ry

Niagara-Port Dalhousie

Hoboken-Morristown, proposed . . .

Scran ton grades, proposed

Wilkes-Barre-Scranton-Carbondale.

Wilkes- Barre-Hazelton

Belt Line at Baltimore

Baltimore- Annapolis

Welleston & Jackson Belt Ry

Detroit-Toledo

Detroit River Tunnel

St. Clair Tunnel

Hamilton, Grimsby & B earns ville. .

Hull Electric Company

Montreal Terminals, proposed

Aroostook Valley R. R., Me

Hull, Ottawa & Aylmer Division . . .
British Columbia, Lulu Island Div . .

Ottawa Tunnel & Terminal

Montreal-local

Toledo- St. Joseph- Bryan

Toledo-Pioneer-Adrian Division . . .

Columbus, O.-Chillicothe

Cincinnati-Georgetown

St. Louis, Peoria, Danville

Peoria-Pekin, Illinois

Rock Island-Monmouth

Evanston-Chicago Branch (operat-
ed by Chicago & Milwaukee Elec.)

Gallatin Valley Ry., Bozeman

Des Moines-Fort Dodge

Cedar Rapids-Iowa City

Waterloo- Waverly

Illinois, coal haulage

Coal Belt Ry., Carterville, Illinois. .

Deadwood (S. D.) Central Ry

Denver & Interurban R. R

Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek . .

Salt Lake-Ogden

Cascade Tunnel

Spokane & Inland Empire

Northern Pacific R. R

Portland Ry., Lighting & Power.

Puget Sound Electric

Northwestern Pacific

Ocean Shore Ry

San Francisco, Oakland & San Jose

Northern Electric

600
10
10

Portland-Bay City

Portland-Salem

Salem-Eugene

Spokane-Moscow-Hayden Lake .
Snohomish-Everett, Washington
Portland-Canemah, Washington .

Seattle-Tacoma-Renton

San Francisco-San Rafeal

San Franci3co-Santa Cruz

San Francisco-San Jose

San Francisco-Sacramento

Sacramento-Mary ville-Chico j 42

25
6
30
141
37
40
38

2
1
5
0

1
22
0
1
0

75
116

460
19

560
20

141

287

472

200

534

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

RAILROADS OPERATING DIVISIONS OR BRANCHES BY ELECTRICITY.

(Continued.)
Name, Location, and Mileage.

Name of railroad.

Name of division sub-company
or location.

Motor
cars.

Loco-
mtvs.

Route
miles.

Total
miles.

Southern Pacific Company

Oakland- Alameda Lines

65
6

30
30

100

Visalia Electric Ry

San Jose- Los Gatos Interurban. . . .

Pacific Electric Ry

Los Angeles Ry. Corporation

18
2
0
0

10
9

■■■22"

33
50
50

600

Los Angeles-Pacific . . . ...

Los Angeles & Redondo Ry

Los Angeles-Santa Monica-Ocean.
San Diego-Chula Vista

121

100
260

Havana Central R. R

RAILROAD OPERATING DIVISIONS OR BRANCHES BY ELECTRICITY.

Name of railroad.

Name of division, sub-com-
pany or location.

Motor
cars.

Loco-
mtvs.

Route Total
miles, miles.

Mersey Tunnel

Lancashire & Yorkshire . . .

North-Eastem

Central London

City & South London . . . .
Metropolitan District . . . .

Metropolitan Ry

Midland Ry

London, Brighton & S. C. .

Swedish State

Thamshavn Lokken

Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean

Paris-Orleans

West of France

French Southern (Midi) .'. .

Rotterdam-Hague

Prussian State

Bavarian State

Baden State

Rhine Shore

Vienna Baden

St.Polten Mariazell

Swiss Federal

Bernese- Alps

Rhatische

Italian State

Liverpool- Birkenhead

Liverpool-Southport-Ormskirk .

New Castle-Tynemouth

London

Heysham-Lancaster

London-S. Lon. -Crystal Palace.

Kiruna-Riksgraensen

Thamshavn-Lokken

Paris terminals

Fayet-Chamonix

Paris-Juvisy

Paris- Versailles

Pau-Montrejean

Rotterdam-Scheveningen

Hamburg-Ohlsdorf-Altoona ...

Magdeburg-Dessau

Mumau-Oberammergau

Salzburg- Berchtesgarden

Weisental: Basel-Zell

Cologne-Bonn

Vienna-Baden

St. Polten -Mariazell

Burgdorf-Thun

Simplon Tunnel

Beme-Simplon

St. Moritz-Schuls, Switz

Milan-Porto Ceresio

Milan-Chiavenna

Giovi at Genoa

Savona-San Giuseppe

Bardonnechie-Modana

24
80
62
68

0
197
130

3
46

80
100

110

37
7
8
25
30
10
23
93
18

18
18
66
25
13
52
46
48
67
13
13

10
82
82
13
16
50
60
21
62
100
26
40
34
46
16
75
48
17

33
68
26
26
55
48
81
105
26
26

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 535

FREIGHT AND PASSENGER TRAIN SERVICE AND EQUIPMENT ON
ELECTRIC RAILROADS.

Name of railroad.

Division or service.

Motor
cars.

Loco-
in t vs.

Trains
per dy.

Tonnage
daily.

Boston and Maine

New York, New Haven & H. . .

New York Central

Long Island

Pennsylvania

West Jersey & Seashore

Baltimore & Ohio

Grand Trunk

Michigan Central

Spokane & Inland

Great Northern, Cascade Tunnel

Hoosac Tunnel

New York-Stamford

Harlem River-New Rochelle- ....
Harlem and Hudson Divisions. . .

Brooklyn -Long Island

New York-Long Island

Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal

Philadelphia-Atlantic City

Baltimore freight service

Baltimore passenger service

Port Huron, freight and passenger
Detroit, freight and passenger. . .

Freight service

Passenger service

Freight service

137

136

225

108

100
159

562
300
310
88
90
28
21
41
40

29,600

6,630

28,343

70,000

5,760
2,690

See table on Train Capacity on Elevated and Underground Roads, Chapter I.

New York Central trains include storage trains between G. C. station and Mott Haven yards,
light engines, fruit, express, and milk trains, shown on electric division time tables. Hudson
Division has 122 trains, 88 of which handle suburban business; Harlem Division has 100 trains, all
of which handle suburban business.

TECHNICAL DATA ON RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATIONS.

BOSTON & MAINE.

Boston & Maine Railroad has electrified two first-class electric in-
terurban roads and its Hoosac Tunnel section.

Concord-Manchester division with 30 miles of track. Reference:
St. Ry. Journ., Dec. 6, 1902; Oct. 12, 1907, page 539.

Portsmouth, Rye & North Hampton (N. H.) division with 20 miles of
track. Reference: St. Ry. Jour., March 29, 1908.

Hoosac Tunnel section, on the main line between Albany and Boston,
was electrified in 1910 and 1911. Many serious accidents had narrowly
been avoided and the abolition of the risk was imperative.

The tunnel, built in 1874, has double tracks and is 4.74 miles long.
The profile of the tunnel is made up of 2.25 miles of 0.5 per cent, up-
grade, 0.25 miles of level track and 2.25 miles of 0.57 per cent, down-
grade. The west approach to the tunnel has an up-grade of 0.8 per cent,
and the east approach, 0.5 per cent.

536 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Four Mallet oil-burning engines had been purchased in 1909, at
$29,450 each, for tunnel service and to eliminate smoke, but the expedient
was unsatisfactory, and the Hoosac tunnel and grades remained the limit-
ing point of service on the Fitchburg Division.

Electrification extends from North Adams, the first station west of the
tunnel, to a point 1/4 mile east of the tunnel, a total distance of about
7 miles. The total track mileage is 22.

The system used is the single-phase, 25-cycle, 11,000-volt.

Five geared locomotives for 55-m. p. h. passenger trains, and for 30-
m. p. h. freight trains of 1600 to 1800 tons, were ordered from the Westing-
house Company. These are straight alternating-current locomotives,
otherwise they are similar to the New Haven geared freight- locomo-
tive, No. 071, already described. Each 130-ton locomotive has a
1-hour rating of 1340 h. p., and a continuous rating on forced draft of 1120
h. p., or 83 per cent, of the 1-hour rating on 300 volts; but extra taps are
arranged in the transformers so that 25 per cent, greater voltage and
power can be used, when necessary.

See "Transmission and Contact Lines," Chapter XII.

Power plant embraces two 2000-kilowatt turbo-generators.

Cost of electrification is estimated at $880,000. The work was in
service 7 months after its authorization. The capacity of the Fitchburg
division was increased from 1000 cars to 2000 cars, per day, by the
electrification.

Reference: E. R. J., July 1, 1911.

NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & HARTFORD.

New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad was the pioneer in electric
traction applied to steam roads. The density of traffic on its lines favors
the application of electric power, primarily as a matter of economy, and
for that reason there is more electric service on its former steam lines than
on other roads. The use of electric power will become common, because
of the density of freight and passenger traffic.

In 1895, its first steam road, the Nantasket Beach branch near Bos-
ton, 7 miles long, began the use of electric power. The writer inspected
this property at that time, and remembers the use of ordinary standard
steam passenger coaches and motor express cars, in 450-ton trains,
hauled by two or by four 125-h. p. direct-current motors per motor car.
Experimental third rail and overhead trolley lines were being tried out.
Trains were operated in the method usual with steam roads, and a heavy
excursion traffic was handled.

Other lines were electrified: The Berlin-New Britain branch, 12
miles, in 1897; and the Hartford- Bristol branch (St. Ry. Jour., XIII,
329, 776). N. H. Heft, electrical engineer, showed that on the branches

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 537

electrified the speed had been materially increased, the traffic had
doubled, and the cost of operation had been greatly decreased.

Third-rail contacts then used were unprotected and dangerous, and
for that reason electrical operation of some divisions was abandoned,
while on others the 600-volt overhead trolley was used.

Interurban lines of the NeAv York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad
are controlled under the name of The Rhode Island Company and The
Connecticut Company. The operation of electric interurban cars which
run over steam tracks, as in the case of the road between Rockford,
Rockville, and Melrose, and Berlin and Middletown, has been transferred
to the New York, New Haven & Hartford, to keep the operation within
the direct and immediate control of the main railroad.

Electrification of the New York Division in New York City was caused
by legislative acts, the New York Central and the New Haven both being
involved. The Grand Central Station at New York is used by both
roads. New York Central plans were for short-distance terminal and
suburban traffic; but the New Haven road had no suburban traffic within
15 miles of the New York City terminal, and its plans embraced the use of
electric power to New Haven, Connecticut, 73 miles distant, for heavy
trains, at high speed, in 4-track trunk-line service.

Electric passenger train operation between New York City and Stam-
ford, 34 miles, began on July 5, 1907, and was completed in June, 1908.
The extension to New Haven is to be completed in 1912.

The system of electrification adopted was the 660-volt, direct-current,
third-rail over the New York Central electric zone to Woodlawn, 12
miles from the New York terminal, and 11,000-volt, alternating-current
from a single overhead trolley from Woodlawn to points east. An inter-
changeable system was adopted, and the motor cars and freight and
passenger locomotives run over any direct-current or single-phase
circuit, and at any voltage. This plan marked an epoch in railroading.

The daring of engineers after they comprehended the necessity of a
new system for general railroad work, and, with little precedent and with-
out experience on a large scale, undertook to design a complete system,
including generators suitable for the work, a new type of overhead con-
tact, and a new type of motor for trunk-line work, has never been sur-
passed in the history of electrical achievements.

Trouble occurred when the new electric system was installed. The work
was condemned as experimental, unreliable, and expensive. Opposition
to the new and untried system arose from engineers of rival manufactur-
ing companies, agents for the three-phase system, consulting engineers of
high rank who had perfected the direct-current system, and college pro-
fessors from whom broad-gage treatment was to be expected. American
Institute discussions of the New Haven electrification show biased views:

538

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

The ancient criticisms of the deadly trolley, high cost, expensive oper-
ation, sparking commutators, etc., were repeated. Errors were made.
The magnitude of long-distance trunk-line problems was not at first ap-
preciated; and the time for design, manufacture, and experiment on
equipment for the power plant, lines, and locomotives was short, and
months were required to perfect the details.

The work completed and tried out is a physical success, as engineers
who have carefully studied the operation of the road and the records of
the maintenance of equipment testify. The motors and the overhead
construction were suitable for high-speed, trunk-line railroading.

Electric locomotives handle most of the traffic. There are 41 passen-
ger locomotives, rated 960 h.p. each, used for the heavy trains at speeds
up to 70 m.p.h. Three 1260- to 1400-h.p. locomotives are now used for
either 1800-ton freight traifis at 35 m.p.h., or for 10-car, 800-ton, thru
passenger trains at 50 m.p.h. Fifteen 600-h.p. switches are also used.
There is some complication in the locomotives due to the necessity of
providing control apparatus for operation ov^er both direct-current third
rails and alternating-current trolleys. The locomotives, of which there
are five types, have been described and operating results given.

Motor-car trains are being installed to a limited extent. They are the
heaviest equipment yet built. See description, page 251.

Power plant has a rated capacity of 33,100 kilowatts. Equipment
and operation have been outlined, page 485.

Maintenance" costs for track have been reduced by the use of
spring-mounted motors on locomotives. The up-keep of the overhead
contact line, per train-mile, is stated by members of the Board to be less
than for the third-rail section.

Estimated cost for the electrification of the first 88 miles of track has
been detailed, and totals $5,000,000.

Operating expenses for the 12 months ending June 30, for electrical
service, are shown by the following:

Item.

1910.

1909.

$132,297

$3,616

140,983

256,704

41,635

34,715

141,890

144,846

36,758

56,944

230,075

236,422

97,280

176,293

1908.

Electric power transmission — maintenance

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals

Transportation expense — motormen

Power-plant equipment — maintenance

Operating power plants

Purchased power for third-rail service

$60,079
27,860
49,658
58,110
20,504

127,111
39,986

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 539
Financial and traffic statistics have not yet been detailed.

President C. S. Mellin of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Raihoad
wrote to the Massachusetts Railroad Commission in 1908: "Our Company has been
operating its passenger trains by electricity since July 1, 1908, between Stamford,
Conn., and Grand Central Station, New York."

"The work has been more or less of an experimental nature, and it is probably
the largest venture in the way of electric traction there is in the country, in the mag-
nitude of the business hauled and for the distance."

" We believe we are warranted in stating that the electrical installation is a success
from the standpoint of handling the business in question efficiently and with reason-
able satisfaction, and the interruptions to our service are now no greater nor more
frequent than was the case when steam was in use."

Vice-President McHenry reported October 31, 1910, to the Boston Board of
Metropolitan Improvements, regarding the electrification of the New York division:

"The records of the New Haven Company demonstrate that under present con-
ditions the electric train service not only fails to earn any interest upon the very
large amount of capital invested, but that it has also increased the cost of operation,"

"In explanation of this disappointing result, it may be stated that the experience
of the New Haven Company in operating a mixed steam and electric service has proven
very unsatisfactory. The annoyances and losses due to smoke, cinders, steam, and
noise are at best only alleviated without being eliminated, while at the same time so
large a proportion of the expense of both methods of operation is retained as to
prevent the reahzation of the fullest degree of economy of either system. This
becomes more apparent when it is considered that the power stations, if provided
for passenger requirements only, will have a large unused capacity between the hours
of peak load, which otherwise could be utilized to very good advantage for the trans-
portation of freight, and more particularly as the occupation of tracks by passenger
trains during the hours of peak load acts automatically to limit the simultaneous
operation of freight trains at such times. Thus little or no additional investment in
power houses is required for freight operation, and similarly the overhead track
equipment serves equally well for both passenger and freight traffic, which makes it
practicable to extend electric operation to include all classes of service at the cost of
only the additional engines and the equipment of yards required for freight service."

" It therefore seems quite safe to conclude that no general substitution of electric
for steam traction should be made unless the substitution is complete, including
passenger and freight operation and yard switching in addition, and also that in making
such substitution the operation should be extended to include the full length of run
or engine district, in order to avoid the uneconomical subdivision of the present
'train run, ' together with the added expense and delays incident to intermediate
engine transfer stations."

The directors, in 1911, after an exacting investigation of the relative
saving in fuel, and of maintenance of locomotives and overhead contact
lines, by direct and by alternating current, authorized the immediate
expenditure of $12,000,000 for the electrification of 250 additional miles
of track, including a 63-mile freight yard on the Harlem Branch, and the
New York, Westchester and Boston, 15 switcher locomotives of 600 h.p.
each, 60 motor cars of 600 h.p. each, and a 16,000-kilowatt addition to

540 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

the power plant, and the use of the single-phase, 25-cycle, 11,000-volt
system for the work.

At Boston the Boston & Albany, Boston & Maine, and the New York,
New Haven & Hartford have recently been subject to such competitioD,
by the growth of suburban electric railways at Boston, that, to regain
the traffic from their terminals and to handle business with economy,
they are now considering the electrification in large zones radiating from
the North and South stations at Boston.

