Full text of "Electro-chemistry, with positive results;"

UC-NRLF

B 3

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY,

POSITIVE RESULTS;

NOTES FOE INQUIEY

ON THE SCIENCES OF

GEOLOGY AND ASTRONOMY;

WITH A

TEACT OF MISCELLANIES.

CHAELES CHALMEES,

LATE OF MERCHISTON ACADEMY.

LONDON:
JOHN CHURCHILL, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.

MDCCCLVIII.

LONDON ; PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,
ANQKL COURT, SKINNER STREET.

CV2-

ADVERTISEMENT.

THESE Tracts, with the exception of the Tract
of Miscellanies, I lately circulated with a view to
inquiry. Since then I have, in the course of my
experiments, obtained positive results, which go to
establish my views on Electro-Chemistry. With
some additions to these Tracts, I now submit them
to the public presenting them, as formerly, mainly
as notes for further inquiry.

MERCHISTON CASTLE BANK,
JANUARY 28, 1858,

TEACT No. 1.

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY,

WITH

POSITIVE KESULTS;

AND

NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES.*

1 . ARE the two electricities material elements ?

The late Dr. Turner, in his Elements of Chemis-
try, states that the "effects of electricity are so
similar to those of a mechanical agent it appears
so distinctly to emanate from substances which
contain it in excess, and rends asunder all obstacles in
its course so exactly like a body in rapid motion, that
the impression of its existence as a distinct material
substance, sui generis, forces itself irresistibly on the
mind. All nations, accordingly, have spontaneously
concurred in regarding electricity as a material prin-
ciple ; and scientific men give a preference to the
same view."

* The substance of this tract is embodied in a pamphlet which
I published at the close of 1849, entitled, " Thoughts on Elec-
tricity."

2 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

2. If electricity is regarded by scientific men as a
material principle, how conies it that they have
made it an exception to the other material elements,
by assuming, without proof, that it does not combine
with those elements, as those elements combine with
each other ? It cannot be because of its imponder-
ability, as heat, an imponderable element, is known
to enter into chemical combination with the ponder-
able elements of nature.

3. Is it so, that the two electricities are material
elements, and that they are not an exception to the
common law ; that they combine with the other
material elements as those elements combine with
each other; and that compound bodies are decom-
posed by the two electricities precisely as the ponder-
able elements decompose those bodies namely, by
respectively combining with the constituents of the
body which is under decomposition ; arid thus in all
electro decompositions, those bodies which are given
off at the positive wire, are given off in combination
with the positive electricity of that wire, and those
given off at the negative wire are given off in com-
bination with the negative electricity of that wire ?
And, therefore, when a compound body is decom-
posed by electricity, we do not obtain the consti-
tuents of that body, but new compounds the two

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 3

electricities having respectively combined with the
constituents of the body which has been decomposed.
Accordingly, in the decomposition of a neutral salt
by electricity, we do not obtain the constituents of
that body, but new compounds. One of the consti-
tuents of the salt having combined with positive
electricity, a compound is formed, possessing proper-
ties different from either of the constituents, an acid
being the product : the other constituent of the salt
having combined with negative electricity, a com-
pound is formed, possessing properties different from
either of the constituents an alkali being the pro-
duct ; and in order to obtain the constituents of the
decomposed salt, we would require to disunite posi-
tive electricity from the acid, and negative electricity
from the alkali.

4. My first experiment in corroboration of these
views was made eight years ago, an account of
which was published at the close of 1849. Aware
that heat impairs the affinity which subsists between
the constituents of a compound body ; " that in the
highest conceivable degrees of heat, chemical combi-
nation does not take place ;" and that, in some in-
stances, compound bodies, such as ammonia, the
peroxide of manganese, the oxide of chlorine, and the
oxides of mercury, silver and gold, are decomposed

B 2

4 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

by heat, I therefore inferred, that were two bodies,
the one united with positive and the other with
negative electricity, subjected to an intense heat,
the two electricities, viewed as material elements,
would have their affinities for the bodies with which
they were in combination so loosened or impaired,
that they would unite when connected with each
other by means of a platinum wire, or any other
conductor of electricity. With this view I employed
a cast iron tray, twelve inches in length, ten in
width, and three in depth. I covered the bottom of

FIG. l.

lM'i

the tray with a mixture of plaster of Paris and
finely-sifted coal-ash, and upon the surface of this
mixture I placed two thick glass tubes, hermetically
sealed, the one containing a portion of the chlorate
of potassa, and another an equivalent quantity of
potassium. These tubes were connected internally

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 5

with each other by means of platina wires, one of
which was introduced into the chlorate of potassa in
the one tube, and the other into the potassium in the
other. The position of the tubes in the tray are
represented Fig. 1. I now filled the tray with
plaster of Paris and coal-ash, and upon this mixture
I placed an iron plate, on which were laid two
weights, forty pounds each. The tray with the
weights was placed on a common fire, the fireplace
of which was so constructed, that an intense heat
might at any time be produced. As oxygen would
come oif from the chlorate of potassa, when the tem-
perature of that salt was raised, I inferred that the
intense heat to which the oxygen and potassium
would be subjected, would disunite positive electricity
from the oxygen, and negative electricity from the
potassium ; and that the two electricities thus set
free would escape by the platina wires, and unite
with each other, heat being the product. After the
tray which had been brought to a red heat had cooled
down sufficiently, I proceeded to examine its con-
tents. Both tubes were entire. I opened at one
extremity the tube which contained the potassium, a
portion of which fell out, and presented very much
the external characters of carbon. Its metallic lustre
was gone ; and when thrown upon water, there was

6 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

neither combustion nor action of any kind. I intro-
duced a sharp-pointed wire into the tube, with a
view of extracting what remained of the potassium ;
but the instant that I touched the potassium with the
wire, the whole exploded in my hand. How is it
that the properties and external characters of this
substance were so very different from the properties
and external characters of potassium ? Is it that
potassium, deprived of its negative electricity, pos-
sesses properties and external characters, such as I
have described? I now examined the contents of
the other tube. It was evident that oxygen had
been disengaged from the chlorate of potassa, and
that the residual constituents were those of the
chloride of potassium. The only other change which
had taken place was, that the surface of the tube
appeared to be bedewed with moisture.

5. This first experiment was an earnest of what
I might realise when provided with a suitable
apparatus, and with those tubes which resist an
intense heat, without fusion and without fracture.
In the prosecution of my experiments, I found that
flint glass tubes were not suitable, as they contained
lead in their composition, which renders them easily
fusible, and the materials which I introduced into
them were generally blown out, or a rupture of the

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 7

tubes took place. From some difficulty, which I
could not explain, I failed to obtain, though every
effort was made on my part, those tubes which
contain no lead in their composition, and which
resist fusibility while exposed to an intense heat.
Having, however, partially succeeded in my first
experiment, I persisted in operating with such tubes
as I could procure, unsuitable though they were, re-
solved either to verify my views on electro-chemistry,
or prove them fallacious ; and it was not until after
years of toil and failure, I at last obtained a positive
result, which proves that there is a latent electricity
existing in bodies as well as a latent heat.

6. At the close of 1856, I procured one of those
German glass tubes that contain no lead in their com-
position, and into which I poured a small portion of
nitric acid; but as another tube was required, I substi-
tuted a tube of iron, into which I introduced a few
grains of caustic potash. Both tubes were hermeti-
cally sealed, and contained platina wires which were
not joined together externally as is represented in
Fig. 1., but were kept apart from each other, and
made to project beyond the tray, through two small
perforations in one of its sides, as is represented in
Fig. 2.

8 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

The iron tube deposited in the tray was insulated
by inclosing it in a tube of glass, while the platina
wires which passed through the small perforations in
the side of the tray were encased in capillary tubes.
The extremities of the wires which projected beyond
the tray dipped into a small bent tube that contained
a solution of the iodide of potassium. In every
other respect the experiment was conducted precisely
as that which I had performed in 1849. In the
course of the experiment, I found that the solution
of the iodide of potassium was decomposed ; the
appearance of the iodide was first made manifest in
the limb of the tube into which the wire from the
tube containing the nitric acid was introduced.
From what source was the electricity derived by

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 9

which the iodide of potassium was decomposed ?
There can be no escape, I should think, from the con-
clusion that the positive electricity was derived from
the acid, and the negative electricity from the
alkali.

7. The materials with which I operate are neces-
sarily so very small in quantity, particularly when I
introduce liquids into glass tubes, that the results,
though positive, may be thought trivial. Thus when I
introduce nitric acid into a glass tube, I first fill it with
acid, which is afterwards decanted, and the tube is
kept inverted until all the acid has dropped from it,
leaving only as much acid as adheres to the platinum
wire and the internal surface of the tube. The
quantity of acid which remains is not more than two
grains, or one grain and a half; if more than this,
the rupture of the tube, when exposed to an intense
heat, generally take place. It indeed requires a nice
adjustment in respect to the quantity of the materials
with which I operate, as well as the requisite hard-
ness and thickness of the tubes which I employ, in
order to resist, without fusion and without fracture,
the degree of heat to which, in the course of my
experiments, they are subjected.

8. In October, 1857, I obtained what I had
hitherto failed to procure those German glass tubes

1 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

of the thickness and hardness that I required ; and
I now proceed to detail those experiments in which
the iodide of potassium, contained in the small bent
tube, was decomposed by electricity, of which the
positive electricity was derived either from an acid,
or from oxygen or iodine, and the negative electricity
from a metal or an alkali ; thus proving that positive
electricity is in combination with the first class
of bodies, or what are called the supporters of com-
bustion, and negative electricity with the second
class, or what are called combustible bodies.

Experiments with Tubes of German Glass.

Exp. 1. October 22, 1857.

9. Iodide of potassium, decomposed by electricity ;
the positive electricity derived from nitric acid, and
the negative electricity from sodium.

Two tubes hermetically sealed were put into the
tray (Fig* 2.), both of which were embedded in a
mixture of plaster of Paris and finely-sifted coal-
ash. One of the tubes contained about two grains
of nitric acid, and the other an equivalent quantity
of sodium. From the interior of these tubes, platina
wires projected beyond the tray, and to prevent the
wires from coming in contact with the iron of the
tray, they were encased in capillary tubes. These

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 1 1

wires were introduced into a small bent tube, ex-
ternal of the tray, containing a solution of the iodide
of potassium (Ficj. 2). After the tray had been
brought to a red heat, the solution itself being kept
at a low temperature, the iodide was decomposed ;
the iodine appearing in the limb of the bent tube,
into which" was introduced the extremity of the
wire which projected from the tube in the tray that
contained the acid. It is evident that electricity was
the agent by which the iodide was decomposed, and
as the iodine appeared in the limb of the tube into
which the wire from the acid was introduced, the
positive electricity was derived from the acid, and
consequently the negative electricity from the metal.
In like manner, a solution of the iodide of potassium
contained in a similar bent tube, was decomposed by
a water battery, the iodine appearing in the limb of
the tube into which the positive wire of the battery
was introduced.

10. Exp. 2. December 18, 1857-

The iodide of potassium, decomposed by electri-
city, of which the positive electricity was derived
from nitric acid, and the negative electricity from
potassium.

Two grains of nitric acid were introduced into
one of the tubes, and an equivalent quantity of

1 ELECTRO CHEMISTRY.

potassium into another. In every respect the ex-
periment was conducted as before, and with precisely
the same result.

11. Exp. 3.- January 2, 1858.

The iodide of potassium decomposed by elec-
tricity, of which the positive electricity was derived
from oxygen, and the negative electricity from potas-
sium.

Two grains of the chlorate of potassa were intro-
duced into one of the tubes, from which oxygen by
heat was evolved, and an equivalent quantity of
potassium into the other. In the decomposition of
the solution in the bent tube, the iodine was first
made apparent in the limb of the tube into which the
wire from the oxygen was introduced, which indicates
that the positive electricity was derived from the
oxygen, and consequently the negative electricity
from the metal.

12. Exp. 4. January 16, 1858.

A solution of the iodide of potassium was decom-
posed by electricity, of which the positive electricity
was derived from iodine, and the negative electricity
from potassium.

Six grains of iodine were introduced into one of
the tubes deposited in the tray, and two grains of
potassium in the other. When the tray was brought

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 1 3

to a red heat, the solution of the iodide in the bent
tube was decomposed, and the iodine of the solution
was first made apparent in the limb of the bent tube
into which the wire was introduced that projected
from the iodine contained in the tube deposited in the
tray.

13. In all these experiments in which the iodide
of potassium was decomposed, the iodine of the
solution first became apparent in the limb of the tube
into which the wire from the tray was introduced
in connection with the tube that contained nitric
acid, or oxygen, or iodine ; which proves that those
bodies, when subjected to an intense heat, have their
positive electricity, with which they are united, dis-
engaged ; and that sodium and potassium, and the
alkali, caustic potash, have in like manner their nega-
tive electricity, with which they are united, dis-
engaged.

It is obvious that changes had taken place in those
bodies when deprived of their respective electricities.
Thus sodium and potassium lost their metallic lustre,
and were reduced to a black powder, which was
inert when thrown upon water, as neither combus-
tion nor action of any kind took place. The nitric
acid was deprived of its liquidity, and appeared in
small crystals adhering to the platinum wire. The

1 4 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

oxygen which was evolved from the chlorate of po-
tassa ceased to be gaseous, as the tube which con-
tained it, when opened under water, failed to give off
bubbles of gas, and a change had also taken place in
the iodine, as its presence in the tube which con-
tained it, when heat was applied, could no longer be
distinguished by the peculiar characteristic colour of
its vapour.

