jpresentefc to
Gbe Xibrar?
of tbe
TUniverstt? of Toronto
&B
The Department of Oriental
Languages
for use in the
Oriental Seminar.
THORNTON'S ARABIC SERIES,
VOLUME L
ELEMENTARY ARABIC
A GRAMMAR
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
C. F. CLAY, MANAGER
LONDON : FETTER LANE, E.C. 4
NEW YORK : G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, MADRAS: MACMILLAN AND CO,
TORONTO : J. M. DENT AND SONS, LTD.
TOKYO: THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
All rights reierved
ELEMENTARY ARABIC
A GRAMMAR
FREDERIC DU PRE THORNTON
being an abridgement of
WRIGHT'S ARABIC GRAMMAR
to which it will serve as a table of contents
EDITED BY
REYNOLD A. NICHOLSON, M.A.
Lecturer in Persian in the University of Cambridge, and some time
Fellow of Trinity College
CAMBRIDGE :
At the University Press
First Bail ion 1905
Reprinted 1919
IN *M
PREFACE.
FREDERIC DU PRE THORNTON WAS born in 1841 at
Wendover in Buckinghamshire, where his father, the
Rev. Spencer Thornton, was Vicar, and received his education
at Brighton College. He commenced the study of Arabic in
1880, when he first visited Egypt and Palestine, following
the method which he recommends in his First Reading-Book,
namely, " to begin by reading aloud, from a book fully
pointed, with a Moslem who is accustomed to recite the
Qur'an (Goran) in public prayer." From 1880 to 1892 he
was almost continually in the East. As Mrs Thornton, who
accompanied her husband on all his journeys, writes tome:
" He was very quick at languages and thought much of
correct pronunciation, so that during several visits to Egypt
he had one of the students from the University Mosque al
Azhar, Cairo, to read Arabic with him. His whole thoughts
and time were given up to his projected Series, and especially
to the Arabic Grammar, as he found so many in Egypt, Army
officers and missionaries, who did not care to go to the expense
or labour of learning the larger and more difficult Grammars.
We visited twice the Jebel Hauran, the ancient Bashan of
the Bible, and found it a most interesting country to travel
VI PREFACE.
in, and the Druse people very hospitable, especially to the
English. My husband's idea in visiting India was 1 find
oijt about the Moslems there, and whether they spoke Arabic
much amongst themselves, which does not seem to be the
case. It is only used there as the Sacred Language." Mi-
Thornton was acquainted with most of the leading Arabist*
in this country Professor William Wright, a portion of
whose Arabic Reading-Book (Williams and Norgate, 1870)
he read with the author; Professor W. Robertson Smith,
Professor Ion Keith -Falconer, Sir Charles Lyall, Professor
D. S. Margoliouth, and others. My friendship with him
began, I think, in 1895 or a little afterwards, and we
corresponded pretty regularly until his death, which took
place in January 1903, besides meeting now and then to talk
over the work on which he was engaged. I have pleasant
recollections of the hospitality shown to me by Mr and
Mrs Thornton on several occasions when I stayed with them
at Westgate-on-Sea, as well as of the enthusiasm with which
Mr Thornton would discourse on his favourite topics. Few
can have known Wright's Grammar so perfectly as he did,
and though the present volume bears witness to his minute
accuracy and to the systematic thoroughness with which he
entered into the smallest details of exposition, only those
whom he consulted or who helped him in his work can have
any conception how much thought and labour it cost him to
produce. He was trying to improve it almost to the last
day of his life.
This volume, however, does not stand by itself. It was
Mr Thornton's intention to compile and publish an Arabic
Series, based on the Goran, which should enable the learner
to get a good working knowledge of the language without
the necessity of constantly referring to other books. Of this
PREFACE. ix
to Wright's masterly, but to beginners somewhat perplexing,
book * ; to which enquiry he made reply, ' There are two
difficulties : to know what to put in, and to know what to
leave out.' Ten years later I determined to make the
attempt, 'putting in' all required by the grammatical
analysis (then as now in manuscript) of my First Reading-
Book and, so far as could be, ' leaving out ' everything else ;
for I supposed that a rule would only be needed, if the
Reading-Book's Arabic text afford an example in illustration ;
and I hoped by retaining Wright's section numbers that
my abridgement might become a table of contents to his
Grammar. I had supplied lists of omissions to Professors
W. R. Smith and de Goeje with a view to their being
remedied in the forthcoming 3rd edition ; and such omis-
sions as I subsequently discovered have been placed in
this book under the heading of ' Note/ so that my trivial
additions stand markedly apart from (my abridgement of)
the scholarly text."
Mr Thornton then goes on to speak of his Elementary
Arabic : First Reading-Book, to which reference has been
made above, calling attention to the fact that all its words
appear singly in Parts I and II of the Grammar, and all
recur later in phrases to illustrate syntax. As he observes,
"it may be said to supply almost without exception my
Grammar's examples." The remainder of his Conclusion I
will quote entire.
* A Grammar of the Arabic Language translated from the German of
Caspar! and edited with numerous additions and corrections by W. Wright,
LL.D., late Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge. Third
edition revised by W. Robertson Smith, late Professor of Arabic in the
University of Cambridge, and M. J. de Goeje, Professor of Arabic in the
University of Leyden. Cambridge : at the University Press, 1896.
X PREFACE.
" From a biographical sketch of M. S. de Sacy written
in October 1895 by Professor Hartwig Derenbourg, Titulaire
de la chaire de Silvestre de Sacy a 1'lilcole spe'ciale des
langues orientales vivantes, I borrow the following :
La grammaire arabe de Caspari, le livre de classe qui, depuis
1848, n'a pas cesse d'etre mis entre les mains des eleves dans
des redactions latine (1848), alleinande (1859, 1866, 1876, et
1887), anglaise (1862 et 1874) et fra^aise (1880), tient le
milieu entre les tendances des deux rivaux. " Elle s'appuie,
dit M. Fleischer, sur Sacy et Ewald, et cherche seulement, avec
quelques rectifications et additions que j'ai fournies, a reunir les
qualites de 1'un et de 1'autre. ... La grammaire de 1'ancien arabe
ne progressera vraiment d'une maniere sensible que le jour oil,
d'un c6te, on comparera et appreciera avec une balance de pre-
cision les philologues orientaux repartis dans les diverses ecoles,
et ou, d'autre part, Ton soumettra les materiaux accumules dans
leurs plus excellents traites a une enquete approfondie dirigee
dans le sens de notre linguistique."
Dans cette derniere direction, c'est a peine si nous avons
depasse la premiere etape, franchie d'un seul bond par le jeune
Ewald, alors presque a ses debuts. L' edition anglaise de Caspari,
par M. William Wright, ouvre seule qnelques echappees sur
1'horizon encore incertain de la philologie semitique comparee.
La Grammaire de la langue arabe qui, dans ses diverses trans-
formations, continue 4 porter le nom de Caspari, se recommande
et a reussi surtout a cause de son ordonnance harmonieuse: point
de derogations au plan general, chaque regie a sa place, pas de
redites, pas de doubles emplois, une sobriete dans les tours de
phrase n'excluant pas la clarte, une clarte obtenue sans redondances
oiseuses et sans vaines amplifications. C'est tin peu terre a terre, et
cela manque d'essor ; niais si l'miagination n'y trouve pas son
compte, la raison est pleinement satisf'aite par ce Lhomond de la
langue arabe.
PREFACE. / VII
projected Series he left two volumes already printed and in
private circulation, viz. the present abridgement of Wright's
Grammar and a First Reading-Book consisting of certain
extracts from the Goran together with a Grammatical
Analysis and Glossary. Subsequently he determined to
enlarge the latter volume by adding to it some fifty pages
of Wright's Arabic Reading-Book, which had nearly run out
of print ; and at his request I compiled a Glossary for this
additional matter. It was passing through the press when
its progress was interrupted by Mr Thornton's untimely
death.
Fortunately, the scheme which he had so deeply at
heart is to be cariied out in its entirety, as far as another
hand may be capable of executing his design ; and since
Mrs Thornton has entrusted me with the task of editing and
completing the Series, I will briefly indicate the plan of the
whole before proceeding to speak of the first volume in
particular.
Thornton's Arabic Series will be published by the Cam-
bridge University Press and will consist of four (or possibly
five) volumes entitled as follows.
I. Elementary Arabic : a Grammar.
II. Elementary Arabic: First Reading- Book. This will
contain selected passages from the Goran, viz. Ch. I, Ch. II
256, Ch. vii 52 to 62 and 101 to 170 inclusive, also
Ch. LXIV; the text of a portion of Wright's Arabic
Reading-Book, namely, pp. 13 to 64, beginning with " Stories
of Arab Warriors " and ending with " The Escape of 'Abd al
Rahman the Umaiyad from Syria into Spain"; a Grammatical
Analysis of the above-mentioned Coranic texts; and finally
a full Glossary.
a6
Vlll
PREFACE.
III. Elementary Arabic: Second Reading-Book, contain-
ing passages from unpublished MSS. (or, at least, such as
have not been previously edited in Europe).
IV Elementary Arabic: Third Reading-Book, which will
probably comprise the whole of Wright's Arabic Reading-
Book from p. 64 to the end.
The plan thus sketched departs from Mr Thornton's only
in one comparatively trivial point. Instead of providing each
volume with its own glossary, he contemplated a single
Dictionary giving all the Arabic words contained in the three
Reading-Books. There is indeed much to be said for this
arrangement, by which a good deal of repetition would be
avoided, but practical considerations seem to require that
the First Reading- Book at any rate should be self-sufficing.
With regard to the Second and Third Reading-Books the
case is different, and I am inclined to think that they should
not have separate glossaries. In this event a Dictionary
such as Mr Thornton contemplated will form the fifth volume
of the Series. Any suggestions as to the course which should
be followed in this matter and also as to the scope of the
Second Reading- Book, that is to say, what principle of
selection would be most advantageous, will be gratefully
received.
I now come to Elementary Arabic: a Grammar.
Concerning its origin I may quote Mr Thornton's own
words appended by way of conclusion to the edition which
was printed in 1900 by Messrs Stephen Austin of Hertford
for private circulation.
" In the year 1885 I consulted Professor W. Robertson
Smith about the possibility of there being written an elemen-
tary Grammar of Arabic capable of serving as introduction
PREFACE. XI
"Charlos Franrois Lhoniond died in 1704- at the age of 67,
having been maltreated by Parisian revolutionists, perhaps
because of his writing in defence of Catholic faith as under-
stood by him. His chief claim to posthumous fame lies in
his devotion to the work of compiling elementary books and it
is in this respect that his name may be conferred on those who
do likewise. My readers will thank me for putting before them
Professor Derenbourg's eloquent appreciation of the Grammar
still called by Caspari's name, to the praise of which I heartily
subscribe. Wright has, however, carried matters further, for
the glimpses of Semitic philology mentioned above, together
with much more, have been published by Robertson Smith
in Wright's Comparative Grammar] and since 1895 Professor
de Goeje has bestowed upon the world of Semitic letters
a boon, for which we cannot be too thankful, by devoting his
valuable time and known scholarship to the work of enabling
Cambridge University Press to issue a 3rd Edition of Wright's
.Arabic Grammar: it is this which I have abridged.
" Much thanks are due from me to kind helpers more
numerous than can be mentioned, but I must especially
single out the Rev. G. W. Thatcher of Mansfield College,
Oxford, without whose efficient assistance I might well have
found it impossible to thread the mazes of Arabic syntax."
In preparing this new edition of Mr Thornton's Grammar
I have incorporated some additions and corrections which
I found in his interleaved copy of the last edition, and have
added an abstract of 191 to 230 in Wright's Grammar,
which treat of Prosody. Mr Thornton omitted these sections
on the ground that they were not needed for his Elementary
Arabic: First Reading-Book, but he would undoubtedly have
xipplied the deficiency in view of the enlarged issue of that
book, which has been described above and which will shortly
Xll PREFACE.
be published as the second volume of this Series. I h;m-
also removed some references in the Grammar to the original
edition of the First Reading-Book, giving the corresponding
references to the Goran instead. In other respects I have
made as few alterations as possible, since I know that
Mr Thornton had pondered every word of his work over and
over again and that he took infinite pains to secure the
clearest and most concise expression.
It must be borne in mind that the author of this work
intended it to be used side by side with his First Reading-
Book, for which it is specially adapted and from which nearly
all its examples are drawn. He regarded the one book as
the complement of the other and even, I think, disliked the
idea of their being sold separately. I hope, therefore, to
bring out the enlarged First Reading-Book with as little
delay as my other engagements permit, and I would strongly
recommend all students of the Grammar to acquire the
companion volume. At the same time it would, in my
opinion, have been a mistake to limit the use of the Grammar
to purchasers of the Reading-Book. The Goran, whence
most of its examples are derived, is accessible to everyone,
and the Grammar itself has the peculiar merit of serving as
an introduction to Wright's masterly work. The reader will
note that Wright's second volume begins at 1, which
corresponds with 401 in Mr Thornton's abridgement.
It only remains to thank Mrs Thornton and Sir Charles
Lyall, whom I consulted before writing this Preface, for the
kind help which they have given me.
REYNOLD A. NICHOLSON.
CAMBRIDGE,
July, 1905.
CONTENTS.
PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
SECTION
The consonants 1
The vowels and diphthongs ..*..... 4
Other orthographic signs
Sukun rest 9
Tashdid strengthening ...... 11
Hamzah compression ....... 15
Waclafe union ........ 18
Maddan extension ....... 22
The syllable 24
The accent 28
The numerals . 32
PART II. ETYMOLOGY OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
Tri literal verbs 33
The first or ground form 36
The second form ...... 40
The third form 43
The fourth form 45
The fifth form 47
The sixth form 50
The seventh form 52
The eighth form 55'
The tenth form 61
xiv CONTENTS.
Quadrillion] vn-Ks ......... <;T
The voices .......... 73
The states (tenses) of the verb ...... 77
The moods .......... 79
The numbers, persons and genders ..... 81
Strong verbs . ........ 83
Nominative personal pronoun^ ..... 89
States and moods (active) ..... 90
The passive voico ....... 100
The derived forms ...... 102
Doubled verbs ....... . 120
Weak verbs .......... 126
Hamzated ......... 130
Containing ^ or ^ ....... 141
Doubly weak ."..,.... 171
, Of * o , a
and ^Jo ....... 182
Accusative pronominal suffixes . . . . . . 185
The noun, substantive and adjective ..... 190
Nomiua verbi, abstract and concrete . . . 195
Time and place 221
Instrument 228
Agentis et patientis (ground form) .... 229
Other adjectives Do. .... 232
The elative 234
Agentis et patientis (derived forms . . . 236
Adjectives from doubled and weak verbs . . 237
Individuality 246
The relative adjective . .... 249-
The gender of nouns 289
The numbers of nouns ........ 298
Collectives 306
Declension of triptotes and diptotes ..... 308
Dependent pronominal suffixes ...... 317
The numbers, cardinal and ordinal , . . . . 318
CONTENTS. xv
SECTION
Demonstrative pronouns
340
The article Jl
34- r ,
346
Indefinite pronouns ......
353*
The particles ........
354
Prepositions
355
Adverbs
360
Conjunctions ......
365
Interjections ......
368
Paradigms of the verbs ......
369
PART III. SYNTAX.
The Perfect State
401
The Pluperfect
403
t
After I3J, ^1 etc
405
The Imperfect State
Indicative .......
408
Subjunctive ......
411
Jussive .......
412
Energetic .
414
The Moods
Subjunctive
415
Indicative
416
Jussive
417
Imperative ......
420
Government by the verb .....
421
The objective complement
423
The absolute object
426
The use of ^J .
429
Elimination of the verb .
138
a
The accusative after tjt etc. .
1:51;
The vocative
438
The accusative after *) .
430
The adverbial complement
Jin
XVI CONTENTS.
SECTION
The verb O^ complete and incomplete . . 441
The sisters of kana . ..... 442
The adverbial accusative .... . 443
Government by prepositions ...... 446
'
O* and >* ........ 447
L5*}' LT*- and J ..... 45()
^, y, x> and ^.U ...... 454
j .......... 462
^ .......... 463
.......... 466
.......... 467
+ 0*
and ^9 ....... 468
jj and ^U . , , 469
The compound prepositions ..... 470
The infinitive noun ........ 471
Concrete verbal nouns . . . . . . . . 472
The construct state . . . . . , . . 475
*., j* and J^x> . . 482
Superlatives as substantives ..... 486
oi
O' and U raa^dariyah ...... 488
Improper annexation ...... 489
No word can intervene ...... 490
Definite and indefinite annexation .... 492
Apposition of the material ..... 494
Annexation instead of apposition .... 495
The cardinal numbers . ... 496
CONTENTS. XV11
SECTION
The parts of a sentence
The subject and predicate ..... 512
Compound sentences ...... 519
The verb "to be" in nominal sentences is not
expressed ........ 522
The pronoun of separation ..... 524
The indefinite inchoative ...... 527
The pronoun of corroboration ..... 530
Use of O^ i Q a nominal sentence . . . 531
Impersonal expressions, nomina patientis, and neuter
plurals ........ 533
Complements of the subject and predicate .... 534
Reflexive pronominal suffixes ..... 535
Appositives ........ 536
J , f.
......... 537
j without reflexive meaning, and other classes
1 *0s
of appositives (iJ*XjM etc.) .... 539
Apposition of verbs ....... 540
Concord in gender and number between the parts of a
sentence ........ 541
In verbal sentences ....... 542
In nominal sentence- ...... 552
Negative and prohibitive sentences ..... :>:>:]
Interrogative sentences ........ 564
Relative sentences ......... 572
Copulative sentences ........ 576
........ 583
Adversative, restrictive and exceptive sentences . . . 584
Conditional and hypothetical sentences ..... 587
Prosody .... 591
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.
27. juo^J I 4)3 ^U^J t <*J. The reference is to Goran,
Surah Ixiv. verse 1.
J W s J
28. +*~t' The reference is to Goran, Surah Ixiv. verse 1.
43, REM. c. ^ ^j.^*-- r ^ ne reference is to Goran,
Surah vii. verse 134.
45. Dele
45, REM. r. For ^cJL>l to turn Moslem from ve^-wt hldnt
xx at 9 - o
rend ^^L^' <o obtain peace, to surrender one's self (to God) from
60
peace.
444, REM. #. For Koran read Goran.
456. For A.*.! (p. 160, 1. 11) read A.aJ.
470. Add, I! KM./ U is often inserted after J^o, ^, and
without affecting their regimen and is then called Sjulj^t l^
guparfluoia ma (see 353*).
PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
1. Arabic is written from right to left with twenty-eight
letters, all consonants ; three of which, however, are also used as
vowels. In modern alphabetical order they range as follows, each
with the equivalent employed by Wright's Arabic Grammar:
the second equivalent (if any) is from Elementary Arabic: First
reading book] being easier for beginners, as Dr Wright discards
digraphs, i.e. two letters for the representation of one sound.
NAME
EQUIVALENT
SEPARATE
CONNECTED
INITIAL
MEDIAL
FINAL
Jrf
X
1
I
I
V
b
V
<
,
V.
10
t
o
J
*
Ifr
u
t,th
^
A
A
A
^--
/
.**
g J
C
*
T
t
fu.
h
C
-
ki
C
tu.
h, kh
t
*
.
t
jb
d
>
+
0.
* '
JIJ
d, dh
J
*
*
!
r
j
J.
^
OK.
ELEMENTARY ARABIC :
NAME
EQUIVALENT
SEPABATE
CONNECTED
INITIAL
MEDIAL
FINAL
&
1
j
j.
>
S
uH
f
MM
y-
9
s, sh
A
A
A
A
&
?, 9
u.
-
-
u.
tt
t
7
I*
I
t
stb
?
fc
to
k
*
00*
i
g
P
X
c
9 0'
g gb
^
*
X
e
2U
f
^
*
A
a
JlJ
k, q
J
^
A
J
Jfcb
k
0)
&
^
^
>j
i
J
J
X
J
a
>**
in
S
-
-
J9
* j
n
o
3
A
o-
fu
li
A
V
A
w
J
>
>
&
y
i
*
y
2] A GRAMMAR. 3
REM. a. \ following J forms *$ lam 'alif which is sometimes
reckoned as a letter.
REM. e. \, 3, ^, are called iXxM o^/*. the weak letters.
2. The orthoepy, i.e. correct pronunciation, of Arabic conso-
nants is most easily acquired by learning from a Moslem to read
the Goran aloud. With the exception of minute and insignificant
divergencies this Coranic pronunciation is in theory identical
nearly* everywhere, though in India, and probably in countries
still more remote from Arabia, its distinctness has fallen off, and
the sound of some letters, notably ? and ., is lost. Further,
the Goran's vowelling is beyond dispute; and this is of more
advantage to beginners than they are at first capable of recog-
nizing ; vowel-signs exist, and are used, for purposes of grammar
rather than to aid colloquial pronunciation. Slight indications
only as to Coranic pronunciation can here be given, together with
an explanation of the transliteration to be employed.
b '
are pronounced as in English, but r must be trilled and h
distinctly uttered, however placed : thus (jfJ^v* mahdiy one
led aright almost mahldiy, and A**} wajh/ac0 like wajhl.
m
h .
t 1 sharper than in English, and with the tongue's tip, to
d ) distinguish them from
t ) pronounced with broad of tongue, the tip being held against
d j the lower teeth.
* A Turkish 'imam will pronounce certain letters as in Turkish ; thus
kyainil for ^^[^ kiiuiil one who in perfect.
1-2
4 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [ 2
th as in thorn, thump ; but th as in goatherd, lighthouse,
j is pronounced (i) j as in John Jim Jack at al Azhar (the
famous Cairo University), but (ii) at the mosques of
Damascus, Tunis and Algiers j as s in usual, measure,
vision, and as z in azure, and j in adjoin, adjective, adjacent,
bijou, and g in lodge, prestige, singe. The former sound is
represented by Frenchmen with dj and by Germans with
x i x
dsch; if now we double g* thus ola-> a prayer-carpet,
it is easy to say sajjadafi. or sajjadafr, but not sa] jadafo :
the French j of bijou is therefore more convenient. Turks
however pronounce this letter as j, and (iii) most Egyptians
colloquially as the g of go, which last is the sound given in
Hebrew,
h can only be learned by ear : beginners must use h until they
catch the sound.
kh has long been employed by Anglo-Indians for the final
sound, harshly said, of lough, loch; gh being required for
Ox
>+e> ghain, and ch wanted in Persian etc. for the final
consonant of beach, which were best transcribed bic, i.e.
with the Italian c in dolce : kh must sound as in blockhouse,
thickheaded. Be it observed that is not a k but an h,
which cannot in Hebrew writing be distinguished from -.
dh is as th in though, thee, this ; being as 8 of modern Greece :
but dh as in bedhangiugs, adhesion.
z is strictly th said far back: but usually as z pronounced
with the tongue's tip pressed against the lower teeth ; then
z must be sounded sharply to make a distinction,
s sounds as in kissi^o-L-c Modern (quasi -inosslem) is muslim
2] A GRAMMAR. 5
the first syllable of which resembles that of muzzle -im
neither in vowel nor consonant. If hissed with the tongue's
tip s contrasts with
9 which must be pronounced further back, and with broad of
tongue.
sh as in shore, wash ; but sh as in mishap. For sh the French
use ch and Germans sch, which last represents in Dutch
~> skh.
' must be learnt by ear. The arrangement of throat is the
same as that required for h, but without aspirate. To
mimic baby camels is best of all; otherwise one must repeat
words in which &+e> 'ain occurs between two vowels, as
JiS fa'ala, he did, cJtii oJ& oJ& C~U3, etc. (see 369,
Table 1).
gh is the sound of gargling; but gh as in foghorn with the
Persian c-f gf, thus & gh.
q in Arabia is commonly pronounced as g in go, and so may
be said at first; but the student will learn to harden g in
the direction of k, and must sound
k very sharply in contrast. No one who can recite the Goran
like a Moslem at mosque will confuse and JJ as do
uninstructed Europeans.
n as in English, iX3 nk being as in sank, sink; but %^-J nb
sounds mb, thus j-*-U, a pulpit, called mimbar.
* * *
( are always consonants, as jjj$ wazir burd-en bearer, ^jjS=>\^>
w I * *
I sawakin (Souakim) female inhabitants, oiwjj yusuf Joseph;
y but, as these three examples show, t 3 ^ are frequently
Metters of prolongation (see 6).
ELEMENTARY ARABIA : [ 4
representing B and A is sounded as h when final, and as
0x JOx -.
t when followed by a vowel: it is called Zb^j** 13 ta'
marbutafr tied, as distinguished from O t, 05 j^* |U ta'
mamdudafe stretched (see 294 rem. 6)
4. The vowels and diphthongs are as follows :
A X
_*- a as vowel sound in aunt, wan, thumb, hat.
i pin, bit, gift.
-^- u push, bull, mustache.
I- a. father, hard.
^j- 1 ,, keep, beach, chief, seize.
$~ u moon, rule, blue, you.
^5- i aisle, my, buy, sigh, die, I.
$- au thou, how, bough.
^- a is as a.
.*-. an tanwin of fathafi. "|
~r in kasrafi j- (see 8).
__ un dammalij
, .- an as an, but in pause as a ) x
^ \ (see 27).
V^. an as an, but in pause as & )
REM. a. The three Arabic words above are names of the
00' 3 O ~
vowel-marks, the corresponding sounds being called
REM. b. A vowel is called i^a. a motion, its mark being
termed JXi form or figure, plural JUlil and J$i. Hence
a consonant when followed by a vowel is said to be
in motion.
6] A GRAMMAR. 7
5. When the Goran is recited, each letter, whatever its
relative position, in theory represents the same sound; but in
practice certain consonants somewhat modify adjacent vowels,
for instance u^ v ^ & J cause a, following one of them, to
be sounded like the Scandinavian a, which we represent variously
in nor, saw, war, hall, wrath, ought, caught. As to the many
jargons which constitute colloquial Arabic, they show divergencies
too material to be learnt from any book : pronunciation of each
of these spoken dialects (they are unwritten) is easy to an
Englishman who can read aloud the Coranic extracts of Elemen-
tary Arabic : First reading book uttering the consonants like a
Moslem at mosque; but it must be acquired by ear at the
particular locality simultaneously with all eccentricities of
vocabulary and grammar*.
6. The long vowels a, 1, u are indicated (see 4) by marking
the corresponding short vowels before I, ^, and ^ respectively,
which are then called j^^JI wJjj.*. letters of prolongation.
RKM. a. In certain common words a is indicated merely by
fathan*; as A!M, etc., which should properly be written with the
perpendicular fathali, thus <M God, Ojj* Aaron, o-o^j the
J ' I - ^ JxlOx 01
merciful, Ol^o-JI the heavens, *$)! the resurrection, ^>J but,
i3 that, tjj this etc.: the words !>*jl3 three, O*>*& thirty,
* Attempts have been made to print the Maltese dialect of Arabic in
Roman character at Valetta, and by the Bible Society in London, but in
neither case does the work betray a knowledge of philology. Far more
scholarly is the following book, which will be found most useful on the
Lower Nile; "The Modern Egyptian Dialect of Arabic. A Grammar, with
Exercises, Reading-Lessons and Glossaries, from the German of Dr K. Toilers.
With numerous additions by the Author. Translated by F. C. Burkitt, M.A.,
Trinity College. Cambridge: at the University Press, 189o."
ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 7
< . x * ". - *
h j 0?w, O^'^ 0'S^fy and J-olj-wl /5r^7 are also written
! * ' 4 J < * i * * tf* . * * I .-/.
defectively, thus wJJ, O>*^ ; *e**5, O^^- 1 anf ^
7. Fathah before ^ and j forms the diphthongs ai and au
(see 4). Colloquial pronunciation, however, frequently gives
ai as ei in vein, reign, neighbour, thus ^^ as sheikh elder, chief,
C~j as beit home, family, verse, &~\ (oblique case of O^O as
ithnein two.
NOTE. The vowel sound in vein were better represented by e,
whereas ^ _z_ ai should remain a diphthong as in the French
word pays (nearly) pel in contrast to the French letter p
(nearly) p.
REM. a. A superfluous 1 is written after j at the end of
certain verbal forms : it is useful in manuscript to prevent the ^
seeming separate and so being mistaken for j and.
REM. b. At the end of a word ^ following upon fathafr (i.e. a
see 4) is pronounced as I ^ a, so that ^^is 'ala upon and !^U 'ala
#o ^A scan the same. When in this position I and ^ are
Jx JO xOx> j ox
called 5;^-oioJI oU'NjI ^ '/// Mo^ caw be abbreviated, because
they are shortened in pronunciation if followed by a connective
'alif (see 18); thus JjT ^JU upon God and il/I ^ God, has
ascended are both in pause (see 27) pronounced 'alallah. The
interposition of hamzafo (see 15) prevents this wagl union,
thus O-jJO' r& 'ala'u -1 dini (Aladdin) the sublimity of religion.
The 'alif maqguraR, however written, is quiescent (see 9 rem. a)
as also are j of ^ -^ au and ^ of (^ ^- ai. When attached to
tauwin, radical final 'alif is quiescent, thus Lot a stick (see
212 b}; but it is also maqgurarl in LoaJ^ the stick.
9] A GRAMMAR. 9
REM. c. If a pronominal suffix be added to a word ending in
^ _^_ as ^^5 we see, the ^ is sometimes retained, but more often
is changed into I as d)!jj for <iLjJ or *iijj.3 (all pronounced)
naraka we see thee.
REM. d. Some words ending in 31 _^ ah may be written 5^ ^_
4 *, 9 \ * ^ * * * 0tx 9 * * * \ *
or Sj _i_ as 3j*. or o^*. /{/#, 5^Ji-c or S^A.o prayer, $=>J or *3j
: further we find AJ _^_ or AJ _L_ for St _^_ in the loan word
9 ^ Ox I0x
or AJ> 0/c? Testament.
8. Marks of the short vowels when doubled at the end of a
word (see 4) are pronounced thus _*_ an, in, __ un, which
is called O^5*^ tanwlnun adding of the letter nun.
REM. a. Tanwin of fathafe takes I after all consonants except
5, as CC gate, but Aiw drotcsiness (see 308). When preceding
" 43
^ it requires no t as j^jJb guidance. Notwithstanding this 'alif,
the vowel is short: thus baban (not an), but in pause (see 27)
Uibfi. We transliterate CC baban and iw sinafian, but an and
an are pronounced alike ; except in pause, when an is not heard,
whereas an sounds as a. In pause sinarlan is read siuah (see
end of 2).
The following orthographic signs are also in use :
9. Sukun rest JL. is placed over the final consonant of all
shut syllables (see 25).
REM. a. A consonant which has no following vowel is called
9 * f f
^j^L/ Oj*. a quiescent letter (see 4 rem. b).
REM. b. Letters that are assimilated to a following letter,
which receives in consequence tashdld (see 11), are retained
10 .ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [ 1
i ,
in writing but are not marked with sukun ; thus iiJJt the
language, Cojt pronounced 'arattu (see 14 c).
10. When part of a diphthong ^ and j take sukun, but this
sign is very unusual over a 'alif maqc^urafe (see 7 rem. 6) or
other letter of prolongation.
11. Tashdld strengthening _-_ is marked over a double con-
sonant and the letter's repetition saved; thus Jju baddala to
substitute, JbCJI al kullu the whole.
REM. c. Hamzafc (see 15) may be doubled and take tashdld,
thus JtC sa"alun a mendicant from JU sa'ala to ask.
14. The euphonic tashdid follows a vo well ess consonant,
which, though expressed in writing, is passed over in pronuncia-
tion, in order to avoid a harshness of sound, and assimilated to a
following consonant. It is used :
(a) With the letters O^^i^jcHu-c^u^-^^JO
after Jl the (see 345).
REM. a. These letters are called 2^^^h\ oa^JI the solar
letters because u- sun begins with one of them, and for an
analogous reason all other consonants are called
the lunar letters from >*3 moon.
(6) With the letters j J ^e 3 L^ after n with sukiln, as
v> from his Lord, O V^* a perspicuous book, which
are read mirrabbihi, kitabummubinun. The n of the words
,j- ^>c ,jl is often not written when they are combined with
U, ,> or ^.
15] A GRAMMAR. 11
REM. b. We may write ^ O 1 <* *) O ! or y\ tht not, and }}
for *5 O' '(/' ^j but ^<^ /row w^ is better so written for
U ,>*, as is Ul for U ^)l */ with SjuljJI U redundant md
(see 353*).
(c) "With the letter O after *t> j j uo i> J* in certain parts
of the verb, as Ojjl I wished: this practice is, however, more
than questionable.
REM. b. If the verb ends in O it naturally unites with a
;TX j S^
second O, as w*J nabbattu / sowed or planted for c*V.
15. Hamzarl compression (of upper part of windpipe) _*_, to
which a 'alif most commonly serves as ,>U^ 'imad support, may
almost be reckoned by Europeans as the alphabet's initial conso-
nant. It is equivalent to the French h aspire'e (which to English
sense is not, except in Normandy, sounded), and it may be
heard between the two words le onze and between la onzieme.
If our own definite article be pronounced before a vowel as before
a consonant, we can only prevent liaison by employing hamzarl ;
thus tho 'orange (o as E in thE book). Arabs would transcribe
a nice house anajshaus but an'aishaus for an ice house.
REM. a. When a connective 'alif (see 18) requires vowelling,
the vowel mark is better written without hamzafr, thus Jl the,
son (see 19 rein. d).
REM. c. Hamzaft is marked between t and sukun or the
following vowel ; but we find aiU his chiefs, ^^wli. abject -,
fcx " **
and even ^/-^ grievous.
12 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [ 16
REM. d. Hamzali is most perceptible in the middle of a
word as Olr*^ f r ( see 23) ^jUjJUl al qur'anu (not quranu)
the Cordn.
x OtO j
REM e. Hamzari and 'alif are called jJoiJt s^Jt the \il\f of
severance.
16. We have spoken in the preceding section of 'alif serving
most commonly as 'imad to hamzaR ; in certain circumstances this
position may be taken by 3 or ^, the latter appearing without
dots (see 131 et seq., 238, 240, 316 d and 361 a rem.), thus
9 .OJ
*zj*e producer.
17. Hamzaii alone, instead of I t J or ^, is written,
(a) always at a word's end, after sukun or a letter of pro-
longation, as t\*. he came, l$~i evil, *i^*~* a coming, \#b thirst;
and in the middle of a word after 'alif of prolongation provided
J x OZ
the hamzafe bears fathafo as ace. ^s^\j^\ your enemies, but nom.
3 }~s Ot-
" t> 3 ~'0t i / r " J r "
NOTE, ror At*, ^^zlj^l see 22, and for ^w, ^L*^-* see
23 rem. c.
(6) frequently in the middle of words after j or ^ of pro-
longation and after sukun, as ^t$~> a mischief for ^ $~>, d^-i^
wish for *-~-^o, J-i~;> he asks for Jt-l>; also after kasrafr and
dammafe before ^ or 3 of prolongation ; ^iJbl^. khati'lna sinners
for v > i lbU., tsilj ru'usun heads for u-^Jj- Sometimes it is
improperly placed over the letter of prolongation, as ilU*. for
or rtSjjxL khati'athm sin.
** X
REM. b. Hamzaii may under certain circumstances be changed
19] A GRAMMAR. 13
into a weak letter, as ^u for iL (see 325 rem. a), .-J for
9 * * $ ^*^ *
^ prophet, ^ for t^9 shade, ^\j for ^\j hend,j^j for > <t
9* t *x 2 5x S 5x
cist a* n, iyJH for i^ll grotife, Uutl for Ull we believed.
NOTE. For , see 23, and for ^, a *. JU rem. c.
REM. c. The name ^jib David is always pronounced da'ftd
however it may be written.
18. Some Arabic words begin with connective 'alif over
which is marked wallah sign of union I, hereinafter transliterated
by hyphen, because the word and its predecessor are spoken as
one ; thus aJUl ju* 'abdu -llahi servant of God, 6j>\j wa -d'uhu
and call ye upon Him.
19. Elision takes place to form the union
(a) with the vowel of Jl the, as CH*^ ' >^l ^ day of the
judgment.
NOTE. As regards tjjf see 347.
(6) in regular Imperatives of the first form, as j^.ol J15 he
said, Be patient ; instead of j~e\.
(c) in certain derivatives belonging to the seventh and fol-
lowing forms of the verbs (see 35), as I>J15J t^ and they were
changed', instead of 1>jJut.
90 x 9xO 9
(c?) in ,j.>l soji, &kj\ tiro, otj-l a woman, ^wl name, and a
few other nouns.
HK.M. c. In most of these words the 'alif and vowel are pros-
thetic, i.e. prefixed to a vowelless initial consonant for the sake
of euphony (see 26).
14 ELEMENTARY ARABIC I [ 20
HEM. d. It is obviously an error to begin a sentence with t :
in such case the connective 'alif is written without hamzafc but
with a vowel, as 4-U J^a-Jt Praise belongs to God.
REM. /. Wacjah and 'alif are called J^JI \JA\ the 'alif of
* +
union.
20. The connective 'alif may follow
(a) a short vowel, which then absorbs it (see 18).
(6) a long vowel, which is then shortened in pronunciation
to comply with 25 ; as c^jS)' ^ fl -1 'ardi to be read nl'ardi
in the earth, ilj-oJt GjkAt ihdina -1 errata to be read ihdinac^irata
guide us (on) the way : but the suffixes of the 1 st pers. sing.
^->~ and ^ may assume before the article the older forms
" * " OsiiO * 6 J J
and , as C~JI J**\ cause me to enter the house,
o t. * * Sio ~ **
(or C>t**^ ***0 ^ Wl ^ divert fro?n
my signs those who.
(c) a diphthong, which usually is resolved into two simple
Of ( Ox>j x
vowels ; but 3) or and 3) (/"take kasra, thus jt ju^yrjt ^*^o
j^UJ t ^Ae pronoun of corroboration (see 530).
(c?) sukun over a consonant, which then most usually takes
* , iO & *> s Q OfO s
kasran, as jZ*T$\ ^ for ^J\ Jl in the beginning,
^ \ (sometimes written ^^ t o J^a*-o) Mahomet the prophet
' %Z 0*r G* J
pronounced muhammaduninnabiyu, AA^-^I AX^. a nominal sen-
6 } Q *> \ * J&
tence (see 513), jJi3! O^J ^ M * ^^- The pronouns ^\ you,
J t J
^ they ; the suffixes ^* your, you, ^ their, them ; and the
verbal termination ^ take darnmafi (in which they originally
ended), as AJLJl^^yLo -may God curse them (see 401 /): also
23] A. GRAMMAR. 15
Jk* since because contracted for Jcu : whereas o- from (see
448) takes fathafc before the article and elsewhere kasrafi.
HEM. a. When j& becomes ^ (see 185 rem. 6) the wa$l
may be made with dammati ^ or kasraR
21. The is altogether omitted
90 i Jj x -*
(a) from^wl in the formula xUt ^^ for xUl^o-jlj in the
name of God, which by way of compensation is written ^ *>)
(6) from ,>jl in a genealogical series, with certain exceptions.
(c) from jf the preceded by J to (see 356 c) as o
explanation for oW ; or J verily (see 361 c) as
certainly the man for J^-jJ*}). When three lams occur one is
omitted, thus AJL) to God for
(d) from words preceded by the interrogative particle I (see
361 a).
22. Maddati extension - does not admit of transliteration,
being either superfluous or an abbreviation or marking an
abbreviation. Thus it is customary to omit 'alif which, with
hainzah and a vowel or tan win, follows a 'alif of prolongation ;
then by way of compensation madda is written over the re-
maining 'alif, as J3U one who asks for JlC, zU. he came for IU.,
, ~,0t J t ,0t
^si\jf.\ your enemies for^>llj^l.
23. Maddah and 'alif I also represent a 'alif with hamzah
and fathaft followed by 'alif of prolongation II or by 'alif with
2* * g ,~ ,*
hamzari and sukun 1 1, as Jl he returned for JH or JU, ijt a sign,
verse for ajll for <u^l, 4^)1 gods for i^JII, lliT we believed for Ull,
oLw for Oli-w plural of A^ an evil (see 242 Note 2).
16 ELEMENTARY ARABIC! [24
HEM. c. Maddaft is sometimes placed over ^ and \j$ of pro-
longation when followed by hamzari, as *$-, *^^-, ^^^,
A^Ji-o: it serves in manuscript to prevent hamzafr appearing to
be upon the letter of prolongation.
REM. d. The same mark *L is written over abbreviations, as
9-)\ for djj*.l ^Jl or Uj,.l ^1 to its end i.e. etccetera (see 451 c).
24. An open syllable ends with a long or short vowel.
25. A shut syllable ends with a consonant, and its vowel is
most commonly short.
26. A syllable cannot begin with two consonants: foreign
words commencing so are transcribed by Arabian grammarians
with an additional vowel, thus franks becomes 2-Jj-Jj Europeans
pronounced colloquially faranj or farang.