The present electrification plans for Boston embrace 462 miles of
single track and the estimated cost, given to the Board of Metropolitan
Improvements, October 31, 1910, is $32,750,000. The companies are
not opposed to electrification but state that it is more practical at first to
restrict the substitution of electricity for steam to a few of the more
important of 20 routes, subsequently extending the system as rapidly as
consistent with the financial conditions and public needs. The electri-
fication of the Boston to Readville, and the Boston to Beverly divisions
was promised for 1912. Elec. Ry. Jour., Nov. 19, 1910.

References on New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad Electrification.

Heft: Description of electric trains on branch lines, Nantasket Beach, 11 miles;

Hartford, New Britain, Berlin lines, S. R. J., June, 1897; Sept., 1898; Aug. 25,

Sept. 8, 1900.
Providence, Warren & Bristol R. R., 14 miles, S. R. J., March 1, 1902.
Middletown-Berlin-Meriden, 17 miles, S. R. J., Sept. 21, 1907.
Hartford-Melrose Electrification, 25 miles, S. R. J., Dec. 7, 1907.
New Canaan-Stamford branch, 8 miles, 11,000 volts, G. E. series-repulsion motors,

E. W., Jan. 18, 1908, p. 139; E. R. J., May 15, 1909, p. 901.
Westinghouse : Reason for Alternating-current, Comparative Cost of A.-C. and D.-C.

Systems, S. R. J., Dec. 23, 1905.
Sprague: An Unprecedented Railway Situation (Objections to the New Haven

Plan for Trunk-hne Electrification), S. R. J., Oct. 21 and 28, 1905, Facts

and Problems Bearing on Electric Trunk-Line Operation, A. I. E. E., May,

1907.
Lamme: The Alternating-current System, N. Y. Ry. Club, March 16, 1908; S. R. J.,

March 24 and April 14, 1906; Elec. Journal, April, 1906; July, 1906.
McHenry: Reasons for Adopting Electricity, S. R. J., Aug. 17 and 24, and Oct. 12,.

1907. Electrification, Ry. Age, Aug. 16, 1907.
Organization: S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907, p. 608.
Murray: The .Single-phase Distribution, A. I.E.E., Jan., 1908. Steam and Electric

Performance, A. I. E. E., Jan. 25, 1907. Log of New Haven Electrification,

A. I. E. E., Dec, 1908; Steam Locomotive, Fuel and Maintenance, A. I. E. E.,

Jan., 1907, p. 148; Analysis of Electrification: A. I. E. E., April and June,

1911.
Boston Situation: E. R. J., Nov. 19, 1910.

See references under History, Electric Systems, Motors, Locomotives, Transmis-
sion and Contact Lines, Power for Trains, Power Plants, and Cost of Electrification.

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 541

NEW YORK CENTRAL.

New York Central & Hudson River Railroad electrification embraces
4 main tracks from the Grand Central Terminal, New York, to Mott
Haven junction, 5 miles from the terminal, thence continuing north on
the Harlem Division to North White Plains, a total distance of 23.5 miles,
and northwest on the Hudson Division to Hastings, 19.5 miles from the
terminal. In time the work will be extended on the Hudson Division to
Croton, 34 miles; and over 12 miles of the Putnam Division.

Trains were first operated by electricity in the terminal Nov. 11, 1906,
and the last steam train was taken off July 1, 1907.

The adoption of electric traction for trains for the most important
terminal and suburban work in the country marked an epoch in the
application of electricity to train haulage, second only to the work at
Baltimore in 1896.

Grand Central Station yards, now being excavated, will have 42 main-
line tracks on the street level and 24 suburban tracks, with loop tracks,
about 12 feet below the level of the upper 42 tracks. The terminal with
steam service had a capacity of 366 cars, while with electric service it will
have 1149 cars. The cost of producing space for a car, exclusive of the
cost of the station, is given as $30,000. Electric motive power changed
old conditions, and it is now only necessary to provide sufficient head
room for trains. Two-thirds of this work was completed before 1911.

Electrification was compulsory. An act of the Legislature dated
May 7, 1903, required electric motive power to be used after July, 1907.
This act followed several accidents, caused by exhaust steam and
smoke in a subway, and. one, on January 8, 1902, was unusually serious.
Public comfort, safety, and convenience demanded the change.

A commission of engineers appointed in 1904 to plan and execute the
work was comprised of J. F. Deems and W. J. Wilgus of the New York
Central, B. J. Arnold, F. J. Sprague, and George Gibbs, Consulting Engi-
neers, with its secretary, E. B. Katte. These engineers fixed the princi-
ples and policies which were afterward carried out under the jurisdiction
of the chief engineer of electric traction, E. B. Katte.

The system adopted was the 660-volt, direct-current, with a third rail,
the only system then developed for railroad traction.

Power stations, each with a capacity of 20,000 kilowatts, located at
Port Morris and at Yonkers, have been described.

f Transmission lines send 11,000-volt three-phase current to nine rotary
converter substations, and direct current to the third rails.

Electric locomotives are used for hauling thru trains; but motor cars
are used for the suburban passenger service. The annual locomotive
miles are now 1,200,000. There are 47 locomotives of 2200 h. p., 137
motor cars of 480 h.p., each, and 63 trail coaches.

542 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Cost of electrification and other work to 1910 have been as follows:

Grand Central Station $11,000,000

Real estate 10,500,000

Four-tracking and station improvements 6,000,000

Elimination of grade crossings 500,000

Post office and office buildings, over tracks 4,000,000

Electrification of 125 miles of single track 10,700,000

Total cost to Croton and to N. White Plains (estimate) . . . $23,550,000

Estimated cost of all terminal improvements $160,000,000

Operating expenses for the 12 months endmg June 30, for electrical
service, are shown by the following:

Item. 1910

1908

! ' I

Electric power transmission — maintenance $ $63,256 \ $217,451

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals ' 31,320 45,888

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals . 19,547 33,898

Transportation expense— motormen 182,108 194,412

Power plant equipment — maintenance 22,384 38,664

Operating power plants 124,193 125,995

Purchased power , , 2,301 , 2,483

Proposed work for 1912 embraces the electrification of the entire
freight line on the west side of Manhattan Island. This is a most ex-
tensive project since these freight tracks bring to New York Cit}^ daily,
and largely between midnight and morning, a large proportion of the
food supply for Manhattan Island. There are practically no passenger
trains moving between 1:00 and 6:00 A. M. With the freight service
added, the load factor of the steam power plants will be raised, decreas-
ing the cost of power, also greatly decreasing the investment per train-
mile and per ton-mile hauled.

References on New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Electrification.

Arnold and Potter: Tests for Power Required, A. I. E. E., June, 1902.

Wilgus: Electrification, S. R. J., Oct. 8, 1904.

Descriptions and Tests: S. R. J., Nov. 19, 1904.

Descriptions, general: S. R. J., 1905-6-7-8, particularly Oct. 12, 1907.

Motor Cars and Coaches: S. R. J., Nov. 4, 1905; trucks, S. R. J., April 28, 1906.

Power house: S. R. J., Sept. 29, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907.

Transmission Lines: S. R. J., Nov. 18, 1905; Oct. 12, 1907.

Substations: S. R. J., Nov. 3, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907.

Sprague: Comparison with N. Y., N. H. & H. R. R., A. I. E. E., May 16, 1907, p. 746.

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 543

Wilgus: Financial Results from Operation, Steam versus Electricity, A. S. C. E.,
Feb., 1908; S. R. J., March 7, 1908; Ry. Age, March 6, 1908.

Auxiliary' Lines: Ry. Age Gazette, July 19, 1907, p. 67.

Organization and Maintenance: S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907.

Maintenance Plant at Harmon, N. Y., S. R. J., June 8, 1907.

Arrangement of Tracks at Grand Central Terminal, Ry. Age, Oct. 7, 1910; S. R. J.,
Nov. 18, 1905.

WEST SHORE RAILROAD.

West Shore Railroad is one of the New York Central lines. The
company electrified 44 miles of road, or 114 miles of track, between Utica
and Syracuse, in 1907, to shut off threatened competition of a chain of
electric roads being built by strong interurban railways between Buffalo
and Alban3^ The work was carried out by subsidiary companies, the
Utica and Mohawk Valley, and the Oneida Railway.

The road between the cities runs on the private right-of-way, over
the 2, 3, and 4 tracks of the West Shore Railroad, both steam and
electric trains using the same tracks," and over the city streets at
terminals.

Power from Niagara Falls is transmitted along the right-of-way on a
steel-tower transmission line, to four rotary converter substations, 11 miles
apart, where it is transformed from 60,000 volts and converted to
direct-current at 600 volts. The contact line is a 70-pound protected
third rail, except in the cities where a common 600-volt trolley is used.

One- or two-car trains run half-hourly from each terminal.

References.

Descriptions, Tests, Service, Schedules, S. R. J., May 19, 1906; June 8, 1907; Oct. 12,
1907, p. 581; G. E. Review, Aug., 1907.

LONG ISLAND RAILROAD.

Long Island Railroad, which is a subsidiary company of the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad, since 1904 has operated electric trains from its Brooklyn
terminals to points east on Long Island with numerous north and south
branches, in a densely populated district. Much of the road in Brooklyn
has been elevated to abolish grade crossings. Good connections are
made in Brooklyn with the Interborough Rapid Transit subway and with
the Brooklyn Elevated Railroad. The principal terminal, at Long Island
City, is operated by steam locomotives.

Long Island Railroad was the first large railroad to electrify its line on
an extensive scale. The work began on its Atlantic Avenue line and on
its Rockaway division. About 42 miles of route or 98 miles of track

544 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

were completed in 1905, making the most extensive electric road
for that period. About 44 miles of route or 100 miles of track were
electrified prior to 1909; about 62 miles of route or 164 miles of track
prior to 1910.

Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels to and from Manhattan Island, which
were completed in 1910, provide service outlets from New York to points
near Long Island City, and further east to all points on the south side of
Long Island, 24 miles distant.

'' The electrification of the Long Island Railroad presents the first transformation
of a regular steam road to electric traction. Branch lines of importance have been
operated electrically, but this is the first extended electrification of main tracks."

"The rapidity of traffic expansion (after electrification) is indicated by the fact
that service provided for the year 1906 is four times the 4th of July service in 1902/'
"The record breaking piece of work was remarkable. In 18 months the power
station was constructed and ready for operation; 100 miles of track were elec-
trified, 25 miles of conduit and 24 miles of pole line were constructed; 250 miles
of high-tension conductors were erected; 5 substations were built and equipped;
130 steel motor cars were built and equipped; 85 trail cars equipped; and the operation
of the road begun" in 1905. Lyford, in Electric Journal, Jan., 1906.

Direct current from a 600-volt third-rail line is used for power.

Electric locomotives are not used for passenger or freight service.

Motor-car trains handle the suburban passenger service. Equipment
consists of 136 steel motor cars, each weighing 41 tons and equipped
with two 200-h. p. motors per car for Brooklyn-Long Island service,
and 66 wooden coaches each weighing 31 tons, for the above; also 225
steel motor cars, each weighing 52 tons and equipped with two 210-h. p.
motors per car for the New York-Long Island service. These have been
described. Six-car trains are operated ordinarily, but trains of 8 to 12
cars are used for heavy excursions. Speeds up to 55 m. p. h. are common
and a schedule speed of 25 m. p. h. is maintained with stops 1.6 miles apart.

The 32,500-kilowatt steam plant, used jointly by the Long Island and
Pennsylvania, has been described.

Results from the electrification were definitely announced by the Long
Island Railroad in 1909. With 120 miles of its track electrically oper-
ated, in 1908, the road was operating at sufficiently low cost, below steam
operation, to pay the interest on the extra investment, and to yield a
handsome surplus. The road was but recently operated with a deficit.
The results are surprising, in view of the incompleteness of the installa-
tion and the large expenditures at terminals, power plant, etc., from
which only a small advantage is as yet derived.

Long Island Railroad, in October, 1910, began the operation of electric
trains from the Pennsylvania Railroad station in New York to Jamaica
and other points in Long Island.

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 545

OPERATING DATA FOR THE YEAR. LONG ISLAND RAILROAD. 1908.

Cost per car-mile for electric railway service 17 . 80^

Cost per car-mile for steam railway service 27 . 95^

Ton-miles in electric passenger service 180,129,860

Car-miles in electric passenger service 4,945,719

Car-miles in steam passenger service 2,500,000

Train-miles (3 . 94 cars per train) 1,251,877

Maintenance expense of cars per car-mile 0.76^

Maintenance of electric equipment per car-mile 2.1 to 3.0^

Power-plant expenses per car-mile 3.3 to 3.5^

Direct current kilowatts used for traction 16,210,962

Efficiency from power-house to substation output .813

Watt-hours per ton-mile at substations 90

Watt-hours per ton-mile at power house 110

Cost per kw-hr. at power house 0 . 697 ^

Cost per kw-hr. at cars 1 . 467 ^

Operating expenses for the 12 months ending June 30, for electrical
service of the Pennsylvania Railroad are shown by the following:

Item.

1910.

1909.

1908.

Electric power transmission — maintenance

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals

Transportation expense — motormen

Power-plant equipment — maintenance

Operating power plants

Purchased power for third-rail service

$96,704

104,854

92,339

11,885

139,460

210,598

$87,008

65,632

81,158

9,590

149,754

198,610

PENNSYLVANIA TUNNEL & TERMINAL.

Pennsylvania Railroad Company, thru its late President, A. J. Cassatt,
conceived and planned a system of tunnels, terminals, yards, and bridges
to the north, to unite New Jersey, Manhattan, Long Island, and New-
England with an all-rail route. The tunnels and stations are no longer
a dream. The stupendous project, requiring the expenditure of
$160,000,000 became practical, because of the development of safe and
reliable operation of heavy trains by electricity thru long tunnels and on
heavy grades to an underground terminal station.

Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal Company operates the terminal

station and yards of the Pennsylvania Railroad at New York City. This

station has from 21 to 36 tracks, about 3600 ft. long. There are two

tunnels between Manhattan Island and New Jersey under the Hudson

546 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

River, four tunnels between Manhattan Island and Long Island City
under the East River, and extensive terminal and storage yards at
Sunnyside on Long Island. The work on Manhattan Island was com-
pleted in 1910.

The route miles of the Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal Company's
tracks between Harrison, N. J., and Sunnyside Yards, L. I., are 14.9, of
which 9.83 are on the surface, 2.29 under the two rivers, and 2.78 under-
ground. The track mileage which has been arranged for electric power
now aggregates 95, inclusive of terminal yards.

The direct-current 660-volt system was adopted because its sub-
sidiary road, the Long Island, had previously expended $1,000,000 on its
direct-current equipment. The power station has been described. The
third-rail is T-shaped, 4 inches high, with a 4-inch top face, weighs 150
pounds per yard, and is equivalent to a 2,475,000 cm. copper conductor.

Electric locomotives are used for Pennsylvania, Chesapeake & Ohio,
and other thru trains in and out of New York City.

Motor cars are now used by the Long Island Railroad for all thru
and suburban trains to all points less than 30 miles distant on Long Island.

Service planned for the ultimate passenger work is 600 Long Island
and 400 Pennsylvania trains in and out of the station daily. The train
service in 1911 consisted of a total of 88 Pennsylvania and 310 Long
Island trains in and out per week-day.

A rapid transit electric motor-car train service is to be operated
jointly with Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, in 1911, between Newark
and the old Pennsylvania terminal in Jersey City, 9 miles, and the H. & M.
tunnels to the lower part of Manhattan Island.

WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE.

West Jersey & Seashore Railroad, of the Pennsylvania Railroad,
extends from Camden, opposite Philadelphia, to Atlantic City.

The service is largely passenger work on a trunk line, 65 miles long,
with service at frequent intervals over the entire length, and with service
at one end of the line of some density. During the height of the summer
season, 3-and 4-car trains run on a 15-minute headway in each direction,
at high speeds. Baggage, mail, express, milk, and other motor cars run
either in or separate from the passenger trains. The winter service,
10,000 car-miles per day, is about one-half of the summer service.

The electric construction work was completed within 9 months of-
the commencement of the work, which is remarkable. Operation began
July 1, 1906.

Miles of main route are 65, with a 10-mile branch, near the middle of
the line. The total electric mileage is 150.

Reasons for electrification were entirely economical. The traffic had

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 547

not been decreasing, but the expenses were increasing. There was
some local business, along the route which could be handled more
economically and expeditiously by electric traction than was possible
with steam. The electrification also forestalled a proposed competing
parallel electric road.

The electric system, chosen in 1906, was the direct-current, 675-volt,
with an unprotected top-current third rail.

Power station contains twelve 350-h.p. Stirling boilers and four 2000-
kw., 6600-volt, 25-cycle turbo-generators. Transmission line consists
of 70 miles of duplicate 33,000-volt line on 45-ft. wooden poles.

Substations for the 75 miles of route number 8, each containing 2
or 3 rotary converters, of 500, 750, or 1000 kilowatts; total capacity
17,000 kilowatts. Traffic in winter is light and the expense for up-keep
of the rotary converters per train-mile then doubles. The operating
expense of the rotary converter substations for the cross-country service
furnished are a handicap which is proportionately greater than for
terminal and congested traffic. Freight trains cannot be handled eco-
nomically with the system and equipment installed.