14. I have thus demonstrated by these experi-
ments, all of which I pledge myself to perform, that
iodine, oxygen, potassium and sodium, are not simple
but compound bodies ; that in those bodies there are
imponderable elements in combination with ponder-
able elements, and that when deprived of their im-
ponderable elements a change takes place in their
properties.

I had now exhausted my supply of those tubes of
German glass which for hardness and thickness are
available for those experiments, and I must now
wait for another supply before I can resume my in-
quiry into the positive changes which take place in
bodies when deprived of their respective electricities.

15. It is obvious that the decomposition of the
iodide of potassium does not indicate that the bodies
which have decomposed it are wholly deprived of
the electricity in combination with them. With a

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 1 5

view to withdraw positive electricity absolutely from
the acid, and negative electricity from the potassium,
I coupled the tube containing the acid which had
been used in the decomposition of the iodide, with a
tube containing a fresh supply of potassium, and
connected their platina wires with each other as is
represented in Fig. 1, and inferred that the negative
electricity, in combination with the potassium, would
withdraw, when the tray was brought to a red heat,
what remained, if any, of the positive electricity of
the acid; and in like manner I coupled the tube
containing the potassium, which had also been used
in the decomposition of the iodide, with a tube con-
taining a fresh supply of acid, and inferred that what
remained of the negative electricity, in combination
with the potassium, would be withdrawn by the
positive electricity of the acid.

16. The views that I have advanced at the com-
mencement of this Tract on Electro-Chemistry, and
the experimental results which I have obtained in
corroboration of those views, render the following
experiments by Sir H. Davy on the " Transfer of
Elements," intelligible.

17. When three cups, N, I, P, are arranged as
represented in the woodcut, and the negative wire
from a powerful battery is introduced into cup N,

16 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

FIG. 3.

and the positive wire into P, the three cups being
connected by means of amianthus- how is it, that
when a solution of a neutral salt is put into I, and
distilled water into the cups N and P, the neutral
salt is decomposed, and in every instance the acid
base of the salt is decanted into P, and the alkaline
base into N ? *

The ponderable constituent of the acid in the solu-
tion of the neutral salt is attracted to the positive
wire in the cup P, and there combining with positive
electricity, resumes the properties of the acid ; and
the ponderable constituent of the alkali is attracted
to the negative wire in the cup N, and there com-
bining with negative electricity, resumes its alkaline
properties.

18. When N is filled with a solution of the sul-
phate of potash, and the cups I and P with distilled

* According to the view taken in these notes, of the composi-
tion of acids and alkalies, the term base of the acid or base of
the alkali is applied to the ponderable elements of those bodies.

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 1 7

water, the water in I being tinged with a solution of
litmus, how is it that, in the decomposition of the
sulphate of potash, the acid base of the salt is trans-
ferred to cup P, but in passing through the interme-
diate cup I the blue tincture of litmus does not
assume a red colour ?

The constituents of a neutral salt possess neither
the properties of an acid nor those of an alkali ;
when, therefore, the sulphate of potash in the cup N
is decomposed, the acid base of the salt has not yet
acquired the properties of an acid it has not yet
combined with positive electricity ; it therefore passes
through the solution of litmus in the intermediate
cup I, without changing its blue colour into red ; and
is decanted into cup P, where it combines with posi-
tive electricity, and has its acid properties restored.
If the contents of the cup P be now poured into the
intermediate cup I, the blue tincture of the litmus
will assume a red colour.

19. When the cup P is filled with a solution of
the sulphate of potash, and the cups N and I with
distilled water, the water in I being tinged with
turmeric, how is it that in the decomposition of the
sulphate of potash, the alkaline base of the salt, in
passing through the intermediate cup I on its route
to N, does not change the colour of the turmeric ?

1 8 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

In the decomposition of the salt, the alkaline base
does not possess alkaline properties ; it has not yet
combined with negative electricity ; it therefore does
not change the colour of the turmeric in its passage
through I. When, however, it reaches the cup N,
it there combines with negative electricity, and has
its alkaline properties restored. If the contents of
the cup N be now decanted into I, the colour of the
turmeric will undergo the characteristic change.

20. When the cup I is filled with a weak solution
of ammonia, the cup N with a solution of the sul-
phate of potash, and distilled water is put in the cup
P, the sulphate of potash is decomposed ; the acid
base of the salt being set free, is attracted by the posi-
tive wire to the cup P, but in its passage through I
it produces no chemical change upon the solution of
ammonia; a combination does not take place be-
tween the ammonia and the acid base which passes
through it. How is this ?

The sulphate of potash in the cup N is decom-
posed, and the acid base of the salt set free is
attracted towards the cup P ; but in passing through
the intermediate cup, it does not combine with the
ammonia and form a neutral salt, because the alkali
in I requires to give off its negative electricity before
its ponderable constituent can combine with the

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 1 9

ponderable constituent of the acid. The ponderable
constituent of the alkali has a greater affinity for its
imponderable element than it has for the acid base
that passes through it. There is therefore no che-
mical change upon the solution of ammonia in the
cup I. When, however, the acid base of the sul-
phate of potash reaches the cup P, it there combines
with positive electricity, and has its acid properties
restored. If the solution in P, which is now a solu-
tion of sulphuric acid, be decanted into I, the positive
electricity of the acid will unite with the negative
electricity of the alkali, heat being the product ; and
the residual constituents of acid and alkali will now
combine and form a neutral salt, namely, the sulphate
of ammonia.

21. When a solution of the nitrate of potash is
placed in the cup P, distilled water in N, and sul-
phuric acid in I, the nitrate of potash is decomposed,
and the alkaline constituent of the salt is drawn
through the cup I without undergoing any change
itself, or causing any change in the acid. What is
the reason of this ?

The alkaline constituent of the salt when it enters
the cup I, containing sulphuric acid, does not com-
bine with that acid. The sulphuric acid requires to
be disunited from its positive electricity before it can

20 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

combine with the alkaline base of the salt. When,
however, the alkaline base passes to cup N, it there
unites with negative electricity, and has its alkaline
properties restored. If now the alkaline solution in
N be poured into cup I, the positive electricity of
the sulphuric acid will unite with the negative elec-
tricity of the alkali, and the base of the acid and
the base of the alkali will now unite and form a
neutral salt.

22. When a solution of the sulphate of potash is
put into the cup N, distilled water in P, and a solu-
tion of baryta in I, the sulphate of potash is decom-
posed, and the base of the acid, one of the consti-
tuents of the salt, is attracted by the wire in P, and
is liberated ; but the base of the acid does not pass
through the solution of baryta as it passed through
the solution of ammonia, but combines with the base
of baryta, and is precipitated. How is this ?

The base of baryta has the greatest affinity for
the base of sulphuric acid, insomuch that it separates
the base of that acid from all the alkalies and alka-
line earths with which it combines, namely, from
strontia, potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, and ammonia.
To account, therefore, for the precipitate in I, the
base of baryta having a greater affinity for the base
of sulphuric acid than it has for the negative electri-

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 21

city with which it is united, the baryta is decom-
posed, the negative electricity is set free, and the
base of the acid is arrested in the intermediate cup
I by combining with the base of baryta, and because
of this a precipitate of the sulphate of baryta takes
place.

23. When an acid and an alkali are brought into
contact, how is it that great heat is evolved and a
compound formed, possessing neither the properties
of an acid nor an alkali ?

The acid, in combining with an alkali, gives off
its positive electricity, and is thus deprived of that
which imparted to it the properties of an acid ; and
the alkali, in combining with an acid, gives off its
negative electricity, and is thus deprived of that
which imparted to it alkaline properties ; and be-
cause of this a compound is formed by the combina-
tion of the ponderable constituents of the acid and
alkali possessing neither alkaline properties nor
those of an acid, and the great heat evolved is con-
sequent upon the union of the two electricities which
are given off.

24. If a platinum capsule, which contains a solu-
tion of caustic potash, be connected w r ith one wire
of an electrometer, and a slip of platinum connected
with the other wire is dipped into nitric acid, and

22 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

introduced into the potash, why does the capsule in
contact with the alkali indicate the presence of ne-
gative, and the slip of platinum in contact with the
acid indicate the presence of positive, electricity ?

The acid, in combining with the alkali, gives off
its positive, and the alkali, in combining with the
acid, gives off its negative, electricity ; and there-
fore the slip of platinum in contact with the acid
indicates the presence of the former, and the platinum
capsule in contact with the alkali the presence of the
latter, electricity.

25. In double decompositions, as in the case of
the two neutral salts when they decompose one
another, in which the acid base of the one combines
with the alkaline base of the other respectively, how
is it that these combinations give rise to no heat, and
no current of electricity ?

When an acid and an alkali enter into combina-
tion and form a neutral salt, they give off their re-
spective electricities, heat being the product ; and
therefore in double decompositions, when the two
neutral salts decompose one another, and enter into
new combinations, the constituents of these salts
have no electricity to give off, and because of this
they give rise to no heat and no current of elec-
tricity.

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 23

26. When an acid decomposes a neutral salt by
combining with the alkaline base of the salt, how is
it that the acid base which is set free has its acid
properties restored ? The acid which decomposes
the neutral salt, in combining with the alkaline base
of the salt, gives off its positive electricity to the
base of the acid which is liberated, and because of
this the acid base which has been set free has its
acid properties restored. In the same manner the
alkali which decomposes a neutral salt gives off to
the alkaline base which is liberated its negative
electricity, and because of this the alkaline base
which has been set free has its alkaline properties
restored.

27. Hydrogen obtained from water without oxygen,
and oxygen from water without hydrogen.

28. Is water a binary compound, and are oxygen
and hydrogen the constituents of that body ? Or is
it a binary compound, which, when under electro-
decomposition, one of its constituents combines with
positive electricity, and oxygen is the product ; and
the other constituent combines with negative elec-
tricity, and hydrogen is the product ?

29. Or is it an elementary body, which, when
under electro-action, positive electricity combines

24 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

with the water, and oxygen is the product; and
negative electricity combines with the water, and
hydrogen is the product? With a view to the
solution of this last question, I made the following
experiment :

FIG. 4.

30. Fig. 4 represents a glass vessel with two
compartments, C and D ; these compartments are
separated from each other by a platinum plate, A B,
ten inches in diameter. The compartments are
water-tight, insomuch that water, when poured into
one of the compartments, has no communication with
the other. G and H, are two tubulures, into which
stoppers are tightly fitted, and through which the

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 25

wires from a galvanic battery are introduced into the
vessel the negative wire into the compartment C,
and the positive wire into D. These wires, as they
pass through the stoppers, are encased in capillary
tubes, with only their extremities exposed. The
vessel has two tubulures, E and F, into which tubes
are inserted which have their upper extremities
sealed. These tubes are bent at their lower extremi-
ties to collect the gases which come off from the
respective wires of the battery. The cells of the
battery which I employ, are filled with spring
water, and the glass vessel with water that has been
distilled. It is evident that gas will come off from
the extremities of both wires of the battery, just as
if no platinum plate was interposed platinum being
a conductor of electricity ; and it is obvious that
whatever quantity of electricity is concentrated at
the extremity of either wire, an equivalent quantity
of electricity will be induced upon the surface of the
plate opposite to the wire, and I experimentally
found that this induced electricity was diffused over
the surfaces of the plate. And as oxygen and
hydrogen are not given off from the wires of a bat-
tery when the electricity is low in intensity and
small in quantity, I therefore inferred that when the
power of the battery was so very low that the

26 ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.

gases were sparingly given off from the respective
wires of the battery, the induced electricity of the
plate, consequent upon its distribution over so large
a surface, would be so attenuated, so low in inten-
sity and so small in quantity, at any one point of its
surface, that neither oxygen nor hydrogen would be
given off from the plate, and therefore when hydro-
gen was eliminated from the negative wire, oxygen
would not be given off from the surface of the plate
presented to that wire ; and also that oxygen when
eliminated from the positive wire, hydrogen would
not be given off from the surface of the plate pre-
sented to that wire ; and thus hydrogen might be
obtained from water without oxygen, and oxygen
from water without hydrogen.

31. Since May, 1856, nearly two years ago, a
constant stream of hydrogen has been given off from
the negative wire of the battery, and also a constant
stream of oxygen from the positive wire ; but not a
bubble of gas, during all that time, has appeared
upon either surface of the platinum plate, or upon
the sides of the vessel. I have tested again and
again the gases which are collected in the tubes con-
tained in the glass vessel, and I find that it is
hydrogen which comes off from the negative, and
oxygen from the positive, wire of the battery, and

ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 27

not a mixture of the two gases, as some have sup-
posed. It may be said, that the positive electricity
which is induced upon the surface of the plate oppo-
site to the negative wire of the battery, gives off to
the water oxygen, which is aborbed by it, and
therefore is not apparent ; but I would infer that
after two years' action, or nearly so, of the battery,
the gas would have been visible somewhere; but
not the slightest trace can I find of oxygen in the
compartment of the vessel in which positive electri-
city is induced upon the plate, nor of hydrogen in the
other compartment, in which upon the plate negative
electricity is induced. It would appear that the
electricity is so low in intensity, and so small in
quantity at any one point upon the surface of the
plate, that the gases are not eliminated.

