presentcC) to
^be Xibrari?
ot tbe
XHntveraiti? of Toronto
Eu^h S. Hobertson Xsq*
m^
m^mf^mm
I^H
^^^^^B
^Pi^v ■ '^"^y--' '^-^^~
^SyJgB^
\j= ^-=: -^-^-S=^-; ^r^^
^Kua
.^tad^ta^
^ _ p^--^^g^^^
l>>i
Ji^^^^W^
^^?fe?ir^
o-i?'fm
^^r^
^u^
ELEMENTARY ARABIC
A GRAMMAR
BY
FREDERIC DTJ PRE THORNTON
si^
[for private circulation.]
HERTFORD :
PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS.
PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY AKD ORTHOEPY.
1 . Arabic is written from right to left in twenty-eight letters,
aU consonants ; three of which, however, are also used as vowels.
Ranged in alphabetical order they are as follows, each with the
equivalent employed by "Wright's Arabic Grammar ; and the second
equivalent (if any) will be found in Mementary Arabic: First
Heading Book, as being easier for beginners, though less fit than
Wright's for international use in transliteration.
EQUIVALENT.
SEPARATE.
CONNECTED.
A
NAME.
r
INITIAL.
MEDIAL.
FINAL.
^t
\
I
\
$[>
b
C-^
^
^
i\3
t
ci;
-
C^
iU
t,th
C->
i
lL^
rr
g»j
TL
s>-
js.
t
SU-
h
Z
^
.s
jii
Lkh
t
£i-
.s
t
Ij^i
d
J
A
A
y^
d, dh
i
j^
j^
iV^
r
J
J
J
EftlTIVALBNT.
SEP ABATE.
CONNECTED.
NAME.
INITIAL.
MEDIAL.
FINAL.
4^!)
Z
J
J
J
^
s
L/*'
mJ
MJ.
LT-
^
8, sh
A
U-
A
A
MA
lA
5u
?, 5
U*
*a
^
u-»
5ii
d
1>
*£>
«i
U^
jii
t
L ■
L
k
k
«6
z
b
li
li
k
^
<
L
ii
X
t
^
k^gh
t
i
*
t
iii
f
1— i
i
A
^
u3\J
k,q
J
3
ii
(J-
^\?
k
d/
?
^
^
r^
1
J
!
1
J
r^
m
r
^
^
r
^y
n
l;
J
^
c;
jii
h
:f
Jb
•V
<)L
w
^
^
^
*v:
y
lJ
J
•«
^;
r
Rem. a. \ following J forms ^ lam 'alif which is sometimes
reckoned as a letter.
Rem. e. 1 , ^ , ^, are called weak letters.
2. The pronunciation of Arabic consonants is most easily ac-
quired by learning from a Moslem to read the Coran aloud, for
with exception of minute and insignificant divergencies this
Coranic pronunciation is in theory identical everywhere, though in
India, and probably in countries still more remote from Arabia,
its distinctness has fallen off, and the sound of some letters is lost,
notably c and —. Further, the Goran's vowelling is beyond
dispute ; and this is of more advantage to beginners than they are
at first capable of recognizing. Only slight indications as to
pronunciation can here be given, together with an explanation
of the system of transliteration employed.
are pronounced as in English, but r must be trilled and h
distinctly uttered, however placed : thus t/^J^ mahdiy, one
divinely led, almost mahidiy, and i^^ wajh, face, like wajhi.
t 1 sharper than in English, and with the tongue's tip, to dis-
d J tinguish them from
t I pronounced with broad of tongue, the tip being held against
d J the lower teeth.
th as in thorn, thump ; th as in goatherd, lighthouse.
j is (i) at al-Azhar (the famous Cairo University) as in John,
Jim, Jack, but (ii) at the mosques of Damascus, Tunis, and
Algiers as s in usual, measure, vision, or z in azure, or j
in adjoin, adjacent, bijou, or g in lodge, prestige. Taking
j to represent the former sound, which is transcribed by the
French with dj and by Germans with dsch, and doubling
— thus ir^Ls^ a 'prayer -carpet, we find it easy to say sajjadah
or sajjadah, but not sajjadah : the French j of bijou is
therefore more convenient. Turks pronounce this letter
as j, and (iii) most Egyptians colloquially as the g of go,
which last is the sound given in Hebrew.
h can only be learned by ear : beginners must use h until they
catch the sound.
kh has long been used by Anglo-Indians for the final sound,
harshly said, of loch, lough ; ch being wanted in Persian, etc.,
for the consonant of church, and ^ for ^J^ ^ain : kh as in
blockhead.
^ is as th in though, thee, this ; being as 5 of modem Greece :
dh as in bedhangings, adhesion.
z is strictly th said far back : but usually as z pronounced
with the tongue's tip pressed against the lower teeth ; then
z must be sounded sharply to make a distinction.
s has the sound as in hiss, kiss, being said with the tongue's
tip ; in contrast to
9 which must be pronounced further back, and with broad of
tongue.
sh as in shore, wash ; sh as in mishap. The French use ch and
Germans sch, which last in Dutch is ^ skh.
must be learnt by ear. The arrangement of throat is the
same as that required for h, but without aspirate. To mimic
baby camels is best of all ; otherwise one must repeat words
in which ^J^ ain occurs between two vowels, as JJti fa ala,
U did, ^JJ^ «.fJ*3 ciiJjti i^ixi, etc. (see § 369 Table I).
gh is the sound made in gargling; gh as in foghorn with the
Persian u-f gaf.
q in Arabia is commonly pronounced as g in go, and so may be
said at first ; but the student will learn to harden g in the
direction of k, and must sound
k very sharply in contrast. No one who can recite the Coran
like Moslems will confuse CS and -i as do uninstructed
Europeans.
n as in English, (JjO nk being as in sank, sink; but
nb sounds mb, ^^J^ , a pulpit, called mimbar.
'are always consonants, as^jj wazlr {vizier) burden hearer,
^^}y^ sawakin {Souakim) female inhabitants, c_iL^ yusuf,
Joseph ; but, as these three examples show, \ ^ ^ are fre-
quently letters of prolongation (see § 6).
li representing s and d, is sounded as h when final, and when
followed by a vowel as t : it is called ^J-Js^j^ *lj ta* marbutah
tied, as distinguished from CLJ t, io^^JiJi ^u, stretched.
4. The vowels and diphthongs are as follows : —
ilsaj -^ a as vowel sound in aunt, wan, thumb, hat. ' /yt^hietu/cl..
iyli — i „ „ pin, bit, gift. ^
— u ,, „ push, bull, put.
U a ,, ,, father, hardest.
jc- i ,, ,, keep, beat, chief, seize.
^^ u ,, ,, moon, rule, blue, you.
^- ai ,, ,, aisle, my, buy, sigh, die.
^- <m ,, ,, thou, how, bough.
^- a as a.
~ an tanwin of fathah (see § 8).
— in ,, kasrah.
— un ,, dammah.
^- an as an, but in pause as a (see § 27).
I- au as an, but in pause as a.
p
9
Rem. h. A vowel is called &S\s^ a motion, its mark being termed
J^ form or figure, plural JlLit and J^^. Hence a consonant
when followed by a vowel is said to be LL;>JlsrL« in motion.
5. When the Coran is recited, each letter, whatever its relative
position, in theory represents the same sound ; but in practice
certain consonants somewhat modify adjacent vowels, for instance
^ ^ Itf 1^ J cause a, following one of them, to be sounded like
the Scandinavian a, which we represent variously in nor, saw, war,
hall, wrath, ought, caught. As to the many jargons which
constitute colloquial Arabic, they show divergencies too material to
be learnt from any book : pronunciation of each dialect must be
acquired by ear at the particular locality simultaneously with its
eccentricities of vocabulary and grammar.
6. The long vowels a, i, u are indicated (see § 4) by marking
the corresponding short vowels before \, », and ^^ respectively,
which are then called A/»J \ u— J« i^ letters of prolongation.
E-EM. a. In certain common words a is indicated merely by
fathah; as ^UJl, etc., which should properly be written with
the perpendicular fathah, thus iUl ^jX^p\ i^^pt> cL^j^l
i^^l ^ lIX) J ^1&, etc. : the words J-;G and J-j^;^| are
also written defectively ^i^Jj JjVJJ^L
7. Fathah before ^ and ^ forms the dipthongs ai and au
(see § 4). Colloquial pronunciation, however, frequently gives
10
c ^
ai as ei in vein, reign, neighbour, thus ^-i> as sheikh elder,
chief, u:-^ as bait house, family, verse, ^^;4^l (oblique case of
jjlUl) as ithnein two.
Rem. a, A superfluous 1 is often written after ^ at the end
of a word : it is useful in manuscript to prevent the ^ seeming
separate and so being mistaken for J and.
Hem. c. If a pronominal suffix be added to a word ending
in ^^^ as ^y we see, the ^^ is sometimes retained, but more
often is changed into \ as CJ^j> (pronounced) naraka for uJoy
or 4ilX>l5 we see thee.
Rem. d. Some words ending in 'i\— may be written i^jl. or
- , ^ y^^ ^- I ^ 7./. * -Tx- * 't ^ ^ ^' ^^ y
i^JL as ^j-^ or iy^ life, b^S^a or }<^J^ prayer, i^j or if^J
alms: further ZiJL or L-L for i*^_i- in the loan word ^0
L^r
or
<ujy 0?(? Testament.
Note. The vowel sound in vein were better represented by
e, whereas ^j1- ai should remain a diphthong as in the French
word pays (nearly) pei in contrast to the French letter p
(nearly) pe.
8. Marks of the short vowels when doubled at the end of
a word (see § 4) are pronounced thus ±- an, — in, ^ un, which
is called ^,i^ tanwlnun adding of the letter nun.
Rem. a. Tanwin of fathah takes \ after all consonants except
I, as \j'o gate, but Aiu-j drowsiness. "When following hamzah
11
(see § 15) or preceding ^ it requires no i as Lkri. a fault, ^^J^
guidance. ^Notwithstanding this 'alif, the vowel is short ; thus
baban (not an), but in pause (see § 27) baba. "We transliterate
Ulj baban and iJL^ sinahan, but an and an are pronounced
alike ; except in pause, when an is not heard, whereas an sounds
as a. In pause sinahan is read sinah (see end of § 2).
The following orthographic signs are also in use :
9. Sukun rest — is placed over the final consonant of all
shut syllables : this is also called jazm and jazmah.
Hem. a. A consonant which has no following vowel is called
^^}^ '-^j^ * quiescent letter.
Kem. h. Letters that are assimilated to a following letter,
which receives in consequence tashdid (see § 11), are retained
in writing but are not marked with sukun ; thus <UJJ \ the
language^ d^Jjl pronounced 'arattu. U^yjju^-
10. When part of a diphthong ^ and ^ take sukun, which
it is very unusual to insert over letters of prolongation or over ^
when silent.
11. Tashdid strengthening JL is marked over a doubled con-
sonant and the letter's repetition saved; thus Jtso baddala to
substitute, Jij\ al kullu the whole.
12
Kem. c. Hamzah (see § 15) may be doubled and take tasbdid,
tbus J^Cj su"alurL mendicants from J Lj sa'ala to ash.
14. Tbe eupbonic tasbdld follows a vowelless consonant, wbicb,
tbougb expressed in writing, is to avoid barsbness of sound
passed over in pronunciation and assimilated to a following
consonant. It is used : —
(tf) Witb tbe letters cUi^ijjJ.j^jwj^^^LljJj^
after Jl the.
Kem. a. Tbese letters are called a: | mi .V^ \ uJjjC-sH \ the solar
letters because ^^^Ji— i) sun begins witb one of tbem, and for
opposite reason all otber consonants are called d^^jXll \ ^^'jJ^ \
the lunar letters from Jj*^5 moon.
(J) "Witb tbe letters j J (♦ _j u/ after sukun on n, as i^j ^j^
from his Lord, ^.^ ^.X tL;l^ a perspicuous hook, wbicb are read
mirrabbibi, kitabummubinun. Tbe n of tbe words ^^ ^U-^ [j\
is often not written wben tbey arc combined witb \Jt ^^J« X
{c) "Witb tbe letter CLJ after CLi ii J (^ L 1? in certain parts
of tbe verb, as cUJ^t / wished: tbis practice is, bowever, very
questionable.
Rem. h. If tbe verb ends in Cl^ it naturally unites witb a
second Cl.* , as l::-^ nabbattu / sowed or planted for ci^^lj .
r
13
15. Hamzah compression {of upper part of windpipe) -L. to
which 'alif most commonly serves as prop may almost be
reckoned by Europeans as the alphabet's initial consonant. It
is equivalent to the French h aspiree (which to English ears is
not, except in N'ormandy, aspirated), and it may be sounded
between the two words le onze and between la onzieme. If
our own definite article be pronounced before a vowel as before
a consonant we can prevent liaison by employing hamzah;
thus tho 'orange (o as e in thE book). Arabs would tran-
scribe a nice house anaishaus but an'aishaus for an ice house.
Eem. a. When it is required that waglah (see § 18) give place
to a vowel, the vowel mark is better written without hamzah,
thus Jl they ^Xi son,
Eem. c. Hamzah is marked between 1 and sukun or the
following vowel ; but we find ^I-aIj* his chiefs ^ ^.^.. miL^ abject,
and even fJ^Jlj grievous.
Rem. d. Hamzah is most perceptible in the middle of a word
as j!>^l for (see § 23) (^tUiUl al qur'anu (not quranu) the Cordn.
Rem. e. Hamzah and 'alif are called «-isJiJ I c«iJ 1 the ^alif
of severance.
16. Hamzah is alsa placed over ^ and over ^: being silent
the latter appears without dots (see § 131 et seq.).
14
17. Hamzah alone instead of 1 | j^ j is written,
(ff) always at a word's end, after sukun or a letter of pro-
longation, as ^U>- lie came^ S-^ evil, *^<-s^ ^ coining, %1^ thirst ;
and in the middle of a word after a 'alif of prolongation provided
the hamz^ bears fathah as Li*ijL^l your enemies.
Note. For^Uf , p^lJ^l see § 22, and for SJ-L, *J^~sr^ see
§ 23 rem. o.
(Jb) frequently in the middle of words after ^ or ^ oi pro-
longation and after sukun, as ^j^^ mischief for i^j^, "'^
wish for A 1:^.i\^ , (JIJ^ he asks for jUiJ ; also after kasrah and
dammah before ^^ or ^ of prolongation ; ^2rt^-^^^ khati'ina
sinners for ^j^^.x!^\^, (J^^j ru'usun heads for (j^^jj. Some-
times it is improperly placed over the letter of prolongation,
as <Ulk>^ for d.lJa.'^. or aLU-^ khati'ahun sin.
Eem. h. Hamzah may under certain circumstances be changed
into a weak letter, as d^ for dly* (see § 325 rem. a), /%3 for
^^ prophet y ^ for l^ shade, ij^\j for ^JglJ head, uf-^.^ for
cf^J e^o?/*, <^JU for ^jM gods, l^n for 11^ U «?« believed.
KoTE. For £JJT, ll;T see § 23, and for c^^j:^, ^1;;-?-^ rem. c.
Eem. c. The name 5^*\j i)^^^^ is always pronounced da'ud
however it may be written.
18. Some Arabic words begin with connective 'alif over which
15
is marked waQlah union T, hereinafter transliterated by hyphen,
because the word and its predecessor are spoken as one ; thus
i -^ , ? -o
^JJ \ 5Ls. abdu -llahi servant of God^ iJ:.^ \ J wa -d'uhu and call
ye upon Sim.
19. Elision takes place to form the union
(a) with the vowel of Jl the, as ^jj jJl i^ the day of the judgment,
(Jb) in regular Imperatives of the first form, as^-w?l Jl5 A^
said, Be patient', instead of J^K
{p) in certain derivatives belonging to the seventh and follow-
ing forms of the verbs (see § 35), as \^A)\''^ and they toere
changed) instead of \^pju\.
{d) in ^\ son, j^IXjI two, i^^\ a woman, i^l. name, and a few
other nouns.
Rem. c. In most of these words the 'alif and vowel are
prosthetic, i.e. prefixed to a vowelless initial consonant for the
sake of euphony (see § 26).
Rem. d. It is obviously an error to begin a sentence with 1 :
in such case the connective 'alif is written without hamzah but
with a vowel, as ^JJ ^yX^\ Supreme praise belongs to God.
Rem. /. "WaQlah and 'alif are caUed J^i^jlT cJjl the 'alif
of union.
20. The connective 'alif may follow
(a) a short vowel which then absorbs it.
16
(J) a long vowel which is then shortened in pronunciation
to comply with §25; as ^y^^\ fci fi -1 'ardi to he read fiFardi
in the earth, 3b\l3T U J^l ihdina -1 9irata to be read ihdina99irata
guide us {on) the way : hut the suffixes of the 1 st pers. sing.
^— and .J>^ may assume before the article the older forms lS-^
and ^;, as ^T^^aJ) ^\:\ ^^ uJ^Li (or ^^S^\ ^M^)
I will divert from my signs those who (see § 347).
{d) sukun over a consonant, which then most usually takes
kasrah, as i\3<z^\\ 4^ for ^IjkJjJf) J 1 sl *^ ^^* beginning,
^.f t \] l^X.s^ Mahomet the prophet pronounced muhamma-
duninnabiyu, JiJ ] ^^-^^ hut look. The pronouns 'lAj] you,
Ji-to they ; the suffixes IS your, you, !_& their, them ; and the
verbal termination IJ take dammah (in which they originally
ended), as ^UJi i^-^ wifl'y 6^0^ curse them (see § 401 /) : also
iXi since because contracted for sXSt : whereas ^\^ from takes
fathah before the article and elsewhere kasrah.
Rem. a. "When Li becomes 1-& (see § 185 rem. h) the waQl
may be made with dammah 1& or kasrah >^.
-o
21. The 1 is altogether omitted
(a) from ll;!. in the formula ^Ij^ JiLs for aj.l\ >_LU tw ^^e
naw^ 0/ God, which by way of compensation is written 1 -j .
(i) from ^1. in a genealogical series, with certain exceptions.
17
(c) from Ji the preceded by J to or J verily.
(d) from words preceded by the interrogative particle 1 (see
§ 361 a).
22. Maddah extension — does not admit of transliteration,
being either superfluous or an abbreviation or marking an abbre-
viation. Thus it is customary to omit 'alif which, with hamzah
and a vowel or tanwin, follows a 'alif of prolongation ; then by
way of compensation maddah is written over the remaining 'alif,
as *Lf for tUf , jj'^Ta^l for "JV^^].
23. Maddah and 'alif \ also represent a 'alif with hamzah
and fathah followed by 'alif of prolongation or 'alif with
hamzah and sukun, as ^\ he returned for JU or ^\^ , <Lj\
a verse, sign for <LjU for <^5^» *^-:!^ ^^^ '^J^K \1J»\ we believed
for \^\\.
Rem. c. Maddah is sometimes placed over j and ^^ of pro-
longation when followed by hamzah, as *J-^, S/^sr*, ^"^yls,
dJZJlJ^ : it serves in manuscript to prevent hamzah appearing to
be upon the letter of prolongation.
Beh. d. The same mark — is written over abbreviations, as
'J\ for ^j^\ ^\ or ^j^\ ^\ to its end i.e. etccetera {^c).
18
24. An open syllable ends with a long or short vowel.
25. A shut syllable ends with a consonant, and is most
commonly short.
26. A syllable cannot begin with two consonants : foreign
words commencing so are transcribed by Arabs with an additional
vowel, thus franks becomes ff'j^] Europeans pronounced col-
loquially faranj or farang.
27. A syllable cannot end with two consonants, except c-wlJLj
bi -1 waqfi. in pause, which ought to be made only when required
by sense, but which is really more frequent ; as ^U^ tlisJk.4J \ ^
.Skii^ ' (compare Elementary Arabic : First reading hook, page rv^
top line) to Sim lelong the dominion and the praise, witness also
the Moslem credo phonetically written ^iX^ 5 <l1J1 31 <l11 il
<UJ\ (jy^j and pronounced la'ilah : 'illallah : wa muhamma-
durrasulullah There is no god lut God and Muhammad is His apostle.
Pauses are not readily marked by stops (comma, colon, etc.)
when a language is written in the Arabic character.
Note. This rule is hardly operative in speech, as case-endings
are so frequently dropped : throughout Arabia the proper name
.A J tij ^JA is pronounced ibrrashid by badawin (bedouins) : the
accusative is most often heard, as ^C^y^ marhaban (see § 435 h a)
welcome pronounced in pause marhaba (see § 8).
19
28. The accent will not occasion difficulty to Englishmen who ac-
quire pronunciation of Arabic consonants by reading the Coran aloud
after a Moslem : it is designed to ensure grammatical accuracy ;
thus ^.;I« I (see Elementary Arabic. First reading hook, page n
bottom line) is pronounced yusabbihu for fear of saying yusabbihu.
Colloquial accentuation differs with the locality; thus ^a li..^%
^-lj\ mu^tafa -Uahi chosen of God is muQtafa in Syria and in
Egypt mug^afa.
32. Numbers were anciently expressed by letters whose nu-
merical value may be learnt in the following order jJ-S ^r^rl
4_Jii Jo£^ L::--lJ-i ^JcixJs ^^f^^ l5"^^ » ^^ consonants, forming
the last two words, being supplementary to the Hebrew and
Aramaic alphabets. The modern figures are
1 r r f c 1 V A 9
1234567890
and they are used in our order, thus ©or 5062.
PART II.
ETYMOLOGY OH THE PAETS OF SPEECH.
33. Verbs are mostly triliteral (containing three radical letters)
but some are quadriliteral.
34. From the first or ground-form are derived other forms ex-
pressing modifications of the idea conveyed by the first (see § 369
Table III).
35. The forms of the triliteral verb are fiiteen, as follows :
JJxJl XIII Jjciii], X (J^^l ^11 Jj^i IV Jje i
JJiie!, XIV jUiJ. XI Jx;il viii Jx&J v Jli ii
^^IlxJl. XV J^3*^l XII Jj6\ IX JxUj* VI Jili III
Eem. a. The 3rd pers. sing. masc. Perf., being the simplest
form of the verb, is used as paradigm, but for shortness sake we
render it into English by the infinitive ; thus ll^ to tcound instead
of he has wounded.
36. The first form is generally transitive or intransitive in
signification, according to the vowel which accompanies its second
radical.
21
37. The second radical's vowel is a in most transitive verbs,
as (JIj^ to heat ; and some intransitive, as S^j to go the right way,
38. Yowel i in similar position generally shows an intransitive
signification, u invariably : the i indicating what is temporary or
accidental, as >Lj to he safe ; whilst u (meaning rarely to become
what one was not before, as i«Jl-i> to hecome nohle) indicates
a permanent state or inherent quality, as ^ChI^ to he heautiful.
40. The second form ^Jxi is in meaning intensive or extensive.
Originally it implies an act done with force, during long, by
a number, or repeatedly ; as ij^ J^ ^ to hold CS>.^!*J^ to hold tight,
ykS to cover up, ignore '^Jl^ to efface, J-^ to separate J-^ to divide
into several pieces, ^^ to mochy^ to subject, treat as ahject, u-j^
to turn, shift uJJI.^ the same but of several objects, ^ W 'i to cut
^JaJs to mangle, ,JJL: to kill J^ to massacre, c^^^ to crucify
iJi^Xa the same of many.
41. Not less usual is the secondary signification, verbs in-
transitive in the first form becoming transitive in the second ; as
^tJ to he strong ^y^ to strengthen, encourage, L::>^■j^3 to spring
forth ^.v -^ ts > to plant or sow, /♦^P>- to he unlawful 11>- to forhid,
J-*J and^t} to perish J^ J andj^<3 to destroy, and those transitive
in the first, causative ; as li J to rememher Cj J to remind, ^—^
to reach, attain j--^ to hring, C^j^ to he near <Sj^ to hring near,
22
yij to discover Jj^ to explain, l1jX£ to abstain iljSS to restrain
by punishment.
Rem. b. This form is often declarative or estimative, as (SjSS
to lie 4^ Jo to call one a liar, ,^iixJa to tell the truth , v^A^ to think
that one tells the truth, believe one, J^i to surpass J-*^ to regard
as superior, favour.
Rem. c. This form is very frequently denominative, i.e. derived
from a noun; as JJu to substitute from fj"^ something given or
received in exchange, d!As. 1-Li he said to him tlX^Xc il-i {peace be
M^ow M^^), iJo to speah with from iLi speech, LlJ ^o inform from
LU w^w;s (perhaps originally something which has etnerged or arisen),
JJJ^ to shade from J.^ shadow, y^a to fashion from ^^^^ an image,
,^i^ to praise from LlX^l-isaJo (/ declare) Thy perfection (see
§ 435 a), ^^ to write the letter n-iin from ^J n.
Note. 'jj-:c (which generally means he disciplined, chastized, con-
strained by punishment) in the exceptional sense he helped may
possibly be a denominative from the Hebrew 'ezer help (see
I Samuel vii. 12). The noun does not occur in Arabic with that
signification.
43. The third form Jxb implies
(a) the effort or attempt to perform an act which the first form
denotes as immediately affecting an object, the idea of reciprocity
23
being sometimes added ; as c^^Jwi to overcome «Jl^Lc to try to
overcome, jucj to promise Juc|^ to fix time and place for execution of
a promise, appoint with, \Sxs- to receive ^J^^ to receive from each
other, give mutually,
(J) This form sometimes governs directly, not without the idea
of reciprocity, when the first or fourth form governs its object by
help of a preposition, as <U JU he said to him something <U^\-9
he conversed with him, j^Ua.XwJlJ\ J| ijJ^j\ he sent fa message) to
the Sultan ^UaJwlJl ^^-^u he interchanged messages, corresponded,
with the Sultan.
{c) When JJti denotes a quality or state, J^U indicates
affecting a person by the quality or bringing him into the state,
as ^y!t*^ to he good or Tcind iSJ^\S^ he treated him kindly, "JkJ and
A-*J to lead a comfortable life <U*-£u he found him means of doing so,
clX to he submissive ^jU^ to continue in compliance.
Rem. a. This form is sometimes denominative, as cjLcLtf to
double, multiply from c-cJl^ the like or equal.
Rem. c. In Coran vii, 1 34 L)jjL:>- may be rendered TFe caused
to pass.
Note. The form of the verb CJj^^ he blessed may be due to
Hebrew, from which it is most probably derived.
45. The /owrM form JJLii is factitive or causative; verbs in-
24
transitive in the first form becoming transitive, as li-i to he safe
Jj^l to preserve, ^j^^ to he public ^T^-^i to publish, JjJ to descend
jj Lj I to send down, '^ji- to he drowned jj^ \ to cause to drown, IJ
^0 he finished IJ] to finish, 1m to live agreeably IJuf] to bless, ^J.^
to he lawful J^i to make lawful, ^j=>- to come forth ^^-^i io
produce, Cv-au-s to he spoilt ju.,1j' to commit disorders, j^Ji to ex-
perience damage o J ^ ^o hurt, jS'j to be on one^s guard jSJ\ to warn,
cijU <o <?t« (-l^Ul ^0 (?a?<s^ to die, JJ> to err J-^ 1 to lead into error,
CS>lS to perish iS^Ji^] to destroy, ^Jj\ to come ^ \ to bring, cli
to be lost cL^I to abandon, ^/^f^ to live ^j^^\ to bring to life,
li^-^-^nJj to rejoice at another'' s trouble lh-^.^^ \ to make so to rejoice,
cU^ to he submissive 1^Jis\ to obey, <J!^^ for ^.S-^S^^to be an object
of love c-l^l to love, i.e. treat as an object of love, :2^ to be good
t '^ ? . . '' . ^
:2^\ to make good, do good, follow right action, (J-aJ> to be expended
(^\ to expend, c^ to he empty c^i to empty by pouring out ; and
verbs transitive in the first form becoming doubly transitive, as
Jci-<3 ^0 ^0 into ,^S^^\ to cause to enter, . -diJ to meet ^ ^\ to throw,
clJ>._J ^0 inherit ^-^jy to cause to inherit, ^J» to guard J^\ to tnake
to guard, \1^£. to receive . Jds:.] to give, \:>~j to hope for ^J^j^ to put
off, ^ to plough ^\ to make prosper, ^!^^J^\ c^K he saw the thing
^\J!L}\ i\j\ he showed him the thing, j^-4^ ^^ cover, conceal ,,*A>-f.l
to cause to cover, LL^ to guard, observe )a\^\ to encompass, com-
prehend.
25
Rem. a. "When both the second and fourth forms of a verb are
causative they have in some cases different significations, in others
the same ; as ;^I-^ to know lJu£ to teach ll-^i to inform^ La^ to
escape ^^ and j«^i to deliver, j^jl ^o ^«Ve ear to, ^Cjj] and ^j J 1
to cause people to listen, announce, declare.
Rem. h. The fourth form, like the second, is sometimes de-
clarative or estimative ; as X^uj>. to praise S^A-si- \ to esteem praise-
worthy, ^\ to he faithful ^\ to find trustworthy, believe.
Rem. c. This form is often denominative, as J^iJi to lear fruit
from^;*J fruit, %~Lj1 to speah eloquently from cUciLj eloquence,
^■Cu X- \ to act well from ^mS^ good, beautiful, *\Jii\ to do ill from
*yli evil, Ua-ri-l to err from Lk^ a blunder, fault, c^i ^o jwfl^e
haste from <)Lc^ promptitude, l-Lijl ^o ^«rw Moslem from 5^1
Islam, 1^\ to remain in a place from iliU flJo(?^,^l ^o conceal from
Jj^ a secret, i^'^^ to lend from (j<3^ a loan, J^ji ^o «^<? from
^}y^j « message, 1^ ^ ^o 5(? guilty from ij^^ « crime. There is
another class of denominatives, as /i^\ to enter the sacred territory
from £p>- holy place, (J!i*Ld \ to become penniless from ^J^SJ a copper
coin (pi. (^^-^ and j^^Jji), J^l ^o become destitute fromj^ traw^
(vulg. 'auz), ^jlj^ to become plain horn ^^ evident, /^X^\ to become
possible from (joU a place.
26
Rem. d. Instead of ^ , A is prefixed (as in Hebrew) to a few-
verbs, which are treated as quadriliteral (see § 67) ; thus ^^b
for ^^y to pour out. Of this sort is c^L» Iring for CL^\ from
^\ to come.
Note. Besides the above we must note ,<-^5 ^^^ Li^J^ ^^^^
meaning to inspire, suggest ; jU ^o 3e a Joy^ jli \ to recover from
illness or a swoon \ jV^l to wish cannot be derived from 6\j im-
mediately ; (Sj\j^ to rush down as water t-PL^! to direct the course
of something expressly at, hit the marh whence the commoner
meaning to overtah, befall ; and J-J which means in Hebrew to he
light in weight whence Ji \ to treat as light, carry easily.
^''".^
47. The^i^A form <Jxftj is reflexive of the second, being (as are
the next following forms) called c^Ua-4 a verb the grammatical
agent of which complies with, i.e. receives the effect of, tlie action of
the verh to which it is reflexive ; as '^S to exalt '^Sj to he proud,
^J^ to show ^^_5^-^ io make oneself manifest, ^jJl to announce
jj J U to declare ohligatory on oneself, ^lA? to make a bird fly y^\
to draw an omen concerning oneself irom the flight of birds, IS J to
remind j^ jj to hecome reminded of, ^Jj to cause to come up to ^-iy
of God, to take to Himself, J>^ to make someone else to he one's
wakil i.e. a person left alone, an agent J-i^ to trust oneself to an
27
agent who is fully empowered to act on one's behalf, ^V\ a^'^ he
^M^ htm f another J in charge of the matter ^"^S ^y^ he took charge
of the matter himself.
Rem. I. "We have also jJ-Jj to he near or beside ^J to turn one^s
side or hack to another ^c^'^ to turn aside. In case of fj-^ to
make humble supplication, earnestness is denoted by the doubled
middle radical and self -advantage by the prefixed CL> in comparison
with c^ to he humble. Further we observe w— o-ft.) he caught up,
". ^ "i
swallowed, what was cast to him L,o-.tL) to cast a thing to another
person to he seized and swallowed i^JuiJJ similar in sense to ^-(i, c, 1
but with the idea added of taking for one's own advantage.
48. By way of secondary meaning we have the effective i e.
■{3 C ^
expressing effect, as ^^J to make distinct ^^ to appear clear,
^jjs. to give a verb a transitive signification ,^1>m to he transitive.
50. The sixth form J^iliJ is connected with the third : it may
sometimes be reflexive, but is more often reciprocal, as <Uu»\J he
fought with him iULLJ the two fought with one another, ^jjl-c to help
^C)jUj to help one another.
Rem. a. When used of God LLijjLlJ and (JL*J illustrate the
reflexive force of this form : <UJ\ CSySJ God has made Himself
most blessed, <OJl ^'jo God has exalted Himself above all.
28
Rem. c. This form is appropriate to actions that take place hit
hy hit, as \sl:^ to fall kjjl^ to fall one hy one (as leaves).
Note. From ^Ui to cheat jT^jIc would mean (if it existed) of two
persons that one cheated the other and ^}^J^ of many, reciprocally,
r- ol <■ ''
that they cheated one another whence ^^LxJ general deception.
52. The seventh form JJuftJ]. is originally in certain ways re-
flexive of the first, and appr6aches to a passive, heing sometimes
effective, as Jl^ to make flow ^^--sajl to gush, -LMi to cut ^Josj\
to he cut off, to he ended, to end, i^U to change (active) LlJjul to
he changed, translated as by death.
53. This form may imply that a person allows of an act being
done to himself, as^^ to dragt^\ to let oneself he dragged.
55. The eighth form Jjt^j. is reflexive of the first, as Jkj>.j to
take i\.ss^\ to take for oneself, ^JJ to guard j<-^l to guard oneself,
fear, j\^ to obtain goodj\5J>A to take to oneself that which seems good,
choose, ^j,jL> to punish 1 fi v. m to avenge oneself, ijcc to go beyond and
leave behind ^<l£.xl to do so for one's own evil ends, transgress con-
sciously, \JL^ to he pure and clear ^Ji Vi^\ to take to oneself that which
t« pure and clear, ^J to cut out, manufacture ujF/-^i io do so for
one's own evil purpose, to forge lies.
29
56. Occasionally, like the sixth form, it is reciprocal, as ^Xj
to meet ^jji;.)]. and \^lj they met one another.
57. Sometimes we find it passive, especially in verbs wanting
the seventh form, as ^^jCb to direct tJ<^Jci>). to he directed aright.
Rem. a. In many verbs this form agrees nearly in meaning with
the first, as ^C-J and ^^\ to follow.
59. The ninth form JJe], and the eleventh Jtxj], chiefly express
colours or defects.
61. The tenth form JjL&jJi]. is often reflexive of the fourth, as
Uii-1 to Iring to life, preserve alive Ui^Uil to save alive for one's own
advantage, ^^^^\ to make rich ^JLxjlJc). to make oneself independent,
Jj\ to cause to remain ^AS:J:Ji to stand firm, ^iJi to make stand tip-
right l\jS^\ to hold oneself upright, c\Jb\ to comply with a command
cl-kiril. to he ahle (i.e. to ohey oneself), l^^%^I to cause fear Cl^y^\
to call forth fear of oneself.
62. This form may indicate a belief that some thing or person
possesses the quality expressed by the first, as C-i^ to he great
J 1 .v,". ^] to he puffed up with pride, i— cju? to he weak ujiJLdjJil to
find weak, despise.
30
63. This form very frequently means asking or seeking what is
indicated by the first, as ^J^ to give drink 'i ..^. !; t] to ask for
drink, ^ to pardon yj6^\ to oak pardon.
65. This form is sometimes denominative, as j^jLLsX^J, to appoint
as successor, deputy or caliph from <LiJj>> successor.
Note. ^ ^:«^4 to ask help may be derived from ^jl-i! to help or,
better still, called a denominative of ^^ help,
66. The remaining forms of the triliteral verb are too unusual
to require notice here.
67. Quadriliteral verbs are formed {a) by repeating a biliteral
root, as Ji^ to gargle ; (J) by adding a fourth letter, as lal^ and
loj^yS^ to shave the head ; {c) as denominatives from nouns, often
foreign, thus ^j^ to put on <-^j^ stockings ; or (<?) from certain
common f ormulaB, as ^JJiJ^^ to sag ^JjT aJIuJ .
68. There are three derived forms of the quadriliteral verb ;
particulars of which will be found in § 369 Table lY.
Jliel IV Jiii^l III jfiu; II Ji«3 I
31
73. Nearly all verbal forms, primitive and derivative, have two
voices, the active and the passive ; but we must often translate the
latter impersonally, as L^^JljI tJ k-L^ a falling took place (or, an
onslaught was made) upon their hands, i.e. they bit their fingers
for disappointment.
75. "We speak of neuter verbs, meaning those which express
a state or condition, as 1>1>- to be wise, but Arab grammarians
reckon them as active, distinguishing between ^LjjJaAJl JULiVl
transitive verbs and XJjJtl^jT IIj: JULsVI intransitive verbs or
<LJi\^\ JLxJVl verbs that are confined to the subject.
77. An Arabic verb has two States, the Perfect indicating
a finished act, and the Imperfect an act that is just commencing
or in progress.
Rem. a. Acquaintance with grammar will teach how to employ
these States in explaining the temporal relations (past, present,
and future) which non-semitic languages express by tenses.
79. There are five moods : the Indicative which is common to
the perfect and imperfect states ; the Subjunctive, and Jussive (or
Conditional) which are restricted to the imperfect ; the Imperative
which is expressed by a special form ; and the Energetic which
can be derived from the imperfect and from the imperative.
32
80. By way of Infinitives we have nomina actionis or verbi
nouns expressing the action or quality (see § 195). In place of
participles two verbal adjectives are used ; tlie one denoting the
agent — nomen agentis, and the other the patient — nomen patientis
(see § 229).
81. There are three numbers, Singular, Dual, and Plural;
likewise three persons. The genders are two, Masculine and
Feminine; but distinction cannot in all cases be made, as J^i
I say where the speaker's sex is not disclosed.
83. Verbs are called strong when the three radical letters are
retained throughout and undergo no change.
Eem. To contain \, ^ or ^5 causes a verb to be called weah (see
§ 126) ; but verbs in which the second and third radicals are
identical (see § 120) we shall call strong.
Note. Students must spare no pains to learn the conjugations
found in § 369 Tables I, II and III; otherwise they will find
the weak verbs difficult to impossibility.
84. The numbers, persons, and genders of the verbs are ex-
pressed by means of personal pronouns, annexed to the various
moods and states. These may be connected, i.e. prefixed or
33
suffixed, in which case they are to be learned from the con-
jugations (see § 369) ; or they may be separate.
89. The following table gives such separate pronouns as ex-
press the nominative : —
SiNQFLAB.
Masculine. Common. Feminine.
3rd person ^ A« .... ^.& nhe
2nd ,, \.:l^\ thou .... l^i thou
1st „ ... bi / ...
Dual.
3rd ,, ... Ujb they two . . .
2nd ,, ... u::ji ye two . . .
Plueal.
3rd „ ''^ they .... ^ii they
f^\ y^ .... ^^1 ye
we
p^%
2nd „
1st „ ... '^
Rem. c. For the older forms la and X^ 1 see § 20 d.