Motor cars number 63 for passenger, baggage, and mail service,
weighing 48 tons, and 15 steel motor cars weighing 52 tons. Two 240-h. p.
motors are used per car. Cars are given a general overhauling in the
shops every 50,000 miles. The motors are painted, the fields removed
and cleaned, the armatures blown out, and the fields and armatures are
given a coat of insulating paint. Controllers and minor equipment are
given a general cleaning and painting at overhaulings, at least once per
year. Car detentions average one per 15,000 miles. Speed in thru
service averages 43 m. p. h. and in local service 26 to 32 m. p. h.

Results from operation have been excellent :

Gross earnings increased at the rate of less than 2 per cent, per year
until the road was electrified; while each year after electrification the
gross earnings have increased 11 per cent. Electrification made the
road popular.

Operating expenses during 1908 were 20.46 cents per car-mile for
electric service, as against 22.30 cents per car-mile for steam service.
During 1*909 operating expenses were 18.75 cents; and during 1910 were
18.19 cents per car-mile. The saving over steam was nearly 7 cents per
car-mile which, on over 4,550,000 car-miles per year, was over $300,000
per year in favor of electrical operation. The cost of steam service is
increasing. The average cars per train with steam service are seven, or.
twice that for the electric service.

Cost of electrification to 1911 is given as $3,650,000. The electrical
investment now produces a saving of 8.2 per cent, to pay the annual
interest charges on the investment.

548

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

OPERATING DATA

. WEST JERSEY & SEASHORE.

Year.

1910.

1909.

1908.

1907.

Kilowatt hours from power plant

Kilowatt hours from substations. .

28,312,500

21,972,300

.816

$2,235

0.542

3.250

$153,449

4,552,532

$.1819

$.2500

23,551,200

22,887,600

21,118,800

Efficiency of h.t. lines and substations.. .
Cost of coal per 2000 pounds ....

.784

.738

.722

Cost per kw-hr. at power plant, (^

Pounds of coal per kw-hour

Cost of power, total

Car-miles, 3 5 cars per train

0.555
3.300

0.592
3.370

0.680
3.670

4,107,609

$.1875

Total cost per mile, electric

Total cost per car -mile, steam

$.2046
$. 2230

Philadelphia terminal electrification has been worked out by a board
of engineers appointed by the Pennsylvania road. The plans developed
and adopted include the electrification of all suburban lines radiating
from the Broad Street, North Philadelphia, and West Philadelphia
stations. The estimated cost of the electrification was $14,000,000.

References on Pennsylvania Railroad Electrifications.

Long Island R. R:

Lyford and Smith: A. I. E. E., Nov., 1904; Smith: S. R. J., June 9, 1906.

Lyford: General outHne of work, Elec. Journal, Jan., 1906.

Cars: 37-ton, S. R. J., Aug. 11, 1906; Ry. Age, Aug. 12, 1906.

Trucks: Of steel passenger car, E. R. J., June 27, 1908.

Electrification: S. R. J., Nov. 19, 1904, Nov. 4, 1905; Oct. 12, 1907.

Power House: S. R. J., Jan. 5, 1905; April 7, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907, p. 587.

Operating Statistics: Ry. and Engr. Review, Feb. 12, 1908; E. R. J., Mar. 26, 1911,
p. 532.

McCrea: New York R. R. Club, March, 1911; Ry. Age March, 1911, p. 689.
Pennsylvania Tunnel & Terminal R. R. :

General data: S. R. J., Oct., 1907, p. 587.

Contract: $5,000,000 with Westingliouse for power house, substations, and loco-
motives for work from Newark, N. J., to Jamaica, L. I., S. R. J. Nov. 7, 1908.

Locomotives: 157-ton, 2500-h. p., E. R. J., Nov. 6, 1909; R. R. Age, Nov. 5, 1909.
West Jersey and Sea Shore R. R. :

Descriptive: S. R. J., Dec. 23, 1905; Nov. 10, 1906; Oct. 12, 1907.

Operating Statistics: E. R. J., March 26, 1911, p. 532.

Wood: Operation of the W. J. & S., A. I. E. E., June, 1911; E. R. J., July 1, 1911.
Philadelphia Terminal:

Proposed Electrification: E. T. W., Jan. 14, 1911, p. 44; E. W., June 11, p. 1578.

HUDSON & MANHATTAN.

Hudson & Manhattan Railroad Company operates tunnel lines from
a station near Grand Central Station, New York City, thence south and

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 549

west to Hoboken, via two tunnels under the Hudson River, thence south
in New Jersey to Jersey City, thence east via two tunnels under Hudson
River to the Hudson Terminal Building in lower New York, near the
Broadway connections to the Rapid Transit subway. Total route length
8; mileage 18. An extension runs from Jersey City west to Newark,
N. J., 9 miles, and connects with the main line of the Pennsylvania
Railroad.

Motor cars consist of 216 steel cars which now run in 6-car trains.
Each car is a 35-ton motor car, equipped with two 160-h. p. motors.

Traffic is dense but the haul is short. Trains carry 50 per cent,
more passengers per car-mile than New York subway trains.

The system is the 660-volt, direct-current, third-rail.

References.

Maps, steel tubes, third rail, and substations, S. R. J., Nov. 25, 1905; E. R. J., Feb.
29, 1908. Cars: S. R. J., June 8, 1907; E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909. Passenger stations:
■ S. R. J., March 9, 1907. Power plant: E. R. J., March 5, 1910.

BALTIMORE & ANNAPOLIS.

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line, owned by the Maryland Electric
Railways, runs entirely on a private right-of-way from the B. & 0. sta-
tion at Baltimore to Annapolis. Passenger service of a high grade began
in January, 1909. Miles of route are 26 and the total mileage is 35.

Reasons for change from steam to electricity were: '^Increased car
mileage, more frequent service, express service at least as fast, cleaner
service, and the sentimental and indefinable inherent attraction in elec-
trical operation." Competition with parallel lines also existed.

The equipment consists of twelve 50-ton, 400-h.p., passenger cars
with M. C. B. couplers for interchangeable steam railroad service.

The electric system chosen was the single-phase, 25-cycle, with a 6,600-
volt trolley. Pantographs are used as collectors.

Power is purchased. The one substation is located near the middle of
the line and contains three 300-kv-a., 22,000- to 6,600-volt step-down
transformers. The substation is inspected daily.

Operating results have been excellent, because of good management
and equipment. The road runs entirely on a private right-of-way.
Baltimore and Annapolis steam service consisted of 14 trains each way
per day. The present daily car-mileage is 2500 and the schedule speed
is 32 m. p. h.

Reference.

Whitehead, A. I. E. E., July 1, 1908, describes the change from steam to electric
power, gives data on several plans, speed-time and power curves, cost of equip-
ment, and cost of operation by either direct current or alternating current.

550 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

BALTIMORE & OHIO. -

Baltimore & Ohio Railroad in 1905 began the use of electric power for
its switching service and for train haulage thru the belt line tunne^ at
Baltimore. The 12 locomotives now used have been described.

The initial management of the electrical property, after the intro-
duction of electric power, was bad. The feeders were small, the first
rail bonds were inadequate, and the new rail bonds placed around the
rail joints were stolen. The overhead third rail (a double channel) was a
failure because of its rigidity and the corrosion by steam locomotive gases.
A 70-pound third rail was then located on the ties. A sectionalized
third-rail scheme which was tried was a failure.

Operating and maintenance costs of an antiquated power plant, con-
taining high-speed, non-condensing engines, were heavy. The power load
was difficult to handle because the locomotives carried heavy loads up
the grades and used no power on the down grades.

The locomotives themselves received but little attention, and they
were allowed to depreciate. They had a hard time for existence, but they
won out. Train haulage by electric power was made successful, and the
installation, as a whole, marked an epoch in railroading.

The 1896 locomotives were successful, considering both the impor-
tance of the installation and the design of equipment 15 years ago.

Power is now purchased and is delivered thru a 3000-kilowatt sub-
station. The maximum fluctuating load, when 4 locomotives or 2 trains
are operated, is about 4500 kilowatts. More than 2 trains are not
allowed on the line at one time. The locomotives make 200,000 miles,
and haul 60,000,000 ton-miles up the grades, per annum.

The equipment is now in the hands of competent railroad men and
excellent operating results are being obtained.

Enthusiasts supposed that this installation was a forerunner of large
and immediate electrifications of steam railroads. It has been stated
that, in 1905, the officials of the railroad, being pleased with the physical
and financial results, had estimates made for electric service over the
Allegheny mountains. These estimates were based on the haulage of
trains of double length, at double speed, making a great reduction in the
number of trains. Locomotives were to be controlled by a single crew,
congestion was to be prevented, time saved, and capacity gained in
service. The estimates for electrification showed that suitable locomo-
tives could be purchased, but the enormous cost of copper with the direct-
current system, and the placing of rotary converters 3 to 4 miles apart,
made electrification absolutely prohibitive. High voltages had to be used
for the contact line, to reduce the number of transformer substations.

Operating expenses for the 12 months ending June 30, for electrical
service, are shown by the following:

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 551

Item.

1910.

1909.

1908.

Electric power transmission — maintenance

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals

$5,525

7,776

16,087

26,852

71,284

$11,898
16,475

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals. . .

Transportation expenses — motormen

15,515

Power-plant equipment — maintenance

9,275

Operating power plants

74,254

References on Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Electrification.

Early Plans: Elec. Engr., Nov. 6, 1895, Mar. 4, 1896; S. R. J., March 14 and Aug. 22,

1903; July, 1895. S. R. Review, April 26, 1902.
Third rail: S. R. J., March 2 and Dec. 14, 1901; July 30, 1904.
Muhlfield: Steam versus Electric Locomotives, N. Y. R. R. Club, Feb., 1906; S. R. J.,

Feb. 24, 1906.
Hutchinson: Mountain Electrification on Altoona grades, Elec. Age, 1904.
Davis: Operating Data, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909, p. 1330.

See technical descriptions of Electric Locomotives in Chapter VIII.

MICHIGAN CENTRAL.

Michigan Central Railroad hauls its freight and passenger trains thru
its new Detroit River 7860-foot tunnels between Detroit, Michigan, and
Windsor, Ontario, with six 100-ton electric locomotives. Service began
in August, 1910. Power is purchased from the Detroit Edison Co., and
two 1000-kilowatt motor-generators and a storage battery are used. The
direct-current, 660-volt, third-rail system is used on 6 miles of route and
19 miles of track. See references under description of the locomotive.

The present daily traffic is 1100 freight cars and 16 passenger trains.

GRAND TRUNK.

Grand Trunk Railway electrified its tunnel under the St. Clair River
between Port Huron and Sarnia in 1908. The length of the electric zone
is 4 miles but including the tracks, which are 4 to 10 deep at terminals,
the electric mileage is 12.

This was the first American electrification of an important tunnel
wherein a high-voltage trolley was used. The tunnel has a small bore,
and 3300 volts was used for safety, and because it was high enough for
the short distance.

The six 66-ton electric locomotives, motors, power plant, service,
economy, etc., were outlined in the technical description of locomotives.

Grand Trunk Railway had plans made in 1910 for the electrification
of its road near Montreal. The project embraces the city passenger

552

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

terminal and the road to the Victoria bridge over the St. Lawrence River;
and it has purchased the Montreal & Southern Counties Electric Railway,
a 6-mile road between Montreal and St. Lambert.

ERIE RAILROAD.

Erie Railroad Company has, since June, 1907, operated a 37-mile
single-track electric branch, between Rochester and Mt. Morris, N. Y.,
for passenger service over steam railroad tracks.

Electrification was for the purpose of preventing competition and for
economy of operation. There was also a desire to try out electric traction.

Power is transmitted over the Niagara, Lockport & Ontario Power
Company's 3-phase, 165-mile line, at 60,000 volts. A substation,
located at Avon near the middle of the road, contains three 750-kw.,
60,000- to 11,000-volt transformers. Single-phase, 25-cycle, 11,000-
volt power is used.

Cars consist of six 48-ton motors, and six 28-ton coaches. Three or
four car trains are operated on the multiple-unit plan. Each motor car
has four 100-h.p. motors.

Operating results published are to the effect that the gross earnings
for passenger service, based on ticket sales, have increased 40 to 50 per
cent.; also that the operating cost under the usual operating and main-
tenance headings of the Interstate Commerce Commission averages 18
cents per car-mile. The motor-car mileage per annum is 250,000, and
the trail car mileage 75,000.

Operating expenses for the 12 months ending June 30, for electrical
service, are shown by the following:

Item.

1910.

1909.

1908.

Electric power transmission — maintenance

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals .

Transportation expense — motormen

Power-plant equipment — maintenance

Operating power plants

Purchased power

$1,874

$2,475

11,286

14,796

5,379

5,300

213

580

15,941

17,499

References.

Operation: S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907, pp. 629 and 650; June 19, 1909.
Power Transmission: 165 miles, S. R. J., July 14, Aug. 25, Dec. 8, 1906.
Lyford: on Operation, A. I. E. E., Dec. 11, 1908, p. 1696.
W. N. Smith: Ry. Age, Oct. 11, 1907, S. R. J , Oct. 12, 1907.

Proposed Electrification of Birmingham-Corning, N. Y,, 76-mile division, to head off
competition, S. R. J., Dec. 23, 1905, p. 1118.

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION

553

CHICAGO, BURLINGTON & QUINCY.

Denver & Interurban Railroad, a part of the Colorado and Southern,
in turn, a part of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, is a high-
grade railroad betAveen Denver and Boulder, Colorado. About 44 miles
of track were electrified in 1906.

The reason for electrification was due to the opportunity to utilize
water power to reduce the motive-power expense of steam passenger
train operating on heavy grades.

The system used is the single-phase, 25-cycle, 11,000-volt for a. c-
d. c. service. The overhead work includes catenary construction, phono-
electric trolley wire of high tensile strength, galvanized steel brackets,
and wooden poles.

Power is furnished by the plant of the Northern Colorado Power Co.,
from two 1000-kw. single-phase turbo-generators.

Motor cars are 16, each equipped with four 125-h. p. geared motors.
The weight of the motor cars is 58 tons, of the coaches is 37 tons, and
two-car trains are ordinarily operated.

References.

Deadwood Central R. R. : Black Hills grades, Deadwood to Leads City, S. D.,

S. R. J., Nov. 22, 1902, p. 841.
Denver & Interurban R. R., S. R. J., Sept. 24, 1904; Oct. 2, 1909.
Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek Ry., E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909.

Operating expenses for the 12 months ending June 30, for electrical
service, are shown by the following:

Item.

1910.

1909.

1908.

Electric power transmission — maintenance

Electric locomotives — repairs and renewals

Electric equipment of cars — repairs and renewals .

Transportation expenses — motormen

Power-plant equipment — maintenance

Operating power plants

Purchased power

$ ! $1,157

2,167

5,198

601

3,000

11,000

$1,526
0
2,840
5,333
436
3,177
9,645

SPOKANE & INLAND EMPIRE.

Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad furnished the first example of
the extensive use of single-phase railroad equipment. The road has a
private right-of-way and private terminals, freight and passenger. Water
power is used to haul all electric trains. Operation started in 1906.

554 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Route miles approximate 180; single-track mileage is 287; and the
mileage of the single-phase road is 162. The longest runs are from
Spokane south to Colfax, 77 miles, with a branch to Moscow, 91 miles
from Spokane.

Reasons for electrification have been stated as speculative, and a
desire to open up a new country. The use of electric power was due to
the splendid water powers available.

The system used is the a. c.-d. c, single-phase, 6600-volt, 25-cycle.
The equipment consists of 21 motor cars, each equipped with four 100-h.p.
motors; six 500-h. p. locomotives, and eight 680-h. p. locomotives.

The direct-current equipment is used for a street railway and for a
direct-current, 46-mile road to Hayden Lake.

Transmission lines consist of 116 miles of 45,000-volt, No. 2 copper
wire. Catenary lines are supported from brackets on cedar poles. Sub-
stations consist of 11 transformer houses, spaced about 10 miles apart,
each containing two 375-kw., 45,000-volt to 6600-volt, oil-insulated, self-
cooled transformers.

References on Spokane & Inland Empire Railroad Electrification.

General: S. R. J., Feb. 11, Oct. 14, 1905; Apr. 27, 1907.

Cars: S. R. J., Nov. 10, 1906.

Water Power: S. R. J., March 9, 1907; Jan. 11, 1908; E. W., Oct. 10, 1908.

Load and Batteries: S. R. J., Sept. 28, 1907.

Report to State Railroad Commissioners: S. R. J., Nov. 2, 1907.

Annual Report: June 30, 1908, E. R. J., Oct. 10, 1908.

IngersoU: Cost of Equipment, Elec. Journal, Aug., 1906.

GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY.

Great Northern Railway electrified 6 miles of tunnel and terminal
track at Cascade Mountain tunnel, in Washington in 1909. The tunnel
is 14,400 ft. long, on a 1.7 per cent, grade.

The system is the 25-cycle, 6,000-volt, 3-phase.