32. In the compartment of the glass vessel in which
oxygen comes off from the positive wire of the battery,
there appears a growth or a green deposit in the lower
part of the vessel, and also in the lower part of the
other compartment the water has assumed somewhat
of a red colour. How this is to be explained, I do
not know. As the experiment, however, still goes
on and may continue for years, I have no doubt but
that these appearances will be accounted for.

28 NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES.

NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES.

S3. Is heat a binary compound? And are its
elements the two electricities ?

34. When the two electricities combine, what is
the product ? Is it not heat ?

35. If heat is a binary compound, of which
the elements are the two electricities, is it by the
decomposition of heat that ordinary electricity is
evolved ?

36. If ordinary electricity is evolved by the de-
composition of heat, what is the process by which
the common electrical machine is made to give off
electricity? Is the heat which is excited by the
friction of the rubber upon the glass cylinder decom-
posed, the heat being interposed between two bodies,
of which one has an affinity for positive and the
other for negative electricity ; the glass of the
cylinder being the one that attracts and carries off
the positive electricity, and the silk of the rubber
the other that attracts and gives off the negative
electricity ?

37. It is the opinion of some of our lecturers on
chemistry, that the electricity manifested by the

NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES. 29

electrical machine is derived from the ground, and
not from the machine itself; also in some of our
standard works on chemistry, as well as those on
electricity, the same opinion obtains. Thus in Stur-
geon's lectures on electricity, the following state-
ments are made : " When the cushion is in metallic
connection with the ground by means of the copper
wire, or when the hand is placed on it, it gets an
abundant supply from that source." Again, " I have
already stated in a former lecture, that the insulated
cushion or rubber of a machine yields but a small
portion to the revolving glass, because of a want of
supply from the ground." Also in one of our
standard works on chemistry, it is there stated " that
when one conductor is un-insulated, the electricity
derived from the other is proportionably augmented ;
in the positive conductor, because then the other
draws uninterrupted supplies from the earth."

38. The following experiment proves that this
opinion is erroneous.

To the ball of the prime conductor of an electric
machine I presented an insulated conductor B, one
of the extremities of which terminated in a metallic
ball, and was placed within less than an inch of the
ball of the prime conductor. The other extremity
terminated in numerous points or needles. A similar

NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES.

conductor A, similarly situated, was presented to the
ball on the negative side of the machine. The
whole apparatus was supported upon glass pillars
and had no electrical communication with the ground
by means of a chain or otherwise. Upon turning
the glass cylinder of the machine, a constant succes-
sion of sparks took place between the ball of the
prime conductor of the machine and the ball of the
insulated conductor B, as also a constant succession
of sparks took place between the ball at the negative
side of the machine and the ball of the insulated
conductor A, and by continuing to work the machine
a rapid succession of sparks for any length of time
was maintained.

FIG. 5.

"NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES. 31

39. But in this last experiment, it is said that the
metallic points which project from the conductors A
and B withdraw electricity from the atmosphere
which is imparted to the machine, and this is indi-
cated by a constant succession of sparks that takes
place between the balls of the conductors A and B,
and those of the machine itself. That this view is
also erroneous. I removed from their place the con-
ductors with the metallic points, and into the upper
part of each of the conductors of the machine I in-
serted the extremity of a brass wire, the other ex-
tremity of which terminated in a brass ball ; the
wires with the balls were made to bend towards
each other as is represented in Fig. 6,

FIG. 6.

32 NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES.

I found by this addition to the electrical machine,
that upon turning the glass cylinder a constant suc-
cession of sparks took place between the balls. As
the common electrical machine has all its projections
rounded off, it does not, when insulated, give off
with facility electricity to the atmosphere, or to the
surrounding bodies, or withdraw electricity from
them. This constant succession of sparks between
the balls, must therefore be derived from the machine
itself. In order to prove that the electricity thus
made manifest was not derived from the atmosphere,
I replaced the conductors with the metallic points in
their former position, connecting, however, the balls
at their extremities with the balls of the conductors
of the machine. Upon again turning the glass
cylinder, the electric sparks between the balls (fig-
6) did not now take place. It was therefore
obvious that the metallic points of the insulated con-
ductors, instead of supplying additional electricity to
the machine by withdrawing it from the atmosphere,
withdrew electricity from the machine, and gave it
off to the atmosphere ; and in a dark room this was
indicated by the appearance of minute sparks of
electricity at the metallic points of the conductors.

40. If heat is a binary compound, of which the
elements are the two electricities, is it by the decom-

NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES. 33

position of heat that electricity by induction is
evolved ?

When a body is charged with one of the two
electricities, electrical induction takes place in the body
to which it is presented is the heat of the induced
body decomposed, one of the constituents of which
is attracted, and the other repelled, by the adja-
cent body charged with one of the two electrici-
ties?

I may state one or two examples of electrical in-
duction as, I conceive, they occur in nature. When
a cloud charged with one of the two electricities
passes over the spire of a church, the spire by elec-
trical induction is charged with the opposite electri-
city ; and when the attraction of the two electrici-
ties, that of the cloud and that of the spire, is such
as shall overcome the low conducting power of the
atmosphere, the electricity of the cloud descends and
unites with the electricity of the spire, and thus, in
common parlance, the spire is said to be struck with
lightning.

Again, when a cloud charged with one of the two
electricities passes over the surface of the ocean, it
induces the opposite electricity in the water beneath ;
and because of the attraction of the two electricities,
that of the cloud and that of the water beneath, the

34 NOTES ON THE TWO ELECTRICITIES.

water rises above its level towards the cloud, and
the cloud in a column descends ; and thus is exhibited
the remarkable phenomenon of what is called a
waterspout. (Fig. 70

FIG. 7.

TBACT No. 2.

ASTRONOMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL
PHENOMENA.

41. MIGHT it not be said that our Education has
become so much an Education of Words, that we
cannot get at the truth for verbiage ? and what with
verbiage, and involved processes of reasoning not
only may something be said for anything, but a
great deal may be said for everything.

As the corrective to this, must man revert to the
ancient Socratic method of interrogatories, which
leaves to those to whom the questions are put, to
work out their own convictions as to what is truth ?

OF NEBULA.

42. Do self-luminous stars within determinate

D 2

36 OF NEBULJE.

distances repel each other, but beyond those distances
have they a tendency to gravitate towards each
other ? And is it because of these antagonist forces,
that stars are found associated together in clusters,
and not concentrated into one self-luminous or incan-
descent mass ?

43. Does the form of those nebulae (Fig. 8) point
out the direction in space to which they trend ?
Does each visible star in its motion of translation in
space draw after it the nebula with which each is
associated ?

. FIG. 8.

NEBOLE WITH ONE VISIBLE STAR.

44. Do those visible stars, which are so often
found associated with unresolved nebulae, determine
in any way the forms of those nebulae ?

45. Has the form of the reticulated nebula (Fig.
9) been determined by the position of the visible
stars with which it is associated ?

OF NEBULA.
Fm. 9.

RETICULATED NEBULA.

46. Is it so, that the unresolved nebulae (Fig. 8)
are made to converge towards the visible star with
which each is associated, but to diverge in the
opposite direction, because no star is there situated
by which the nebulae might be made to converge in
that direction ?

FIG. 10.
NEBULA WITH BINARY STARS.

38 DARK OR BENIGHTED STARS.

47. Is it so, that the nebulae (Fig. 10) because of
the attraction of the binary stars with which they
are associated, converge in opposite directions towards
those stars ?

48. If so, how is it that the unresolved nebula
(Fig. 11) which is only associated with one visible
star, situated at one of its extremities, does not
diverge in the opposite direction as the nebulae (Fig.
8), but is made to converge at both extremities
as the nebulae (Fig. 10) which are associated with
binary stars ? Is it from this cause the nebula (Fig.
1 1 ) is also associated with a binary system, of which
the star at one of the extremities is self-luminous,
but the star at the other extremity is dark or be-
nighted ?

FIG. 11.

A NEBULA WITH ONE VISIBLE STAR.

49. In what circumstances might we infer that
dark stars do exist in the sidereal heavens ?

50. Were a visible star to disappear from one of
the extremities of one of the nebulae (Pig. 8), and

DARK OR BENIGHTED STARS. 39

were the nebula from which the star had disappeared
to maintain the same convergence as before, towards
the point at which the star had ceased to be visible
would the inference be legitimate, that the star
which had disappeared was not annihilated, but had
ceased to be self-luminous ?

51. If at the starless extremity of the nebulae
(Fig- 11) a star became visible, might we not infer
that this new star was not a new creation; but,
before its appearance, had existed at the extreme
point of this nebula, a non-luminous body ?

52. Were one of the stars, of a binary system,
that revolved about a common centre of gravity, to
disappear from our firmament, and were the star
which remained visible to preserve the same orbit
that it maintained while revolving with its partner
before the disappearance took place would not this
go to prove, that the star, which had disappeared,
was not annihilated but only darkened ?

53. The great astronomer, Bessel, has demonstrated
that both Sirius and Procyon are binary systems,
that each has a revolution about a common centre of
gravity, but that the partner of each is a dark or
benighted star.

54. Since the fact has been revealed to us that
dark stars do exist in the firmament, when therefore

40 ASTRAL DAYS AND ASTRAL NIGHTS.

a self-luminous star disappears from the heavens, is
it not more legitimate to suppose that the star which
has ceased to be visible, has been darkened rather
than annihilated ? And when a new star appears
in the heavens, is it not more legitimate to suppose,
that a dark star in the firmament has become self-
luminous, than to suppose that this new star is a new
creation ?

55. How is it, that during the historical period of
astronomical science, stars have disappeared from
our firmament, and remain still invisible ? And
stars, that were before invisible, are now self-
luminous ? Is it from this cause : In the sidereal
heavens an economy obtains of Astral Days and
Astral Nights, and because of this, every star in the
firmament undergoes, at distant intervals, a periodic
change from light to darkness, and again from dark-
ness to light ?

56. Captain Jacob, of the Madras Observatory,
in a revision of a portion of the British Association's
Catalogue of 8,377 Stars, has made the remarkable
discovery, that 46 of those stars, whose positions
had been determined, are missing. Is it so, that
those stars are now benighted stars, that they have
ceased to be self-luminous, because their Astral Night
has set in upon them ?

SOLAR DAYS AND SOLAR NIGHTS. 41

57. As our sun is a star, if therefore every star in
the firmament undergoes, at distant intervals, a
periodic change from light to darkness, and again
from darkness to light, then are proofs to be found in
the crust of the earth, which go to establish the
remarkable fact, that in the past history of our globe
there has occurred the alternate succession of Solar
Days and Solar Nights f

58. If so, is the number of Solar Days and Solar
Nights, which Nature in the history of our globe
has recorded, just equal to the number of geological
systems, of which the crust of the earth is mainly
constituted ?

59. And if so, was the duration of a Solar Day
just that period in which the series of strata that
constitutes a geological system was deposited ? And
was the duration of a Solar Night just the interval
that occurred between the deposition of one geologi-
cal system and the commencement of the deposition
of another the next in succession ?

60. Or was that period in which the animals and
plants belonging to the same creation continued to
exist the duration of a Solar Day f And was the
interval that occurred between the extinction of one
creation of animals and plants and the commence-
ment of another creation, the next in succession :

42 SOLAR DAYS AND SOLAR NIGHTS.

the duration of a Solar Night? In fine, was a
geological period just the duration of a Solar Day,
and was the interval that occurred between two
consecutive geological periods the duration of a
Solar Night f

61. If a period has intervened between the de-
position of one geological system and the commence-
ment of the deposition of another, the next in
succession what has been the cause of this remark-
able break that has thus occurred in the building up
of those stratified masses which mainly constitute
the crust of the globe? How came it, that after
the series of strata which constitutes a geological
system had been deposited, the precipitation of sedi-
mentary matter upon the bed of the ocean was
suspended ? What was it that bound up the soil,
or locked up the rivers, by which earthy matters
ceased to be conveyed to the channels of the deep
and what stayed the waves of the ocean by
which the rocks upon the sea-shore ceased to undergo
further abrasion ? And how .came it that at this
period Death had asserted his dominion over all that
is sentient in Nature ? Was it because of this the
sun was darkened, and the earth became frigid, and
the rivers were frozen, and the ocean transformed
into a mass of ice and thus a breach was made in

SOLAR DAYS AND SOLAR NIGHTS. 43

the continuity of deposit, while every living thing
that had existed perished, whether a denizen of the
air, the earth, or the waters ?

62. Were the solar nights the glacial periods of
geologists ? If so, how is it that there is not
the slighest trace of glacial action observable in the
earliest geological formations ? Is it from this cause

the innate temperature of the globe at the com-
mencement of our geological history was such, that
when a solar night did occur, the earth did not
become frigid ?

63. As the seeds of plants must have existed in
the soil, and the spawn of fish in the ocean, at the
close of the more modern geological periods how
is it that the vegetative principle of the one, and
the vital principle of the other, must have both been
destroyed during the interval that occurred between
two consecutive geological periods, inasmuch as the
various species of fish and of plants that are found
to occur in any one geological epoch, are not identical
with those which are found in that which imme-
diately precedes it? Is it because of this the
seeds of plants and the spawn of fish were subjected
to a cold so intense during the interval that occurred
between the deposition of one geological system and
the commencement of the deposition of another, the

44 SOLAR DAYS AND SOLAR NIGHTS.

next in succession, that the vegetative principle of
the one, and the vital principle of the other, were
both destroyed ?

