An elementary introduction to the knowledge of mineralogy: including some account of mineral elements and constituents, explanations of terms in common use ...

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ELEMENTARY

INTRODUCTION

TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF

MINERALOGY:

INCLUDING SOME ACCOUNT
or

MINERAL ELEMENTS AND CONSTITUENTS ;

EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS IN COMMON USE J
BRIEF ACCOUNTS OF MINERALS,

AND OF THE PLACES AND CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH THEY
ARE FOUND.

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OP THE STUDENT.

BY WILLIAM PHILLIPS,

MEMBER OF THE GEOLOGICAL 8OC1ETT.

With Notes and Additions on American Articles,
BY SAMUEL t. MITCHILL,

Professor of Mineralogy, Botany and Zoology, in the University of New-York;
President of the Lyceum of Natural History, #c.

Nullwn est sine nomine saxum. — Lucan.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY COLLINS AND CO-

No. 189, PBARL-S*REET.

1818.

'•.%•:•:; ll-:\ " Pr

SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW- YORK, ss.

BE IT REMEMBERED, Thar on the twenty-eighth day of May,
in the forty-second year of the Independence of the United State* of
America, COLLINS & Co. of the said district, have deposited in this
office, the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors,
in the words and figures following, to wit :

" An Elementary Introduction to the knowledge of Mineralogy : in-
cluding some account of Mineral Elements and Constituents ; explanations
of terms in common use ; brief accounts of Minerals, and of the places and
circumstances in which they are found. Designed for the use of the stu-
dent. By WILLIAM PHILLIPS, Member of the Geological Society.—
With notes and additions on American articles, by SAMUEL L. MITCHILL,
Professor of Mineralogy, Botany and Zoology, in the University of New-
York ; President df the Lyceum of Natural History, &c."
" Nullum est sine nomire saxum.— Lucan."

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, enti-
tled " An act for the encouragement of learning by securing the copies
of maps, charts and books, to the authors and proprietors of such co-
pies, during the time therein mentioned." And also to an act, entitled
" An act, supplementary to an act, entitled an act for the encouragement
of learning, by 'securing the copies of maps, charts and books, to the
authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein men-
tioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, en-
graving and etching historical and other prints."

JAMES DILL,
Clerk of the Southern District of New- York,

'••i-

PREFACE.

A considerable edition of the little volume entitled an
•' Outline of Mineralogy and Geology' having been near-
ly, and very unexpectedly, exhausted, in the short space
of a few months, it became a subject of consideration,
whether it could be so enlarged as to render a second
edition more interesting and valuable, without greatly
inn-easing the size and price of the book. It occurred
to me, that it might be possible further to illustrate the
subjects on which it treats, by introducing some account
of the more important minerals, with general observa-
tions upon such as should be omitted. But, vjben con-
sjderable progress had been made, it assumed such a
patch-work character, that I resolved to re-publish the
* Outline,' with such alterations only as might seem es-
sential to be made ; more especially, as partial descrip-
tions would completely alter its character, without fully
answering the purpose of their introduction. Its object
will therefore be, as before, rather to awaken inquiry,
than to satisfy it.

The attempt to improve it, however, served to con-
vince me, that, if descriptions, of individual minerals,
together with some account of the places and circum-
stances in which they are commonly found, were collect-
ed with tolerable fidelity, from the best authorities, and
comprized in a small volume, it would prove instructive
to the young mineralogist ; more especially, if divested
of technical and scientific terms, as much as the nature
of the subject will allow. This feeling was an incite-
ment to undertake the labour of selecting, which, at best,
is but an humble occupation.
A 2

PREFACE.

It next became an object to determinate the order in
which these descriptions should be placed : and when it
is considered that any one of the several arrangements
tha* have already been promulgated, might have been
chosen, I can scarcely hope to escape censure for having
adopted one, that, in some respects, differs from them
all ; my apology is, that not one of them was adapted
to my purpose.

In the introduction to Aikin's ' Manual of Mineralo-
gy,' an attentive perusal of which I wish again to recom-
mend to the student, there are some excellent remarks
on the prevailing arrangements of minerals. From all
that has hitherto been done, it may be argued, that the
very nature of the substances comprehended in those
arrangements, forbids the construction of any one against
which many well-founded objections cannot be raised ;
and wherein there shall not be much that is arbitrary,
and consequently, dependent one some particular views,
or some favorite theory. Hitherto, no natural classifi*
cation of minerals has been discovered : either this
most desirable object cannot be attained, or the science
is not yet sufficiently understood to allow of its accom-
pli oh me nt.

It cannot, however, be denied, on the one hand, that
the science of mineralogy is greatly dependent on that
of chemistry; nor, on the other, that its acquirement
should be regarded as preliminary to that of geology. —
Jt therefore seemed indisputable, that if it were possible
to exhibit the science in such a point of view, as that its
dependence on the one, and its intimate connexion with
the other, should become apparent, the result would be
advantageous to the student.

With these objects principally in view, peculiar atten-
tion has not always been given to the enumeration of
all the nicer characteristics of each mineral, nor to the
maintaining of one exact order of description. This has
been done by Aikin, in his ' Manual of Mineralogy,' with
all the fidelity which a precise and scientific detail of
these characters requires. It has rather been my inten-
tion to give, in familiar language, the more important
mineralogical and geological characters of each, so as
to enable the student, by such acquaintance as he may

PREFACE. V

thus familiarly gain with the objects of his study, to con-
sult with advantage the more scientific works of abler
mineralogists. Consistently with this intention, expla-
nations of about one hundred terms, commonly used in
mineralogical description, are given at the end of the
Introduction ; which includes an enumeration of mineral
elements and constituents, together with a brief view of
their chemical characters, and remarks tending to shew
their mineralogical and geological importance. The
order in which the individual minerals have been des-
cribed, and which is exhibited in the Table of Contents,
was governed by an attention to the same objects*

Thus, siliceous minerals are first described, because it
is estimated that silex forms the largest proportion of the
oldest and most abundant primitive rocks : and all
earthy minerals, of which silex is the largest ingredient,
are ai ranged under that head ; beginning, chemically,
with silex in its purest form, and proceeding to such as
consist of that and another earth, as silex and alumine,
then to those consisting of silex and lime, &c. and after-
wards, to such minerals as are chiefly constituted of three
or more earths, terminating with the most compound ;
and regarding the iron, manganese, &c. involved in ma-
ny of them, only as accessary constituents. The other
earthy minerals are proceeded with in like manner, ar-
bitrarily selecting such as contain the rare earth, glucine,
and placing them under that head, except that the Ga-
dolinite, which also contains the still more rare earth,
Yttria, is placed under the latter. In regard to metal-
liferous minerals, the rules I had prescribed for the or-
der of description, could riot always be adhered to with-
out involving some absurdity ; for instance, in the ore
called White Silver, that metal is an ingredient, accord-
ing to one analysis by Klaproth, in the proportion only
6f about 2 per cent. ; but it would have bten altogether
ridiculous to have placed a substance bearing the name
of White Silver, among the ores of Lead, to which, ac-
cording to the proportions of its ingredients, it properly
belongs.

In order to avoid too greatly (he appearance of a
scientific work, every mineral has been described only
the name or names by which it is commonly dis*

TI PREFACE,

tinguished in our own country. The synonyms may be
found in Aikin's ' Manual,' and still more at lapge in the
useful £ Mineralogical Nomenclature' of Allan.

This compilation, for it includes but iittle that is new,
has been selected from the works of the most expe-
rienced mineralogists ; chiefly from those of Ha'uy,
Brongniart, Jameson, the Chemical and Mineralogical
Dictionary of Aikins, and the Manual of Aikin ; but, con-
sidering the purpose of the book, it seemed unnecessary
to acknowledge the numerous quotations from those and
Other works in a more particular manner, by repeated
reference to their pages.

It is common with the beginner to ask for some means
by which he may be enabled at once to recognize any
mineral that may present itself to his notice. To this
inquiry, it may be replied, that, without the aid of study
and experience, no means sufficiently precise can be
hoped for in a science which is without a natural ar-
rangement ; and which therefore is divested of the cer-
tainties belonging to the study of the animal and vege-
table kingdoms. A studious comparison of their cha-
racters, with the descriptions published in the works of
mineralogists, might possibly enable the student to ac-
complish this desirable object. This method is un-
doubtedly tedious ; and in most cases, the best rules
that have been laid down, pre-guppose certain previous
attainments; but the labour would be materially lessen-
ed, if the individual specimens were well characterized,
and properly designated. The most effectual and ad-
vantageous method of acquiring a competent knowledge
of minerals is undoubtedly that of personal instruction.
The superiority which France and Germany have ac-
quired in mineralogical science, is, doubtless, in a great
measure, to be attributed to the facility of obtaining in-
struction, both public and private ; of which there was
an almost total deficiency in this country, until very
lately. Each of our Universities has now its professor,
and private, instruction begins to be attainable. The
metropolis and its neighbourhood are not without ad-
vantages in this respect. Lectures are given at the
Royal and Surry Institutions. The time and attention
of Mis. Lov\ry, of Titchfield Street, whose line colleo

PKEFACE. Vl

tion of minerals, models, and instruments used in the
mineralogical and geological researches, cannot fail, un-
der her instruction,^ of being advantageous to her pupils,
are occasionally given to this object : and T. Webster,
of Buckingham Place, Fitzroy Square, who is draughts-
man to the Geological Society, and has the immediate
care of its valuable collection, and whose acquirements
may thence be estimated, also dedicates a part of his
time to instruction in the sciences of mineralogy and
geology, as well as to the teaching of drawing ; a know-
ledge of which is intimately connected with those
sciences, and in the instruction of which he has adopted
the most expeditious and advantageous methods he can
devise.

Instruction in crystallography is also attainable. N. J.
Larkin, of Gee Street, Sorner's Town, who is a teacher
of the mathematics, is in the habit of teaching their ap-
plication to the theory of crystallization of Haiiy. A
perfect knowledge of this most beautiful theory can only
be attained by a correct statement of the mathematical
principles on which it is founded ; nevertheless, the the-
ory is also taught mechanically by N. J Larkin, in a few
lessons, by the assistance of models. These models cut
in box-wood, may be had of Bate in the Poultry, and
Mawe in the Strand, at one guinea each, as well as com-
plete sets of models of all the crystals described by Baiiy
in his Treatise on Mineralogy, from eight pounds to six-
teen pou! ds the set, according to the kind of wood of
which they are made : they are cut by N. J. Larkin
with great accuracy and beauty.

In the descriptions of individual minerals included in
this volume, it was my wish to have given a somewhat
detailed account of their crystalline forms. This I found
to be impossible, without increasing the size of the book
considerably. As, however, I conceive that it would mate-
rially tend to facilitate the progress of the young mine-
ralogist, it is my intention, at some future time, to publish
a view of the theory of crystallization, unless it shall be
accomplished by some abler hand. This view will not
be illustrated by the application of its mathematical
principles, and will therefore be only mechanical ; but
it will necessarily be accompanied by numerous figures,

fill PREFACE.

illustrative of the theory, and of the transitions of crystal-
line forms.

It is probable that some who may look into this vo-
lume, may judge that if the descriptions had been more
at length, more precise, and more technically scientific,
they would have been more valuable, and consequently
of more general interest. Such as may be induced to
pass this judgment upon it, are entreated to advert to
the main purpose of the publication. But, the simplicity
of the design, and in all probability, the manner in which
that design is executed, will deter the scientific from
perusing a work which is manifestly intended only fop
the beginner — only as a first step for the student — and
which, in reality, has little claim to the notice of the
mineralogist.

W. P.

London, March, 1816.

PREFACE,

BY THE WRITER OF THE AMERICAN NOTES.

When the American Publishers first requested me to
furnish additions to Mr. PHILLIP'S work, I hesitated
about tbe undertaking. My doubt arose from the amount
of information nlready extant in several valuable pub-
lications, upon Mineralogical subjects.

The MEDICAL REPOSITORY, from its commencement
in 1793, to the present time, is replete with such intelli-
gence. The second volume of that Journal, contains
the circular address of the first Mineralogical Society
known in the United States : an association, of which I
had the honour to be the president, and with the hono-
rable Samuel M. Hopkins, George J Warner, Esq. and
other early and zealous labourers, strove to arm every
hand with a hammer, and every eye with a microscope.

WOUIJHOUSE'S EDITION ^F CHAPTAL'S CHEMISTRY,
contains many excellent observations, as it was published
during 1807, arid was considered by me as one of the
best works of its time.

The AMERICAN MINERALOGICAL JOURNAL OF ARCHI-
BALD BRUCE, M. D. which was concluded in 1814, is an
important collection of facts and observations, tending
to elucidate the Mineralogy and Geology of the Fredo-
nian States and Territories. But above all, Professor
CLEAVELAND'S ELEMENTARY TREATISE, published in
1816, is so rich in domestic as well as foreign materials,
and so generally and justly In the hands of students and
other inquirers, that it seemed to supercede, in a great
degree, the use of other books. It was notwithstand-
ing, represented to rne, that a more chea:>, portable and
compendious manual of the Science, was demanded,

X PREFACE.

and that an impression of the present performance,
would be immediately begun.

I therefore abandoned my scruplues, and determined
to compose a few notes, for the purpose of giving more
interest to the present edition. Where the matter of
them has been borrowed, I have endeavoured to make
proper acknowledgement of the source ; believing, that
for good deeds, every person ought to receive all the
praise that is due to him. Wherever there may be
omissions in this respect, the reader is assured they do
not proceed from an intention to withhold commenda-
tion.

My own collection of facts and specimens would have
permitted me to have been much more ample and dif-
fuse. Indeed, it was a task of considerable difficulty, to
restrict myself to the actual limits ; there was never-
theless a reason for it. The description of many of the
specimens in Geology, which my cabinet contains,
having been already submitted to the public, there was
less necessity to travel out of the province of Mineralogy
on the present occasion.

I must however observe, that additional exertion,
would have rendered this edition more complete, and
that, from the rapid influx of materials, a future im-
pression may be rendered incomparably more valuable.

It is very remarkable, how much 1 am indebted to
Ladies, and to Military (jrentlement for spec.imens. I
hope tbeir example will be lollowed by all other classes
of Citizens.

Aetf-Tbnfc, May, 1818.

SAMUEL. L. MiTCHlLL.

INTRODUCTION.

The investigation of the structure of the earth belongs
to the science of Geology. It may however be interest-
ing to take a rapid survey of the present state of our
knowledge respecting it, were it only for the sake of
showing its intimate connexion with mineralogical pur-
suits,

In speaking of the earth and of our knowledge of its
structure, it is essential that the limited extent of that
knowledge should always be had in remembrance. We
are acquainted with it, only to a very inconsiderable
depth ; and when it is recollected that, in proportion to
the bulk of the earth, its highest mountains are to be con-
sidered merely as the unimportant inequalities of its sur-
face, and that our acquaintance does not extend in depth,
more than one-fourth of the elevation of these moun-
tains above its general level, we shall surely estimate our
knowledge of the earth to be extremely superficial ; that
it extends only to its crust.

The term 'Crust of the Earth' therefore relates only
lo the comparative extent of our knowledge beneath its
surface. It is not used with the intention of conveying
an opinion that the earth consists only of this crust, or
that its center is hollow ; for of this we know nothing.
The term may not be philosophical, but it is convenient.

The structure of the crust of the earth is most readily
studied in mountains, because their masses are obvious;
and also because, as they are the chief depositories of me-
talliferous ores, the operations of the miner tend greatly
to facilitate their study. Mountains are composed of mas-
ses which have no particular or discernible shape : or,
as is more commonly the case, of strata or beds, either
horizontal or oblique, sometimes nearly vertical.

* B

.11 INTRODUCTION.

In these masses and beds,, different structures have
been observed. Some of them are crystalline ; that is to
say, are composed of crystals deposited in a confused
manner, as in granite, or of crystals imbedded in some
Other substance, as in porphyry. These crystalline
rocks contain no organic remains ; and, as they are
always found beneath, never above, those which do con-
tain them, they are considered to have been of earlier
formation, and therefore have been termed primitive
rocks.

Other mountain rocks have no appearance of crystal-
lization; but, on the contrary, seem rather to have been
formed by the mere falling down, or settlement, of the
substances of which they are composed, from the solution
which contained them. These are always found above,
never beneath, the crystalline rocks ; and often contain
a yast abundance of organic remains, both animal and
vegetable. The more ancient of these, or such as con-
tain the remains of animals of which the genera and spe-
cies are extinct, are called Transition rocks : the more
recent, or such as contain the remains of animals in some
degree, or perfectly, resembling those inhabiting our
oceans, are called Flcetz or Flat rocks, because their po-
sition is considerably, or perfectly, horizontal : the for-
jner have received the name of Transition, as connect-
ing the primitive with the flcetz rocks. By many mi-
neralogists the transition and the floetz are classed toge-
ther under the name of secondary rocks.

Primitive and secondary rocks have suffered consider-
able change and ruin from causes which it is not our pre-
sent object to notice ; and their disintegrated portions,
having been formed anew, now constitute that peculiar
description of deposite which is termed alluvial, and
which therefore consists of the debris of other rocks.
Such are clayi, gravel, sand, &c. and these often con-
tain the remains ot land and amphibious animals, and
0f fish : they are found above the preceding, sometimes
testing immediately upon primitive ro^ks.

But the^e is still another and a very different kind of
rock, abundantly found in certain countries, which may
in a great measure be considered, like tl$e preceding, as
^resulting from the ruin of rocks, but from an opposite

INTRODUCTION. ill

cause, or by an agent directly the reverse, viz. by fire -y
constituting those known by the name of volcanic rocks .*
many of these strongly bear the marks of heat, and even
of fusion; some, on the contrary, offer no evidence of
their having been subjected to heat.

Lofty mountains composed of primitive rocks usually
present rugged and uneven summits, and steep acclivities
on the sides, as though they had suffered by convulsion.
Such as are wholly or externally composed of secondary
beds or strata, are less rugged on the summits and sides ;
their summits are flattish, or sojnewhat rounded, and their
sides present acclivities more easily accessible; and are
still more so when covered by alluvial matter, which
serves to fill up their roughnesses and hollows, and often
presents nearly a plane surface.

Both primitive and secondary mountains, more parti-
cularly the former, are traversed in various directions by
fissures, of different dimensions. These fissures are not
often empty, but are mostly filled with stoney or metal-
liferious substances, accompanied by vast quantities of
water; but not often by portions of the rocks they tra-
verse. These fissures are termed Mineral Iseins : of
whatever substance or substances, the body of a vein may
be composed, its sides are commonly very determinate,
and are by the miner called the walls of the vein.

From these veins, a large proportion of all the mine-
rals which are found in the cabinet of the mineralogist,
are extracted ; indeed almost all such as, from their ra-
rity, brilliancy, or peculiarity of form and combination,
possess the greatest attraction for the mere collector :
but these, though in these respects they may be the
most curious, are by no means the most important-

Mineralogy is a science of so great interest, tbat it
would be too much to be regretted were its real objects
and tendency misunderstood, or suffered to degenerate
into an avidity merely for the collecting of what is bril-
liant or rare. It is capable of affording larger and more
useful attainment than the possession of an unique. To
the attainment of the science of geology, that of mine-
ralogy is essentially requisite.

The study of mineralogy, therefore, does not include
only a knowledge of the more rare and curious substan-

1? INTRODUCTION.

ces 5 there is nothing in the mineral kingdom too eleva-
teJ or too low for the attention of the mineralogist, from
the substances composing the summits of the loftiest
mountains, to the sand or gravel on which he treads. It
is true that the aggregated masses of compound rocks
are not arranged in a mineralogical collection ; but it
must be remembered that each of the substances «f
which such aggregated masses are constituted, are all
comprehended in a mineralogical arrangement, and
therefore find their places in the cabinet. Granite, it is
true, is not to be found there ; but its components,
quartz, felspar, and mica, are met with in every one.

Thus, then, by the study of what, in opposition to the
term aggregated rocks, may be termed simple minerals,
the mineralogist becomes enabled to detect the sub-
stance with which he holds acquaintance by itself,, when
aggregated with others in a mass; and thus he becomes
qualified for the more difficult and more important stu-
dy of the science of geology ; which embraces a know-
ledge of the nature and respective positions of the masses
and beds composing mountains; and indeed of country
of every description, whether mountainous or otherwise.
It is not, therefore, or at least it ought not to be, the
sole object of the mineralogist, to be able to distinguish
the several genera and species of mineral substances ;
nor should his attention be confined to the mere task of
recognizing at first sight any mineral that may present
itself, or of being capable of at once assigning it a pro-
per place in his cabinet. He should hold a more enlar-
ged acquaintance with minerals, and with the circum-
stances attending them, in what may be termed, their
native places; he should know something of the posi-
tions they respectively bear towards each other in those
places ; he should become acquainted with their rela-
tive ages, deduced from the nature of the rocks in which
they are found ; their comparative scarcity or abun-
dance ; their combinations ; the countries in which they
occur; and their characters, both internal and external.
This knowledge, it may be repeated, is the first and
requisite step to the science of geology : not that it is
essential to this science that every mineral should be ac-
curately known : some are of comparatively little impcr-

INTRODUCTION. V

lance in a geological point of view, from their extreme
scarcity ; but it is essential to become acquainted with
simple minerals in the general, because of some of them^
many of the vast masses of the earth are composed.

Minerals which are found only in primitive rocks, are
said to belong to primitive countries ; by which name
are designed such tracts as are chiefly composed of pri-
mitive rocks. The substance in or on which a mineral
is found, is called its gangue or matrix; when in its natu-
ral place or position, a mineral is said to be in situ;
when this place and position are known,, we are acquain-
ted with its habitat.

In conformity with the object of this work, as explain-
ed in the preface, we must, before entering upon a des-
cription of individual minerals, take a view of the num-
ber, as well as of the nature of the elementary bodies, of
which they are constituted. In this, I shall aim at brevity.

The whole number of mineral elements are common-
ly included in the list of 9 earths, 2 alkalies, 27 metals,
and the two bases of combustible bodies, carbon and
sulphur ; but there are still other substances, both sim-
ple and compound, which having been detected by
analysis, as entering into the composition of certain of
the minerals about to be described ; it seems essential
in an elementary view of the science that these con-
stituents should have a due consideration, whether
they be regarded essentially as mineral elements, or on-
ly as accessaries.

These substances consist of certain acids, together
with water, hydrogen and oxygen. *

The acids are 1 3 in number, and are compound sub-
stances ; generally, though not without exception, con-
sisting of oxygen, united in different proportions with
certain bases.

The base of the Molybdic add is Molybdena

Arsenic Arsenic

Chromic Chrome

Tungstic Tungsten

Carobnic Carbon

Sulphuric Sulphur

Phosphoric Phosphorus

Fhioric Fluorine

Boracic Boron

Wit- ic Nitrogen

Muriatic Chlorine

Succinic unknown

Mellitrc unknown

Vi INTRODUCTION.

The bases of the four first, being metals, are included
in the 27 already adverted to ; those of the two next are
the bases also of combustible substances, and therefore
some description of the first six bases will be given in
their proper places ; but it will be requisite to give some
account of phosphorus, fluorine, boron, nitrogen, chlo-
rine, and of the succinic, and mellitic acids ; as well as of
water, hydrogen, and oxygen.

The necessity for including all these in the catalogue
of the constituents of mineral substances will become
apparent as we proceed.

In the following list, therefore, are comprehended,
according to the present state of our knowledge, the
whole number of the

ELEMENTS OR ACCESSARY CONSTITUENTS OF
MINERALS.

Oxygen, Nitrogen, 9 Earths,

Hydrogen, Chlorine, 3 Alkalies,

Water, Boron, 27 Metals,

Phosphorus, rl he succinic acid, Carbon,

Fluorine, The mellitic acid, Sulphur.

Many of the substances included in the foregoing list
are esteemed to be simple elementary bodies, because
they have not hitherto yielded to any of the numerous
attempts of the chemist to decompose them ; others
have only J?een partially analyzed, though sufficiently to
determine that they are compounds; of others again the
composition is known ; others have altogether eluded
the vigilant eye of the analyst.

Chemistry, notwithstanding the rapid advances that
have been made in it, during the last few years, is still
acknowledged to be far from perfect as a science. New
facts continually arise, which as continually tend to illus-
trate and to advance the science of mineralogy, which is
yet in its infancy, and is dependent in a very important
degree on the advancement of chemical science.

In the following pages is inserted a short sketch of the
nature and properties of each of the substances included
in the above list of the elements or accessary constitu-
ents of minerals ; which, it is presumed, will tend to
throw some light on the actual state of our knowledge of

INTRODUCTION. Vll

mineralogy in so far as it is dependent on chemistry; as
well as upon the affinity and relative proportions which
these substances bear towards each other as mineral
constituents.

Some account of the acids generally is likewise given,
as well as of the earths, alkalies, metals, and combustibles :
observations on each earth, alkali and metal, are inser-
ted preceding the descriptions of such substances as
are placed under each of them, in conformity with our
present object.

OXYGEN.

Oxygen has not been obtained in a complete state of
separation : in the most simple form in which it has been
procured, it is combined with caloric, forming what is
termed oxygen gas ; thus united, it is essential to the
support of animal life.

Oxygen gas may be obtained from many substances ;
it is most abundantly, and perhaps most readily, procu-
red from the black oxide of manganese ; which furnishes
all the oxygen used by the chemist, and all the oxygen
used in the preparation of the oxymuriatic acid consu-
med in the bVacheries of Britain and other countries.

All the substances from which it can be procured, are
considerably diminished in weight after yielding oxygen
gas, which is rather heavier than common air : all bodies
which absorb oxygen acquire an addition to their weight.

Oxygen was formerly considered to be the general
cause of acidity ; in other words, a necessary principle
of every acid ; and the term Oxygen is compounded of
two Greek word*, having allusion to that supposed theo-
ry ; but that theory has lately been done away, by direct
proof of its not being correct in two instances, which is
further corroborated by the probability of its incorrect-
ness in some others ; and that certain bodies afford acids
by combining with hydrogen.

Oxygen, iris ascertained, is so abundant a principle in
many minerals, particularly of those constituting the
oldest and most plentiful masses of the crust of the globe,
that it may be said to be one of the most common and

Vlll INTRODUCTION.

most abundant of mineral elements, if not tlie most com-
mon and most abundant of all

Of the most plentiful of all mineral substances, silex, it
forms 54 per cent. ; of alumine 46 ; of lime 28 ; of
magnesia 38 ; of potash 17, and of soda 26 per cent.;
to which it may be added, that it forms about 88-J per
cent, of water ; and that in the ores of tin and manga-
nese, and many of those of iron, lead, copper, &c.
oxygen enters as an ingredient in various proportions.

Oxygen also forms an important ingredient in many
minerals, as an essential element in certain acids ; as in
the two abundant substances the sulphate and carbonate
of lime. It has been supposed that the latter alone con-
stitutes one-eighth part of the whole crust of the globe.
It may be assumed that lime stone is composed of 56
parts of lime and 44 of carbonic acid. Now lime consists
of about 72 per cent, of calcium, and 28 of oxygen ; and
carbonic acid of about 23 per cent, of carbon, and 72
per cent, of oxygen ; so that oxygen enters into the com-
position of the one eighth part of the crust of the globe,
which is calculated to be constituted of carbonate of
lime, in point of fact, nearly in the proportion of one-
half.

But argillaceous rocks are considered '•& be more uni-
versal and plentiful than calcareous, and siliceous more
abundant still. Of these rocks oxygen forms on an aver-
age 50 per cent. ; so that the calculation in regard to the
proportion in which oxygen enters into the composition
of minerals, would amount to a very large percentage of
the whole crust of the globe.

HYDROGEN,

The most simple form in which Hydrogen has been
obtained, is that of a gas, in which it is in union with calo-
ric, or the matter of heat. It is considered to be an ele-
mentary body.

Hydrogen is one of the component elements of water;
its name is compounded of two Greek words, importing
that circumstance ; it is one of the elements of sulphur,
and also, as it is believed, of phosphorus, of ammonia, and
gf the fluoric, and muriatic acids. It is obtained, in varia-

INTRODUCTION. IX

able proportion, from several of those substances, which
are termed combustibles ; and, in combination with sul-
phur, forming sulphuretted hydrogen, it has been detect-
ed by analysis, in the Haiiyne or Latialite ; the swine-
stone or stinkstone, a variety of carbonate of lime which
is found in considerable abundance, is supposed to owe
the peculiarly offensive odour which it gives out when
scraped or rubbed, to the presence of sulphuretted hy-
drogen.

Hydrogen gas is emitted from the crevices of volcanic
matter ; and it is asserted by Brongniart, that near St.
Barthelemi, which is not far from Grenoble in France,
hydrogen gas issues from the crevices of a country which
has no appearance of being volcanic ; and consisting of
a grey friable argillaceous schistus. The gas has no
odour ; and if inflamed continues burning sometimes for
many months : the surrounding mountains are calcareous.
He likewise says, that similar circumstances occur in
England, on the road between Warrington and Chester,
and also near Brozely in Shropshire.

WATER.

Water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, in the pro-
portion of about 88£ of the former to 11 j. of the latter.

Water may be considered as merely an accessary, and
not as an element, in some minerals : it is occasionally
enclosed in crystal and chalcedony, and in variable pro-
portion in certain minerals of a granular or loose texture ;
but, in some oiners, it ?«« an essential principle, as is evin-
ced by the difference existing between the forms of the
primitive crystals of the common, and of the anhydrous,
sulphate of lime ; the latter of these is composed of lime
and sulphuric acid ; the former, of lime, sulphuric acid,
and 21 per cent, of water : when water is an essential prin-
ciple, it is termed water of crystallization.

Vrater is found in very different proportions, in a large
number of earthy, as well as of metallic, minerals, both
crystallized and massive.

The pure alkalies, potash and soda, retain even after
fusion, about l-5th of their weight of water; and all acids,
in a liquid state, contain water as an essential element.

INTRODUCTION.

ACIDS.

It is impossible to give such a description of the acids
as will characterize them altogether The greatest part
of them are chemically described as possessing a sour
taste of various degrees of intensity, and of reddening ve-
getable blue colours : but these properties are not com-
mon to all of them.

The peculiar properties of each acid are derived
from the base. This base in most of the acids is united
with a certain proportion of oxygen ; which until lately
was conceived to be the acidifying principle. In two
of the acids it has however been proved, that their aci-
difying principle is hydrogen ; which also is probably
the case in respect of certain others.

The names given to the acids have been mostly de-
rived from their bases : thus sulphur, in combination
with a certain proportion of oxygen, affords sulphuric
acid 5 carbon affords carbonic acid, and so on.

Add.

Base

The carbonic, consists of

carbon

phosphoric

phosphorus

fluoric

fluorine

sulphuric
muriatic

sulphur
chlorine

nitric

nitrogen

boracic

boroa

tuogstic
chromic

tungsten
ciironif

molybdic

melybdena

arsenic

ar>enic

KECcinic

unknown

mellitic

unknown

and

•Acidifying Principle.

oxygen

oxygi n

hydrogen

oxygen

hydro sen

oxygen

oxygen

oxygfin

oxygen

oxygen

oxygen

Each of the above acids is found in one or other of
the mineral substances about to be described ; and in
the preceding list they are arranged in the order of their
supposed formation, arguing fr6m the nature of the rocks
in which the substances mineralized by them are met
with.

An earth, a metal, or an alkali combined with an acid,
is chemically termed a Salt; acidiferous mineral sub-
stances have therefore been termed Salts, by some mi-
neralogists ; and have been selected from minerals in
general, and arranged under the name of Saline Mine-

INTRODUCTION. XI

rah. This selection has been altogether arbitrary ; all
those who have constructed arrangements have not been
determined in their selection by a precise agreement
in the characters of the minerals they have selected ;the
minerals of this class (for the existence of which there
seems to be no reasonable occasion) have been much
more numerous in some arrangements than in others. —
By others the Jlcidiferous Earthy Substances have been,
placed by themselves under that title.

The carbonic, phosphoric, fluoric, sulphuric, muriatic,
nitric, boracic, and arsenic acids, are found in combina-
tion with earths.

The carbonic, phosphoric, sulphuric, muriatic, tung-
Stic, chromic, molybdic, and arsenic acids, are found
mineralizing certain of the metals.

The nitric and carbonic acids are found united with,
potash.

The carbonic, sulphuric, muriatic, and boracic acids
are found combined with soda.

PHOSPHORUS.

Phosphorus is a highly inflammable substance, usually
of a flesh red colour, and very soft: its sp. gr. is 1.77. —
In the atmosphere it emits a white smoke, and peculiar
smell, and a faint and beautiful light arises from it.

When phosphorus is acted upon by a powerful voltaic
battery, it gives out a gas in considerable quantity, which
proves to be phosphoretted hydrogen : hence it is con-
cluded that hydrogen is one of its component elements.
This is the present extent of our knowledge respecting
the nature of phosphorus.

100 parts of phosphoric acid are composed of pho$*

phorus 36.72, and of oxygen 53.28. It is obtained by

a chemical process from calcined bones ; by another

^process, the phosphoric acid is robbed of its oxygen, and

phosphorus is obtained.

Lead, manganese, and copper, are found mineralized
by the phosphoric acid, in proportions differing from 18
to 31 per cent. ; it also occurs in a small quantity in one
of the ores of iron ; and combined with lime, in the pro-
portion of 46 per cent.

XII INTRODUCTION.

•

FLUORINE.

The last experiments of Sir H. Davy on fluoric acid,
have induced him to believe that it is composed of hy-
drogen and a peculiar base which he has denominated
fluorine. This substance, from its strong affinities and
decomposing agencies, has not yet been exhibited in a
separate state ; nor have any attempts to detach it from
its combinations been successful.

Lime, mineralized by the fluoric acid, is of abundant
occurrence, forming fluate of lime, in which the acid
exists in the proportion of 33 per cent ; and it is com-
bined in nearly the same proportion with alumine and
soda in the cryolite ; of the Saxon topaz and the picnite
it forms 5 or 6 per cent. : it has not been detected in any
metalliferous mineral.

NITROGEN.

Nitrogen, in combination with caloric, when it is
termed nitrogen gas, is one of the constituents of atmo-
spherical air : from its unfitness for the support of ani-
mal life, it is frequently called azotic gas : the term azote
is compounded of two Greek words, having allusion to
that negative quality. It has since been called Nitro-
gen gas, because, by a union with oxygen, it composes
nitric acid.

It immediately extinguishes a lighted candle and even
phosphorus, and is fatal to animal life.

It is suspected that nitrogen is not an element ; Ber-
zelius supposes it to be a compound of oxygen with
some base in nearly equal proportions : this supposition
is merely hypothetical.

The claims of nitrogen to be considered as a mineral
constituent, are, that it enters into the composition of
ammonia, one of the alkalies ; and that, as a constituent
of the nitric acid, which consists of 25i of nitrogen and
74£ of oxygen, it is also an ingredient of nitre or salt-
petre.

INTRODUCTION, XU1

CHLORINE,

It is the opinion of Sir H. Davy, and many other
able chemists, that the oxymuriatic acid contains no
oxygen ; the presence of which its name implies. He
has consequently changed its name for that of Chlorine,
derived from the green colour which it possesses when
in a gaseous form. Chlorine has never been decompo-
sed. The muriatic acid consists of equal volumes of
Chlorine and hydrogen.

Chlorine has never been found pure, in nature.

The muriatic acid is found in small quantity in the
soilalile, and one or two earthy minerals ; but in com-
mon, or rock salt, it is combined in the proportion of 44
per cent. : it is found in combination with lead, quick-
silver, and silver, in proportions differing from 8 to 21
per cent. : of the arseniate and phosphate of lead, it
forms about 2 per cent.

BORON.

Boron is a peculiar combustible substance, which has
been obtained by subjecting crystals of boracic acid to
the action of a voltaic battery. Its precise nature is not
yet understood ; though it is ascertained to be a sub-
stance differing from every other known species of mat-
ter. Sir H. Davy conjectures that it is a compound.

Boracic acid is supposed ta consist of one part by
weight of boron, and 2 of oxygen.

The boracic acid enters into the composition of two
rare earthy minerals, the boracite and the datholite : in
the proportion, of 83 per cent, in the former, and 24 per
cent, in the latter. It has not been detected in any metal-
liferous substance ; but it occurs in the proportion of 17
per cent, in the borate of soda, or borax, which is abun-
dant in a certain lake in Thibet.

-r^v-*; 04,

THE SUCCINIC ACID. - ,.,<; |

The only claim wkich the Succinic acid has to be
considered as a mineral constituent, is, that it forms one

XIV INTRODUCTION*

of the ingredient principles of amber; which, though it
be of uncertain origin, has by common consent obtained
a place among mineral substances.

This acid is not obtained pure from amber ; but when
purified, it forms white, transparent, shining crystals, hav-
ing the form of triangular prisms. The Succinic acid,
from its property of decomposing all solutions of iron, is
highly useful in the analysis of mineral waters. It has
not been decomposed: its base is therefore unascer-
tained.

THE MELLITIC ACID.

The Honeystone or Mellite, one of the combustibles,
is the only substance that has yielded tb*e Mellitic acid ;
•which is obtained from it by a chemical process, in acicu-
lar crystals, which possess at once a sour, sweet, and bit-
ter taste, and are combustible. The base of this acid is
not ascertained.

Some account of the bases of the other acids will fol-
low; carbon and sulphur being noticed under the head
of Combustibles, and tungsten, chrome, molybdena, and
arsenic, under that of Metals.

EARTHS.
The Earths are nine in number, viz.

Silex, Magnesia, Yttria,

Almnine, Zircon, Barytes,

Lime, Glucine, Stiontian.

Four of them, Lime, Magnesia, Barytes and Stron-
tian, possess some of the chemical characters of the Al-
kalies ; by some, they have therefore been placed among
the Alkalies ; others have called them Alkaline Earths.
The whole number were, until within the last few years,
considered to be simple or elementary bodies, but SirH.
Davy has proved them to be compounds consisting of
oxygen united with certain bases, some of which possess
several of the characters peculiar to the metals ; but the
nature of these bases is not so well ascertained as that of

XV

the bases of the two Alkalies. The discoverer, however,
considers most of them to be metals ; and if this be ad»
milted, the earths are to be considered as metallic oxides.

The four alkaline earths were much more readily de-
composed, and their bases are ascertained to possess
certain of the characters and properties of the metals,
with greater certainty than the remaining five ; which
have a much stronger affinity for the oxygen with which
they are combined.

The metallic basis of Barytes, has been named Barium,
by Sir H. Davy ; that of Strontian, he denominates Stron-
tium ; that of Lime, Calcium; for that of Magnesia, Mag-
nesium has been proposed, but it is less perfectly known
than the three preceding : the base of Silex, Silicium,
has not been obtained in a state of separation ; it was at
first considered to be a metal, but " Sir H. Davy now
believes it not to be a metal, but a substance most re-
sembling boron ; and, like it, bearing an analogy to
charcoal, sulphur, and phosphorus." The base of Alu-
mine, Jllumium, has not yet been produced in a state fit
for investigation : that of Zircon, or Zirconium, is still
unknown : as well as that of Glucine, or Gluanum ; and
that of Yttria, Yttrium, has not been exhibited in a sepa-
rate form.

These bases are united with oxygen in different pro-
portions. That of Barytes is united with about 10 per
cent, of oxygen ; that of Yttria about 12 per cent. ; of
Strontian about 14 per cent. ; that of Zircon 17 per
cent. ; of Lime 28 per cent. ; of Glucine 30 per cent. ;
of Magnesia 38 ; of Alumine 46 ; and of Silex 54 per
cent.

The Earths are here placed in the foregoing order,
(p. xiv.) and the minerals of which they constitute the
chief ingredients, will hereafter be noticed in that order,
for the following reasons. Silex, Alumine, and Lime,
are the principle constituents of the oldest primitive
rocks. Magnesia also enters into the composition of a
primitive rock, though not one of the most abundant*
Zircon and Glucine are in part the constituents of a few
rare minerals which are imbedded in early rocks, or are
met with in the veins of primitive mountains ; in the

XVi INTRODUCTION.

veins of which, also, Yttria, Barytes, and Strontian occa-
sionally occur.

Some further observations respecting the relative pro-
portions and localities of the Earths may prove interest-
ing.

Silex is not only the chief ingredient of a large num-
ber of the most abundant rocks, but it also forms a con-
siderable proportion of all clays and soils ; it is the prin-
cipal constituent of more than half of the whole number
of compound earthy substances, which, in contradis-
tinction to aggregated rocks, ?re sometimes termed
simple minerals ; it enters into the composition of a few
rare and crystallized metalliferous minerals in the pro-
portion of 30 or 40 per cent., and in very small propor-
tion in several of the most abundant ores of iron. If there-
fore it were possible, as heretofore, to regard Silex as a
simple elementary body, we should have no difficulty in
adjudging it to be the most abundant in nature.

Alumine is considered to be the most plentiful earth
after Silex. It occurs largely in primitive rocks, in many
of the secondary, and in all clays and soils : it enters in-
to the composition of a considerable number of earthy
minerals, and in small proportions in a few metallife-
rous minerals, particularly in certain ores of iron.

Lime is less abundant than Alumine in primitive rocks ;
but is extremely so in transition and nVtz, or secondary
rocks ; it enters into the composition of many compound
earthy minerals : it forms from 9 to 25 per cent, in a
few rare and crystallized minerals, and is found in smal-
ler proportions in a few others.

Magnesia is not an abundant ingredient in rocks ; but
is chiefly confined to those called serpentine, basalt, and
certain varieties of limestone. Some of the earthy mi-
nerals in which it is found, and which are pretty nume-
rous, occasionally enter into the composition of rocks,
but are principally met with in veins. It occurs but
sparingly in soils, and is unfavorable to vegetation : the
only metalliferous mineral in which it has been detect*
ed is spathos iron, of which it forms less than 1 per cent.

Zircon, Glucine and Yttria are very sparingly found :
the first is the most common ; the second has been de-
tected only as a component of a very few rare minerals

INTRODUCTION.

'in small proportions : both are met with imbedded, and
in veins, in primitive rocks. Yttria has been discovered
only as an ingredient in two or three rare minerals.

Barytes is not very abundant ; Strontian 'may be es-
teemed a rare earth ; they are chiefly found in mineral
veins, and have not been detected in rocks or soils : they
are principally met with in that state, which has induced
some mineralogists to rank them among saline minerals.
The latter has not been found combined in any metal-
liferous mineral ; the former only in one, compact man-
ganese, in the proportion of 14 per cent.

Silex, Alumine and Magnesia are met with nearly
pure.

Silex, Zircon, Glucine and Yttria have not been
found combined with an acid ; but the former is involv-
ed in many acidiferous minerals.

Lime, Barytes and Strontian chiefly occur combined
with acids ; but the former is an ingredient in many
earthy minerals which are not acidiferous.

THE ALKALIES.

The Alkalies, Potash, Soda, and Ammonia, have pe-
culiar chemical properties, which are not our present ob-
ject. The two first, not being volatilized by a moderate
heat, are termed fixed alkalies ; the last, as it exists in
its purest form in the state of gas, is called Volatile Al-
kali. Potash and Soda were long considered to be
simple elementary bodies, though it was also conjectur-
ed that they were not. Within the last few years that con-
jecture has been verified by the brilliant discoveries of
Sir H. Davy, who effected their decomposition by means
of electric or galvanic agency It has by this means
been satisfactorily determined that Potash consists of
oxygen, united with a base which, in many, if not in
most respects, bears a strong affinity to the metals : it is
of a silvery whiteness, and is solid at common tempera-
tures. Soda, it has been determined, consists of oxygen
united with a base which is solid at the usual tempera-
ture of the air.

These bases, Potassium and Sodium, are combustible
bodies : by exposure to oxygen, under certain -circuoa^

XV1U INTRODUCTION.

stances, they absorb it, and thus become alkalies again.
In lustre, opacity and malleability, and in certain chemi-
cal properties, these bases agree with the metals : and
have therefore been considered as metals by Sir II.
Davy : but they are lighter than water, and are there-
fore at least six times lighter than the lightest of the me-
tals, tellurium.

Potash consists of about 17 of oxygen, and 83 of po-
tassium. Soda of about 26 of oxygen, and 74 of so-
dium.

Ammonia, or Volatile Alkali, has likewise been de-
composed by voltaic electricity. 100 measures of Am-
monia are estimated to consist of about 75 of hydrogen
and 25 of nitrogen ; but certain experiments, conducted
by Sir H. Davy, have induced him to suspect that Am-
monia contains 7 or 8 per cent, of oxygen.

Potash is found entering into the composition in about
15 earthy compounds, but not in any of the metallife-
rous ores : in small proportions it occurs in rnica and
felspar, two ingredients of the oldest rocks, and also com-
bined with certain acids.

Soda is found in combination in about twelve earthy
substances in variable proportion ; but not in metallife-
rous ores : it occurs abundantly, combined with several
of the acids.

Ammonia is met with only in combination with two
or three of the acids.

METALS.

A metal may be chemically described as a combustible
or ooddable substance ; capable, when in a state of oxide,
of uniting with acids, and of forming with them compound
salts. This is a character applicable to all the metals
and to no other class of bodies.

Metals are believed to be simple substances ; not one
of them having hitherto been decomposed.

In weight the metals far exceed the earths ; the heavi-
est of the earths is only five times heavier than water,
but the lightest of the metals is more than six limes
heavier than water. Beaten gold is nineteen times hea-

INTRODUCTION. XIX

vier than water, and beaten platina, the heaviest of all,
is twenty-three times heavier than water.

The metals also have other important characters. —
Each possesses a colour peculiar to itself. Some of
them are exceedingly ductile, as is manifested by the
extremely fine wires into which they are drawn. Most
of them are good conductors of electricity ; that they are
also good conductors of heat or caloric, is evinced by the
readiness with which heat is transmitted along a bar of
metal, when one end is placed in the fire. They mostly
possess elasticity and flexibility. Many of them have a.
peculiar taste and smell, both of which are disagreeable.

If when in a state of fusion, they are left to cool slow-
ly and quietly, all the metals crystaiize ; and most of
them in that cane assume the form of the octohedron ;
which also is the form assumed by most of those which
are found crystallized in the pure or native state.

The characters of fusibility and extensibility in metals
is of vast importance to man ; for without them neither
could they be freed from the earths and other impurities
with which they are naturally united, nor wrought into
vessels for his use.

The only metals known to the ancients, were gold,
silver, copper, iron, tin, lead and mercury ; but disco-
veries have from time to time increased the catalogue,
until it has been swelled to the number of twenty-seven,
independently of those which have very lately been dis-
covered as the bases of some of the earths and the two
alkalies.

Of these twenty-seven metals, eleven only have the
important property of malleability, or of being sufficient-
ly tenacious to bear the extension of their body by bea-
ting with the hammer; the others have by some, there*
fore, been termed brittle metals.

Malleable Metals. Brittle Metals,

Platina Arsenic Molybdena

(jold Anluno;iy Tungsten

Silver Bismuth Chrome

Mercury Cobalt Osmium

Lead Manganere Indium

Copper Tellurium Rhodium

Tin Titanium U.aniunj

Iron Taiitaliuui Cerium
Zinc

Palladium
Nickel

XX ITTIIODUCTION.

A lustre is peculiar to the metals, which therefore is
called the metallic lustre : another remarkable property
is their want of transparency when in the mass; but a"s
leaf gold held between the eye and a luminous body
transmits a green Jigbt, and silver a white light, it
seems probable that other metals, if attenuated in the
same degree, would also be translucent.

The only metals that as yet have been found in the
metallic state, are platina, gold, silver, quicksilver,
copper, antimony, palladium, arsenic, tellurium, bis-
muth and iron ; these are then termed native metals.
But the greater part of these are rarely found quite
pure, but mostly involve small proportions of other
metals.

A metalliferous ore is a compound of two or more
metals, as silver amalgam; or of a metal in combination
with oxygen, as ruby copper, (whence such a combina-
tion has obtained the name of a metallic oxide ;) or a
metal (in the state of an oxide) combined with an acid,
as the arseniate of copper ; or a metal combined with a
combustible, as sulphuretted silver. Many ores are of
so compound a nature as to consist of two or three
metals united with oxygen, sulphur, one or more of the
earths, and with water.

When a metal is combined with one or more substan-
ces, either combustible or saline, it is then said to be
mineralised. Thus lead is said to be mineralized by
sulphur when combined with it in the native sulphuret
or galena. The sulphur is the mineralizer.

It deserves notice that seven of the malleable metals,
zinc, tin, lead, iron, copper, nickel, and quicksilver,
absorb oxygen from the common air, becoming at least
externally oxidated : none of them part with the oxygen
by simple exposure to heat, except quicksilver. Gold,
silver and platina only become oxidated by exposure to
the action of certain acids. But although the greater
part of the malleable metals are readily oxidable, not
one of them has yet been found in, or converted intotj,
the state of an acid.

All the brittle metals absorb oxygen by exposure to
common air, and thus become, at least externally, oxi-
dated. Four of them, arsenic, chrome, molybdena

INTRODUCTION. XXI

and tungsten, by an excess of oxidation, pass into the
state of acids, and in this state they are found to he the
minerulizers of several of the earths and of the metals.

The metals and metalliferous ores are chiefly found
in veins, of which they occasionally compose the only
substance ; but they are more often disseminated in veins,
through earthy or stony substances : such a substance is
thence termed the gangue or matrix of the mineral.
Metalliferous ores are less commonlly found in masses
or in beds : a few of them occasionally occur imbedded
in certain rocks.

They are met with in veins traversing almost every
kind of rock, but are more common in primitive and tran-
sition rock?, than in iiretz rocks : they occur but spa-
ringly in alluvial deposites, and more rare in volcanic
matter.

The comparative age of the metals is chiefly judged
of by the nature of the rocks which enclose them. Iron
and manganese have been detected by every analysis
in mica, a constituent of the oldest primitive rock,
granite ; tin and molybdena occasionally occur imbedded
in it ; they also, as well as tungsten, titanium, cerium,
uranium, chrome, and bismuth, are found almost exclu-
sively in such veins as traverse the oldest of the primitive
rocks ; the foregoing metals may therefore be consider-
ed of the earliest formation. Arsenic, cobalt, silver,
nickel, and copper, are presumed to be less ancient, be-
cause though they occur in the oldest primitive rocks,
they are also found in newer. Gold, tellurium, and an-
timony, are considered to be metals of a middle age, as
they occur in the newer primitive and the older seconda-
ry rocks. Lead, zinc, and mercury, are found in the
greatest quantity in secondary formations and are there-
fore supposed to be less ancient than the preceding.
Platina, palladium, rhodium, iridium, and osmium, hav-
ing never been found in situ, it is impossible properly
to judge of their relative age ; but as crude platina in-
involves small portions of palladium, rhodium, iridium,
and osmium, as well as of copper, gold, and lead, we
may conceive them to be of a middle age, and shall
therefore in the following series, place them next to gold.
In respect of age, therefore, the metals may be ranked

INTRODUCTION.

as follows, and we shall accordingly, begin the descrip-
tion of metalliferous ores with the important ores of iron :

Iron Chrome Rhodium

Manganese Bismuth « smiuin

Moiybdena Arsenic Indium

rJ in Cobalt Palladium

Tungsten Nickel TeU'iritim

Titinmm Silver Antimony

Cerium Copper Lead

Uranium GoM Zinc

1 antalium Platina Mercury

Iron is an ingredient in almost every rock, from the
oldest primitive to the newest alluvial ; and also in very
many earthy and metalliferious minerals, and in all soils :
it is therefore considered to be the most abundant and
most generally diffused of all the metals. Wherever
found, and with whatever combined,- it is mostly in the
state of an oxide, except when combined with sulphur.

Mangai ese, with iron, is an ingredient of mica, which
is a constituent of the oldest granite; it occurs both in
the primitive and secondary countries.

Moiybdena may be reckoned a rare metal : it is occa-
sionally found imbedded in granite, or in veins passing
through it. It occurs only in the slate of an acid or an ox-
ide, or mineralized by sulphur.

Tin is abundantly and almost exclusively found in
veins passing through primitive rocks, chiefly in granite
and argillaceous schistus. Tin is always in the state of
an oxide : it occurs only in one compound metalliferous
ore.

Tungsten is by no means a plentiful metal, it usually
accompanies tin : it occurs only as an acid combined
with iron, or as an oxide combined with lime, in veins in
primitive mountains.

Titanium occurs chiefly in the state of an oxide, and
may be reckoned a rare metal : it is usually combined
with iron, sometimes with silex.

Cerium is an extremely rare metal.

Uranium is also, rare : it occurs chiefly in the state of
an oxide in primitive veins.

Tantalium is still more rare : it occurs in the state of
an oxide ; in one of its ores it is combined with iron, in
the other with the rare earth Yttria.

INTRODUCTION. XXlil

Chrome is a scarce metal, and occurs only in the state
of an acid, mineralizing lead and iron.

Bismuth is not a common metal ; it occurs in the na-
tive state, also mineralized by sulphur, and combined in
some of the ores of silver, and of cobalt.

The preceding metals, being chiefly found in the old-
est primitive rocks, are considered to be of the earliest
formation ; the succeeding five are supposed to be less
ancient, because they occur both in the oldest primitive
and in certain of the secondary rocks.

•Arsenic is a more abundant metal than most of the
preceding : it is involved in small portions in several of
the native metals, in all the ores of cobalt, and in most
of those of silver.

Cobalt is not found alloying any metal ; in its ores it
is combined with iron and arsenic ; it is not plentiful.

Nickel is a rare metal : it occurs as an oxide, and also
combined with arsenic.

Silver is a somewhat abundant metal ; and it occurs in
greater or less quantity in most mineral countries : in the
native state, it occurs in veins and beds, and dessemina-
ted in rocks : its ores are numerous ; it occurs combined
with lead, copper, iron, antimony, tellurium, gold, quick-
silver, and arsenic, and mineralized sulphur, and by cer-
tain acids.

Copper is an abundant metal ; it occurs in the native
state : its ores are numerous, and in them copper is com-
bined with iron, sulphur, silex, oxygen, and certain acids :
it occurs in most mineral countries.

The three following metals are found in the newer
primitive and older secondary rocks, and therefore are
metals of a middle age.

Gold, though less abundant than silver, is more so than
most of the preceding, and is not to be esteemed a rare
metal ; though occasionally met with in veins, it is chief-
ly found in rivers and alluvial deposites : it occurs from
1 to 26 percent, in the ores of tellurium, and sometimes
in small portions alloying the native metals, copper, an-
timony, platina, and arsenic.

Tellurium is a rare metal : it occurs in the native
state, but mostly is alloyed by a little gold : io its ores it

XXIV INTRODUCTION,

is combined with gold, silver, lead, copper and sul-
phur : it has only been found in two or three places.

Platina is not a plentiful metal : it is found only in
certain districts in America, and only in the native state ;
alloyed by small portions of gold, lead, copper, iron,
osmium, iridium, and rhodium.

Palladium is rare ; it is found with platina, in the na-
tive state, alloyed by small portions of platina and iri-
dium.

Iridium and Osmium are also found accompanying
platina, together forming an alloy ; they also alloy pla-
tina, and the former of them, palladium : they are both
rare.

Rhodium is found only alloying the platina of Peru,
is therefore extremly rare.

Antimony is not a very rare metal : it occurs in the na-
tive state, alloyed by small portions of iron and silver:
in its ores it is combined with sulphur, silex and oxygen :
it occurs in few mineral districts.

Lead may be considered as the most abundant and
most universally diffused metal after iron : it never is
found in the native state, but its ores are very numerous :
it occurs abundantly mineralized by sulphur, and by
certain acids; and is found in the state of an oxide : it
occurs in certain ores of tellurium.

Zinc is not* scarce metal, but is pretty generally
diffused : in its ores, it occurs combined with sulphur,
iron, and silex.

Mercury is found only in a few places, but is not
scarce : it occurs native and is combined with silver,
sulphur, and with certain acids.

COMBUSTIBLES.

Combustibles form, in the mineral kingdom, a class of
substances, having peculiar properties, and by no means
agreeing amongst themselves in internal or external cha-
racters, and differing essentially from the earths, the al-
kalies, and the metals. Combustibles include both the
hardest and the softest of mineral substances.

Several of the combustibles are found in a liquid state,
some of these are translucent and even transparent ; but

INTRODUCTION. XXV

the greater number are solid ; when solid they are easily
broken ; they possess neither the opacity, brilliancy, nor
the weight of metals, being rarely more than twice the
weight of water ; some of them are lighter than water.

If we were to class among combustibles, all those bo-
dies whose chemical characteristic is that they will en-
dure combustion, we should err, because many of the
metals have that character.

Most of the metals whose properties are altered by com-
bustion, acquire an increase of weight thereby ; whereas
Combustible substances are sensibly diminished in
weight by the same process. The product of some of
them is liquid, of others solid ; if solid, it is insoluble ia
water. Combustibles are either simple or compound.

The mineral bases of combustible substances may be
said to be only two, viz. carbon and sulphur.

The purest form in which Carbon is seen, is that of
the diamond ; and it was for a long time considered that
the only chemical difference between this gem and
charcoal is, that the latter contains some oxygen, and
therefore is an oxide of carbon. But the late experi-
ments of several chemists, and particularly of Sir H.
'Davy, tend to show that there is no oxygen in pure char-
coal ; and that there is no decided chemical difference
between it and the diamond. Charcoal, however, always
contains either hydrogen or water in very small and va-
riable proportions, but not as an essential ingredient :
the diamond is absolutely free from hydrogen and wa-
ter ; and it is in this respect only, and in the mechanical
arrangement of its particles^ that there is any evidence
of its differing from charcoal. The experiments of Allen
and Pepys tend to prove that the actual quantity of car-
bon, in equal weights of diamond and charcoal, is pre-
cisely the same.

Carbon forms the basis of several of the combustibles,
as coal, bitumen, amber, &c. ; and it enters into the
composition of a few minerals in small proportion : in
the Aberthaw limestone, the hepatite, semi-opal and in
clay skte, not exceeding 1 or 2 per cent. : in rotten
stone 10 per cent. ; and less than 1 per cent in com-
pact manganese : its most important mineral character is,
that it forms the base of the carbonic acid, which enters

*D

INTRODUCTION.

tnto all limestone rocks, as an ingredient, in the propor-
tion of about 44 per cent. : carbonic acid consists of
about 28 per cent of carbon and 72 of oxygen.

Sulphur was suspected by Berthollet to contain hydro-
gen, and this suspicion has since been confirmed by Sir
fi. Davy daring the career of his brilliant discoveries, by
trieans of the application of the astonishing powers of
galvanism or electricity to many bodies which here-
tofore were considered to be simple or elementary.
Some experiments of the same able chemist, tended to
Evince the presence of oxygen as another ingredient of
Sulphur : but the later experiments by Guy Lussac have
proved that oxygen does not enter into its composi-
tion.

Sulphur is not only itself a highly inflammable body,
(but is also an ingredient of other combustibles ; as of
certain kinds of coal. Large deposites of sulphur are met
with in some volcanic countries : it is found in consider-
able masses or in beds, both in primitive and transition
Countries ; and it is largely involved in certain minerals;
such as iron, copper, lead, antimony, silver, &c. which
thence are termed sulphurets of those metals, and which,
generally speaking, are the most abundant of all metal-
liferous ores ; and it is met with in one earthy mineral,
the Fahlunite, in the proportion of 17 per cent. Sul-
phur is the base of the sulphuric acid ; which consists
of 40 per cent, of sulphur and 60 of oxygen. The sul-
phuric acid enters largely into the composition of that
abundant substance, sulphate of lime or gypsum ; and is
likewise an ingredient of several other earthy minerals 5
and in certain metallic ores.

EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS

Commonly used in Mineralogical Description.

Acicular. Long, {lender, and ftraight prifms, or cryftals, are termed ad-

cular, from the latin, acicula, a little needle.
••Aggregated. A mineral or rock is faid to be aggregated, when the feveral

component parts only adhere together, and may be feparated by

mechanical means : the felfpar, quartz, and mica, conftituting granite^

may be feparated mechanically. Granite is an aggregated rock.
Alliaceous. The odour given out by arfenical minerals, when expofed to

the blowpipe or ftruck by the hammer, refembles that of garlic ; in

latin, allium, whence alliaceous.
Amorphous. Without, form ; of undefinable ihape ; from the Greeks

afAo^os (amorphos) having that fignification. Amorphous minerals

are fometimes defcribed as being of indeterminate, or indefinite

forms.
Anhydrous, from the Greek eivufyof (anudros), fignifying without water :

anhydrous gypfum is without water. *
Arborescent. From the Latin, arboresco, to 'grow like a tree : fee Den-

dritic.

BotryoidaL From the Greek, Porgvudyis (botruodes) fignifying,

with clufters of grapes or berries. So a mineral prefenting an ag-
gregation of large fections of numerous fmall globes, is termed bo-
tryoidal ; but when the globes are larger, and the portions are lefs
and feparate, the appearance is expreffed by the term mamillated,
Thefe forms may be obferved in certain ores of cobalt, copper, and
manganefe, and often in chalcedony.

BladeS. This term relates chiefly to the ftructure of fuck minerals as, oi>
being broken, prefent long flat portions, fomewhat refembling tha
blade of a knife ; this appearance may in general be confidered as
the effect of interrupted cryftallization.

Brittle. This character of mineral bodies does not depend upon theu!
hardnefs ; thofe of which the particles cohere in the higheft degree,
and are immovable one among another, are the moft brittle. The
diamond, quartz, fulphate of barytes and fulphur, vary greatly as to
hardnefs ; they are all brittle.

£analiculated : prefenting deep channels on the furface, refulting eithet
from interrupted cryftallization, or the aggregation of numerous cryfi

tals.

SXV111 EXPLANATION OP TERMS.

Capillary, is derived from the Latin, capillus, a hair, and is chiefly uied
to exprefs the long, tortuous, hair- like appearances, to be cbferved
in native gold and filver, and fome other minerals. Cryftals arc
fometimes termed capillary, when long and flender ; but being moft-
ly ftraight, they are more properly defignated by the term aci-
cular.
Cavernous. A mineral in which there are confiderable hollows or cavitic^

is faid to be cavernous.