Power plant, of 7,500-kw. capacity, and line, have been described.
Cost of electrification was about $1,620,000.

Electric locomotive equipment consists of four G. E., 115-ton articu-
lated machines, each equipped with four 500-volt, one-speed, geared, three-
phase motors, rated 1900-h. p. on forced draft. These are the first three-
phase locomotives in America. The installation, see technical descrip-
tion, is quite different from the three-phase installations made by Ganz,
Brown-Boveri, Westinghouse, and Oerlikon.

Service is infrequent but heavy, and 1900-ton freight trains are hauled
up the grade by three locomotives per train, while passenger trains re-
quire two locomotives per train.

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 555

Electric roads controlled by the Great Northern-Northern Pacific
include the Oregon Electric, the United Railwaj^s of Portland, and others.

References.

References on Great Northern Railway, Cascade Tunnel Electrification.

General: G. E. Bulletin 4537, Sept., 1907; G. E. Review, Slichter, Aug., 1910.
General: S. R. J., May 11, Dec. 28, 1907; Oct. 31, 1908.
System: Hutchinson, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909.
Contact Line: Deneen, A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909.

SOUTHERN PACIFIC.

Southern Pacific Company operates trains with electricity on the
following roads:

1. Visalia Electric Railway, 36 miles of track. See technical descrip-
tion of its 15-cycle electric locomotives.

2. Suburban lines from moles or breakwaters in San Francisco Bay to
and in Berkeley, 10 miles; to and in Alameda, 7 miles; in and thru Oak-
land and Fruitvale to Melrose, 8 miles from the bay ; in all about 30 miles of
double track, much of which is on city streets. The 1200-volt direct-
current, overhead trolley system is used.

The power house is located on the Oakland estuary. It contains
twelve 645-h.p. water-tube Parker boilers, fed by fuel oil, one 14-foot
by 125-foot unlined steel stack, two Westinghouse double-flow turbo-
generators rated 5000 kw. for 1 hour, 7500 kw. for 2 hours, and 10,000
kw. for 1 minute, which supply three-phase, 25-cycle current at 13,000
volts to three substations, each containing six G. E. 750-kw., 600-volt
rotary converters, set in pairs, connected permanently in series, and
mounted on a common base.

3. Peninsula Railroad between Mayfield, Congress Junction, Saratoga.
San Jose, New Meriden Corners, Monta Vista, Los Altos, Mayfield, and
Palo Alto, over double track, one of which tracks is used for steam trains.
The electric mileage is 40. Elec. Ry. Journ., January 20, 1910, page 204.

4. Pacific Electric Railway, having 600 miles of track,, and Los
Angeles-Pacific Railway having 260 miles of track. Elec. Ry. Journ.,
November 26, 1910, page 1079.

5. Los Angeles & Redondo Ry., interurban divisions, 100 miles.

6. Street railways in Ontario, Redlands, San Bernardino, River-
side, San Jose, Fresno, Santa Monica freight road, etc.

Electrification of the Sierra District, Sacramento Division has
been considered since 1907. The division runs from Reno, Nevada, to
Sacramento, California, over the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and has
140 miles of road or 200 miles of track. It has a 7000-foot rise in 83
miles, 1.54 per cent, average grade, and a 2.2 per cent, maximum grade.

556 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Electrification would prevent double-tracking the road and would increase
the carrying capacity of a single line of rails. Expert reports were to the
effect that the road could be operated with electric power for 62 per cent,
of the expense of operation by steam, using water power from the Great
Western Power Company. St. Ry. Journ., Dec. 14, 1907, p. 1154.

The specifications issued (see Frank J. Sprague's data to A. I. E. E.,
Nov., 1907, and July, 1910) call for increased capacity by doubling the
speed, viz. to 15 m. p. h. for 2000-ton freight and 30 m. p. h. for 400-ton
passenger trains, up 2.2 per cent, grades.

The cost of electrification will be large, but the increased capacity on
the grades is expected to justify the outlay. Estimates made on cutting
new tunnels and lowering the grade to 1.5 per cent, showed the cost to
be from 40 to 50 million and the time required eight years. Electrifica-
tion is estimated to cost 13 millions and the time required 2 years.
Electric haulage would also reduce the non-revenue tonnage 20 per cent.

Mallet compounds are now in service on this grade. These are
2400-h.p., 300-ton, oil-burning locomotives having economical boilers.
Steam is used in the engines at long cut-offs, making them very waste-
ful. See description and tests in Chapter II. Their capacity is 1000
trailing tons at 10 miles per hour up 2.0 per cent, grades and 1855 tons
up 1.5 per cent, grades.

Julius Kruttschnitt, Vice-President, stated in 1910, regarding the
power problem over the Sierras :

''Electrification for mountain traffic does not carry the same appeal that it did
two years ago. Oil-burning locomotives are solving the problem very, satisfactorily.
Each Mallet compound locomotive hauls as great a load as two of the consolidation
type, burning 10 per cent, less fuel and consuming 50 per cent less water."

References.

Power Plant for Alameda Lines, E. R. J., Feb. 4, 1911, p. 196.

Electrification of Sacramento Division, S. R. J., Aug. 31, 1907.

Sprague: A. I. E. E., Nov., 1909; Harriman, E. W., March 16, 1907, page 538.

Grade Reduction to Prevent Electrification: Ry. Age Gazette, Feb. 18, 1910, p. 344.

Locomotive Tests, Ry. Age Gazette, Jan. 14, 1910, p. 91.

TECHNICAL DATA ON PROPOSED RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATIONS.

BOSTON & ALBANY.

Boston & Albany Railroad, owned by New York Central, in Nov.,
1910, filed plans with a Committee appointed by the Massachusetts
State Legislature for the electrification of 128 miles of its 4-track road
between Boston and South Farmington, Mass., a distance of 21 miles.
Its plans embrace the use of the 1200-volt, direct-current, third-rail

AVORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 557

system with multiple-unit passenger cars for local trains and electric
locomotives for thru trains. The plans embrace electrification for 65 per
cent, of all Boston & Albany trains leaving Boston.

Large possibilities for greater net earnings are suggested by a greater
traffic to be induced, by reduction of fares, and trains at short intervals.
Elec. Ry. Journ., Nov. 19, 26, 1910. See estimates, page 513.

DELAWARE, LACKAWANNA & WESTERN.

Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad, as early as 1899, con-
sidered the electrification of its suburban tracks in New Jersey. See
A. I. E. E., 1900, Vol. XVII, page 106.

A mountain-grade electrification near Scranton, Pa., received con-
sideration in 1909 and 1910. The proposed electric division runs from
Clark's Summit, which is 7 miles north of Scranton, to Lehigh, which is
19 miles south of Scranton, or to Mt. Pocono, 34 miles south of Scranton.
Electrification is expected to reduce expenses incident to the use of
three steam locomotives per train working on 1.5 per cent, grades.

ILLINOIS CENTRAL.

Illinois Central Railroad, at Chicago, presents one of the greatest
terminal electrification problems. The road and terminal are spread
along the shore of Lake Michigan, adjoining the residence district, a
valuable park, and the principal boulevard. The congestion at the ter-
minal is such that the yards could even be double-decked; the enclosure
of the tracks by warehouses might work out to advantage.

City Councils of Chicago have not as yet succeeded in getting the
railroad to formulate plans for electrification. Electric traction on sub-
urban trains is held back until electrification of all freight and passenger
trains can be included.

Electrification has repeatedly received consideration. Good prece-
dent has shown that the extra investment would be more than offset
by increase in traffic, reduction in operating expenses, and low cost of
central station power in combined switching, terminal, and suburban
service.

The problem involves 25 miles of 8-, 6-, and 4-track route, between
Flossmar and Chicago; 35 trains with an average weight of 410 tons, in
service simultaneously; 12,300-kw. maximum load; 35 per cent, load
factor; and 6500 train-miles daily, 5700 being in suburban traffic. In all :

Suburban trains, daily 400, with 1,000,000 ton-miles.

Thru trains, daily 100, with 500,000 ton-miles.

Freight trains, daily 200, with 2,000,000 ton-miles.

Switch trains, daily 400, with 2,000,000 ton-miles.

558 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Estimated cost per mile is based on the following: Steel transmission
lines, one three-phase circuit, $4000; double three-phase circuit, $6000;
conduit transmission lines, $20,000; third rail per mile $6400.

Power can be purchased at the rate of 0 . 75 cent per kw-hr.

Illinois Central electrification is held to be unjustifiable, even for
the suburban traffic. President Harahan submitted the statement be-
low of the results which are estimated to follow if the entire suburban
service alone were electrified, compared with present steam operation.

Results of operation of suburban business at Chicago for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1909, under steam:

Gross earnings $1,056,446

Operating expenses (82.9 per cent.) plus taxes 946,734

Net revenue (steam operation) $ 109,712

Estimated results under electrification:

Gross earnings $1,056,446

Operating expenses (66 per cent.) plus taxes 771,681

Net revenue (electric operation) 284,765

Net revenue (steam operation) 109,712

Increase in net earnings 175,053

Estimate cost of electrification $8,000,000

Interest and depreciation, 10 per cent 800,000

Saving in operation under electrification 175,003

Net deficit under electrical operation $624,947

The statement may be badly warped because the assumption is
made that electrification will cost $8,000,000, while other valuable es-
timates for the same track-mileage are $3,500,000; and the assumption
is made that electrification will not increase the gross earnings, i. e.,
attract traffic and regain lost business. Other roads within a few years
after electrification have increased their gross earnings 50 to 90 per cent.

Chicago terminal electrification, which embraces 25 steam railroads
at Chicago, was merged in 1911 with that of the Illinois Central Railroad.

A terminal electrification commission is now employed by the
Chicago Association of Commerce, being paid by all of the steam rail-
roads, to report on the necessity for electrification, the mechanical feasi-
bility, and financial problems of the undertaking.

Horace G. Burt is chief engineer of this Commission. George Gibbs
and E. R. Hill, who have worked out electrifications of the New York
Central, Long Island, West Jersey, and Philadelphia terminals, have
been appointed consulting engineers, with Mr. Hugh Pattison, formerly
Superintendent of Construction of the Pennsylvania terminals at New
York City, as electrical engineer in direct charge of the work.

The rearrangement of steam tracks, the elimination of thru freight

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 559

from the business district, and the much-needed revision of freight yards
are being studied by George R. Henderson, consulting engineer.
Actual work on electrification may not begin prior to 1915.

References on Illinois Central Railroad Electrification.

Sprague: A. I. E. E., June, 1892.

WaUace: A. S. C. E., Feb. 3, 1897; S. R. J., July, 1899, p. 468.
Suburban cars: S. R. J., July 4, 1903; April 30, 1904.
Practicability of Electrification, E. R. J., Oct. 31, 1908, p. 1290.
Engineering News: Comment on Electrification, Dec. 24, 1908.
Symons: On Electrification, Western Railway Club, Feb. 19, 1908.
Seley: On Electrification, .Western Railway Club, Nov., 1909; Ry. Age, Nov. 26, 1909.
Harahan: Reports, R. R. Age, Oct., 1909, p. 812; E. R. J., Oct. 30, 1909.
Cost of Electrification: E. R. J., Oct. 24, 1908, p. 1261.
Evans: Reports to City Council, 1909, on terminal electrification.
Delano: Chicago City Terminals, Ry. Age, Dec. 24, 1909.
Extent of Electrification: E. R. J., Oct. 2, 1909, p. 608.
Objections to Electric Traction: Illinois Central, near end of Chapter III.
Bird: Locomotive Smoke in Chicago, Ry. Age, Feb. 17, 1911, p. 321; E. R. J., Feb.
18, 1911, p. 305.

CANADIAN PACIFIC.

Canadian Pacific Railway Company controls two electric railways :

Aroostock Valley Railroad, Maine, a 12-mile, 1200-volt railway.

Hull, Ottawa, Ajdmer Division, 26 miles. See description of loco-
motives, Elec. Engineer, October 7, 1896.

In Ottawa, the company has completed plans, involving about
$1,000,000, for the electrical operation of an underground tunnel road,
from a point near the foot of the Rideau Canal to the union station;
or for a belt line around the city. Elec. Ry. Journ., August 20, 1910.

Rocky Mountain grades, in the past, have frequently been reduced
by doubling the length of the winding track. The grades on many
divisions are severe, and only a part of ordinary train loads are
hauled; yet each train requires 3 to 4 of the largest locomotives.
Operation with such groups is- dangerous. Economy with steam power,
when so used, is evidently low. Water power is abundant in the moun-
tains, could be utilized to advantage for electrical operation of trains,
and would prevent expensive grade reduction.

BUTTE, ANACONDA & PACIFIC.

Butte, Anaconda & Pacific Railway, owned by Anaconda Copper
Company, had plans drawn in 1910 for the complete electrification of
its steam railroad from Butte to Anaconda, Montana, 26 miles. The
two cities are located on hills and a deep valley intervenes. Tracks for

560 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

storage, mines, terminals, and branches are extensive and the total
mileage for which electrification is considered exceeds 50, of 80 total.

Ruling grades on the main line are 0.85 per cent, for east-bound
track and 0.41 per cent, for west-bound, while the ruling and continuous
grade is 1.5 per cent, for 6 miles to the Anaconda smelter hill, and 2.5
per cent, for 5 miles to the Butte mines.

Passenger service consists of eight 3-car trains, of from 235 to 275
tons' weight, per day, between the cities.

Freight service consists of twenty 960- to 1050-ton ore and supply
trains, between Butte and Anaconda, twenty 2800- to 3500-ton trains
down the grades from the mines, and many switching movements.

Cost of service per train-mile, from I. C. C. reports, is $2.63, which is
higher than ordinary roads in this district, because of the high cost of
labor, and the very wasteful use of coal by locomotives on the up- and
down-grade, per ton-mile hauled.

Electrification would give a market for water power, now delivered
by the Anaconda Copper Company to Butte and Anaconda for
mining purposes, at 100,000 volts and 60 cycles. It would decrease
the cost of power per ton-mile, increase the train load, and thus increase
the capacity of each mile of track on the grades. About $1,000,000
would be required for electrical equipment.

OTHER PROPOSED AMERICAN ELECTRIFICATIONS.

Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound Railroad has had plans drawn
for the utilization of water power to haul its trains over the Bitter Root
Mountains, for about 100 miles of track between St. Regis, Montana,
and St. Joe, Idaho. It is understood that a series of hydraulic dams would
be required on the St. Joe River and on the Missoula River.

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railroad has proposed to apply
electric traction for its line between Buffalo and Cleveland. See '^ Steam
vs. Electric Railway Operation for Trunk Line Traffic," Mayer, to
A. S. C. E., November 21, 1906; St. Ry. Journ., December 1, 1906.

Northern Pacific Railroad has considered the use of electric power on
the Bozeman ^^hill" and also on the Helena ^^hill," over the Rocky Moun-
tains. Tests were made in 1908 on locomotive requirements, and data
and estimates prepared on electrification. Traffic is not too light for
commercial practicability, and the load factor will be sufficiently high if
the electrification covers 100 miles of route.

Oregon Short Line has considered plans for electrification from Salt
Lake City over the mountain grades to Pocatella, 171 miles.

Norfolk & Western Railway has planned to increase its economy and
capacity by the electrification of the mountain grades near Bluefield, W. Va.

Many American railroads are now studying plans for electrification.

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 561
EUROPEAN ELECTRIC RAILROADS.
ENGLAND.

In Great Britain there are about 237 miles of steam railroad track
operated solely by electricity and in addition 200 miles operated partly
by electricity, 87 electric locomotives and 821 motor cars, in addition
to the underground tubes, and the two old steam ^'Circle" lines, now
worked electrically. There are five provincial railroads which employ
electric traction for train service: Mersey, North-Eastern, Lancashire
& Yorkshire, Midland, and London, Brighton & South Coast. The
last two are single-phase roads. Maps: St. Ry. Journ., October 4, 1902.

Mersey Tunnel Railway, between Liverpool and Birkenhead, for-
merly a steam road, was electrified in 1903. It now has 5 miles of route
and 10 miles of track. The road extends thru a tunnel under the Mersey
River. The reason for electrification was to overcome the difficulties
due to grades and the ventilation in the tunnel, and to regain traffic
which had been taken in competition.

The service with steam operation consisted normally of 7 coaches
per train, while with electric service there is a 3-minute headway on
the main line and 6 minutes on the branches. Steam trains formerly
weighed 154 tons, where electric trains now weigh 137 tons. Formerly
there were 12 steam trains per hour, now there are 20 electric trains per
hour. Steam locomotives formerly used were 18, which handled 96
coaches, with a total of 4280 seats. Electric motor cars are now 24,
which haul 33 coaches, with a total of about 3156 seats. The train-miles
per hour are now 50 per cent, greater than in the heaviest steam service.
Motor cars are 60 feet long, have four 100-h. p. motors.

Power station has three 1250-kilowatt, d.-c. units and a battery.

Mersey Railway was the first road to show clearly, from operation,
that there was no theory about the increased net earnings with electric
traction as compared with steam, as the following table shows :

Passenger traffic increased 120 per cent.; receipts 85 per cent.

Electric working reduced from .20 to .17 cent per ton-mile.