Agassiz states that with respect to the fishes of
the tertiary epoch, " I have not yet found a single
species which was perfectly identical with any
marine existing fish except the little species which
is found in nodules of clay of unknown geological
age in Greenland."

64. If an economy obtains in the sidereal uni-
verse of Astral Days and Astral Nights, then, since
the dawn of this our Solar Day, have six thousand
years not yet passed away ; or have six thousand
years not yet passed away since " darkness brooded
o'er the deep," and God said " Let there be light,
and there was light " ?

ON THE ALTERATION IN THE POSITION
OF STRATIFIED ROCKS.

65. What has been the cause of the alteration that
has taken place in the position of the earth's strata
from that which was originally horizontal to that
which is vertical ; or, if not, to a position more or
less inclined to the horizon ? As the igneous rocks

ALTERATION IN POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 45

were forced from beneath, not in the mass as they
are seen by us on the surface of the globe, but in a
state of fusion through clefts or fissures in the crust
of the earth, and which are represented to us in
geological sections as not of great width, is it so
that the formation of those clefts or fissures is a suf-
ficient cause for the bendings or inflections of strata
throughout entire districts, and at distances from
those fissures often very remote ?

66. If a displacement of the strata in the crust of
the earth from their original horizontal position to a
position more or less inclined to the horizon, has
been effected by the upheaving of igneous matter
from beneath, how comes it that entire districts of
country do occur in which this alteration in the posi-
tion of the strata has taken place, but in which
geologists have not discovered throughout the whole
extent of those districts any trace whatever of
igneous rocks or igneous action ?

67- Which is the cause or which the effect?
Was it by the eruption of igneous matter from be-
neath that the strata were made to shift from a
horizontal position to a position more or less inclined
to the horizon ? or was it under the pressure and
friction of enormous masses of strata while shifting
from a horizontal to an inclined position, that the

46 ALTERATION IN THE

subjacent rocks were subjected to a heat so intense
that their fusion was effected and their eruption
took place ?

68. If in the remote past, the temperature of the
globe was greater than it is now, will not the density
of the globe, because of this, be greater now than it
was then ?

69. If the innate temperature of the globe, as
some philosophers suppose, has been in a state of
constant decrease, will not the density of the globe,
because of this, have been in a state of constant
increase ?

70. Does not the oblate spheroidal figure of the
earth go to prove that, in the remote past, our planet
was less dense than it now is, and therefore the mag-
nitude of the globe was greater then than it is now ?

71- Humboldt, in his " Cosmos," states "that many
of the phenomena presented by our own planetary
system lead to the conclusion that the planets have
been solidified from a state of vapour." If our
globe has passed from a state of vapour to that of a
solid, or its present state of condensation, must it
not have passed through all the intermediate states ?

72. Has our planet, during the whole course of
its past history, ceased not to increase in density,
and therefore ceased not to diminish in magnitude ?

POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS.

73. If so, then is it because of the great lateral
pressure which the circumference of a sphere under-
goes, when that sphere ceases not to increase in
density, and therefore ceases not to diminish in mag-
nitude, that has induced those bendings and inflec-
flections, or changes of position, which have taken
place in the strata of the crust of the earth since the
period of their deposition ?

7 4. Dr. M'Culloch, in his " Geology of the Western
Isles," has made two representations of strata of
gneiss which occur in the Island of Lewis, and
which have shifted from their original horizontal
position, or that position in which they were de-
posited, to one that is highly inclined and incur-
vated. (See Figs. 12 and 13.)

FIG, 13.

48 ALTERATION IN THE

FIG. 13.

Now these strata, with their inflections, were they
extended and restored to their original horizontal
position, would be subtended by a horizontal base
three times greater than that which they now sub-
tend. Whence this contraction of base? Is it
because the magnitude of the globe was very much
greater when the strata of gneiss were deposited
than it is now, and therefore the strata, if soft by
virtue of the lateral pressure induced by the con-
traction of the circumference of the globe, would
undergo bendings and inflections while accommodat-
ing themselves to the nucleus of a globe, which
ceased not to diminish in magnitude ? Is it thus, that
the horizontal base which subtended the strata of
gneiss during the period of their deposition was so
much greater than that which they now subtend ?

75. If so, what was the magnitude of the globe
at the period when gneiss, the first of stratified
rocks, were deposited ?

76. Sir James Hall, in the "Edinburgh Phil.
Transactions," vol. vii., has made a representation of

POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS.

curved strata of slate, that belong to the transition
class of rocks, and which occur near St. Abb's
Head. (Fig. 14.)

FIG. 14.

There are sixteen distinct bendings in the course
of six miles. Now were those strata extended and
restored to their original horizontal position, in place
of being subtended, as they now are, by a horizontal
base of six miles, they would be subtended by
a horizontal base of about ten miles and a half.
Whence this contraction of base ? May it not be
explained, as before, upon the supposition, that the
globe has undergone an increase of density, and
therefore a diminution of magnitude, since those
strata were deposited ? and as the horizontal base
which subtended the primitive strata of gneiss when
they were deposited was fully three times greater
than that which now subtends them, whereas the

50 ALTERATION IN THE

horizontal base which subtended the transition strata
of slate when they were deposited was only about
twice the extent of base which now subtends them,
that therefore the strata of gneiss were deposited
upon a globe, the magnitude of which was greater
than that upon which the transition strata of slate
were deposited, and because of this the strata of
gneiss suffered a greater contraction of base than
the transition strata of slate while adjusting them-
selves to the nucleus of a globe which, since their
formation, had constantly diminished in magni-
tude?

77. If so, what was the magnitude of the globe
when the transition strata of slate were deposited ?

78. The alterations that have taken place in the
position of strata since they were deposited have
been referred by geologists to the intrusion of igneous
matter into the crust of the earth. The undulations
of the strata are supposed to have been induced by
that lateral pressure which the adjacent rocks would
undergo when a disruption of the strata took place
in the formation of the fissure through which the
igneous matter was discharged. The strata repre-
sented in Fig. 1 4 have by their inflections suffered
a contraction of horizontal base, equal in extent to
four miles and a half. This contraction of the base

POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 51

could not have been greater than was commensurate
with the width of the fissure through which the
molten matter was discharged. Now in geological
sections, the fissures through which the igneous
matter is discharged, are represented as not of
great width, and quite inadequate to have induced
by a lateral pressure those undulations which often
extend over a whole district of country.

79. What is true in respect to the primitive and
transition strata holds true in respect to the secondary
and tertiary classes of rocks, inasmuch as the hori-
zontal base which subtended those strata when they
were deposited was greater than the horizontal base
which now subtends them, while this difference in
respect to the horizontal base of the tertiary strata
is less than that of the secondary rocks ; and, as a
general law, the difference is always the greater,
according to the seniority of strata in respect to the
period of their deposition. How is this ? May it
not be explained, as before, upon the supposition,
that, during the formation of the crust of the earth,
the nucleus of the globe has ceased not to undergo
a constant increase of density, and therefore a con-
stant diminution of magnitude ?

80. What has been the cause of that want of
conformability which is found so often to occur

E 2

52 ALTERATION IN THE

between the strata of two consecutive geological
systems ? How came it that after the last mem-
ber of a geological system had been deposited, the
strata of that system shifted from a horizontal
position to one so much inclined to the horizon that
the first member of the subsequent formation was
deposited upon the edges of those strata ? Was it,

FIG. 15.

that during the interval which elapsed between the
deposition of one geological system and the com-
mencement in the deposition of another the next
in succession the sun was darkened ; and as the
earth during the period in which the solar rays were
withdrawn would radiate heat to distant space, and
receive no heat ab extra in return, the globe would
suffer so great a diminution of temperature that its

POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 53

density would increase, and therefore its magnitude
would diminish ; and because of this, the strata last
deposited, when subjected to that lateral pressure
which is induced at the circumference of a sphere
while that sphere undergoes a diminution of magni-
tude, would shift from a horizontal to an inclined
position, while adjusting themselves to the nucleus
of a globe which had thus diminished in magnitude?
Is it thus that the strata of one formation are so
often found to lie uncomformable with the strata of a
prior formation upon which they are recumbent ?

The questions which follow in reference to the
alteration that has taken place in the position of
strata since the period of their deposition, are in-
serted from a paper which I contributed to " Black-
wood's Magazine," and which appeared in the
October number of that journal so long ago as 1819,
entitled " Predictions by C. C."

81. How is it " that strata which were originally
horizontal in their position are now inclined to the
horizon ? " Is it because " our globe has suffered a
constant diminution of magnitude since the strata
were deposited which everywhere encompass it ;
and, therefore, since those strata at their formation
would form as it were the circumference of a larger
globe, and are now circumscribing the nucleus of a

54 ALTERATION IN THE

less, they would, if soft, suffer bendings and inflec-
tions while accommodating themselves to a globe
constantly diminishing in magnitude ; and if indu-
rated, they would break asunder, and assume a posi-
tion somewhat inclined to the horizon ; and as the
globe diminished more and more in magnitude, the
strata would approach more and more to a vertical
position ? "

82. How is it that " strata deviate the more from
the horizontal position as they are the more ancient ?"
"If this globe has constantly diminished in magni-
tude, then the more we recede from the present
period the greater will be its magnitude, and, conse-
quently, the more ancient the strata, the greater
would be the globe upon which they were deposited.
Since, therefore, strata, according to their seniority,
would, when deposited, form as it were the circum-
ference of a larger globe, and they are now all in-
vesting the same nucleus, and that the nucleus of a
less, it is evident that the strata last formed would
require to shift less from their original horizontal
position, in order to accommodate themselves to the
present magnitude of the globe, than strata of a
prior formation ; that, therefore, the more ancient the
strata, the more must they be displaced from their
first position ; the primitive strata must have there-

POSITION OF STRATIFIED ROCKS. 55

fore assumed a position more highly inclined to the
horizon than those of a subsequent formation."

83. " Are earthquakes just the shifting of strata
while accommodating themselves to a globe which is
constantly diminishing in magnitude ? "

84. " Was the substance of a vein originally dif-
fused throughout the strata which include the vein,
and which has been expressed from the strata after
the formation of the fissure which now contains it ? "

ON THE FORMATION OF LIMESTONE
BEDS.

85. What is the origin of those beds of limestone
which are found associated with the members of
the various geological formations ? As beds of lime-
stone are not the result of a mechanical deposit, but
of a chemical precipitate, must not the formation of
those beds be accounted for, not upon mechanical,
but chemical principles ?

86. It is a fact well known to chemists, that two
equivalents of carbonic acid gas, when subjected to
a given pressure, will combine with one equivalent
of lime, when held in solution, and form the bi-car-
bonate of lime a salt that is soluble in water ; and
should the pressure be afterwards removed, one of

56 ON THE FORMATION OF LIMESTONE BEDS.

the equivalents of the bi-carbonate will be given off,
and the other equivalent will remain in combination
with the lime, which is the carbonate of lime a
salt that is insoluble in water and is, therefore,
precipitated. If, therefore, the ocean, at a remote
period, held lime largely in solution, as some geo-
logists suppose, and carbonic acid gas escaped then,
as it does now, from clefts or fissures in the crust of
the earth, it is evident, that if, at a great depth,
this gas escaped from a fissure at the bottom of the
ocean, it would combine with the lime in solution,
and, under the great pressure of the superincumbent
waters, would form the bi-carbonate of lime a salt
that is soluble in water. Now, as every soluble
body has a tendency to diffuse itself through the
menstruum in which it is dissolved, the bi-carbonate
of lime, thus formed, would diffuse itself in the
waters laterally and vertically, the vertical diffusion
being co-extensive with the lateral diffusion; but
during the diffusion of the bi-carbonate of lime to-
wards the surface of the ocean, the superincumbent
pressure of the waters would be gradually removed,
until, at length, the bi-carbonate would part with
one of its equivalents of carbonic acid gas, and
would thus be reduced to a carbonate of lime,
which, not being soluble in water, would be preci-

ON THE FORMATION OF LIMESTONE BEDS. 57

pitated : and hence a bed of limestone, co-extensive
with the lateral diffusion which had taken place
in the ocean of the bi-carbonate of lime, would be
formed.

87. During the process, which we have just de-
scribed, by which the bi-carbonate of lime is re-
duced to a carbonate, a quantity of carbonic acid
gas is given off, precisely equal to the quantity of
carbonic acid gas which is precipitated with the
lime in the formation of a limestone bed ; that while
one equivalent of carbonic acid gas is precipitated
with the lime, the other equivalent of the gas is
given off, to enter into the composition of the atmo-
sphere.*

88. As the carbonate of lime is insoluble in
water, whence was it that the encrinites of the
mountain limestone derived their carbonate of lime ?
Was it from a bi-carbonate of lime which the ocean
held in solution that those encrinites derived their
calcareous matter? Was the bi-carbonate decom-
posed, of which one equivalent of carbonic acid gas
in combination with the lime w r as appropriated by

* An analogous process takes place in calcareous springs
which are charged with the bi-carbonate of lime one equiva-
lent of carbonic gas is given off to the atmosphere, and the
other equivalent in combination with the lime is precipitated.