Cellular. This term is ufed by Werner in the defcription of fuch minerals
as exhibit cells formed by the crofling- and inteifecting of the lamina;
or lamella of which they are conltituted : commonly, any mineral
prcfenting numerous fmall cells or cavities, is te»med cellular ; lee ve-
Ccular. */'.'

Chatoyant, has been adopted from the French, who ufe it to exprefs the
changeable light refembling that to be obferved in the eye of a cat, to
be feen in certain minerals ; as in the Cat's eye.

Cleavage. This term is moft commonly ufed in relarion to the fracture of
thofe mineral^ which, having natural joints poflcfs a regular ftructure
and may be cleaved into geometrical fragments ; as into varieties of
the parallelopiped, the rhomboid, &c.

C.oberent. This term relates to Itructure. In minerals that are brittle, the
particles are flrongly coherent ; in fuch as are friable, they are flight-
ly coherent.

Columnar distinct concretions, is commonly ufed to exprefs the great and
fmall columns in which certain bafalts and iron ores are found : but
Werner includes under this term all the columnar appearances in
every mineral confiding of numerous aggregated cryftals, which rea-
dily divide into long and narrow portions »f irregular form, owing to
.<£ interrupted cryitallization— fuch as the amethyft, pyrites, fluor fpar,

quartz, &c.

Compact, is a term which relates wholly to. ftructure; and is that in which
no particular or diftinct parts are difcernible ; a compact mineral
cannot be cleaved or divided into regular or parallel portions. The
term compact is too often confounded with the term maffive.
Gencboidal, relates only to fracture ; and is doubtlefs derived from the La-
tin, chonchoides, fignifying Like the fhell of a fifli. Fragments of
many of the brittle minerals exhibit this appearance, and occafionaily
in great perfection, as quartz and fulphur ; the fracture of compact
minerals is frequently more or lefs perfectly chonchoidal.
Concretion, generally fignifies a fmall and diilinct m;ifs.
Goralloidal, refembJing branches of coral.

Cuneiform, wedge fhaped ; cuneus, ia Latin, fignifies a wedge. This term
relates only to fracture.

Decomposed. This term, when ufed ftrictly in a mineralogical fenfe, imports
the decompofition which takes place naturally in any fubftance. Cer-
tain ores of Iron, &c. in which fulphur predominates in an unufual
degree, decompofe by expofure to air.

Decrepitate. A mineral is faid to decrepitate on expofure to heat, when
it flies with a crackling noife fimilar to that made by fait when
thrown into the fire.

Dendritic', derived from the Greek, Sivtyns (dendritis) fignifying, like
the growth of a tree. The terms arborefcent and dendritic are
ufed fynonymoufly ; they are alike applied to the tree-like appear-
ance in which native filver and native copper are fometimes iound ;
to the delineations fcen on the furfaces of certain minerals j and
tot the appearance in the raocha-ftone, &c.

EXPLANATION OF TERMS.

Dentiform, or Dentated ; in the fliape of teeth ; dens being the LallfS
for a tooth.

Disseminated. When a mineral, whether cryftallized or otherwife, is
found here and there imbedded in a mafs of another fubftance, it
is faid to be diffeminated in the mafs. Cryftals of quartz fometimes
occur, difleminated in Carrara marble, &c.

Disintegrated. This term is generally ufed to exprefs the falling to pieces
of any mineral, without any perceptible chemical action.

Diverging, or Divergent ; relates to the ftructure of a mineral. When
the ftructure is fibrous, and the fibres are not parallel, they ufual-
ly diverge in part, but not wholly, around a common centre ; as
in certain zeolites, and haematites iron ores.

Britsy> has been adopted from the German term drufen, for which we
nave no Englifli s\ ord. The furface of a mineral is faid to be
drufy when compofed of very fmall prominent cryftals, nearly &•
qual to each other ; it is often feen in iron pyrites.

A mineral which, after being bent, fprings back to its origi*
nal form, is elaftic. Mica is elaftic ; talc, which greatly referable*
mica, is only flexible.

Earthy. This term relates to ftructure. Chalk and certain of the Ojres
of iron and lead are notable iiiftances of it.

fasciculated. When a number of minute fibres or acicular cryftals QC-
cur in fmall aggregations or bundles, they are faid to be fafcicu-
luted ; a term doubtlefs derived from the Latin, fafcis, a bundle..
This appearance often occurs in green carbonate aad arfeniate of
copper.

fibrous. This term relates both to form and ftructure. Certain mine-
rals, as amianthus, amianthiform arfeniate of copper, a variety oil
gypfum, &c. occur in ^iftinct fibres. Asbeftus, gypfum, red hae-
matites iron ore, &c. are found maflive, and of a parallel fibrous
ftructure : fome varieties of red hasmatkes and other minerals are
of a radiating fibrous ftructure : and the fibres diverge from a
common centre.

filament. A mineral is faid to occur in filaments, when it is found in
flender thread-like or hair- like portions. It is therefore nearly
fynonymous with the term capillary.

orm^ is ufed in the fame fenfe as the preceding ; but Werner con-
fines its ufe to exprefs the appearance of certain metals which
occur in the form of wire, as native filver and native copper*—
Filum in Latin, fignifies thread ; filum rnetalli, wire.

fistuliform. Minerals occurring in round hollow columns, are termed
fiftuliform ; fiftula, in the Latin, fignifies a pipe. Stalactites and
iron pyrites occur fiftuliform.

flexible. Talc is flexible; it readily bends, but does not return of
itfelf to its original form. Mica is both flexible and elaftic.

foliated. ^ This term, which doubtlefs is derived from j(he Latin foliatus,
having, or confifting of leaves, is ufed by Werner to exprefs the
ftructure of all minerals that may be divided or cleaved regularly,
and are therefore by him faid to confift of folia or leaves. The
ftructure of fuch minerals is more commonly exprefied by the
term lamellar ; and they are faid to confift of lameUw or I?-

r"Tn.T>.

*D2

XXK EXPLANATION OF TERMS.

Fracture,, is a term now chiefly employed in defignating the appearance
of minerals which have no regular ftructure, when they are broken:
fuch minerals prefent an even, uneven, or a chonchoidal fracture
&c.

frangible. The term frangibility has relation to the fufceptibility ot
minerals to feparate into fragments by force : this quality in mi-
nerals is not dependent on their hardnefs ; the ftructure of fome
and the brittlenefs of others, renders them eafily frangible ; while
others, which from their foftnefs, and the eafe with which their
particles or molecules yieid or flide over one another, are much
more difficulty frangible ; fuch minerals poffefs the character of
toughnefs. Quartz is eafily broken, Asbeftus is tough.

friable. A mineral whofe portions or particles flightly cohere, and which
is therefore eafily crumbled or broken down, is faid to be friable, or
in a friable ft ate.

Funglform. Certain fubftances, as for inftance calcareous ftalactites, are
occafionally met with having a termination fimilar to the head
of a fungus ; whence they are fai4 to be fungiform.

<$angue, Gangart, We have thefe terms from the Germans ; the ganguc
of a mineral, is the fubftance, in, or upon which, a mineral is found ;
it is fometimes termed the matrix. Silver, occuring in, or upon
carbonate of lime, is faid to have carbonate of lime for its gangucv
or matrix.

Geode. This alfo we derive from the Germans. A geode is a hollow
ball ; at Oberftein in Saxony are found hollow balls of agate lined
with cryftals of quartz or amethyft, which are termed geodes.

Glance is alfo a German word meaning Ihining ; thus we have glance-
coal, copper-glance, &c.

Globular distinct concretion is ufed to exprefs the character of a mineral
which occurs in little round or roundish mafles ; the Pea-Hone and
Roe-ftone are examples of it.

Granular. The ftructure of a mineral is faid to be granular, when it ap-
pears to conlift of small grains or concretions ; which fometimes can,
fometimes cannot, be difcerned without the help of a glafs ; we have
therefore the fine granular, and the coarfe granular ftructure.

Greasy is ufed in relation to luftre : fat quartz has a greafy luftre.

Hackly. This term relates to a fracture which is peculiar to the malleable
metals ; which, when fractured, prefent ftiarp protruding points.

Haematites is derived from the Greek a^ar/Tv?, fignifying blood-red ; it was
firft applied by mineralogifts to the variety of iron ore which is now
called the Red Haematites; but has fince been extended to other iron
ores of the fame ftructure, but differing in colour. We have alfo
brown haematites, and black haematites iron ore.

A term derived from the Latin, hepar, the liver ; it is applied
either to colour or form. We have hepatic pyrites, hepatic quick -
filver ; the hepatite.

Hydrate i» derived from the Greek i/J<w£, (udor) water ; and is applied to
certain of those minerals (as the hydrate of magnefa) o£ which water
forms an ingredient in very large proportion.

Imbedded. A mineral found in a mafs of another fubftance, is laid to be
imbedded in it. Crytallized quartz occurs imbedded in Carrara
marble. It alfo occurs partly imbedded in other fubftances, as iu

EXPLANATION OF TE11MS. XXXl

Indeterminate. Indefinite. Thefe terms are ufed fynonimoufly with Amor*
phous in describing minerals which have no particular or definable
form. Cryftals of which the form cannot be accurately afcertained,
are faid to be of indeterminate forms.

•frrcrustir.v : any fubftance covered by a mineral, is fometimes faid to be
incrufted by it : thus the various articles which are placed for a cer-
tain length of time in certain fprings or wells in Derbyshire, &c. and
which are by fotne fupposed to be converted into petrifactions, arc
only incrufted with calcareous, or argillaceous matter.

Interlacing. Interlaced. When the fibres or cryftals of a mineral are found
intermingling with each other in various directions, they are interla-
cing or interlaced.

Investing. A mineral fpread upon, or covering another, is fometimes de3<,
cribed as inverting it.

Irridescent. This term relates only to the various colours with which the.
furfaces of fome metalliferous minerals are naturally tarnifhed : as«
yellow copper ore, iron pyrites, galena, fulphuret of antimony, &c.

Liimdlar ; this term relates to ftructure : when a mineral can be fractured
or cleaved into" regular and parallel plates or lamina;, its ftructure is
faid to be lamellar ; and the portions thus obtained are termed lami-
nae or lamellse ; thefe terms have been adopted from the Latin, in
which they were almoft fynonimously ufed to exprefs thin plates of
any fuhftance.

Lamellar distinct concretions. This term is fometimes ufed to exprefs the
ftructure of certain minerals (as the oxide of uranium) confifting of
lamina? which cohere but flightly.

Laraelliforni. A mineral confifting of lamellae, is faid to be lamelliform.

Laminx, Lamella. See Lamellar.

Lenticular is employed to exprefs the forms of certain cryftals which are
nearly flat, and convex above and beneath ; and which confequently
refemble u common lens.

Malleability. Some of the metals suffer extenfion when beaten with a^
hammer ; and are therefore termed malleable metals. Native gold
and native filver are very malleable metals.

Mamillated. See Botryoidal.

JWassive. This term is fometimes ufed in defcribing a fubftance of inde-
terminate form, whatever may be its internal ftructure ; but is more,
commonly ufed in contra-diftmction to the term cryftallized, as appli-
ed to thole minerals which poffefs regular internal ftructure, without
any particular external form.

Matrix. See Gangue.

Meagre. This term relates to the touch or feel of a mineral, k belongs
chiefly to fome of thofe minerals which are of an earthy texture.
Chalk is remarkably meagre to the touch.

Natural joints. Such minerals as can be broken into regular forms, as the
cube, rhomboid, &c. can be cleaved into thofe forms, only in the di-
rection of, or along, their natural joints. In fome minerals however,
which have not yet been regularly cleaved, the natural joints are per-
ceptible by the afliftance of a ftrong light.

reous relates to luftre ; and is employed to exprefs the luftre of fome
minerals (as of the pearl spar) which greatly refembles that of pearl.
Nacre de Perle, in French, fignifies Mother of PearL

v\

XXXH EXPLANATION OF TERil.

A mineral which prefcnts irregularly globular elevations, is
termed Nodular. Flint is found in nodular maffes.

Thofe minerals arc opake which do not tranfaiit a perceptible ray
of light even through the thinucil and fmalleft pieces.

gdss into. One mineral is faid to pafs into another, when both are found fo
blended in the fame fpecmien, that it is impossible to decide where
the one terminates, and the other begins. Flint is found paffing into
chalcedony.

Pectinated. If a mineral exhibit fhort filaments, cryftals, or branches which
are nearly equidiftant, it is pectinated ; pecten, in Latin, fignifies 4
comb.

Jforous. A mineral is faid to be porous, when it is traverfed in difs
ferent directions with communicating holes which pafs through thjj
fubftance.

Psfudomorfhous. Minerals exhibiting impreffions of the forms peculiar to
the cryftals of other fubftances are faid to be pfeudomorphous. Quartz
exhibiting cryftais in the form of the cube ; calamine, fuch as are pe-
culiar to carbonate of lime, &c. are termed pfeudomorphous: ifawtf,
in Greek, fignifies falfe ; f*o{$vt form or figure : fometimes they art
fecondary cryftals.

JPulverulent. When the particles of a mineral are very minute and cohere
very flightly, or uot at all, it is faid to be pulverulent; or in the pul-
verulent ftate.

,~,,d ; radiatus, in Latin, fignifies befet with rays : when the cryftals
of a mineral are fa difpoied as to diverge from a centre, they are faid
to be radiated.

Jt'Ufnose ; ramus, in Latin, fignifies the branch of a tree ; a mineral having
that appearance is defcribed as being ramofe.

Refractoriness. This term is ufed both chemically and mechanically in
relation to minerals. It is fometimes applied to thofe which ftrongly
refift the application of heat ; and occafionally to fome whofc tpugh-
nefs enables them to refill repeated blows.

Rtniform. Kidney- fhaped ; ren, in Latin, fignifies kidney.

Retiform, Reticulated. Minerals occuring in parallel fibres, croffed at right
angles by other fibres which alfo are parallel, exhibit fquares, like the
mefh.es of a net. Retis, in Latin, fignifies a net. We have reticulated
native fiiver, native copper, red oxide of copper, &c. And it may bt;
remarked that fuch minerals as occur reticulated, generally affume the
cube, as ona of their cryftalline forms.

. If a number of minute cryftals or fibres are clofely aggregated
into a little bundle, with the appearance of diverging from a common
centre, they are faid to be fcopiform. Scopa in Latin fignifies a broom
or befom.

Sibistose structure. Minerals which fplit only in one direction, and prefent
fragments which are parallel, but of unequal thicknefs, which alfo
are not fmooth and even, and are without luftre, are faid to poffefs u
fchiftofe ftructure. Schift in the German fignifies flate.
lf. This term relates to ftruccure, and is derived from the Latin, feeo,
to cut. Thofe minerals are termed ftctile which are midway between
the brittle and the malleable. A fiice or portion cut from a fcctilc

'

OY TtllMS.

mineral, is fragile, and the new furface on the mafs is fmooth and lhi»
ning. Plumbago and the foapftone are both fectile.
'Semi-transparent. A mineral is faid to be femi-tranfparent when an object

is not diftinctly feen through it-.
'Slaty-structure. This term is fynonimous with Schiftofe ftructure, whidi

fee.

Specific Gravity. The fpecifie gravity of minerals is determined by com-
parifon. The ufual mode of determining it, is by weighing them ill
pure diftilled water ; the weight of which is affumed to be one of
unit. Earthy minerals vary from twice, or lei's than twice, to nearly .
five times the weight of diftilled water. Metalliferous ores and na-
tive metals vary from five to feventeen times its weight ; some mU
nerals, efpecially fome of the combuftiblcs, are lighter than water,
and are of courfe fupernatant.

'Ffecular Minerals are thofe which prefent one fmooth and brilliant fur-
face which reflects light. We have fpecular red iron, fpecular iron
pyrites, &c. Thcfe are laid always to occur clofe to the walls or
or (ides of veins. Speculum, in .Latin, fignifies a looking glafs.
'Spicular and Splintery Fracture belong to minerals of an imperfectly cryftal*
line form. Thefe fractures do not greatly differ : they are both
irregular ; the fpicular is fhorter and more pointed than the fplintery,
$talactitrform. sra*.u,yp,K, (ftalagma) in the Greek, fignifies a drop, pu»l',

icicle. Stalacthilorm minerals greatly refemble icicles in (haps.
-Stellated. When the ftructure of a mineral i« fibrous, and the fibres diverge'
all round a common centre, its ftructure is faid to be ftellated : flella^
in Latin, fignifies a flat.

'Stria, Striated. The flight channels occafionally obfervable on the planes.-
of cryftallized minerals are termed ftriaj, and the cryftals on which
they are feen are faid to be ftriated. The ftrix are commonly
parallel and generally indicate tke direction in which cryftals may be
cleaved. Stria, in Latin, fignifies a groove, or channel.
Structure. This term relates to the internal characters of minerals. Such
as can be cleaved into regular forms, prefenting fmooth, brilliant,
and parallel furfaces, are laid to have a cryftalline ftructure ; but
when the furfaces are neither fmooth nor parallel, and when, on th<i
contrary, they are rough and curved or undulating, the ftructure is
faid to be imperfectly cryitallir.c : under \vhich term a!fo may be
comprehended all fibrous minerals whether maflive or not. All
fuch as have no determinute ftructure, as thofe minerals which arc
granular, fplintcry, &c. or compact, may be included under the
term indefinite or promifcuous ftructure.

•Supernatant. Such minerals as are lighter than water, and confequently
fwim upon it, are faid to be fupernatuut, Supernato, in Latin, fig-
nifies to fwim or float upon. " . »

Tabular. When this term is ufed in relation to ftrucfure it is nearly allied
to the fchiftofc or flaty. Talc, mica and roofing Hate are defcribed by
Werner as poffefling a tabular ftructure. This term fometimea is
ufed to exprefs the external form of cryflals: fuch as are nearly
flat, and whofe length and breadth are nearly the fame, are,
fometimes called tabular cryftals : from the Latin, tabula, a table
or board.

Toughness relates to internal ftructure. Thofe minerals which are bruised,
or fuffer depreflion, by repeated blows in the attempt to fracturo
them, are efteemcd to be tough.

^*e

J£

EXPLANATION OF TERMS*

A mineral through which an object cannot be fecft, but
which tranfmits fome light, is termed tfanflucent. Rock fait, fome-
times quartz, flint and fluor, &c. are tranflucent : many minerals
are tranflucent on the edges, as common marble, &c.

Thofe minerals arc tranfparcnt through which an object
may be clearly feen.

^Tubercular. A mineral whofe unerennefs of furface arifes from fmall
and fomewhat round elevations, is laid to be turbercuhr. i-'lint ift
fometimes tubercular.

'tuberous : exhibiting fomewhat circular knobs, or elevations.

'Tabular : See fiiluliform.

Vesicular. A mineral is laid to be veficular, when it has fmall and fome-
what round cavities, both internally and externally. Lava, pumice,
limeftone, bafalt, &c. arc fometimes veficular : from the Latin,
vcficula, a little bladder.

Vttreout ; from the Latin, vitreus, glaffy ; minerals having the luilrc
of glafs, are faid to pofiefs the vitreous luftre.

Unctuous. The term relates to the touch. Pipe clay is fomewhat unc-
tuous : Fullers' earth is unctuous : plumbago and foapftone ire very
unctuous.

TABLE OF CONTENTS,

Showing the order in which the- Minerals comprehended
the following pages have been described*

CONTENTS.

This Table (hews the order in which the Minerals, comprehended in the
following pages, have been defcribed. The whule number of ingre-
dients, in each compound mineral, are not noticed in this table. In SI-
LEX, &c. the &c. relates to the fmali portions of oxide of iron, oxide
of manganefe, or water, which many of them contain. The complete
analyfis is included in the riefcription,

EARTHY MINERALS.

SILEX, i.

SILEX, &c Quartz, a

Amethyft, 3
Prafe, 4
Chryfoprafe, 4
Avanturine, 4
Hyalite, 6
Opal, 7

. , , Alumint^ &c, .... Hydrophane, 8

Menilite, 8
"Flint, 9
Chalcedony, 10

Mocha ftone

Carnelian

Sard

Agate

Onyx

Sardonyx

Plafma

Heliotrope
Cimolite, 12
Black Chalk, 13
Almandine, 13

. . , Lime, &c Tabular fpar, 14

Jenite, 14
&c. . , . Steatite, 15

Bronzite, 16

. , Alumine, Lime, &c. . . Laumonite, 16
Dipyre, 17
Stilbite, 17
Cat's eye, 18
Prehnite, 18
Zoyfite, 19
Idocrafe, 20
Garnet, 21
Cinnamonftone, »a
Tripoli, 22
Bole, 23
Clay, 24
Porcellanite, 26
Melanite, 26
Aplomc, 27
Thallite, 27

CONTENTS. EARTHY MINERALS.

SILEX, Alumine, Lime, &c

. . i Magncfia, &c. . .

. , Barytes, &c. , .
Lime, Magtiejia, &c. . . .

, Alumine, Lime, Magnesia, &c.

Potash

, . . , Soda, &c. .. . .
, . . , Potash, Soda, &C. .
, Magnesia, Potash, &c. .
, Alumine, Lime, Potash, &C.

, ..,.., Soda, &C.

. . , . . , Magntsia, Potath, &c.

. . , . . , . . , . . , Soda, &C. .
. . , . . , Lime, Magnesia, Seda, &C.

Wernerite, 28
Tourmaline, a8
Aximte, 29
Allochroite, 30^
Lapis Lazuli, 31
Egytiar Jafucr, 31
Harmotome, 34
Tremolite, 32
Anthophyllite, 33
Meerfchaum, 30^
Afbeftus, 34
Bafaltic Hornblende, 36
Hyperfthene, 36
Schiller fpar, 37
Augire, 37
Pyrope, 39
Potftone, 39
Smaragdite, 40
Adtinolite, 40
Colophonite, 41
Leucite, 41
Lithomarga, 41
Mica, 4z
Mefotype, 43
Rubellite, 44
Pumice, 44
Ichthyophthalmite, 45
Talc, 45
Green Earth, 46
Spodumene, 47
Fclfpar, 47
Scaly Talc, 49
Pearlftone, 50
Agalmatolite, 50
Lepidolite, 51
Obfidian, 51
Haiiyne, 53
Analcime, 54
Lava, 54
Pitchftone, 55
Clinkftone, 56
Sodalite, 56
Chabafie, 57
Fettftein, 57
Scapolite, 58
Jade, 58
Soapftone, 59
Chlorite 60
Schorl, 6 1
Clay-flate, 6z
Gabronite, 61
Fuller's Earth, 63
Bafalt, 64

CONTENTS. EARTHT MINERALS.

The following eight substances have not been analyzed, but are generally asstcie~
ted ivith those ef 'which the principal ingredient is SILEX.
Hornftone, 67
Chiaftohte, 68
Spinchane, 62
Melilite, 68
Wacke, 69
Shale, 69
Flinty-flate, 71
Whet-flate, 7*
ALUM1NE, 73

. . . , &c . . . Corundum, 74

Oriental Ruby,

Saphire

Emery

. . . , Si/ex, &c Fibrolite, 76

Rottenftone, 77
Pinite, 77.
Cyanite, 77
Diafpore, 78
Staurolite, 78
Automalite, 79

. . . , . . , Lime, &c. . . . . Chrysoberyli, 7^

Sommite, 80
Meionite, 80

. , Magnesia, &c. . . . Pieonafte, 80
. , Lime, Magnesia, &c. Lazulite, 8 1
. , Potash, &c. . . . Andalufice, 82
. , Lime, Magnesia, Potash, &c. Blue Felfpar, 8a

fluoric acid, &c WavelJite, &c. 83

Si/ex , fluoric acid, &c. .

. , Lime, fluoric acid, &c.
J^fagnesia, chromic acid, &c.
sulphuric acid, &c.
potash, sulphuric acid, &c.

ia, fluoric acid, &c. -• f»
LIME, 89

. . , carbonic acid, &c

, Stroniian, carbonic acid
•i magnesia^ carbonic acid

lopaz, 83

Pyrophyfalite
Picnite, 85
Spinelle Ruby, 85
Subfulphate of Alumine, 86
Alum, 86
Cryolite, 88

Carbonate of Lime, 93

Calcareous fpar

Schiefer fpar

Aphrite

Agaric mineral

Granular limeftone

Swineltone

Bituminous limeftone

Oolite

Pea-ftone

Madreporite

Chalk

Marl
, Tufa
Arragonite, loz
Bitterfpar, 104

Micmite
Brown Spar, 105

CONTENTS. EARTHY MINERALS.

LIME, magnesia, carbonic acid . . . Pearl Spar, 105

Dolomite, 105
Magnefian Limeflone, 106
. . » , Silex, Alumine , carbonic add, &c. Lias, 107

. . . , phosphoric acid Apatite, 108

. . . ,fuoric acid Fluor, 109

. . . , sulphuric acid, Anhydrous Gypfum, in

Gypfnm, 112
. . . , soda, sulphuric acid .... Glauberite, 1 15

. . . , nitric acid Nitrate of Lime, 115

. . . , boracic acid Datholite, 116

Botryolite

. . . , arsenic acid Pharmacolite, 116

MAGNESIA, 117

» Native Magnefia, 117

, Silex, &c Chryfolite, 118

Olivin

> Alumine, Lime, &c. . . Serpentine, 119

, carbonic acid .... Magncflte, I2O

> sulphuric add, &c. . . Sujphatx of Magnefia, i 21

j boracic acid .... Boracite, 122

ZIRCON, 123

. . . . , Silex, &c Hyacinth, 124

Jargoon, 124
Zirconite, 124
GLUCINE, 125

. . . . , Silex, Alumine, &c. . . . Euclafe, 1 25
• . . . , • . . , . . . , Lime, Iron Beryl, 126
. . • • , • .,...,. . , chrome Emerald. 127
YTTRIA, 128

. . . . , Silex, Alumine, Glucine . Gadoliniter I2Q
BARYTES, 129

carbonic acid Witherite, 130

. . . . , sulphuric acid Heavy fpar, 131

. . . ., Alumine, Lime, sulphuric acid Hepatite, 132
STRONTIAN, 133

. . . , carbonic acid ..... Strontianite, 133
. . . ., sulphuric acid Celeftine, 134

ALKALINE MINERALS.

POTASH, 135

. . . . , carbonic acid Carbonate of potafh, 136

nitric acid, &c Nitrate of potafh, 137

SODA, 138

. . . , carbonic acid Carbonate of foda, 139

. . . , sulphuric acid Sulphate of foda, 141

. , boracic acid Borate of foda, 141

. . . , muriatic acid Muriate of foda, 142

AMMONIA, 145

, sulphuric acid .... Sulphate of ammonia, 145

, muriatic acid .... Sal Ammoniac, 145

6ONTEICTS. NATIVE METALS, &C.

NATIVE METALS

AND

METALLIFEROUS MINERALS.

IRON, 147

sulphur
oxygen

• t oxygen, manganese, &C.

. , oxygen, phosphoric acid . ,
. . , . . , carbonic acid, &C. . •
. , . . , sulphuric acid
. , . . , chromic acid • • •

. , anenic acid, &c

MANGANESE, 161

. . , oxygen, barytes, &c.
. , . . , sulphur, &C.
. . . . > . . , iron, &C-

. , . . phosphoric acid, &c
MOLYBDENA, 163

. , sulphur . •

TIN, 164
. . , oxygen, &C.
. . , co&per, iron, sulphur, &C.
TUNGSTEN, 167

, . . , oxygen, lime, &C-

, acid, iron, &C. •, .
TITANIUM, 168

. . . , oxygen, &c. .

CERIUM, 170

, oxygen, si/ex, &C.

URANIUM, 171

. . . , oxygen ....

. , lead, &C

TANTALIUM, 173

. . . . , oxygen, iron, &C. •
. , . . , yttria, &C. .
CHROME, 174
BISMUTH, 175

Native, 148
Meteoric, 148
Iron pyrites, 150
Magnetic Iron Ore, 15 1
Red Iron ore, 154
Brown Iron ore, 154
Black Iron ore, 155
Argiilace us Iron ore, 156

Pea Iron ore
Bog Iron ore, 157
Blue Iron ore, 158
Sparhofe Iron ore, 158
Green Vitriol, 159
Chromate of iron, 159
Arfeniate of iron, 160

Grey manganefe, 161
Sulphuret of manganefe, i6z
White manganefe, i6z
Phofphate of manganefe, 163

Sulphuret of molybdena, 163

OxiJe of tin, 165
Bell metal ore, 166,

Tungftate of lime, 167
Wolfram, 167

Titanite, 169
Anatafe, 169
Nigrine, 169
Rutiiite, 170
Metuccanite, 170
Iferine, 170

Cerice, 171
Allanite, 171
Cerin

Uranite, 173
Uran ochre, 173

Tantalite, 173
Yttrotantalite, 174

Native, 176

CONTENTS. NATIVE METALS, &C.

BISMUTH, sulphur .... Sulphuret of bismuth, 176

. , oxygen .... Bifmuth ochre, 177
ARSENIC, 177

. . . , Native, 178

. . . , oxygen, &c Oxide of arfenic, 178

. . . , sulphur . Realgar, 178

Orpiment

...,.., iron, &c. . . Mifpickcl, 170

COBALT, 180

. . . , arsenic, Sic Grey cobalt, 181

••»••» irony &c. . . Arfenical cobalt, 181

• . , oxygen ..... Earthy cobalt, 182

. . . , arsenic acid f . . Red cobalt, l8z

. , sulphuric acid . , Red vitriol, 1 82

NICKEL, 183

. . . , arsenic ; &c. .... Kupfernickel, 183

. . . , oxygen, . Nickel ochre, 184
SILVER, 184

• . , „ Native, 185

. • , antimony, &c. .... Antimonial fllver, 1 86

, sulphur • Vitreous filver, 186

. . , antimony, sulphur . . . Ruby filver, 187

. • , . . , . . , &c. . Brittle filver glance, 187

• • , • . t lead, &c. . . White filver, 187
. . , copper, sulphur, &c. . . Black filver, 1 88

. . , bismuth, copper, &c. . . Bifmuthic fllver, 188

• • , carbonic add, &c. . . . Carbonate of filver, 188

, muriatic acid, &c. . . . Muriate of lilver, 188
COPPER 189

Native, 191

sulphur Suiphuret of copper, 192

. , iron . . . Buntkupfererz, 193

&c Grey copper, 193

Milphur, iron . . . Yellow copper, 194

arsenic, &c. . . . . White copper, 194

oxygen Ruby copper, 195

. . , si/ex, &c. . . Dioptafe, 197

. . , carbonic acid . . Carbonate of copper, 196

. , sulphuric acid . . JSulphate of copper, 197

. , muriatic acid, &c. Muriate of copper, 197

. . , phosphoric acid . Phofphate of copper, 198

. , , arsenic acid, &c. Arleniate of copper, 198
GOLD, 200

. . , Native, aoi

PLATINA, 203

. . . , Native, 204

RHODIUM, 206
IRIDIUM, 206

OSMIUM, ac6 Alloy of iridium and ofmium, 206

PALLADIUM, 206

, Native, 207

TELLURIUM, 207

, Native, 207

, gold, silver . . Aurum graphicum, 208

, lead, tilver, &c. . . Plumbiferous tellurium, 208

CONTENTS. NATIVE METALS, &C.

ANTIMONY, 209

sulphur . ,
oxygen, sulphur .
. . , silex, &c.

Native, 209
Grey antimony, 210
Red antimony, 210
White antimony, 210
Antimonial ochre, an

LEAD, an

. . , sulphur .... Galena, 212

. . , antimony, copper, sulphur . Triple fulphuret of lead,

. . , oxygen Native minium, 214

. .,..-, carbonic acid . . Carbonate of lead, 215

. . , . . , muriatic acid, &c. . . Muriate of lead, 216

. . , . . , phosphoric acid, &C. Phofphate of lead 21 6

. . , . . , sulphuric acid, &c. . . Sulphate of lead, 217

. . , . . , arsenic acid, &c. . . Arfeniate of lead, 217

. . , . . , molybdic acid, &c. . . Molybdate of lead, 2l8

. . , . . , chromic acid, &c. . . Chromate of lead, 218

ZINC, 219

. . , sulphur, &c Blende, 219

. . , oxygen, carbonic acid . . Calamine, 22O

. . , . . , silex . . . Electric calamine, 221

. . , . . , sulphuric acid, &C. . Sulphate of zinc, 221

QUICKSILVER, 222

. , . ... Native, 223

. . . , silver . . . Native amalgam, 223

. , sulphur, Iron . Cinnabar, 224
. , oxygen, muriatic acid, &C. Horn quickfilver, 224

COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS.

SULPHUR, 225

. . . , Native, 227

. , . . . . . Volcanic, 229

CARBON, Diamond, 229

Mineral carbon, 232

. . . , iron Plumbago, ,232

. . . , hydrogen, &c. . . Mineral oil, 233

. . . , . . , bituminous oil . Bitumen, 235

...,.., bitumen, &c. . Coal, 237

. . . , succinic' acid . . . Amber, 245

. . . , metallic ac'fd . . Honeyftone, 245-

. . . , resin, asphalt, &c. . . Retinafphalt, 245

. . ., . . ,&c. . . .» Foflil copal, 245 x

SILEX.

THIS Earth is, when pure, in common with the rest
9f the earths, perfectly white and infusible, except by
the intense heat of voltaic electricity. It has neither
taste nor smell, and its specific gravity is 2.66.

Silex has never been found mineralized by any acid,
but is occasionally involved in small proportion in some
of the aoidiferous earthy substances ; it forms a large
ingredient of very many earthy minerals, including some
of the hardest gems and the softest clays ; it is proved
by analysis to enter, in variable proportion, into the
composition of about two-thirds of the whole number of
earthy minerals whose composition is known ; and as it
is the chief ingredient of the oldest and most plentiful of
the primitive rocks, and is found in rocks of almost every
age and formation, it is esteemed to be the most abun-
dant substance in nature.

Silex, as well as the rest of the earths has lately been
proved, by Sir H. Davy, to be a compound substance ;
it consists, according to Berzelius, of oxygen, in the
proportion of about 54 per cent, united with a base*
Silicium, which has not hitherto been obtained in a
state of separation, in the proportion of about 46 per
cent. Silex cannot therefore be now considered as a
simple or elementary body.

Notwithstanding the complete analysis of silex, it
still obtains among chemists its old denomination of an
Earth; principally, it may be supposed, from the diffi-
culty of properly characterizing its base ; which is not
believed by Sir H. Davy to be a metal, but of a pecu-
liar nature, bearing an analogy to boron, charcoal,
sulphur and phosphorus.

As common flints are almost wholly composed of
siliceous earth, i$ thence received the name of Silex,
which in the latin signifies flint ; but it is found io the
greatest purity in quartz or rock crystal.

A

8 : ^ : :

ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

QUARTZ.

Quartz is found crystallized, fibrous, granular, and
compact. It scratches glass, does not yield to the
knife, and is infusible. Its specific gravity is 2.6 ; and
it is composed of silex, with 2 or 3 per cent, of water.

Crystallized quartz* is found perfectly transparent and
colourless ; also, red, yellow, grey, black, brown, pur-
ple, green, and of various shades of each colour.

The transparent and colourless is known by the
name of rock Crystal : the largest and most esteemed
crystals are brought from Madagascar, the Alps, Nor-
way, and Scotland ; where they are found in cavities in
granite. Single crystals have been met with, of more
than 100 Ibs. weight. These are bought at a high price
by the lapidary, to cut up into various ornaments, as
seals, &c. and into proper forms for spectacles, as a
substitute for glass. In smaller crystals, quartz is found
in almost every metallic vein, both of ancient and re-
cent formation, in every kind of rock.

* Crystallized Quartz.'— Unconnected cryftals of quartz, in my poffefliofi,
from Tonewanto, are in the eighteen fided form, fhining with remarkable-
brilliancy. Others from Rochefter, north-weft of the Shawangunk moun-
tain, have as many fides, with longer columns ; found fcattered through
argillaceous loam.— Abraham G. 'Thompson.

Attached cryftals of great beauty have been brought from Rochefter,
having a fix fided column terminating in a fix fided pyramid. Some of
thempoffefs remarkable clearnefs and brilliancy, and form clufters of great
beauty. They reft upon a bafe of quartzy rock, containing galena, or
fulphuret of lead, and blende, or fuphuret of zinc.— Ib.

A cryftal of this fort, in my collection, brought by a Canadian trader
from fome barbarian region north-weft of Lake Superior, is 5 inches
long, and i i-a in diameter.— Rev. Alex. MiLeod.

Many handfome fpecimens of nafcent and well formed cryftals of quartz
have been brought from Rhinebeck. — Rev. F. C. Schaeffer.

Well formed and lucid cryftals have been brought from Diamond Ifland,
in Lake Champlain.— Sttvenson.

Elegant clufters of the same, from the banks of the Illinois— Long.

Opake cryftals of quartz, refting upon gneifs, from the Stafford Springs,
in Connecticut.-— Davis,

The Diamond Rock, fituated eaft of Lanfingburgh, has a furface be-
fj>angled with minute cryftals, that glitter in the funmine, and tempt moft
vifiter* to bring away pieces of the quartzy rock- and its crop of cryftals.

Quartzy cryftallizations are found in various other parts cf the United
Stattr. and of North America ; fuch as Mafiachufetts, Virginia, South Ca-
rolina, and other place*.

TO MINERALOGY. &

Quartz, more often than any other crystallized mine-
ral, contains foreign substances sometimes drops of wa-
ter, with bubbles of air, may be seen in it ; also crystals
of schorl or titanium, crystals of chlorite, and iron ore.

The crystallizations of quartz or rock crystal are very
interesting. The crystals in my possession exhibit 40
distinct varieties of form ; the most common of which is
a hexahedral prism terminated by hexahedral pyramids:
the two pyramids joined base to base, without an inter-
vening prism, are rarely seen. The primitive crystal is
also rare, but is occasionly found in the neighbour-
hood of Bristol ; it is an obtuse rhomboid, very nearly
approaching the cube. Its angles, according to Haliy,
are 94° 24' and 85° 36' ; but the results obtained by the
rejecting goniometer do not correspond therewith.

Quartz allows, though not readily, of mechanical clea-
vage, parallel with the planes of its primitive crystal.

The transparent crystals found in the neighbourhood
of Bristol, termed Bristol Diamonds, are crystallized
quartz ; those of Cornwall are by some called Cornish

Crystals of quartz, of a light yellow, or of various shades
of brown, are brought from many places. The best are
found in a hill called Cairn-gorm, in Scotland. A sin-
gle crystal about twelve inches long, and four in diame-
ter, of a deep brown colour and transparent, which was
fit for the lapidary, was not long since sold by public auc-
tion for 210 guineas. These are by some called False
Topazes.

When of a reddish purple, or violet colour, quartz is
called Amethyst :* the crystals are generally of the deep-
est colour towards the summit. It commonly occurs in
veins in metalliferous mountains in Spain, Bohemia,
Saxony, Hungary, <kc. never in those of primitive gra-
nite. Frequently it is found in hollow masses, called
geodes, which are occasionally surrounded by a coating
of agate ; but these are principally met with in volcanic

* Amethyst.— My ccllection contains hollow balls, covered within by
amethyflinc cryftals, from Mentz, in Germany, and amorphous pieces of
various purple hues, from St. Salvador*, in Brazil, and its vicinity Me
Collins brought me an amethyst found in Georgia, thirty miles west c£

Augusta..

4 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

countries ; in Auvergne, the Tyrol, and the Palatine.
Analysis has proved the amethyst to contain a very mi-
nute quantity of iron and manganese, to which its colour
may be attributed. Amethyst has been met with in the
tin mines of Cornwall, Polgooth, and Pednandrae.

Fibrous quartz* is yellowish or greyish white, and occa-
sionally pale amethyst : sometimes it occurs in radiated
and globular concretions, two inches or more in diame-
ter, but only in Cornwall.

Granular quartz\ is white, yellowish or greyish white ;
it occurs in granular distinct concretions, sometimes in
mass, and as a component of certain granites. It is fine,
or large grained. The fine grained, with silvery mica,
composes a granite near Schihallien, in Scotland ; the
larger grained forms large blocks in argillaceous schistus
and other rocks in Scotland. The latter becomes snow
white by calcination, and is largely employed in the
porcelain manufactory.

Compact quartz^ is of various colours, and occurs in
mass, or disseminated, or globular, &c. It is found en-
tering into the composition of rocks, from the oldest to
those of the most recent formation, and composing veins
and beds in others : sometimes it is found in consider-
able blocks, though it seldom forms entire mountains.

Prase^ is of a leek green colour, and translucent; it oc-
curs in mass at Brutenbrun, in Saxony, in a mineral bed :
it appears to be an intimate mixture of quartz and acti-
nolite.

When of a light grass or an apple green, and some-
what transparent, quartz is termed Chrysoprase, which
is found in mass, imbedded in serpentine, in Siberia, with
opal, chalcedony, &c.

Avanturine isyellowish red, or grey, greenish, or black-
ish. It appears to be filled with silvery and yellowish

* Fibrous Quartz.— This frequently occurs, croffing veins of granite,
gneifs and fchistus, in New- York. Ic feems to be an incipient form of
cryftallization.

f Granular J^war/z— frequent in and around New- York.

I Compact Quartz— many diftind: mafles are found scattered over the
land between Waftiington city and Fredericktown, Md.

$ Prase.— Specimens of quartz, coloured green, at New- York and its
vicinity. They are, however, opake and amorphous, and have been fuppc-
fed to owe their colour to copper.

TO MINERALOGY. 5

spangles, that reflect light with great brilliancy. ^ Some
suppose these spangles to be mica, others imagine that
the appearance is produced only by the particular direc-
tion of the lamina:. It takes a good polish, and is used
for seals and other ornaments. The best avanturine is
brought from Spain.

A variety of quartz, which is commonly massive, and
has a greasy lustre, as though it had been rubbed with
oil, is therefore called Fat quartz :* it is one of the gan-
gues of native gold in Peru.

Another variety is opaque white, and is thence term-
ed Milk quartz. It has sometimes a tinge of red, which
often passes into a beautiful rose red, when it is termed
Rose quartz ;f it often has the greasy lustre of fat quartz.
Its colour is said to be owing to manganese. It has been
found at Rabenstein in Bavaria, in considerable quantity,
in a vein of manganese traversing a large grained granite.
It has also been met with in Finland, and near Cork in,
Ireland.

Quartz sometimes exhibits impressions of the crystal-
line forms of substances on which it has been deposited.,
but which have been decomposed; quartz exhibiting such
crystalline appearances is termed Pseudomorphous. J
Sometimes it is merely cellular ; and when the cavities
are very minute, and the quartz is in very thin plates
which intersect each other in every direction, it is so light
as to swim on water; whence this variety has been term*
ed Swimming stone, by some Spongiform quartz. It has
been found at Schemnitz in Hungary, at Joachimstal in
Bohemia, at Schneeberg and Freyberg in Saxony, at
Beresof in Siberia, and in Cornwall in England. The
cavities of one specimen in my possesion, from Pednan-
drae Mine, near Redruth, are partly filled up with fluol
spar, the external parts of which are rounded, shewing it
to be in a state of decomposition ; the cavities of another, .

* Fat <j>yartz.-— Particles of this variety adhere to the pieces of native
gold found in North Carolina.

t Roit Quartz.— -I ^ave elegant fpecimens from Maine, received frorc
Profeflbr CMeaveland.

$ PseuJomorpbous Quartz — Cryftals of quartz fometimea make impre*>
sions upon invefting quartzy maffcs of fubfequent formation ; and fome>
limes the quartzy crufts or boxe* remain, after the fofter and more $***•
Enable materials they enclosed, are decompofcd or waftcd&war,

0 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

from Relistean Mine, are filled up partly by black, part*
ly by bright yellow copper ore.

Quartz combined with variable proportions of iron, fc
termed Ferruginous quartz .•* It is of a yellow or red co^
lour, and opake, and is found both compact and crystal-
lized. It is harder than pure quartz ; and when heated,
becomes magnetic. It is sometimes met with in remark-
ably neat small crystals having both terminations perfect,
and of a yellowish or reddish colour. These crystals*
have been principally found in secondary rocks, near
Compostella in Spain ; whence they are called Hya-
cinths of Composttila. Massive ferruginous quartz, or
EisenJciesel) is found in the veins of primitive mountains,
where it is often met with as the gangue of various me-
tallic substances, as of lead, copper, sulphuret of iron, and
sometimes of gold.

A variety termed Hyalite, or Mutter's glass, having in
many respects the appearance of chalcedony, has been
found in small masses upon, or lining the cavities of,
amygdaloid. It bears a striking resemblance to gum
arabic, and is said to be composed of 92 parts silex and
7 of water. It has been found only in volcanic coun-
tries : in Tuscany, — in small stalactites in the rocks of
Piperino, in Solfatara, &c.

Quartz is sometimes found forming beds, and more
often veins,f in primitive mountains. The quartz in
these veins is sometimes compact, but is occasionally
hollow in places \ in these cavities the crystals which are
seen in the cabinets of mineralogists are found. It oc-
casionally occurs imbedded, as in porphyries ; and in
remarkably neat transparent crystals, in Carrara marble.

It is also met with in veins or caverns in secondary
countries of different natures ; and forms a large pro-
portion of alluvial deposites, principally in fragments, or
rounded or angular grains, constituting sand ; which is
sometimes, by causes which we know not how to explain,

* Ferruginous Quartz.— Amorphous, reddifh or ruddy quartz, ftained
through and through, or in fpots and blotches, are of frequent occurrence.

f Vtias of Quartz.— These- occur in the rocks of gneifs and granite, ia
the islands of the Sound east of New York, of various width, from half
on inch to three feet ; sometimes parallel to the strata, and sometimes £•'
cross them. The quartz ia even a rod wide, in certain placet.

TO MINERALOGY. 7

found adhering, forming masses denominated Sandstone*
and Gritstone.

OPAL.

Opal is either of a clear, or of a bluish white : it in-
cludes several varieties.

It is found in small masses or in veins in Hungary, in
rocks which seem to be in part decomposed, and which
are by some considered to be volcanic ; by others, as ar*
gillaceous rocks, the result of the decomposition of por->
phyries. In these rocks both the common and the noblo
opal occur. Opal is also met with in Iceland, and Sax-*
ony.

The Common opal is usually white with a tinge of yel*
low, red, or light green, internally. It consists of 93.$
parts of silex, 1 of oxide of iron, and 5 of water. It had
been found in several of the mines of Cornwall.

The Noble opal exhibits changeable reflections of the
same colours as the former variety, and is an exceeding-
ly brilliant and beautiful mineral : it is hard enough to
scratch glass. The finest specimens of it are in the Im-
perial Cabinet of Vienna ; one is about 5 inches long
and 2| in diameter, the other is of the shape and size of
a hen's egg. It consists of 90 parts of silex, and 10 of
water.

Semi-opal is harder than the preceding varieties and
is mostly opake; occasionally transparent, with a glisten-
ing resinous lustre. It is principally met with in secon-
dary countries ; sometimes in volcanic rocks, and in ba-
salts. It has also been found in primitive granite and por-
phyry, especially in the veins traversing those rocks
which contain silver. It consists of 85 percent, of si-
lex, 1 of carbon, 1.75 of oxide of iron^ 8 of ammoniacal
water, and a small portion of bitumen. Semi-opal is

* Sane/stone — At Nyack, thirty miles north of New- York, the Sand-
stone strata, overlay the bones of land animals. The roots of the kal-
mia latifolia are petrified in red Sandstone, near the top of the Kaatskill
mountain.— (Eaton.)——— And both marine shells and vegetable substan-
ces are embraced in the Sandstone, near Rappahannock and York rivere,
in Virginia.— (Lot robe.) -Quartz, in .loose, and. round pebbles, chief-
ly constitutes the fhoals and beaches of the Atlantic fhore, from Cape Cod
3fld Nautucket to Cape Hattcras, and beyond,

8 ELEMENRARY INTRODUCTION'

found in Auvergne in France, in the island of Elba^ in
Bohemia, Iceland, Hungary, &c. Fossil teeth have
been found penetrated by this mineral.

Wood-opal * has a ligneous structure, and is met with
of various shades of grey, brown and black. It appears
to be wood, penetrated by opal or semi-opal ; and is
found near Schemnitz, and at Telkobanya in Hungary.

A variety, met with at the same place as the prece-
ding, called Ferruginous Opal or Opal jasper, is of a
yellowish or yellowish brown colour, with a glistening
resinous lustre. It consists of about 43 parts of silex, 47
of oxide of iron, and 7 of water.

HYDHOPHANE.

The Hydrophane is considered to be a variety of
opal. It is generally whitish, and nearly opake ; by
immersion in water, it exhibits some of the changeable
colours of the former varieties, and is found in the same
places. It consists of about 93 parts of silex, 2 of alu-
mine, and 5 of water.

Hydrophane is porous, and commonly adheres to the
tongue. It is chiefly found in Saxony, the Isle of Ferroe,
and in Hungary. At Mussinet near Turin, it occurs in
veins of chalcedony, or of hard serpentine, traversing a
serpentine mountain in every direction.

MENILITE.

The Menilite is by some considered a variety of semi-
opal. Its common colour is a smoke brown ; its struc-
ture slaty ; it is somewhat translucent, and is found in
irregular masses in beds of clay, between beds of sul-
phate of lime at Menil-montant near Paris. It is some-
times called the Pitchstone of Menil-montant. It consists
of 85.5 parts of silex, 1 of alumine, 11 of water and
inflammable matter, with small portions of lime and
oxide of iron*

* Wood-Opal.— -Wood apparently opalizcd has be€n picked up on the
fenks of the Miffouri.— Bradbuty*

TO MINERALOGY 9

F.L1NT.*

Flint is of various shades of white, yellow, brown ant!
black, and is somewhat harder than common quartz ;
it is readily broken in any direction, and has a con-
choidal and a glimmering lustre. It is found in irre-
gular masses, and sometimes forming the substance of
certain marine organic remains, as echinites and coral -
loids : and consists of 97 parts of silex, 1 of alurnine
and oxide of iron, and 2 of water. It specific gravity
is 2.58 :

Flint is said occasionally, though rarely, to be found
in veins in primitive rocks ; but it is also said that the
flint thus found has not precisely the characters of com-
mon flint. It is met with in nodules in compact carbo-
nate of lime in Derbyshire; at Mont-martre near Paris,
in an impure sulphate of lime ; it is also found in certain
marls ; but that which may be termed its ordinary na-
tive place, is the upper chalk formation, in which it is
met with in regular layers, and occasionally as in Fresh-
water Bay in the Isle of Wight, in continuous beds of
considerable length. Flint is also abundantly found in
portions evidently rounded by attrition, forming depo-
sites in the neighbourhood of chalk hills, and of gravel
in alluvial countries. When red, yellow, or browo* they
are termed Ferruginous flints.

The formation of the flints which lie in detached
masses, though in parallel layers, in chalk, has much oc-
cupied the attention of geologists, and without producing
any satisfactory solution. Their form proves that they
have not been rolled, or conveyed into the chalk ; in
which they bear every appearance of having been form-

* Flint-— Is found in detached mafies, of the Cze of a 5ft a.nd lefe, fcat-
tered over the maritime alluvion of the United States. But as it does not
break with a proper concavo-convex fracture, it may be deemed rather a
horn-ftone ; or rather it is horn^ftone palling into flint, found in the ftrata
of fecondary lime-ftone, in the counties of Otfego, Genefice and Niagara,
New- York; generally of a black hue; is frequent in the valley of Muf-
conetcung river, New Jerfey, and between the Delaware and Lehigh,
Pennfylvania. Various other localities of flint, are detailed in my letter on
the fubje&, as publiihed in Mease's Archives of ufcful knowledge, at
Philadelphia. Specimens in mypofleflicr^from Alabama and Brazil, fhow
the ftages by which flint changes to limeftone, or limcflone alters to flint?

10 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

ed : they are frequently found containing shells. Some
naturalists have ventured on the supposition that the
places in which they are found were formerly occupied
by animals : and that the formation of flints in those
places, has been owing either to the affinity existing for
silex in the animal matter, or that it. has been converted
into flint. This it must be obvious is mere hypothesis,
and is not more deserving of regard than the notion en-
tertained by others, that, contrary to all known principles
of chemistry, these flints have been formed by the con-
version of lime into silex by some unknown natural
agency. The most commonly received opinion seems
to be, that flints have been formed by the filtration of
siliceous matter through the chalk ; a theory not without
serious difficulties.

Kirwan quotes from Schneider's Topog. Mineral.
114. that 126 silver coins were found enclosed in flints,
at Crinoc in Denmark ; and an iron nail at Potsdam.

CHALCEDONY.^

Chalcedonyis found of various shades of white, yellow,
brown, green and blue. It occurs massive, forming veins,
in round balls, termed geodes ; and also, botryoidal and
stalactitical ; sometimes it bears the impression of organ-
ized bodies : it is frequently met with coating crystals
of quartz, and occasionally in cubic crystals, which, it
is ascertained, are only secondary, or pseudomoi phous,
It is commonly semi-transparent ; it has no regular frac-
ture, and is harder than flint. Its elementary constituents
have not been accurately ascertained, but as it is often
found passing into flint, it may reasonably be assumed,
that their analysis would not greatly differ. The specific
gravity of chalcedony is about 2.6.

Chalcedony is found principally at Oberstein in Sax-
ony, and in the isle of I erroe. A blue variety is met
with in Transylvania. That of Iceland is in thin layers,
alternately more or less translucid, and perfectly paral-
lel. But the most superb specimens were brought
from a copper mine in Cornwall, called Travascus,

* Chalcedony.— Coarfe pieces found along the Ihorea around New- York,

TO MINERALOGY". 11

which was situated in argillaceous schistus ; these speci-
mens are translucid, whitish, and variously ramified. A
variety of a beautiful blue colour on the surface was
found in a tin vein passing through granite, in Pednan-
drae mine, near Redrutb, in the same county ; and
another variety, very much resembling flint, containing
small portions of yellow copper, in Relistian mine.
Chalcedony has also been met with in several others of
the Cornish minqs. It was anciently procured from
Chalcedon in Upper Asia, whence its name.

When of a white colour and translucent, chalcedony
is called Cacholong. Some varieties are opake and ad-
here to the tongue. Cacholong is found with chalce-
dony, sometimes with flint. It is me.t with at Cham-
pigny, near Paris, in a calcareous breccia : but the real
cacholong is found in the banks of the Cach, a river in
the country of the Calmucs of Buccharia.

When chalcedony contains appearances of arboriza-
tion or vegetable filaments, which have been supposed
to be owing to the infiltration of iron or manganese
through its natural crevices, it is termed Mocha stone.
This is believed chiefly to be brought from Mocha in
Arabia.

Carnelian is of various shades of yellow, brown, and
red. It is found in several places in Europe ; but the
most valuable specimens are brought from Arabia, and
from Surat and Cambay in India, where it is said to
be found in certain rocks in the globular, or the stalac-
titical form.

Sard is supposed to differ from the preceding variety
only in its colour, which is orange-yellow, passing into
brownish-yellow.

When yellowish, white, red, or yellow, brown, or
brownish black, and opake, it is called Jasper.

When two or three of the above varieties are mixed
in alternate and concentric bands, exhibiting, when cut
and polished, zones, or angular lines like fortifications,
the compound is termed Agate. It is found in the form
of irregular rounded nodules, from the size of a pin's
head to more than a loot in diameter, or in veins or
strata, or occasionally stalactitic. Sometimes agate is
found in amygdaloid and in gypsum ; near the Wolga it

12 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

occurs between strata of secondary limestone. The mosi
beautiful agates of Britain are found in the neighbour-
hood of Perth and Dunbar, and are called Scotch pebbles ;
but the most celebrated are those of Oberstein^ in Sax-
ony. When the colours are disposed in straight parallel
bands, it is called Ribbon agate, by some Ribbon jasper*
Another variety represents rocks or buildings, and is cal-
led Ruin agate.

But if two or more of the preceding varieties are as-
sociated with a band of rnilk-white opake chalcedony,
the mass is called Onyx. Onyxes cut into portions
about the size of a bean, exhibiting opake white circles,
resembling the iris of the human eye, are termed Onyx-
eyes.

Sard, united with opake milk-white chalcedony, is
called Sardonyx.

Plasma seems to be a variety of chalcedony, which it
resembles in being translucent, and somewhat harder
than quartz. It is of a dull greenish colour, with yellow
and whitish dots, and has a glistening lustre. It has not
been analyzed. Plasma is brought from Italy and the
Levant ; and is said to occur at Taltsa, in High Hun-
gary ; also, disseminated in rounded pieces, with flint
and hornstone, in a mountain of serpentine, at Bojano-
witz, in Moravia. Its specific gravity is 2.04.

Heliotrope is mostly of a de«p green colour, and
translucent ; and commonly, yellow or blood-red spots
are interspersed through the substance. From the lat-
ter circumstance it has obtained the name of Bloodstone.
It is considered to consist of chalcedony coloured by
chlorite, or by green earth ; and is found in Siberia, Ice*
land, and in a vein at Jaschkenberg, in Bohemia, — but
the most beautiful varieties are brought from the east ;
whence, among lapidaries, by whom it is in considerable
request, it has obtained the name of Oriental jasper,
The specific gravity of heliotrope is 2,6.

C1MOL1TE.

Cimolite is of a light greyish-white, inclining to pearl-
grey, but by exposure to air it acquires a reddish tint :
it occurs massive, and of a somewhat slaty structure ; is

TO

13

opake ; yields to the nail, and adheres to the tongue. It
often encloses small grains of quartz. It consists of 63
parts of silex, 23 of alumine, 1.25 of oxide of iron, and
12 of water. Its specific gravity is 2.

Jt abounds in the island of Cimola (whence its name)
now called Argenteria, situated near that of Milo. It
was employed by the ancients,and still is by the inhabi-
tants of the island, for some of the purposes to which
fullers earth is applied.

BLACK CHALK. DRAWING SLATE.

This mineral is of a greyish or bluish black colour ; it
bas a slaty structure, is meagre to the touch, and soils
the fingers. It is found in primitive mountains, accom-
panying argillaceous schistus, particularly that which is
aluminous, to which it is nearly allied ; and is said to
occur occasionally in the neighbourhood of coal forma-
tions. It is met with near Pwllhelli, in Caernavon^
shire ; in Isla, one of the Hebrides ; in France, Spain,
Italy, Iceland, and in Bareith. That from the latter
place yields by analysis about 64 parts of silex, 11 of
alumine, 11 of carbon, with small proportions of iron
and of water.

ALAMANDINE.

This mineral, commonly termed JVoMe, or Precioi^
garnet, is usually of a brilliant crimson colour, some-
times with a slight smoky tinge and transparent. It
occurs granular, and also crystallized, in some of the
forms usual to the common garnet ; its structure is im-
perfectly lamellar, though but rarely visible. Its specific
gravity is 4.3 ; and it consists of 35.75 parts of silex,
27.25 of alumine, 36 of oxide of iron, and 0.25 of oxide
0f manganese.

The alamandine is very much esteemed as a precious
stone. The most beautiful, which are sometimes of red-
dish violet colour, are brought from Sirian, the Capital of
Pegu : among lapidaries, they are improperly called Syriaa
garnets- They appear to be the Carbuncle of the am-

B

ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

cients/ Of their geological situation in Pegu, we are
entirely ignorant. They are also found in Bohemia,
Hungary, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Brazil, &c.

In Bohemia, they are found near Meronitz and Trzib-
litz, in the circle of Leutmeritz, disseminated in an allu-
vial deposite, consisting principally of fragments of
serpentine or rounded masses of basalt, cemented by a
grey marl. In this deposite are also found hyacinths,
beryls, sapphires, quartz, magnetic iron, and even fossil
shells.

It is said to have been met with in granite at Stron-
tian ; also at Ely in Fifeshire, and at Wicklow in Ire-
land.

'; _ • *''

TABULAR SPAR.

V:--' »•'•;•;

This very rare mineral has only been found at Ora
vitza, and at Dognaska, in the Bannat of Temesvvar,
entering into the composition of a rock, consisting prin-
cipally of bluish carbonate of lime and brown garnets ;
or, according to others, in a vein of bluish lamellar car-
bonate of lime, containing green garnets.

The tabular spar is of a greyish white colour ; trans-
lucent and somewhat hard. It is phosporescent when
scratched with a knife, and is said to have been met with
in six-sided tables, in which the natural joints may be
discovered, parallel to the sides of a slightly rhomboidal
prism. It is composed of 50 parts ofsilex, 45 oflimej
and 5 of water. Its specific gravity is 2.86.

JEN1TE. YENITE.

The Yenite is a scarce mineral, which at first sight
greatly resembles hornblende. It is of a brown, or
brownish black colour, dull externally, and of about the
fcardness of felspar It occurs amorphous, acicular, and
crystallized ; generally in the form of a rhomboidal
prism ; six varieties have been discovered in the form of
its crystals, the primitive of which is a rectangular octo-
faedron, measuring over the summit, according to Haiiy^
one way, 112C. 36', the other, 66°. 58'. it is composed
of 29 parts ofsilex, 12 of lime, and 51 of the oxides e,f

TO MINERALOGY. 15

manganese and of iron ; and therefore does not seem to
belong to earthy minerals ; but it is always ranked in
that class. Its specific gravity is 3.8.

Jt has been found only in Corsica, at Rio la Marine
and Cape Calamite ; it is dispersed in crystals and almost
compact round masses, in a thick bed of green substance,
the nature of which has not been determined, but which
bears a considerable analogy to the Yenite ; and is ac-
companied by yellowish- green epidote, quartz, and arse-
nical iron. The bed containing the yenite lies upon
another, consisting of large grained carbonate of lime,
enclosing talc. At Cape Calamite it is accompanied by
magnetic iron ore, granite, and quartz.

STEATITE.*

Steatite is of various shades of white, grey, yellow,
green, and red ; and is met with massive, and (at Ba-
reuth) with occasional appearances of internal crystalli-
zation ; which, being mostly, if not always, referable to
the forms assumed by quartz or carbonate of lime, are
therefore in varieties which cannot originate in the same
primitive form, and are thence considered to be only
pseudomorpbous.