Coal cost reduced from $4 to $2.10 per ton.

Average speed with stops increased from 15.6 to 19.9 m. p. h.

Maintenance of way reduced from 0.42 to 0.18 cent per ton-mile.

Life of rails increased 47 per cent, per ton average rolling load.

Ton-miles per annum increased from 43,000,000 to 67,000,000.

Total cost of working and maintaining the locomotive and engineer-
ing department reduced from 0.46 to 0.30 cent per ton-mile.

Total cost of operation including general charges but excluding interest
on additional capital for electrification reduced from .68 cent to .48 cent
per ton-mile.
36

562 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

Total cost of operation including general charges, and including
interest on additional capital for electrification have been reduced from
.68 cent to .58 cent per ton-mile.

J. Shaw: British Institution of Civil Engineers, jSTov,, 1909. Kirker : Electric Jour-
nal, May, 1906; Electrical Age, Jan., 1910; S. R. J., Apr., 4 1903.

North -Eastern Railway, formerly a steam road, electrified in 1904,
comprises two miles of four track, and 35 miles of double track, or 82
miles of single track near Newcastle upon Tyne. Stations are 1| m.iles
apart. The 600-volt, direct-current, third-rail system is used. There are
62 motor cars of 250 h. p., and 44 trail coaches, and 6 freight locomotives.

" A much greater amount of work is now done at the terminal stations as there are
no engines to attach or detach; the signal operations are reduced about one-half
accelerations realized decreased running between stations from 15 per cent, to 19 per
cent. It would have been impossible to carry by the steam service the number of
passengers that now are electrically conveyed." Dr. C. A. Harrison to British
Institution of Civil Engineers, November, 1909. S. R. T., June 20, 1903.

Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway, electrified in 1904, between Liv-
erpool and Southport, England, has a route length of 40 miles, but 82
single-track miles. In 1910, a belt line between the two cities via
Ormskirk was added.

Service is provided with 80 motor cars and 52 coaches, weighing 51
an-d 23 tons respectively. Four-car 1200-h.p. trains are usual. The
direct-current, 600 volt, third-rail system is used.

E. R. J., Jan. 30, April 2, 1904; Aug. 4, 1906; Aspinwall, Inst, of M. E., 1909.

Midland Railway in 1908 electrified its double-track steam line be-
tween Heysham, Morecambe, and Lancaster, 23 miles of track. The
6600-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase system is used. There are now three
43-ton, 60-foot, 72-passenger motor cars and six 21-ton coaches. Power
is produced by gas engines having a rated capacity of 450 kilowatts.
The Electrician, June 12, 19, 26, 1908; July 4, 1908.

LONDON, BRIGHTON & SOUTH COAST.

London, Brighton & South Coast Railway, the oldest steam road in
England, built in 1841, began the use of electric traction in 1909 on its
South London 9-mile division, and in 1911 on its Crystal Palace 14-mile
division, there being altogether 62 miles of single track in operation.

Electrification was decided upon as advantageous not only for the
conditions on the suburban division, but also for the 50-mile route from
London to Brighton, between which points there are about 40 trains
each way per day. The directors have decided to electrify the entire 480
miles of track prior to 1916. The 25-cycle, 6700-volt, single-phase,
system was chosen for the work.

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 563

Motor-car trains are operated. Service is furnished by 46 motor
cars and 68 coaches, of which 16 motor cars have four 115-h. p. and 30
have four 175-h. p. motors. Motor cars weigh 55 tons and 60 tons re-
spectively, and haul two 35-ton coaches. Seats per car are about 67.
Distance between stops is about 4300 feet, stops are 20 seconds, and
schedule speed 22 m. p. h. Motors are A. E. G., single-phase, compensated
repulsion type. Voltage is 750; air gap is 3 mm.; gear ratio is 4.24, and
acceleration rate is 1.0 m. p. h. p. s. Commutators run 50,000 miles be-
tween turnings. Motor efficiency is over 80 per cent., power factor
of the system is 80 per cent., and energy consumption at the power"
station is 65 to 75 watt hours per ton-mile with the above stops, and
34.4 on non-stop, 37-m. p. h. schedule trips. Each motor car averages
58,000 miles per annum.

Contact line is the double catenary, V type. Line insulators were
tested mechanically to 14 tons, and electrically to 65,000 volts. Many
low bridges and tortuous routes exist near terminals. Collectors are
aluminum bows, contactors have a groove for grease; pressure is 10
pounds; life is 4500 miles; and cost of renewals is 10 cents per 1000 miles.

The results of operation for the first six months of 1910 show that
the passenger traffic increased from 2,000,000 to 3,750,000, and the daily
train mileage from 687 to 1465. Part of the increase was enticed away
from the tramways, part was new business induced by a reduction of
fares, which reduction became possible by reason of economies effected
by electrical operation, so that the entire gain can be stated to be due
to the adoption of electricity.

References.

E. R. J., Dec. 30, 1905; March 6, 1909; April 1, 1911, p. 582.
Dawson's ''Electric Traction on Railways," 1909.

Dawson: London Electrician, Sept. 9, 1910; Extension to Crystal Palace, B. I. C. E.,
March, 1911.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

In Sweden the State Railway has been experimenting since 1905,
near Stockholm, with single-phase, 25-cycle electric locomotives, also
18,000 to 25,000-volt contact lines. The locomotives have been described.
The work has now passed the experimental stage.

In 1911 the State began the electrification of the steam railroad
between Kiruna and Riksgransen, 93 miles apart. Thirteen 2000-h.p.
freight, and two 1000-h. p. passenger locomotives were ordered from
Siemens. A change was made to the 15-cycle, single-phase, 15,000-volt
system. The service calls for the haulage of ore, near the Norwegian
frontier, in 2,200-ton trains with 2000-h. p. locomotives; and the haulage

564 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

of passenger and express trains with 1000-h. p., 62-ni. p. h. loconaotives.
The grade is a steady encline of one per cent. A 36,000-kv-a., single-
phase water power station has been built at Porjus Falls, from which
power is transmitted at 80,000 volts. The estimated cost of the com-
plete undertaking was $4,000,000.

In Norway electrification of railways is proceeding on a smaller
scale. Motor-car and locomotive-hauled trains are being operated
between Thamshavn and Lokken, an 18-mile road; also on the Rjukan
Railway (Notodden-Tinoset and Vestfjorddals Railway), 29 miles.

References on Electric Railways in Sweden and Norway.

Swedish State: S. R. J., Apr. 15, 1905, March 31, 1906; E. W., Nov. 11, 1905. Single-
phase Locomotive Installations, and Cost of Electrification, E. R, J., Oct. 15,
1910, p. 857; May 6, 1911, p. 788.

Thamshavn-Lokken : Ry. Age., Sept. 2, 1910,

FRANCE.

The railways of France, in geographical order are: The North-
ern, Eastern, Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean, Southern, Paris-Orleans, and
the Western. Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean extends from Paris to Mar-
seilles;. Paris-Orleans extends from Paris thru Orleans and on to the
south to Tolouse where it joins the Southern; Western extends from
Paris to points on the English channel, and Southern extends across
Southern France, parallel with the Pyrennes Mountains, from the Atlantic
to the Mediterranean. Western and Southern are under government
control.

Paris -Lyons -Mediterranean, in 1900, electrified 40 miles of track
near its Paris terminal, and uses the direct-current 600-volt third-rail
system. Plans for electrification between Gap and Barcelonette have
been adopted. Reference on its Fayet-Chamonix road to Mt. Blanc:
St. Ry. Journ., Feb. 7, 1903.

Paris-Orleans Railroad, in 1900, electrified 46 miles of track, using
the direct-current, 600-volt, third-rail system on the Paris-Juvisy,
14-mile section. About 200 thru trains are hauled daily, by 11 electric
locomotives, and about 100 suburban trains are hauled by motor cars.
The original power plant at Ivry had three 1000-kilowatt, three-phase,
25-cycle, 5500-volt generating units which fed three substations.

Western of France Railroad has used electric traction since 1901,
on the Paris- Versailles, 11 -mile suburban division. Plans have been
adopted for two important 20-mile extensions, to Argenteuix and to St.
Germain, the cost of which is estimated at $13,400,000. Other electri-
fication plans, if carried out, will involve an expenditure of $60,000,000.

Midi (or Southern) Railroad of France began to equip its steam line

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 565

for electric traction in 1909. The first work was on the 65-mile section
l3ang between Pan and Montrejean. One of the heavy grades is 3.5 per
cent, for 7 miles. It is intended later to equip the 200 miles between
Tolouse and Bayonne. The single-phase, 17-cycle system is used.

Six 89-ton, 1200-h. p. freight locomotives have been purchased from
Westinghouse, and one 94-ton, 1600-h. p., locomotive from the All-
gemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft. See description, page 385.

Motor cars haul 115-ton passenger trains on the branch lines at 38
m. p. h. Thirty 50-seat, 62-ton motor cars are used, each equipped with
four 285-volt, 125-h. p. single-phase motors.

Four w^ater-power plants, at Egat, Soulom, Porta, and Ossau, with
a total rating of 38,000 kilowatts, will be used. Energy will be trans-
mitted at 60,000 volts to five substations where it will be reduced by
step-down transformers to 12,000 volts for the contact line.

References.

Elec. Ry. Journ., Oct. 15, 1910; June 3, 1911, p. 962.

SPAIN.

Santa Fe-Gergal Railway of Spain started the electrification of its
main line from Linaries to Almeria, in southwestern Spain, in 1907.
The mileage electrified to 1909 is 15. The equipment consists of five
320-h. p., 30-ton locomotives designed by Brown, Boveri & Company.

The service consists of the haulage of light passenger trains with a
single locomotive, and freight trains which weigh from 150 to 300 tons
with two locomotives.

The system used is the three-phase, 15-cycle, 5,500-volt, double-
trolley, without separate transmission lines and substations.

HOLLAND.

Rotterdam-Hague -Scheveningen Railway of Holland, opened in
October, 1908, is a good example of a 10,000-volt, 25-cycle, single-phase
road. Route length is 22 miles; mileage is 48.

Generator capacity installed is 5700 kv-a. Four 600-kv-a. and four
1200-kv-a. step-down transformers are used, with three-phase, two-phase
line connections. Trolley construction comprises a catenary, and a
4/0 contact wire.

Rolling stock consists of twenty 61-foot, 56-ton, 3-axle motor cars,
and nine 34-toD trailer cars. Each motor car has two single-phase com-
pensated, series, 180-h. p. Siemens-Schuckert motors, geared for 60
m. p. h. The controller delivers 133 to 338 volts to the motor.

Train service in winter consists of 52 trains per 16-hour day, which

566

ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

average 235 miles per motor car; in summer, of 160 trains, which
average 357 miles per motor car. Three-car trains are in common use.

References.

Ry. Age, July 8, 1910; St. Ry. Journ., Oct. 2, 1909.

GERMANY.

About 94 per cent, of all railroads in Germany are state railroads
The single-phase, 15-cycle, 10,000-volt system was adopted in 1908 by
the Prussian State Government. The development and extent of elec-
trification in Germany are shown below:

ELECTRIC RAILROADS IN GERMANY.

Single-phase.

Mile-

Motor-

Locomo-
tives.

Year

Name of railroad.

Cycles.

Volts.

age.

cars.

built.

Prussian State :

Spindlersfeld

25
25
25

25
15

6,600
6,600
6,600
1,500
10,000

1
17

250

15
30
34

30
112

110

0
3
0
1

• 1903

Oranienburg

Blankanese-Ohlsdorf . . .

Altoona Harbor

Magdeburg - Leipzig-
Berlin City, Circle

1906
1907
1910
1910
Project.
1903
1905

1905
1911

Berlin-Grosslichterf elde .
Neiderschoenweide-Koep-

enick.
Bavarian State:

Murnau-Oberammergau

Salzburg-Berchtesgaden

Karlsruhe-Herrenalb

Baden State:

Wiesental Ry. or Basei-
Schopfheim-Zell.
Rhine Shore Ry. :

Cologne-Bonn

Cologne-Treves . . .• .

D. c.

15
15
25

15
D. c.

550
640

5,500

10,000

8,000

10,000
990

24
0

7
15

4
12

1909
1909

1908
Project.

References on Electric Railroads in Germany.

Berlin-Zossen high-speed tests of 1901; S. R. J., Sept. 9, Oct. 28, 1905.

Berlin Elevated & Underground: Engr. Mag., Vol. 27, p. 731, 1904; St. Ry. Rev.,

April and Oct., 1902; Ry. Age, Sept. 23, 1910.
Eifel Bahn Ry.: Cologne to Treves, 112 miles, S. R. J., Oct. 12, 1907.
Electrification of Geneva Railroads: Electrical Review, March 6, 1909, p. 434.
Weisental Ry.: E. R. J., Dec. 11, 1907, p. 1177.
Peters: Development of German Railways, Ry. Age, Dec. 16, 1910.

See references under Systems; and under Technical Descriptions of Locomotives.

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION
ELECTRIC RAILWAYS IN AUSTRIA.

567

Name of railway.

Electric system.

Motor

cars.

Loco-
motives,

Route
miles.

Mile-

Year
open.

Tabor-Bechyn

Innsbruck-Fulpmes

Bludenz-Schruns

Vienna-Baden

Haute Vienne

Trient-Male

Neumarkt-Waizenkircken. .
Waitzen-Budapest-GodoUa

St. Polten-Mariazell

Mittenwald: Munich-
Innsbruck.
Vienna-Pressburg

D, c, 3-wire, 1500-volt

1-phase

D. c, 2-wire, 500-volt

1-phase, 15-cycle, 10,000-volt
1-phase, 25-cycle, 10,000-volt

D. c, 800 volts

D. c, 500 volts

1-phase, 15-cycle, 10,000-volt.
1-phase, 25-cycle, 6000-volt. .
1-phase, 15-cycle, 10,000-volt.

1-phase, 15-cycle, 10,000-volt.

1903
1904
1905
1907
1910
1909
1908
1910
1910
1910

1911

SWITZERLAND.

Swiss Federal Railways on December 31, 1909, owned 1825 miles of
railway, leaving 973 miles outstanding in the hands of private companies.

Experimental work, between 1904 and 1906, on the short Seebach-
Wettingen branch, with Oerlikon and Siemens locomotive hauled trains,
proved that 15 cycles, 15,000 volts, catenary construction, single-phase
commutators, and side-rod locomotives were practical for heavy railways.

Simplon Tunnel road, Burgdorf-Thun interurban, and 21 meter-
gage roads, operated by the Confederation, use electric traction. Plans
have been developed to use electric traction on all roads. See report of
Commission on Electrification, St. Ry. Journ., Nov. 10, 1906, p. 950. See
technical description of Simplon tunnel locomotives.

Burgdorf-Thun Railway was the first meter-gage, electric inter-
urban road in Switzerland operated under steam railroad conditions.
The road is 25.4 miles long. It was placed in service in July, 1899.

Power comes from a 4500-kilowatt water power plant at Spiez, as
three-phase current, at 15,500 volts. Fourteen transformer stations,
with a maximum capacity of 450 kilowatts each, which corresponds to the
load of a double train, are used to reduce the pressure from 15,000
to 750 volts alternating for the two-wire, three-phase contact line.
Trolley line consists of two hard-drawn, 8-mm. wires, 15.9 to 17.0 feet
above the rails.

Rolling stock consists of six 32-ton motor cars with four 55-h. p.
motors, and 10 passenger coaches. Speed is 22 m. p. h.

Two 100-ton, 300-h. p. electric locomotives used for the freight traffic
run at 11 and at 22 m. p. h. and each has a capacity for hauling
100 tons at 11 m. p. h. on a 2-5 per cent, grade, or 50 tons at 22
m. p. h. on the same grade. The locomotive rotor runs at 300 r. p. m.,

5G8 ELECTRIC TRACTION FOR RAILWAY TRAINS

and is geared to 2 sets of gears connected to a countershaft, which
drives the 2 axles of the locomotive by means of a side-rod.

References.

Motor equipment, drawings: S. R. J., Dec. 30, 1899; June 7, 1902.

Bernes Alps Railroad, connecting Berne, Spiez, Frutigen, in
Switzerland, and the Simplon Tunnel in Italy, completed a standard
gage over and thru the Alps, in 1911. Its Lotschberg double-track
tunnel, which adjoins the Simplon tunnel, is 8 1/2 miles long, of large
cross-section, 19.8 by 26.4 feet, for double track. The tunnel will cost
$7,500,000 and the entire railroad, which is 52 miles long, $15,000,000.

Oerlikon, A. E. G., and Siemens locomotives were described.

Motor cars are 65-foot, 62-ton, and seat 64 passengers. Each hauls
trailers in 177 trains up long 2.7 per cent, grades at 28 m.p.h.

The system used is the 15-cycle, 15,000-volt, single-phase.

References.

Electrical Review, March 6, 1909; E. R. J., June 18, 1910, Oct. 29, 1910.

ITALY.

Italian State Railways have been electrified as follows:

Milan-Varese-Porto Ceresio Railroad in 1901, for local and sub-
urban service. There are 48 miles of first-class road and 81 miles of
track. Stops average 2.9 miles apart. It is operated by the Mediter-
ranean Railway Company.