58 ON THE FORMATION OF LIMESTONE BEDS.

the encrinites, while the other equivalent of carbonic
acid gas was given off to the atmosphere ?

89. If so, was it during the formation of the
enormous beds of mountain limestone, when the bi-
carbonate of lime, according to the process we have
described, was reduced to a carbonate, that the sur-
plus carbonic acid gas, which would thus be given
off to the atmosphere of the carboniferous period,
would be fully adequate to provide for the growth
of the luxuriant vegetation of that period ?

90. How is it that the limestone which occurs in
primitive rocks seldom consists of extended beds,
but is found in lumpish masses that are included in
those rocks ? Is it from this cause the primitive
limestone was deposited in shallow water, when
the ocean enveloped the whole globe ; and because
of this, when carbonic acid gas escaped from a
fissure at the bottom of the ocean, the pressure of
the superincumbent waters was not such as to cause
the carbonic acid gas to combine with the lime in
solution to form a bi-carbonate, but a carbonate of
lime ? There would be thus little or no lateral dif-
fusion, as the carbonate of lime, when formed, would
be immediately precipitated, and thus lumpish
masses of limestone would be formed, and not ex-
tended beds.

ON THE FORMATION OF MURAL CLIFFS. 59

ON THE FORMATION OF MURAL CLIFFS.

91. There is one characteristic of mural cliffs,
which, so far as my observation goes, is common to
all, whether those cliifs occur inland or upon the
sea-shore. At the base of those cliffs, and along
the whole extent of the base, a stratum of rock
occurs of softer consistency than the superincumbent
rock. When, therefore, a series of strata, somewhat
inclined to the horizon, is situated upon the sea-
shore, with their escarpments exposed to the action
of the waves, and the inferior stratum is composed
of softer material than the superincumbent rocks,
the stratum of softer consistency undergoes a more
rapid abrasion than the rocks above; and because
of this, those rocks are left unsupported, and from
time to time give way, and thus a mural cliff, with
a perpendicular face, is formed.

92. On those parts of the coast where the sea has
made rapid encroachments upon the dry land, I
have observed that this occurs more particularly
where a cliff rests upon a thin stratum of rock, of
which the consistence is of softer material than the
rock of which the cliff is composed. The sea ex-

60 ON THE FORMATION OF MURAL CLIFFS.

cavates the softer stratum at the base of the cliff,
and the superincumbent rock, being left unsupported,
gives way.

Now, might not this inroad of the sea upon the
dry land be prevented, and that, too, at a trivial
cost, by building up with concrete masonry the ex-
cavated part of the stratum at the base of the cliff,
which is often not more than one or two inches in
thickness ? and thus the further abrasion of the
softer stratum, upon which the cliff is recumbent,
would be kept in abeyance, and the further en-
croachment of the sea effectually prevented.

93. A mural cliff of sandstone occurs upon the
sea-coast near the city of St. Andrew's. The cliff
extends from the baths of that city westward, and
rests upon a thin stratum of coal. The sea exca-
vates the coal at the base of the cliff, and the super-
incumbent rock gives way. It is said, that at one
period the sea made such rapid encroachments at
this place that the inhabitants contemplated the
construction of a breakwater, with a view to the
protection of the cliff. Now, might not the further
demolition of the rock be easily and effectually pre-
vented by building up, with solid masonry, the ex-
posed part of the coal-bed, which is not more, as
far as my recollection goes, now fifty years ago,

ON CAVES. 61

than six inches in thickness ? The coal would thus
be protected from further abrasion, and the further
demolition of the cliff prevented.

94. A mural cliff consisting of basalt, called the
King's Craig, is situated between the towns of
Burntisland and Kinghorn, and is considerably ele-
vated above the present level of the sea. At the
bottom of the craig, a thin stratum of coal, about
an inch in thickness, extends the whole length of
the base. Now, whence came the perpendicularity
of that rock ? and whence its mural aspect ? Was
that rock, at a former but remote period, exposed to
the action of the waves ? and because of this, the
stratum of coal at the base of the cliff would
undergo a much more rapid abrasion than the rock
above ; and, therefore, the exposed part of the
superincumbent rock would, from time to time, be
left unsupported, which, giving way, a mural cliff
presenting a perpendicular face would be formed ?

ON CAVES.

95. What is the origin of those caves which
occur in the cliffs upon the sea-shore, and which
present somewhat the form of a hollow sphere ?
Are they formed thus In a cave which presents

02 ON CAVES.

such a form, I have observed, that in the rock in
which it occurs, a rent or cleft extends along the
roof of the cave from the mouth inwards into the
rock above ; and when the sand and gravel at the
bottom of the cave is removed, the same cleft is
found to extend from the mouth of the cave inwards
into the rock ? If, therefore, this cleft existed in the
rock before the cave was formed, the waves, as they
dashed at random upon the sea-shore, would carry
along with them particles of sand, which, as they
penetrated the cleft in the rock, would widen it by
their attrition, and would continue to enlarge it, until
at length gravel as well as sand would be dashed in
by the waves ; and while the particles of sand were

FIG. 16.

penetrating still further into the cleft of the rock, the

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS. 63

gravel which had entered would be left behind, to
give additional width to that part of the cavity
that had already been formed. The breach in the
rock would, at length, became so large that boulders
as well as gravel would be dashed in by the waves,
which, during their continued action, would excavate
a cavern, the form of which would be that of a
hollow sphere.

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS.

96. It would appear that the theory which Sir
Charles Lyell has promulgated with the view to
account for the transport of erratic blocks namely,
by the agency of icebergs has not been fully
adopted by geologists, as we still read of currents of
water and waves of translation as the agents em-
ployed in the transport of those blocks.

97- When erratic blocks have been removed to a
distance remote from the parent rock, and have, not-
withstanding, preserved their angular parts sharp
and entire, does not this argue that those massive
fragments have been carried to the place that they
now occupy, and there deposited? that as their
edges, during their transport, had not been subjected
to attrition, therefore, neither currents of water nor
waves of translation were the agents by which those

64 ON ERRATIC BLOCKS.

blocks of stone were impelled forwards to occupy
their present position, inasmuch as currents of water,
or waves of translation, adequate to the transmission
of such masses, must have swept before them all the
loose sand and gravel and earthy matters which they
met with in their course, and have made that part of
the bed of the ocean bare over which they travelled ?
Those blocks of stone would have, therefore, been
impelled forward over a rocky bottom ; and because
of this, their edges would have been subjected to
attrition, and their angular parts rounded off.

In the island of Arran, about a mile east from
the village of Lamlash, I found upon the sea-shore
blocks of granite of several tons weight. The
upper part of each had its angular parts rounded
off; but the base of each, which rested upon the
level surface of a sandstone rock, was flat, as is
here represented.

FIG. 17.

NOTES ON THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 65

Now, how came it that the sharp edges at the
base, during the transport of those blocks, should
have escaped abrasion, notwithstanding that the
parent rock was six miles distant ? Was it because
those blocks of granite had been conveyed from the
rock in situ upon an iceberg or a raft of ice, with
all their angular parts entire, to the place which
they now occupy, and there deposited ? and as the
flat base of each massive fragment rested upon the
level surface of the subjacent rock, the sharp edges
at the base were thus protected from the possibility
of abrasion? The upper portions of the blocks,
however, having been exposed to the action of the
waves, sand and gravel were dashed upon them, by
the attrition of which the angular parts were, in
process of time, rounded off.

NOTES ON THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

98. Was it by physical and other appliances, on
the part of the Creator, that the works of creation
were evolved ? Of the three Hebrew r words " Nil
create, TWy make, iy form or fashion ; though each
of these has its shade of distinction, yet the best
critics understand them as so nearly synonymous

66 NOTES ON THE

that, at least in regard to the idea of making out of
nothing, little or no foundation for that doctrine
can be obtained from the use of the first of these
words." Kitttfs Gydopadia Creation.

99. There was a period in the history of the
world, when the crust of the globe did not exist ;
and there was a period still more remote, when the
globe itself was not. Is it not as legitimate to
speculate upon the formation of the nucleus of the
globe, and the matter from which it sprang, as to
speculate upon the formation of the crust of the
globe, and the matter by which it was formed ?

NOTES ON COMETS.

100. What are those comets which traverse the
solar system in vast eccentric orbits? Are they
oceans isolated in space ? And because of this is a
comet with an eccentric orbit a solid, or a mass of
ice as it traverses the region of its aphelion ? Is it
a liquid as it nears the sun, and is it a vapour as it
moves in the region of its perihelion ? And is it
so, that a portion of that vapour from its proximity
to the sun is resolved into steam and thus becomes
invisible ? After the perihelion passage has taken
place, and during the comet's recess from the sun, is

SOLAR SYSTEM. 67

the portion of that vapour, which from its proximity
to the sun hud become transparent, again by a
reduction of temperature made visible, and during
the comet's further recess from the sun is the vapour,
from a still greater reduction of temperature, con-
densed into a liquid, and thus the comet without a
tail and without a nebulous atmosphere presents
itself as a star of inferior magnitude a bright con-
centrated point ?

Sir John Herschel, in his observations on Halley's
comet, which made its appearance in 1835, states,
that on the evening of the 28th of October, before
the termination of the twilight, he obtained an ex-
cellent view of Halley's comet, eighteen days pre-
vious to its perihelion passage ; its appearance was
about that of a star of the third magnitude, which,
as the darkness increased, appeared somewhat hazy.
In a night glass the tail 3 in length was con-
spicuous. After the perihelion passage had taken
place, Sir John Herschel observed that the cornet
was actually increasing in dimensions and with
such rapidity that it might almost be said to be
seen to grow. (The increase in the dimensions of
comets in their recess from the sun was pointed out
by M. Valz.) In the comet's further recess from the
sun the continued dilatation of the comet was ob-

F 2

68 NOTES ON THE

servable. Sir John Herschel says, " I can hardly
doubt that the comet was fairly evaporated in
perihelio by the heat and resolved into transparent
vapour, and is now in process of rapid condensation
and re-precipitation on the nucleus. During the
comet's retreat from the sun the tail began to be
developed. The nucleus became more bulky, hazy,
and ill defined, and its tail was strong, which after-
wards gradually and entirely disappeared."

Henceforward the comet presented the appear-
ance of a round nebula, highly and very suddenly
condensed in the middle, which gradually died
away until finally lost. M. Boguslawski, professor
of astronomy, sixty days after the perihelion passage,
actually observed the cornet as a star of the sixth
magnitude a bright concentrated point.

101. Is it not so, that the impact of a comet upon
our world is possible ; and w r hen we reflect upon
the number of comets which traverse the solar
system whose aphelion passage is beyond that of
our planet, but whose perihelion passage is within
the earth's orbit, is it not so, that the impact of a
comet upon our world is probable ? Moreover when
we consider the ages that have rolled on during the
past history of our world, and the countless num-
bers of comets which have traversed the solar

SOLAR SYSTEM. 69

system during that period, and when we reflect that
a comet within a given distance of our planet is
less attracted towards the sun than towards the
earth, is it not so, that the impact of comets upon
our world must have been inevitable ?

102. If the impact of comets upon our world
during its past history must have been inevitable,
and a comet which traverses the solar system is an
ocean isolated in space, is it so that our world has
derived its ocean from the visitation of comets ?

103. But what are those comets, the discovery
of which was made by Encke and Biela? Are
they portions of the atmosphere of that planet
which by a " cosmical convulsion," is supposed to
have burst into fragments ; and is it so, that other
portions of that atmosphere and other fragments of
that planet are still in reserve for future discovery ?

104. If a comet which, in its course of revolution
about the sun, traverses the solar system, becomes a
solid, a liquid, and a vapour, will more of the sun's
rays be intercepted by it when it is a solid or a
liquid, than when it is a vapour, and more when it
is a vapour than when, from its proximity to the
sun, it is resolved into steam and becomes invisible ?
and is it because the mass of a comet in its course of
revolution about the sun never varies, but the impul-

70 NOTES ON THE

sion of the sun's rays upon it vary, that the comet's
orbit is eccentric ?

105. If those comets which circulate about the
sun in vast eccentric orbits are oceans isolated in
space, would the impact of a comet upon our world
be a force adequate to produce those phenomena
which are presented to us in the formation of the
boulder clay ?

According to geologists, the boulder clay formation
appears to emanate from a common centre, and owes
its origin to no ordinary operations of water. It
consists of accumulations of sands, gravel, clays, and
boulder stones, huddled up in the same indiscriminate
mass, without regard to sedimentary deposition, or to
gravity, or to any other law of arrangement.

] 06. When a comet approaches the sun, how is it
that the nebulous matter which constitutes the tail,
is extended in the wake of that body ; and how is
it when a comet recedes from the sun, the nebulous
matter which constituted the tail, is extended in
advance of the nucleus ? Is it from this cause :
Matter ceases not to be projected from the sun, the
momentum of which is such, that as it impinges
upon the nebulous atmosphere which surrounds the
nucleus of a comet, that atmosphere, during a comet's
approach to the sun, is impelled behind and beyond

SOLAR SYSTEM. 71

the nucleus ; whereas, when the comet recedes from
the sun, the matter which is projected from that body,
impels the atmosphere to extend in advance of the
nucleus ?

107. If matter is projected from the sun, and if
all space is pervaded by a resisting medium, as phi-
losophers now suppose, at what distance from the
sun will the matter, which is projected from that
body, and transmitted through that medium, be
brought to a state of rest ?