Note. In § 185 are given pronominal suffixes expressing the
accusative, and the dependent in § 317.
90. The 3rd pers. sing. masc. perfect of the ground form (see
§ 35 rem. a) bears fathah always on the first and third radicals.
3
34
91. When the middle radical of the perfect has fathah it must
take either dammah or kasrah in the imperfect ; as J-laj io he
worthless (J-^j , cl/^ to strike lLjj^I which we write J-ixj —
and <4^ — -A-lso ^^^ jL to dwell, jLi> J- io he thankful,
l-Ui -— io do wrong, injure, ip(j-^ ^r to construct, JJLc -^
to understand, J^XLi J- to he impious, (J.^ ±. to shake, wave,
clj—-to pull out, j^ -L to assist, ^*J^^SJ _L to hreak a promise.
Many verbs admit of both forms; as (Jmj3 to study, (J*jj^, and
(jw^ ju which we shorten into (Jw/j6 -^, also i^^^t -^, io keep
Sahlath, c-ciLc ^ to cling.
Bem. a. Verbs of which the second or third radical is a
guttural, (either \, — , ^, c, c, or a) may be exceptional; as
c-!-^ jL. to send, Jjcp- -^ to make, place, ^(-^^ -^ to collect,
\JLs>^ ^ io he driven away, {jJ^j — to he the head of, -iCj —
to swim, ^js^ jL. io turn, fascinate, enchant, (J-xJ^ — to strike
with lightning, ,^r**^ ^l to pardon, ^^ -^ io make, ^J — to
open, Jie .^ io do, ^-^ -^ to cut, J^j — io overcome, '.^f**^ ^.
to supersede, iranscrihe, i^^ jl. to counsel, y^ ^- of water to flow,
^y ji. toforhid. Many however conform to the rule ; as jo-l J-
to take, seize, ^JJ J^ to reach, (js>^j J- io enter, ^fTj-r to
return, IcJ J- to assert. Some verbs have more than one form ;
as «_jj -^ to take a fourth part, J^ 1- to he good, 9^ — to
he vacant.
35
!N'oTE. As paradigm we use Jx9 -^.
92. "When the second radical of the perfect has kasrah, the
imperfect bears fathah ; as k-^ .n to he vain, 15-^^ -^ to do
wrong, sin, ^S^j -^ to fear, <U^ ji. to he light-witted, Cx^^ jL
to testify, ^-^--^^^ — io consort with, (Jj^ — to swoon, ytJc jl.
^0 he small, ^-^ -^ ^0 desire, cJ^^sf _i. ^0 wonder, J-sr^ ^ ^0
hasten, J-^ ^ ^0 M'or^, Ia^ ^:. to enjoin, covenant.
Eem. Exceptions are rare, as \j**>-^, -^ to he in distress or
poverty, j.*j. ^ Z. to he present, and ci^L^ to die for lU^
(see § 157) which usually makes <^y^^ but sometimes Cl?l^
93. When the middle radical of the perfect has dammah the
imperfect bears the same, as ti^J^ 1- to he had, <UJj J- to he
light-witted, jL^,-ij _f_ to testify, yCa J- to he small, ^^ J- to he
great, JiS _£_ to he numerous, l^J _!_ to he intelligent,
95. The indicative of the imperfect is distinguished by dammah
on the third radical, as J>-i^.^ he is ignorant ; the subjunctive by
fathah, as (>v?C> ^^^ the^wweV^ by sukun, as J-^^ssr.
96. A termination ^ of the indicative is only retained in the
subjunctive and jussive when required as mark of gender ;
otherwise it and ^ arc rejected.
36
97. The energetics are formed from the jussive by adding
^— or (^-^ (subject to certain variations to be learnt from
the paradigms in § 369) thus, ?j^Jt^,, he mil certainly send
from c^^iuj jussive of
98. The imperative is formed by substituting a prosthetic
vowel for the prefix of the jussive' s 2nd sing. : when the
second radical bears fathah or kasrah this vowel is kasrah, and
when dammah it is dammah ; thus, (Jji^\ maJce, i^j' ^^^^
merci/ upon, fc— cAiJ. remove, Jj^l he just, l^^^X^^ calm thyself,
ij^,^] seek ; and similarly with the feminine.
Rem. a. Concerning prosthetic vowels see § 19 r. c.
Rem. h. Fathah is never so employed.
99. The same remarks apply to the energetic forms of the
imperative as to those of the imperfect.
•
100. From active States the passive are distinguished by
altered vowels (see § 369 Table II) on the first and second
radicals.
Rem. It makes no difference what characteristic vowels are
employed in the active voice.
101. Instead of a passive imperative the jussive is used.
37
102. The derived formi of strong verbs must be learned from
§ 369 Table III ; attention being at an early stage confined
to the first seven and the tenth form, i.e. neglecting the
ninth, eleventh and following.
107. The relation of passive to active will be found analagous
to that in the ground form.
Kem. a. The imperfect passive of the first and fourth forms
are identical.
111. When the verbal root begins with CL?, 'Jlj, ^, J, J,
J ' U^ ' lJ** ' u^ ' U^' ^ or li* the characteristic d^ of the
Jlfth and sixth forms may lose its vowel and form a double
letter with the first radical, to which when necessary a pros-
thetic 'alif and kasrah must be added ; as J^-kT ^h\ to draw
an omen concerning oneself for 2^2^ J^bj, kjjl^ kJiLjl to fall
one ly one for IojIISj kilw.
112. The Ll^ of the fifth and sixth forms is sometimes
omitted from those persons of the imperfect active to which
LlJ is prefixed; as L-iJUJ she swallows for c-ttJUaJ,^Jj she
becomes reminded o/for jJJcJ or IJJJ (see § 111).
115. If the first radical be lU or (^Ij, characteristic cu of
the eighth form unites with the initial ^ZJ into lzj and with
initial ciJ into ui^? or Cj ; as w^\ he followed for %^f\'
38
117. If the first radical be ^^ ^, \s or 1^, characteristic
CLi is changed into 1? ; as d^^^fcb^l, / chose from U^— (see
§ 55) and not Lii^^Ai^l.
120. Verbs with the middle radical doubled are conjugated
in § 369 Tables Y a and b : they differ from other strong
verbs in two ways.
(a) When both the initial and final radicals have vowels the
middle rejects its vowel and becomes with the final a double
letter bearing tashdid ; as J^ JL to cover, k>- ^ of a burden
to put down, ^J>- -^ to be fitting, ^^ -— to fall down, lL> J JL
to pound, Q<^ ■;r- io ^^ abased, ^ ~ to be avaricious, JJj _ _ to
be severe, ^ _L to think, J-£ -^ to be potent, Ji .i- to insert.
(5) If the initial radical is without a vowel g,nd the final
has one, then the middle radical throws its vowel to the
initial and becomes with the final a double letter; as cL5^*Jo
for Ll^bo, Jij for JI^, jsT for j^^r : but if the final
radical be vowelless, no contraction is possible ; as l"^^cU^
JJJlj , iaiass^ ; this must be specially noted in the perfect of
verbs like •^^^ to love for ^Jl-^i>. which makes t^ ^^/.-^ and
like j^^^ ^0 touch for (JL»m^ which makes \jL;JLu^.
39
126. Verbs are called weak when one of the three radical
letters is subject to transformation or rejection.
128. Verbs with ^ or ^^ for a radical are unmistakeably
weak, more so than those called hamzated.
X
129. Verbs may be doubly weak: and even trebly, as c^ji —
to resort to imperf. j^^Ij impera. y\.
130. Hamzated verbs fall into three classes according as
hamzah serves for first, second or third radical : they are con-
jugated in § 369, Tables VI to VIII, differing from strong
verbs in the following ways.
k
131. The 'alif with hamzah and sukun \ preceded by dammah
becomes J, as ^y*y* believer for ^^l preceded by kasrah *,
as d-^Jiari- / have done wrong for CL^ Ikri- .
132. It is said by some that ^ and ^ represent sounds to-
wards which hamzah is inclined by the preceding vowel.
Rem. h. Instances occur like vij J^l we were hurt for w^j 1 ,
and i^jol. give ear for !^^\, ^r^.l come for c^Jl. (see § 175):
but in imperatives following • or t-J the connective 'alif is
rejected while hamzah with sukun remains; thus t^li so then
come.
40
133. Similarly 1 becomes J if preceded by fathali, as (j^pJ
to he brave not (Jjw v > ' becomes A if preceded by fathah, as
^J[wJj to he in distress not ij^^ ', ^ becomes J if preceded by
dammal>^ as c^-^'rj^ ^ teacher not <^^* ; ^ becomes I if pre-
ceded by kasrah, as cLj'Jj (plural of Lf^t> ^^oZ/") not (4^Uj;
1 becomes A if preceded by dammah, as JaIs he was asked
not JUj.
Eem. At the end of a word 1 stands after fathah, thus
1^^ A^ r^a<?8 but ^J^^ ^« r^a^s «Y.
134. At the beginning of a syllable preceded by a consonant
with sukun \ becomes J , as (jwj4^ imperfect of (J^jj not {J^ Uj ;
and \ becomes A as, not (^^ but ^Jl4t*d which and (J^^Uo
are imperfects of (J1*-Aj.
13/). If 'alif of prolongation follows radical \ at a word's
I
beginning we write 1 or 1* or even \ (sefe § 23) as y*\ to
consult for ^^U ; and so when radical \ follows !, as c-cJjl to
?wff^« ^r/tfr^ for l-c<^1 i .
137, The verbs Jk=»-1— to take y*\-^ to order and Jil —
^0 «fl^ make in the imperative J^ci- , ^ and Ji .
138. The imperative J.^ may when following J or uJ recover
its first radical, but not so Jo^ or J>i ; thus y%Y^ ^^^5 ^^*
41
<■ ^ *
139. In the eighth form of Jci^l its first radical becomes
• . "^ ■^ "i %
assimilated to CIJ, thus S=^\ to take for oneself-, this occurs
with a few other verbs.
140. Loss of hamzah occasionally takes place and we have
jLJ Jli for JLi-^ to ask.
141. Weak verhs specially so called, likewise fall into three
classes according as ^ ox ^ is the first, the second, or the
third radical.
142. Verbs with ^ as initial radical (see § 369 Table IX),
which have kasrah for characteristic vowel of the imperfect
and imperative, reject ^ in those forms. Thus JjJ to hear
children imperf. J^^, impera. jJ ; JlcJ to promise imperf. 5^,
impera. s\& ; 6^^ to find imperf. i^rsT , impera. asj- ; ^^^'^ to
fix a time imperf. l::-^, impera. L::--i' ; J^^j to leave alone im-
perf. Jxj, impera. Ji ; liij to warn imperf. lixT, impera. lie.
Eem. a. A few verbs having (contrary to § 92) kasrah in
the perfect and imperfect lose their initial radical, as ^JJ'^ to
trust Ji4?. » ^^Jl ^^ inherit ^^J^^y ^"^ to he near ,J>j^.
143. But verbs with ^ as initial radical, which have fathah
4
42
or dammah for characteristic vowel of the imperfect and im-
perative, retain ^ in those forms ; as /\^j to doze imperf . ^r^}j, ,
impera. j^^-ijl for ^^j\, Jj^ ^^ ^^ unwholesome imperf. jJ-j^,
impera. Jj^K
144. In certain verbs initial ^ drops from the imperfect and
imperative notwithstanding that fathah is the characteristic
vowel of these forms; as .Jj to leave jSj^ and jJ, w^J to be
spacious 4.^ and ^J^, ^Jj to put %^^ and ^-i, ^^ to fall
%Jij and iLS.
Eem. J. jJj is not used in the perfect.
145. If initial ^ be vowelless, a preceding kasrah or dammah
changes it into ^ or ^ of prolongation as may be seen in
§ 143 with the imperatives of ^^ and JjJ.
146. Yerbs with ^^ as initial radical are inflected almost like
strong verbs, thus jAuio J^^ to he easy (see § 369 Table IX).
147. But if initial ^ be vowelless, a preceding kasrah or
dammah changes it into i^ or ^ of prolongation ; thus the im-
perative of yCJ^ is ^mA for y>*s\ and the fourth form is
i
J^^ y^\ to he at ease.
148. In the eighth form ^ and ^ are assimilated to the
characteristic CLJ producing li^, as ^J^\ to fear for i^^jl-
43
149. Verbs with ^ or ^^ as middle radical are conjugated in
§ 369 Tables X to XIII : they differ from strong verbs only
in the first, fourth, seventh, eighth and tenth forms.
150. In case the initial radical is without a vowel and the
final has one, the vowel of the middle radical passes to the
first and we employ a letter of prolongation homogeneous to
the vowel which the first radical has now assumed; as
with form JAij <— ^J^ becomes uJ^paj i of (^iJb -^ to circle
'• w?^
c;i-^.
" c;f.^ ^ "
^\o — lujuuye
>, cH:
-i^.
^^ I M
uJl:^ ^ ^0 /^ar
do.
J?^:
j^ I M
JU ji ^0 r^acA
.. J^
9^<^ 9
' ^^. ^ "
ib-1 ^0<?^iC^
„ J*St
i?; .
J^\ IV „
j\i _L ^0 oJ^flm
do.
t^( >
^^1 IV „
^U _- to he lost
.. J*^.
iA'
Jrl'M I^ '»
^^^JLto taste
„ Ji^l
Y)^\
, |;^l X „
^Xi _L to stand
„ J*ki;.
i-^ll^J ,
, c^Ja^: X „
djlb — to he good
151. But if the final radical has sukun, the long vowels
\ ^ a, u/ -^ *•' J — ^ become short, according to § 25 ; as
44
o o
with form J^tftJ Jj^^ becomes ysj i of y^ -L to go round
ir I ,, uJl:^--^ to fear
^}^.. I
jU _ ^0 increase
Jjl IV ,, JI3 J- to my
Note. "We have ^y^^ ^^ «^*?^ certainly he from ^Jo (see § 97)
jussive of ^JO JL ^0 i« : the letter of prolongation must reappear
in obedience to § 150.
152. It follows that the first form's imperative needs no
prosthetic 'alif; thus
with form Jjti^ ^^\ becomes ^ from ^^ J- tale
,, lJ*'! Jrr^^l >> J^ »» j^*^ -r ^^ become
153. If three open syllables follow in immediate suc-
cession the first of which has fathah, then 'alif of prolongation
takes the middle radical's place; as
45
with form Jie Jjy becomes Ju i of JU _L ^o «^«w^
„ do. c^-4^ ,, <4^li I ,, cl-?ui __ to be absent
>y J** '^y >* 6o I ,, 6o ^ to be on the point of
J^ Jjb „ JlL I „ Jl^ ^ ^0 be Img
,, jxsu\ ^y^\ ,, jUjI VII „ Jli _L ^0 f?nv«
154. But if the first syllable's vowel be dammafii, and j or
t^ bear kasrah, we discard dammah taking kasrah into its
place, and adopt ^ of prolongation instead of the middle
radical ; as
with form J^ Jy becomes J-i passive of Jli -i. to my.
155. If the first radical has fathah and the third sukun, three
cases arise.
{a) The middle radical is ^ or i^ with fathah ; when we
discard it and its vowel, placing, if it was ^, dammah on the
first radical, and kasrah if it was ^ : as
with form Lii^^lxj lh-v^uS becomes i^i-v^i from 115 Z. to stand
„ do. cL^^i „ c^ „ '^—togo
(5) The middle radical is ^ with dtammE^ or ^ with kasrah ;
when we discard it and its vowel, but we place a vowel
homogeneous to it upon the first radical: as
46
with form Liu^ij^j iXoji becomes iz^Xjb from Jli? -^ to he long
,, cilxj cLXj „ L^Jj „ Jl3 ^ <o reach
(e) The middle radical is ^ with kasrah ; when we discard
it and its vowel, placing kasrah on the first radical: as
with form l:lJ^ Li^^ri- becomes d^aS- from uJ\:>^ — to fear
„ do. (j:--Jy« ,, l::^v« „ cl^U _£_ ^o ai«
156. In certain passive forms the ^^ of prolongation is
shortened into kasrah, when the third radical bears sukun ; as
l:: -^-o^^ (for (-::-^2>) becomes ci-^J ^Aom (masc.) wait judged.
157. Most verbs with j as middle radical take dammah in
the imperfect, and most with ^ take kasrah ; but some of
the form J^ take fathah. Thus
Cii> for ^^ to he on the point of makes 5l2j for ^y^
|;l5 „ jiy ^0 sleep „ ^^ „ ^jiJ
• ** " **
"We have mentioned (§ 92, rem.) ci-jU for d?^ ^o <f«V.
47
164. Verbs with ^ or ^^^ as final radical are conjugated in
§ 369 Tables XIY to XVIII : tbey are of five kinds ;—
(i) Final ^ \ ^ ^ isi.s \j^ tohe near for y3
I of form Jxj I
(ii) „ v/ ) \ „ ^Jo seek „ ^jij
(iii) »» ^ ) ^ ^ i ,, ^j to he pleased „ jJJ
(i'^) » c^ ) I » L<4-^ ^^ cortfr, envelope
(v) ,, ^ ,, (Jxi „ y>^ to he intelligent, prudent
165. One of three things must happen: the final radical
retains its consonantal power, or resolves itself into a vowel,
or is elided.
166. At the beginning of a syllable two things are possible.
{a) The third radical maintains its power as a consonant,
in \J -^ awa as V^ they two (masc.) were disohedient
„ b -^ ay a „ ^J-4" ^^y ^^^ (masc.) rewarded
,, j_L uwa ,, yJ^ he may try
,, !j_L uwa ,, j^^5^ they two {masc.) condone
,, sj-^ iya „ -^fS he was hlind
,, Ij— iya ,, Liji they two {masc.) were rich ;
48
also "when following sukun, as j!Xc a transgressing, ^\^% grace,
favour (see § 212 a). The letter^ '^^i^r ^^^ ^^^ ^^ 1jt~ ^^^
always becomes ^ , as jj4r/ ^^ ^^'^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ 5^ • "^^^ letter 4_^
is never found in ^1- uya or in Ij -L uya.
(J) The third radical is elided between a short vowel and
1 or u : this involves contraction
(i) either into a long vowel; namely
*^ _L uwu into ^ ^ u as ^^^^ they (masc.) call for ^Jys.'^Sj^
^^ iyu „ ^ -£- u „ ijjj^ they {masc.)pw „ ij^^.
^^^-Luwi „ ^5— - i ,, j^^-j>-y ^Aem (fern.) Ao/?d5^ „ ^,^j^
i5-:>^riy^ ,, 4_f — ^ i ,, fUfA^j thou (iem.) givest drink ,, /^^^&^j>
(ii) or into a diphthong; namely
»^ JL. awu into J jL au as ^ii-tf> ^A^y (masc.) were clear for l.lic>
^ ^ ayu ,, J j^ an ,, Ijy ^^^y (masc.)/orJa(?^ ,, 1^^
^.riayi ,, i^jnai ,, ^jLllJ <Aom (fem.)/or^^^^e«^ ,, ^^--^XLoJ
167. At the end of a syllable the third radical is either
{a) vocalized or (5) elided, whether (i) it stand there naturally
as in CL^^g.r^ / was hidden, or (ii) after losing a short vowel
as in ^J^s^^ he is hidden for ^pJ^,- The following cases arise.
49
a (i) It is vocalized when naturally so placed, as follows
(a) if the preceding vowel be homogeneous
J -£_ uw becomes ^ .£. u as ^-^^-^ J^ w'** prudent
t^— iy >> c/:7- i i> ^^:^^^;Jms. I covered
(b) if the preceding vowel be heterogeneous
J _:! aw becomes j -^ au as Ci^^acr' 7 escaped
J^-i-ay ,, t^_i.ai „ ^^l^'^ I directed
(ii) It is vocalized if so placed by loss of a short vowel, thus
J ^L aw becomes 1 ji. a as \s. to he high for ^JLc
tlf ^ ay „ ^^ a ,, u5j-^ to reward „ ^ij-^
j-£.uw „ ^ _L u ,, ^SJu he transgresses ,, j^j
S^— iy » i^— * '» ^jSj^hecuts „ 4^
J (i) It is elided when naturally so placed in the imperative
and jussive, thus
cb\ call thou (masc.) for ^b\ and cJu for ^bJ
^jI w«^ thou (masc.) ,, ^^1 >, ^^ m i5*t»J
^jl. id thou content (masc.) ,, ,c*^l >> «^;^ >> LS*^
(ii) It is elided when so placed in the nomina agentis (see
§ 80) before tanwln of dammah and kasrah, which vowels
disappear, while the tanwin passes back to kasrah of the
second radical; thus
50
with forma JxU and JxIj j-^li become ^li a striker
„ J*X^ „ J*^ i^^ »» C^^ ^ thrower
So with all the first eight forms and tenth (see §§ 236, 311).
Note. The distinction in a ii between the final syllables of
L: for ^ and (j^rT ^^^ S^^rT ^^ mechanical and not phonetic.
169. Final ^ becomes ^ in all derived forms of the verb, thus
II 4^^, III i^Oli, IV ^J^\» V u/^, VI ^\^f VII ,J^\,
VIII c^i3d!cl, etc.
170. To form the nomen patientis Jyta;* (see § 80) of these
verbs, radical ^ coalesces with j of prolongation, as tJ:ji^ struck
with a stick for ^^.JsC^ , ^^^ ^r*g<? for ^y^ ; but radical t,^
converts j of prolongation into ^ and the two coalesce, with
kasrah preceding instead of dammah, as tJ^J^ one led aright for
^^jo^. Yerbs like ^j for ^J admit of either form.
171. Doubly weak verbs (see § 129) are of two classes : first
those with both hamzah andj or ^ among their radicals ; and
second those in which j or ^ occurs twice or which contain
J and j^.
51
172. Of the first class there are three sorts, each admitting
two varieties according to the position of hamzah.
(i) Hamzated verbs with initial ^ or t_f
(ii) ,, middle j or ^
(iii) ,, final ^ or ^
173. In sort i hamzah serves as middle or final radical, and
such verbs are inflected like both classes to which they belong.
174. In sort ii hamzah serves {a) for initial radical, as 6\ or
^ % ^- ^^ • I
^\^ for 3ji to fatiffue, Jt or Jt^ for Jjl to return; and (h) for
final radical, as ^Us for *^ to he evil, ^\^ for U:>- to come, *Li»
for ^j<-i» to wish. The following table shows such verbs inflected
like both classes to which they belong.
a
h
Perf. sing. 3rd masc.
6\^
^u
A~^
,11
„ „ 2nd
})
L^bl
c£^,
r->^^
i-li
Imperfect
^
*y^
'Cff~
ilij
Imperative
bi
i^
u
Passive Perfect
^.1
^ 1.
^;<T
'^
Note. We may write CUJi for CUbi in accordance with
175. In sort iii hamzah serves (a) for initial radical, as ^\
to come, ^JjI to he hurt ; and {h) for middle radical, as i^lJ to he
52
far", such verbs arc inflected like both classes to which they
belong, thus
I
^^
a
Perf. sing. 3rd masc. ^\
4^\
„ „ „ fern. u^i
„ „ 2nd masc. (-;:-wl
L^oj!
Imperfect ^^ Ij
u^^^^
Imperative t:;-^!
^i
Nomen agentis Cl>i
■M
'9
Eem. «. In the imperative ^\ has also Cp for Ll-o], and
'J>3\, see § 132 rem. h and § 137.
1 76. From certain parts of t^K-^ hamzated 'alif may be elided :
as (indie, and subj.) ,^y thou (masc.) seest, ^y we see; (subj. and
juss.) \^y they (masc.) see; but (perf.) IjK they (masc.) saw,
Eem. c. Hamzated 'alif is elided from the fourth form when
meaning to show, as^l show thou (masc), ^j\ I show,
177. Of the second class (see § 171) there are two sorts.
178. In sort i ^ or ^^ is the initial and final radical, as ^j -^
to guard, ,c^5 -7 ^^ inspire, ^JJ _- to he faithful to otie's en-
gagement, ^_J to he near (see § 142 rem. a) ; and such verbs
are inflected like both classes to which they belong, thus
53
Perf. sing. 3rd masc.
Ji
^^
„ fern.
^i
^;
„ 2nd masc.
^i
(XvJ;
Imperfect
^
^:
Imperative
vj
J
1 79. In sort ii ^ or j^ is the middle and final radical, as ^^^ _
to go astray, jjy — to he strong, ^^ jl. to he even with, equal to,
<-j^ ji for j^ to live ; and in such verhs the second radical
oes no change : thus
Perf. sing. 3rd masc.
f^
M
^
„ „ „ fern.
^p:
'^j
.-.-..^
,. 2nd masc.
^j^
i^^_^
>f J> *'"^ ilAWUW.
^
Imperfect
^k
^'h
^
Imperative
^i
P\
^''
Rem. a. "We write as above Us^ to distinguish the word from
^^acT John the Baptist and to prevent the union of two ^ ; as
also in ll5 J (not ^^J^) fem. of ^Jbl nearest (see § 295 h).
Eem. b. ^^-j>- may be contracted to ,%>-, see § 120.
182. The verb ^J^ he is not has no imperfect or imperative
and is inflected like verbs with ^ for middle radical : thus
54
3rdm.
3rdf.
2ndm.
2ndf.
Ist
Sing.
J^
.1^
lIuJ
l;^
..Ld
Dual
iiii
Hid
UL^
Ui:;j
Plur.
\^
^
^
liJJ
Rem. a. jj^ is compounded of ^ «o^ and the obsolete (Jl*j or
jIjI existence, heing ; as may be learned in studying Hebrew,
Aramaic, and Assyrian.
183. The verbs of praise and blame are I«3 to he good and Jl^
to he had : they are exclamatory, and when a nominative follows,
it must be defined, as J^**^ 1 jji*i> a ia<? «s«Me «« that!
Rem. a. The verb may be joined to following U, as U«lij
^^y^ay^ Evil have ye wrought in mine absence.
185. The nominative pronouns are mentioned in § 89 and
we give here a table of the pronominal suffixes which follow
verbs in order to express the accusative:
SlNQULAIL.
Masculine. Common. Feminine.
3rd person s him l& her
2nd ,, CS thee CS thee
1st
L^^
55
Dual.
Masculine. Common, Feminine.
3rd ,, Ui> them both
2nd ,, U^ you loth
Plubal.
3rd ,, 1a them ^ them
2nd „ ''^ you ^ you
1st „ U M«
Rem. a. For the dependent case, see § 317.
Rem. I. The dammah of a, UJb, ^Jb, and ^ is changed after
__, t^— -, and ^ -^ into kasrah ; as ^y^j\ Bo thou (masc.) put
him off, i^/J^-J A^ directs them, <fjJ^.r.j, (?o ^Aom (fern.) (?or^r «V.
Rem. <?. For the older forms ^5 — , jJ-J , *i>, and X^ see §
20.
186. An accusative suffix causes change to its verb when
(a) the word ends with a superfluous 'alif (see § 7, rem. a)
which is elided, thus ^jjj^^^l do ye (masc.) beware, but lijjjju>^l
beware of them.
{b) To avoid cacophony we retain in the Perf. pi. 2nd masc.
^ _!_ u which the language employed at an earlier stage, thus
p%^ ye (masc.) have contrived, but iy^^jL^ ye have contrived it.
{e) As mentioned in § 7 rem. c ^ — ^ becomes 1 jI. a.
56
188. Sometimes the pronominal object is expressed by a suffix
attached to the -word \J\ 'lya, which cannot stand alone ; thus
LirLjt thee, but the Ist sing, is jjl^J fne.
189. A pronominal suffix with \3\ is used,
(a) if one desires to avoid attaching two suffixes to the
same verb, as i\^\ Jl-la!c.t or a-JlJa^t he gave it to me: also
to avoid repetition of the governing verb when a pronoun is
connected with a substantive or with a pronominal suffix, as
jjl^lj ^iXifcl or ^-ijLLJJsIJ J^aJ-I!^! thou destroy edst them
and me :
(h) when a pronoun is, for the sake of emphasis, placed
before the verb ; as ,^j^jdLJ:J ^^.,\i '^ ^^\ ^^^^ ^^h ^o
we worship and to Thee alone we cry for help.
1
190. The noun (*^^1 nomen) is of six kinds.
(i) The substantive, mora especially called <^^i : to it ad-
jectives can be attached.
(ii) The adjective, or descriptive epithet.
(iii) The numeral, or noun of number.
(iv) The demonstrative pronoun, or noun of indication.
(v) The conjunctive (relative) pronoun.
57
(vi) The personal pronoun, or substitute for a thing or person
not mentioned.
Kem. a. I^ouns substantive and adjective must be treated
together, they being in form almost identical. We give (iii)
numerals in §§ 318 to 331; (iv and v) demonstrative, con-
junctive, and interrogative pronouns in §§ 338 to 353 : the
(vi) personal pronouns, which have been treated in §§ 84, 89
and 185 to 189, will be mentioned again at § 317.
191. In respect of their origin nouns are divisible into (a)
primitive and {b) derivative.
(a) Primitive nouns are substantives ; as f^j\ earth, l\ mother,
^\jLJ\man, <U\ sign, miracle, message, verse, 5k-Lj country, land,
cPU" gate, ^\ ^.xJ serpent, tj-^^ mountain, 5uu^ a lody, ^^^
a stone, lU^ fish, i^^j head,j3^j plague, J^j ^ man, u^jfoot,
-2 J; spouse, k-iL? grandchild, tribe, J-^ o^i road, j^^ a wall, j^^Ji-uJi
the sun, 'ISJa idol, ijya image, tSSLa frog, ^^^^ deluge, J-%5 calf,
Ua^ a stick, ^^i5 eye, spring of water, iJJU-J ark, ship, ^yjJ monkey,
wfjj heart, J^ moon, f.^ table, J^ night, jU property, *U water
(whence i\J» j1- to be full of water), J^ runnel, rill,j\^ day, 1j
sea, Vyj^ day, iii speech,
ifi) Derivative nouns may be substantives or adjectives; and
are either deverbal, as J-j-^ajJ pre-eminence from J-J-J to regard
58
a* superior, c^^^l lettered, polite from cpJl _£. ^o i^ m?«W
brought up ; or they are denominative, as ij^ a line of bricks,
a chapter from jyi» a wall, JLsOm*^ Christian from .^wJ^Jl the
anointed, Christ.
Rem. a. Arabic dictionaries catalogue words under their radical
letters ; those compiled by Orientals are mostly arranged in order
of the final, and by Europeans of the initial radical. All place
first the verb, even though it be derivative and a noun its etymon
{i.e. an original, primitive, or root word). To distinguish may be
difficult ; but any noun which is used as ma9dar (see § 195) will
best be considered de verbal : thus t_>J| a falsehood besides being
a substantive is infinitive of lLOI — to beguile, cause to put on
a false appearance which has also the infinitive cl>-ii . Lane*
gives js^^ sea, great river, because it is cleft or trenched in the
earth, as derivative of J-acT jl. to split ; whereas most will consider
sea to be a primitive noun. It is well to regard substantives of
foreign origin as* etymons ; thus, &V^ wag from via strata, i%^
tort, kind horn 761/0? genus, is\jySJ\ the Old Testament, J-*js:^V\
the Gospel from eva^f^eXiov, C"-^ ^,,.m^ Sabbath, J^t^ seat etc. etc.
Also we have ^j.^\xl \ (plural, oblique case) the mundane rational
creatures (see § 302 e). Words which Arabs admit to be borrowed
are called by them <4-»^ arabicized.
• An Arabic-English Lexicon by E. W. Lane. London: WiUiams and
Norgate, 1863 to 1893.
59
Kem. h. Arab grammarians unmethodically divide the nouns
into categories which overlap.
Note. The following defective substantives are primitive nouns ;
^\ brother, 1^\ name, ^J hlood, iSJ^ year, <UL1 language, Jo hand.
Many nouns may be called either de verbal or primitive ; thus, <L0i
a village, %r^j wind, La^ a star, SJJ a child, and Jj.;* according to
origin manna or grace, favour.
192. Deverbal nouns are divisible into two principal classes;
(i) nomina verbi which are by nature substantives, but serve
as adjectives (see § 195) ;
(ii) nomina agentis and nomina patientis which by nature
are adjectives, but serve as substantives (see § 230).
193. The following four sorts of deverbal nouns are con-
nected with the nomina verbi ;
(i) nomina vicis, that express the doing of an action once;
(ii) nomina speciei, nouns of kind and manner;
(iii) nomina loci et temporis, nouns of time and place (see
§ 221) ;
(iv) nomina instrumenti, denoting the instrument (see § 228).
194. Denominative nouns are divisible into six classes:
(i) nomen unitatis, denoting the individual (see § 246) ;
60
(ii) nomen abundantifle, denoting a place of abundance ;
(iii) nomen vasis, denoting a vessel {i\£^);
(iv) nomen relativum, which we shall call the relative ad-
jective (seQ § 249) ;
(v) nomen abstractum qnalitatis, the abstract noun of quality;
(vi) nomen deminutivum, the diminutive.
195. The nomina verbi are deverbal nouns, abstract and con-
crete. The former (known as JjL^-^ ma9adir, plural of^C\„>^ ^
ma^dar source) are infinitives ; the latter are substantives pure and
simple. When a noun is ma9dar it cannot be used in the plural,
and according to some grammarians (see § 292 d) is of either
gender : in such case it nearly corresponds with the English
infinitive and can govern an accusative, which obviously may not
be when it appears as a simple substantive. The following verse
uses dJ\S^ in both ways.
I wrote {it) and I felt sure at the time of writing it
That my hand would perish and its {the hand^s) writing remain.
196. Nomina verbi from the groundform of triliteral verbs are
very numerous. The following specimens will serve our present
purpose.
61
fJsJ as
3d
SjJ
9 Dje
11 liki
12 £1X3
23 1^1^
25 ^3Ui
26 jUi
27 JUj
28 IJUj
29 lilxi
32 Jy^
37 ^x3
38 1L*5
40 J*!;;
Ji:>- creation^ *^^ « ^^tn^.
j^j^ /r««7 ^oo(?«, jU. «^a^e (see § 207 «).
liarv. guarding, 5^ i3 religion, judgement,
s si
(—5^ top-knot, ^ eovetousness,
4^aS> guidance (see § 212 J).
<Uo:^j mercy, <UiJ^j convulsion.
&Sjm^ a boon,
3 < O • «j^-<'
fLs^**^ ^ea?^, <L)Jb canopy,
^^bJJ criterion, j^lji reading.
dilj delivery, JuJ mischief, JiL? ^rror.
Lplic chastisement, *UJ meeting,
j^^ lowing.
2(C>^-1 testimony.
aLSA>. caliphate, <Uil3 resurrection.
J^j message, apostle.
JU3 prophet (see § 1 7 J rem. J).
<ti^ evidence, <UJL.^ «?«7.
L-^ returning, issue.
62
42 £lxU as &5r^ love (see § 204).
43 SlxsJi ,, i^y* admonition, iijS!k^ excuse.
NoTB. The forms numbered 40 to 43 commence with ^ ma :
Bucli are called /^-^--^ j*
197. Most verbs have only one nomen verbi, and very few
more than two or three apiece ; exact information must be
obtained from dictionaries, but the following notes seem
desirable.
198. "No. 1 is from transitive verbs of form JjLs and (J-*-9 ;
thus, J>-1 reward, ^\ command, %-X^ assemlly, 5Ji^ praise,
^^iLs> posterity/, JJ^ patience, J^ breast, ^j^ throne^ jJ^
covenant, ^Jo'J loan, Sji plot, f^foA) diminution.
Ko. 2 is from intransitive verbs of form J-*J ; thus, 5J!
perpetuity, Ji:>- 1 fixed term, £-^ desire, v^^.^fr anger. Exceptional
is (JXc work, being from a transitive verb (see § 92).
No. 4 has jjJI permission, J^J admonition, ZsT^ sorcery, iLc
9eience,yi\ burden.
No. 6 has 5^J true direction, ^^ e!;j7, lI^I^ dominion.
No. 8 has iiJL^ a garden by which the ground is covered, from
-L to cover.
No. 11 has <Lk^ unloading, ajj ignominy.
63
No. 12 has iX\ a course of acting, one course which people follow in
religion, people of a particular religion and so a nation, a people.
Ko. 26 has *4?ll^ writing, a hook, ujl^ the contrary, and <U|
a god which however may he etymon of <U 1 to adore.
No. 27 expresses sounds, as in the instance given above, viz.
j^y>- lowing.
No. 29 expresses office etc., as iiS^ the office of tJLJL:>^ caliph,
<Lj^j governorship, province.
No. 37 has by formJ-*A-j herald, ^^ protector, and «ui^ a fool
which are akin to nomina agentis and may he taken as adjectives
of the form J-j*i .
No. 38 has <t ^«n"^ sin, also written a;.^l7'<. .
199. If a verb has two or three meanings, to be distinguished
by characteristic vowels, there may be one or more nouns for each ;
thus, (LiJCt knowledge and j^lJJjLc spiritual insight from *— ^^ -^ to
know ; also <^Kf to become i^~&^^ over a people from uJC-c -L to he
chief, ^^jujj. meaning soothsayer or chief-, further we find i ij£
sweet smell from uJ^ ^l to scent perfume.
200. If a verb has more meanings than forms there may be
several nouns in correspondence ; thus jLJlJ^ a pair and aLil-Aj*
intercession from «»&^ -tl to double and to intercede.
G4
201. The abstract nouns are used both in an active and a passive
sense, as wX^ sense of hearing and what is heard from Vl ^ .i^i ^-
to hear.
202. The following are some nouns from derived forms of the
strong triliteral verb.
II Jtr*^ as i^tf^ exposition.
HI ISj&. „
<tlJU^ ^/or^ ^0 overcome.
IV JlilM „
f.fc| ^oorf ordering.
cJl*iJ abasement.
VI Jill; „
^yu over-reaching.
VII jUi^i „
cp^'l transition.
VIII Jl^il „
il%3l^ vengeance.
X ;3i^l „
JU-Lxl'5. ^Atf «(;^ o/ a«Z;my ^
Note. As -will be seen from its meaning, the substantive
«Jl»i*\£ punishment is connected with the second form, viz. <^s£
to punish (see § 41).
204. Kouns derived from verbs with the middle radical doubled
observe the rules in § 120; thus ^ fetter for jli, (J^ truth
for JA^, C^;^ powder for Cl^3, lLj lord for tf^J, lis^
love for
65
205. Nouns from hamzated verbs observe the rules in §§ 131
to 135.
206. Yerbs treated in §§ 142 and 144 with ^ as first radical
may drop it from the noun and then they add i?_i. by way of
compensation : thus, from w^-ij %— >^j to put down we have %^^
s ^ , '
position and fL*J humiliation ; while from tXxT JccJ to promise we
have both Ss.^ and i3^ which mean a promising.
Note. We find the substantive <l1«j drowsiness as well as the
infinitive ^j a sleeping from J^J ^o «?^^j? which makes ^f;^^
in the imperfect (see § 143).
207. Nouns from verbs with j or j^ as middle radical observe
the rules in §§ 150 etc.
S ^ S X
(a) Those of the form JJt^ remain unchanged, as uJj^ fear^
cf^ the hidden, J^ pri%e, Jy> saying, Vyi slumber. Those like
it ^ s . s
J^iLi follow § 153, as JL>- state, condition for J^^. Those
S o
like J'**^ follow § 150, as J--a^ returning, issue ior ^..Ja^.