This substance has generally a very unctuous and
soapy feel, but it differs from the soapstone in not having
alumine as one of its elementary ingredients ; it yields
to the nail, but does not adhere to the tongue ; its frac-
ture is splintery, sometimes slaty. It considerably re«
sembles some varieties of serpentine, but is much softer.
The grotesque figures brought from China, are general-
ly supposed to be a variety of steatite ; which, though it
possesses some characters in common with the substance
of which those figures are made (the Agalmatolite), dif-
fers essentially in respect of analysis. Steatite consists
of 64 silex, 23 magnesia, 3 oxide of iron, and 5 of water*
Its specific gravity is 2.67.

Steatite is found in considerable masses, or in beds or

• Steatite.— Found in the alluvial soil of New- York city, in loofc
mafies ; in the county of Richmond, (N. Y.) near the health eftablifhment.,
aflbciated with various other magnefian productions ; and near Balti*
jnore in Maryland accgraganying the native chromate of iron*

16 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

veins, in some primitive mountains. It is most common
in serpentine. At Freyberg in Saxony, it is met with
in tin veins ; where it is accompanied by, or mingled
with mica, asbestus, quartz, and occasionally native sil-
ver, &c. It is found at Portsoy, in Scotland, in serpen-
tine, and in the Isle of Sky, in wacke. It occurs also in
the Isle of Anglesey. It abounds in the principality of
Bareuth, in Saxony, Bohemia, Norway, Sweden, and
France.

The white varieties, or those that become so by calci-
nation, are employed in the manufactory of the finest
porcelain : other varieties are said to be used for fulling.
The Arabs, according to Shaw, use steatite in their baths
instead of soap, to soften the skin ; and it is confidently
asserted that the inhabitants of New Caledonia either eat
it alone, or mingle it with their food. Humboldt says
that the Otomaques, a savage race, inhabiting the banks
of the Oronoko, are almost entirely supported during
three months in the year, by eating a species of steatite,
which they first slightly bake, and then moisten with
Water,

* y * . f -f.

BRONZITE*

The colour of this mineral is brown, having frequently
tbe aspect of bronze : its structure is fibrous lamellar,
and its lustre is considerably metallic. It consists of 60
per cent, of silex, 27.5 of magnesia, 10.5 of oxide of
iron, and 0.5 of water. Its specific gravity is 3. 2.

The Bronzite is usually found disseminated in Ser-
pentine. It occurs in the Col de Cerviere in the Alps ;
at Matray in the Tyrol ; at Basta in the Duchy of Wol-
fenbutel ; at Dobschauin Upper Hungary, &c. : It scemst
to belong to primitive countries.
£ *"' *

LAUMONITE,

This mineral occurs in aggregated crystalline masses,
deeply striated, or in separate crystals of several varie-
ties of form ; the primitive of which, according to Haiiy,
is a rectangular octohedron, or, according to Bourrton,
& rhomboids! tetrahedral prism, with rhombic

TO MTNEHALOGT. 17

The Laumonite is white, transparent or translucentp
and hard enough to scratch glass. It was formerly
termed the efflorescent zeolite^ on account of its undergo-
ing a spontaneous change by exposure to the air; in
consequence of which it loses its natural transparency,
and becomes opake, tender, of a shining white colour,
and pearly lustre ; eventually, it falls into a white pow-
der, similar to that resulting from the decomposition off
Glauber's Salts. It has lately received the name of the
Laurnonite, from Gillet De Laumont, who fir^t made
known its true nature. Its specific gravity is 2, 2. It is
composed of 49 of silex, 22 of alumine, 9 of lime, 17. 5
of water, and 2. 6 of carbonic acid.

This mineral was first discovered in the lead mine of
Huelgoet in Brittany, lining the caviaes of the veins.—
It has since been brought from Ferroe ; from near Pais-
ley in Renfewshire ; from Portrush in Ireland, and Lamp
in the Isle of Sky.

,r DIPYRE.

This rare substance occurs in slender octohedral prisms^
of a greyish, or reddish white colour, fasciculated into
masses These prisms exhibit joints parallel to the
sides, and to the diagonal, of a rectangular prism The
Dipyre is of a shini g vitreous lustre, is hard enough to
scratch glass, and becomes slightly phosphorescent by
the application of heat. It consists of 60 of silex, 24 o£
alumine, 10 of lime, and 2 of water. Its sp. gr. is about
3,7.

It was found in the torrent of Mauleon, in the west-
am Pyrennees, in a gangue of white., or reddish steatite,,
aiingled with sulphuret of iron.

STILBITE^

, V ^j?

Stilbite is of a peculiar glistening or shiny pearly lus-
ire, by which it may be recognized at once. Its colours
are white, grey, brown, or red ; it is transparent or trans-
lucent, and not sufficiently hard to scratch glass. It OG*
ours lamelliform, massive, and crystallized ; the crystal
are sometimes fasciculated into slender grisms >;

18 ELEMENTAllY INTRODUCTION"

form of the primitive crystal is a right prism with rec-
tangular bases, in which it sometimes occurs, but more
often these prisms are terminated by tetrahedral sum*
dits. It consists of 52 parts of silex, 17. 5 of aluminc,
9 of lime, and 18. 5 of water. Its sp. gr. is 2, 5.

The Stilbite is met with in the fissures of primitive
rocks; in mineral veins; and in the cavities of amygda-
loid.

It has been found near Grenoble, of a pale straw co-
our; at Andreasberg, upon carbonated lime ; at Aren--
dahl, in Norway, of a brown colour; in Iceland, of a
shining white colour, on the Iceland spar ; in the islands
of Sky, Staffa and Canna, in amygdaloid ; and it has
been met with massive, of an orange brown colour, at
^Dumbarton ; at Glen Farg in Perthshire, and at Callhitl
in Aberdeenshire.

CAT'S EYE.

This mineral is generally brought in the polished state
from the coast of Mal.tbar, and from Ceylon ; but no-
thing is known of its geological situation. Its colour is
Of various shades of grey, green, brown, or red ; and ft
exhibits a peculiar play of light, resembling the eye of
the animal from which it takes its name ; this peculiar
reflection, emphatically termed by the French, chato-
yant, is owing to the fibrous texture of the substance, a*
rising, as it has been supposed by some, from its consist*
tng of asbestus, enclosed in quartz. Its specific gravity
is about 2. 7. It is composed of 95 parts of silex, 1. 76
of alumine, 1. 5 of lime, and 0. 25 of oxide of iron. It
«s frequently employed as a precious stone, and is in
Considerable estimation.

PREHNITE,

This mineral is of a pale greenish or yellowish colour. .
with a shining pearly lustre, and is somewhat transparent;
it is scarcely hard enough to scratch glass, and becomes
electric by heat. It occurs in very minute crystals,
which are for the most part closely aggregated ; their
primitive form is a right rhomboidal prism of 103*. and

TO MISERALOGF. 1

77° ; the prisms sometimes have 6 or 8 sides. A vari-
ety which occurs in small translucent lamellae, of a yel-
lowish white colour, and glistening pearly lustre, consists
of 48 parts of silex, 24 of alumine, 23 of lime, and 4 of
oxide of iron. The prehnite is also found massive, and
consists of the same elements, somewhat differing in their
respective proportions, together with about 2 per cent
of water.

Crystallized prehnite has been met with in considers
ble quantity, and of a purer green than that of Europe,
at the Cape of Good Hope ; it occurs in France ; in the
valley of Fascha in the Tyrol, accompanying mesotypej
and at Dunglasse in Scotland.

The lamelliform variety, called the Koupholite^ oc-
curs near Bareges, and the peak of Eredlitz in the Py-
rennees, in a gangue of cavernous hornstone, mingled
with chlorite, &c.

The massive is found in France;- in Scotland, near
Dumbarton ; at Hartfield Moor, nearly Paisley ; at Fris-
ky Hall, near Glasgow; at the Castle Rock, near Edin-
burgh ; and in the Isle of Mull.

The Prehnite seems to belong to rocks of early for-
mation, of which it does not enter into the composition;
it is only dis eminated in small quantity, without form-
ing either beds or veins.

ZOYS1TE,

ft;

The Zoysite, which, together with the Thallite, is m-
eluded by Haliy under the name of EPIDOTE, was so
©ailed after the Baron de Zoys. it occurs in oblique
ihomboidal prisms, of a grey, greyish or yellow or browa
colour, with a pearly lustre and translucent, which are
rarely perfect, owing to deep longitudinal striae. The
Zoysite consists of 44 parts of silex, 32 of alumine, 20 oi*
Kme, and 2.5 of oxide of iron, and is met with in Caria-
thia, the neighbourhood of Salzburg, and in the Tyrol,,
fee*

20 ELEMENTARY INTEODUCTIOrT

inOCEASE. VESUVIAN. BROWN VOLCANIC HYACINTH.

Idocrase occurs massive, but more often crystallized
In groups, consisting of short quadrangular prisms, of
\vhich the edges are variously replaced, and variously
terminated. Haiiy notices eight varieties in the form of its
crystals; one of which, if complete, would have presented
90 planes ; 16 on the prism, and 37 on each summit ; he
considers the primitive to be a right prism, with square
bases, differing very Itltle from the proportions of the
cube. The colour of the Idocrase is mostly brownish or
yellowish green, sometimes orange, with a resinous lus-
tre i and it is hard enough to scratch glass. That of
Vesuvius consists of silex 35.50, alumine 33. lime 22.254
and oxide of iron 7.50. Its specific gravity varies from
3.088 to 3.409. It possesses double refraction.

It has been met with both in volcanic, and in primitive
countries. It occurs in the midst of the projected masses
of Vesuvius and Etna; where its crystals, which exhibit
no appearance of change by heat, line the cavities of vol-
canic rocks, principally composed of felspar, mica, talcf
and carbonated lirne ; and are accompanied by garnet,
hornblende, meionite, &tc.

The Idocrase has also been found in Siberia, in a
greenish white serpentine, near the lake Achtaragdas
and on the banks of Vilhoui ; and in massive veins pass-*
ing through green serpentine, in the plain of Mussa in
Piedmont. It has been found also in the counties of
Wicklow and Donegal, in Ireland.

It is cut and polished by the lapidaries of Naples; er,*
der the name Cri/solite of Vesuvius,

TO MI2?ER1LO<3V. 21

GARNET.*

The Garnet is a reddish, yellowish, greenish, or black-
ish brown colour ; it is found in small granular masses,
and crystallized in the form of the dodecahedron with
rhomboidal planes, which is considered to be the form
of its primitive crystal. It also occurs in crystals having
24 trapezoidal faces ; only 5 or 6 varieties have been
described. It is harder than quartz, but not so hard as
the alamandine. It is rarely transparent, frequently
opake. It consists of 43 parts of silex, 16 of alumine, 20
of lime, and 16 of oxide of iron.

The alamandine, allochroite, melanite, aplome and
garnet, are commonly arranged together under the lat-
ter name ; but their elementary constituents do not cor-
respond.

Garnets are very abundant ; they principally occur dis-
seminated among some of the older rocks, as micaceous
schistus, serpentine, and gneiss, and sometimes in granite.
They are met with in most countries in which those
rocks occur, and sometimes are so plentiful as almost to
constitute the mass. They are found also in mineral
veins, accompanying some of the ores of copper, lead,
magnetic iron, niispickel, £c. In the mountains sepa-
rating Stiria and Cariothia, they are met with upwards
of 21bs. in weight, in a bed of green talc. In Bohemia
they are fourjd of a brown colour, accompanying tin ;
in Siberia of a pale green, in lithoraarga ; at ropscbair,
in Hungary, of an emeral green, in serpentine : in Corsi-

* Gar«£/.~Garnets are found in the county of New York, cryftallized
in twelve fided figures, as large as hazel-nuts. Mica is frequently affociir
ted with them in chefe cryftalline forms. They are bedded in gniefs,
micaceous fchifc, and granite, anda;-c feparated by the cold- chifiel. Gra-
nite is not uncommonly aftbciated with black schoerl, as in the fine
rounded fpecimens from Hurtleberry ifland. It occurs in conjunction
with quartz. Mica is often blended with garnet. Indeed garnet mingles
abundantly with the ingredients of gniefs, granite, and micaceous fchift, in
binary, ternary, and quarternary forms,

I have beautiful fpecimens of dodecahedral garnets, of nearly the fize of
peas, from Norway ; and fome have very large and complete ones from,
the North-weft coaft of America.

• Is fometimes maflive, and forngtimcs it? grains are compared into gar-
,net-rcck.

22 ELEMENTARV INTRODUCTION

ca, of a yellow colour ; in the Grisons, £c. of an orange
colour; in Cornwall, in small quantity, in argillaceous
schistus : they are not uncommon in Scotland, in mica-
ceous schistus ; and are found in some parts of Ire
land.

CINNAMON-STONE.

*'=• .

This rare mineral has only been met wilh at Colurn-
bo, in the island of Ceylon. It is known in Holland by
the name of Kanelstien, signifying cinnamon-stone, pro
bably from its resemblance to cinnamon in colour. Ik
geological situation is not known. It occurs massive, o»
in detached fragments, which are full of cracks, and
usually of a yellowish brown, passing into orange yellow
and hyacinth red. It is somewhat transparent, with a
vitreous-resinous lustre, and scratches quartz, though
with some difficulty. By analysis it affords 38.8 of silex,
25.2 of alumine, 31-25 of lime, and 6.5 of oxide of iron.
Its sp. gr- is 3.6. By some, it is considered as bearing
considerable affinity to the Garnet.

TRIPOLI.

Tripoli obtained its appelation from being first
brought from a place of that name in Africa : it has
since been found in other places. This mineral has
generally an argillaceous aspect. It is sometimes of a
schistose structure, but is more often massive, with a
coarse, dull, earthy fracture ; and is meagre and rough
to the touch, and yeilds easily to the nail. It occurs of
various shades of grey, yellow, and red ; and is said con-
stantly to yield 90 parts of silex, the rest being argil, iron,
and sometimes a small portion of lime.

Tripoli is found in beds at Menat near Resin, in the
Puy de Dome ; in Tuscany, it is met with at Volterra,
so situated, as to seem the consequence of the decom-
position of chalcedony ; and at Post-Cbappel in Saxo-
ny, in a mountain containing coal. It is also found in
Flanders3 Westphalia, and Russia,

TO MINERALOGY. 23

It is used in polishing metals, marble, glass, and other
hard bodies.

BOLE. *

Bole or Ochre is always somewhat compact ; it is ei-
ther red, yellow, or brown : it yields to the nail, adheres
to the tongue, and gives a shining streak on paper : — •
\vhen breathed on, it gives out a sensible argillaceous
odour ; it breaks down in water, with which it may be
reduced to the consistence of a paste

Red Chalk or Reddle is by some considered as a va-
riety of bole ; but from its containing a large proportion
of iron, it has lately been placed among its ores.

A variety, of a lighter colour than red chalk, is bro't
from Armenia, and is commonly known by the name of
Bole armenic.

Another variety, found in Lemnos, when impressed
by the seal of the governor of the island, or of the Grand
Seignor, is sold under the name of terra sigillata. It is
used in medicine. Red bole is found near Estremos in
Portugal.

Bole of a yellow colour occurs in beds, between those
of sand, and therefore belongs to the newest secondary
formation. It becomes red by exposure to heat. It is
met with at several places in France ; that of Auxerre
is composed of 65 of silex, 9 of alumine, 5 of lime, and
20 of oxide of iron.

The red brown earth of Sienna, used as a pigment, is
considered to be a variety of bole.

Bole of a brown colour, or of a yellowish brown, is
commonly known as a pigment, by the name of bistre £
it is found in the island of Cyprus, but nothing is known
of its geological situation. It is used in porcelain pain-
ting.

Boles are considered as coloured marles or clays,

*'J?o/«.— Ochres of various hues are found in the United States. New"
York, New-Jerfey, Delaware, and Louifiana, have furnifhed yellow
ochres, red ochres, brown ochres, of many {hades and hues, and which
mix well with oil into paints.

24 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

CLAY

The substances comprehended under the term of
Clay, may be generally described as any earthy mixture
which possesses plasticity and ductility when kneaded
up with water. Few, if any of the substances possessing
tbese characters, can, strictly speaking, be considered
as constituting a distinct mineral species ; being, in
general, the result of the decomposition of rocks*
Clay, when moist, is plastic ; somewhat unctuous to the
touch, and acquires a polish by being rubbed with the
finger or the nail ; when dry, it is solid ; when burnt,
sufficiently hard to give sparks with the steel, and is in-
iusible. Clays, generally speaking, have not been ana-
lyzed ; though it is suspected that the proportions of
their constituent principles vary considerably. They
are considered in the aggregate to consist of a large
proportion of silex, mixed with a third or fourth of
their weight of alumine, occasionally with a small quan-
tity of lime, a variable proportion of oxide of iron, and
some water.

In the term Earthy Clay, may be comprehended
common brick earth, or loam, and common alluvial
clay.

brick earth or Loam varies very much in appearance^
texture, and composition. It usually contains a consi-
derable proportion of sand ; which, nevertheless, is fre-
quently added by the brick maker. It is commonly met
with above common alluvial clay, and frequently rests
upon an interposed bed of sand. The organic remains
contained in it are few.

Common alluvial Clay occurs principally in low coun
tries, in which it serves to fill up hollows ; it frequently
rises into hills, which sometimes are stratified. In many
countries considerable tracts consist principally of clay
to a great depth, as in the London chalk basin, which
lias been perforated in some places to the depth of .500
feet, without passing through it ; it contains the remains
©f large land and sea animals, and sometimes vegetable
remains are found in the same bed ; occasionally at va-
rious depth, beds of fine white sand are met with, Pe*

TO MINERALOGT, £5

posites or beds of clay are considered to consist of the
debris or ruin of rocks, and are regarded among the
principal causes of the formation and duration of springs.
The water which percolates the secondary country, bor-
dering the deposites of clay, passes beneath them, and
is retained untill some opening permits it to rise in the
shape of a spring, or until vent is given to these reser-
voirs by the sinking of wells.

Pipe Clay* is of a greyish or yellowish white colour, an
earthy fracture, and smooth greasy feel ; it adheres pret-
ty strongly to the tongue, and is very plastic and tena-
cious. It is manufactured into tobacco pipes, and is the
basis of the Queen's ware pottery.

Potters' Clay\ is plastic, slaty. It yields to the nail ;
is generally of a reddish, bluish or greenish colour, and
has a soft and often greasy feel When mixed with
sand, it is made into bricks and tiles. A variety found
in the forest of Dreux, in France, employed, on account
of its infusibility, in the making of tiles for the porcelain
furnaces, consists of 43 parts of silex, 33 of alumine, 3 of
lime, 1 of iron, and 18 of water. Most part of the clay
used in the potteries of Staffordshire and Newcastle upon
Tyne, is said to be found near Teignmouth in Devon-
shire. That of Hampshire yields by analysis, 51 parts of
silex, 25 of alumine, 3 of lime, with a trace of manga-
nese and some water.

Porcelain c/m/J is greyish or yellowish-white, or more
often reddish- white ; it adheres to the tongue, is meagre
to the feel, and is commonly friable ; but if compact, is
easily broken. It falls to pieces in water and becomes
plastic, though not in a very great degree. That which ig
found inconsiderable beds in the parish of St. Stephen's ia
Cornwall, consists, according to Wedgwood, of 60 parts
of alumine and 40 of silex. It seems undoubtedly to

* Pipe Clay. Pipes for fmoking have been made of a kind of Clay in
the town of Oyfterbay, Long Ifland. The pipes, however, were deficient
in folidity and ftrength.

f Potters Clay, (ibid.) Clay, for earthen ware and ftone ware, abound*'
ill a great number of places.

| Porcelain Clay. The experiments made in the city of New- York,
prove that porcelain clay »s found in this country. Elegant pieces of porce-
lain, equal to the Chinefc, or even the French, have been made -from
domeftic maceriala,

c

6 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

originate from the decomposition of felspar; it frequent-
ly contains portions of quartz and of mica. The origin
of porcelain clay, in the general, is not however well
understood. It differs materially in respect of compo-
sition. The Kaolin of China consists of 71.15 of silex,
15.86 of alumine, 1.92 of lime, and 6.73 of water. It is
found largely in France, and granitic countries, and
therefore seems to have the same origin as that of
Cornwall.

Indurated day is met with interposed between beds of
coal at Stourbridge in Worcestershire, and at Coalbrook
Dale in Shropshire. It is sometimes called Stourbridge
day orjlre clay. It occurs massive, and in large com-
pressed nodules of a greyish white colour, with a tinge
of blue or yellow ; it yields readily to the knife, and is
very refractory in the fire ; by exposure to the air it
becomes soft and falls to pieces, and then becomes
plastic.

PORCELLAN1TE.

Porcellanite is found massive, and of a slaty structure,
Its colour varies from grey to bluish grey, mixed with
red ; ochry yellow ; greyish or bluish-black- It is
opake, and hard enough to scratch glass ; but it is not
abundant $ being principally, if not exclusively found in
places in which mines of coal have been in a state of
combustion ; and is regarded as shale altered by heat.
At Mount Brussant, near St. Etienne, in France, it is
composed of layers, alternately grey and red ; that of
Bchlangenberg, in Bohemia, is of a dull green colour.

MELANITE.*

The Melanite is usually black and opake, and occurs

* Melanite. At Gcrmantown it has been found of a velvet black co-
lour, of cenfiderable luflre, varying from the fize of a pin-head to an inchx
in diameter. The cryftals are polyhedrons, with twenty-four trapezoidal
faces : fpecific gravity 3.616. It reft* in the gneiss, which rcpofes on gra-
nite, of which the feldfpath is fnow white, and has a high degree of tranf-
parcncy. Though cryftals of tourmaline, mica, phofphate of lime, and
Dcryl, are universally difleminated, there is no melanite, except in this one
particular place.— Wistar, Am. Min. Jour. f. 31.

TO MINERALOGY. 21

in the form of a rbomboidal dodecahedron, of which
the edges are commonly replaced by planes. It consists
of about 35 parts of silex, 6 of alumine, 32 of lime, 25 of
oxide of iron, and a trace of oxide of manganese. The
Melanite is usually arranged among garnets. It has
been found in Italy, at Frascati, near Vesuvius, in a
volcanic rock, enclosing also felspar, idocrase and
hornblende : it also occurs in the calcareous rocks of
Somma.

APLOME.

The Aplome is usually considered a variety of the
garnet, with which it agrees in respect of its external fi-
gure, but differs in containing manganese. It commonly
occurs in rhomboidal dodecahedrons, of which the
planes are striated parallel with their lesser diagonal ;
they are usually of a deep brown, or orange-brown co-
lour, opake, and somewhat harder than quartz ; it con-
sists of 40 of silex, 20 of alumine, 14..*> of lime, 14.5 of
oxide of iron, and 2 of oxide of manganese. The ap-
lome is found on the banks of the river Lena in Siberia*
Garnets of a yellowish green colour have been met with
at Swartzenberg, in Saxony, which have considerable
affinity to this mineral.

THALLITE. ACANT1CONITE.

This mineral is found granular, massive, or crystallized
in six, eight, or twelve sided prisms, variously termina-
ted and longitudinally striated ; and is of a green, yel-
lowish, bluish, or blackish-green colour, of a shining
lustre, and somewhat transparent. The primitive crystal
is a right prism, of which the bases are oblique-angled
parallelograms. Haiiy includes this mineral and the
zoisite under the term epidote The crytallized thallite
consists of 37 parts of silex, 21 of alumine, 15 of lime,
24 of oxide of iron, and 1.5 of oxide of manganese ; and
its specific gravity is 3.45 : but the granular variety, in
the form of a green sand, varies in respect of the propor-
tions of its elements,

28 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

The Thallite is not often found massive, but chiefly
in crystals, varying in size from the acicular to near an
inch in diameter ; the acicular are met with in the de-
partment of Iser6, in France ; at Chamouni, in the Alps.
&c. ; the larger occur at Arendahl, in Norway. It be-
longs exclusively to primitive rocks, but is only found in
veins and fissures ; magnetic iron, garnet, felspar, adu-
laria, axinite, and asbestus, are the minerals which
ehiefly accompany thallite.

WERNERITE.

This mineral is of a greenish-grey or olive-green co-
lour, with a lustre between pearly and resinous ; it is
softer than felspar, and yields to the knife. It occurs
massive, and in eight-sided prisms with four-sided
pyramids. It consist of 40 parts of silex, Tj4 of alu-
mine, 16 of lime, 8 of oxide of iron, and 1.5 of oxide
of manganese.

The wernerite is a rare mineral ; it is met with in ir-
regular grains or rrytallized, disseminated in rocks com-
posed of a greyish or of a red felspar, intermingled witfa
quartz, at Bouoen, near Arendahl in Norway ; in the
tnines of Nortbo and of Ulrica in Sweden, and at Cam-
po-longo in Switzerland.

TOURMALINE.*

Tourmaline in respect of colour, is either white,
green, blue, brown, yellow or black ; it occurs in crystals
which are striated, or rather deeply channelled, length-
wise ; their lustre is splendent or vitreous, and they are
scarcely so hard as quartz. It is remarkable that this
substance is either translucent or transparent when held

* Tourmaline. Very large cryftals of black tourmaline have been found
in the primitive and granitical rocks, near New York, Philadelphia, and
Brunfwick in Maine. Indigo tourmalines of nearly an inch in diameter
have been brought from Northampton, Maf». They are of a deep indigo
blue, almofl approaching to black. They are bedded in granite, with
quartz, feldfpath and reddifh mica, of remarkably coarfe and diftinct parts.
Green tourmalines are found with them, in long cryftals.

Red Schoerls, or Rubellites, accompany the green fchoerls. The latter
have bccu feen to referable a tube or canal filled up by the former, Such

TO MINERALOCT, 29

up to the light, and viewed in a direction perpendicular
to the axis of the prism ; but if viewed perpendicular to
the bases, is always opake, even though the prism be
short. Seventeen varieties in the form of the crystal
have been described ; their primitive form is, according
to Haiiy, an obtuse rhomboid of 133°. 26' and 46°. 34.
The crystals become electric by being heated, and
thereby acquire polarity ; and their summits or pyramids
are always dissimilar. That which presents the greatest
number of faces always exhibits the positive or vitreous
electricity ; and that having the smaller number, always
the negative, or resinous. Its specific gravity is about
3.

The green tourmaline of Brazil is composed of 40
parts ofsilex, 39 of alumine, 3. 84 of lime, 12.5 of oxide
of iron, and 2 of oxide of manganese.

The white variety was found at St Gothard in mica-
ceous dolamite by Dolomieu, who mentions having dis-
covered some in the granite of Elba, the half of which
was white, the other half black. The yellow variety
has been noticed in sand from Ceylon. Tourmalines of
a dull green, or of a bluish-green, are from Brazil ; those
of an emerald-green, from Cevlon. A variety of an in-
digo-blue-colour, thence called Indicolite, has been found
in the mine of Utoe in Sweden, in crystals of an inde-
terminate form, disseminated in a gangue of steatite,
quartz, and felspar.

AXINITE. THUMERSTONE.

This mineral derived its name of Thumcrstone, from
having been first met with at Thum in Saxony. It oc-
curs in laoielliform concretions, and crystallized. The

ipaffes of red fchoerl, incafed by green, have a peculiar and beautiful ef-
fect. Sometimes the red inclofes the green. Thefe fingular forms led
Dr. Bruce to fend fpecimens to Profefibr Haiiy, who has thought them
irorthy of a fpecial difiertation. This intcrefting tract has been transla-
ted by Dr. P. S. Townfend, for the New- York Lyceum of Natural Histo-
ry, and publiflied in Meffrs. Biglow & Holley's Magazine. I own my
obligations, for a fet of -very fine fpecimens, to Ezra Weeks, Efq. The
Rev. Mr. Schaeffer and other gentlemen brought curious fpecimens of a
fine needle-like indicolite, from a detached rock in the city pf New-Yorkl
Ih tbefe pieces, green often accompanied the blue.

c 2

30 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

lamelliform, of a dingy violet colour, is found at Ehren-
friedersdorf in Saxony. The same variety, of a dull clove-
brow^, is found at Botallack, near the Land's End in
Cornwall ; sometimes also it is crystallized, though not
very determinately. The most beautiful is met with in
a serpentine rock at Balme d'Auris in Dauphine ; gene-
rally in neat and well defined crystals, sometimes nearly
colourless and transparent, but more often of a dull red-
dish violet colour and translucent ; whence it has obtain-
ed the name of Violet Schorl of Dauphine. The crystals
in rny possession exhibit 18 varieties of form, which are
tiot symmetrical. This want of symmetry is common to
those substances, which, like the axinite, become elec-
trical by exposure to heat. The primitive crystal of the
axinite is a remarkably flat right rhomboidal prism, of
which the bases are oblique angled parallelograms of
78°£ and 101°g according to Haiiy ; but the measure-
ments obtained by the Teflecting goniometer do not cor-
respond with the results obtained by him. The axinite
is hard enough to scratch glass, but less hard than quartz ;
its specific gravity is about 3.2 ; and it consists of 44 of
silex, 18 of alumiue, 19 of lime, 14 of oxide of iron, and
4 of oxide of manganese.

It has only been met with in veins and fissures of pri-
tnitive rocks, and is not very abundant. Besides the
places above mentioned, it occurs in the peak of Ered-
litz in the Pyrennees, upon a gangue of quartz, accompa-
nied by carbonate of lime ; near Alenc,on in granite ; at
Mount Atlas, in Africa ; near Kongsberg in Norway, in
<a white laminated calcareous rock, accompanied by black
mica, quartz, and sometimes native silver.

ALLOCHROITE.

The Allochroite, is of a greyish, dingy yellow, or red-
dish colour, and opake ; it is not so hard as quartz. It
consists of 35 parts of silex, 8 of alumine, 30.5 of lirne,
17 of oxide of iron, 3.5 of oxide of manganese, and 6 of
Carbonate of lime. It is commonly considered as a va-
ciety of the garnet, from which it differs in respect of
composition.

The Allochroite is found in the iron onine of Virums,

' '"^

rTO MINERALOGY* Si

-• «••' ' '-

near Drammen in Norway, accompanied by carbonate

of lime, Hematites iron, and brown garnets.

LAPIS LAZULI.

This mineral is found massive, and of a fine azure
blue colour ; its texture is fine grained or compact, and
it is bard enough to scratch glass, though it scarcely
gives sparks by the steel. Its specific gravity is 2.76 to
2.94. Its blue colour is not uniform, as it frequently en-
closes iron pyrites, compact felspar, and quartz. It is
said to have been met with crystallized in the form of
a rhomboidal dodecahedron ; but as the crystal was o-
pake, and enclosed iron pyrites and carbonate of lime,
there seems no sufficient proof of its being true Lapis
Lazuli ; which according to Klaproth, consists of 46 of
silex, 14of alumine, 28 of carbonate of lime, 6.5 of sul-
phate of lime, 3 of oxide of iron, and 2 of water.

It has been found in small masses enclosed in primi-
tive rocks, principally in granites, accompanied by felspar,
pyrites, garnet and carbonate of lime ; but is more often
found in small masses rounded by attrition ; as on the
borders of the lake Baikal in Siberia. The finest speci-
mens are brought from China, Persia, and Great Bucha-
ria.

Lapis lazuli is used in jewellery, but is chiefly impor-
tant as affording that beautiful pigment called ultra-
marine, so highly valued by painters on account of its
great advantage of not changing by time wand expo-
sure,

EGYPTIAN JASPER,

This mineral is more commonly known by the name
of Egyptian Pebble. It occurs in roundish masses which
are externally rough, and generally of a brown colour.
Internally ik is usually of a light colour, which sometimes
approaches to that of cream, around which are disposed
irregular zones or bands of various shades ef browna
sometimes intermixed with nearly black spots, and oc^
sasionally dendritic appearances. Its specific gravity is

32 ELEMENTARY INTBODUCTION

2.5 — 2.6 ; by one analysis which does seem to have
been complete, it yielded 75 parts of silex, 15 of alumine
and 5 of magnesia.

It is found according to Dr. Clarke, in vast abundance,
together with masses and detached fragments of petri-
fied wood, among which are several varieties of the palm,
scattered over the surface of the sandy desert, eastward
of Grand Cairo, even to the borders of the Red
Sea.

It is susceptible of a high polish, and is therefore of-
ten applied to ornamental purposes.

THEM 0 LITE.

The general colour of Tremolite is white, which
sometimes has a greenish, bluish, yellowish or reddish
tinge ; it occurs fibrous, and crystalized in four, six, or
eight-sided prisms, terminated by diedral summits, and
is semi-transparent or translucent, and hard enough to
scratch glass. Its specific gravity is about 3 ; the fibrous
variety of Clicker Tor in Cornwall is composed of 62.2
of silex, 14.1 of lime, 12.9 of magnesia, 5.9 of oxide of
iron, and 1 of water.

It was first discovered in the valley of Tremola near
St Gothard, whence its name ; it has since been met with
in Hungary, Transylvania and Bohemia. In Corsica, it
occurs in lamellar bluish green talc ; near Nantes, in
granite abounding in felspar : at Somma, in granular
carbonate of lime ; and in Bengal : in lamellar limestone,
in the banks of the lake Baikal in Siberia, whence it has
been called Baikalite ; in Glen Tilt and Glen Egg ia
Aberdeenshire, in white primitive limestone ; in Corn-
wall, it is found at Clicker Tor. A fibrous specimen in
jny possession from Stony Gwins in that county, is de-
posited on quartz, and accompanied by small yellow
crystals of uranite.

MEERSCHAUM.

Meerschaum is of a whitish or yellowish white colour,
cpake and dull ; it has an earthy fracture, yields easily
to the nail, and adheres strongly to the tongue j some*

TO 1IYNEBALOGY. 3g

times it is so light as to swim on water, and occasionally
is very porous : this last characteristic has doubtless oo
easioned its name, which signifies sea-foam. It consists
of 50.5 per cent, of silex, 17.25 of magnesia, 0.5 of lime,
5 of carbonic acid, and '25 of water.

It occurs in the isle of Samos and Negropont in the
Archipelago, in mass, or disseminated, or in beds : at
Kiltschik in Natolia, it fills a vein about six feet wide^
traversing compact grey carbonate of lime; it is soft
when first dug, and in that state is made into pipes, but
hardens by exposure to air. It is also met with in Ca-
rinthia.

In the Turkish dominions, Meerschaum is employed
as fuller's earth is with us ; and by the women as soap
for washing their hair. In Constantinople it is termed
Keffekil or earth of KafFa, the town of the Crimea,
whence it is shipped.

A substance somewhat similar to Meerschaum has
been found at (artel del Piano near Sienna, consisting
of 55 of silex, 25 of magnesia, 12 of alumine, 3 of lime,
and 0.1 of oxide of iron ; it was made into bricks so light
as to swim on water, thus restoring one of the lost arts re-
corded by Strabo and Pliny.

Another substance, consisting of 55 of silex, 22 of
magnesia, and 23 of water, and of a chocolate brown co-
lour, is found at Salinelle near Sommieres, in beds, ia
chalk containing silex : and in various places in Pied-
mont, a substance of a white colour, consisting, when
fresh dug, of silex, magnesia, and water, is found in beds
and in veins : by exposure to air it absorbs carbonic
acid.

ANTHOPHYLLITF*

•

The Anthophyllite has hitherto only been found at
Kongsberg in Norway ; it occurs massive, with joints
parallel to the faces of a rectangular prism, is feebly
translucent on the edges, and has a slight metallic lustre ;
it is scarcely hard enough to scratch glass. Its specific
gravity is about 3.3. By analysis it is found to consist
of 62.66 of silex, 13.33 of alumine, 4 of magnesia, 12 of
oxide of iron, 3.25 of oxide of manganese, and 1.43 of
water.

34 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Some of the characters of the Anthophyllite have in*
duced Haiiy to suppose that it is only a varif ty of the
Hypersthene ; but their elements do not correspond.

HARMOTOME. CROSS STONE.

The barmotome is commonly met with in flattish
quadrangular prisms, terminated by four rhombic planes,
crossing each other lengthwise and at right angles. It is
also met with in solitary crystals. Their primitive form,
according to Haiiy, is a rectangular octohedron of 86° 36'
and 83° 24' ; but this is not confirmed by the reflecting
goniometer, which gives results differing about 2'. I
possess crystals of the harmotome in 12 varieties of form,
one of which is so remote from the primitive, as to ap-
pear a perfect six-sided prism, and several approach
that form. This transition is very intelligible, though
not easily described without Igures.

In cruciform crystals it occurs in metalliferous veins,
mingled with white lamellar carbonate of lime and sul-
phuret of lead, at Andreasberg in the Hartz ; it is also met
with at Strontian in Scotland. In solitary crystals it is
chiefly found in the cavities of siliceous geodes at Ober-
stein in Saxony.

The colour of this mineral is greyish-white ; it is trans^
lucent with a somewhat pearly lustre, and is hard enough
to scratch glass. It? specific gravity is 2.35 ; and it is
composed of 49 per cent of silex, iGofalumine, 18 of
barytes, and 15 of water.

•**r'' -,•-,«!>.,' ,

ASBESTUS.*

There are several varieties of asbestus. They are
generally of a fibrous texture, varying in respect of flexi-
bility and elasticity. The fibres of asbestus have not
yet been seen in any very determinate form, but Haiiy
regarded some which fell under his observation as rhom-
boidal prisms. Asbestus is extremely difficult of fusion

* Asbestus.—- Afbeftus with rigid fibres is often found in the city of
New- York, in detached mafles ; miflaken by many for petrified wood.
It is alfo brought from Hoboken, where it fills the veins of ferpentine ;
and from Statcn-ifland, where it accompanies fteatitei

TO MTNEEALOCJY. 35

in the mass ; but its fibres are easily reduced by the
blowpipe. Asbestus is derived from a Greek word, sig-
tying imperishable.

Amianthus* occurs in very long and extremely slender
fibres, which are very flexible, and of a whitish, greenish
or reddish colour. It consists of 59 per cent, of silex, 3
ofalumine, 9 of lime, and 29 of magnesia.

It is found in the Tarentaise in Savoy, in the longest
and most beautiful fibres : that of Corsica is less beauti-
ful, but is so abundant, that Doiomieu used it for packing
his minerals : near Bareges in the Pyrennees, it occurs
mingled with felspar, lining veins passing through gneiss.
It occurs also at Inverary at Portsay in Scotland, and in
the Isle of Unst.

Amianthus (signifying unsoiled) was woven by the an-
cients into a kind of cloth, in which, being incombusti-
ble, they wrapped up the bodies of their dead, before
they were placed on the funeral pile, that their ashes
might be collected free from admixture.

Mountain Cork. The structure of this variety differs
from the former ; the filaments are not deposited in a
parallel direction, but intermingled in various directions,
occasioning cavities, to which may be attributed the
lightness of the mass. When in thin flexible plates, it is
termed mountain leather ; when in thin and less flexible,
mountain cork.

It occurs in the silver mines of Johan Georgenstadt in
Saxony ; at Bleyberg in Carinthia ; at Idria ; at Salberg,
&c. in Sweden ; between the villages of Randagont and
Vigan near Alais in France, it is spread over the soil,
which consists of an ochreous earth mingled with quartz
and mica, in long white pieces, which have been taken
for human bones, ft is also met with at Kiidrummie and
at Portsoy in Scotland.

Mountain wood or Ligniform asbestus has somewhat

* Amianthus is found in many parts of the United States, in the veins
and fiffures of primitive rocks. The fibres are sometimes ten or twelve
inches long, and, by their whiteness, parallelism and flexibility, refemble
flax. The. mountains along the confines of New- York and Connecticut,
contain many varieties. At Staten Ifland the fibres are nearly two feet
long, and twift like hemp.

The forms of Asbestus, called Thrum-stone, Leather-stone, Mineral Cot-
ton, Salamander's Wool^ are all contained in the primitive formation eft"
New- York, and its vicinity,

6 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

the appearance of wood ; its structure is finely foliated^
the foliae being composed of fine fibres, which are of a
brownish colour. It is opake, somewhat elastic, and
floats on water. It is principally met with in the primi-
tive mountains of the Tyrol, accompanied with amian-
thus. It also occurs in various places i-n Scotland.

Common asbeslus is much heavier than the preceding
varieties, being nearly three times the weight of water.
It occurs in masses consisting of fibres of a dull greenish
colour, and pearly lustre. Common asbestus is scarce-
ly flexible. It is of more frequent occurrence than
amianthus : it usually accompanies serpentine ; and
is met with in Sweden, Hungary, Dauphine, the Uralian
mountains, at Portsoy in Scotland, the Isle of Anglesey,
and at the Lizard in Cornwall.

BASALTIC HORNBLENDE.

Basaltic hornblende is usually met with in opake sin-
gle crystals, imbedded in basalt or in lava ; the latter
sometimes affect the magnetic needle. The usual colour
of this mineral is black ; or brownish black, occasioned
by a slight decomposition. The crystals are six-sided,
variously terminated by three or four planes; but they are
sometimes dissimilar at the two extremities : their pri-
mitive form, according to Haiiy, is an oblique rhomboi-
dal prism of 124° 34' and 55* 26' : the crystals have a
vitreous lustre and are hard enough to scratch glass.
The specific gravity of this mineral is 3.25 ; and it is
composed of 47 per cent, of silex, 26 of alumine, 8 of
lime, 2 of magnesia, and 15 of oxide of iron.

Being far less decomposable than basalt, it is some-
times found in fine crystals in the clay resulting from the
decomposition of basaltic rocks. It occurs in Saxony,
Bohemia, Italy, Scotland, &c.

*%

HYPERSTHENE.

The Hypersthene is met with either massive, or im-
bedded in rocks in rhomboidal prisms of about 120° and
60°. Its colour is dark brown, or greenish black ; it has
a lamellar structure parallel with the sides of the prism,.

TO MINERALOGY. 31

and when fractured exhibits reflections which are strongly
metallic, and sometimes greenish, sometimes of a cop-
per red colour ; it is opake and yields to tke knife. Its
specific gravity is 3.38 ; and it consists of 54.25 of silex,
2.25 of alumine, 1.5 of lime, 14 of magnesia, 24.5 of
oxide of iron, arid 1 of water.

It usually occurs in serpentine ; and is thus found in
Cornwall associatf?d with compact felspar ; it is likewise
found at the Col de Cerviere in the Alps, at Matray in,
the Tyrol, at Basta in the duchy of Wolfenbuttel, and
in Hungary, &c.

It is very nearly allied to the following substance.

SCHILLER SPAR.

.;_,_ !'*j|k^V':

Schiller Spar, like the preceding mineral, is always
found in serpentine, in which it generally occurs disse-
minated. It is of an olive, or bottle-green colour, and
when held in certain directions, has a shining lustre,
nearly approaching that of some of the metals : it is
opake and yields to the knife. A principal difference
between the schiller spar and hypersthene is, that the for-
mer fuses, though with some difficulty, into a black ena-
mel ; the latter is infusible. By one analysis it yields 41
of silex, 3 of aiumine, 1 of lime, 29 of magnesia, 14 of
oxide of iron, and 10 of water.

It is met with in the serpentine of Cornwall and of An-
glesey, and generally speaking, wherever the hypersthene
is found.

AUGITE. PYROXENE.

Augite usually occurs in translucent six-sided crytals,
terminated by dihedral summits ; they are of a Wackish-
green colour, variously mixed with brown ; it is also met
with in angular and rounded pieces. The form of the pri-
mitive crystal is an oblique rhomboidal prism of 87° 42"
and 92° IS'. It scratches glass with ease. Its specific
gravity is about 3.3; and it is composed of 52 of silex,
3.3 of alumine, 13.2 of lime, 10 of magnesia* 14.6 of
oxide of iron, and 2 of oxide of manganese,

D

tXJ ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Augite is met with in the productions of volcanoes ;
but whether it existed in certain rocks, previously to
their being subjected to volcanic action, or whether it
has been formed in the lavas and scoriaceous matters in
which it is found, since their ejection, is matter of un-
certainty and dispute. The greater number of mine-
ralogists incline to the former opinion.

It is found in the volcanic countries of Vesuvius, Etna.
Stromboli, Auvergne, &c.

It is also said to occur in the basalts of Bohemia,
Hungary, Transylvania, Hessia, and in the iron mines of
Arendahl, in Norway. The crystals met with in basalt
are larger, of a finer green, and more brilliant than those
found in lavas.

The coccolite and sahlite are regarded as varieties of
augite

The coccolite is of various shades of green, and occurs
in little round translucent masses, or in grains of irregu-
lar shapes, which are very slightly coherent, but are hard
enough to scratch glass : the structure is lamellar, and
the lustre vitreous. It consists of 50 per cent, of silex,
1.5 of alumine, 24 of lime, 10 of magnesia, 7 of oxide
of iron, and 3 of oxide of manganese.

It is said to have been met with only in primitive
countries; in certain veins near Arendahl, in Norway,
and Nericia in Sweden ; and in the iron mines of Hel-
lesta and Assebo, in Sudermania.

The sahlite occurs in crystals of which the prisms are
four or eight-sided, and the summits diedral, and which
are of a greenish grey colour, and scarcely hard enough
to scratch glass ; they are translucent on the edges. The
sahlite is composed of 53 of silex, 3 of alumine, 20 of
lime; 19 of magnesia, and 4 of oxide of iron and manga-
nese.

It has been found in the silver mine of Sahla (whence
its name) in Westmania, in Sweden, and at Buoen, near
Auen, in Norway. It has also been met with in the
mountain of Odon-Tchelon, in Siberia, accompanied by
mica, beryl, and crystallized phosphorescent carbonate
of lime.

TO MINEHALOGY.

PYHOPE.

The Pyrope occurs in round or angular grains, of a
blood-red coiour: which is sometimes clouded with yel-
low ; it never is found crystallized. It is transparent,
has a conchoidal fracture, and vitreous lustre, and is hard
enough to scratch glass. Its specific gravity is about 3.8,
and it is composed of 40 percent, of silex, 28.5 of alu-
mine, 3.5 of lirne, 10 of magnesia, and 16.75 of oxide of
iron and manganese. It is sometimes, from its general
colour, ranked among garnets ; from which it essential--
ly differs in respect to form and composition

It occurs imbedded in serpentine at Zeoblitz, in Sax-
ony, and in wacke, in Bonemia; but is more common
in the latter country in alluvial deposites, accompanied
by hyacinths and sapphires. It is me- with in the sand
of the sea-shore at Ely, in Fifeshire, and in Cumberland
in clay-stone.

Pliny and Ovid mention a stone by the name of Py-
rope, which is supposed to be nearly allied to this mine-
ral.

POTSTONE.*

This substance is found massive ; such is its structure,
that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish it from massive
talc ; its colour is greenish grey, passing into leek-green,
with a glistening or pearly lustre ; it is so soft as to yield
to the nail, and is unctuous to the touch, but is not easily
broken ; that of Chiavenna consists of about 38 parts of
silex, 7 of alumine, 35 of magnesia, 15 of iron, together
with very small portions of lime and tfuoric acid.

Potstone is plentifully found at Chiavenna, in the
Valteline ; at Coma, in Lombardy ; and, generally
speaking, in serpentine countries. Its infusibility, joined
to its softness, and the readiness with which it is turned
by the lathe, have for time immemorial caused it to be

* Potstone is brought from Connecticut, in the form of ink-stands, weU
turned in .aJathe. .

£0 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

formed into vessels in the Valais and Orisons. Pliny
describes its having been used in like manner in his
time.

SMARAGDITE.

The Smaragdite is of a brilliant green colour, of a silky
or pearly lustre, and transparent at the edges, or opake :
it is scarcely so hard as glass, and yields' to the knife ;
its specific gravity is 3 ; and it is composed of 50 of si-
lex, 21 of alumine, 13 of lime, 3 of magnesia; the re-
mainder being oxide of chrome and oxide of iron.

- It is commonly found massive, or disseminated in
rounded masses of the Saussurite, on the banks of the
Lake of Geneva ; near Turin it occurs at the foot of the
mountain Mussinet; in Corsica imbedded in felspar.

ACTINOLITE.*

This mineral is of a pale or of an emerald-green co«
lour, and occurs in single crystals, but more often in
masses consisting of diverging hexahedral prisms, which,
in the general, are not regularly terminated ; they have
a shining pearly lustre, and are translucent or transpa-
rent; it also occurs in fine fibres, having a silky lus-
tre Actinolite is hard enough to scratch glass; its spe-
cific gravity is about 3.3; and it is composed of about
50 per cent, of silex, 0.75 of aluminc, 9.75 of lime,
19.25 of magnesia, 11 of oxide of iron, 5 of oxide of
chrome, and 3 of water. The fibrous variety is dis-
tinguishable from Amianthus by its being extremely
brittle.

Actinolite is found only in some nf the primitive rocks,
and accompanies talc and mica. It is not found in se-
condary rocks, or in the veins that traverse them.

It occurs in long six-sided prisms imbedded in white
talc, at Zillerthal, in the Tyro!, and in Mount St. Go-
thard; it is also met with near Salzburg, in Saxony; in
Norway ; in Piedmont, &c.

* Beautiful green crystals of Aetinolto, from one to two inches long,
are found at New- York, shooting through rocks of indurated fteatitc an<*
Ctcllatcd asbestus.— fierce.

TO MINER ALOOF.

,^. COLOPHON ITE.

This mineral is of a blackish or yellowish brown, or
of an orange red colour ; and is, both on the surface and
when fractured, of a shining vitreous lustre It is
usually ranked as a variety of garnet, but differs from
it in yielding by analysis both magnesia and oxide of
titanium, and in being much lighter: its specific gravity
is only 2.5 ; and it is composed of 35 per cent, of silex,
15 of alumine, 2.9 of lime, 6.5 of magnesia, 7.5 of oxide
of iron, 4.75 of oxide of manganese, and 0.5 of oxide4o£
titanium. It is found near Pitigliano, in Italy.

LEUCITE.

The Leucite occurs in crystals, whose planes are 24
equal and similar trapeziums : by mechanical means it
may be reduced either to the rhomboidal dodecahedron,
or the cube.,* the latter of which, being the most simple
of the two, is considered to be the form of the primitive
crystal. The Leucite is generally of a dirty white co-
lour, and is somewhat translucent; it scratches glass
with difficulty ; its fracture is imperfectly conchoidal, and
has mostly a vitreous lustre. It consists of 53.75 of si-
lex, 24.62 of alumine, and 21.35 of potash. Its specific
gravity is 2.i>7.

The Leucite is most commonly found among the pro-
ductions of volcanoes ; that which occurs in lava is most'
ly opake and earthy, while that found in basalt is viterous*
The lavas of Vesuvius, and basalts of Italy and Bohe-
mia abound with this mineral. The road from Roma
to Frascati is in many places quite covered with it.

«

LITHOMARGA.

Lithomarga varies in colour from white to yellow,-
red and brown ; it is dull, yields to the nail, is unctuous
to the touch, and adheres strongly to the tongue ; its
fracture is mostly earthy.

It is found in masses, somewhat round, in basalts and
ainygdaloids ; and 13 often met with in veins passing;

42 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

through porphyry, gneiss, serpentine, Sic. sometimes
accompanies tin, mercury, and topazes. It seems
therefore chiefly to belong to primitive countries ; it
occurs in France ; at Laschitz, in Bohemia ; at Pln-
riitz, near Zwickau, in Saxony, and at Steinmark. That
brought from the latter place consists of about 45 parts
of silex, 36 of alumine, 3 of iron, 14 of water, and a
email portion of potash.

MICA.*

Mica mostly occurs crystallized in six-sided plates, or
in right rhomboidal prisms of 60° and 120°, which is
considered to be the form of its primitive crystal. It is
easily divisible, parallel with the terminating planes, into
thin laminae, which are flexible and very elastic ; this
last character serves at once to distinguish mica from
talc, which i*» not elastic.

This mineral is of various shades of white, yellow.
green and brown ; — It yields readily to the knife, but the
edges of the laminae will scratch glass. The mica of
different countries does not perfectly agree in the re-
spective proportions of its ingredients ; that of Muscovy
(called Muscovy Glass) consists of about 48 silex, 34
alumine, 9 Potash, 4 oxide of iron, and nearly 1 ol
oxide of manganese. Its sp. gr. is about 2.7.

Mica is one of the most abundant mineral substances :
it is never found in beds, or in considerable isolated
masses, but it eqters into the composition of very many
rocks, especially the oldest primitive, as granite, gneiss,
micaceous schistus, &c and is often found filling up
their fissures, or crystallized in the cavities of the veins
which traverse them. Mica is therefore of the most an-
cient formation ; but is also met with in the newest crys-
talline rocks. It also occurs in sandstones, in schists, and

* Mica is found in Maine, in plates of a foot fquare or even more. It
occurs in New- York, in fix-ftded plates, evidently of a cryftallized figure,
It.isufually an ingredient in granite and gneiss. Sometimes, however, it
occurs of the like nexagonal form in calcareous carbonates. It is fometimes
licarly as tranfparent as the beft glafs, and affumes all the dusky fhades to
%;deep fmoke-colour, without lofmg its tranfparency.
"l have fine rofe-coloured fpecimens from Northampton,— -ffVerfs. /-an .£
green oees from Brunfwick, Maine.— (Gkavtfaul-J

TO MINERALOGY, 40

in the slaty sandstone that accompanies the independent
coal formation. It is sometimes abundant in sands, and
in alluvial deposites very distant from primitive moun-
tains ; and is said to be very plentiful in certain volcanic
products.

According to HaQy, Muscovy Glass, which occurs in
plates of a yard or more in diameter, in veins of granite
and of macaceous schistus, in some parts of Russia, may
be divided into plates no thicker than yowo^th part of
an inch. It is used for inclosing objects for the solar
microscope, and instead of glass in the Russian ships
of war, as less liable to be broken by the concussion of
the air, during the discharge of heavy artillery: an infe-
rior kind, which is found in Pennsylvania3 is used there
instead of window glass.

MESOTYPE.

The Mesotype is generally of a white, or greyish'
colour, and is transparent, or translucent ; it yields easily
to the knife, and becomes electrical by heat. It occurs
crystallized in radiated acicular prisms ; in filaments ,-
or in globular concretions, composed of stellated fibres.
It is one of those substances which are commonly called
Zeolites. It assumes about 10 varieties in the form of
the crystal, the primitive of which is a right prism with
square bases. Its specific gravity is 2; and it consists of
49 of silex, 27 of alumine, 17 of soda, and 9.5 of wa-
ter, according (o Simpson ; but according to Vauque-
lin, 50.24 of silex, 29.3 of alumine, 9.46 of lime, and
10 of water*-

Mesotype is- found in Iceland ; Scotland; the Ferroe-
islands ; in Hessia ; the Isle of Bourbon, &c.

This mineral is generally considered to be of doubtful
origin. It is found in lavas, but principally, if not only,
ia those that are ancient ; and, it is said by some, only
in such as have been exposed to the action of water. It
is also met with in basalts ; as in those of the Giant's
Causeway in . Ireland ; and in those of the Cyclop
Islands, and of the Vicentine mountains ; the basalt of
the two latter is surrounded and covered by the remains
of sea animals. The mesotype also occurs in basalt,,

44. ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

amygdaloid, and other trap rocks of England and Scot-
land, and is particularly abundant and beautiful at Ta-
lesker, in the Isle of Sky.

The Natrolite is composed of the same elementary
substances, and very nearly in the same proportions, and
is therefore considered to be merely a variety of the
mesotype. It is always of a fibrous and radiated struc-
ture $ and is of a whitish, yellowish, or of a brown co-
lour. In its cavities are found crystals presenting the
form of common mesotype, viz. a rectangular prism,
with tetrahedral pyramids.

RUBELLiTE.^

The Rubellite is of a red or violet colour, and occurs
crystallized, but the crystals are rarely distinct. It is
found in Moravia ; in Ceylon ; it occurs in a granite
mountain in the Uralian chain in Siberia, in a vein com-
posed of felspar, quartz, mica, and common schorl ;
\vhence this mineral has been also called Siberite. It
consists of 42 per cent, of silex, 40 of alumine, 10
of soda, and 7 of oxide of manganese and iron. It is
commonly considered to be a variety of tourmaline,
from which it differs, in not having either lime or mag-
nesia among its constituent elements, and in being in-
fusible. This mineral is commonly known by the name
of Reci Schorl,

TUMICK.f

Pumice is sometimes found massive ; more often it is
extremely porous, of a fibrous structure, and harsh to
the touch ; its colour is grey, tinged with brown or
yellow, and it has a shining pearly lustre ;. it is translu-
cent in the edges, very light, and sometimes so light as
to swim on water. It is composed of 77.5 parts of silex,

? The memoir of Profeflor Hauy already mentioned, corrects, from,
the examination of the American Tourmalines, feveral errors into which
Mineralogifts had fallen, by feparating Indicolite and Siberite from Tour-
maline, of ivhich they are but varieties.

f Pumict-itone floats down the Miffouri. It is formed by the fire of
the burning plains through which that river runs. The pieces I poffe&
are of a reddifh brown, or brick colour, and float in water.

TO MINEHALOCr. 45

17.5 of alumine, 1.75 of oxide of iron, and 3 soda and
potasb.

Pumice is generally believed to be a volcanic product ;
it sometimes accompanies obsidian ; it is said that the
vitreous obsidian of Hungary, may, by heat, be changed
into a substance perfectly resembling pumice.

It is but sparingly found near Vesuvius, not at all near
Etna. It is very abundant in the Lipari islands, which
furnish the pumice of commerce. It is met with in
Auvergne in France, in Iceland, Tenerifie, &c.

ICIITHYOPHTUALM1TE J Or FISH-EYE-STONE.

At first s'ght this mineral resembles the variety of fel-
spar called adularia, but is much softer, being easily cut
by the knife ; it does not scratch glass. Its general co-
lour is white, which is sometimes tinged with red or
green; it has a shining pearly lustre. The form of its
primitive crystal is a rectangular parallelepiped, in which
it sometimes occurs ; as well as nearly in the proportions
of the cube, and in flat tables. Its specific gravity is
2.46; and it is composed of 51 parts of silex, 28 of
lime, 4 of potash, and 7 of water.

it is met with in the iron mine of Otoe in Sweden ;
its gangue is a lamellar carbonate of lime, of a red vio-
let colour ; it is accompanied by hornblende and some
ores of iron. The massive occurs at Dunvegan in the
We of Sky.

TALC.

Talc is for the most part either white, apple-green,
or yellowish. It occurs in hexagonal laminae, and mas-
sive. It always consists of plates or lamina, which are
easily separated from each other, and are flexible, but
not elastic. This last character serves to distinguish this
mineral from mica, which is very elastic. Talc is of a
shining lustre, is very unctuous to the touch ; yields
easily to the nail ; it leaves a white, and somewhat
pearly streak, when rubbed on paper* Its specific gra-
vity is 2.77 ; and it consists of 61 of silex, 30.5 of mag-
nesia, 2.75 of potasb, 2.5 of oxide of iron, and 0.5 of
water,

46 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Crystallized talc, which is mostly white, or of a light
green colour, is met with in small quantities in serpen-
tine rocks, with actinolile, carbonated lime, steatite,
compact talc, &zc. It is ?ound in the mountains of Sals-
burg and the Tyrol, and is taken to * enice ; whence it
has obtained the name of J^enelian Talc. It occurs
also at Brian§ori ; at Zreblitz in Saxony ; in Silecia, &c.

Massive talc is less flexible and translucent than the
crystallized ; it is principally of an apple-green colour,
and is sometimes of a radiated structure. It is met with
in considerable beds in mountains of micaceous schistus,
gneiss, and serpentine. At Grenier in the Tyrol, it oc-
curs in a species of serpentine, accompanied by actino-
lite, corbonate of lime, sulphuret of iron, green mica,
&c. At Zillerthal, in the Tyrol, it is met with enclo-
sing long prisms of actinolite, and of tourmaline. It
occurs also in Austria, Stiria. &c

Talc is found in Glen Tilt, in Perthshire, in a granu-
lar limestone.

Indurated Talc, of a greenish-grey colour, and massive,,
is met with at the Lizard, in Cornwall, which is a ser-
pentine country.

GREEN KAHTH.

This mineral is met with in sm&H masses, or lining
the cavities of amygdaloid ; and is of a greyish or bluish-
green colour, passing into blackish green ; it is dull, and
yields to the nail ; its fracture is generally earthy. It is
found wherever amygdaloid occurs ; as in Saxony, Bo-
hemia, Monte Boldo, near Verona, the hill of Kinnoul
near Perth in Scotland, &c. That of Verona consists of
53 of silex, 2 of magnesia, 10 of potash, 28 of oxide of
iron, and 6 of water. When of a good colour it is
made some use of by painters.

A substance of a green colour may be observed in
little round masses in certain sand stones, as in that of
the coast near Folkstone, which is, by some, considered
to be a variety of green earth.

TO MINKRALOG7. 4-7

SPODUMENE. TR1PHANE.

This rare mineral is of a greenish white colour, of a
shining pearly lustre, and translucent It considerably
resembles adularia, but differs essentially from it in re-
spect of mechanical cleavage. Spodumene is divisable
into prisms with rhombic bases, having alternate angles of
80° and 100°. It is hard enough to scratch glass, and to
give sparks by the steel : its specific gravity is 3.192,
and it is composed of 64.4 of uilex, 24.4 of aluinine, 3
of lime, 5 of potash, and V2.2 of oxide of iron.

It has only been found in the iron mine of Utoe, in
Sweden, in a gangue of red felspar, fat quartz, and black
mica.

FELSPAR.*

Felspath, in German, signifies rock-spar : fehlspath,
field-spar.

The general form of the crystals of felspar is an ob-
lique prism, having very unequal planes ; Haiiy notices
21 varieties : the structure is lamellar, and felspar may
be cleaved into an oblique angled parallelopiped, which
therefore is the primitive form. The alliance of the
crystals with each other is not easily traced, on account
of the great difference frequently existing in the size,
and consequently in the form, of its secondary planes,
as well as on account of its being often in hemitrope
or uiacled crystals ; it is hard enough to scratch glass.
but not so hard as quartz, and yields to the knife with
some difficulty ; it becomes phosphorescent by friction.
There are several varieties of felspar.