108. As there can be no loss of matter anywhere,
but there must be an acquisition elsewhere ; if, there-
fore, matter is projected from the sun, in what region
in space is the acquisition made ?

109. Is heat matter?

110. Is the solid matter of the solar mass now
resolving into heat ?

111. If the solid matter of the solar mass is re-
solving into heat, is there a provision in nature by
which again the solar heat is reduced to the con-
dition of solid matter ?

112. Is it not at variance with all that is known
in regard to the economy of nature, to suppose that
the heat which radiates from the sun, save that in-
finitesimal quantity that falls upon the planetary
bodies, subserves no immediate or ulterior purpose in

72 NOTES ON THE

creation, but is dissipated and utterly lost in the in-
finitudes of space ?

113. Does the heat, which radiates from a fixed
star, traverse the space which intervenes between
that star and the earth ; or is it, in its course, inter-
cepted by that resisting medium which is said to
pervade all space ?

114. As it is experimentally known that the heat
which radiates from a body in a state of incandes-
cence may be intercepted by presenting to that body
a transparent resisting medium ; if, therefore, all
space is pervaded by a resisting medium, will the
heat, which radiates from the sun, be obstructed in
its passage through that medium, and finally brought
to a state of rest ?

115. If so, at what distance from the sun will the
heat, which is projected from that body, and trans-
mitted through that medium, be brought to a state
of rest?

116. Is the heat which radiates from the sun pro-
jected to the outskirts of the solar system ? And is
it arrested there ? And does it accumulate there?
And does it suffer condensation, and is ponderable
there ? And as the sun moves onward in absolute
space, is it collected into one mass in the solar track ?
And is that mass dragged forward in the solar path ?

SOLAR SYSTEM. 73

117. Is the sun the parent of the planetary
system ?

118. If the sun is the parent of the planetary
system, what is that matter by which the worlds
were made ?

119. If the heat which radiates from the sun is
matter, and the sun is the parent of the planetary
system, is heat that matter by which the worlds
were made ?

120. If the solid matter of the solar mass is
resolving into heat, shall the earth, if burnt up, be
resolved into heat ? If, therefore, all the ponderable
matter of this world is resolvable into heat, is
heat that matter by which this world was
made?

121. If the planets cease not to increase in density,
which may be inferred from indications observable in
the crust of the earth, and from the oblate spheroidal
figure of the globe, the mass of each of the planets,
consequent upon the lateral, as also vertical pressure,
which the particles of a sphere in a state of conden-
sation of necessity undergoes, w r ill resolve itself into
numerous concentric spheres, or shells of matter, all
separated from each other just as the rings which
encircle the planet Saturn are separated.

74 NOTES ON THE

122. If the mass of each of the planets is disposed
into numerous concentric spheres, or shells of matter,
is the solar mass also so constituted ?

123. If the solar mass is disposed into numerous
concentric spheres, or shells of matter ; and if from
the surface of that mass, matter ceases not to be
projected, then, as ages roll on, shall those spheres,
or shells of matter, successively disappear ; but be-
tween the disappearance of one sphere, and the
incandescence of another, shall a long period of dark-
ness intervene ?

124. During the continuance of a solar day, is
there projected from the sun, to the remote regions
of the solar system, the matter of one of those
concentric spheres of which we suppose the solar
mass is constituted ; and during the continuance of a
solar day, is there accumulated, in the remote regions
of the solar system, a mass of attenuated matter,
but destined to become the solid fabric of a future
world ?

125. If the tail of a comet is educed and elongated
by matter which is projected from the sun, what,
therefore, must be the intensity of that force which
projected the nebulous atmosphere of the comet of

SOLAR SYSTEM. 75

1680, one hundred and twelve millions of miles
beyond the nucleus of that body ?

126. If matter is projected from the sun to the
remote regions of the solar system, and is arrested
there, will the matter at rest be upheld because of
the impact upon it of the matter in motion ? but as
the .matter collected at the outskirts of the solar
system increases in density, and, therefore, diminishes
in magnitude, the impact upon it of the matter pro-
jected from the sun will be always the less, and,
therefore, the matter in process of condensation will,
because of this, approach nearer and nearer to the
sun ?

127. If matter is projected from the sun to the
remote regions of the solar system, and impinges
upon the planetary bodies, the planets are, therefore,
acted upon by two forces by gravity, which impels
them in a direction towards the sun, and by the
matter projected from that body, which impels them
in an opposite direction. Are these two forces, at the
mean distance of a planet from the sun, in a state of
equilibrium ?

128. If so, the mass and diameter of a planet
being given, to find the position of that planet in the
solar system.

It is possible that the masses of all the planetary

76 NOTES ON THE

bodies may not yet be accurately determined, as it
would appear that Encke's comet has recently led to
a determination of a smaller mass for the planet
Mercury.

129. Has the ocean of the planet Venus evapo-
rated consequent upon its proximity to the sun ? and
because of this, is the apparent disc of that planet
enlarged ?

130. If the density of the planet Venus could be
determined apart from the atmosphere which sur-
rounds it, would it be found that the density of the
solid mass of Venus is greater than that of the
Earth ?

131. If the densities of the planets could be respec-
tively determined apart from the water and atmo-
sphere which surround them, would it be found that
the density of the solid mass of a planet is always
the greater according to the proximity of that planet
to the sun ?

132. In place of a nebula, according to the nebular
hypothesis, giving birth to a star, is it so, that every
star gives birth to a nebula or cluster of stars ?

133. Are the unresolved nebulae or clusters of
stars, Figs. 18, 19, 20, the products of the visible
stars with which each is associated?

FIG. 20.

134. Is the reticulated unresolved nebula, Pig.
21, the product of the visible stars with which it is
associated ?

135. Sir John Herschel has noticed, in the London
Philosophical Transactions for 1833, "that he has

78 NOTES ON THE

FIG. 21.

RETICULATED NEBULA.

often seen, when the sky is quite clear, all the large
stars above the seventh magnitude surrounded with
photospheres of 2' or 3' or more in diameter, precisely
resembling that about the finer specimens of nebu-
lous stars." Do these photospheres consist of luminous
points or stars, though yet unresolvable by our best
telescopes, each photosphere being a portion of that
firmament of stars to which, as we suppose, each
star or system of stars is destined to give birth ?

136. If the planets cease not to increase in
density, will they at length become incandescent ?

137. Do self-luminous stars within determinate
distances repel each other ? but beyond those dis-
tances, have they a tendency to gravitate toward

SOLAR SYSTEM. 79

each other ? And is it because of these antagonist
forces, that stars are found associated together in
clusters, and not concentrated into one self-luminous
or incandescent mass ?

138. In the remote past, has our sun given birth
to numerous planetary bodies, which have become
self-luminous, and which are now observable as
nebulous matter in the distant regions of the solar
system ?

139. What is the zodiacal light ? Is it analogous
to those photospheres which have been observed by
Sir John Herschel as surrounding the larger stars of
our firmament ; but which, though yet unresolvable
by our best telescopes, is a portion of that firmament
of stars to which the sun, as we suppose, is destined
to give birth ?

From late observations upon the zodiacal light, it
would seem that the light is only upon one side of
the sun, and if seen from a distant point of view in
space, would it, with the sun, present somewhat the
appearance of the nebulae, Fig. 22 ?

140. Shall the Earth, if burned up, and the planets
in their turn, become each the parent of a planetary
system ; and thus there shall be the creation of suns,
and worlds, and systems in never-ending suc-
cession ?

80 NOTES ON THE

FIG. 22.

141. When a mass of matter has a motion of
translation in space, and draws after it another mass
that contains less matter than itself, will the mass
which is dragged move with a greater velocity than
the mass which drags it ? In what circumstances
will the momentum of the first body be communi-
cated to the second, and, therefore, the velocity of
the second body will be greater than that of the
first ?

142. If the sun, the mass of which is 354,936
times greater than that of the Earth, has a motion
of translation in space, and draws after it the whole
of the planetary bodies, will the velocities of the
planets be greater than that of the sun ?

143. If so, is it this tractile force which the sun in
his course imparts to the planetary bodies, that gives
motion to those bodies, and not the primal projectile

SOLAR SYSTEM. 81

impulse which has been assumed by astronomers ?
And if so, what extent of orbit would the sun
require to describe in absolute space, and with what
velocity would the sun require to move in that orbit,
that so the tractile force which thus becomes tangential
would cause those bodies to describe their respective
orbits about the sun ?

144. If the sun in his motion of translation in
space imparts to each of the planetary bodies a
tractile impulse, is this impulse imparted and ex-
pended with every revolution of a planet about the
sun?

145. How is it that the sun's motion of translation
in space at the estimated rate of four hundred and
twenty-two thousand miles in twenty-four hours; also
the tractile force which the sun in his course imparts
to the planetary bodies ; and also the repulsive
force by which the nebulous atmosphere of a comet
is impelled behind it, as it approaches the sun, but
in advance of it as it recedes from that body, are all
ignored by astronomers in their rationale of the solar
system whereas in their explication of that sys-
tem a primal projectile impulse, an unresisting
medium, and the sun's immobility in space, are
hypothetically assumed by them ?

146. If the corpuscular theory of light be the

82 NOTES ON THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

sound one, and all space is pervaded by a resisting
medium, is it so, that the velocity of light is not
uniform is the light, as it is projected from a fixed
star, of greater velocity than the light of that star as
it nears the earth ?

147. How is it, that when the occultation of a
star takes place behind the limb of the moon, the
projection of that star upon the moon's disc is
sometimes apparent ? Is it because the velocity of
the light which is reflected from the moon, is greater
than that of the star which is about to be eclipsed,
and therefore the star is apparent upon the moon's
disc after the limb of the moon is intercepted
between that star and the earth ?

TRACT OF MISCELLANIES.

ON A GEOGRAPHICAL NOMENCLATURE.

148. DESIDERATUM. The invention and adoption
of a New Geographical Nomenclature, of such a
nature that the name of every place shall include
the longitude and latitude of that place, and thus
the name of a place being given, we shall be able
to point out the position of that place upon the
map ; also the longitude and latitude of a place
being known, we shall be able to give its name.
In addition to this an adjunct would be required
to indicate the thing signified whether a town, a
lake, a mountain, an island, and so forth. With a
view to this, let the consonants of the alphabet be
employed one of the consonants to indicate that
the thing signified is a town, another consonant to
indicate that the thing signified is a lake, and so on;
and let the vowels be employed to represent magni-
tudes. Thus the first vowel of the alphabet an-

G 2

84 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES.

nexed to the consonant that represented a town,
would indicate a town of the first magnitude, the
second vowel annexed would represent a town of
the second magnitude, and so on down to the last
vowel of the alphabet, which would represent a
hamlet. So also with mountains, and lakes, and
rivers, and seas, and islands, &c., &c. each having
a consonant to represent it, and the vowel annexed
to indicate the magnitude of each. The names of
oceans, lakes, countries, and islands would require
to be indicated by the longitude and latitude of the
central parts of these respectively, and that of a
river by the longitude and latitude of the mouth of
the river. Thus a Geographical Nomenclature so
constructed would, analogous to the chemical no-
menclature of the neutral salts, enable us to accom-
plish in a few hours what cannot now be achieved
in a lifetime.

ON THE ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGES.

149. Montaigne, when he had passed the years
of infancy, was put under the tuition of a Latin
master ; and when six years of age, it is said that,
without Dictionary, Grammar, or any preparatory
task-work, he could speak pure Latin. How very

ON THE ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGES. 85

few are able to speak pure Latin under the present
system of tuition, though engaged with it, for several
hours daily, during the whole, or nearly the whole,
of their educational course !

Some years ago I put to the test Montaigne's
method, or one somewhat analogous to it, of acquir-
ing the Latin language. Those young gentlemen
whose studies were directed with a view to a mer-
cantile profession or to a civil appointment, or with
a view to enter the army or navy, were placed
under the tuition of a Latin master, who required
of them no preparatory task-work before they
assembled in their respective classes, but proceeded
at once to the work of translation the master being
to them the Dictionary and Grammar. The business
of the class consisted at the outset of a very simple
exercise the master translating a sentence of an
elementary work in Latin, and the young gentlemen
rehearsing it. When the class had acquired a con-
siderable vocabulary of Latin words, these elemen-
tary exercises were discontinued. The young
gentlemen now proceeded to the work of translation
themselves, the master guiding them when necessary
in the construction of sentences, and still being to
them the Dictionary and Grammar. The result,
after three years' practice, was so very striking and

86 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES.

satisfactory, as to warrant me in saying, that, with
one hour daily during the whole of an educational
course, at this work of translation, young gentlemen,
without any further tuition, might proceed at once
to construct the most involved sentences, and trans-
late the most difficult passages of any Latin author.
What is true in respect to the acquisition of Latin
by this method must also be true in respect to the
acquisition of any other language by the same
method.

ON SCHOOLS OF NATURAL AND SOCIAL
SCIENCE.

150. Would not a great boon be accorded to the
nation were the State, by the extension and endow-
ment of Schools of Natural Science, to pervade the
public mind with that wholesome, and might it not
be said divine, knowledge, which is derived from
the study of that great Book that has God for its
Author the Book of Nature ?