The direct-current, 660-volt, third-rail system is used. Trains
contain ihree 45-ton motor cars, each with four 160-h. p. motors, and
three 35-ton coaches. Electric locomotives are used for freight. Grades
are heavy. Tariffs were reduced 50 per cent, after electric power was
adopted,, yet the earnings increased 25 per cent. Electrification cost
was only $12,000 per mile.

Valtellina Railway, or Rete Adriatica, in 1902. This is an elec-
trified steam road, with light traffic, between Lecco on the south and
Chiavenna, 41 miles north, with a branch to Sondrio, 25 miles west, in
all 66 miles of road and 70 miles of track. The road was extended
south from Lecco to Milan, a distance of 25 miles, in 1911.

The three-phase, 15-cycle, 3000-volt system is used.

Locomotives and service are described in Chapter IX.

Giovi Railway, between Genoa, Pontedecimo, and Bussala, which
electrified 13 miles of double track in 1909. This is a three-phase
mountain-grade freight road using 30 Westinghouse locomotives.

WORK DONE IN RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATION 569

Savona-San Giuseppe, a 13-inile, three-phase, 15-cycle, 3000-volt
freight road in northern Italy, in 1909.

Domodossola-Iselle, an extension south from the Simplon Tunnel,
about 10 miles of track, in 1910.

Bardonnechia-Modana, including the Mont Cenis tunnel railway,
between Modane and Turin, completed for the Turin Exposition in 1911.
Three-phase, 7000-volt, 2000-h. p., Brown-Boveri locomotives are used.

Neapel -Salerno and Torre Annum ziata-Castellamare roads.

Turin -Pinerollo -Torre -Pelice Railway, a branch line southwest from
Turin, on which Mr. Yerola, the chief engineer of the electrical depart-
ment, states the single-phase system is necessary because variable
speeds, up to 50 m. p. h., are required for light passenger trains.

Gallarate-Arona, and Gallarate-Laveno, third-rail lines.

References on Italian State Railways.

Milan- Varese-Porto Ceresio: S. R. J., Aug. 3, 1901; Dec. 6, 1902; May 13, 1905.

Hammer: General notes, A. I. E. E., Feb., 1901; S. R. J., May 2, 1903, p. 663.

Waterman: Descriptive, A. I. E. E., June, 1905.

Valtellina Railway: S. R. J., March 16, 1901; May 30, 1903.

Stillwell: A. I. E. E., Jan., 1907; S. R. J., April 6, 1907, p. 575. .

Valatin: S. R. J., Descriptive, Aug. 5, 1905; Jan. 4, 1908.

Cserhati: Operation results, S. R. J., Aug. 26, 1905.

Wilson & Lydall: Power Curves, in "Electrical Traction," Vol. II, p. 113.

Electrification of 193 miles: S. R. J., May 11, 1907.

CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY.

The technical descriptions, statistical tables, and summary of work
done in Electric Traction for Railway Trains are so rich in suggestive
details that they will repay a careful study of the development and the
present status. What the next decade will show may be surmised.

European development is now and always will be limited to short-
haul work, but the American development for long-distance, trunk-line
work is most attractive. Where it has been on a large scale, for
freight, switching and passenger service, the work done has justified the
undertaking; as the size of the project increases, the economic gain
increases, and in transportation this is of vital importance. Capital has
been spent for electric traction on the faith that it was wisely spent,
to attract traffic and to operate trains economically.

INDEX.

Acceleration, kinematics of, 417

energy required for, 418

rates used, 229, 274, 416, 469
Adhesive coefficients, 269, 406
Advantages of Electric Traction, Chapter III, 86
Advantages, in business depression, 113

of direct-current motors, 161

of direct-current systems, 148

of electric roads in competition, 114

of series vs. repulsion motors, 169

of series vs. shunt motors, 161, 425, 508

of single-phase motors, 177

of single-phase systems, 149

of three-phase motors, 165

of three-phase system, 149
Air gap of motors, 167, 198
Air resistance, tables, 407, 409
Akron, Bedford and Cleveland R. R., 13, 23
Albany Southern R. R., 16, 23, 28, 39
Alexanderson, motor, 175
Allgemeine Elektricitats-Gesellschaf t :

electric mtoors, 147 H

single-phase locomotives, 354, 355, 383, 387

single-phase roads, 141, 143, 144
Allis-Chakners Company, 9, 162, 163
A. I. E. E. rating for motors, 182
Amperes per contact line, table, 447
Analysis of operation of roads, 101, 506
Anchor bridges on overhead hnes, 453
Annapolis Short Line R. R.

See Baltimore & Annapolis
Armature bearings, 202

design for motors, 199

dimensions of, 194

height above rail, 287

speed of, 201

windings of, 199
Armstrong, A. H., 217, 528
Arnold, B.J., 137, 379, 541
Aspinwall,J. A. F., 22, 65, 89, 114, 527

See Lancashire & Yorkshire Ry.
Aspinwall, L. M., 214
Aurora, Elgin & Chicago R. R., 17
Austria, electric railways of, 567
Automatic devices, for safety, 92
Axle, hollow, 208, 252, 297, 303, 365, 372

standardization for gears, 202

tons per, 56, 289

Baden State Ry. locomotive, 386

See German Railroads, 519, .521, 566
Balanced locomotives, 64

Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line:

cost of electrification, 517

electrification, 549

motor-car trains, 234

system of electrification, 138
Baltimore & Ohio R. R.:

electrification of, 517, 549

locomotives, electric, 44, 302, 303

locomotive motors, 207, 303

locomotives, steam, 77

motors, 196, 207, 201, 303

operating expenses, 550

third rail, 26, 550
Batteries, storage, 2, 146
Bavarian State Ry. locomotives, 386

motor-car trains, 262

See German Railroads, 519, 521, 566
Bearings of electric motors, 202
Beggs,John I., 139
Bentley-KJnight, electric railway, 4
Berlin-Zossen, contact line, 450

high-speed tests, 135, 230
Bernese-Alps R. R., electrification, 568

locomotives, electric, 392

Lotschberg Tunnel, 31, 109

system of electrification, 143
Blankanese-Ohlsdorf Ry., 176, 566

motor-car trains, 261
Boilers, locomotive, 58, 67, 93

steam power plants, 474
Boston & Albany R. R. :

electrification at Boston, 98, 512, 556

terminals at Boston, 98, 114
Boston & Eastern R. R. :

electrification at Boston, 512
Boston & Maine R. R.:

contact line, 454

cost of electrification, 522

electrification, 535

Hoosac Tunnel, 535

interurban roads, 535

locomotives, electric, 376
Boston terminal electrification, 78, 114, 512

New York, New Haven & Hartford, 514

Boston & Albany, 98, 512, 556
Bows for current collection, 446
Braking, rate of deceleration, 417

regenerative control, 426
Branch line electrification, 99
Bridges for contact lines, 458
Brill, motor-car truck, 255
BrinckerhoS, H. M., 104

571

572

INDEX.

Brooklyn Rapid Transit, 104, 241

equipment and energy of motor-cars, 428
Brown, Boveri & Co.

Deri motor, 176, 220

locomotives, Simplon Tunnel, 346

single-phase roads, 142, 143

three-phase roads, 134
Brushes and brush holders, 200
Buffalo and Lockport Ry., locomotive, 163,

307, 308
Burch, Edward P., 103, 137, 215
Burgdorf-Thun Ry. electrification, 521, 537

maintenance of ways and track, 104
Burt, Horace G., 558

Bush Terminal R. R., locomotives, 307, 308
Butte, Anaconda and Pacific Ry., 559
By-products of electrification, 112

Canadian Pacific Ry., 559
Capacity, of electric locomotives, 269

of electric motors, 182

of elevated roads, 26

of motor-car trains, 242

of power plants, 467

of railways, 87

of steam locomotives, 59

of terminals, 88
Cascade control of motors, 217
Cascade Tunnel, see Great Northern Railway
Catenary construction, 449, 455
Center of gravity,

of steam and electric locomotives, 58, 287

of motors, 104
Central California Traction Co., 1200-volt road,

128
Centra] London Railway, gearless locomotive, 44

motor-car trains, 44, 258, 260
Characteristic curves of motors, 209
Characteristics of Electric Locomotives, Chapter

VII, page 236
Characteristics of Modern Steam Locomotives,

Chapter II, page 50
Characteristics of motor-car trains, 228
Character of tractive effort, 406
Chicago, Burlington & Qiincy R.R., 553
Chicago Elevated Railways Co., 25, 28
Chicago, Lake Shore & South Bend R.R., 253
Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound R. R., 550
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. balanced

locomotives, 64
Chicago terminal electrification, 121, 55S
City & South London Ry. locomotives, 42, 205
Clark, D. K., on compound locomotives, 75
Clark, W.J., on electric locomotives, 44
Classification, of electric systems, 127

of electric railway development, 531

of railway motors, 160

of steam locomotives, 51
Coal, and ash handling devices, 473

burned per I. H. P. hr. in locomotive tests, 83

burned per ton mile and train mile, 83

consumption and evaporation rsltio, table, 63

consumption of steam locomotives, 82, 283

cost of, 57, 107

Coal, supply, 473

waste of locomotives, Goss, table, 70
Coefficient of adhesion between drivers and rail,

269, 406
Cole, F. J., on indicator cards, 74
Collection of data for electrification, 504
Cologne- Bonn Ry. motor-car train, 258
Commonwealth Edison power plant, 489
Commutators, 178, 200
Comparison of expenses of steam and electrical

operation, 102
Comparison of motors, 181

one-hour and continuous rating, 182
Comparison of Oerlikon with other locomotives,

table, 395
Comparison of train weight, electric and steam,

230, 243
Competition of electric with steam roads, 20,

114, 504
Complication with electric traction, 118

with three-phase contact lines, 447-8-9
Compound steam locomotives, 59, 60, 75
Compound locomotive tests. Southern Pacific, 78
Compulsory electrifications, 522, 541
Conclusions and summary, on electric systems,
152

on advantages of electric traction, 123

on electrification, 569
Condensers, surface, 475
Conduit railways, 9, 30
Conservation of natural resources, 115
Conservatism in railway men, 117
Contact lines, 445

amperes per, 447

capacity of, 445

collection of current, 445

mechanical strength of, 445

shoes, 446

third-rail, 28, 455, 464

three-phase railway, 448
Continuous capacity of motors, 183
Control circuits, 92
Control of electric locomotives, 249
Control of direct-current motors, 214, 218

of single-phase motors, 218

of three-phase motors, 216
Control of trains, 92, 245
Controller losses, 148
Converters, rotary, 132
Cooper, William, 215, 222, 247, 263
Copeley, A. W., 439

Corrosion of steel by locomotive gas3s, 105
Cost of cateiary contact lines, 459

of coal, 57, 107

of coal per car-mile, ton-mile, etc., 83

of complete equipments, 150, 507

of conduit railways, 30

of contact line construction, 458

of direct-current system, 150

of electric and steam locomotives, 300

of electrification of roads, 507, 511, 522

of elevated roads, subways, and tunnels, 30

of equipment of power plants, 476, 483

of gas power plants, 489

INDEX.

573

Cost of high-teasion transmission lines, 459
of hydro-electric power, table, 483
of lines and substations, 508
of li\'ing decreased by electric traction, 115
of locomotives, electric, 300
of maintenance of contact lines, 460
of maintenance and electric systems, 151
of maintenance of electric cars, 240
of maintenance of equipment, 105
of maintenance of ways and structures, 103
of motor cars and equipment, table, 242
of motor equipments, 508, 511
of operation of steam and electric locomo-
tives, on New York Central, 316
of operatiDU of steam locomotives, 83
of operation of steam power plants, 477
of poles, 458
of passen!?er cars, 242
of power at electric railroad plants, 479-
of power equipment of steam roads, 510
of power plants, 507

of power, steam per kw. hour, 83, 477, 478
of power, water per kw. hour, 483
of singb-phase equipment, 150
of steam cars, 242

of steam-electric power per kw. hour, 478
of steam locomotive operation, 82, 83
of steam locomotives, 300
of steam power plant equipment, 476
of steam railroads, table, 510
of subways, 30

of third-rail lines per mile, 460
of three-phase high-tension transmission

lines, 459
of trtee-phase system, 150
of transmission line bridges, 458
of towers, 458
Cradle suspension of motors, 205
Crank and side rod construction, 209, 298
Crank and side rod electric locomotives; table, 299
Crocker, George G., Boston Transit Commission, 98
Crude presentation of situations, 117
Curve rail resistance, 415

Daft, Leo, 4, 40, 42

Dalziel,J ., on electric systems, 152

Danger from electricity, 119

from steam locomotives, 93
Darlington, Frederick, 124, 155, 300, 517
Davenport, Thomas, 2
Davidson, 2

Dawson, P, 178, 210, 462
Deceleration, rates, 417

Deductions from data for electrification, 506
Definition, of railroad and railway, 7

of motor-car train, 225
De'eware & Hudson R. R., grades, 503

interurVjan lines, 21
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western R. R., 503, 557
Delivery of freight and passengers, 99
De Muralt, L. C, on three-phase motors, 164
Denver and Interurban R. R., 553
Dependence on single power station, 119
Deri motors, 176, 220

Design of contact Lines, 445

of direct-current generators, 132

of electric locomotives, 285

of electric motors, 91

of rotary converters, 132

of steam locomotives, 55, 58
Detroit River Tunnel locomotives, 318
Development of direct-current systems, 128

of electric railroads, 497

of high voltages for electric railways, 437

of motor design, 174

of practical street railways, 9

of single-phase systems, 136

of three-phase systems, 134
Dimensions of electric locomotives, 287

of armatures, 201

of motors, 194

of steam locomotives, 56
Direct-current electric locomotive list, 302
Direct-current motors, 161
Direct-current railways using 750 to 2000 volts,

European, 129
Direct-current railways using 1200 tO 1500 volts,
American, 130

systems, 127, 133

1200 volts, 129, 130, 161
Disadvantages of 15, and 25 cycles, 213

of crank construction, 298

of direct-current series motors, 161

of direct-current shunt motors, 425

of direct-current systems, 149

of electric traction, 117

of nose suspension of motors, 206

of side rod locomotives, 299

of single-phase commutator motors, 177

of single-phase system, 150

of steam locomotives, 62, 65, 500

of third rail for railroads, 457

of three-phase motors and systems, 166, 169

of three-phase systems, 149

of two trolleys, 447
Discarded ideas in electric traction, 11
Discard of steam locomotives, 120
Drawbar pull of direct-current motors, 210

of electric locomotives, 269, 273, 406

of 15 and 25-cycle locomotive motors, 214

of motor-car trains, table, 230

of single-phase motors, 179, 210, 270

of steam locomotives, 61, 73, 273, 406

of three-phase motors, 168, 210, 270, 273

of trains, 469
Drawings of electric locomotives, references,

336, 353, 398
Drivers, diameter of, table, 297
Dudley, P. H., 65, 408

Early electric street railways, 7
Earnings and mileage of railways, 47

of electric railways, 95

of freight roads, 39, 96
learning power and net earnings, 109, 284, 497
f'Jaton, G. M., 301

Economy in operation of power plants, 467
Economic results from private right-of-way, 24

574

INDEX.