{h) If ^ be preceded by kasrah it mostly becomes ^ ; as
iXl3 resurrection for <^lj3 (see § 6 rem. a) for <U^^ , <U-i ^rw*
for <U^ , both from lla ^2_ ^o stand.
{c) In the fourth and tenth forms the second radical is elided,
its vowel passing back to the first, and i .n being added to the
word's end; thus iS\j\ wish for •J^£?!» <ul3b^l appeal for help
instead of ^^^c^^.
6
66
212. Nouns from verbs with ^ or ,^ as Jlnal radical experience
assimilation into J^* in the form Jwx-i if ^ be the second and
^^ the third radical, thus ^^ error for ^y: ; but we find j
in *jL5 force for <Ljy of form <U*i. "When the middle radical
is strong the following rules hold.
(a) The third radical is retained if the second bears sukun,
as ^sJS^ an ornament iy-^J an invocation ^i'^J^ hiding (see § 166 a).
{h) Nouns of the forms Jxi, JJLs, and jJLs are usually
written with final ^, which is quiescent, while tanwin falls upon
the second radical's fathah ; thus ^JUb guidance for ^:xJb.
Sometimes radical ^ is written ^ , as also in primitive nouns,
thus l^ a stick for ^^ .
{e) Nouns of the form aJuxJ with ^ as final radical may end in
i) jLf as il^ for ayJa (see § 7 rem. d, and compare § 294 rem. a).
{d) Nouns of the forms jUi , JU| and jUi change the final
radical into hamzah, as ^Jl^ trial for ^Ij, *\a>^ heaven for JU-is,
JuJ meeting for ^UJ , Sli^ receptacle for £f Ic^ .
221 . Nouns of ^««« anrf place are formed from the imperfect
active of a verb's ground form by substituting 1 for its prefix:
the second radical bears fath^, if fathah or dammah be cha-
racteristic of the imperfect, but kasrah if kasrah. Thus, <4-yi
to drink, makes lLj^^ whence (^^m* drinking place, ^JL^
67
to lorite di&l whence <^Ji^ place of writingy school, JjJ to
descend JjJIj whence Jij-^ halting place, j:i^ to proceed Ji^
whence jjijc^ the place ichence anything proceeds (see § 195).
Rem. a. A noun of time and place is called i^"^ pJ^.
Rem. b. A few nouns take kasrah irregularly, as Jusr"**^ place of
prostration, a mosque, /Jy-i*^ time or place of rising, the east, C-?/^
place of setting, the west, WiJL'^ place where anything falls.
222. I^ouns of time and place from verbs with j or ^^ as
initial radical have kasrah in the second syllable and always
retain the first radical ; thus *Xci^ time or place of appointment
from S£^ to promise (see § 142), ^-f}^ « P^cice where anything
is put down, a place from ^^J to put (see § 144).
223. Those from verbs with^ or ^ as middle radical experience
change in accordance with § 150, thus ,^uU place of existence
for 1^3^ ^^®°^ ^ ^^ ^^' exist,
224. Those from verbs with • or ,^ as final radical always
have fathah (notwithstanding § 221) in the second syllable and
they suffer the contraction explained in § 212 b; thus, ^c^^
place of refuge for ^^^1^ for J^v^ from IsT _£_ to escape.
226. Some nouns of time and place from verbs with j or ^^
as initial radical take the form J^*r^ (see § 228) ; as llj\L^
appointed time or place from l::--J« __ to fix a time, t)!--^ time of
68
birth from IjJ« to bear a child. In both these examples ^_f
replaces ^ according to § 145.
228. Nouns of instrument denote the intransitive agent and take
the form J*ft^ , J '^^ ®^ <Ll*i^ ; as ,JiJi^ and ^»-2JU a ^^y from
,^v_j_:L ^0 (jpw. Initial J becomes (^ as in § 226, thus S^^^
a covenant from j;-^ —- ^o trust.
229. "We have already mentioned in § 80 the nomen agentis
and nomen patientis ; they are deverbal adjectives often used
as substantives.
s ^
230. In the ground form nomina agentis are like J-clJ
and nomina patientis like Jy^ : thus L^li a writer^ clerk
cl>^l^ written, script from Cl^ ^ to write ; ujljU possessor
djpji^ oz^7w^<^ from lIXIj* ~^ to possess ; uJ,l-^ a discerner
4— Jj^P«^ recognized, approved from uJ^ — ^o ^«ot^ ; Ji?lj t'«m,
worthless ; ^If owe «^^o attains ; jJli owe w?Ao s^y* Zow^, alides ;
I^^Uj manifest; fr^l^ ^eow«, ^Aa^ «;AieA w nyA^; IJl^ owe w?Ao
/:wow?«, a scholar ; ^\i owe t<?Ao ignores God^s benefits, an unbeliever ;
Aji intransitive ; ^Vj falling.
Note. Used in diverse senses we find cf^^^L^ companion ;
thus eJjiJ^ ^4-^^ ^^^ companion of the fish i.e. Jonah, (J^:>^U
^Ul Me rte^m of fire. As regards nomina patientis, we have
mentioned in § 73 the impersonal manner in which passive verbs
69
must often be translated, and shall treat of X^!*-J^ iljy^LxAJ]
the objects of anger in § 533.
232. From the ground form there are other devcrbal ad-
jectives of which the following are specimens.
1 . Jji3 as J^« ea8y,y^r^ good, excellent (see § 242 Note 1 ).
2. Jjti ,, ^y**^ good, beautiful.
3. J*3 ,, ^^aJ\ afflicted, Sp scanty, (JsCo thunder-
struck, swooning.
11. J^*i ,, %-rr^^ painful, L*.,^j seeing, %^^^ wise,
l.^.Lc clement, f^.^r^ well acquainted,
^jJ^ prompt, Uj£ powerful, Jj^ able.
12. Jytj ,, j^ grateful, j^ii forgiving.
13. jjiljti ,, ^jll.^ angry.
14. ^iUci ,, (^L^^a-J merciful (probably a borrowed
word).
16. J*!s! „ f^\ white, ^^\ all {see § 537).
Note 1. We use No. 16 to express colours and defects.
Rem. c. When derived from transitive verbs ^J^ may have
a passive sense ; as i^^^ urged on, swift, (Jm^a^ fitting, 5^-^^
praiseworthy, Jt> Jk-i> severe, J^ slain, J-*^- treated with kuhl.
Note 2. Much of the Coran is almost in the nature of rhymed
prose, wherein ^^ — may rhyme with ^,-^, j^ — ^i^h j— -
etc., but the rules are more lax than in classical rhymed prose ;
for instance ^f^^j mereifulf ft» Ijr mighty^ t^SS skilful, etc. are
nsed to rhyme with ^^;-^ manifest, ^jJ^\^ gatherers, ^jJ\^
losers, ^J^i^^^J merciful, ^^J^lJi prostrating, ^j^j^^Li^ Moslems,
^jl^^^ thankful, jjrjJ^l^ truthful, ^„y^ contemptible, ^^^--jJUs
wrongdoers, j^.^^ those who pardon, ^-^S^ neglectors, ^^j^^
victors, ^--J-«»li impious, ^j«1aIJ subduers, ^^^p^lj beholders, and
the like.
233. Adjectives of form jLlJ are intensive, as from J-J^
s $
a«X-iwy we have Jli^ importunate, a beggar.
Rem. a. We use this form to indicate occupations, as ( jV^
a money-changer, {^\Xi a low-maker, cavass.
Rem. b. There are other intensive adjectives, as %^ everlasting.
234. The elative, J^.^ict 11 iii], ^A(9 wown of pre-eminence, is of
form J^l as ^f^-i^l mor« or most beautiful.
Rem. o. TVTien superlative these adjectives must have the article
as /^jVi the most merciful, or be in construct state (see § 475)
as ]»iji^l most of them, and if feminine (see § 295 b) are of form
^^^^ as ^JJlJ^^ <uiL)l the most gracious word.
235. No elative should be derived from adjectives which have
already the form Jxil, thus the comparative of (^'^\ white is
LtfW J^l stronger as to whiteness : but elatives are sometimes
formed, though contrary to strict rule, from the derived forms
of verbs.
r
71
236. In the derived forms we have nomina agentis, as ii cf^iAJt^
chasttzer, %*s^ explanatory, commentator ; iii c^\A2^ continuing in
compliance ; iv jij^ g^Hty, ^j^*>^^ well doer, ^J-r^^ one who puts
to rights, 3uu-&-^ transgressor, 12:^ prosperous; v LLTpsrL^ in
motion; vi ajlAl^ uniform i.e. part resembling part, J-jLLi4
faci?ig each other ; vii t^.V s, \ .% one who reverts ; viii iX£JuA
avenger ; x %ScJL^ haughty : and nomina patientis, as ii JJ^J*
destroyed, ^^***^ held in subjection, J-Ju^ separated, cL/Jii^ brought
near ; in JiU^ ; iv ^^xL^ disapproved ; v J,*li^ etc.
237. Adjectives derived from verbs with the middle radical
doubled observe the rules in §120; thus J up erring for JJw?,
^^\ stronger or mo«^ strong iov b1iJ^\, 1^ o«« m'Ao perfects for
238. Adjectives from hamzated ^erhs observe the rules in §§ 131
to 135 ; thus J4^ o^^ ^^o ^*^* iiot JlU, i,/-^ grievous not
lAW» (j^i^ believer not ^fj^^ •
Rem. a. Preceded by kasrah i becomes ^ as fcj?jl5 reader not
240. Nomina agentis from verbs of the first form with ^ or o
as middle radical substitute for that letter ^ (i.e. hamzah and
kursiy, see § 16) ; thus 1j Us flying, a bird, evil omen from Jll? -^
to fly and not i->Dc> .
72
241. Nomina patientis from verbs of the first form with^ or ^5
as middle radical, in case of ^ elide it and throw back its vowel
to the first radical ; thus t_Jj^ to he feared for w-3^^.s=r* : but
in case of ^_f its elision must be marked by substituting kasrah
for 4ammah, and then ^ of prolongation becomes ^ \ thus ^,^
one %oho reeeivea recompense for ^^,^ •
Rem. Sometimes we find an uncontracted form, as ^^<3u^
a debtor,
242. Adjectives of form J--^ from verbs with j or ^^^ as
middle radical become J^ and sometimes JlJ : thus, for ^ ■.* * h
from i^\jo -^ we have v-f--^ good^ sound, agreeable ; for j?t--o
from ^ — is ^f^ evident ; for ^^y^ from * Lj ^ is */^ wiched ;
for v,::^;^ from d^U _L is J*::-^ ^^ac?, and for its opposite ^g-»-*^
from J^ ^ (supposing ^.^.C rabbinical) we have ^^^ living ;
also forJl»-j>. from jUi- __ isjljlr^ excellent.
Note 1. In § 232 is to be found ^^^ under form ^jJ : it is
from j\s>^ __ ^0 c^oo«^ and means to be cAo«^» whence the elative
[j^j^i^ choosable rather than, better than : its opposite JJ-l bad,
worse is also used as elative.
Note 2. We may consider IliJ and j^.p (see § 196 No. 88)
as substantives derived from the adjectives ^f and * ^^ .
243. Adjectives from the derived forms of verbs with ^ ot ^
as middle radical follow the rules of their Imperfects, as ^j.^
73
manifest like ^f^ iv of (^ — to he distinct, d^--^ that which
strikes home like <l.\*'nl iv of Ll;U> J- (see § 45 Note), J-JLiiJ«
straight like i-i.^J^ x of lljj _L ^o «^a»<f.
Note 1. For <<^^«^4 ^0^ « 5/om' that hits we find <^^;^>5i^ which
we may render a mischance.
Note 2. Be it observed that the nomina agentis and patientis
of Perm vii are identical, and so with Form viii.
244. We have treated in § 167 ^ ii the nomina agentis of
verbs with ^ or ^_f as Jlnal radical and the nomina patientis in
§ 170, which last section gives rules applicable to adjectives
of forms J^ and J--«J ; thus ji^ hostile, an enemy for J«^ ,
JU^ high, sublime for ^-i£, jU^i rich, self-sufficing for (%i^ .
Note. In the Coran ^5lc is sometimes a collective noun.
245. Adjectives, whose second radical bears fathah, from verbs
with (^ or ^ (which we now write ^j) as final radical, reject
their final vowel.
{a) If triptote (see § 308) tanwin is transferred to the second
radical (compare § 212 i) ; thus jc^^J^ given nomen patientis iv
of lii^ for jl^.
(i) If diptote there is only the vowel to reject ; thus ^y
letter or lest pleased for y£>y\ .
246. Nomina unitatis nouns of individuality specify one from
a genus or one part of a whole, being formed by adding i _i.
6
74
to the. collective noun (see §§ 292 a, 306 rem.). Thus, J^Jj
one head of cattle {ox or cow : JjJ is usual for a hull) from JJLj
eattUj i^A^ a fruit from ^ fruit, 'iS^^ a grasshopper, locust
from 5V^, h\^ a cloud from (4»ls^, (for Vj^ see § 191 h),
iJLa an error (by some considered nomen verbi, see § 196 Ko. 28)
from ji-i , l^tiki fl c/ow(f from ^Ui, ii^ a /ow«e from J^ fe,
XJl^ a night from J^ tzi^A^.
Note. We find also ir^-li a quail from ^55^
249. The relative adjective is formed by adding o — to the
word from which it is derived, and denotes some thing or person
connected therewith. Thus, /%*Xi> solar from ^jlXiJl the sun,
o^ lunar fromj^ ?woo», /V^^ Arabian from tljJxJl ^^^ Arabs,
t^.j \.Ol English from L-L^ll ^Ad English collectively.
250. But the derivatives cannot always be formed so simply :
certain terminations are rejected, and other changes arise. Thus
iL; Mecca ^^, 1^1 (see § 198 m. 12) ^\ illiterate, IxJ^l
Medina ^^^, ^yiJ:J^\ the Moslems ^^jl^, and the Prophet's
it" i ^ ^
tribe (j^^ makes /Uiy •
289. Nouns substantive must in gender be masculine, feminine,
or common, for there is no neuter.
290. Nouns are said to be feminine {a) by signification, or
(i) by form ; as,
75
s^ s ^
(a) l\ a mother, J^-%^ «» old woman, ijjpi Mary, ^^ an eye,
^ a hand.
Rem. Masculine are \J*i\j a head, and <J«^j a face.
(J) ^[^-Aj an ox or co2^, *j^ o> chapter, dj^ a garden, ^^-^^
good news.
Rem. a few nouns ending in if ^ are masculine because only
used of males, as <uUj:^ caliph.
291. Certain nouns are feminine only by usage; as ^jo\\ the
earth, j\ii a mansion, -sT;. wind, jJl^X-uJl the sun, \^^ a stick, ^J»Ju
the soul, self, Ju fire.
292. Many are said to be masculine by form and feminine by
signification : together with others, these are of common gender ;
thus,
(fl) Collective nouns which form nomen unitatis (see § 246)
chiefly denoting animals and plants : but ^^^^ quail is usually
masculine.
(5) Collective nouns denoting rational beings and not forming
nomen unitatis, as c-oLn^ posterity, *)U« chieftains, ^iJi ones people
or tribe. But JJsl and Jl one^s family are masculine only.
{d) Deverbal nouns when infinitives (ma^adir, see § 195).
{e) "Words regarded as such. But ^ to he is feminine, as
is^\^J\ QS the complete kdna (see § 441) : so also usually are
76
particles, a^^dj'^'-^^ c^^ ^^^ '^^ which with its verb is equivalent
to a magdar (see § 415 « rem. a), h'^^jjJlX^ \ ^\ the explicative ''an
(see § 367 e\ £y;l)T^^ the conditional Hn (see § 367/), tilSf ^|
the negative 'in (see § 362 h).
(/) Certain nouns among which are the following ; y^,
a human being, humankind, JL^- state, J. ^■*-*^i road, %VX^ heaven,
x>\^ a way, t^X^J a ship, J-iJ night, tlilL^ dominion, tJ«XJb
293. From most adjectives and some substantives of the mascu-
line gender, feminines are formed ending in S -^ , t^ -^, or *1 ^- .
Rem. Of these i _:_ is appended without further change, but
feminines in ^^ ^ and ^1 j1- are distinct in .form from the
masculine.
294. The most usual termination is s jL. ; thus, ^^\ (for
^^Vl) latter, last ly>^\ , ^\^ present ^l-rC, 5^ monkey ii^^i
she-monkey, ^^Jj» Meccan ^^Sj*,
Rem. a. A dropped radical may be replaced, as il^ from *U«ui
^^flF^n (see § 212 d) : but t'lJK.^,^ (for lllia.^) from ^^ak,^^
chosen.
Rem. J. if .1. (see end of § 2 and § 8 rem. a) is a compromise in
orthography between the old pausal form ii s. , and CL5 _i. which
we find in \j:^a^j mercy, l::-*/*!? «/7orrf for the more modem tXs>-j
and X^K.
77
295. Feminines ending in. ^ ^ are derived,
(a) from adjectives of form ^jJlxJ which make (Jii, as ^l^^*^
angrj/ ^J^ ;
(J) from adjectives of form JjLil when superlative (being
defined by the article or following noun, see § 234 rem. a) in
which case the feminine is ,Jots ; as, /^Xur»-V 1 <Ae w^os^ beautiful
^J>^\y j^bVl ^/^^ w^flm^ ^--^J^l (see § 179 rem. a), JJL^ VJ the
largest ^\ ^^ \ ijj^ the largest of the cities.
Rem. h. The feminine of JjV 1 (for J^JVl or J^tVl) ^Ae/rs^
(see § 328) is ^^Vi, and that of y>.i (for jri-\l) other, another
is iJjsA .
296. Feminines ending in *T ^i. are derived from adjectives of
form (Jxil which are not elatives, as ^j^\ white ^l^dJlJ, %-4^1
«ZZ *\xX^. There are feminines which have no masculine, as
^Ujic most Arab which should come (irregularly, being elative)
from 4^i.
297. All adjectives do not invariably employ their feminine
forms, and some few have none. Only let the meaning be clear
and there may be a laxity as regards form : thus,
(a) J^ti is of both genders when active in signification and
attached to a singular substantive, as j^-j^ (J^j ^ grateful man
f X ■5*'
and j^-^^ ^\P*l ^ grateful woman ; also when active in meaning
and predicate to a substantive or pronoun in the singular, as
J^JLij •^ she is grateful, ^jyy£> ^C^^i^ I tho^ight her patient. If
however no substantive or pronoun be expressed we must, in
order to make our meaning clear, employ tbe feminine form ^^ ,
as bj^J^ *^^}j ^ saw^ a grateful woman, i^^X^ i^ \j^ he has not
a she-camel to carry loads : also, this is required when the adjective
is passive by signification, as djJ^s>^ dji\j <fJ \^ he has not a she-camel
to milk i.e. to be milked.
Note. Being only used of (jodi j^ forgiving has no feminine.
Rem. a. Exceptions are to be found, as ^^ hostile, an enemy
fern. i|i^.
(J) Jw^3 is of both genders when passive in signification and
s ^ si
attached to a singular substantive, as 4J---2JJ i^y^\ a slain woman ;
also when passive in meaning and predicate to a substantive or
pronoun in the singular, as ^^^^.tJ- ^^ she is swift, iSf^ ,ji^ ^
the eye is treated with huhl. But if no substantive or pronoun be
expressed we must, in order to make our meaning clear, employ
<LLxi , as «U-^ ^^^,}j I saw a slain woman : also, this is required
when the adjective is active by signification ; whether transitive,
as <U-i^ ^U^l a skilful woman, ^"^^j-^ J>?^ ^^ experienced old
woman ; or intransitive, as ^J^ fTj a powerful wind.
Rem. Exceptions are to be found in either case ; as aJJtiJ \ iSSb
ij^0;AS^ this way of acting is praiseworthy, and on the other hand
<^„/ ^^ tUo-JJ the mercy of God is near.
(c) Similar peculiarities are to be remarked in certain others.
Note. Adjectives of form ^Jxjl when comparative are of common
gender.
79
Kem. h. Adjectives applicable to females only, do not usually
form a feminine, as jJlJt? c^i \ thou (fern.) art divorced because
a wife cannot say (JlJ^ <-^ i •
298. Nouns have (like verbs, see § 81) three numbers, the
singular, dual, and plural.
299. A dual is formed by adding ^ ^. to the singular after
elision of the final vowel or tan win ; as Jla^ sea ^jss^^, <U«i
a nation ,^}6^\ .
Eem. h. If the singular ends in quiescent <^, or 1 which was j,
the original letter may be restored ; as l^ a staff ^y^ .
Rem. e. If the third radical has been elided before 'i in the
singular, it is not restored ; thus, <L*J a language for iliJ makes
300. There are two kinds of plurals.
(a) That which, having only a single form, is called pluralis
sanus, the sound or perfect plural.
(J)) That which, having various forms, is called pluralis fractus,
the broken plural ; being more or less altered from the singular.
301. The pluralis sanus of masculine nouns is formed by adding
^^ JL to the singular (see § 308), as^u a conqueror ^-j^U, 3ul£
a worshipper ^j^Jul^. The pluralis sanus of feminine nouns is
formed by writing C-?' ^- for a — when they have that termination
in the singular, or when without it by adding llj\ — ; as <Uj1^
80
a boon <2?liul^, t^ a fruit (lj\jU^ , 1^ ffood cbl^, ,^\^j
the month of ramaddn c:J\JL=^j.
Rem. a. If the singular ends in 'alif maqgurah (see § 7 rem. h)
with or without tanwin (see § 245), as ^J^^^ chosen for ^^ia^ ,
XtS higher, highest for /J^^ ) or in kasrah with tanwin (see
§ 167 J ii), as >£ blind for ^^,^^Jl^ one who invents lies for
jj^lfi^, ^jSA (f^POM^ (see § 148) for ^^^^-^ ; or in quiescent ^
preceded by kasrah (see § 314 rem. b), as j<^l the blind {man)
for /<-^JtJl : then § 166 J must be obeyed in the forming of
plurals. Thus,
Nominative ^j^&kiaA u}^^ U^^ ^yr^
£ y 9 '\ i^ 9 y 9\^ \ y 9 y y^ 9 "^ ?
tor jj^^<jin*a^ jj^^^J^l ^^j--4>i: j^^^^iix^
Oblique iTj^^J^ i;;^^^ j^T?^ (Irrlr^
for ^r^--ik^ ^r^-Ji! ^^;-^ dr?:'^
The singular of -.^JtJl illustrates § 167 a ii in changing from
^ — iy to ^ — i, and the plural differs nothing from that of j^£.
see § 314 rem. a. Of feminines we may note JL*d^ angry
cLA:p.r , ^^J^\ the greatest ii^J^'l (see § 303 b).
Rem. b. Feminine substantives with sukun to the middle radical
may undergo change ; as ^^j\ the earth C-jl-^l , <Lj^ a village
Rem. c. a final radical dropped as in § 212 c must reappear;
thus i\j^ prayer ULj\ySj^ , "i^sSua^ (feminine of JiSxh^) chosen
cL?UiiL^ (see § 294 rem. a).
81
Rem. d. A final radical dropped before i jl sometimes re-
appears, as <i1Cj a year L:D\yJ^ and CJ^SIIj ; but il^ a hundred
for a^w« makes c£?ll^ (see § 325 rem. a).
Rem. e. "We have mentioned in § 294 rem. a s^y^ heaven whicb
makes d^iJuJ^ and (JD\yi>^ (see § 6 rem. a).
302. The pluralis sanus masculine is formed from : —
{a) Certain diminutives and proper names.
(h) Deverbal adjectives which form their feminines by adding
i _^ , as Ju? erring ^jpl-2 .
{c) Adjectives of form Jjcsl which are elatives, as ^\ more or
most numerous ^jjj-^ \ : also the corroboratives of J^ viz. iL^«^ \
all etc. making ^IjyC^] etc.
{d) The relative adjectives (see § 249) as 3y^, (irregularly
from^jo a desert) a hadawi ^j^^^j badawin {bedouins).
(e) A few words, among which are ^\ a son (for ^^Jj) J;^,
p}\S one of the four classes of created beings ^y^\£ (see § 191
rem. a), ^ J owner (see § 340 rem. c), etc.
Rem. a. It must be specially noted that adjectives have the
pluralis sanus masculine only when joined to substantives, ex-
pressed or understood, denoting rational creatures.
Rem. h. From substantives and adjectives that have the pluralis
sanus masculine there may be formed a pluralis fractus, especially
from adjectives used substantively.
82
Rem. e. Certain numerals given in § 323 have the form of
pluralis sanns masculine.
Rem. d. Some feminine nouns in i —, especially those from
which the final radical {s , ^, or ^) has been elided, form
a pluralis sanus masculine, the termination i ^ disappearing ;
as <Cl^ a year ^j^, oblique case ^j^^-
303. The pluralis sanus feminine is formed from : —
(a) All nouns ending in i^-, as aUl-^-^ message cuilLi.,
^J\ a sign ci^^J.
Rem. Some grammarians express this rule less comprehensively.
{h) Peminine adjectives, the masculine gender of which has
a pluralis sanus, as C->liUj^ believing {women) from ^y*-
{c) Names of the letters and months, as well as certain other
nouns.
304. The following are forms of pluralis fractus, from triliteral
roots, numbered as in the Grammar of Professor Wright.
J^ 25.
^hi 19.
J^! 13.
^t 7.
S 9
J4i 1.
2^' 26.
nj6 20.
:)U3i 14.
jUi 8.
Jii 2.
2jUi 27.
'LxjI 21.
iLei 15.
fui 9.
JJ^3.
^ 28.
Jjd 22.
J^l^i 16.
Hxi 10.
J« 4.
Jii 29.
JU* 23.
JjUi 17.
lUi 11.
Olii 5.
JUi 24.
^fej 18.
ijjLJ 12.
jyb' 6.
83
In the next table an example of, at least, one noun (substantive
or adjective) appears to each plural, but space forbids us to attempt
illustrating each singular form.
1. l^ plural of IISJ Jii hji iLo
si is
^\ a nation ^-^1, bjye a form jyo .
2. J^ plural of Jxi! njj JUl ^iUi ^Ui ^If Ij as
j^Jljl w;A«Y« j_/io (for ^,/io).
3. ^ plural of Jlx3 ^3^ J^ lJ^ Ar« J^ J^ "j^
<U*i Jxs JjcJ Jxli as
<4^ll^ a Joo^ «*r^ ' Jy^ ** message, messenger^ apostle J^ •
Rem. In nearly all cases the form JJLi is admissible, as
Jl-4^ a herald JJ^ .
4. J*i plural of lixi Jlxi tiki as
iUosj>- a maxim ^i^.
5. jIUi plural of J^ [j^ JX« Hki iJj^ £)jj Jxi £i^
J^ 11*3 JXs ^iki ^h6 iiixl Ot?*^' Jf^ as
c-i^J a f^o//" cf^Uj, irj « M;m(? f.lj^, i^ a/rM»^ ^^>
J^J a man J^^, (Jt?f^ ^^'^t'y J^J*
Rem. *UJ is plural of i\JJi^\ a woman (see § 305 rem. e).
84
6. ^^ plural of t3«^ ^ ^' Jju J« |jJt3 lliti £i^
ilxi Jxli as
j5l^ JrM«< J^^ » fj^^j ^^^ U^^ J » (f5^ ^^ or«a»ze»^ J^^iX
(for o^J.^), 1-a^ star liy-^, {J^ ^ copper coin (J^y^r
J>JL-i> form, Jiff ure Jf^f •— ^/^ letter (of the alphabet),
particle ^^^ , ^^^^ soul, self (jw^ , Ji^ a male 1j— j* ^ >
Jc»-Uo prostrate i3j^.
7. jj*i plural of J-rli ^LLtb as
Jc>-li prostrate A^, | «^ manifest |^.
8. Jlxi plural of J»^li as
9. tOjii plural of Jxli J-Jti as
JL&>Uj magician ^\^.
10. dJuti plural of Jxli as
^JG^3 (for (2<f l^) a judge i'Laj (for ^^.j^./i).
11. lijLi plural of Jjtj J;J J^ as
5^ an ape s3ji. *
12. lijLi plural of Jici ^ ^iUi jUi 'j^ as
^\ {ioT yi^\) a brother ^j^l.
85
13. JAJI plural of JJti Jje 3*^ J^ ^^^ ^^^ some other
feminine quadriliterals, as
jjL&J «o«Z, «^(/'^jlAJ», jJlJi a copper coin ^_^yii, ^ (for
^^bu) Aan^ J^t (for y^}), cfev ^^^> /^^^ 2^J^'
it. C.5 s .^ s ^
14. JUi» plural of (J^li J:j*9 and triliterals of all forms, as
fc—itc uppermost part, fore-lock, cocFs comb t^\^\ , Jl^<i rill
Jlyl, ^1;^? itfo? ill^I, ^j-^\ (for ^^^) «0M *li^l, J^
w^or/t JUj:*, £1- ^ni^ i\^^ , Ji /^jJ^^r ^iil, ^JLi
form, figure Jl— Lii, dJ^ « child 55j\, ^^ «j90M«5 r-^li^*
JU; nVA^« 3^j;il, ^^ jfaJ?^ ^p\, ^)J e?«y ^lo! (for
i^^l), •.-^^>:^l.tf a companion cf-^lsr^l .
Eem. There are a few other singulars which take this plural,
as j'S^ ^s^«7« *i Jv^l ; but 'uii (not *lj-i»l) is the plural
of J^/^ thing.
15. JlIxjI plural of J 1*3 and other quadriliterals, also J*i JJti
JxJ J*3 Jjci as
1j| a ^0(? i^JT (for ^U), *lcj receptacle Jlcjl .
16. Julji plural of Jill ^li liclJ ^^Lli as
£jIj follower, appositive i-J^y, <^l-i female dweller ^y^.
86
17. JJ Ui plural of some feminine quadriliterals, with or without
i in addition, as
£j J^ a city ^1 ^ , <^f^ foul «*.i-4 ^?^ •
18. ^iki plural of j3^ Ji^ J3e jUl ^^ jUi Jjb' Jj^
D:^ S^ J?^' ^i^' i!)^^ J^^ as
LLJyL a fish ,^ll»^, ^i (for 5=»-\) « brother ^^y^\'
19. j^ixi plural of J*i J^ Jxi JUj JUi J-^ J^ll Jjel as
^ jJ a wolf ^^^^^, ^^ a fnale ^y^, u^.^ ^^ite ^\^
(for ^lij).
20. J^lUti plural of J-xi J^li as
21. *L*i\ plural of J-^ as
J^ for *J^ (see § 17 i rem. J) a prophet 'Ij-Jl.
22. ^_^ plural of J-aj J*3 jxL- Jitj! ^^IDJ as
«i^ (for ^yi) ^^a(? ^5^.
23. JUJ plural of ^Bci ^ ^ li^ %lj^ fjiji as
4^^ a legal opinion ^ci .
Rem. For declension see §§312 and 314 rem. h.
87
24. ^Ui plural of iXjJ ^ ^^ ^ Ijlii ^^hS J^
JjJ /Ije Jl-jti SUj £IUi UUi ^li as
^^^i a legal opinion ^^ , <^^\; « corner, a elms in school
\j\^j (for ^\:j as in § 179 rem. a).
25. ^3r^*^ plural of J*I JxJ jUi Jxl^ as
26. ij^ plural of JJci Jxi as
Jjc a husband <D^.
27. l)Ui plural of Jxi Jie J^li as
•..L^l^ a companion ^}^sf^ (also <IjIs^).
28. ^ plural of IjjJ lixi J^li as
<tji (for <i^j!) »»^», miracle, message, verse ^/l (for t/j^).
29. J*3 plural of J^b as
c.f.^1^ a companion c.f.->.s:**'.
Kem. a. These rules are not without exception nor are they by
any means exhaustive.
Rem. c. Beside jllc pi. fr. 5 of 5ui slave we have fourteen
other broken plurals. When a singular has more than one meaning
and several plurals, there may be a correspondence : thus A-R-i^
a caliph usually follows No. 20 J^UJci- caliphs, but <iLi-iri- successor,
88
deputy makes No. 17 ^^c.^ \->- which by rule is restricted to
feminines. There are four meanings to ^.t^ beside its being the
letter's name, and there are four plurals, of which No. 13 ^A^\
signifies eyes and fountains. A word which takes pluralis sanus
may have also one or more broken plurals.
305. The following are forms of pluralis fractus from singular
nouns with four or more consonants.
1. JJvxi plural of quadriliterals, with or without ii in addition,
{a) whose four consonants are radical, and (J) formed
from triliteral roots by prefixing \ d? or ^ ; as
cJi.^ a frog c«^U-^, ^/^ ^^^ ^^^^ Oj""^^ ^j^ ^^^ *^^*^
tJjfj\jCi, Sj<^ candlestick, minaret j^\i^ and JJli^ (compare
§ 240) Yulg. jj}S^ f j6Jh^ source j^i^,
2. J-jl*i plural of quinqueliterals, with or without i in addition,
of which the penult is a letter of prolongation ; as
ilj^^ icritten ^i^l£^, ^^ a chair (VeJ^, ^%^ (see
§ 226) ^L^Vy:
3. d-iJUJ plural of many relative adjectives (see § 249) and other
nouns with four or more letters ; as
"^jyt^ a Moor iSjJJC* , i^'^^ Pharoah ^|^ .
*•*
Rem. e. A few nouns have anomalous plurals, as i^y*\ a woman
(see § 304 No. 5 rem.) *LJ , which word is from i/*J! whence also
(f^UUl a human being pi. i^\J>\ ; this we may abbreviate to ^jwli
especially with the article, thus (Jm^\ , much as ilVl has become
89
306. We have noted the restriction (§ 302 rem. a) that mascu-
line sound plurals can only be used of rational beings : they are
said by grammarians to mean several individuals; whereas the
broken plural is by nature a collective and feminine in gender,
being represented by the feminine singular pronoun ; thus l;>^.^
UJls^ — 1»jV\ J ice have written upon the tablets, so take them.
Rem. Beside broken plurals there are the two sorts of collectives
mentioned in § 292 a and b :
(a) generic nouns {{j**^ *lCol) which form nomina unitatis
(see § 246) ; and
{b) nouns to which attaches the idea of coUectiveness {*[aJ^\
«Jk5^ ' or «-Xs:) ' ifui 1 likenesses of the plural) and which do not
form nomina unitatis ; as J^l a section of a nation, i^ a people, etc.,
thus ii^J^^ <Cil a'^ \ ^ of the people there is a section who direct
(not which directs) others.
FoTE. As nomen verbi Ji^l appears in § 198 ITo. 12, and as
singular of 1^1 in § 304 !N'o. 1. Beside being nomen verbi (§198
No. 25), Cl?uj with the signification of plants is a collective, of
sort a though without nomen unitatis, and makes a plural cuUlp.
307. In case of nouns which have only one plural there can be
no difficulty of selection ; but, while the rest are called plurals of
abundance, those in § 304 numbered 12, 13, 14 and 15 as well as
the sound are called plurals of paucity, being used when the
objects denoted are ten or less. Thus >*ljj^ aJS-o six days pi. fr. 14
(for /♦^jJ^) ®^ i*}d * ^'^V'
90
308. In Arabic there are three cases Nominative Dependent
and Accusative, each with its case-ending or sign : we shall
however speak of the Oblique case when one and the same sign
indicates both Dependent and Accusative. The following tables
show how to decline undefined nouns by means of ^^Jj a copper
coin, illl a night, 1^ stars (pi. fr. 6 of %^)t ^\iS^ two
dominions f \^}3jSu^ two loons, ^C,^5JL^ dwellers, Cl^LLli? good
things, AjTujwl letter, j^I*^*^ (fem.) white, ^V^ followers (pi. fr. 16
of wjLJi). Nouns ending with i, whether broken plural or
singular, mark the accusative differently (see § 8 rem. a) from
other triptotes i.e. nouns with three case-endings.
Teiptote or Fiest Declension.
Masc. sing. Fem. sing. Broken pi.
Nominative . . jJJj . . . <Uy . . . f »2sr*
Dependent . . ^/*Ai . . . |iy . . . j^^
Accusative . . L^ . . . <UiJ . . . l^^ss:^
Dual.
Masculine. Feminine.
Nominative .... ^LQ^ .... ^Lv^^u^
Oblique ^^^Slu .... ^;;^-.:m.^
Sound Plueal.
Masculine. Feminine.
Nominative .... ^^^5Jli .... tjbllli
Oblique ^jJLi .... C^Uli
91
Except in the sound plural (see § 302) it makes no difference
whether the noun be adjective or otherwise ; and so with dip totes
i.e. nouns with two case-endings.
DiPTOTE OE Second Declension.
Masc. sing. Fem. sing. Broken pi.
Nominative . . ^^>'\ . . *l*.^^> j" . . A-^^J-^
Oblique . . . ^TjXu^t . . * U^ j . . '^\p
In the dual diptotes and triptotes are alike, thus Norn. j^liJlk^ \ ,
Obi. ■^jjjolrwl and so in the sound plural.
I^OTE. For declension oij\^ see § 312.
Rem. b. No colloquial dialect of Arabic employs case-endings
regularly ; duals are rare, and in sound plurals only the oblique
case is used.
309. We call nouns diptote when ending in _L, ^.^, or ^- :
such are the following.
(a) Broken plurals in § 304 numbered 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23
and 24 ; also those in § 305 numbered 1 and 2 ; beside a few
others.
(h) Various nouns, more especially adjectives such as are found
in § 232 Nos. 13 and 16, also in §§ 234, 295 and 296 ; beside
others.
[c) Many proper names, as <lL« Mecca ; especially if foreign
to Arabic, as J-ol^l Israel, J^^l j David, J;}^^ Pharaoh, ^^yt>
Aaron, «— "i^^ Joseph . Exceptional are such as consist of three
92
letters, the second of which has sukun or is a letter of pro-
longation, thus ly Noah.
Rem. e. There are said to be nine reasons why a noun is
debarred from taking tanwin.
310. Nouns ending in 1 — or ^^ — (for J.^ or ^ j1- see
§§ 212 h and 245) have the same form in all three cases ; thus
for j«AC, j^f. or Yyas. we write l^ a stick
,, ^3i>, ^>:^& ,, \Sj^ ,, ^AJb guidance
'if-
Similarly we leave unchanged nouns ending in ^^ ji. (see § 309)
such as ^Jf^ (fem.) angry j ^Jbl nearer^ ^y* Moses.
311. With nouns ending in — (for J-^, £f _. or 4?— see
§ 167 5 ii and § 369 Table xviii) it is somewhat different, for we
write
\lc\;j a preacher as the Accusative of c^i3 i.e. %^^^
Ijslj negative „ wJl) ,, ^^Ij
Ij Jjjt^ transgressor ,, ^^^^ >» t^^^-^^
l;j^Ua»^« „ jj^l „ 4^^1 (pl.fr. 13)
«>■
following in this the analogy of § 166 a.