27 A syllable cannot end with two consonants, except
_ft3pC bi -1 waqfi in pause, which ought to be made only when
required by sense, but which is really more frequent ; as ^XloJ ' <*J
jcaJt AJJ (compare Elementary Arabic: First reading book,
page c Y, top line) to Him belong the dominion and the praise,
witness also the Moslem credo phonetically written as pronounced
at Damascus <*JU I J^j j*a**j AJUI ^J ail s) la'ilah : 'illallah :
wamuhammadurrasulullah There is no god but God and Muham-
mad is His apostle. In the Urdu translation of this book - will
mark the shortest pause then , one of medium length and . as in
English the longest.
NOTE. Professor de Goeje appends to vol ii 95/of Wright's
Grammar aii instructive footnote condemning pedantic speech,
32 A GRAMMAR. 17
and he gives reference to a MS at Leyden. In fact case-endings
are nearly always dropped in -;'j^ al darij current speech:
throughout Arabia the proper name j^+Zj <jj\ is pronounced
ibrrashld by Badawin (Bedouins). The accusative is most often
heard, as t*-j- marhabau (see 435 b) welcome pronounced in
pause marhaba (see 8 rem. a).
28. The accent will not occasion difficulty to Englishmen
who acquire pronunciation of Arabic consonants by reading the
Goran aloud after a Moslem: it is designed to ensure gram- .
j + ,*
matical accuracy; thus ..*j (see Elementary Arabic: First
reading book, page fi bottom line) is pronounced yusabbfhu for
fear of saying yusabbihu. Colloquial accentuation differs with
i > X X J
the locality ; thus <UJ t ^^..0.0 mu^tafa -llahi chosen of God is
mu9tafa in Syria, and in Egypt muc.tafa or even mu9tafa.
32. Numbers were anciently expressed by letters whose
numerical value may be learnt in the following order J
iJat^ JcaJ C^ij3 ^jAiaut >-*)=> (Ja*- ; six consonants, forming
the last two words, being supplementary to the Hebrew and
Aramaic alphabets. Between the analysis and text of Elementary
Arabic: First reading book will be found a Table, which gives
the Pjioanician, modern Hebrew, and other alphabets. The Arabic
figures now employed are
i r r P o i v A ^
1234567890
and they are used in our order, thus o . ITA^ 506389.
PART II.
ETYMOLOGY OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
33. Verbs are mostly triliteral (containing three radical
letters) but some are quadriliteral.
34. From the first or ground-form are derived other forms
expressing modifications of the idea conveyed by the first (see
369 Table 3 et seq.).
35. The forms of the triliteral verb are fifteen, as follows :
xni *AL>t x il3l viz *j\ iv
XIV Jlisl XI J*^5t VIII Jii5 v J*3 II
0*0 *s 6 s * s , " , , ~
xv ^-AJt xii jtst ix ^U3 vi ^U in
HEM. a. The 3rd pers. sing. masc. Perf. active, being the
simplest form of the verb, is used as paradigm, but for shortness'
sake we translate it by the English infinitive ; thus ^& to wound
instead of he has wounded.
REM. b. Arabian grammarians use the verb ji* as paradigm;
hence the first radical of the triliteral verb is called l\A\ al fa',
the second ^>j*JI al 'ain, and the third jyj\ al lam.
36. The first form is generally transitive or intransitive in
signification, according to the vowel which accompanies its second
radical.
41] A GRAMMAR. 19
37. The second radical's vowel is a in most transitive verbs, as
*L>'j* to beat ; and some intransitive, as jj to go the right way.
38. Vowel i in similar position usually shows an intransitive
signification, u invariably : the i indicating what is temporary or
accidental, as^Xw to be safe; whilst u (meaning rarely to become
what one was not before, as u^w to become noble) indicates a
* * *
permanent state or inherent quality, as ,>~. to be beautiful.
REM. a. Many verbs of the form JAJ are transitive according
to our ideas.
NOTE. The following sections .give a general view of some
derived forms without taking into account whether the verbs
govern an accusative, or by help of prepositions a dependent
.(see 423).
40. The second form J is in meaning intensive or exten-
sive. Originally it implies an act done with force, during long,
by a number, or repeatedly ; as jj*~* to mock ja~* to subject,
treat as abject, Oj-d to turn, shift wJj-o the same but of several
* * * * & * + + +
objects, * r <Jl to crucify wJLd the same of many, ,Ja3 to separate
* vit * xxx x 5 x
J-<a5 to divide into several pieces, JJ3 to kill J.3 to massacre,
*Ja3 to cut aJkS to mangle, jj& to cover up, ignore jj& to efface,
jt to extend *** to stretch much or often-, Al* to hold JLL* to
hold tiyht.
41. Not less usual is the secondary signification, (a) verbs
intransitive in the first form becoming transitive in the second ;
'ft- , +i
as -o' to be wdl brought up ^*\ to bestow a good education,
puntal, j-j to jMrtJ&jf? to destroy, j*j*- to be unlauful j>j*- to
* 2
20 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 41
forbid, j+> to perish utterly ^-o to destroy entirely, jL to go
j*~t to make go, ^$9 to be strong ^y> to strengthen, encourage,
C*o to spring forth C*J to plant or sow, and
(6) those transitive in the first, causative ; as iJU to reach,
x5x * x x x - x *" **
attain -b to bring, j*$ to remember j*$ to remind, 1 j& to pass
a x *~
to make pass and to give a verb a transitive signification,
to abstain *-> j& to restrain by punishment, j~* to discover
ft, x 5x
to explain, *-> to be near ^-j3 to bring near.
REM. b. This form is often declarative or estimative, as
x x U x
to ^// the truth Jfjco ^o ^AinJt that one te//s ^ truth,
* , , , Z , XXX
believe one, v^ 9 to to v*^ ^ call one a tor, J-a3 to surpass
+ 5 x
J*ai #o regard as superior, favour.
REM. c. This form is very frequently denominative, i.e.
x u x 9 x x
derived from a noun ; as Jju to substitute from Jju something
Oxx xx xOxx 9 xx
^zww 0r received in exchange, A*A^ ^oJL* ^ 5/c? #o ^z
(peace be upon thee), j$*o to fashion from 5jj*o an image,
^dc?e from JJi shadoiv, ^^ to speak with from ^^^ speech,
Ui ^o inform from U ??e^s (perhaps originally something which
x ix J
Aas emerged or arisen), &$* to write the letter nun from jjy w.
NOTE. It is difficult to connect ^^* #o praise with
x 5x
swim : accordingly the native grammarians call ~j~ denomi-
5 * J ^- x fix
native of O^-J-^j see 435 a Note. The verb jjz (which
generally means he disciplined, chastized, constrained by punish-
ment} in the exceptional sense he helped may possibly be a
denominative from the Hebrew 'ezer help (see I Samuel vii. 12).
The noun does not occur in Arabic with that signification.
43] A GRAMMAR. 21
43. The third form Jcl3 implies
(a) the effort or attempt to perform an act which the first
form denotes as immediately affecting an object, the idea of
reciprocity being sometimes added; as USLC to receive \^^ to
receive from each other, give mutually, v*^ t overcome wJU to
try to overcome, \jS to read I) 15 to read together ', teach mutually,
^ f.s * ^X W X XXX X
jf$ to join together j*t*$ to reconcile, JL to extend U and ,>U to
contend in pulling, j^ to promise j^t^ o/# time and place for
execution of a promise.
(b) This form sometimes governs directly, not without the
idea of reciprocity, when the first or fourth form governs its
object by help of a preposition, as ^jlkLJt ^jit J-^jt he sent
X ^ 6 jj x xxx
(a message) to the Sultan (jUxLJI J lj A0 interchanged messages,
corresponded, with the Sultan, *J J13 he said to him something
he conversed with him.
(c) When the first form denotes a quality or state (see 75)
indicates affecting a person by the quality or bringing him
X i X J XX X
into the state, as j>~- to fo good or Hwd *UwU. ^0 treated him
kindly, cU be submissive *$* to comply with,^#ju to lead
a comfortable life 4+U he found him means of doing so.
REM. a. This form is sometimes denominative, as oUl to
double, multiply from ouco M0 /& or equal.
REM. c. In Elementary Arabic: First reading book page I p
bottom line v ^j^W- ma y he rendered We caused to pass
(see 456 ft)/
NOTE. The form of the verb J>lJ //^ blessed may be due to
Hebrew, from which it is most probably derived (see 455 Note).
22 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 45
45. The fourth form J,3l is factitive or causative, (a) verbs
intransitive in the first form becoming transitive; as l to come
X
to bring, ^'^\ to experience damage \^}\ to hurt, o*~>t to
grieve otwl to make grieve, ^ to be finished j\ to finish, *~<^ for
y_-~. to be an object of love v**^ to love i.e. treat as an object of
love, J**- to be lawful J^-l to make lawful, ^yt- to live \*j*-\ to
bring to life, x-j- to come forth z>j-\ to produce, [g^** to be safe
xxO -*1 xxx xxOt xx
o^\ to preserve^ jU- to lean jciwl to cause to lean, support, C-vo^>
to rejoice at another's trouble Os^wl to make so to rejoice, JLo to be
^oo^ J-o1 to make good, do good, follow right action, J- to err
Sxg xx xx xx
J*ot #0 /^c? into error, p\*o to be lost pt^t to abandon, elk fo
* V* V ^ V^
xxP x-" xx& xxx
submissive clJl #o o60y, ^|U #o fowgr JLbl to prolong, O-J^ ^o
x xOg x ^ xxCg
6e public v>U! #o publish, JJj ^ ^ drowned <Jj^l ^o cawse ^o
XXX XX g XXX
drown, tj* to be empty cj^l #o empty by pouring out, ju*5 #o be
spoilt juJI #o commit disorders, OU #o eK oUl #o cause to die,
be on one's guard jJJt to warn, JjJ #o descend JjJl #o
send down, ^su to live agreeably ^^ to bless, JU3 to be expended
X X XX X X Of
Jiajl to expend, j& to be strange jXi! to regard as strange,
disavow, iUjb to perish ilUt to destroy.
(6) Verbs transitive in the first form become doubly transi-
tive ; as il- to guard, observe iU-1 to cause one's knowledge to
xx Ol
encompass, comprehend, J*o to go into J^jt to cause to enter,
he saw the thing *,2jl o\j\ he showed him the thing,
x
o receive
45] A GRAMMAR. 23
to cover, conceal ^*\ to cause to cover, l/S to read 1/51 to
xx xOg fix
reading or reciting, ^tt to meet ^^\ to throw, juo to extend
j^ol to cause increase, >jj to inherit >jj\ to cause to inherit,
^*$ to guard ^5jt to make to guard.
REM. a. When both the second and fourth forms of a verb
are causative they have in some cases different significations, in
* * X &
others the same; as &$\ to give ear to <jit and jj3' to cause
people to listen, announce, declare, & to know s- to teach
xxO xx x x OP
/o inform, UJ #o e5ca/>e ^ an d 5^' ^ deliver.
REM. 6. The fourth form, like the second, is sometimes
x je. xx-
declarative or estimative ; as o-' #0 ^ e faithful ^\ to find
trustworthy, believe, >>o*- ^o praise J+*\ to esteem ^praiseworthy.
* x O
REM. c. This form is often denominative, as *Ll to speak
xxOfr *
eloquently from i^ eloquence, j-o-51 bear fruit from j-*3 fruit,
6g ^MZ% from^^. a crime, <>~>.t ^0 ac^ ^e// from
*x Ix x xxO*
I, beautiful, U.l to err from Ua*. a blunder, fault, Jwjl to
9 J, 5x 3
from iJfj a message, apostle, j~*\ to conceal trom j~i a
x xO " 9xJ xxO
secret, pj~>\ to nfake haste from AC^W promptitude,
- ~
Islam*, ^Ul #0 do ill from 2^w 0vi(
from u*=>* a loan, ^131 #0 re ma hi in a place from^&U-o a
xx Of- ( 90x
place, Jv*' ^ grant a respite or 0W?/ from J^ gentleness,
leisurely acting. There is another class of denominatives, as
XXfr 0-X XXO
become plain from ,>*^ evident, jy**\ to enter ttte sacred
* Islam may mean in English the reliiou'd geographical area, or the
religion itself wiiich is better called Islamium as we say Judaism.
24 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 47
Ox x x x I
territory from >/. a holy place, j^fit fo become destitute from
o x x x x o o a x
w, jj-J^t #o become penniless from ^JJ a copper coin,
to find a place, become possible from ,jl a place ; and
x x at xxx
somewhat analogous is^^-^t to arrive at ease from^-~> to be easy.
NOTE. Beside the above must be mentioned *\j\ to wish
which cannot be immediately derived from )\j to go to and fro ;
j\\ to indicate, point out from ^i to exhibit, ^lot to direct the
course of something expressly at, hit the mark whence the
commoner meaning to overtake, befall from *J(*o to rusk down
x xCt x xx x x
as water', Xst to be prosperous from ^A3. to plough', JJlJt #0
. z '. *'-*
recover from illness or a swoon from Jjl3 to be above ; ^J.5! to treat
as light, carry easily from ^3 which means in Hebrew to be light
in weight; i) 1 ^! to send from the obsolete ^) ; ^^-^ from ^^-^
both meaning inspire, suggest-, and ,>A^ ^0 wii sure from
^>AJ which means the same but is very unusual.
47. The fifth form Jjti> is reflexive of the second, being
(as are the next following forms) called cjUsuo a verb #fo
grammatical agent of which complies with, i.e. receives the effect
of, the action of the verb to which it is reflexive ; as <j*\ to
announce O^ to declare obligatory on oneself, ^JL*. to make
manifest, show ^a*3 to make oneself manifest, js>$ to remind
*
* ** ** * $" x >x x
j^JJ to become reminded of, ^*\j to appoint as chief ^ip to
become chief, JIL to make a bird fly jlb\ (for j*$o3) to draw an
omen concerning oneself as from the flight of birds, J^S to cause
to say, to make out that a man said so and so J^i3 to make out
falsely that a man said so and so with a view to one's own
50] A GRAMMAR. 25
advantage, j* to exalt j+& to be proud, ^ to address, accost
^JLO to speak, 1^5 to pay in full ^9 to receive payment in full,
and of God to take to Himself, J^j to make someone else to be
one's wakil, i.e. a person left alone, an agent J>> to trust
oneself to an agent who is fully empowered to act on one's behalf,
,iiO*3J -x X0CA fixx
^o*N)t 0^ he put him (another) in charge of the matter j-o^l ^^j
he took charge of the matter himself.
REM. b. Some of Professor Wright's examples in 47 are
denominative, as UX to call oneself a prophet from I ^j a prophet.
In case of fj^ 3 ^ to make humble supplication, earnestness is
denoted by the doubled middle radical and self-advantage by
the prefixed O in comparison with c,^o to be humble. Further
XX ^~
we observe ouU he caught up, swallowed what was cast to him
to cast a thing to another person to be seized and swallowed
similar in sense to <JUU but with the idea added of taking
for ones own advantage : while JJL*J to stretch oneself is reflexive
of the first form ju> to extend. We find also ,J to be near or
Trx
beside to turn one's side or back to another t to turn
aside.
48. By way of secondary meaning we have the effective, i.e.
x ix x 3xx
expressing effect, as jj-o to make distinct ^^ to appear clear,
to give a verb a transitive signification ^j*3 to be
transitive.
50. The sixth form J.ftU3 is connected with the third : it is
reflexive, and frequently simulative especially when the ground
form is intransitive, thus >j*&*> to feign poverty from v~+t to be
poor. Also we find lilij wrongly to attribute error to oneself
26 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 52
which is reflexive and intensive of UaiLJ to impute error to
another, from ^-k^. to do wrong. More often it is reciprocal,
as j*\ to consult with ^-cU and j-ty to deliberate in common,
to accompany jjCj to tracel in company, ^j^e, to help
s5 to help one another, xUlS he fought with him ^3Uj the two
fought with one another ; while t-e and ^Le to contend in pulling
make W> and $1*3 of two persons together to stretch a cloth.
REM. a. When used of God *)jl*5 and ^1*3 illustrate the
J Ji *> XX XX
reflexive force of this form : <iJJ1 ^U3 (TOC? Aas made Himself
* a *o xxx
20s blessed, <UJt ^bu 6^06? A5 exalted Himself above all,
see 401 rem.
REM. c. This form is appropriate to actions that take place
bit by bit, as J*A-^ to fall Jsl~J to fall one by one (as leaves).
NOTE. From ^s- to cheat i>flfe (should mean if it existed)
of two persons that one cheated the other and <>^Uw means of
J ^ X
many that they cheated one another whence CHUu general decep-
tion, see 202.
52. The seventh form ^}juu\ is originally in certain ways
reflexive of the first, and approaches to a passive, being some-
times effective, as v~*~> to make flow u~a-^' to gush, *i*. to
become clear, manifest ^Jl of anxiety to be cleared away, (*~>
to skin Uljl of the skin to be stripped off, J>L to drive JjUJ! to
be driven, *L to cut jJaJut to be cut off, to be endtd, to end,
JJl5 to change, invert wJUol to be changed , translated as by
death.
57] A GRAMMAR. 27
53. This form may imply that a person allows of an act being
done to himself, as ^ to drag j+~>\ to let oneself be dragged.
NOTE. We employ <>UJt to split itself as paradigm, though
the word is little known.
55. The eighth form Jjl is reflexive of the first ; the reflex
object being (a) the direct object, &sjZ~t to conceal JZ~>\ to conceal
,** xxx* fix
oneself, j* to divide JjjlM to go asunder, ji* to stretch a thing
ju*t of a thing to stretch itself, ^3 to guard ^*3\ to guard
oneself, fear, or
(6) the indirect object, implying for one's own advantage, as
* * t XXX XX
^.l to reward j^j\ to give alms seeking a reward, jU. to obtain
goodjL\ to take to oneself that which seems good, choose {$~ to
be even with, equal to \^)Z~*\ to settle oneself, become firm, U- to
XX
be pure and clear ^AJbuol to take to oneself that which is pure and
clear, \j& to go beyond and leave behind ^ju^l to do so for ones
own evil ends, transgress consciously, <j>3 to cut out, manufacture
IJI to do so for one's own evil purpose, forge lies, ^Jiu to punish
Ujl to avenge oneself, j~t to play at hazard j~3\ to divide by lot
a slain beast.
56. Occasionally, like the sixth form, it is reciprocal, as
*x xx9 O^xx
jJH to meet t>ilM and l^.S'^J they met one another.
57. Sometimes we find it passive, especially in verbs wanting
XXX X x5
the seventh form (see 113), as Jaft^ to admonish ii*3l to be
admonished, also i^jJk t direct ^juAt to be directed aright,
which however may mean to Jind true di
28 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 59
REM. a. In many verbs this form agrees nearly in meaning
with the first, as lju and ljujt to begin, **3 and *,JI to follow,
*> ' C ' C '
UA and U&l to put right.
* * 't'O
NOTE. We find also t^;> to be poor ^U^t to abase oneself.
59. The ninth form JxJt and the eleventh JU3I chiefly
express colours or defects, being indistinguishable in sense ;
St * Si *
thus j&*a\ and j(&*e\ to be yellow.
61. The tenth form jlwl is often reflexive of the fourth,
, f. '^'0*0
as L.t to bring to life, preserve alive Us*Jiwt to save alive for
ones own advantage, >~**>j\ to cause fear W-A^IW t to call forth
' * s s s
fear of oneself , ptbt to comply with a command cUxi*! able
^ xOe xOxO
(i.e. to obey oneself), , ^t to make rich ^su~>\ to make oneself
5x Sxxo xxg
independent, j.s\ to cause to remain JA^\ to stand firm, ^13) to
+ X X $
stand upright ^Ulwt &0&Z oneself upright.
62. This form may indicate a belief that some thing or
person possesses the quality expressed by the first, as
x0xO X J X
(passive) to 6^ unlucky jf\Z~t\ to deem unlucky, o*xo to
to ^/w? wea^:, despise, ^11? to fo Si^e^^ a?^^ pleasant
to ,/??zc? tr^ a?zc? pleasant, j^Ss to be great j+&*\ to be
puffed up with pride.
63. This form very frequently means asking or seeking what
is indicated by the first, as ^\ to give permission &*\Z~i\ to ash
permission, ^~> to give drink ^yuJLl to ask for drink, jj to
X'OxO xx x<0xO
pardon j,wu~l to ask pardon, ^3 to understand ^ rf s^\ to ask
73] A GRAMMAR.
the meaning, tjj to read tj&wt to ask one to read, *5j to befall
'' . '
.3^wt look for its coming to pass.
65. This form is sometimes denominative, as ^^iwt
from Clj a turning away from the course, an exception,
appoint as successor, deputy or ca^/>A from 3JL...U. successor.
Nora In meaning j~JLJ to be easy is identical with
and nearly corresponds with j-^; while o^' to as help may
be derived from &\*\ to help or. better still, called a denominative
of o^ p ^P'
66. The remaining forms of the triliteral verb need not be
noticed here, as they do not occur in Elementary Arabic : First
reading book.
67. Quadriliteral verbs are formed (a) by repeating a biliteral
root, as jj* to gargle ; (>) by adding a fourth letter, as Jal*!.
* +t*
and fatQ.lifc. to shave the head ; (c) as denominatives from nouns,
'^x 9xOx
often foreign, thus Vj>*- to put on *->j)** stockings ; or (d} from
x^x J,*0
certain common formulas, as ^+~*i to say <UJ I j*~j.
68. There are three derived forms of the quadriliteral verb,
which are conjugated in the paradigms (Table IV) of Wright's
Grammar, viz.
iv JlliSl in JjbU3 ii JiiS i
73. Nearly all verbal forms, primitive or derivative, have
two voices, the active and the passive ; but we must often trans-
late the latter impersonally, as J*JI a dragging took place
:;<i TARY A K ABIC
(or, an onslaught was made) HJ>/> ///</> lmnds, i.e. they
hit their finger- t'i <l>-:ppointinMit (see 533).
75. We speak of neuter verhs, meaning those which express
* *
a state or condition and therefore have no passive voice, as ^~
to be wise, but Arabian grammarians reckon them as active,
i,~,'):*> J ,0^iO'
li>tingiiishing between ijjjujl Jbe^l transitive verbs and
,^fftntfifslt' j,i/oj*oo*
ajjulijl j-.^ JU3^)l intransitive verbs or tfUj^JI JU3*N)l verbs
+ + *
that are confined to the subject.
77. An Arabic verb has two States, the Perfect indicating
a finished act, and the Imperfect an act that is just commencing
or in progress.
RKM. a. Acquaintance with grammar will teach how to
employ these States in explaining the temporal relations (past,
present, and future) which non-semitic languages express by
tenses.
79. There are five moods : the Indicative which is common
to the perfect and imperfect states ; the Subjunctive, and Jussive
(or Conditional) which are restricted to the imperfect; the
rrative which is expressed by a special form ; and the
Energetic which can be derived from the imperfect and from
the imperative.
80. By way of Infinitives we have nomina actionis nouns
expressing the action or quality (see 195). In place of parti-
ciples two verbal adjectives are used ; nomen agentis denoting
the agent, and nomeu patientis the patient (see 229).
^ SO] A GRAMMAR. 31
81. There are three numbers, Singular, Dual, and Plural ;
likewise three persons. The genders are two, Masculine and
Feminine ; but distinction cannot in all cases be made, as
/ say, where the speaker's sex is not disclosed.
83. Verbs are called strong when the three radical letters
are retained throughout and undergo no change.
REM. To contain 1, j or ^ causes a verb to be called weak
(see 126); but verbs in which the second and third radicals
are identical (see 120) we shall call strong.
NOTE. Students must spare no pains to learn the conjuga-
tions hi 369 Tables 1, 2 and 3; otherwise they will find the
weak verbs difficult to impossibility.
84. The numbers, persons, and genders of the verbs are
expressed by means of personal pronouns, annexed to the various
moods and states. These may be connected, i.e. prefixed or
suffixed, in which case they are to be learned from the con-
* + * * - } J * *
jugations ; thus U we in UoA we wounded, ^ ye in ^oJL= ye
wounded, ^f he m^bo he wounds (see 369 Table 1)*: or they
may be separate.
89. The following table gives such separate personal pro-
nouns as express the nominative:
SINGULAR.
Feminine Common Masculine
* * j
t^jA she .... $* he 3rd person
it * o
s^Jl thou .... wJl thou 2nd
^
.... 017 .... 1st
* These pronouns are called .^.^ concealed see 513.
32
ELEMENTARY ARABIC:
DUAL
[90
Feminine
Common
X i
-*
Masculine
they two .... 3rd person
t\ ye two .... 2nd
PLURAL
^ they 3rd
^>\ ye 2nd
w 1st
they
REM. c. For the older forms JU and ^1 see 20 d.
NOTE. In 185 are given pronominal suffixes expressing the
accusative, and those expressing the dependent in 317.
90. Regarding first the active voice we observe that the 3rd
pers. sing. masc. perfect of the ground form bears fathafc always
on the first and third radicals.
91. When the middle radical of the perfect has fathafe a
verb must take either dammafr or kasraft in the imperfect ; as
to be worthless JJbuj , ^^o to strike Vj-^J which we write
xxx xx xxx
__ and *.>^o . Also jj\ ->- to relate, JU*..^. to create,
jj -L. to provide, >* __ to dwell, j.Cw -L. to be thankful,
to do wrong, injure, ^j* to construct, JJU to
////'ft rsfnnrf, Ji-J __ to be impious, JI-ZJ _- to shake, wave,
Many verbs admit of both forms ; as ^np to
) I + x
^>jj*> which we shorten into ^*j* --, also c^-^- to ^/? ^6-
/<///, and Jifr -A- to c//////.
promse.
and
93] A GRAMMAR. 33
REM. a. Verbs of which the second or third radical is a
guttural (either t, ., ^, c, p, or a) may be exceptional; as
* * * + + * + * +
^JU^L. to sewd, Jjt*.^i_ to make, place, *... _^_ to collect,
"is* * $> + + s +
l~._^_ to be driven away, ^j __ to be the head of, *-*~^_
xxx * * * e
to swim, j.a*w _^_ to fascinate, enchant, aiw _^_ to intercede,
Jiaud ^_ #o strike with lightning, JLo __ to pardon, 9^*0 __ to
XXX XXX ^- X X X xxx^
make, ^3 ^_ #o opew, Jjw __ to c?o, j-'* 5 to cut, ^ _^. to over-
X X ^ XXX X XX
come, ~* J __ to supersede, transcribe, 9-^u _^L_ to counsel, ^ ^- of
water to ./fow;, ^^J ^_ to forbid. Many however conform to the
rule ; as ii.l _A_ to toi, m^, ^Jb _^_ to reach, J^-^ __ to ew^^r,
*.; -7- to return, ^*j -_ to assert. Some verbs have more than
one form ; as %jj ~ to take a fourth part, 9JLo JL to be good,
G.J A. to be vacant.
NOTE. As paradigm we use Jj3 -5-.
92. "When the second radical of the perfect has kasrafi,
the imperfect bears fathafi ; as ^1 ^_ to sin, }**=* _*_ to
.'Jai. ^_ to <7o wrong, sin, *,~*j -'- to fear, AJU> _-_ to ft
x x, x''x
witted, j^t^f- to testify, w*o^^_ to consort with, &*o^- to
swoon, 'jjuo ^_ to fo 5?w//, ^i ^i_ to desire, v ^.g _^_ to wonder,
J^i ^L_ to hasten, J^ft _i_ to ^or^, rfo, *Xy -^ to enjoin, covenant.
REM. Exceptions are rare, as u^f~^~ to be in distress or
poverty, j^ _^_ to be presetit, and OU to die for O^* (see 157)
JJx Jxx Jx
which usually makes O^j but sometimes oU-j or c^^>.
93. When the middle radical of the perfect has dammar! the
imperfect bears the same, as J*A> _*_ to see, w~* -L- to be bad,
GK. 3
34 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 05
* to be spacious, AJU* JL. to be light-witted, j^i __ to
, i * * j *
L. to be small, j- ->- to be great, j2a> _^_ to be numerous,
^yj JL. to be inteUi<j< ut.
95. The indicative of the imperfect is distinguished by
damn) ah on the third radical, as J-ya^ he is ignorant ; the sub-
x x x x
junctive hy fathafr, as Jya^-j ; and the jussive by sukun, as J^^- .
96. A termination ^ of the indicative is only retained in
the subjunctive and jussive when required as mark of gender ;
otherwise it and o are rejected.
97. The energetics are formed from the jussive by adding
_i_ or ,j (subject to certain variations, which in case of
Energetic I of the imperfect may be learnt from the paradigms in
369) thus, O-^-rf* he will certainly send from ****. jussive of
^ou. Energetic u of the imperfect and the two energetics of
the imperative are omitted from 369 as they do not occur in
Elementary Arabic: First reading book.
98. The /// is formed by substituting a prosthetic
vowel for the prefix of the jussive's 2nd sing. : when the second
radical bears fathati or kasrari this vowel is kasrafe, and when
dammari it is daiumafi ; thus, Ji**-! make, j*-j\ have mercy upon,
00 J J JO J
ouL^t remove, Jj^l be just, C-Xwl calm thyself, ^JLb) seek',
and similarly with the feminine etc.
REM a. Concerning prosthetic vowels see 19, rem. c.
REM. b. Fathati is never so employed.
100. From the active voice the passive is distinguished by
altered vowels (see 369, Table 2) on the first and second
radir
115] A GRAMMAR. o.')
REM. It makes no difference what characteristic vowels are
employed in the active voice.
101. Instead of a passive imperative the jussive is used.
102. The derived forms of strong verbs must be learned from
369, Table 3 ; attention being at an early stage confined to the
first seven and the tenth form, i.e. neglecting the ninth, eleventh
and following.
107. The relation of passive to active will be found analogous
to that in the ground form.
HEM. a. The imperfect passive of the first and fourth forms
are identical in appearance.
111. When the verbal root begins with O, >, -, >, 3, j,
cH> J", u, u, J or J the characteristic O of the fifth and
sixth forms may lose its vowel and form a double letter with the
first radical, to which when necessary a prosthetic 'alif and
kasrafi must be added; as j.*IJ ji-kl to draw an omen concerning
J vi ' xx xt5x x J x ti x x x C5
oneself for j-Jauj j~k3, Ja3l~j J*5Lt to fall one by one for
112. The C> of the fifth and sixth forms is sometimes
omitted from those persons of the imperfect active to which
O is prefixed; as \JJ&* she swallows for oUJUS,
becomes reminded of for ^Ju5 or j^JJ (see 111).
115. If the first radical be O or ^>, characteristic O of the
rt'i/if/t f ni in unites with the initial O into O and with initial *1>
into O or C , as *.JI Itc followed i'or -~3\.
39
- &
36 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [H7
117. If the first radical be u^, u, b or J*, characteristic O
J x x xx
i- changed into J ; as c^akol / chose from Uu _^_ (see 55)
) 0"
aiid not C**tt*t.
120. Verbs with tlie middle radical doubled are conjugated
in 369, Tables 5 a, b and c : they differ from other strong verbs
in two ways.
(a) When both the initial and final radicals have vowels
the middle rejects its vowel and becomes with the final a double
letter bearing tashdld ; as ^^ _. to cover, Jai. _. of a burden
to put down, Jk. -- to be fitting, j. to fall down, & -L. to
pound, Ji to be abased, *~* -~ to be avaricious, jw to &e
5 x fix ^- Jx
severe, ^>J _J_ to think, je> to be potent, J^ _z_ to insert.
(6) If the initial radical is without a vowel and the final has
one, then the middle radical throws its vowel to the initial and
becomes with the final a double letter; asj^ for jj**t, ^)jJ
13 Ax WJx } 1 "
for 5X ju , JJb for JAab : but if the final radical be vowelless,
no contraction is possible; as Jah-vj, JJJu, c-s^ ; and this
must be specially noted in the perfect of verbs like JLi. for
to become loved which makes ws~- and like u-o for
to touch which makes C *...>.
121. The jussive is sometimes identical with the subjunctive
2 f . o x
as ji*i for jju*j.
124. In some derived forms will be found alternative
vocalization : this is common when the doubled radical follows
1 _*. d, as jU for U, see 25, rein.
133] A GRAMMAR. 37
126. Verbs are called weak when one of the three radical
letters is subject to transformation or rejection.
128. Verbs with ^ or ^ for a radical are unmistakeably
weak, more so than those called harazated.
129. Verbs may be doubly weak ( 171) : and even trebly, as
. * 2x
to resort to imperf. \^$> impera. ^jt.
130. Hamzated verbs fall into three classes according as
hamzafi serves for first, second or third radical : they are con-
jugated in 369, Tables 6 to 8, differing from strong verbs
especially as regards the 'imad (see 15) in the following ways.
131. The 'alif with hamzafi. and sukun I preceded by dammafr
xOJx xJ'
becomes 5, as Ojo thou art mean not oU.> ; preceded by kasrafr
*, as C->lni. I have done wrong not oUai..
132. It is said by some that ^ and ^ represent sounds
towards which hamzati is inclined by the preceding vowel.
REM. b. Instances occur like Uji we were hurt for
! give ear for \JJ5\, C-ol come for c*5l (see 175): but
in imperatives following ^ or o the connective 'alif is rejected
while hamzafi with sukun remains ; thus Ob so then come.
x
133. Similarly I becomes 3 if preceded by fathah, as J* to
* x x x
be brave not ^-.b ; I becomes * if preceded by fathati, as ^J
to be in distress not u-p ; ' becomes J if preceded by dammafi, as
xy '(.',, I
jj* to be ignoble not Uj ; I becomes * if preceded by kasrali, as
:;s H.EMENTAKY A1IAMFO: [134
t^kl, to do wrong not tki. ; I becomes S. if preceded by dammah",
as Jl- (passive) he was asked not J L/ .
I I'd,
HEM. At the end of a word I stands after fathafi, thus I/AJ
but
134. When preceded by a consonant with sukun I becomes 3,
as cr4*J imperfect of ^^ not ^U* ; and I becomes 5, as, not
^lIS but ^j.; which and ^Uj are imperfects of
135. If 'alif of prolongation follows radical I at a word's
beginning we write I or U or even I (see 23) as j*l to consult
,, t i (.,,*>
with for j-6tl ; and so when radical I follows t, as wiwl to make
~*
cpneve for ou^tl.
^x f xx
137. The verbs J^.1 __ #o take ^ .JL. to command and
J^l __ ^o m# make in the imperative J^-, j- and J^.
138. The imperative j-o may when following 3 or *5 recover
/ Til ? * J Jt" J*
its first radical, but not so J^. or J^ ; thus j^tj or j-o^ but
139. In the eighth form of J^.1 the first radical becomes
assimilated to O, thus J^Jt to take f 01- oneself-, this occurs with
a few other verbs, but j**3\ from ^1 to reward is less common
than j^l which follows 132, rem. b.
140. Loss of hamzan" occasionally takes place and we have
j * * * , si,
JLj JL> for JU _^ to ask. The vowel may even be trans-
ferred, as ^i5t to send for J^l whence JJU for ^I^U aw
144] A GRAMMAR. 39
141. Weak verbs specially so called likewise fall into three
classes according as j or ^ is the first, the second, or the third
radical.
142. Verbs with j as initial radical (see 369, Table 9)
which have kasrafo for characteristic vowel of the imperfect and
imperative, reject ^ in those forms. Thus jJj to bear children
imperf. jJb, impera. jJ ; j^ to promise imperf. j<ju, impera.
js. ; jwh-j to find imperf. j^*-j , impera. j^. ; c-s5j to fix a time
or place imperf. oJu, impera. c*5; J^j to leave alone imperf.
impera. J^ ; laij to warw imperf. Jsuu, impera. &.
REM. a. A few verbs, having (contrary to 92) kasrafi in
both perfect and imperfect, lose their initial radical, as JP^ to
trust > w> to inherit *^j #o be near
143. But verbs with ^ as initial radical, which have fathafr
or dammafe for characteristic vowel of the imperfect and impera-
tive, retain ^ in those forms ; as t>^ to doze imperf.
Of 0x0 xjx
impera. ,>~^ for ^>^l ; Jj^ to be unwholesome imperf.
-_ OJ J s f J , x ,
impera. J^jt ; J.fc.j to fear imperf. J**->J, impera. J^-jl for
144. In certain verbs initial ^ drops from the imperfect and
imperative notwithstanding that fathaft is the characteristic
vowel of these forms; as $ to leave jj^j and ji, ~j to be
spacious --{ and , *-^^ to put doivn -iu and
to fall *j and ^5.
REM. 6. j3j is not used in the perfect.
40 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [145
145. If initial ^ be vowelless, a preceding kasraft or dainmafi
changes it into L or ^ of prolongation as may be seen in 143
X X xJ X XX
with the imperatives of &~>$ J-^ and J^-j.
146. Verbs with ^ as initial radical are inflected almost
like strong verbs, thus J~l '^ (see 369, Table 9).
147. But if initial ^$ be vowelless, a preceding kasrarl or
dammafi changes it into ^ or 3 of prolongation ; thus the
imperative of j~* to be easy is j-~>t for j-~>t and the fourth
J J xxOC
form is j~>> j ?jl to arrive at ease.
148. In the eighth form j and ^ are assimilated to the
characteristic O, thus producing O, as
of which the nomen agentis is J devout.
for
149. Verbs with ^ or ^ as middle radical are conjugated in
369, Tables 10 to 13 : they differ from strong verbs only in the
first, fourth, seventh, eighth and tenth forms.
150. In case the initial radical is without a vowel and the
final has one, the vowel of the middle radical passes to the first
and we employ a letter of prolongation homogeneous with the
vowel which the first radical has now assumed ; thus
with form JJTAJ
becomes
J**j|
do.
i of w5l ^to circle
to obey
-- to fear
JO ^_ to reach
151]
with form
do.
A GRAMMAR.
j$Jt becomes jUI iv of jU
d a1iv,, u
i IV
x
41
to obtain
to be lost
__ to taste
151. But if the final radical has sukdn, the long vowels
t _^_ a, ^ 1, ^ _- u become short, according to 25 ; thus
J x J x
with form JAAJ j^J^J becomes
i of
__ #o go round
to flow
J*iu
} to increase
JL- to guard
-j- to stand
-r- to be lost
! is sometimes
NOTE. We have O^j^il ^ w ^ certainly be from JpL; (see
97) jussive of ^jl^_2_ #o be : the letter of prolongation must
reappear in obedience to 150. So in the plural, thus
not.
>e
REM. o-^J ^ or O>^ jussive of
further abbreviated into iL, see 583 c.
4'2 KI.KMKN'TARY ARABIC: [ 152
152. It follows that the first form's imperative needs no
prosthetic 'alif; thus
J Of J t J xx
with form Jjel O^' becomes ^9 from ^jl^>_^_ to be
\+.--to four
^ to repent
153. If three open syllables follow in immediate succession,
the first of which has fathafi, then 'alif of prolongation takes the
middle radical's place ; thus
with form jii j^j becomes Jl5 I of jU-i.
do. *r~ v^ i ) *r*^ ~ t
}(a I ,>t _"_ ^06^ wi the point
of
J 1 ^ i JU> -i-tobe king
X X X X
^UJI vii ^Iw _/_ to rtf
154. But if the first syllable's vowel be dammaii, and ^ or
^ hear kasrati, we discard dammafi, taking kasrah into its place,
and adopt ^ of prolongation instead of the middle radical ; as
with form Jx* Jy becomes J-3 passive of J15 _-_ to 5y.
155. If the first radical has i'athati and the third sukun,
thive cases arise.
157] A GRAMMAR. 43
() The middle radical is ^ or ^ with fathati ; when we
discard it and its vowel, placing, if it was ^, dammah on the first
radical, and kasrafe if it was ^ : thus
with form cJbw c-o becomes c**3 from j*\3 __ to stand
do. Oj-.- Oj~, ; lw to go
(b) The middle radical is ^ with dammafi or ^ with kasrafr ;
when we discard it and its vowel, but we place a vowel homo-
geneous with it upon the first radical : as
X 6 J X X > X X J XX
with form cJL*3 cJ^b becomes cJLb from Jib _2_ to fo long
x x x x x xx
CxJLaj cJ-J c-Aj JO _r_ ^o reocA
XX X
(c) The middle radical is ^ with kasrafi ; when we discard
it and its vowel, placing kasrafi on the first radical : as
with form cJ*5 C^*. becomes c^i*. from
x x 5
i) do. O0}*0 C~o ..
156. In certain passive forms the ^ of prolongation is
shortened into kasrafe, when the third radical bears sukun ; thus
C^L>.> (for wxU.;^) becomes Oo> thou wast obeyed, which is identical
X X X XX
' *
in form with OJ.> M#M Aas# obeyed.