Economical prime movers, 467, 474
Economy of coal, 70, 82
Edison, T. A., locomotives, 3, 26, 40
Efficiency of control schemes, 218

of motors, 165, 168, 178
Eichberg single-phase motors, 176
Electrical data, on motors, 187
Electrical engineers for railroads, 93, 526, 527
Electric locomotives. See locomotives.
Electric meters, 93
Electric motive power, 87

Electric railway development, classification, 531
Electric Railway Motors, Chapter V, 158
Electric Systems, Chapter IV, 126
Electric system, affect on load factor, 472
Electric traction, by electric railways, 45

by steam railroads, 45, 46
Electrification for short distances, 522
Electrification of Railroads, Chapter XV, 530
Electrification of established steam roads, 504
Elevated railways, 25, 26
Enclosure of motors, 197
Energy and power units, 401

for frequent stops, 418

for motor-car trains, 428

losses in transmission, 433

of rotation, 402

regeneration of, 424

required for trains, 506

watt-hours per ton-mile, 421, 423
Enginemen, wages of, 105

re. safety, 93
Equalization of power plant loads, 471
Equipment, of power plants and railway motors,
468, 523

of 1200-volt, 129

of single-phase roads, 133

of three-phase roads, 130

of electrified steam railroads, 532, 535

per mile of single track, 427
Erie Railroad, catenary construction, 452

earnings with electric traction, 552

electrification, 552

grades, 503

motor cars, 224, 235

operating expenses, 552
Errors to avoid in electric traction, 522
Essential considerations in railroad electri-
fication, 497
Esthetic enjoyments, 115
European electric railroads, 561
Experimental electric railways, 2
Experimental work, 1890 to 1895, 10
Express business, 38

Farmer, Moses G., 3

Field coils, 198

Field, Stephen D., locomotive, 43, 298, 299

Financial advantages of electric traction, 95

by-products of electrification, 112

during business depression, 113

in competition, 114
Financial problem in electric traction, 123
Fire risk, 93

First electric railways, 2
First practical electric railways, 8
First public electric cars, 4
Flexibility of electric control, 90

of electric motors and locomotives, 90

of motor cars, 228, 243
Fourth rails for contact lines, 458
France, railways of, 564
Freight, revenue on electric roads, 39, 40

haulage on mountain grades, steam, 503

service on electric roads, 35, 38, 96, 523, 535

service on trunk lines, 96
French Southern Ry., electrification, 564

electric locomotives, 385
French Western Ry., 564
Frequent train service, 99
Frictional resistance of cars and trains, 407

of electric trains, 408

of steam locomotives, 409
Fritch, L. C, 525

Fuel and motive power expenses, 107
Fuel saving with electric power, table, 282
Fuel. See coal.
Furnaces, at steam power plants, 107, 474

of steam locomotives, 62

Gait, Preston & Hespeler locomotives, 329
Ganz Electric Co., locomotives, 339

three-phase roads, 134
Gas-electric power plant installations, 481
Gases from locomotives, 116
Gas power plants, 480

Geared vs. gearless motors and locomotives, 297
Gearing losses, 202; Gear data, 204
Gear ratio, effect of change in, 212
Gears vs. cranks, 295, 299
General Electric Company:

controller, 246

direct-current motors, 190

gasoline-electric cars, 146

organized' 9

single-phase commutator motor, 175

single-phase locomotives, 381

single-phase roads, 139

three-phase locomotives, G. N., 349

1200-volt roads, 130
General status of work done in railroad elec-
trification 531
Generator, design for 1200 volts direct current,
132

single-phase versus three-phase, 147
German railroads:

cost of electrical equipment, 519, 520

electrification, 566

locomotives, 386
Gibbs, George, Chicago, 558, New York, 323,
526, 541

on locomotive design, 288, 323

on Long Island R. R. terminal capacity, 8S
Giovi Railway, Italy:

catenary line, 452

electrification, 568

locomotives, electric, 342

system of electrification, 133

INDEX.

575

Grades and tractive effort, 407
Grades on mountains, table, 503
Gradients, energj^ supplied by, 424
Grand Trunk Railway:

electrification, 517, 551

locomotives, 378

locomotive motor, 174

power plant and load factor, 471
Grate surface of locomotives, 55, 56, 60, 77

of stationary boilers, 474
Great Britain, electric railways, 561
Great Northern Ry.:

Cascade Tunnel, 88, 554

contact line, 450

cost of electrification, 518

electric railways owned, 554

locomotives, electric, 349

locomotives, steam, 55, 77

^lallet compound locomotive, table, 77, 78

motors, 351

system, three-phase, 133

water power plant, 491
Great Western Railway, England, 258, 260
Griffin, Eugene, note on roads of 1887, 48
Gross earnings. See earnings.

Hall, Thomas, 2

Harriman, E. H., re. electric power, 107, 268

Heating of single-phase motors, 178

Heat insulators, 475

Heating of wires, 438

Heating surface of boilers, 61, 474

Height of contact wire, 446

Henderson, G. R., 68, 82

Henry, John C, electric railway of, 5, 68, 82

High-voltage transmissions, 443

Hill, James J., 60, 268

Historical data, electric cars and locomotives,

2, 40
History and Present Status of Electric Traction,

Chapter I, page 1.
HobaH, H. M., 151

Hoboken Shore Railroad locomotives, 309
Hudson & Manhattan Railroad:

electrification, 548

motor cars, 254, 549

power plant, 487

reliability, 94
Human betterment and electric traction, 114
Hydro electric power plant installations, 484
Hutchinson, C. T., 88

Illinois Central Railroad:

objections to electric traction, 120

proposed electrification, 557
Illinois Traction Company, 13

electric locomotives, 329

freight service, 37
Important interurban railways, 13, 15, 18
Impractical electrifications, 500
Income account of steam railroads, 101
Indianapolis and Cincinnati Traction Co., 138,

151
Indicator diagrams of locomotives, 74

Induction motors, three-phase, 164
Insulation, for third rail, 456

of motors, 200
Insulators, 440, 458
Interboro. Rapid Transit Company:

capacity and service, 88, 231

motor cars, 236

power plant, 487
Interchangeable or universal systems, 146
Interference with signal circuits, 120
Interstate Commerce Commission, 38
Interurban electric railways, 12, 18

completion with _steam roads, ^0, 504

developments, table, 13

early history, 12

important roads, by states, 15, 18

long distance travel, 18

mileage and train service, 13

New York-Wisconsin electric railway trip, 18

passenger traflEic, table, 14

present status, 13
Investments increased by electric traction, 108
Italian State Railway:

electrification, 133, 568

Ganz locomotives, 339

Giovi Railway, 133, 342

Mt. Cenis tunnel, 471

system of electrification, 133, 152

Joint use of tracks, 99
Journal friction, 202, 299, 407

Kelvins Law, 438

Kilowatts input with varying stops per mile, 419
Kind of service, affect on load factor, 470
Kinetic energy, 402, 417, 418

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern. R. R., 560
Lamme, B. G., Single-phase system, 136
Lancashire & Yorkshire Ry., 22, 65, 89, 122

electrification of, 562
Laws governing transmissions, 437
Leakage, from third rail, 457
Length of division, 470

Leonard-Oerhkon motor-generator, 144, 396
Lignite coal, 473
Lilley and Cotton, 2
Load factor, 71, 468, 478
Location of steam power plants, 473
Locomotives, electric:

acceleration rates, 274

advantages over motor cars, 284

advantages over steam loco., 266

AUgemeine Elektricitats-Gesellschaft, 392

Baden State, 386

Baltimore & Ohio, 303

Bavarian State, 386

Bernese Alps, 392

Boston & Maine, 376

Buffalo & Lockport, 307

Bush Terminal, 307

capacity of, 87

Cascade Tunnel, 349

center of gravity, of, 287

576

INDEX.

Locomotives, electric:
Central London, 44
commercial considerations, 277, 283
control, 249
cost of equipment, 285
cost of electric locomotives, 300
cost of maintenance, 280
cost of operation per ton and train-mile,

103-5-7
cost of service reduced, 103-5-7, 284
crank and side rod, 298, 299
design of, 285
direct-curaent, 302
disadvantages of crank design, 299
drawings, references to, 336, 353, 398
drawbar pull, 269, 271, 273, 274
driver diameters, 297
earnings from investment, 284
economy of fuel, 281
economy of power, 281
Field, S. D., 43
fire risk, 93
flexibility of, 90
freight train haulage, 96
French Southern, 385
fuel, 107, 281

Gait, Preston and Hespeler, 329
geared, 297
gearless motors, axle mounted, 297

quill mounted, 297
gears versus cranks, 295
General Electric, experimental, 381
German State, 386
Giovi Railway, 342
Grand Trunk Railway, 378
Great Northern Railway, 349
high grade freight service, 96
high voltages, 285
historical locomotives, 3, 40
Hoboken Shore, 309
horse power per ton, 276, 291, 292
Illinois Traction, 329
Italian State, 339
Leonard-Oerlikon, 396
list of all electric locomotives, 302, 338,

354, 355
load factor, discussion of, 468
Loetschberg Tunnel, Bernese Alps, 109
maintenance and repairs, 279, 280
maintenance decreased, 278
mechanical data on, 187, 289, 290
mechanical efficiency of, 277
mechanical transmission of power, 295
Metropolitan Railway, England, 332
michigan Central, 318
midi Railway, France, 385
mileage of electric locomotives, 276
motor connections, 295
motors for, 187, 189
mountain grade service, 503
New York Central, 310
New York, New Haven & Hartford, 361
North American Co., 298
North Bristol (turbine), 81

Locomotives, electric:

nosing characteristics, 271

noise, 116, 277

North-Eastern, 331

number of, 48, 278, 303

Oerhkon, 393'

Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean (permutator) ,
397 ,

Paris-Orleans, 332

Pennsylvania experimental, 321, 357

Pennsylvania, at New York, 322

Philadelphia & Reading, 309

physical characteristics, 268, 277

power per ton, 276, 291, 292

Prussian State Railway, 386

relation of speed to driver diameter, 296

refiability, 94

repairs and maintenance, 278

Rombacher-Huette, 234

safety with, 91

Saint Georges de Commiers a la Mure, 335

St. Polten-Mariazell, 396

Santa Fe Gergal locomotives, 338

Savona San Guiseppe Ry. 338, 343

Shawinigan Falls Terminal Ry., 382

side rod and crank, 298

Siemens, 339

simplicity of, 91

Simple n Tunnel 346

single-phase, fist of, 354

smoke, 116, 277

Southern or Midi, 385

speed, ma?:imum and schedule, 275

speed, unification of, 275

Spokane & Inland Empire, 359

St. Clair Tunnel, 378

Swedish State, 382

Swiss Federal, 346

tables of electric locomotives, 302, 338,
354, 355

three-phase, 338

torque of motors, 270

train weights, 272

turbine type, 81

Valtelfina, 339

Visafia Electric, 307

wages saved by, 281

weight factor of, 291, 292, 293, 294

weight of electric equipment, 191, 192, 193

Westinghouse Interworks, 358

Westinghouse. See technical descriptions.

Winter-Eichberg, 175
Locomotives, steam:

American Locomotive Co., 64

arches in furnaces of fire brick, 62

articulated type, 53

Atlantic type, 53

back pressure, 73

balanced type, 53

Baltimore & Ohio (Mallets), 77

boilers, 58

capacity of, 59

center of gravity of, 58

characteristics of, 57

INDEX.

577

Locomotives, steam:

classification of wheels, 55

clearance, in cylinders, 73

coal consumption, 63

coal, economy of, 70

coal per i. h. p. hour, 83

coal per ton-mile and train-mile. 82, 83, 281

coal waste by locomotives, 70

compensated t^-pes. 53

compound, 75

condensation in cylinders, 63

consolidation, type, 52

cost of operation, 82, 83

data on proportions, 56

decapods, 52

design, 59

drawbar pull, 61

economy of coal, 71

economy of compounds, 76

eight wheel or American, 52

evaporation rate, 63

expansion of steam, 73

fire brick arches, 62

friction losses, 65

furnace conditions, 62

grate surface, 55, 55, 60, 77

Great Northern, table on, 57

Great Northern (Mallet), 77

heating surface, 61

heat radiation, 63

horse power per ton, 61

Hill, James J., 60

indicator diagrams, 72

indicated horse power, 62

initial steam pressure, 72

load factor of, 71

loss of pressure, 72

Mallet compound, 53, 76

maintenance of, 83

mean effective pressure and speed, 73

mechanical data, 56

mechanical strains in boilers, 67

New York Central, pacific type, 66, 271,

274, 414
nosing, 65, 271, 288
number or list, 55
operating characteristic-;, 62
operation of boilers and engines, 64
Pacific type, 53
Pennsylvania tests, 66
piston speed, 61, 72
points of cut-off, 73
physical characteristics, 57
repairs and renewals, 67, 68, 84
repairs per locomotive year, 83
rigid wheel base, 58
Santa Fe (Mallets), 78
self-contained power units, 57
simple engines, 58
smoke, 116,277
Southern Pacific (Mallet?), and tests, 78,

79, 81
speed of trains limited, 67
speed- torque characteristics, 71

Locomotives, steam:

stand-by losses, 63

steam consumption, 69

superheating 69,

steam locomotives in United States, 56

temperatures, effect of, 64, 271

ten wheelers, 52

test, on New York Central, 66
on Pennsylvania, 66
on simple engine, 72
on Southern Pacific Mallet, 81

torque, 61

track destruction, 65

tractive effort, 61

turbine locomotive, Glasgow, 81

unbalanced forces in drivers, 64

valve gear, 73

water supply, 57

wear on track, 65

weather rating, 64

weight, 59

wheel base, 58

wheel classification, 57

work done in cylinders, 75
London, Brighton & South Coast Ry. :

earnings with electric traction, 112

motors, 177

motor-car train, 238, 263
See Dawson
London Electric Railways, 158, 263, 492
Long Island Railroad:

electrification, 88, 543

gross earnings, 112

motor-car trains, 244, 251

operating data, 1908, 545

power plant, 488

results of electrification, 88, 112, 544
Losses at motors, 420
Losses beyond motors, 421
Luxury of electrification, 123
Lyford, 0. S., Jr., on Long Inland Railroad, 544

Mailloux, C. O., 40, 408, 431
Maintenance, of contact lines, 460

of locomotives electric, 278, 280

of locomotives steam, 68, 83

of motors, 239

of motor cars, 236, 239

of motor cars per car-mile, table, 329

of track and ways, 103

per electric locomotive mile, 280
.Manhattan Elevated R. R., 88, HI, 237, 283
Mechanical data:

on electric locomotives, table, 289

on motors, 187

on steam locomotives, 56
Mechanical efficiency of locomotives, 277
Mechanical transmission of power, 295
Mechanics of current collection, 446
Mellin,C.S., 21, 101,539
Mercury arc rectifiers, 135, 143
Mersey Railway, 104, 561
Metropolitan Railway, England, 332

578

INDEX.

Michigan Central R. R.:
electrification, 551
locomotives, electric, 318
motors, 190, 196
Midi Railway, France, 385, 564
Midland Railway, England, 152, 562
Milan- Varese Railway, 521, 568
Mileage, definition, vii

of electric locomotives, 276

of freight roads and revenue, 39

of interurban railways, 16, 18

of railroads operating motor-car trains,

256, 263
of railroads operating divisions by elec-
tricity, 499, 532
of 750- to 2000-volt roads, 129
of single-phase railways, 138, 144
of third-rail roads, 28
See also car mileage.
Milwaukee Northern Ry., 490
Milwaukee Railway, Light & Power Co., 139
Minneapolis-St. Paul, 9, 13, 14
converter installations, 131
motor repairs, 237
power plant, 489
single-phase experiments, 137
Van Depoele electric railway, 5
See Twin City Rapid Transit Co.
Motive power and power required for motor-car

trains, table, 429
Motors, AlHs-Chalmers, 192

A. I. E. E. standardization, 182
armature speed, 201
capacity, 182, 183
center of gravity and weight, 104
classification, 160
commutators, 200
comparison of motors, 181
control, cascade, 217
circuit, 215
efficiency, 148
field, 216
Leonard's, 218
losses, 148
series-parallel, 215
voltage, 218
cycles, 15 or 25, 212

advantages and disadvantages of, 213
Deri, 176, 220
development of motor design, 194
air gap, 198
armatures, 199

quill suspension, 208
speed, 201
winding, 199
axles, 203
bearings, 202
brushes, 200
commutating poles, 197
commutators, 200
crank rod locomotive, 209
enclosures, 197
field coils, 198
gearing, 202

Motors, development of magnet frames, 194

suspension, 204

Gibbs cradle, 204
nose, 205
Walker, 205
yoke, 205
direct current, 161

advantages and disadvantages of, 161

commutating pole motors, 188

series, 161

speed, 211

torque, 210, 270

1200-volt, 129, 130, 270

Westinghouse, 500-600 volt, 194
gearing ratio and driver diameters, 212
General Electric motors, 190
mechanical and electrical data, 187
poles, 197

rating, 182, 185, 186, 187
selection of motor capacity, 186
Siemens Brothers motors, 192
single-phase motors, 169

advantages and disadvantages, 177

control, 214

Deri, 176, 220

15 and 25 cycles, 189, 212

general characteristics, 171

Grand Trunk locomotive motors, 174

heating, 178

repulsion types, 169, 174

series types, 169, 270

Steinmetz, re. single-phase motors, 180

torque, 179, 210, 270

Visaha locomotive motor, 173

weight, 179, 193

Winter-Eichberg, 175
sparking, 197
speed of armatures, 201
speed-torque characteristics, 209
three-phase motors, advantages of, 165
^^_air gap, 167

control, 216

efficiency, 168

motor-car train operation, 168

objectionable characteristics, 166

power required with different systems,
166

standard motors, 189

torque, 168, 210, 270

trucks, 209

weight, 192
ventilation, 183
voltages, 180, 211
weight, 148

Westinghouse motors, 191, 194
Motor-cars, acceleration rates, 229
Berlin-Zossen, 208
characteristics, 228
comparison of train weights, electric and

steam, 242
control, 243, 245, 249
cost of motor-cars with equipment, 240
cost of operation, 238, 241, 243
definition of, 32

INDEX.