Mularia, so called from its having been first met
with on one of the heights of St. Golhard, called Adula,

* The white FelJfpar is the common ingredient in our granite-rocks,
giving them their -white colour. In many cafes, it is crumbling to pi eces,
and decompofing the rocks to which ir belongs.

Red or flefti-coloured Feldfpar is alfo of frequent occurrence in the Fre'
donran granites and fyenites, imparting to them their red complc x ion .

16 ELEMENRARY INTRODUCTION

Is found both massive, and crystallized ; it is of a green-
ish white colour, but almost limpid, and has a pearly
lustre ; its fracture is imperfectly conchoidal. Its spe-
cific gravity is 2.54 ; and it consists of 64 per cent, of
silex, 20 of alumine, 2 of lime, and 14 of potash In
the veins of mount St. Gothard it occurs in large and
well defined crystals in gneiss and micaceous schistus ;
and in the mountains near Mont Blanc, in crystals much
smaller and less transparent.

The Moon stone, so called from its pale white hue,
is considered to be a kind of adularia; and is brought
from the East, particularly from Arabia and Persia.

Common felspar occurs of a whitish, yellowish, red-
dish or red colour, and either granular, massive, disse-
minated or crystallized ; it is sometimes opake, some-
times translucent ; its specific gravity is 2.54, and it is
composed of 62.83 parts of silex, 17,02 of alumine, 3
of lime, 13 of potash, and 1 of oxide of iron.

Common felspar is the most generally diffused, both
as to its local and geological situation, of any other mi-
neral, except quartz and oxide of iron. It is an essen-
tial constituent of granite and gneiss, and frequently oc-
curs in micaceous and argillaceous schistus ; it forms a
large proportion of sieniie, and is contained in almost
all porphyries, in some very abundantly : it is occasion-
ally, though rarely, found in primitive limestone : it
abounds in primitive and secondary traps, and in the
greater part of real lavas.

A variety of a beautiful apple green colour has been
met with only in a hill at the eastern base of the Uralian
mountains, near the fortress of Troitzk.

Felspar is occasionally met with, which is more com-
pact than the common, but agreeing with it in most re-
spects, except that its structure is less decidedly lamel-
lar, .and that its specific gravity is greater; being 2.63.

Lamellar Felspar. Petuntze. Under these names
has been described felspar in the first stage of decom-
position, but preserving its lamellar character. Its or-
dinary colour is dirty white, and it sometimes occurs in
Targe masses, enclosing small portions of quartz. It is
chiefly employed in giving the enamel to porcelain —
The manufactories of France are chiefly supplied from

TO MINERALOGV. 49

the neighbourhood of Limoges. A slightly saline taste
belongs to it, which also is characteristic of the petuntze
of China. The perfectly disintegrated felspar, being
usually considered as one of the clays, is noticed with
them under the name of Kaolin.

Glassy Felspar, Sanidin. This mineral is chiefly
found in crystals, sometimes longitudinally striated 5 it
occurs imbedded in porphyry -slate, in Bohemia, at Dra-
chenfels near Born on the Rhine, at Solfatara in Italy,
and in Pitchstone in the Isle of Arran. It obtained its
name of Glassy, from its vitreous lustre, which some-
times approaches to pearly : it is semi-transparent and
translucent, and of a greyish or yellowish white colour.
Its specific gravity is 2.57 ; and it is composed of 68
parts of silex, 15 of alumine, 14.5 of potash, and 0.5 of
oxide of iron.

Labrador Felspar. The beautiful and varied tints of
this mineral, when viewed in particular directions, are
well known ; it has the usual characters of felspar, ex-»
cept that its general colour is grey, or dark ash grey j
and that, by the analyses of this mineral, which are
not greatly relied on, it appears that potash does not en-
ter into its composition. Its specific gravity is 2.6.

It was first discovered by the Moravian missionaries
in the island of St. Paul, on the coast of Labrador ; it
has since been found in Ingermannland in Norway ; near
the lake Baikal in Siberia ; in granite near St. Peters-
burg ; also at Memelsgrund in Bohemia, and near Halle
in Saxony. It is sometimes accompanied by mica,
schorl, and iron pyrites.

SCALY TALC. NACR1TE.

This mineral occurs in minute aggregated scales, of
a silvery white or greenish colour, and of a glimmering
pearly lustre ; they are friable, very unctuous* to the
touch, light, and adhere to the fingers. Scaly talc *•
composed of 50 per cent of silex, of 26 alumine, I/
lime, 17.5 of potash, 5 of oxide of iron, and a
portion of muriatic acid. Its colour distinguish?
ficiently from chlorite j it differs from the '

E

5B ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

principally in respect of colour, and in being extremely
unctuous.

It is chiefly met with in small masses in the cavities
of primitive rocks, and in the interstices of crystallized
quartz. It occurs at Sylva in Piedmont, near Frey-
berg in Saxony, and near Meronitz in Bohemia.

PEARLSTONE.

Pearlstone occurs in large coarse angular concretions^
including smaller round concretions, composed of very
thin lamella;. The surface is smooth and shining, with
a lustre remarkably resembling that of pearl. The co-
lour of the mass is grey, greyish black, black, reddish or
blackish. It is fragile, translucent on the edges, and
scarcely hard enough to scratch glass. Its specific gravity
is 2.34 ; that of Hungary is composed ofsilex 75.25, alu-
mine 12, lime 4.5, potash 4.50, oxide of iron 1.6, and
water 4.5. It almost always gives out an argillaceous
smell when breathed on. Some of the varieties are said
te bear a striking resemblance to pumice.

At Tokay in Hungary, it is found enclosing round
masses of black vitreous obsidian, and is intermixed
with the debris of granite, gneiss, and porphyry, and
alternating in beds with the latter. A variety met with
at Cenapecuaro in Mexico, is hard enough to scratch
glass ; another found at Cape de Gat in Spain, of a
greenish or bluish colour, does not give out the argilla-
ceous odour. Pearlstone is also met with at Sandy
Brae, in the island of Egg, one of the Hebrides.

AGALMATOLITE.

This mineral obtained the French and German names
of Pierre de Lard and Bildstein, from the resemblance
of some of its varieties to Lard •. and Brongniart has
given it that of steatite pagodite, from its being always
brought from China in the form of little grotesque
figures and chimney ornaments ; but all the analyses of
it, distinguish it sufficiently from steatite, which is al-
ways in part constituted of magnesia. The agalmatolite
is also found at Nagyag in Transylvania. It consists of

'

TO MINERALOGY. 51

£»6 of silcx, 29 of alumine, 2 of lime, 7 of potash, 1 of
oxide of iron, and 5 of water. In the varieties of the
Chinese, analyzed by Klaproth, no indication of potash
was found, and one of them was without lime.

LEPIDOLITE.

The Lepidolite is of a pearl grey, rose red, or of a
lilac red, or purple colour, whence it has also been cal-
led the Lilalite. It consists of an assemblage of small
flexible scales, which are translucent : the mass has a
pearly or silvery lustre, yields to the nail, and is some-
what unctuous to the touch. Its specific gravity is 2.85 :
that of Moravia consists of 54 per cent, of silex, 20 of
alurnine, 4 of fluate of lime, 18 of potash, 4 of oxide of
manganese, and 1 of iron.

It was first discovered on the mountain Gradisko, near
Rozena, in Moravia, of a pale rose colour and pearly
lustre ; it occurred also in a thin bed in gneiss, accom-
panied by quartz, mica, schorl, &c. It has since been
met with in Sweden in a quartzose rock ; in France,
near Limoges, in a vein of quartz, passing through gra-
nite, enclosing large beryls ; at Campoin, in the island
of Elba, of a rose colour, in a rock composed of quartz
and felspar.

OBSIDIAN".

Common obsidian is of a greenish or brownish black,
or of a smoke brown colour, with a shining vitreous lus-
tre ; its fracture is conch oidal ; some varieties are trans-
lucent, others nearly opake, and it is hard enough to
scratch glass : its specific gravity is about 2.35. That
of Hecla yields by analysis 78 of silex, 10 of alumine, 2
of lime, 6 of potash, 1 of oxide of iron, and 1 of manga-
nese. Potash and lime do not enter into the composi-
tion of all the varieties. It occasionally very much re-
sembles common glass.

The origin of obsidian has been very warmly cow-
tested ; it is most common in the neighbourhood of
Volcanoes, and has been considered as a vitrified lava ;
whence it has obtained the familiar name of Volcanic

£2 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

glass. It occurs in beds, masses, and in small isolated
pieces.

Fragments of blackish obsidian are met with, not
only at the foot of Hecla, but in almost every part of
Iceland : It is also found in the Lipai i islands ; some
varieties enclose felspar. In Peru it is met with in paral-
lel beds of a greenish black, and greyish colour ; the
latter enclosing opake, spherical masses, of a slate co-
lour, composed of diverging fibres. In New Spain,
some obsidians, which have been long exposed to the
air, are covered by a white opake enamel.

Obsidian, of a greenish black colour, constitutes the
greater part of the mountain della Castagna, in the
island of Lipari ; it encloses small crystals of felspar ;
and near the peak of Tenerifie obsidian appears in the
form of considerable currents, (like lava) presenting
some fibrous appearances, denoting its passage into Pu-
mice

A variety of a silky and chatoyant lustre is also found
in New Spain. ^

Obsidian in the form of little grains of the size of
peas, of a pearly white, and consisting of very thin con-
centric layers ; together with fragments of these ; also
vitreous globes of the size of a nut, and others like
enamel, traversed by red and black veins ; forming
altogether a species of vitreous sand, is found at Mari-
kan in the Gulph of Kamschatka ; and is thence termed
the Marekanite.

In the island of Ponce, obsidian is met with, enclosing
yellow mica, and white vitreous grains, which appear to
be semi-vitrified felspar.

Obsidian is in some places traversed by veins of stony
or earthy matter of various kinds"; thin beds of which
also occur between beds of obsidian. In the Madona
mountain, in the island of Ponce, the beds are nearly
vertical. In Hungary, obsidian occurs, intermingled
with the debris of decomposed granite, gneiss and por-
phyry j and even alternates with beds of the latter.
These circumstannes have induced some mineralogists
to doubt the igneous origin of obsidian ; but their

Strongest arguments are the violent intumescence

which it undergoes when subjected to heat, which

TO MINEBALOGY. 53

causes it to melt into a glass, and the quantity of aqueous
vapour disengaged during the process. Humboldt sus-
pects this to be one of the causes of the violent earth-
quakes so often felt in the Cordilleras of the Andes.

But it is agreed universally, that whenever obsidian is
found, there exist indications of volcanic agency in the
neighbouring country.

In Europe, obsidian has been fashioned into reflectors
for telescopes ; in Mexico and Peru, it was made into
looking glasses and knives.

HAUYNE. LATIAL1TE.

The Haliyne is usually found massive, but, in one
instance, has been observed in extremely brilliant crys-
tals, but so minute, and crossing each other«in so many
directions, that it was impossible to discover their form.
When this mineral is opake, it is of an indigo blue co-
lour ; when translucent, bluish green. It is somewhat
harder than quartz, is very brittle, and its fracture is un-
even, and considerably splendent. Its specific gravity is
about 3.2; and it consists of 30 percent, of silex, 15 of
alumine, 20.5 of sulphate of lime, 5 of lime, 11 of pot-
ash, 1 of oxide of iron, 17.5 water, sulphuretted hydro-
gen and loss. In some of its external characters and in
its chemical composition, it bears considerable analogy
to Lapis Lazuli.

It occurs massive in Italy, in the neighbourhood of
Nemi, Albano, and Frascati, accompanied by mica, and
green pyroxene ; and hear Vesuvius, its gangue consists
of the fragments of rocks ejected by volcanic eruptions,
and it is accompanied by idocrase, augite, mica, and
roeionite.

Haiiy seems to be of opinion that the mineral, here-
tofore termed Blue Spindle, which occurs in the form of
a rhomboidal dodecahedron, in the productions of volca-
noes atAndernach, on the banks of the Rhine, ought to
fee considered as a variety of this mineral; as well as the
sapphirin, which occurs in the granular form on the banks
of the lake of Lach, in a rock principally composed o£
grainy and of small crystals, of vitreous felspar,

K-Ju

54 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

ANALCIME. CUBIC ZEOLITE.

The Analcime is usually met with in round or radiated
masses, or in cubic crystals, either perfect, or having
each of the solid angles replaced by three planes ; or iu
the trapezoidal dodecahedron, which is a variety of the
cube ; the lustre is shining, and between pearly and
vitreous. The colour of the analcime is white, yel-
lowish, reddish, or deep red ; it is hard enough to
scratch glass, and is mostly transparent or translucent,
occasionally opake ; it becomes electric by rubbing.
Its specific gravity is below &. It consists of 58 of silex,
18 of alumine, 2 of lime, 10 of soda, and 8.5 of water.

The analcime is sometimes confounded with stilbite,
l}ut amongst their distinctive characters, the superior
pearly lustre of the stilbite, is that by which they are
mostly readily distinguished.

According to Brongniart, this mineral has been met
with only among the products of volcanoes ; as in the
lavas of Etna : according to Jameson, the cubic zeolite
is met with lining the cavities of amygdaloid, basalt, &c. :
•and occurs in Staffa, and near Talysker, in the island of
Sky : it is found also in the Hartz, Bohemia, &c. ; in
Iceland and the Ferroe islands. At Oberstein, it occurs
in the cavities of geodes.

. A variety from somma, called the Sarcolite, from its
being of a flesh red colour, is met with in cubes, having
each solid angle replaced by planes.

LAVA*

Lava is externally yellowish or greenish grey, greyish
black, or greenish black, and is internally spotted red-
dish, yellowish brown, or grey ; sometimes, when sul-
phureous vapours have acted much upon it, it is yel-
lowish or sulphur yellow. It is vesicular and knotty ; the
> vesicles are empty ; sometimes it is porous. Its fracture
is imperfectly conchoidal ; internally its lustre is glisten-
ing or shining. It is opake, translucent on the edges,
brittle, mostly attracts strongly the magnetic needle, and.
it is somewhat remarkable, is easily fused into a black

TO MINERALOGY. 5£

glass. The compact lava of Calabria yields, by analysis,
about 51 of silex, 19 of alumine, 10 of lime, 4 of soda,
14 of iron, and 1 of water

Lava usually encloses crystals of augite, hornblende,
felspar, and leucite ; which sometimes have no appear-
ance of being altered by heat.

The above description, generally speaking, belongs
to those substances, which, by common consent, are true
lavas ; the products of Etna, Vesuvius, Hecla, and other
Volcanoes. But there are many substances, considered
by some mineralogists as lavas, which, by others are not
allowed to be of volcanic origin. Karsten enumerates
nine species of lava ; and Haiiy six, which are again
subdivided ; amongst them are pearlstone and obsidian.

Werner notices only two, one of which he calls Slag
Lava, the other Foam Lava* The slag lava is above
described ; foam lava is of a greenish grey colour, ap-
proaching to greenish black ; it is light, brittle, and often
crumbling ; and has often been confounded with pumice.

PITCH STONE.

The colours of this mineral, which obtained the name
of Pitchstone, from the resemblance which some of its
varieties bear to pitch, are very various ; it is met with
in shades of grey, blue, green, yellow, red, brown, and
black ; but its colours are not lively : it has a glistening
resino-vitreous lustre. It occurs generally in distinct
masses or considerable beds, and has an imperfect cori-
choidal fracture, which in some varieties is the chief
characteristic distinction between pitchstone and obsi-
dian ; and it is not unfrequently confounded with horn-
stone and semi-opal. It is almost always opake, or only
translucent on the edges, and is hard enough to scratch
glass. The specific gravity of that of Meissen in Saxo-
ny, is 2.64 or 2.32. Pitcbstone is composed of 73 per
cent, of silex, 14.5 of alumine, 1 of lime, 1.75 of soda,
1 of oxide of iron, 0.1 of manganese, and 8.5 of water.

The pitchstone of which the analysis is given, is of a
yellowish grey colour, and alternates, in the mountain
of Gersebach between Meissen and Freyberg, with a
porphyry, having a base of petrosilex, which alternates

56 ELEMEffTARr INTRODUCTION

\vith gneiss, and is traversed by metalliferous veins. —
Fitchstone is found in veins traversing granite, near
Newry, in the county of Down, in Ireland. In these
instances the pitchstone, it seems reasonable to conclude,
must be of the same origin as the rocks in which it is
imbedded. Mineralogists are not agreed in opinion re-
specting that of pitchstone in general. Those of Planitz
in Saxony, and of Cantal in France, are considered to
be of volcanic origin. Pitchstone is met with in Dum-
frieshire in Scotland, and in several of the Scottish
islands.

CLINKSTONE.

The clinkstone is always found massive, and whea
struck with a hammer, gives a ringing metallic sound ;
whence its name. It is of a dark greenish, yellowish, or
ash grey colour : its fracture in one direction is slaty,
and it is hard, brittle, and commonly translucent on the
edges. Its specific gravity is 2.57 ; and it consists of
siFex 57.25, alumine 25.50, lime 2.75, soda 8.1, oxide
of iron 3.25, oxide of manganese 0.25, and 8 of water.

The clinkstone is usually columnar, and generally
rests upon basalt. It occurs near Zittau in Upper Lu-
sace ; in the Bohemian Mittelgebirge ; in South Ame-
rica ; in the island of Lamlash in the firth of Clyde ; the
isles of Mull and Arran ; the Ochil and Pentland hills in
Scotland ; the Breidden hills in Montgomeryshire, and
in the Dirris mountain in the county of Antrim in Ire-
flnd.

SODALITE.

This rare mineral has only been found associated with
sahlite, augite, bornblede, and garnet, in Greenland.
Its colour is light green, or bluish green, and it occurs
massive, but more often crystallized in rhomboidal da-
decahedrons. It is translucent, and yields with difficul-
ty to the knife. Its specific gravity is about 2.37 ; and
according to the analysis of Thomson, it is composed
«*f 38.42 of silex, 27.48 of alumine, 2.70 of lime, 23.5
of soda, 3 of muriatic acid, 1 of oxide of iron, and £1
of volatile matter.

TO MKVERALOGV. 57

CHABASIE.

This mineral is only met with in crystals very nearly
approaching the cube, having the edges and sometimes
the angles, replaced by planes ; but oniy three varieties
of form have been noticed by Haiiy, who considers
their primitive to be an obtuse rhomboid of 9(5° 48' and
8S° 12'.

The colour of the Chabasie is white or greyish, some-
times pale red superficially ; it is transparent or translu-
cent, and scarcely hard enough to scratch glass. Its
specific gravity is about 2.7 ; and it consists of 43.83 of
silex, 26 6 of alumine, 3.34 of lime, 9.34 of potash and
soda, and 21 of water.

The Chabasie is met with in the fissures or cavities of
some basaltic rocks, or within geodes of quartz or agate
which are disseminated in rocks. Ft is thus found in the
quarries of Alteberg, near Obersteiii in Saxony. It is
also said to occur in the lavas of the Isie of Ferroe ; at
Talisker in the Isle of Skye ; at Glen Farg in Perth-
shire, and at Portrusu in- the North of Ireland.

FETTSTEIN.

The Fettstein has been found only in Norway ; it oc-
curs massive, and of a darkish green, bluish grey, or
flesh red colour ; with natural joints parallel to the
faces of a right rhomboidal prism ; it is translucent, and
scratches glass. Its specific gravity is 2.6 ; and, accord-
ing to Vauquelin it is composed of 44 of silex, 34 of
alumine, 0. 2 of lime, 16.5 of potash and soda, and 4-
of oxide of iron.

The Fettstein is by some mineralogists supposed to
bear considerable affinity to some varieties of felspar.
It has a slight chatoyant lustre when held in particular
directions, like that of Labradore felspar. Both soda
and potash enter into the composition of Fettstein, the
former predominating ; the latter only is found in fel-
spar,

58 ELEMENTARr INTRODUCTION

SCAPOLITE.

The Scapolite is usually met with in prisms of four 01
eight sides, either terminated by planes or by tetrahe-
dral pyramids, and aggregated laterally. Their coloun
are grey or yellowish, sometimes with a pearly lustre ;
or an almost metallic grey ; sometimes deep red and
opake ; occasionally apple green. The crystals posses
sing a pearly lustre will scratch glass ; but when dull
with an appearance like that of efflorescing, they are
tender and even friable. The scapolite is composed o!
4.*) of silex, 33 of alumine, 17.6 of lime, 0.5 of potash,
1.5 of soda, I of oxide of iron and manganese . but the
efflorescing variety differs, in including some magnesia,
and in *ewg without potash.

The Scapolite has hitherto only been met with in the
iron mine of Langloe, at Arendahl m Norway : its crys-
tals appear variously grouped, and accompanied b}
brown mica, quartz, garnet, epidote, carbonate of lirae;
c.

JADE.

The general character of Jade, of which there are
three varieties, are, that it al vays occurs massive, oi
various shades of green and whitish green, with a greasy
lustre ; it is unctuous to the touch, harder than quartz,
and very tough.

Common Jade is of a lake green colour, passing into
greenish white, semi-transparent, extremely tough, with
a glimmering lustre and broad splintery fracture. Its
specific gravity is 2.95 ; and it is composed of 53.75 oi
silex, 1.5 of alumine, 12.75 of lime, 8.5 of potash;
10.75 of soda, 5 of oxide of iron, 2 of oxide of manga-
nese, and 2.25 of water.

Of the geological history of common Jade, nothing is
known. It is found in Switzerland, Piedmont and Ty-
rol ; China and India. It is regarded in the latter coun-
tries as a specific for the nephritic cholic, and is fashion-
ed into forms of great delicacy. The Hindoos and Chi-
nese form it into talismans and idols ; the Turks into
sword and dagger handles.

1

TO MINERALOGY. 59

- '

The Jlxestone*, or Beilstein, differs from common
jade in having a slaty structure, and in being less trans-
parent and less tough. In America, it is found in the
banks of the river Amazon ; whence it obtained the
name of the Amazonian stone. It is also met with in
Corsica, Switzerland, and Saxony; and in New Zea-
land and other islands in the Pacific ocean, where it is
made into hatchets, tomahawks, and other instruments ;
whence its common name.

The Saussurite, or Tough Felspar, is greener than
the preceding varieties, and at least as hard and as tough
as common Jade : according to Saussure, it consists of
44 parts of silex, 30 of alumine, 4 of lime, 0*25 of pot-
ash, 6 of soda, 12.5 of oxide of iron, and 0.5 of oxide
of manganese

It was first found by Saussure, whence its name, in
rounded masses on the edge of the lake of Geneva, and
afterwards near Turin, in the mountain Mussinet, which
is principally composed of serpentine, which enloses
bydrophane. Jt has since been met with in Corsica ; in
sand, in the neighbourhood of Potsdam, and near Aff-
chanffenberg.

SOAPSTONE.f

The Soapstone is found massive, and nearly white or
of a grey colour, sometimes with tinge of yellow, and
mottled with green or purple ; it is translucent on the
edges. Its fracture is somewhat splintery ; it yields to
the nail ; from its general aspect and unctuous feel, its
name has been derived.

* Well wrought Stone- Axes , of this material, fmooth, hard, and deep
^reen, are brought from the Fegee and Friendly Jflands by our navigators.
Thofe ufed by the natives formerly inhabiting the region around New-
York, j^cre formed of a fort of coarfe chert.

f It is probably this Stone which has been brought from the banks of the
Schuylkill, for the purpofe of conftructing fire places in Sugar- houfcs and
Steam-boats. A few years ago, a beautiful variety was brought from Or-
ford in New-Hampihire. It was manufactured into stoves, hearths, chim-
ney-backs, and cooking apparatus, which for a feafon were confiderably iu
rife. But the (lone, in addition to its natural brittleness, and liability to be
warped by heat, was found to be penetrated by veins of quartz, that
cracked and fplit by expofure to fire. The ftonc was maffive, fine, and
yielded readily to the plane and duffel, except in the parts where the fill*
ckms material prevailed.

GO ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

It is met with in a vein in serpentine at the Lizard
point of Cornwall, where it may sometimes be found
with the appearance of passing into asbcstuy, which oc-
curs in veins in the serpentine. It is much used in the
manufactory of porcelain. It also occurs near the
Cheesering, at St. Cleer, in Cornwall.

The soapstone of Cornwall consists of 45 per cent,
of silex, 9.25 of alumine, 24.75 of magnesia, 0.75 of
potash, and one of oxide of iron. It is commonly sup-
posed to be a variety of steatite, but is much softer.
In the composition of the latter, no alumine has been
detected.

CHLORITE.

Chlorite is composed of very minute plates intersect-
ing each other in various ways, giving to the mass a
granular or earthy structure : it also occurs crystallized
in flat six-sided crystals, which are readily divisable into
thin lamina?. It is usually of a dark green, sometimes
of a yellowish green, with a shining lustre ; it is opake,
yields to the nail, is somewhat uuctuous ; and when
massive, gives out an earthy smell when breathed on.

Common Chlorite is usually found massive and some-
what solid ; its specific gravity is 2.56.

. Common chlorite is not found in very considerable
masses ; but chiefly in the veins and cavities of primitive
rocks ; sometimes it is enclosed in crystals of quartz,
chalcedony, felspar, axinite, &c. in so large a portion
as to impart a colour to them. It frequently accompa-
nies»the oxide of tin and mispickle in the veins of Corn-
wall ; and occasionally, though rarely, yellow copper.
It is met with in most chains of primitive mountains.

When the structure of chlorite is slaty, it is termed
Chlorite slate ; its specific gravity is greater than that of
the preceding variety, being 3.03. Its ordinary colour
is blackish brown. It is met with in. beds in primitive
mountains, enclosing crystals of quartz, octahedral mag
nHic iron ore, garnets &c. and is found in Cors ca, at
Fahlun in Sweden, in Norway, &c. ; and in Perthshire.

Scaly Chlorite is of a dark green colour, and is com-
posed of small glimmering particles, having a pearly

TO MINERALOGY. 6

lustre ; it is somewhat unctuous to the touch ; is friable,
or loose ; and greatly resembles green earth. It is very-
light, and consists of 26 of silex, 18.5 of alumine, 8 of
magnesia, 2 of muriate of soda or of potash, and 43 per
cent of oxide of iron.

It mostly occurs in the veins of primitive mountains,
principally in clay slate, mixed with quartz, common
chlorite, calcareous spar, and micaceous iron ore : it is
also met with in granular limestone, and in primitive
sandstone. It is found in Saxony, Switzerland, Savoy,
Sweden, Hungary, and North Wales,

SCHORL.*

Schorl is found massive, disseminated, and crystal-
lized ; the common form of the crystals is a prism most-
ly striated longitudinally and deeply, and terminated at
each end by 3 planes ; but the crystals are sometimes
very minute, closely aggregated, and divergent. This
substance is black, brittle, opake, and has a glistening
lustre. Its specific gravity is about 3.2, and it is com-
posed of about 33 parts of silex, 34 of alumine, 1 of
magnesia, 6 of potash, 21 of oxide of iron, and a trace
of manganese.

Schorl, except by the Wernerian school, is arranged
among tourmalines, from which it differs in respect of
analysis, transparency and colour. The latter mostly
occur imbedded in single crystals ; the former is mostl^
aggregated, and occurs in beds.

It is found in primitive rocks ; chiefly in quartz and.
granite ; more rarely in gneiss and micaceous scbistus^
and is frequently met with in tin veins.

Schorl was first found near the village of SchorlawiQ
Saxony, whence its name. It is also met with in Bohe-
mia, Bavaria, Switzerland, Spain and Hungary > and at
Portsoy in Scotland, and beneath the Logan Rock, and
at various places near the Lands' End in Cornwall.

* For the obfcrvations on this article, tee Tourmalint.

Pf

£2 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

CLAY-SLATE.* ARGILLACEOUS SCHISTUSi

The prevailing colour of clay-slate is grey of various
shades ; it is also bluish or blue ; and sometimes green-
ish, passing into blackish green. Its structure is slaty.
and it has a glistening lustre, sometimes approaching to
pearly ; it is opake, and yields to the knife, but varies in
hardness, and some varieties are somewhat unctuous to
the touch. Its specific gravity is about 2.7 ; and it is
composed of 48 per cent, of silex, 23.5 of alumine, 1.6
of magnesia, 1 1.3 of oxide of iron, 0.5 of oxide of man-
ganese, 4.7 of potash, 0.3 of carbon, and 7.6 of water.

Clay-slate occurs in vast strata in primitive mountains,
and sometimes in veins. It is very universally distribu-
ted in Britain ; it is met with in Scotland and the
Scottish isles, in the northern parts of England, and
plentifully in Cornwall, being the Killas of the miner.
The principal part of the numerous copper and tin
mines of that county are situated in clay-slate ; which in
most countries abounds in mineral veins.

Some varieties which readily split into thin platet
are used for the roofing of houses ; another is used for
writing on ; another as pencils ;* and some varieties as
whetstones.

GABKGN1TE.

The GUbrOnite occurs massive, and is of a bluish or
greenish grey colour ; its fracture is lamellar, it is trans-
lucent on the edges, and hard enough to scratch glass,
though not to give fire with the steel. Its specific gra-
vity is nearly 3 ; and it is composed of 54 per cent, of
silex, 24 of alumine, 1.5 of magnesia, 17.25 of potash

* Clay Slate. Argillaceous fchiftus, proper for covering houfes, h
brought to New- York, from Rhinebeck, Troy, and other places near the
banks of the Hudfon. It is brought to Baltimore from the quarries near
the Sufquehannah. As the flate region is of vaft extent in the Fredoniau
States and territories, the fupply for internal and domeftic purpofes will
be adequate to the demands.

A coarfer and more brittle kind from the fame formations affords good
ftone for walls, furnace?, and other purpofes.

TO MINERALOGY, 63

and soda, 1.25 of the oxides ofiron and manganese, and
2 of water.

The Gabronite has only been found in Norway. The
bluish variety, near Arendahl, with hornblend ; the
greenish, at Fredericksvarn, disseminated in a large
grained sienite.

FULLER'S EARTH.

Fuller's earth occurs massive, and is usually of a
greenish brown colour, sometimes nearly of the colour
of slate ; it is dull, possesses an earthy fracture, and
yields to, and receives a polish from the nail : in water
it becomes semi-transparent, and falls into a pulpy im-
palpable powder. The English Fuller's earth is com-
posed of 53 of silex, 10 of alumine, 0.5 of lime, 1.25 of
magnesia, 9.5 of oxide ofiron, 1 of muriate of soda, and
24 of water.

AtNutfield, near Riegate, in Surry, it occurs in regu-
lar beds near the summit of a hill of considerable eleva-
tion, between beds of ferruginous sand or sandstone
containing fossil wood, cornu ammonis, impressions of
the nautilus and other sea-shells. There are two distinct
beds of Fuller's earth ; the upper, of a greenish clay
colour and 5 feet in thickness, rests upon the other,
which is of a light slate blue, and 11 feet thick ; in these
beds but mostly in the latter, are found considerable
masses of sulphate of barytes, sometimes exhibiting re-
gular crystalizations, the interstices of which are occa-
sionally filled up by compact quartz.

Fuller's earth is also found at Deptling, near Maid-
stone in Kent, and at Aspley, near Woburn in Bedford-
shire, under nearly the same circumstances as at Nut-
field. At Old Down near Bath, it occurs mixed with
shells, forming a bed between the upper and under
oolite ; and near Nottingham in lumps in the red marl.

It is found near Rosswein in Saxony, under very dif-
ferent circumstances to that of England. It occurs
among primitive rocks, and is supposed to originate in
the decomposition of greenstone- slate,, beneath which
it lies.

64 ELEMENTARF INTRODUCTION

Fuller's earth was formerly much used in the fulling,
of cloth (whence its name,) and was forbidden to he
exported under severe penalties : soap is now generally
substituted.

BASALT.*

Basalt is of a greyish black colour, and when polished,
of a bluish aspect. It is not easily broken ; its fracture
is dull, but fine grained. Some varieties strike fire by the
steel, others may be scratched by the knife. It has a
tendency to form six-sided irregular prisms or pillars j
of which the Island of StafFa is entirely composed. The
Giant's causeway, on the coast of Antrim in Ireland, is
a huge pavement of strait pillars of Basalt, running to
an unknown distance into the sea ; and the promontory
of Fair-head, a little further north, exhibits a continued
range, about a mile in length, of columns 250 feet highr
and from 10 to 20 in diameter, being the largest yet
known. When exposed to weather, basalt crumbles
down into a fine black mould, which constitutes a very
fertile soil. It is to this rock that some of the richest parts
of Scotland owe their fertility.

The basalt of Saxony is composed of 44.5 per cent
ofsilex, 16.75 of alumine, 9.5 of lime, 2.25 of mag-
nesia, 2,6 of soda, 20 of oxide of iron, 0.12 of oxide of
manganese, and 2 of water.

Basalt is found under very different circumstances :
it occurs filling up veins and fissures in many primitive
and secondary mountains ; sometimes forms beds or
strata on their summits ; and not unfrequenfly, it tra-
verses coal-formations, in a direction nearly perpendicu-
lar to the beds of coal, which it seems to have the effect
of dislocating.

* Basalt. Trap is the name more generally applied, throughout Eu-
rope,, for the rock called Wbin in Scotland, and Green Stone in Connecti-
cut, efpecially in the vicinity of New-Haven. — (Slltiman.) • • • It con-
ftitutes the Pallifado Rock, on the weft of the Hudfon, between WchawL
and Haverftraw.

There is a remarkable dyke or wall of the Bafaltic kind in North- Ca-
rolina^-»(2>zp».) The Trap of Patterfon, at Puflaick falls, very

nearly refembles the Bafalt of the Giant's caufe-way.— {Pierce.}

TO

Geologists are divided in opinion respecting the origin
of Basalt. Werner supposes it to have been deposited,
like other minerals, by water which covered the whole
earth. Dolomieu conceived basalt to be lava, and all
basaltic mountains to be the remains of extinct volca-
noes. Dr. Button and Professor Playfair conceive it
to have been fused by a central fire of the earth, while
at the bottom of the sea, and to have been raised up
by some natural agent, in common with all other moun-
tains.

With a view to determine the correctness of these
opinions, Daubiusson examined the basalt of Saxony,
which chiefly lies in the Erzebiirge, or metalliferous
mountains; a chain separating Bohemia from Saxony,
of^ about 120 miles long, and 3600 feet above the
level of the sea. The lower rock is granite, which is
covered, or rather wrapt round, by beds of gneiss, mica-
slate, and clay-slate, lying above each other in that or-
der. In these beds are situated the great mines of
Saxony. In a chain of rocks of serpentine and quartz,
are found beds of limestone, of coal, &c. The whole of
the eastern part of the chain is covered on one side by a
huge bed of porphyry, and on the other by a bed of
sandstone of equal magnitude.

- Basalt forms the summits of about 20 mountains of
this chain, under various forms, as of tables, comes, or
domes: the mountains are connected by their sides 5
the basaltic top alone remaining separate.

In several instances, between the basalt and the body
of the mountains, he found beds of sand, gravel, and
day : in others, the basalt rests on sandstone ; in others,
an porphyry ; in one, on mica slate ; in three, on gra-
nite ; and in one, on gneiss.

After a complete investigation of these mountains,
Daubuisson is of opinion that there is no analogy be»
tvveen them and volcanic mountains. They are regularly
stratified, which is never the case in volcanic mountains;
no trace of a crater can be perceived ; nor any thing
decidedly volcanic. Besides, basalt, wherever found, is
always composed of the same consistuents ; lava varies
considerably. The substances contained in basalt, as
felspar, mica, &c. retain their crystalline characters

K 2-

66 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

without exhibiting the slightest traces of the action of
fire, though the felspar is more fusible than the basalt
istelf. Basalt contains 20 per cent, of iron, and there
is no rock which could furnish such a proportion. It
contains 5 per cent, of water of composition, which is
never found in lava. It is found lying immediately un-
der or over coal, which is in no degree altered in its na-
ture ; and Dolomieu has described no less than 20 beds
of basalt alternating with as many beds of limestone
Containing marine shells. For these and many other
conclusive reasons, Daubuisson is decidedly of opinion
that the Saxon basalt is altogether of aqueous origin.

He was afterwards induced by some zealous advocates
for the igneous origin of basalt, to explore the baslt
country of Auvergne in France. The base of this coun-
try he found to be granite ; which, m the western part,
js covered with gneiss and micaceous schistus, contain
jog metalliferous veins. Limestone and coal also ap-
pear in other districts. The chain of the Puys extenas
fibove 20 miles : most of them are detached ; their form
is a truncated cone ; and on their summits there are
Cup-like depressions, in some instances 200 feet deep.
Their general elevation is from 900 to 1300 feet above
the plain; the central and highest, the Puy de Dome
being near 2000 feet.

The substances chiefly composing these hills, are,
scoria?, lava, and other decided volcanic matter.

In one instance he traced the appearance of a stream
like that of lava, 200 feet broad ; which afterwards di
?idecl \ the soil it affords is unfruitful.

Its characters differ in some respects from common
basalt ; the felspar has a vitreous aspect, and the quartz
•g altered by heat.

Many other circumstances also contributed to induce
the full belief that the basalt of Auvergne is of igneous
origin.

There see.ms therefore sufficient grounds for conclu-
ding that, as the basalt of Saxony is altogether of aque-
ous,origin, and that of Auvergne of igneous origin, these
two rocks ought not, however, in point of composition
and aspect, they may resemble each other, to receive
Ihfi common name of basalt, This seems to be oae of*

TO MINERALOGY. 67

the numerous causes of confusion in geological nomen-
clature.

In Scotland, basalt is included, together with many
other rocks of very different natures, in the vague, bizt
comprehensive term Whin-stone.

The Eight following substances have not been analyzed,
but are in most mineralogical arrangements associated
with those of which the principal ingredient is Silex.

HORNSTONE.

This substance occurs in nodules and massive, with a
splintery fracture, and is translucent, passing into opa&e ;
it is scarcely so hard as quartz, and is infusible. Its ge-
neral colour is grey, which is tinged blue, green, brown^
red or yellow.

Hornstone is described as occurring in round masses
in limestone, as in Bavaria; and in beds in limestone on
the banks of the Menai in Caenarvonshire ; and some-
times as forming the basis of porphyry, as in Sweden,
at Dannemera and Garbenburg, and also in the Shet-
land istes. Wood, petrified by hornstone, thence term-
ed Woodstone is met with in ferruginous sand near wo-
burn in Bedfordshire, and near Nutfield in Sorry. I
have met with Hornstone in Pednandrae Mine in Corn-
wall, passing into Chert, which is considered to be al*
lied to it ; the fracture of Chert is flat conchoidal, and
it generally has a waxy or greasy lustre, and is translu-
cent on the edges. Its general colour is grey.

There is a considerable bed of Chert near the summit
of the Cliff at the Western lines in the [sle of Wight,
resting, I believe, on sandstone, which having given way
by exposure, the fall of the Chert has been the prin-
cipal occasion of the now beautiful ruin beneath. Chert
also occurs in some parts of Devonshire and Dorsetshirei
and is employed for repairing the roads. It also occurs
resting upon the ferruginous sand or sandstone of Leith
Hill in Surry ; near the summit of which, the sand, like
that beneath the Chert in the Isle of Wight, contains or*-
game remains which aje denominated Alcyonia.

%J-:

68 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

"' S-i ;V;^>: : ' >f;V '«sj ;. _^.;J.'? i..
CHIASTOL1TE.

This mineral has only been met with crystallized in
long slender rhomboidal prisms, composed of two dis-
tinct substances. The exterior is greyish white or red-
dish, the interior is black or bluish black, and its sides
are perfectly parallel with those of the exterior sub-
stance, which, in some specimens, is so thin as to form a
mere coating. From each of the angles of the interior
prisms, there often proceeds a black line which some-
times reaches the corresponding angles of the coating,
but is sometimes terminated by a black rhomboidal
prism ; so that the Chiastolite occasionally consists of
5 black rhomboidal prisms, communicating by black
threads, and as it were imbedded in a greyish white or
reddish substance, which has a lamellar structure, is
translucent, and hard enough to scratch glass.

This substance seems only to have been discovered
imbedded in argillaceous or micaceous scbistus. In the
former, it occurs in the Wolf-crag near Kesvvick, and
on the summit of Skiddaw, in Cumberland ; and also at
St. Jaques de Compostella in Spain. In the latter, it
is met with in the Sierra del Marao in Portugal. The
Chiastolite is also found in Britany in France, in the
valley of Barege in the Pyrennees, and at Aghava-
nagh, and Baltinglass»hill, in the county of Wicklow in
Ireland.

SPINELLANE,

The Spinellane has only been found on the borders of
the lake of Laacb, in a rock composed of grains and
small crystals of glassy felspar, quartz, hornblende, black
inica, and magnetic iron ore. -It occurs in small rhom-
boidal dodecahedrons of a dark brown colour, and is sc
&ard as to scratch glass.

HELILITE.

This rare mineral has been met with chiefly in smaE
septangular parallelepipeds , occasionally in rectangular

TO MINERALOGF* 69

octahedrons. Internally the crystals are of a honey yel->
low or orange colour ; externally they are usually coat-
ed by oxide of iron of a yellowish brown colour ; they
give sparks by the steel. The Melilite has only been
found at Capo di Bove near Rome, in the fissures of a
compact black lava.

WACKU.*

Wacke is of various shades of greenish and yellowish
grey, and occurs either solid or cellular : when the cells
are hollow, or filled by some other substance, as quartz,
chalcedony, or carbonate of lime, the compound is de-
nominated Amygdaloid. Wacke has an earthy fracture,
is opake, and generally yields easily to the knife*

According to Werner it occurs in beds, which gene-
rally lie under basalt, and above clay, as at Fichtelberg,
and Marienberg, in the hills of Schnegenberg ; and fre-
quently contains imbedded crystals of mica, and basaltic
hornblende. It also occurs in veins. At Joachimsthal
in Bohemia it encloses petrified wood, native bismuth,
and fragments of certain primitive rocks ; and at Kal-
lennordheim in Franconia, fossil bones : it is found also
at Westmanland in Sweden, and in Iceland.

The Amygdaloid or Toadstonc of Derbyshire is consi-
dered by Werner to be a variety of transition Trap.

Iron Clay, the Eisenthon of Werner, is considered by
some as a variety of Wacke ; their general characters
are the same ; but the colour of the former is reddish
brown ; they both occasionally constitute the basis of
amygdaloid.

SHALE.f 'SLATE-CLAY.

Shale occurs only massive ; its general colour is grey,
which sometimes is bluish, yellowish or blackish ; in

* Wacke. This has been found in detached mafias. Fine Amygdaloid,
of a brown colour, and interfpcrfed with white fpots, has been brought
from Labrador.

t Shale. Carbonaceous fliale, or coal flate, overlays the ftrata of Coal
in Rhode-Ifland, and is diftinguished by impreflions of fern and capillary
plants.— (Case.)

At Olaftonbury, near Connecticut river, bituminous Shale esifts, ccr^

70 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

one direction its structure is slaty, in the other, earthy ;
it usually adheres a little to the tongue and yields to the
nail, and is opake, meagre to the touch, and dull, excepi:
from casually imbedded mica, which sometimes imparts
a glimmering lustre : its specific gravity is about 2.6.

Shale has the usual characters of clays, by becoming
plastic in water ; it disintegrates on exposure to air. A
variety found at Menil-rnontant near Paris, enclosing the
menilite, yielded 66 per cent, of silex : it adheres strong-
ly to the tongue.

It is found in beds and strata in schist ; in alluvial de-
posites; and resting upon, as well as interposed between,
beds of coal, which it invariably accompanies. It often
contains impressions of reeds and of ferns ; and I am
informed by my friend L. W. Dillwyn, well known for
his curious botanical researches, that he has never dis-
covered a single impression of fern in shale, perfect as
these impressions usually are, exhibiting its well known
appearance of fructification.

A variety of shale usually accompanies coal, and is
sometimes intermixed with it, which, from its black co-
lour and bituminous quality, is termed black bituminous
shale. It occurs in every independent coal-formation.
Its structure is slaty : when subjected to the flame of a
candle, it blazes ; in the fire it crackles, emits a black
smoke and bituminous odour, loses a considerable por-
tion of its weight, and is converted into a whitish or
reddish Oaky ash.

Another variety of Bituminous shale, of a brown co-
lour, is met with at Kirnmeridge in Hampshire, which
from its giving out a bituminous odour when placed in
the flame of a candle, or in the fire, is termed Kim-
meridge Coal. By exposure to a considerable heat, the

taining plain impreflions of fi(h, with their fcalea, fins, rays, and other
parts, very apparent.— (Bruta.)

Argillaceous Shale has been brought to me from Wilkesbarre, in which
were impreffions of feras, and of the bark, to all appearance, of the Palm-
tree.—- ( Bradbury.)

The Killas of the Waalkill, near Montgomery, abounds with fliells oi
bivalve mollufcas, fuch as anomias and terebratulas. In thefe, the real
{hells exift ; being neither wafted away fo as to leave cavities and impres-
sions, nor converted by petrifaction to a ftony condition.

TO MINERALOGY. 71

bituminous part is consumed, and it is reduced to a
grey earthy ash.

FLINTY SLATE.* INDURATED SLATE.
SILICEOUS SCHISTUS.

Of Indurated Slate, there are two or three varieties,

Common indurated Slate. This substance is of about
the same hardness as quartz, which commonly traverses
it in small white veins. Its colour is very various ; grey
bluish grey, and red ; its structure is somewhat slaty,
and it is translucent on the edges.

A specimen analized by Weiglib yielded 75 per cent,
of silex, the remainder being lime, magnesia, and oxide
of iron.

It is chiefly found in beds in transition mountains,
and occurs in Saxony, the Hartz, in the Lead hills and
other places in the South of Scotland. At Saaska in
the Bannat, and in Greece, it occurs in large masses in
transition limestone.

Lydian Stone, or Basanite, is of a black or greyish
black colour, and is always found massive, never with a
slaty structure ; it is often traversed by veins of quartz ;
it is opake, less hard than the foregoing variety, and its
fracture is flat conchoidal.

It occurs in similar formations and repositories with
common indurated slate ; and is found near Prague and
Carlsbad in Bohemia ; near Freyberg in Saxony ; and
in the Moorfoot and Pentland Hills near Edinburgh. It
was first brought from Lydia in Lesser Asia ; whence its
name.

When polished, it is used to try gold and silver upon,
by a comparison of colour, and has thence obtained the
familiar name of the Touchstone.

Stripe'* Jasper by some is considered as a variety of
agate or jasper, by others, of flinty slate ; it sometimes
shews a tendency to a slaty structure ; it occurs in bands
or stripes of various shades of yellow, green, purple, and

* Flinty Slate. The Touch-ftone is occafionally found along the fhore*
near New-York, in rounded mattes ; which, by the blackness of their
ftaoothed furfaces, contraft well with the gold, filver and copper, which
are rubbed upon them.

72 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

red ; from which it has obtained the familiar name of
Ribbon Agate, or Ribbon Jasper.

It is found in considerable beds. It occurs in Sax-
ony, the Hartz, and in Sicily ; and forms whole hills in
Siberia.

WHET SLATE.*

It is found massive, with a slaty structure, and is most
commonly of a greenish grey colour, sometimes yellow-
ish or brownish grey ; it is translucent on the edges,
yields to the knife, and is somewhat unctuous to the
touch.

It occurs in primitive mountains at Lauenstein in
Bayreuth, in Saxony, and near Freyberg in Bohemia :
it was first brought to Europe from the Levant. When
cut and polished, it is used for sharpening knives and
other instruments ; whence its name.

* Whetslate. A fpecies of flaty whjstftone is quarried in the north-east*
cm part of Pennfylvania, and has been brought to New- York, for the
Tmrpofe of Sharpening edged tools. It is of an olive-brown colour, of a
fcne fmooth grain, and eafy to work ; but its foftness tnakes it wear away

t. 00 ftlSt.

ALUMINE or ARGIL.

THIS substance obtained the name of Alumine from
its forming the base of common Alum ; and that of Ar-
gil, from the Latin, Argilla, Clay, on account of its
being a constituent of Clays, though rarely in a greater
proportion than one third or one-fourth; nevertheless,
clays are termed argillaceous substances, and those rocks,
of which Argil forms a notable proportion, are termed
Argillaceous rocks ; one character of which is, that they
give out a peculiar odour when breathed on, that may
always be regarded as a mineralogical test of the pre-
sence of Argil, whence it has been termed the Argilla-
ceous odour ; but as it does not belong to pure Alumine,
it is considered to be owing to a combination of that
substance with the oxide of iron, which generally enters
into the composition of argillaceous minerals.

Alumine, when pure, is perfectly white, and is desti-
tute of taste and srnell ; its specific gravity is 2.0 : and it
is infusible, except by voltaic electricity. It has already
been said, in treating of the Earths generally, that Alu-
mine is not a simple substance, and that Sir H. Dav^
has ascertained it to be composed of oxygen united with.
a base, •/llumium, in the proportion of 46 of the former
to 54 of the latter; but though the results afford a strong
presumption that Alumine is a metallic oxide, its base
has not been yet obtained in such a state as to make it a
fit object for investigation.

As the precise nature of its base is unknown, Alumine
is still ranked among the Earths. As an earth, it may
be said that it is never found pure. It enters largely
into the composition of many earthy minerals, and ic
small quantity in some metalliferous ores. Jt is an in-
gredient, in a large portion, of some of the most abun-
dant rocks, primitive, secondary and alluvial, and is
found in all soils. It is the most abundant of all the
Earths, except Silex.

G

174 ELEMESTARy INTRODUCTION

It occurs combined with the fluoric and sulphuric acids;
and with the Alkalies, Potash and Soda.

Aluraine is found in the greatest purity in corundum
and its varieties.

tlORUNDUM.

The varieties included under this term, viz. Corun-
dum, Oriental Ruby, Saphire, and Emery, are the hard-
est substance in nature, except the Diamond, and the
most ponderous of stony substances ; their specific gravi-
ty varies from 3.66 to 4.08. The saphire is the heavi-
est. The lamellar structure is remarkably visible in the
common Corundum, which readiiy splits into rhomboids,
of which the angles are considered to be 86° 38' and
93° 22'. All the varieties of Corundum belong exclu-
sively to primitive countries.

Common Corundum, probably from its texture, has
received the name of imperfect Corundum ; and from it?
hardness, that of Adamantine Spar. It is sometimes
nearly colourless, and somewhat translucent; but more
often has a greyish or greenish tint, occasionally reddish,
or brownish, with a metallic chatoyant lustre ; it is more
rarely yellow and transparent, or black and opake.
The common form of its crystal is the hexahedral prism,
which rarely shews a tendency to flat triedral termina-
tions ; it occurs also in obtuse, and in acute, hexahe-
dral pyramids. It consists of about 90 per cent, of alu-
mine, 5 of silex, and some oxide of iron : in some va-
rieties of Corundum, the latter does not exceed one
per cent.

Adamantine spar is found in India, in a granite rock,
imbedded, after the manner of felspar. It is often ac-
companied by the fibrolite, talc, garnet, zircon, and
magnetic iron. It is also found in China, nearly under
the same circumstances. It occurs every where from
China to Bengal ; in the kingdom of Ava, and on the
coast of Malabar : its gangue, in the Carnatic, is a
coarse-grained white marble. It has been found in Italy

TO MINEHALOGY. 73

in micaceous schistus, and entering into the composi-
tion of granite in North America.*

The yellow is found in Bengal ; the brown, with a
chatoyant lustre, on the coast of Malabar; the black in
China. .

In the East Indies it is used for polishinfg steel, and
cutting and polishing gems ; but the lapidaries of Eu-
rope prefer diamond-powder, on account of the greater
rapidity with which it works.

The Oriental Ruby, or Oriental Amethyst, is "usually
of a brilliant red colour; sometimes nearly of a violet
colour ; occasionally either wholly, or partly, colour-
less and transparent ; often chatoyant, when it is termed
Asteria, or Star-stone.

The Saphire varies from the preceding variety prin-
cipally in respect of its colours, which are blue, yellow,
or yellowish green ; when blue, it is properly the sa-
phire ; when yellow, it is by lapidaries termed the Ori-
ental Chrysolite, or Oriental Topaz*, when yellowish
green, the Oriental Emerald.

The Oriental ruby and the saphire do not essentially
differ from common corundum in respect of analysis.
A variety of the latter consisted so nearly of pure alu-
mine, that Klaproth found only (K5 of silex and 1 of
oxide of iron. The general forms of their crystals are
much the same as those of common corundum, but their
planes are usually more numerous. These gems are
said to have been found in granite, and in sienite, in
the kingdom of Pegu and the Island of Ceylon : but
they are more commonly met with in alluvial deposites,
and in brooks in the neighbourhood of primitive moun-
tains. They have been thus found in the brook Ex-

* Good judges affirm that Adamantine Spar has been found near Phila*
delphia, in the neighbourhood of Baltimore, and at Had dam, Conn, in
granite.. That of Chefnut-hill is, in external appearance, very much like
that of Bombay, but differs from it in being free from pyrites, and in
being much more regularly figured. Its colour is a light green, and its
hardnefs fuch as to cut glafs very readily. Some fpecimens have the
luftre of glafs, while others are not fo bright. It is bedded in granite, or
rather forms an ingredient of that rock, afTociated with flefh-coloured
ieldfpar, fmoky quartz i grcenifli mica, ftriated cry ftals of black fchoerl,an4
ibmetimea fmall garnets.— (Med. Repos. PoL.^ $>. 303.)

76 ELEMENRABY INTRODUCTION

pailly in France ; near Meronitz and Billin in Bohemia j
they have also been found in the province of Forez in
France.

The value of these gems in jewellery is well known.
It is said that those of a light blue colour, rpay be divest-
ed of it by heating them in a charcoal crucible, without
injuring their other properties, and that they are then
often sold as diamonds.

Emery, though it bears very little resemblance to the
preceding, is, from its hardness and anal) sis, consider-
ed to be a variety of Corundum. It usually occurs in
masses of a blackish or bluish grey colour, having the
aspect rather of a fine grained rock, than of a simple
mineral.

It is found in the East Indies, enclosing whitish or
reddish talc, and small portions of magnetic iron. That
of Jersey resembles magnetic iron in mass, enclosing
white Mica. That of Smyrna is also micaceous ; and
encloses magnetic iron and sulphuret of iron. In the
isle of Naxos, emery is found in rounded masses at the
foot of primitive mountains. It occurs in Italy and in
Spain : but that of Ochsenkopf, near Swartzenberg in
Saxony, seems to be the only variety which has been
seen in its native place. It is disseminated in a bed of
hard steatite, of a yellowish grey or apple green colour,
mixed with common talc.

It is largely used for cutting and polishing by lapida-
ries, and by workers in glass, steel, &c.

FIBIIOLITE.

The Fibrolite is white, or of a dirty grey colour : it
is fibrous, and harder than quartz. The fibres are rarely
so large as to present any very determinate form ; but
the Count de Bournon observed some in that of a right
prism with rhombic bases, of which the angles are 100°
and 80°. The Fibrolite is infusible ; its specific gravity
is about 3.2 ; and it is composed of 58 of alumine and
38 of silex.

It is found accompanying crystals of corundum in the
Carnatic and in China. *

TO MINER ALOGi'. 77

ROTTENSTONE.

The Rottenstone is commonly considered as a variety
of Tripoli, from which it essentially differs in respect of
composition. It is found at Bake well in Derbyshire.
It is of a dirty reddish brown or nearly black colour,
yields to the nail, and is fetid when rubbed or scraped :
it is composed of 86 parts of alumine, 4 of silex, and 10
of carbon.

FINITE.*

The Finite is found generally in six-sided crystals,
sometimes modified, of a brown, blackish-brown or grey
colour : externally ks crystals are ochreous, and usually
give out an argillaceous smell when breathed on. The
Finite consits of about 74 of alumine, 29 of silex, and 7
of oxide of iron.

It was first discovered in granite, near Schneeberg in
Saxony, in the mine called Pini, whence its name : it
has since been found in the Puy de Dome in France, ift.
a porphyritic felspar : it also occurs at St. Michael's
Mount, in Cornwall, in granite veins 5 at Ben Gloe
and Blair-Gowrie in porphyry.

CYANlTE,f Or SAPPARE,

This mineral usually occurs in lamellar oblique prisms^
of a bluish or pearl-grey colour, having a pearly lustre :
it scratches glass when held in one direction, but yields
to glass in another direction : it becomes electric by
friction. Its specific gravity is about 3.5, and it con-
sists of about 55*5 per cent, of alumine, 43 of silex, and
0.5 of oxide of iron. It is infusible.

It is usually found in primitive rocks ; and occurs in
Scotland, at Bohan in BamTshire ; near Banchory in

* Pinite—At Haddam, in cryftals which are fomethnes feveral inches in
length, fituated in micaceous rocks.— (5/7/A»a«.) ' •

f Cyanite. Found in large lamellar maffes, at Chefterfield, Mass. (Hunt.)
and various other places, in Maryland, Pennfylvania, Connecticut and
Maincv

n o

.

78 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Aberdeenshire : and in the Mainland, the largest of tht
Shetland islands : it also occurs in the Tyrol ; in Siberia ;.
and near Lyons, in France, in granite, &tc.

DIASPORE.

The Diaspore is a rare mineral, having for its gangue
a ferruginous clay, but nothing is known of its geologi
cal situation. It is composed of a mass of slightly cur-
vilinear laminae of a pearly lustre, which may be readily
separated from each other. By exposure to the heat of
a candle, k crackles and flies off in minute fragments
with a brisk decrepitation : this is supposed to be owing
ko the water it contains. The Diaspore scratches glass :
it specific gravity is 3.43 ; and it consists of 80 per
Cent, of alumine, 0.3 of iron, and 17 of water. It is
Conjectured by some to be a variety of the Wavelite,

STAUROLITE.*

The Staurolite is of a greyish or reddish brown co-
iour, and occurs usually in rhomboidal or hexahedral
prisms, of which the terminal edges are sometimes re-
placed. Haliy has noticed seven varieties in the form
of its crystals, which commonly intersect each other at
right angles ; and he considers the primitive to be a
right rhomboidal prism of 129° 30' and 50° 30'. The
Staurolite is sometimes opake, sometimes translucent,
with a vitreous lustre ; of about the hardness of quart/.
and infusible. Its specific gravity is about 3.30 ; and it
*s composed of 52.25 of alumine, 27 ofsilex, 18.5 of
Oxide of iron, and 0.25 of oxide of manganese.

When of a reddish brown colour, and in the form of
four or six-sided prisms, it has sometimes, from its re-
6embling the garnet in colour, been called the Grenatite.

The Staurolite belongs to primitive countries. It has'

* Staurolite. The firft American Staurolitcs I faw, were from Vir-
ginia, having been found loofe on the ground of the upper country, where
they might be gathered by handfulk The cryftals crofled each other ob
fiquely.— (#wr-u>,.-//.j This mineral was brought from Maine.— (GoJon.]
Vine fpecimens have been received from Bowdoinhaci or its vicinity.
—(Cleveland.)

TO MINERALOGY. 79

been found in Brittany, near Quimper, in a micaceous
clay, considered to be the debris of a primitive rock : it
occurs also at St. Gothard, imbedded in micaceous
schistus ; and at St. Jago de Compostella in a primitive
rock, and is accompanied by the Cyanite.

AUTOMALITE.

The Automalite is by some considered to be a variety
of tbe Spinelle Ruby ; and as it contains a considerable
proportion of the oxide of zinc, it has obtained the name
of the Zinciferous Spinelle ; sometimes it is called the
Gahnite, in honour of Gahn, its discoverer. The spe-
cific gravity of the Automalite is 4.26 — 4,69 : it is there-
fore much heavier than the Spinelle Ruby, from which
it also differs in being nearly opake, and of a dark bluish-
green colour, as well as essentially in respect of compo-
sition : it consists according to Vauquelin of 42 parts of
alumine, 4 of silex, 28 of oxide of zinc, 5 of oxide of
iron, and 17 of sulphur. Some mineralogists have con-
cluded that the Automalite is the Pleonaste loaded
with sulphuret of zinc ; which amounts to an acknow-
ledgment that it is essentially a very different substance ;
and therefore it ought not to be considered, any more
than the Pleonaste, as a variety of the Spinelle Ruby.

It is found only at Fahlun in Sweden in a talcosed
rock.

CHRYSOBERYLL.

This substance occurs in rounded pieces> mas9iver
and crystallized ; it is of a green colour, sometimes
with a yellowish or brownish tinge, and occasionally
shows an opalescing bluish white light internally. The
general form of the crystals is prismatic ; the prisms are
terminated by a variable number of planes. It readily
becomes electric by fri«tion ; is infusible, semi-transpa-
rent, and scratches quartz. Its specific gravity is about
3.8. That of Brazil is composed of 71.5 per cent, of
alumine, 16 of silex, 6 of lime, and 1.5 of oxide of iron.
It is sometimes called the Oriental or Opalescent Chry*
solite.

SO ELEMENTARY INTKODUCTION

It is chiefly procured from Brazil, where it is found
accompanying topazes ; and has been noticed in sand
from Ceylon, together with rubies and saphires : a few
specimens have been brought from Nerbschinsk in Sibe-
ria. Its geological situation is not known.

SOMMITE.

The Sommite usually occurs in grains, or in small re«
gular hexahedral prisms (the form of the primitive crys-
tal,) of which the lateral edges are sometimes replaced.
It is of a greyish or greenish-white colour, with a shining
vitreous lustre, and scratches gtass. The Sommite con-
siderably resembles phosphate of lime, but may be dis-
tinguished by its superior hardness, and by its not giving
a phosphorescent light when placed on a live coal. Its
.specific gravitv is about 3.2 ; and it is composed of 49 of
alumine, 46 of silex, 2 of lime, and 1 of oxide of iron.

It has been found only in the cavities of the lava of
that part of Vesuvius called Mont Somma ; where it is
accompanied by mica and idocrase.

MfilONlTE.