312. There are however certain broken plurals ending with —
which is held to represent ^ — . They do not follow either of
the last two rules ; thus <Lj^U>- a girl has pi. fr. 16 jV^ in the
Nominative and Dependent, but ^J^^>- in the Accusative ; so also
93
iij^ a desert has pi. fr. 23 Nom. and Dep. jls^, but Accusative
4j}^-
313. Undefined nouns become defined : 1. by prefixing the article
^J\ the ; 2 (a) by adding a defined noun in the dependent case, or
{b) by adding a pronominal suffix.
Rbm. Proper names are in themselves defined, as are the pro-
nouns^ he etc. and words like ^J this, that (see §§ 340 et seq.).
Note. A noun cannot have ^two determinatives ; thus uJ^V 1
the uppermost parts and l-jIs^ ^V^^ the uppermost parts of the
partition.
314. "When a noun is defined by the article, the following cases
arise.
(a) If it be triptote it loses the tanwln ; thus
Nominative . . JLIS] . . dihlll . . i^l
Dependent . . ^jSk}\ . . ^IjJll . . ^^^\
Accusative . . jUiil . . Jilfil . . jiy^'l
Eem. From the accusative final \ has disappeared along with
tan win : so also from words like iJs<^^ i defined ace. of JljI .
{jb) If diptote it becomes triptote ; thus
Nominative. ^^^-IkVl . . ^111l)1 . . {-^y^\
Dependent . ,j^\ . . 'lii^l . . ^y^\
Accusative . ^X;*>.V1 . . ^Xi^'l . . ^^jl^l
94
(e) If pluralis sanus feminine it loses tanwln ; thus
Nominative . Cl^LiLll Oblique . CL>\^1J^\
Rem. a. Prefixing the article causes no change in the dual or
pluralis sanus masculine.
Rem. b. From the termination — tanwin is lost and <_^ re-
appears, as — aJXSl the thrower from (JJ^, ^^^^^^ the blind (man)
from j^£ , i^^y 1 the hands from Jo i .
Note. Nouns ending in 1 -^ or ^ — (for J^ or ,£^-^ see
§ 310) merely lose the tanwin, as L^:^!, ^^Cx^Jl .
315. The following cases arise when a noun is in construct
state, i.e. when there is appended to it a defined noun in the
dependent case (see § 475).
(fl) "We decline singulars and broken plurals as if defined by the
article ; thus
Norn. ^1" cl^ii \ J>fr\ l^pU.
the seekers ^ so^ ^ ^ / the eastern parts
Dep. M\ u-^11? > ^i5^f \ -ipJ^ ,
'' " * ^ ^ \o/ knowledge. - , - - \ of the earth.
Ace. ^^\ ^ ho I ^p \ J^liu
Note. As to Jp all see § 482.
Rem. a. Certain defective substantives (see § 191 Note) lengthen
their final vowel after rejecting tanwin ; thus
Nom. ^1 brother for ^1 , Dep. ^^1 for ^j, Ace. \^\ for A.
{b) the dual loses ^ from its termination, as
CJ^ \ l^J the two children of the king for ^^JjJ.
95
(c) The pluralis sanus masculine loses ^ from its termination, as
jj-j K^j L5^ cW' *^^ ^^* ^^'^^ of Israel for ^Tj^*^.
316. "WTien the noun is defined by a 'pronominal suffix the
following cases arise.
(a) Triptotes and feminine sound plurals lose tanwin, duals and
masculine sound plurals the termination jj or jj > thus la<3u her
hand from 5J, A,^ his stick from Lac, \Sj\^ our words from
Cli^Ul^, LlioJJ My ^e^;o Aaw^« from ^^tJiJ^, ^^^ ^^^ attainers of it
from ^^\:,
Note. In the Nominative and Dependent we have l^.«^J i our
X % t "
hands and in the Accusative uj^J^l from ^J\ Ace. Lj<Aj1 .
{h) The singulars, broken plurals, and feminine sound plurals
lose their final vowel before ^ -^ of me, my (see § 317) ; thus
^j my Lord from cJ!!/J, ^JU^l my works from jUxl , ^Jll^
»»y gardens from tul^^ . Having lost its case-endings the noun
becomes, so to speak, indeclinable.
(c) "When a noun ends in s we use the original form viz. c:^ ;
thus tlX^jT thy gods from <^J \ .
(<?) When a noun ends in 'alif mobile or hamzah, this letter is
subject to change ; thus from * tl3 we have Nom. I3j Lilj our
women, Dep. l5o UJ , Ace. U^U^.
Eem. As regards words referred to in § 315 rem. a we must
note, Nom. *^1 ^«« brother, Dep. J:*>>1 , Ace. i\s>-\ ; but jc^l
my brother in all three cases.
96
317. The pronominal suffixes which express the dependent are
similar to those given in § 1 85 except that ^^ —- of me, my takes
the place of ^J ; thus l^ l^c^ the guarding of them both.
Best. a. Beside ^<Jt^ along with me we have by reverting to the
older form ^*^ (see § 20 h). When attached to a word ending
with 1^, uf — > s^ — » ^ — t J— or^^ the suffix ^^ —
becomes ^J , as ^J^*^ tny stick ; and in most cases, together with
the final letter, it becomes ^J, as J^J^ upon me (see § 358 rem. a).
On A etc. see § 316 rem.
Rem. h. Like ic-i* we find ij -^ especially in the vocative,
shortened to — ; thus a,'^^\jO my people for ^y , CJj ( 0) my
Lord for ,^^j (see § 438 a rem. h).
Rem. 0. Changes occur similar to those in § 1 85 rem. h ; thus
^jLj by the permission of him, 'i-^^^UJ to the beholders of them,
lylXc upon them, ^J}3 ^^ between his two hands.
318. The cardinal numbers from one to ten are : —
Fern.
Masc.
a^ 8
9
10
Fein.
SO
Masc.
3^11
S^V)
,^. 2
LJu 3
%
to' ^
97
Rem. a. For ci^JJ and words like it see § 6 rem. a. The
5
radical letters of \j:.^ are (jw Juj (see § 328 rem. c).
319. The cardinal numbers from 3 to 10 take the feminine
form, when the objects numbered are of the masculine gender;
and conversely, the masculine form, when the objects numbered
are feminine : as C^^^ %-^ seven verses.
320. Excepting the duals ^^\, and ^\SSj\ or ^LliJ, the
X ^ y
cardinal numbers from 1 to 10 are triptote ; (^IJiJ standing for
j^UJ (see § 311) Accusative l^»^.
321. Cardinal numbers from 3 to 10 are substantives: either
(a) they follow the objects numbered and stand in apposition, as
|jij Jl-^j of three men i.e. of men, a triad; or (J) they are
followed by a plural noun in the dependent case, as a^\ JlS-j
six days. For the multiples of 100 see § 325 and § 496 rem. a.
Rem. "When these numerals take the article they lose tanwln,
as also when in construct state or defined by a pronominal suffix ;
while j^Uj has Nom. and Dep. ,<-jUJ Acc. ^JUJ.
322. The cardinal numbers from eleven to nineteen are : —
11
12
13
14
Fem.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
J;i£,>^
y^l::::^k.
15
l^^^y^l
3.
^ A -' < y \
16
17
18
^pLEcl;i3
^;liil3SJ
r^ * ' ^ '" "
j;l£l*^
19
IP^ ^31
^%!
98
Rem. a. We find i^Ai ^^U3 and other forms, for ijJjJ^ ^M^-
Rem. h. These cardinal numhers are followed by the objects
numbered in the accusative singular.
Rem. e. These numerals may be called indeclinable, except
lii \Sj\ and i^J^ (\SXj) [SSJ\ which have an oblique case
^ ^1 and *^ (^liJ) ;jsi\.
Rem. d. Since long ago these compound numerals have suffered
contraction into one word, and are further corrupted in colloquial
dialects.
323. The cardinal numbers from twenty to ninety are : —
jTjyUJ 80 1^^ 60 ^f^j^ 40 ii«p^ 20
^r,^ 90 (^y^ 70 ^Tj^L^ 50 ^jJiJ 30
Rem. a. For ^•i-L> and ^^*L*J see § 6 rem. a.
Rem. J. "Whiie of common gender these numerals are declined
as masculine sound plurals, taking an oblique case in '^ -— ;
thus ^jJ^, ^y^\j, ^^..^^j^jS, etc. They are substantives and
usually take after them the objects numbered in the accusative
singular (see § 499).
324. Numerals compounded of units and tens require j and
between the unit and the ten; thus Nom. Q^IkUss^'^ t"-^ ^*^^
and fifty y fifty nine, Dep. ^^y-rr-^^j ^-^} , Ace. ^^-»Auiij>^j IjuCJ .
325 The multiples of <LjU one hundred are as follows ;
200 ^l^U, 300 |JU cLiJ, 400 d^U ^^'jl, etc.
99
Keh. a. For iJt« we may write <d^ and (see § 17 i rem. h)
"L^, which last represents the usual pronunciation. There are
other plurals beside the one mentioned in § 301 rem. d.
326. The multiples of i— aJl one thousand are as follows;
2000 JjS\y 3000 ^f\ JjO, 4000 l^)'\ J«j)t, etc.
Ee3i. There are other plurals of u^l beside ( jS t.
328. The ordinal numbers are adjectives; thus, masc. jJ'V 1
fem. . J;^l the first, masc ^ fem. <LlJ^ s^tfont?, masc. cLJL
fem. iLjU MtW, masc ^^j fem. <Lxjk /owr^A, etc.
Eem. a. The radical letters of Jj^V 1 (see § 295 rem. h) and
^/iil (for ^p\ or ^pl) are J^l or J\y These words
have plurals, and will be further treated in § 486 rem. a.
Rem. c. From masc. ^jS^jUj fem. <LijLo s/^r^A we can obtain the
radical letters of ei-.-^ given in § 318 rem. a, as also from the
fraction (j^X.^ a sixth part.
340. The simple demonstrative pronoun is ^ J ^At«, that, which
in course of declension takes many forms, the commonest plural
being, masc. ^\ fem. j^l these, those.
Eem. c Closely connected by origin with 1 J is ^J possessor,
which is also declined, making in the singular feminine Nom.
d^ifc) Dep. CJ'j Ace. d^iJ, none of which are found except in
construct state (see § 481).
100
Rem. d. By prefixing cSliJce to \j we get \^ thus, so and so.
341. From the simple demonstrative pronoun compounds, which
admit of declension, are formed {a) by appending lLTc/ \ji^ 'j^
or ^ either (i) alone, or (ii) with J interposed; also {b) by
prefixing La .
a (i) t£^l J that is used whatever the sex or number of persons
addressed; but we may say to a woman (JJ'^J, to two persons
liilj, etc. The plurals lL)^! and lIXj^I those are of common
gender.
(ii) Similarly i_^Jl J or tI>J J that is used in conjunction with
pronominal suffixes of the second person ; thus *S.lj ^i therein
0 you.
Rem. By prefixing tlT lilce to (JjLJj we get uXj ju^ m ZeX^
manner, so, see § 463.
i. The particle la (which is also an interjection see § 368) we
may prefix to \ J and write ) J^Jb this ; which word has a singular
feminine |JJJ), and as one of its plurals *iljU> or £^^i> these of
common gender.
345. We find in Arabic only one article, viz. J \ , which is
called the instrument of definition and always written in con-
junction with the following word ; thus ^TjJ a reading i^^a}]
the reading, the Cordn.
101
Rem. a. The article is also called \^^Jil^ \ D ('alif being
merely prosthetic, see § 19 rem. c) the Idm of definition, and it is
said to have two uses :
(i) jJ^jLi \ Vl the article of familiarity when its presence implies
that the word, to which it is attached, expresses a thing or person
known to the hearer; thus ,^/O^V \ ij^yj they shall inherit the
earth i.e. the earth which we know :
(ii) jjju.iLs' \ 1^ the generic article, not implying that the word,
to which it is prefixed, expresses an individual person or thing ;
in this case it shows the genus by indicating one member of
a class ; thus (jl^SuUl <t^|i his mother shall have a sixth.
KoTE. Arabic and some other languages are more regular than
English in respect of the generic article, for one says Man is
mortal " but * The horse is a quadruped," whereas in these cases
we must write ^f)UCj|l Vhomme and ij^jju] le cheval.
846. Among the conjunctive pronouns are masc. t^jJl fem. ^A^l
who, which, that ; ^y« he who, she who, whoever ; lj« that which,
whatever. They are also called relative pronouns and, with ex-
ception of c/aJ1» are interrogative (see § 351).
347. As may be found in § 20 h, initial J> of ^JAJ \ represents
the article, to which is joined J (see § 341 a ii) and Ij or^J
(see § 340). Of the many forms taken in declension we must,
beside ^^-^1 the feminine singular, mention the masculine plural
102
'LjjJl. When used adjectively (as above) these words refer to
a definite substantive with which they agree in gender number
and case ; thus <UL1.S> ^^ JJ 1 <lL1 \ God who created it, ^j V 1
Iji'l^ ji^ \ the land tchich We blessed : when used substantively
however they have the meaning of ^ or l;«, thus ^T^.^ \ ui^i
We drowned those who.
Rem. h. The nominatives must originally have been jiXiJ \ and
jji^jjj \ but in place of these words the oblique case is always
used (see § 308 rem. h) and a shortened form.
348. The conjunctive pronouns ^^ and Ui are indeclinable :
the former refers to beings endowed with reason, as jt;-^J 15-^^
ijt^ Moses and those who (are) with htm ; while the latter is used
of all other objects, as ^Jxs Uj by reason of that which he has done.
Unlike ^J^J] these words can never be used adjectively.
351. All conjunctive pronouns are interrogative except oJul,
thus c:^! ^ who art thou ? Jjo U what has he done? see § 570.
Rem. The interrogative U is usually shortened to 1 when
joined with a preposition, thus iJ why? i.e. because of what?
So also \JaS the like of what ? becomes 1^ and li^ how much ?
353*. The pronouns ^ and \j^ are sometimes indefinite. Of
this sort is tCj^C\«A» 1 \ \^ the md which introduces a clause equivalent
to a magdar (see §§ 488 and 514) ; thus ti^ l.^ Ju«J \^ after
that thou earnest which is equivalent to uJ^l*^ Jotj ^^ after thy
coming. "We find the indefinite \j% in conditional clauses
(11L)1jT U § 406), also in reference to time (^^IjT U
§§ 367 p and 407) ; when added to certain adverbs it gives them
a conditional and general signification, thus j..!^^ where U. * ^■■>-
wherever, ^\ where? UjoI wherever) if appended to J^^, ^^, etc.,
it hinders their regimen (liULiT U § 436 rem. d) ; sometimes it
is attached to a preposition (ij^JJj 1 I;* § 470 rem. /) ; and there
are other uses for which it serves.
Note. Similar to the adverbs mentioned above is U^ (for UU)
whatever from L« what.
354. The particles are of four sorts ; viz. prepositions, adverbs,
conjunctions, and interjections.
355. The prepositions are divided into separable, i.e. those
written as separate words, and inseparable i.e. those which are
united in writing with the following word.
356. The inseparable prepositions consist of one consonant with
its vowel. They are : —
(a) C-; hy, hy means oj\ hy reason of, for the reason, in, on, ivith, to,
of, in exchange for, see § 456.
{h) CLJ hy in swearing, see § 462.
(c) J belonging to, for the use of, to, due to, in, for, of, see § 453.
(rf) J hy in swearing, see § 462.
104
Kem. a. Changes occur after c-> similar to those in § 185 rem. h,
as ^j , 'l^ ; see also § 20 rem. a.
Rem. h. Before a pronominal suffix the preposition J becomes J,
as <l) , IxJ etc. ; except with ^ -- me when we have ^ .
Rem. 0. Erroneously C/ like is reckoned among prepositions :
it will be treated in § 463.
357. The separable prepositions are of two sorts : firstly, those
which have different terminations and are biliteral or triliteral ;
secondly, those which are substantives in the accusative singular
and end in jl. , having lost tan win on account of the following noun.
358. The separable prepositions of the first sort are : —
(a) jJl to, towards, until, see § 451.
(b) ^Jx:^ till, see § 452.
(c) ^^^ over, upon, against, to, for, on account of, concerning, by
means of, incumbent upon, see § 459.
(rf) ^from, away from, of, see § 449.
(«) ,^ in, into, over, among, upon, on, concerning, treating of,
see § 455.
(/) u^ or ^_5:^J with, beside, near, see § 458.
{g) ^ or ^ with, along with, see § 457.
(h) ^ of, to, from, on,^out of, see § 20 rf and § 448.
(i) iii^ or J^from a certain time, since, see § 461.
105
Rem. a. Before suffixes the final syllables of jc-^1, 15^ » ^^^
t^Jj are diphthongs ; thus \lS^2i\ to thee, lili over us. Changes
occur similar to those in § 185 rem. 5; ^.^J^ to them (fern.),
L^^-I^JlLc over them both. With ^ -^ me we have J^jI to me etc.,
and ^i in case of ^ as Ai tf-?U^ a letter relating to me (see
§317 rem. a).
E-EM. h. In connection with ^ —. we double the ^^ of ^^, ^U-f,
and ^^ JJ, thus ^^^ from me. The ^j of ^ and ^^ is assimilated
in connection with ^ or lj«, thus IJLE ^j%.& they were disohedient
in that which for Ui ^yc (see § 14 J).
359. Separable prepositions of the second sort have been
described in § 357 and will be further treated in § 444 h.
Among them are Sx: after, ^^ between, L::-^asf* under, u-aLi- behind,
jj^*^ beneath, Cxxt beside, in the mind of, ^^ above, over, J..^.9 before
of time (see §§ 466 to 470).
360. The adverbs are of three sorts ; firstly, particles some
inseparable and some separable ; secondly, indeclinable substantives
ending in J- ; thirdly, nouns in the accusative.
361. The inseparable adverbial particles are : —
X
{a) \, interrogative, see § 566.
106
Rem. When this 1 is followed by \ we write the two thus ^\ ,
as Lj>- V liJ ^1 «AaZ/ <^^r^ indeed he to us a reward ?
{h) ij^ (abbreviation of uJti see 364 e) prefixed to a verb in the
imperfect to express more emphatically its future sense.
{c) J verily, surely, certainly. As ^^jU J-:>>^JT Ixc L::-!L5*i ^jJ
*Juo^j (J-O n^rf/y «/ Mom removest from us the plague, surely
we will believe with thee, and we will certainly send. This la is
always affirmative, and of it there are said to be five sorts.
362. Among the separable adverbial particles are : —
(J) j1 and \S\ heholdl lo\ Of these \i^\ is followed only by
a nominal proposition (see § 513) and refers to the same
time as the preceding statement.
(e) ^\ truly, see § 568.
{k) i^\ not, called ^HJ^ ^^ the negative ^in, see § 558.
(m) ^\ verily precedes a noun in the accusative or one of the
pronomimal suffixes given in § 185; but the 1st singular
can be . ^uJ)\ or ^\ and the 1st plural uJ j or L5 J . In such
case the suffix a may be ^^U.) ^ rt^ the pronoun of the fact,
not being needed to express the sentence's meaning, thus
fi ^ .-i- 9^
Aj-1 \ Vi\ <UJ verily I am God (see § 367 g). By means of
^J\ the subject may be introduced, upon which often follows
a predicate with J (see § 361 c) as i-^A-^^r^^-^ ^'^^ U^
107
verily this (man) is a skilled magician. For govemmeiit by
4j| see § 436.
(n) U3l only, truly, see § 436 rem. d and § 585.
{q) o I yes, yea ; used with an oath, as ^jj 1 j ^\ yes by God,
whence the vulgar \i^\ and in Nubia Jj-j1 for which at
Damascus >xj ^J\ is said.
(«) ^:»j1 t^Aer^? Ul'l wherever, see § 353*.
(w) ,^_P4 y««, y«« sometimes to be translated (as in Coran Ixiv, 7)
on the contrary, for to a negative statement it gives con-
tradiction. Compare si in French.
(z) jJ is usually employed with the perfect (see §§ 402, 403 h)
to express more emphatically its past sense : when used
with the imperfect we render bJ sometimes.
{hb) \Jo thus (§ 340 rem. d) and cliJJo in like manner
(§ 341 a rem.).
{dd) i not is used : —
(i) as negative of the future and of the indefinite present,
see §§ 408 e rem. a, 439, 555, and 584 a ;
(ii) as representative of the other negatives after ^ and, see
§§ 482 d rem., 560, and 580 ;
(iii) as negative of the jussive, sec §§ 417 J and 420.
108
{ee) ^, ^ , often with ^ prefixed hut, yet (see § 584 b). We
place ^-O only before nouns and pronominal suffixes in the
accusative case (see § 436). "With the 1st person we may
write IL} , liL) as well as ^y» (^ , l.t .v L\ .
(ff) iJ not is used with the jussive which is then perfect in sense,
see §§ 412 and 418.
{hh) ^ not a contraction of ^1 ^ (i.e. ^^1 ^j^^ ^J it will not he that)
is followed by the subjunctive, see §§ 411, 415 a i, and 556.
{kk) L^ not negative of the definite or absolute present see
§§ 408 e rem. a and 531 ; also of the past see § 557.
(mm) iixJ yes, yea (for 1*3 it is agreeable) affirms the preceding
statement.
(oo) ji interrogative, see § 567.
{qq) \SJsb demonstrative here\ whence (see § 341 for an analogy)
cl^llJb there.
363. We have treated in §§ 357 and 359 certain accusative
substantives which serve as prepositions ; the same nouns may
be used as adverbs, but they must invariably end in _£_. Thus
5lJLj , 5uLj ^^^ afterwards ; C^^.'^ where, ^1 - jf, .4 \^ whence,
S^^ lPI frAtYA^r, ^Ukj^ wherever (see §§ 353* and 406) ;
jjli , jjii ^ beforehand.
364. The Arabic language would however be poor in adverbs
but for the adverbial accusative, which is extensively used as will
109
be learned from §§ 422 b and 444. Here we may mention 1 Jji
ever, {.x-^^S- all together. Also, of the same class are the
adverbs : —
{e) u-i^ in the end is prefixed to the imperfect to express real
futurity, see §§ 361 b, 408 o, and 587 d,
{g) ijjtf how (see § 406) as (^^Mi ^^Jl^ ^\sj^ so that he may see
how ye will act ; more commonly it is interrogative, how ?
■it ^
Rem. b. For JxJ see §§ 436 rem. /and 442 rem. g.
365. The conjunctions, like prepositions and adverbs, are some
inseparable and some separable.
366. The inseparable conjunctions are : —
{a) J and, see §§ 576 to 583.
{b) t-J so, and so, so that, and thereupon, then, see §§ 406 e, 415 d,
540, 576, and 587.
Rem. These conjunctions J and uJ may be preceded by \ (see
§ 361 a), thus ^jPLftjo \i\ Bo ye not therefore understand ?
{c) J . This may be (i) the li of command (see 417 a) which is
usually prefixed to the 3rd sing, of the jussive, to give it an
imperative sense ; and when following J or t_i is written
without kasrah thus J : or (ii) the li which governs the
subjunctive and means that, so that, in order that (see §§411
and 415 J).
no
367. Among the separable conjunctions are these : —
(fl) j1 when is prefixed to a verbal or nominal proposition and
refers to the past ; thus ";> ul=^l J U and {remember the time)
when We delivered you.
{h) ^ J^ whenever, see § 405.
{e) ^\ that, 80 that, in order that governs the subjunctive (see §§ 41 1
and 415 « i); also the perfect and indicative (see § 415 aii):
it is used after certain prepositions (see §§ 470 rem./and 488).
Notice must here be taken of ^^auA^J ^ ^\ the explicative ''an,
which introduces a quotation, as ^1 ^^ ^y* L?] ^^*^J^
lLTI*^ We revealed to Moses {saying) Throw down thy rod.
(/) Ij^ «/ called ll^fljT J\^ the conditional 'in, see §§ 406 h,
413, 417 c\, and 588. The compounds are : —
jjl^ {although only when no apodosis** follows, most
usually) and if\
^^ verily if, see § 361 c;
l\ (for f j^^ see § 14 i rem. h) if not, but commonly
meaning except and with a preceding negative only,
see § 586 fl ;
* The apodosis of a sentence is the consequent clause, which expresses
a result ; as distinguished from the precedent clause, called protasis, which is
conditional.
Ill
1^1 (for l^ jjl see § 14 J rem. b) if and when repeated
1^1 j \%\ either or, as U!) ^ ^\ U[
^Tj-i^J I ^s^ Q^ jjl {choose) either that thou dost throw or
that we he the throwers.
(9) ^^ that. Like ^\ it precedes a noun in the accusative or
one of the pronominal suffixes given in § 185; the 1st
singular being ^J\ or ^jl and the 1st plural lUi or ul.
In such case the suffix ^ may be pronoun of the fact (see
§ 362 m) as ^j Ji-;^^ C^li ^L> because apostles used to
come to them. Beside ^jb we have J)V which also means
■^'^ /"
because, and J^Li (?« though, see §§ 436 and 470 rem./.
(7i) ^1 or as f«ol:>> j^l Lijl>. ^ gatherer or a loser.
(0 1j then, and then, implying succession at an interval.
{k) ^c^^ till, see §§ 405 rem. c, 411, 415 c, and 452 rem. c.
Beside being a conjunction J.^ is a preposition see § 358 b.
[n) \X^ after, when, is used with the perfect.
(0) )J if, see §§ 404 and 588.
(jt?) l^ as long as, as far as; used with the perfect (see § 407) and
jussive (see § 418) : it is called the ma of duration
(see § 353*).
368. The interjections are numerous : among them we find \ 0\
which is used before nouns (see § 438 a) without the article, as
112
i]j \j 0 people; Ql or Q^ Ij 0 ! used before nouns (see § 438 h)
with the article, as J^\^T \^]\j Omen;U> lo ! as iVl ^iJt l^
/o y^ are those.
369. The following pages supply paradigms of the verbs. First
of all it is essential that Tables I and II be thoroughly well
learnt; thus with IJo — to wound (see § 35 rem. a).
kalama kalamat kalamta kalamti kalamtu
kalama kalamata kalamtuiua
kalamd kalamna kalamtuin kalamtunna kalamna
yakhmu taklimu taklimu taklimina 'aklimu
yaklimani takliraani taklimani
yakUmuna yaklimna taklimuna taklinma nakliinu
Also to be found in Table I are j£5 _£_ to Mil ; C^^' — to collect ;
J-***^ ^- to lose ; and c^- A. to be quick.
Table III gives 1-b to wound much and to address, accost ; Jl?o
to fight with ; li-^' to preserve and to turn Moslem ; aJosJ to speak ;
J^JuLj to fight with one another ; ^•'<\j\ to gush ; J^-^l ^o ^o
asunder ; ^Jix£^\ to ask pardon ; 'p^\ and JU^I ^o J« yellow.
Tables N ah and c give ^C* 2- to extend ; cS^ -j- ^o J^ aw oJyVc^
of love ; ^JlJ« .::i- io to%ich ; j3jc^ ^o stretch much or o/if^w ; 3*3 U« and
jU» /o contend in pulling ] ^\ to increase; ^jCiJ ^o stretch oneself;
«^^UJ and 5Uj of two persons together to stretch a cloth; ^asr]^
^0 /^^ oneself he dragged; t£^\ to hecome extended; %Ci^\ to ask
mccour.
113
Table YI gives cl>il ^- to entertain ; cl^it _L ^o Jd toell hrougJit
t*^ ; ^1 _L ^0 ?'«/fl^^ ; <l1 i jl ^0 adore ; 1j\ ji. to suffer ; cl;!!^^ ^o i^«^OM^
a good education, punish ; '^^ to consult; i— iJot to afflict ; ^j\J to
proclaim ; CilJ and l^^y ^o deliberate in common ; J-rsfLil andjasf^l
^0 yu'^ almSf receive wages ; jT) J li^\ ^^ ^*^ permission.
Table YII gives (Jw^ _L ^o he hrave ; ^JLxj ^ to he in distress ;
j \j1j ^1 ^0 interrogate ; ^JwK ^o appoint as chief; 1^ )I ^o reconcile ;
CTVi ^0 s«w<?; ^K-J ^0 become chief; ^^LJ to feign poverty ;
^Lj'^cfA to split itself; ^L£j1 ^o grieve at ; 1\ n.n^i\ ^o aw^wr »7Z.
Table YIII gives Ll^ — - ^o J^ pleasant; JJ<3— ^o J^ ^m; ;
IJJ -:^ ^0 real? ; ^^^^ — to sin ; Vtj to inform ; \jXs to read together,
teach mutually ; \^\ to teach reading or reciting ; LfiJ to call oneself
a prophet ; LbLsT* wrongly to attribute error to oneself; I ^J^\ to be
skinned ; li^]. to administer well ; \ji r.lil ^o rfe^ieV^ one to read.
Table IX gives J^^j __ <o promise ; ^^/^ — ^o inherit ; J>5^J -^
<o /^«r ; J-C[J — ^0 play at hazard and ^o be easy ; C^J^l ^o cause to
inherit; ^^^-A-j1 to feel sure; njtJ\ to be admonished ; yLJ\ to divide
by lot a slain beast ; ^Jjjii^j. <o expect ; jXulS^]. ^o 5^ ^rt«y.
Tables X to XIII give ^y^J-tosay; jLi — to go ; ujLi jL
to fear ; j^ to fashion; ^ii» to maTce go ; $jU^ to continue in com-
pliance; y^y^ to accompany; \sV^\ to encompass, comprehend; JJiiJ
to counterfeit, forge; ^r^ to appear clear; ^j^^^ to help one
lU
another ; 2^^ ^^ travel in company ; ^^-^1 to he driven ; JJuLrv.) to
choose ; aU^I /o hold oneself upright.
Tables XIV to XVIII give U-Jj-^. ifo hope for ; j^jlS _ ^o direct ;
.^«^j -1. ^0 he pleased ; t_fS:c ^o make pass and ^o ,^?f^ a verb
a transitive signification ; ^)^^ to give mutually, ^^-^y to put off;
1^ to malce oneself manifest ; j<J^ io exalt oneself] -Issr^'i to he
manifested] ^Oa^\ to he directed aright ; ii^lll:! ^o ask for drink.
Concerning the vocalization of Derived Forms, it may be helpful
to note that, in the perfect active, fathah is characteristic vowel
of all : but in the imperfect active we find (except for iv having
sukun to the first radical) in Forms ii in and iv
U A I i4<i Ji^^' (4^:
in Forms v and vi
AAAA • • • • ^ ^^
and in Forms vii viii and x (sukun being duly noted)
A A I ■ • u^: j/% j^^.
In the perfect passive we find
U I as jjf JJy ^\ etc.
and in the imperfect passive
U A A as ^: jjii: ^jjj etc.
Note. Nomina verbi are treated in §§ 195 to 212 j while
nomina agentis et patientis find place in §§ 229, 230, 236 et seq.
115
FIRST FORM OF THE STRONG VERB.
TABLE I. ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i.
Jussive.
Saiy.
Indie.
^.
J^.
^
^
^'
^^14 m. 3.
Sing.
l^
J^
^
^'
vL^f.
o^
0 a-
-^'
^'
s^.^I4 ra. 2.
l^
^
^'
v>>^^
s::4i^f.
Obi
^1
, 0 t
^1
^t
J 0 ^ ^
^•Xc^^ C. 1.
oOp.
op.
Ca4'
oC^'
\^ m. 3.
Dual
oOp
Ui^
i;xc
oCa^'
liil^f.
o^jp
Op
4^
oOi5
U:^ c. 2.
^
J 0^
i>^'
6>:^'
1^^ ra. 3.
Plur.
o«^'
^0 a ^-
vi>;^^'
.I^f.
^
I>U^'
t>U^'
o>;^'
^-Jl^ m. 2.
ou3
^
6-^'
Ch^'
o^U^f-
o^
^-
^^
^^
O^DC. 1.
'Perfect.
116
TABLE I. (continued.)
Imperative.
Feminine
Common
Masculine
^l
Jjl4| 2. Singular
2. Dual
^^^
13^X41 2. Plural
VERBS WITH OTHER CHARACTERISTIC VOWELS.
We have seen however, in §§ 91, 92 and 93, that all strong
verbs are not conjugated like the above ; for instance,
Imperative Imperfect Perfect
Indicative
J J £ -' -. ^ ^
JJlAJ JJCJ m. 3. Singular
• J»J J J 6 ^ ^ 0 ^ ^
JJLdI JJLLj wJLiJ m. 2.
J ^ * < ^ ^ X
^io-a^ f "^^ °^' ^' Singular
^»v J ^ 6 ^ „0
e^: c^^
m. 2.
^ m. 3. Singular
» ^ »
^1
J '' 0 ^
O^ m. 2.
J J « X
cj^ m. 3. Singular
0 JO J
^ 0 J <>
Csfi^j^ m. 2.
117
FIRST FORM OF THE STRONG VERB.
TABLE 11. PASSIVE.
Indie.
J ^0 J
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Suhj.
C,JSjt ^c, ^^ ^<A^
Ch^" ^CJ ^<A^- ^.^
a ^ ^ 0 J 0 ^ 0 J ^ ^ b » J ^ oj
c,,Jbo ^^ ^^ ^^
vl ^ 6 J
^J.JSJ VfcT^-^ S,5T^ 0-!^oJ^
w x^«j ^^ej <^0i ^^oj
UJJu
UJbo
i>oJ^ I^^Jiu t^-oJ^ 0>oJ^
^jU»JXj O-o^ O-O^ V>»^
Itf./o'V./ J ^ V J J ^ y^ J ^ J ^ V J
Ch>J^ i^>K»;i:5 t>jbC5 o»^
Hi^'O^oj <»exflj ^o^Aj ^o^oj
Jc^^ C>-»"2 o-J^ ch.^
chO^ y>^
.^
.^
Perfect.
^^ m. 3. Sing.
0 , J
C-^4 m. 2.
J 0 J
sIXoJL^C. 1.
UJL4 m. 3. Dual
t^4 m. 3. Plur.
^ 0 J
5 J* J
lI^C. 1.
118
DERIVED FORMS OF THE STRONG VERB.
TABLE III.
PASSIVE. ACTIVE.
Indie. Perfect Iwpera. Indie. Perfect
Ji\H J3>5 J31S J3l'4 jili III
i ^ 0 i
^f
^'
IV
M.
^^
.^
J^
V
J3u2
JJU3
Ji^i5
VI
J ^ ^Oi
^ J0»
0 ^0
i ^b.
^ ^ ^0
c^-*-^^
L.-^»
u"^-i*J
u^^>-y^
VII
0 ^0
J ^0^
Ji^j
VIII
ft ^ «
5^ 0
IX
jii£li
* 0 < 0
J © ^ 0 <»
X
\Jua\ AsuAi )U.ot XI
JJ
119
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH MIDDLE
RADICAL DOUBLED.
TABLE V.a. ACTIVE.
Energ. i.
S St a ^
Si St 3 ^
Imperfect.
Jmsive. Subj.
0 J 0^
0 J 0^
0 J 0^
vt J ^
Si i ji
HI A J^
w Si J ^
S ij.
Ml ^ 0 J Ox
w l2 Jx
Ml xO J 0^
0 J o£
\j^i
s, ji
Si J ^ St i ^
tal W J X
0 J Ox
Indie.
C^>^ L^**-oJ c5*>-oJ L>:}*>«0^
ju,)
Si J ^ St » *
o'j^
b**-o^ oj**^
xOJOx xOJOx xOjOx
0^*>-oJ (J^**-^ 0^**-*:J
xOjOx xOjOx xOJOx
jjU^OmoJ o^**^ O^**^ O^J^
J^>3
Jk-*
Perfect.
m. 3. Sing.
0 X X
03J^ f.
J 0 X X
OiJuo c. L
Ijk^ m. 3. Dual
Ujuof.
xJO X X
i.o^^j^ c. 2.
tjjL« m. 3. Plur.
X 0 X X
0 jO X X
^3J>-« ni. 2.
xO X X
U^J^ c, 1.
120
TABLE V. a. (continued.)
Imperative.
1
Feminine
Common
Masculine
0 J OJ
>juol 2. Singular
, J OJ
2. Dual
^ » J OJ
tj^jL^t 2. Plural
We find also
in the Imperative juo,
jLo and jLo; while the
Jussive has also
^Xk>j and jLoJ.
VERBS WITH OTHER CHARACTERISTIC VOWELS.
Attention is drawn in § 120 6 to these verbs, which have
peculiarities beside those below :
Imperative. Imperfect Perfect.
Jussive. Indie,
m. 3. Sinjr.
•41. '^.
^^«^
t,>*^
j,^,^ m. 3. Sing.
m. 2.
121
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH MIDDLE
RADICAL DOUBLED.
Energ. i.
Si Si ^ i,
•X Si ^ i
Si 6 ^J
Si 2i ^ i
o*^
TABLE V. h. PASSIVE.
Imperfect.
Jussive. Subj. Indie.
0 ^ 0 J SxJ i ^ J
0 " 0 J
0 < OJ
i..
^jj^ {^^>^ {JJ^ CH*>^
0 ^ oi
S ^ J
Si ^ 3 S> ^ 3
tj^ OtjLo.3
i^> i^j X it , 3
b**-»^ b*^^ OJ*^^
o^*>^ o^**^ o.***^
I^^x^ lj*>Nfr5 OJ**-o^
^OxOJ <'0„'0J ^0^03
0^**-oJ O-***^ O-^**^
Fer/ect.
m. 3. Sing.
0 w< J
OjLO f.
X 0 J
03Jc« m. 2.
03JL« f .
JO J
0^ju« c. L
t jue m. 3. Dual
^30 3
loJ^J^ c. 2.
i 3
tjjL« m. 3. Plur.
03 0 3
^3J^ m.
U^JL« C. 1,
122
DERIVED FORMS OF VERBS WITH MIDDLE
RADICAL DOUBLED.
PASSIVE.
Indie. Perfect
J St. J
TABLE V. c.
ACTIVE.
Impera. Indie. Perfect
>J^ ^jLo^ 3JL« II
^^W 3^'.
^^Uij
^Uij
i.
33>o
ju»l
^ »i J J
33>«J
OJ WJOJ
■' * ■» w J oj
33U
^O-QiMW
III
3U:e
3U
]
0 of
JL«t
IV
on..
3wXo5
3J^
.!!>..
3J^
V
33 ^-0^
- VI
0 X d
j^*-ij
VII
0 .0
S,.o
5-0
VIII
. 0
123
VERBS WITH INITIAL RADICAL HAMZATED.
TABLE VI.
PASSIVE.
Indie.
Fer/ect
^^.
^P.
^ 3
J^P.
^t
ap.
, -1
3 ^ ^ 3
. i
j-<>^k
^^s
3^03
sJl^^S
m
. vt 3 3
Oip
3 ^"^3
^ 3 3
3 ■■ "3
h'^
3 ^ .03
^33
j^k j^3^
3 .i" 0 3 . 03 0 3
j-«lj
2i\
ACTIVE.
Impera.
Indie.
Perfect
V^t
v^^'
0 3 3
^3^
>t
- I
0^
a.!
A
0 ^
, g
-:".
0 y,t
v?i^
V^l II
0 ^
•' .^■'
, ,^
y,\
>;'ii
^1 IT
0 ^
J 0 J
^ ^^
c^t y^^k \Ji^\ IV
2£.
O^lj O^^ o^^ ^
j-«W
>t^
^U
j-«»^ ^ij-kj j-*'>^
0 X
Z»!
VI
VITI
j^^lZwl ^3U«M^ ^ilwt X
Form VII is not found.