157. Most verbs with ^ as middle radical take dammah" in
the imperfect, and most with ^ take kasrafi ; but some of the
form JjJ take fathafc. Thus
x
for $^=> to be on the point of makes }\j for
3 ' 6 *
44 ELEMENTARY ARABIA : [ 164
* * xx > ss
>oU fur j*** tn 4 i> makes v^ for
JU J..J to reach JuJ
x
We have mentioned ( 92, rem.) oU for O$* to <7/V.
164. Verbs with ^ or ^ as ^wa/ radical are conjugated in
369, Tables 14 to 18 : they are of five kinds :
Final -of form
(") g
as 0,3 to be near for
(iii) ,13] ', t ( ^ to be pleased ^>J
> W "' "x X x
(v) 3 J3 ^5 to 60 intelligent, prudent
165. One of three tilings must happen : the final radical
retains its consonantal power, or resolves itself into a vowel, or
is elided.
166. At the beginning of a syllable two things are possible.
(#) The third radical maintains its power as a consonant,
in \$-'~ aw as \^s- they two (masc.) were disobedient
,, L;_r.aya ,, Qj-*- they two (masc.) rewarded
X X i fix
,, $.*- uwa ,, ^Lj he may try
^j -i. uwa ,, ^jl^ixj they two (masc.) condom
+ XX
L -5- iya j^^o* ^ was 6/eW
lj -7- iya llic #^y two (masc.) were rich ;
also when following sukun, as jjc* a transgressing,
167] A GRAMMAR. 45
favour (see 212 a). The letter ^ in ^ iwa and in tj iwa
always becomes ^, as ^^Jb he was tried for ^Jb. The letter ^ is
never found in ^ _i_ uya or in C ^L. uya, though we have v >5
and the like in verbs with ^ or ^ as middle radical.
(6) The third radical is elided between a short vowel and 1
or u : this involves contraction
(i) either into a long vowel ; namely
xJOx x J J ^
>3^>- uwu into j->- u as )$<*> they (masc.) call
iyu }-+- u
,, ->-l ,, &ti?>j3 tkou (fern.) kopest
(ii) or into a diphthong ; namely
Oxx
-- awu into 3 __ au as l^o fAtfy (masc.) were clear for
masc.) forbade
167. At the end of a syllable the third radical is either
(a) vocalized or (6) elided, whether (i) it stands there naturally
as in C... : <U / was hidden, or (ii) after losing a short vowel as in
^AJ^J tie is hidden for iV*^- The following cases arise.
a. (i) It is vocalized when naturally so placed, as follows :
(a) if the preceding vowel be homogeneous
^ ' _ u w becomes ^ _*_ u as o*j 7 wcu prudent
t5 -T- iy > t? *- 1 n ^-j"^ ^ covered
41! ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [167
(b) if the preceding vowel be heterogeneous
$ ' aw becomes ^ _ji_ au as O^aJ / escaped
L5 . '- ay li a i ^^ ^ directed
(ii) It is vocalized if so placed by loss of a short vowel, thus
^ _^_ aw becomes I __ a as *^ to be high for ^-
\ _^_ ay j^ __ a ^j**. to reward
o J ' i
2 > uw 3 _i. u jj^> #0 transgresses ,,
/>. (i) It is elided when naturally so placed in the imperative
and jussive, thus
1 ) JO) i x J Ox
c.>l c// ^0M (masc.) for ^>! and cjkj for
j^l s^ ^^z* (masc.) ^1 jJ
xO xO xOx
^jaj\ be thou content (masc.) ,, ^-^;< ,, ^j
(ii) It is elided when so placed in the nomina agentis (see
80) before tanwin of dammafe and kasrafi, which
vowels disappear, while the tanwin passes back to
kasrafr of the second radical ; thus
with forms *l5 and U oU become vote a striker
WxJ
OHe
J
o?^ a# enmity
thrower
transgressor
f x . x 2
So with all the first eight forms and tenth (see 236, 311).
174] A GRAftlMAi;. 47
NOTE. The distinction in a (ii) between the final syllables ot
^U for >U and \^j** for L>*- i g mechanical and not phonetic
(see 7, rem. 6).
169. Final ^ becomes ^ in all derived forms of the verb,
thus II (JJ&, III <^jte, IV j^ja-J?, V (^J*3, VI ^i-tS, VII
vin iju^l, etc.
170. To form the nomen patientis Jtyti-o of these verbs,
5 j * x
radical ^ coalesces with ^ of prolongation, as $*CAA struck with
J x jO x 9 JO '
a stick for ^-o**, +* tried for ,l~o ; but radical ^ converts.
^ of prolongation into ^ and the two coalesce, with kasrati
uJ & *
preceding instead of damma!i, as i^Jv 4 ne ted> aright for
O^Ox XX XX
Verbs like - for o admit of either form.
171. Doubly weak verbs are of two classes : first those with
both hamzali and ^ or ^ among their radicals ; and second those
in which ^ or ^5 occurs .twice or which contain ^ and \^$.
172. Of the first class there are three sorts, each admitting
two varieties according to the position of hamzah.
(i) Hamzated verbs with initial ^ or (_
(ii) middle 5 or ^
(iii) final ^ or ^
173. In sort (i) hamzali serves as middle or final radical, and
such verbs are inflected like both classes to which they belong.
174. In sort (ii) hamzah serves (a) for initial radical, as
f <
*\ or iT* for jjl to fatiytte, Jt or Jl* for J^l to return ; and
- X *X X
(6) for final radical, as A~> for $^w ^ ^ evil, *l* for LJ*. to come,
48 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [175
li for i,~t to wish. The following table shows such verbs
inflected like both classes to which they belong.
a b
Perf. sing. 3rd masc. >\t *C zU. U>
x o
2nd Cot
Imperf. indie. 3j>
Imperative ^
Passive perfect jut
NOTE. We can write Col for Co 1 in accordance with 14 c.
175. In sort (iii) hamzafi. serves (a) for initial radical, as
.Jt to come, \J}\ to be hurt ; and (6) for middle radical, as
to be far : such verbs are inflected like both classes to which
they belong, thus
a b
xg X gx
Perf. sing. 3rd masc.
fern.
2nd masc. C
Imperf. indie.
x
Imperative C-ut Jut Ut
Nomen agentis Cl 31 &
REM. a. In the imperative ,^1 has also C> for c-ut and Out,
see 132, rein. b.
179] A GRAMMAR. 49
176. From certain parts of (^\j -SL. hamzated 'alif may be
elided : as (indie, and subj.) ij>j thou (masc.) seest, ^jj we see ;
(subj. and juss.) \*yj> they (masc.) see ; but (perf.) c~jl; / saw,
OCX
Ijl; they (masc.) saw.
REM. c. Radical hamzated 'alif is elided from the fourth
form when meaning to show, as jl show thou (masc.), ^j\ I show.
177. Of the second class (see 171) there are two sorts.
178. In sort (i) ^ or ^ is the initial and final radical, as ^3
to guard, ^jj to be faithful to one's engagement, ^j to be near
(see 142, rem. a) ; and such verbs are inflected like both classes
to which they belong, thus
Perf. sing. 3rd masc.
tern.
2nd masc.
Imperf. indie.
Imperative J J
^ x
179. In sort (ii) 3 or ^ is the middle and final radical, as
* to go astray, {g to be strong, ^^ to be even with, equal
to, ^f&* to live ; and in such verbs the second radical undergoes
no change : thus
Perf. sing. 3rd raasc.
fern.
,, 2nd masc.
Imperf. indie.
Imperative t
> *
Gil.
50 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [
KI:M. a. We write Ua^, as above, to distinguish the word
from ^.a^j John the Baptist and to prevent the union of two ^ ; as
also in U Jjl (not ,Jj jJI) fern, of ^>>$\ the nearest (see 295 b).
REM. b. /-^ may be contracted to ,,., see 120.
182. The verb ^-J ^ w not has no imperfect or imperative ;
its perfect is inflected like verbs with ^ for middle radical; thus
1st 2nd f. 2nd m. 3rd f. 3rd m.
j Ox Ox x Ox -Ox x Ox
Sing.
Dual
AjOx Jx x Ox JO,
U-J c^^^ >^ O-J J 3-^ Plu r.
"We may perhaps call r~A a substantive verb, because it implies
non-existence without connotation of time or change ; it is
mentioned in 442, 559, 560 and 587 d.
REM. a. J~+l is compounded of ^ not and the obsolete J~j
or ^^-jt existence, being ; as may be learned in studying Hebrew,
Aramaic, and Assyrian.
183. The verbs of praise and blame are ^u to be good and
v~SJ to be bad : they are exclamatory, and when a nominative
follows, it must be defined, as J+*AQ) I u~j a bad issue is that !
REM. a. The verb may be joined to following conjunctive U,
as ^yo^iXi. U-Ll> evil have ye wrought in mint absence.
185. We give here a table of the pronominal suffixes which
follow verbs in order to express the accusative, the nominative
pronouns having been mentioned m 89.
186] A GRAMMAR. 61
SINGULAR.
Feminine Common Masculine
U her ... o him 3rd person
3 thee ... J thee 2nd
^ we 1st
DUAL.
both ... 3rd
tf/i . . . 2nd
PLURAL.
J
them . . . sr*> them 3rd
o j
you <=> you 2nd
X
. . . U us . . . 1st
REM. a. For the dependent case, see 317.
REM. b. The dammafr of d, UA, ^oA, and V >A is changed after
-5-, i^ , and v.^-^ into kasrafr ; as A.jt do thou (masc.) put
him off, j^fi^fi he directs them, <jul do thou (fern.) cover it.
REM. d. For the older forms ^$ , ,y , ^A, and ^^ see 20.
^r*
186. An accusative suffix causes change to its verb when
(a) the word ends with a superfluous 'alif (see 7, rem. a)
which is elided, thus ^jJ^-< do ye (masc.) beware, but^^jj^t
beware of them.
(b) To avoid cacophony we retain in the Perf. pi. 2nd masc.
JJL. ft which the language employed at an earlier stage, thus
ye (masc.) have contrived, but d^oJJ.C ye have contrived it.
(e) As mentioned in 7 rem. c ^ _^ a becomes I _-_ a.
42
62 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 188
188. Sometimes the pronominal object is expressed by a
suffix attached to the word U 'iya, which cannot stand alone ;
thus JUI thee, but the 1st sing, is ^Cl me.
189. A pronominal suffix with Cl is used,
(a) if one desires to avoid attaching two suffixes to the same
j 2 * Oi. * Oi
verb, as L>! ^ylU^I or <x.JlLcl he gave it to me : also to avoid
repetition of the governing verb when a pronoun is coupled by
j and (see 578) with a substantive or with a pronominal suffix,
* 2 . ojfd'di. *0,6ts Oj'O'Oe-
as 1^4.3 -*v*^ r ^^-S&jblj ^^iCUl M<MI hast destroyed them
and me :
(6) when a pronoun is, for the sake of emphasis, placed
before the verb ; as o<LJ ^Cf^ juxi JU 7%^ o^ 6?o w
worship and to Thee alone we cry for help (see 431 rem.).
Arabian grammarians divide parts of speech into three;
(a) jr^y the noun in large sense, (6) JauJf the action, verb, and
(c) OpJ! the particle.
190. The HOMW (^wM nomen) is of six kinds.
(i) The nomen substantivum more especially called ^~j*$\ as
t * o * o* 3 jO'S* "
well as o^-o^oJ! or OjjUoJI qualificabik : to it adjectives can
be attached. This when deverbal we shall call nomen verbi and
treat in 195 et seq.
(ii) The adjective, or descriptive epithet.
(iii) The numeral, or noun of number.
(iv) The demonstrative pronoun, or noun of indication.
191] A GRAMMAR. 63
(v) The conjunctive pronoun.
(vi) The personal pronoun, or substitute for a thing or person
not mentioned.
REAL a. Nouns substantive and adjective must be treated
together, they being in form almost identical. We give (iii)
numerals in 318 to 328; (iv and v) demonstrative, conjunctive,
and interrogative pronouns in 340 to 353* : the (vi) personal
pronouns, which have been treated in 84, 89 and 185 to 189,
will be mentioned again at 317.
191. In respect of their origin nouns are divisible into
(a) primitive and (b) derivative.
(a) Primitive nouns are substantives ; as u^j' earth, j>\
mother, ^)L*JI man, AJ! sign, miracle, message, verse, fy a well,
a substitute, JJj country, land, ^b gate, oW*-* serpent,
x x 9 x x J
mountain, ju~*. a body, red gold, >^- a stone, O^. fish,
9$' 90 J x 90, x 90
^Ij head, j~j plague, ^J^; a man, J^ foot, ?r jj spouse, l*+~t
9 x 0xx 9 J 3 Si /*
grandchild, tribe, J*** road, Siw ct year, j^> a wall, ^JJ 1 the
idol, 5,^^ image, cjJu frog, O^>** deluge, J^fr calf,
5x . XX 5^x 90J
a stick, ^>A ^, spring of water, ^^3 mare, horse, *iUJ ar,
00 0xx OOx 0xx
ship, >j* a monkey, ^^ an oath, **** a heart, j+* a moon,
xx *4x 9 Ox 9 x x
^^D ipeeck, *-)) table, tablet, JJ ni^, JU property, 2U wa^r
x x ^" 00x 40x
(whence e\** J_to befall of water), ^-AJ ATM^ self,j^ runnel, rill,
fa day, <u^ /ac, ^ sea, ^# day.
(6) Derivative nouns may be substantive or adjective ; and
are either de verbal, as J*-oA3 pre-eminence from JJi* to regard
9 { x it
<>.< .<tijn-i ir, *r*t*\ lettered, polite from ^>\ .2- to be well brought
:>t ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [191
Sx 1
ii I > : or they are denominative, as 5w a line of bricks, a chapter
5 X J ^ Ox
from j^w a wall, -^.g*** Christian from --*-~oJ ' ^ anointed,
Okrii
REM. a. Arabic dictionaries catalogue words under their
radical letters ; those compiled by Orientals are mostly arranged
in order of the final, and by Europeans of the initial radical.
All place first the verb, even though it be derivative and a
noun its etymon (i.e. an original, primitive, or root word). To
distinguish may be difficult; but any noun which is used as
mac.dar (see 195) will best be considered deverbal : thus &\ a
falsehood beside being a substantive is infinitive of &*\ to
He, cause to put on a false appearance which has also the
fOc. x
infinitive ^t. Lane* gives j*~ sea, great river, because it is
cleft or trenched in the earth, as derivative of j*^> _^- to split ;
whereas some may wish to regard sea as a primitive noun. It is
well to treat substantives of foreign origin as etymons; thus,
-b|^-d way from via strata, v~**~ sort, kind from yeVos genus,
JDtT OU4^ Satan, fOG? ^4^ sabbath, min StJ]!)" the Old
J 0*0 Si J
Testament, J^J^t the Gospel from evayyeXiov, ^wjJb seat etc.
etc. Also we have jj-wjlit (plural, oblique case) the mundane
rational creatures (see 302 e). Words which Arabians admit to
be borrowed are called by them vj* arabicized.
REM. b. Arabian grammarians unmethodically divide the
nouns into categories which overlap.
NOTE. The following defective substantives are primitive
* An Arabic-English Lexicon by E. W. Lane. London: Williams &
Norgate, 1863 to 1893.
194] A GRAMMAR. 55
90 00 9x 2 ' '
nouns ; yjjt sow, -t brother, ^wl name, ^3 ofootf, <tw y#w,
si language, JL Aawd. Many nouns may be called either
^ x 9 0A^
deverbal or primitive ; thus, ij.3 a village, *~jj wind,
star, jJj a child, and <> according to origin manna or
favour.
192. Deverbal nouns are divisible into two principal classes :
(i) nornina verbi which are by nature substantives, but also
serve as adjectives ;
(ii) nomina agentis and nomina patientis which by nature
are adjectives, but also serve as substantives (see 230).
193. The following four sorts of ^everbal nouns are connected
with the nomina verbi :
(i) nomina vicis, that express the doing of an action once ;
(ii) nomina specie!, nouns of kind and manner ;
(iii) nomina loci et temporis, nouns of time and place (see
221) ;
(iv) nomina instrumenti, denoting the instrument (see 228).
194. Denominative nouns are divisible into six classes :
(i) nomen unitatis, denoting the individual (see 246) ;
(ii) nomen abundantiae, denoting a place of abundance ;
(iii) nomen vasis, denoting a vessel (Jl*j) ;
(iv) nomen relativum, which we shall call the relative adjec-
tive (see 249) ;
(v) nomen abstractum qualitatis, the abstract noun of
quality ;
(vi) nomen deminutivum, the diminutive.
56 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [195
195. Nomina verbi are deverbal nouns, abstract and concrete.
The former (known as jjt-a* magadir, plural of j Juo* magdar
source, and as JjtAJI *C*t nomina actionis) are infinitives; the
latter are substantives pure and simple. When a noun is magdar
it cannot be used in the plural, and according to some gram-
marians (see 292 cT) is of either gender : in such case it nearly
corresponds with the English infinitive and can govern an
accusative, which obviously may not be when it appears as a
simple substantive. The following verse employs v^^ in both
ways.
I wrote (it) and I felt sure at the time of writing it
That my hand would perish and its (the hand's) writing endure.
NOTE. Professor Wright uses the term nomina verbi as
synonymous with mac,dir, infinitives and nomina actionis ;
whereas I require a category wide enough to include all words
in the succeeding sections. Without this change the Gram-
matical Analysis of my First reading book could not have been
compiled.
196. Nomina verbi from the groundform of triliteral verbs
are very numerous. The following specimens will serve our
present purpose.
1 ji$ as JU*. creation, l^J* a thing.
2 J*i v*j* frail goods, Ju. state (see 207 a).
4 J*j lu*. guarding, ^j religion, judgment.
196] A GRAMMAR. 57
9 j
6 J*5 as Oj^ top-knot, an elevated place, ~> covetousness.
guidance (see 212 ).
Ox Ox x x 0x *x
8 <U*5 A.QA-J mercy, ii-; convulsion.
9 iUs A^A. 60072, SL. /(/fe.
4x x x x Sx x
10 ibti i^.^> a word, S^Xi ignorance.
9x0 9 x 9x0 02
11 3Jj3 2L++9 value, *i trial, 2J3 paucity.
9' J 0xOJ
12 AJL
x 0x0
22 O>** O^ B coming.
23 O v^** O^>* criterion, ijty reading.
25 JU3 c^ delivery, Jb^ mischief, J^- error.
0x 0x ^ x 0x
26 JU3 ,, *^Uft chastisement, 2UJ meeting, .>U^ support.
* ' * 9 ' *
27 Jlx* jt^- lowing.
28 SJlxa ,, S^l^w testimony.
0x x Ox x 0x1
29 *JU3 >} Ad 1 ^*. caliphate, i-J resurrection.
9 J
32 J^ J>-y message,
37 J-oe ^^J prophet (see 17 6, rem.
38 iLxi ,, iio evidence, A^W ^^7, S-JJL* a
xx xx
39 JjuU ^^-j^ roominess (see Ps. cxvin. 5 ^
Ox * x
40 JjuU j*-a-o returning, issue, '-o coming.
42 /ow (see 204).
0xO
43 iXx<U ,, iJit^ a<1 munition, S;Jut wttse.
58 ELEMENTARY ARABIC; [197
REM. The forms numbered 39 to 43 commence with j> ma :
5 9 x
and if infinitive are called
c s x
NOTE. Beside being feminine of Jajt; connector, nomen agentis
of its verb, ifculjiJI the copulative is nomen verbi. Similarly
2LJU end is nomen verbi of unusual form.
197. Most verbs have only one infinitive (nomen action! s)
to their first form, and very few more than two or three apiece ;
exact information must be obtained from dictionaries.
198. When infinitives are few, deverbal nouns (nomina verbi)
are very numerous.
No. 1. When infinitives these are from transitive verbs of
form Jj3 and Jji*. We have nomina verbi ^.t reward, j-ot
90, ' 90s 90, 90,
command, +f a&etnoty t j>.^ praise, ou*. posterity, J^* a
96, 90, 1" 7 *. f '
plain, j~o patience, jj~o breast, u*.^ throne, ^6 he. connection,
, 90" . 00, 90 x 90 ,
ft covenant, J~A separation, uj* loan, jo plot, Jy* gentle-
r> '
ness, ^jAtu diminution.
No. 2. When infinitives these are from intransitive verbs of
form vjw, except jft work, rection which is from a transitive
verb. For nomina verbi we have jut perpetuity, J^t fixed term,
.
announcement, enunciation, f~o^ desire, *j*e- a number,
^
anger.
No. 4 has oM permission, j*e\ burden, j^o admonition,
90 90 00
^a-w sorcery, PULP a like, ^f- science.
No. 6 has jciy true direction, l$~> evil, ^JU dominion.
No. 8 has <ufcj (7^/7^, 5J^> almn<l<ut<'e, iikS a piece, A&A) an
199] A GRAMMAR. 59
expression, a, word, and <&* a garden by which the ground is
covered, from &. _2_ to cover.
3 9d 9 Z
No. 11 has iL. unloading, i)3 ignominy, &$ paucity.
No. 12 has iot a course of acting, one course which people
follow in religion, people of a particular religion and so a nation,
Sx 1
a people, JL^ an aggregate, a sentence, clause.
9 ** .* "
No. 25 has <jW perspicacity, c^lo whiteness.
No. 26 has ^U> writing, a book, ^l^.^. obstacle, veil, par-
tition, wJ*}IU. a contrary, and AJt a #0d which however may be
etymon of aJI _^_ to acfora
No. 27 expresses sounds, as in the instance given above, viz.
** J i
y$- lowing.
No. 29 expresses office etc., as id'^U. the office of 4A...U. caliph,
successor, AJ*^ governorship, province, 2u\*- imitation, narration,
a message, letter.
No. 37 has by form j*JL> herald, /jJ^ protector, j^ij one
who directs, ^JL interlocutor, J^s^^ an authorized agent, and
<uju a /oo/ which are akin to nomiua agentis and may be taken
as adjectives of the form
No. 38 has LU. sin, also written iTki, see 17, rem. b.
199. If a verb has two or three meanings, to be distinguished
by characteristic vowels, there may be one or more nouns for
each ; thus, &3jA* knowledge and O^j^ spiritual insight from
to knoti", also A3l^ to become *J*Jj* over a people from
(JO ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 200
^jf. _2_ to be chief, Jb^ meaning soothsayer or chief \ further
we find *Jj* sweet smell from ^_i_ to scent perfume.
200. If a verb has more meanings than forms there may be
several nomina actionis in correspondence ; thus a* a pair and
ifrUi intercession from *ii -z- to double and to intercede.
201. Infinitives are used both in an active and a passive
sense, there being no separate form to distinguish ; thus oj^l
from JL*.| to take means his taking another or his being taken,
o-* sense of hearing and oral tradition from ~o-w -^- to hear.
202. The following nomina verbi from derived forms of the
strong triliteral verb are also uomina actionis.
\ *Z ~ 7. .7. . 9 *
ii J***3 as ^^uxjj dividing into portions, w^*>p com-
*. " . . 5 Ox
oming, WAJJJU definition, J^JL*3 assigning a
8 Ox 9 Ox
cause, J^-OAJ exposition, >**."> specification,
9 Ox " *
jua^> corroboration.
m JU3
ixJUo exaggeration, intensiveness, iJli-o
f*Vi J
to overcome, AjjULc appropmquation.
x x 0x0
IV J^J ,, >t~>1 an act of supporting, 9-*^>J good order ing.
eJ abasement.
x x
k/*^*- 5 O^^* 5 over-reaching.
vn JUiSl v^J transition.
VIM J^J ^j beginning, JCI comprehension,
206] A GRAMMAR. 61
9 - ^' 'x
X JU.wt as SLiZwl exception, jUilwt an act of asking pa r-
0x06 9*00
don, ^olyilwl Interrogation, jLL/l arrogant
pride.
REM. In form iX^Ou is identical with the feminine passive
participle.
NOTE. As will be seen from its meaning, the word ^\j^
punishment is connected with the second form, viz. ^ J& to punish
(see 41), to which it serves as JUJxoJ I J>ili/t see 426.
204. Nouns derived from verbs with the middle radical
doubled observe the rules in 120 ; thus JU fetter for JJL,
2" - !' V x 5 x x
frMM tor OA-, y3 crumbled soil tor ^=0. ^ fora tor
love for **o*-, AJa*. unloading, ^~*. a sense, 5JU a malady,
205. Nouns from hamzated verbs observe the rules in 131
to 135.
206. Verbs treated in 142 and 144 with ^ as first radical
may drop it from the noun and then they add 5 _*_ by way of
compensation : thus, from -aj ^03 to put down we have ^-^3
0XX J*XXX
position and ixo humiliation, from QI.CU o-dj to describe is
# qualificative ; while from juij j^^ #o promise we have both
1* X 1'l 1 Jxxxx
and 5j^ which mean a promising, and from J-AJ J-o^ #o
x x x
reach, attain are 3JLej a means of connection and SJLo a con-
junctive.
NOTE. We find the substantive iu> drowsiness as well as the
infinitive o-'.J sleeping from ,>wj to s&ep which makes
in the imperfect (see 143).
62 I:MMI:NTARY AKAMM': [207
207. N)iin- truin verbs with j <>r ^ as middle radiil
observe the ruK-> in 150 etc.
(a) Those of the form J*J remain unchanged, as wJy*. fear,
*^~& secret, j$i prize, Jly a saying, j* slumber. Those
like JjiJ follow 153, as JU- state, condition for J>*.. Those
9 x Ox
like JjiA* most commonly follow 150, as J^AA returning, issue
formal
(&) If ^ be preceded by kasrafr it mostly becomes ^ ; as i^5
x x Ox x ^ **
resurrection for 4*L5 (see 6, rem. a) for ict>5, A^-J pnfce for
5-c>5, both from jfe _A. #<? 5to/^.
(c) In the fourth and tenth forms the second radical is
elided, its vowel passing back to the first, and 5 ^_ being added
to the word's end; thus Sjt;! wish for >t>;t, iJlil annexation
x^x 9 +* *
for wJL-it, 5JlxIwt appeal for help instead of ^t^xlwt.
Ox- J x
210. From these verbs we have nouns of the form 4jjJLjj3 as
duration from ^ob _i_ #o /a5#.
212. Nouns from verbs with 3 or ^ as final radical experi-
ence assimilation into ^ in the form JbU if 3 be the second and
the third radical, thus mw for i^ ; but we find 3 in
*** force for AJ^ of form A!**. When the middle radical is
-tmng the following rules hold.
(a) The third radical is retained if the second bears sukun, as
x x Ox 9,0 3
,jX. an ornament, 5^> aw invocation, A*A. concealment (see
166 a).
(6) Nouns of the forms J*3, Jx3, and Jij are usually written
with final ^, which is quiescent, while tan win falls upon the
22:2] A GRAMMAR. 63
second radical's fathah ; thus j^jJk guidance for L***> ^5*- <*
tribe from (j$j*~J> (^^- to gather. Sometimes radical $ is written
1 x 6 x x
1, as also in primitive nouns, thus La* a stick for J-OP.
(c) Nouns of the form 4JU3 with ^ as final radical may end in
51 __, as S^jLd for S^JLo (see 7, rem. d, and compare 294, rem. a).
(d) Nouns of the forms JU3 , Jlx$ and JU* change the final
radical into hamzafi, as **$*> trial for y^L, *U-1 heaven for
*UJ meeting for jjjUJ, *U receptacle for i<^> This occurs in
nomina verbi of the fourth, seventh etc. forms as * lyS t end, limit
from 3 _i_ #o forbid.
221. Nouns of tfe'wze aw^ jt?/rw;g are formed from the imperfect
active of a verb's ground form by substituting j* for its prefix :
the second radical bears fathah", if fathafr or damman" be charac-
teristic of the imperfect, but kasrafr if kasrah". Thus,
drink, makes * >j*j whence ^jZ* drinking- place, <*r-^> to write
* JO* 9 '0 * xxx J x
^sX> whence ^^Xo place of writing, school, JjJ to descend JJ-LJ
whence J>^ halting place, jj~o to proceed jjucu whence j j^uo
the place whence anything proceeds (see 195).
2 10 j t
REM. a. A noun of time and place is called OjJaJI ^^\ the
noun of vessel.
REM. b. A few nouns take kasrah" irregularly, as j>,t* ..... * place
9 *
of prostration, a mosque, Jjj-i* time or place of rising, the east t
jb* place of setting, the west, ki...^ place where anything falls.
222. Nouns of time and place from verbs with ^ or ^ as
initial radical have kasrah to the second syllable and always
64, ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 223
rctjiin tin- first radical ; thus JJ*A tiim or place of uppn'uttnient
xxx 90*
from j&j to promise (see 142), f-f>* a /?/ w/*er0 anything is
put down, a place from 03 put (see 144).
223. Those from verbs with ^ or ^ as middle radical ex-
perience change in accordance with 150, thus <j^- place of
9*0* xx
tor O>*- fr m O^ t be, exist.
HEM. Verbs with ^ as middle radical commonly retain it,
f X X
thus j-j-o-o />/<& of returning, *^*~* place of arrival.
224. Those from verbs with 3 or ^ as ./?raa radical always
have fathafi (notwithstanding 221) to the second syllable and
4 A ^
they suffer the contraction explained in 2126; thus,
9xOx QxOx xx
place of refuge for ,^ ;.< for ^> ;^> from la*J ^_
226. Some nouns of time and place from verbs with ^ or
as initial radical take the form JliJU (see 228) ; as oO
appointed time or place from C-sSj to fix a time, **$* time of
liirth from jJj to bear a child. In both these examples ^
replaces ^ according to 145
227. Those from derived forms are identical in form with
the nomina patientis, as I ju^o place of beginning, inchoative.
228. Nouns ..t instrument denote the intransitive agent and
take the form J*A^>, JlxLo or <UUl ; as ^SLC and p-UAx) ^ key
from ^i _*_ ^o open. Initial ^ becomes ^ as in 226, thus
a v>i\iint from Jtfj -7- ^
232] A GRAMMAR. 65
229. We have already mentioned in 80 the nomen agentis
and nomen patientis; they are deverbal adjectives often used as
substantives.
230. In the ground form nomina agentis are like J*^
and nomina patientis like J^XA* : thus ^Jl^ a writer, clerk
J " . ' " .*"
written, script from <*?*'* -*- to write ; iOU possessor
J * " + 9 -
JLo- owned from iXJU to possess ; ^U a discerner
recognized, approved from o^fc to know ; *^U follower
Z followed, s^y. clipper ojxa~ eliminated, JL*'*. <
. ' . f' J^
praises ^o-= . praiseworthy, Jsut; ^a^ which binds ^^j-o bound,
*U. ^^ wA/cA collects, great mosque e^.<,a^ assembled, J-A 1 ^
ignorant, jl hating, &(. preserver, ^AS^ deficient,
worthless, )(* one who attains, jJ ! . owe wfo s#aj/s /o;?<7, abides,
cjti manifest, *J(*& pious, that which is right, ^JU ow
knows, a scholar, j~$t^= owe w&? ignores God's benefits, an
unbeliever, >j intransitive, ^51^ falling.
NOTE. As regards nomina patientis, we have mentioned in
73 the impersonal manner in which passive verhs must often be
Oxx J J x ^
translated, and shall treat >ov*^ ^^.tfixJI ^ objects of anger
in 533.
232. From the ground form there are other deverbal adjec-
tives of which the following are specimens.
1. JJt3 as J^l easy, JI*. good, excellent (see 242, Note 1).
2. ji* O"-*- 0wwf beautiful.
3. JL*3 Jurl afflicted, jJCJ churlish, JU^ thunderstruck,
swooning.
GE. 5
ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 232
11. J**3 asjU'l painful, J~AJ seeing, ^L wise, *
clement, j? well acquainted, Jj~> prompt,
Ox Ox
jjj* powerful, jjj<3 a&/0, O*-*' trustworthy,
x
j-j-^3 great.
12. JyJ j^i grateful, jj&c. of God forgiving,
voracious.
J x x J x x
13. 4^1
14. o"^** O^-o^-J merciful (a borrowed word).
16. Jjt31 c^' white, i-t a// (see 537), jLo\ yellow,
of a horse grey.
NOTE 1. We use No 16 to express colours and defects.
REM. c. When derived from transitive verbs J-oi3 may have
Ox x Ox
a passive sense ; as w~*&- wr^ea 0, .u^?/^, c^5*" fi^ m 9^ ***+*-
praiseworthy, JUJLW severe, jsiS 5/azV?, ^a> treated with kuJiL
NOTE 2. Much of the Cor&n is almost in the nature of
rhymed prose, wherein O^ ma y rhyme with <>j -^-, j^ __ with
j-> -5- etc., but the rules are more lax than in classical rhymed
prose*; for instance ;***) merciful, ^AS. mighty, ^J^ skilful,
etc. are used to rhyme with ,>** manifest, O****!; merciful,
^.j ji.C; prostrating themselves, ^>A^L^ Moslems, ^j-^sU* thank
+ + X
truthful, ^>jj-lo contemptible, ^^V\o wrongdoers,
those who pardon, ^J^d neglectors, ^Jli victors,
* Specimens of rhymed prose are to be found at pp. 168 to 181 of
"Wright's Reading book" which I hope to reproduce as Elementary Arabic:
Third reading book.
236] A GRAMMAR. 67
^^-JLwUJ impious, O3s^* subduers, v>Jj-^^ beholders, and the
like.'
233. Adjectives of form JU3 are intensive, as from JL
asking we have Jll^ importunate, a beggar.
REM. a. We use this form to indicate occupations, as
a money-changer, ^5$ a bow-maker, cavass.
REM. b. There are other intensive adjectives, as jo^ ever-
lasting.
oZ * j o
234. The elative, ^^a&JI ^ 9 ~t\ the noun of pre-eminence, is
* X X
of form jil as o-~*-' more or mos ^ beautiful.
REM. a. When superlative these adjectives must have the
article as j^-f}\ the most merciful, or be in construct state (see
475) as ^Ajifbl most of them, and if feminine (see 295 b) are
x J xOjO'OJxxOx
of form ^^ as ^....aJ \ A^XxJ I the most gracious word.
235. No elative should be derived from adjectives which
have already the form Jb^t, thus the comparative of u*^' white
is liCj j&\ stronger as to whiteness : but elatives are sometimes
formed, though contrary to strict rule, from the derived forms
of verbs.
236. Next as to the derived forms in which we have
(a) nomina agentis :
4 x J 9 - x J
ii v*** chastizer, j~JLo explanatory, commentator.
* , t 4 ' 3
ill c^Uauc compliant, oj&* contemporaneous.
9 9 t 6 J Q J
IV iAXy^ destroyer, ^4* possible, 4>a~o guilty,
X X X
O J
JLo^c out' irhn puts to rights,
CAjLc j>rot>2>c/'<jtts.
*
02
(J8 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 237
* ' J .
.; /// motion.
vi ^l^.Z uniform, i.e. part resembling part, Jjli* facing
s +
each other.
vn wJUUo 0w0 wfo reverts.
9 -' 6J
viii ^tr**** avenger,
x j^CiL-,* haughty.
and (6) nomina patientis :
oixj o w ^ J o3 xj
II j^I destroyed, j.a> ..>. ^/^ frc subjection, J-ai^ separated,
brought near, j>j*~* forbidden, inviolable,
ordained, predestined'.
m J*lii.
iv yi-U disapproved, jL to t&A/cA is supported, attri-
viii lju** inchoative etc.
237. Adjectives derived from verbs with the middle radical
3 o
doubled observe the rules in 120 ; thus JU erring for JJlo,
xg J x S J
wt stronger or 7w0s s^row^r for ^jtit, ^ owe w^o perfects for
3 * . * '
causing error, ^oU entire, perfect, ^lib repulsing.
238. Adjectives from hamzated verbs observe the rules in
9 x x x
131 to 135 ; thus JjU one who asks not Jit-, ^J grievous
not ^Q, O-*> believer not ^>^U, +J+* feminine.
+ X
239. Adjectives from verbs with ^ or ^ as initial radical
observe 147 and 148, thus J-oiiLo joined.
242] A GRAMMAR. 69
REM. a. Preceded by kasrafr t becomes ^ as ^jl5 reader
not i
240. Nomina agentis from verbs of the first form with ^ or ^
as middle radical substitute for that letter ^ (i.e. hamzafi and
'imad, see 16) ; thus jjli flying, a bird, evil omen from jit -.-
to fly and not j-U, juU one who returns, ^5U sleeping.
241. Nomina patientis from verbs of the first form with^ or
l^ as middle radical, in case of j elide it and throw back its
vowel to the first radical ; thus Oja~ to be feared for
but in case of ^ its elision must be marked by substituting
kasrafi for dammaft, and then ^ of prolongation becomes ^ ;
9 9 J * *
thus &>J** one who receives recompense for
REM. Sometimes we find an uncontracted form, as
a debtor.
242. Adjectives of form J+xi from verbs with j or ^ as
middle radical become J*3 and sometimes Jl : thus, for vj*I
from ^U -7- we have ^^ good, sound, agreeable ; for
from ^>b -7- is &.<.} evident ; for 2\^j~ from slw _JL is
wicked', for C-u^ from OU _JL_ is C~w cfeao 1 , and for its
x fix 5-' x
opposite ^s*- from ^^fc. _^_ we have ^^ Mvift^f ; also for j+*.
xx '. x . -' r * *' " X ,. -
irom iV. ^r- is j~*> excdlrnt, jj-Jb ^^?/ tor Ot!>*> J^- C"*vi fora.
NOTE 1. In 232 is to be found jli. under form Jii : it is
from jU. -^ to choose and means to be chosen whence the elative
* x 3'
^ j-j*. choosable rattier than, better than : its opposite j* bad,
worse is also used as elative.
70 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 243
NOTE 2. We may consider ^ and **! (see 19G, No. 38)
as substantives derived from the adjectives -> and 21.
243. Adjectives from the derived forms of verbs with ^ or
^ as middle radical follow in respect of it the rules of their
Imperfects, thus o*** manifest like o**! Iv f O^ to be
distinct, J~-ox> that which strikes home like ^^^AJ TV of ^li _i_
(see 45, Note), ol<o annexed like ot^u iv passive of t*Jt -?-
'fo incline, sr**Z*"* straight like^-iij x of ^15 _j_
NOTE 1. For <L..o. AJ>O a blow that hits we find 5
which we may render a mischance.
NOTE 2. Be it observed that the nornina agentis and patientis
of Form vn are identical, and so with Form vin.
244. We have treated in 167 b (ii) the nomina agentis of
verbs with ^ or ^ as final radical, and the nomina patientis in
170, which last section gives rules applicable to adjectives of
J ^ ^ . 3 J - SJx
forms Jye and J*** ; thus ^j^ hostile, an enemy for ^jj^>
,^^1* high, sublime for ^e-, ^i> rich, self-sufficing for ^^.
NOTE. In the Goran *j& is sometimes a collective noun.
245. Adjectives, whose second radical bears fathati, from
verbs with ^ or ^ (which we now write ^) as final radical,
reject their final vowel.
(a) If triptote (see 308) tanwin is transferred to the second
radical (compare 2126); thus ^Ja** given nomen patientis iv
f
' ' 4 * J *s J ' Ox J
of U^ _>_ for ^OAA, j^ylo dual, ^i~* an exception.
250] A GRAMMAR. 71
(b) If diptote there is only the vowel to reject ; thus
better or best pleased for
246. Nomina unitatis nouns of individuality, which specify one
from a genus or one part of a whole, are formed by adding 3 ^_ to
the collective noun (see 292 a, 306 rem.). Thus, ZJJL> one head
90* f > ' *
of cattle (ox or cow, j being usual for a bull) from jJL> cattle,
xxx 9 x x 9' xx x x
a fruit from j+j fruit, Sjtj^. a grasshopper, locust from >tj*-,
< S X X *X J Ox X X
a cfowd from ^U^* (for Sj^w see 191 6), 2Ay~b an error
(by some considered uomeii verbi, see 196, No. 28) from
i*U a c/o^ from >Uc, AJL5 a /owse from Jl^d lice,
from J-J night, S^w a ^r^e from
NOTE. We find also SI^JL a gz^e7 from ^ji* quail.
249. The relative adjective i--~JI is formed by adding \
to the word from which it is derived, and denotes some thing or
2 o x j o 2 x
person connected therewith. Thus, ^.>...> so/a?* from u .. m.ll ;Ai
lunar from ^S woow, J^ Arabian from
English from >3^ A English collectively,
^^^JLS mental from w^JL5 a ^e?^, ^5/i saracen A+*J sirocco from
5 e . 9 o 3 -
nominal from -^t l local from
O x 3
circumstantial from JU., jJbii verbaHrom
250. But the derivatives cannot always be formed so simply :
certain terminations are rejected, and other changes arise. Thus
Mecca ,J&, i?t (see 198, No. 12) Il illiterate,
72 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 269
tne Moslems A.., *&*) a word
, jL* signification \j$}^**, ** reality ^*t**~, and the
90xrf -J
Prophet's tribe JtjjJ makes ^~>s*>
269. The diminutive is of form jlid thus o-**' fr m O-~-
beautiful.