This mineral, like the preceding,, has only been mei
with among the substances ejected by Vesuvius, in the
cavities of white granular limestone. It usually occurs
in four or eight-sided prisms, terminated by tetrahedral
pyramids. Haiiy notices three varieties in the form of
its crystals, of which he considers the primitive to be a
right prism with square bases : its colour is whitish, or
greyish white, with a shining vitreous lustre, and it is
translucent or transparent. Its specific gravity is 3.1.

PLEONASTE,

:,""'V:i," ' J

The Pleonaste is comraoflly considered to be a vari-
ety of the Spinelle Ruby ; but it is less hard, and a little
heavier, and differs from it greatly in colour and in com-
position. Its specific gravity is about 3.8 ; and it is com-
fosedof 72.25. of ulunaine, 5.48 of silex, 14.63 of mag-
nesia, and 4.26 of prot-Qxide. qf iron. Its general co-

TO MINERALOGY. 81

lours also differ from the Ruby : the Pleonaste appears
nearly black ; but when placed between ihe eye and the
light, it is translucent, and green or blue. Some have
been brought from Ceylon of a sky-blue, others of a yel-
lowish colour.

The Pleonasle principally agrees with the Spinelle
Ruby, in being chiefly composed of aiumine, and in ex-
ternal form ; both occur in the octohedron, which pas-
ses into the rhomboidal dodecahedron.

The geological situation of the Pleonaste differs for
the most part from that of the Spinelle Ruby. The
Pieonaste is found, accompanied by tourmalines, &c. in
the rivers and alluvial country of Ceylon. It has often
been found in the cavities of the lavas of Vesuvius, and
of Sornma. It is also met with in the volcanic rocks of
Somma, both calcareous and granitic ; and in those of
Laach, near Andernach, on the banks of the Rhine.——
Haliy seems to be of opinion that the latter, which is
commonly termed the blue Spinelle, should be consider-
ed as a variety of the Haiiyne.

LAZULITE.

This mineral is by Jameson called the Azurite, and
is perfectly distinct from Lapis Lazuli, which is not
satisfactorily ascertained ever to have been found in a
crystalline form ; whereas the Lazulite is often found in
quadrangular, though riot very perfect, crystals of a blue
colour; it is rarely massive, and then in fine grains, or
in masses not exceeding the size of a hazel nut ; it is
translucent on the edges, brittle, and nearly as hard as
quartz. It is composed of 68 per cent, of aiumine, 10
of silex, 2 of lime, 18 of magnesia, and 2.5 of oxide of
iron.

It occurs in Vorau in Siiria, in a gangue of quartz, in
a vein passing through micaceous schistus ; but the most
beautiful specimens are found in the bisLoprick of Salz-
burg.

82 ELEMENT AHY INTRODUCTION-

ANDALUSITE.

The Andalusite occurs in small masses of a reddish
or purplish colour, having a lamellar structure, with
natural joints parallel wilh the sides of a rectangular
prism ; it scratches quartz, and sometimes even the
Spindle Ruby. Its specific gravity is 3.16 ; and it is
composed of 52 of aluraine, 38 of silex, 3 of potash, and
2 of oxide of iron.

This mineral is, on the one hand, considered by some
to be a variety of felspar, which is very fusible ; but
the Andalusite is infusible : on the other hand, k is con-
sidered by others, probably from its hardness, as allied
to Corundum.

The Andalusite belongs to primitive countries. It
occurs in a vein of felspar traversing granite in Forez in
France : also in granite in Castelle in Spain ; in Aber-
deenshire in Scotland ; and in Dartmoor in Devonshire :
k has also been found in Douee Mountain, in the county
of Wicklow, and at Kiliiney in the county of Dublin, in
Ireland.

BLUE FELSPAR.

This mineral is by some considered to be a variety of
Felspar, from which it differs in respect of colour and of
composition ; also, it is less fusible and somewhat harder.
In most of these respects it likewise differs from the An-
dalusite, of which il has also been considered as a varie-
ty. It occurs massive ; its colour is pale blue or sky-
blue ; it has a lamellar structure, being divisable, though
with difficulty, into rectangular prisms ; and it is not
quite so hard as quartz. Its specific gravity is 3.06 ;
and it is composed of 71 of alumine, 14 of silex, 3 of
magnesia, 3 of lime, 0.25 of potash, 0.75 of oxide of
iron, and 5 of water.

Hitherto it has only been found at Krieglach in Styris,
forming part of a rock, consisting likewise of quartz, and
mica, or talc*

TO MINERALOGY. S3

WAVELL1TE.

This mineral is most commonly to be observed in
small fibres, occasionally in six-sided prisms, diverging
from a common center ; it is said also to have occurred
in small octohedrons either perfect, or having the apices
replaced. The VVavellite, when fibrous, has a silky
lustre ; when crystallized, a vitreous lustre ; it is tran-
slucent : its colour is various ; white, or greyish, green-
ish or bluish-white : it is harder than calcareous spar ;
its specific gravity is about 2.4 ; that from Barnstaple is
composed of 71.3 of alumine, 0.5 of oxide of iron, and
28 of acidulous water, which, as it corrodes glass, by
the application of heat is supposed to contain a slight
portion of fluoric acid : from its being chiefly composed
of water and argil, it is sometimes termed the Hydrar-
gillite. — The Wavellite of Brazil contains about 4 per
cent, of silex.

It was first discovered by Ur. Wavel in small veins
and in cavities of a tender argillaceous schistus, near
Barnstaple in Devonshire ; it has been since found at
Steiana Gwyn, in Cornwall : on a specimen in my pos-
session from the latter place, of which the gangue is
quartz, VVavellite is accompanied by small crystals of
Uranium of a bright yellow colour : it has also been
found near Cork in Ireland ; and has been brought from
Brazil by M. Mawe, in the form of stalactites.

TOPAZ.

The Topaz is found only crystallized : its general
form is prismatic, and it is variously and dissimilarly ter-
minated : the prism is usually striated longitudinally,
and modified. It is sometimes limpid, and nearly tran-
sparent, or of shades of yellow, green, lilac, and red,
and translucent. It mostly becomes electric by beat,
with polarity ; it exhibits a double refraction : its speci-
fic gravity is 3.5 ; the white Brazilian topaz consists of
50 per cent, of alumine, 29 of silex, and 19 of fluoric
aeid : those of a yellow colour occasionally yield a small

84 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

portion of oxide of iron. The topaz of Saxony con-
sists of moje silex and alumine, and less fluoric acid.

The pale greenish and almost transparent topaz of
Siberia becomes electric by being heated, not by being
rubbed : the Saxon Topazes, of a pale yellow colour,
become electric by friction, not by heat ; but lose their
colour by being subjected to fire ; the deep yellow To-
pazes of Brazil, become electric by heat, and red by
being placed in the fire. Haiiy now considers the pri-
mitive crystal of the Topaz to be a rectangular octohe-
dron of 82.° 2' and J22.° 42'; but these admeasure-
ments are not corroborated by the reflecting goniome-
ter. The crystals in my possession exhibit 37 varieties
of form : many of them are from Cornwall

The Topaz is found almost exclusively in primitive
countries of the oldest formation ; chiefly in tin veins
traversing granite ; in which it is sometimes found im-
bedded.

It occurs in the tin veins of Schlackenwald in Bohe-
mia, and occasionally in those of Cornwall, accompany-
ing tin, fluate of lime, and mispickel. The Topazes of
Cornwall are mostly small, colourless, sometimes tran-
parent, sometimes opake and nearly milk white : they
occur in the mines in St. Agnes, and in veins in the gra-
nite of St. Michael's mount, and are frequently accom-
panied by phosphate of lime and quartz. In the valley
of Danneberg in Saxony, the Topaz is imbedded in a
rock together with quartz, black schorl, mica, and litho-
marga, forming an aggregate which has obtained the
name of the Topaz Rock. In the Uralian mountains,
Topazes are found in graphic granite : in Brazil, they
occur imbedded in an argillaceous earth, resulting, as it
is believed, from the decomposition of primitive rocks.

Pyrophysalite is considered to be a variety of the To-
paz ; it is of a greenish white colour, and not quite so
hard as quartz ; by heat it gives out a greenish phospho-
ric light. It is found at Fahlun in Sweden in round
masses, in a granite composed of white quartz, of fel-
spar, and silvery white mica ; from which these masses
are separated by talc of a greenish yellow colour : it is
composed of about 54? alumine, 34 silex, and 10 fluoric
acid.

:--•-

TO MINERALOGY. 85

PYCNITE, OR SCHORLACEOUS BERYL,

The Pycnite is only found in six-sided prisms which
are deeply striated longitudinally, and are composed of
minute parallel prisms, to which the longitudinal striae
may be owing. It is usually of a dull yellowish or red-
dish white colour, and translucent ; it may be readily
broken across the prism : it scratches quartz : its speci-
fic gravity is 3.5 ; and it is composed, according to Van*
quelin, of 60 per cent, of alumine, 30 of silex, 2 of lime,
6 of fluoric acid, and 1 water.

It is found entering into the composition of a rock,
chiefly consisting of quartz and mica, at Altenberg in
Saxony : it is said also to have been met with in Bava-
ria.

SPINELLE RUBY.

The Spinelle Ruby is usually found crystallized,
cither in the form of its primitive, the regular octohe-
dron, or its variety, an acute rhomboid, or having the
edges of the octohedron replaced ; and occasionally in
macles presenting alternate re-entering angles. It is of
various shades of red, violet, or yellow ; more rarely
black. It scratches quartz easily, but is not so hard as
oriental ruby, from which it is readily distinguished both
by its colour and crystallization. It is infusible : its spa*
cific gravity is 3.7 ; and it consists of 84.47 alumine,
8.78 magnesia, 6.18 of chromic acid ; to the latter its
colour is supposed to be owing.

Like the greater number of the gems, the geological
situation of the Spinelle Ruby is not accurately known.

It sometimes occurs with saphires and oriental rubies
in the sand of rivers: it is found in the sand of the rivers
f>f Ceylon. It has been met with in India in a lamellar
carbonate of lime, enclosing red mica, sulphuret of iron,
and phosphated lime ; also in a substance greatly resem-
bling adularia.

The scarlet coloured is properly termed the Spinelle
Ruby : the rose red, the Balas Ruby : the yellow, or

H

98 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

orange red, the Rubicelle ; the violet coloured, the
Almandine Ruby.

The pleonaste and automalite are usually considered
to be varieties of the Spinelle Ruby, but they differ
essentially in respect of composition.

SUBSULPHATE OF ALUMINE.

This mineral has been found in two places : it is said
to have occurred in others.

It was first discovered in the neighbourhood of Halle
in Saxony, in small masses, immediately under the soil,
accompanied by foliated gypsum and selenite. These
aaasses are snow white, or yellowish white and opake.
adhere slightly to the tongue and yield to the nail ; they
are very meagre to the touch, light and infusible. By
the aid of a glass, they appear to consist of a multitude
of transparent, prismatic crystals.

This mineral has by some mineralogists been con-
sidered as an artificial production : a suspicion arising
from the proximity of the place at which it is discovered
to the college of Halle. Jameson is of opinion that its
form is a sufficient proof of its being a natural production
and adds that there is no laboratory nearer to the spot
where it is found, than a quarter of a league.

The Subsulphate of Alumine has been since discovo
red by M. Webster in small masses, of a snow white colour
and opake, lying upon the chalk, and filling up a hollow
in it, at Newhaven in Sussex ; it has very much the
same characters as that found at Halle ; but is considered
to be purer.

ALUM.*

ALUM (of La Tolfa) consists of 49 per cent, of
sulphate of alumine, 7 of sulphate of potash, and 44 of
water; and is therefore improperly termed Sulphate

* Alum. Native Alum has been found in various places in the United
State*. It fometimes appears to follow the deconipofition of pyrites, and
at others to be formed without. Occafionally fmall quantities are gathered
j» a falme (bee, after the evaporation of the water in dry weather.

TO MINEKALOGY;

of JHumine. It crystallizes artificially in the regular
octohedron.

It seems scarcely decided whether Alum is or is not a
natural production, in so singular a manner is it enveloped
in the mineral substances which contain it, or from which
it is procured, or produced. From several of these it is
procured merely by their exposure to the operation of
the atmosphere upon them ; thus far, therefore, it may
be esteemed a natural production ; and as it is largely
met with in certain volcanic countries, it has an equal
claim with many other substances to be considered as a
mineral.

Alum is found in, or procured from, at least three
earthy substances of somewhat different external charac-
ters, which are described as alum earth, alum stone, and
alum slate.

Alum Earth is of a brownish black colour, occasionally
with a glimmering lustre, owing to the intermixture of
mica ; its fracture is earthy, somewhat inclining to slaty 5
and it is light, soft, and friable. It occurs, frequently,
in beds of great magnitude, in alluvial land, and some-
times in the floetz-trap formation ; and is met with ia
Bohemia, Saxony, Austria, Naples, Hungary, and in the
Vivarais in France.

Alum is procured by lixiviation from alum earth,
which seems to be considerably bituminous, and has a
strong resemblance to bituminized wood ; when left
exposed to a moist atmosphere, it becomes warm, and
at length takes fire : occasionally, it is used as fuel.

Alum stone is greyish, or yellowish white, of various
shades : it occurs in considerable masses which are
translucent at the edges, somewhat hard and brittle ; it
adheres slightly to the tongue, and gives out an*
argillaceous odour when breathed on.

It is met with only at La Tolfa, in the states of the
church, in Tuscany, and in Upper Hungary : at La Tolfa
the alum-stone is found in large strata, and in large mas-
ses, among compact iron-shot argillaceous limestone,
and is mixed with lithomarga, fluor, and calcareous
spar ; and penetrated by veins of quartz. In Hungary,
pyrites, native sulphur, and quartz, are often found dis-
persed through it. The pure Roman Alum is prepared
from it.

$8 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Alum-slate is of a greyish, bluish, brownish, or iron-
black colour, and sometimes irridescent on the surface :
its structure is slaty, and it is soft, brittle, and has a mea-
gre feel ; by exposure to weather, it falls to pieces, and
is covered by an efflorescence, often somewhat bitumi-
nous. By one analysis, it consists of alumine 44, sulphu-
ric acid 25, silex 24, potash 3, water 4. It is found in
round masses, in beds and strata, more rarely in veins,
in the newer argillaceous schistus, and also in transition
mountains. It occurs in Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary,
France ; also in the valley of the lead hills in Scotland,
in the mountains near Moffat, and in the transition rocks
of the south of Scotland. At Whitby, in Yorkshire.
there are very extensive alum works ; but the nature
of the earth or rock from which the Alum is procured,
or its geological situation, has not been accurately des-
cribed.

Alum can only be procured from alum-slate by burn-
ing it.

Alum is rarely found massirc ; that which is met with
in the island of Melo, most nearly approaches to this
character ; if taken away, it shortly appears again,
whence it is supposed to be merely close aggregations
of efflorescences. The mines of Melo are volcanic;
there are also other volcanic mines, as of Latera, near
Bolsena, in Italy, also at 'Solfaterra : those of Tolfa,
above-mentioned, are likewise by some considered to
be volcanic, while others assert that the beds of La
Tolfa may be traced to the Apennines. Mines of Alum,
in volcanic countries, are situated in whitish or reddish
friable lavas.

Alum is likewise found in the waters of a few springs
as of those of Stikkenitz in Bohemia, and of some in
Hungary.

CRYOLITE.

Of this rare mineral, which has only been brought
from Greenland, the Geological history is not known.
It occurs massive, white, or greyish white, and occasion-
ally brown, from an admixture of iron, and may be frao

TO MINERALOGY, 89

tared into rectangular parallelepipeds : it is not so hard
as fluor spar, and is translucent ; but by immersion in
*»yater, it becomes transparent. The name of Cryolite
was given on account of its easy fusibility ; it fuses, and
becomes liquid before the blow pipe : and even in the
Oame of a candle. Its specific gravity is 2.94 ; and it
consists of 21 of alurfline, 32 of soda, and 47 of fluoric
acid and water.

LIME.

LIME has never been found pure ; when BO prepared-
by the chemist, it is white, moderately hard, of a hot
acrid taste, and infusible except by voltaic electrity.

It is not a simple or elementary body ; but a com-
pound, consisting of oxygen united with a base which
possesses the colour and lustre of silver ; but which Sir
H. Davy has not hitherto been able to examine : he
considers it to be a metal, and has denominated it Co/-
dum. Berzelius estimates Lime to consist of about 28
per cent, of oxygen, and 72 per cent, of calcium*

Lime is obtained- artificially, by heating the various
species of carbonates, till the carbonic acid is driven off;
hence the lime obtained for cements and agricultural
purposes. For nice chemical purposes, it is procured
in a purer state, by subjecting to a red heat, for some
iTours, either the white Carrara statuary marble, er
oyster shells ; the outer coat being first taken off. From
the former, lime is obtained which is mixed only with
small portions of silex, and sometimes with an atom of
iron ; the lime procured from the latter, contains only
a little phosphate of lime. These impurities are after-
wards got rid of, by chemical processes.

Lime enters into the composition of a considerable
number of earthy or stony minerals, but is not found in
any earthy compound in the proportion of 50 per cent
except when mineralized by an acid ; thus combined,
it is found in so great abundance, that some geologists
have estimated that it enters into the composition of
£he crust of the globe, in the proportion of one-eighftfc.
t>f the whole. - H 21

80 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Lime, and its natural compounds, generally speaking
are of infinite importance and utility ; in which respecte
they are inferior to no other mineral substances, but
may, on the contrary, be estimated as superior to all.
^ Lime is found mineralized by the carbonic, phospho-
ric, fluoric, sulphuric, nitric, boracic, and arsenic acids ^
forming carbonate, phosphate, fluate, sulphate, nitrate,
borate, and arseniate of Lime ; these compounds, in
common with all other natural combinations of earths
with acids, are, by some mineralogists, termed Earth/

CARBONATE OF LIME.

The numerous minerals comprehended under the
term Carbonate of Lime, differ greatly in exterior cha
cacters. Scarcely more can be said of them in the
general, than that they all readily yield to the knife, and
-^pat their specific gravity is below 3. Carbonate oi*
_^fnfi occurs crystallized, fibrous, foliated, granular, com-
jpact, and earthy. When crystallized, it is termed
Ualeareous Spar, from the Latin, calx, lime; when
granular or compact, limestone.

Calcareous Spar- is often extremely pure carbonate of
time, and is frequently very transparent, when it is strong-

* Rhombic Calcareous Spar fills the veins of fchistic rock, at Battenkir
and that vicinity, in Waftungton co. N. Y. where it is probably primitive,
f Primitive carbonate of lime forms a ftratum reaching from Sunderlanu
tn Vermont, through the weftern border of Maffachufetts, almoft to Nev.
¥ork city. Of thefe, the magnificent City Hall, in New- York, i3 built,
from fome of the quarries, or rather layers, it is of that open and granu-
lar conftitution which enables it to be bent, making thereby elaftic marble.
There is a flab of it in New- York, about 6 feet long by 3 broad, and be*
tween a and 3 inches thick, which can be bent to a meafurable curve.—
ft may be fljafcen backward and forward at the middle, while the two «-
ttemities are faft. It imbibes water readily ; and when this water freezes,
tfeeice ftiffens the ftone, and impairs, to a confiderable degree, its elafticity^

The Marble of Singfing and of Weft-Farms, in Weftchefter county, h
alto a primitive rock, and is mixed with fo much file* that it is hard to work
and to polifh.

The Ifland of New- York, near Kingsbridge, affords a compact marble,
«iat is now employed in architecture. It is white and granular, and fro
quentlf gives fire under the ftroke of the hammer. In fome places, it i*
penetrated by brilliant pyrites. In fome fpots, the grains are as large as the
-particles of coarfc fait, and they fall afunder fponuneoufly, or with the
gentlcft motion. Some of die ftrata of the quarries afford excellent quick

The extenfive ftrata of Lime-ftone beginning in Poughkeepfie, and
ipeuetrated by the Hudfpn at Barnegat, nerth of Newburgb, afford great
fluanutica of- excellent lime ; and may be ranked as of tranfitioa formation^

TO MINERALOGY. 91

}y double refractive. Its colours are very various, and it
is found crystallized in upwards of 300 varieties of formr
all originating from an obtuse rhomboid of 105° 5' and
74° 55' ; this rhomboidal may be readily obtained by
cleavage ; and the brilliant surfaces of the fragments
are well adapted to the use of the reflecting goniometer.
It is not often found in the forra of its primitive
crystal, which nevertheless has been met with in several
parts of England. It is extremely subject to that species
of cr)7stallization which is known by the term macle, or,
according to Haiiy, heraitrope. Calcareous spar is not

Secondary Lim:stane is a calcareous carbonate of very great extent in the
Fredonian States. It occupies great fpace in the vallies extending from
north-east to fouth-west from New- York to Alabama : and it conftitutes
vaft and wide extended layers on the north-weft of the great dividing
Ridges, from Canada to Louisiana. It is fomethnes excavated in caverns
of great fize, as in the Helleberg weft of Albany ; as at the fouth of the
Kaat&kill near Efopus ; a* in the valley of the Shenandoah, Virginia, and
above all near the green river, in Kentucky. Perhaps this lacter is 'the
rnoft cxteniive in the known world. It is figured and delcribed in Med.
Repos. Vol. 17. p. 393.

Stalactites abound in thefe fubterranean recefics, and are often exceed-
ingly large and beautiful.

The remains of marine animals', fuch as {bell-fiih, or teftaccous mollua-
cas, abound in thefe rocks, proving inconteftibly the former dominion o£
fait water, over thefe extenfive regions before the iincient barriers gave
way and shrunk the ancient fea of the interior to the comparatively di*
minutive lakes. On the fubfidence of the fait water, the land to a greai
extent, was laid bare, and the lakes gradually changed to frefh water.
The facts and reafoning in favour of this opinion, too long for infertion
here, may be feen in my Memoir on the Geology of North America,
published at New- York in 1818.

Many beautiful marbles are found in our country. The quarries
of Bennington and its vicinity in^ Vermont ; of Stockbridge and its
neighbourhood in Maflachufetts ; of Kinglbrklge and its contiguity ia
New York ; of Norriftown, and the adjacent region in Pennfylvania ; of
1-Yedericktovvn and the bordering region in Pvlaryland ; and of Milfordin
Connecticut ; are among thofe which furnifh marble of various and
elegant qualities for the architect.

The breccia of which the pillars of the Capital at Wafiiington, are
now preparing, pofleffes a character as worthy of the eye of the minera-
logiit, as of the connoiffeur. It is an aggregate of fmall calcareous water-
worn ftones, of ail lhapes and colours, conglutinated by a calcareous ce-
ment into a rock of perfect folidity. From thefe maffive layers the ma-
terial is broken up in any fhape and fize that is required. It is as varie-
gated and elegant as any breccia that Italy, Sicily, or any other place
affords.

Some of the Calcareous Carbonates, that abound in fhells, have been
worked into Lumacbella Marble*. The variety of animal rclicks that,
fome of them contain, is very remarkable, as in that found at Coeyman's
Patent, in Albany County. JBat few or none of tbxm hith£rt

cfcJ ELEMESf-ABV

Sp hard as fluor spar : its specific gravity is 2.7 : it con-
sists of 57 per cent, of lime, and 43 of carbonic acid.
That of Iceland, which is considered to be the purest
form of carbonate of lime, is transparent, and double
refractive in a high degree. It is familiarly termed Ice-
land Spar, or Double refracting spar. Some varieties of
calcareous spar, especially those from Derbyshire, be-
come phosphorescent when laid on a hot coal.

It occurs in veins in almost every kind of roek, from
the oldest, to the newest alluvial strata, and accom-
panies, or constitutes the gangue of a great variety of
minerals; and sometimes it appears in strata, between
the beds of calcareous mountains. It is so generally
distributed, that it would be impossible to give a list of
its localities. The rarest and most beautiful crystals
are found in the northern parts of England ; from which
were obtained a very considerable number of the vast
variety described by the Count de Bournon.

Stalactitic carbonated lime, the Calc singer of Jame-
son, is of various colours : the most common of which
b yellowish white. Stalactites are deposited from water
loaded with particles of carbonated lime, in the hollow
places and caverns of mountains : the water, finding its
*vay into these caverns through crevices in the roof, be-
comes exposed to the air; evaporation ensues, causing
particles of lime to precipitate. These stalactites are
sometimes solid, Laving a lamellar structure ; but some-
times are of a fibrous texture, radiating from the centra
to the circumference, as may be observed when they arc

curious and Intcrcfting as they are to the. Geologift, are capable of the
iplendid polifli which fits them for the nice purposes of building. In time,
it may be expected that fuch will be found.

Fetid Lime {lone abounds in the United States* It conftitutes very
extensive ifcrata. The falls of Niagara roll over it. Madrepores, orthd
cerites, anomias, oyfters and pectens, are frequently found in it, as is a
Ifcrt of black flint or hornftone.

I have fpecimens of a coarfe chalk from the neighbourhood of St. Ste-
phens, on the Tombigbee River. Bivalve fhells and fca-nrchins, of feveral
ipecies, are feen in their ftajres of converfion into lime-ftone, marie and
&alk.

Calcareous marie is formed from marine fhells, in the bays and coves on
the fouth-fide of Long Ifland ; and from frefh-water mollufcas in the
Boles and poncfc of Orange and IMer Counties, adjacent to tile
ork.

TO MINERALOGY. 93

broken. The precise mode of their formation does not
seem to be understood ; some are extremely thin tubes,
which has caused the suspicion that, at least some of
those which are solid, are filled within ; some increase
externally, and are covered by minute crystals, or are
terminated in a manner somewhat resembling a mush-
room.

Stalactites are sometimes of prodigious dimensions,
and very numerous ; of which the grotto of Antiparos,
inlhe Archipelago ; the Woodman's Cave, in the Hartz j
the Cavern of Castleton, and other caverns in Derby-
shire, and that of Auxelle in France, are remarkable
instances.

Some caverns have been entirely filled with calcareous
Stalactite, so that it is occasionally obtained in large
masses ; in this state it is called Oriental Alabaster, and
is much used in statuary and in the formation of vases : it
was greatly employed by the ancients. That which was
brought from the mountains of Thebais, situated in
Egypt, between the Nile and the Red Sea, from near
a village called Alabastron, was much prized : a nearly
collossal figure of an Egyptian idol, formed of this ala-
baster, was in the museum (ci-devant Napoleon) at
Paris.

Stalactites are not always very pendulous; sometimes
they are of a botryoidal form. The flat or tabular por-
tions formed on the floors of caverns, by deposition
from the water dropping from the roof, are called Sta-
lagmites.

Fibrous Carbonate of lime, familiarly, from its cha-
toyant lustre, termed Satin Spar, is composed of fine
parallel fibres. It occurs near Alston- rnoor, in the north
of England, in strata from one to four inches thick, ac-
companied by veins of pyrites, in a brown schist. It
is susceptible of a fine polish, and is employed in inlay-
ing, and in the manufacture of necklaces in imitation of
pearl. Fibrous carbonate of lime is also found at Ber-
gere in France.

Schiefer Spar, the Slate spar of Jameson, occurs mas-
sive, having a straight, or undulated foliated structure ;
it is white, with a remarkably pearly lustre, and trans-
lucent.

&i ELEMEJSTABY INTRODUCTION

It is considered to belong to primitive countries. Pt
is generally found in chlorite, with sulphutre of zine
and of lead. It occurs hi the Vosges, near St. Marie
aux Mines ; at Bermsgriin, near Schwartzenberg in Sax-
ony ; at Kongsberg in Norway, &c. It was also found
in a tin vein traversing argillaceous schistus in Polgooth
mine in Cornwall, accompanied by tin and chlorite ;
sometimes it passed into lamellar and nearly transparent
carbonate of lime.

*%pkrite. This mineral is only found in a friable state,,
and consists of white scales of a shining pearly lustre,
and very soft to the touch. It is termed by Werner,
Schaumerde (Earth-foam) and is by him considered to
be nearly allied to Schieffer spar : it is usually found in
calcareous rocks.

It occurs at Gera in Misnia, and more abundantly at
Eisleben in Thuringia, in mountains consisting of strati-
form limestone.

Agaric Mineral is of a white colour, or yellowish or
greyish white ; and is soft, very tender, opake, and is
so light as to float for a short time on water. It is con-
sidered to be nearly pure carbonate of lime. It is found
in the beds and crevices of calcareous rocks in Switzer-
land, where it is employed to whiten houses. It is also
found near Ratisbon ; likewise at Sunderland in the
county of Durham.

Granular Limestone is massive, and composed of small
grains which are of a lamellar texture and brilliant lustre ;
but as these grains intersect each other in every direc-
tion, the lustre of the mass is only glimmering. It is of
various colours ; the whitest and most esteemed, from its
resemblance to sugar, has been termed by the French
mineralogists, chaux carbonatee saccbaro'i'de ; but it
has more generally, from its important uses in the arts,
obtained the name of Statuary Marble. Granular lime- •
stone is also called Primitive Limestone ; the largest
grained is generally esteemed to be of the oldest for-
mation. Its colour varies from white, through various*
shades of yellow, green, grey, blue, red, almost to
black ; and it is sometimes clouded, spotted, or veined ::
it is translucent at the edges, and is very brittle. It ne-
ver encloses the remaios of organized bodies, but fre-i

TO MINERALOGY. 95

cment]y contains certain other substances dispersed
through its masses ; as quartz, garnets, mica, hornblende,
talc, actinolite, asbestus, sulphuret of zinc and of lead,
magnetic iron, &c.

Granular limestone is found in many, if not most pri
rnitive countries ; it sometimes forms entire mountains,
but more often occurs in beds. It is considered to be
of contemporaneous formation with gneiss, porphyry,
argillaceous and micaceous schistus, with which it fre-
quently alternates. In the Alps, and especially the Py-
renees, examples of this are of frequent occurrence.
In the peak, on the south of Bagnere, in the Pyrenees,
vertical beds of granular limestone alternate \vith beds
of granite.

The most celebrated statuary marble was found in the
island of Paros, thence termed Parian marble ; the
marbles of Naxos and Tenos, were also called by the
same name, being both almost equally valuable for the
purposes of the statuary ; the quarries of those islands
are said to be quite exhausted. Parian marble is white,
large grained, and considerably translucent ; it was call-
ed by the ancients Lichnites. The celebrated statues of
the Venus de Medicis, of the Venus Capitolini, of
the Pallas de Velletri, and many others, are of this
marble. The statutary marble called by the ancients
Marmor Pentilicus, was taken from quarries on a moun-
tain called Pentelicus, near Athens : it is traversed by
greenish or greyish veins, which are commonly micace-
ous. Of this marble, the head of Alexander, the Indian
Bacchus, the statue of Esculapius, the head of Hippo-
crates, &c. were made. The marble of Carrara or of
Luni, is of a much finer grain, and closer texture, than
the foregoing ; and is now usually employed by statua-
ries : the quarries of this marble are on the eastern coast
of the gulph of Genoa. Among many other celebrated
statues made of this marble, are the Antinous of the
Capitol ; a colossal bust of Jupiter, &c. : and Dolomieu
is of opinion that the Apollo Belvidere is of Carrara
marble, but the marble- merchants of Rome consider it
to be of an ancient Greek marble, differing from any
now known. Dr. Clarke remarks, that the Carrara mar-
ble is milk white, and less crystalline than the Parian ;
that the Parian is whiter and tesa crvstajized than the

96 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Naxian ; and further, that while the works executed in
the Parian marble retain, with all the delicate softness
of wax, the mild lustre of their original polish, those
which were finished in the Pentelican marble have been
decomposed ; and sometimes exhibit a surface as earthy
and as rude as common limestone, owing to the veins
of extraneous substances which intersect the Pentelic
quarries. Statuary marble was anciently brought also
from many other places besides those abovementioned :
it is now found in Saxony, Bohemia, Norway, Sweden,
England, France, &c.

Of marbles, there is an almost endless variety. Those
most esteemed for ornamental purposes, as for chim-
ney pieces, &:c. are brought from Spain, and the Pyre-
nees, and from Italy. The environs of Verona are
quarried in every direction. Many marbles consist al-
most entirely of shells ; it is to be regretted that no pre-
cise account is to be found of the many beautiful varie-
ties abounding in almost every country. Those of our
own country are scarcely noticed beyond the limits of
the districts in which they occur, although many varie-
ties are admirably adapted to ornamental purposes.

In Derbyshire there are two quarries of marble of a
deep uniform black colour and without shells ; one of
them is situated at Hadderi, the other at Ashford, and
both are near Hakeweli ; the former belongs to the duke
of Rutland, the latter to the duke of Devonshire ; both
the marbles are largely employed for the purposes of
chimney pieces and ornaments, of which the, manufac-
tory is carried on by Brown &z Co. at Derby ; who have
fixed up in their ware-rooms a large slab to be used as a
looking-glass; of so high a polish are those marbles sus-
ceptible.

Near the Peak in Derbyshire, a marble is quarried,
which consists almost entirely of fossil shells, chiefly of
entrochi ; this marble is used for chimney pieces.

At Wetton, near Asbbourn, in the same county, a
beautiful variety of marble is quarried, which is of a
greyish black colour, and contains a vast number of very
minute shells of a whitish colour, giving to the mass very
much the appearance of porphyry. This is used for the
f?ame purposes as the black marbles above mentioned.

TO MINEEALOGT. 97

Near Kendall in Westmoreland some varieties of
'black and grey marbles are quarried ; which have some
resemblance to some of the Derbyshire marbles, and
are employed for the same purposes.

At Babbicombe in Torbay, in Devonshire, is quar-
ried one of the most beautiful marbles in existence ; its
colours vary from a light brown to a deep red, which
are finely variegated. This marble is extensively ma-
nufactured into chimney pieces in the west of England ;
an attempt was lately made to introduce this beautiful
marble in London ; but the marble not being foreign,
it failed of success.

In Durham, Buckinghamshire, and other counties of
England, other marbles of less note are quarried.

At Kilkenny in Ireland, a marble is found of a fine
black, enclosing shells of a whitish colour, which, when
the marble is cut and polished, exhibit segments of cir-
cles. This marble is much used for chimney pieces and
ornaments.

Two or three varieties of marble commonly found in
mineralogical collections, deserve a slight notice, though
somewhat out of place.

The Verd Antique consists of carbonate of lime im-
bedded in green serpentine : its geological situation is
not known.

For Ruin marble, see Index.

The Lamachelli marble exhibits beautiful irridescent
colours, which are sometimes prismatic internally, but
more commonly of various shades of red or orange,
whence it has also obtained the name of Fire marble. —
It is found in veins at Bleyberg in Carinthia. Its co-
lours are attributed to the shells of a variety of nautilus.

The Cottam marble, found near Bristol, which exhi-
bits when cut and polished, the appearance of a land-
scape, consists of carbonate of lime mixed with a large
proportion of argillaceous matter.

Common, or Compact, Limestone is in great degie«
allied to marble ; it is fine grained, solid, and generally
susceptible of a polish, which, as well as its colour, is
duller than that of marble. Its fracture is earthy, or
flat conchoidal ; more rarely splintery. Its colours are
various ; yellowish-white, grey, brown, reddish, er blu-

I

98 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

ish, of different shades. Two or more of these colours
often occur in veins, zones, bands, &tc. : it frequently
exhibits appearances of arborizations. It is translucent
on the edges, hard, and brittle. Its specific gravity is
2.6. Compact limestone usually contains small and va-
riable proportions of silex, alumine, of the oxides of
iron and manganese, and sometimes of inflammable
matter.

Some varieties of compact limestone, and of marble,
properly so called, or granular limestone, are not often
found enclosing organic remains ; these are therefore
considered to be of early formation. Werner considers
marble as a transition rock, compact limestone, as a
floetz rock ; their age is characterized by the fossils they
contain : the older contain ammonites, belemnites, gry-
phites, &c. ; the newer, abundance of such marine shells
as are now found in the sea, and the remains of fish. —
Both these rocks are found in thick beds parallel with
each other, though rarely horizontal ; more frequently,
nearly vertical. They are found together, forming a
chain of stratified mountains, in the Pyrenees, above
10,000 feet in height. The summits of these mountains
are rarely pointed, being mostly flat and of considerable
breadth, with very steep sides, to a prodigious height.
These appearances are remarkable on the edge of the
Alpine, and in the centre of the Pyrenean chain, espe-
cially near Grenoble. Compact or granular limestone,
encloses beds or masses of red oxide of iron, of sulphu-
ret of mercury, sulphuret and molybdate of lead, manga-
,nese, oxide and sulphuret of zinc, &c. These metals
'are also found in veins passing through these rocks, to*
gether with lamellar carbonate of lime, iron pyrites,
malachite copper, &c. Garnets and steatite are occa-
sionally, though rarely, found disseminated in these
rocks. Brongniart mentions having seen flint imbedded
in compact limestone, near Bakewell in Derbyshire. %

The uses of compact limestone for building, paving.
&c. and when deprived of its carbonic acid, for cements
and the purposes of agriculture, are well known.

The houses of Paris are built of a large grained and
soft calcareous stone, which is incapable of polish, and
is of a dingy white, grey, or yellowish white colour* It

TO MINERALOGY. 99

is found in immense horizontal beds, forming the plains
south of Paris. It is a very impure limestone, and fur-
nishes, when calcined, a very bad lime. The use to
which it is put, has occasioned its receiving the familiar
name of Pierre « b&tir. Haiiy describes it under that of
Chaux carbonate grossiere. Its geological situation is
between chalk and gypsum ; it is above the chalk, from
which it is separated only by a bluish plastic clay, as
may be seen at Meudon. This variety is said to be al-
most peculiar to France.

Swinestone, or Stinkstone, so called from the strong
fetid odour given out when scraped or rubbed, is found
massive and compact, and of various shades of grey,
brown, and black. By calcination it becomes white,
and burns into quick lime. The offensive odour which
it gives out when scraped, is considered to be owing to
its including sulphuretted hydrogen : it is commonly at-
tributed to bitumen, which does not seem to enter into
the composition of Swinestone.

The harder and more compact varieties, which receive
a good polish, are useu IH C:™™nfal architecture,

It is said to occur forming whole mountains; it fs
more commonly found alternating with strata of gypsum,
or of compact limestone. It occurs in Germany, France,
and most other countries : in Shropshire and Northum-
berland in our own : the Cliffs on each side the Avon
at Clifton near Bristol are in part or wholly composed
of it.

Bituminous Limestone is brown or black, which co-
lours are supposed to be owing to the bitumen it con-
tains : its structure is sometimes lamellar ; sometimes
compact, when it receives a good polish ; when rubbed
or heated it gives out an unpleasant bituminous odour ;
by the continuation of heat, it loses both colour and
odour, and burns into quick lime.

It belongs to secondary countries, and is sometimes
found in coal formations, as in Galway in Ireland, where
it is employed as a combustible. In Dalmatia it is so
bituminous that it may be cut like soap, and is employed
in the construction of houses ; when finished, they set
fire to the walls j the bitumen burns out, and the stone

100 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

becomes white ; the roof is then put on, and the house
afterwards completed.

Oolite, or Roe-stone, so denominated from the re-
semblance between the little round masses of which it is
composed, and the roe of a fish, is always found mas-
sive, and in beds, whose geological situation is between
sandstone, common limestone, and gypsum. The glo-
bular particles are sometimes composed of concentric
lamella>, and usually adhere by means of a calcareous
cement. The Roe-stone is very soft when first quar-
ried, but hardens by exposure to the air. Its colour is
whitish, yellowish white, or ash grey, depending, as it is
believed, on the quantity and quality of the argillaceous
matter with which it is usually combined. It is a very
impure carbonate of lime, and will not burn into quick-
lime.

The houses of Bath are for the most part built of this
mineral. The Ketton-stone, and, by some, the Port-
land-stone, is considered to be a variety of Roe-stone.
It is also found in Sweden; ?iv:tzcrhr.ii, almnuanily in
Thuringia in Saxony, and near Alengon in France.

It is sometimes used as a marl for agricultural purpo-
ses. It was heretofore supposed actually to consist ot*
the roes of fishes, petrified : the cause of its singular for-
mation is not understood. Daubenlon, Saussure, Spal-
lanzani, and others, suppose it to have originated in
small grains of carbonated lime, which received addi-
tional coatings by the movement of the waters which
contained it.

Pea-stone, or Pisolite, differs from the roe-stone both
in colour and structure ; it is generally white, and is
composed of round or spheroidal masses, from the size
of a pea to that of a hazel nut? imbedded in a calca-
reous cement : these masses always consist of concentric
lamella?, in the midst of which is uniformly found a grain
of sand. It is less abundant than the Roe-stone.

The waters of Carlsbad in Bohemia issue from the
beds of the Pea stone, which is found in the waters of the
brooks that supply the baths of St. Philip in Tuscany,
which suffer a whirling motion in their course. It also-
occurs in Hungary, and at Perscheesberg in Silesia,

TO

Madreporite is found in large, detached, roundish
masses, of a greyish brown, or greyish black colour,
and opake ; which are composed of cylindrical, prisma-
tic, parallel, or diverging concretions. Its name was gi-
ven from its structure and appearance. It consists of
93 per cent, of carbonate of lirne, together with small
portions of carbonate of magnesia and of iron, carbon,
and siliceous sand.

It occurs in detached masses in the valley of Rusbacb
in Saltzburgh. Some naturalists have supposed it to be
a real petrifaction, which has been doubted by others,
who are of opinion that its internal structure does not
warrant the conclusion.

Chalk is usually white, occasionally greyish or yellow-
ish white; it has an earthy fracture, is meagre to the
touch, and adheres to the tongue ; it is soft, light, and
always occurs massive. The purest consists or carbo-
nate of lime and water, but it more often contains va»
riable portions of alumine or silex.

It is one of the newer secondary rocks, and wherever
found is alway the prevailing substance, forming hills of
three or four hundred feet in elevation, which are re-
markable for the smooth regularity of their outline.
Chalk is far less abundant in nature than compact lime-
stone. The countries in which it is principally found,
are Poland, France and England ; most abundantly in
the latter, forming long continuous hills, in the direction
nearly of east and west, and separated by ranges of sand'
stone, and low tracts of gravel and clay.

Of Chalk there are two formations, the upper and the
lower; the latter is without flints ; the former, whatever
may be its elevation, is characterized by containing pa-
rallel and horizontal layers of flints. Chalk, likewise,
contains abundance of the remains of marine organic
oodles, and of amphibious and land animals.

The uses of Chalk are numerous : when compact it is
used for building ; it furnishes lime for cements and ma-
nure; it is employed in the polishing of metals and of
glass; by mechanics, as a marking material, and as
moulds to cast metals in ; by chemists and starch-makers.
to dry precipitates on, for which it is peculiarly quali-
fied by the facility with which it absorbs water. It is

10A. 'EJ.pIjp.£A£Y INTRODUCTION

the while of distemper painting, and, when washed and
purified, forms the substance termed whiting.

Marl. Of this substance there are many varieties :
some of them effervesce strongly with acids, and are
employed as manures : they vary much in respect of co-
lour, and are greyish or yellowish, bluish or reddish.
Marl, in the general, is massive, but falls to pieces by
exposure to the air, when it becomes plastic in water.

Calcareous marl, of an earthy texture, occurs in bed?
in secondary limestone, and often contains shells; it is
found in most calcareous countries ; occasionally in coal
formations. It is sometimes found of a slaty structure
and bituminous, when it is termed Bituminous Marl
Slate, or Marlite ; which occurs in beds with the oldest
flcetz limestone, intermixed with the ores of copper : in
Thuringia extensive works are employed in the smelting
of the copper it contains. It is remarkable that a large
number of fish of the same species, are also contained
in this substance in regular layers ; the bodies of which
are carbonized, or are converted into coal, and some-
times their scales are plated with copper ore ; but every
fish is in a contorted position, as though it had undergone
violent death by a sudden irruption or deposition of
sulphureous and metallic matter : accompanying the fish,
are found petrified plants, which appear to belong to the
genus, fucus.

Tufa is the most impure, the most irregular, and the
most porous of all the varieties or carbonate of lime. It
is light, cellular, and often incrasts other substances.
The various articles which, being placed in certain
springs, or waters, in Derbyshire, become covered by
an earthy substance, and which thereby acquire the ex-
ternal appearance of petrifactions, are in fact, only in-
crusted by a kind of Tufa. It is sometimes sufficiently
massive to be employed as a building stone.

It generally occurs in alluvial land, and is found both
in Essex and in Derbyshire.

ARRAGONITE.

The Arragonite, so called from its having been first
discovered at Arragon in Spain, is commonly found m

TO MINERALOGY. 103

six-sided crystals of a greyish, or greenish white, and of
various shades of brown ; sometimes of a brownish red
colour. The crystals, however, are not perfect prisms;
down the centre of each lateral plane, there generally
runs a seam, which is considered to be owing to the pe-
culiar construction of the crystal. The Count de Bour-
non considers this substance as a hard carbonate of lime ;
it readily scratches the common carbonate, and some-
times glass ; and he conceives that the six-sided prism
of the Arragonite is derived from the rhomboid, which
he imagines to be the common primitive crystal, of
Arragonite and the carbonate of lime ; but he shows
that the six-sided prisms of these substances cannot -be
derived in the same manner from the rhomboid, because
they cannot be cleaved in the same directions. Haiiy,
on the contrary, considers the primitive form of the crys-
tal to be a rectangular octohedron. The Arragonite is
sometimes seen in crystals, which appear to be elon-
gated octohedrons, crossing each other at right angle?.

Like the common carbonate of lime, the arragonite
possesses a double refractioii; but differs from it, in be-
ing somewhat heavier, of an imperfect lamellar struc-
ture, and considerably harder.

These circumstances are sufficient to render the ideiv
tity of Arragonite and common carbonate of lime doubt-
ful; nevertheless Vauquelin, Klaprotb, Chenevix, &c.
have not discovered any difference in their component
elements ; but Stromeyer by three analyses discovered
from 2 to 3 per cent, of strontain involved in its com-
position.

In Arragon, in Spain, it occurs disseminated in a fer-
ruginous clay, accompanied by sulphate of lime : at
Leogang, in Salzburg, in an argillaceous or a quartoze
rock, accompanied by calcareous spar, yellow copper*
and arsenical pyrites. It has also been found in the caj
vities of basalt near Glasgow. The greenish varieties
are brought from Marienberg in Saxony, and Sterzing
in the Tyrol. It is also met with at Bastan and Cau-
penne, in the lower Pyrenees.

The Arragonite is also found acicular ; either in slen-
der diverging, or in parallel fibres. It occurs in radiated
masses, terminated by crystals, in the fissures of a com-

104 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

pact basalt, at Vertaison, in the department of Allier,
in France.

The substance termed Flos Ferri, because it was
originally found in mines of spathose iron, is now consi-
dered to be a variety of Arragonite ; though for what
reason it is difficult to say, as it has never been analyzed.
It is usually of a snow while, and either in^small branches
which are strait, or bending in various directions, having
commonly an external silky lustre, arising probably from
the crystalline terminations of the minute fibres of which
it is composed ; these fibres radiate from the centre,
presenting, when the substance is broken, a brilliant
silky lustre.

The finest specimens are brought from the mines of
Eisen-ertz in Stiria : it occurs also at Schemnitz, at St.
Marie aux Mines, and in the mines of Baygorri and
Vicdessos in the Pyrenees. Small, but beautiful spe-
cimens have also been brought from Dufton in West-
moreland.

B1TTERSPAH.

Bitterspar is usually found in crystals in the form of
its primitive crystal, the rhomboid, which is so nearly
allied to that of the carbonate of lime, that it was con-
sidered to be the same, until Dr. Wollaston discovered
the difference by means of the reflecting goniometer.
Its angles are 106° 15' and 73e 45'. The colour of this
mineral is yellow, with a somewhat pearly lustre ; and it
is harder than carbonate of lime, is semi-transparent,
and very brittle. That from the Tyrol consists of 52
carbonate of lime, 45 carbonate of magnesia, and 3 of
oxide of iron and of manganese.

It is commonly imbedded in chlorite, steatite, or ser-
pentine ; and is found in the mountains of the Tyrol
and of Salzburg ; in that of Taberg in Sweden, and on
the borders of Loch Lomond in Scotland.

A variety found in compressed hexahedrons, or in
small masses of a light green colour, by Dr. Thompson,
at Miemo in Tuscany, thence called the Miemite, occurs
in the cavities of alasbaster. It consists of the same

TO MINEB&IOGT. 103

elements as the former variety, in about the same pro-
portions.

A variety in the form of somewhat oblique tetrahedral
prisms, was found at Gluckbrunn in the territory of Go-
tha. The proportions of the component elements dif«
fer from those of the preceding varieties.

B&OWN SPAR. PEARL SPAR.

The Brown Spar is of various shades of grey, brown ;
sometimes reddish brown. It occurs crystallized in va-
rieties of the rhomboid, which, as its primitive crystal,
differs somewhat from that of the carbonate of lime oi'
the bitterspar, as was discovered by Dr. Wollaston- by
means of the reflecting goniometer. Its angles are 107°
and 73°. The fracture of massive Brown Spar is curved-
foliated ; rarely perfectly lamellar : it is translucent on
the edges : it contains a very variable proportion of iron«
Some varieties greatly resemble spathose iron.

It is commonly found in veins, accompanied by
quartz, carbonate and fluate of lime, lead, zinc, iron,,
silver, &c. It occurs in the Pyrenees, Saxony, France,
Sweden, &c. At Ormes-head in Caernarvonshire, it
occurs in veins with copper and manganese, and very
abundantly in mass.

Pearl Spar is white, greyish or yellowish white, and
occurs in rhomboids usually with curvilinear faces ;
sometimes of a pearly lustre which is remarkably bril-
liant, from which it obtained its name : it occurs in near-
ly the same places and under the same circumstances,
as Brown Spar ; and is abundant in some of the mines
of the north of England. That of Sweden, consists of
29.97 of lime, 21.14 of magnesia, 44.8 of carbonic acid,
3.4 of iron, and 1.5 of manganese.

DOLOMITE.

: j '

The Dolomite mostly occurs massive, but is some-
times of a slaty texture ; it consists of fine grains, which
are lamellar ; the mass is generally white, occasionally
with a tinge of yellow or grey ; it is soft, yields to the
nail, is tFanslucent on the edges, and when struck, most*

106 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

••:.v.., +$&' ,..

}y emits a phosphorescent light, which is visible in the
dark. It greatly resembles primitive limestone, but is
much softer. That of the Apennines consists of 59 car-
bonate of lime and 40 carbonate of magnesia ; that of
St. Gothard contains some oxide of iron and of man-
ganese.

It occurs only in primitive mountains, in veins or beds,
accompanied by iron, zinc, orpimont, yellow copper,
mica, £c. To the intermixture of this latter substance
in Dolomite, its occasional slaty texture is owing. It is
found at Mont St. Gothard in the Alps ; and at Simplon
in the valley of Ranter ; and in large veins traversing
granite near Varallo, in the valley of Sesia : it also oc-
curs in Siberia.

MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE.*

The Magnesian limestone differs from common lime-
stone in its external characters, in having generally a
granular, sandy structure, a glimmering or glistening
lustre, and in being of a yellowish colour. It consists
of about 30 of lime, 21 of magnesia, 47 of carbonic acid,
1 of clay and oxide of iron.

It occurs iij strata -at Bredon hill near Derby ; at
Mallock in the same county. A great range of hills ex-
tending from Nottingham to Sunderland, overlaying the
coal, are entirely composed of it ; it forms beds in the
Mendip hills in Somersetshire ; it occurs at Ballyshan-
non in Ireland, and at Houth, near Dublin. The Min-
ater and city walls of York are built of magnesian lime-
stone ; sometimes, though rarely, it contains shells, &c.

The lime obtained from it is greatly esteemed for ce-
ments, being less subject to decay, owing to its absorb-
ing less carbonic acid from the atmosphere than the lime
of common limestone. But for agricultural purposes it
is less esteemed ; when laid on particular soils it tends
rather to injure than to improve vegetation ; which is
wholly destroyed when the quantity is large : this effect

* Magnefian Minerals are frequent in and around N^w-York. There
is reafon to doubt the affcrtion that magnefia renders the foil barren.
Was this the fact, New York ifland, Staten ifland and Hoboken ought to
feel the bad effects of it j which does not appear to be the cafe.

TO MINERALOGY. 107

is owing to the magnesia it contains. An immense
tract of chalk in France is wholly divested of vegeta-
tion, owing to its containing about 11 per cent, of mag- ^
nesia.

LIAS. CALP. ARGILLO-FEREUGINOUS LIMESTONE.

Argillo-ferruginous Limestone is found massive in
beds, or in globular and spheroidal masses, traverses by
veins of calcareous spar. It is tougher than common
Limestone, and is of a bluish black, (blue Lias) or grey-
ish blue colour (white Lias) ; it has an argillaceous odour
when breathed on, and when burnt is of a buff colour.
Calp is composed of 68 per cent, of carbonate of lime,
18 of silex, 7.5 of alumine, 2 of oxide of iron, 3 of car-
bon and bitumen, and 5 of water.

It is quarried at Leixlip near Dublin, (Calp of Kir-
wan) and occurs in beds at Abertlmw in Glamorgan-
shire, whence it has obtained the familiar name of Mer-
ihaw Limestone. The name of Lias, which originally
was provincial, has of late been much adopted by mi-
neralogists. The blue and white varieties alternate
with each other, generally, in thin beds. The Lias en-
closes ammonites ,and great variety of sea shells ; and is
remarkable for containing the remains of crocodiles at
Lyme in Dorsetshire. Its geological situation is under
the Oolite, near Bath, and above the red marl, as in
some parts of Somersetshire. It occurs in spheroidal
masses in the blue clay of the Isle of Sheppey, and of
Higbgate Hill, &c. When burnt, it forms a cement,
which has the property of setting very strongly under
water, and for this reason was used in constructing the
Edystone Lighthouse.

Lias has of late been employed in a manner which
merits notice, as being a branch of the curious and im-
portant art of multiplying copies of drawings or of pen-
manship. A drawing is made on prepared paper with a
peculiar ink. A slab of Lias, perhaps an inch thick, is
then heated, the drawing is placed upon it, and both
are passed through a rolling press. The paper is after-
wards wetted, and washed from off the stone ; but the
ink, being of a gummy or glutinous quality, becomes in

K)8 ELEMENTAB* INTRODUCTION

part abs&fbed by the stone, and remains. It is then
ready for the printer. Previously to the taking of each
impression, fresh ink is added ; but the stone is first
wetted with a sponge, in order to prevent the ink, which
is said considerably to resemble printer's ink, and to be
put on with a ball similar to that used by letter-press
printers, from adhering to it : the consequence is, that
it adheres only to the ink absorbed by the stone from
the paper on which the drawing was originally made :
paper is then placed on the stone, and both are passed
through a rolling press as before. This art has been
practiced in Germany with great success, though, it is
said, not precisely in the same manner ; the practice
there, being, to make the drawing upon the stone, with
a prepared ink, whence it may correctly be termed the
Lithographic Art ; the Lias of that country, is particu-
larly adapted to it ; some beautiful specimens of this
art may be seen in this country. It is also said that
copies of military drawings and orders were multiplied
by this means, to a very large amount, at the head-
quarters of the armies lately employed on the continent.
An artificial composition is sometimes used instead of
the Lias.

APATITE. PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

Apatite is both harder and heavier than the carbonate
or fluate of lime. It occurs massive, and crystallized in
the six-sided prisms, (which is the form of primitive
crystals), variously terminated. The crystals in my
possession, exhibit 27 varieties of form, which are ex-
tremely beautiful, and were principally brought from
Cornwall. The Apatite is white, or of various shade.-?
of green, blue, red, or yellow, but not brilliant : its spe-
cific gravity is about 3. and it is composed of 53.73 of
.Time, and 46.25 of phosphoric acid.

The crystallized is chiefly met with in the veins of
primitive mountains, especially in those containing tin ;
and it accompanies quartz, fluate of lime, sulphate of

* Apatite— Apatite has been found in ftnatl maflcs, at Greenwid^ City
df New York. ( 'Jones. )

TO MINERALOGY. 109

barytes, felspar, wolfram, &c. It is thus found in the
mines of Saxony and Bohemia. It occurs in St. Go-
thard in a chlorite rock, with adularia and mica : at
Stenna-Gwyn in Cornwall, in yellowish or greenish talc :
near Nantes in France, it is met with in granite : and
in mount St. Michael in Cornwall, in the fissures of
granite, accompanied by oxide of tin and topazes.

The Apatite is commonly phosphorescent by heat,
and it was remarkable that the prisms of such crystals
as are not phosphorescent are terminated by six-sided
pyramids, like crystals of quartz, but are less acute ;
the others are terminated by planes ; and it is also re-
markable that those which are not phosphorescent, have
only been found in volcanic products : in those of Vesu-
vius, they accompany the idocrase ; they are found at
Cap de Gate in Spain, in a cellular stone, resembling
lava. These crystals were heretofore termed Chryso-
lites ; they are of an orange brown, or asparagus green j
whence they are sometimes called Asparagus-stone.

Massive phosphate of lime is of a granular, fibrous, or
earthy texture, and sometimes encloses a small portion
of carbonate of lime. The fibrous variety is found at
Schlackenwald in Bohemia, in radiated masses in tin
veins : in the same veins also occur round masses, which
are granular, sometimes even compact, and are phos-
phorescent by heat. Near Truxillo in Spain, this latter
variety forms entire hills, traversed by beds of quarts.
It consists principally of lime and phosphoric acid, but
also contains small portions of fluoric acid, silex, oxide
of iron, and water.

FLUOB. FLUATE OF LIME.*

Fluor is found both massive and crystallized ; the lat-
ter has a perfectly lamellar structure, and may be
cleaved with great ease into the. form of the regular oc-
tohedron, which is that of the primitive crystal. The
crystals are found passing into the cube, the acute rhoin-

* Piuatt of Lime.— Flnate of Lime has been found in New-Hampfliire ,
Maflachufctts, Vermont, New- York, New-Jerfey, Maryland, Virginia
and Mifiburi) moftly in (mail pieces, fame times loofe> and fometimes at-

tailed

K

110 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

boid, the dodecahedron with rhomboidal planes, and
the regular tetrahedron : those, in my possession, exhi-
bit 46 varieties of form, which are extremely interest-
ing. The colour of Fluor varies from the perfectly
white and transparent, through various shades of blue,
green, red, yellow, and purple, almost to black : when
pounded, and thrown on a live coal, Fluor gives out a
phosphoric light ; when thrown, in mass, into the fire, it
decrepitates and flies. It is harder than calcareous spar ;
its specific gravity is about 3 ; and it is composed of
67.75 of lime, and 32.25 of fluoric acid, according to
Klaproth ; — a variety analyzed by Scheele afforded 27
per cent, of water.

The varied colours of Fluor formerly gave rise to the
now exploded names of false sapphire, false emerald,
false amethyst, false ruby, and false topaz.

Crystallized Fluor is found at Mont Blanc and St.
Gothard ; in Saxony, Germany, and in many other
countries, it occurs in veins in primitive mountains ;
and accompanies oxide of tin, mica, apatite, and quartz,
in Cornwall, and at Zinnwald in Bohemia. It occurs in
argillaceous schistus in Cumberland and Durham, with
iron ore, quartz, calcareous spar, and sulphate of bary-
tes : in Derbyshire in secondary limestone, with the
last-mentioned substances, together with clay and bitu-
men : in limestone with galena at Beeralston in Devon-
shire : it also occurs in Aberdeenshire and in Shetland.

In the Odin mine, near Castleton in Derbyshire.
Fluor is found in veins, in detached masses, from three
inches to a foot in thickness ; their structure is diver-
gent, and their colours, as grey, yellow, blue, brown,
are generally disposed in concentric bands : of this va-
riety, called blue John by the miner, are made beautiful
vases, obelisks, &c. by Mawe & Co. of Derby. Fluor
is no where else found adapted to these purposes.

Compact Fluor is har»ler than common Fluor, and is
sometimes of a granular texture ; in general, it is tran-
slucent only on the edges : when placed on a live coal,
it mostly gives out a green light : some specimens in my
possession from Pednandrae mine in Cornwall, exhibit
lights of various shades of green, blue, violet, and red

TO MINfiRALOOr. Ill

Chlorophane is esteemed to be a variety of compact
fluor ; of which it has not perfectly the aspect. It is
usually of a pale violet colour, and translucent. It does
not fly in the fire, but gives out a phosphorescent light of
a most beautiful emerald green colour ; a specimen in
my possession, from Pednandrae, gives out this light
when placed in the flame of a candle ; but Pallas men-
tions a specimen from Siberia, of a pale violet colour,
which gave a white light merely by the heat of the
hand ; by the heat of boiling water, a green light ; and
when placed on a live coal, a brilliant emerald light,
that might be discerned from a long distance.

Fluzite of lime is commonly found in veins ; some-
times in beds, but not of considerable extent ; it never
forms mountains, and is less abundant in nature than sul-
phate of lime, and very much less than carbonate of
lime. The variety termed Chlorophane only has been
found entering into their composition of primitive rocks :
it occurs in granite in Siberia- Fluate of lime some-
times fills veins almost entirely.

Fluate of lime is principally used in the reduction of
metalliferous ores, as a flux ; whence its name. The
fluoric acid has been used for etching on glass, in the
same manner as nitric acid is used upon copper. From
glass plates thus engraved, a considerable number of im-
pressions have sometimes been taken, by great care.

ANHYDROUS GYPSUM.

It is sometimes found in eight-sided prism?, but more
often massive ; it is lamellar, and may be cleaved into
the form of a right rectangular prism, which therefore
is the primitive form. Its colours are milk white, rose,
violet, or bluish : it is serni-transparent, with a double re-
fraction, and is harder than common gypsum ; it scratches
calcareous spar. When pure it consists of 40 per cent, of
lime, and 60 of sulphuric acid ; it is sometimes called
the Anhydrite^ in reference to its being without water.
Occasionally it yields a variable proportion of muriate of
soda, which has occasioned its obtaining also the name
Muriacite. The former has only been found in the salt
wines of Bex in the Canton of Berne in Switzerland ;

M2 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

the latter only in those of Halle in the Tyrol ; but in
fibrous, or globular masses, or in ramose contortions
(Pierres de trippes) it is found in some of the mines of
Saxony and of Derbyshire.