124
VERBS WITH
MIDDLE RADICAL HA]\[ZA.TED.
TABLE
VU.
PASSIVE.
ACTIVE.
Iiidic.
Pffifcct
Impera.
Indie.
Perfect
0 JOJ
^h^.
^>r
0 io
J^^
X X
J4i
■ u^
I
J^.
^ i
^i ^
J^.
J^
» X 0
J < 0 X
JU
A..
X .4 J
^t"
J-xJ
2
^*-»
LT-I^
^)
yj^j
L^^
uHb
ii
J —xj
^^*i^; ^y
i?ju
' ?:^i
i^j->
itr;-.
X 0 J »J
» & •. 1
0 ^x i "^ >
J^^) ^"P. ^^'^
.1
^u^t
xg 0 X 0
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
X
125
VERBS WITH FINAL RADICAL HAMZATED.
TABLE VIIL
PASSIVE.
ACTIVE.
Indie.
Perfect
Impera.
Indie.
Perfect
\^.
% 0
i 0.
\^-
ijoj
:sj
i.o
!;i.'
^ I
I. 0 J
1, •
I. 0 .
ih^^
^.
1-.^
^r"-
'^
II
i J
1 .
l>5
III
( el
2 Og
1 ,j
^.o£
!^5t
IV
t^
is...
Iu3
V
2 . ■» •»
2. . .
lilli;
'iuLi
VI
U'
2 .*
at
VII
'^.
tliii
VIII
C 0 JOJ
2 ..0
J^O . 0
X
12G
VERBS WITH J OR ^^ AS INITIAL RADICAL.
TABLE
IX.
PASSIVE.
ACTIVE
hidic.
Perfect
Impera.
Indie.
Perfect
^^
^3
hj}
h
4^
^3
j^t
j;;;
;-,!
;i:^
V
^,;t
i ^ »
6 0£
^^
iui'
Ut
^ X
^1
0 £S
;j.
• ft^ ft
X X Ox ft ,
6 e^ 0
J Ox Ox
X X Ox 0
X /
IV
VIII
Forms II, III, V and VI resemble strong verbs, and VII is
not found.
127
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ AS
MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE X. ACTIVE.
Imperfect
Perfect.
Energ. i.
Jussive.
Subj.
Indie.
Jii
X Jx
J Jx
J 15 m. 3. Sing.
S ^ J"
Ji5
J^-
J Jx
cJll f.
^J5
Ji3
J>B
J Jx
oii m. 2.
»>!>*j i^>*j i^y" O^i*^
C^l^l
J jj
Jit Jvl jyl
O-iijii
^3>iJ
•^3>ii
g-^J^ii'
•^'15 m. 3. Dual
W X Jx
•^3>i5
<jjj
g-^^ii
6l5f.
o-^^'
'^Mi
<}3i5
C,-vJ>i5
U;:X5c. 2.
i^j^i:
I3JI5 m. 3. Plur.
guiL'
Jju:
X 0 Jx
iilf.
5 J jx
63'^'
0 JO J
^S m. 2.
«< xO Jx
6ii5
i>JU5
,jJLa3
^f.
Jii
J>ii
J J ^
J^
Uii c. 1.
c. 1.
128
TABLE X. {continued.)
Imperative.
Feminine Common Masculine
^y JS 2. Singular
•^^1 2. Dual
^5 ly^l 2. Plural.
TABLE XL
Imperative.
Feminine
Common
Masculine
^■tr;
j-rf 2. Singular
t;^
2. Dual
^ 0
Or:!
Ijj^ 2. Plural
TABLE XL a.
Imperative.
Feminine
Common
Masculine
^^
(^.Aa. 2. Singular
bti.
2. Dual
tjiU. 2. Plural
129
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ AS
MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE XI. (continued from page 128). ACTIVK
Impei'fect.
Perfect.
Energ. i.
Jtissive.
Subj.
Indie.
5 ^
0 ^
^.
jC m. 3. Sing.
0 ^
OjCf.
Oj^
0 ^
'j^
J
0;.w m. 2.
•W
^^
^j^
sLHj^
o^-f.
a. t
0 i.
OjL» c. L
W^
<j\jt~i
IJC m. 3. Dual
M
<^
0<rr^
D>f.
ot;^'
\j^
</r4
UV c. 2.
b^.
Oittrf.
t^jU in. 3. Plur.
^0 ^
Otr'.
X 0 X
ij^f.
» ^
^0 ^
Oj^
Ci^tw
'^
J «•
.^^^-'
Ij^ c. 1.
130
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ KASRATED
AS MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE XL a. {continued from page 128). ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.
O^^ ^-ilaLS L5*lai-5 iJ-JULJ
i , , i 6 ^ t ^ * i J ^ i
Si » ^ ^ f'" i ^ " *■ i ^ ^
,jiU»-; ti^'a^J '>^^a^; Oj^^^'H
•x^O'^ ^0^^ , b ^ ^ , 0 ^ ,
^UAa^.j O**^ O-**^ O"****^
ijiUo t^ULj t^U.J (j3iULi>
•J .^0
^U»J ^..iaLJ oUiJ oULj
Perfect.
oU. m. 3. Sing.
wsA^ m. 2.
CsAa. C. L .
UU. m. 3. Dual
i».c. 2.
lyla. m. 3. Plur.
O-AA. f .
.J:i». ni. 2.
UAa. c. 1
131
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ OR ^^
AS MIDDLE RADICAL.
Energ. i.
TABLE XIL PASSIVE.
Imperfect.
Jussive. Subj.
0 ,1
Ji5
0.1
J3I
.O.J
J.J
Indie.
J.J
J ^ J
J .J
JU3
J>jUj lj:''^ jV'^ «j^^
J15I J15I
J.J .J.J
.O.J .O.J
J.J .J.J
.O.J .O.J
OJUi jii JUL) JUu
Perfect.
JuJ m. 3. Sing.
0 .
f.
m. 2.
f.
c. 1.
^iL5 m. 3. Dual
uLsf.
. JO
loJLSc. 2.
t^Ls m. 3. Plur.
0 JO
>a.5 m. 2.
Ui5 c. 1,
132
DERIVED FORMS OF VERBS WITH j OR ^^
AS MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE XIIL
PASSIVE.
ACTIVE.
Iiidic.
Perfect
Impera.
/iic?ic.
Perfect
»i ' »
X ,» J
0 w X
J »< X J
X W X ■
jy^^
J^
J 5-^
J>^
J>^
ji^ t
X .1 J
OMtX
J». X J
x5x
^tr^.
^
J«-
-^-^
J^J
i^
^jU,
e^^
^>
X J
;.>
;,^'
;:c
il^
^i
iJs
iU-t 3. m. Sing.
"
OsLi-f 2. m.
J^
X ul J J
J>i3
Jii^'
j;i3'
J 5 XX J
X UlJ J
» 5xx
Jfixxx
X fixx
*"
i>«^
c>^
i>«:j
V>J^
o^
X J J
oJu3
Oj'aj
X J >
;:ci
y^.
II
III
IV
VI
X 0»
0 X A
J-JI
X
ja
Jl*^t 3. m. Sing.
xOxo' VII
C^iuJt 2. m.
X » ^
«x 0
;t^
jUA.t 3. m. Sing.
0;.I».t 2. m.
X i « J
0x0
J ^x 0 X
^lillt 3. m. Sing.
C^»ij;>^t 2. m.
*
**'
183
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH j AS
FINAL RADICAL.
5 ^ J 0"
TABLE XIV. ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive.
Sm&;.
Indie.
^^Ji >^^
^ J 0 ^
J 0^
J 0^
i>^^ ^y ^y O-t^j^
f^j
.1
t
>3*^P ^>e-j^ 0'>^>
'>«^>:! ^y*-ji Oi^y^
o^^^^i o^^y o>*-j^ o.>^>:;
O^ji^ ^yt-y ^y^y Oy^J^
jo^e^jj oy^-j^ oy>!-y 0>^>H
z^
y^y 3^y
Perfect.
ULj m. 3. Sing.
, 6 , ,
m. 2.
03».j f .
w>>»g
c. L
!^fc.j m. 3. Dual
U».j I.
K^^of.^ c. 2.
o <. .•
t^ttg m. 3. Plur.
, i , *
OJ 0 X <
^3o.j m. 2.
U^rh.j C. 1.
134
TABLE XIV.. (continued).
Imperative.
Feminine Common
0 J
ll
^^
Masculine
flfjl 2. Singular
2. Dual
l^jl 2. Plural
TABLE XV.
Imperative.
Feminine
Common
Masculine
^?•^*l
oil 2. Singular
bjJb!
2. Dual
l^ilf 2. Plural
CHS-*'jl
TABLE XVL
Imperative.
Feminine Common
w-ji
Masculine
^jl 2. Singular
2. Dual
tl^J 2. Plural
'>-^J'
135
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ AS
FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE XV. (continued from page 134). ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Subj,
O^ lS^ l5Jv»
just ^^jUbl
Indie.
w( X Ox X Ox X Ox X Ox
y« X Ox X Ox X «x X 0 X
fi ■* A X J 0^ J Ox X J Ox
0*H:J 'j^H^ b-H^ Oj**^
-• ^ »^ X Ox X Ox X 0 '
OW«^ CH-H:* O^-J^:} OnJ^S^i
fijO' jOx JOx xjOx
O^ ^>V b^ OJ^
•d X Ox X Ox X Ox X Ox
0^!-y ChJ^V* <>:!«V> i>:IJS^
WxOx Ox xOx Ox
Perfect.
^JA m. 3. Sing.
OJcAf.
C-^ji m. 2
Ox X
^ 0 X X
C.^^JJb C. 1.
Cji m. 3. Dual
X jO X X
U^jub c. 2.
0 X X
tjjJb ra. 3. Plur.
X 0 X X
0 J Ox X
^^jJb m. 2.
v>^J^ f.
iLjJb c. I.
136
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH MIDDLE
RADICAL KASRATED AND ^ OR c^ AS
FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE XVL {continued fr(ym page 134). ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive.
Subj.
i , , » ^
St * * 0 *
9tt
L5-^j'
Cy^t^j^ OtJ^j^
Oy^y
\y6jJ \y^jj
^Uj-<9^ 0^>* OtJ""^
^yifC^
^J^ LT^J^
Indie.
X Ox
,oi
X * X Ox
X 0 X Ox
L5-^J-'
Perfect.
^ X
j-oj m. 3. Sing.
0 X X
X X
w*jwoj m. 2.
OwMi>j I.
J X
WSAiOj C. 1.
Co, m. 3. Dual
t^-fj
9j c. 2.
l^-^j m. 3. Plur.
Oj
^^o^w^j m. 2.
St » X
U^j c. 1.
137
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ OR ^5
AS FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE XVIL PASSIVE.
Energ. i.
W ^ ' 0 J
y4 ^ ^ Oj
W ^0 ^ 0 J
5 ^ - oj
Irajyevfect.
Jussive, Subj.
A^OJ O^Oj
L5*^;'
^ 0 ^ 0 J
Indie.
, OJ
^y* LJ'^H L5^>'
^ 0 ^ 0 J
^5^>> ^j^ Ojj^-j-*
L5^J
^ ^ a 3 ,^63
oWy*'
>^^ '>^.hJ Oy>-ji
C>f!'J^ L>*»t/:J O^^J^H
0^03 0 < 03 xO^OJ
^O'OJ xO^Oj ^O^Oj
OtJ*?^'* 0^^>H \ix^ji^
^03 ^03 ^03
Perfect.
t^j m. 3. Sing.
^*»g
^t^-j
m. 2.
ts^g <^- L
L».j ra. 3. Dual
U^ftij I.
c. 2.
J 3
S^a^j m. 3. Plur.
m. 2.
C>*!J*^J
Lu«fc.j c. 1.
138
DERIVED FORMS OF VERBS WITH j OR ^^
AS FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE XVIIL
Passive Active
Indie. Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect
^ W J
n. pat., m. ^jul« f. oSjaa n. ag., m. juuo f. ^Juuo
J.\iu >y. ^U ^U, ^1
n. pat, m. ^idls^ f. SiJ9tjt.« n. ag., m. J^Ul^ f. ^ublA«
OJ 5 " 0 J OJ O.»0j
n. pat., m. i^^j^ f. Sl»^ n. ag., m. -».^ f. ^
n. pat., m. ^^Xa^JU f . o^laJU n. ag., m. Jj»JU f. <ii\^l^
^iliL' ^^)^ Jlii Jbi JU3 VI
n. pat., m. ^^Uio f. S'^IaI* n. ag., m. Jlal« f. AJbu<
L5^-^ ^yULil Jo^t ^^^jiLl^ii jJU^Jt YII
n. pat., m. ^^^A&«uf. d>a^«Lo n. ag., m. Joi^-U f. AJ.a»U^
L^-^ ^^^' ^^' l5J^£ jJJuAt YIII
n. pat., m. j^juy-© f. Sljkl^ n. ag., ni. ju..^-« f. ijjJly-o
0^0
n.pat.,m. ■^ft....M o f. Su...,Z>».o n. ag., m. ^,..>.':,.».« f. 4.. &>.>.;....«
PART III.
SYNTAX.
[^From section nutnbers belotc there must be subtracted 400, in order to ascertain
the corresponding section of Wrighfs Arabic Grammar^ vol. it.]
401. We have observed in § 77 that an Arabic verb has two
States : of these the Perfect indicates, —
(a) an act completed at some time past, as 2raJ ^^y^ fj-^
Moses plucked out his hand ;
(b) an act which has been already completed at the moment of
speaking, and remains so, thus >LLki^C L^Jl i^r?5?^ ^^^ J^^
^^^j^^\ ^Is. shall I seek for you an object of worship other than
God, seeing that He has f avowed you above all creatures ?
{c) a past action which still continues, as t^l^l^l ^^j^ ^■'ii
Sis throne comprises the heavens ;
{d) an act just completed at the moment of speaking, as ^-ii-^
tLxlJl I repent toward Thee ;
{e) in treaties, promises, bargains and the like, an act which,
though future, is quite certain ;
(/) something desired, as iSj\ <U^j God have mercy upon him,
1I*1»J ^i^Sh. <OJI ^c^ ^^^ ^^*** ^^^ ^^^ grant him peace.
140
Rem. Europeans translate ^^^^--^JUlT tl/J <U-)^ ^j^ blessed he
God the Lord of all creatures, but the verb is declarative (see § 50
rem. a).
402. The perfect is often preceded by bi (see § 362 2) to add
assurance of completeness ; which may lie
(a) in certainty, as U-y iLLiJl JJ We sent Noah, ui^^rsaj U
!;(jjl;; ^1 Ji lli bi llix ^;li UilJTi:^ «o/rom «j5 twelve
springs gushed, every tribe assuredly knew their drinking -place ; or
{b) in being expected or contrary to expectation, as iS^J^ ^
^^^ / have brought you evidence.
Note. If preceded by affirmative J the influence of tx3 is in no
way affected.
403. The pluperfect is expressed, —
(a) by the simple perfect in a relative or conjunctive clause*
which depends upon a clause in which the verb is perfect ; thus
gracious word of thy Lord was fulfilled to the sons of Israel by reason
of what they had endured; ^jwlDl ^[is^ \%jSi^ \'^\ UJi so when
they had cast, they bewitched men^s eyes ;
{b) by the perfect and ii, with or without J, provided the
preceding clause has its verb in the perfect, as bJ i^Ji \»\J IXJj
\^Xa and when they saw that they had erred ;
• A relative or conjunctive clause is one coupled to its ruling clause by
a relative pronoun or connective particle.
141
(o) by i^li to be prefixed to the perfect ;
{d) by (Tjl? and the perfect, with bJ interposed, or prefixed.
404. (a) When two correlative clauses follow JJ «/(8ee § 367 o)
or any similar hypothetical particle, perfect verbs in both clauses
may correspond with the English pluperfect subjunctive ; as
j;j ^ ^S^\ ciili^ }J if Thou hadat wished Thou wouldat have
destroyed them beforehand.
405. After \ Ji when, whenever, as often as (see § 367 b) a perfect
is said to take the imperfect's meaning ; and perfect verbs in two
correlative clauses have either a present or future signification,
provided the first clause extends its conversive influence to the
verb of the second; thus ^jJb U3 \^\^ liLCu.^ ^ (^^''-^ ^'^Ir^
and when the boon comes to them they will say, This fboonj is due
to us. Sometimes \ jl is followed by an imperfect, and sometimes
preceded by ^ or the like.
Rem. 0. So also with two perfect verbs after ijl Lf^ (^^®
§ 415 c) as ilxE^ IjUr* d-JJl \j1 15^^ until, when they (the
winds) bear cloud, We drive it ; or in English idiom, till they bear
cloud, when We drive it.
406. (a) After ^\ if (see § 367 /) and words similarly of
conditional meaning, the perfect is said to take a future sense and
can be rendered by the English present ; as, for instance, after
142
>>
\^ tvho, whoever, U what, [^J» whatever, t-i-^^ where, and the
like. Thus ^;}r^JliiT ^ l^ ^^ ^/w'^ he the victors, ^ ^^^ ^
^ ■ g' whoever is made to guard against his covetousness, ^U> l^ 5^
*arr<?p^ trAfl^ /itf w7t«Atf«, J;iLi »-i-^ ^^ *<^^ wherever ye wish. In
certain cases this rule applies to j^ or.
{h) If the words ^\ etc. be followed by two clauses, the first
expressing a condition and the second its result, both verbs may
be perfect.
{e) If the perfect after ^\ etc. is to keep its original sense, (l)S
or one of ^jli c:^^^! the sisters of the verb kdna (see § 442) must
stand in the protasis before the perfect verb and u- 5 must mark
the apodosis. Thus (^^ <1^ ij\ l(^ CL^Ki gb <L^ <L^ ^\
^t-iJLall if thou hast brought a sign, produce it, if thou art of the
truthjul.
{d and e) Other cases arise in the use of jjl and similar words.
Rem. c. When \^ etc. are interrogative s or simple relatives, and
u:--!**- ^ simple relative adverb, without any conditional signifi-
cation, perfects dependent upon them keep their original sense.
407. After U as long as (see § 367^) the perfect has a present
or future signification ; thus ^t!.V?:CiT U <lU1 lyol. fear God as
far as ye are able.
408. The Imperfect Indicative expresses no temporal definition,
but indicates a state existing at any time. Hence it signifies ; —
143
(a) what is always taking, or may at any time take, place (the
indefinite present) ; as i^\ ^S^ <iJlp i-J^. «'<« (t^^a land^sj plants
come forth hy permission of its Lord:
{h) an incomplete act, commenced and continuing (the definite
present) ; as iG ir^=-' \ I counsel you :
(c) what will occur (the simple future), as ^Jyt^ ^ zf^ CS^j^
thus shall We bring forth the dead ; ''SkXsf^^ 'M^jiS\ make mention
of the day whereon He shall assemble you. The future sense may
he made more distinct hy using <— 54JJ (see § 364 e), thus u— it*li
^j^JLl^ so ye shall know ; or (jww (see § 361 i), thus ^\SJm
^lyAiAMjs^ ' We will give increase to the righteous.
{d) "When appended to the perfect without intervening particle,
it expresses (either what is explained in the following subsection,
or) an act which was future to the past time of which we speak ;
thus cl^ Jo <)^^i«£ J^j^ ^^ ^^^ i^ inform him of this.
{e) Under circumstances similar to those mentioned in the
preceding subsection, the imperfect indicative frequently expresses
an act which continues during the past time, and then it can be
translated by the English present participle; thus j^^y A-ri-i
^\ *p?C ^t^^ ^^ grasped the head of his brother, dragging it
towards himself] ^^^^^ iV*^^^ ^*^ u^J^ c!^*^^V' <4-''^P^ ^j^ji
uJ Jiili they inherited the book, taking the vain goods of this nearer
(i.e. the present world) and saying, We shall be pardoned.
144
Rem. a. After i not the imperfect indicative retains its idea of
incompleteness and duration, as \jSJ Sj tj^. ^ ^LZ^ S^*^-^^
as to that (land) which ta had (plants) do not come forth except
scantily. After U not it has the present sense, as Lsp U thou dost
not resent.
409. By prefixing (J^ to the imperfect indicative we point out
a past act which continued or was repeated ; thus 1^ Li Ui iS^^.
^^yUjo worthless was what they were doing, (l^ySJusSLj^ lyiS ^,<^\
who used to he esteemed weak.
411. The Subjunctive mood has always a future sense after the
adverb ^ not (see § 362 hh), as .^}^ ^ thou shalt not see Me :
also after certain conjunctions, amongst which are ^^ that, as
'jS^jSi^. {^\ ^.^ he wishes that he may expel you ; ^ ^\ (pronounced
f\ see § 14 h) that not, as i\ i^^ ^ Jy! S ^\ ^^ J-i^
^J^ ' fit is J binding on me that I shall not speak concerning God
except the truth ; and J that, so that, as ^-i C\ >m. 1 L\ ^^y* j^^
ulx^^j cLijJoj L/^j^ ^ dost thou leave Moses so that he shall commit
disorders in the land and shall leave thee and thy gods ? For further
particulars see § 415.
412. The Jussive mood takes the perfect's meaning when
preceded by XJ not (see § 362 /) or uJ not yet, as A^jJ 1)1
«— 'L5-XJ 1 ^Li-*.^ ji-^,-11^ has not the covenant of the book been made
with them? See § 418.
145
413. The jussive after ^\ «/and words similarly of conditional
sense (see § 406) also takes the perfect's meaning ; as Ji^f^ ,^\
<U^ ij^i LS^>^ ^aJ^" **^^ *^ ^" ^^^^ befall them, they attrilute
it to tJie had Itick of Moses and those who are with him ; UJ G U^,^
l^j lK^***r! ^1 ^ ^ whatever sign thou hringest us in order that
thou mayest bewitch us with it. When the first of two correlative
clauses contains an imperative, and the second a jussive, the
latter has the same meaning as if the first clause contained
a verb in the jussive preceded by ^\ ; thus cpLJl ^^-L>-t)i
ixJ Jiij enter the gate {and) We will pardon you meaning if ye
enter the gate We will pardon you. See § 417 c.
r ^y
414. The imperfect Energetics are future in sense, as ^f^^
^^^oO:^! "dtii^^} ^ uJi^ ^ "J^jV^ "S:i,^\ I will cut
off your hands and feet on opposite sides, then I will crucify
you all. See § 419.
415. The Subjunctive mood, which can occur only in a sub-
ordinate clause, indicates an act dependent upon, and future to,
that mentioned in the previous clause : it is governed by certain
particles, amongst which are the following.
{a) i. By ^\ that after verbs expressing inclination, order,
permission, necessity etc. ; as also by ^ lj\ that not and ^ not.
Thus jii|^ <^-Ay U^ (^j ly*^ y^^^ ^^^^ ^^y perhaps destroy
your enemies', see also examples in § 41 1.
146
Note. When Uj is used, the ruling verb may be understood,
as ,2piiJ^T 'J^ ^p ^f i^i; JS ^! ^\ ju^ U ^p^ <*«y
%a%dt 0 Moses (choose) either that thou or we throw. We find
^j jjl as ^4^ ^y v^I ^fr^ tij:'.'^-^ ^ f»4i ^^^ unbelievers have
asserted that they shall not he raised (from the dead) : here ^\ stands
for 1:JJ \ , and this is common when the verb is negatived, as well
as when the verb is strengthened with bJ , (jw or uJ^ .
ii. But if the ruling verb makes an assertion (without ex-
pectation, wish, or the like) and the verb following ^\ expresses
a past or present sense we use the perfect or imperfect indicative
after ^\ . Thus l^j )S^'^ !j^ rr^^ V^ wonder that an
admonition has come to you, ^l-^ \^\ i^l ITcnow that he is
sleeping. It is however more usual in this case to employ
a nominal proposition (see § 513) using ^\ with a pronoun ;
thus iyij lLnJI i-ijc he knows that thou standest, <L)t \^^^ IJI
i^,4KJ ^ could they not perceive that it {the calf) did not speak
to them f If the ruling verb expresses doubt or supposition
concerning a thing future, ^\ may govern the imperfect in-
dicative or subjunctive ; as J^lii 'Lfij ^jl \^^ they thought it
was ahout to fall upon them.
Rem. a. As regards XJ,a.^T ^\ the ^an which with its verb
is equivalent to a magdar, see § 488.
(b) By J in order that and its compounds; thus^L^J \JJb ^\
1^3^ 1 l^ \^jss^} ^.tX^! \ ^ Syii^^L^ verily this is 4i plot which
147
ye have contrived in the city in order that ye may drive out of it
its people.
Rem. a. Originally J was a preposition (see § 356 c), and
when a conjunction it stands for ^Wi for that, as is seen in the
negative aIJ (for ^ ^?) : we cannot say JlJ .
ic) By ^J^ till (also originally a preposition, see § 358 h) :
but if no intention or expectation of the agent be implied, there
follows the indicative, or as in § 405 rem. c the perfect.
(d) By i_J 80 that when it introduces a clause giving the result
or effect of a preceding clause which expresses a wish ; thus
^^ ^^^^ ^)V1 ^ i^4^-^: u\ i^j ^3-^ t/our Lord
may perhaps make you successors in the land, so that He may see
how ye act. There are other conditions under which t_5 governs
a subjunctive.
416. The indicative must be used in all clauses except those
governed by ^^\ or other particle with the sense of ^^\ ; as
^^j^Lilo A^ 4^ulf\ uJ^l-^ lI^^Nj thus We diversify the signs
to a grateful . people \ j^jAJJu ^ l^ ^JJl ^/« ^i^l / ^'wom? /rom
God what ye know not', *l^j ^ ^"^3 '^ ivT^ J"^ Thou
eausest to err whomsoever Thou dost wish, and Thou leadest aright
whom Thou dost will ; ^jjl^Jo ^'-^-*^ perhaps they will take
warning', ^j^i*^ i* ^<j1 lo, they break their promise', ^jjS^ <^l
(w-^jil^J^ ^ m;A«» Mtfy transgress on the Sabbath.
148
417. The Jussive usually conveys an order, being connected in
in form with the imperative.
(a) It is used with J prefixed (the li of command, see § 366 c i)
in place of the imperative ; and if J or i— 5 be also employed, we
we may write J : thus ^T,^^) \ J3^^^ ^-UT ^^ upon God
then let the believers rely (as to this verb's final vowel see § 20 d).
"We seldom find J thus used except with the 3rd person, which
is wanting to the imperative.
{h) "With the adverb ^ we use it to express a prohibition, or
a wish that something be not done ; as iWftJ ^ do not thou (masc.)
commit disorders) a»^\ i^ '.^3^£^ Y^ ^l^Vl ^j ^ji^-^aJ^ t
^y;j^^^&\ do not thou make mine enemies to rejoice at my trouble,
and do not place me with the wrongdoers.
{e) i. Also we find jussives in the protasis and apodosis of
correlative conditional clauses, which depend upon ;^\ or any
particle having the sense of ^\ (see §§ 406 and 413) : in the
protasis, when the verb is without ^ and is imperfect ; in the
apodosis, when without i-J and having an imperfect verb. Thus
JL-Ji i. JkifCj *jii \ J--»^ \y3 ^jW/ they see the path of error, they
will adopt it for their path ; irJ^^A^ «di^ l/^ S^ u' */ worthless
yain come to him like it (the former) he accepts it (also) ; ^y^, ^U^
OJ Ju^ <uJ L) whosoever believes in God, He shall direct his heart.
If however uJ marks the apodosis, we must use an indicative ;
149
as uJli^^ Is ^.j-i u^U c/* whosoever believes in his Lord, shall
not fear.
ii. The jussive may appear in an apodosis when the protasis
contains an imperative verb ; as CSC^^ J^'j ijjiu ^'^ V \ -Xsr*
l^,.u'L^ b ^j Jei- Ij an(^ thereupon ( 7F^ «a/c?) TaX'^ <A« ^a5/«« m?iYA
force, and command thy people {so) shall they grasp the best part
thereof \ ♦-Ii j^\^ JiL cliy Ij ^J^\^ <J<-»j^ send gatherers [and)
they shall bring thee every skilled magician \ Cl^^\'^^\ ^J^
show me {Thyself and) I shall look upon Thee, This construction
is explained in § 413.
Kem. b. The conditional sentence whose apodosis must be intro-
duced by uJ is further treated in § 587.
Rem. e. "When (i) the apodosis has a jussive, connected with
a following imperfect by « J or j, we usually employ the jussive
again; thus iL) JixT j ^ ^^ ll^^ \^^ ijjT ^^j^ ul
if ye lend to God a fair loan, he will multiply it to you and will
pardon you : so when (ii) the protasis has a jussive, connected
with the following imperfect by i J or J ; as Sys^'^^ \yaju ^\
%.^j jjix. JlDi ^Li ^jJ4*^j if ye condone and pardon and forgive,
surely God is forgiving and merciful. Here also ^-iJtj ^^, ^
Cjl^ ^^^i f)^ ^j^, CsrJU J^UJj whoso believes in God
and does right. He shall efface from him his misdeeds and shall cause
him to enter gardens {of Paradise).
150
418. The jussive is also used with the perfects meaning, as
we have seen in § 412, after Jj not or l^ not yet] but in
these cases we have the jussive's form and not its sense. Thus
\^ lij1j iJl has there not reached you a story ?
NoTB. When ^\ if precedes, we observe § 406 a ; thus IJ jj|
\^j Ixi^'j if our Lord do not show us mercy.
419. The imperfect Energetic (see § 414) has several uses,
amongst which are the following : —
(a) With J verily (see § 361 c) prefixed to it in a simple
asseveration, thus 1^^^^ ^ (*if^-^ ^^"^^ '—■^ li*^^ i^V
Lord proclaimed {that) he would surely send against them one who
should afflict them ; and in asseverations strengthened by an oath,
thus ^iUi Uj ^f,^ p ^^^ ^jj ^L; ji say, On the
contrary hy my Lord ye shall he raised {from the dead), then ye
shall he informed of what ye have done.
(c) With J in the apodosis of correlative conditional clauses
in which case J must be prefixed to the protasis also, as ^\jJ
^^jJCst ' ^ ^y^ ^j ^ j^. y verily if our Lord do not
pardon us, we shall surely he of those who suffer loss.
420. The Imperative cannot be used in negative sense : instead
we must employ the jussive as in § 417 h. Thus bJb repent
thou, 1^ 5 ffo not {thou) repent; L-Jil-^" ^j ^y*^^ ^^^^
ijj-I>J|Lj spealc Arabic to us, do not speak in English.
151
421. The verb may govern a noun in its accusative (or oblique)
case, and by help of a preposition a noun which we then put
in the dependent (or oblique) case. We shall have frequent
examples of this government, not only by States and Moods,
but also by nomina actionis, agentis, et patientis and by other
nouns possessing verbal force. Sometimes the verb is understood ;
or it may lie concealed in a particle.
422. The accusative of a noun is governed by the verb, either
(a) as an objective complement, assigning a limit ; or
(J) as an adverbial complement, see § 440 et seq.
423^ Most transitive verbs take their objective complement in
the accusative, as ^Ju*ji4lT J--Jj ^t^ 5 do not thou follow the
path of the transgressors ; many however govern the object by
help of a preposition, as J^jJ^ J^r^ t^i ^ when the plague
fell upon them ; some govern in both ways with the same
meaning, thus *^<>i they accused him of lying, and ^^^^ ^ ui^'
IjiJub ^^J^ We drowned those who charged with falsehood Our
signs. More frequently a verb which governs in both ways has
different meanings, thus iS^Lj^ he perfumed it with musk, ^ cL^<^
he held it fast ; and diverse significations may attach to the same
verb if used with different prepositions, thus u^i^ — to desire,
which is transitive and intransitive, has ^i *-^^ to like, ^£. ^^^j
to dislike, and ^J 1 u^^^ to supplicate.
152
Rem. a. Amongst ijSf6Jii\ jUiV 1 the transitive verbs (see § 75)
we include those which govern by help of a preposition alike
with those whose object is in the accusative. Besides being
transitive as ^ix »lJ>j to fall upon, the same verb may be in-
transitive as ^J to befall, come to pass, thus (J^ ' %-^j^ so the
truth was established.
Rem. b. Dictionaries will teach a student how each verb may be
employed. Be it observed that, in Arabic, verbs to come govern
the accusative and require no intervening preposition, thus <l£yl
/ came to htm, JJ ^'^ ' I came to her with it, i.e. I brought it
to her, (j)^^J iyk^ ^^ ^^^ magicians came to Pharaoh, \^j l:>-
n;}^"'' I ^'***^ thei/ brought a mighty enchantment.
Note. Yerbs to come may govern an accusative of the person
or place; and even another accusative as in Coran xix, 28
13 J ll^ S-^*^ ^^ verilg thou (fem.) hast come to a strange thing.
Rem. e. A sentence may stand as objective complement, thus
4.lJgT ^C)^ ^ IjJk«<^ ^c destroyed what he was making (see § 514).
As regards j^ to sag and its derivatives we may note, that when
followed by <^,l^ a narration we use ^\ Jb , thus J^^ ^A\ Jj
*;Xlll ^\ sag thou, Verily I am God^s apostle to you, and what
follows it is commonly a quotation, as ^Tj^^^ IJ ♦>^! fj\s he
said, Certainly ye are an ignorant people. Very sparingly, if at all,
is it permitted to use ^\ Jli .
153
424. Two objective complements in the accusative may follow
certain verbs, of which there are two sorts.
(tf) Those whose objects are unconnected, they being causatives
of which the ground form is transitive and governs an accusative
(see § 41 and § 45) ; thus l2-J^U. I***^^ ^ bring you messages^
^^^JT JiJj^ ^J^^, -2^ causes the night to cover the day, U \^<i:>-
J^iUij^ tahe iohat We have given you, ^^-i«:Uj] Jj^j m^s^ I toill
show you the dwelling of the impious, jf^^ !^ *^^ iiT^ nr^^
He causes whom He will of His servants to inherit it : also some
other verbs of causative nature, meaning to give, lend, etc. as
J* lij ^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^'^^'^ provided for you, \^y^\ lJA>i>l
direct tis {in) the road, L-Ji *^ Jk^j 5 it {the calf) did not direct
them {in) the path, l^\^ \ ^^ "Ixj^^w they lay upon you the evil
of punishment.
{b) Those whose objects stand to one another in the relation
of subject and predicate ; being (i) verbs signifying to make, adopt,
name, etc., u5 <Ujt>- he made it {into) atoms, Ujil l^llxlai We
divided them into nations, )L^ j^^tX-islj V ^A^y (?o «o^ a^j9^ it for
their path', or (ii) ^,^I,g 1 i JUiWAd r^ri^ o/ the heart, which are
^. . . ^
so called because their action is mental; for instance ^\\ to see,
i ^
think, know and its iv passive ^Jil to think, believe, lL£ to know,
A^J ^0 rftf^m, Jb ^0 ^Ain^, etc. ; thus \;^^ l^i^lg / thought her
patient, V^*^ *^j^^ they find him mentioned (lit. written).
154
Rem. b. Verbs like ^Vj and 3^"^ may also be ^J^i ' jUil the
verba of {the organs of) sense. ^
Rem. rf. Three accusatives are governed by (^^JJil) J lie! in
their fourth form, as ^^-^^ ^^U^l fS^..J„ he will make you think
your actions foul.
426. All verbs, transitive and intransitive, active and passive,
may take their ownjjl^ infinitives (see § 195), or their deverbal
nouns of the classes nomina vicis et speciei (§ 193), as objective
complements in the accusative. Thus vjyi ^j*^ he gave him
a beating, \xJiio %-^ he desired eagerly, l5tj ^j^ ^ received
a beating, \j\^l^\ \%jZ£^^ they were puffed with arrogant pride.
This accusative is called jJi^H J^xsUJl the absolute object or
Jjua^l, and it may appear, or be i ?j*Xs^ eliminated-, thus
lir!U J^ he does right for lirJU U^ JvUj, also iLi^ idkr
for l^.^-.C llIL <0^ A« follows it in swift search. We have given
(§ 202 I^ote) cL^l*x£ as derivative of the second form to which it
serves as ma9dar, thus ''^^^ l^^^Xc i^i^^l / «<7«7/ chastize them
very severely ; but the ma^dar of a different form may be employed,
or even of a different verb provided it be synonymous.
Note. Verbal nouns, nomina actionis agentis et patientis, etc.
n like finite verbs take ^jJii^l J^xixiJl;
^ Jo Jul Ij\ Jlc God is their very severe chastizer.
can like finite verbs take Ji^7 J/l^J] ; thus f^^^ ^Ul
155
427. It has been observed of nomina verbi (in § 195 and § 421)
that, when infinitives from verbs which govern an objective
complement in the accusative case, they can govern an accusative
instead of a dependent. This is especially the case if one or more
words divide an object from its governing infinitive, because a de-
pendent case cannot be separated from the word which governs
it. Also, when an infinitive is defined by the article, its object
must stand in the accusative, because the noun so defined cannot
take after it a dependent.
Rem. c. Beside infinitives (nomina actionis) there are verbal
nouns of similar force and significance which govern in the
same way.
428. Infinitives govern by help of a preposition, with rare
exceptions, when from verbs which are transitive in that manner.
429. Frequently however an infinitive governs its objective
complement in the dependent with J (see § 453) instead of in
the accusative. Thus *^^ u-^ H^cJ liLli^ We wrote an ex-
position of every thing. So it is with certain other verbal nouns.
430. Nomina agentis can, like infinitives, govern a noun in the
accusative, as 1^ \ cf.>.A*^ <l)J \ God is a chastizer of the people,
or in the dependent, as z*^-^ ^ CSl^* *^ ^ ^^^ ** ^^^ destroyer of
the people.
156
Note. When from verbs which are transitive by help of
a preposition, nomina agentis must govern in the same way.
Thus ^y!^3cS% \SSj ^Jl IjI vertli/ to our Lord shall toe return;
^^Ic ^!ii V^ ^^^ ^^."^ ^^^y ^^^^^^ ^w^ signs, and were
neglectors of them ; -itniii ^^5 <U\ \S^ they thought it to he falling
wjpon <^«w ; l^ jC^i*^^ j^^ <4^ls:^l u% ^ \ these are the victims
offirey dwelling perpetually therein.
431. What has been said in § 429 concerning J after an
infinitive, applies equally to a nomen agentis.
Eem. When by rhetorical transposition a finite verb, whicb is
transitive without help from a preposition, follows its object, we
may use the accusative, as ^j^4iJaj if^X^l ^y o !*^3 ^y%^ t«
they did not injure Us, hut they were injuring their own souls ; or we
may employ J , as ij^^ J^^rJ ^.."^^ ^^^** who fear their Lord,
In like case a nomen agentis cannot govern an accusative
but requires J, thus ^^J^ l^ iij^ ye dislike it. If the
transposed object be a pronominal suffix, 13 1 may with the finite
verb be employed instead of J as in § 189 h.
433. Beside the nomina agentis, some other verbal adjectives
govern either an accusative case or J with the dependent.
Note. When from verbs which are transitive by help of
a preposition, these adjectives govern in the same way. Thus
157
1> Ji * *^ Ji ^Lc ji J& w ai/d ^0 do everything ; /Ul^ O^tr^
hinding wpon tne.