579

Motor-cars, development, 225

distribution of motive power, 231

distribution of weight, 231

drawbar pull, 230

economy of operation, 236

flexibility, 228, 243

fuel and power, 238, 243

high schedule speed, 230

history of, 22, 23

independence, 231

investment, 243

list of motor-car trains, 256, 263

Long Island R. R., cars per train, 244

maintenance of electric cars per car-mile, 240

maintenance of equipment, 236

maintenance of motors per car-mile, 239

maintenance of ways and structures, 236

mileage of, 240

New York Central motor-car truck, 227

reliability, 231

safety, 231

service in America aad Europe, 226

similarity of equipment, 231

wages, 237
Motor-car Trains, Chapter VI, page, 224

versus locomotives, 242

versus single motor cars, 243
Mountain grade lines, 33

electrification of, 501
Mt. Cenis Tunnel, 133, 471, 569
Muhlfeld, J. E., 77
Multiple-unit operation, 249
Murray, W. S., 276, 283, 368, 376, 526

New York Central R. R. :

by-products of electrification, 112

capacity of terminal, 88, 106

commission of engineers, 541

competition, 21

cost of electrification, 514, 516, 522

electrification, 542

freight terminals, 34, 542

Grand Central Station, 98

interurban roads, 21

locomotives, electric, 310

locomotives, steam, 66, 414

motor-car trains, 250

motor-car truck, 227

operating expenses, 542

power plant, 486

reliability of service, 94

system adopted, 541

transmission losses, 434
New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R.:

Boston, development at, 540

catenary construction, 453

cost of electrification:

Boston terminal zone, 514
New York division, 514, 537

financial and traffic statistics, 539

freight and passenger electric locomotive
data, 375

Grand Central Station, use of, 537

Harlem Branch, freight yards, 35, 375, 539

New York, New Haven & Hartford R. R.:

interurban roads, 21

locomotives, electric, 361

locomotive, steam, 82, 83, 279, 283

McHenry, E. H., 539

Mellin, C.S,2\, 101, 539

motor-car trains, 251, 538

motors for cars and locomotives, 189, 193,
201, 204

Murray, W. S., 368, 376, 526

operating expenses, 538

performance characteristics of motor-car
trains, 253

power plant, 485

power plant load, 470

power required for trains, 429

reliability of service, 95

system of electrification, 537

third rail, 27, 537

truck used on naotor-car trains, 252
New York Subway, 88, 487
New York- Wisconsin electric railway trip, 18
New York, West Chester and Boston, 138, 263,

539
Noise from steam locomotives, 116
Norfolk and Western, 560
North American locomotive, 43, 298
North Bristol turbine locomotive, 81
North-Eastern Railway:

electrification, 562

locomotives, 331

motor-cars, 40

service, 89
Northern Electric Co.:

locomotives, electric, 38, 336. ; Edwards, 222
Northern Pacific R. R., 503, 560
Nose suspension of motors, 204
Nosing of locomotives, 65, 271, 288
Norway, electrification of roads, 564
Number of hours of service of power plants per

day, 460
Number of power plants required, 475, 523
Number of trains, and load factor, 469

Objectionable characteristics of electric traction,

117
Oerlikon, combinations of systems, 144

Bernese-Alps R. R. locomotive, 392

locomotives with motor-generator, 144

.single-phase roads, 141, 144
Ohio and Indiana interurbans, 517
Operation of steam locomotives, 62, 70

Atlantic type locomotives, 66

expenses increased, 108

expenses of steam railroads, 101

See speed-torque characteristics.
Operating expenses per train mile, decreased by

electric traction, 101

fuel and power, 102

maintenance of equipment, 105

maintenance of ways, 103

of steam railroads, table, 101

repairs and renewals of steam locomotives,
68, 83

580

INDEX.

Operating, time saved, 323

Operation and maintenance of electric systems,

151
Operators in steam plants, 475
Oregon Electric Ry., 38, 555
Oregon Short Line, 560
Overhead system. See contact lines.
Overhead third rail, 456

Pacific Electric Ry., freight service, 38

Page, C.G.,2

Painting of corroded steel, 105

Pantographs, 446

Paris, Lyons and Med. Ry., 397, 564

Paris Metropolitan Ry., 31, 123, 519

Paris-Orleans Ry., 123, 332, 519, 564

Passenger traffic attracted, 96

Patronage on railroads, 22

Pattison, Hugh, 526, 558

Pennsylvania Railroad:

experimental locomotive, 320, 357

locomotives at New York, 329

locomotives, steam, 66

motor-car trains, 50

motors, 184, 208

New York Tunnel and Terminal, 31, 545

Philadelphia Terminal, 548

See Long Island Railroad

See West Jersey & Seashore Railroad.
Performance characteristics. See speed-torque
characteristics of loconaotives, under Tech-
nical Descriptions .
Permutator, or rectifier, 145
Peters, Ralph, Long Island R. R., 112
Philadelphia & Reading R. R., 309
Physical advantages of electric traction, 87,

498
Physical characteristics of steam locomotives,

57
Pittsburg and Butler motor-car train, 234
Pittsburg, Harmony, Butler and New Castle

motor-car train, 233
Pole change in motors, 217
Poles, cost of wooden, 458
Poles of direct-current motors, 421
Pomeroy, L. R., 279
Portland Ry. & Lt. Co., 38
Power curves of motors, 421
Power equipment of steam roads, 467, 507
Power equipment per mile of single track, 427
Power plant installations, steam, 473, 480

dependence on, 119

gas-electric, 481

hydroelectric, 484

load factor, 468

number of plants required, 475

technical descriptions, 485
Power Required for Trains, Chapter XI, p. 400

equipment per mile of single track, 427

for acceleration, 417, 418

for auxiliaries, 420

for cars per ton mile, table, 429

for electric locomotive hauled trains, 414

Power for New York, New Naven & Hartford
trains, 429

for trains per ton mile, table, 429

frictional resistance tables, 409, 415

losses at motors, 420

per mile of track, 427

per ton mile and car mile, 429

regeneration of, 424

summary on, 427

tractive resistance, 407, 408

transmission, 148

weight of cars, 403

with different systems, table, 166
Practical street railways, 8
Private right-of-way, 23

advantages and disadvantages of, 23, 24

economic results, 24

importance of, 24
Procedure in Railroad Electrification, Chapter

XIV, 497
Proportions of steam locomotives, 56
Prussian State Ry., locomotives, 386
Puget Sound Electric Ry., 37

Quill suspension of motor armatures, 208

Railroads, definition of, vii, 532

electrification in competition, 504

electrification of. Chapter XV, 530

mountain grades on, 33, 503

operating branches by electricity, 45, 532,
534

statistics on earnings of steam railroads, 48

switching yards, 35

terminal electrification, 34, 88, 97
Rails, broken by steam locoinotives, 65.
Rails, impedance data, 438, 461
Railways, definition of, vii

early electric, 1884, 1888, 7

elevated railways, 25

interurbans of each state, 15, 18

operating miotor-car trains, 258, 263

practical electric, 188, 8

suburban, 10

table of deveolpment, 13

third-rail, 26
Rating of motors, 182, 187
Rating of electric locomotive motors, compared,

186
Rating of railway motors with forced draft, 185
Reasons for electrification, 498, 499
Reciprocating motion versus circumferential, 65,

81, 91, 104
Rectifier plans, 133, 145
Regeneration of energy, 92, 424, 426

with direct-current motors, 425

with single-phase motors, 426

with three-phase motors, 425
Relation between steam pressure and speed, 73
Relative advantages of electric systems, 147
Relative equipment of power plants and railway

motors, 468
Reliability of electric service, 94, 476, 483

INDEX.

581

Repairs and renewals of steam locomotives, 68,

84
Repulsion motors, 174
Resistance, of air, 407, 409

of copper wire, 438

of curves, 413, 414

of motors, 216

tractive, 407
Retardation rates, 417
Revenue of freight roads, 39, 96
Rheostats, water, 340, 343
Rigid wheel base, steam locomotives, 58
Rock Island Southern motor car trains, 235
Rosenthal, L.W., 439

Rombacher-Huette Ry. locomotives, 334
Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen Ry. electrifica-
tion, 263, 565

motor-car train, 260

Safety in electric traction, 91

St. Clair Tunnel. See Grand Trunk Railway.

St. Georges de Commiers a la Mure, 335

St. Louis and Belleville, 44

St. Paul. See Minneapolis.

St. Polten-Mariazell locomotive, 396

Santa Fe Gergal Ry., 133, 565

Savona Ceva Railway, 343, 569

Schedule speed of trains, 405

Seebach Wettingen electrification, 355, 396, 567

Selection of motor capacity, 186

Series motors, 161

Series-parallel control, 215

Shawinigan Falls Terminal Ry. locomotives, 382

Shepard, F. H., multiple-unit control, 247

Shepardson, Geo. D., railway motor tests, 49, 219

Short Electric Company, 9

Shunt motors, 11, 425

Side-bar suspension of motors, 205

Side rods on locomotives, 298; on Pittsburg cars,

301
Siemens & Halske, experimental locomotive of
1879, 3, 339

first commercial roads, 4

single-phase railways, 141, 142

three-phase railways, 134
Siemens-Schuckert locomotive, 339
Simplicity of electric traction, 91
Simplon Tunnel, catenary construction, 450

locomotives, electric, 346
Sinclair, Angus, 69
Single-phase motors, 169, 189

commutators, 178

control, 177, 218, 248, 253

list of motors, 187

series-compensated and repulsion, 169, 175

weight, 179, 193
Single-phase systems, 136

motor-car trains, hst of, 256

railway installations, 138, 143
Sixty cycle for motors on locomotives or motor

cars, 144, 213, 214
Smith, W. N., .525, .528

Smoke and gases from locomotives, 116, 277
Social advantages of electric traction, 114

Southern Pacific, cost of electrification, 519, 555

grades, 503

Mallet locomotives, and tests, 78, 81
Southern Ry. See French Southern.
South Side Elevated R., Chicago, 25
Spain, railroad electrifications, 565
Speed of armatures, peripheral, 201
Speed of motors, 201
Speed of railway trains, 201, 291, 405
Speed of trains increased A^dth electric traction,

405
Speed-time curves, 421
Speed- torque or operating characteristics:

Bernese Alps Ry., 395

Boston & Maine eectric locomotives, 377

electric locomotives, 270, 273

Grand Trunk electric locomotives, 380

Michigan Central locomotives, 321

New Haven & Hartford locomotives, 366, 36 -

New Haven & Hartford motor-cars, 253

New York Central locomotives, 316

Pennsylvania locomotives, 328

Simplon Tunnel locomotives, 349

Southern Pacific (Mallet) locomotives, 78, 81

Southern Railway, France, 385

Spokane & Inland locomotives, 361

steam locomotives, 71, 75
Spokane & Inland Empire R. R., 359
Sprague, Frank J., at Richmond,

electric lines in 1890, 8, 42

on control plan, 33, 245, 249

on electric systems, 153

motor-car train, 238

on locomotives nosing, 288

on New York Central locomotive, 288, 312

on regeneration of energy, 425

technical papers. See literature.
Sprague-General Electric control, 246
Standardization of-motors, A. I. E. E., 182
Statistics of steam and electric railways, 48
Steam, Gas, and Water Power Plants, Chapter

XIII, 466
Steam turbines, 474
Steam turbine locomotives, 81
Steam and electric railway statistics, summary, 48
Steel towers for transmission lines, *444
Steinmetz, C. P., on contact lines, 448

on New Haven electrification, 180

on single-phase motors, 176, 180
Stillwell, L. B., 278, 283, 301, 430

on electric systems, 153
Storage batteries, 146
Storer, N. W., 167, 301
Suburban roads, 10, 101
Subways and tunnels, 30, 32
Superheat, 69, 474
Suspension of motors, 204
Sweden and Norway, electrification, 563
Swedish State Railway:

electrification, 563

locomotives, 382
Swiss Federal Railway:

electric system, 133

electrification, .567

582

INDEX.

Swiss Federal Railway:
locomotives, 346
power required for all trains, 430
Switchwork and yards, 35, 449
Switzerland, railroad electrification, 567
Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern, 452
Systems of Electrification, Chapter IV, 126
advantages and disadvantages, of each

system, 147
choice of, 127, 154
classification, 127
coinbination, 144
direct-current, advantages of, 148

development of, 128

table of 750 to 2000- volt roads, 129

table of 1200- to 1500-volt roads, 130
interchangeable, 146
mercury arc, 133
permutator plans, 145
power plant, 492
rectifier plan, 133, 145
single-phase, advantages of, 149

development, 136

equipment of roads, 138, 143

list of roads, 138, 139, 141, 143

status of railway work, 127

summary of roads, 144
three-phase, advantages of, 149

development of, 134

equipment of roads, 135

Italian State, 152

list of roads, 135
three- wire, 128

Technical Descriptions:

contact lines, 449

direct-current locomotives. Chapter VIII,
303

motor-car trains, 224

power plants, 485

proposed electrifications, 556

single-phase locomotives. Chapter X, 354

three-phase locomotives. Chapter IX, 328
Temperature and power, 64, 271,502
Terminals of railways, 25, 34, 97

capacity and traffic, 97

electrification, 497, 524
Third-rail, roads, lists, 26

Baltimore & Ohio, 26, 303, 550

capacity of shoes, 446

contact lines, 455

contact surface, 447

cost of, 458, 460

development of, 26

disadvantages of, 457

insulation, 456

maintenance cost, 460

New York, New Haven & Hartford, 27

overhead third rails, 456

return conductors, 458

table of roads, 28, 29

1200- volt, 130

voltages on, 456
Thom,son, Elihu, electric controller, 9

Thomson-Houston Electric Co., 9
Three-phase, alternating-current systems, 133

electric locomotives, list, 328

motor control, 214, 218

railroad equipment and mileage, 135, 621
Three- wire systems, 128
Thury Electric Railway, 335
Toledo & Western R. R., 36
Ton-mileage of electric railways, 535
Torque, of direct-current motors, 210

of single-phase motors, 179, 210

of three-phase motors, 168, 210, 270

See drawbar pull.
Towers, cost of steel, 458
Track destruction, 65, 104, 206
Track mileage. See mileage.
Tractive coefficient, 406
Tractive effort for railway trains, 469
Tractive resistance, 407, 408
Train capacity of elevated and underground

roads, 26
Train-mile data on operating expenses of steam

roads, 83, 107, 280
Train service and equipment of electric roads, 532,

533, 534
Transmission and Contact Lines, Chapter XII, 432

cost of, 458

design of apparatus, 435

development of high voltages, 436

energy losses, 433

on electric roads, 148, 478, 508
New York Central, 424
West Jersey & Seashore, 434

engineering, 439, 441

high voltages, 439, 441

high- voltage transmissions, 443

impedance and resistance, 438

laws governing, 437

losses, 119, 434

pantographs, 446

status of development, 433

steel tower, 444
Trolley wheels, 446. See contact line.
Trucks. See descriptions of locomotives.
Tunnel roads, 30, 31, 92
Tunnel data, 31
1200-volt railways, 130
Twin City Rapid Transit Co. :

power plant, 489

repairs of motors, 237

rotary converter installation, 1897, 132

See Minneapolis-St. Paul.

Unbalanced forces of locomotives, 64

See reciprocating inotion.
Underground Electric Railway, London:

motor-car train, 258, 260
Underground roads using electric power, 31
Universal electric systems, 146

Valatin, Bela, 342, 569

Valtellina Line of Italian State Railway, 568

catenary construction, 450

cost of electrification, 521

INDEX

583

Valtellina, locomotives, 339

motor-car trains, 253

motors, 209

powerplant load factor, 468

system used, 133, 152

truck for motor cars, 254

See GioA-i Railway
Van Depoele, 3, 4, 5, 200
Variety of ser\'ice, 471
Ventilation of motors, 183
Verola, M., on systems, 152, 569
Visalia Electric, locomotives, 377

motors, 173
Voltage, control, 218

drop in circuits, 438

of high-voltage transmissions, 443

of transmission and contact lines, 437

Wages decreased -with electric traction, 105
Walker spring suspension, 205
Walschaert valve gear, 73
Ward-Leonard locomotive and system, 396
Washington, Baltimore & Annapolis:

direct-current system, 140

single-phase system, 139
Water power plants, 481
Water supply, 473, 482
Water tube boilers, 474
Waterman, F. N., 472
Watt hours per car mile, 429
Watt hours per ton mile, 421
Weather ratings of locomotives, 64, 271
Weight, analysis of electric locomotives, 293

factor of electric locomotives, 291, 292, 293

of cars, 403

of direct-current, railway motors, 190

Weight, of locomotives per foot of base, 56, 290

of motor-car train, distribution of, 231

of single-phase motors, 148, 179, 193

of steam locomotives, 57

of three-phase locomotive motors, 192

per dri\'ing axle, 57, 289
Western Railway of France, 564
Westinghouse Company, 9, 138, 141, 142

control for trains, 246

data on motors, 191, 194

single-phase motors, 193

single-phase railways, 138, 141, 142
Westinghouse, George, 286
Westinghouse Interworks locomotive, 356
West Jersey & Seashore R. R. :

earnings and expenses, 112, 547

electric system, 547

electrification, 516, 546

motor cars, 256, 547

motor-car train, 232

motor-car truck, 232, 255

power plant, 488, 547

reasons for electrification, 546

transmission and contact line, 000

transmission losses, 434
West Shore R. R. electrification, 543

motor-car train, 233
Wheel base of locomotives, 58
Wheels, driver diameters, 297
Wilgus, W.J., 88

Wilkes- Barre & Hazel ton Railroad, 16, 28, 256
Winter-Eichberg motor, 175
Work Done in Railroad Electrification, Chapter

XV, 530

Yoke suspension of motors, 205

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

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Full text of "Electric traction for railway trains; a book for students, electrical and mechanical engineers, superintendents of motive power and others .."

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