Anhydrous gypsum, affording by analysis 8 per cent,
of silex, and having the compact texture of certain varie-
ties of marble, is found at Vulpino in Italy. It is of a
greyish white colour, with bluish grey veins, and is trans-
lucent on the edges. At Milan it is employed for ta-
bles and chimney-pieces, under the name of Marbrc
Bardiglio di Bergamo.

GYPSUM.* SELENITE. SULPHATE OF LIME.

This mineral is found crystallized, fibrous, massive*
and earthy. The crystallized is generally called Sele-
nite ; the amorphous and earthy, Gypsum : but these
terms are sometimes used indiscriminately. The pri-
mitive form of its crystals, of which Hauy has noticed 5
varieties, is a rhomboidal prism, of 113° 8' and 66° 52'
terminated by oblique angled parallelograms, into which

* Gypsum*— Gypfum is found abundantly in the counties of Madifon,
Onondaga and Cayuga in New- York, in the neighbourhood of the Sale
Springs of Montezuma and Salina. It is frequently lamellar or tabular ;
very tranfparent and beautiful : — then it is amorphous and maflive; in
other places it is almoft black, but becomes white by a continued red-heat.
Sometimes again it is mixed with a dark argillaceous fluff refembling
dried mud.

Fine Gypfum of Onondaga, was found on analysis to contain in one
hundred grains, ai of water, 34 of lime and 47 of fulphuric acid. (War*
den in Med. Rep. Vol. 13. p. 77.)

At the cataract of Niagara gypfum is found in the fetid limeftone,
evidently produced by the decompofition of pyrites. Here the newh
formed Sulphuric acid combines with the lime and difcharges the carbonic
acid and hydrogene.— When picked up at the foot of the falls, in loof;.
and white lumps, it has been called " petrified foam."

From the bay of Fundy in Nova-Scotia, it is brought to us, in a greaf
variety of forms, tabular, massive, in ftellated or globular cryftals, &c. I
have fpecimens of beautiful fibrous gypfum from Labrador.

Ten-fided cryftals have been brought me from the State of Ohio, when
they are faid to lie loofe in an argillaceous foil.

JLoofe pieces, of a fine quality, though fmall, have been difcovered in St
Mary's county, Maryland.

The employment of gypfum as a manure, has been and continues to bt.
a practice of the utmoft moment to the agriculture and produce of all the
interior country. It has not been found as yet, to anfwcr fo good a pur-»
pofe along the fea coaft, or in the neighbourhood of fait- water.

TO MINERALOGY. 113

the crystals may with care be reduced by fracture ; the
natural joints are very visible : the crystals are generally
transparent, with a shining pearly lustre ; and are of va-
rious shades of white, yellow, grey, brown, red, or violet
colour : sulphate of lime may readily be distinguished*
from carbonate of lime ; it is much softer, and yields
easily to the nail : its specific gravity is about 2, and it
is composed of 32.7 per cent, of lime, 46.3 of sulphuric;
acid, and 21 of water.

Crystallized Selenite is found at Alston in Cumber-
land, and in great abundance at Shotover bill in Oxford-
shire. Selenite is most commonly met with dis-
seminated in argillaceous deposites ; not often in veins :
but it is said to have been met with in a vein of yellow
copper ore, traversing a primitive mountain, near Nusol
in Hungary : in a lead vein in Bohemia ; and in the sil-
ver mine of Seinenofske in the middle of the Altaic
mountains in Siberia.

It occurs in remarkably long slender fibres, which are
generally associated and curved (Plumose Gypsum) ; it
is found in Derbyshire, and in some of the mines of the
Hartz and of Hungary. At Matlock in Derbyshire,
Gypsum occurs also in straight fibres of great brilliancy,
of which the cross fracture is lamellar, and of remarka-
ble lustre.

When massive, sulphate of lime is termed alabaster,
but is readily distinguished from that variety of carbo-
nate of lime which has obtained the same name ; the
former yields to the nail, the latter does not. It is either
granular or compact ; the granular is composed of little
lamellar masses, intersecting each other in every direc-
tion ; the compact has a lamellar structure, and is found
in the form of stalactites, at Mont Cenis, and other pla-
ces.

Granular massive gypsum is found overlaying the most
decent of the primitive rocks, and sometjmes, it is said,
is enclosed by them : its colour is mostly white ; and it
has been found mingled with mica, felspar, and serpen-
tine, in Siberia ; but encloses neither argillaceous mat-
ter nor organic remains : it seems therefore to have some
claim for being considered as a primitive rock. In the
Levantine valley near St. Gothard, it occurs between

K2

114 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

two beds of gneiss, and also at Bellinzina in the Alps :
granular gypsum also occurs near Mont Cenis, and at
Moutier near Mont Blanc.

Gypsum is also found accompanying carbonate of
lime, and abundantly overlaying the rock salt deposites:
tt covers transition rocks in Scotland.

A posterior formation of gypsum, for there appears to
be at least three formations, is found in horizontal beds,
and is more intermingled with marl, and frequently en-
closes organic remains both of plants and animals, some-
times of birds, as surrounding Paris, and in other places
in France.

Earthy Gypsum has very much the appearance of
chalk, but is of a looser texture. It occurs near Zella
and (Epitz in Saxony, and is employed as a manure. —
It is constantly deposited by water in the crevices of
gypseous mountains.

It also occurs in efflorescences, or in round fibrous
masses, sometimes in stalactites, in the lavas of the Isle
of Bourbon, and of Solfatera.

Gypsum is diffused through the water of almost ever}
spring, to which it gives (in common with other earthy
salts) the property of hardness, as it is usually termed.

Gypsum sometimes forms hills. It abounds in Switzer-
land, Italy, the Tyrol, in Bavaria, Thuringia, Poland.
Spain; and in Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Nottingham-
shire in England ; and in Pennsylvania in North Ame-
rica.

The uses of Gypsum are very extensive ; the variety
called alabaster is employed by the architect, for columns
and other ornaments, being more easily worked than
marble ; it is also turned by the lathe into cups, basins,
vases and other similar articles. The manufacture of
these articles in gypsum is carried on by Brown and Co. of
Derby, to a considerable extent. Alabaster is found
in the neighbqurhood, both white, and with veins of
a reddish brown colour. The large columns employed
in the building of the elegant mansion called Kedleston
Hall which is in Derbyshire, are of the variegated
alabaster of that county. When sulphate of lime o?
gypsum, is subjected to a certain heat, it loses what
is termed its water of crystallization; and is converted

TO MINERALOGY. 115

into fine powder called plaster of parts ; the uses of which,
when beaten up with water into a paste, for taking casts
of gems and statues, are well known. In some coun-
tries, especially in North America, it is largely employ-
ed as a manure.

GLAUBERITE.

This singular and rare mineral has only been found at
Ocagna, in New Castile in Spain, disseminated in rock
salt. It occurs crystallized, in the form of an oblique
prism, whose alternate angles are 104° 30' and 75° 30',
and whose lateral planes are transversely striated, but
the terminal planes, which are of a rhombic form, are
smooth and brilliant ; its colour is reddish yellow or
grey ; it is transparent, and less hard than calcareous
spar, but harder than gypsum : its spec, gravity is 2.7.
and it is composed 49 per cent, of sulphate of lime and
51 of sulphate of soda. It therefore contains no water
of crystallization ; when immersed in water, it becomes
opake.

NITRATE OF LIME.*

Nitrate of Lime is rare as a natural production ; be-
ing only found in silky efflorescences on old walls ; in ca-
verns, or on calcareous rocks, in the neighbourhood of
decayed vegetable matter ; and in some mineral waters.
Its taste is bitter and disagreeable ; when prepared arti-
ficially, it is obtained in six-sided prisms, terminated by
six-sided pyramids.

* Nitrate of Lime. — In the States of Virginia and Kentucky there arc:
Jime-ftone caves of great extent, abounding in a faltpetrous earth. This,
on being lixiviated with potash, forms excellent falt-petre. The remain-
ing earth carried back to the caves, is capable of being impregnated anew
with the acid. And the quantity of the calcareous nitrate is so great, in
thefe numerous and vaft lime-ftone caverns, that there is no ready means
*>f calculating the extent to which falt-petre may be prepared. In time of
•war, it is enough for all the home confumption and more. Daring the
Jate conteft with Great Britain, the falt-petre of Kentucky was brought
abundantly to New York, for the Powder Milli, See Mei JRefos. Fol. o?
>. 86—88.

116 ELEMENTABY INTRODUCT10N

DA.THOLITE.

This rare mineral has only been found at Arendahl in
Norway ; of its geological situation nothing is known, but
some specimens have been accompanied by greenish
talc. The Datholite is greyish-white and translucent ;
it has been found only in ten-sided prisms, of which the
primitive form is, according to Haiiy, a rhomboidal
prism of 109°. 28' and 70° 32'. terminated by rhom-
boidal planes. The analyses of this mineral differ a
little ; according to Vauquelin, it is composed of 34 of
lime, 21.67 of boracic acid, 37.66 of silex, and 5.5 of
water.

A variety of this substance called the Botryolite.
which is also found at Arendahl, occurs in concentric
layers composed of very slender fibres j it consists of
39.5 of lime, 13.5 of boracic acid, 36 of silex, 6.5 of
water, and 1 of oxide of iron.

THARMACOLItE.

The Pharmacolite is found in minute fibrous, or aci-
cular crystals, of a white, grey, yellowish, or purplish
colour; these crystals are aggregated into globular
masses, or disseminated on the sides of a vien.

It is extremely rare j having only been found at two
places : at Wittichen, near Furstemberg in Germany,
it is disseminated on silky or roundish masses on granite,
in a vein containing cobalt, barytes, and sulphate of lime.

Its purple colour is attributed to cobalt. At St Marie
aux Mines, in the Vosges, it is found perfectly white :
its specific gravity is 2.6, and it consists of 25 per cent.
of lime, 50.54 of arsenic acid, and 24.46 of water.

TO MINERALOGY. 117

MAGNESIA.

Magnesia is a light earth of a perfect whiteness, and is
absolutely insipid ; it is infusible except by voltaic elec-
tricity. It consists of oxygen united with a base Mag-
nesium, which is but imperfectly known, but which is
considered to be a metal, and is of the same whiteness
and lustre as the bases of some of the other earths,

Berzelius states magnesia to consist of about 38 per
cent, of oxygen, and 62 of magnesium.

Magnesia is not, like Silex and Alumine, found ia
very large quantity, either nearly pure, or entering, in
very great proportion, into the composition of numerous
and abundant earthy substances : it is found in about
thirty, in different proportions ; but in most of these,
magnesia is not the prevailing ingredient, though in
several it exceeds 25 per cent. It is involved in a few
metalliferous minerals in small quantity. It occurs
combined with the carbonic, sulphuric, and boracic
acids ; but is found in the greatest purity in the mineral
which is termed native magnesia.

NATIVE MAGNESIA.*

This rare mineral has been found only at Hoboken
in New Jersey, in veins from a few lines to a few inches
thick, traversing serpentine in every direction. Its

* Native Magnefia.—l had this mineral in my poffeffion for feveral years,
without knowing what it was. Nor could I learn from any of my mine-
ralogical friends what opinion ought to be formed of it. But we judged by
external characters only. Dr. Bruce at length undertook a chemical analy-
sis of the mineral ; and proved it to be a native magnefia, or a combina-
tion in which 70 parts of magnefia were combined with 30 parts of water,
It is defcribed by him in his American Mineralogical Journal
thus : colour white pafling into greenifh white ; luftre pearly ; ftructurc
foliated ; the folia or leaves frequently having a radiated pofition ; the
leaves when feparate, tranfparent ; in the mafs femitranfparent ; the fur-
face after expofure to the weather, becoming opake ; fomewhat elaftic j
adheres flightly to the tongue ; foft ; powder, pure white ; fpecific gra-
vity 2.13 ; before the blowpipe becomes opake and friable, and lofes
weight ; foluble in fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids. Found at Hobo?
ken on the weft bank of the Hudfon, oppofite New York, in veins of fer-
pentine. Thefe veins vary in breadth from a few lines to two inches, and
traverfe the rock in all directions. It alfo contains files and iron,

118 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

colour is white, or greenish white, with a pearly lustre.
It occurs in laminrx?, which have a laminated texture,
and are frequently disposed in a radiated position. It is
semitransparent, but becomes opake by exposure ; is
somewhat elastic, adheres slightly to the tongue, and is
soft : its specific gravity is 2.13. and from the analysis of
Dr. Bruce, it appears to consist of magnesia 10, and of
water 30 per cent.

A variety analyzed by Vauquelin, yielded 2 per cent,
of silex, and 2£ of iron.

CHRYSOLITE.

The Chrysolite occurs in angular, or in somewhat
rounded masses, or crystallized, usually in compressed
eight sided prisms, which are variously terminated ; their
primitive form, . according to Haiiy, id a right prism
with rectangular bases The colour of the chrysolite is
yellow, sometimes mixed with green or brown ; it is
transparent, and possesses double refraction ; it scratches
glass : its specific gravity is 3.4 ; and it consists of 50.5
per cent, of magnesia, 38 of silex, and 9.5 of oxide of
iron.

It is found near Schelkowitz in Bohemia, and at Jur-
nau, in the Circle of Bunzlau ; in serpentine, at Leats-
chau in Hungary ; in the river St. Denis, at the foot of
the volcano of the isle of Bourbon ; and in the debris of
the volcano of Bolsano. The chrystolite of commerce is
brought from the Levant ; it is in little masses which
appear to be rounded by attrition ; but nothing is known
of its geological situation.

The Qlivin is considered to be a variety of the chry-
solite, though it differs in respect of analysis; the pro-
portions of silex and alumine contained in it being near-
ly reversed, and it contains a trace of lime : its external
characters agree in many respects with those of the chry-
solite, but it is never found crystallized; both are by some
considered to be of volcanic origin ; but the correctness
of this opinion, in respect to both of them, may, from
their occasional geological situation, be doubted. The
olivin is chiefly found in little semi-transparent masses,
which, sometimes, from their being in a state of decom-

TO MINERALOGY.

position, have an irridescent and somewhat metallic lus-
tre ; it is found principally in basalts and lavas.

It occurs in basalt near the village of Colombier in the
Vivarais ; in the basalt of Bohemia ; of Kalkberg in
Russia ; of Hungary ; and in masses of considerable size
in that of Unkel on the banks of the Rhine, near Co-
logne. It is also found in the same kind of rock at Tees-
dale in Durham ; in the county of Donegal in Ireland :
near Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and in the isle of Rum.
It is found in the lavas of Etna, and of Piperino near
Rome.

The semi-transparent yellowish substance enclosed in
the mass of native iron found in Siberia by Professor
Pallas, is generally considered to be a variety of olivin.
It consists, according to Klaproth, of 41 per cent, of si-
lex, 38.5 of magnesia, and 18.5 of iron.

SERPENTINE.*

Serpentine is always found massive ; it is translucent
at the edges, somewhat unctuous to the touch, and in
general, yields easily to the knife. Serpentine varies
exceedingly in respect of colour ; which, generally speak-
ing, is green of various shades, or bluish green, yellowish,
or reddish : sometimes its colour is uniform; more of-

* Serpentine. — Detached pieces of Serpentine, are found fcattered
through the alluvial bails of New-York city. Some of them are beautifully
coloured. The colours vary from deep green to cream coloured and
whitilh. I have pieces that prefent the appearance of vegetable forms
in painting, and are in reality a kind of landscape-ftone.

The promontory of Hoboken con lifts chiefly of ferpentine is a maflivf
form. It is cracked through in all directions with veins and fiffures. Be-
fides the two forms of magnefia herein mentioned, thofe veins contain
asbeftos, of a finning luftre. It is greenish and cryftallized, but the
cryftals generally crofs the vein obliquely and not at right" angles.—
This serpentine alfo embraces a white mineral, of considerable hardnefs,
whofe furface is frequently covered with minute cryftals. This has been
confidered as a variety of tremoHte.

Serpentine admitting a neat polish has been brought from Rhode*
Ifland.

Some of the huge rorks of ftellated afbeftos, in New- York city, run
into ferpentine. For many years fuch a mafs has been lying in Cherry-
Street near Clinton Street. Though the radiations of cryftals are very
plain, the material neverthelefs yields eafily U the faw, and can be made
into fiabs like marble. It is greenifh and variegated with whitish clouds.

120 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

ten, it is spotted or veined with various colours ; when
thus variegated, it is considered to be less pure and of
more recent formation, that when of one colour : the
latter consists of 37.24 of magnesia, 32 of silex, 10.2
lime, 0.5 of alumine, 0.6 of iron, and 14 of water.

The more ancient serpentine is ranked among primi-
tive rocks: it accompanies, is mixed with, or alternates
with, primitive granular limestone, resting upon gneiss,
or micaceous schistus, hence it has been called Primi-
tive serpentine ; by some Noble serpentine. It occurs
in horizontal beds on the summit of Mont Rosa ; the
greatest elevation at which it has been observed. The
more recent formation, sometimes called Common ser-
pentine, is considered to be a transition rock ; it often
encloses steatite, talc, asbestus, chlorite,*inica, garnet,
magnetic iron, &c. ; but it rarely includes metalliferous
veins or beds. In the large serpentine tract of Corn-
wall, native copper has been found disseminated.

Serpentine occurs on the side of the Alps towards
Genoa; as Zceblitz in Saxony; in Bohemia and Hun-

firy ; at Dobsrhau in Transylvania ; at Zillerthal in the
yrol ; in the Milanese ; in Piedmont, alternating with
beds of magnetic iron ; in Spain and France. In a
word, serpentine, though less abundant than many other
rocks, is met with in most mountain chains. Primitive
serpentine of uncommon beauty is found at Portsoy in
Scotland ; that of Cornwall is considered to be of more
recent formation.

It is fashioned by the lathe into vases for ornamental
purposes at Zceblitz in Saxony, and at Bareuth; it is
also made into chimney pieces, which are very beau-
tiful.

Steatite and Potstone are considered by mineralogists
to be nearly allied to serpentine.

CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA.^ MAGNES1TE.

Carbonate of Magnesia was heretofore considered as

* The native carbonate of Magnefia has been difcovered alfo at Hobo*
ken, in the crevices of the ferpentine rock, which contains the native mag-,
aefia, by Mr. J. Pierce. The fpecimens exhibited to the .Lyceum of Natn*

TO MINERALOGY, 121

pure Native magnesia, until, by analysis, the presence
of carbonic acid was detected : it has nevertheless been
asserted of some varieties of this mineral, particularly
that of Castellamonte, that when first brought from the
quarry or mine, it contains no carbonic acid, which af-
terwards it absorbs from the atmosphere. It is usually
found inj large masses, (which are sometimes cellul-
lar, and soft enough to yield to the nail, which occa-
sionally gives a polish by passing over it ; but internally,
it is sometimes harder than calcareous spar : it adheres to
the tongue.

The carbonate of magnesia of Roubschitz in Moravia,
is found in a serpentine rock, accompanied by meers-
chaum. It is opalce, tender, and of a yellowish grey
colour, spotted with black. It consists of equal parts of
magnesia and carbonic acid.

It also occurs in serpentine, in veins or beds near
Piedmont : that of Baudissero, is accompanied by hy-
drophane, and contains 15 of silex, and 3 of sulphate of
lime : that of Castellamonte consists of magnesia, car-
bonic acid, silex and water. Both these varieties are
employed in the porcelain manufactory at Piedmont.

SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA.*

Sulphate of Magnesia occasionally occurs in the natu-
ral state, in the form of fine capillary crystals, on the
surface of decomposing schistus, or of gypsum, or of
the soil, and often in coal pits. It has been observed
in the quicksilver mines of Idria ; on the surface of gyp-
sum in the quarries of Piedmont, and of Mont-martre
near Paris; on the surface of the soil in many large
tracts of Andalusia in Spain, after floods ; and in the
foundation and lower walls of most of the houses in Ma-
drid, it issues in efflorescences from the mortar, arising
from its decomposition, and therefore to the injury of

ral Hiftory, are white, powdery, and in external appearance very much
like the common magnefia of the (hops. The quantity found is fmali,
and particles of grit feem to be scattered through it.

* Sulphate of Magnefia.—From a iample or two I have feen, native
Epfom fait fcems to be a production of Come of the caverns in Wcfteru
Virginia.

122 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

the building. Similar effects are occasionally to be no-
ticed in this country.

Sulphate of Magnesia is also an ingredient of certain
saline springs. It was first discovered in the mineral wa-
ter of Epsom in Surry, in 1675, from which it is extract-
ed by boiling, and consitutes that substance which in
medicine is called Epsom Salts. It has been since dis-
covered in the mineral water of Sedlitz and of Egra in
Bohemia. At the salt-works of Portsmouth and Ly-
niington, it is obtained from what is termed the bittern
of sea-water ; which is the residue, after ail the muriate
of soda, or common salt, has been extracted. The
mode of preparing it is not generally known.

The regular form of the crystals of this salt, is a four-
sided prism, terminated at each end, by a two or four-
sided pyramid : its primitive crystal is a four-sided rec-
tangular prism. The crystals show a double refraction.

Epsom salts contain 19 parts of magnesia, 33 of sul-
phuric acid, and 48 of water.

BORACITE. BORATE OF MAGNESIA.

The Boracite has only been found in the mountain of
Kalkberg in the Duchy of Brunswick ; where it occurs
in small crystals imbedded in compact of sulphate of
lime. These crystals are sometimes transparent, some-
times opake, and are hard enough to give sparks with
the steel. Their primitive form is the cube, which is not
often found perfect ; the edges and angles being mostly
replaced by the planes of certain modifications to which
it is subject, and which are not common to other mine-
rals ; four of the angles constantly present a greater num-
ber of faces, than the other four. The crystals become
electric by the application of heat; manifesting the
vitreous electricity on the angles which present the
greatest number of planes, and resinous electricity on
the others. The Boracite consists of about 83 parts of
the boracic acid, and 17 of magnesia: when translu-
cent or opake, it contains a proportion of carbonate^of
lime.

TO MINERALOGY. 123

ZIRCON*

•*,.V' r*5'*«'*^*1f^, i&Vj.-^fc.V

ZIRCON, when pure, is white, rougb to the touch, in-
sipid, and insoluble in water ; and is about 4 times its
weight. Like the other earths, it is infusible, except
by the powerful action of voltaic electricity ; by the as-
sistance of which it has been ascertained that Zircon is
a compound, consisting of oxygen united with a base
Zirconium ; the nature of which is unknown. The pro-
portions in which oxygen and zirconium enter into the
composition of Zircon, have not been determined-
It is very sparingly found ; and then only entering into
the composition of three substances, together with silex
and oxide of iron ; and in one instance with a small por-
tion of oxide of titanium : it has not been detected as a
component part of any rock.

Zircon has not been put to any use.
The three minerals which are principally composed
of Zircon, viz. the hyacinth, the Jargoon, and the zir-
conite, all occur crystallized. The form of their primi-
tive crystal is an obtuse octohedron, but their crystals
commonly have twelve planes, four of which are six-
sided, and are the consequence of the replacement of
the lateral solid angles of the primitive crystal, causing
each of its four terminal planes to assume a rhombic
form, instead of the triangular, as in the primitive crys-
tal. The crystals of these substances, of which I pos-
sess about 45 varieties, resemble, in a remarkable de-
gree, those of the oxide of tin, which also have for their
primitive crystal a flat octohedron : they are doubly re-
fractive, when translucent, and somewhat harder than
quartz, and their specific gravity exceeds 4. These sub-
stances are infusible, but sometimes lose their colour by
exposure to heat

Zircon.— This mineral is reported to have been difcovered among the
primitive and tranfition rocks, in various places ; fuch as the vicinity oi
.Baltimore, Trenton, Sdioolcy's mountain, and Sharon.

124 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

HYACINTH.

The Hyacinth is of various shades of red, passing into
orange red : it is transparent or translucent : its struc-
ture is lamellar, which is readily discovered in one direc-
tion.

The hyacinth, as well as the two following substances,
are considered to belong to primitive countries. The
hyacinth, in the form of its primitive crystal, has been
found among the corundum of the East Indies ; but is
commonly found in the beds of rivers or of brooks. It
occurs in the brook Expailly, in Auvergne in France, in
a sand that is considered to be of volcanic origin ; and is
also met with in a sand of the same description in the
territory of Vicenza, near Pisa in Italy, and in Ceylon :
it is also found at Scbelkowilz in Bohemia, and in Bra-
zil. That of Ceylon consists of 70 per cent, of zircon,
25 of silex, and 0.5 of oxide of iron : that of Expail-
ly consists of less zircon and more silex.

JAllGOON.

The Jargoon occurs in small transparent or translu-
cent crystals, which are considerably prismatic, and of a
greyish, yellowish, brownish or reddish colour, having
frequently a smoky tinge ; and in rounded masses, as
well as in crystals of considerable dimension, very near-
ly approaching their primitive form, and of a brown co-
lour and opake : they seem to possess no regular struc-
ture. This substance is usually called the Jargon of
Ceylon : it is found in the sand of rivers in the middle
of that island, and has been met with in granite, near
Cuffel, in Dumfrieshire in Scotland. Jargoon consists,
according to Vauquelin, of 66 per cent, of zircon, 31 of
silex, and 2 of oxide of iron.

ZIBCONITE.

The Zirconite is of a reddish brown colour, and nearly
opake : it occurs in crystals imbedded in a rock, cc-rc-
eisting of felspar and hornblende, at Frederick-Schwerin

T(T MINERALOGY, 1

in Norway ; by one analysis, it consists of 64 of zircon,
34 of silex, 0.25 of oxide of iron, and 1 of titanium.

The yellow and smoke coloured varieties of the above
substances are called, by the Jewellers, Jargoons, and
are said to sometimes passed off as diamonds, when de*
prived of their colour by heat : the red, or orange red,
they call hyacinths : the commercial value of each is in*
ferior to that of all the oriental gems : in Norway, the
zirconite, when cut and polished, is employed as one of
the habiliments of mourning.

GLUCINE.

GLUCINE obtained that name from the Greek
signifying sweet, on account of the sweet taste by which
its salts are distinguished. When pure, glucine is a
white powder, soft, and somewhat unctuous to the touch }
its specific gravity is nearly 3.

Sir H. Davy has proved that glucine consists of oxy-
gen united with a base, Glucinum, of which the nature
is not known. It is computed that this earth is consti-
tuted of about 30 per cent, of oxygen united with 70
per cent, of glucinum.

Glucine has only been met with combined with other
substances, and then only in small quantities, and in a
very few minerals, viz. eucla.se, beryl, emerald, and
gadoiipite.

EUCLASE.

The Euclase is extremely rare; it has only been
brought from Peru by one traveller ; nothing is known
of its geological situation. It has only been met with in
one form, which is so complicated, that the crystals, if
perfect, would have exhibited 78 planes ; by cleavage,
it may be reduced to a rectangular prism, which there-
fore is esteemed to be the form of the primitive crystal.
It is of a light green colour and transparent, and readily

L 21

126 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

separates into thin laminae ; but is hard enough to scratch
glass, and possesses double refraction. It has not been
analyzed with accuracy ; by analysis of 36 grains, it
yielded about 14 percent, of glucine, 35ofsilex, 18
of alumine, and 2 of oxide of iron ; Vauquelin consider-
ed the greatest part of the remainder to be water of crys-
tallization.

BERYL.* AQUAMARINE.

The Beryl is of various shades of yellow, green, and
-4blue ; its most common form is the hexahedral prism,
which commonly is deeply striated longitudinally : it is
double refractive in a slight degree, but only when held
in particular directions. It occurs in crystab of vari-
ous sizes.; they have been met with a foot or more in
length, and 4 inches in diameter, and nearly transpa-
rent. According to Vauquelin, the Beryl consists of 14
per cent, of glucine, 68 of silex, 15 of alumine, 2 of
lime^ and 1 of oxide of iron.

It belongs to primitive countries : it occurs in veins
traversing granite, chiefly of the variety termed gra-
phite : its gangue is quartz, or compact ferruginous
elay.

It is found in the greatest abundance and purity near
Nertchink in Daouria, on the confines of China, in com-
pact ferruginous clay. It occurs in the Altaic chain in
Siberia ; and in Persia in a vein traversing a granite
mountain, and is accompanied by quartz, topaz, and
Crystallized felspar. It has also been found in a vein
passing through granite near Limoges in France ; and
near Autun, in a rock chiefly consisting of felspar; in
graphic granite in Pennsylvania. The Beryl is also
found in Brazil, Saxony, and the isle of Elba.

It occurs inKinloch, Raimochand Cairngorm in Aber-
deenshire ; at Dundrum in the county of Dublin ; and

* Beryl. Our mineralogists have detected Beryl, in feveral different
places : fuch, among others, are Bowdoinham and Topiham, in Maine ;
Chesterfield, Maflachufetts ; Haddam and other places, Connecticut ^
Siagfing, New- York ; banks of the Schuylkill, Pennfylvania ; and Balti?
<ngre, in Maryland.

TO MINEHALOGY. . 127

at Lough Bray, and Cronebane in the county of Wick-
low in Ireland.

It is usually considered as a variety of the emerald,
but differs from it both in hardness and composition, and
mostly in colour.

EMERALD.*

The form in which the emerald usually occurs, is that
of a six-sided prism, which also is that of its primitive
crystal ; it is occasionally modified at the terminations ;
sometimes each of the six lateral edges is replaced by a
plane. Its colour is a pure and beautiful green ; it is
somewhat harder than quartz, but not so hard as the
beryl : it never occurs in very large crystals. Accord-
ing to Vauquelin, it consists of 13 of glucine, 64.5 of
silex, 16 of alumine, 1.6 of lime, and 3.25 of oxide of
chrome ; it is supposed to be coloured by the latter sub-
stance.

The emeralds known to the ancients were found in
Upper Egypt, and in the mountains of Ethiopia. The
finest are now found in Peru. The mine of Manta is
exhausted ; the present mine is situated in the valley of
Tunca, in Santa-Fe, between the mountains of New
Grenada and Popayan : Emeralds occur there in veins,
or in cavities, in granite. They have also been found
in some secondary countries ; in which they are suppos-
ed not to have been in their original situation.

* Emeralds occur in feverai parts of the Fredonian territory. Theybe^

long to the class of primitive rocks, in which they occafionally refide.

Emeralds, refcmbling in clearnefs and tranfparency thofe of Siberia, have
been found at Topftam, in well defined hexahedral prifms. They arc
often contained in the coarft -grained granite ; and fometimes equal in co-
lour the fined Peruvian emerald.— (Cleaveiand and Bruce.}

Cheflerfield, in Maflachufetts, furniihes them in great abundance, from
the weight of an ounce and lefs, to fix pounds. Their figure is a hexangu*
lar prifm, and their diameter fometimes twelve inches. Colour, a light
green.— (Waterlome*} They are also found at Northampton and Go-
Jhen. — (Hunt.} Haddani affords a plenty of Emeralds, some of which are
feverai inches long ; generally of a lightifh green, and fometimes of an
amber colour, refembling topaz. An extraordinary one, feven inches long
by nine inches, of diagonal diameter, was found there.— (Mother.) Eme-
ralds are fcarce in New- York ; yet the granite veins traverfing the gneifs,
liave afforded a few tali ones, They have been alfo found at Clwfbr ,
ia Pennfylvania,

128 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

The emerald is reckoned among the gems ; and when
of a fine colour, and without flaws, is highly esteemed.
The large emeralds spoken of by various writers, such
as that in the Abbey of Richenau, of the weight of 28
pounds, and which formerly belonged to Charlemagne,
are believed to be either green fiuor, or prase. The
most magnificent specimen of genuine emerald was pre-
sented to the church of Loretto by one of the Spanish
kings ; it consists of a mass of white quartz, thickly im-
planted with emeralds, more than an inch in 'diameter.

GADOLINITE. See Index.

YTTRIA.

YTTRIA, in many of its properties and appearances in-
ks pure state, bears considerable afnnity to glucine ; it
has the same saccharine taste, but is easily distinguished
from it, inasmuch as it is nearly five times heavier than
water, and by some properties discoverable only by the
chemist.

It has been ascertained by Sir H. Davy, that oxygen
enters into the composition of Yttria : but the base,
Yttrium, with which it is combined, has not yet been
9jcn in a separate form ; nor have the proportions in
which oxygen and yttrium respectively enter into the
composition of Yttria, hitherto been decided.

In the natural state, Yttria occurs as a component part
of a rare mineral substance called the gadolinite, which
is brought only from Sweden, and which is so called on
account of its having been first analyzed by the Swedish
professor Gadolin, who named the earth Yttria, because
the mineral in which it was discovered, was brought
from Ytterby in Sweden.

Yttria has not been found entering into the composi
tion of any other mineral except the Yttrotantalite.

TO MINERALOGY. 129

GADOL1N1TE.

The Gadolinite is of a greenish or brownish black
colour, and occurs massive, and crystallized, though not
very determinately, in rhomboidal prisms. It is opake,
slightly translucent, and hard enough to scratch glass ;
it generally affects the magnetic needle, and is composed
of 54.75 of Yttria, with a trace of manganese, 21.25 of
silex, 5.5 of glucine, 0.5 of alumine, 17.5 of oxide of
iron, and 0.6 of water.

It is found adhering to felspar and mica, in veins prin-
cipally composed of the former, traversed by other veins
composed of the latter substance ; and is accompanied
by the rare mineral called Yttrotantalite, noticed in the
description of the metal Tantalium. It has been found
only at Ytterby in Sweden*

BARYTES.

BARYTES, when pure, is white, has a sharp caustic
taste, and as it possesses some of the characters of the
alkalies, it has by some chemists been classed amongst
them ; others have denominated it an Alkaline Earth.

Barytes consists of oxygen united with a base Barium,
with which it is united in the proportion of about 10 per
cent, of oxygen to 90 per cent, of Barium. This base
has the appearance of a dark grey metal, which requires
considerable force to flatten it, and has a lustre interior
to that of cast iron ; but it has not been obtained in
quantity sufficient to allow of the examination of its phy-
sical or chemical qualities : some circumstances render
it probable that Barium is four or five times heavier
than water.

Barytes has never been found pure : it is combined
either with the carbonic acid, forming carbonate of Ba-
rytes, or with sulphuric acid forming sulphate of Ba-
rytes, These compounds (or, to use the term given to

130 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

minerals composed of earths mineralized by acids,) these
earthy salts may be readily distinguished from other
earthy minerals by their superior weight ; being more
than four times the weight of water.

Though Barytes is found, thus mineralized, in con-
siderable quantity in certain countries, it is by no means
plentifully distributed, since it has not hitherto been de-
tected entering into the composition of any rock ; nor
in more than one or two earthy minerals ; it is not be-
lieved to be common in soils.

Barytes is a violent and certain poison,

CARBONATE OF BARXTES. W1THERITE.

The carbonate of Barytes is of much less frequent
occurence than the sulphate. It obtained the name of
Witherite, from its having been discovered by Dr.
Withering, who first noticed it at Anglesark in Lanca-
shire, in a vein, with sulphuret of lead, and some of the
ores of zinc, traversing a stratified mountain, composed
of beds of sandstone, slate, and coal ; the carbonate of
Barytes is chiefly found in the lower part of the vein,
the sulphate nearer the surface : the carbonate occurs in
this vein in globular masses, having a radiated structure.
It has since been found in cellular masses near Neaberg
in Stiria, and at Schlangenberg in Siberia ; it is also
found in a lead mine near St. Asaph in Flintshire, and
in many places in the north of England : at Alston in
Cumberland ; Arkendale, Weltborpe, and Dufton in
Durham ; Merton Fell in Westmoreland, and at Snail-
bach mine in Shropshire.

It is sometimes crystallized in hexahedral prisms ter-
minated by hexahedral pyramids, and much resembles
crystallized quartz. The primitive crystal is a some-
what obtuse rhomboid of 88° 6' and 91° 54', according
to Haiiy, who describes 4 varieties to which it is sub-
ject ; it is generally white and translucent, sometimes
yellowish, or brownish white, and easily yields to the
knife. — Its specific gravity is 4.3; and it is composed of
78 of barytes and 22 of carbonic acid.

TO MINERALOGY. 131

SULPHATE OF BARYTES.^ HEAVY SPAR.

This mineral is found massive and crystallized : it oc-
curs white and transparent or opake, and of various
shades of yellow, green, red and blue. Occasionally it
resembles carbonate of lime, but may readily be distin-
guished by its superior weight, as well as by the internal
appearance of its natural joints, parallel to the sides of a
right rhornboidal prism, (the form of its primitive crys^
tal), which may mostly be seen, when held up to the
light. The crystals in my possession, exhibit 111 varie-
ties of form, which are extremly interesting ; the angles
of the primitive crystal, into which it may readily be
broken, are, according to Hauy, 101° 32' 13" and 78°
217' 47", but when taken by means of the reflecting goni-
ometer by clear reflections on fractured surfaces, these
angles afford, 101° 42' and 78° 18' ; which I have no
hesitation in believing, is their true value. It is, how-
ever, remarkable, that measurements taken by that go-
niometer on the natural primitive planes, however bril-
liant, neither agree with the measurements above quoted,
nor with those of Hauy, nor with each other.

Heavy spar is harder than carbonate of lime, but not
so hard as fluatc of lime ; it possesses a double refrac-
tion when held in a particular direction : its specific gra-
vity is 4.7 ; and it is composed of 67 of barytes, and 33
of sulphuric acid.

Finely crystallized specimens are found in the mines
of Hungary, Transylvania, the Hartz, Saxony, Spain,
&c. ; and in our own country, in those of Durham,
Westmoreland, and Cumberland : and some have lately
been found, though in small quantity, in the United
Mines in Cornwall. It is said to occur in stalactites in
Derbyshire : it occurs in opake and compact, and some-
times in concentric lamellae, or in fine concentric fibres,
in the same county, and is there termed Cawk.

* Sulphate of Barytes received from the Louifiana lead mines ; from the
head waters of James River ; from Monocafy, near Fredericktowu Mary-
land ; from Newtown, in Suflex county, New-Jerfey ; and from feveral
ether places.

132 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

A variety has been found in the mines of Saxony and
of Derbyshire, in small white rhomboidal prisms, late-
rally aggregated in columns, which have a pearly lustre
and are generally translucent. It is called columnar heavy
spar, or stangenspath ; it is sometimes mistaken for car-
bonate of lead.

Sulphate of Barytes is also met with of a granular
texture, somewhat resembling that of statuary marble,
from which it is at once distinguished by its greater
weight ; it is composed of 90 per cent, of sulphate of
Barytes, and 10 of silex. It is found at Pegau in Stiria,
r.-ith sulphuret of lead ; at Freyberg in Saxony ; at
Schlan^enberg in Siberia, with malachite and native
copper.

Another variety which occurs near Bologna in Italy,
thence termed the Bolognian Stone, in translucent pie-
ces of a smoke grey colour, gives out, when rubbed, a fe-
tid smell ; which by some has been attributed to the
presence of bitumen.

The sulphate of Barytes is never found forming moun-
tains, rarely in beds ; but it alternates in thin beds with
spathose iron at Poratsch in Hungary. Nor is it often
found in large masses : but it often occurs in considera-
ble veins, rich in metalliferous ores, in primitive, tran-
sition, and flo3tz mountains. It accompanies sulphuret
of antimony in the mines of Hungary, and sulphuret of
jnercury in those of the Palatinate ; sometimes also zinc,
iron, lead, and sulphuret of copper.

The uses of sulphate of Barytes are very limited ; it
is sometimes used in metallurgy, to facilitate the fusion
of certain metalliferous gangues. It is said that the va-
riety called Cawk is used in the smelting of copper at
.Birmingham.

HEPATITE.

This mineral occurs in lamellar or globular masses,
of a yellowish, brownish, or blackish colour, which give
out a fetid odour on being rubbed or heated ; it consists
of 85.2 of sulphate of Barytes, 6 of sulphate of lime ; 1
of alumine, 5 of oxide of iron, and 0.5 of carbon.

TO MINERALOGY. 133

It has been met with at Andrarum, and in the silver
mine of Kongsberg in Norway ; at Lublin in Galicia ;
and at Buxton in Derbyshire.

STRONTIAN.

Strontiao, when pure, is white, and possesses a caus-
tic taste : it has a strong affinity to the alkalies.

It consists of oxygen united with a base, Strontium.
which much resembles Barium, being of a dark grey
colour, and having much the appearance of a metal, but
has not mucti lustre.

Strontian has never been found pure ; but only com-
bined with the carbonic or sulphuric acid, forming sul-
phate or carbonate of Strontian : and it has only been
detected in one or two instances, entering into the com-
position of earthy substances, and then only in very
small proportions ; and as it has not been found as a
component part of any rock, it may be said to be a rare
earth.

CARBONATE OF STRONTIAN. STRONTIANITE.

It is of a greenish or yellowish white, or of a green
colour, and is somewhat harder than carbonate of Ba-
rytes ; it occurs in radiated masses, the cavities of which
are sometimes lined with acicular crystals : among
which, regular hexahedral prisms have sometimes been
observed.

Its specific gravity is 3.67 ; it consists of 69.5 of Stron-
tian, 30 of carbonic acid, and 0.5 of water Occasion-
ally, it very much resembles carbonate of barytes, but it
is not quite so heavy, and is somewhat harder.

It was first discovered at Strontian in Scotland,
whence its name, in a vein passing through gneiss, and
accompanied by galena, heavy spar, calcareous spar,
and iron pyrites : it has since been found in the lead

M

134 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION, &C.

hills ; and Humbodt discovered in Peru, a variety which
is white, translucent, and radiated.

SULPHATE OF STRONTIAN.* CELESTINE.

This mineral is whitish or of a delicate blue ; whence
it obtained the name of Celestine : it occurs in opake
masses, or fibrous, or, more rarely, crystallized ; the pri-
mitive form, according to Haiiy, is a right prism of 104°
28' and 15° 12', with rbomboidal bases ; he has noticed 8
varieties in the form of its crystals. It is not so heavy
as carbonate of Barytes, its specific gravity being only
somewhat above 3 ; and it is not quite so hard as fluor :
it possesses double refraction. It consists, according to
Vauquelin, of 54 per cent, of strontian, and 46 of sul-
phuric acid.

In opake spheroidal masses, it is found at Montmartre
near Paris, disseminated in beds of argillaceous marl,
separating beds of sulphate of lime. This variety con-
tains 8 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and somewhat
less than 1 per cent, of iron. The fibrous variety of a
blue colour, is found in a plastic clay, at Beuvron, near
Toul, in the department of la Meurtbe in France ; at
Frankfort in Pennsylvania, of a sky blue colour : and in
Egypt. The spheroidal masses above mentioned, as
well as specimens from Strontian in Scotland, occasion-
ally present minute crystals. The best crystallized spe-
cimens are said to be found at Noto and Mezzara in Sici-
ly, in beds of sulphur, alternating with beds of sulphate
of lime : it also occurs in beds of sulphur in Spain ; in
sulphate of lime, in the department of la Meurthe in
France ; and in beds of ferruginous marl near Bristol.
sometimes finely crystallized.

* Sulphate of Strontian. The fibrous variety has been difcovered fom<
where weft of Albany,— (Z.ew.)— and in one or two other places.

'•

ALKALINE MINERALS.

Including such as chiefly consist of an Alkali
united with an Add.

POTASH.*

IT has already been remarked, in noticing the alkalies
generally, that potash is not a simple body ; that it con-
sists of oxygen united with a base (Potassium,) which
bears a strong affinity, in certain respects, to the metals;
and that it much resembles quicksilver, but is lighter
than water.

Potash is constituted of about 17 per cent, of oxygen3
united with about 80 per cent, of potassium.

It is found in the mineral kingdom, entering into com-
bination in at least 15 earthy compounds ; amongst
which are felspar and mica, two principal ingredients of

* Potash. The preparation of Potato in New- York, by burning wood
and letching the alhes, has furnilhed a body of inftructive facts. I here
flate the refult of much careful inquiry •

A bufhel of wood-aihes ufually weighs about 60 Ibs. and it requires 500
bumels of aihe^, or 500X60=30000 Ibs. to mak^a ton, or zooo Ibs. of
marketable potafh. Thus, no more than i- 15 th^of the alhes is vegetable
alkaline fait. Of courfe, a bushel ot afb.es affords 4lbs of alkali.

A cord of wood weighs about 3000 Ibs. and fo little folid matter is left
after burning, that fuch a pile of wood v/ill not yield more than ico Ibs.
of afhes, or 6f Ibs. of alkali. So much of the matter of wood is con-
verted to gas, or efcapes in vapour by the action of fire, that only i-3Oth
remains behind in the form of afhes.

By this calculation it appears that i-45Oth part of the weight of wood,
before incineration, is potafli ; and it follows that 300 cords of wood, or
wood to the weight of 900000 Ibs. muft be burned to make a ton of potafh.

All kinds of wood are not capable of affording this amount of potash.—
There are fome forts, fuch as cedar, pine, and generally the wood of trees
abounding in gum or refin, which afford little or none of this alkali :
But birch, maple, baffwocd, oak and hickory, yield potafli of the best
quality, and in the greatest quantity.

136 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

the oldest of the primitive rocks ; it likewise occurs in 5
others combined with soda ; therefore the term vegeta-
ble alkali, as applied to potash, is not correct, although
it is procured in the greatest abundance from the com-
bustion of vegetable matter of various kinds.

Potash is likewise found combined with the carbonic
and nitric acids.

CARBONATE OF POTASH.

Carbonate of potash, in its various states of prepara-
tion from different kinds of vegetable matter, is also cal-
led familiarly, potash, pearlash, or salt of tartar.

The combustion of vegetable stems, leaves ashes con-
sisting of the earthy and metallic ingredients of vegeta-
bles, and a proportion of the carbonate of potash. The
latter is dissolved out by water, and being dried, is the
potash of commerce. This when calcined, is called
pearlash. In England and Ireland, potash is obtained
from the combustion, principally, of the common fern;
1000 parts of which, afford about 37 of ashes, and four
and a quarter of potash. In the mountainous forests of
Germany, and woodland tracts of Poland and Russia, it
is prepared in considerable quantity. The British mar-
ket is chiefly supplied from North America, where the
employment of making potash is subsidiary to clearing
the ground for agriculture. The tartar that is deposited
on the sides of the casks in wine countries is, when soft,
formed into masses, which being dried in the sun, are
afterwards piled upon a furnace with alternate strata of
charcoal : the aCid.and inflammable matter of the tartar
is then burned off, without fusing the alkaline part,
which becomes very porous and perfectly white : it is
then dissolved in hot water, and being afterwards eva-
porated, dried, and slightly calcined, becomes fit for
sale, and is the salt of tartar used in medicine. It con-
sists of 48 parts of potash, 43 of carbonic acid, and 9 of
water.

It has long been a question among chemists, whethei
the potash obtained by the combustion of vegetables is
formed by this process., or whether it previously existed

TO MINERALOGY. 137

in the plant. Some of the older eminent chemists were
of the former opinion, but the latter is now gaining
ground.

NITRATE OP POTASH.*

Nitrate of potash, Nitre, or Saltpetre, is naturally
found only in an efflorescent state, in extremely delicate
fibres, and is very abundant. There are few countries
in which it is not found ; it mostly occurs on the surface
of the earth ; never far beneath it. Old walls, afford-
ing animal or vegetable matter in a state of decompo«
sition, dry chalky plains, or sands containing carbonated
lime, are frequently covered by it Argillaceous earths,
or pure sand, never contain it ; whence it seems proba-
ble that lime is essential to its composition, and that
during its spotaneous formation, it absorbs at least one
of its principles from the atmosphere.

Nitre is occasionally, though rarely, found in water ^
but it enters into the composition of several plants, as of
tobacco, the sunflower, hemlock, &c. It consists of
49 parts of potash, 33 of nitric acid, and 18 of water.

it is found on many of the plains of Spain; and on
the chalk near Evreux in France, from which it is ga-
thered 7 or 8 times every year; and in the deep grottos
of Mont Horn burg, in Germany. In Italy it is afforded

Nitrate of Potash. A native earth is faid to cxift on one of the South-
ern branches of the river Potomac, in Maryland, bordering on Virginia,
from which Saltpetre is manufactured. The material was rufty or reddilh
brown, and foft enough to be fcraped by the finger-nail. The bafe feemcd
to be a botar or argillaceous earth. On powdering fome of it, and adding
iulphuric acid, I was faluted by the fumes of the nitrous acid. — (Law, in
Med. Repos. Vol. 12, p. 296.

Native falt-petre exiils in Kentucky affociated with particles of quartz
and fand-rock. Of this, it is reported there are extenfive ftrata, horizon-
tally difpofed. In the fpecimens I have feen, the fait petre feenied to be
uiftributed thrqugh the whole rocky mafs, to cement the filicious particles
together, and to afliil their coherence. Though in fome parts, the falt-
petre filled up fiffures between the parallel layers of the land-rock, and
occupied in like manner veins and cracks acrofs the strata.

The falt-petre caves of Virginia and Kentucky have been mentioned
already. The eftimate of their product is highly confoling to our country ,v
Their hiftory as well as that of the fahpetrous fand rocks afford curious
problems for chemifts to folve.— (firoivn, 6 Trans. Am. Pbilos. Soe. I£
Med. Repos. p. 367.

Thus Poufti is a mineral as well as a vegetable alkali,

M 2

13Q ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

by the calcareous soil of Molfetta. Hungary, the Uk-
raine, and Podolia, furnish Europe with abundance of
nitre. In Arabia it occurs in a valley between Mount
Sinai and Suez. Persia affords it, and it is very com-
mon in India, especially in a large plain about 60 miles
from Agra in Bengal, which is said to have been formerly
well peopled. It is found at the Cape of Good Hope.
The Mountainous regions of Kentucky, which are cal-
careous and full of caverns, afford it to the inhabitants
of North America. In South America, the plains bor-
dering the sea, near Lima, are covered with it.

But nitre is not naturally produced in sufficient quan-
tity for its multiplied uses. It is therefore procured ar-
tificially. In order to this, heaps of Rubbish, of plas-
ter and of earth, with dung and other vegetable matter,
are placed under sheds ; these are moistened with vari-
ous animal fluids, as blood, &c. and the mass is then
exposed to rot in the air. The consequence seems to
be, that the azote disengaged by the putrefaction of the
animal matter, combines with the oxygen of the atmos-
phere, producing nitric acid ; which, by uniting with
the potash of the vegetable matter, forms nitre. This is
afterwards purified.

Nitre is employed in medicine, the arts, and in me-
tallurgy, for assisting the processes of oxidating and
smelting; but its principal if not its chief use is in the
manufacture of gunpowder, for which that imported
from Egypt is the most esteemed, as it contains least cal-
careous matter. Gunpowder consists of 76 parts of nitre,
9 of sulphur, and 15 of light charcoal.

SODA.

Soda is not a simple, elementary body, but a com-
pound, consisting of oxygen united with a base (Sodium),
which possesses several characters common to the me-

TO MINERALOGY. 139

tals ; it most resembles silver, but is lighter than water.
Soda consists of about 22^. of oxygen, and 774- of so-
dium.

Soda is no where found in the pure state ; it enters
into combination in about 12 earthy minerals already
described, in proportions vary ing from 1 to 35 per cent. ;
and is met with in 5 others combined with potash.

Soda is found both in the mineral and vegetable
kingdoms ; it occurs combined with the carbonic, sul-
phuric, boracic, and muriatic acids ; forming carbonate,
sulphate, borate, and muriate of soda.

CARBONATE OF SODA.*

Carbonate of soda is both mineral and vegetable.
When mineral, it is met with either dissolved in the
water of certain hot springs, as those of Carlsbad in
Bohemia, and Rykum in Iceland, or in certain lakes,
as in Egypt and Hungary ; or in the state of a solid
salt found beneath the surface of the soil : — when
vegetable, it has been found to exist ready formed in
the plant called Salsola Soda, and in certain sea weeds.
It is procured from both these sources. Pure carbonate
of soda by analysis yields 22 of soda, 15 of carbonic
acici, 62 of water.

Carbonate of soda is found in the natural state nearly
compact, but somewhat striated, between Tripoli and
Fezzan in Africa; and according to Dr. D. Munro, in
a stratum only one inch thick, in contact, both above
and below, with muriate of soda (common salt). It is
collected to the amount of hundreds of tons annually. It
is called Trona* It rarely reaches Europe. Trona

* Several species of .maritime plants, particularly of Salsola or Glass-
wort, on being reduced to allies by fire, afford a Kelp, or mass of afhes
replete with Soda.

This same alkali ha* alfo been prepared by the burning of certain ma-
rine vegetables, such as the fuel and ulvx that grow upon the rocks under
Salt water.

A fample of fait, brought to me from a well in one of the Saline districts
of Kentucky, was a mixture of Carbonate of Soda vtfrh muriate of Soda ;
of which the quantity of the former was so considerable as to render it un-
fit for seasoning and curing provisions The water from which these Salts
were extracted may be compared to the Nitrian pools of Egypt.

Soda therefore, like potash, is both a vegetable and a mineral alkali.

140 ELEMENTARY* INTRODUCTION

consists of 37 soda, 38 carbonic acid, 22f water, 2f
sulphate of soda.

The mineral carbonate of soda called Ala/row, is pro-
cured from the lakes of Egypt and Hungary. The for-
mer are six in number, situated in a barren valley, called
Bahr-bela-ma, about 33 miles westward of the Delta.
The soil consists of calcareous rock, mixed with gyp-
sum and covered with sand. These lakes contain both
the muriate and carbonate of soda, and the edges of the
lakes are surrounded by a band some yards in breadth,
of these substances, chiefly of the latter; but the prin-
cipal accumulation is at a little distance from the bank,
It is taken out and exported in that impure state.

The lakes of Hungary are four in number, arid lie
between Dobritzin and Groswaradin ; they are much
neglected. The soil is a stiff blue clay covered by white
calcareous sand. The lakes are from one to two miles
in circumference, and in the winter are full of water :
about April they are generally dry, and the saline efflo-
rescences of natron, mixed with a little sulphate of soda,
appear ; which, being gathered, re-appear in three or
four days ; this kind of harvest continues till towards the
end of October, when winter begins, and the lakes be-
come full of water. The Natron, both of Egypt and
Hungary, is imported in pulverulent masses of a tiirty
grey colour.

The Natron of Egypt yields by analysis about 32 of
carbonate of soda, 21 of sulphate of soda, 15 of muriate
of soda, and 32 of water. That of Hungary is compo-
sed of the same salts, but varies in respect of their pro-
portions.

Vegetable carbonate of soda is of two kinds, Barilla
and Kelp. The former is the residuum left after the
combustion of the plants, salsola soda, salicornia, &c,
which are cultivated by the Spaniards on the coast of the
Mediterranean. The sea water is occasionally admitted
to these plantations* When the seed is ripe the plant
is cut down, the seed rubbed out, and the plant is burnt
in a furnace. Kelp is made from sea weeds, principally
from the leafy fuei, vesiculosus and serratus, which grow
«n rocks between high and low water marks. These
plants are gathered on the shores of Britain and othes

TO MINERALOGY. 141

countries from May to August, and after being dried,
are burnt in pits ; during combustion the mass becomes
fluid, and when cold is broken into large pieces, for sale.
It is very impure : the proportion of pure soda contain-
ed in the mass, varies from one and a half, to 5 per cent.

SULPHATE OF SODA.^

Sulphate of Soda is found in an efflorescent state, of
a yellowish or greyish white colour, or in an earthy
form, or more commonly dissolved iii certain mineral
waters : it is of a bitter saline taste, and is most com-
monly met with in the neighbourhood of rock-salt or brine
springs. It consists of 27 of sulphuric acid, 15 of soda,
and 58 of water.

Sulphate of Soda is found in many of the lakes of
Austria, Lower Hungary, Siberia, and Russia, and in
Switzerland ; near Madrid in Spain it occurs in efflores-
cences at the bottom of a ravine, and it is said to form
an ingredient of the waters of the Tagus. It has been
found in the workings of old mines near Grenoble in
France, and sometimes on old walls in the same manner
as nitre. It is also found in the ashes of some vegetables,
especially of sea-weeds, of the tamarind, and of some
kinds of turf; and is therefore not an uncommon sub-
stance. When purified of the iron with which it is usu-
ally tinged in the native state, or when prepared artifi-
cially, it is used in medicine under the name of Glauber's
Salt.

BORATE OF SODA.

Borate of Soda, or Borax, is chiefly, if not only,
brought from Thibet, where it is procured from a lake
which is entirely supplied by springs, and is fifteen days
journey from Tisoolumbo the capital. The water con-
tains both borax and common salt, and being in a very
high situation, is frozen the greater part of the year. — '

* Sulphate of Soda has been found native in fomc of the Limestone Ca-
verns. Alfo, in the preparation of fea-falt from ocean-water : (this article
has been procured in large quantity.) Glauber's fait therefore is an ingre-
dient in the liquid of the fea.

142

ELEMENTARV INTRODUCTION

The edges and shallows of the lake are covered with a
stratum of borax, which is dug up in considerable masses,
and the holes thus made are gradually filled by a fresh
deposition : from the deeper parts of the lake, common
salt is procured. The borax in its rough state is called
Tincal, and is brought to Europe in the form of a brown-
ish grey impure salt ; or in detached crystals about an inch
in length, of a pale greenish hue, arid in the form of
compressed hexahedral prisms.

But it is said also to be found in the island of Ceylon,
in Tartary, in Transylvania, and in Lower Saxony, and
abundantly in the province of Potosi in Peru.

The purification of Borax is an art confined only to a
few chemists : when pure it consists of 34 parts of bora-
cic acid, 17 of soda, and 47 of water.

MURIATE OF SODA.* HOCK SALT. COMMON SALT.

Rock Salt is found in beds or masses ; sometimes
crystallized in the form of the cube, which is that of its
primitive crystal, and into which pure Rock Salt may

readily be cleaved ; when impure, as when its brown co-

•

* Common fait has been prepared from sea-water in various places,
very pure, elegantly crystallized and of great purity. The water is
feparated by fpontaneou& evaporation, and the salt left behind to concrete
in shallow pans.

The fait fprings in the internal parts of the Fredish ftates and territories,
are numerous and in feveral places very rich in muriate of foda.

In New York, thofe of Salina, Montezuma, and Galen, are among the
moft diftinguifhed, and afford inexhauftible quantities of excellent Salt.
The Onondaga Lake, which receives the wafer of the .^alina-Springs, has
on that account, been Ibmetimes called the fait- lake, (bee Deivitt in tie
Trans, of the Society for the promotion of arts, and Med. Repof* Vol. 2.) In
Indiana, there are fait fprings of great importance, to the inhabitants near
the Wabafh. (Acts of Congrets.)

In Virginia, Prefton's falt-wells afford a fupply for the adjacent region,
and appear to be inexhauftible.

In Kentucky the falt-fprings and fait- licks, are a very remarkable fea-
ture in that curious and interefting fection of our country.

In Upper Louifiana the falines or fait prairies, or fait plains near the
northern fources of the Arkanfa excite the attention of all vifitors and
travellers The foil in many parts of the extenfive tracts fituated between
the Miffouri and the Arkanfa, is faid to be fo highly impregnated with falts
that frefh water to drink is a rarity.

It may be rationally prefumed that thefe fprings and others not herein
enumerated, are fed by ftrata or depofits of rock-falt, forming ftrata below.
Water running over fuch thick and folid mafies of felt, carries away a

TO MINERALOGY. 143

I-our is derived from an intermixture of clay, its structure
is less deterrninately lamellar ; its lustre is shining or vi-
treous ; it is either translucent or transparent, and its co-
lour is very various, as white, grey, reddish brown, brick
red, violet, blue, and green. It yields easily to the
knife ; 'its specific gravity is 2.54 ; pure muriate of soda,
according to Berzelius, is composed of 46.55 of muriatic
acid, and 53.44 of soda. Rock Salt, according to Kir-
wan, is composed of 33 of muriatic acid, 50 of soda, and
17 of water : when of any of the forementioned colours,
it is always somewhat impure. It is sometimes, though
not often, of a fibrous texture.

Muriate of Soda is one of the most abundant substan-
ces in nature ; not only is it found in large beds and mas-
ses, but also in the waters of certain springs and lakes ;
and in those of every sea. It forms about one-thirtieth
part of the waters of the Ocean.

Salt, or Brine Sp?*ings are not found in primitive
countries ; but generally arise from the newer seconda-
ry : nevertheless they are said never to be far distant
from the chains of primitive mountains : they are found
at the foot of the Alps, the Vosges, the Pyrenees, the
Carpathian mountains, &ic. ; those of Droitwich, in our
own country, are surrounded by a brownish red sand-
stone, which is considered to be the old red sandstone
of Werner. So immense is the quantity which rises
from the fourpits,*which are sunk through various kinds
of soil, rock, and gypsum, that, although that which is
used bears but a small proportion to that which runs to
waste, the quantity of salt annually made from them
amounts to about 16,000 tons. Salt springs are said to
arise in countries in which no deposition of Rock salt
has been discovered , the brine commonly contains some
portions of certain other salts, as sulphate of soda, and

part of it. When the brine runs away, there is faid to be a falt-fpring ;
when it is ftagnant and reached only by digging, ittconftitutes a falt-well.
The fuppofed beds of rock-falt fupplying the fprings and wells, were pro-
bably derelictions of the i'alt ocean which originally covered the whole of
North America, or of the fait lakes that continued to cover extenfive
tracts of that continent, after the primitive ocean had retired. The rea-
fons for this opinion may be feen in my memoir on the organic remains
which were depofited during thofe periods, and that have come to view
flnce the waters retired to their prefent refervoirs,

144 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

sulphate of lime, &c. and it has been remarked in re-
gard to some springs, that the quantity of brine always
increases after heavy rains.

Rock Salt is commonly disposed in thick beds ; either
superficial, as in Africa, or of a very great depth, as in
Poland : sometimes they are very high above tlfe level
of the sea, as in the Cordilleras of America, and also in
Savoy ; where they are found at an elevation equal to
that of perpetual snow. In Spain, Rock salt occurs in
vast masses, which seem to be isolated.