435. Frequently the accusative depends upon a verb which is
uJj Jksr* eliminated : —
(a) In phrases of command, exclamations, etc. we must supply
the verb to which the accusative noun serves as J^n^ \ J^^A^Jl
(see § 426). Thus \^ gently ! for ^ J^! , Scl^j ^^U::^ hearing
and obeying for <^ll9 A^^^i ^^^ £-^^ / ^^<^ ^^^^ a'i<^ implicitly
Note. The native grammarians represent that cI-nJ^^uj stands
for lLnJI^U*' '*^' J^ praise Thine absolute perfection.
(5) In other cases the verb must be conjectured, as ^^ ^'
^ ^*
where we may supply t::-^! ^/*ow Aa«^ come to people and a plain
i.e. to friends and a smooth place ; tL^J u^>-Jj« that is ci^Ju^J
Mow hast found for thyself roominess (see § 27 Note) ; cliJ^ •
that is V (see § 1 78) guard thy foot ; i-li*l JJJ that is J-ia3 \ /oo^
behind thee.
436. The adverb ^\ and the conjunction J;^ take the following
noun or pronoun in the accusative case instead of in the nominative
(as one expects the subject of a sentence to be) because, so it is
said, these particles embody the verb to see ; thus <JJi (S^j ^\
verily i.e. see that your Lord is God, \jt iij«^ <UJ\ ^ ^yULxJ ^ji
158
^^ JIjiJ UJ ^y/*4. ^^ ^^^y ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ knows what they conceal
and what they reveal? So in case of their compounds ^^ and
^S^l (see § 362 ee and § 584 h) hut, yet^ ^l? as though (see
§ 367^), and when coupled with a preposition, as J;Lj and jjV
because ; thus ^jy^Jjtj ^ f^j^^ Ir^i ^^^ ^^*^ ^-^ ^^^^* ^^ ^^^ ^«o«^,
Sli? <ulii a« though it were a canopy, ^^yi^ JjJl j^Lj 'ii-*J LH
does he not know that God sees ? In the above examples the subject
immediately follows ^\ etc. and under such circumstances J (see
§361 c) may be prefixed to the predicate ; thus ^--i Ll/^iJ ul
JiLtf rm/y m;* perceive thee {to he) in error ; 4-^^*^ <— ^j Jil
%^j j^sjt} <uU c-->U*iI sMre?y ^% Lord is prompt with chastisement
and certainly He is forgiving and merciful. There may however be
a separation, between ^\ etc. and the subject, caused by an
adverb of time and place or by a preposition with its complement ;
thus !;L) \jSk^ ^i jijlj p^\jj\ ^ ^[ verily enemies of you are {to
be found) amongst your spouses and children : when this separation
occurs J may be prefixed to the subject of j^l or jf>l , as liJ ^Ji
1^^ shall there indeed be to us a reward f If the predicate be
negative we must not use J , thus ^ Jdx4) i cJ^^^ i! <U 1 surely He
doth not love the transgressors', ^^-.si^^*^ ' ^\ ^j.^'.i ^ \j\ verily
We will not allow to he lost the reward of the righteous : and so if
the verb be a perfect without ^, thus ^»ix*aiila \ liii! 1 ^\
point of slaying me.
^j-^jM-, 'i.1 ^^^l-jj surely the people despised me and were Just on the
159
Rem. a. These particles, together with those given in rem. /,
are named \.^Ji\^^^ Ij J])| ^inna and its sisters. The word governed
is called their pii\ noun (see § 525 rem.) and the predicate^^^ .
Rem. d. In § 353 * we have mentioned lilJU \ I;* the hindering
md, which when appended to ^\j ^\ j ^\S and ^t^-O is followed
if i ' ^ ^
by a nominative ; thus <LiJLj Li6^ji UiJl <rw/y yowr children are
a temptation, <^S.7..h lSJ\yt\ UJ\ \»a>Xs.\^ know that your riches are
a temptation. The same influence is exercised by j^LiLil --.-^u-i
(see § 362 m and § 367 g) as ul^jj ^Vj4 ''^l ^^**^y thy people are
generous.
Rem. c. a lightened form of these particles may be used.
Rem./. The words c:--iJ «;o«Zrf ^Aa^ and Jx or JiU perhaps
govern an accusative like ^\ etc , thus ^^^^Xj Lx-UJ perhaps ye
will take warning. "We shall mention JsxJ in § 442 rem. g 2.
438. An interjection usually precedes the person or thing
called ; while for vocative case we must use the nominative or
accusative.
(a) As has been noted in § 368 \^ 0 / takes its following noun
without the article.
(i) We use the nominative — in the singular without tanwin —
when a particular person or thing is addressed by the speaker
directly and without explanatory term ; thus ^)Sis^ \j 0 Mu-
hammad, J-^J U 0 man or Sir, iji^^ ^ ij^)^ J^ Moses said,
0 Pharaoh !
IGO
(ii) We use the accusative when the person or thing called is
indefinite and not directly addressed, ilJ-J \j somebody/ ! ; as also
when an explanatory term is appended, thus J^lJ^l j^^ Ij 0 sons
of Israel, ^5^! ^ 0 brothers of ours.
Rem. a. These rules hold good in the absence of an interjection,
as itXrf> Uilic c jI \s3j 0 our Lordf pour upon us patience.
Rem. h. In the vocative ^^ _. is usually shortened into _- (see
§ 317 rem. J), thus /»y> Vj 0 my people, c^/J 0 my Lord : but this
abbreviation in not permitted with derivatives ending in ^.^ -^ or
-J. from verbs whose final radical is ^ or t/ . Beside ^ _- and -^
there are other forms possible, as 1\ ^\ JU he {Aaron) said,
0 son of my mother.
I
Rem. d. One word only, viz. <lLI^ , may retain the article and
follow l^ ; thus ajJl U 0 God or irregularly ajj| Ij .
(I) The noun following \^\ or \^\ U, whether singular, dual
or plural, must be nominative and defined by the article; thus
JJ^ \{(\ 0 people ! \^\ ;jisl'\ \:>^\\Oye who believe !
439. When % is immediately followed, by an indefinite object
and denies its existence we make the noun accusative and, if
possible, we omit tan win ; as "^Ja 1\ <U\ ^ <UJl God, there is no god
but He. But if an explanatory term follow, tan win is retained ;
as i^.i^ a^Jr*^"^ l^U- i there is no one knowing the Cordn by heart
amongst you.
161
440. "We have been treating objective complements since § 422
and shall now consider the adverbial complement. This sort of
accusative depends (a) when expressed by ^JO -L. to he, exist (and
by certain similar verbs, see § 442) on the idea of existence or
being, which is limited and determined by the accusative ; and {b)
on circumstances detailed in § 443 et seq.
441. When employed as the* logical copula ^[^ is called J;0
<L^liJl the incomplete Mna because to complete the sense there is
required an attribute, which we must put in the accusative. Thus
^y^J^ l^^ lyLi they were guilty people, ^^.^JU^ V^i ^^'^^^l
they took it {the calf for their god) and were wrong doer 8 j 1^ LlIJ
^-jAmjI>- i JJ 1 J »i We said to them, Be ye i.e. Become abject apes.
Also we may note ^S\Iiu\ ^V? ^ ^^ l^^^ {one) of the grateful,
which is equivalent (see § 448/) to |^^ !j^ ' But when the
idea of existence is attributed by ^ to its subject we can only
employ the nominative, as 5]^ J;u there was an ape : here the verb
is <L^IX)\ ^li the complete hdna, because it contains the attribute
and requires no other, for \dji, J^o would mean he was an ape.
Rem. a. The subject is called ^^-i i.^]. and the predicate J^
^jli, while the natural sequence (see § 518) is verb, subject,
predicate ; this order may however be varied if sense allow.
* In logic the copula is a word which unites the subject and predicate of
a proposition, it Ls known as i^l*J\ the fastening.
11
162
Hem. h. Sometimes ^l? is uJj^XsT^ eliminated, as ^^x^j^^} ^.^*^1
liLu&j V ^Jl^ \JLLj\j hear ye, and obey, and give alms, it will be
better for your souls, where ^^xj is understood.
442. The same construction appertains to ^jo ci^V^r^l <7i^
«»«^tfr« o/ Hw« which are often used as synonyms of (^^ without
relation to time, though they add some modification to the simple
idea of existence. In this class are ^^^ — to continue, ^^^J —
to remain, j\ja _. to become, JJs ^i to be or do all day and not
a few others, most of which may be cL^lJ : while fj^^ not to be,
which is always <!L^U, expresses the negation of existence ;
thus <ULj ^ ij*^ i^ ^^ *« ^0 error.
Eem. g. Instead of an accusative or a preposition with its
-' fi y T-
dependent ^ <jl^^^\ may take as attribute a verb in the
imperfect, thus following the analogy of ^jo (see § 408 <? and e,
and § 409). With this construction we can connect that of
A^jliAil Jlxi^ verbs of appropinquation, which are of two kinds.
(1) Amongst those which indicate simple proximity of the
predicate is ^li jl. (see § \bl) to be just on the point of: commonly
its predicate is an imperfect indicative, thus ^jy^zso^ i^OlS they
were on the point of hilling me. (2) Amongst those which indicate
a hope of the predicate's occurrence is- ^c^ perhaps : commonly
it is construed with ^\ and the subjunctive, as ^^\ j^Jj ^J^
^StS^. <^^^d y^^^ ^^^^ ^^y P^^^^P^ destroy your enemy, but it
163
can take as accusative a pronominal suffix like JjU (see § 436
rem./).
443. Brief allusion has been made in § 440 h to other adverbial
accusatives which determine and limit the subject, verb, or
predicate of a sentence, and sometimes the sentence as a whole.
These adverbial accusatives are of different sorts and indicate : —
444. {a) The time in or during which an act occurs ; as (j^s\\s>^
\^\ ^-i ahiding in them {the gardens) perpetually, >ii,-^l^ ^\
Ji-^j-ilii 1^ l^^liL^ when their fish came to them on the day of their
sabbath, ^j tilL^ (^y-^ \jt>\S^\^ 111} (^tj ^^ Utvi^j
<UJJ ^y^j\ and We appointed with Moses {a period of) thirty
nights and We completed them by means of ten (jnore) so that the
set {duration of) time of i.e. appointed by his Lord was fulfilled
i.e. came to be in all forty nights. Here ^^"^ and ^ri^j^ ^^®
adverbial accusatives of time.
(5) Locality, direction, and extension, may in certain cases take
the accusative ; as 'j wj ^*^., j^ ^^ looked right and left. Of
this sort are the words given as prepositions in § 359.
Rem. a. We must use ^J in, when the place is definitely
specified, as ^Jj^^ ' JiiU J^ l::^^ \ I stopped at the place where
al ITusain was killed. But with a verb meaning to remain or the
like ^Jm, and similar vague nouns of place, are employed
without preposition and therefore in the accusative ; thus ^^\
<0oUj1a£;:j\ if it stand firm in its place.
164
Note. Certain substantives signifying time or place can be
uJLaA annexed (see § 475 and § 478) to a verbal sentence, but
only in the accusative case ; thus i^^^-;^ («m^ ^ ^ ^y**^i ^ ^Ai
on the day on which they did not keep sabbath, fish did not come to them.
Rem. h. The accusative of time and place, illustrated in above
examples of this section, is called u-JjQl the vessel (see § 221
rem. a) or ^ J^*R;iJl that in which the act is done.
{c) The most important however of adverbial accusatives is
called jl^l the state or condition, i.e. of the subject or object
or of both, while the act is happening. Thus ^c^^^ t^J ^
U-o] (j^r*^ ^C??* L5 i '^^^^ Moses returned to his people angry,
afflicted i.e. in a state of affliction and anger ; J--j^ h/'P ^ 5^
^i>^^^j •"^'^ Mrr? V-^ rfe^^ ^^ *^ ** ^^'^ sends the winds, heralds
of Sis mercy lit. between the two hands of His mercy i.e. in advance
of rain; ^J^ui ^Cs^' i^^' ^^^ magicians were thrown down
prostrate (^adoring).
Rem. a. The hal is ^lLJJ « redundancy, thus l^t*^ ^^ ^»^b\
<Cftrs-j cfl// w^o» 2/owr Zor^ humbly and in secret. Here the
command to pray is of itself a sentence; and the conditions.
grammatically superfluous, reply to i^Jt^ how ? as the accusative
called Jls'l must always do.
Rem. b. The hal depends upon a regent (Jli J^^) which
may be (1) a verb, as U*.^ 15-^^ J^ i/bs«s /^^^ e?oed?w thunder-
struck-, or (2) a deverbal adjective, as itlSj ajjf J^i-J ^|
165
\^^kA^ verily lam God's apostle to you all, where J %^ is accounted
a deverbal adjective, J^<^ ■cil being equivalent to l::^U^-^1
I have been sent; or (3) a demonstrative pronoun or other
expression having verbal force, as ^t\}\^j\^\ ^LAs.*^] vl^^ \
ly-i these are the victims of fire dwelling continually therein^ where
(JJoTf \ is equivalent to 1^ \ Jl^ they are pointed out as.
Rem. c. The hal is (1) usually dLi-^ an adjective expressing
a transitory state, as Uli» l^^ll-^ J^t^i*-' ^^^^^ fa^ came to them
manifestly : though the adjective may express a permanent state,
thus ^ly;^>^^JlS^ \SJy \S3j 0 our Lord, receive us dying, as those who
are resigned to Thy will', l1j\^s***^ (*^^ ^Jj^'^J Jl*X^ (J^
^^b He created the sun and the moon and the stars, held in
{a state of) suhjection hy His command. Sometimes however
(2) it is an infinitive with the meaning of a participial adjective,
as Ix^Jj <*w« L-NJJ ci^Ari-i I received that from him hy hearing-,
or even (3) a concrete substantive, as ^^\ *^4^ luLj^b
them the deluge and locusts and lice and frogs and blood {in the nature
of) signs, separated by intervals. Lastly (4) hal may be a proposition,
as in § 583. There may be more than one hal, with or without
J and between them, as can be seen above.
Hem. e. In all our examples hal is sj^ indefinite, and this is
most usual.
166
Rem. /. We call the subject or object to which a hal refers
J Is!' kS^^\^ or Jl^' ^j, and it is usually tJjji^ definite as
happens in all our examples.
Note. Occasionally jLs^' »J[^^^Lc> is eliminated, as t/JJl
\^0 i\ Lys^ ^ <J^ZS^ as to that {land) which was had its herbage
does not come forth except scantily, where <^Jw must be supplied as
9ahib to \>^ .
Rem. g. Also it will be observed that in all our examples the
hal is placed after its regent : as a rule it occupies this position.
{d) The accusative may express an agent's motive and object in
the act, its cause and reason; as U^bj \j^ s^J] call ye upon
Sim out of fear and eager desire. Definition by the article is
unusual, this accusative being indefinite except when in construct
state (see § 475).
Rem. Only /Lt^ jJ^^ « mental or intellectual infinitive can be
employed in this way ; thus, we may read into Elementary Arabic :
First reading hooh, page rf line 4, ijSjC* {we warn them) ly way of
excusing {ourselves). Reply is given to the question iJ why ? (see
§ 351 rem.).
{e) Other determinations and limitations of the predicate may
be expressed by an accusative called Lj-^1 the specification', thus
vJIaj j^il J c^Us David is cheerful in spirit.
Rem. a. Like Jiff \ this accusative is <Q*dJ see c rem. a. It
must be an indefinite substantive.
^
r
167
Rem. h. We have mentioned in §§ 322 and 323 the accusative
whicli follows cardinal numbers from 11 to 99 inclusive : it is of
this sort, being called JjJ«] 1 J-;?-^ ^^^ specification of number, and
is most usually singular, see § 499.
446. Relations of time and place are designated by prepositions,
as also ire many ideal conceptions. We shall treat those mentioned
in § 447 as indicating motion from, in § 450 motion towards, and
in § 454 rest at a place ; while in § 470 compound prepositions
will be found, over and above those detailed by § 355 et seq.
447. The prepositions indicating motion from or away from
a place, are \^ out of, from, and ^ away from.
448. We designate by help of ^^
(a) the local point of departure from a place ; as ^^ lL>y>.l
ix^jl he expelled you from your land, JV« V^ M^^ uL^Li
i UmII \ 80 We sent upon them a plague from heaven, t--?^)^ ^ from
a contrary i.e. on opposite sides. Hence it is used with verbs
which indicate liberating, preserving, warning, etc. as o^UJ^s^i
(:ji^jt J^ cT^ ^^ delivered you from Pharaoh^ s people ^ ^\^ J^ ^
iUkcyJ a warning from i.e. against everything.
(J) The temporal point of departure ; as K^ ^ from the
Hegira i.e. from 822 a.d. /•
Rem. a. When used in any of the above significations, we say
that ^j^ is employed *1 ^ iJ to denote the beginning.
168
(c) The causal point of departure, the origin and source of
a thing; as ^IfT ^ i^l I know it from God, ^^^^^ 'f^'^'W
'J^j an admonition has come to you from your Lord, "iSsA^j] ^^
Ji^ from among your wives originate enemies, lj\ 1| IL« XiiJ U
\jj^[^ UJ \ijj ^^^.l' l^^ thou dost not resent anything of which
we are the origin except that we believed the signs of our Lord when
they came to us.
Rem. a. Here ^ is employed J^USU to assign the reason,
(d) The distance from anything, especially after words signifying
proximity, when in English we must render ^^ to ; thus «Uk^j ^\
^^^s^ 1^ "^-^.y i^^ surely the mercy of God is near to the
righteous.
{e) The difference between two things when compared : hence
the use of ^ with an elative (see § 234) when comparative ; thus
<CL^ 'j^j^\ handsomer than he.
Rem. a. Sometimes ^V? with its complement is omitted ; as
^f^^ ^ jjj ilri~ Hy^fi J^3J1 the last abode is better than this
world /or those who take heed to themselves, where U3 jJ\ ^ may be
supplied.
(/) The relationship between part and whole, between species
and genus; thus ^j^^piA-ll ;^ (*^li P^ J^ ^^ *^^'^» ^^*' ^^^
ytf «^a// he of those who are brought near {me), ^i}^ /•^S ^ X;«il
169
the chiefs of PharaoK& people^ \^^ l^oj ^J^ \ ii^A \^iC^\ inhabit
this village and eat therefrom, IL» *l^^-iJl the fools among us.
Rem. a. Preceding a definite noun, which is usually plural, ^
may indicate an indefinite quantity or number ; as ^ \^
LL^Uiyi eat of the good things. Together with an indefinite
dependent ^ may be subject of a sentence as in the following ;
AJJl ^ jL> 5| I^*^ ^^ c^l^l t« no mischance befalls except by
permission of God.
Rem. b. Governing an indefinite noun after a negative particle,
^ gives the clause an absolute and general sense ; thus iL) U
^1 tiT? y^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ whatever.
Rem. e. In these examples ^/« is used ^_^,^jiiJ to indicate
division into parts, as also in <4->yi^l Ji ^^ u^-3-\ 7F^ produce
all sorts of fruit ; sometimes it is employed c-*^-|^1uJ to indicate
composition.
(g) After indefinite U and U^J^ whatever we must use ^^
before the explanatory word; thus |jl ^ ^^ \Sj\j U^ whatever
thou bringest us of a sign : in this case we have a general term
rendered more definite, as also when ^ indicates the material
of which an article has been made ; thus *^-4!h>- !^ c3%? ^ ^^V
{made) out of their ornaments.
Rem. Here ^ is employed jjwJ to explain.
12
170
{h) Another use of ^ is called J-->i*^ 1 the specification ; thus
/>^op/« 0/ Pharaoh with years {of barrenness) and with diminution of
fruit.
Note. There is yet another use of ^ in a-J^ \CtMJ Li so We
took vengeance on them.
449. By help of ^ we designate distance from, motion away
from, and the like : hence it is used
(fl) after verbs which denote setting free, forbidding, etc. as
l^pj j X^X£ il<Aj he puts away from them their burden, ^ X*^^.
Xx^J 1 he forbids them from the disapproved.
{h) After verbs which imply the removal of a covering, as
asking etc., thus JjJ-^ \ ^ i^JU;^ ^ j aw^ as^ ^^^m concerning the
village, l^ji\ uL& ci^^Li ^Aow A«s^ removed from us the plague.
(c) After verbs which imply turning away, as /^^^ ^^ \^^
they were neglectors of it, ^\il^ <Lii J^^ He effaces from him his
misdeeds, t-^-^-kxJ i ,<^^ j!}^ L::^Xi l^ w;^m the anger became still
{so as to be) away from Moses, ic^^' ^ i.^J:^\^ I will cause to
turn away from {the direction of) my signs, ll£ ULc Ijic they
disdainfully turned away from that from which he turned disdainfully,
<U£ *-^^J he avoided it.
450. The prepositions indicating motion to or towards a place
are ,^ j to, ^-^ up to, and J to.
171
451. Opposed to ^ and ^ ^^ ic-^l ^liich signifies
(a) motion or direction to or towards a place ; thus \^y \SS^j\
^^ Lf^l ^^ ^^'^^ iVbflA w»^o Aw people, J--fUj 1 ^ Wo ZTm «« ^A^
returning, JJls' ' ^j Ui) ^ ,j^j iut look toward the mountain,
^J^y^ ^\ ^^^^J^ ^<3 revealed, i.e. indicated ^o Mosea. Hence,
because inclination is implied, ^Jj follows verbs of excusing and
repenting; thus cliiJl ^^^ ^ repent toward Thee, ^^\ ^J^^m
ILj^ it is an excuse to your Lord.
(5) In respect of time Jj usually indicates during a con-
tinuance; as J^\ ^\ until a fixed term, $^u^ \ z*^ ^\ during
all the time till the day of judgement.
Kem. When used in the above significations, we say that J!
is employed *l^ Lj to designate the limit,
(c) To show that one thing is added to another we use ^J\ and
hence ^^^T ^Jl (see § 23 rem. d) to its end, which is definite but
sei^ves for etcatera,
452. In addition to implying like ^\ motion towards an object,
. ,S^ must indicate arrival.
Rem. 0. "WTien ^c^^ is a conjunction (see § 367 ^) it exercises
no governing power upon nouns.
453. Whenever possible J must be so translated as to indicate
abstract relations, those that are concrete being expressed by ^\ ;
172
f . o
thus c^* ^ Lf^i ^^ ^ ^^^^ country, but Ll-C;i *^-UJ ilta^ 7F<?
drive it for the use of a dead country. This distinction cannot
always be preserved ^as is shown by §§ 429 et seq. where J
indicates an action's relation to the direct object which stands in
place of an accusative; thus iLj .LA^I or iCsT^l / advise you
(see § 423). More often however we employ J
(a) for passing on the action to an indirect object ; as ^^y* J^
A^^ Mo%e% said to his people, liJ ^^}x^\ make for us, j;L) <^l*^
he multiplies it to you, \jiJXs^''^\l ISJ Ui], pardon {the sin) to us and
have mercy upon us : so with reflexive verbs, which govern self as
their direct object ; thus ^^^-^ <U^ ic^^ ^ ^^^^ ^** Xor<^
manifested Himself to the mountain, and we find the sense of ^c-^sr*
in ^J^\j1^ 'Uij'jji) 1 j1 lo, it is white to the beholders ; also by
taking praise as the direct object, we may place here ^Xj ^,J^^
(jp^yi^S 's V* whatsoever is in heaven gives praise to God; and
unless wholly idiomatic l1X3 ^CV^^ he believed in thee. In these
cases fj and its dependent are not essential to the clause, whereas
it is different in
(J) the dative (i) of possession ; as 5<X^ ' ^J LliLl^n <0 to Him
lelong the dominion and the praise, Js^*- ^ which lows lit. to it is the
{power of) lowing, i:J.J ^tol ^\s. ^yoJij, they cling to their idols,
jj ^r^ J*<^«r for me, lIXIaD ci^ij a daughter of the king (see
§ 492) : (ii) of permission or right ; as cl^l^IIbJl Ijjj JssT he makes
173
lawful to them the good things^ uXJ ^f^ J \ I give thee permission :
(iii) of advantage, contrasting with ^J-c (see § 459 h) ; as liJ c j\
{^LS^j pray on hehalf of us to thy Lord but ^^ Uj he cursed him;
also 'j JjJ <U^jJ ^J^ « guidance and a mercy for the benefit of those
«>Ao, |^V\ ^j a^Xu^ ^^ ^-^ . <k ^ iJl^ii ^5 ««<? do Thou
write for us i.e. place to credit of our account advantage in this
world and in the next, iS^b uJ this is owing to us.
Kem. h. By use of J we express the verb to have, as f:l < cj ^
I have no brother.
{c) Attention is drawn by J to the purpose or cause of an act ;
thus iJ for what reason? (see § 351 rem.), l^X^ ^«1 <^L^\s JU
1^ 1 L^y^ ^ ^^<^ ^ohen a section of them asked, Why do ye warn
the people ? c— ^llalJ Lplil^ a booh for the use of students, u_jt^
A^ tZjll'Vl We diversify the signs for the use of a people, 1^ Jp j^
^%4^ ' A^ll iXx;«»s^ maX-e mention of the day whereon He shall gather
you for the sake of {what is in) the day of assemblage {of the angels)
i.e. the day of judgement.*
Rem. Here J is employed JJj^lJ to indicate the cause.
{e) Also J marks the time of an occurrence; as ^[:>- UJ^
liJliL^J i^y* and when Moses had come to Our appointed time,
* This rendering is in accordance with Baiduwi.
174
A^sT^ ^ aJ^ J| 1 on Moslem new year'' 8 day lit. at a point of
time when a night has passed from Muharram*
Note. Many verbs indicating a state of mind, friendly or
hostile, advantageous or disadvantageous, take J of the person
towards whom the feeling is directed ; thus <U ui^-^jj^ I hate Mm.
454. The prepositions indicating rest at a place are ^J in, into,
(^ at, in, by, with, ^^ with, along with, ^J^ or ^^} with,
beside, near, and ^Jlc over, above, upon.
455. "We designate by help of ^
(a) rest in a place or during a time, and motion into a place, as
^^Vl ^ \^j LZj\^^X^\ jJ \ji <iJi to Sim belongs whatsoever is in
heaven and earth, A^\ 0^ ^J l^Xi.j>- Se created them in six days,
-.^p V \ ^j <U Itoll^ We wrote it for his benefit upon the tables,
Lj Jj^ ^J \2Aii uJ when a falling took place into their hands i.e.
when they grievously repented, ^ \^^j\ remember what is in it,
L::-^t-u.J^ J on the sabbath day, ^jJti\^ ^^Ij^l ^ J-5|}^ *^^^
gatherers into the cities. This meaning applies also to less concrete
relations, as i^^^:xA^j ^i li>> jl^ if^?i (J^- pardon {the sin)
to me and my brother and cause us to enter into Thy mercy.
(h) By rights J means in the midst of as may well be seen
with a plural or collective ; thus ^^i^T ^j.jj> ^>^\ ^y^ J^
♦ Further explanation of dates will be found in Wright's Grammar vol. 11
H HO and HI.
I
175
^cr^\'^ l5^^ (-T^ i/o««« «a«? to his brother Aaron, Bo thou act as my
deputy among my people, and behave uprightly.
{c) We use ^-i to state the subject of thought, conversation,
or writing; thus ^y^l ^i ^^. Op^ ^%^\ The first book
treating of the Arabic language.
{d) Further J is employed with verbs of desire, as ^ ^-^^j
he liked it.
Rem. "We say that ^ is used ^^^JbiJ to indicate time and place.
Note. The phrase ^-J ^^V tc^ ^ l/^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^'^ w^'A?VA We
blessed is equivalent to UliLijlj j«^U
456. Whereas , ^ indicates amongst we more often express with
c--? mere proximity ; thus J-=fj^ <-^*^y^ I passed by a man, lilio
Uj l5 b j<^^ ^^ «^w^ J/bs«« t^«7A Owr s«^m«, |j!io li Ari- take it with
force, fJ^y*-> ^jjrr^ ^^^i/ associate bad luck with Moses, ^ tj*4^
dSLa there is in me no error, (J^^ lAj^J LiJ\JiJJ:^\ (J^-^"^ Se
created the heavens and the earth rightly. Accordingly verbs with
certain meanings govern c_^ and its dependent in place of an
accusative ; thus ^ U^to IJ Uj <-^'J-^ / saw that which they saw
not, ^.^Ic ^^ ^i*V^ ^^ ^.r^C ^ ^^^y '^'^ '^^^ comprehend anything of
His knowledge, J»^I^ Uj ^^^^ioJ 1j <A«» ye shall be informed of
what ye have done, c--jI£^L) ^^LLj^^ ^..'^^ those who hold fast to
the book, ^\ jjL)^ •->^' ^ ^^^^^ w;iYA ^Ae name of God; and u->
with its dependent may take the place of a second accusative, thus
176
^IjuiVi ^ ui^N^-iJ J) do not cause mine enemies to attach ignominy
to me, iX^ \ ^13 b i-^'^-S remind them of the days of God. Some-
times a verb governs in both ways with the same meaning (see
§ 423) ; thus A-^T u^J"^ *^^ ^^ seized the head of his brother,
and ip ^ (i.i^Mi iJci-U il drowsiness does not seize Him nor sleep;
dJJb \^l^%7.':^\ ask assistance of God, and l1/L|W 2JLkJ lI/IjI
' •'^ "^ ' Thee only do we worship and of Thee alone we ask assistance ;
^^ ^yiJI? they treated it unjustly, and b^-lii U ^^gy <??■<? «o^ injure
Us. Under this general idea of contact are represented the
following.
(a) The relation between subject and predicate, especially in
negative propositions ; as ^j^yXi y:^ U we are not believers.
{b) The relation between an act and its object, especially after
iJ^\\j\ JlXii intransitive verbs; thus cJ^y^Jlj '^^-^Lj ^«
commands the approved to them; ll^T we have believed, but IL«1
^^--fJUI 1 t_-^^ w?^ have believed the Lord of the worlds : we notice
this particularly after those indicating motion, which must then
be translated by transitive verbs (see § 423 rem. b) ; thus lL33^
tlJuI^U i^AIjJ iiftt^^ iJi-^li <U b ^Aw was because their apostles
w«^<f ^0 Jr% them proofs, ^^! 1 uA^j^l l<^ ^ii^ ^*^ c^ws^f^ ^^^
children of Israel to traverse the sea.
{c) The relation between an act and its instrument or reason ;
thus 1/:;T ^:rJ.ijTj^j;; iliT^^L lIJIJj this shall be because God
177
is the patron of those who helieve^ ^ Vx5>-^Li *U) i c-:vir***i uJjJl
Ll->il;«^^ jj^ ^ We came to descend hy means of cloud the water ^
and we produce by means of it {the rain) all sorts of fruits^ ^11 iO«^l->
hy God^s permission, sJi\j (j:jKs.'***^ held in subjection by His
command, l1/1^ijo uL^^ \^\ <t^^ ^UiyO^^ ji \^y* iJl ^^^?^J^5
C-s^ 1 a«<? ^tf revealed to Moses, when his people asked drink of him,
saying (see § 367 «) Strike the stone with thy rod, Uj ^f^y^ tlXl Jo
(jJJLfij^ \yj b ^At<« ?F(9 ^ry ^A^w by reason of that in which they were
impious, jJ^ IjbliJiJiJlJ <LliJ ^Tj:^^ Li^-T* ^'^iJ ^^ appointed
with Moses {a period of) thirty nights and We completed them hy
means of ten {more), jc^^J {J^'^^A W^^^ ^_^ < * ^\-} ^V^ ^Jl
verily I have chosen thee above {all) men by reason of {My putting thee
in charge of) My messages and because of My speaking {to thee).
Rem. c. To express without we can use J^^ ; thus (^i^\
(J^ ' ^ ^ji \ j<i {^}^^ i^^ose who behave proudly in the earth
without justice.
I
Hem. d. Some would place in this suh- section aJJl jj^ by the
>
name of God while others supply is<^,^ as above.
Hem. e. Arabian grammarians have divers expressions to denote
the uses of < ?.
>
Note. "We find t-^ used in the sense of ^^ic, thus ^'j <0 1 \^
J^j ^^^y thought that it was falling upon them.
178
4')7. By help of *-^ (or iJ*) with, along with, we indicate
association and connection in time or place ; thus ^*;« <d^\ send
him with me : there are also less usual meanings.
459. "We employ ^i-c over, upon, above
(a) in its local sense ; thus lU*.l \ 1^4-^ l^illjj and We spread
for shade over them the cloud, lP}-^ ' ^X^ ^y!^\ IJ then He
established Himself upon the throne : and a similar sense may he
discerned in J-^JJ^ f*-V?^ t^J ^ «<?A«» the plague fell upon them,
4_^iLfJiJ ^tj"^' ^ ^4-^ uJJJIj and We sent down upon them manna
and quail, Ijl^Xc Ji^^li^ u-il^l I fear in your case a punishmentf
^j^L*jAJ 1 Jo 15^ ^JJ^ Is: upon God then let the believers relg,
j^,llc c:^0ijt3| ^,^^\ those upon whom Thou hast shed blessings.
(J) As implying disadvantage (see § 453 b iii) ; thus l-^^v^
^^J>:c <UJ^ God was angry with him, ^i-^^^^ ^^^ he sent him against
them. Also we use Jx after words signifying difficulty and the
opposite ; thus i*.i^ llsd ' z^^J^ J^Jl^sr^ ^^ >w«/;«« unlawful to them
the foul things, J.^ dJj^ ^Jls tlXJj ^Aw t^i^A 6^o^ is easy.
(tf) To express an obligation ; thus ^fj-.-4J \ i^ ^ *^.?*i; l5^
distinct delivery is incumbent upon Our apostle, ^^f^ ^^U !*-^^
t^lixi \ ^^li-^ «« no^ ^A« covenant of the book taken upon them, (J^^J^
^^_ji^ it is binding upon me.
{d) To show superiority in one over another ; thus ^ "l^LLii
179
jTJt!-^^ ^ He hai favoured you above all creatures, ^\^ J^ iJ-c j^J
Ijji and Se is all-powerful over everything.
(e) To give the condition serving as basis upon which a person
rests ; thus -^^v-^*^ i ^^.t) ^Jx (^^ he followed the Christian religion.
{J) To indicate the subject spoken of ; thus ^Lc W^ij ^ i^\
^i^ ' 1\ ^JJ\ ^A«^ ^A^y should not say concerning God other than the
truth.
Rem. a. Other uses exist; as /^^ tJ^j ls^J^^ f^^^ ^'^
admonition has come to you thrinigh one of yourselves.
462. "With an oath {p^i) we employ J hy provided a substantive
follows and there is no verb of swearing. The complement {dji\'^
mJ:^\) may be an affirmative verbal proposition, and the verb
may be imperfect, in which case J is prefixed to the energetic
P y <tt
form ; thus ^piu»LJ ^/J^ by rny Lord, ye shall he raised.
463. While commonly reckoned among prepositions t£^ as, like
is a substantive and synonymous with J^ likeness (see § 482/).
"We find it in 1 jki thus, clXJ Jo in like manner, so, and ^l? as though.
Note. Attached to dS we find aLilLl \ [^ the hindering md (see
§ 353*), thus £^T j^j U? \^| l£i Jx^\ make for us a god like
their gods.
t
466. To signify at the side o/we employ 51c ; thus sSL^ <iUJ^j
iJoi Jj^l a7id with God there is great reward, cJjci^ ix^ Uj hy
180
virtue of the covenant He has made with thee, ''jJtiSL^ u^£x^ aj^ioT
^J j'V^V \i i''JJ^ ^J they find him written down with them i.e.
mentioned in the Old Testament and Gospel, :3cLc Ji^U;? \X^\ ^\
4JJI verily the cause of their good and ill luck lies hidden in the
counsels of God. When used of time CvLa may indicate a particular
moment, thus ^J^ J^ i^:^^\ I felt sure at the time of writing it.
467. Signifying between ^^ indicates an intervening space, tlius
//¥> jj^i c)^^j^ ' ^kH ^^^^^^^ ^^^ Flood and the Regira. Of
common occurrence is i^33 ,^,^ between his two hands i.e. in his
presence, and J^-^.'AjI ^J^^ between their hands i.e. before them ;
thus i^^;^^j u^^ Jr?? ^^/^^^ ^^^ mercy.
468. Signifying beneath Lii-^asr^ indicates the lower part; thus
^^ ^iT ^ ^ ^
HjS^ I cz^^asT under the tree.
Rem. b. Its opposite is "^i^ above ; as ^<^l^ ^j^-i ^^-^ ^ 5^J <?«<?
He is all-powerful over His servants.
469. Signifying below ,^.f> often indicates something inferior,
and
{e) that a quality belonging to one is not possessed by another ;
thus (JJJJ ^.J *^A^J i^^sz\^\ L^X^ the good are among them
and those who are not that are among them.
Rem. Beside 0>lc, ^^^ , d.-ocf' and ^j^*^, there are other nouns
in the accusative (see §§ 359 and 444 b) which are employed as
prepositions : for instance,
181
x.^ X ^.
(a) ^ before of time; thus lL3 (lj^\ ^\ J15 ^ "l^iJiM have
ye believed Him before (hat I gave you permission. Its opposite is
i>jo after) thus l^^iUi>\ 3m ^y^\ ^J l^SuuiJ S rfo wo^ y« commit
disorders in the earth after its ordering.
{c) ^\j^ behind, thus (JS^\jj j^\ look behind thee: equivalent
is t^-ciri-, thus *.J^J^ l^j SnTl"^^ Mt?? ^ ^^^ -^ blows what is
before them and what behind i.e. what is and shall he.
470. Compound prepositions have usually ^ as the first part,
and the second part must he in dependent case. Thus
(i) ui.^ ^ ; as jly ^J \ l^ ^ ^c^ ^\SJr '^■"4 i «»''
^tf shall cause him to enter gardens under which flow the runnels
of water.
{c) Ji5 ^^ and Sju ^ ; as ljl|| lSj}^\ J^ ^^ before thy
coming to us, ^J^y* (^^ ^ \Stj6 Ij then after them (the
aforesaid) We sent Moses, l^Axj ^^ 3«AiiLLi> U-l-j ^i?i7 ^a?;«
ytf wrought in mine absence after my departure, ^^-i^ ^."^^
l^jJo ^ l^U Ij t^lll^\ ^Aostf «^;Ao <fo evil things {and) then
after that repent.
Rem. e. The construction may sometimes he made more concise
hy omission of a preposition ; thus Ibs-Jj ^^^ ^3^ i<^y* J^^^i
UjUL-^J instead of ^^ ^^^i^t a«(? ilff?«^« chose from his people seventy
men for Our appointed time.
182
471. The infinitive (see §§ 195 and 426 to 429) like other nouns
is indefinite unless defined by the article or otherwise ; thus ^ i
^-U^ IsL)^ \^ 5£j IxJ J therein, 0 you, is a great trial from your
'lord; 13 jj -^^j ^ .J-dl J^jlili jW'^ ljli?T^rriJjT ^|
UiT^Ui:^ ' J verily those who chose the oalf {as a god), wrath shall
overtake them from their Lord, and ignominy in this present life ;
iL j Jl ijSx^ \Jl3 they said, It is a, way of excusing [ourselves) to
your Lord.