289. Nouns substantive must in gender be masculine, femi-
nine, or common, for Arabic has no neuter.
290. Nouns are said to be feminine (a) by signification, or
(6) by form ; as,
It I 9 * , J, o, 90*
(a) j>\ a mother, jj*** an old woman, ^*J>JA Mary, ^A an
eye, ju a land.
REM. Masculine are ^i\j a head, and A.J a face.
/?x
(o) 6jju an ox or cow, ojj~* a chapter, <u&- a garden, \^j^
good news.
REM. A few nouns ending in 5 _r_ are masculine because only
used of males, as AAJL. caliph.
291. Certain nouns are feminine only by usage; as c^
' > Jflix t
earth, j\> a mansion, ~-jj wind, C/ >., < .JI the sun, Lo a stick,
u a soul, self, jU fire.
292. Many are said to be masculine by form and feminine by
signification: together with others, these are of common gender ;
thus,
294J A GRAMMAR. 73
(a) Collective nouns which form nomina unitatis (see 246)
chiefly denoting animals and plants : but ^^> quail is usually
masculine.
(6) Collective nouns denoting rational beings and not forming
5^ o x * x x 8 o x
nomina unitatis, as oUj. posterity, *^L* chieftains, j>}9 ones
.
people or tribe. But Jjbl and Jl one's household', people are mas-
culine only.
(d) Deverbal nouns when infinitives (macjldir, see 195).
(e) Words regarded as such. But jjl to be is feminine, as
^ 9 tto complete kdna (see 441): so also usually are
particles, as A-jjjL^oJ! ,jt fo 'an which with its verb is equivalent
J x * x J 0/0
to a macdar (see 488), 3j-~A*J 1 <j' ^ g explicative 'an (see 367 e),
il^jiT oj ^ conditional 'in (see 367/), O^ Oj ^ nega-
tive 'in (see 362 k}.
(/) Certain nouns among which are the following ; jj a
human being, humankind, JW state, J-j-~ roa^, *ul> heaven,
ix 00J < x > SOJ ^ ^ #J
t^-o a way, iU3 a s^//?, yJ-J night, iXJU dominion, ^jub guidance.
293. From most adjectives and some substantives of the
masculine gender, feminines are formed ending in 5^_, ^ ^_,
or *r_^_.
REM. Of these 5_i_ is appended without further change,
but feminines in ^ _'_- and l\ ^- are distinct in form from the
masculine.
294. The most usual termination is 5_^_; thus, ^ (for
, last 5^.1,^1*. present 5^l>., ,>j.5 monkey
X *x *
monkey, ^Co Meccan
74 ELEMENTARY ARABTr : [ 29;")
REM. a. A dropped radical may be replaced, as S>~ from
heaven (see 212 d) : but dtiJsua* (for AAikcuo) from
REM. />. 5 - . (see end of 2 and 8, rem. a) is a compromise
in orthography between the old pausal form a _^_, and O ^L_ which
we find in w*^J mercy, *Z*^=> word for the more modern
and ijl>. We write CUi.1 sister for
295. Feminines ending in \-- are derived,
(a) from adjectives of form O^*^ which make ^^Ajw, as
(6) from adjectives of form ^jjtsl when superlative (being
denned by the article or following noun, see 234, rem. a) in
xOj j .- o o x
which case the feminine is ^^9 ; as, ,>~^ t #fo most beautiful
^.u.TOi, ^>^l ^ newest Ujjl (see 179, rem. a),
greatest ^\j^\ ^$j-& the greatest of the cities.
REM. 6. The feminine of J$1 (for J^' or jl
(see 328) is ^^f, and that of j^T (forJA.lt) other, another
X I
is
296. Feminines ending in i\ _^. are derived from adjectives
of form Jiil which are not elatives, as ^A^\ white iUuj, *-^-l
- ' : * ^-
a// iU^.. There are feminines which have no masculine, as
^x x
ibj^ most Arab which should come (irregularly, being elative)
xO
In M
297. All adjectives do not invariably employ their feminine
forms, and some few have none. Only let the meaning be clear
and there may be a laxity as regards form : thus,
297] A GRAMMAR. 75
(a) J)>*$ is of both genders when active in signification and
attached to a singular substantive, as j^i* JLg a grateful man
and j>w St^! a grateful woman ; also when active in meaning
and predicate to a substantive or pronoun in the singular, as
J ^ " J * *J 0* *
jj&t ^ she is grateful, \j$~o lyZ^U* / thought her patient. If
however no substantive or pronoun be expressed we must, in
order to make our meaning clear, employ the feminine form
9* * ff J * * 01* *, j , if ,
5Jye, as Sj^jCi C^tj I saw a grateful ivoman, dJ^*- a) U he lias
not a she-camel to carry loads : also, this is required when the
adjective is passive by signification, as *j>W 5 U <*J U he has
not a she-camel to milk i.e. to be milked.
NOTE. Being only used of God J^AC. forgiving has no feminine.
5j*
REM. a. Exceptions are to be found, as jjc& hostile, an
9tJ ,
enemy fern, o
is of both genders when passive in signification and
X OCX
attached to a singular substantive, as L)+Z$ SU^I a slain woman:,
X X
also when passive in meaning and predicate to a substantive or
pronoun in the singular, as w^.t^. ^ she is swift, J*o> ,jJui
the eye is treated with kuhl. But if na substantive or pronoun be
expressed we must, in order to make our meaning clear, employ
aJLxJ, as ILlS c-olj I saw a slain woman : also, this is required
when the adjective is active by signification ; whether transitive,
as *Xc i^l a skilful woman, OJ-++&* j}*~* an experienced old
woman ; or intransitive, as *j>>j- *-tj a powerful wind.
REM. Exceptions are to be found in either case ; as
76 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 298
5ju,*. SJbui)T dj^A this way of acting is praiseworthy, and on
the other hand ^^>5 <UJI *+*-j the mercy of God is nir.
(c) Similar peculiarities are to be remarked in certain others.
NOTE. Adjectives of form JjUl when comparative are of
common gender.
REM. b. Adjectives applicable to females only do not usually
form a feminine, as JllL C-JI thou (fern.) art divorced because
/; - x A!
a wife cannot say
298. Nouns have (like verbs, see 81) three numbers, the
singular, dual, and plural.
299. A dual is formed by adding <j' to the singular after
x x x ic
elision of the final vowel or tanwin ; as j*~> sea ^tja^j, ^U1 a
*6t
nation &\Z*\.
+
REM. b. If the singular ends in quiescent ^, or I which was
^ , the original letter may be restored ; as La* a staff ols*^
REM. e. If the third radical has been elided before 3 in the
singular, it is not restored ; thus, ii) a language for S^jj makes
300. There are two kinds of plurals.
(a) That which, having only a single form, is called pluralis
sanus, the sound or perfect plural.
(6) That which, having various forms, is called pluralis
fractus, the broken plural; being more or less altered from the
singular.
301] A GRAMMAR. 77
301. The sound plural of masculine nouns is formed by
adding ^ __ to the singular (see 308), as jA\$ a conqueror
^jAlS, j^U a worshipper Oj-^Ls. The sound plural of
feminine nouns is formed by writing Ol _^_ for 5 - when they
have that termination in the singular, or when without it by
9 x x x x x x x x x x x x
adding Ot _^_ ; as 4;...,j> a boon OU~., S^j a /rw/^ Olj^S,
^-' 9 XMlX J X XX 5 X XXX
4**b good oU-jk, ^jLtfuo; ^ month of ramaddn OULa*;.
REM. a. If the singular ends in 'alif maq^urafr (see 7,
rem. b) with or without tanwln (see 245), as ^&IA*AA chosen
xxOJ , OS. J *
for ^iU.tfv.*, ^Xftl higher, highest for ^Ut ; or in kasrafe with
x 5 x x J
tanwln (see 167, b ii), as blind for ^^c, jl-c one who
invents lies for (^>^, J devout (see 148) for ,ji^ ; or in
quiescent ^ preceded by kasrafc (see 314, rem. b\ as j^*^ the
blind (man) for ^^\ : then 166 b must be obeyed in the
forming of the plurals. Thus,
xOxxOJ x0xO x Jx x J x a j
Nominative
for
Oblique
for ' " " ' ^
The singular of ^j^JI illustrates 167 a (ii) in changing from
^ -T- iy to ^ -7T- 1, and the plural differs nothing from that of
**> see 314, rem. a. Of feminines we may note (^5*-^ angry
^Jl&'f tffo greatest Objlx3i (see 303 6).
KEM. 6. Feminine substantives with sukfin to the middle
78 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 302
radical may undergo change ; as ^jt earth O
r, xxx
village OLj^5.
REM. c. A final radical dropped as in 212 c must reappear;
thus 5^,0 prayer Ot^JU?, SUJaJx* (feminine of ^AJx^uo) chosen
(see 294, rem. a).
REM. ?. A final radical dropped before 5 __ sometimes
9x x O x x x 5 x x x Sx
reappears, as *U a yw .Ot^~> and Ol^ ; but * a hundred
for il^o makes OUU (see 325, rem. a).
9s I f
REM. e. We have mentioned in 294, rem. a 5^^ heaven
which makes Oljl*~ and O !_*-* (see 6, rem. a).
302. The sound plural masculine is formed from :
(a) Certain diminutives and proper names.
(6) Deverbal adjectives which form their feminines by adding
5 _*_, as Jlo erring
(c) Adjectives of form Jji5t which are elatives,
as
C
more or TWOS numerous Oj!/^ 3 ' : a l so the corroboratives o
viz. ^o*.! /^ etc. making ^yto^.1 etc. (see 539, rem. a).
^ 5
(c?) The relative adjectives (see 249) as ^jj^ (irregularly
from ^ju a desert) a badawi <J>!.S*V J badawin (bedouins). This
termination is often shortened to O.J---
(0) A few words, among which are ^>;l a son (for ^5^) O^*
* Jx ox x
earth O**j\, ^J^ one of the four classes of created beings
x J
(see 191, rem. a), owner (see 340, rem. c), etc.
REM. a. It must be SPECIALLY NOTED that adjectives have
the sound plural masculine only when joined to substantives,
\pressed or understood, denoting rational creatures.
304] A GRAMMAR. 79
REM. b. From substantives and adjectives that have the
sound plural masculine there may be formed a broken plural,
especially from adjectives used substantively.
REM. c. Certain numerals given in 323 have the form of
sound plural masculine.
REM. d. Some feminine nouns in 3 _^, especially those from
which the final radical (, j, or ^) has been elided, form a
sound plural masculine, the termination 3^_ disappearing; as
i" ' JJ IT
4-iw a year O*^ oblique case OT^-
X XX
303. The sound plural feminine is formed from :
9.' " 9 " '
(a) All nouns ending in 3 _a_ t as <UU) message C**^)Ly,
<L>! a sign oCt.
REM. Some grammarians express this rule less comprehen-
sively.
(6) Feminine adjectives, the masculine gender of which has
9 x i J
a sound plural, as OU*3 believing (women) from ^>-oJ*o.
(c) Names of the letters and months, as well as certain
other nouns.
304. The following are forms of broken plural, from triliteral
roots, numbered as in the Grammar of Professor Wright.
9 x 9 x J 9 jot 9 *J
J-ob 25. O^ 19. J*3t 13. J*3 7.
f 26. r3 20. JliM 14. JU3 8. J*3 2.
*x o x t 4xxx ' J J
27. nbt3l 21. iJbet 15. AjLo 9.
^^Ui 22. J^ty 16. iU5 10. J*3 4.
29. Jbb 23. J5U3 17. lu* 11. Jlii 5.
24. L>}& 18. ^i3 12.
80 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 304
In the next table an example of, at least, one noun (substantive
or adjective) appears to each plural, but space forbids us to
attempt illustrating each singular form.
r > ' >
1. J*3 plural of iU3 ^i 2d*j iU* as
til 9 si 9s t 9 s J 9s 9 s 3
<Lol a nation ^#*\, *;j.o a form j5<&, <^W- sentence J*.
2. JiS plural of jiSI && Jlii Jlij Jlii J*U as
J "Of 9 9 OJ
ija*! t ti^'te u*^ (f r u*4*)
r> 1 ) 9 , ' 9* 5 *> 9 ' 9* ' 9 ' 90s O'x
3. J*3 plural of JU3 Jl*3 JUi J-^ AJLxi J 3 J*3 J*i
9 *
J^13 as
<> s 9>3
j J^-y a message, messenger, apostle J-^j.
KEM. In nearly all cases the form jis is admissible, as
9s 9 OJ
a herald
4. Jje plural of 3Jl*3 dJLx3 4Jbw as
X S
9 s O ^s
* a maxim ^<** .
Js 90s 90 90} 9sOs 9sO 9'OJ (5 s s
U3 plural of Jje J*3 Jje 3Jbw Jl*9 ajje J*5
as
5 s
.
j a wind ^-sjj, J^. a mountain JUh., 5^ a fruit ^,3,
a waw JU;, J.JAJ heavy JU5.
REM. *LJ is plural of Sl^el a woman (see 305, rem. 0).
3 f, Os 90 9 f r, s s Qsr. sOstsO 9 s J
d plural of Jx5 Jx3 J*3 J*i J*5 AXxi
* as
9 s 9 ) t 9 Is 9 J 9 ..
breast jjj*e, ^1j Mtoa ^jij, ^^- ornament
304] A GRAMMAR. 81
J J 9 x 9 J 1 9 Ox 9 JJ
(tor (Sy^), -*!*-> star j>$s*J, ^J* a copper coin
form, figure J^, o/* &tfter (of the alphabet),
particle o^., t^ sow/, &?/
Ox 9 J
prostrate
7. J*d plural of J^U iUU as
x SfijO' CfiJ
j,.L prostrate J^-w, &jU> manifest c^i
8. JU3 plural of J*6 as
as
Ox x x
9. liii plural of Jfr6 J.oJ
x
j*.U magician j^w.
10. *i*5 plural of J^U as
15 (for jj-o^) a jwc?^ 5l-a5 (for <u-A5).
11. 5JU3 plural of JA Jjii Jj3 as
90 4xx
3/5 7l Of>^ >j.9.
X ^
9x0 90x 9xx 9 xx 9 xJ 9 x
12. iU3 plural of J*i J*3 Jlx3 Jbo J^xs as
9 x 9x0
.! (for 5^1) a brother
r. j 90x x x 90 90j9xxx
13. Jjwt plural of ^J*5 ,Jxd ^,1*5 ^1*5 iJlw and some other
feminine quadriliterals, as
soul, self cj-*^> J~Xi a copper coin cj-Ut, ju (for
90^ Of. *j 1 if. <; r, 1 OC.
gfju) hand jul (for L5*^0> J^J ^> /^^ w/ 1 ^'-
GB. G
ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 304
14. Jlill plural of J^U J-j** and triliterals of all forms, as
9 * Ot 90s f
uppermost part, forelock, cock's comb ^J'j^t, j^ river
9,0. 9 Of- r, ,~ 9 ' ' 5 ' O (. 9 *
jVI, oUI thousand wJ^M, j^o idol j^c\, ^1 (for ^y
rsic- 90 90 J * * Of. 4 ' * 9 ' Of.
son tt^l, > 't (for
tribe
spouse ^.'jjt, JLe H
s Of- 9 *
9-
9 s Of- 9 * *} df- 9 * OZ 9 x
day j6\A (for ^ot^jt), ^^.Ld a com
pun on
REM. There are a few other singulars which take this plural,
*xg vxOc
; but lUit (not *Lil) is the plural
of f,*i
15. iiail plural of JU3 JU3 and other quadriliterals, also
as
lit a 0orf i^jT (for 5^3 H), lUj receptacle
answer, complement
16. J*t^ plural of J*U Jtb lisU OUU as
-U follower, appositive *3, S-1^>U> /g?wa^ dweller
17. J5U3 plural of some feminine quadriliterals, with or without
5 in addition, as
ct
304- ] A GRAMMAR. 83
*0 9 i 9 x x 9^t c > f 1 5 x x *> ' 9 x *0
18. O^ Plural of Ji* Jx* Ji* JU* JU* JU3 J*j Jij
9 x 9 .x <50xJ 9xOxj 9 x xx 9 x
~xj Jye J*aj *L*9 o 1 ^ Jf ^ as
9 J 0x 0x 0x0
-j ?' (i r 3*v a brother
5 xJ 90x 90 9xx SxJQx 9x 9 x
19. O^ plural of J*J J3 Ji3 JU3 JUi J.** JL^L3
as
x J J xOt x 9x04
opposed to o''>> w (plural of >$~>\) blacks.
20. $*^ plural of
. _ ~xj x
scholar
21. *5' plural of ^*3 as
for t^^jJ (see 176, rem. b) a prophet ^Cj'-
22. ^jXxJ plural of J~ J*3 J.sU Jjdt <j t }bw as
9 -x x xOx
C^o (for c^j^o) dead ie>5*-
^x Ox xOx x* 9x0 9x 9xJOx
23. JUi plural of *^*3 ^5^** ^5^**^ *'^ x ' i * < ^ 5 ^^ as
xOx x x
1^15 a legal opinion ^U3.
f
REM. For declension see 312 and 314, rem. b.
24. ^Jl*$ plural of r^bti ^5^** ^A** LT^ A*J^ O*^*
9x0Jx0x '.*.'". 'If ' ." XJ 2 X '
\j^j> } ?tj> tiLJL>x3 djlx3 iij 1x3 ^LJlx3 iJLc-li as
'' . . . . '.'' ' ' I-/7
^^15 a ^a/ opinion \y2*> *yj a corner^ a class in school
\j>\jj (for ^tjt; as in 179, rem. a).
25. J*i plural of Jj3 jii Jli> J^li as
aw
C-2
84 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 305
26. 2vJ plural of Jii Ji* as
** Ox J J
Jju a husband <Uj*->>
27. Ill** plural of JiS Ji/ J*li as
^-.a-li a companion 4jULo (also
28. Ji* plural of UbU i& J*U as
AJ I (for Sjjt) s/grra, miracle, message, verse (jjl (for
29. Ji* plural of J*13 as
a companion t^s~o.
REM. a. These rules are not without exception nor are they
by any means exhaustive.
REM. c. Beside jUfr br. pi. 5, JUP slave has fourteen other
broken plurals. When a singular has more than one meaning
and several plurals, there may be a correspondence : thus ^Lj^,
** ^i $ * + *
a caliph usually follows No. 20 *UJU. caliphs, but &JU. successor,
deputy makes No. 17 w^^LL which by rule is restricted to
* 60 '
feminines. There are four meanings to &* beside its being the
letter's name, and there are four plurals (three broken and a pi.
of pi. Otusl) of which No. 13 o*^ signifies eyes and fountains.
A word which takes the sound plural may have also one or more
broken plurals.
305. The following are forms of broken plural from singular
nouns with four or more consonants.
J * *
1. JJ'ow plural of quadriliterals, with or without S in addition,
(a) whose four consonants are radical, and (6) formed
from triliteral roots by prefixing I O or ^ ; as
306] A GRAMMAR. 85
9 J X X 9 * > X X 9 X
96 . x x J x > x x x
cjutc> a /r0<7 c.>U-, <3 j-^-ft ^0 eas# 3j^-*> ^j** ^ w ; ^
C' * C' ''
w^li, 5jli candlestick, minaret j^U and jjli (compare
240) vulg. ^jU,
2. J-JU3 plural of quinqueliterals, with or without S in addition,
of which the penult is a letter of prolongation , as
Jxx9JAx 5 .
written w^-JUU, j/)%X accursed
chair ~>\j>, OlL (see 226)
3. AJUlii plural of many relative adjectives (see 249) and other
nouns with four or more letters ; as
Oxxx 00x Oxx
Pharaoh *^j.*, ^*iU (IUU)
REM. ^. A few nouns have anomalous plurals, as Slj^t a woman
(see 304, No. 5 rem.) 2l~J, ^UJI a human being ^01 ; this we
may abbreviate to ^U especially with the article, thus ^Ul,
much as 4jNi has become <UJ I.
306. We have noted the restriction ( 302, rem. a) that mas-
culine sound plurals can only be used of rational beings : they
are said by grammarians to mean several individuals ; whereas
the broken plural is by nature a collective and feminine in gender,
being generally represented by the feminine singular pronoun ;
thus lij^J ^t^J^) I ^ l^f^ we have written upon the tablets,
so take them.
REM. Beside broken plurals there are the two sorts of col-
lectives which have been mentioned in 292 a and b :
fc(j ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 307
(a) generic nouns (^-JsjJt lC~t) which form nomina unitatis
(see 246); and
(6) nouns to which attaches the idea of collectiveness (*U~/t
or *.*aJi oW*' likenesses of the plural} and which do not
form nomina unitatis ; as *U1 # section of a nation, j> a people >,
x J0- Oil xX x
etc , thus O>Vi **' -*$** I O- v ^ jpaqpfe Mer0 ^s a section
who direct (not tc^icA directs} others.
NOTE. As nomen verbi iol appears in 198, No. 12, and as
singular of ^t in 304, No. 1. Beside being nornen verbi ( 198,
No. 25), OL3 with the signification of plants is a collective, of
sort (a) though without nomen unitatis, and makes a plural OUlJ.
307. In case of nouns which have only one plural there can
be no difficulty of selection ; but, while the rest are called plurals
of abundance, those broken plurals in 304 numbered 12, 13, 14
and 15 as well as the sound plurals, are called plurals of paucity,
being used when the objects denoted are ten or less. Thus
&L six days br. pi. 14 (for^ot^jl) of J^> a day.
308. In Arabic there are three cases, Nominative, Dependent
and Accusative, each with its case-ending or sign : we shall
however speak of the Oblique case when one and the same sign
indicates both Dependent and Accusative. The following tables
show how to decline undefined nouns which are not in construct
state (see 313) by means of JJU a copper coin, SAJ a night,
>^J stars (br. pi. 6 of^a*j), ^lU two dominions, pU;..^
two boons, 0.3^^ dwellers, Ol/.ji> good things, ,^-^1 better t
308]
A GRAMMAR.
(fern.) white, >\ followers (br. pi. 16 of g^). Nouns
ending with 5, whether broken plural or singular, mark the
accusative differently (see 8, rem. a) from other triptotes, i.e.
nouns with three case-endings.
TRIPTOTE OR FIRST DECLENSION.
Masc. sing.
Nominative
Dependent
Accusative
Nominative
Oblique
Fern. sing.
9ft*
Broken pi.
9 i J
iU
LJLJ
DUAL.
Masculine
x J
Feminine
SOUND PLURAL.
Masculine
Nominative ....
Oblique
Except in the sound plural (see 302) it makes no difference
whether the noun be adjective or otherwise; and so with diptotes,
i.e. nouns with not more than two case-endings.
DIPTOTE OR SECOND DECLENSION.
Nominative
Oblique .
Masc. sing. Fern. sing. Broken pi.
j x o
88 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 309
Iii the dual diptotes and triptotes are alike, thus Norn. ,jlHJ,
Obi. o~L-*- j and so in the sound plural.
NOTE. For declension of jl>. see 312.
REM. b. No colloquial dialect of Arabic employs case-endings
regularly; duals are rare, and in sound plurals only the oblique
case is used.
309. We call nouns diptote when ending in _^_, ^ _^_, or -^-:
such are the following.
(a) Broken plurals in 304 numbered 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23
and 24 ; also those in 305 numbered 1 and 2 ; beside a few
others.
(6) Various nouns, more especially adjectives such as are
found in 232, Nos. 13 and 16, also in 234, 295 and 296 ;
beside others.
(c) Many proper names, as 3X* Mecca ; especially if foreign
to Arabic, as J-otj-J Israel, >j^b David, O^ty* Pharaoh,
3 3\ 3^3 3 3*~ "* I*. T1L7' '* T-T
O3>* Aaron, ou>*.> Joseph, j*$\ Adam, U~A.UI hbhs, >cu Egypt.
- & *
Exceptional are such as consist of three letters, the second of
which has sukun or is a letter of prolongation, thus -y Noah.
REM. e. There are said to be nine reasons why a noun is
debarred from taking tanwin.
310. Nouns ending in I ^ or ^ _*_ (for ^ _^_ or ^ _^_ see
212 b and 245) have the same form in all three cases ; thus
for ^-o*, ^-oc or \j*a* we write Uoft a stick
f
9*3 * 3 1 , i 13
L***> L*** ^J*** i^J^A guidance
*
Similarly we leave unchanged nouns ending m ^ ^. (see 309)
such as ^j--^ (fern.) angry, ,j>\ nearer, ,-> Moses.
313] A GRAMMAR. 89
311. With nouns ending in (for 3 , (s~r r U> see
167 b (ii) and 369, Table 18) it is somewhat different, for we
write
9
a preacher as the Accusative of cb i.e.
* C. #"
f
L30 negative oO ,-dU
- s < 5rx
#
x J 9 x J
transgressor jJ** ,,L^J^-
* 5 -
jul ij?j^l (br.pLlS)
following in this the analogy of 166 a.
312. There are however certain broken plurals ending with
j
-^ which is held to represent ^ . They do not follow either
of the last two rules ; thus 3j;U. a girl has br. pi. 16 j!>*. in the
Nominative and Dependent, but LJ'>^ i n the Accusative ; so
also l\j~o a desert has br. pi. 23 Nom. and Dep. jt*Li, but
Accusative
313. Undefined nouns become defined : I. by prefixing the
article Jt ^ ; 2. (a) by adding a defined noun in the dependent
case, or (6) by adding a pronominal sufnx. "While remaining
undefined a noun may be put in construct state (see 475) by
the addition of an undefined noun in dependent case.
REM. Proper names are in themselves defined, as are the
pronouns yb he etc. and words like 13 this, that (see 340 et seq.).
>. -0 fO"
NOTE. A noun cannot have two determinatives; thus wJt^^l
x c>o } ' oi
the uppermost parts and ^U^a^J! \~*\j>\ the uppermost parts of
the partition.
90 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 3
314. When a noun is defined by the article, the following
cases arise. "
(a) If it be triptote it loses the tan win ; thus
Nominative . . JJJ$\ . . iJUji . .
Dependent . . ^JuiSl . . aJUjf . .
',0,6, xx*5x
Accusative . . u~XftJ1 . . iXJJt . .
REM. From the accusative final I has disappeared along with
tanwln : so also from words like (jfju^l defined ace. of jut.
(6) If diptote it becomes triptote ; thus
J X X ~ X 0x0 X
Nominative .
Dependent .
Accusative .
(c) If sound plural feminine it loses tan win ; thus
Nominative . oCjf Oblique .
REM. a. Prefixing the article causes no change in the dual
or sound plural masculine.
HEM. b. From the termination -^- tanwin is lost and ^
reappears, as ^aJUM the thrower from JiJlo, 1^5-0-*^ the blind (man)
the hands from jul.
"
NOTE. Nouns ending in I _*_ or ^ _*_ (for ^ ^_ or ^_ see
310) merely lose the tanwin, as LAX) I, ^J^.
315. The following cases arise when a noun is in construct
state, i.e. when it is w>uL annexed to a noun in the dependent
case.
316] A GRAMMAR. 91
(a) We decline singulars and broken plurals as if defined by
the article ; thus
6* J Si
Norn.
the seekers
Dep. ^JlxM^'i&V !>j^ cj^^r parts of the
'. '.* : * A of knowledge. ' , ox , 7 I ^
Ace.
3,
NOTE. As to J> all see 482.
REM. a. Certain defective substantives (see 191, Note)
lengthen their final vowel after rejecting tanwln ; thus
Nom. ^.1 brother for .1, Dep. j^-t for -l, Ace. U.1 for ^.t.
(6) The dual loses o fr m i* s termination, as
the two children of the king for o
between the two hands of (i.e. before) his mercy
^ X
for i>jJ^*
(c) The sound plural masculine loses ,j from its termination,
as
send the sons of Israel for ij~J .
316. When the noun is defined by a pronominal suffix the
following cases arise.
(a) Triptotes and feminine sound plurals lose tanwln, duals
and masculine sound plurals the termination O or O ; thus
lijJ her hand from ju, oLo* his stick from LOP, ibO^ our
words from C>UJl, ^ju my two hands A ju My tfw0 A(f W* from
of it from
92 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [317
x o
NOTE. In the Nominative and Dependent we have UJut our
xx Of. 1 Of.
hands and in the Accusative UjJut from jul Ace. b
(b) Tlie singulars, broken plurals, and feminine sound plurals
lose their final vowel before (J of me, my (see 317) ; thus
w^ 3 x 'o's- x x Z,
^j; my Lord from *.->;, ^U*' my works from JU*J, i*>^
my gardens from OU-. Having lost its case-endings the noun
becomes, so to speak, indeclinable.
(c) When a noun ends in 3 we use the original form, viz. O ;
x Jx v Ox ,-
thus iUy)l #% #0ds from
(d) When a noun ends in hamzafi, the 'imad (iWft) support
(see 16) is subject to change; thus from *UJ we have Nom.
UJUJ our women, Dep. U5UJ, Ace. U*LJ, and from *^j*~* we
have J)jj.a>.^ thy coming, Dep. ^il.a>.<, Ace. *liLa>.o (see 17 6).
REAL As regards words referred to in 315, rem. a we must
JJP Jxc f.
note, Nom. a **.! ^'s brother, Dep. <*->', Ace. dl.! ; but <**! w?/
x x ^7 ^
brother in all three cases.
317. The pronominal suffixes which express the .dependent
are similar to those given in 185 except that ^ of me, my
,330
takes the place of ^ ; thus UyUto. the guarding of them both.
REM. a. Beside ^5** along with me we have by reverting to
the older form ^JLA (see 205). When attached to a word
ending with t _^, ^ _^_, i^ J?-^-, ^ _^_ or ^^i_ the suffix i^
becomes ^, as 1^-0* 7/iy 5^'c^ ; and in most cases, together with
the final letter, it becomes ^j, as ,JU upon me (see 358, rem. ).
e *
On etc. see 310, rein.
320] A GRAMMAR. 93
REM. b. Like \j , we find ^ especially in the vocative,
shortened to ; thus^ey C my people for ^>5, *~>j (O)my
Lord for ^J (see 438 a, rem. 6).
REM. c. Changes occur similar to those in 185, rem. b ; thus
4j}b by the permission of him, ^yjjJaU to the beholders of them,
x x fix ** x x x x
O a x x OxxxOx
wjt>o?i #Aew, <uju o^ between his two hands.
Masc.
318. The cardinal numbers from one to ten are :
Fern.
Ox x
Masc.
o x
7
iu5 . . . oU5 8
X ^
0-0 90
Ax-J ... ;i~j 9
10
Fern.
x
REM. a. For *j and words like it see 6, rem. a. The
5
radical letters of c-w are ^ JL-> (see 328, rem. c).
319. The cardinal numbers from 3 to 10 take the feminine
form, when the objects numbered are of the masculine gender ;
and conversely, the masculine form, when the objects numbered
are feminine : as^obl il* six days, Obf *^> seven verses.
? - ? L,
320. Excepting the duals O^' aQ d o^' or O^> tn o
cardinal numbers from 1 to 10 are triptote ; o^ standing for
(see 311) Accusative OC3.
94
ELEMENTARY ARABIC :
[321
321. Cardinal numbers from 3 to 10 are substantives : either
(a) they follow the objects numbered and stand in apposition, as
<tiy3 Jl-j of three men i.e. of men, a triad ; or (6) they are
i jZ
followed by a plural noun in the dependent case, as ^Ct ^>
six days. For the multiples of 100 see 325 and 496, rem. a.
REM. When these numerals take the article they lose tanwln,
as also when in construct state or defined by a pronominal suffix;
while (J^J has Nom. and Dep. , jO Ace.
322. The cardinal numbers from eleven to nineteen are
Fern.
Masc.
x Ox xO
15
16
17
18
xxO
a*.j 19
Fern.
x x
Masc.
,0g
jcoj 11
12
13
14
REM. . We find 3j-^ ,jO and other forms, for
REM. b. These cardinal numbers are followed by the objects
numbered in the accusative singular (see 444 e, rem. b).
REM. c. These numerals may be called indeclinable, except
(Utf) Uljl which have an oblique case
UJt and
and
REM. <^. Since long ago these compound numerals suffered
contraction into one word, and are further corrupted in colloquial
dialects.
828] A GRAMMAR. 95
323. The cardinal numbers from twenty to ninety are :
90 O*^ 70 O>"'*- 50 OV^ 30
REM. a. For O>^ an( l O>^ see 6, rem. a.
REM. b. While of common gender these numerals are declined
as masculine sound plurals, taking an oblique case in ^ ;
thus CH>^> O^^> O**o'> etc - They are substantives and
usually take after them the objects numbered in the accusative
singular (see 499).
324. Numerals compounded of units and tens require ^ and
between the unit and the ten; thus Nom. O5~~** > J -3 nine
and fifty, fifty nine, Dep. (j-^^i-j ^3, Ace.
325. The multiples of i5U one hundred are as follows :
200 O^, 300 A5U i^l}, 400 *5U ijtl, etc.
9 * * ' J!*L.
REM. a. For i5U we may write U and (see 17 6, rem. b)
i^o, which last represents the usual pronunciation. There are
other plurals beside the one mentioned in 301, rem. d.
ttt
326. The multiples of ^1 one thousand are as follows :
2000 o^l, 3000 *jy\&$5, 4000 ^f<, etc,
* S!
REM. There are other plurals of JU I beside
328. The ordinal numbers are adjectives ; thus, masc.
fern, ^ij^jf ^A ^r5#, masc. vjU fern. i,Jl5 second, masc. cJU
fern. iiJU M/rc?, masc. t\j fein. i*vtj fourth, etc.
96 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 340
REM. a. The radical letters of Jj^)l (see 295, rem. 6) and
^Jy^f (for ^3^)1 or ^5(3^0 are Jjl or Jlj. These words have
plurals, and will be further treated in 486, rem. a, and 493.
REM. c. From masc. ^^oUj fern. JLoL sixth we can obtain
the radical letters of cL* given in 318, rem. a, as also from
1
the fraction ^j^ a mo part.
340. The simple demonstrative pronoun is 13 M*, M#, which
in course of declension takes many forms, the commonest plural
being, masc. \J\ fern. i$\ these, those.
REM. c. Closely connected by origin with 13 is j3 possessor,
which is also declined, making in the singular feminine Nom.
Ol3 Dep. Ot3 Ace. O13, none of which is found except in
construct state (see 475).
REM. d. By prefixing J) like to 13 we get t J^ thus, so and
so, see 362 bb.
341. From the simple demonstrative pronoun compounds,
which admit of declension, are formed (a) by appending ) )
Cfb j^=> or >=> either (i) alone, or (ii) with J interposed ; also
(b) by prefixing U.
a (i) i)l3 to is used whatever the sex or number of persons
addressed; but we may say to a woman ^13, to two persons
, etc. The plurals ^S)l and &$\ and iX5^1, with short
first syllable, t/iose are of common gender.
(ii) Similarly SJUI3 or *2JU3 to is used in conjunction with
345] A GRAMMAR. 97
pronominal suffixes of the second person ; thus j&* ^ therein
you.
* * \ * \ ,
REM. By prefixing J like to *iXJi we get *zMJ> in like
manner, so, see 463.
b. The particle U (which is also an interjection, see 368)
we may prefix to 13 and write IJub this ; which word has a
singular feminine ajjk, and as one of its plurals g^Jl* or f$}*>
these of common gender.
345. We find in Arabic only one article, viz. Jl, which is
called the instrument of definition and always written in con-
junction with the following word; thus jj>5 a reading OL^'
the reading, the Cordn.
REM. a. The article is also called \Juj*3 I ^ ('alif being
merely prosthetic, see 19, rein, c] the lam of definition, aud it
has two uses :
(i) jiyjJ I j**$ the article of familiarity when its presence
implies that the word, to which it is attached, expresses a thing
* f>te* * 3 ,
or person known to the hearer; thus u^^' O>2M tne y S ^ CL ^
inherit the earth, i.e. the earth which we know :
O-o j *
(ii) u-**^ ' **$ ^e generic article, not implying that the
word, to which it is prefixed, expresses an individual person or
thing ; in this case it shows the genus by indicating one member
of a class ; thus ^ JuJ I <u*}b his mother s/iall have a sixth,
13! whenever a boon comes to them.
NOTE. Arabic and some other languages are more regular
than English in respect of the generic article, for one says "Man
GR. 7
98 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 346
is mortal" but "The horse is a quadruped," whereas in these
jxOOx Jx^Ox
cases we must write ^l~J*^l I'homme and ^j^\ le ckeval (see
527).
346. Among the conjunctive pronouns are masc. ^JJt fern.
,^3 1 who, which, that; ,>* to w h> s ^ e w h> whoever; U that
which, whatever. They are also called relative pronouns and,
with exception of L$^' ma y be interrogative (see 351).
347. As may be found in 20 b, initial ^Jt of ^JJI represents
the article, to which is joined J (see 341 a ii) and li or
(see 340). Of the many forms taken in declension we must,
beside ^31 the feminine singular, mention the masculine plural
x 5x "
^>jJJt. When used adjectivally these words refer to a definite
substantive with which they agree in gender, number, and case ;
thus iiU. JjT Uui God who created it, 1^
the land which We blessed : when used substantively however
they have the meaning of ^-* or ^*> thus O^*^' U$jl We
drowned tJwse who.
REM. The nominatives must originally have been jJJJt and
Oj*ii ' but in place of these words the oblique case is always
used (see 308, rem. b) and a shortened form.
348. The conjunctive pronouns o- an d U are indeclinable :
the former refers to beings endowed with reason, as i >oj ^^
<uc Moses and those who (are) with him ; while the latter is used
of all other objects, as Ji$ C^ by reason of that which he has
done. Unlike ^ Jjl these words can never be used adjectivally.
355] A GRAMMAR. 99
351. All conjunctive pronouns may be interrogative except
;* , oi o , *,^ ,
^JJI, thus C-J1 ^6 who art thoul J** U what has he done?
see 570.
REM. The interrogative U is usually shortened to j* when
joined with a preposition, thus ^ why? i.e. because of what?
So also C^ the like of what ? becomes J> how much ?
353*. The pronouns ^> and U are sometimes indefinite. Of
this sort is 2uj juLoJ I U the md which introduces a dame equiva-
lent to a macdar (see 488 and 514) ; thus C-^- U JAJ ^
* + Q s Q
after that thou earnest which is equivalent to ^~a~ juo y>
after thy coming. We find the indefinite Co in conditional clauses
(ii^l)T U 406), also in reference to time (ic^jjT U 367^
and 407) ; when added to certain adverbs it gives them a
conditional and general signification, thus w~- where
* oi xxftg 5 5
wherever, ^\ where? U^jt wherever. If appended to ^jl, ^j\,
>Z ,6* x
etc., it hinders their regimen (iibO I U 436, rem. d) ; attached
J * 2 < X
to a conjunction or preposition (SjuljJt U 470, rem. /) it
usually does not ; and there are other uses for whicli it serves.
NOTE. Similar to the adverbs mentioned above is
UU) whatever from U what.
354. The particles are of four sorts ; viz. prepositions,
adverbs, conjunctions, and interjections.
355. The prepositions are divided into separable, i.e. those
written as separate words, and inseparable, i.e. those which are
united in writing witli the following word.
72
100 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [356
356. The inseparable prepositions consist of one consonant
with its vowel. They are :
(a) *-> by, by means of, by reason of, for the reason, in, on, with,
to, of, in exchange for, see 456.
(V) J belonging to, for the use of, to, due to, in, for, of, see 453.
(d] $ by in swearing, see 462.
REM. a. Changes occur after ^ similar to those in 185,
rem. b, as AJ, ^j ; see also 20, rem. a.
REM. b. Before a pronominal suffix the preposition J becomes
J, as A), ^ib etc. ; except with \j$ me when we have ^ .
REM. c. Sometimes J like is reckoned among prepositions :
it will be treated in 463.
357. The separable prepositions are of two sorts : firstly,
those which have different terminations and are biliteral or tri-
literal ; secondly, those which are substantives in the accusative
singular and end in __, having lost tanwin on account of the
following noun (see 478 ft).
358. The separable prepositions of the first sort are :
(a) ^J to, towards, until, see 451.
(b) Jf. till, up to, see 452.
(c) ^jkf- over, upon, against, to, for, on account of, concerning,
by means of, incumbent upon, see 459.
(d) &> from, away from, of, see 449.
W 1^5* i n > i n to> over * among, upon, on, concerning, treating of,
see 455.
(/) O^ or ^S^ with, beside, near.
361] A GRAMMAR. 101
x ' '
q) sue or a* with, along with, see 457.
(h) ,j-o of, to, from, on, out of, see 20 d and 448.