Sulphate of lime, or gypsum, almost always accom-
panies Rock salt ; and is sometimes so impregnated by
it, as to be worked as a Salt mine, as at Arbonne in
Savoy.

Red or greyish clay frequently alternates in beds with
Rock salt ; but blocks or masses of clay are said more
often to be enclosed in it: when in beds the clay is ac-
companied by sand, grit-stone, and rounded pebbles,
and by compact carbonate of lime, which is sometimes
fetid, sometimes bituminous. Rock salt commonly
rests upon sulphate of lime, and is covered by car-
bonate of lime. In the beds of various substances
which accompany it, are sometimes found the remains
of organized bodies, the bones of elephants and other
mammalia, carbonized wood, fossil- shells, and bitu-
men ; and frequently masses of sulphur are found in the
sulphate or carbonate of lime.

Several countries in Europe abound in Rock salt and
Salt springs ; Spain, Germany, Italy, part of Russia,
&c. ; in England in Worcestershire and Cheshire ; in
France there are many Salt springs, but no known de-
posite of salt, Sweden and Norway are without salt.
It is abundantly found in many countries of Asia, Africa,
and America.

TO MINERALOGY, 145

AMMONIA.

Ammonia, or Volatile Alkali, when pure, subsists in a
gaseous form. It is commonly believed to consist of
hydrogen and nitrogen; but some experiments of
Sir H. Davy have induced the suspicion that it contains
7 or 8 per cent, of oxygen.

It is only found combined with the sulphuric and
muriatic acids ; forming sulphate and muriate of am-
monia.

SULPHATE OF AMMONIA.

Sulphate of Ammonia has an acrid, bitter taste. It
occurs in the form of stalactites, of a yellowish colour,
and covered by a whitish, farina-like dust, which are
found in the fissures of the earth surrounding certain
small lakes near Sienna in Tuscany. It consists of 40
per cent, of ammonia, 42 of sulphuric acid, and 18 of
water.

MURIATE OF AMMONIA. SAL AMMONIAC.

The Muriate of Ammonia is not abundant ; it chiefly
appears in efflorescence of a greyish white, yellowish,
apple green, or brownish black colour; but sometimes
occurs in small crystals which are not very determinate,
It consists of 40 per cent, of ammonia, 52 of muriatic
acid, and 8 of water

This salt is characterized by its insolubility in water,
and by the amrnoniacal odour which it gives out when
triturated with lime, better than by any of its external
characters. It sometimes exists in the substances which
enclose it, in such a manner, as to be without the reach
of the eye or the feel.

It is principally found in the neighbourhood of volca-
noes, sublimed in the cracks of lava, among other vola-
tile matters near their craters. It thus occurs in the
lavas of Etna and Vesuvius. At Solfatara it escapes in

N

140 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

bubbles, which are caught and condensed in long earthen
pipes. It is said to appear in efflorescences on certain
rocks in Turquestan in Persia, in Calmuc Tartary, Bu-
charia and Siberia ; in some lakes of Tuscany, and cer-
tain Springs of Germany ; and in some English coal,
especially that of Newcastle.

Volatile alkali is obtained from Muriate of Ammonia.
The Sal Ammoniac of commerce is chiefly brought from
Egypt, where the soot proceeding from the combus-
tion of the excrements of certain ruminating animals
who feed on saline plants, is collected in chimnies,
whence the soot is taken and placed in large glass ves-
sels : it is then heated sufficiently to drive off the mu-
riate of ammonia, which is sublimed, and attaches itself
to the upper edges of the vessel in cakes, which are al-
ways, in some degree, tinged by the soot ; in this state
it is sometimes preferred for use in the arts. The soot
affords nearly one third its weight of Sal ammoniac.

It is obtained in various parts of Europe by the dis-
tillation of animal matter.

It is used in medicine, and in the art?.

NATIVE METALS

AND

METALLIFEROUS MINERALS:

Including such Metals as occur nearly pure, or
combined with oxygen, or sulphur^ or one or
more of the acids ; together with those compound
substances commonly denominated Metalliferous
ores.

IRON.*

PURE Iron is of a bluish grey colour, and has a granu-
lar texture ; it is hard, ductile, and malleable, and is
the most tenacious of metals next to gold. Like cobalt
and nickel, it is magnetic ; and so readily is polarity
acquired by iron, that a bar remaining a long time in a
vertical position, or even approaching to it, becomes
magnetic. The northern pole is always at the lower
extremity. The specific gravity of iron is about 7.

Iron is an ingredient of mica, which enters largely
into the composition of some of the oldest and most
abundant primitive rocks ; and being found in all soils,
and in almost every rock, it is therefore considered to
be the most generally diffused substance in nature. It
has been met with in the nearly pure metallic state in
considerable masses, reputed to have fallen from the at-
mosphere ; but these masses are generally alloyed by

Jro/j.— Iron is found abundantly in the United States ; in the veins of
the primitive and tranfition rocks of New- York and New-Jerfey ; and in,
fecondary and alluvial tracts of both thefe States, and of feveralx>thers.

148 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

nickel. Native Iron is also said to have been found dis-
seminated in certain metalliferous veins. The ores of
iron are very numerous ; it occurs combined with sul-
phur, oxygen, the oxides of titanium, manganese, and
chrome ; the phosphoric, sulphuric, carbonic, and arse-
nic acids ; with silex, alumine, lime, and with water.
Mineralogists are not well agreed either in respect of the
names or the arrangement of the ores of Iron.

The ores of Iron, which are of a dark brown or black
colour, and in which the iron is considered to be com-
bined with a small proportion of oxygen, such as the
magnetic and brown iron ores, belong chiefly, though
not exclusively, to primitive countries : they often form
an integral part of primitive rocks.

The Red Iron ores chiefly belong to secondary and
alluvial countries ; they are occasionally met with in the
veins of primitive mountains, but are not found entering
into the composition of primitive rocks.

The red and argillaceous varieties, but particularly
the latter, it is remarkable, are generally found in the
neighbourhood of coal, so essential to their reduction
~icrtue metallic state ; either resting on the coal or filling
up the fissures in it. Iron ore is thus found in the col-
lieries of Glamorgan, ofMonmouth, Staffordshire, Shrop-
shire, and of those of Carron in Scotland.

It would be vain to attempt the enumeration of the
uses to which iron is put by man. Steel is an artificial
combination of iron with carbon. The brown colour
used in Porcelain painting is oxide of iron.

An ore, in which iron is combined with alumine, is
used in the making of what are termed red lead pencils.
Plumbago, or black lead, is a natural compound of iron,
with a large proportion of carbon.

NATIVE IRON.

Native Iron is said to have been found in veins.
- ;a» ''.'- Scrieber mentions having met with it in the form of a
ramose stalactite covered by brown fibrous oxide of iron,
mingled with quartz and clay, in a vein traversing the
mountain of gneiss, called Ouile, near Grenoble in,
France.

TO MINER ALOGF. 140

Bergman cites instances of malleable iron having been
found in a gangue of brown garnets, near Steinbach in
Saxony.

Lehman says that it was found in a vein at Eibestock
in Saxony.

Karsten describes a brown oxide of iron mingled with
spathose iron and sulphate of barytes, which contained
native iron disseminated through the mass. It was found
at Kamsdorf ; and consisted of about 92£ parts of iron,
6 of lead, and li of copper.

NATIVE METEORIC IRON.^

Native Meteoric Iron is somewhat paler and lighter
than common metallic iron, and is often more mallea-
ble : it is supposed that its colour and superior mallea-
bility may be owing to a small portion of nickel combi-
ned with it, and that its lightness is owing to the very
numerous minute ceils observable in it. It is magnetic,
flexible, and cellular; the cells are occasionally filled by
a yellowish and translucent substance, of a somewhat resi-
nous appearance, by some considered as a variety of olivin.

Meteoric Iron has been fount! in different quarters of
the globe ; in Bohemia, in Senegal, in South America,,
and in Siberia ; of the latter we have the best account.
It was found by professor Pallas on the top of a moun-
tain, on which there was a considerable bed of magnetic
iron-stone, on the banks of the river Jenisei. It weighed

* Native Meteoric Iron.— In the New- York Inftitution Col. Gibbs has
placed a mafs of nacive iron, brought from one of the weftern branches
of the Red River, in Louifiana. It weighs 3000 Ibs. Its greateft length
exceeds three feet, and its greateft breadth amounts to about two and a
half feet. Its exterior furface is irregular, abounding in elevations and de-

preflions (Med. Repos. vol. \5,f. 88, and -vol. i6,f. 424.) Pieces have

been liberally beftowed on curious individuals and mufeums. It is perfectly
malleable, and feveral articles hammered out of pieces directly from the
mafs, are in my poffcffion. Its outfide is covered with a blackifh cruft,
on the removal of which the bright metal foon becomes oxyded again. It
appears to be remarkably pure, containing neither nickel nor any other
metal. — (Amer. Min. Jour. p. 124.)

The meteoric ftones, which fell at Wefton, in Connecticut, contained
iron, the greater part of which was in a perfectly metallic ftate. A
whole ftone attracts the magnet, and its powder is attracted by the mag-
net. Portions of metallic iron may be feparated, large enough to be ex-
tended under the hammer. Some of the iron is combined with fulphur
into pyrites. (SiMiman and Kingsley.)

N2,

150 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

1680 Russian pounds, and possessed some of the impor-
tant characters of pure iron, as malleability and flexibili-
ty, and was reported by the inhabitants to have fallen
from the sky. The mass found in the Vice-royalty of
Peru in South America, was described by Don Rubin
de Celis : it weighed about fifteen tons ; it was compact
externally, and was marked with impressions as if of
hands and feet, but much larger, and of the claws of
birds; internally it presented many cavities : it was near-
ly imbedded in white clay, and the country round it was
quite flat and destitute of water. Meteoric Iron is alloyed
by about 3 parts in the 100 of nickel ; which, it is wor-
thy of remark, is also found by analysis to be a consti-
tuent part of all those stones, which in various parts of
the European Continent, in England, and in America,
have been known to fall from the atmosphere, and are
therefore termed meteoric stones.

In the imperial cabinet at Vienna there is a very con-
siderable mass of meteoric iron, which fell from the at-
mosphere in 1751 at Hraschina, near Agrarn in Croatia,
appearing in the air like a globe of fire. It consists of
964 per cent, of iron and 3* of nickel.

The Abbe Haiiy is of opinion that some appearances
of crystallization approaching the regular octohedron
be traced in meteoric iron.

IRON PYttlTES. SULPHURET OF IRON.

Iron Pyrites is tin-white, steel-grey, or of various
shades of yellow, and is found in mass, and of various
shapes, as stalactitic, nodular, &tc. and crystallized. It
includes several varieties some of which greatly resem-
ble yellow copper ore, but may be readily distinguished,
as the latter yields to the knife, which iron pyrites does
not.

* Iron Pyrites.— -This mineral exifh in primitive and fecondary rocks
abundantly in New- York, New-Jerfey and elfewhere, and is frequent in
alluvial fituationt, It exifts in cubes, parallellopipeds, rounded balls, irre-
gular globules, and in maffive forms. Its colours are bright yellow, pale
yellow, and brown. Some of its forms are permanent ; in other cafes, it
decoaipofes fpontaneoufly, and crumbles down.

Pyrites often penetrates wood that has been buried long in the earth
and carbonated. Such kinds of mineralized timber have been dug up on
Long-lfland, Staten-Ifhnd, Waftungton city, and innumerable other places*

TO MTNEP^ALOGY. 151

One variety, which affects the magnetic needle, is
therefore called Magnetic Pyrites. It is not found crys-
tallized ; it is generally of a bronze yellow, but is some-
times brown. Its magnetic property is supposed to be
derived from its containing a larger proportion of iron
than common pyrites ; it consists of 63.5 metallic iron,
and 36.5 of sulphur ; and its specific gravity is 4.5.

It is believed to belong almost exclusively to primi-
tive countries. It is met with in Saxony, Bohemia, Si-
lesia ; at Moel Elion in Caernarvonshire, it occurs with
common pyrites in a kind of serpentine, and near
Nantes in France in limestone.

When nearly of a tin-white, yellowish, or steel-grey,
it is termed White Pyrites. The principal difference
between it and ConTmon Pyrites seems to be, that the
former decomposes much easier. The specific gravity
of the former is 4.7 ; of the latter 4.8. Both are found
crystallized in the cube, which is considered to be the
form of the primitive crystal : the crystals of common
pyrites, in my possession, afford 38 varieties of form,
which are very beautiful and interesting. White and
common pyrites differ very little in the results of their
analyses. The latter yields about 47i parts of iron, and
5 If of sulphur. The former contains a rather larger
proportion of sulphur.

A variety is occasionally found containing both sul-
phur and arsenic ; it is of a paler colour than common
pyrites. The arsenical ore of iron called Mispickel is
noticed under the head Arsenic, to which it properly be-
longs.

Iron Pyrites occurs in almost every species of rock. —
It abounds in granite, and particularly in argillaceous
schistus. It is never wrought as an ore of iron, but is
largely employed in the manufacture of green vitriol ;
and sulphur is often procured from it by sublimation.

MAGNETIC IRON

Magnetic Iron Ore is generally of an iron-black co-

* Magnetic Iron Ore. The Magnet is found abundantly in the high-
lands of New- York, near the Military Academy at Wdft-Poim, in the
primitive formation of rocks. It is alfo fo plentiful in the tranfition rocks

152 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

lour, with a slight metallic lustre. It is found massive,
and crystallized in some varieties of the octohedroD,
which is considered to be its primitive crystal. It is
sufficiently magnetic to take up iron filings, and possesses
polarity. It is nearly a pure oxide of iron. Its specific
gravity is about 4.5.

It is most commonly found in primitive countries,
generally in beds and large masses ; and is accompa-
nied by hornblende, granular limestone, and garnet ;
and occasionally by blende, all the varieties of pyrites,
fluate of lime, oxide of tin, and sulphuret of lead, &c.

The mountains called Taberg in Swedish Lapland,
and Pumachanche in Chili, are said to consist almost
entirely of Magnetic Iron Ore. It is plentifully found
also in Corsica, Saxony, Bohemia, Silesia, Russia, and
the East Indies. In Great Britain, in Cornwall, Devon,
and the Isle of Unst in the Hebrides.

It exists in great abundance and purity at Roslagia
in Sweden, where it is manufactured into the best bar
iron, so much sought after by our manufacturers of steel,
though it affords only middling cast iron.

Some varieties of Magnetic Iron ore, either compact,
sandy, or earthy, have been found, containing from 12
to 22 per cent, of oxide of titanium. The sandy variety
is found in angular or rounded masses, and in octohedrai
crystals. It occurs at Hunstanton, in Norfolk ; in
Agyleshire; and r»t Arklow, near Wicklow in Ireland,
with native gold.

RED IRON ORE.* IRON GLANCE.

Red Iron ore presents itself under many varieties of
form and colour ; most if not all of which are very fee-

«f Sehooley's Mountain in New-Jerfey, that furreyors are embarrafied to
find the true courfe by the needle of the compafs. The load-ftone affects
it very much in certain places. Magnetical Iron Ore is found in many
other places. Indeed, as the globe we inhabit exhibits fuch ftrong evi-
dence of magnetical attraction, I entertain no doubt of the prevalence of
iron, or of forae other magnetical metal, throughout its denfe body, efpe-
cially in the northern hemifphere.

* Pieces of the red ore of Iron, are frequently picked up along the
coafts of New- York. They are soft enough to be employed by the millers
to make marks on barrels of flour, in addition to the brands from hot

TO MINERALOGF. 153

bly magnetic : and though fragile, many of them are
hard enough to scratch glass : they all afford a red pow-
der. Iron Glance is considered, by many mineralogists}
to be an oxide of iron, but not one variety has yet been
analyzed. It occurs crystallized ; in lamellae ; mica-
ceous ; in scales ; in globular masses, and in stalactites ;
also compact and ochrey.

Chrystallized Iron Glance occurs under very different
circumstances. It is abundantly found in the old and
famous mines of the Island of Elba, in very brilliant and
frequently, very large crystals ; and in Saxony, Bohe-
mia, Silesia, Switzerland, France, Norway, Sweden,
and in Cornwall. It is also met with, principally in irre-
gular and compressed crystals, in the fissures of the lavas
of the Pay de Dome in France, of Vesuvius, also in the
Lipari islands, and the volcano of Stromboli.

It affords an excellent malleable iron, but somewhat
hard ; and also a good, but not the very best, cast iron.
Its specific gravity is about 5. ^*v;

In lamella of a shining metallic lustre, it is met with
in Caernarvonshire, and at Kskdale in Cumberland.

The micaceous variety is found piincipally with other
ores of iron, and sometimes with coal ; it occurs in mi-
nute scales of a reddish black colour, and unctuous to
the touch. It is found in the Hartz, at Schemnitz in
Saxony, &c. and at Tavistock in Devonshire, and Dun-
keld in Perthshire ; the scaly variety seems to differ ve-
ry little from it.

Red Haematites Iron ore, is of a bluish grey colour,
with a metallic lustre, and passes into brownish red ; it
occurs in globular and stalactitic masses, which internal-
ly have a fibrous diverging structure ; and are sometimes
in concentric layers. Its specific gravity is nearly 5. It

irons. They were in all probability wafhed from the interior country,
where iron ore abounds, to the sea coaft, by the weight and preffure of
water that broke the barriers, and covered the alluvion of the ocean with
another and more recent alluvion from the mountains.

My fpecimens from Elba, are diverfified and elegant. Ore of the crys-
tals has the faces of a mirror ; and the fides are fo bright:, that the face, the
eye, and even, a hair are reflected in the moft perfect manner to the behol-
der. Quartz, opal, and (hort-afbeftos (mineral cow itch) accompanied
my box of articles.

The micaceous ore of iron ore exifts in New- York, Vermont, and va^
vious other places,

154 ELEMENTARI INTRODUCTION

is found in Saxony, France, Silesia, and in England ;
very abundantly at Ulverstone in Lancashire ; and in
the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire ; but Norway, and
other Northern countries, seem almost destitute of this
variety. It affords excellent iron, both cast and mal-
leable ; most of the plate iron and iron wire of England
are made of it. When ground to fine powder, it is large-
ly employed in the polishing of rnetal.

The Compact variety is of a dark steel-grey, brownish,
or blood red colour, and is found in mass, disseminated,
&c. and sometimes in crystals that have taken the forms
and places of those of other substances. Jt is found in
France, Germany, Norway, Siberia, and at Ulverstone
in England, and occurs both in primitive and secondary
countries. It affords good cast iron, and malleable though
somewhat soft, bar iron.

Reddle, Red Ochre, or Red Chalk, is of a blood red,
passing into brownish red. It is dull, earthy, and is nearly
without lustre. It generally accompanies the two pre-
ceding varieties. It is used in the arts. Near Platte in
Bohemia it is smelted, and affords very excellent mallea-
ble iron.

BROWN IRON ORE.

Brown iron ore, like the preceding species, is found
under several varieties of form ; but does not resemble
it in being slightly, magnetic : all its varieties afford a
brown powder. It is riot certain wherein it differs from
the Red Iron ore ; most of the varieties of the Brown
Iron ore have been proved to contain a small proportion
of oxide of manganese, and this is supposed to constitute
the difference between the two species. It also occurs
scaly ; in globular masses, and stalactites ; also compact
and ochrey.

The scaly variety seems to differ in its internal cha-
racters from the scaly variety of the red, only in being
of a colour between steel grey and clove brown.

The Brown Hcematites* is found under nearly the same

""* ''.''-.'.'. O. ' '

* A compact variety of this ore, containing encrivites and shells appa-
rently of the fea, was brought to me from Oneida, by Gov. D. \V. Clin-

TO MINERALOGY. 155

circumstances, but not altogether in the same countries
as the red ; it yields a better cast iron than the brown ;
but the bar iron of the latter is both very malleable and
very hard, probably from the manganese which it con-
tains ; hence it yields excellent steel. Though it is
found in England, it does not occur in sufficient quantity
to be wrought.

The Compact variety is found accompanying the pre-
ceding in the form of stalactites, and in masses of vari-
ous shapes. It is remarkable in respect of its forming
the substance of several petrifactions, as of madreporites
and coralites. It is dull internally.

Brown Iron Ochre also accompanies brown haematites.
It is destitute of lustre, and has an earthy fracture ; it is
tender, soils the fingers, and is of a yellowish brown co-
lour. It does not contain any manganese.

BLACK IRON ORE.*

Black Iron Ore is a rare mineral of a bluish black
colour; ancKs found globular, massive, &c. It is of a
fine fibrous diverging structure, and has a glimmering
and somewhat metallic lustre.

The Compact variety seems to have been found only
in Saxony, Hesse, and some other parts of Germany, in
primitive and secondary mountains, accompanying the
preceding species. It was long confounded with com-
pact grey manganese ; but it yields a good iron which
corrodes the sides of the furnace.

Black Hematites Iron ore has been found only at
Schmalkalden in Hesse. In form it greatly resembles
the Red Haematites, but differs in being more of a steel
grey, and of a more delicately fibrous structure.

Neither of these varieties has been analyzed.

ton. It is delineated in the laft figure of the third plate of my Geological
Memoir on North America.

* Is not the beautiful fibrous iron ore whofe cryftals radiate from centre
to circumference, a variety of this fpecies ? I mean that fort which is work-
ed at Ancram ; and whole lumps are found among the inland alluvial ar-
ticles of Staten ifland.

156 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

CLAY IRON-STONE.* ARGILLACEOUS IRON-STONE.

Argillaceous Iron-Stone is of an ash grey colour, in-
clining to yellowish and bluish ; also brown or reddish
brown, which last colour is usually the effect of exposure
to the atmosphere ; some varieties have a slaty struc-
ture ; some are glimmering, others dull. It occurs in
globular masses, solid or pulverulent within ; and in
masses of various shapes, as columnar and lenticular,
and in little rounded portions about the size of peas.

The globular masses, consisting of concentric layers
either hollow, or enclosing a yellowish brown pulveru-
lent substance, are termed JEtites : externally, these
masses are very compact, bard and brown : they are
found in argillaceous beds in some secondary countries,
and sometimes abundantly disseminated in alluvial hills;
and are occasionally accompanied by bituminized wood.
.^Etites consists of about 77 parts of peroxide of iron, 14
of water, 2 of oxide of manganese, 5 of silex, and 1 of
alumine : it is found in Bohemia and Saxony; in France,
in beds of sand and of ochre. It is frequently met with
in the newer secondary rocks, and in the shale of coal
formations; it occurs at Coalbrookdale in Shropshire,
and Merthyr Tydvil in Wales, and in Scotland ; at which
places it yields an iron of a fine quality. It also occurs
in Staffordshire, Yorkshire, &c.
The Columnar variety is of a brownish red colour, and

* Argillaceous iron ore is found in many places along the fea coaft and
ihores of New- York. It is found in the form of globular or roundilh maf-
fes, which on being broken, are found to contain a kernel of fofter matter,
ufually ochreous, refembling the yelk of an egg, within its ft ell.

Mafles of this kind are frequently found, after having been accidentally
broken. Through the fractured part, die friable internal core or kernel
occafionally efcapes by wafting and attrition, and leaves a cavity behind
yefembling a tea-cup, an ink-fland, a hollow fphere, &c.

Ferruginous iron, in the form of a bafaltic ore has been found at
JPlandome. ( ' Med. JRef. Vol. z,f>. zip. ) The form was an irregular pen-
tagon, with truncated extremities, and fomewhat convex furfaces.

Pea-iron ore from Egg Harbour, was ftown me by John G. Bogert,
Bfquire.

Granular iron ore, is common in the Highlands. The mafies are about
the fize of peas, and the fpaces are ufually filled by quartz. The conftitu-
tion of the ore is very compact.

TO MINERALOGY. 157

is dull, soft, brittle and magnetic ; it is met with in
round masses and in columns. It occurs occasionally in
beds of shale, above coal, and in many cases seems a
pseudo-volcanic product, being accompanied by burnt
clay, £c. and is met with in Germany in several places,
and in the isle of Arran. It is not a common mineral,
and is never wrought as an ore of iron.

Pisiform or Pea Iron Ore, is mostly found in round
grains of a dark brown colour; having an external po-
lish, and internal earthy fracture, imbedded in a ferru-
ginous, argillaceous, or calcareous cement. It is found
in beds of clay, and in flat beds beneath the surface :
but mostly in cavities in secondary limestone. It in-
cludes less iron, and more alumine and silex, than
jEtites. It supplies very considerable iron works at
Arau, near Berne in Switzerland ; and the greater part
of the French iron is said to be produced from this ore :
but the iron yielded by it is said to be often of a bad
quality, and very brittle.

BOG IRON ORE.*

Bog Iron Ore is of various shades of black and brown,
and is generally of a soft earthy texture. It has obtained
its name from its being chiefly met with in marshy
places, or in those which have been so ; it consists of
about 66 parts peroxide of iron, 2 of oxide of manga-
nese, 8 of phosphoric acid, and 23 of water. A variety
which is nearly black is termed pitchy, and occurs mas-
sive, with a shining lustre ; it contains about the same
proportion of iron, combined with 8 of sulphuric acid
and 25 of water. The earthy variety, which occurs in
yellowish brown cellular masses, has not been analyzed.
it is found in Saxony, Prussia, Poland, and many parts

* Bog-ore of iron abounds in North America. It is found on the ifland.
of New- York. It is worked into Bloomery-iron, near Ballftown Springs.
It fupports the large iron works at Egg- harbour. It fupplies great furna-
ces and forges on both fides of the Chefapeake, in Maryland. It is worked
in many other places.

Part of it appears to have been brought to the ftrata where it lies, part-
ly by the wain from the inland region, when the barriers which confined
the interior feas or lakes, gave way ; and partly by the chalybeate fprings
and oozings of water trickling over the foil, and depofiting their iron.

o

158 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION'

of the north of Europe ; in the Highlands of Scotland
and the Orkneys. The acids contained in this species
are supposed to have arisen from decayed vegetable
matter ; and it is believed that owing to their presence,
the iron obtained from Bog Iron Ore is what is termed
cold-short, and therefore can scarcely ever be used for
plate iron, never for wire.

BLtfE IRON ORE

Is of a pale or dirty blue colour : it occurs in slender
rhomboidal prisms, which are of an earthy texture :
when fresh dug it is white, but by exposure becomes
blue ; and has been found consisting of about 47 parts of
oxide of iron, 32 of phosphoric acid, and 20 of water. It
is usually found in small portions or nests in certain clays,
bog iron ore, or peat. It occurs in France, Saxony,
Poland, and Scotland ; in Siberia, in fossil shells ; in the
lavas of Etna ; and in England, in the river-mud at Tox-
teth near Liverpool, and in the Isle of Dogs on the bor-
ders of the Thames.

SPATHOSE IRON.f

.'r ..• - .u,,-.:. ,'"• '-' iff. **• £>":•, '. • ' '-•£ ..-•:•

Spathose Iron is of a white or yellowish grey colour,
passing by decomposition into yellow, brown, and
brownish black ; when translucent, it has not the ap-
pearance of a metalliferous substance. It mostly occurs
in rhombs, which are rarely perfect, and is found in
veins, principally, of primitive mountains ; it is some-
times accompanied by sulphuret of iron, yellow copper
ore, grey copper, quartz, carbonated lime, &c. It is
met with in Saxony, Hungary, &ic. and in many places,
in sufficient quantity for working as an ore of iron. At
Schmalkalden in Hesse, there is a bed of the black va-

* There is an ore of iron, brought from Allentown, near Trenton, N.
J. that is brown when dug out of the earth, but turns blue by expofure to
the atmofphere. The colour is fine, and as Col. Trumbull believes, pro-
mifes a valuable article for painters. It is compact, hard and amorphous,
and contains no phofporic acid. (Cutbufi, in Am. Mm. "Journal, p. 86.y~

f I have American fpecimens of the Spathofe iron-ore ; but do not now
rgnember from what place they came.

TO MINERALOGY. 159

riety 150 feet thick, which has been worked for several
centuries ; and at Somororstro in Spain, there is a hill
entirely composed of it. It occurs in small quantities
in several of the mines of Cornwall. Spathose iron ore
consists of 58 parts of oxide of iron, 35 of carbonic acid,
4.25 of oxide of manganese, 0.5 of lime, and 0.75 of
magnesia. The iron obtained from it is particularly va-
luable, as it may be converted into excellent steel im-
mediately from the state of cast iron ; the bar iron form-
ed from it is both hard and tough.

SULPHATE OF IRON.* GREEN VITRIOL.

Sulphate of Iron is found in fibres of a whitish, green-
ish, or yellowish colour, occasionally of an emerald green
colour ; it occurs massive, in stalactites, and pulverulent.
Jt is also found crystallized in an acute rhomboid, ac-
cording to Haiiy of 81° 33'. and 98° 37', which is the
form of its primitive crystal ; it presents a few varieties
of form. It is met with in most mines of sulphuret of
iron, of copper, and of zinc ; the two latter being rarely
exempt from iron.

.. *

CHROMATE OF IRON.f

Cbromate of Iron has hitherto been found only mas-
sive : its aspect is somewhat metallic, and it is hard
enough to cut glass; it is of a blackish brown colour,

* Copperas is found native in various places ; being formed chiefly from
the decompofition of pyrites. My abftracl: of the manufactures of the
United States, returned by the Marshals of the feveral diftricts, to the Se-
cretary of State in 1810, contains the quantities of copperas, or vitriol of
iron, manufactured in Vermont, New-Jerfey, Tenneffee, and other ftates.
It is now underftood that it may be prepared to any demand ; but the
cheapnefs of the article imported from foreign parts, fupercedes, in a great
degree, the domeftic manufacture. It was in a copperas cave that fome of
the Malay mummies were found. (Miller in Med. Repos.}

f Great quantities of this mineral exift near Baltimore, in Maryland.—
It is brownifli, inclined towards a rofe-colour. Its ufual form is granular 5
though fometimea compact and maffive. It is frequently bedded in Steati-
tes, or Soap-rock. Beautiful yellow paint has been prepared by combining
the chromic acid with lead —(Keyser.} A lamellated chromate of iron
has been found in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia.

Solution of iron in water. — Chalybeate fprings are very frequent in New-
York and around. My experiments on that of Schooley's mountain, may

160 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

and when reduced to powder, of an ash grey. It has
been found in the Uralian mountains in Siberia ; and
since, in nodules and veins in serpentine, near Gassin, in
the department of the Var, in France. The latter con-
sists of oxide of iron 34 parts, chromic acid 43 ; alumine
20 ; silex 2. That of Siberia differs principally in con-
taining 10 per cent, more of the chromic acid and 10
per cent, less of alumine : it also contains small portions
of lime and of manganese.

ARSENIATE OF IRON.

This beautiful substance is rarely found massive, but
mostly in cubes of various shades of green, vellow, and
brown, sometimes nearly red ; they are translucent,
and occasionally almost transparent, but possess more
of the appearance of an earthy, than of a metalliferous
substance ; by decomposition they become of a dull
brown, lose their trarislucency, and at length assume the
pulverulent form. The cube is considered to be the
form of the primitive crystal ; I possess seven varieties;
and it is remarkable, in some of them, that only 4 of the
8 solid angles are replaced by planes ; but in the more
complex variety, each angle is replaced. This mineral
is said hitherto to have been found only in some of the
copper veins of Cornwall. In that called liuel Gorland,
which is partly in argillaceous schistus and partly in gra-
nite, it was found in the same vein with native copper,
and some of its ores, as the vitreous, red oxide, and ar-
seniate of copper ; also with arsenical pyrites, quartz,
and flu ate of lime; but the arseniate of iron was gene-
rally met with nearer to the surface than these substances.
The arseniale of iron consists of 48 per cent of iron, 18
of arsenic acid, arid 30 of water.

te perufed in the American Min. Journal, Vol. I. p. 77—78. My expe-
riments and remarks on that of the Chappequa fpring near Mount Plea-
fant. contained in my letter to J. Smith, Efq. reprefent it as a delicate folu-
tion of iron. My opinion of the mineral fpring at Flufhing, expreffed in
my note to Dr. Bloodgood, exhibits it as containing a higher charge of the
ferruginous mineral, than is common. Several pumps in the city of New -
York, afford ftrong chalybeate waters. The like are frequent in the vici*
nity. There is a plenty of iron in the Ballflown mineral water. t

TO MINERALOGY. 161

MANGANESE.

Manganese is so difficult to be obtained in tbe metal-
lic state, that very little more is known of it than that it
is of a whitish or iron grey colour, somewhat malleable,
brittle, almost infusible, and that its specific gravity is
nearly 7.

From the black oxide of manganese, * all the oxygen
gas used by the chemist is obtained, and all the oxygen
entering into the composition of the oxymuriatic acid
consumed in the bleacheries of Britain, France, and
Germany. The violet colour employed in porcelain
painting is obtained from manganese. In glass-making,
it is employed in thq^ner kinds of glass, both as a co-
louring material and a destroyer of colour : this applica-
tion of it is ancient ; it is mentioned by Pliny.

Manganese belongs perhaps rather more to primitive
than to secondary countries. In the state of an oxide it
is found combined in a very considerable number both
of earthy and metalliferous minerals, though for the
most part, only in very small proportions. It may be
said to be found almost universally : it is met with both
in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and is an ingre-
dient of mica, which is a constituent of the oldest of the/
primitive rocks.

Manganese is found in ores of great variety of aspect.
They may be divided into four kinds.

GREY MANGANESE,

Grey manganese is either compact, acicular, or crys*
tallized. When compact, it occurs in masses of various
shapes, which are internally of a glistening metallic lus*

* It has been found, in combination with iron, at Ancram, N. Y. For
its particular hiftory , fee Med. Repos. Vol^ 1 1 , />. 442—3. Alfo diflemina-
ted among the rocks in the neighbourhood of Baltimore, (Gilmor, American
Min> Journal, p. 232.) not far from Vergeanes, in Vermont, (Gibbs} and
JUFI fcveral other places.

O2

162 *LTJS:i>IENTARY INTRODUCTION

tie ; it is met with in France, Saxony, Piedmont, Bohe-
mia, and at Upton Pyne in Devonshire, where it is cal-
led Black-wad. It has the singular property of inflaming
spontaneously when mixed with one-fourth of its weight
of linseed oil and set in a dry warm place It is compo-
posed of about 83 parts of oxide of manganese, 14 of
barytes, together with some silex and carbon : its speci-
fic gravity is about 4.8.

The crystallized variety occurs in acicular, rhomboi-
dal prisms, variously placed in regard to each other, but
generally in radii. Haiiy has described four varieties of
their crystalline forms. It consists of the oxide of man-
ganese, with an additional but variable proportion of
oxygen. It is found in nearly the same places as the
former variety, and at Mendip in Somersetshire, and
near Aberdeen in Scotland. Both varieties are found
in primitive, secondary, and alluvial countries.

S¥LPHURET OF MANGANESE.

The Sulphuret of Manganese is of a blackish or
brownish grey colour, and has a shining metallic lustre
when newly fractured. It occurs in mass ; and is fine
grained, and somewhat lamellar. It is met with at Nag-
yag in Transylvania, in the veins in which the ores of
gold and tellurium are found, for which it serves as a
gangue or matrix ; it also occurs in Cornwall. It con-
sists of 82 parts of oxide of manganese, 11 of sulphur,
and 5 of carbonic acid : its specific gravity is about 4.

WHITE MANGANESE.

White Manganese is of a whitish, yellowish, or pale
rose red colour ; and is found in the same place, and
tinder the same circumstance, as the preceding variety.
It also occurs at Kapnic and Offenbariya, in masses of
various shapes. It consists of 47 parts protoxide of man-
ganese, 40 of silex, 4.6 of oxide of iron, and l.o of lime *
its specific gravity is about &8»

TO MINERALOGY. I 63

PHOSPHATE OF MANGANESE.

The Phosphate of Manganese is a rare mineral, hav-
ing hitherto been found only near Limoges in France,
in granite, and in the same vein with beryls. It is of a
reddish brown colour ; is hard enongh to scratch glass,
and may be broken into rectangular prisms with square
bases. Its specific gravity is 3.46 ; and it consists of 42
parts oxide of manganese, 31 of oxide of iron, and 27 of
phosphoric acid.

MOLYBDENA>

Molybdena is a rare metal, which has never been
found pure : it is with difficulty reduced to a pure state,
and has only been obtained in brittle infusible grains of
a greyish white. It is found combined in the metallic
state with sulphur ; and in the acid state with lead, in
the state of an oxide, forming a mineral called Molyl>
date of Lead, described under that head.

SULPHURET OF MOLYBDENA.*

Sulphuret of Molybdena is nearly of the colour of
fresh cut metallic lead. It is found massive, and disse-
minated, more rarely crystallized in six-sided prisms. It
is opake, stains paper or the fingers, is very soft, lami-
nated, and easily divisible in the direction of its laminae ;
and is unctuous to the touch, and flexible : it yields by-
analysis 60 of metallic molybdena and 40 of sulphur.

It belongs exclusively to primitive countries, and is
rarely found except in granite, in which it is sometimes
disseminated, and therefore occasionally forms one of

* The fulphuret of Molybdena, is found frequently in the primitive
jocks of New- York. It is foliated, fhining, and flexible ; and imparts a
ftain like black lead, readily, to paper and the fingers. 1 have fpecimcas
&em many places ; and granite or gneiss accompanies them all,.

164 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION, &C.

its constituent parts. It has been found in veins produ-
cing tin ; and is generally accompanied by wolfram,
quartz, and mica ; less frequently by native arsenic, flu-
ate of lime, topaz, &e.

It is found disseminated in a grey granite at the foot
of a rock called Talefre near Mont Blanc. It occurs in
the tin mines of Bohemia, in the Vosges, and Sweden :
near Norberg, in the latter place, in a white steatite : in
Iceland, in granite, of which the felspar is red. It has
lately been discovered in Huel Gorland and some other
mines of Cornwall ; it occurs also at Coldbeck in Cum-
berland, at Shap in Westmoreland, and at Glen Elg in
Invernessshire.

TIN.*

;^;,;i/ *&.

In its pure state, the specific gravity of Tin is about
7 ; but it has never been found pure. It is of a white
colour, approaching that of silver; and is harder, more
ductile, and more tenacious than lead ; it is very fusi-
ble, and gives out a peculiar crackling noise while bend-
ing. It is the litghtest of the ductile metals. Tin was
for a considerable time supposed to have been met with
in the native or pure state ; but it has been pretty well
ascertained that the specimens which gave rise to the
opinion, were found on the sites of old smelting works,
whence these specimens have since obtained the name
of Jew's House Tin. In the natural state, Tin is found
as a nearly pure oxide, or combined, in that state, with
small portions of oxide of iron and silex ; it generally
occurs crystallized ; rarely in mass ; sometimes in de-
lached rounded pieces from the size of a grain of sand to
that of a man's fist. It is also found in combination with
copper, sulphur, and iron. Tin belongs exclusively to
primitive countries.

* Tin is mentioned as afforded by a mine, not very far from Kafkaf-
tias. (Med. Rep. Vol. y^f. 306.) My fpecimens of Tin from Malacca and
Banca, received from capt, Henry Auftin, are m a powdery form and black.

TO MINERALOGY. 165

The alloys of tin with other metals, are mentioned in
treating of lead, copper, and quicksilver. Another will
be noticed under the article Bismuth. In a fine leaf, as
tin foil, it is used for many purposes ; its salts are used
in dyeing : its economical purposes are well known.

OXIDE OF TIN.

Oxide of Tin rather resembles an earthy than a
metalliferous substance. It occurs in nearly colourless
and translucent crystals, and in crystals of various shades
of yellow, brown, and black, which are either translu-
cent or opake. The form of the primitive crytal, is an
obtuse octohedron of 112°.10' and 67°.50', which has
not hitherto been found uncornbined with the planes of
one or more of the several modifications to which it is
subject: the crystals in my possession afford about ISO
varieties of form, besides numerous compound crystals
or macles.

Tin is by no means a universally diffused metal ;
many countries are entirely without it : but it is found in
Gallicia in Spain, and lately 2 or 3 veins have been
discovered in a granite mountain in Brittany in France :
it occurs also at Seiffen, at Geir, and at Altenberg in
Saxony ; at Schlackenwald in Bohemia, in Bunca and
Malacca in the East Indies, and in Chili in South Ame-
rica : but most abundantly in the western parts of Devon-
shire and in Cornwall. Though Tin is he lightest of
the ductile metals, it is remarkable that the natural
oxide is one of the heaviest of the metalliferous ores : its
specific gravity is nearly 7.

The oxide of Tin belongs chiefly, and almost exclu-
sively, to the oldest of the primitive mountains, and is
found in veins or beds, mostly the former, in granite,
gneiss, and micaceous and argillaceous schistus. It is
often found disseminated in granite. In veins and beds,
it is accompanied by quartz, mica, Hthomarga, talc,
steatite, fluate and phosphate of lime, topaz, wolfram,
arsenical pyrites, &tc. which, like Tin, are considered
to be among the substances of the most ancient formation.
But it is said rarely to be found with carbonate of lime,
sulphate of barytes, lead, or silver, which often accom-

160 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

pany other metals. It is remarkable that in the veins
of Cornwall, Tin is frequently found nearer the surface
than copper.

In some of the valleys and low grounds of Cornwall,
the oxide of Tin is found in grains arid masses, rounded
by attrition, which frequently bear the marks of crystal-
lization. The tin is generally intermixed with, or cover-
ed by, the rubbish resulting from the disintegration of the
rocks, which doubtless once held it in its native place.
Small grains of gold are occasionally found with it. As
in order to separate the tin from the alluvial matte'-,
streams of water are passed over them : these deposites
are called Stream works ; one of the most remarkable of
which is in a branch of Falmouth harbour.

In these stream works also a variety of the oxide of
Tin is found, which has obtained the name of Wood
Tin ; which occurs sometimes in wedge-shaped pieces,
banded with various shades of brown ; and which, from
their diverging and fibrous structure, appear to be por-
tions of globular masses ; they are mostly rounded by
attrition. Minute portions of this variety have lately
been met with in cellular quartz ; they have a very
silky lustre.

TIN PYRITES. BELL-METAL ORE. SULPHURET OP
TIN.

This rare substance has only been found in the mine
called Huel Rock in Cornwall, in a vein 9 feet wide,
accompanied by sulphuret of zinc and of iron. Its
colour is steel grey, passing into yellowish white : it has a
metallic lustre and granular fracture, and yields easily to
the knife. Its specific gravity is 4.3 : and it consists of
34 parts of tin, 86 of copper, 25 of sulphur, and 2 of
iron ; but it does not seem to be ascertained in what
manner the sulphur is combined with either of those
metals.

I

TO MINERALOGY. 167

TUNGSTEN.

Tungsten, called Scheelin by the French chemists
and mineralogists, in honor of its discoverer, Scheele,
is a hard, brittle, granular metal, of a light steel grey
colour and brilliant metallic lustre. It is not found in
the pure state ; but only in the state of an oxide*
principally combined with lime, forming a mineral,
commonly, though improperly, called Tungstate of
Lime ; or in that of an acid, combined chiefly with
iron ; the latter combination is called Tungstate of Iron
or Wolfram.

The ores of Tungsten are chiefly, if not exclusively,
found in primitive countries.

TUNGSTATE OF LIME.

Tungstate of Lime completely resembles a stone ; it
is commonly translucent, limpid, and of a yellowish
colour : it has a laminated structure ; it considerably
resembles carbonate of lead, oxide of tin, and sulphate
of barytes It occurs both in mass and crystallized.
The primitive form of its crystals is that of the rectan-
gular parallelepiped ; it is more commonly found in the
form of an octobedron. The varieties of form assumed
by its crystals are not numerous.

It is commonly found in tin veins. It occurs in those
of Saxony, Bohemia, Sweden and England ; and is
accompanied by wolfram, quartz, mica, £c.

The translucent crystals of this mineral are composed
of oxide of tungsten 78 parts; of lime 18; and ofsilex
3 : those of Cornwall contain a little iron and manganese.

TUNGSTATE OF IRON. WOLFUAM.

*-. i.-:

Wolfram is generally of a brownish black colour, and
principally occurs in veins in primitive mountains, ac-
companying the oxide of tin ; it somewhat resembles
certain ores of iron, but is generally heavier 5 it is met

168 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

with in mass, and crystallized. It may be cleaved into
a rectangular parallelepiped, which therefore is consi-
dered to be the form of its primitive crystal ; the varie-
ties assumed by it do not exceed three or four.

It is met with in the tin veins of Saxony and Bohemia,
at Puy les Mines in France, and abundantly in several
of the tin veins of Cornwall. In the mine called Huel
Fanny, near Redrutb, Wulfam is met with in the form
of the primitive crystal, but very minute.

By analysis Wolfram yields 67 parts of tungstic acid.
18 of oxide of iron, and about 7 parts of oxide of man-
ganese.

TITANIUM.*

Titanium is so difficult of fusion, that the attempts to
reduce it to a pure metallic state have scarcely suc-
ceeded. It is of a copper red colour.

Two of its ores are nearly pure oxides; in the others,
Titanium, in the state of an oxide, is in combination
with other metallic oxides, or with lime, and silex.
Titanium belongs exclusively to primitive countries.

Tbe only use to which titanium has ever been put,
was in the porcelain manufactory at Sevres, where it
was emplyed to produce the rich browns in painting it.
The want of uniformity in colour occasioned its disuse.

* The combinations of fome of the ores of titanium, were firft difcribed
with great care by Dr. Bruce, in his Mineralogical Journal, p. 231 — 243.
He has given figures of the oxyd and the Silicic- calcareous oxyd, in their
cryftalline forms. To thefe two forms, and to that of theferrugirou.- oxyj+
he refers all the fpecies of titanium that he has feen. Four kinds were
found on the ifland of New- York, in the limeflone ridge near Kingfi.
bridge. Two came from the vicinity of Richmond in Virginia. One
from Worthington, Maffachufetts. One from the neighbourhood of
Baltimore. One from an infulated mafs of quartz in Bergen county,
New-Jerfey. One from Ticonderoga. One from Lake George. Three
from Staten-lfland. One from Peekfkill. One from Wantage, New*.
Jerfey. There are many ether places ID the U. S, where tiunium has
been difcovered.

TO MIXERALOGF. 169

TITANITE. RUTIL. RED SCHORL.

This mineral is of a brownish red colour, and is mostly
opake, but occasionally is somewhat translucent, and is
of about the hardness of quartz ; it may be broken into
a square prism with square bases, which therefore is the
form of its primitive crystal. It is nearly a pure oxide
of titanium.

It is generally found imbedded in quartz, sometimes
in granite ; the hair-like appearance traversing some
crystals of quartz in every direction, are generally crys-
tals of titanite. It is found almost exclusively in primi-
tive countries, or in alluvial deposites in their neighbour-
hood.

It occurs in a schistose mountain near Mont Blanc,
accompanied by carbonate of lime, and some ores of
iron ; at Rosenau in Hungary, and in New Castilie in
Spain, it is implanted in rock crystal in mountains of
gneiss ; at St. Gothard, it occurs in the cavities of gra-
nite, mixed with rock crystal, &c. : and near St. Yrieix
in France, and in South Carolina in America, it is found
in alluvial soil. It is met with also near Beddgelu in
Caernarvonshire; and Cairgonn, and Craig Cailleach
near Killin in Scotland.

ANATASE. OCTOHEDRITE.

Anataste is also nearly a pure oxide of titanium ; it is
found in octohedrons which are somewhat acute ; Haiiy
bas described four varieties of form to which it is sub-
ject : its colour is generally bluish or reddish brown. It
it met with in the neighbourhood of Passau in Bavaria,
at Bouen in Norway, at St. Gothard in Switzerland, and
in the valley of Oysans in France, mixed with portions
of granite.

KIGBINE.

In the Nigrine, the oxide of titanium is combined
with about 14 of oxide of iron, and 2 of manganese. It
is found in primitive rocks, often imbedded in them, in

P

170 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Bavaria, Norway, in Mont Blanc, Mont Rosa, and in
the granite of Egypt.

RUTILITE. 8PHENE.

The Rutilite is composed of nearly equal parts of ox-
ide of titanium, silex, and lime : it occurs in small crys-
tals of a yellowish or blackish brown colour, in the form
of rhomboidal prisms, terminated by 4 sided pyramids :
it is also found in mass. It is met with nearly in the
same places as the Nigrine.

MENACCANITE.

In the Menaccanite, which is found in grains of a bluish
black colour, mixed with quartzose sand, in the bed of
a rivulet at Menaccan in Cornwall, the oxide of titanium
is combined with 54 parts of oxide of iron, a trace of
oxide of manganese, and 3 of silex.

1SERINE.

In the Iserine, about 48 parts of oxide of titanium
are combined with 48 of oxide of iron, and 4 oxide of
uranium. It is found in angular masses and rolled pieces,
near the source of the river Iser in the Reisengebirge,
in granite sand ; and in the bed of the river Don in
Aberdeenshire in Scotland.

CERIUM.

Cerium, in its metallic state is scarcely known ; Vau-
quelin succeeded in procuring, by the reduction of one
of its ores, a metallic globule, not larger than a pin's
head. It was harder, whiter, much more brittle, and
more scaly in its fracture, than pure cast iron.

Cerium has hitherto been found entering into combi-
nation in a few rare minerals, the other ingredients of

TO MINERALOGF. 171

which are principally earthy substances. The Cerite
and the Alanite differ considerably in their composition \
in both, the Cerium is in the state of an oxide.

CERITE.

The Cerite was brought from the copper mine of
Bastnaes, near Riddachyta in Sweden ; the mine is si-
tuated in gneiss, and the Cerite was accompanied by the
ores of copper, rnolybdena, and bismuth; and with mi-
ca, hornblende, &c.

It is generally of a pale rose colour, but sometimes
inclines to brown. It occurs massive or disseminated ;
it is granular, brittle, and easily scratches glass; and
consists of 54.5 parts of oxide of cerium, 34.5 of silex>
1.25 of lime, 3.5 of oxide of iron, and 5 of water.

ALLANITE.

The Allanite occurs in oblique four-sided, or com-
pressed six-sided, prisms, of llf0 and 63° terminated
by four-sided summits: it also occurs massive, or disse-
minated in black mica, and felspar. Externally it is of
a dull brownish black colour, and is opake and brittle.
It was brought from Greenland, but nothing is known of
its geological history ; it obtained its name in honour of
its discoverer, M. Allen of Edinburgh. It is composed
of 33.9 parts of oxide of cerium, 25.4 of oxide of iron,
35.4 of silex, 9.2 of lime, 4.1 of alumine, and 4 of mois-
ture.

Two minerals, one from Bastnaes in Sweden, the other
from the Mysore^ have lately been found among others
brought from those countries, which have been found to
contain cerium ; the former has been analyzed by Berze-
lius, the latter by Dr. Wollaston ; they considerably re-
semble the Allanite in composition. That from Bast-
naes is called the Cerin.

172 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

URANIUM.*.

Uranium is a brittle, granular, hard metal, of ex-
tremely difficult fusibility.

It is remarakble that this metal has never been found
in any state having a metallic appearance ; consequent-
ly never in the pure state.

It is of a dark grey colour, may be cut by the knife,
and is, next to tellurium, the lightest of the metals ; its
specific gravity being very little more than 6.

Its ores are only two in number : in both, it occurs in
the state of an oxide : they are considered to belong to
primitive countries. No use has hitherto been made of
Uranium*

I7RANITE.

Uranite occurs principally in small crystals of various
shades of yellow, green, and brown, which are some-
limes transparent, sometimes opake. It is met with in
nearly the same places and under the same circumstan-
ces as the uran-ochre. In France, at Chanteloube and
St. Symphorien, and in two or three mines in Cornwall
it is found in a friable granite. It is nearly a pure oxide
of uranium.

At first sight the Uranite considerably resembles a va-
riety of the arseniate of copper; but differs in the form
of the crystal. The primitive crystal of the Uranite
seems to approach the cube. Its crystals present seve-
ral modifications. I possess 47 varieties of form, which
are all from Cornwall. The variety from Gunnis Lake
mine, near Callington in that county, exhibits quadran-
gular plates, very thin, of a beautiful green colour, and
transparent.

The oxide of uranium is seldom found entering into
the composition of other metalliferous substances, but

* Suppofed to exift in the form of eartby grctn oxyf, near Baltimore^
and at Brwnfwick Maine. (Cleaveland.)

TO MINERALOGY. 173

is met with in a small quantity in the iserine, one of the
ores of titanium.

UBAN-OCHRE. PITCH-BLENDE.

Uran-ochre is mostly of a brown or brownish black
colour; it occurs globular or massive, is sometimes dis-
seminated, or pulverulent : it frequently resembles pitch,
and is very brittle It consists of 86.5 parts of oxide of
uranium, combined with 6 of galena, 2.5 black oxide
of iron, and 5 of silex.

It is met with in veins of copper, lead, silver, &c.
in Bohemia, Saxony ; and in two or three of the cop-
per veins of Cornwall, passing through a friable gra-
nite.

TANTALIUM; OR, COLUMBIUM.*

Tantalium is a metal, having but a slight external me-
tallic lustre ; it is dull and almost black internally ; its
specific gravity is; little more than 6.

It is only found in the state of an oxide combined with
other substances ; its ores are only two. They have
been found only in a primitive, mountain.

TANTAL1TE.

The Tantalite is found principally in crystals in the
form of an acute octahedron, and of a bluish grey or

* As foon as it was known that an American mineral had afforded
a new metal, I endeavoured to make known the particulars, by a ftate-
ment of them in a periodical work of science. (6 Med. Ref>> p. ai2— -323.)
I employed all the means in my power to difcover the place whence
Gov. Winthrop's fpecimen, found by Mr. Halchett, in Sir Hans Hoane's
collection, might be fuppofed to have been taken. After about two
years of inquiry, his defcendant, Francis B. Winthrop, Efq. of New- York,
gave me rcalbn to believe the mineral in queftion was originally found
near a fpring at Nautneague, a place where Gov. Winthrop ufed to lives
about 3 miles from the margin of the falt-water, at New-London- Har-
bour. (8 Med, Repos.p, 437.)

P21

174 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

iron black colour. It occurs disseminated, in globular
masses, in a vein composed of red felspar, traversing a
mountain of gneiss, near Brokaern in Abo in Finland.
It has a metallic lustre when broken ; and is composed
of 83 parts of oxide of tantalium, 12 of oxide of iron,
and 8 of oxide of manganese : its specific gravity is 7.9.

YTTROTANTALITE.

The other compound mineral in which tantaliura is
found is called the Yttrotantalite, from its also contain-
ing a portion of the rare earth Yttria. It is found at
Ytterby in Sweden, in a vein of felspar with the gado-
linite f it occurs disseminated in masses about the size
of a nut. It is nearly black ; when broken, it is of a shin-
ing metallic lustre, and granular. The Yttrotantalite
consists of 45 parts of oxide of tantalium, and 55 of yttria
and oxide of iron : its specific gravity is 5.1.

CHROME,*

Chrome is a metal of a greyish-white colour, and ex-
tremely brittle ; it is remarkable that it has never been
found in the metallic form, either pure or combined with
any other substance, but only in the acid state, or in that
of an oxide.

The chromic acid is found in combination with lead,
forming a compound mineral called chromate of lead,
already described.

* Chromate of Iron is found in large quantities at the bare hills, 7 miles
on the Falls turnpike, maflive and granular, in veins and lumps difiemina-
ted through a ferpentine rock. Perhaps in no part of the world, has fo
much been difcovered in one place. It furnifties the means of preparing
the beautiful paint called the chromic yellow, with which the carriages
and furniture are now painted, in Baltimore. (Gilmor.) It is found alfo in
octahedral cryftals, very fmall and magnetic, along the ravines and among
the fand of rivulets, mingled with the granular chromatc of iron.—- (ibid.}
it is prefumed the red, green, yellow and purple, of the Staten-ifland ftear
tites, near New- York, may be derived from Chrome.

TO MINERALOGY. 175

The Chromic acid enters into the composition of the
spinelle ruby.

The Oxide of Chrome is found in combination with
iron ; forming a compound already described as chro-
mate of iron. It is also found in the emerald, and in
two or three other earthy minerals ; it has likewise
been detected in some of the meteoric stones, or aero-
lites.

Chrome, as obtained in the metallic state by the che-
mist, from either of the foregoing compounds, has not
been applied to any important use : it tinges glass of a
green colour. It has been ascertained that the emerald
owes its beautiful green colour to oxide of chrome : it
seems therefore probable that chrome may hereafter be
employed as paint.

BISMUTH*

Bismuth is of a reddish-white colour, and very brittle,
Its specific gravity is nearly 10.

It is found in the pure or native state somewhat alloy-
ed by arsenic.

The ores of Bismuth are few ; in one of them it is
combined with sulphur ; in another with inferior por-
tions of other metals, and with sulphur. It is also met
with combined with oxygen. All its ores are considerd
to belong exclusively to primitive mountains.

Bismuth is very little used, but it enters into the com-
position of some of the soft solders, and of sympathetic
ink. It forms alloys with other metals. Tin und bis*
muth are two of the most fusible metals. The fusible
metal of Sir Isaac Newton, is composed of 8 parts of
bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin ; when this is thrown in-

* Native Bifmuth in brilliant plates, interfperfed through a. vein of
quartz, has been found in Huntington, Connecticut. The largeft plate is
not more than an inch in diameter, and its forface beautifully reticulated,
(Sillimqn in Am, Min. Journal. f>. 267.}

176 ELEMENTARV INTRODUCTION

to water and heat applied, it melts a little before the
water has reached the boiling point.

NATIVE BISMUTH.

Native Bismuth is of a silvery white, tinged with red ;
and occurs massive, dendritical, and crystallized in the
regular octohedron, which is considered to be the form
of its primitive crystal ; also in cubes, and in the form of
an acute rhomboid. It is rarely quite pure, but mostly
contains a small portion of cobalt or arsenic : it is some-
times so disseminated throughout its gangue or matrix,
as to be scarcely perceptible ; but on subjecting it to
heat, globules of Bismuth appear on the surface. Its
specific gravity is about 9.

It is met with in Bohemia, Saxony, France, Swabia,
Transylvania, Sweden, and in Cornwall ; it chiefly
occurs in veins in primitive mountains in a gangue of
quartz, calcareous spar, sulphate of barytes, indurated
clay, or of jasper, and is accompanied by ores of co-
balt and nickel; and sometimes of silver, zinc, and lead

SULPHURET OF BISUUTH.

Sulphuret of Bismuth is of a colour between tin white
and lead grey, and is found massive and acicular > it is
splendent and shining, and brittle. It consists of 60
parts of bismuth, 36 of sulphur, and a little iron ; but
in some specimens, the proportion of sulphur does not
amount to more than 5 per cent. Its specific gravity is
about 6.

It is a rare mineral ; but has been found at Joachims-
thai in Bohemia, at Scbneeburg in Saxony, and at Bast-
uaes in Sweden, in a gangue of quartz ; in spathose iron
ore, at Biber in Hesse ; and in Cornwall.

It resembles sulphuret of antimony in colour and is
Jiable to be mistaken for it.

A variety, of a dark steel grey colour, has been found
,to consist of about 43 parts of bismuth, 24 of lead, 12 of
copper, 1 of nickel, 1 of tellurium, and 11 of sulphur,
and has therefore been termed Plumbo-cupriferous &id-
ptiuret of Bismuth.

TO MINERALOGY. 17T

Another variety of a steel grey colour has yielded
about 47 parts of bismuth, 35 of copper, and 13 of sul-
phur, and has received the name of Cupriferous sulphu-
rp.t of Rismuth.

BISMUTH OCHRE. OXIDE OF BISMUTH.

Bismuth ochre occurs both massive and pulverulent,
and is of yellowish grey colour, tinged with green. It is
readily reduced on charcoal to the metallic state, and is
therefore considered to be a pure oxide of bismuth : its
specific gravity is 4.37.

It is very rare ; and has been principally found at
Schneeburg in Saxony, accompanying native bismuth.
It has also been met with in Cornwall.

ARSENIC*

Arsenic, when pure, is of a bluish white colour; but*
by exposure to air, becomes at length almost black. Its
specific gravity is above 8. It is extremely brittle, and
has a granular fracture.

Arsenic is a metal of very frequent occurrence : it is
found nearly pure, when it is called Native Arsenic, and
in combination with most other metals : its presence,
when in considerable quantity, may be detected by ex-
posing the substance to heat, or by striking it with a
hammer, which cause the arsenic to give out an odour
like that of garlic. It is also found in combination with

* Arfenic, in the form called White Pyrites or Arfenical Pyrites, is occa-
flonally found adhering to quartz, in primitive rocks. My fpecimens of
Mifpickel, from Warwick, hi Orange County, N. Y. are in roundifli lumps
of different magnitudes, from that of a man's fift, to that of a moderate
fized melon. Externally, the mafles are rough and tarniihed ; but within,,
they exhibit a tin-celoured luftre. They are very heavy ; and readily
emit garlic-flavoured vapours of a white colour, by expofure to even a mo*
derate heat. My informant laid there was a great quantity there.

178 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

oxygen ; with sulphur ; and in the state of an acid, with
some of the metals, and also with lime.

Arsenic belongs chiefly to primitive countries.

NATIVE ARSENIC.

Native Arsenic is found only in veins in primitive
mountains. It is of a greyish white colour and metallic
lustre ; but by exposure becomes dull ; it occurs in irre-
gular masses : it is nearly pure, being alloyed only by a
very small proportion of iron, or of gold or silver. Na-
tive arsenic is composed by some of the ores of silver,
cobalt, lead, nickel and iron; also by carbonate and
fluate of lime, quartz, and some other substances. It
is usually found in masses, somewhat round : never crys-
tallized.

It occurs in the mines of St. Marie aux Mines in
France, in those of Freyberg in Saxony ; and of Bohe*
mia, Cornwall, and Siberia.

OXIDE OF ARSENIC.