We cannot conceive that any sectarian opposition
would be offered to a Government Scheme of Edu-
cation, the object of which was to impart to all
classes, and to individuals of all ages, that know-
ledge which is derived from the study of Natural
and Social Science, and which is so intimately con-

SCHOOLS OF NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE. 87

nected with the progress of society and the realities
of life the courses of instruction in Natural Science
to be such as are taught in our Universities, but cast
in a more popular form. That the people of Scot-
land are fully prepared for the acceptance of such a
scheme of education, we would infer from the at-
tendance of artisans upon those lectures on Natural
Science that are delivered in our mechanics' schools ;
also from the presence of the middle classes in the
hall of a provincial town, when a course of lectures
is there delivered on any of the Physical Sciences ;
and also from the attendance both of the upper and
middle classes in the sections of the Scientific Asso-
ciation during their sittings in our larger towns.

SUGGESTIONS.

Let the following courses of Lectures be insti-
tuted :

1. Mechanical Philosophy.

2. Chemistry.

3. Geology.

4. Astronomy.

5. Electricity.

6. Natural History.

7. Agriculture, Horticulture, and Floriculture.

8. Social Science.

There would be thus a series of lectures one of

88 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES.

which delivered annually, would extend the curricu-
lum to eight years. It would be well that, at the
commencement of the second curriculum, the Lec-
tures on Mechanical Philosophy or of any of the
other courses should not be delivered by the indi-
vidual who had lectured in the same town or dis-
trict eight years before on the same subject. For,
just as one might not be disposed to read the same
book twice on any one subject, but might be dis-
posed to read two books on the same subject by
two different authors, so one might not be disposed
to attend the same course of lectures twice when
delivered by the same lecturer ; but might be dis-
posed to attend two courses of lectures upon the
same subject when delivered at long intervals by
two different lecturers. In order to this, the lecturers
would require to itinerate. We do think, by this
arrangement and the changes which would take
place in the course of eight years in the various
sciences arising from new discoveries having been
made, and new views adopted in those sciences a
goodly attendance upon those lectures in the smaller
towns might be perennially maintained.

Let the Lectureships be endowed by the State,
and in order to supplement the endowment, let a
small fee be taken.

THE FRENCH LAW OF INHERITANCE. 89

ON THE FRENCH LAW OF INHERITANCE.

151. In all the old communities of Europe the
cry of suffering humanity has been heard but not
responded to thousands are inadequately fed and
others famishing. Assuredly in the dark and squalid
dens at the bottom of the social fabric the realities
of wretchedness are there a wretchedness, consti-
tuted as society now is, hopelessly and helplessly
endured. We have, however, no sympathy with
the sentiment which for the first time was pro-
mulgated, and that too in Parliament, by a member
of the House of Commons, to the effect that it
was grossly deluding the people to tell them
that any thing but misery was the lot of the great
mass of mankind ; nor with that of M. Thiers,
when he states that " in the general plan of things,
misery is the inevitable condition of the human
race ;" nor with Sir Robert Peel, when he says the
sufferings of the poor are irremediable. All this
may be true with society constituted as it now is
in which there are more people than there is food for.
Where there is an excess of population there must
be destitution somewhere, and the tendency of the
Poor Laws for the relief of indigence is just to haul
in to the gulf of destitution as many as they drag

90 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES.

out of it. What is wanted is a state of society in
which there shall be a right adjustment of the popu-
lation between food and numbers. According to the
last census of Scotland, 48 per cent, of the adult
population between the ages of twenty and forty
were unmarried, and still in Scotland there are more
people than there is food for. Is it so, that in the
old communities of Europe not more than one third
of the adult population can marry with impunity,
and as the average duration of human life extends,
fewer marriages will be required ?

Were the French Law of Inheritance somewhat
modified, it would go far to solve the problem
of a right adjustment between food and num-
bers. As the law stands at present, there is no
limit to the subdivision of landed property. What
is required is a limit, and that limit is palpably ob-
vious. When once a property under the present
process of subdivision is so reduced as shall just
afford to an average family an adequate supply of
cereal, vegetable and animal food, the State should
then interpose, and by a strict deed of entail the
further subdivision of the property should forthwith
cease ; and while the members of the family to
whom the property belongs should equally partici-
pate in the produce of it, they should be dispossessed

THE FRENCH LAW OF INHERITANCE. 91

by the deed of entail of the power either to mort-
gage or dispose of it the last surviving member of
the family to inherit the whole, and at his decease
the property to descend to the family nearest akin.
With the French Law of Inheritance thus modified,
and with the growing intelligence of a people conse-
quent upon a sound secular education in connection
with religious instruction teaching what is due to
God and due to mankind society might be able to
work out for itself the great desideratum in our
social condition, namely, a right adjustment between
food and numbers. In such a state of society it
would be better defined than it now is when a man
might marry and when he ought not.

With an increase in the number of entailed pro-
perties, more of the agricultural produce would be
consumed by the rural population, and consequently,
less to dispose of to the inhabitants of towns.
Towns as they now are would, therefore, gradually
decline, and the country, with the increase of entailed
properties, would ultimately become as one great
rural city. In the remote past, human beings con-
gregated into towns surrounded with walls for self-
preservation. Latterly towns have been built with
a view to the convenience of carrying on the various
trades and professions ; but now that we have rail-

92 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES.

ways, steamboats, omnibuses, the electric telegraph
and the penny postage, there is not the same neces-
sity as formerly for a condensation of the population
into towns for commercial purposes. As one of these
entailed properties would yield to an average family
not more than the first necessaries of life, the mem-
bers of a family not engaged in agriculture would
require to betake themselves to other trades and
professions, in order to procure for themselves the
second necessaries. These trades and professions
would thus revert to what was their original design,
namely, to procure for man all that man requires
beyond that of mere aliment. With the growing
intelligence of the people a question would arise,
whether or not it would be more advantageous for
those with entailed properties to cultivate their own
respective allotments themselves ; or to incorporate
a given number of those entailed properties into one
farm, to be cultivated for the benefit of the families
to whom they belonged. By this arrangement the
members of a family would be free to betake them-
selves to other trades and professions.

152. What could man do if he would? Could
he morally exist without doing violence to his natural
tendencies ? Could he exterminate, if he would, all

SANITARY SUGGESTIONS. 93

hereditary diseases ? Could he physically improve
his own species as surely as he improves some of the
species of inferior animals ? And by the ameliora-
tion of his social condition, and by sanitary observ-
ances, could he add another and another decade to
the average life of mankind ?

153. Desideratum. A treatise on the sinfulness
of neglecting sanitary observances, and of perpetu-
ating by marriage hereditary diseases.

154. Is it so, that the Creator does not directly
accord health to human beings, but bestows upon
them capabilities by which to promote and preserve
it ; leaving it mainly to man himself the alternative,
whether he shall or shall not enjoy health ?

155. Desideratum. With a view to the extension
of the average duration of human life, let no one be
allowed to build a dwelling-house until the site, the
sewerage, the ventilation, and the plan of the house
be approved of by a Sanitary Board.*

* If so, a lower grade of dwelling-house than the following
ought not to be sanctioned by a Sanitary Board. The great
desideratum in the improvement of our cottages, is an increase
in the number of sleeping apartments. The smallness of those
apartments, however, in the subjoined plan, requires that they
shall be thoroughly ventilated. And this may be done by a
partial opening of the windows, but the changeableness and the
severity of our climate forbids it. The air which we exspire

A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES.

156. In the construction or upbuilding of every
human fabric, would it not be well for man to
assume as his standard of taste, that which is
observable in the organic structures of the Great
Architect all of which, with rare exceptions, pre-
sent externally symmetrical forms have the per-
fection of fitness impressed upon every part, and
with the exception of colour, have mainly the
absence of all ornament ?

from the lungs, ought not to be inspired a second time. At a
temperature of 96 or thereabouts, it rises to the ceiling of an
apartment, where some way of escape for it should be provided.
It is therefore proposed that the space between the upper part of
the door of each apartment and the ceiling, should be left open,
and fresh air admitted through the ventilator in the lobby from
openings in the roof of the cottage, which in its descent would
pass through air of a higher temperature, and coming in contact
with the walls and floor and furniture, would reach the sleeping
apartments divested of its superfluous moisture, and with its
temperature considerably modified.

SANITARY SUGGESTIONS. 95

157. Desideratum. A Treatise on the Cure of
Incipient Diseases. Is it so, that what palliates a
disease in its advanced stage, will cure it in its
incipient state ? And is it so that there are numer-
ous specifics for diseases in their incipient state, but
few specifics, if any, for diseases in their advanced
stage ? *

158. It is well known that gases and vapours
possess the power of miscibility with each other so
remarkably, that when brought together they
speedily constitute themselves into one homogeneous
mass. It is therefore evident, that extraneous gases
or vapours, when they enter the atmosphere, must
be rapidly diffused over the districts from which
they emanate. Now if atmospheric diseases arise,
as is supposed, from a mephitic gas or vapour exist-
ing in the atmosphere, how comes it that an atmo-
sphere so impregnated with morbid matter does not

* I have found that the first touch of sore throat, and the first
tendency to cough, may be suppressed simply by the use of an
emollient, but that they will not be suppressed by such a simple
remedy if allowed to go on for several days, or even hours ; and also
that the first touch of tooth-ache may be checked by having re-
course to any one of those numerous specifics which are adver-
tised as a cure for tooth-ache in its advanced stage ; also I find
that rheumatism and sciatica upon their first symptom, may be
suppressed by the immediate application of a liniment, but
which will fail as a remedy if allowed to go on for several hours.

96 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES.

at once make an invasion upon all the families of
the district over which it extends, but capriciously,
as it appears to us, to attack isolated families, while
others, who seem equally exposed to the contagion
who live in the same district, or in the immediate
neighbourhood, escape ?

159. Do isolated swarms of insects exist in the
atmosphere analogous to the animalcules that exist
in water, but which are so minute as not sensibly to
impair the transparency of the atmosphere ? * If so,
are those insects, during the process of respiration,
largely inspired into the lungs, insomuch that a mor-
bid taint is imparted to the blood ? and is it from
this cause that fevers and those other diseases which
are supposed to be atmospheric, have their origin
one species of insect as it exists in the atmosphere
generating one kind of fever other species generat-
ing fevers of a different kind, and so on with other
diseases which are also supposed to be atmospheric ?

160. If animalcules exist in the atmosphere as
well as in water, then as putrid water is the habitat
of the one class, may not a putrid vapour existing in
the atmosphere be the habitat of the other ; and is

* Ehrenberg has discovered in bog-iron ore, fossil animalcules
so very minute, that a cubic inch of the ore contains two millions
of millions of those animalcules.

SANITARY SUGGESTIONS. 97

it so, that each class of insects derives its nutriment
from the putrescence which surrounds it ?

161. Do animalcules which exist in the atmosphere
derive their nutriment from the vapours which arise
from vegetable or animal matters in a state of putre-
faction or decomposition ? and if so, were all vege-
table and animal matters buried beneath the surface
of the ground the instant the vegetative principle of
the one, and the vital principle of the other had
departed from them, or before decomposition had
begun to take place, would atmospheric diseases
cease to prevail?

162. How is it that swarms of insects are ob-
served to maintain the same position in the atmo-
sphere, without any perceptible movement either to
the one side or to the other ? Is it from this cause
In the atmosphere where the insects swarm, there is an
escape of vapour from beneath, arising from vegetable
or animal matter in a state of decomposition, from
which vapour those insects derive their nutriment ?
Upon one occasion we observed a swarm of insects
hovering above a piece of cloth which had been
steeped in fatty matter ; the insects maintained their
position above the cloth for such a length of time,
that we could not avoid the inference that the posi-

98 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES.

tion of the insects at that place was in connection
with the cloth beneath.

We therefore removed the cloth to some distance,
and immediately the swarm of insects changed their
place, and again t oo up their position as before
above the cloth. This we repeated several times,
and with the same result.

163. There are certain classes of artisans, such as
flax-dressers, millers, hewers of stone, and others,
who, it is said, are particularly subject to chest-com-
plaints, arising, as it is supposed, from the gritty,
dusty or filamentous particles which they draw into
their lungs while engaged in their respective occupa-
tions. Thus the flax-dresser inspires the filamentous
particles which float so abundantly in the atmosphere
that surrounds him. The stone-hewer inhales the
gritty particles which are driven off into the atmo-
sphere while operating upon calcareous or siliceous
blocks of stone; and at one time, too, the flint-grinders,
who before the process of grinding under water was
adopted, were enveloped during their operations in
an atmosphere charged with minute siliceous parti-
cles. All those classes were particularly subject to
chest-complaints. Now, how is it that the people
of this country are so subject to pulmonary diseases ?

LIBERTY AND PEACE TO ALL NATIONS. 99

Is it, neither because of the changeableness of our
climate, nor because of the cold and damp of our
northern region, that those diseases are induced, but
mainly because of the quantities of dust which we
inhale into our lungs during the process of respira-
tion that dust being largely diffused in the atmo-
sphere of our dwelling-houses, and chiefly derived
from our open fireplaces, and from the quantities of
woollen stuffs which are so much used by us, both
as articles of furniture as well as of clothing ? It
sometimes happens that the dust which floats in the
atmosphere of a room is not visible until a beam of
sunshine darts across the apartment ; and it also
sometimes happens that the dust is not visible in the
sunbeam. If, however, a slip of transparent glass
be dipped in a solution of gum and suspended in the
atmosphere of a room, it will be found that the glass,
when microscopically examined, is covered with an
infinitude of minute particles of dust ; which indi-
cates that during the process of respiration, particles
of dust may be largely inspired into the lungs while
the atmosphere seems perfectly pure and trans-
parent ?