J J J
(z) Jcu or JLO from a certain time, atf*0A
REM. a. Before suffixes the final syllables of ^1, ^JU, and
^jJ are diphthongs ; thus ^L)1 to thee, UJU- over tis. Changes
occur similar to those in 185, rem. b; i>v*U to them (fern.),
U^J^ over them both. With ^ ra0 we have ^M wze etc.,
and ^9 in case of ^ as ^ ^U^ a ^^r relating to me (see
317, rem. a).
REM. . In connection with ^ we double the & of <>^>
and *^ ^ nus ^ "owi wze. The of and *c is
assimilated in connection with ,>* or U, thus (*
turned disdainfully from that which for U ^^ (see 14 b, rem. b).
359. Separable prepositions of the second sort have been
described in 357 and will be noticed in 444 b. Among them
* ' * r 'Ax f * f ft
are jou after, ^>-o between, C*aJ under, oLl^ behind, ^3 below,
* xOx xOx
jot beside, in the mind of, Jj^s above, over, j-5 before of time
(see 464 to 470).
360. The adverbs are of three sorts ; firstly, particles some
inseparable and some separable ; secondly, indeclinable substan-
tives ending in JL. ; thirdly, nouns in the accusative.
361. The inseparable adverbial particles are :
(a) I, interrogative, see 566.
REM. When this t is followed by J we use (^ instead of I
102 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [362
M iinad (see 16) to hamzafi and write the two thus ^t, as
indeed be to us a reward?
(b) * (abbreviation of w3^-> see 364 e) prefixed to a verb in
the imperfect to express more emphatically its future
sense.
f ZtssOf'O*
(e) J verily, surely, certainly (see 590). As U^ C-A^. ^>^J
(jKJLjJjj ^JU ^>uj^J J.Jj t Verily ^/ thou removest from
us the plague, surely we will believe with tliee, and we will
certainly send. This la is always affirmative, and of it
there are said to be five sorts.
362. Among the separable adverbial particles are :
(6) 31 and b! behold \ lo \ Of these ll is followed only by a
nominal proposition (see 513) and refers to the same
time as the preceding statement.
(e) *$? truly, see 568.
(K) oj no*) called A^U t ^,t the negative 'in, see 558.
a"
(m) (j\ verily precedes a noun in the accusative or one of the
pronominal suffixes given in 185 ; but the 1st singular
22 'St St
can be ^Jt or ^31 and the 1st plural U3I or Ul. In such
case the suffix a may be O^ I j*-** the pronoun of the
fact, not being needed to express the sentence's meaning,
ji - ,'i. j*
thus AJJI 01 4j| verily I am God (see 367 g). By means
of oi the subject may be introduced, upon which often fol-
lows a predicate with J (see 361 c) as Jr-JU ^-^-J tU ^t
verily this (man) is a skilled magician. For government
by Oj see 436.
362] A GRAMMAR. 103
0) CJl only, see 436, rein, d, and 585.
(q) L$\ yes, yea ; used with an oath, as *XJ 1^ ^l yes by God,
whence the vulgar \#\ and in Nubia Jjj\ for which at
Damascus oju 1 is said.
(s) ^>jf where ? U^jt wherever, see 353*.
00 i^v 3/0$, #00 sometimes to be translated on the contrary, for
to a negative statement it gives contradiction. Compare
si in French.
(z) j3 is usually employed with the perfect (see 402, 403 >)
to express more emphatically its past sense : when used
with the imperfect we render jc5 sometimes.
(bb) \j* thus ( 340, rein, d) and ^j^=> in like manner
(see 341 a, rem.).
(dd) *$ not is used :
(i) as negative of the future and of the indefinite present,
see 408 e, rem. a, 439, 555, and 584 a ;
(ii) as representative of the other negatives after ^ and,
see 482 d rem., 560, and 580 ;
(iii) as negative of the jussive, see 417 b and 420.
(ee) ^, oA often with ^ prefixed but, yet (see 584 b\ We
*<3 i
place ^>) only before nouns and pronominal suffixes in
the accusative case (see 436). With the 1st person we
/ i i i i i , i
may write , UJ as well as
(ff} jJ not i 8 use d solely with the jussive which is then perfect
in sense, see 412 and 418.
104 ELEMENTARY ARABIC. [363
(99) O not yet, joined to the jussive.
(hh) ^ not & contraction of O 1 *$ (i- e - O l O^i ^ ^ w/# wo * ^
that) is followed by the subjunctive, see 411, 415 a i,
and 556.
(kk) U not negative of the definite or absolute present, see
408 e, rem. a, and 531 ; also of the past see 557.
(mm) ^oii yes, yea (for ^*> it is agreeable) affirms the preceding
statement.
(00) JA interrogative, see 567.
(qq) UA demonstrative here ; whence (see 341 for an analogy)
Jblli there.
363. We have treated in 357 and 359 certain accusative
substantives which serve as prepositions ; the same nouns may
be used as adverbs, but they must invariably end in __. Thus
JxJ'xO J ^ t x
jju ,>-* afterwards', w**- where, w***. v>- ivhence,
^Jl whither, l^- wherever (see 353* and 406);
J-.5 ^>o beforehand.
364. The Arabic language would however be poor in adverbs
but for the adverbial accusative, which is extensively used as will
be learned from 440 et sqq. Here we may mention Ij^l ever,
Ujpffc all together. Also, of the same class are the adverbs :
(e) sJ^-> in the end prefixed to the imperfect to express real
futurity, see 361 6, 408 c, and 587 d.
(g) \JCJr> how?
KEM. b. For Ji3 see 436, rem./, and 442, rem. g (2).
367] A GRAMMAR. 105
365. The conjunctions, like prepositions and adverbs, are
some inseparable and some separable.
366. The inseparable conjunctions are :
0) 3 and, see 576 to 583.
(6) o so, and so, so that, and thereupon, then, see 406 c,
415 d, 540, 576, and 587.
HEM. These conjunctions ^ and ^ may be preceded by the
interrogative 1 (see 566).
(c) J. This may be (i) the li of command (see 417 a) which is
usually prefixed to the 3rd sing, of the jussive, to give it
an imperative sense; and when following ^ or ^9 is
written without kasrafr thus J : or (ii) the li which
governs the subjunctive and means that, so that, in order
that (see 411 and 4156).
367. Among the separable conjunctions are these :
(a) 31 when is prefixed to a verbal or nominal proposition and
refers to the past; thus^o^Ula-il 3J^ and (remember the
time) when We delivered you.
(6) 131 w/wnever, see 405.
(d) Ul, followed by ^*, as for, as regards, see 576.
(e) o' ^at, so that, in order that governs the subjunctive
(see 411 and 415 a i) ; also the perfect and indicative
(see 415 a ii) : it is used after certain prepositions
(see 470, rem./, and 488). Notice must here be taken
of Sj-ULoJI ^jt the explicative 'an, which introduces a
106 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [367
a ot
(juotation; as JLo* cpl O 1 ^** L^i U *"3 I ^ e revealed
to Moses (saying} Throw down thy rod.
(/) Ol if called 4^J-^ O! the conditional 'in, see 406 b,
413, 417 c i, and 588. The compounds are :
ij\j although (in which sense it is not usually followed
by an apodosis*), and if',
^ verily if, see 361 c ;
S?t (for S) Oj see 14 b, rem. b) if not, but commonly
meaning except and with a preceding negative only, see
586 a ;
Ul (for U ol see 14 6, rem. b, and 353*) if and
when repeated Ul^ ..... Ul either ..... or, as
or that we be the throwers.
(g) >\ that. Like ^)l it precedes a noun in the accusative or
one of the pronominal suffixes given in 185 ; the 1st
singular being ,^>\ or ,yl and the 1st plural U>l or Ot.
In such case the suffix a may be pronoun of the fact (see
<5 J J e* Ox- je
362 m) as J-^^y-JU oJv> AJU because apostles used
Ze. Z i
to come to them. Beside ^ we have < which also
means because, and <j^ as though, see 436 and 470,
rem. /.
* The apodosis of a sentence is the consequent clause, which expresses
a result; as distinguished from the precedent clause, called protasis, which
is conditional.
369] A GRAMMAR. 107
ei 9 x Of. 9 '
(li) j\ or asj~l- ^1 j(*. a gatherer or a loser.
j
(0 ^ then, and then, implying succession at an interval.
() ^^ till, see 405, rem. c, 415 c, and 452, rem. c. Beside
being a conjunction ^- is a preposition, see 358 b.
(n) O after, when, is used with the perfect.
0) ji {/*, see 404 and 588.
6 xx
though.
(p) U as /ow^r as, as far as ; used with the perfect (see 407)
and jussive (see 418) : it is called the m& of duration
(see 353*).
368. The interjections are numerous: among them we find
b \ which is used before nouns (see 438 a) without the article,
as>>y> b people j lyjl or 1^1 L 01 used before nouns (see
438 b) with the article, as ^U J >f L> men ; U lo \ as
~,l HOt. x
fe^t >2' ^ lo ye are those.
369. The following pages supply paradigms of the verbs.
First of all it is essential that Tables 1 and 2 be thoroughly well
learnt; thus with^ol^ to wound (see 35, rem. a).
kalama kalamat kalamta kalamti kalamtn
kalama kalamata kalamtuma
kalamu kalamna kalamtum kalamtunna kalamna
yaklimu taklimu taklimu taklimina 'aklimu
yaklimani taklimani taklimani
yaklimtina yaklimna tukliinfum takliuina naklimu
108 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 369
Also to be found in Table 1 are ji$ _z_ to kill ; ;&*. __ to collet
XX X J X
to lose; and GJ+* JL. to be quick.
Table 3 gives j*i* to wound much and to address, accost ;
x x P x x x
oJLwt to tarw Moslem ; ^~X-J to
. X X x X XxO
eVA 0w0 another; j^^Jt to gush; j3>**'
AxO 2x0
asunder ; j^au^t ^o ask pardon ; jAot and jUot #o ^ yellow.
Table 5 a 6 and c give JL _^_ #o stretch ; ^*- -5- ^o 6^ an object
of love ; ejftj. to touch ; jjuo ^o stretch much or o/fo^ ; j^U and
,>U #o contend in pulling ; j^t ^o increase ; .> j^ stretch oneself;
3.>li5 and >LoJ of two persons together to stretch a cloth ; j^Jt #o
let oneself be dragged; jJUt to stretch oneself, to become extended;
to ask succour.
Table 6 gives >->>\ to invite ; *-ot ^L. to fo ?w// brought up;
x xxc x x 5p
jl _2_ to ?^feto <OI _^_ to c?org 1 _-_ to swer ^ 1 ^ bestow
a good education, punish ; j*\ to consult with ; UL*\ to afflict ;
X l X XX ^X XX XX
to proclaim ; j-U and j.-c^5 to deliberate in common ;
x xfi x xg.O
ul and j-3t to griw a/w5, receive wages ; ^iUwl to ask per-
mission.
Table 7 gives ^Jj _i. to 6^ ^>raw ; v~Z-> ~ to be in distress ;
xl
^ to interrogate ; ^\j to appoint as chief; j&*$ to reconcile;
to sewrf; ^nlp to become chief; ^tUJ to /e/grw poverty;
X X _ X txJ X 0x0
iU^1 to 5/?/^ itself; ^Uo! to a/>.9^ oneself ; j*^Z~>\ to
369] A GRAMMAR. 109
(. x * *3*
Table 8 gives Luk -^ to be pleasant ; -0 JL. to be mean ;
fx^ i x 5x . x
U5 _^_ #o raz#* ; i_Ja^> -^~ to do wrong ; U5 ft? inform ; I15 to raid
W
together with, teach mutually ; tj3t to teach one to r0#c? or recite ;
XX X XX
US to crt// oneself a prophet ; UU*J wrongly to attribute error to
2x , o xx o
oneself '; U-Jt of skia to fo stripped off\ U^t to administer well]
"
to c?^sz>^ one to
Table 9 gives j^ to promise ; ^3 to inherit ; J^.^ ^L_
xxx x x
to /ear ; jj -5- to jp/ay a# hazard and to fo ea-sy ; ^j^l to cause
to inherit ; y>*^ t fwl sure ; liajt to fo admonished ; ^-Jt to
divide by lot a slain beast ; &3^M>t to expect ; j.*.I>t to 6e easy.
Tables 10 to 13 give J15_^_ to say; JC to ^o; sJu.^_
X ^ s ^. * XlSx XXX
(for wly^) to /ea;- ; j^-o to fashion ; j.^ to 7wa#0 ^o ; cjlt to
XXX X X
comply with ; jjU> to accompany ; JU-I to encompass, compre-
hend ; Jjix (see 47) to counterfeit, forge ; ^^ to appear clear;
Xxxx xxxx ^ ^ X f
to A^//? o?^^ another ; j^UJ to travel in company \ JjUJI to
driven ; jUrLt to choose ; ^oliZwl to ^?/c? oneself upright.
Tables 14 to 18 give U.j_^_ to hope for-, ^jci to efo'ratf ;
_i_ to forget ; ^^j ^L_ to 6e pleased ; ^j^ ^o wza^e j0ass and
to ^riw a verb a transitive signification ; ^U to #/w mutually ;
x 1 MXX xxx
^^.jl to ?# ^T; j^^JlaJ to ma^e oneself manifest ; ^Uj to &ra&
X X X X
oneself; ^JU>J! to 60 cleared away ; ^jJ&! to 60 directed aright ;
x e x
to
Concerning the vocalization of Derived Forms, it may be
helpful to note that, in the perfect active, fathafi is characteristic
vowel of all : but in the imperfect active we find (except for iv
110 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [369
having sukftn to the first radical) in Forms n in and iv
U. 1
A I .......
in Forms v and vi
A A A A ......
and in Forms vn vni and x (sukun being duly noted)
A. . xOx xOx Ox Ox
A I ....... c^-^J jj^u >i:_j
x xx
In the perfect passive we find
U I ........ as ^l> J> ^1>\ etc.
and in the imperfect passive
U A A ....... as ^ j5li^ ^ilJ etc.
NOTE. Nomina verbi are treated in 195 to 212 ; while
nomina ageiitis et patientis find place in 229, 230, 236 sqq.
369]
A GRAMMAR.
Ill
FIRST FORM OF THE STRONG VERB.
TABLE 1. ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ.i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.
a x
A , o ^ oof.
Perfect.
m. 3. Sing.
m. 2.
c. 1.
m. 3. Dual
c. 2.
m. 3. Plur.
112 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [369
TABLE 1. (continued.)
Imperative.
Feminine Common Masculine
lJl4l >-}-4l 2. Singular
2. Dual
2. Plural
VERBS WITH OTHER CHARACTERISTIC VOWELS.
We have seen however, in 91, 92 and 93, that all strong
verbs are not conjugated like the above ; for instance,
Imperative Imperfect . Perfect
Indicative
m. 3. Singular
m. 2.
m. 3. Singular
m. 2.
m. 3. Singular
m. 2.
m. 3. Singular
m. 2,
369J
A GRAMMAR.
113
FIRST FORM OF THE STRONG VERB.
TABLE 2. PASSIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.
x 03 x x Oi
i x ^ o I o, o I
0^3
vt J x t> t 3 x fl i J J x d J
Perfect.
m. 3. Sing.
^.Jl m. 2.
C-v.<>X:=> C. 1.
m. 3. Dual
c. 2.
m. 3. Plur.
nu.
114 ELEMENTARY ARABIC! [369
DERIVED FORMS OF THE STRONG VERB.
TABLE 3.
PASSIVE. ACTIVE.
Indie. Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect
II
in
e. J OJ xxO
IV
Ox J x 0>
^JjUu JJUl JJUj VI
VII
VIII
IX
O
XI
369]
A GRAMMAR.
115
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH MIDDLE
RADICAL DOUBLED.
TABLE 5. a. ACTIVE.
Imperfect. Perfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.
fi 5 J x 6 J 9 x fijx vl I *
004
00*
jul
i Jx
ijx
m. 3. Sing.
O^j^ m. 2.
X X
c. 1.
1 juo m. 3. Dual
c.
m. 3. Plur.
m. 2.
f.
c. 1.
82
116
ELEMENTARY ARABIC:
[ 369
Feminine
1 OJ
TABLE 5. a. (continued.)
Imperative.
Common
Masculine
J OJ
2. Singular
2. Dual
2. Plural
We find also in the Imperative j^o, ju and jc; while the
Sl J , M*JX iJjx
Jussive has also j^-*, jwj and
VERBS WITH OTHER CHARACTERISTIC VOWELS.
Attention is drawn in 120 b to these verbs, which have
other peculiarities beside those here noted :
Imperative. Imperfect. Perfect.
Jussive. Indie,
a ,00,
I
j
o , oj 2.x 0x0
iix
m. 3. Sing.
m. 2.
m. 3. Sing.
'm. 2.
369]
A GRAMMAR.
117
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH MIDDLE
RADICAL DOUBLED.
TABLE 5. b. PASSIVE.
Energ. i.
Imperfect.
Jussive. Subj.
- SxJ
x i x J
5 5 xj Ox0J fixj
fi ' ^
Indie.
itxi
Perfect.
JL m. 3. Sing.
m. 2.
c.l.
t JL m. 3. Dual
c. 2.
IJJLO m. 3. Plur.
m.
f.
c. 1,
118
ELEMENTARY ARABIC :
[369
DERIVED FORMS OF VERBS WITH MIDDLE
RADICAL DOUBLED.
PASSIVE.
Indie. Perfect
j a x j x w< j
JLi
TABLE 5.0.
ACTIVE.
Impera. Indie. Perfect
s
II
III
IV
* 5 x x jfixxx
VI
x
J! VII
VIII
i XX
& xax Sxx.
a x
Ji^lwl
X X>
369]
A GRAMMAR.
119
VERBS WITH INITIAL RADICAL HAMZATED.
TABLE 6.
PASSIVE.
Indie. Perfect
'4
-J
ACTIVE.
Impera. Indie. Perfect
Jjbl
X*x
J-b-
Form VII is not found.
it
! i
ii
in
IV
v
VI
-v vm
120
ELEMENTARY ARABIC:
[369
VERBS WITH MIDDLE RADICAL HAMZATED.
PASSIVE.
Indie. Perfect
,.
j "> * j
joj x ol
TABLE 7.
ACTIVE.
Impera. Indie. Perfect
J o J J J O
o to
JtJ
-x
33u>
'**:
xx
JL,
II
III
IV
V
vn
VIII
x
369]
A GRAMMAR.
121
VERBS WITH FINAL RADICAL HAMZATED.
PASSIVE.
Indie. Perfect
I'OJ t Ol
f *f
I tot
I J0 J
TABLE 8.
ACTIVE.
Impera. Indie, Perfect
2 . I Ox *,x>
ta
L , x I, , .
LbU*J ILUJl
2 x
2 ,x I *x
td
uU
L-JI
x w x v
tjJUwt
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
X
122
ELEMENTARY ARABIC:
[369
VERBS WITH OR AS INITIAL RADICAL.
PASSIVE.
Indie. Perfect
J s J X J
J*j
TABLE 9.
ACTIVE.
Impera. Indie. Perfect
I
IV
VIII
JxOxOJ x J 3
0x0 J OxOx xxOxO
>.g.>.>'t >.>~.. >..>z>t
Forms II, III, V .and VI resemble strong verbs, and VII 18
not found
369]
A GRAMMAR.
123
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ AS
MIDDLE RADICAL.
fix it
TABLE 10. ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. I. Jussive.
Wi
Indie.
x
JyD
Perfect.
Jll m. 3. Sing.
CJllf.
. 2.
^15 m. 3. Dual
Qlif.
m. 3. Plur.
m. 2.
. 1.
124
ELEMENTARY ARABIC I
[369
TABLE 10. (continued.)
Imperative.
Feminine Common Masculine
J3 2. Singular
2. Dual
2. PluraL
Feminine
Feminine
TABLE 11.
Imperative.
Common
Masculine
2. Singular
2. Dual
2. Plural
TABLE 11. a.
Imperative.
Common
Masculine
2. Singular
2. Dual
2. Plural
369]
A GRAMMAR.
125
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ AS
MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE 11. (continued from page 124). ACTIVE.
Perfect.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.
fix* X XX J X
tjJ
m. 3. Sing.
m. 2.
f.
c. 1.
ra. 3. Dim!
c. 2.
m. 3. Plur.
m. 2.
c. 1.
i;i 1MKNTAHY ARABIC:
[
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ KASRATED
AS MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE 11. a. (continued from page 124). ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Sub}. Indie.
5 J
Perfect.
m. 3. Sing.
f.
m. 2.
f.
c. 1.
UU. m. 3. Dual
JO
lAa. C. 2.
m. 3. Plur.
m. 2.
. c. 1.
369J
A GRAMMAR.
127
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ OR
AS MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE 12. PASSIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jtissive. Subj. Indie.
Zt * * * x J ^ >- J J ^ _t
A
JUi
Ji3 JUi j'U3
JU1 JUI
Perfect.
m. 3. Sing.
m. 2.
i. 3. Dual
LJLJf.
c. 2.
m. 3. Plur.
Uiic. 1.
128 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [369
DERIVED FORMS OF VERBS WITH ^ OR ^
AS MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE 13.
PASSIVE. ACTIVE.
Indie. Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect
'" ' 5 '|
j 1 ^- I
iuJ
xo j x a.
J-J!
III
3. m. Sing.
IV
. m.
VI
JUJI 3. m. Sing.
VII
Jt 2. m.
" "
U.I 3. m. Sin
VIII
2. m.
Iwl 3. m. Sing.
2. m.
369]
A GRAMMAR.
129
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ AS
FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE 14. ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Subj.
o
J Ox x J 0.
5 J O
J Ox x J x
j x x J x x J x
Ox x J x
x J x x 0.
Git.
Perfect.
m. 3. Sing.
f.
m. 2.
f.
c. 1.
m. 3. Dual
c. 2.
DI. 3. Plur.
c, i.
9
130
ELEMENTARY ARABIC:
[369
TABLE 14. (continued).
Feminine
63
Feminine
Feminine
Imperative.
Common Masculine
9fj\ 2. Singular
2. Dual
J J 2. Plural
TABLE 15.
Imperative.
Common
Masculine
jJbt 2. Singular
2. Dual
tajJbl 2. Plural
TABLE 16.
Imperative,
Common
Masculine
jl 2. Singular
2. Dual
2. Plural
369]
A GRAMMAR.
131
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH
FINAL RADICAL.
AS
TABLE 15. (continued from page 130). ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Subj.
5 x o
LjJ^yJ
Ox J Ox
Indic.
Ox
Perfect.
m. 3. Sing.
m. 2.
f.
c. 1.
bjJb m. 3. Dual
UjJkf.
r 9
m. 3. Plur.
in. 2.
. i.
132
ELEMENTARY ARABIC:
[369
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH MIDDLE
RADICAL KASRATED AND ^ OR ^ AS
FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE 16. (continued from page 130). ACTIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Subj.
fi x x Ox xOx x 0,
Indie.
Perfect.
i. 3. Sing.
m. 2.
iif.
c. l.
Uo, m. 3. Dual
bj m. 3. Plur.
\i.
c. 1.
369]
GRAMMAR.
133
FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH 3 OR
AS FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE 17. PASSIVE.
Imperfect.
Energ. i. Jussive. Subj.
Jw^ic.
x OJ x J
J x J x Of
OJ x x
OxOj xOxOj xOxOj
Perfect.
j
*.j m. 3. Sing.
m. .
,
. 1
m. 3. Dual
c. .
m. 3. Plur.
2.
c. 1.
134 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [369
DERIVED FORMS OF VERBS WITH 3 OR ^
AS FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE 18.
PASSIVE ACTIVE
Indie. Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect
fix J xutj * x vl s J 5 X
n. pat., m. ^JA* f. S!JA n. ag., in. jtsuo f. <u,
f x
i c^lltJ -1? a*fr 1^ Ift , _^ Isj _^v III
^^J5xxJ ^J 6xxJ
n. pat., m. ..Jalx^ f. dUsls-o n. ag., m. ^lat f.
J 6 " J
n. pat., m. ^j-* f. SU.^ n. ag., in.
xx
xJ
n. pat.,m. ^aJLc f. S^a^Lo n. ag., m. ^J^^ f. *JLa>l
vi
? xxj x xxj xxj Ox xxJ
n. pat., m. ^iUlo f. 5*N)b n. ag., m. JbiL f. 2-J
SjxOJ OxxO^ xOJ OxxflJ
n. pat., m. ^la.^f. 5>a.^ n. ag., m. ^J-a^o f. 4
xxOJ x JOc xO xOx x x a
JuAt JZ&I VIII
n. pat., m. ^juy*o f. SI ju^ n. ag., m. ju-y~ f. A-jjCi
n.pat.,in. ,JuJU%o f. Sli^^^ n. ag., m. JL.J!**
PART III.
SYNTAX.
[From section numbers below there must be subtracted 400, in order to ascertain
the corresponding section of Wright's Arabic Grammar, vol. ii.]
401. We have observed in 77 that an Arabic verb has two
States: of these the Perfect indicates,
(a) an act completed at some time past, as dju ^5* pJJ
Moses plucked out his hand ;
(6) an act which has been already completed at the moment
OjxfixxJx:?! 03 OS. i X x x C
of speaking, and remains so, thus^Q-^ >*3 V^^e*^ **M j**'
shall I seek for you an object of worship other
God, seeing that He has favoured you above all creatures'?
, \ Z * i& i x x
(c) a past action which still continues, as Ot^-^-JI u~j,
His throne comprises the heavens, <*JUt jj^lj ^1 A. ; ,>.cue ,> v^' ^
x xSxg;; x x
wo mischance befalls except by permission of God ;
(<#) an act just completed at the moment of speaking, as
,iLJ! C~o / repent toward Thee ;
(e) in treaties, promises, bargains and the like, an act which,
though future, is quite certain ;
(/) something desired, as AJJI A**.; God have mercy upon
him, j~>5 A*^ A!) I jJUo God bless him and grant him peace.
136 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : f 402
REM. Europeans translate (j-^JUJI ^ <UJ1 ^I;U blessed be
God the Lord of all creatures, but the verb is declarative (see 50,
rem. ).
402. The perfect is often preceded by jJ (see 362 z) to add
assurance of completeness ; which may lie
J X0x6 Ox Off x3AJx
() in certainty, as Wy LJUjI jJ FPJj sent Noah, c~..a.. c Jt3
^^-j^ ^01 J ^U jJ ills Sj^- 1^1 A^O so from it twelve
springs gushed, every tribe assuredly knew their drinking -place ; or
OJJ6 Ox
(b) in being expected or contrary to expectation, as
I have brought you evidence.
NOTE. If preceded by affirmative J (see 361 c) the influence
of *x5 is in no way affected.
403. The pluperfect is expressed,
(a) by the simple perfect in a relative or conjunctive clause*
which depends upon a clause in which the verb is perfect ; thus
tjj^o C? J-^l ^j ^e- ^^^\ AJJ c^J.^3 C~<>j the most
gracious woi'd of thy Lord was fulfilled to the sons of Israel by
iZ x x jo i x x 0x0 i x -
reason of what they had endured; ^Ul O^' 'j!/*^* 1 ' 1$*^ ^ 1 ^
50 w^ew #^?/ had cast, they beivitched men's eyes ;
(b) by the perfect and jj>, with or without 3, provided the
preceding clause has its verb in the perfect, as j ^>\ Ijl; Ljj
\^Lo and when they saw that they had erred ;
( c ) by o^* tbe prefixed to the perfect ;
* A relative or conjunctive clause is one coupled to its ruling clause
by a relative pronoun or counective particle.
406] A GRAMMAR. 137
(d) by o^* an d the perfect, with *x$ interposed, .or prefixed.
404. (a) When two correlative clauses follow {/"(see 367 o
and 588) or any similar hypothetical particle, perfect verbs in
both clauses may correspond with the English pluperfect sub-
junctive ; as J^s v> ^yi&UI c^i y if Thou hadst wished
Tliou wouldst have destroyed them beforehand.
405. After Ijl whenever, as often as (see 367 b} a perfect is
said to take the imperfect's meaning ; and perfect verbs in two
correlative clauses have either a present or future signification,
provided the first clause extends its conversive influence to the
1 " 3 * . X X X A Jib** xx
verb of the second ; thus aj^A UJ ty 15 4^...rj t vOV jgl. l^lj and
whenever a boon comes to them they will say, This (boon) is due
to us. Sometimes lit is followed by an imperfect, and sometimes
preceded by <j^ or the like.
x a x
REM. c. So also with two perfect verbs after Ijl .*Z* (see
j x;j ;: x x r*l , Z ,
415 c) as dUiw Lila*-* o*X$! 1^1 ^I*- until, when they (the
winds) bear cloud, We drive it ; or in English idiom, till they bear
cloud, when We drive it.
406. (a) After o! tf (see 367/) and words similarly of
conditional meaning, the perfect is said to take a future sense
and can be rendered by the English present ; as, for instance, after
^A who, whoever, U what, l <v -e whatever, *++' where, and the
like. Thus ^>-JUJI ,j>aJ U <jt if we be the victors, J^ o-
rv...fl> *, whoever is made to guard against his own covetousness,
t\L U *$\ except what he wishes, ^Z> w^- l>i^ eat wherever ye
wish. In certain cases this rule applies to ^1 or.
138 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 407
(fy If the words ,jl etc. be followed by two clauses, the first
expressing a condition and the second its result, both verbs may
be perfect.
(c) If the perfect after \j\ etc. is to keep its original sense,
,jl^ or one of O^ O'^.1 the sisters of the verb kdna (see 442)
must stand in the protasis before the verb and *3 must mark
* , J s *,**> , * 6 3
the apodosis. Thus ,>* c*u> <jj l^j old Ajb c-^ c*u ,jj
yj.j5.iLaJ I if thou hast brought a sign, produce it, if thou art of
the truthful.
(d and e) Other cases arise in the use of oj an d similar words.
REM. c. "When U etc. are interrogatives or simple relatives,
and *** a simple relative adverb, without any conditional sig-
nification, perfects dependent upon them keep their original
sense.
407. After U as long as (see 367 p) the perfect has a present
J ' * *& * ' I- 10 J
or future signification ; thus^o^Ulwl L *JUl I^i5l fear God as
far as ye are able.
408. The Imperfect Indicative expresses no temporal defi-
nition, but indicates a state existing at any time. Hence it
signifies ;
(a) what is always taking, or may at any time take, place
(the indefinite present); as <uj &fy A3U3 &*** '^ ^ e ^ n ^ s )
plants come forth by permission of its Lord :
(6) an incomplete act, commenced and continuing (the defi-
J* ) f 0'-
nite present) ; as^M -eul / counsel you :
408] A GRAMMAR. 1.39
(r) what will occur (the simple future), as pjs*-
X 6 X0J0 J J X X
tfAtis *^// W0 bring forth the dead ; ^0.^.0^.;
Ox i OJ
mention of the day whereon He shall assemble you. The
future sense may be made more distinct by using ^^ (see 364 e),
xjx*x x 0^ x x
thus O.*-*^ ^3-~* so #0 shall know ; or ^ (see 361 b), thus
x a j Ox j x ^
^jM...iai J I juj-Lw FF0 tr7/ grzW increase to the righteous.
(d) When appended to the perfect without intervening par-
ticle, it expresses (either what is explained in the following
subsection, or) an act which was future to the past time of which
x I 3 J * sOS-
we speak; thus *X)Jo A^U J~>j\ he sent to inform him of this,
JxO J J ,'01
jj^Jb J&OJ a^.l he determined to circumvent the Jews.
(e) Under circumstances similar to those mentioned in the
preceding subsection, the imperfect indicative frequently ex-
presses an act which continues during the past time, and then
it can be translated by the English present participle ; thus
^uJI dj^-j 4*.t ^H^J Jui.1 he grasped the head of his brother >
* \ XXX X Jjx XX 0/0 X
dragging it towards himself; tjJk
U jAauw 0^3*0 j^y ^ I ^.y inherited the book, taking the vain
goods of this nearer (i.e. the present world) and saying, We shall
be pardoned.
REM. a. After *^ not the imperfect indicative retains its idea
z x ij j j o x- ^ xJx 5^
of incompleteness and duration, as IjJo ^)l ^a*-J *9 ^^;<*- L^*^'
o to ^a (land) which is bad (its plants) do not come forth except
scantily. After U wo^ it has the present sense (see 557), as
U //WM c?o^ wo^ take vengeance on us.
140 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [409
409. By prefixing J^ to the imperfect indicative we point
out a past act which continued or was repeated; thus U
Jx J x
j\s worthless was what they were doing, \jj(
irho used to be esteemed we<il,\
411. The Subjunctive mood has always a future sense after
Ox xx x
the adveib jjJ ;?o# (see 362 M), as y|p C>J /<0w shalt not see
Me ; also after certain conjunctions, amongst which are <jt that,
OJ'OjOtJJ ,0s.
as ^-SLt>.j&~j ^\ J^jj he wishes that he may expel you \ *$ ^ji
(pronounced S)' see 14 b, rem. b) that not, as ^ &\ ^c- c^-
JiaJI ^1 4JJ1 ^c. J^.31 (it is) binding on me that I shall not
speak concerning God except the truth ; and J that, so that, as
xxxxxxxxx 00x xJ xJJxxg
**i*b JjJ^jj u^j^' ^ ji...^ ) (^--^ jJ^J w* thou leave
Moses so that he shall commit disorders in the land and shall
leave thee and thy gods? For further particulars see 415.
412. The Jussive mood takes the perfect's meaning when
Ox 5x o xx o ^ oj o 'i
preceded by ^ not (see 362/') or U* not yet, as^^y^U J^.^ ^t
X 07 J X
^U53I J'lj* ^5 w^ ^ covenant of the book been made with
them? See 418.
413. The jussive after o! ? / an d words of conditional sense
(see 406) has the same meaning as the perfect in a similar
Jxx Oxx ' 1 J 2 x Oxwx OJS J
situation ; as *fu> ^>j ^s-** \3j*^i *^ j*f~d u\ if <*>n
evil befall them, t/iey attribute their bad luck to Moses and those
x ' x x x Xf x Cx x x
are w/M Am ; lyj Uj.r^ ..,:) AJ| ^ AJ U515 l^^-o whatever
,, X J X X X X
MOM bringest us in order that thou mayest bewitch us thereby.
When the first of two correlative clauses contains an imperative,
415] A GRAMMAR. 141
and the second a jussive, the latter has the same meaning as if
the first clause contained a verb in the jussive preceded by yjl ;
thus ^J lL kl s& jAiu ^Ut tjUol enter the gate (and} We
* * *
will pardon to you your sins meaning if ye enter the gate We will
pardon you. See 417 c ii.
414. The imperfect Energetics are future in sense, as ,jjtk$^
dJixWxcx * x 3 j- j 0;x OJx Of.
^g&JLo*^ ^ ^*y*- o-f j^)\3 ^&^ I will cut off your
hands and feet on opposite sides, then I will crucify you. See
419.
415. The Subjunctive mood, which can occur only in a sub-
ordinate clause, indicates an act dependent upon, and future to,
that mentioned in the previous clause : it is governed by certain
particles, amongst which are the following.
(a) i. By o' ( see 367 e) that after verbs expressing incli-
* <
nation, order, permission, necessity etc. ; as also by *^ ^1 that not
and J>J not (see 362 hK). Thus J^jjic ^iU^ &\ J&tj ^5*
your Lord may perhaps destroy your enemies ; see also examples
in 411.
NOTE. When UJ (see 367 /) is used, the ruling verb may
\ >, of. Z . , m j o I
be understood, as O>& O' ^1^ ^5*-^ O'
said, Moses (choose) either that thou or
We find t/J 4/it as
the unbelievers have asserted that they shall not be raised (from
the dead): here ^j\ stands for^^l, and this is common when
the verb is negatived, as well as when the verb is strengthened
0* ' ,6,
with j^3, u- o r
14*2 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [415
ii. But if the ruling verb makes an assertion (without
expectation, wish, or the like) and the verb following <j\ is to
express a past or present sense we use the perfect or imperfect
indicative after o'- Thus ^j^.>*U. O\ ^f> ye wonder
J -x OP is Of.
that an admonition has come to you, ^Uj ^jl ^^Ul / know that he
is sleeping. It is however more usual in this case to employ a
nominal proposition (see 513) using <jl with a pronoun ; thus
* 3'6f J J ul - 3 * J Slf. Oxx 0-C
he knows that thou standest,^^^ *$ aj\
could they not perceive that it (the calf} did not speak to them ?
If the ruling verb expresses doubt or supposition concerning a
thing future, &\ may govern the imperfect indicative or sub-
00-- x -x Of. 2l -
junctive; as >ff yJ^ aij ^1 I^J they tlwught it was about to
fall upon them.
jfi - -ax c-
REM. a. As regards ^jLcwpJI ^t the 'an which with its verb
is equivalent to a macdar, see 488.
(b) By J in order that (see 366 c ii) and its compounds ;
xxOe -0 J OJ - xOX> J JjOxx SOx- x| ^
thus VA! ly^c lifel) ^Uj^x-oJ I d^jX* .Z+3 IJjb
M/s is a plot which ye have contrived in the city in order that ye
may drive out of it its people.
REM. a. Originally J was a preposition (see 356 c), and
f.
when a conjunction it stands for ^j^ for that, as is seen in the
5- x o e
negative *$& (for ^ o 1 ^) : we cannot say f ^IJ.
(c) By {+*' till (also originally a preposition, see 358 6):
but if no intention or expectation of the agent bo implied, there
follows the indicative, or as in 8 405, rem. c, the perfect.
(d) By * so that when it introduces a clause giving the
417] A GRAMMAR. 143
result or effect of a preceding clause which expresses a wish;
* * * *0s * } ' ' iO* 03s 0*0' I
thus
may perhaps make you successors in the land, so
He may see how ye act. There are other conditions under which
\J governs a subjunctive.
416. The Indicative must be used in all clauses except
those governed by <jl or other particle with sense of O' '> as
s J 0, 6^ **6iO J^*t * J * ^ *
^jjX<lL> jb^AJ ob^t OJ-AJ *yJJ^ thus We diversify the signs
* ',... : . * *
to a grateful people ; Os-akaZ ^) U xUl ,j. ^o-Ut 7 know fi
God what ye know not ; 2lJ v>e ^^3 && v>
causest to err whomsoever Thou dost wish, and Thou leadest aright
w/iom Thou dost will ; OJ^^*^ ^ov^*^ perhaps they will take
warning ; ^^tCo ^^A bj /o, they break their promise ;
A 2 ^0
y wfora ^^?/ transgress on the Sabbath.
417. The Jussive usually conveys an order, being connected
in form with the imperative.
(a) It is used with J prefixed (the li of command, see 366 c i)
in place of the imperative ; and if ^ or o be also employed, we
ft J 0>x 2xxxOx i x xx
may write J : thus O^****^ J^^^ <*M \^* upon God
then let the believers rely (as to this verb's final vowel, see 20 d).
We seldom find J thus used except with the 3rd person, which
is wanting to the imperative.
*
(6) With the adverb ^ (see 362 dd) we use it to express a
prohibition, or a wish that something be not done; as juJu ^ do
- - , o> * o o t ,
not thoa (ma.se.) commit disorders', ^
144 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [4-17
X i - x *K> x 0X x
yj^UaJI J*$A)\ * <~&x**3 do not thou make mine enemies to
'i-e at my trouble, and do not place me with the wrongdoers.
(c) i. Also we find jussives in the protasis and apodosis of
correlative conditional clauses, which depend upon ^jl or any
particle having the sense of oj ( see 406 and 413) : in the
protasis, when the verb is without o^ and is imperfect ; in the
x-
apodosis, when without ^5 and having an imperfect verb. Thus
*}LJ, ojj>jLZ .Jill J-~> Iji^j &\ if they see the path of error,
" ' ' ^? "
J J J fix J J x x Cx
they will adopt it for their path; J^L <aJ:U t^j* *^ Ol (/'
worthless gain come to him like it (the former) he accepts it (also) ;
j x e x Ox Jj x> o oj o x
AJL5 jLy-; AJUb v>|j ^>e whosoever believes in God, He shall
direct his heart. If however o marks the apodosis, we must use
J Ox
an indicative; as ola^J *^ AJ^J O-*>i O- whosoever believes
XXX x
, does not fear.
ii. The jussive may appear in apodosis when the protasis
xx Ox Ojcx 5J x xOcOx* J
contains an imperative verb; as *Loy j-*b *3*^ p-!>^^^ J^a>-^
X ' i , > 2x * " ^
lyi^.b t^J^b aw<i thereupon (We said) Take the tables with
force, and command thy people (so) shall they grasp the best part
X X uJ J XJCXX X OOC
thereof', ^^ j*-{*> J^ ^y^!* CH>^^ J- w j' 5e ^ gatherers
(and) they shall bring thee every skilled magician',
show me (Thyself, and) I shall look upon thee. This construction
is explained in 413.
REM. 6. The conditional sentence whose apodosis must be
introduced by o is further treated in 587.