472. The rection* of nomina agentis has been treated in §§ 430,
431. They and nomina patientis (originally adjectives, see § 80)
are frequently used as concrete verbal nouns, designating a person
or thing to which the verbal idea closely attaches itself, while
remaining immovable. The Imperfect is nearly akin, but being
part of a finite verb indicates motion or renewal.
l^OTE. "We retain Professor "Wright's term nomen concretum
verhale, though it might perhaps be as well to employ the word
participle, here and elsewhere.
473. For a specific indication of time we must look to some
other word in the sentence ; thus ^^--^sfCUJ Ift^li^l jSJjj^ Jb
^T,t^b 'fH^^'y-i ^15 A*^^-^ ^^ answered. We will massacre their sons
• By a word's rection, we mean its influence in regard to construction,
requiring that another word be in a particular case : the corresponding term is
Aj^ action of ffoveimment.
183
and we will save alive their daughtera (lit. women) and verily we shall
he subduers over them, where (Jww gives a future sense to all three
clauses.
(a) In a clause which is not circumstantial the concrete verbal
noun refers to a present or future time ; thus I^a^ liLaJL^ UJj
a^^lj lil> J^l j! J-^JjJl lut when We removed from them the
plague until a fixed term, which they were about to attain \ a^ «Ia ^\
^2j*-i-4Jc lyli l:^ cJ-^^5 ^ i*^ l^J^!i4 as to these people destroyed is
that {religion) in which they were, and vain is what they were making ;
^^y^ ^jS^^J-^^ )*>^^ Ji^liLlri- ^J^\ l^b Ke it is who created you,
and one of you is an unbeliever, and one of you a believer ; \X^ \^\i
j^j-i^^ (J-nJ ^^j^ '^ '^} ^ ^. ^^ i^^y *^*^> Whatever sign
thou bringest to us we do not believe in thee.
{b) But the concrete verbal noun in a circumstantial clause
refers to the same period of time as the ruling verb ; see § 583.
The Imperfect Indicative will be found used in nearly the same
way ; see § 408 e.
474. When attached to a verb as adverbial accusative (see
§ 444 c) a concrete verbal noun refers to the same period of time
as the verb itself; thus \s^ <4^^^ ^^ii-b^ enter the gate pros-
trating yourselves ; l^ ^ jJli ULp\l.S^ j^I^^ I£e shall male
them enter gardens to abide therein, an instance of JjJjA JU- hdl
indicating the future.
184
475. A noun, when governing another noun in the dependent
case, is called by the Arabians < ?ui* annexed, and is said by
European grammarians to be in construct state. It is shortened
in pronunciation by omission of tanwln or of the terminations ^^
and i^f in order that the speaker pass quickly to the governed
word, which is called ^! uJl«^J^l that to which annexation is
made. Their relationship is known as a^L?1 annexation.
REir. There are two kinds of annexation ^ClLils:^ ' ^LsliVl the
proper annexation and A^A-Xsr 'Jlc ajl^cVl the improper annexation :
in the former ujLs^J i may be i^yt^ defined or ij>J undefined ; in
the latter it can only be ^^ , except when the article is prefixed,
see § 489. ^
476. In the construct state of a governing noun, followed
immediately by the dependent of a governed, can be represented
all ideas which we express in English with the preposition of. ^Hl
Thus \^J^ \ ij^ the chapter of the cow,jS:^ \ sji^\^ in presence of
the sea i.e. situated by the sea, cX-iJpl J>i^ 1^;?. u! if ^^^V «^^ ^^^ ^^1
path of true direction. A word may be governing and governed ; '•"
as ^^j^\ |%Jj CS^y* the Ruler of the day of the judgement^ d^lL^
ifjj the appointed time of his Lord, Ixj J^l 1^^^^^ ^<^'^^ V^ hastened
the affair of your Lord ?
478. (a) The governed word (^^ u-ild4J^) in proper annexation
185
may be nomen substantivum,* a pronoun or other word regarded
as a substantive, or an entire clause (see § 488). Thus ijy^
j^UJjT the chapter of the overreaching, *^>^i \^y* Moses and his
people, i^ U^l cLL^ l/^tT iillj UjUI \/s^J ^In'.'^T? ^"^^
those who deny Our signs and the meeting of the last {dwelling), vain
are their works, "^^Jj ^ ^r?^ ^ '^^ ^^^ ^/ ^^^ 9^^^ things
which we have provided for you, ^^0^ ^^ JJ \ Uj the story of those
who disbelieved.
{I) The governing word (t— 5l^AJ\ i.e. the one in construct
state) must in proper annexation be nomen substantivum* in
•which category are accounted prepositions, as 1^1^ 5 '^, ^ft^^ *^«
ordering ; so also are numerals, for which see § 496 et seq. Thus
[j/yn d^j the Lord of Aaron, X^^l Jljj \^\^ they tasted the
mischief of their doing, .^5ucJT c^^Jo %^ <lL)^_5 and God is well
acquainted with what is in possession of the Ir easts. An adjective in
construct state is improperly annexed (see § 489) unless, as in the
following examples, standing in the position of a defined noun so
as to have the force of a substantive ; thus ^y\ ^^^ the
handsome (part) of the face or even the handsome face, ••-^-^ \ LIU
i'(3Lr^l^ J the Knower of the hidden and of the manifest. As regards
superlatives, see §§ 486 and 493.
• We use nomen substantivum here as in § 190, to include primitive nouns,
infinitives, and simple substantives.
18G
Hem. a. In proper annexation the article J] can never be
prefixed to ujUiiJl, in the improper it may (see § 489).
s. ^. ^
Note. The annexed word can be governed by a verb u-i.^Xs^
eliminated, as J\i£jf ^yj^ ^} juJi^^ ^)J ^^SJC^, ^)j make
mention of the day whereon He shall gather yout for the day of
assembly, this will he the day of general deception : here we must
prefix^ JU
480. Instead of having an adjective attached to it, a noun may
be in construct state qualified by another noun ; as jtx*^ J^j
a sincere man : this is common in specifying the material, as J^
J^L>- a calf (made) of ornaments. ■
482. The following substantives are used to express the whole,
the part, the like, and the different, by being annexed (uJUii) to
a dependent.
(a) Jp the totality, the whole. If the leading substantive ii
S ^
defined and signifies something single and indivisible, J^ means
o
I
whole
.. <- A
J^ the whole hoiLse ; if it is definite but plural oi^H
collective, we must render J-i all, as ^\ZC^\ J^ all the fruits,
^Ll \ jJ-S all the cattle ; if it is indefinite (Jj means each, every, as
u^ '^^}-J ^ '^,} (Jj \J^ !^\ if they see each sign they will not believe
in it, *^^^ cJj l::-»x«>^ lj^'^^5 '^ ♦wercy comprises everything. In
§ 402 a will be found j^Ul j.^ every tribe : here, as may be
187
learned from the context, {jm\j\ is collective (see § 305 rem. e) but
is used as a singular.
(i) ^t^^^ the totality, the whole, much resembles Jp ; we may
however say U-^cf- i^l to you all (see § 444 c rem. b 2) but not
(rf) ^^ something different may usually be translated o^A«r ^Aan :
thus sj^ ^\ ^ liJ U JJJ 1 \^5u^\ worship God, ye have no god
other than Him; l^Jl Jii^-«jl ^Jjl^lci «A«Z^ / seek for you a god
other than Ood? t:(j Jj ^jJTj^i fji 1^ \y^ ^^^JjT J5J
^A« wrongdoers among them substituted a word, other than that which
was told them. For Jjx) without see § 456 rem. c.
Kem. a. "We employ ^ii as a negative, thus ^^^^^J!^ impossible-,
but if repetition be needed we must after the first negative use i
followed alike by a dependent, thus /ii^^J^ tw-^.^^xii ^^."^ ^ ^l/'-f
/^-JLaI 1 ^j f«^yr?-^ <-_j^-kx«J 1^^ M^ w?ay of those upon whom Thou
hast shed blessing, other than those who are the objects of ( Thine) anger
and are in error.
St, fPt,
(/) J-^ likeness, like, as <)Ui^ the like of it, like it.
Rem. a. Similar in sense to Ji^ , but without case signs, is CJ
see § 463.
486. Properly annexed, in construct state, are found deverbal
adjectives expressing the superlative, of form Jjel (see § 234) or
188
Jxi (sec § 242 note 1) ; thus ^^-A^^p \ i^j\ l::^\j and Thou art
the most merciful of the merciful, ^,ji^ ^ yf^ '^^^ ^5 ^^^ -^^^^^ ^^^
the best of those who pardon. Here one item is made to stand
prominently out of a whole designated by the dependent ; and
being in this annexation definite substantives (see § 478 h) Jxil
and ijxi need not vary in gender or number (see § 493 rem. a),
thus ^J3^\^\ the greatest of the cities, t^Ll^l the lest thing
that is in it.
Rem. a. Being superlative Jjl^ first stands in annexation of the
same sort, thus ^Tjr^j^ ^ j|^ \i\ I am the first of the believers. The
other ordinal numbers ought not so to be used, for they are nomina
agentis from transitive verbs, see § 328.
488. When ^\ governs a verb (see § 415 a) it is ^^j^y^\ ^i
the ^an which with its verb is equivalent to a magdar (see § 195) and
the same construction appertains to the indefinite l^ (see § 353*).
Thus li^isj- l^ Sm ^j ^^^^ i)^ «Jf^ ^ ^.Ai^ ^^ ^^^^ wronged
before that thou earnest to us and after that thou hast come, which is
equivalent to \j\3\ iSl^ ^ ^j \J^\ l^JoUJ} J^J ^.^
before thy coming to us and after thy coming to us. Clauses of this
sort frequently stand as aJJi 4«JUiAJl (the second member of an
annexation, see § 478 a) in lieu of a dependent.
489. "When improperly annexed the noun in construct state
must be an adjective, thus ^^^\ ^f^^ handsome of face, %-^,j^
189
<— ;u*J \ prompt of chastisement. Here the dependent though
always defined by the article exercises no defining influence upon
its governing word, which remains i^ (see § 475 rem.) and can
be defined by the article, thus <-j^^ ^ 'Lj^^\ <lL]1 Ood the prompt
to punish*
490. Except by poetic licence, nothing can intervene between
a noun in construct state and its following dependent, consequently
an adjective qualifying the first member must be placed after the
second; thus ^p\ ^^p^ i^ji^^^ 4^j A! ^^^ i^«**^
belongs to God^ the Lord of the worlds, the compassionate and merciful.
492. In proper annexation if the second member be indefinite
the first is the same, as *-la£ ^tj \^\',yS i^^-c uJL:^^ ^Ji\
verily T fear in your case a punishment of a great day. But if the
second member be definite so is the first, as j^l^iwi 1^^ \ liJjjl
\^^SsSii'^ ^\^\ We earned the people to inherit the eastern parts of the
land and the western parts of it. If we desire that the first noun
be indefinite while the second is definite we must employ the
preposition J , thus J^J'JJ ^3i a son of the man (see § 453 b i) :
certain words of wide signification may however remain indefinite
even when followed by a definite dependent.
493, The examples in § 486 have each its dependent (ujUi^Ji
^ \ ) definite and therefore partitive : if indefinite the dependent
* This sort of annexation is treated in Wright's Grammar vol. ii § 30.
190
must be explicative, as *UJ J.Jj1 ^ they are mod excellent women,
)a:\». 'J^:>' iSl\ God is the best preserver. After the superlatives
J^l first and 1>.1 last the indefinite dependent is likewise ex-
plicative ; thus |5i J|l the first verse, ^^J^t the last day.
Rem. a. If the dependent be definite the noun in construct state
(v^jtiiJl) may resume its characteristic attribute as an adjective
and conform in number and gender to the object or objects
mentioned ; thus ^^51 ^^> \ ,^^^ ^/^ it is the largest of the cities,
^j5,t jLilT d^lj^ ^jJb they are the largest of the cities.
494. Attention has been drawn in § 480 to a way of specifying
the material from which any thing is made : this also may be done
by putting the material in apposition to the object, both being
either definite or indefinite ; thus Xk^ ^jJo ^ ij^)^ ^}^ '^^ ^ J
\'^jL^ and the people of Moses after his departure took for themselves
{as god) a calf of red gold.
495. Of two things which are identical, the second may be in
dependent case and the first in construct state.
(J) This happens when a specific noun is preceded by a sub-
stantive designating the genus, as < >lilw \ ^acT li ijyii equivalent
to t_j^ \ <X2sr li ^ ^^J \ Ijy^ \ the chapter which is the opener of
the hook.
496. It has been mentioned in § 321 that cardinal numbers from
«3 to 10, when in apposition to the things numbered, agree with
191
them in case ; but when placed in annexation before them (see
§ 478 h) govern a plural dependent. A plural of paucity (see § 307)
must be employed if the substantive have one ; thus jM-r*-
A^\ S^ ^j ^jVU CL^\yi^\ He created the heavens and the earth
in six days.
Rem. a. Exceptional is <Ljl^ one hundred which, in dependent
singular, always follows the governing numeral, see § 325.
Rem. h. Should ^-Ift-1^ *-*^ the plural of paucity not be in
common use, there must perforce be employed |^-i-^-3 ' {-^*^ ^^*
plural of abundance.
Rem. c. We must remember that a pluralis sanus is plural of
paucity, thus t^^l %^ ^^} its verses are seven in number-,
(o^ is a generic noun which forms a nomen unitatis, being also
a plural of abundance, see § 304 No. 28 and § 306 rem. a). If
however an adjective specifies the objects numbered, ^ must be
employed as in § 448/; or the noun must be put in apposition to
the numeral, thus ^j^^LL^ ^^-^.j^ fi'^^ Moslems, ulAS^^J^ c:^w
six believing women.
499. We have seen in § 444 e rem. b that cardinal numbers from
11 to 99 take their objects numbered in the accusative singular ;
thus iLj>-; iTjrr*?-' ^"y^ l<^^ r^^\ Moses chose from his people
seventy men, ^\ iyi^ ^^jU^-j ^i>J ^'^i^ ^j^ ^ chapter written at
Mecca and it {has) eighteen verses ; so also with <0l1) twice in § 444 a.
192 ^^m
Very rarely they are followed by an accusative plural, as \JLLj\
^ i ^ 1^ <^ p. " <
Uw«l ijJLs. twelve nations. In gender the tens {^^jJl>s. , ^j^Lj ,
etc.) are common ; but units conform to the gender of the noun
denoting the objects numbered, thus liLE iyJLc V-iiJ 1 f>jL^JL.,::f\J\
twelve springs gushed out (^f^lc being feminine, see § 290 a).
506. Cardinal numbers agree in gender with nouns denoting the
objects numbered according to the following rules ; there being
constantly borne in mind the peculiarity explained at § 319.
(a) The numeral agrees in gender with the singular of the
substantive denoting the objects numbered, even if the plural is of
different gender ; as ^^,.^.a ^ ^X-:>- five years (the singular &S^
being feminine), cJ^ULa^ ^utJlJ nine Ramadans (the singular
^LiiJ being masculine), 1>-J JlA^ ^jUJ eighteen men.
(5) "When the objects numbered are designated by a noun of
general signification, its grammatical gender is usually followed by
the numeral ; as uLLlicI ^JLS liL>]. twelve tribes (the sing. \x^
being masculine). But if another substantive be attached which]
determines more precisely the real gender of the objects, then the
numeral agrees with the second noun ; thus lyLs. ^^ \ i^ujtiai
UJii LbUiij) We divided them into twelve triles (i.e.) nations (the
sing. <L^\ being feminine).
I
512. To every iXXJ^- totality, sentence there must be a subject
and a predicate, the latter being called jcJl^l that which is
193
iupported, the attribute. The subject is called aIJI i^i-L^Jl that by
which {the attribute) is supported, and the relation between them is
termed Ju«j|i the act of supporting ar causing to lean, attribution.
513. The subject may be a noun substantive, as ^V« ^^^^ J^
^^ the chieftains of his people answered ; or an expressed pronoun,
as ^j^^ ij L-^J^^ I 5^ »^ *« ^^^ guidance and the criterion, a ^ jJl^ db
t^ w fl» excuse ; or a pronoun f.^.^..^^^ concealed in the verb*, as
Ij 1 ^.5 ^iXjyil ^ drowned them in the sea, ^.1'^,^aJj . ■> ^
J2^ giveth life and causeth to die ; or a conjunctive clause (see
§ 572), as ^yi\ j^ Uj c^J^jilfT^ U aJj ^^' ^/i^rd* j^ra^s^*
G^o^ whatsoever is in heaven and in earth, ^jiJ-A-i J^J JJ ^ j^^J M^
unbelievers have asserted-, or a preposition with its dependent, as
(jX;»i> ^^^ in tlJo J ^j^5 fi^-^j ^Cj^^l^l !^ir^ ^^^ ^^''^ ^^^ among
them, and those who are not that are among them. The predicate
may be a noun (substantive or adjective), as JL>j \^ J^j L5^i
J-j^U! I iw^ / am an apostle from the Lord of the worlds, Uj^ ^ ^^
1-Xs' ' Se is the potent, the wise ; or a verb, as ^JltyJ^ /^^ ^-^^
so when Moses awoke ; or a preposition with its dependent, as ^ lib
they are in it-, or an adverb, as 'oA Ul [am here ; or a conjunctive
clause, as ^xaA^ u^^ ^ ^ ^^ *« yo^^ Creator, <UJb U lAib ^Aw i«
what did it or Mi« is what he did. Be the predicate what it may,
every sentence beginning with its subject is ^^^^ <UX>- a nominal
* Tables of these pronouns, prefixed and suffixed, are giren in Wright's
Grammar vol. i 6 89.
13
194
sentence (which may be simple or compound, see §S 519 and 520)
thus i;?^ ^ Av<J ^ 3^ -ff<? «'» ^^^ sublime, the mighty, ^±1 ^j V \ ^j^
surely the earth belongs to God, jlil ^^y• Moses awoke. On the
other hand we call ^|i*i tlXd^ a verbal sentence (simple or com-
pound) any one in which the predicate is a verb preceding its
subject, thus aJJ\ ic^*^l ^^^ ** self-sufficing, Ij^JjJii^ ^^^^ ^
<Ad guarding of them both does not weary Him ; or in which the verb
represents both subject and predicate, thus ^ylJ they turned aside.
The subject of a nominal sentence is termed 1 jciJ^Jl the inchoative
(except when put in the accusative by a preceding ^ , for it is
then known as ^ li^l see § 525 rem.) and its predicate J^M the
enunciative; while the subject of a verbal sentence is called ^J£■\su\
the agent, and its predicate JJtiJl the action or verb.
Rem. b. Here Professor de Goeje adds the following : —
The difference between verbal and nominal sentences, to which
the native grammarians attach no small importance, is properly
this, that the former relates an act or event, the latter gives
a description of a person or thing, either absolutely, or in the form
of a clause descriptive of state (see § 583 a). This is the constant
rule in good old Arabic, unless the desire to emphasize a part of
the sentence be the cause of a change in its position.
514. A verb with ^\ or U (then called maQdariyah, see § 488)
may serve as subject either to a nominal or to a verbal sentence ;
thus Jji^ i^ ^^ iJ^S^ ^^"^ /«rty so and so is incumbent upon me.
I
I
195
515. The predicate may (see § 513) be a preposition with its
dependent, and when the subject precedes we have a nominal sen-
tence: thus .•"t^L^Li i^ljOl the result is to the devout. If however
the preposition and dependent stand first, thus t*-^ \ ^\ the
returning is to Him (see also next section), we may call the phrase
<^ja dSXs^ a local sentence (see §§ 221 rem. a and 527 a).
Rem. The logical emphasis falls upon the later word as in § 436
rem. b.
516. If the predicate be an adverb or a preposition with its
dependent, and the subject an indefinite substantive or a clause
(see § 514) containing a finite verb governed by ^\, then the
predicate must precede, thus ^U^^j o*Xi^ \^:ls^ ^j r^i^"^^ '^^^
he took the tables and in their inscription were guidance and mercy ^
^y>- iJ it lows lit. a lowing is to it : but either order is permitted
if the indefinite substantive carries with it an adjective, expressed
or implied, thus fjf Lp^li 1^ or ^^^ ^ i cl^^li i^o them is
a painful punishment. In case of a sentence expressing a wish,
however, its subject if indefinite must precede, as !( ^ Li iiL^
peace be unto you ; and should the subject follow, it must be defined,
thus^lijTiilx:.
517. The subject also necessarily follows its predicate in
a nominal sentence, {a) when the VJb^ contains a pronoun making
reference to a word in the^^, as Lj^^L^ .^jJl J its master is
196
tn the house-, {h) when the Ijcl^ is restricted by uJl or ^1 , as
'-wJiJl oJ^y G^ot? «w<? ohey the apostle, hut if ye turn aside, then only
the clear delivery {of his message) is incumbent upon Our apostle,
<liUjT3l liJ U we have nothing {to do) hut to follow him, (see
§§ 585 and 586) ; (c) when the ^.^ is an interrogative, as lib ^
t<?Ao is hef,^\^ what is it ? (see § 570).
518. In a verbal sentence the agent (i.e. subject) must always
follow its verb (i.e. predicate) ; thus ^ <UJo his Lord spoke to him,
CL^[lj Lys^ plants spring up : this it is held to do where a verb
represents both subject and predicate ; thus X-uJV^ l_s he threw
down the tables.
519. In addition to simple sentences, nominal and verbal, we
find compound, each consisting of an inchoative with a clause as
enunciative. In one sort of compound nominal sentence, a noun
(substantive or pronoun) is transposed to the first place and
^ Sic o
followed by a verb, thus ''^^ (J^ ^jl^^^ lJ^^J ^^^ ^^) '^ mercy
{it) comprises everything. Here the agent of the clause (JUlSl) is
a concealed pronoun, which corresponds in gender and number
with the inchoative of the sentence ; and the inchoative contrasts
(tacitly or expressly) with another inchoative having a different
predicate, thus 15 U ij«J^5 (J^ l5*""^ Moses awoke while Aaron was
{ntill) sleeping, CS^%^\ Ij J^A IJl verily as for us, we repent toward
Thee, Q^Xlxj i lici^l j^-Oj but most of them do not know, "^J L>
197
lij Ij b ^^3o h$cau8e they denied Our signs, ^y^y l^i*J perchance
ye may be mercifully dealt with^ ^jSoi^ *-LixJ perhapn ye may he
guided aright,
520. There are also compound sentences in which a pronominal
suffix called li>|pi the connecter replaces the noun transposed.
They may be {a) compound nominal, thus fjljr, ^^\ iS^u^ <uJl
with God there is great reward ; or (5) compound verbal, thus iJJJl
^\SJ ^'j-ss^ ».i^.liaj\ (a« ^o) the good land its herbage comes forth^
^ ^\ ^^ " ■ " i ^
*\J^\ ^ a^ \1_ --A ^'*X^ (a« ^o) My punishment 1 strike with it
whom I will. Transposition for the sake of contrast can well be
observed in Elementary Arabic : First reading hook page r • bottom
line, and page r i at top.
521. We may regard as verbal a sentence consisting of a de verbal
adjective and following noun, thus <JJv«^ ^.>r ^% people are
generous (see § 552 i ii).
522. There does not exist in Arabic a substantive verb, i.e. one
which would unite subject and predicate in a nominal sentence
without connoting the idea of existence ; for (Ji though occasion-
ally supplying the place of logical copula, ascribes to its subject
the attribute of existence ; and being attributive, its predicate and
those of J;o ci-jU-ri-i must be in the accusative case (see §§ 441
and 442).
523. The absence of logical copula expressed by or contained in
a finite verb constitutes the essential characteristic of a (simple)
198
nominal sentence (see § 513) ; so that when a definite noun
(substantive or pronoun) and an indefinite adjective stand in
juxtaposition we have a complete nominal sentence. The fact of
the former being defined (no matter how) and the latter undefined,
shows them to occupy the positions of subject and predicate; for,
as will be seen in § 536, a descriptive epithet must agree with its
noun in respect of definition as well as in gender, number and case.
Thus 5kA4^ JUi <0J\ God 18 self -sufficing {and) worthy to he praised,
iZ^ t_Jil^V\ Sj*£o the chapter of the uppermost parts is Meccan.
524. If both subject and predicate are defined, we can make
sure of their relative position being recognized, by inserting
between them J.*aAj 1 J*^ the pronoun of separation ; thus l1>J V 1
r. 'li^ 1 ii those are the prosperous. \
625. If the predicate be a nominative and the subject placed in
the accusative after ^\ or the like, a pronoun of separation is
unnecessary ; thus <lL\ X-i^J ^^l verily your Lord is God : there
may however be inserted such pronoun of the same person as
^'^ iisl. (see § 436 rem. a) ; thus UlJj w::-^! CS>^\ truly Thou art
our protector.
Rem. a noun governed by ^\ etc. is not called Vj^ inchoative
by Arabian grammarians.
627. As a general rule the subject of a nominal sentence must,
if not exactly defined, be specialized. Xo information is conveyed
199
U % 9 ^ X ^
by A horse is grey "; but we can say ^y* ^r**^'^ JA J-R^l L?'/-'
ij^ a grey horse is handsomest, where (jwJJ though sJSJ> indefinite
is specialized by its adjective ; so also there is obviously a partial
determination in JJ^ JJLaJI ^-i <^-Cj « desire to do evil is bad, and
•? / ^ ' < "
in (^^'* j*-.'^ z*^^ ci^^hVS a punishment of a great dag is to be feared
(see § 492). These examples differ from true definition, which is
only attained by use of the article i^.> yrilj in order to distinguish
(see § 345), or by annexation to a defined noun (see § 475 et seq.) :
there are other cases where the subject of a nominal clause can be
indefinite, among which are the following ; —
(a) In a clause called at § 515 zarfiyah (i) when the predicate
stands first, as &%\ /•^H ^[yy there is a section of the people ; and (ii)
when the subject is preceded by an interrogative or negative
particle, as JLl \ ^J * L^ J^ is there water in the cistern ? <-^^^ ^
'uJ we have no drinh.
(c) When the sentence expresses a wish, as i^ll^ 1)Lj peace be
unto you ; see § 516.
(/) Words containing the conditional meaning of ^\ if (see
§ 406), though indefinite by their nature, serve as inchoative ;
thus ^JJb ^V?j-J ^^-^ if any one believes God, A^n 3 ^ j^ ^^r*
whoever is made to guard against his own covetousness.
529. A pronoun of separation is sometimes omitted if the
meaning remains clear, as in Elementary Arabic : First reading book
page r^ top line L^\jysJ\ clXiJ this is the great prize.
200
530 To give emphasis and occasion contrast •! 4\-oJ-:J^ j-t^
Ju*i1-Uf the pronoun of corrohoration may be introduced ; it being
wholly different from the pronoun of separation treated in § 524
et seq. Commonly it follows the subject, or a verb which repre-
sents both subject and predicate ; thus Qy^'^, ^"Hyr (*~^ iiK*^ '
those only who fear their Lord, ^^^^liJiT ^ l^ ^\ if WE he the
victors ; see also ^j=^ ^^ at § 415 a i Note.
Note. The pronoun of corroboration may follow conjunctive
pronouns in an oblique case, thus ^j^L*^ LLjLjIj i-fc ^dJu for
those especially who believe in Our signs.
531. If however in the description of persons or things (see
§ 513 rem. h) a nominal clause lacks precision, we may use ^jO
or one of its sisters (see § 442). When so employed the imperfect
has its usual meanings : but a perfect, beside examples like those
in § 441, may express the present, as JlcVTj 1^^^ I^aS ^-*ij
!S^4-^ l::^\S .^^ \ he puts away from them their burden and the
fetters which are upon them ; especially is this the case after an
interrogative, or U not, as :^\ ,3^ )>>^ i»^^ <^:^ \^ I am
not ready to judge between you until etc. (see § 557).
533. We have observed in § 73 that passive verbs must often
be translated impersonally : commonly a 3rd person singular
masculine is used to avoid specifying the subject, thus J-J Jl
J^J when it was said to them. In case of ^ii .— which governs
201
only an accusative of the sin, we render lU Jiillj we shall he
pardoned, for it mil he pardoned to ua gives too explicit a subject.
Nomina patientis of verbs which are transitive by help of a pre-
position (see § 423) can only appear in the masculine singular,
changes of gender and number being marked by an alteration of
the pronoun ; thus ^ilc iSj^-^JCt jib he is an ohject of anger ^ ^
L^^Jx i^ydXr9 she is an ohject of anger, J^-^^ iJ^y^JtX}] the
ohjects of anger. The neuter plural of adjectives is sometimes ex-
pressed by the feminine sound plural, and sometimes by a broken
plural, but never by the masculine sound plural ; thus iSlj *Jo«
ci^Ul^ii c^liwCu^U and We tested them hy means of good and
evil things, ui^^T^^^ ^Jili ^j:<5 <r^^T ^J ^^i^s^ he makes
lawful to them the pleasant things and makes unlawful to them the
foul things.
Rem. a. The passive of directly transitive verbs may be used
personally or impersonally, thus *jJ>-c he was overcome or there
was a victory.
534. To the subject and predicate complements are joined by
subordination (the accusative or a preposition with its dependent),
or by coordination which is more usually called apposition.
535. Pronominal suffixes may have a reflexive meaning when
attached to a verb's object, but not when attached to the verb
itself ; consequently for this purpose we must employ ^Jtju soul
14
202
or the like, thus ^^liJaj ^^-^^ ' V^ ^^^^ *^^^^ injuring themselves:
to this rule however verbs of the heart (see § 424 b ii) supply
exceptions.
636. Complements coordinated with a subject or predicate are
called i-J^jj appositives (see § 304 No. 16), the usual apposition
being of noun to noun and the more rare (see § 540) of verb to
verb. There stands first c^Ii^Jl that which is followed and then
-wjl^l the follower.
(a) After this fashion the adjective is joined to its substantive ;
they agreeing in gender, number and case, as well as (see § 523)
by definition or by being undefined : thus ^j^* J ^ manifest
error, c:^^JU] 1 jJJl , Jl to the dead country, Xij^s^**^ ^^.l^V^
^^Isr ' / saw their congregational mosque or their mosque which
collects, ly^'^i\ J'^\ ^UJ the meeting of the last alode. A noun
may of course have two or more adjectives connected with it,
thus A-ji^pi ^^jX^j}\ iS}\ jj^^ in the name of God the merciful
{and) compassionate : sometimes a nomen verbi (nomen actionis
or other) takes the place of an adjective, thus iX; ^J[^ an in-
definite Ml, ^Jk^ p:Jl a defined noun. In the above examples
all words are singular, and concords in case of the dual are
equally simple : but with plurals the matter becomes difficult,
though the rule as to definition is happily unalterable. A sub-
stantive (i) in masculine sound plural representing rational
creatures must be followed by an adjective in the plural, thus
203
^PU? ^^ erring sons, i^j^ ^^yt (see § 304 No. 5) noble
believers, ,%^^ ^^ji^ (^^® § ^^^' -^°* ^) <*^^w«^<^ unbelievers ;
while a substantive (ii) in feminine sound plural may be followed
by an adjective, singular feminine as tlJLS^ d^JLo. gracious
messages, or plural, either broken as >j' y c:-?l^:>- (see § 304
No. 17) noble gardens^ ,^^ ciJyu (see § 304 No. 2) t<7AeY« caW/^,
or feminine sound as Cli^L^i^ ^—'V.^ signs separated by intervals.
A substantive in broken plural if (iii) denoting rational beings
may be followed by an adjective in the singular feminine, thus
djj-ip\|\ «4-*LkJl the English students, <)UiJiu^ u^^j Moslem men,
A4.1i.m4 *L13 Moslem women, ajjSJii cLi^-L^ strong kings, jK^
XMS^ti strong girls ; it is however better, if the sex be indicated,
to employ an appropriate sound plural, thus jj^AliJ* J^"J ^^^
CL^Ui^il^ *UCJ. But if the broken plural (iv) denotes objects
other than rational beings, no matter what their gender in the
singular, its adjective may be feminine, singular as ^^-i ^}^i^
great fishes, or plural as d-jliJl^ J^ beautiful forms ; or else
a broken plural, thus j5j-5 Pij powerful winds, i|^^ u^^ ^^^^^
mountains. Next as regards collectives which are treated in §§ 292
and 306 rem. : those (v) denoting rational beings usually take
an adjective in that sound plural which corresponds by natural
gender with the beings, thus ^y^\^\ J»}^1 tht wrong doers,
^jr:^ ^}^ V^ (♦V'^i ^^^^y ^^^y ^^^^ * ^^^^^ people, ^y^"^ f^.j^
204
c:j\'Ltsi\ MahmUd's numerous family ; but the adjective may be
singular and agree with the collective's grammatical gender, thus
f , f.. ^ uJaLi- excellent posterity ^ Jla^U i^\ an impious nation.
Collective nouns (vi) which do not form a nomen unitatis and
denote living objects destitute of reason (see § 290 a) are, in
respect of concord with adjectives, similar to (see iv) broken
plurals denoting irrational creatures : those (vii) which form
a nomen unitatis, and denote objects other than rational, may
take a feminine sound plural, as Cl^^jlll? 5^^ flying locusts ; or
a feminine singular, as <U^ \ J^ voracious lice ; or a masculine
singular, as c^-^^l ^j^>^\ the fresh fruit \ or a broken plural, as
JIaj tf^ls'*' heavy cloud.
(h) Being definite by their nature and regarded as substantives,
the demonstrative pronouns (see §§ 340, 341) must be coupled
with a defined appositive : if this definition is caused by the
article we usually find the demonstrative preceding, thus l1>JJ
J^ \ this prize, i^i^Jd \ i'sit this village ; but if the substantive
be definite in its nature or defined by a following dependent,
it must precede, as IJJb J^.ls^ this MahmM.
Note. We find in Elementary Arabic : First reading hook nearly
at bottom of page rf ^^^^^^[i- is3^^ ^^^ become abject apes :
here the appositive is in masculine sound plural because human
beings are addressed.
205
537. Sometimes we find the adjective ^-^i^^ all following
a substantive or pronoun and agreeing with it in gender, number
and case ; thus ^yfjtX^\ "l^l^Ja"^ I will crucify you all.
539. In addition to its use at § 535 ^JJu can signify self
without reflexive meaning, thus ijUii ^-^^^j I have seen himself:
if a plural be needed, ^JuJo \ must be employed.
Kem. a. There is a class of appositives called ^^1 or ^u^^l
having two divisions ; ( 1 ) ^^^iJUl i i^}^ 1 the corroboration in
meaning which includes J^, w-.*^-, t**^^ a^<i {J**^ ^i^^
a few other words ; and (2) JJaljJ^ sS^^\ the verbal corroboration y
when any word is repeated, thus lib j^xi yes, yes.
Rem. h. Three more classes of appositives are in use. (1)
rtfi.^U the qualificative which may refer to its 1^^ (see § 536)
directly, in which case it is a simple adjective, thus ^%^ <iUJl
l»iii] \ the living and everlasting God ; or indirectly, applying to
a following word and with it forming a qualificative clause.
(2) J«xJl the permutative of which the most usual kind is ^j'^
JiO \ ^ jio \ the substitution of the whole for the whole ; thus
L^iXi direct us (in) the straight road, the road of those upon whom
thou hast shed blessing, other than those who are the objects of {Thine)
anger. Here )o\j^ is badal of 1*1^, and ^i of ^tJJJl. (3)
\JCl ^ u,o W?. the explicative connection, being a substantive which
206
explains its !^ ; thus J;^T J-l'^l the apoHile the prophet,
^/jb A-^V ^y* J^ i/om said to his brother Aaron, ^JJL^ J^f
a ealf a body i.e. a calf in bodily shape.
Rem. e. One verb may be substituted for another by J3j
jU:i-lijT the comprehensive substitution i.e. the permutative ex-
plaining something involved in the previous verb; thus \ijyty*>j^
the evil of punishment, hilling your sons and saving alive your
daughters.
540. Two verbs used asyndetically (i.e. used without a con-
junction) are regarded as in apposition, thus <^k-4^ 'p^"^ he arose
and prostrated himself, Jl.W\ JlsT* he continued long in prostration]
but the insertion of t_J is better.
541. As regards concord in gender and number between the
parts of a sentence, the following rules hold good. We shall
treat in § 552 of nominal sentences, and at present confine our
attention to verbal sentences (see § 518) ; premising that a mas-
culine singular subject can only be preceded (or followed) by
a masculine singular verb, thus ^tcyi J^»J» Pharaoh said, and that
the equivalent of a plural subject (such as a relative sentence,
etc.) takes a preceding verb in the singular, thus \^^ ^,^ ^ (»^J
the unbelievers have asserted.
542. (a) If the subject be a singular substantive, feminine
207
according to § 290 a, and (i) immediately following its verb,
the verb must be feminine singular, thus jJ ci^*Sc^l a hand became
extended : but (ii) if one or more words intervene, while the
feminine is better, the masculine is permissible, thus /^ 1 v!^ ^^*af
the eye saw it,
(J) If the subject be a singular substantive, feminine according
to § 290 J or § 291 the verb may precede in either gender, though
preferably in the feminine if the subject follows immediately,
thus tIjCjJ '^i:^;*!^ c:-^? the word of thy Lord was fulfilled : but
we find ^ JuJm \ toli ^'^ i^Jli J-'aJ U so look how was the end of
the transgressors.
Rem. The concord usually remains if, in negative or inter-
rogative sentences, the subject be preceded by ^y^ ; but in
Elementary Arabic : First reading book page f^, line 4, we have
^l^n^ ^V? <-P^^ ^ ^0 mischance has befallen.
(d) The verbs pu and ^^^m-j take preferably the masculine form,
be the subject's gender what it may ; see § 183.
543. If the subject be a masculine sound plural the preceding
verb is with rare exceptions singular masculine, thus aJJI J-c
(^y^*y^ \ J^^^iij upon God then let the believers rely.
Eem. b. When meaning /amt7y or tribe ^j^, the sound plural
of ^\ son, may be preceded by a feminine singular verb ; thus
<JJl^l yj ^ <^L^i^\ the tribe of Israel believed Him.
208
544. If the subject be a broken plural the preceding verb again
with rare exceptions is singular, and of either gender no matter
which, thus iJ^Udtl c: ^Vi ...C (from J^ masc.) their works are
vain, J«:f-jVl ^ki (from J^ fem.) the feet were cut off. But if
the broken plural denote male persons the verb is better masculine,
thus If^ ^^iJl)l J.*i Uj lili^jl wilt Thou destroy us on account of
what the fools among us have done ; though we sometimes find the
feminine, as JJjJ J^-J J Lii^j li apostles used to come to them.
545. If the subject be a collective or other noun mentioned in
§ 292 the preceding verb must be singular but may be of either
gender; thus iLiJ \ \^\i the chiefs said, 4^y iliul*iL^i his people asked
drink of him, a^-^ <^^ c:!!-Jli j\^ and when a section of them said.
546. If the subject be a feminine sound plural the preceding
verb must be singular but may be of either gender, unless denoting
female persons when the feminine is preferable.
548. When the subject has been mentioned in a preceding clause,
the verb must agree with it in gender and number according
to the following rules. A masculine or feminine singular verb
follows a like subject ; and a masculine plural verb follows
a masculine sound plural, thus \'p\^ ^Cj^^Ll^ 1 Ja^j the Moslems
journeyed and came, as also the plural of pronouns, thus ^jLi
ipb A \ a^V lp*U>- and when the boon came to them they said.