164. Might not one great nation give liberty and
peace to all the nations of the world would not

100 A TRACT OF MISCELLANIES.

the people of every nation co-operate with that
great nation, and consummate for themselves what
to them is so very precious ?

165. In the present stage of the world's progress,
what is the best form of Government? Is it that
of a monarchy in which the Sovereign reigns but
does not govern ?

166. Desideratum. A Map of the Heavens, in
which the constellations shall consist of a series of
triangles the angular points of those triangles being
stars of the first or second magnitude ; and to each
Observatory of the world let one of these constella-
tions be allotted, to count the number of its stars,
and to observe the changes which it undergoes.

167. In this age of achievement, to connect, by
means of a chain or rope, the summit of Mont Blanc
with its base, and by the aid of this connecting
medium to guide in safety a balloon with passengers
from the base of the mountain to the summit, and
again from the summit of the mountain to the base.
Desideratum. The erection of an Observatory on
the summit of Mont Blanc.

London: Printed by Woodfall and Kinder, Angel Court, Skinner Street.

London, New Burlington Street,
March, 1858.

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A CLASSIFIED INDEX 1

MS. I31CI!]cl'i ATAI1.

ANATOMY.

Anatomical Remembrancer .

Beale on Liver

Hassall's Micros. Anatomy
Holden's Human Osteology .
Jones' and Sieveking's Patho-
logical Anatomy

Maclise's Surgical Anatomy .

Paget's Catalogue

Sibson's Medical Anatomy

Toynbee's Catalogue

Wheeler's Handbook

Wilson's Anatomy 31

. 14
. 15

. 17
. 19
. 21
. 25

. 28

CHEMISTRY.

Abel & Bloxam's Handbook . . 4

Bowman's Practical Chemistry 7

Do. Medical do. ..7

Fownes' Manual of Chemistry . . 12

Do. Actonian Prize .. ..12

Do. Qualitative Analysis .. 12

Do. Chemical Tables .. ..12

Fresenius' Chemical Analysis . . 12

Galloway's First Step .. ..12

Do. Analysis 12

Do. Diagrams . . ..12

Griffiths' Four Seasons .. .. 13
Horsley's Chem. Philosophy . . 16
Jones. Mulder on Wine . . . . 17
Odling's Practical Chemistry ..21
Plattner on Blowpipe . . 22

Speer's PathoL Chemistry . . 25

CHOLERA.

Acland on Cholera at Oxford . . 3
Baly and Gull Reports . . . . 4
Snow on Cholera 25

CLIMATE.

Francis on Change of Climate . . 12

Hall on Torquay 14

Haviland on Climate 14

Lee on Climate 18

Martin on the Undercliff . . . . 19

Martin (J. R.) on Tropical . . 20

DEFORMITIES, &c.

Bigg on Deformities 6

Bishop on Deformities . . . 6

Do. Articulate Sounds . 6

Brodhurst on Spine 7

Do. on Clubfoot ... 7

Hare on Spine 14

Hugman on Hip Joint . . . . 16

Inman on Spine 16

Tamplin on Spine 27

DENTISTRY.

Blundell's Painless Extraction . 7

Clark's Odontalgist 9

Gray on the Teeth 13

Odontological Soc. Transactions 21

DISEASES of the URINARY

and GENERATIVE ORGANS,

and SYPHILIS.

Acton on Reproductive Organs 3
Do. Urinary and Genera-
tive Organs 3

Coote on Syphilis

Coulson on Bladder . .
Do. on Lithotomy

Egan on Syphilis

Judd on Syphilis

Milton on Gonorrhoea

Parker on Syphilis . .

Todd on Urinary Organs

Wilson on Syphilis . .

DISEASES OF WOMEN
AND CHILDREN.

Bennet on Uterus 6

Do. on Uterine Pathology.. 5

Bird on Children 6

Brown on Women 7

Do. on Scarlatina 7

Eyre's Practical Remarks ..11

Hood on Crowing 16

Lee's Ovarian and Uterine Dis-
eases 18

Lee on Diseases of Uterus . . 18

Do. on Speculum 18

Roberton on Women 24

Rowe on Females 24

Smith on Leucorrhoea . . . . 25
Tilt on Diseases of Women . . 27
Do. on Change of Life . . . . 27
Underwood on Children . . . . 28

West on Women 29

Whitehead on Abortion . . . . 30

HYGIENE.

Beale's Laws of Health . . . . 4

Do. Health and Diseases . . 4

Blundell's Medicina Mechanica 6

Carter on Training 8

Cornaro on Long Life . . . . 9

Hartwig on Sea Bathing . . . . 14

Do. Physical Education 14

Hufeland's Art 16

Lee'sWatering Places of England 18
Do. do. Germany,

France, and Switzerland . . 18
Lee's Rhenish Watering Places 18

Robertson on Diet 23

Roth on Movements 24

Rumsey's State Medicine . . . . 24

Van Oven's Decline of Life . . 29

Wilson on Healthy Skin . . . . 31

Do. on Mineral Waters ..31

MATERIA MEDICA and
PHARMACY.

PACK

Bateman's Magnacopia . . . . 4

Beasley's Formulary 5

Do. Receipt Book . . . . 5
Do. Book of Prescriptions 5
Lane's Materia Medica .. ..17
Pereira's Selecta e Praescriptis 22
Pharmacopoeia Londinensis .. 22
Preserver's Pharmacopoeia . . 22
Royle's Materia Medica . . . . 24
Spurgin's Materia Medica. . . . 26
Squire's Pharmacopoeia . . . . 26
SteggaU's Materia Medica .. 26
Do. First Lines for Chemists 26
Stowe's Toxicological Chart .. 26

Taylor on Poisons 27

Wittstein's Pharmacy .. ..31

MEDICINE.

Adams on Rheumatic Gout . . 4

Addison on Cells 3

Alexander on Rheumatism . . 3
Arnott on a Local Ansesthenic 3
Barclay on Diagnosis . . . . 5
Barlow's Practice of Medicine 4
BUling's First Principles . . 5
Bird on Charcoal . . . . 6

Brinton on Ulcer . . . . 7

Budd on the Liver . . . . 7

Do. on Stomach . . . . 7

Chambers on Digestion . . 8

Davey's Ganglionic . . . . 10

Eyre on Stomach . . ..11

Fuller on Rheumatism . . 12

Gairdner on Gout 12

Garrett on E. and N. E. Winds 12
Granville on Sudden Death . . 13
Gully's Simple Treatment . . 13
Habershon on Stomach .. ..13

Hall on Apncea 14

Hall's Observations 14

Harrison on Lead in Water . . 14
Headland on Medicines . . . . 15
Hooper's Medical Dictionary ..16
Hooper's Physician's Vade-

Mecum 13

Jones (H.) on the Stomach . . 16

Lugol on Scrofula 19

Peacock on Influenza . . . 22

Do. on Heart 22

Pym on YeUow Fever . . . 23

Robertson on Gout 23

Savory's Compendium . . . 24
Semple on Cough . . . . . 24
Shaw's Remembrancer . . . . 25
SteggaU's Medical Manual .. 26

Gregory's Conspectus 26
26

Do.

Do. Celsus . .
Thomas' Practice of Physic

Wegg's Observations .... . . 29

WeUsonGout 30

What to Observe 19

Whitehead on Transmission . . 30

WiUiams' Principles 30

Wright on Headaches . . . . 30

CLASSIFIED INDEX.

MISCELLANEOUS. PHYSIOLOGY.

SCIENCE.

PAGE

AGE

PAGE

Acton on Prostitution . . . 3
Atkinson's Bibliography . . 4
Bascome on Epidemics . . 4

Carpenter's Human ...
Do. Comparative .
Do. Manual ...

8
8
8

Beale on Microscope 5
Beale's How to Work . . . . 5
Bird's Natural Philosophy , . 6

Bryce on Sebastopol . . . . 8

Cottle's Human

Burnett's Philosophy of Spirits 8

Coolev's Cyclopaedia . . . . 9
Forbes' Nature and Art in Disease 1 1

Hilton on the Cranium .
Richardson on Coagulation

15
23

Carpenter on Microscope . . . . 8
Garner's Eutherapeia .. ..13

Gullv on Water Cure . . . . 13

Hardwich's Photography.. .. 14

Guy's Hospital Reports .. 13
Lane's Hydropathy .. ..18
MarcetonFood .. .. ..19
Massy on Recruits . . . . 20
Oxford Editions 21

PSYCHOLOGY.

Hinds' Harmonies 15
Holland on Appendages .. ..15
Jago on Ocular Spectres .. ..16
Jones on Vision 17
Do. on Body, Sense, and Mind 17

Part's Case Book 22

Burgess on Madness

Mayne's Lexicon 19

Pettigrew on Superstitions . . 22

Burnett on Insanity
Conolly on Asylums

8
9

Nourse's Students' Tables ..21
Reymond's Animal Electricity 23

Davey on Nature of Insanity . .

Schacht on Microscope . . . . 24

~~"

Hood on Criminal Lunatics .

Taylor's Medical Jurisprudence 27

Jacobi on Hospitals, by Tuke .

Vestiges of Creation 28

NERVOUS DISEASES AND
INDIGESTION.

Knaggs on Criminal Lunatics. . 17
Millingen on Treatment of In-
sane 20

Sequel to ditto 28

Unger's Botanical Letters . . 28

Anderson on Nervous Affections 3

Monro on Insanity

~XN>^^XXN

Arnott on Indigestion . . .3
Carter on Hysteria .... 8

Do. Private Asylums .. .
Noble on Psychology

20
20

SURGERY.

Child on Indigestion . . 8
Downing on Neuralgia . . 11

Williams (J.) on Insanity .. 30
Williams (J. H) Unsoundness of
Mind . 30

Arnott on Urethra 3
Ashton on Rectiim 4

Hunt on Heartburn . . . . 16
Lobb on Nervous Affections 19
Radcliffe on Epilepsy . . 23

Winslow's Lettsomian . . .
Do. Law of Lunacy

31
31

Bellingham on Aneurism . . . . 5
Bigg on Artificial Limbs . . . . 6
Bishop on Bones 6

Reynolds on the Brain . . 23

Chapman on Ulcers 8

Rowe on Nervous Diseases 24

^w^>, .v

Do. Varicose Veins . . . . 8

Sieveking on Epilepsy . . 25

Cooper (Sir A.) on Testis . . . . 9

Todd on Nervous System . . 28
Turnbull on Stomach . . 28

PULMONARY and CHEST
DISEASES, &c.

Cooper's (B.) Surgery . . . . 9
Do. (S.) Surg. Dictionary 9
Curling on Rectum 10

WWVnWM

Do. on Testis 10

Addison on Healthy and Dis

Druitt's Surgery 11

OBSTETRICS.

eased Structure . .

Fell on Cancer 11

Barnes on Placenta Praevia . 4

Billing on Lungs and Heart
Blakiston on the Chest . .

5
6

Fergusson's Surgery 11
Gay on Femoral Rupture . . . . 13

Lee's Clinical Mid wifeiy .. .18

Bright on the Chest . .

Do. on Ulcers 13

Pretty's Aids during Labour . 23
Ramsbotham's Obstetrics . . 23

Cotton on Consumption . .
Do. on Stethoscope

10
10

Harrison on Stricture .. ..14
Higginbottom on Nitrate of Silver 15

Do. Midwifery. . 23

Davies on Lungs and Heart

Hodgson on Prostate 15

Smellie's Obstetric Plates. .25

Fenwick on Consumption . .

Hunt on Skin 16

Smith's Periodoscope . . . .25

Laennec on Auscultation . .

Laurence on Cancer 18

Swayne's Aphorisms . . . .26

Madden on Consumption . .

Lawrence on Ruptures . . . . 18

Waller's Midwifery ... .29

Markham on Heart

Lee on Haemorrhoids .. ..18

Richardson on Consumption

Listen's Surgery 18

MWMMVM

Skoda on Auscultation

Maclise on Fractures 19

Thompson on Consumption

Nottingham on the Ear . . . . 20

OPHTHALMOLOGY.

Wardrop on the Heart
Weber on Auscultation . .

29
29

Nunneley on Erysipelas .. ..21
Pirrie on Surgery 22

Cooper on Near Sight . . 9

Skey's Operative Surgery . . 25

Dalrymple on Eye .. .. 10

Smith on Stricture 25

Dixon on the Eye . . . . 11

A^-~V~~

SteggaU's Surgical Manual . . 26

Holthouse on Strabismus . . 15
Do. on Impaired Vision 15

RENAL DISEASES.

Thompson on Stricture . . . . 27
Wade on Stricture 29

Jacob on Eye-ball .. .. 16

Watson on the Larynx . . . . 29

Jones' Ophthalmic Medicine 17
Do. Defects of Sight .. 17

Addison on Supra-Renal Capsules 4
Beale on Urine 5

Wilson on the Skin 31
Do. Portraits of Skin Diseases 31

Do. Eye and Ear .. .. 17
Walton on Ophthalmic . . 29

Bird's Urinary Deposits . .
Jones' Animal Chemistry

6
17

Yearsley on Deafness . . . . 31
Do. on Throat 31

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