REM. c. "When (1) the apodosis has a jussive, connected with
a following imperfect by ^5 or^, we usually employ the jussive
419] A GRAMMAR. 145
e jx 0x x o ; - j o x j s x x ;; Ox xi j o j o
again; ihus^J jtJvj ^ Ate-leu U_a. Uoj.3 <UJI t^o^AS ^jl
//' #0 fewd to God a fair loan, he will multiply it to you and
will pardon you : so when (2) the protasis has a jussive, connected
x x J x x x J Ox 3
with the following imperfect by o or ^ ; as t^a^i-ajj I^AJU ^1
^^Afc^ J^AS *JJ 1 Op b>**^5 i/*#0 condone and pardon and forgive,
surely God isfwgiving and merciful. Here also *M b CH>J O-*
OU^h. <xL>. ju_5 <ul*~/ 3Ut >^j laJlo JiJ3 whoso believes in
God and does right, He shall efface from him his misdeeds and
shall cause him to enter gardens (of Paradise).
418. The jussive is also used with the perfect's meaning, as
we have seen in 412, after ^ not or O not yet ; but in these
cases we have the jussive's form and not its sense. Thus
*xx o > 2- o x
U3 ^oX^U ^t has there not reached you a story 1
NOTE. When <jt if precedes, we observe 406 a ; thus
xix x x Ox Ox
Ujj ^-o^hl >o^ i^ff v 0w //ora ao not show us mercy.
419. The imperfect Energetic (see 414) has several uses,
amongst which are the following :
(a) With J verily (see 361 c) prefixed to it in a simple as-
severation, thus ^tjit t$~t j^A^^ ^Jo
tfAy Lord proclaimed (that} he would surely send against them one
who should afflict them with woeful torment ; and in asseverations
strengthened by an oath, thus O&** ^ O^*-^ i*O-3 L5^ ^
a^o^x -'
^&+s- U^ say, On the contrary, by my Lord, ye shall be raised
(from the dead}, then ye shall be informed of what ye haw done.
(c} With J in the apodosis of correlative conditional clauses
Gtt. 10
146 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 420
in which case J must be prefixed to the protasis also, as
,0* , ' >~ ,**_*****
yj <jXJ verity ij our Lord
do not pardon us, we shall surely be of those who suffer loss.
420. The Imperative cannot be used in negative sense :
instead we must employ the jussive as in 417 b. Thus jub
repent thou, j^ $ do not (thou) repent ; UoICi ty 5-ojiL UoJL
speak Arabic to us, do not speak in English.
421. The verb may govern a noun in its accusative (or
oblique) case, and by help of a preposition a noun which we then
put in the dependent (or oblique) case. We shall have frequent
examples of this government, not only by States and Moods,
but also by nornina actionis, agentis, et patientis and by other
nouns possessing verbal force. Sometimes the verb is understood ;
or it may lie concealed in a particle.
422. The accusative of a noun is governed by the verb, either
(a) as an objective complement, assigning a limit ; or
(6) as an adverbial complement, see 440 et seq.
423. Most transitive verbs take their objective complement
in the accusative, as o- JuJ& t J^l ~-l *$ do not thou follow
the path of the transgressors ; many however govern the object
by help of a preposition, as JjJ1 ^J^ .$$ O' when the plague
fell upon them ; some govern in both ways with the same
. x Zoo * Ox o
meaning, thus o^jj^s tJiey accused him of lying, and O-^t USjfcl
UjLlv t>jJ^ We drowned those who charged with falsehood Our
signs. More frequently a verb which governs in both ways has
423] A GRAMMAR. 147
i x
different meanings, thus A~ o he perfumed it with musk,
he held it fast ; and diverse significations may attach to the same
verb if used with different prepositions, thus *~<j _^_ to desire,
which is transitive and intransitive, has ^ ^; to like, >j> ^^j
to dislike, and ^J s^cj to supplicate.
Js vlssJiiO J xOOx
REM. a. Amongst ijjau^JI JUJ^t the transitive verbs (see
75) we include those which govern by help of a preposition
alike with those whose object is in the accusative. Besides being
XX X x .,
transitive as ^f- *3j to fall upon, the same verb may be in-
transitive as *3j to befall, come to pass, thus Jia*.) I %*$9 so the
truth was established.
REM. b. Dictionaries will teach a student how each verb
may be employed. Be it observed that, in Arabic, verbs to come
govern the accusative and require no intervening preposition,
jjo^ xj0x
thus AZol / came to him, <u L^ol / came to her with it, i.e.
XX
I brought it to her, O_s^jf Sjjl-JI A*, the magicians came to
Pharaoh, ^^ j*~** bjW- they brought a mighty enc/tantment
(see 456 'b).
REM. c. A sentence may stand as objective complement,
JxOx x x x x0x
thus *.LCU ^l> U li^-o We destroyed what he was making
(see 514). As regards J'5 to say and its derivatives we may
X X 5 X X
note, that when followed by *A. a narration one uses o J^>
/?? God's apostle
to you, and what follows it is commonly a quotation, as ^31 J15
ij^Jl^J >y ^ srt/c?, Certainly ye are an ignorant people. Very
sparingly, it at all, is it permitted to use ^jl J1J.
102
] l-S ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 424
424. Two objective complements in the accusative may
follow certain verbs, of which there are two sorts.
(a) Those whose objects are unconnected, they being causa-
tives of which the ground form is transitive and governs an
accusative (see 41 and 45); thus O^Cj ^iJL>t / bring you
X X 5 X> x 0.' -5 J
messages, jl^J I JJU I 5^*J He causes the night to cover the day,
^ x x Ox
U tja*. take what We haw given you, ^
6
fow; yow the dwelling of the impious, O-* *^Ai v>*
//<? causes whom He will of His servants to inherit it : also
XX X
some other verbs of causative nature, meaning to give, lend,
dJxOxx x 11
etc. as ^>U5jj U t^A^ 0a# wto We have provided for you,
x x J*x xxui0xO AOxx
i UjJbt 6?tr^ W5 (in) the straight road,
iV (the calf) did not direct them (in) a (right) path,
6*0 ^J
/ /ay WJPOW ?/OM the evil of punishment,
appointed with Moses (a period of) thirty nights.
(6) Those whose objects stand to one another in the relation
of subject and predicate ; being (i) verbs signifying to make,
a x
adopt, name, appoint, etc., as lb.> AJLjt. he made it (into) atoms,
(< Ox QiO J x 6e.
TFie divided them into nations; or (ii) wxJLSJI Jl*31
o/ the heart, which are so called because their action is
mental ; for instance ^tj to see, think, know and its iv passive
X t XV XXX XX
ijjl #o ft'ft, believe, e. to know, ^zj to deem, J15 #o ^yli'wyt, etc.;
thus 'j>t- Iv^t / thought her patient,
him mentioned (lit. written).
HEM. b. Verbs like ^j and j^^ must also be reckoned
w x Ox j xOt
among ^^ajl JU3! -yer^s of (the organs of) sense.
427] A GRAMMAR. 149
0x0*5 i x a
HEM. d. Three accusatives are governed by wJUUI JUjI in
their fourth form, as *>? ^U^t j^i^> he will make you
think your actions foul.
426. All verbs, transitive and intransitive, active and passive,
may take their own^Uxo infinitives (see 195), or their deverbal
nouns of the classes nomina vicis et speciei*, as objective com-
# * J s * *
plements in the accusative. Thus Uj-o <Oj-i he gave him a
beating, lx-k -+b he desired eagerly, G/- ^j^ he received a
# x J x x
beating, IjUC-J t^CLrt they were puffed with arrogant pride.
3' JO* J JO ,6,
This accusative is called J^Ja^Jt J^**^Jt the absolute object or
} , ,0, 9 J *
jjL.gx.oJt, and it may appear, or be ^J^-o eliminated: thus
1 , i , 0* ^xUxxJxOx 1 f
UJU? J<ju he does right for UJU *$*+. J^AJ, also l^*
for U^. Uii rt.iJa,; he follows it in swift search. We have given
( 202 Note) ^tj^ as derivative of the second form to which it
serves as mac^dar, thus IJUJLW Cljwc ^ovr'J^I /we7/ chastise them
very severely ; but the mac^dar of a different form may be employed,
or even of a different verb provided it be synonymous.
NOTE. Verbal nouns (nomina actionis agentis et patientis, etc.)
can like finite verbs take jik^J I J^xi^jf; thus
x f x x
lj^ God is their very severe chastiser.
427. It has been observed of nomina verbi (in 195 and 421)
that, when infinitives from verbs which govern an objective
complement in the accusative case, they can govern an accusative
instead of a dependent. This is especially the case if one or more
* Nomina vicis et speciei are treated in Wright's Grammar, vol. i. 219,
220.
150 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [428
words divide an object from its governing infinitive, because a
dependent case cannot be separated from the word which governs
it. Also, when an infinitive is defined by the article, its object
must stand in the accusative, because the noun so defined cannot
take after it a dependent.
REM. c. Beside infinitives (nomina actionis) there are verbal
nouns of similar force and significance which govern in the
.same way.
428. With rare exceptions, infinitives govern by help of a
preposition, when from verbs which are transitive in that manner.
429. Frequently however an infinitive governs its objective
complement in the dependent with J (see 453) instead of in
s vi J 2 Os *6 s *
the accusative. Thus *, - .J.O *})Ucuu Lul> We wrote an ex-
TT ' ' '
position of every thing. So it is with certain other verbal nouns.
430. Nomina agentis can, like infinitives, govern a noun in
s sO *0 iff " J 3 vt '
the accusative, as ./^i) \ *_> Jui <tJU t God is a chastiser of tJie
people, or in the dependent, as ^o^iUt A^ <OJ! God is the
destroyer of the people.
NOTE. When derived from verbs which are transitive by help
of a preposition, nomina agentis must govern in the same way.
XjxOj Xlrfx X 2
Thus tjyjXi^ LJJ ^1 01 verily to our Lord shall we return :
they denied Our signs, and were,
OOxx 9 -
neglectors of them', jtf^^s- *s\$ <su! \y& they thought it to be
filling upon them ; Vy** ^jjl^. j
people of Hell-fire, abiding therein,.
upon them ; Vy** ^jjl^. jU I ^U^ol ^^1 these are the
435] A GRAMMAR. 151
431. What has been said in 429 concerning J after an
infinitive, applies equally to a nomen agentis.
HEM. When by rhetorical transposition a finite verb, which is
transitive without help from a preposition, follows its object, we
* J x OJ'JOZ . x Ix x Jxx x
may use the accusative, as ^^^JJau ^~Ju \ tyl O-*-^ ^>-U U
they did not injure Us, but they were injuring themselves ; or we
x jx ox *x x : ,
may employ J, as O^j-i J*T>. CH^ those who fear their Lord.
In like case a nomen agentis cannot govern an accusative but
requires J, thus ^^J^ M^^ y e dislike her. If the trans-
posed object be a pronominal suffix, Cl may with the finite verb
be employed instead of J as in 189 b.
433. Beside the nomina agentis, some other verbal adjectives
govern either an accusative case or J with the dependent.
NOTE. When derived from verbs which are transitive by help
of a preposition, these adjectives govern in the same way. Thus
x x 4 x 9 x , irf J x x x J
^e. Ji-i*. binding upon me, jj>j *^> J^ ^> yb He is able
for everything, ^9+^ *^~* \J> 4JLJ1 God is acquainted with every-
thing.
435. Frequently the accusative depends upon a verb which
is o^J^fc.c eliminated :
(a) In phrases of command, exclamations, etc. we must
supply the verb to which the accusative noun serves as J^xi^Jt
(see 426). Thus ^ gently! for ^ Jf deal gently,
hearing and obeying for
hear well and implicitly obey.
152 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [436
NOTE. The Arabian grammarians represent that
stands for JJULL ~.+~>\ I praise Thine absolute perfection (see
41, rem. c).
() In other cases the verb must be conjectured, as
where we may supply w~o' tkou hast come to people and a plain,
i. e. to friends and a smooth place ; <ib U.j~ that is O j^
&>w 7/as /0Mwd for thyself roominess (see 27 Note); *iU*.j
that is Ji (see 178) guard thy foot ; i^j that is j&j\ look
behind thee.
436. The adverb <jj an d the conjunction o' take the fol-
lowing noun or pronoun in the accusative case instead of in the
nominative (as one expects the subject of a sentence to be)
because, so it is said, these particles embody the verb to see ;
. i x j jSx a
thus aJUt ^&j ol verify (i-e. see) your Lord (He) is God,
x OJ ** * it 3 * JsOs xi 10 Z , i ,0, ,,'f.
Oy-^m ^J Ojj-*^ ^ jtt^i *m O^ O>*kh! ^ do they not
know that God knows wliat they conceal and what they reveal 1 }
vi \ Z Ix
So in case of their compounds V > J and v>^^ (see 362 ee and
a e x : x
584 >) but, yet, jjl as though (see 367 #), and when coupled
Zi x j - o^ x o x
with a preposition, as ^>b and <j^ ; thus ^j^oJju $
of them do not know, ilk AJ\* as though it were a
XX X i X5 U t x Ox OxC
canopy, ^j-> xUI ,jW ^*J ^' cfoes A ?io# know that God sees' 1 .
In the above examples the subject immediately follows &\ etc.
and under such circumstances J (see 361 c) may be prefixed to
the predicate ; thus Jt^i ^ i)tjlj Ut veriYy we perceive thee
436] A GRAMMAR. 153
thy Lord is prompt with chastisement and certainly He is for-
giving and merciful. There may however be a separation,
between <j{ etc - an d the subject, caused by an adverb of time
and place or by a preposition with its complement; thus
jxfijxjxOc^Jxoo 5
& \}** -*>^b'J j*f-\}$ O- C>! wrwjf enemies of you are (to
be found) amongst your spouses and children : when this separ-
ation occurs J may be prefixed to the subject of <Jl or O'> as
U) 5I s^a/ A0r0 indeed be to us a reward? If the
,
predicate be negative we must not use J, thus
x x J 6*0 3 i x W
surely He doth not love the transgressors] *$*oJ ^ 01
1 jjh.1 verily We will not allow to be lost the reward of
the righteous : and so if the verb be a perfect without jJ, thus
were just on the point of slaying me.
REM. a. These particles, together with those given in rem. /,
are named lyjl^lj <j! 'inna and its sisters. The word governed
is called their ^~>\ noun (see 525 rem.) and the predicate^*..
REM. b. If the predicate is placed between ,jl or &\
and its noun, the logical emphasis falls upon the latter, thus
z
,iJUfc.L ^Jbco ^>t your friend is with you ; but if the predicate
follows the noun, it receives the logical emphasis itself, as
siXx-o ^UaLg jjl your friend is with you.
REM. d. In 353* we have mentioned AilJ I U the hindering
md t which when appended to o'> O l > O^ an( ^ O^ is followed
x
9x0 OjJx x i
by a nominative; thus 4*3 j*>^$ U^J :'/wr children are only
154 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 438
9x6 J J x x if J * QiO*
a temptation, A^3 ^&lj.' U^' 1>o-^3 &J0t0 /& your riches are
a temptation. The same influence is exercised by <jUJI
(see 362 m and 367 g) as ^>5 l> A; I truly thy people are
generous.
REM. e. A lightened form of these particles may be used.
x x i x i x ..
REM. / The words O~J ttwt^rf that and J* or JjU perhaps
vJ xJ^^-'Ojixx
govern an accusative like ol etc -> thus Ojj^** 3 ^^*^ perhaps
ye will take warning.
438. An interjection usually precedes the person or thing
called ; while for vocative case we must use the nominative or
accusative.
(a) As has been noted in 368 b ! takes its following
noun without the article.
(i) We use the nominative in the singular without tanwln
when a particular person or thing is addressed by the speaker
J i x J -v
directly and without explanatory term ; thus j^<^=^o b Mu-
hammad ! J*rj b man! or Sir, O^j-* Q ^s"j* J^ Moses
said, Pharaoh I
(ii) We use the accusative when the person or thing called
is indefinite and not directly addressed, y**.j L> somebody ! as
also when an explanatory term is appended, thus J^SIj^t ,~L> b
sons of Israel ! U3^. t G brothers of aurs !
REM. a. These rules hold good in the absence of an inter-
:0x xOxx o e>l xi>
jection, as \j~o UJU c^jl U>j our Lord, pour upon us patience.
REM. b. In the vocative ^ is usually shortened into
(see 317, rein. 6), thus^y b my people! vj my Lord I
441] A GRAMMAR. 155
but this abbreviation is not permitted with derivatives ending
in ^ __ or from verbs whose final radical is ^ or ^. Beside
fl X 0*0 xx
L$ and there are other forms possible, as j>\ ( j~>\ J15 he
(Aaron) said, son of my mother !
jii *
REM. d. One word only, viz. aJJ t, may retain the article and
follow b ; thus iftl b God ! or irregularly aJJI b.
(6) The noun following lyj! or l^l b, whether singular, dual
or plural, must be nominative and defined by the article ; thus
J Z* ,&i 3,~ x Z* xic *
^Ut ly-jl people! ly-ol ChS&H ^1 b ye who believe !
439. When ^ is immediately followed by an indefinite object
and denies its existence we make the noun accusative and, if
3 '
possible, we omit tan win; as ^A *$l <0t ^ AJUI (r6>c?, #Are e*5 wo
god but He. Should an explanatory term follow, tan win is re-
3 , ~0 JO - * s
tained ; as ^ 9 r>jJ.c. o'j^ Ua3l>. ^ there is no one knowing the
Goran by heart amongst you.
440. We have been treating objective complements since
422 and shall now consider the adverbial complement. This
sort of accusative depends (a) when expressed by <jl^ __ to be,
exist (and by certain similar verbs, see 442) on the idea of
existence or being, which is limited and determined by the
accusative ; and (6) on circumstances detailed in 443 et seq.
441. When employed as the * logical copula o^ is called
l^ the incomplete kdna because to complete the sense
* In logic the copula is a word which unites the subject and predicate of
} ' 14 '
a proposition; it is known as itutjJl the fattening.
156 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 442
there is required an attribute, which we must put in the accusa-
x J6OxJx J J x i
tive. Thus ^Aja*** Uy \jj(* they were guilty people, djJ^Jt
i^JUp \}'*\^2 they took it (the calf for their god) and were wrong
doers, J>..wU. SjJ3 ^^=> ^ CJj We said to them, Be ye i.e.
"'" ' ' x 5xxOj
Become a$/0c apes. Also we may note ^>j^UJ I ,j-o ^> fo
thou (one) of the grateful, which is equivalent (see 448 /) to
\ja\L ^>. But when the idea of existence is attributed by
x
jjl^ to its subject we can only employ the nominative, as
x x i Zi vi *> s '
jj3 O^ fetors was an pe - here the verb is i*UJ! ^jl^ the
complete kdna, because it contains the attribute and requires no
other, for bj3 ^l would mean he was an ape.
REM. a. The subject is called <jl^^-! and the predicate
&\> j^i., while the natural sequence (see 518) is verb, subject,
predicate ; this order may however be varied if sense allow.
REM. b. Sometimes tjlib is sJjj^.^ eliminated, as
J J #0 x J O^x J g x
^CoAj*^ tjg. l^lftjlj l^u^t^ &0or yg, and obey, and give alms,
it will be better for your souls, where t>& is understood.
X X J X X
442. The same construction appertains to O^ Ot^i.1 the
sisters ofkdna which are often used as synonyms of ^=> without
relation to time, though they add some modification to the
simple idea of existence. In this class are ^t> _^_ to continue,
XX XX & *
^JL> ^_ to remain, jlo to become, JJ _*_ to 6e or <fo a// c?a^
and not a few others, most of which may be <UU : while J~J not
to be, which is always 2-o5l5, expresses the negation of existence;
Ox x x x Ox
thus i) 1 ^ j ~+ in me is no error.
444] ' A GRAMMAR. 157
REM. g. Instead of an accusative or a preposition with its
x x J x x
dependent ,jl^ Ot^.l may take as attribute a verb in the
imperfect, thus following the analogy of o^ ( see 408 d and e,
and 409). With this construction we can connect that of
i;Uiijl JU3I verbs of appropinquation, which are of two kinds.
(1) Amongst those which indicate simple proximity of the
predicate is )\&-- (see 157) to be just on the point of: com-
monly its predicate is an imperfect indicative, thus .^J^JUAJ \^ l
they were on the point of killing me. (2) Amongst those which
^ x
indicate a hope of the predicate's occurrence is ^^e- perhaps :
commonly it is construed with o' an( ^ the subjunctive, as
J * Zi 3 * ' Of Of- Ojis xx
your Lord may perhaps destroy your
enemy ;' but it can take as accusative a pronominal suffix like
Jif (see 436, rem./).
443. Brief allusion has been made in 440 b to other ad-
verbial accusatives which determine and limit the subject, verb,
or predicate of a sentence, and sometimes the sentence as a
whole. These adverbial accusatives are of different sorts and
indicate :
444. (a) The time in or during which an act occurs; as
abiding in them (the gardens) perpetually,
2x
^^^ *J wJwn their fish came to them on the
day of their sabbath.
(b) Locality, direction, and extension, may in certain cases
take the accusative ; as tjtl^ tu^j jij he looked right and left.
Oi' this sort are the words given as prepositions in 359.
158 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [444
REM. a. Wo must use ^ /;?, when the place is definitely
x ) 0* x ft .. "* s 6 s f.
specified, as ^>^aJ! J^Lt> ^ C**3I / stopped at the place
where al Husain was killed. But with a verb meaning to remain
or the like O^> and similar vague nouns of place, are employed
without preposition and therefore in the accusative ; thus
<olo jA^wl <j! if it stand firm in its place.
NOTE. Certain substantives signifying time or place can be
oUu annexed (see 475 and 478) to a verbal sentence, but
a x o ** x * j * * *'
only in the accusative case ; thus O^*- ^w*>^ *^ O> ? -!""J *$ ^^
which they did not keep sabbath, fish did not come to
REM. b. The accusative of time and place, illustrated in
3 * vi x
above examples of this section, is called o^JaJl the vessel (see
J 3 OxOx
221, rem. a) or 4-J J^aA^I ^ ^ w/j/c/* the act is done.
(c) The most important however of adverbial accusatives is
called JUJJ the state or condition, i.e. of the subject or object
** J ^ x x x
or of both, while the act is happening. Thus ^j* f-j UJ
:sfxxOxOxx **
Uwl ^L-o^ 4-033 ^t w?/^w J/os^5 returned to his people angry,
afflicted i.e. in a state of affliction and auger ; \)~>ti
?- winds, heralds
of His mercy lit. between the two hands of His mercy i.e. in
advance of rain ; ^>j j^U 5p .. J I ^il I ^/^ magicians
thrown down prostrate (adoring').
REM. a. The hal is aX^u* a redundancy;
AA^ Uj*a5 call upon your Lord humbly and in secret. Here
the command to pray is of itself a sentence ; and the conditions,
444] A GRAMMAR. 159
grammatically superfluous, reply to ou how ? as the accusative
called JUljl must always do.
REM. b. The hal depends upon a regent ( JUJ t J-oU) which
! X x J 5x
may be (1) a verb, as Ua-d ^^-o > Mbses fell down thunder-
struck ; or (2) a deverbal adjective, as \ju+a*.^+)\ AJJI J*~M i3^
x 6 x ^^x 6
verily I am God's apostle to you all, where J>y is accounted
. 9 J* w m . j o oi
a deverbal adjective, Jl^-^ ^J being equivalent to cJLyl /
^aw ^/z sent; or (3) a demonstrative pronoun or other ex-
pression having verbal force, as ly-J ^- jJU. jU I
are the people of the fire, dwelling continually therein, where
is equivalent to^^J! jlL they are pointed out as.
REM. c. The hal is (1) usually Aio # adjective expressing
' i J OJJ* ts
a transitory state, as Uj^^yJU**. ^^^2 their fish came to them
manifestly : though the adjective may express a permanent state,
x J * Z> * * 'fix
thus ^-^J o U^5 U>j 0wr Zord, receive us dying, as those who
" ' X 3 X J X ji <*X X XX*-X X X XXX
are resigned to Thy will-, Ol^..c ^e^a^Jlj j^iJI^ ^-^iJt JiJU.
ag *
dj-ob ZTe created the sun and the moon and the stars, held in
XX X
(a state of) subjection by His command. Sometimes however
(2) it is an infinitive with the meaning of a participial adjective,
0x JO xl 3 6 s f.
as U*-* duu dUi Ojk.l / received tliat from him by hearing ;
or even (3) a concrete substantive, as
deluge and locusts and lice and frogs and blood (in the
nature of) signs, separated by intervals. Lastly (4) hal may be
a proposition, as in 583. There may be more than one hal, with
or without j and between them, as can be seen above.
160 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 444
REM. e. In all our examples h&l is 5^3 indefinite, and this is
most usual.
HEM. /. We call the subject or object to which a hal refers
JUJt ^^m^o or JUJI ji, and it is usually A^C definite as
happens in all our examples.
s Ox? j x -'
NOTE. Occasionally JUJI w^-l-d is eliminated, as ^J^\
ljj "Nj! ?yj^j S) w~- as to to (toe?) wAM ws bad its
herbage <ato#? wo# come forth except scantily, where <*jU3 must be
supplied as cjihib to IjJo.
REM. g. Also it will be observed that in all our examples the
hal is placed after its regent : as a rule it occupies this position.
(rf) The accusative may express an agent's motive and object
in the act, its cause and reason; as U^kj U. 6$e>)\ call ye
upon Him out of fear and eager desire. Definition by the article
is unusual, this accusative being indefinite except when in con-
struct state (see 475).
3 * 3 s * *
REM. Only ^J>5 jj^auo a mental or intellectual infinitive can
be employed in this way; thus, in Koran, vn. 164 Sjjut* (we
icarn them) by way of excusing (ourselves). Reply is given to
the question^ why? (see 351, rem.).
(e) Other determinations and limitations of the predicate
may be expressed by an accusative called j-j-^J I t lie specification \
t Os i ~' * '
thus LJu >*l\* v^ David is cheerful in spirit.
J * ^ j * O f
REM. a. Like JUJI this accusative is 4JLa3 see (c) rem. a.
It must be an indefinite substantive.
448] A GRAMMAR. 161
HEM. b. We have mentioned in ^ 322 and 323 the accusative
which follows cardinal numbers from 11 to 99 inclusive : it is of
^ x - -- J ?
this sort, being called jjudt J-^oJ the specification of numbei\
and is most usually singular, see 499.
446. Relations of time and place are designated by prepo-
sitions, as also are many ideal conceptions. We shall treat those
mentioned in 447 as indicating motion from,, in 450 motion
towards, and in 454 rest at a place ; while in 470 compound
prepositions will be found, over and above those detailed by
355 et seq.
447. The prepositions indicating motion from or away from
^
a place, are ^> out of, from, and ^c- away from.
448. We designate by help of o-*
(a) the local point of departure from a place ;
J Ot x t
he expelled you from your land, ^> jj*
so We sent upon tliem a plague from heaven,
J X X
from a contrary i.e. on opposite sides. Hence it is used with
verbs which indicate liberating, preserving, warning, etc. as
xOxO " OJx0x0
J' (j>^^gl.Ma.>t We delivered you from Pharaoh's people,
Ox WJ
^^jw ^)j= ^- a warning from i.e. against everything.
(6) The temporal point of departure; as sJ-LyJI ^^ from
the Hegira i.e. from 622 A.D.
REM. a When used in any of the above significations, we
say that ,>* is employed *tj^') to denote the beginning.
GB. 11
162 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 448
(c) The causal point of departure, the origin and source
of a thing ; as aJUt ^* A^&\ f know it from God, j*} j<at\s*.
.' j ^A an admonition has come to you from your Lord,
Ot-O . .
jt ,^^0 from among your wives originate enemies,
anything of which we are the origin except that we believed the
signs of our Lord when they came to us.
o oSt
REM. a. Here ,j- is employed JJbuJJ to assign the reason
(d) The distance from anything, especially after words signi-
fying proximity, when in English we must render ^> to ; thus
+ J O-o x G * J; XJ x x >> x i
,jwL~a^J I v> w^?j3 AJJ 1 A^O-J Oj surely the mercy of God is
near to the righteous.
(e) The difference between two things when compared :
hence the use of <j- with an elative (see 234) when com-
parative ; thus xu ^>^.1 handsomer than he.
REM. a. Sometimes &* with its complement is omitted ; as
3*' x & 90 ' J* fO-a J Z '
't'iM j**- 5 j^-^' jtjJ' the last abode is better than this
xO li X x
world /w ^/wse t^Ao fcub torf #o themselves, where tojjt v >* may
be supplied.
(/) The relationship between part and whole, between species
and genus ; thus Cn^j' O-^ o&\3 ^> J he said, Yes, and
X X S " .
xOxO ' i ' xOx
y<? shall be of those who are brought near (me), O^rj^ * C>*
the chiefs of Pharaoh's people,
inhabit this village and eat therefrom, lc ly*Jt #^e yiw/5 among
448] A GRAMMAR. 163
REM. a. Preceding a definite noun, which is usually plural,
,j-e may indicate an indefinite quantity or number ; as ^ t^L^
oClJI eat of the good things. Together with an indefinite
dependent ^>o may be subject of a sentence as in the following :
il /o Si xjO r + t *
*JU' U^W *$l '*** A * O- *9&d \+ no mischance befalls except
X X S X S ;; X X
by permission of God.
REM. b. Governing an indefinite noun after a negative par-
ticle, ^> gives the clause an absolute and general sense ; thus
I " fljx x
dJt ^^ j^ U ye have no god whatever.
REM. e. In these examples ^> is used ^slu to indicate
" ' 3 " " * * xxg
division into parts, as also in Olj^iJI ^Jtsz ^c L.jA.t TFe
produced all sorts of fruit ; sometimes it is employed w-j=>jXU
X ** " X
indicate composition.
(g} After indefinite U and U^ whatever we must use ,>
'^ X Ix X OX
before the explanatory word ; thus <ut ,> <su Ulj Uy* iMkrt-
vr f^ott bringest us of a sum : in this case we have a general
term rendered more definite, as also when ^>-o indicates the
material of which an article has been made; thus ^v^*- O^> \}^
a caff (made) out of their ornaments.
REM. Here ,j- is employed oCs-W to explain.
j 2 x
(A) Another use of ^-^ is called J-j-^J I ^ specification ;
xxfix> x Oxx x * x> xx# x^ xx xx
thus Olj^JLjl ^> ^^j o^W O^> J 1 ^J^ 1 J^^J We
visited the people of Pharaoh with years (of barrenness) and with
diminution of fruit.
NOTE. There is yet another use of y> in^y^* Wi^^ *w
We took vengeance on ii*
112
164 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [449
449. By help of ^c- we designate distance from, motion
away from, and the like : hence it is used
(a) after verbs which denote setting free, forbidding, etc. as
^s .-oj he puts away from them their burden, ^A^
> he forbids them from the disapproved.
(&) After verbs which imply the removal of a covering, as
_xOxO- x OJo50-^
asking etc., thus AJ/*J' O-^ ^ov^lj an ^ as ^ them concerning the
x ul i x xOxx
village, >.jJ 1 Us CUA^* thou hast removed from us the plague.
(c) After verbs which imply turning away, as <ut \^\=>
they were neglectors of it, <suUl/ *Js> JAJ He effaces from
,. . , , >'.'.' ' 3 ' ' y f\ 7 ^,
his misdeeds, w-^a*JI ^^^ O^ *Z*$~> WJ when the anger
became still (so as to be) away from Moses, ^Ljt ^f> s5j-oL;
/ will cause to turn away from (the direction of") my signs,
\H CP I^Ifr they disdainfully turned away from that from which
he turned disdainfully, A^ v-^J he avoided it.
450. The prepositions indicating motion to or towards a
place are ^1 to, ^^ up to, and J to.
Ox x
451. Opposed to t>* and ^e- is ^J which signifies
(a) motion or direction to or towards a place; thus Ulljt
A^yi ^1 l*.^ We sent Noah unto his people, J^A^\ 4-JI to Him
xx 00 x OJOx Ix
/s M^ returning, ^a^Jl ,Jt jJaJ 1 e>~3 but look toward the
mountain, <<->> \J\ ^t^^ We revealed i.e. indicated to Moses.
Hence, because inclination is implied, ^\ follows verbs of
excusing and repenting ; thus *iXJ1 c-*3 / repent toward Thee,
1 is an excuse to your Lord.
453] A GRAMMAR. 165
(b) In respect of time ^1 usually indicates during a con-
, x 0- dx -
tinuance ; as J.l ^1 wwtf/7 a fixed term, A-oLi)t >>^j ^1 during
all the ti in i till the day of judgement.
REM. When used in the above significations, we say that
X x lO
^1 is employed s\^^ to designate the limit.
(c) To show that one thing is added to another we use ^1
and hence oj*J ^1 (see 23, rem. d) to its end, which is definite
but serves for etcetera.
452. In addition to implying like ^1 motion towards an
object, {**' must indicate arrival.
REM. c. When ^^ is a conjunction (see 367 K) it exercises
no governing power upon nouns.
453. Whenever possible J must be so translated as to indi-
cate abstract relations, those that are concrete being expressed
by i Jt ; thus C~* jJb ,-JI to a dead country, but jJUJ dUiw
** 9 f * f ** jtx
c^^ We drove it for the use of a dead country. This distinction
cannot always be preserved as is shown by 429 et seq. where J
indicates an action's relation to the direct object which stands in
J ' J ^ Of- ftJJxO(
place of an accusative ; thus^O ~~A>\ or^^-oil I advise you
(see 423). More often however we employ J
(a) for passing on the action to an indirect object ; as
^ Moses said to his people, U Ji*.t make for us,
he multiplies it to you, U^l^ U jkc.\ pardon (t/ie
sin) to us and have mercy upon us : so with reflexive verbs, which
govern self as their direct object ; thus jiJU <vj
when his Lord manifested Himself to the mountain, and we find
166 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 453
the sense of ^ja-J in (j-j^bUU lUuj ^ lit to, it is white t
tlie beholders ; also by taking praiw as the direct object, we may
X I X> X li JvJxJ
place here Ol^o-J I ^ U <xJU ;*~j~o whatsoever is in heaven gives
liaise to God ; and unless wholly idiomatic iu ,j-t ^ believed
/n thee. In these cases J and its dependent are not essential to
the clause, whereas it is ^different in
j x 0-9 J x x J J0*r 3,
(b) the dative (i) of possession ; as j^^aJI <*Jj ^JUJI <0 to
j97w belong the dominion and the praise, j\y>- *J which lows lit.
ojx x o xx x jj Ox
to it is the (power of) lowing, ^ jsk*o\ ,^U <j$sju they cling
00 x x
f*tr zWofe, ^ j*. better for me, *AL*M cuu a daughter of the
king (see 492) : (ii) of permission or right; as OUJaJI
x ' 3 * i
he makes lawful to them the good things, <& &> \ I give thee per-
mission : (iii) of advantage, contrasting with ^s- (see 459 b]
XSXXXJOJ OXXXX
as <&>j U > 1 pray on behalf of us to thy Lord but <u.U U.> ^
^* x ^SOxOxx ?J
cursed Mm ; also O^!**-^ ^o-*-jj L^-^A a guidance and a mercy
x ^ x x x --0 ti /^ | x ^ J *tfx
/or M<? benefit of those who, .yj ^u>o tJj^JI ojjb .,5 UJ ^^=>\^
^i' ' X ^^ X
Sj*.^t and do Thou write for us i.e. place to credit of our account
advantage in this world and in the next, ajub U this is owing
' X
to us.
REM. b. By use of J we express the verb to have, as
J ^ U / tox? wo brother.
(c) Attention is drawn by J to the purpose or cause of an
act; thus ^ for what reason? (see 351, rein.), ^
^ and when a section of them asked. Why do
ye warn the people ? v*}*^ v^ 3 book for the use of students,
455] A GRAMMAR. 167
i We diversify the signs for the use of a people,
mention of the day whereon
He shall gather you for the sake of (what is in) the day of
assemblage (of the angels) i.e. the day of judgement*.
Jj
REM. Here J is employed J*XaiU to Indicate the cause,
(e) Also J marks the time of an occurrence ; as *Ul Oj
and whvn Moses had come to Our appointed time,
Jj^) on Moslem new year's day lit. at a point
^ f * * *
of time when a night has passed from Muharram^t.
NOTE. Many verbs indicating a state of mind, friendly or
hostile, advantageous or disadvantageous, take J of the person
towards whom the feeling is directed ; thus A) c<oj^ / hate him.
454. The prepositions indicating rest at a place are ^-3 in,
+ * J ' ' ~
into, v at, in, by, with, - with, along with, &jJ or i^jJ with,
beside, near, and ^f> over, above, upon.
455. We designate by help of ^
(a) rest in a place or during a time, and motion into a place,
as u^j^ LI? 1*3 Ol^o-J I ,-d U aJ to Him belongs whatsoever
X ' + 16 *
is in heaven and earth, j&>\ ii-/ ,J lyii*. He created them in
xO;< ^ jx x , Ox x
six days, -.I^J^Jt ^ <J UtuX= We wrote it far his benefit upon
' o oi , ^> Z*
the tables, j^fiJ^ ^ IA*~* UJ w/ien a falling took place info
* This rendering is in accordance with Baidawi.
f Further explanation of dates will be found in Wright's Grammar, vol.
ii. 88 110 and 111.
168 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [456
their kinds i.e. when they grievously repented, A*3 U
6 fj a
remember what is in it, C^.J \ ^ on the sabbath day, ^
gatherers into the cities. This meaning
- o OP.
applies also to less concrete relations, as UUotj
Ji^>-j ^3 pardon (the sin) to me and my brother and cause us
to enter into Thy mercy.
(b) By rights ^ means in the midst of as may well be seen
OJ 0* x J I , x J xx
with a plural or collective; thus ^j^A-\ O3j^ A**-^ \^~>** J^ 5
-fcjlolj {j*$* ^j9 Moses said to his brother Aaron, Do thou act
as my deputy among my people, and behave uprightly.
(c) We use ^ to state the subject of thought, conversation,
or writing ; thus A* jjO t AiJlJ I ^3 J^T ^UiJ t The first
treating of the Arabic language.
(d) Further ^ is employed with verbs of desire, as A+S
he liked it.
REM. We say that ^ is used ^3jjLu to indicate time and
place.
NOTE. The phrase 1^3 l^=jb ^3\ jo^\ the land which
We blessed is equivalent to UU^lj ^Jl.
456. Whereas ^3 indicates amongst we more often express
with ^ mere proximity; thus ji->.> ^jj- I passed by a man,
* * ' *
* ' ** xJ^Oxx ^JxxJ
fTie sent Moses with Our signs, O^AJ Ujui. #^g
X J Ju 2 X
zn'tfA force, ^^j+j ^j*^?. they associate bad luck with Moses,
t^J ^erg w iw we ?w ^rror, u^j^b ^*'>o**J' t^-
created the heavens and the earth rightly. Accordingly
456] A GRAMMAR. 169
verbs with certain meanings govern >-> and its dependent in place
of an accusative ; thus <o t^j^aJ ^ l^ ^r** I saw that which
they saw not, *+* ^ $^L> Jj^LoJ ^ they do not comprehend
anything of His knowledge, jj^+s- W O**^ ^ then ye shall be
* OlO X J vl ' J f U>*
informed of 'what ye have done, ^IXJb ,j^^ \iH^ th se w ^
holdfast to the book, aJjf ~j ^J^t / begin with the name of
God ; and ^ with its dependent may take the place of a second
^ * f-6iO * J *
accusative, thus stj^^l c*1J ^) do not cause mine enemies
ul/0 uif- OJOulx
to attach ignominy to me, <*JUt ^bb ^o-A;^3 remind them of the
days of God. Sometimes a verb governs in both ways with the
f. *x ., - f.
J tj J^-l A
same meaning (see 423) ; thus <suJ
Ox JJJCx ^
5 brother, and ^y ^3 iw o jLa-U ^ drowsiness does not
seize Him nor sleep] aJLJlj t^uxll 5^ assistance of God, and
uxi jbl 7%^ O/T/ cfo w?^ worship and of Thee
X J X X
a*l assistance ; lyj t>JLl ^^ treated it unjustly, and
U they did not injure Us. Under this general idea of
contact are represented the following.
(a) The relation between subject and predicate, especially in
X J J X X
negative propositions ; as O*><^ O-*^ U we are not believers.
The relation between an act and its object, especially
J ' Z * j x Of 6-
after ^uj^Jt Jl*3^l intransitive verbs ; thus
fo commands the appi-oved to them ; lot wg ^at?g believed, but
^-^UJI ^^j CUl we have beli&ved the Lord of the worlds: we
notice this particularly alter those indicating motion, which must
170 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [456
then he translated by transitive verbs (see 423, rem. 6); thus
xwx> ojjjj o 2x Os * >i x t
O'-uJb ^v-^J jtnrite wJV <ub >iX)3 this was because their
XXX XX XX
apostles used to briny them proofs, j&~J \ J^lj-^t ^^ Qj^W- We
1 the children of Israel to traverse the sea.