In case of broken plurals the following verb must be feminine,
209
singular or plural, thus \j\sr^ ijljilj "Ij jjT J^>5 Re sends the
winds and they hear cloud where J^^ \ might also have been used :
if however male persons are indicated the verb in masculine
plural is used, thus ^pwj UJ^j^ i^^ \ ^l:>- the magicians came
to Pharaoh and said ; or if female persons the verb is in feminine
plural. Following a collective noun which indicates a pre-
dominance of male persons the verb is naturally in masculine
plural, thus ^CjpjJu ajj ^J^^ U^^^ ^^ l_5*^^ (*5^ iiT^ among
the people of Moses there is a section who direct {others) hy the truth
and hy means of it do justice^ ^^^ ' ^j-^ji '— '^^ u-ilri- a posterity
succeeded who inherited the Book : other collectives treated in § 292
are followed by a singular verb of either gender. Lastly if the
subject be a feminine sound plural the verb would naturally follow
in feminine plural though the feminine singular occurs, thus
llJ^Uf- UJ ^j <-^''i^ \^^ we helieved the signs of our Lord,
when they came to us : but when female persons are indicated the
concord must be strictly kept.
551. A verb sometimes agrees in gender with the logical
subject i.e. a dependent annexed to the grammatical subject ;
this is most usual with words explained in § 482, thus ly^*l>- tjj
lj\ Jii although every sign come to them.
552. In nominal sentences the concord of gender and number
between subject and predicate closely resembles that in verbal
sentences.
210
{a) When the predicate, being verb or adjective, follows its
subject, they must agree strictly in gender and number ; thus
-. ^ * / i '
^yii ^ P^\ <Uul God knoios best lit. is more Tcnomng than any
other f (Ji^u U L,o^.liJ ^jjfc ^ jLi so behold it swallows up what
" 9 9*
they had caused to put on a false appearance, *^*Jlj ♦* they are
attainers of it, ^i^L?-^ J^'-^ perhaps they may repent ^ XGjLJ
jjyLjJ perchance ye will take heed to yourselves ; but a broken
plural may be followed by a feminine singular, as ^-o ^c.^ \
the fishes are large.
\b) When the predicate precedes its subject, as in negative
and interrogative sentences (i) they must in a nominal sentence
agree (see c) but (ii) in a verbal sentence (see § 521) the
predicate ought to be singular, thus ^^S\^\ ^^\ the truthful
are trustworthy. ^m
(c) If a subject be collective its predicate may follow in the ^^"
plural, thus ^y^\s>- Jjblll the people are ignorant. Similarly,
when a verb is placed after a collective subject, thus lij^l^J 1-^j 1
shall men direct us? ^H
{d) A predicate frequently agrees in gender with the logical
subject i.e. a dependent annexed to the grammatical subject,
compare § 551.
553. In negative and prohibitive sentences a negation may
apply to any part of the sentence — the predicate, the subject (see
§ 439), the object, the circumstantial expression (Jlsrl) etc.
211
554. The negative most often immediately precedes that part
of the sentence which it denies, but this is not necessarily so.
555. {a) The predicate of a verbal sentence in the imperfect
with present sense may be denied by ^ (see § 362 rfrf), as i^*^, ^
U>iL,.Vr.c,.-v the guarding of them both does not weary Ilim; or with
the future sense, as ^-^i^'*^' 3-1 ^**p > ^ Ul sureli/ We will
not allow to he lost the reward of the righteous; or with a past
sense, when preceded by a verb which expresses the past, as
l^,4i^ ^ <0 \ \j^ 1} \ did they not perceive that it could not speak
to them ?
{h) We rarely find ^ attached to a verb in the perfect, except
when used with J to continue a previous negation.
556. The particle ^^ (for ^\ S see § 362 hh) is a very strong
negation of the future, as can be seen in §§ 411 and 415 a i.
Rem. For iJ and UJ see §§ 412 and 418.
557. The particle \j^ not (see § 362 hh) denies the perfect when
with one of the meanings treated in § 401 a io d\ when joined
to the imperfect it denies the present, as is noted in § 408 e
rem. a.
Note. An instance of \U denying ^l^ is given in § 531.
558. The particle ^\ not (see § 362 h) beside being found
in nominal sentences, thus tlXlici Si ^ ^\ this is only Thy
temptation, may be used before the imperfect indicative and the
perfect of a verb.
212
659. The verb j:J;j (see §§ 182 and 442) which usually
expresses the indefinite or definite present (see § 408 a, h) is
commonly iJa3}J incomplete, as 1^'J c^^ or J^\Sj l::>>m. ) / am
not an onlooker \ though it may be <CilJ complete. It is also
employed as an indeclinable particle, denying more strongly than
S that part of the sentence to which it is prefixed.
560. When a sentence containing one of the negatives l;« , IJ ,
UJ , j%J or jJ^M^J is followed by another negative sentence, with
J and to connect the two, (a) the second sentence is negatived by ^
when no special emphasis attaches to the form of negation, and
ih) the first negative is repeated when the independence of the ,
second sentence is emphasized ; but {c) when the two verbs are \
conceived of as forming parts of one action, no second negative
is required, thus liJ ^J^5 ^'t; ^-^^yrl J^ c>^ */ °^^ Zor^ had
not been merciful to us and pardoned us.
Rem. a. As regards the use of iJ instead of repeating ^i, see
§ 482 d r. a.
563. The prohibitive 3 governs the jussive, as may be seen in
§§ 417 h and 420 : this happens also with the energetic.
664. All interrogative clauses take the direct form, thus ^L^3j\
hi^l ijtlS\ canst thou write Aralic? ^jjji'\ iklS\ sjJ^\ J U
he inquired whether thou couldst write Arabic ; the difference
213
between direct and indirect questions being ignored, both in the
arrangement of words and in the moods of the verb.
565. Spoken questions may be indicated merely by the tone
of voice : but written inquiries are usually introduced by one of
the following particles, viz. 1,^1 or Jji ; unless provided with
an interrogative adverb, such as ^\ where? c—O how? or the
like (see §§ 361 to 364).
566. The simplest interrogative is \ thus i^j ^^ lf';l.^>
have ye hastened the affair of your Lord ? This particle may be
prefixed to ^f;|, 5, uJ or Ij ; thus V^^V UJ ^\ (see § 361
a rem.) shall there indeed he to us a reward? ^f.^^jl do ye wonder?
^j^-Iaju Is 1 do ye not therefore understand ?
567. The interrogative Jjb introduces questions of a more
lively sort, thus ^JJijw ^Jli l^ 3| ^Cjtlcsr Jj& «AaZ/ they he
rewarded otherwise than with what they have been accustomed to do.
Upon the use of this particle there are certain restrictions.
^%
568. The particle 51 (originally meaning is it not the case that?)
^•^ ■■
, affirms a certainty, thus (jis! ' <U ^i truly to Sim belongs the (whole)
creation. It is frequently followed by a further asseverative e.g.
ll^Jl , thus AjJl oLc 1^5,11^ UJI ^1 p«rt7y ^A««V /mc^ (or fate) is in
the hands of God only.
570. The interrogative pronouns ^^ who ? and Ul what ? (see
§ 351) may stand in any one of the three cases, nominative,
214
dependent, or accusative. To render the interrogative more
vigorous we append the demonstrative pronoun M (see § 340) thus
jj,jj«u ^ J Ui «o what do ye enjoin ? and this may happen when
^jJi follows, thus Jf^u^ %-A^; ^aJ \ i J ^ who is he that shall
intercede with Him? The pronouns ^ and U are always used
substantively, but cannot govern a dependent or be followed by
a substantive in apposition.
Rem. d. As to 1 for l;«, see § 351 rem.
572. There are two kinds of relative sentences'^ (a) that called
<Li-tf a qualificative which is immediately attached to an indefinite
substantive without intervening pronoun, and fi) that called
aJl^ a conjunctive^ where introduction is made by a pronoun
which is definite in its nature. The conjunctive pronoun (see
§ 346) is called l^yc^\ that which is joined i.e. joined to <lL^1
the conjunctive clause. As examples (a) the following are indefinite
clauses ; ^yjSxj^ i^j^J.^ U ^j^^,j ^\ a nation who direct {others)
hy means of the truth and who by it do justice, ^^Otj J^ -Ic \y \i
li^ /»liii?\ ^Ix so they came upon a people who clung to their idols :
(i) the following clauses are definite; j^ \ ^^\ ^Js- X^J^\j^^HI
^^iul ^^ l::^!? and ash them, concerning the village which is
situated by the sea, i'lipl vjyj^j l^y^ j^r:'*^^ ^^^*^ *^^^ ^^^'^ ^^^^
to themselves and give the appointed alms, <U^ ^^J tc-'^^ Moses and
he who is (or those who are) with him, ^^ Uj '^■^Vj ^^ f*^^
215
lL>*S^ entreat thy Lord on our behalf by virttie of that which he has
covenanted with thee.
Rem. a. When the antecedent substantive is indefinite we
cannot in Arabic employ a conjunctive pronoun; for ^S^\ is
(see § 347) always definite, while ^ and ti though sometimes
indefinite (see §§ 363* and 527 f) are always used substantively.
Rem. b. follows the next section.
Rem. c. Among qualificative clauses may be accounted those
mentioned in § 539 rem. b 1.
573. The qualificative clause (<ti..Ail) necessarily contains
a pronoun (called ^UJl), referring to the qualified noun and
connecting it with the said qualificative clause. This a'id, in
case the clause be verbal, is a pronoun concealed (see § 513) in
the verb; as LLfy\j^ ^^^\^ gatherers who {they) come to thee,
c-P'cXM \^^t*_c_L>. u_tl>- a posterity followed who {they) inherited
the Book : in case the clause be nominal, a separate pronoun is
employed ; as lLSS^\^ yib /UfJ a prophet who {he) is thy
companion. Frequently the a'id appears as a suffix in the
accusative, thus SyHyJ^ jiU ^»X> this is a plot which ye have
contrived ; or in the dependent, as /^i^^ ^lUT i^ a people of
whom God is the destroyer, ^^^^ 1a t)^^ lP^ until a fixed term
which they were about to attain. If however no a'id is needed
to make clear the meaning, it may be omitted ; thus "iS^SiXs^, 1^
216
{make mention of) the day on which He shall assemble you, whence
4^ is elimmated.
Rem. In theory a 'a'id ought to be of the 3rd person, but in
practice it often agrees with the subject to which the qualified
substantive is predicate; thus ^y^^if* i^ iL)! verily ye are
a people who {ye) are ignorant. Compare § 575 rem. a.
574. The conjunctive clause (<lLL11) must begin with a con-
junctive pronoun. Now it has been shown in § 346 et seq.
that, like ^ and l^ when definite, (^iJl is used substantively
to mean he who, that which ; thus u^L>- o3Jl that which was had,
^"^ ^^T ^}^p\ Q^^, ^^.^\ those who follow the apostle,
the illiterate prophet. Only ^J'^-^^ can be used adjectively, and
then like all adjectives it agrees with its antecedent, a definite
substantive, in gender, number and case, its agreement in case
being best shown by the dual which has case-endings : thus
USupI ij^'^^^ ^jp\V>j;,*i W u .1 show us the two devils who led us
astray, where ^^»jjJj1 is oblique (for the accusative) agreeing
with JplJ^lll; again 15 Li^ Ui> ^^jljT^li;d]Tl3 ! show
US the two devils who lead us astray. In both these examples the
real subject in the relative clause is the pronoun called 'a'id, as
will next be explained.
Note. Whether used substantively or adjectively ^tV'^1 can
only apply to masculine rational creatures, compare § 302 rem. a.
217
575. The preceding section shows that Arabic conjunctive
pronouns are not used quite like our English relative pronouns ;
for the case in which they are put is independent of the conjunctive
clause. If standing first as substantives and forming the subject
of an independent sentence, they are in the nominative ; as is
t_fiJl when attached adjectively to a substantive in the nomi-
native. But in every other instance, though at the beginning
of a conjunctive clause, they are subject to government by an
antecedent, whether noun, verb or particle : consequently they
are in the particular case which their position requires, viz. either,
that case occupied by the demonstrative pronoun implied in them,
thus Jjtj Uj ly reason of THAT which he has done ; or, the
same case as the antecedent substantive with which they agree,
thus UJJl ^s^\ j^^ ^y^^^ *^ helieve the light which We have
sent down. To elucidate this difficult matter we have employed
in the first instance two examples which do not display ^^*.^^ 1
iu^ ^ the pronoun which refers back, and we now propose showing
to what use it serves in {a) the nominative case, {h) the accusative,
and {e) the dependent.
{a) If a 'a'id stand in the nominative as subject, it is repre-
sented (i) in a verbal sentence by the personal pronoun concealed
in the verb, thus )J\^'/^ ^ ci^ he sent him who struck them,
'^^ Jp^ s/*^ ^ J^^ ^^^' ^^^y fo^^o^^^ ^^^ ^^9^^ which has been
sent down with him, j^.iJ ^ u Jk:>^^^ &'jzJ\ ^s- ^y^„ ,^,^ ^ ^^1^^
^^xj c-?^ JJb \y%S^ We delivered those who were forbidding the evil
218
and ire visited with grievous ptinishment (hose who were unjust
But (ii) in a nominal sentence the 'a'id is expressed by a separate
pronoun, as v3-i^ 3^ U that which is sweet smelling or whatever
is sweet smelling. The separate pronoun however (iii) is not
required in a nominal sentence when the predicate is an adverb,
as Ij*^ ^ ^^^./^ ^ struck the one who is here ; or a preposition
with its dependent, as ^ l^ \^y^ they study what is in it,
uSjJu 1 J <U^ ,7,j jJ U ^u^rc^ Li «o We saved him and those who
trtfr^ with him in the ark.
{b) If the a'id be an objective complement in the accusative,
it is appended as suffix to its verb, thus <U«5casr i^^\ he whom
^ '- \, p ^ "
they findy 't.-sliJ *Up* \ U Jo- take what we have given to the
prophet. The suffix however is very frequently eliminated, thus
'111 ^ t6?Aom I wish for 2f*Li>l ^y« Ae (or li*U>l ^ ^^«y) w^/iom
/ M'/sA, ^yji^jxj^ ly li l^ w;Aa^ ^A<?y were constructing, ^yX^ju Uj <l11 1
V God is able to see what ye do.
{c) When in dependent case the a'id represents our relative
pronouns, standing in cases other than the nominative and
accusative. Thus J^iJ^ ^.z^xj\ ^^,^\ those upon whom Thou
hast shed blessings, ^^V^J CpY^X^\ tl^ ^ <-/^^ ^^ ^^ Whom
belongs the dominion over heaven and earth, dj ^t^*^ U l*-lJ Uii afid
when they forgot that of which they had been reminded, ^ IS) U that
in which they are. There are occasions on which a 'a'id may be
I
219
omitted, as for instance when it and the preceding conjunctive
pronoun are governed by the same preposition, as L^ \XS ^^ix-
they disoleyed in that in which he disobeyed where <Lxi is eliminated :
but omission is not permissible if the preposition be used in two
senses, or if it follow different verbs, thus <lLc \y^ l^ ^^Ic l^ls
so when they were disobedient in respect of that from which they were
forbidden.
Rem. a. In theory a a' id after ^''^\ ought to be of the 3rd
person but it is not so always : compare § 573 rem.
Note. In relation to a a'id \X^ exactly resembles l^, thus
|jl /j^ ^ liJU U^;« whatever thou hringest us of a sign.
576. Copulative sentences require j or uJ (see § 366) of
which the former is used to connect words and clauses as
a simple co-ordinative ; thus *«;-^J ^^)T^ ^^^^ ^^^'^ helped him
and assisted him, lyc;.f*jj lyj^^ilj in order to warn you and that
ye may take heed to yourselves, lSi^yi^\j (jwlSJi ^4-^\ ^^j^
they bewitched merHs eyes and terrified them, clJoliJb U L Lr.
^j^\^ l^iLajTj they were overcome there and were rendered con-
temptible. The particle u-i however sometimes unites single
words as is noted in § 540 but more usually it connects
two clauses showing either (a) that the latter is immediately
subsequent to the former in time, or {b) that the clauses are
220
linked internally as for instance by cause and effect: thus (a)
^SVf^ Ch*^^ /^j^"^ -^^ /asAww^^ t/ou, and then He leauiified
your forms; ^pJt (^Ux3 ^ ULS SU:i ^\ he threw down
his rod, and behold it became manifestly a serpent ; pbj\6^]
ily. JIj 'Ljis^^\ l/jj^>-I U-ii he chose them, and when the
convulsion seized them, he said, 0 my Lord; {b) l::^--^j \,j1^.
^;Ui^5 ^Jb ^% ^c^l' ^T\ j;^T ^^;5 Aib l/^u
aJuJ)]'! (because) He gives life and causes to die, therefore believe
God and His apostle, the illiterate prophet, who believes God
and His words ; also follow him. When t— i means because it is
usual to employ ^jLi, thus IfJL^ U [;Ll ^Li \JJa,^ ^y^-M-
go down into Egypt for {there) shall ye find what ye ash. We
have seen in §§ 415 t?, 417 c and rem. c, that < J may be used
to separate an apodosis from its protasis : after the disjunctive
particle 1^1 (see § 367 d) < j must always introduce the
apodosis, thus ^J^^ ^TJ^ lii li^U JUiJ ;^ ^ Ul
as to whoso believes and does right, he shall have a most excellent
reward.
577. If a second subject be added to the concealed pronoun
which serves as subject to the verb, we must employ a separate
personal pronoun in repetition of the latter, thus i;3^ u LUi
^^ <-^^)Ji ^^ ^J^ ^^ ««*<^> 0 Adam, dwell thou and
thy wife in the garden ; but lIJ^^J^ I^a^^ is permissible.
221
578. If after a pronominal suffix expressing the object a sub-
stantive be connected by J, we may employ a separate personal
pronoun in repetition of the suffix, thus s\:>^\j jJb ipry P^^ ^*^
off and his brother ; but this is not usual, compare Elementary
Arabic : First reading book page 1 line 6. Also we may write
!f\^\ —j'j Js^Jl ; or we may employ \j\ (see § 189 a) thus
2^13 U ^lil —J;! put off his brother and him.
579. We must repeat a preposition, if with its pronominal
suffix a substantive is connected by j ; thus ,c^^j ^A ^^\
pardon {the sin) to me and my brother.
y»
580. When preceded by j connecting two nouns, 1 represents
all the antecedent negative sentence except that word for which
the noun that follows il is substituted ; thus ly) ^j iS.^ SSS^ U ^
drowsiness doth not seize Him nor sleep : here !ij represents
582. The copulative particles are sometimes used in Arabic in
place of an English disjunctive or adversative ; thus Uj ^y> ^^«
J^^ jij ^sT;5 Uj uj^?i-^i ^^^ (3pi t^ey say, We believe
what has been sent down to us, and they ignore what {has come)
since, although it is the truth. We have noted in § 540 the
use of u-i between two verbs, the second of which modifies
the first.
222
583. Mention has been made in § 444 c rem. c 4 of ^l>- ^U^irJ-
a circumstantial clause, wHch will commonly be found prefaced
by Jlsr ' j\j i.e. the copulative particle j, often meaning whereas
or seeing that. Here J serves to connect two clauses the second
of which describes the state or condition either of the subject
or other part of the first clause, or else of a new subject.
{a) The circumstantial clause may be nominal (see § 513) as
^^liT ^ i££li 3^*5 \^| jil^l ^ ^\ »^all I 'ieeh for
you a god other than God, whereas He has favoured you above all
creatures: here the second clause refers to <d!\, and is compound
nominal (see § 519) having a finite verb for its predicate.
{b) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and affirmative,
its verb being in imperfect indicative preceded by bJJ . Without
jjj we must not employ J, and by omission of both we obtain
sentences like the examples in § 408 d where the second clause
is j*XR^ Jl>- hdl indicating the future ; or like those in § 408 e
whose second clause is ^j\a^ jl>- a contemporaneous state.
{c) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and negative, its
verb being in imperfect indicative preceded by Uj, or in the
jussive preceded by iJjJ ^^^ '^^ <— >^ rt J^ ^ c->-:iii-i-=s-
/ created thee beforehand when thou wast nothing. If 1 be used,
J is nearly always omitted, and not seldom in other cases.
, 223
{d) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and affirmative, its
verb being in the perfect usually preceded by bJj ; thus \ls. iib
(J^ ^ CXJUJ^ bJJ ^^ it is easy for Me, seeing that I created
thee heretofore.
(*) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and negative, its
verb being in the perfect preceded by U^, or even by L« alone :
if ^JjJJ be employed it is preceded by J, thus ^ li£ Jlw iJ
iy f^yy^ <^ ^AM, Sj 'L^\'yi\ ^ly% *J?«^ ^hy dost thou enquire con-
cerning what of their property is in my {two) hands, seeing that
thou art not heir to them ?*
584. Adversative, restrictive and exceptive sentences call for
notice ; the commonest adversative particles being J and ^^
{a) "We employ ^ (see § 362 dd) in opposition to a preceding
affirmative proposition or command; thus ^Ju\ l-i^ J^y^ J-i
jTj«^J i Moses, not Aaron, was called the interlocutor of God.
(J) "We use ^ and ^^!) (with or without J, see § 862 ee)
in opposition most frequently to a preceding prohibition or
negative statement : (JlsJ ' ^J I jO) \ ^^j ^\y ^ thou thalt
* This example is taken from line 5 on page 18 of Chreatotnathie eUtnmtaire
de VArabe littiral avec un glosaaire par Hartwig Derenbourg et Jean Spire,
Paris (Ernest Leroux) 1892 ; copies of which (second) edition I have placed in
the Bodleian, Cambridge University Library, and the British Museum. See
also the opening words of Goran ii, 270.
224
not see Me^ hut hole toward the mountain ; ^e^j^5 *^^ is-* \j*^
^y^j there is in me no error, hut I am an apostle.
585. "We have mentioned IJiJl at § 436 rem. d, this word
being most commonly restrictive (see § 362 n). It is usually
placed at the beginning of a proposition, and that portion of
the proposition which it affects must stand at the end; thus
^3J1 ^jcLc IJb^UL \XJ\ their luclc (or fate) is at the disposition
of God only ; see § 517 for a restricted inchoative.
586. Exception (^lli^^Vl) is of three kinds; J-^liAJl the
joined, in which S^i6JLX^\ the thing excepted is similar in kind
to the general term (^^ ^Si6JLX^\ that from which exception
is made) as ^Jb 5\ iu\ 1 there is no god except He-, 4\^'ir/<^\ the
severed, in which the thing excepted is different in kind from
the general term, as ^JU.>- r\ iyil \ "m^ U the people did not
stand up hut an ass; and cjLk^] the emptied, where the general
term is not expressed, as :^\ 3i H^* ialj \ji thou dost not resent
{any action) on our part except etc.
(a) The commonest of exceptive particles is 5] (see § 367 /)
in employing which the following rules are observed.
(i) After an affirmative proposition containing the general
term, a thing excepted must be in the accusative; thus ^Xs-*
^JlJjl l\ iS^\^\ the angels prostrated themselves except Ehlis.
225
(ii) After a negative proposition containing the general term,
a thing excepted is hest placed in same case with the general
term ; thus CJJS h j ji| ^ ^| Mm w nothing hut Thy
temptation, <UJl 3| ^| )J there is no god hut Ood (where lil is
virtually nominative though grammatically accusative, see § 439)*
The same holds with propositions implying a negative, which
are usually interrogative {3)^\ J^J^^l « negative interrogative) \
thus <dJl ^1 c^^li^ks? ' J&x[ ^^ and who forgives sin except God ?
The general term may he a preposition with its dependent, as
'>J\ *\ '^•^'A^ ^ cpl^i b« no mischance has hef alien except etc\
A'^,..^^ (iT? being equivalent to <CLj*aA, and the thing excepted
follows the general rule in respect of case. When the general
term is not expressed, we must give to the thing excepted
that case in which the general term should be; thus ID U
A rjs. j\ we have nothing to do hut to unload whence ^/V-* is
eliminated, ^J^ ' 5] ^T ^\z ^jpy^ ^ ^^^ ^^ *^^^ ^^V {anything)
concerning God except the truth.
Note. Beside nouns, other expressions may follow the ex-
ceptive particle such as (i) an adverb, (ii) prepositional phrase,
(iii) hal, or (iv) clause known as ma9dariyah. Thus (i) *^%^ ^
* In these two examples the words following the particle of exception stand in
the category of jSS\ ^ j^^aJuljT J Juj see Wright's Grammar u JU^
rem. b 2 b.
226
liJb 1) a1^ ' J there is no tree in the garden except here ; (ii)
^l^\ (jilj 5 j except hy God^s permission ; (iii) \^ 5| except
scantily, see § 444 c rem. / Note ; and (iv) 'J\ ^\ 5l except that
etc., see § 448 c.
587. We have treated conditional and hypothetical sentences in
§§ 404 to 406, § 413 and § 417 : there must now be explained that
the apodosis of a conditional sentence commences with uJ (see
§ 366 V) when the conditional particle {^, ^J[, or other) of
the protasis cannot exercise any influence upon the apodosis, or
is not required to do so.
(a) This happens when the apodosis is a nominal sentence ;
thus ^%^jJ^ l1>J ^f;S^ Ui '^\ ^ ^ li^'O' U^^ whatever
sign thou Iringest us, we do not believe in thee ; ^ j^ ^^
^^^Lft/^ 1 ^ cliol Li ^jmJij whosoever is made to guard against
his own covetousness, those are the prosperous,
{e) If the apodosis be a verbal sentence expressing command,
prohibition, or desire; thus l^,; cL^li |JL) c:^^^ l::.>^.^.s ^jl
(f ^Aow A««^ brought a sign, produce it.
{d) If the apodosis be a verbal sentence preceded by ij^t,
uJ)^-, b^, U, ^, or jliJ ; thus ^Ay uJj-li ^^l^^pLSiljl ,jj
if it stand firm in its place, hereafter thou shalt see Me.
Eem. There are cases when the use of uJ is optional.
227
588. The hypothetical particle p implies that what is supposed
is, as a matter of fact, not true or at any rate is improbable
(see § 404 a), whereas ^\ simply indicates a condition.
690. The afl5rmative particle J (see § 361 e) may be prefixed
to the apodosis of a hypothetical sentence, thus uXt^ *U» ^
ii^lj <L^\ ijm\1j\ J>*-s^ ♦/ thi/ Lord had willed, He would have
made {all) mankind one people.
[Here follow §§ 191 to 253 treating learnedly of Prosody, essential
to the enjoyment of Arabic literature but not required for
Elementary Arabic : Fint reading hook, whose grammatical
analysis could hardly have come into existence without help
of the three excellent indexes with which Professor Wright
brought his Grammar to a close.]
CONTENTS
PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHO£PY
The consonants ....
•BCTIOIt
1
The vowels and diphthongs
Other orthographic signs
Sukun rest ....
4
9
Tashdld ttrengthening .
Hamzah compression
Waglah union
Maddah extension
11
16
18
22
The syllable ....
The accent ....
24
28
The numerals .....
32
PART II. ETYMOLOGY OR THE PAR'
rs
OF
• SPEECH
Triliteral verbs ....
,
33
The first or ground form
The second form .
36
40
The third form .
.
43
The fourth form .
45
230
CONTENTS.
The fifth form .
The sixth form .
The seventh form
The eighth form
The tenth form .
Quadriliteral verbs
The voices
The states (tenses) of the verb
The moods
The numbers, persons and genders
Strong verbs ....
!N^ominative personal pronouns
States and moods (active)
The passive voice
The derived forms
Doubled verbs
Weak verbs
Hamzated .
Containing J or ^
Doubly weak
Jl*y , j;*3. and J^^
Accusative pronominal suffixes
The noun, substantive and adjective
Nomina verbi, abstract and concrete
190
195
CONTENTS.
Time and place ....
Instrument ....
Agentis et patientis (ground form)
Other adjectives Do.
The elative ....
Agentis et patientis (derived forms)
Adjectives from doubled and weak verbs
Individuality
The relative adjective .
The gender of nouns .
The numbers of nouns
Collectives .
Declension of triptotes and diptotes
Dependent pronominal suffixes
The numbers, cardinal and ordinal
Demonstrative pronouns
The article Jl .
Conjunctive and interrogative pronouns
Indefinite pronouns .
The particles ....
Prepositions
Adverbs
Conjunctions
Interjections
Paradigms of the verbs
232
CONTENTS.
PART III. SYNTAX
The Perfect State
The Pluperfect .
After 1i|, ^1 etc.
The Imperfect State
Indicative .
Subjunctive
Jussive
Energetic .
The Moods
Subjunctive
Indicative .
Jussive
Energetic .
Imperative .
Government by the verb
The objective complement
The absolute object
The use of J
Elimination of the verb
The accusative after ^fjj etc.
The vocative
The accusative after ^ .
The adverbial complement
The verb i^^ complete and incomplete
The sisters of kana
The adverbial accusative
CONTENTS.
233
447
^\, ^J^ , B.Ti^ ^} .
450
^,c-^, ^,and JI
454
J .... .
462
cy
463
%
466
^.: • . • • •
467
i-::-^^::' and ^^ .
468
^,5, Ji5,iib:,*T;5andJiU. .
469
The compound prepositions .
470
The infinitive noun ....
471
Concrete verbal nouns ....
472
The construct state
475
J", £^^4^,^and JL .
482
Superlatives as substantives .
486
^ and \^ maqdariyah .
488
Improper annexation .
489
No word can intervene
490
Definite and indefinite annexation
492
Apposition of the material .
494
Annexation instead of apposition
495
The cardinal numbers
496
The parts of a sentence
The subject and predicate . . . . 412
Compound sentences
.
519
234
CONTENTS.
The verb to be " in nominal sentences is not
expressed .
The pronoun of separation
The indefinite inchoative
The pronoun of corroboration
Use of ^Cjli in a nominal sentence
Impersonal expressions, nomina patientis, and
neuter plurals
Complements of the subject and predicate
Eeflexive pronominal suffixes
Appositives
9 " ^ \
fc*=^' ....
\J**Ju without reflexive meaning, and other
classes of appositives ( J JuiJl etc.)
Apposition of verbs
Concord in gender and number between the parts of
a sentence .
In verbal sentences
In nominal sentences .
Negative and prohibitive sentences
Interrogative sentences
Relative sentences
Copulative sentences .
JU!
Adversative, restrictive and exceptive sentences
Conditional and hypothetical sentences
CONCLUSION.
In the year 1885 I consulted Professor W. Robertson Smith
about the possibility of there being written an elementary
Grammar of Arabic capable of serving as introduction to
Wright^s masterly, but to beginners somewhat perplexing,
book ; * to which enquiry he made reply, " There are two
difficulties : to know what to put in, and to know what to
leave out." Ten years later I determined to make the
attempt, " putting in " all required by the grammatical
analysis (then as now in manuscript) of my First reading
hook and, so far as could be, " leaving out " everything else ;
for I supposed that a rule would only be needed, if the
Reading book's Arabic text afford an example in illustration ;
and I hoped by retaining Wright's section numbers that
my abridgement might become a table of contents to his
Grammar. I had supplied lists of omissions to Professors
W. R. Smith and de Goeje with a view to their being
remedied in the forthcoming 3rd edition ; ^nd such
* A Grammar of the Arabic Language translated from the German of Caspari
and edited with numerous additions and corrections by W. Wright, LL.D., Uta
Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge. Third edition rerisod by
W. Robertson Smith, late Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge,
and M. J. de Goeje, Professor of Arabic in the University of Leydon. Cambridge:
at the Unir^rsity Press, 1896.
236 CONCLUSION.
omissions as I subsequently discovered have been placed in
tbis book under the heading of " Note," so that my trivial
additions stand markedly apart from (my abridgement of)
the scholarly text.
Reference is made now and again to Elementary Arabic :
First reading hooky shortly to appear, whose prototype (pub-
lished in 1888) is out of print : meanwhile my references
are valid to Elementary Arabic : Text and glossary (to be
obtained of Messrs. S. Low, Marston & Co), for the Arabic
text of both reading books is identical. All its words
appear singly in this book's first 138 pages, and all recur
later in phrases to illustrate syntax : its length I believe
equivalent to one column of The Times newspaper in smallest
type, and it may be said to supply almost without exception
my Grammar's examples.
From a biographical sketch of Mr. S. de Sacy written in
October 1895 by Professor Hartwig Derenbourg, Titulaire
de la chaire de Silvestre de Sacy a I'Ecole speciale des
langues orientales vivantes, I borrow the following : —
La grammaire arabe de Caspari, le livre de classe qui, depuis
1848, n'a pas cesse d'etre mis entre les mains des eleves dans des
redactions latine (1848), allemande (1859, 1866, 1876 et 1887),
anglaise (1862 et 1874) et franQaise (1880), tient le milieu entre
les tendances des deux rivaux. EUe s'appuie, dit M. Fleischer,
sur Sacy et Ewald, et cherche seulement, avec quelques rectifica-
tions et additions que j'ai foumies, a reunir les qualites de Fun et
CONCLUSION. 237
de I'autre La grammaire de Tancien arabe ne progressera
vraiment d'une maniere sensible que lo jour ou, d'un c6t4, on
comparera et appreciera avec une balance de precision les philo-
logues orientaux repartis dans les diverses ^coles, et ou, d'autro
part, I'on soumettra les materiaux accumuUs dans leurs plus
excellents trait^s a une enquete approfondie dirigee dans le sens
de notre linguistique."
Dans cette derniere direction, c'est a peine si nous avons depass^
la premiere etape, franchie d*un seul bond par le jeune Ewald,
alors presque a ses debuts. L'edition anglaise de Caspari, par
M. William Wright, ouvre seule quelques echappees sur 1' horizon
encore incertain de la philologie semitique compar^e. La Gram-
maire de la langue arabe qui, dans ses diverses transformations,
continue a porter le nom de Caspari, se recommande et a reusai
surtout a cause de son ordonnance harmonieuse : point de deroga-
tions au plan general, chaque r^gle a sa place, pas de redites, pas
de doubles emplois, une sobriety dans les tours de phrase n'excluant
pas la clarte, une clart^ obtenue sans redondances oiseuses et sans
vaines amplifications. C'est un peu terre a terre, et cela manque
d'essor ; mais si I'imagination n'y trouve pas son compte, la raison
est pleinement satisfaite par ce Lhomond de la langue arabe.
Charles Fran9ois Lhomond died in 1794 at the ago of 67,
having been maltreated by Parisian revolutionists, perhaps
because of his writing in defence of Catholic faith as under-
stood by him. His chief claim to posthumous fame lies in
his devotion to the work of compiling elementary books and
it is in this respect that his name may be conferred on those
238 CONCLUSION.
wlio do likewise. My readers will thank me for putting
before tliem Professor Derenbourg's eloquent appreciation
of the Grammar still called by Caspari's name, to the
praise of which I heartily subscribe. Wright has, how-
ever, carried matters further, for the glimpses of Semitic
philology mentioned above, together with much more, have
been published by Eobertson Smith in "Wright's Comparative
Grammar ; and since 1895 Professor de Goeje has bestowed
upon the world of Semitic letters a boon, for which we
cannot be too thankful, by devoting his valuable time and
known scholarship to the work of enabling Cambridge
University Press to issue a 3rd edition of Wright's Arabic
Grammar : it is this which I have abridged.
Much thanks are due from me to kind helpers more
numerous than can be mentioned, but I must especially
single out the Rev. G. W. Thatcher of Mansfield College,
Oxford, without whose efficient assistance I might well have
found it impossible to thread the mazes of Arabic syntax.
Taj Mahall.
Shortly before passing from among us to well-earned
rest Sir M. Monier- Williams urged me to put on permanent
record at full length an account of the inscriptions kindly
printed for me by the Pioneer of Allahabad in December
1891. The building well known to Europeans as Taj is best
CONCLUSION. 239
called Mumtaz Mahall, being the resting place of a lady so
named : in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge may be
seen an excellent model, whereon the larger script is plainly
legible. As chapters of the Coran are not always known to
Moslems by number, I give in every case the Arabic name.
Driving up to the great gateway of red sandstone visitors find
facing them Chapter Ixxxix of the Coran, entitled ys~\, beginning
at bottom of the right hand side, continuing all over the arch, and
finishing with the last verse, which invites entry into (the garden
or) Paradise. Inside the gateway we have at right Ch. xciii
^^?^1, at top Ch. xciv ^j^ J^ and on the left Ch. xcv ^jiP^\.
Approaching the main building one sees upon each of the four
principal fagades a most noble specimen of that grand script to
which the Arabic language and character lends itself at great
advantage. All this is Ch. xxxvi, entitled from its introductory
letters i^ and sometimes called " the heart of the Coran," which
to Moslem ears is of funereal sound, much as to us Anglicans is
1 Cor. XV from its forming part of the burial service. Each of
what I have called the four principal fa9ades is deeply recessed,
and in smaller script will be found the following : round the
entrance door Ch. Ixxxi P^^^ , ^^ western side opposite the
mosque Ch. Ixxxii .Ikfti^^, on the north or river side Ch. Ixxxiv
«li;.u.i^^ , and facing east Ch. xcviii *'^.i^^ .
Having entered the building we see running all around a bold
inscription consisting of Ch. Ixvii CS^\ , which begins to right
of the door and in twenty -four verses compasses all eight sides,
three final words being squeezed in at the top as though nearly
forgotten. The remaining six verses of Ch. Ixvii continue below
240 CONCLUSION.
its beginning and serve to decorate part only of an arch, at top of
whicli begins Ch. xlviii >^J^\, whose twenty -nine verses extend
over five archways in all, i.e. four complete and two halves. At
top of the window looking west begins Ch. Ixxvi j^Lj^l , which
runs over one entire arch and finishes above the doorway. The
small remaining space is occupied by verses 54 and 55 of Ch. xxxix
j^\^'^ , followed by a colophon. It is said that a verse ornaments
the roof, but even through a good opera glass I could detect
nothing more than patterns.
Around the Bigam's cenotaph under the resonant dome we read
the usual formula God who is blessed and exalted has said," and
then verses 22 to 28 inclusive from Ch. Ixxxiii ^-iik/*J^, followed
by verse 30 from Ch. xli ci^Lai , concluding with the final words
of Ch. ii '^j^Ji^ . At the cenotaph's north end we have verse 22 of
Ch. lix ylJ^, and on the top are invocations and pious words,
finishing with part of verse 7 and verse 8 from Ch. xl ^t^^ .
Upon the crypt's central tomb are inscribed at the sides
ninety - six invocations — 0 possessor of dominion, 0 glorious,
0 praiseworthy, 0 guide, and so forth — which with bismi -11a h,
etc., together make up the ninety-nine names of God. At the
tomb's northern end we find again Ch. lix, verse 22, and on the
top sentences which I am not able to identify. "With its qiblah
westwards stands the mosque, and inside may be read Ch. xci
^jM^iJiW, appended to which is the date 1109 after the hi j rah
(Hejira), that year having begun on 20th of July 1697 a.d.
Caulton Club, Pall Mall, London.
June, 1900.
^^^ ^
m^^f^'-'
cu
to
University of Toronto
Library
i
DO NOT
REMOVE
THE
CARD
FROM
THIS
POCKET
%/ • W^.
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11