(c) The relation between an act and its instrument or reason ;
jxx :* x o x x x i x i
thus ly*ol i>jJ)I 13* *JW O^ ^* ^ ?5 8 k*tt t> e because God
xO x apx ^x- -X5 xx xSxOC
e's ^ patron of those who believe, <o U.j..ld gl^Jl ^U*^.^ UJpt
X X i X Ul J
Ol^iJt J^ j^-o PFe caused to descend by means of cloud the
water, and we produced by means of it (the rain) all sorts of fruits,
O^k by Gods permission, 6j>*(> Ot a ,>^ ^/c? ' subjection
by His command, *-->ol &\ 4*^5 oUL^wl 3J
x x x <0 x xx
j^J I ^)Lojm ad We revealed to Moses, when his people asked
drink of him, saying (see 367 e) Strike the stone with thy rod,
x . J x J x x ft J J x x I '
ijtyu-Aj 1^3 1 LO^ ^AylJ *yjj reds Ire ry Ae?ft by reason
of that in which they were impious, JwJ ^J^S \^^ OjLttj
Fe appointed with Moses (a period of) thirty
completed them by means of ten (more), ^\
^jtJl ^Jli ^lik^g t verily I have chosen
thee above (all) men by reason of (My putting thee in charge of)
My messages and because of My speaking (to thee).
REM. c. To express without we can use J*A* ; thus o^'
, OXJ Ox 0OA X J-XXX
Jia*JI j-Ju c^j^l ^ O3j-^J ^*^W i^ behave proudly in the
earth without justice.
i *> o
REM. d. Some would place in this sub-section aJJt
f/^ name of God while others supply ^jujt as above.
459] A GRAMMAR. 171
KEM. e. Arabian grammarians have divers expressions to
denote the uses of w^.
NOTE. We find ^ used in the sense of ^c>, thus <*3l ty&
Y* *l? ^# thought that it was falling upon them.
457. By help of ** (or **) tirc'M, a/0w# wz'M, we indicate
association and connection in time or place ; thus
send him with me : there are also less usual meanings.
459. We employ ^^U over, upon, above
(a) in its local sense ; thus _>oU^O I ^^- UXXk^ and We
spread for shade over them the cloud, J*j3d\ ^Xc ^^\ ^ then
He established Himself upon the throne : and a similar sense may
be discerned in j*-j) 1 ^*v*^ f *3 ^ wA^w #^ plague fell upon
manna and quail, blj^ ^^Xfr w5ULl I fear in your case a punish-
^Xfr upon God then let the believers
whom Thou hmt shed bless-
(6) As implying disadvantage (see 4536iii); thus
^ x J Jj x> OOxxJxxx
<UJt GV>c? wrf angry with him,
against them. Also we use ^Xfc after words signifying difficulty
and the opposite ; thus %i-oUaJ I j^c- j>j*-i he makes unlan-fnl
9 X Jl tO X X X I
to ^wz the foul things, j*~t 4JIJI ^Xt JLI5 this for God is easy.
(c) To express an obligation; thus
172 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 462
o o x x e x e * 0''
dMnct delivery >'.< incumbent upon Our apostle, ^ ***& ^
is not the covenant of the look taken upon them,
// i* landing upon me.
(d) To show superiority in one over another ; thus
xx
U. #<? has favoured you above all creatures,
* j
J=> (md He is all-powerful over everything.
(e) To give the condition serving as basis upon which a
S&lO XX X X
person rests ; thus ^ t ^ \ CH* ^^ O^* he followed the
Christian religion.
(j) To indicate the subject spoken of; thus IjJjij ^ &\
x OX> S> it -O xx
Jia^J 1 'sjl <*AJ I ^^JU Ma ^ey should not say concerning God other
than tJie truth.
REM. . Other uses exist ; as j*&
an admonition has come to you through one of yourselves.
462. With an oath (>-$) we employ 3 by provided a sub-
stantive follows and there is no verb of swearing. The comple-
X xO/0 J X X
ment (j9~*sA\ v'>*-) mav be an affirmative verbal proposition,
and the verb may be imperfect, in which case J is prefixed to the
CuJxdJx wJ -- x
energetic form ; thus ^y-yU ^j^ % wy Lord, ye shall be
raised.
463. While commonly reckoned among prepositions I) as,
like is a substantive and synonymous with JJU likeness (see
482 /). We find it in IJ^ thus, iUj^ z'ra &e manner, so, and
S*x *
,jl as though.
469] A GRAMMAR. 173
NOTE. Attached to I) we find aJlJbl U the hindering ma
(see 353*), thus ty ^5 U> ^Jt U Jilj make for us a
god like their gods.
466. To signify at the side of we employ juc ; thus
O^OflfJ'S x
ojUfr awd w^A 6r0<# A0r0 es #/ reward,
virtue of the covenant He has made with thee, AJ
x5* o j xo ltd,
Slj^Jt ^y ^AjUft b^Xo they find him written down
with them i.e. mentioned iw A0 Old Testament and Gospel, UJl ^1
AJU! jut ^o.*pU& vm/y ^e ca?^e o/* ^Mr ^rooc? and ill luck lies
hidden in the counsels of God. When used of time jut may
' XX X0 J0X0
indicate a particular moment, thus t^U^s juc C^j! //^ ^wr^
at the time of writing it.
467. Signifying between & indicates an intervening space,
x OiO xOxx x i20x0x
thus Sjjfc^J t O^ 1 ^ O^^* 5 1 O^ between the Flood and the Hegira.
Of common occurrence is AJ ju ^j between his two hands i.e. in
Ot' xOx
his presence, and ^o-^jul O*> between their hands i.e. before
x x Oxx xOx
them ; thus A^O^; L5*^J c>srf before his mercy.
468. Signifying beneath C**J indicates the lower part; thus
.^J // // '/r /' ^ / /Tr .
REM. b. Its opposite is Jj above ; as
Te is all-powerful over His servants.
469. Signifying below ^33 often indicates something inferior,
and
(e) that a quality belonging to one is not possessed by
174 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [470
x i x . o j a
another; thus
among them and those who are not that are among them.
* x'Ox x x x J
REM. Beside j^, o*^> c-o*J and Oj>j there are other
nouns in the accusative (see 359 and 444 6) which are em-
ployed as prepositions : for instance,
x x OJxxx>oxOx J S x^c
(a) J*3 before of time; thus
^ believed Him before that I gave you permission. Its
x flx x * x x OfO^ J Oj x
opposite is juu a/^r ; thus ly&/}Lot juiJ u*^j^) '
<?o TW# ye commit disorders in the earth after its ordering.
(c) tl^ behind, thus Mjj jJaJl foo^ behind thee : equivalent
xx Oj^Ox xx J OP ^Ox x Jx*x
is otX^, thus ^oyiXi. Uj ^^jul ^.o U ^o**J He knows what
is before them and what behind i.e. what is aiid shall be.
470. Compound prepositions have usually ,>* as the first
part, and the second part must be in dependent case. Thus
Ox* Ox SxJ' OJx
(b) C-sa*-^ O"* J as JT-O'
Te 5^a// caz^^ Aiw to ^/i^' gardens under which flow the
runnels of water.
to us, ^j
(the aforesaid) We sent Moses,
wrought in mine absence after my departure,
O J-C5jxyj3/
^-c l^jU ^ ollj-J I ^//05^ who do evil things (and) then
aft ir tltt rcjmtt.
REM. e. The construction may sometimes be made more
47.3] A GRAMMAR. 175
concise by omission of a preposition; thus
v >aV" > instead of 4-j.5 v> awe? 3/os&>* chose from
his people seventy men for Our appointed time.
, f * <**
471. The" infinitive (see 195 and 426 to 429) like other
nouns is indefinite unless defined by the article or otherwise ;
9 x OJvt" ^x x J
thus^ia^ j>) ^>e *y*t ^frCJi ^ therein, you, is a great
9 xx OJJxxx x Ox> J x ix> x ix A
trial from your Lord ', *~*AG- ^^yJL-w J^stejUt I^J^Jt ^>jJJl O^
xO ^ X> XX < 05 x Hlx
LojJ! SLaJ! ^ 5J3j vffyJj O- wr% ^<?s t^ chose the calf (as
a gooT), wrath shall overtake them from their Lord, and ignominy
Ojulx X0x0x Jx
in this present life ; ^Zjj ^J Sjjoue t^JlS ^^ aottf, /^ zs a way
of excusing (ourselves) to your Lord.
472. The rection* of nomina agentis has been treated in
430, 431. They and nomina patientis (originally adjectives,
see 80) are frequently used as concrete verbal nouns, desig-
nating a person or thing to which the verbal idea closely attaches
itself, while remaining immovable. The Imperfect is nearly akin
but being part of a finite verb indicates motion or renewal.
NOTE. We retain Professor Wright's term nomen concretum
verbale, though it might perhaps be as well to employ the word
participle, here and elsewhere.
473. For a specific indication of time we must look to some
OxOxx 6j*x6 JutxJx xx
other word in the sentence ; thus ^g^JLJ} ^**fk*>\ jliLj JU>
he answered, We will massacre their
Xj X
* By a word's rection, we mean its influence in regard to construction,
requiring that another word be in a particular case : the corresponding term
X X
is I j e. action oj yoveniment.
176 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [474
sous and we will save alive their daughters (lit. women) and verily
we shall be subduers aver them, where ^ gives a future sense to
all three clauses.
i/ In a clause which is not circumstantial the concrete
verbal noun refers to a present or future time ; thus lt>->
1 3 * 6 } x x , *t -o 336*
oyUL> jsk J.&.I ^t >a-jJt J9V**- but when We removed from
them the plague until a fixed term, which they were about to
X J x x . x x fj xx 03 x S Ax J xj x Si
attain ; ^L^su Ij3l& U J-^bj <**$ ^A Lc j^;* ^JL* ,jl as
to these people destroyed is that (religion) in which they were, and
& x Old x Ojxxx ZliO x
tain is what they were making ; ^^ j&*** ^osd. ^ JJ 1 $*>
O> j9^+*5 He it is who created you, and one of you is an un-
believer, and one of you a believer ; 2u\ ^>o AJ L3U C^- 1^15
^)^^} dU ^jw UJ ^3/ said, Whatever sign thou bringest to
us we do not believe in thee.
(b) But the concrete verbal noun in a circumstantial clause
refers to the same period of time as the ruling verb ; see 583.
The Imperfect Indicative will be found used in nearly the same
way ; see 408 e.
474. When attached to a verb as adverbial accusative (see
444 c) a concrete verbal noun refers to the same period of time
as the verb itself; thus \+s*~t vO 1 l^i^o't enter the gate pros-
trating yourselves ; l^J o^jjJU* OU^ llu. JL' He shall make
them enter gardens to abide therein, an instance of JjJLo JU. Ml
indicating th# future.
478] A GRAMMAR. 177
475. A noun, when governing another noun in the dependent
case, is called by the Arabians \~*d&* annexed, and is said by
European grammarians to be in construct state. It is shortened
in pronunciation by omission of tanwln or of the terminations ^
and o> in order that the speaker may pass quickly to the governed
Ox J x f Os
word, which is called aJl oLcuoJI that to which annexation is
*, ,
made. Their relationship is known as SJlot annexation.
REM. There are two kinds of annexation 4,.ft,.AaJl 4>LNI the
Z * e>* >o, , , e>*
proper annexation and ^LJuAs^JI j+> dJlo^l the improper annex-
ation : in the former ^JlJuoJ I may be A^AO defined or <& un-
r. * *
defined ; in the latter it can only be 5/&, except when the article
is prefixed, see 489.
476. In the construct state of a governing noun, followed
immediately by the dependent of a governed, can be represented
all ideas which we express in English with the preposition of.
"^'0* >' *OiO i f ,
Thus SjiJ I 5j^> the chapter of the cow, j*~J I 5^ol. in presence
!>'* * , ' 0,,
of the sea i.e. situated by the sea, j,j)\ J^w 1^ ^,J if they
see the path of true direction. A word may be governing and
Ml tO * J *
governed ; as &JjJ\ >>J iWU the Ruler of the day of the judge-
' ) *
ment, AJ; OUU the appointed time of his
have ye hastened the affair of your Lard ?
478. (a) The governed word (4 Jl LO in proper annex-
ation may be nomen substantivum*, a pronoun or other word
* We use nomen snbstantivum here as in 190, to include primitive
nouns, infinitives, and simple substantives.
GR. 12
178 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [ 478
regarded as a substantive, or an entire clause (see 488). Thus
' '* * >' ' , . JJ '-' ' ' TIT
^.jUJI Sjy* the chapter of the overreaching, AA^J \^5* Moses
and his people, ^j&* LL+*. $*$$ S UUJ U31& I^JLfe o*JjTJ
awrf t/iose who deny Our signs and the meeting of the last (dwelling},
vain are their works, ^>&jj U ^^ L>* l*^* eat f ^ e
'>, X X Z* 2~
#00d things which we have provided for you, \3j*=> CH^ ' ^ the
story of those who disbelieved.
J f J Ox
() The governing word (t^La^Jt i.e. the one in construct
state) must in proper annexation be nomen substantivurn * in
x * x s
which category are accounted prepositions, as l v -'}Lot JAJ after
its ordering ; so also are numerals, for which see 496 et seq.
xj,^., f , +* J *
Thus OJJ-* Vj ^ Lv)*d of Aaron,
^ mischief of their doing, j*j^\
we// acquainted with what is in possession of the breasts. An
adjective in construct state is improperly annexed (see 489)
unless, as in the following examples, standing in the position of
a defined noun so as to have the force of a substantive ; thus
d.y I ,j-~. the handsome (part) of the face or even the handsome
face, 5>v)l^ w-^i'l ^Jlft the Knower of the hidden and of the
manifest. As regards superlatives, see 486 and 493.
REM. a. In proper annexation the article Jl can never be
prefixed to w^UxoJI, in the improper it may (see 489).
J x
NOTE. The annexed word can be governed by a verb ^Jo^c
eliminated, as ^&2\ j*yi JU3 f-o-4^' ^** J ^^^ J& make
mention of the day whereon He shall gather you for the day of
* We use nomen substantivum here as in 190, to include primitive
nouns, infinitives, and simple substantives.
482] A GRAMMAR. 179
assembly, this will be the day of general deception : here we must
J OJ
prefix Ji1.
480. Instead of having an adjective attached to it, a noun
may be in construct state qualified by another noun ; as
* * *
JJJLO J^j a sincere man : this is common in specifying the
material, as ^5^*- J 1 ^* a ca lf (made) of ornaments.
482. The following substantives are used to express the
whole, the part, the like, and the different, by being annexed
(^jL^o) to a dependent.
(a) jJb the totality, the whole. If the loading substantive
is defined and signifies something single and indivisible,
0,6* I J
means whole as O~J \ J^b the whole house ; if it is definite but
plural or collective, we must render J^ all, as O'j^jLJt J^ all
tlie fruits, iJt J^ all the cattle ; if it is indefinite J^ means
each, every, as lyJ '>^>! *$ ^ J^ 3 ^^H Oj if t^y see
x x
sign they will not believe in it, %^> J^ Ootwj ^+*~j My
mercy comprises everything. In 402 a will be found ^U
,
every tribe : here, as may be learned from the context, ^U is
collective (see 305, rem. e) but is used as a singular.
(6) f t?^*- the totality, the whole, much resembles J& ; we
may however say U-^- J&\ to you all (see 444 c, rem. b 2)
x
but not
something different may usually be translated other
ip Go
122
t!m\ thus ^ 4JI ^o ^i^J U AAJI t^ju^l worship God r ye
180 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 48G
have no yod other than Him ; Oj >4**' ^ ^ shall I seek
foi* you a god other than God I j* *^)j
-/ov' J** L*^' ^ wrongdoers among them substituted a word,
other than that which was told them. For j*j without see 456,
rein. c.
HEM. a. We employ j*>& as a negative, thus oX- j* im-
2 *
possible-, but if repetition be needed we must after the first
negative use ^) followed alike by a dependent, thus i^jJt J^t^o
J^JUbJI ^5 ^p^JL^ w^*aiVt jJ*> jw+k* CU^a3t the way of those
upon whom Thou hast shed blessing, other than those who are the
objects of (Thine) anger and are in error.
(/) JU likeness, like, as lit* the like of it, like it.
REM. a. Similar in sense to JJL, but without case signs, is
J see 463.
486. Properly annexed, in construct state, are found deverbal
j <* o
adjectives expressing the superlative, of form Jj^t (see 234) or'
JU> (see 242, note 1); thus Jj-^tj!)! ^.Jf siolj and Thou
art the most merciful of the merciful, O-O-*^' J** 1 *" *~*J\J an &
Thou art the best of those who pardon. Here one item is made
to stand prominently out of a whole designated by the depen-
dent; and being in this annexation definite substantives (see
478 6) J*3I and J* need not vary in gender or number
(see 493, rem. a), thus ^"\j^\ +*\ the greatest of the cities,
*>.*<.
\ the best thing that is in it.
490] A GRAMMAR. 181
REM. a. Being superlative J^l first stands in annexation of
the same sort, thus O**"*>^' eb' ^ I am ^ ie fi rs ^ f tlte
believers. The other ordinal numbers ought not so to be used,
for they are nomina agentis from transitive verbs, see 328.
488. When ,ji governs a verb (see 415 a) it is jj juo^J I ,j!
the 'an which with its verb is equivalent to a ma^dar (see 195)
and the same construction appertains to the indefinite U (see
353*). Thus !* U j*> ^.+3 tu3U O 1 ' cM O* ^ij' we
were afflicted be/we that thou earnest to us and after that thou
hast come, which is equivalent to &AJ 13 C I *iUlJt jl$ ,j-e
* Z - ^ o -
UUj *iU^a- *>AJ 6^?r^ if% coming to us and after thy coming
to us. Clauses of this sort frequently stand as aJl ^1-^^)1 (the
second member of an annexation, see 478 a} in lieu of a
dependent.
489. When improperly annexed the noun in construct state
Ox6<0Jxx if
must be an adjective, thus A.^ 1 ,>-** Jiandsome of face, %j~*
x 0*0
wAixll prompt of chastisement. Here the dependent though
always defined by the article exercises no defining influence upon
its governing word, which remains sJXj (see 475, rem.) and
can be defined by the article, thus ^UsUl jjJI <UJI God the
prompt to punish *.
490. Except by poetic licence, nothing can intervene between
a noun in construct state and its following dependent, conse-
quently an adjective qualifying the first member must be placed
* This sort of annexation is treated in Wright's Grammar, vol. u. 30.
182 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 492
after the second ; thns^fffepl
j-ni'^e belongs to God, the Lord of the worlds, the compassionate
and merciful.
492. In proper annexation if the second member be indefinite
0^ x x x J tx, j.g *
the first is the same, as ^J*^ J>*L v^ j^ s> oU.1 ,-Jt
? " # TT x S
wily I fear in your case a punishment of a great day. But if
the second member be definite so is the first, as
1 Jj;l* We caused the people to inherit the eastern
parts of the land and the western parts of it. If we desire that
the first noun be indefinite while the second is definite we must
j 3 o o
employ the preposition J, thus J*.>AJ ,j->t a son of the man
(see 453 b, i) : certain words of wide signification may however
remain indefinite even when followed by a definite dependent.
493. The examples in 486 have each its dependent
(dJI ^'-a^f) definite and therefore partitive : if indefinite the
** * j ^ ot Hi
dependent must be explicative, as *LJ J-a$t o- fc tne y are most
X JO X ji X
excellent women, <kU. j-j. *JJI God is the best preserver. After
* "
the superlatives J^i /rs^ and j^.1 /as^ the indefinite dependent
is likewise explicative ; thus AJ! J^l #^ /rs# ^rse, ^e^> >.l
HEM. a. If the dependent be definite the noun in construct
state (o'-tf^eJl) may resume its characteristic attribute as an
adjective and conform in number and gender to the object or
objects mentioned ; thus ^>5lj^J! ^j+* L it is the largest of
thi- cities, v>5Tj^Jt oC/1^ ,5-fe they are the largest of the cities.
496] A GRAMMAR. 183
494. Attention has been drawn in 480 to a way of specifying
the material from which any thing is made : this also may be done
by putting the material in apposition to the object, both being
either definite or indefinite ; thus juu ^> ^5* j> J^ b
2 X - ^ ' "
I ju~*. *}*+* and the people of Moses after his departure took for
themselves (as god) a calf of red gold.
495. Of two things which are identical, the second may be
in dependent case and the first in construct state.
() This happens when a specific noun is preceded by a sub-
stantive designating the genus, as ^U)l Aa*Jts Sj^ equivalent
to ^UXJI Aa*Jl3 ^A ^Ul Sj3-J! the chapter which is the opener
of the book.
496. It has been mentioned in 321 that cardinal numbers
from 3 to 10, when in apposition to the things numbered, agree
with them in case ; but when placed in annexation before them
(see 478 6) govern a plural dependent. A plural of paucity
(see 307) must be employed if the substantive have one ; thus
^Cl Al~> ^5 u^j^)^ Ot^oJ-JJ Jiii. He created the heavens and the
earth in six days.
REM. a. Exceptional is *5U one hundred which, in dependent
singular, always follows the governing numeral, see 325.
2 0>o *
REM. b. Should iLSJt .. the plural of paucity not be in
common use, there must perforce be employed 3 y iJI ^. the
plural of abundance.
REM. c. We must remember that a sound plural is plural of
184 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 499
paucity, thus Obi *--* ^\ its verses are seven in number;
((J I is a generic noun which forms a nomen unitatis, being also
a plural of abundance, see 304, No. 28 and 306, rem. a). If
however an adjective specifies the objects numbered, &* must be
employed as in 448 f\ or the noun must be put in apposition to
o
the numeral, thus &j+L+ Axjjt four Moslems, O
six believing women.
499. We have seen 444 0, rem. b, that cardinal numbers
from 11 to 99 take their objects numbered in the accusative
singular ; thus *&*.; O-***"' < *- c !>* ^5* jUi.1 3/0S0S cfos0 /r0m
. X* XX X XXXX OAulX Ox J
Azs people seventy men, AJ 1 S^c O^o-^ 5*-5 **^"* *J3"^ ^ chapter
written at Mecca and it (has) eighteen verses. Very rarely they
are followed by an accusative plural, as U-t 5jfr UlSl twelve
nations. In gender the tens (Ojj***, O3^^j e * c O are common ;
but units conform to the gender of the noun denoting the objects
0x xx ' "0/0 x x xO
numbered, thus U*t oj&s. \z\ cu~.a**Jt twelve springs gushed
fj x
out (v>* being feminine, see 290 a).
506. Cardinal numbers agree in gender with nouns denoting
the objects numbered according to the following rules; there
being constantly borne in mind the peculiarity explained at
319.
(a) The numeral agrees in gender with the singular of the
substantive denoting the objects numbered, even if the plural
is of different gender ; as &~~> J~^+. five years (the singular
513J A GRAMMA I ;. 185
being feminine), oGl-A^ 2x~3 nine Ramadans (the singular
being masculine), ^o*; jz i-nU^ eighteen men.
(b) When the objects numbered are designated by a noun of
general signification, its grammatical gender is usually followed
by the numeral ; as UU~>t j> \\ twelve tribes (the sing.
being masculine). But if another substantive be attached which
determines more precisely the real gender of the objects, then-
x*>0<0 3 1 * 2 x
the numeral agrees with the second noun; thus ^^1 ^AUxlxS
4* * Of- xxOx
U?Uwt Sj-lfr JF0 divided them into twelve tribes (i.e.) nations
*
(the sing. *ul being feminine).
512. To every a-U^ totality, sentence there must be a subject
J x J 6 x
and a predicate, the latter being called ju.....oJ I that which is
supported, the attribute. The subject is called AJI jJ;,..>^J I M#
6y w^zcA (^ attribute) is supported, and the relation between
J s Ox
them is termed jUw^l M0 act of supporting or causing to lean,
attribution.
513. The subject may be a noun substantive, as *WI J15
X
A*j5 ^^o ^ chieftains of his people answered ; or an expressed
t x JXx x J0x x J
pronoun, as O^H^ I? L^*^' ^ ^ ** ^ e guidance and the cri-
tenon, ZJJJL* ^ it is an excuse ; or a pronoun j.~L~ concealed
as JjrJt ^3 ^LS^I We drowned them in the sea,
He giveth life and causeth to die ; or a conjunctive
J
* Tables of these pronouns, prefixed and suffixed, are given in Wright's
Grammar, vol. r. 89.
186 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [513
clause (see 572), as j^l i Uj ot^-oJjl U *
praises God whatsoever is in heaven and in earth,
!^jj CH*^ ' the unbelievers hare asserted ; or a preposition with
X I X J X I X J J X X J i X5 JJ
its dependent, as dUi Oj-> Ul **M* Oj-> ^n-^3 (J^ 8 ^^-^ ' ^r"*
the good are among them, and those who are not that are among
them. The predicate may be a noun (substantive or adjective),
x xx OiO ul x $ i ' wllx
as jj-voJUJI *->j ,j-e Jj~>j ^j^h but I am an apostle from the
J X ^ J / * J
Lord of the worlds, ^JCa*J t J^jJj0 1 $* He is the potent, the wise ;
or a verb, as (<-> J>^ U-^ so when Moses awoke ; or a prepo-
sition with its dependent, as *+ ^ they are in it ; or an adverb,
X J x J X ^ X 2>d XJ
as U* Ul /; ^r^ ; or a conjunctive clause, as ^^JCLU. \^JA\ y*
He is your Creator, o^* U IjJk #A/5 is what did it or M/$ is
what he did. Be the predicate what it may, every sentence
65 ** OxOJ
beginning with its subject is A-^-jt *Xo-- nominal sentence
(which may be simple or compound, see 519 and 520), thus
i *6iO It *6iO xJ i x e?0x> 2
^KyM ^bdt ^A .ffe ts the sublime, the mighty, aAJ u^)^' Oi
surely the earth belongs to God, JjUl 1^5* Moses awoke. On
the other hand we call A.Jb iX-a. a verbal sentence (simple or
compound) any one in which the predicate is a verb preceding
JiL>x0x xJjOjJJxx
its subject, thus AJUt j^yilwt God is self -sufficing, l^v^iA*- **&i ^
<A guarding of them both does not weary Him ; or in which the
verb represents both subject and predicate, thus t^Jy they turned
2xxJ*x
f/s/V/0. The subject of a nominal sentence is termed I jJ^ I the
inchoative (except when put in the accusative by a preceding oj>
for it is then known as o' ^*-' see 525 rem.) and its predicate
516] . A GRAMMAR. 187
jldJ I the enunciative ; while the subject of a verbal sentence is
j xax j e o .,
called J*UJ 1 the agent, and its predicate JjtAJ I the action or wr6.
REM. b. Here Professor de Goeje adds the following :
The difference between verbal and nominal sentences, to
which the native grammarians attach no small importance, is
properly this, that the former relates an act or event, the latter
gives a description of a person or thing, either absolutely, or in
the form of a clause descriptive of state (see 583 a). This is
the constant rule in good old Arabic, unless the desire to
emphasize a part of the sentence be the cause of a change in
its position.
o
514. A verb with ^ I or to (then called niaQdariyali, see
488) may serve as subject either to a nominal or to a verbal
, j o t 5x x 9
sentence ; thus J^St o' ^5^ J***- that I sat/ so and so is
incumbent upon me.
515. The predicate may (see 513) be a preposition with its
dependent, and when the subject precedes we have a nominal
* Z ) Jx x 0x
sentence ; thus QgjfcoJJ i-5^' the result is to the devout. If
however the preposition and dependent stand first, thus aJt
J-j-o^jT the returning is to Him (see also next section), we may
call the phrase S-^J-b * Ji oV a local sentence (see 221, rem. a
and 527 a).
REM. The logical emphasis falls upon the later word as in
436, rem. b.
516. If the predicate be an adverb or a preposition with its
dependent, and the subject an indefinite substantive or a clause
(see 514; containing a finite verb governed by o' tnen tno
188 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [ 517
predicate must precede, thus
LU*;^ A0 took the tables and in their inscription were guidance
and mercy, jt^i. A) it lows lit. a lowing is to it : but either order
is permitted if the indefinite substantive carries with it an
s x x 6j x o x -
adjective, expressed or implied, thus ^ I *->\J& ^ or ^IJ^
^ ^jJI to Mm z> a painful punishment. In case of a sentence
expressing a wish, however, its subject if indefinite must precede,
as^CJU ^o!u> j0tfac0 fo wwfo #0w ; and should the subject follow,
it must be defined, thus
517. The subject also necessarily follows its predicate in
a nominal sentence, (a) when the I j^ contains a pronoun making
reference to a word in the j**., as ly*-Ud jtjjl ^ its master is
in the house ; (6) when the lju* is restricted by U3! or ^t, as
and obey the apostle, but if ye turn aside, then
only the clear delivery (of his message) is incumbent upon Our
apostle, asLj 1 ^1 U U we have nothing (to do) but to follow him
(see 585 and 586); (c) when the j+*. is an interrogative, as
yk O- who is he? {j* U what is it ? (see 570).
518. In a verbal sentence the agent (i.e. subject) must always
Jtix J x x
follow its verb (i.e. predicate); thus ou; a^Jl^ his Lard spoke to
xx J J +
him, OlJ JT-J-S**-! plants spring up : this it is held to do where a
verb represents both subject and predicate; thus
the tables.
520] A GRAMMAR. 189
519. In addition to simple sentences, nominal and verbal, we
find compound, each consisting of an inchoative with a clause as
enunciative. In one sort of compound nominal sentence, a noun
(substantive or pronoun) is transposed to the first place and
followed by a verb, thus $^> J woLj +**J ( as to }
My mercy (it) comprises everything. Here the agent of the
clause (J^UJI) is a concealed pronoun, which corresponds in
gender and number with the inchoative of the sentence ; and
the inchoative contrasts (tacitly or expressly) with another
inchoative having a different predicate, thus JjGl Lr ~ ^-o
Moses awoke while Aaron was (still) sleeping,
Ut verily as for us, we repent toward Thee, O^-Jj
^r*/*=*' but most of them do not know, t^jj^ ^yjb
because they denied Our signs, ^j^^jj ^U) perchance ye
x J x f x J x **
may be mercifully dealt with, 0.3-Hr 5 ^^ perhaps ye may be
guided aright.
520. There are also compound sentences in which a pro-
nominal suffix called Jsu'Jjt the connecter replaces the noun
transposed. They may be (a) compound nominal, thus ejjs- aJU!
je?.\ with God there is great reward; or (b) compound
1 ) **
verbal, thus <OUi rj**> v*^ j ^-M' (as to) the good land its
~ ,t , t i 'x
Ul ^ AJ ^^^ J^ (as to) My punish-
ment I strike with it whom I mil.
521. We may regard as verbal a sentence consisting of a
190 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 521
deverbal adjective and following noun, thus ^iUy srij* thy
people are generous (see 552 b ii).
522. There does not exist in Arabic a substantive verb,
i.e. one which would unite subject and predicate in a nominal
sentence without connoting the idea of existence ; for (jl though
occasionally supplying the place of logical copula, ascribes to its
subject the attribute of existence ; and being attributive, its
' * i ' X (
predicate and those of o^ Srtj*I must be in the accusative
case (see 441 and 442).
523. The absence of logical copula expressed by or contained
in a finite verb constitutes the essential characteristic of a
(simple) nominal sentence (see 513); so that when a definite
noun (substantive or pronoun) and an indefinite adjective stand
in juxtaposition we have a complete nominal sentence. The fact
of the former being defined (no matter how) and the latter un-
defined, shows them to occupy the positions of subject and
predicate ; for, as will be seen in 536, a descriptive epithet must
agree with its noun in respect of definition as well as in gender,
number and case. Thus J^.*- /W <sJbf God is self -sufficing
(and) worthy to be praised, A*O olj^^jl 3)3~ the chapter of the
uppermost parts is Meccan.
524. If both subject and predicate are defined, we can make
sure of their relative position being recognized, by inserting
between them JMOAJ I j-^o-o the pronoun of separation ; thus
' J 3 i/0 j J f ,
(j^th .U^J i ^A ^X5^t those are the prosperous.
527] A GRAMMAR. 191
525. If the predicate be a nominative and the subject placed
in the accusative after ,jj or the like, a pronoun of separation is
unnecessary; thus <OJt ^j Oj verily your Lord is God : there
may however be inserted such pronoun of the same person as
Oj j*~>\ (see 436, rem. a) ; thus UJj oJt jJl truly Thou art
our protector.
REM. A noun governed by oj etc. is not called IjJU* in-
choative by Arabian grammarians.
527. As a general rule the subject of a nominal sentence
must, if not exactly defined, be specialized. No information is
conveyed by "A horse is grey"; but we can say yb jJuo\ ^j
a grey horse is handsomest, where ^jJ though
indefinite is specialized by its adjective; so also there is
5 * * z> & $ * o*
obviously a partial determination in j^> jA \ ^ <Lj a desire to
do evil is bad, and in *Jj*~s ^^Ja* ^j *->\J& a punishment of
? * ?
a great day is to be feared (see 492). These examples differ
from true definition, which is only attained by use of the article
wijjjiEX) in order to distinguish (see 345), or by annexation to
a defined noun (see 475 et seq.): there are other cases where
the subject of a nominal clause can be indefinite, among which
are the following :
(a) In a clause called at 515 zarflyafc (i) when the predi-
w *6>o *
cate stands first, as i*l ^yUI O-* ^ iere a section of the people ;
and (ii) when the subject is preceded by an interrogative or
O --a ~ , o *
negative particle, as ^Jl ^ 2U JA is there water in the cis-
tern 1 U v^ ^ we ^ ave no drink.
192 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 529
(0) When the sentence expresses a wish, as
peace be unto you ; see 516.
(/) Words containing the conditional meaning of o \ if (see
406), though indefinite by their nature, serve as inchoative ;
i *. x _ _ * fi / < J *
thus xJUU o-*>J t> if any one believes God, <t.& -^ Jf^.> ^
whoever is made to guard against his own covetousness.
529. A pronoun of separation is sometimes omitted if the
J * 0x5 j ^Ox> x 1
meaning remains clear, as ^>k*J I J^iJ I &> this is the great
prize.
530. To give emphasis and occasion contrast ju^yiJI j-^>
ts, * t
JUJDUJ t ^1 ||0 pronoun of corroboration may be introduced ; it
being wholly different from the pronoun of separation treated in
524 et seq. Commonly it follows the subject, or a verb which
represents both subject and predicate ; thus
jj^A^j those only who fear their Lord, &+-J& '
J ^ * if
WE be the victors ; see also ^>aJ Oj^ at 415 a i, Note.
NOTE. The pronoun of corroboration may follow conjunctive
pronouns in an oblique case, thus O>**>! &k& ^* O-^^ / or
"* ***x ***^
^5e especially who believe in Our signs.
531. If however in the description of persons or things (see
513, rem. b) a nominal clause lacks precision, we may use o^*
or one of its sisters (see 442). When so employed the imperfect
has its usual meanings : but a perfect, beside examples like those
in 441, may express the present, as J^^^ s**j~\ ^ov** 7-^i
Zio
Jt he puts away from them their burden and the
534] A GRAMMAR. 193
fetters which are upon them ; especially is this the case after an
interrogative, or U not, as JI ^^- j&*& j&*~*$ c.;> U / am
\f
not ready to judge between you until etc. (see 557).
533. We have observed in 73 that passive verbs must often
be translated impersonally: commonly a 3rd person singular
masculine is used to avoid specifying the subject, thus J-3 3J
^ when it was said to them. In case of j&z which governs
only an accusative of the sin, we render U yAJL^ we shall be
pardoned, for it will be pardoned to us gives too explicit a subject.
Nomina patientis of verbs which are transitive by help of a pre-
position (see 423) can only appear in the masculine singular,
changes of gender and number being marked by an alteration of
0,, OJOxxJ,
the pronoun; thus OUA^ ^A-AA* *& he is an object of anger,
. X**
'6x'9J0 x 00xxJJOx0x
\y-jXft o^-tfJue ^A she is an object of anger, ^^f- v^-oi^Jl the
objects of anger. The neuter plural of adjectives is sometimes
expressed by the feminine sound plural, and sometimes by a
broken plural, but never by the masculine sound plural ; thus
^i 2 ^ ^ xx x 6*0 C J xOxxx
!U>.H> KJ ^bU^JLi^ and We tested them by means of
and evil things, sl^LaL) t ^J^ J*j*~t.5 ^W^ ' W J*^t
he makes lawful to them the pleasant things and makes unlawful
to them the foul things.
REM. a. The passive of directly transitive verbs may be used
personally or impersonally, thus ^f^- he was overcome or there
was a victory.
534. To the subject and predicate complements are joined by
subordination (the accusative or a preposition with its dependent),
or by coordination which is more usually called apposition.
GE. 13
194- ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 535
535. Pronominal suffixes may have a reflexive meaning when
attached to a verb's object, but not when attached to the verb
s
itself ; consequently for this purpose we must employ ^^Ju soul
or the like, thus O>UL sw~J->\ \$>\=> they were injuring them-
. to this rule however verbs of the heart-(see 424 b ii)
.supply exceptions.
536. Complements coordinated with a subject or predicate
are called *->\ appositives (see 304, No. 16), the usual appo-
sition being of noun to noun and the more rare (see 540) of
verb to verb. There stands first p$-ioJl that which is followed
and then juUJl the follower.
w*
(a) After this fashion the adjective is joined to its substan-
tive ; they agreeing in gender, number and case, as well as (see
523) by definition or by being undefined: thus &++
lxOx> xxOX -
manifest error, C~*J! jJLJI ^1 to the dead country, C-
x OiO j } s *
a^UJt ^AJ^^O / saw their congregational mosque or their
* ~o*t Z x> ~s
mosque which collects, 5^.^! jtjJI UU t/ie meeting of the last
abode. A noun may of course have two or more adjectives con-
u x> i x> tL/*
nected with it, thus^*.jJI O-o^P' <*-UI ^^ in the name of
God the merciful (and) compassionate : sometimes a nomen verbi
(nomen actionis or other) takes the place of an adjective, thus
4xx$x 0-0^00
Spo JW. an indefinite hdl, A^JC ^~1 a defined noun. In the
above examples all words are singular, and concords in case of
the Jn<d are equally simple : but with plurals the matter becomes
difficult, though the rule as to definitio.n is happily unalterable.
A substantive (i) in masculine sound plural representing rational
536] A GRAMMAR. 195
creatures must be followed by an adjective in the plural, thus
x ,i x x xx Ox * J t> J
^$\\~b O>^ erring sons, j*\j> ^^5* (see 304, No. 5) noble
3 + * x J x
believers, V >*'}U ^j^^s (see 305, No. 2) accursed unbelievers ;
while a substantive (ii) in feminine sound plural may be followed
Ox x x 9 " x
by an adjective, singular feminine as <u~. O*i)L; gracious
J ** x i x
messages, or plural, either broken as j$\j& OU. (see 304,
No. 17) w0Me gardens, <^uo Oljij (see 304, No. 2) white cattle,
9 x x J 6 -^
or feminine sound as O^Loio Ob I signs separated by intervals.
A substantive in broken plural if (iii) denoting rational beings
may be followed by an adjective in the singular feminine, thus
* r >'}Ua/i the English students, A+L** JUg Moslem men,
fLJ Moslem women, Sjujw ^^JU strong kings, jt^*.
stf/mgr gr/rfo ; it is however better, if the sex be indicated,
X , A j A
to employ an appropriate sound plural, thus <j^JL- JWg and
OtoJL- *tlj. But if the broken plural (iv) denotes objects
other than rational beings, no matter what their gender in the
singular, its adjective may be feminine, singular as *;+*.=> O^*"
great fishes, or plural as OLl*. j ^ beautiful forms ; or else
a broken plural, thus Jlj^ -C; powerful winds, js>\)* J^-
noble mountains. Next as regards collectives which are treated
in 292 and 30(J rein. : those (v) denoting rational beings usually
take an adjective in that sound plural which corresponds by
natural gender with the beings, thus ^)^4J^J' ^>i' the wrong-
'I'" />, O*** Uy> t>il^ -^\ truly they were a blind people,
uitim ius family, hut tlie
is a
196 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [ 537
adjective may be singular and agree with the collective's gram-
x x 90 x . x x oSc
matical gender, thus j>~. oLU. excellent posterity, iiwb <UI
/f// impious nation. Collective nouns (vi) which do not form a
nomen unitatis and denote living objects destitute of reason (see
290 a) are, in respect of concord with adjectives, similar to
(see iv) broken plurals denoting irrational creatures : those (vii)
which form a nomen unitatis, and denote objects other than
6 x - x x
rational, may take a feminine sound plural, as OtjUb ^y*. fly ing
Ox J r* Z J
locusts ; or a feminine singular, as &J^ I J^ voracious lice ; or
a masculine singular, as ^4^ ' >o-M the fresh fruit ; or a broken
plural, as JUu ^Ul heavy cloud.
(/>) Being definite by their nature and regarded as substan-
tives, the demonstrative pronouns (see 340, 341) must be
coupled with a defined appositive : if this definition is caused by
the article we usually find the demonstrative preceding, thus
J fOiO X I JX0X040 I
j jAJ I dU3 this prize, <Lj.aJ t o jJ8 this village ; but if the substan-
tive be definite in its nature or defined by a following dependent,
x I J 6 x
it must precede, as I Juk *$+s>~6 this Mahmud.
NOTE. We find in Goran, Surafr 7, verse 166 s.5
become abject apes : here the appositive is in masculine
sound plural because human beings are addressed.
537. Sometimes we find the adjective **! all following a
substantive or pronoun and agreeing with it in gender, number
and case ; thus ^x^^l ^~Loyiwill crucify you all.
& s> *
539. In addition to its use at 535 ^M can signify self
539] A GRAMMAR. 197
. X Ox J CX
without reflexive meaning, thus A~AJ Oolj I have seen himself:
9 J6f.
if a plural be needed, UM JU\ must be employed.
J 02 x
REM. a. There is a class of appositives called ju^yLji or
.
having two divisions; (1) ^^-Jt^JI ju^^J! Afo cor-
roboration in meaning which includes J^, *+*, **! and
o ex iJ o5 x j 05 x
riu with a few other words; and (2) ^taAJJ! ju^'JI the verbal
corrobomtion, when any word is repeated, thus ^su ^*j yes, yes.
REM. b. Three more classes of appositives are in use.
(1) ijLtfJI the qualificative which may refer to its -** (see
536) directly, in which case it is a simple adjective, thus
1 xO/0 & x 0/0 J Jl x
^a^-jiJt <*JI <*-Ut the living and everlasting God; or indirectly,
applying to a following word and with it forming a qualificative
clause. (2) JjuJ I the permutatiw of which the most usual kind
HI 16>o + w j ix> jxx
is jJXJl t^-e ^JJJI c 'jk.. the substitution of the whole for the whole ;
Ox Oxx xxO , SnO xx ' x J OiO x x ul >0 x
thus ** ^t*f C***51 il^J^I tj-* vy.iT.^JI lt>|l Ujj^t
x '^''x 'x xx
x x J x 9*
^^-jJLfr ^^-jJLoJ t dutef ^ (t) ^g straight road, the road of those
upon whom thou hast shed blessing, other than those who are the
objects of (Thine) anger. Here <b!j-e is badal of Jtj*e, and j+e.
^ CH^'- (3) oW' wiixc #/^ explicative connection, being a
4J0X - i X> J J i x
substantive which explains its s>}~<* ; thus ^Jl J>->JI ^
apostle the prophet, Ojj* ***'*$ j^^ J^ Moses said to his
*j x ** 90
brother Aaron, JL>... J^~ft a ca// body, i.e. a calf in bodily
shape.
REM. c. One verb may be substituted for another by JJu
x fO /*
comprehensive substitution t i.e. the permutative
198 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [540
something involved in the piwiims verb; thus
you the evil of punishment, killing your sons and saving
al'n; ii<>, a- daughters.
540. Two verbs used asyndetically (i.e. used without a con-
junction) are regarded as in apposition, thus j^~w ja\S he arose
and prostrated himself, JUb! jo ,.> he continued long in pros-
tration ; but the insertion of \~* is better.
541. As regards concord in gender and number between the
parts of a sentence, the following rules hold good. We shall
treat in 552 of nominal sentences, and at present confine our
attention to verbal sentences (see 518) ; premising that a mas-
culine singular subject can only be preceded (or followed) by a
masculine singular verb, thus Ofj J^5 Pharaoh said, and that
the 'equivalent of a plural subject (such as a relative sentence,
etc.) takes a preceding verb in the singular, thus ljjj& O-^ ' ^j
the unbelievers have asserted.
542. (a) If the subject be a singular substantive, feminine
according to 290 a, and (i) immediately following its verb, the
verb must be feminine singular, thus ju Oj^l a hand became
extended: but (ii) if one or more words intervene, while the
feminine is better, the masculine is permissible, thus t^j ^cu
J ' ** "
O**J' the eye saw it.
(/>) If the subject be a singular substantive, feminine accord-
ing to 2906 or 291 the verb may precede in either gender,
though pivl'urably in the feminine if the subject follows immedi-
544] A GRAMMAR. 199
** Jx* Z,
ately, thus *&jj cu^Jl^ C^ #^ word of thy Lord '< is fulfilled :
' ota/a j* * * * -Ox o i Oio f
but we find ^ju^A^JI L5U O^=* *-*t^ jJiiLi so /00 A0w was
the end of the transgressors.
REM. The concord usually remains if, in negative or inter-
rogative sentences, the subject be preceded by ^> ; but in
Goran, Surafi 64, verse 11 we have &.*.*A* i>o v^' no
* *
mischance has befallen.
* "6
(d) The verbs ^*J and ^j take preferably the masculine
form, be the subject's gender what it may ; see 183.
543. If the subject be a masculine sound plural the preceding
verb is with rare exceptions singular masculine, thus <UJt
upon God then let the believers rely.
REM. b. When meaning family or tribe <Jj^>, the sound
plural of ^j\ son, may be preceded by a feminine singular verb ;
thus J^'^wl ^ AJ Osil the tribe of Israel believed Him.
544. If the subject be a broken plural the preceding verb
again with rare exceptions is singular, and of either gender no
matter which, thus yJU^l c^Jfl.iw (from fc masc.) their works
are vain, J**/^l ii5 (from J*.j fern.) the feet were cut off.
But if the broken plural denote male persons the verb is better
masculine, thus lu il^iljt JjU U.? UJLyjl wilt Thou destroy us
on account of what the fools among us have done ; though we
sometimes find the feminine, as J-y ^oj-* 5 ^ c-Jl apostles used
to come to them.
200 1 LEMENTARY ARABIC : [545
545. If the subject be a collective or other noun mentioned
in 292 the preceding verb must be singular but may be of
either gender; thus *&\ J\* the chiefs said, <x^3 dUlLt his
j><>j,Ie asked drink of him, ^~* *' ^^ *\3 an< ^ whan a section
of them said.
546. If the subject be a feminine sound plural the preceding
verb must be singular but may be of either gender, unless de-
noting female persons, in which case the feminine is preferable.
548. When the subject has been mentioned in a preceding
clause, the verb must agree with it in gender and number
according to the following rules. A masculine or feminine sin-
gular verb follows a like subject ; and a masculine plural verb
follows a masculine sound plural, thus 1^5 ij oWL~*J } j*~* the
Moslems journeyed and came, as also the plural of pronouns, thus
I^JIS iilaJt ^xrv^U- '3p and when the boon came to them they
said. In case of broken plurals the following verb must be femi-
nine, singular or plural, thus bU*w oJJIj i^p1 }~>ji He sends
the winds and they bear cloud where ^list might also have been
used : if however male persons are indicated the verb in mas-
culine plural is used, thus tjJ'J^ O^V 'j-**-^' *V the magicians
came to Pharaoh and said ; or if female persons the verb is in
feminine plural. Following a collective noun which indicates a
predominance of male persons the verb is naturally in masculine
plural, thus ^Jjuu AJJ J>aJL> O_3*S^ **' ^^5*^5* O- among
the people of Moses there is a section who direct (others) by the
truth and by means of it do justice, ^UflT t^jj^ oUU. oii^. a
posterity succeeded who inherited the Book: other collectives
552] A GRAMMAR. 201
treated in 292 are followed by a singular verb of either gender.
Lastly if the subject be a feminine sound plural the verb would
naturally follow in feminine plural though the feminine singular
occurs, thus li*U. O tj Obb Uot we believed the signs of our
X XX
Lord, ichen they came to us : but when female persons are indi-
cated the concord must be strictly kept.
551. A verb sometjmes agrees in gender with the logical
subject, i.e. a dependent annexed to the grammatical subject ;
C i i* ' Oxx
this is most usual with words explained in 482, thus j^^of. ^
<L|I J^ even though every sign come to them.
552. In nominal sentences the concord of gender and number
between subject and predicate closely resembles that in verbal
sentences.
(a) When the predicate, being verb or adjective, follows its
subject, they must agree strictly in gender and number ; thus
Ox o i ^ at- j i '
OJ+A ^>d ^Ul dJJI God knows best lit. is more knowing than any
* * x $ -
other, oy^ ^ w-aiio ^ IjU so behold it swallows up what
3 3 x 11
they cause to put on a fake appearance, d^xJb ^ they are
xJOxOJUxx Ojxx
attainers of it, jj^xft.^.; ^yXad perhaps they may repent, ^^
* * 5x
^)^iv perchance ye will take heed to yourselves ; but a broken
9 x x J x Ox
plural may be followed by a feminine singular, as *>*, O^t*^'
the fishes are large.
(b) When the predicate precedes its subject, as in negative
and interrogative sentences, (i) they must in a nominal sentence
agree (see c) but (ii) in a verbal sentence (see 251) the predi-
cate ought to be singular, thus vj^SjUJI ^>.wl the trutltf'ul are
trustworthy.
202 ELEMENTARY ARAHIC : [ 553
(c) If a subject be collective its predicate may follow in tbe
plural, thus ^JUkU*. JA*})! the people are ignorant. Similarly,
when a verb is placed after a collective subject, thus Ui^j^j ^jl
shall men direct us ?
' (<T) A predicate frequently agrees in gender with the logical
subject, i.e. a dependent annexed to the grammatical subject,
compare 551.
553. In negative and prohibitive sentences a negation may
apply to any part of the sentence the predicate, the subject (see
439), the object, the circumstantial expression (JlaLjt) etc.
554. The negative most often immediately precedes that part
of the sentence which it denies, but this is not necessarily so.
555. (a) The predicate of a verbal sentence in the imperfect
with present sense may be denied by ^ (see 362 dd\ as Oj&j *$
,330
UyJaA*. the guarding of them both does not weary Him ; or with
* JOtO s f. J J * 2
the future sense, as &* LA*) I j*.t *~a3 *$ 01 surely We will
not allow to be lost the reward of the righteous ; or with a past
sense, when preceded by a verb which expresses the past, as
s i j * * j f iZ'c. Oxx 0-
^+Mi> $ 4jl tj^j ^Jl did they not perceive that it could not
speak to them ?
(b) We rarely find ^ attached to a verb in the perfect, except
when used with ^ to continue a previous negation.
556. The particle ^>J (for &\ *$ see 362 ////) is a very strong
negation of the future, as can be seen in 411 and 415 a L
REM. ForJ^J and O see 412 and 418.
560] A GRAMMAR. 203
557. The particle U not (see 362 kk) denies the perfect
when the latter has one of the meanings treated in 401 a to d ;
when joined to the imperfect it denies the present, as is noted
in 408 e, rem. a.
NOTE. An instance of to denying O^ 9 * s given in 531.
558. The particle o! no* ( see 362 ^) beside being found
in nominal sentences, thus *i^i })! ^ oj ^ls is only Thy
temptation, may be used before the imperfect indicative and the
perfect of a verb.
559. The verb JJj (see 182 and 442) which usually
expresses the indefinite or definite present (see 408 a, b) is
* f * 1 ' 3 ' ' } ,
commonly <La5U incomplete, as tji?U C**J or ^Uj C.-..J / am
not an onlooker ; though it may be *UU complete. It is also
employed as an indeclinable particle, denying more strongly than
^ that part of the sentence to which it is prefixed.
560. When a sentence containing one of the negatives Co, J^,
O, u$ or v~J is followed by another negative sentence, with
^ and to connect the two, (a) the second sentence is negatived
by when no special emphasis attaches to the form of negation,
and (6) the first negative is repeated when the independence of
the second sentence is emphasized ; but (c) when the two verbs
are conceived of as forming parts of one action, no second nega-
tive is required, thus U JAJU^ \*+j ^^H ^ Oj */ our Lord
li<l not been merciful to us and pardoned us.
REM. a. As regards the use of ^ instead of repeating j+,
see 482 d, rem. a.
204 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 563
563. The prohibitive *5 governs the jussive, as may be seen
in 417 b and 420: this happens also with the energetic.
564. All interrogative clauses take the direct form, thus
ail)7 JJJSl canst thou write Arabic ? iiibT JjH JL,
he inquired whether thou couldst write Arabic ; the
difference between direct and indirect questions being ignored,
both in the arrangement of words and in the moods of the verb.
565. Spoken questions may be indicated merely by the tone
of voice : but written inquiries are usually introduced by one of
f. x Ox
the following particles, viz. t, *$\ or JA ; unless provided with
x Ofr x x
an interrogative adverb, such as ,>j1 where ?. ^i& how ? or the
like (see 361 to 364).
566. The simplest interrogative is I thus ^^ j-l ^U^l
have ye hastened the affair of your Lord ? This particle may be
prefixed to oj> 1> ^ r Jj; thus lj,L^ U J>5t (see 361 a,
rem.) shall there indeed be to us a reward ? ^^s^^\ do ye wonder?
A * ^
\j>'\ do ye not therefore understand ?
567. The interrogative JA introduces questions of a more
lively sort, thus ^JLi*.; 1^3 Ifb U ^)l ^j.s^j ^JA shall they be
rewarded otherwise than with what they have been accustomed to
do. Upon the use of this particle there are certain restrictions.
568. The particle *$\ (originally meaning is it not the case
that?) affirms a certainty, thus JUiJI <0 *$\ truly to Him
belongs the (whole) creation. It is frequently followed by a
572] A GRAMMAR. 205
further asseverative, e.g. U-31, thus <UJI juc. ^bplt U-l
verily their luck (or fate) is in the hands of God only.
570. The interrogative pronouns ,>* who ? and U what ? (see
351) may stand in any one of the three cases, nominative,
dependent, or accusative. To render the interrogative more
vigorous we append the demonstrative pronoun 13 (see 340)
x J J tx x x X 1.1.
thus OJj-*^ 'i *** 50 what do ye enjoin f and tins may happen
J x JxOx C3x> x x , .
when i^JJI follows, thus aju *A-^> i^jJl 13 C^* w ^ ?5 " e that
X "* X x x
sAa// intercede with Him ? The pronouns ^>* and U are always
used substantively, but cannot govern a dependent or be followed
by a substantive in apposition.
REM. d. As to ^ for U, see 351, rein.
572. There are two kinds of relative sentences; (a) that
called SJLo a qualificative which is immediately attached to an
indefinite substantive without intervening pronoun, and (6) that
called iio a conjunctive, where introduction is made by a
pronoun which is definite in its nature The conjunctive pro-
noun (see 346) is called J^j-oJf that which is joined, i.e.
joined to iLaJI the conjunctive clause. As examples (a) the
following are indefinite clauses; O
a nation who direct (others) by means of the truth and who by it
J ,- X0 XX X JJ0X Ox XX Oxx
do justice,
////" rliing t<> tln'ir idols '. (b) the following clauses
xOX> xx X x x ix xxX> X J00<0X
are definite ; j**-J I S^U. c-Jl^ ^1 **>j*)\ 0^^^'^ tfw "
a*^ them concern ut'j the ciflmje. irlilclt i situated try the sea,
206 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 573
5l>jJl O>!>- J ^ O>*^ CH^' those who take heed to themselves
and give the appointed alms, A** ^>oj ^~>$* Moses and he who
XX XX X ,ix XX J * J
w (or those who are) with him, ^)^s. j^z l^ *&jj U ej!
'it thy Lord on our behalf by virtue of that which he has
covenanted with thee.
REM. a. When the antecedent substantive is indefinite we
"* '
cannot in Arabic employ a conjunctive pronoun; for j^JJt is
(see 347) always definite, while ^> and Lo though sometimes
indefinite (see 353* and 527 /) are always used substantively.
REM. b. follows the next section.
REM. c. Among qualificative clauses may be accounted those
mentioned in 539, rem. b 1.
573. The qualificative clause (i-*JI) necessarily contains
a pronoun (called jk5U)l), referring to the qualified noun and
connecting it with the said qualificative clause. This 'cVid, in
case the clause be verbal, is a pronoun concealed (see 513) in
the verb ; as ^>>^ ^j^U. gatherers who (they) come to thee,
9X
oLU. ^Ui. a posterity followed who (they) inherited
the Book : in case the clause be nominal, a separate pronoun is
employed ; as JU. -lo yb J-H & prophet who (he) is thy
companion. Frequently the 'a'id appears as a suffix in the
J J JO X X X X 1
accusative, thus d^7^C j I Jub M5 ?s a plot which ye have
ojjjji-oox
contrived ; or in the dependent, as ^y^V* A<1J ' * a people oj
whom God is the destroyer, a^ijC^ J^.1 ^il until a fixed term
tr/ftc/t tln'y were about to attain. If however no *a'id is needed
to make clear the meaning, it may be omitted;
575] A GRAMMAR. 207
(make mention of} the day on which He shall assemble you, whence
a.** is eliminated.
x x
REM. In theory a 'a'id ought to be of the 3rd person, hut in
practice it often agrees with the subject to which the qualified
x 6x0x 40x J Z
substantive is predicate ; thus <j^JlysjJ ^e^5 ^*&\ verily ye are
a people who (ye) are ignorant. Compare 575, rem. a.
574. The conjunctive clause (aJLoJ!) must begin with a con-
junctive pronoun. Now it has been shown in 346 et seq.
that, like ^o and U when definite, ^JJI is used substantively
* i * #'
to mean he who, that which ; thus w~*. ^JJ I that which was
bad, i^^t ,^5-^1 J>^' J>*^! cH^' th se w ^ follow the
apostle, the illiterate prophet. Only ^JJ I can be used adjectively,
and then like all adjectives it agrees with its antecedent, a definite
substantive, in gender, number and case, its agreement in case
being best shown by the dual which has case-endings : thus
U*}L<bJ ^JJUI jj>JUflu-:JI Ojl show us the two devils who led us
astray, where O-JJJI is oblique (for the accusative) agreeing
with v >-oUliJ<; again O^Lcuo CA ^>jJjJI <j-JUxJjl Ojl show
us the two devils who lead us astray. In both these examples the
real subject in the relative clause is the pronoun called 'a'id, as
will next be explained.
NOTE. Whether used substantively or adjectively CH^' can
only apply to masculine rational creatures, compare 302, rem. a.
57j). The preceding section shows that Arabic conjunctive
pronouns are not usod quite like our English relative pronouns ;
tor the case in \\liidi they are put is independent of the con-
208 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 575
junctive clause. If standing first as substantives and forming
the subject of an independent sentence, they are in the nomina-
tive ; as is \^jS'\ when attached adjectively to a substantive in
the nominative. But in every other instance, though at the
beginning of a conjunctive clause, they are subject to government
by an antecedent, whether noun, verb or particle : consequently
they are in the particular case which their position requires,
viz. either, that case occupied by the demonstrative pronoun
implied in them, thus J$ Uj by reason of THA T which he has
done ; or, the same case as the antecedent substantive with which
xOxOP SitO SltO 3 ,*x
they agree, thus Up I ^JJt j^^> t^-ub so believe tJie light
which We have sent down. To elucidate this difficult matter we
have employed in the first instance two examples which do not
3 ' OtO 3 Z x
display juUJI J++*G&\ the pronoun which refers back, and we now
propose showing to what use it serves in (<t) the nominative case,
(6) the accusative, and (c) the dependent.
(a) If a 'a'id stand in the nominative as subject, it is
represented (i) in a verbal sentence by the personal pronoun
concealed in the verb, thus jo -* ^^ he sent him who
x x x t- x . x
struck tJiem, AJU Jjj! ^jJt j>Jt t^*^ they followed the light
rttiO x xdxOx x ix> xO x Of.
which has been sent down with him, *J1 &* Oiv^J CH*^ 1 4rt^!
We delivered those who were
forbidding the evil and We visited with grievous punishment those
who were unjust. But (ii) in a nominal sentence the 'a'id is
expressed by a separate pronoun, as * r *lk $*> U that which is
ann'llinij or whatever is sweet smelling. The separate
proiiouu however (iii) is not required iu a nominal sentence
575] A GRAMMAR. 209
when the predicate is an adverb, as UA ^> v^o^o / struck
the one who is here ; or a preposition with its dependent, as
x Jxx ' 1 **** *'*' * x * x ?* x
A** U i>-j> A0y studied what is in it, AJU t>^'j ^*^^
XX **
iXJUJI ^ so TF0 sai?^? Am awe? #Aos^ who were with him in
the ark.
(b) If the 'a'id be an objective complement in the accusative,
it is appended as suffix to its verb, thus d^jj^a*-; ^ JJ I A0 whom
they find, ij^JJ *^5I U J^. ^A^ what we have given to the
prophet. The suffix however is very frequently eliminated, thus
pxg Ox J ^x Ox CJ ^xg Ox
^Ul ^> whom I wish for d*ll jj- he (or^AM^I >j* they) whom
xjOxJxx xjjlx
/ wish, ^jZjju \jj\s U ^A# ^ey t6'ere constructing, Uv *^'
"? 6/g to S0 ^Aa# ye rfo.
(c) When in dependent case the 'a'id represents our relative
pronouns, standing in cases other than the nominative and
aoxx xOx0 x x
accusative. Thus ^v*U c^xil o-j*^' ^ 5g ^/^ w/ww 7%ow
o e.0i0s * \ it 10 t a j j x x
to< s^c? blessings, c^j^b Ot^o-JI ^JUU A) <^JJt -fle to Whom
belongs the dominion over heaven and earth, AJ \3j=>> U I^-J Cii
when they forgot that of which they had been reminded,
U that in which they are. There are occasions on which
a 'a'id may be omitted, as for instance when it and the preceding
conjunctive pronoun are governed by the same preposition, as
U* U* t^Ic they turned in disdain from that from which he
turned in disdain where A*^ is eliminated : but omission is not
permissible if the preposition be used in two senses, or if it
follow different verbs, thus ouc l^J U-fc \^e> CJ3 so when they
turned in disdain from that from which they were forbidden.
GB. 14
210 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [576
RKM. a. In theory a 'a'id after ^$jt t ought to be of the 3rd
person but it is not so always : compare 573, rem.
NOTE. In relation to a 'a'id U-iU exactly resembles U, thus
ijl v ^ AJ U5U U^- whatever thou br ingest us of a sign.
576. Copulative sentences require ^ or o (see 366) of
which the former is used to connect words and clauses as a
simple co-ordinative ; thus o^j^^ d JjLJ^ ttoy have helped him
j5xx o j x oj
and assisted him, t^i^J^ ^*=>j JuJ in order to warn you and that
ye may take heed to yourselves, ^oA^fejJiwtj ^'
they bewitched men's eyes and terrified them,
^j^Lo \jJJu\j they were overcome there and were rendered
contemptible. The particle o however sometimes unites single
words as is noted in 540, but more usually it connects
two clauses showing either (a) that the latter is immediately
subsequent to the former in time, or (6) that the clauses are
linked internally as for instance by cause and effect : thus (a)
jj=>)$*o ^)*~*.\9jz)}*o He fashioned you, and then He beautified
Cj J xJ x x x . , x x0
your forms ; &++* O^*^ ^5* '^e WAC ^iJt he threw down
J x x
///.<? rod, and behold it became a serpent manifest; ^^bjU^.1
UJL3 ^e c^ose ^ew, awe? when the
J J x J
convulsion seized them, he said, my Lord; (6) C^o-j^ 15^**-^
XXX i /O J OJ JC/O Ml ljiX> u( IJ X> >XX Ul lO J ^X
AJUI^ ^4. ^JJI ^
use} He gives life and causes to die, therefore believe
God and His apostle, the illiterate propliet, who believes God
mJ Hi* words; also follow him. When o means because it is
580] A GRAMMAR. 211
Zi * > 01 s x J x ' ' to
usual to employ Op> thus ^JL U ^J ^jlj \j*a* \$la*k>\
go down Into Egypt for (there) shall ye find what ye ask. We
have seen in 415 d, 417 c and rem. c, that ^9 may be used
to separate an apodosis from its protasis : after the disjunctive
particle Ul (see 367 d) ^5 must always introduce the apodosis,
thus j^jllaJt ^Ij-sh. <J3 UJlo J^ftj v>*' O- ^ a5 * whoso
believes and does right, he shall have a most excellent reward.
577. If a second subject be added to the concealed pronoun
which serves as subject to the verb, we must employ a separate
personal pronoun in repetition of the latter, thus ^ol b UL5
xSx ,- x J 0xx x Of J OfO
-Jt v >5Cwl IFe 5zW, Adam, dwell thou and
thy wife in the garden ; but *-jJ^ Viwt is permissible.
578. If after a pronominal suffix expressing the object a sub-
stantive be connected by ^, we may employ a separate personal
j , x xj of
pronoun in repetition of the suffix, thus oU.1^ yb A*.,! put him
off and his brother ; but this is not usual. Also we may write
j , ox o
oU.1 -^jt^ Aa-jt ; or we may employ bl (see 189 a) thus
obt^ olk.1 -*jl jt?w^ off his bi'other and him.
579. We must repeat a preposition, if with its pronominal
suffix a substantive is connected by ^ ; thus ^5^-^ ^ j^
pardon (the sin) to me and my brotlier.
580. When preceded by ^ connecting two nouns, *$ represents
all the antecedent negative sentence except that word for which
the nounthat follows ^ is substituted; thus
drowsiness doth not seize Him nor sleep : here ^ represents
.
142
212 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [582
582. The copulative particles are sometimes used in Arabic
in place of an English disjunctive or adversative ; thus
what has been sent down to us, and they ignore what
(has come) after it, although it is the truth. We have noted
in 540 the use of ^ between two verbs, the second of which
modifies the first.
583. Mention has been made in 444 c, rem. c 4, of
iJU. 1U*- a circumstantial clause, which will commonly be
x OiO x x
found prefaced by JUJI ^, i.e. the copulative particle j,
often meaning whereas or seeing that. Here ^ serves to connect
two clauses the second of which describes the state or condition
cither of the subject or other part of the first clause, or else of a
new subject.
(a) The circumstantial clause may be nominal (see 513) as
OsJlifT ^ J,UJ jij $1 ^f<\ JjT ' shall I seek for
you a god other than God, whereas He has favoured you above all
creatures : here the second clause refers to <*JUt, and is compound
nominal (see 519) having a finite verb for its predicate.
(A) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and affirmative,
it - verb being in imperfect indicative preceded by j^Sj. Without
jJ we must not employ ^, and by omission of both we obtain
sentences like the examples in 408 d where the second clause
M X i X
is j jJU Jl- Ml indicating the future ; or like those in 408 e
whose second clause is OjU* J^- # contemporaneous state.
(r) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and negative, its
verb being in imperfect indicative preceded by Uj, or in the
584] A GRAMMAR.
xx x Jx Oxx jOx
jussive preceded by ^; thus l~ *lX3 ^3 J-5 v>
/ created thee beforehand when thou wast nothing. If ^ be used,
^ is nearly always omitted, and not seldom in other cases.
(d) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and affirmative,
X X
its verb being in the perfect usually preceded by j3j ; thus
J^5 JH> ^JUiii. j$ o** ^* 5* ^ * s wsy for ^e, seeing that
I created thee heretofore.
(e) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and negative, its
verb being in the perfect preceded by Uj, or even by U alone :
if J~+) be employed it is preceded by j, thus ^ U* J^-5^
0* , x x Oxx x Oc 2 xx
^ ^)t>> Ov-J^ ^ifttj*\ O-* L^i w % ^ S# ** WI en( l uire con-
cerning what of their property is in my (two) hands, seeing that
thou art not heir to them ?*
584. Adversative, restrictive and exceptive sentences call for
notice ; the commonest adversative particles being *$ and
or
(a) We employ ^ (see 362 dd) in opposition to a preceding
|L < J X * J X
affirmative proposition or command ; thus *JIJ 1 ^^X^ LT-^ J* 5
x J i x
Ojj-yJ ^ Moses, not Aaron, was called ttie interlocutor of God.
(6) We use && and ,>) (with or without ^, see 362 ee)
in opposition most frequently to a preceding prohibition or
* This example is taken from line 5 on page 18 of Chrestoniathie 6l6men~
tui re de V Arabe littoral avec un glossaire par Hart wig Derenbourg et Jean
Spiro, Paris (Ernest Leroux) 1892 ; copies of which (second) edition I have
placed in the Bodleian, Cambridge University Library, and the British
Museum. See also the opening words of Goran ii. 270.
[585
negative statement: J-aJl ^J\ *&>\ O>&j \J>\j2 c> J tnou
'w 1x Ox x x
not see Me, but look toward the mountain ; ^&3 A^^O
J>y Mere is in me no error > but I am an apostle.
585. We have mentioned Ot at 436, rem. d, this word
being most commonly restrictive (see 362 n). It is usually
placed at the beginning of a proposition, and that portion of
the proposition which it affects must stand at the end ; thus
4JJ I jut ^fffcp ^ Uj 1 their luck (or fate) is at the disposition
X XX fi
of God only] see 517 for a restricted incohative.
586. Exception (!tL*^t) is of three kinds;
xCx jOx
joined, in which L5 ;.t:... JI ^e MtM^ excepted is similar in kind
JO xOxO J Ox
to the general term (A^O ^.;tr,..^Ji Ma# from which exception
xJvixlx JxOJOx
is made) as ^A *^[ <OI ^ ^JUn0 / wo god except He ; yka.^Ji ^
severed, in which the thing excepted is different in kind from
<!x 3jOxO>xxx
the general term, as tjU-*- *^)J v>5J I >^ U #Ae people did not
i ix JOx
stand up but an ass ; and >>A*Jt ^e emptied, where the general
term is not expressed, as *Jl *5l lla^Ltf U ^w cfos^ not resent
C_ X X
(awy action} on our part except etc.
(a) The commonest of exceptive particles is *5j (see 367 /)
in employing which the following rules are observed.
(i) After an affirmative proposition containing the general
term, a thing excepted must be in the accusative ; thus
'
w' J x x X 0/0
*N)| iCS'^LfrJI M0 aw#e& prostrated themselves except Eblis.
(ii) After a negative proposition containing the general term,
a thing excepted is best placed in same case with the general
586] A GRAMMAR. 215
term ; thus *LL^L S?l ^A ^ this in nothing but Thy
ji x 5 xl , ~ x ,
temptation, aJUl ^)l Aj] N) ffore is no god but God (where <*JI is
virtually nominative though grammatically accusative, see 439).*
The same holds with propositions implying a negative, which are
usually interrogative (LJ^J ^lyllwt a negative interrogative) ;
ji-> X X5 J Jx OXX
thus <? AJ I ^t OllJasiJ I ^wb ,ju>3 awe? who forgives sin except God?
The general term may be a preposition with its dependent, as
O- v^' ^* ^0 mischance has befallen except etc.
being equivalent to i-a*, and the thing excepted
follows the general rule in respect of case. When the general
term is not expressed, we must give to the thing excepted
that case in which the general term should be ; thus U ti
i i Ox
1 we have nothing to do but to unload whence ?.^A is
eliminated, >aJI *j <*JUI j^^j ^y^aj * ^y ^ wo# say (any-
thing] concerning God except the truth.
NOTE. Beside nouns, other expressions may follow the ex-
ceptive particle such as (i) an adverb, (ii) prepositional phrase,
X X X X
(iii) hal, or (iv) clause known as ma^darlyali. Thus (i) 3^2, U
LA *$\ <UsjJ! ^3 ^re is no tree in the garden except here ;
(ii) AJjf o3jj ^1 ^cejp# % God's permission-, (iii)
except scantily, see 444 c, rem./ Note; and (iv) *j
etc., see 448 c.
* In these two examples the words following the particle of exception
stand in the category of Jfcjl ^o ^"^ t Jj^> see Wri 8 llt>s Grammar, ii.
139, rem. 6 2 $,
216 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [587
587. We have treated conditional and hypothetical sentences
in 404 to 406, 413 and 417 : it must now be explained that
the apodosis of a conditional sentence commences with \-$ (see
366 b) when the conditional particle (oj, ^ or other) of
the protasis cannot exercise any influence upon the apodosis, or
is not required to do so.
(a) This happens when the apodosis is a nominal sentence ;
f 6 J ss 3 s " ^-*> ft * C., ,0*
thus &&**5+>} ^ O- 3 *^ ^ *i' L>* *4 ^^ l*v* whatever
sign thou bringest us, we do not believe in thee ; ~> Jj^j ^>*
, J JO* J J s *>,, 0,
u whosoever is made to guard against
his own covetousness, those are the prosperous.
(c) If the apodosis be a verbal sentence expressing command,
x Cx '^ xft * 3
prohibition, or desire ; thus l^ Old Ajb oJUh. C^^rr> ^jl //'
brought a sign, produce it.
(d) If the apodosis be a verbal sentence preceded by ^
jj, U, oJ, or J-J ; thus ^IjJ ^15 ili jiZwl oj
if it stand firm in its place, hereafter thou shalt see Me.
REM. There are cases when the use of o is optional.
588. The hypothetical particle implies that what is
supposed is, as a matter of fact, not true or at any rate is
improbable (see 404 a), whereas ,jl simply indicates a
condition.
590. The affirmative particle J (see 361 c) may be prefixed
to the apodosis of a hypothetical sentence, thus ^Lj *li
ill ^U t JitJ if thy Lord had willed, He would have
made (alt) mankind one people.
595] A GRAMMAR.
591. Arabic poetry during the so-called classical period,
from about 500 to 750 A.D., always takes the form of short
poems, which rarely exceed the length of a hundred and twenty
verses. Such poems are named kasidafis (5ju-o3, plur. juLoS) ;
whereas a mere fragment, consisting of only a few verses, is
termed a kit 1 ah (iiLs, plur. aL3, also oUlsJU).
REM. Rhyme without metre or measure does not constitute
poetry.
592. Each verse or bayt (ow, plur. OL^I) consists of two
hemistichs.
593. Rhyme (^315) is of two kinds. When the verse ends
4 -ix J
with a consonant, the rhyme is called fettered (5jui) ; when
it ends with a vowel, loose (iiXlx*). According to ancient rule,
the two hemistichs of the first verse of a kasidaK must rhyme
with one another, and the same rhyme must be repeated at the
end of every verse throughout the whole po*m.
594. The essential part of the rhyme is the letter called
al rawi, i^jJ', which remains the same throughout the entire
poem.
REM. The letters I, j, and ^ cannot be employed as rawi
when they are long vowels and in some other cases.
595. The loose rhyme (see 593) terminates in what is
called aJUji, the annex or appendix to the ram. The silaH
may be either one of the long vowels t^_, ^--, .$-*-, or the
letter * preceded by one of the short vowels (*--, A -7-1
218 ELEMENTARY ARABIC: [-598
REM. a. The final vowel of a verse is always long, because
it is regarded as being followed by the homogeneous letter of
prolongation (see 6), whether this latter be written or not.
The vowel-letter t is invariably expressed, but ^ and \j$ are often
omitted, e.g. juj for LJ^} and my hand, *^*o for }X^a or
l^x^o they made.
598. The last two quiescent ( 9, rem. a) letters of a verse
form the limits between which is comprised the rhyme. Hence
the Arab grammarians distinguish five varieties of rhyme,
according to the number of moving ( 4, rem. 6) letters which
come between the two quiescents.
600. Every verse in Arabic poetry consists of a certain
number of feet, and a certain collocation of feet constitutes a
9 * 3 Of.
metre Cp*~>, plural
601. The metres are ordinarily reckoned to be sixteen in
number.
NOTE. The following sections include only those metres of
which examples occur in Wright's Arabic Reading-Book.
603. Of the iambic metres we shall mention the rajaz,
kdmil, and wdfir.
601 It is a peculiarity of rajaz ($ the trembling) that
each hemistich usually forms, as it were, an independent verse
and rhymes with the preceding one.
Trimeter acatalectic
Trimeter catalectic
610] A GRAMMAR. 219
606. The kdmil (J*lfli the perfect} is either dimeter or
trimeter.
Trimeter acatalectic
^ - ^ - | ^ - ^ - | s^_^_|j^_^_ | ^ _ ^ _ | v-* _ ^ _
Trimeter catalectic
^-v- | ^ _ w _ | ^ _ ^ _ || W - v _ | ^*_ w _ | W _ _
Dimeter acatalectic
JWW_.,_ ] ^^_.,_l|v^__.,_ I V*_.,_
I II I
This last variety is sometimes lengthened by the addition of
a syllable
wv_ w _ |y^_^_||^_ w _ |v^_ w _|_
in which case it is said to be jj* having a train.
607. The basis of the wdfir (>tj)f the exuberant} is tin-
same as that of the kdmil, but with the order of the component
parts reversed, w-**-.
Trimeter
w _-~_| w _^_| v ,__|| v ,_v*_| v ,_**_| v ,__
609. Of the amphibrachic metres we shall mention the
mutakdrib and tau-H.
610. Tlie basis of the antf<i/,>iril> (^&*+!\ the tri r
is w - w (amphibrachys), for which may be substituted ^ -
Tetrameter catalectic
220
ELEMENTARY ARABIC:
[611
611. The tawil (Jo^j the long) is one of the finest, as
well as the most common, of the Arabic metres.
Acatalectic
|v-> I I II I *-> I I
w --- I w ^7 | w v^ ||vy ^7 | v^ --- | w ^7 | \J v->
The last foot of the second hemistich may be changed into
Catalectic
I VJ _^ _
613. Of the anapaestic metres we shall mention the basit
and munsarik.
615. The basit
with the older poets.
Tetrameter
outspread} is a favourite metre
616. The munsarih (~. J ~J* (f )\ the flowing) has the same base
as the basit, but the first ^ ^ - is reduced to a single long
syllable.
Tetrameter
U \s
\^/
o -
^/
o ^
618. Of the ionic metres we shall mention the ramal,
madid, and kfiqfif.
619. The ramal ( J*jJt Me running) has for its base ^ ^
(ionicus a minore).
624] A ORAMM Ml.
Trimeter catalectic
O ^ C7
OV ^7 \s
the extended} may be either
620. The madid
acatalectic, as
w -;i,w T i
or catalectic, as
o^-- | o^ -
621. The khafif ( jLi^ 1 ^ %A# or mV6/e) is one of the
more usual metres.
Trimeter acatalectic
_ w __|__ w _ _ 7V ,__ i ;_ w __|^_ w _j5v= =
Trimeter catalectic
623. Something must now be said concerning the forms
which the final syllables of words assume at the end of a verse.
624. Final short vowels are either dropped or retained as
long (see 595, rem. ), the tamvln of the noun disappearing at
the same time; e.g. j-~lb OljJI^J! Jyu- Op fw verity <#-
'> * si* * t *
obedience to mothers is (a) great (sin), for j~=> ; ^Ij-e O-f *^^-
thy friend of (the tribe) Murdd, for ^tj^. In this case final
fathah is always accompanied by an 'alif, as OU^U I ^Ju Uj
x x 0-' X "
//</ amulets do not a cat I ayainst death, for >!> M.
222 ELEMENTARY ARABIC : [ 625
625. The accusative termination I J*_ generally becomes \ ^,
though it occasionally disappears altogether.
626. The feminine terminations 5_*_, 3_-_, and 5 * become
o o j- * . ,
--, more rarely ^-^; likeAvise 5 ^_ and 5 * , whether
masculine or feminine.
627. Nouns ending in ^ __ or t _*_ simply drop the tanwin ;
x X X XX f X XX
thus ^s a youth becomes ^9 or U3, and La* a sta/f l.g.g.
Those ending in drop the tanwin and either resume the third
radical or not, at pleasure ; e.g. ^15 a judge may become either
X f
or
628. The long vowels !_'_, L^-^-J and $->- usually remain
unchanged.
REM. b. The genitive and accusative suffixes of the first
personal pronoun, i^ and ^, have several pausal forms,
Ox Ox x
namely AJ , 12 > ^^ W-
EEM. c. In rhyme the long vowels (^ and ^ ^?- are often
expressed merely by kasrati and dammalL
629. When the penultimate letter of a word bears sukun,
the vowel of the final letter may be transferred to it in rhyme,
St x 6 Si x
e.g. jjuaJt for ;jueJI.
REM. a. This transference (ji) is not allowed when it
would give rise to a form which has no example in the language.
630. Indeclinable words ending in a vowel when used as
630] A GRAMMAR.
rhymes take a final , which is technically called ow^JI /U tin-
o * ~, ' ,,
hd of pause or C~~JI iU the lia of silence \ thus ^t ; how
becomes AA*^. The same letter is added to some verbal and
pronominal forms (see 628, rem. />).
The concluding sections (232 253) of Wright's Grammar
illustrate the principal poetic licenses which affect the form of
words used in verse. This subject does not fall within the scope
of an elementary work ; moreover, the slight changes which
custom permits are seldom of such a nature as to cause any
difficulty to the student.
U-K, M.A., AT THE DNIVKMITT
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