Arsenic in the state of an oxide occurs tn the pris-
matic, acicular, and pulverulent form, in the mines of
Hesse, Saxony, Hungary, and in a cobalt mine in the
Spanish Pyrennees. It is also found as an efflorescence
in the fissures of the lavas in some volcanic mountains.

REALGAR. ORP1MENT. SULPHURET OF ARSENIC.

Arsenic in the metallic state, combined with sulphur,
forming sulphuret of Arsenic, is termed, when of a red
colour, Realgar ; when yellow, Orpiment.

Realgar is of a red colour, passing into scarlet, or
orange. It is found disseminated, in mass, or crystal-
lised. Its primitive crystal is the same as that of sul-
phur, an acute octoheron. Haiiy has mentioned six
Varieties of its crystals. It is very tender and brittle.

It occurs in the primitive mountains of Germany,
Switzerland, Hungary, Saxony, and Transylvania,
De Born mentions a vein of it between Galicia and
Transylvania, about twelve feet thick. It occurs also

TO MIffEBALOGY, 179

In the vicinity of volcanoes, as of Etna, Vesuvius &c.

It is employed as a paint ; and in Siberia, it is given
as a medicine in intermittent fevers.

Orpiment is of a bright lemon or golden yellow co
lour; it is found disseminated ; in mass ; or crystallized
in octahedrons, which are not^well defined. It seems
rather to belong to stratified or secondary mountains
than primitive ; and is sometimes accompanied by real-
gar.

It occurs in Moldavia in Hungary, in a vein of Pyri-
tous copper ; and in a ferruginous clay at Thajoba ; it is
also found in Transylvania, Georgia, Wallachia, and
Natolia.

It is employed as a paint. The Romans used the
bright gold coloured orpiment from Syria for that pur-
pose, and esteemed it highly.

Realgar consists of 75 of arsenic, and 25 of sulphur :
Orpiment, 57 of arsenic, and 43 of sulphur.

MISPICKLE. ARSENICAL PYRITES,

This substance is of a silvery or yellowish white, and
occurs in mass, disseminated, or crystallized, in almost
all metalliferous primitive mountains ; and abounds in
many of the tin and copper veins of Cornwall. A spe-
cimen analyzed by Thompson yielded 48.1 of arsenic,
36.5 of iron, and 15.4 of sulphur; another analyzed by
Berzelius yielded only arsenic, and iron.

A variety containing from one to ten per cent, of sil-
ver, is found only at Freyberg in Saxony.

The primitive crystal of Mispickel is considered to
be a right rhomboidal prism. It is subject to several
modifications ; the crystals in my possession exhibit the
planes of 7 modifications, combined in 34 varieties of
form.

IW ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

COBALT.*

Cobalt is of a grey colour, with a tinge of red, and
has the magnetic properties of iron : it is very difficult
of fusion ; its specific gravity is about 8.

It has never been found in the pure, or native state ;
but is mostly combined with arsenic and sulphur ; some-
times mineralized by the sulphuric acid, &c.

The ores of cobalt occur in veins both in primitive
and in secondary mountains : mostly accompanied by
some of the numerous ores of copper, sometimes by
native bismuth, native silver, native arsenic, and the
ores of silver.

In Cornwall, cobalt occasionally occurs in copper
veins ; sometimes in those of a contrary direction. In
one of the latter description, it is found in a mine called
Huel Sparnon, near Redruth, (which is situated in ar-
gillaceous schistus) combined with bismuth, nickel,,
arsenic and sulphur : a block, principally consisting of
these substances, which weighed 1333 IDS. was lately
raised from that mine.

Cobalt is very little used except in the arts. It is
brought to this country reduced to the state of an oxide,
of an intense blue colour, called zaffre, which when
melted with 3 parts of sand and 1 of potash, forms a
blue glass, and when pounded very fine is called smalts,
and is then employed to give a blue tint to writing pa-
pers, and in the preparation of cloths, laces, linens,
muslins, £c. ; for colouring glass, and for painting
blues on porcelain. So intense is the blue of zaffre,
that one grain will give a full blue to 240 grains of
glass.

* A ioniiderable quantity of ore from the Cobalt mine at Chatham-,
near Middletown in Connecticut, was brought to New- York a few years
ago. The metal is difleminated through a very folid rock, of the horn-
blende kind. It appears in fhining veins and fpecks, almoft refembling
arfenical pyrites. The colour of the rock is grecnilh.

TO MINERALOGY. 1 81

GREY COBALT.

The Bright White Cobalt of Aikin is commonly called
Grey Cobalt. It is of a nearly silver white colour, but
has a slight reddish tinge : it occurs crystallized ; yields
with difficulty to the knife ; is brittle ; attracts the mag-
netic needle ; gives a spark by the hammer, and yields
a garlicky odour. It occurs in masses of various shapes,
and in crystals of great regularity. The form of the
primitive crystal is considered to be the cube ; the crys-
tals in my possession exhibit the planes of four modifi-
cations in 22 varieties of form, remarkably resembling
those of the sulphuret of iron.

It consists of 44 parts of cobalt, 55.5 of arsenic, 0.5
of sulphur : its specific gravity about 6.4.

It is found in Norway ; at Tunaberg in Sweden ; An-
naberg in Saxony ; also, though rarely, in Swabia and
Stiria. In Soxony and Norway, it is contained in beds of
micaceous schistus, and is accompanied by quartz, py-
rites, &c.

The Grey Cobalt of Aikin, and which is of a steel
grey colour, hard and brittle, is found in several of the
copper veins of Cornwall : it is generally compact and
massive, and has much the aspect of native arsenic. It
consists of 20 parts of cobalt, 24 of iron, 33 of arsenic,
together with some bismuth and earth, and appears to
be a variety of arsenical cobalt.

ARSENICAL COBALT.

This mineral is of a shining white colour, and is found
in masses of various forms, and crystallized in the form
of the cube : Hatty describes four varieties in the form
of its crystals, which pass into the octohedron. It does
not attract the magnet. It is found in some of the cop-
per veins of Cornwall ; also in France and Spain ; at
Annaberg and Sehneeberg in Saxony; and in Bohemia,
&c. Klaproth says that it contains arsenic, iron, and
sometimes silver and nickel. It is heavier than grey
cobalt ; its specific gravity being 7.7.

182 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

EARTHY COBALT.

Earthy Cobalt is of various shades of yellow, brown,
and black. It has no metallic splendour ; it sometimes
occurs in masses, sometimes almost pulverulent, and is
remarkably lighter than the preceding variety, not being
equal to half its weight. It has not been analyzed, but
the cobalt is considered to be in the state of an oxide
in this variety.

It is found in some of the Cornish mines ; and at Al-
derly Edge in Cheshire in red sandstone. It is also found
in Saxony, at Schneeberg and Kamsdorf ; and in the
Tyrol, Thuringia, &c.

BED COBALT.

Red Cobalt is also called arseniated Cobalt, on ac-
count of its being supposed to be cobalt mineralized by
the arsenic acid . but it has not been analyzed. It is
also called Cobalt Bloom, and passes from nearly white,
through peach bloom, to a crimson red colour : it is
found in small quantity in silver and copper veins. It
is said to have been found in Cornwall ; in Stirlingshire ;
and near Edinburg.

RED VITRIOL. SULPHATE OF COBALT.

Red Vitriol has been found only at Hessingrund near
Neusohl in Hungary, in the form of translucent stalac-
tites of a pale rose colour, and enclosing drops of water.
It consists only of cobait mineralized by the sulphuric
acid.

TO MINERALOGY.

NICKEL*

Nickel is of a yellowish white colour ; it is attractable
bylhe magnet, though in a degree considerably less than
iron ; it is ductile, and nearly as malleable as silver ; its
specific gravity is about 9. It has never been found pure,
and its ores are only two in number.

It is remarkable that nickel, which is one of the least
abundant metals, has been found by analysis to enter
into the composition of meteoric iron, and of all those
stony substances which in various parts of Europe and
America, have fallen from the atmosphere ; whence
they are termed meteoric stones.

The uses of nickel are not numerous ; it is chiefly
employed in alloys with other metals.

KUPFERNICKEL. COPPER NICKEL*

Kupfernickel is of a pale copper-red colour, and is
commonly found massive ; its fracture is granular, with
a metallic lustre ; it yields with difficulty to the knife,
but is brittle. It is hard enough to give sparks by the
steel, giving out an arsenical odour. It has not been
analyzed ; but it is ascertained that it consists principally
of nickel and arsenic, combined with sulphur, iron, co-
balt and bismuth.

It is most abundantly found at Joachimsthal in Bohe-
mia ; Schneeberg, Freyberg, and Annaberg, in Saxony ;
and Andreasberg in the Hartz. It is also met with in
Cornwall ; at Allemont in France ; in Stiria ; in Arra-
gon in Spain ; and at Koly wan in Siberia. It is met

* I have ftrong reafons to believe Nickel is only a modification of iron ;
though the great authorities lean the other way, favouring the notion of
its being a diftin& metal. So it is now to be confidered.

It is reported on good evidence that nickel accompanies copper in Ma-
ryland, and cobalt in Connecticut. It was an ingredient in the atmof-
pheric ftones, that fell at Wefton in Connecticut, in Dec. 1807, hi fuch
combination that the metallic iron, which was a large ingredient in the
ftone, was believed to be moftly alloyed by nickel, (xx Med. Rsfos.p. 203.
— "30

184 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

with principally in veins in primitive mountains, accom-
panying the ores of silver, cobalt and copper.

NICKEL OCHRE.

Nickel Ochre has only been met with in the pulveru-
lent form, generally investing the preceding ore of nick-
el, and sometimes the ores of cobalt. It has been de-
tected in the chrysoprase (to which it probably imparts
its green colour.) and in the soft green substance in
which it is found.

It is considered to be an oxide of nickel : but has not
been analyzed.

SILVER.*

Silver, when pure, is soft, opake, and flexible ; a piece
one-tenth of an inch in diameter will support two hun-
dred and seventy pounds without breaking. Its specific
gravity is about 10. It is very white, shining, and malle-
able, and is found in the pure or native state ; its ores
are numerous. It occurs combined with antimony, iron,
arsenic, lead, copper, bismuth, alumine, and silex ; and
mineralized by sulphur, and by the carbonic, sulphuric,
and muriatic acids.

The ores of silver, whatever may be their composi-
tion, are principally met with in primitive rocks, but not
of the oldest formation; they are also found in veins in
secondary rocks ; but never in alluvial deposites. Silver

* Native Silver was difcovered at Singling, N. Y. and the mine work-
ed as long ago as 1775. When I vifited the fpot in 1816, the fhaft and
every part was filled with water. A few fpecimens of the native filver
found there are full extant. There is a little piece in my collection. The
quantity was very fmall, and the adventurers loft money by the under-
taking. Inconfiderable quantities have been obferved in a few other places.
A rich collection from Chili, was made by Mr. Taber, and brought to
New- York. I faw thefe fuperb fpecimens feveral times. It is faid that
filver exifts in the copper of the Schuyler mine, near New- York, to the
amount of (corn 4 to 7 ounces in xoo Ibs.— f6 Med, Rcfns.

£

TO MIJJERALOGT.

therefore is not regarded as being one of the most an-
cient metals.

The mines of Peru and Mexico furnish annually ten
times more silver than all the mines of Europe united.

According to Helms, the mine of Jauricocha, in Peru
\vhich is about three miles above the sea, contains a pro-
digious mass of porous brown iron-stone, half a mile
long, as much broad, and about one hundred feet in
depth, which is throughout interspersed with pure silver;
and contains a white argillaceous vein, which is very
much richer. It is asserted that Jauricocha and the mines
of the district surrounding it, have yielded forty millions
of dollars in a year.

The uses of silver are numerous, and for the most
part obvious. In coin, silver is alloyed by one part of
copper to fifteen of silver. The yellow colour, used in-
porcelain painting, is oxide of silver.

NATIVE SILVER.

Native silver, when pure, is white, and has a shining:
metallic lustre, but it is generally tarnished externally ;
it is softj flexible, and malleable ; it occurs massive, ca-
pillary, ramose, and crystallized in cubes and octohe-
drons ; but as the structure of the crystals is not of that
description which admits of regular cleavage, their pri*
mitive form has not been determined. It is less mallea-
ble than silver that has been melted in the furnace, on-
occount, as it is supposed, of its being generally alloyed
with small portions of other metals ; as gold, copper^,
arsenic, and iron. A specimen assayed by Dr. Fordyce,
yielded 28 per cent, of gold : when this metal is mixed
with it, the colour approaches to that of pale brass j
when alloyed by copper, it has a tinge of red.

Native silver has been found in rocks of almost every
description ; principally in the newer primitive. In the
mines of Kongsberg in Norway, now almost exhausted,
it was found in carbonate and fluyte of lime, &c. ; at
Schlangenberg in Siberia, on sulphate of barytes : at
Allemont, it is disseminated in a ferruginous clay. In
Cornwall, it was found in the Herland mine imbedded
in a soft marl, and accompanied by sulphuret of lead>,

1S6 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

cobalt, quartz, &c. in a vein passing through argillaceous
schistus : this vein ran north and south, intersecting
veins of copper, which always in Cornwall run east and
west. But native silver is found in Europe, most plen-
tifully in the mines of Saxony, Bohemia, and Swabia.

ANTIMON1AL SILVER.

Antimonial Silver is of a yellowish white, has a shining
metallic lustre, and is often tarnished externally: it
occurs in grains, massive, and crystallized in prismatic,
but not very determinate crystals. It consists of silver
united with antimony in variable proportion ; but the
former, according to two analyses, is not less than 77
per cent, of the mass. It is not abundant ; but is met
with in veins of calcareous spar and sulphate of barytes,
accompanied by native silver, sulphuret of lead, £c. at
Guadalcanal in Spain, and in Swabia.

An ore consisting of about 12 parts of silver, united
with about 44 of iron, 35 of arsenic, and 4 of antimony.
is called Arsenical Antimonial silver.

SULPHURET OF SILVER. VITREOUS SILVER.

This mineral is of a dark metallic lead grey colour,
and is often tarnished externally ; it is soft, malleable,
easily cut by the knife, and occurs of indeterminate
shapes, capillary, ramose and crystallized in the cube,
octohedron and dodecahedron ; but not admitting oi
regular cleavage, the primitive form of its crystal has
not been determined. It consists of 85 parts of silver,
and 15 of sulphur. Its tenacity is so great, that Augustus^
king of Poland, had some medals struck of it.

It occurs in. veins, mingled with other ores of silver,
and accompanied by native silver, sulphate of barytes.
and sulphuret of lead, iron, copper and zinc. It is
found in the Saxon, Bohemian, Swabian, Hungarian and
Norwegian mines, and it is said to have been found in
Cornwall : but the most brilliant specimens are brought
from Siberia, consisting of groupes of crystals covered
by capillary native silver, 2 or 3 inches in length.

TO MINERALOGT. 187

RED SILVER. RUBY SILVER.

This mineral is of a brilliant red colour, and is fre-
quently transparent ; it occurs dendritic, massive, and
crystallized, generally in the hexahedral prism, which
is sometimes modified ; it assumes about 40 varieties in
the forms of its crystals, the primitive of which is an
obtuse rhomboid of 109° 28' and 70° 32', according to
Hauy. It is brittle, yields easily to the knife, and
consists of about 70 parts of sulphuret of silver, combi-
ned with about 29 parts of sulphuret of antimony. It is
usually found in veins, mingled with other minerals ; such
as sulphuret of lead, cobalt, native arsenic, realgar, grey
copper, spathose iron, iron pyrites, sulphuret of zinc, &c.
and is met with in all silver mines; but principally in
those of Freyberg, St. Marie-aux-mines, and Guadal-
canal, &c.

BRITTLE 8ULPHUHET OF SILVER. BRITTLE SILVER
GLANCE.

The colour of this mineral is dark grejr, passing into
iron black, and is of a bright and shining metallic lustre
externally ; it is soft and brittle, and occurs massive,
and in hexahedral prisms variously terminated, and in
quadrangular tables. It consists of 66.5 parts of silver,
10 of antimony, 12 of sulphur, 5 of iron, 0.5 of cop-
per and arsenic, and one of earthy impurities. It is met
with in veins containing some other ores of silver and
sulphuret of lead, £c. in Hungary, Transylvania, Saxo-
ny, Bohemia, Peru, £c.

WHITE SILVER,

White silver is of a light lead grey colour, passing into
steel grey ; it is found massive and disseminated, and
has a metallic lustre ; it is soft and somewhat brittle.
Its specific gravity is 5.3 ; it consists of 48.06 of lead,
20.4 of silver, 7.88 of antimony, 2.25 of iron, 12.25 of
sulphur, 7 of alumine, and 0.25 of silex. It has been
procured from the mine Himraelfurst near Freyberg in

188 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Saxony, where it was accompanied by other ores of
silver, and with antimony, brown spar, and calcareous
spar. Some specimens have been met with passing
into brittle sulphuret of silver; others into plumose an-
timony.

BLACK SILTE1L

% Black silver is iron black, passing into a steel grey
colour ; it occurs disseminated, massive, and crystalli-
zed in tetrahedrons ; it is somewhat hard, brittle, and
has a shining metallic lustre. It is by some considered
to be an argentiferous variety of the sulphuret of cop-
per.

BISMUTHIC SILVER

This mineral is of a light lead grey colour, which'
becomes deeper on exposure to the air : it occurs dis-
seminated, rarely massive, and consists of 33 parts of
lead, 27 of bismuth, 15 of silver, 4.3 of iron, 0.9 of
copper, and 16.3 of sulphur. It has only been found
in a mine in the valley of Shapbach in the Black Forest;
and was accompanied by quartz, hornstone, and copper
pyrites.

CARBONATE OP SILVER.

Carbonate of silver is greyish, passing into iron black,
and has a glimmering or shining metallic lustre. It is
soft, somewhat brittle, and heavy ; and consists of 72.5
per cent, of silver, 12 of carbonic acid, 15.5 of oxide
of antimony, and a trace of copper. It was found about
thirty years ago, accompanied by native silver, sulphu-
ret of silver, and grey copper, in a vein of sulphate of
barytes at Altwolfatch.

HORN SILVER. MURIATE OF SILVER.

This mineral is of a pearl grey colour; occasionally
it is greenish blue or reddish brown, and is remarkable
for being SQ soft as easily to take the impression gf the

TO MINERALOGY. 189

nail, and for its translucency. It has a waxy lustre ; is
fusible in the flame of a candle, and is generally found
investing and massive, rarely crystallized in small cubes.
The massive consists of 88.7 per cent, of muriate of sil-
ver, six of oxide of iron, 1.75 of alumine, and 0.25 of
sulphuric acid. It has been found at Andreasburg in
the Hartz, in the Mexican, Peruvian, Saxon, and Bo-
hemian mines; those of John^eorgenstadt formerly af-
forded large quantities of it. It is also met with in
Hungary at Schemnitz ; in France near Allemont, and
in several mines in Cornwall, though not abundantly.
It has been remarked that Horn silver is commonly met
with near the surface in veins, and frequently with or-
ganic remains.

A variety is met with of a brownish white, but exter-
nally of a slate blue colour ; it is massive, dull, opake,
and earthy ; and consists of about 33 parts of muriate of
silver, combined with about 67 of aim/line. It is called
Buttermilk silver, and is found at Andreasberg in the
Hartz.

COPPER.*

Copper, in its pure state, is so tenacious, that a wire
one-tenth of an inch in diameter will support two hun-
dred and ninety-nine pounds and a half, without break-
ing : its specific gravity is about 8.

Copper is harder and more elastic than silver ; and is
the most sonorous of metals : in respect of fusibility it is
between gold and iron. It is of a pale red colour, with a
tinge of yellow. Its ores are numerous. It occurs in the

* Native Copper has been found in many places. I mention a few of
the localities.— In conftructing the fortifications at the Narrows on Staten-
ifland, between the city of New- York and the ocean, feveral pieces of na-
tive copper were found by the workmen in that alluvial foil. The par-
cels were buried at different depths. Mr. Dawfon brought me fmall flat-
ted pieces of native copper from Virginia, which, if I recollect right, were
found near Frederickiburgh. At WoodbriJge, N. J. there is a native cop-
per of remarkable beauty.

'

190 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

pure or native state ; also combined with iron, antimony,
silver, arsenic, and with silex, lime, and water, arid mi-
neralized by oxygen, sulphur, "and by the carbonic, mu-
riatic, phosphoric and arsenic acids.

The greater part of the ores of Copper seem to belong
chiefly, though not exclusively, to primitive countries ;
and are found both in veins and in beds. Native copper,
the red oxide, the sulphuret, yellow copper, grey cop-
per, and the arseniate, have been found principally in
these countries ; the localities of the phosphate and mu-
riate are less known; but the variety of green carbonate,
termed Malachite, is said to have been met with in every
variety of country The mines of Tunaberg in Sweden,
and some others, as well as that of Ecton in Stafford-
shire, (which yielded the yellow copper ore) are situated
in compact limestone. The mines of Cornwall are situ-
ated both in argillaceous schistus and granite.

Veins containing copper are not esteemed to be of so
ancient formation as those enclosing tin ; because, when
the veins meet with each other, those of tin are always
traversed by those of copper ; but the ore? of both these
metals are often found in the same veins in Cornwall ;
the copper being generally beneath the tin.

Mines of Copper are largely wrought in England,
Germany, Sweden, and Siberia : those of Spain, France,
Ireland, Norway, and Hungary, are much less extensive
and numerous. Copper has been found in Asia, Africa,
and America, in considerable abundance.

The uses of copper in all its various states are almost
endless, and only, if at all, inferior to those of iron. Al-
loyed with certain proportions of zinc it forms brass,
pinchbeck, tinsel, and Dutch gold, in imitation of gold
jeaf. With a small proportion of tin, copper forms
bronze or bell metal ; but if the proportion of tin amount
to one-third, it forms speculum metal, used for reflecting
telescopes. With zinc and iron, it forms tutenag. In
porcelain painting, the green is obtained from copper.

**

TO MINERALOGY

NATIVE COPPERV*

Native copper is of a yellow red colour, has a metal-
lic lustre, and is often tarnished externally of various co-
lours ; it occurs massive, capillary, dendritic, and crys-
tallized, and is malleable and flexible. It assumes the
form of the cube and of the regular octohedron ; but
not possessing that structure which allows of regular
cleavage, either of these solids may be considered as the
primitive form of its crystals, which are very numerous,
but not very intelligible, on account of their extreme

* There is reafon to believe, that native copper exifts in larger blocks or
maffes, on the Couth fide of Lake Superior, than in any other part of the
world. It is found too at Green Bay, on the weft fide of Lake Michigan.
J have fpecimens of both. The metal is remarkably pure, as appears by the
following analyfis, made at the mint of Utrecht, in the Netherlands, at
the requcft of Dr. Euftis, the Minifter Plenipotentiary of the United
States, who carried fpecimens with him to Europe.

The report from the mint, is in thefe words : — " From every appear-
ance, the piece of copper feems to have been taken from a mafs that has
undergone fufion. The melting was, however, not an operation of art,
but a natural effect caufed by a volcanic eruption.

The flream of lava probably carried along in its courfe the aforefaid
body of copper that had formed into one collection, as faft as it was heat-
ed enough to run, from all parts of the mine. The united mafs was pro-
bably borne, in this manner, to the place where it now refts in the foil.

The cryftallized form, obfervable every where on the original furface
of the metal that has been left untouched or undifturbed, leads me to pre-
fume that the fufion it has fuftained was by a procefs of nature ; fince this
cryftallized furface can only be fuppofed to have been produced by a flow
and gradual cooling, whereby the copper affumed regular figures as ics
heat paffed into other fubftances and the metal itl'elf lay expofed to the
air.

As to the properties of the copper itfelf, it may be obferved that its co*
lour is a clear red ; that it is peculiarly qualified for rolling and forging \
and that its excellence is indicated by its refemblance to the copper ufuafiy
employed by the Englifh for plating.

The dealers in copper call this fort Peruvian copper •, to diftinguifh it from
that of S-weJen, which is much lefs malleable. The fpecimen, under con-
iideration, is incomparably better than Swedifli copper, as well on account
of its brilliant colour, as for the finenefs of its pores, and its extreme duc-
tility.

Notwithftanding, befere it is ufed in manufactures, or for the coining
of money, it ought to be melted anew, for the purpofc of purifying it from
fuch earthy particles as it may contain.

The examination of the North- American copper, in the fample received
from his excellency the minifter, by the operations of the cupel and the
teft by fire, has proved that it does not contain the fmalleft particle of fil-
ver, gold, or any other metal."

192 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

liability to that kind of compound structure which consti-
tutes the made. The crystals in my possession exhibit
about 80 varieties of form, and were all brought from
Cornwall ; where Native Copper has occasionally been
found in considerable abundance, accompanied by the red
oxide, (into which it sometimes passes,) and occasionally
by the green carbonate and the arseniate of Copper; and
by quartz and fluate of lime. The copper veins of Corn-
wall are situated both in argillaceous schistus and gra-
nite. Native Copper is occasionally found disseminated
in the serpentine of the Lizard point in that county.

Native Copper is rare in France ; but is very abun-
dant in some parts of the Uralian mountains in Siberia ;
at Herngrund in Saxony, the Hartz, at Fahlun in Sweden,
and near the Copper Mine River within the arctic circle
in America. That of Japan and that of Brazil, are said
to contain a considerable proportion of gold. Quartz,
fluate of lime, carbonate of lime, and sulphate of barytes,
usually accompany Native Copper ; the two latter have
rarely been met with in Cornwall, and not at all accom-
panying Native Copper.

SUtPHURET OF COPPER.* GLANCE COPPER.

Sulphuret of copper is of a lead or iron grey colour ;
it has a shining metallic lustre, and yields easily to the
knife. It occurs massive, and crystallized. The form
of its primitive crystal is the hexahedral prism, which pas-
ses into an obtuse, and also into an acute dodecahedron,
with triangular planes ; the crystals in my possession ex-
hibit 83 varieties of form besides 2 or 3 macles : they
are all from Cornwall, where the suiphuret of copper
has been abundantly found in several mines ; sometimes
intermixed with the yellow copper ore, and occasion-

* Found in the red fand-ftone formation, near New- York, accompanied
with the oxyd and carbonate of copper ; and in the neighbourhood of
New Haven and Baltimore. (Cleaveland and Gilbs.} Found at the Schuyler
mine in Bergen county, (N. J.) In the green- ftone mountains running
north and fouth, in Connecticut, between the Sound and Simsbury, with
native copper and the red oxyd of the fame. (Silliman.') — At Perkiomen in •
Montgomery county, and near Chefter in Delaware county, Pennfylvania,
(Conrad and Wl*tarl) and in feverai other places. I have received very
fine yellow fulphuret of copper, from fome place in the upper country of
Georgia.

TO MINERALOGY. 193

ally accompanied by the succeeding variety ; and by
spathose iron ore and fluate of lime. It is also found at
Llandidno in Caernarvonshire, and at Middleton Tyas,
in Yorkshire. It occurs also in Siberia, Sweden, and
Saxony ; principally, as it is said, in primitive moun-
tains.

The crystallized consists of 81 parts of copper, and 19
of sulphur ; the massive contains rather less copper,
about the same sulphur, with about 2 per cent, of oxide
of iron, and 1 ofsilex.

PURPLE COPPER. BUNTKUPFERERZ.

This mineral is of a tombac brown colour ; and has an
irridescent tarnish ; it occurs massive, capillary, and
crystallized : it is found in the cube, mostly with curvi-
linear faces, passing into the perfect octohedron. It
consists of about 70 parts of copper, 19 of sulphur, and
7 of iron. It is generally found in the same countries as
the preceding variety, and accompanying it.

GREY COPPER.

Grey copper is mostly of a steel grey colour ; it oc-
curs massive and crystallized, and -has a brilliant metallic
lustre ; it is brittle, but is much harder than the sulphu-
ret of copper ; it is found in the cube, passing into the
regular octohedron, and in the dodecahedron with rhom-
bic planes. I am not aware that it has been analyzed.
I possess crystals of it in 26 varieties of form ; they are
all from Cornwall.

This mineral seems mostly to be confounded with
the Fahlerz of Werner, Cuivre gris of Ha'dy, which was
formerly considered as a silver ore, and in which cop-
per, iron, antimony, silver, and sulphur, enter into com-
bination ; some varieties also yield arsenic : it crystal-
lizes in the form of the regular tetrahedron, variously
modified.

R

194 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Grey Copper is found in Cornwall in the same veins
as the two preceding varieties ; the Fahlerz, I believe,
has not been found there ; but has been met with in
the silver mines at Beeralston in Devonshire, and in
Wales. It is found also in Transylvania, the Hartz.
Saxony, &c.

YELLOW COPPER. COPPER PYRITES.

This mineral is of various shades of yellow, and is
often irridescently tarnished externally ; it occurs mas-
sive, stalactitic, and crystallized in the form of the regu-
lar tetrahedron, which is its primitive form ; its varieties
are not numerous. It has a metallic lustre, and yields
easily to the knife. It consists of copper united with
variable proportions of iron and of sulphur : in general,
the copper does not exceed 20 per cent. It is the most
abundant of all the ores of copper, and is the chief ore of
the Cornish mines, where it is found in veins, passing
through argillaceous schistus and granite. It is met with
in Derbyshire, and was abundant in the Ecton mine
in Staffordshire in limestone. It is generally accom-
panied by quartz, iron pyrites, aud sometimes by mis-
pickel and the sulphuret of copper. In the mine cal-
led Huel To wan, it was accompanied by spathose iron.

WHITE COPPER.*

White Copper seems to be a variety of the preceding
species, distinguished by its being of a silvery white or
pale brass yellow colour, and by its affording an arseni-
cal odour before the blow- pipe ; its whiteness may per-
haps be attributed to the arsenic it contains : it has not
been analyzed. It is not common, but occasionally ac-
companies yellow copper ; it is said to have been found
in the mine called Huel Gorland in Cornwall

* At Fairfield, Connecticut, in a compact ore of Copper, whofe recent
fracture is metallic white, which foon turns, by expofure, to a dirty white,
and in time acquires a green hue. It contains arfenic. (Silliman.)

TO MINERALOGY. 195

RUBY COPPER. RED OXIDE OF COPPER.f

This beautiful mineral is of a fine crimson red colour,
and Is frequently translucent, but externally, is mostly
tarnished, sometimes of a metallic grey colour ; it yields
easily to the knife, and is brittle ; it occurs massive, and
crystallized in the regular octohedron, which passes into
an acute rhomboid, the cube, and the dodecahedron
with rhombic planes : the crystals in my possession are
very numerous and exhibit about 70 varieties of form ;
all of them are from Cornwall. The specific gravity of
the red oxide of copper is 3.9 ; it consists of 91 copper
and 9 of oxygen. A variety of the red oxide of copper,
is met with in fine capillary crystals which are lengthened
cubes; another of a red or reddish brown colour, com-
pact, and with an earthy fracture, is called Tile ore.

This mineral is found at Moldava in Hungary ; near.
Cologne ; in the eastern part of tne Uralian mountains
in Siberia, accompanied by the variety of green carbo-
nate of copper called Malachite; and has been met
with in several mines in Cornwall, and in considerable
abundance in those called Huel Unity and Huel Gor-
land, which are situated both in granite and argillaceous
schistus ; the vein was principally occupied by a brown
ferruginous friable substance, called gossan by the miner;
in the same vein, but above the red copper, which was
generally accompanied by native copper and sometimes
black copper, considerable quantities of arseniated cop-
per, and arseniated iron were met with.

BLACK COPPEK.

Black copper occurs in a pulverulent form, investing
some other of the ores of copper, chiefly the red oxide ;
it is generally considered to be an oxide of copper, but it
gives out sulphureous vapours before the blowpipe.

t The feveral localities of this ore, are in Virginia, on the Fairfax
eftate, near the Shenandoah, (/%<&«) ; — in Pcnnfylvania, near Lancafter,
with malachite ;— in the Schuyler Copper mine, near New- York ; and in
the Connecticut mountains, mentioned in a preceding note.

196 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION*

CARBONATE OF COPPER.*

Carbonate of copper is of various shades of blue and
of green. The Blue is chiefly of a beautiful azure blue,
and is found in small globular masses, massive, earthy,
and crystallized ; it frequently accompanies the succeed-
ing variety. I possess crystals of it, in about 30 varieties
of form, but they are not very intelligible ; they appear
to be principally of that variety which is termed the sec-
tion of the octohcdron ; which solid is esteemed to be
their primitive form. It is not of abundant occurrence,
but has been met with in the mining countries of Bohe-
mia, Saxony, the Hartz, Siberia, &ic ; also in Cornwall,
and at Wanluck-head, and the Lead hills in Scotland.
Some crystals from France very nearly approach the
cube, others are rhomboidal, but not determinate,

The Green Carbonate of copper, or Malachite, is
found massive, and in slender prismatic crystals or fibres,
which are of a silky lustre, and aggregated in bundles,
or stellated ; frequently it is almost massive, with a silky
iibrous texture. It does not present regular crystals,
This beautiful mineral is said occasionally to accompany
the greatest part of the other ores of copper. The finest
specimens are brought from the Uralian mountains in
Siberia : it is also met with in the copper mines of Sax-
ony, Bohemia, the Tyrol, Hungary, &c. ; and some-
times, though rarely, in Cornwall. The massive green
variety consists of about 58 copper, 12 oxygen, 18 car-
bonate acid, and 11 of water. ! he blue variety consists
of the same elements, varying somewhat in their re-
spective proportions : and there is a variety of the green
carbonate of copper, called Chrysocolla, which consists of
the same substances in smaller proportions, together

* Both the mountain blue and mountain green forms of copper exift fpa-
ringly, but with diftinct characters, at Pcrkiomen, Bergen, Cnefhirc, and,
it is believed, in fome other places.

TO MINERALOGY. 19(7

with about 26 per cent, of silex ; it is of various shades
of green and brown, and of very different degrees of
hardness ; it presents, when broken, a conchoidal frac-
ture, and a resinous shining lustre. It is found accom-
panying the foregoing varieties ; and has been met with-
in Cornwall, and in the vale of Newlands, near Keswick
in Cumberland.

The Turquoise, so called because it was first brought
from Turkey, is said to consist of the bone or tooth of
an animal in the fossil state, penetrated by blue or green
carbonate of copper. It is also brought from Persia.

EMERALD COPPER. DIOPTASE.

The Dioptase is of an emerald-green colour; and is
met with crystallized only in the dodecahedron, the
primitive form of which is an obtuse rhomboid. It is
an extremely rare mineral, having only been found in a
vein in Daouria, on the Chinese and Russian frontiers ;.
it was accompanied by malachite copper. It is com-
posed of about 29 parts of oxide of copper, 43 of carbo-
nate of lime, and 28 of silex. The portion from which*
the anatysis was made, was only four grains.

SULPHATE OF COPTER.

Sulphate of copper is of a blue colour, soraetimea
bluish green, and is generally translucent. It has a-
nauseous, bitter, metallic taste ; and is found massive,,
stalactitical or pulverulent, in certain copper mines, but
it is not a common substance. It has taen met with in
the Parys mine in Anglesea : and in various countries^
in crystals of eleven varieties of form, of which the pri-
mitive is considered to be an oblique-angled parallelepi-
ped. It consists of copper mineralized by the sulphuric
acid.

MUIUATE OF COPPER*

This rare mineral is of various shades of green, and is
rnet with in extremely minute octohedral crystals, either
loose, in the form of a green sand, in Peru, or investing;

R.2.

198 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

a dark ochreous quartz, at Remolinos in Chili. The
crystals in my possession exhibit 13 varieties of form ;
the primitive, which is a cuneiform octohedron, and se-
ven of the most simple varieties, were discovered among
the green sand of Peru : the remainder are from Chili.
The latter consists of 73 per cent, of oxide of copper,
10.1 of muriatic acid, and 16.9 of water.

PHOSPHATE OF COPPER.

Phosphate of copper is externally of a greyish black,
internally between emerald and verdigris green ; it oc-
curs in small rhomboids with curvilinear faces; also
massive, or disseminated in an opake quartz. It is a rare
mineral, having only been found at Rheimbreidbach
near Cologne, and at Finneberg, and at Nassau-risingen.
It is sometimes mingled with arseniated copper, and
accompanied by carbonate of lead : it consists of about
68 parts of oxide of copper, and 31 of phosphoric acid,

ARSENIATE OF COPPER.

Of this mineral there are several varieties.

It occurs in very fiat octahedral crystals, which are of a
grass green, deep blue, or bluish white colour ; and are
sometimes slightly transparent, with a vitreous lustre :
this variety consists of 49 oxide of copper, 14 arsenic
acid, and 35 water.

Another variety occurs in six-sided tabular crystals,
which are transparent, and of an emerald green colour,
or occasionally, though rarely, white and opake. The
sides of the crystals alternately incline different ways, and
are generally striated : but I possess some crystals much
thicker than they are commonly found, of which the six
sides are not striated but very brilliant. All the tabular
crystals of this variety, ought, as I conceive, to be con-
sidered as sections of an octohedron ; in this opinion I
am the more confirmed, because I also possess some
crystals on which the solid angles of the octohedron are
replaced by planes ; others on which the edges are re-
placed ; and again others, on which the planes of both

TO MINERALOGY. 199

these modifications are combined : none of these crystals
have heretofore been described.

Another variety, by some called the triedral arseniatc,
is of a very beautiful bluish green, or deep verdigris co-
lour, and transparent ; but as their surface is often de-
composed and black, the crystals are then opake ; their
form is an octohedron, which is generally elongated,
and their summits are sometimes deeply replaced, giv-
ing them the appearance of six-sided prisms with diedral
summits ; in others, two of the four lateral edges are
also deeply replaced, the crystals then assume the ap-
pearance of four-sided prisms with diedral summits,
The crystals of this variety also assume the form of the
tetrahedron, and of a very acute rhomboid, sometimes
perfect, sometimes passing into the octohedron; they
have been said to occur also in the rare form of the trie-
dral prism, but as the acute rhomboids are often placed
on the gangue on one of their extremities, having the
other, which if perfect would appear as an acute apex,
deeply replaced by a regular triangular plane, I conceive
this appearance has given rise to the opinion that the
crystals assume the form of triedral prism.

The preceding varieties differ in their respective pro-
portions of oxide of copper, arsenic acid, and water,
from the first variety : in the succeeding variety there is
no water.

This variety occurs in slightly acute octahedrons,
which are usually of a bottle green colour ; sometimes
brown, or nearly black, and somewhat transparent.
These crystals are mostly elongated ; in some of them,
the summits of the octohedron are replaced, as well as
two of the four lateral edges ; and as these crystals are
generally long, they assume the appearance of four, six, or
eight-sided prisms, having diedral summits, whence this
variety has been termed the prismatic arseniate. It
sometimes exhibits capillary crystals of indeterminate
forms ; and others which are regular for some length,
but fibrous at the extremity.

The two following varieties agree in their respective
proportions of oxide of copper, arsenic acid, and water,
but differ from the two first varieties.

One of them, which is of various shades of green,

200 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

brown, yellow, and white, is of a fine diverging fibrous
structure, and a silky lustre ; it is called the Hcematitic
arseniate of copper.

The other occurs in extremely minute, flexible fibres,
occasionally so small as to have the appearance of dust ;
they are of various shades of blue, green, brown, yellow,
and white ; and possess a silky lustre. It is called the
Jlmianthifonn arseniate.

Martial Arseniate of Copper, which, until lately, has
been termed Cupreous Jlrwniate of Iron, is of a pale
bluish green colour, and occurs in small four, six, or
eight-sided prisms, with tetrahedral summits, generally
grouped in small globular radiated masses, they are
transparent, and have a shining vitreous lustre.

All the above varieties of the arseniate of copper were
found in the same veins which produced the red oxide
of copper, in the mines called Huel Gorland and Huel
Unity, which adjoin each other in Cornwall ; their
veins pass through both granite and argillaceous schis-
tus.

GOLD.

The specific gravity of Gold, when pure and beaten,
is about 19 ; it is very soft, and perfectly ductile and
flexible. So great is its tenacity, that a piece one-tenth
of an inch in diameter, will hold five hundred pounds
without breaking ; and it is computed that a single grain
of gold will cover the space of fifty-six square inches,
when beaten out to its greatest extent.

Gold is always found in the metallic form, whence by
the mineralogists it is said to occur in the native or pure
slate 5 but it is generally alkyed by small portions of
other metals, as silver, copper, &c.

The uses of gold are well known. Alloyed by cop-
per, it is employed for ornamental purposes, coin and
plate.

In English coin it was alloyed by two parts of copper,
to twenty-two of gold. The alloy of gold used in plate

TO MINERALOGY. 201

was formerly the same as the coin : it is now 18 carats,
or i-fths gold. The purple colour used in porcelain
painting is obtained from a preparation of gold.

NATIVE

'- .- - :• ".

Native Gold is yellow, orange yellow, or greyish yel-
low, with a shining metallic lustre ; it occurs crystallized,
capillary, ramified, and in masses of various sizes, from
the weight of very minute portions to that of several
pounds ; it is soft, inelastic, flexible, and malleable. It
is rarely perfectly pure, but mostly contains small por-

* The grand fpecimen of Native Gold, which was examined by me in
1800, at New- York, on its way from the Viceroy of Mexico to the King
of Spain was connected with quartz. Both the metal and the rock were
amorphous, and exhibited no fign of cryftallization. It feemed to be a loofe
nodule, rounded by rolling ; and weighed forty-fix ounces. The colour
of the gold was a fine yellow, with a hue in one part of whitifh, and in
the other of greenifh. The quartz was white, with a dufky tinge. (Metl*
Refos. Vol. 4, p. 201 — 202.)

Meadow Creek, a branch of Rocky River, a principal flream of the Pe-
dee, in Cabarrus county, North Carolina, is more remarkable than any re-
gion of the Fredonian States, for native gold. About the year 1803,
grains and lumps to the amount of fifteen thoufand dollars were gathered.
The firft piece was found by a boy, who was exercifing himfelf in fhooting
fmall fiflies with a bow and arrows. The maffcs were of different weight
from gold-duft to the unparalelled bulk of a lump of nearly twenty -eight
pounds. The heavieft of thefe natural fpecimens, loft only 15 per cent, on
being melted and refined. The fmaller and lighter of them lofe only
from a to 5 per cent. The grains of gold are found fcattered among the
fand.

The rocks are of the primitive formation, and the gold is difleminated
among their ruins.

The fpecimen which I received from Governor Alexander, is of a rich
and beautiful yellow, and is blended with particle* of white quartz. (MeJ.
Repos. Vol. 7, p. 307.) The director of the mint reported, that during
1804, about eleven thoufand dollars of the golden money coined there,
was from the gold of North Carolina.

For a year or more after the firft difcovery, pieces were occafionally
found of four and five pounds weight, and a great number of the fize of
fmall grains ; and the laft I heard of this gold-finding bufinefs was, that
quickfilver had been employed by the workers, for feparating the minute
particles of gold from the fand. (Ibid. Vol. 8,/>. 439 — 440.)

The fands of Long creek, about eighteen miles from Meadow creek,
have alfo afforded gold duft. Whenever the maize and cotton are weed-
ed, and the bufinefs of the plantation is in advance, the proprietors have
been in the habit of taking their labourers to the ftream, and of wafhing
and fearching for gold. By conducting the undertaking in this manner,
it was found, that it not only paid wages, but afforded a profit. Expe-
rience has proved that a bufhel of the fand, would often afford gold to

* ;ic

202 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

tions of other metals; as of silver, copper, &c. It oc-
curs crystallized in the form of the cube and octohedron,
but as its crystals do not admit of regular fracture, their
structure is not sufficiently known to enable mineralo-
gists to decide which of those two solids is the form oi its
primitive crystal. I possess crystals exhibiting 21 varie-
ties of form, besides 12 others in that compound species
of crystallization, expressed by the term macle ; each
consisting of equal portions of the octohedron united
together.

Gold is sometimes combined in other metalliferous
minerals, in various proportions, but is said always to be
in the metallic state. An argentiferous variety has yield-
ed by analysis, 36 per cent, of silver; and an auriferous
variety of silver (mentioned under that head) 28 per
cent, of gold. It is combined with other metals in the
ores of tellurium, and not unfrequently forms an ingre-
dient in iron pyrites, which thence is termed auriferous.
It is also said to have been occasionally found in certain
sulpburets of iron, zinc, lead, and mercury, and in some
varieties of copper and of arsenical pyrites.

In veins, gold is found only in primitive mountains^
but not in those of the most ancient formation ; these
veins principally contain quartz, felspar, carbonate of
lime, arid sulphate of barytes ; but the gold is sometimes
accompanied by sulphuret of iron, of silver, and of lead,
and occasionally red silver, manganese, grey cobalt,
and nickle.

Gold is found in veins ; also in rivers, and alluvial
matter, in several countries of Europe. From Spain
the Phrenicians and Romans are supposed to have drawn
their principal riches ; it is also found in Germany and

the value of fifty cents. A lump weighing twenty-feven pennyweights,
was found in July, 1808. Small pieces of four, fix, and even fourteen
pennyweights, have been alfo found.

The common way of working was, firft, to pick out all the vifible
grains from the auriferous fand, and to throw the refidue into a heap ; and
afterwards, to feparate the more minute particles by amalgamation with
quickfilver. It has been fuppofed that the alluvial flratum in which th3
gold lies, is very extenfive. A mafs weighing a pound was found in An-
fon county. (Med. Repot. Vol. ia,/>. 192—193.)

A few years ago, a publication was made, that gold had been found in
'he fand of James river, or one of its ilreams, at Lynchburgh iu Virginia*

TO MINERALOGY. 203

Sweden ; and very sparingly in France and Italy. The
principal European mines are those of Cremnitz and
Chemnitz, in Hungary; which, together with some
others of inferior note, annually produce, by estimate,
about 2000 pounds weight. Small quantities are also
found in alluvial deposits in Switzerland, and in Ireland ;
the latter of which contains about fifteen per cent, of sil-
ver. It is found occasionally in small grains intermixed
with tin in some of the stream-works of Cornwall.

In Asia ; gold is found in Siberia in veins, and in ma-
ny of the Asiatic islands in sands.

From the rivers and alluvial deposits of Africa, large
quantities were furnished to the ancients.

By far the greater part of the gold now brought into
use, is obtained from the rivers of South America ; in
various parts of which continent, it is also found in veins,
and in considerable abundance. In the Vice Royalty
of La Plata alone there are 30 gold mines or workings.
It is calculated that the annual produce of America is
about 30,000 pounds weight.

Helms says, that when a projecting part of one of the
highest mountains in Paraguay fell down, about thirty
years ago, pieces of gold, weighing from two to fifty
pounds each, were found in it.

PLATINA.*

The specific gravity of Platina when pure, is about
23 ; its colour is between tin-white and iron grey. Its

* Three hundred pounds of Platina, were offered to me for examination,
at New- York, in 1802. It had been brought from Chaco, in Terra Fir-
ma, by the way of Jamaica. It confifted principally of fmall grain.",
fmooth to the touch, fomewhat like flax- feed, and rather flat than round.
The fize of the grains was confiderably coarfer than the large rafpings ot
iron, and they were more varied and irregular in their forms. Some
pieces were, however, much larger ; and I now pofiefs one as large as a
middling bean. The colour was fomewhat between filver and iron j
and the native metal as it lay expofed to the eye, brought to mind a re-
femblance, though by no means an exa& one, to filings of filver and pow-

204 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

malleability is so considerable that it may be beaten into
leaves as thin as tin foil, and its ductility so great, that
Dr. Wollaston has succeeded in drawing it into a wire
TsfnFlft Part °f an *nc*J *n diameter, which will support
about one grain and one third of a grain without break-
ing. It possesses considerable elasticity, and in hard-
ness is not much inferior to iron ; but is very difficult of
fusion. It is only found in the native state.

Pure PJatina in thin plates is very ductile and flexible.
Of late it has been formed into mirrors for reflecting
telescopes, spoons, crucibles, and some vessels of con-
siderable dimension for the use of the chemist in parti-
cular processes.

NATIVE PLATINA.

Native Platina, is between steel grey and silver- white
colour, and is nearly as hard as iron, and malleable, but
is infusible. It has hitherto only been found in small
flattened grains rarely exceeding the size of a pea ; the
largest that has been seen is of the size of a pigeon's
egg, and was presented by Humboldt to the King of
Prussia. Native Platina is much lighter than pure pla-

der of tin. The grains were lefs angular and fhining than the former,
and not fo dark and globular as the latter. A portion of iron, feemed to
be mixed with the platina ; for, on applying the magnet, numerous
particles of a dufky hue, adhered to it. It appeared alfo, that many
pieces of platina, known to be fuch by their whitifh complexion, were at-
tracted by the load-ftone. Pieces of lead-ore in the form of galena, and
of iron in the form of pyrites, were mixed with the platina, in the bags.
There was alfo a quantity of earth and fand. The grains of platina were
readily capable of extenfion between the anvil and hammer, and fhowed
neither rurc nor tarnifli. M Carendeffez determined by experiment, that
two hundred and eighty- eight grains of this platina, confifted of the fol-
lowing ingredients, to wit :

Carbune of iron, 56

Silicious fand, ia

Magnetical iron, 40

Gold grains or duft, i

Platina, 179

288 grains.

Which is confiderably more than a third of foreign ingredients. Platina is
reckoned to be about ten times as fcarce as gold. (Med. Ref. Vol. 6, p.
213—

TO MINERALOGY. 205

tina : it has been found in St. Domingo, Brazil, and
Peru.

In St. Domingo it is met with in the eastern part of
that island, in the sands of a river called Jaki, at the
foot of the mountains of Sibao. The grains are some-
what larger than those of Peru, and are accompanied by
magnetic iron ore, gold, £c. It has not been ana-
lyzed.

In Brazil it is found in the gold mines of that country
in small grains of a spongy texture, free from tarnish,
and with very little lustre, mixed with grains of gold,
and of palladium ; perhaps also with the natural alloy
of iridium and osmium. It does not contain any of the
magnetic iron sand, or of the minute hyacinths, which
always accompany the Peruvian ore. It consists of pla-
tina alloyed by very minute portions of gold and of pal~
ladium.

In Peru, it is only met with in the Rio del Pinto, in
the districts of Citara and Novita in the province of
Choco, and near Carthagena in New Grenada. It is
found in a magnetic iron sand, in which are mixed grain?
of gold, minute hyacinths, and fossil wood : and it is
said that the whole is covered by rounded pieces of ba-
salt enclosing olivine and pyroxene. The grains of
platina are small, flattened, and have occasional inden-
tations, the surfaces of which are generally tarnished;
but the other parts have a shining metallic lustre. It
consists of platina alloyed with small proportions of
iron, copper, lead, palladium, iridium, rhodium, and
osmium.

The grains of Crude Platina analyzed by Descotils
were accompanied by grains of menachanite and of chro-
mate of iron.

-t.it

3o'ivW;r :£*??£: ^•''^-t.'i-U4|R

•jr

20G ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

RHODIUM.

This metal has hitherto been found only alloying the
native platina of Peru. When pure, Rhodium has a
bright metallic surface, but is not malleable ; its specific
gravity is about 11.

IRIDIUM. OSMIUM.

The former of these two metals, when pure, is white,
and perfectly infusible ; the latter is of a dark grey or
blue colour. They occur, alloying native platina in
very small proportion ; and likewise together, forming
a natural alloy of the two metals.

ALLOY OF IBID1UM AND OSMIUM.

This natural alloy is found accompanying native pla-
tina, in the form of very small, irregular, and flattened
grains, which have a shining metallic lustre, but are of
a somewhat paler colour than native platina, and are
harder and heavier; their specific gravity being 19.5 :
they possess a lamellar structure, and are brittle.

"4£j {> ' '*''•*

PALLADIUM.*

The specific gravity of Palladium, when pure, is about
11. In colour, it greatly resembles platina ; in thin la-

* Palladium has been difcovered in an alloy with Brazilian gold, by Jo-
feph Cloud, Efcj. of the U. S. mint. He is fatisfied that Palladium has a

TO MINERALOGY. 207

niinse it is very flexible, but not very elastic ; it is some-
what harder than bar-iron, and is very malleable.

It occurs, together with some other metals, alloying, in
small proportion, the native platina of Brazil : and also
in the native state.

NATIVE PALLADIUM.

Native Palladium occurs in grains apparently compo-
sed of diverging fibres ; in other respects these grains
differ little in external character from those of the native
platina, amongst which they are found. Native palla-
dium is infusible; its specific gravity is 11.8; and it
consists of palladium, alloyed by minute portions of pla-
tina and iridium.

TELLURIUM.

Tellurium, when pure, is about the colour of tin ; it is
brittle, and nearly as fusible as lead ; its specific gravity
is little more than 6.

It is an extremely rare metal, and is found only in
the metallic state ; but is always alloyed, though in very
different proportions, by other metals. Its ores are few
and rare.

NATIVE TELLURIUM.

Native tellurium is of a tin white colour, and has a
metallic lustre : it occurs in small grains, which are brit-
tle, and yield to the knife. It very much resembles
grey antimony. It is found in the veins of a transition
mountain of compact carbonate of lime, at Fazebay in

real exigence ; that it is one of the pure, or unoxydable metals ; and in
this refpect, on a par with gold, filver, and platina. He found it in a na»
tive conbination with gold, without the prefence of Platina, or any other
metal. (Amer. Phil. Trans. Vol. 6, and Med. Rtpos. Vol. 14, />. 69—73.)

.208 ELEMENTARY" INTRODUCTION

Transylvania ; and also at Beresof in Siberia. It con-
sists of 92.55 parts of tellurium, 7.2 of iron, and 0.25 of
gold. Its specific gravity is about 6. It is procured for
the sake of the gold it contains, though so small in quan-
tity.

GRAPHIC TELLURIUM. AUliUM GRAPHICUM.

This mineral is of a steel grey colour, with a splen-
dent metallic lustre ; and occurs in small flat six-sided
prisms, with or without four-sided summits ; the crystals
are generally disposed in rows on the surface of quartz,
and are so arranged as to give the appearance of certain
characters ; whence its name : it is also sometimes
found in granular masses ; it yields easily to the knife,
and is brittle.

It is met with only at Oflenbanya in Transylvania,
together with sulphuret of zinc, pyrites, grey copper,
&;c. in veins which traverse a porphyritic mountain. Its
specific gravity is 5.7 ; and it is composed of 60 parts
of tellurium, 30 of gold, and 10 of silver.

PLUMB1FEROUS TELLURIUM.

This substance is either yellow or black. The yellow
variety ocr.urs in grains and in minute flat four-sided
prisms, of a bright metallic lustre ; it is somewhat flexi-
ble, and soft. It consists of 44.75 parts of tellurium,
2G.75 of gold, 19.5 of lead, 8.5 of silver, and 0.5 of
sulphur.

The Black is found in irregular shapes, or in length-
ened and six-sided plates of a shining metallic lustre. It
consists of 32.2 of tellurium, 54 of lead, 9 of gold, 1.3
of copper, 3 of sulphur, and 0.5 of silver.

This variety, which is much heavier than the former,
is only found at Nagyag in Transylvania, and is procured
as an ore of gold ; it is accompanied principally by the
same substances as the former variety.

TO MINERALOGY, 209

•<• ;,*'•* - ,.-,;

* ANTIMONY*

Antimony is a compact, brittle, bluish white metal,
whose specific gravity is between 6 and 7 ; it is found
nearly pure.

The ores of antimony are only five in number ; all of
which have not been analyzed. In some of them, it is
found combined with oxide of iron, arsenic, silex, sul-
phur, and oxygen.

Antimony is found both in primitive and secondary
countries. It forms alloys with other metals, and is used
in the arts. It enters largely into the composition of
printing types ; it is also used in medicine.

NATIVE ANTIMONY.

This substance is found of irregular shapes; never
crystallized regularly. It occurs at Sahlberg in Sweden
in calcareous spar ; at Allemont in Dauphine, in white
quartz ; at Andreasburg in the Hartz, in quartz and spa-
those iron ore.

The form of its primitive crystal in the regular octo-
hedron.

It consists of 98 parts of antimony, the rest being sil-
ver and iron ; but some specimens, on being exposed to
heat, give out a garlicky odour, indicating the presence
of arsenic.

* This metal does not appear to exift in great quantity in the Fredifli
dominions. A fpecimen which I once announced, on the authority of
Dr. D. B. Warden, as having been found at Saugherties in Ulfter county,
N. Y. turned out to be European ; it having got by miftake, among fome
American minerals, at Paris.

Another fpecimen fent me from Maine, could certainly not have been
native ; for it bore the plaineft marks of fufion, and was undoubtedly an
imported fulphuret of antimony. Still, it is affirmed upon the moft respec-
table authority, that Harwinton in Connecticut, affords broad plated na-
tive antimony, aflbciated with fulphuretted antimony, (Silliman) ; and
that Maine, Maflachufetts, Virginia and Louifiana, have each fumiflie<i
famples. ( Cleaveland.)

S 2

210 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

GREY ANTIMONY. SULPHURET OF ANTIMONY,

Grey antimony is of a light lead grey colour externally,
but presents, when fractured, a brilliant metallic lustre ;
it is occasionally lamellar, fibrous, and is often crystal-
lized : it is extremely brittle, and so fusible, that it rea-
dily mells in the flame of a candle : when in minute ca-
pillary crystals, it is termed plumose antimony.

The form of its primitive crystal has not been ascer-
tained. It occurs in oblique four-sided prisms, termina-
ted by four-sided pyramids ; the crystals in my posses-
sion exhibit 14 varieties of form. It consists of 75 parts
of antimony, and 25 of sulphur.

It is found in Saxony, Hungary, and France ; also in
Cornwall and Dumfrieshire. It is mostly met with in
micaceous schistus, or clay porphyry, mixed with oxide
of iron ; and is accompanied by quartz and spathose iron
ore ; in Hungary by sulphate of barytes, sometimes cal-
careous spar, fluor spar, and chalcedony. It is remarka-
ble that in Cornwall it is only met with in veins in a di-
rection contrary to that of the copper and tin veins,
which they pass through.

RED ANTIMONY.

This mineral is brownish, bluish, or reddish external-
ly ; and is principally found in minute diverging crystals,
which are brittle.

It often accompanies the preceding varieties, and is
met with in Hungary, Saxony, in Dauphine, but princi-
pally in Tuscany. It consists of about 67.5 parts of anti-
mony, 10.8 of oxygen, and 19.7 of sulphur.

WHITE ANTIMONY. OXIDE OF ANTIMONY.

White antimony is of a white, yellowish white, or grey
colour ; it is rarely found in mass, but mostly in slender
diverging crystals^ which are very tender, heavy, and
translucent*

TO MINERALOGY

It is a rare mineral ; at Allemont in France it is found
on native antimony. In Bohemia, on sulphuret of lead,
In Saxony, Hungary, and Spain, it is met with investing
sulphuret of antimony. It consists of 86 parts of anti-
mony, 8 parts of silex, and 3 of oxide of antimony and
oxide of iron.

ANT1MONIAL OCHRE.

Antimonial ochre has been found at Endellion in
Cornwall, in Saxony, and Bohemia, upon some of the
ores of antimony ; it is earthy, of a yellowish or brown
colour, and is extremely rare.

LEAD.

Lead is of a bluish grey colour, and is malleable, duc-
tile, inelastic, and very soft ; it has never been found in
the pure or native state : its specific gravity is between
11 and 12.

The ores of lead are numerous ; they appear under
very different circumstances and aspects, and present a
considerable diversity of combination. Lead is found
mineralized, mostly in the state of an oxide, by sulphur
and by the carbonic, muriatic, phosphoric, arsenic, mo-
lybdic, and chromic acids, and by oxygen : it is also
found in combination with the metals antimony, iron,
manganese, and silver, or their ores ; with the earths,
silex, alurnine, lime, and magnesia, and with water. Some
of the ores of lead, which are very numerous, present
combinations of several of these substances ; a few of
them have a metallic aspect, but several of them have
rather the appearance of earthy minerals, being in con-
siderable degree transparent or translucent. The ores
of lead chiefly occur in secondary countries ; sometimes
in the veins of primitive mountains.

It would scarcely be possible to enumerate all the
valuable purposes to which lead is applied in the arts, in

212 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

medicine, and in the common wants of man. Among its
less obvious uses, lead is employed to glaze pottery, and
its oxide enters into the composition of glass. Four
parts of lead and one of antimony form printing types, to
which by some is added a little copper or brass. With
tin and bismuth it forms alloys, which are used in the
arts.

GALENA. SULPHURET OF LEAD.*

Galena has nearly the colour and lustre of pure lead :
it is met with crystallized in the form of the cube, which
is that of its primitive crystal, and in nine varieties of
form ; among which is the regular octohedron. It oc-
curs also specular, radiated, granular, and compact. Its
specific gravity is 7.5 ; and it consists of about 85.13 per
cent, of lead, 13.8 of sulphur, and 0.5 of oxide of iron;
but carbonated lime and silex are found entering into
combination in some varieties, in proportions varying
between 29 and 38 per cent. Galena is rarely found
without some proportion of silver, which varies from Tf^
or less, to tr- The presence of silver is said considerably
to diminish the lustre of the Galena, and it is also said
that it is much more frequently found in the octohedral,
than in the cubical varieties.

* The Sulphuret of Lead is found in many parts of the United States.
In New- York, in Ulfter, Duchefs, Renflalacr, and Geneflee counties, fome-
times in limeftone, fometimes in quartz, and fometimes in Ihift. An in-
fiructive catalogue of localities in other States, may be feen in Profeflbr
Cleaveland's Elementary Treatife, p. 513—514.

But the moft extenfive bodies of Galena, perhaps, on the globe, cxift in
JLouiilana and the region to the northward, on the eaft fide of the Miilif-
flppi. It commonly refts upon carbonate of lime, and is often accompa-
nied by fulphate of barytes. It frequently exifts in nodules and detached
lumps. When Mr. Mofes Auftin wrote his report in 1804, there were
ten principal mines or openings : Now, it i» underftood, there are many
more. They are chiefly in the region fituated weft of St. Genevieve and
St. Louis. Above two hundred miles up the river Merrimack, valuable
lead mines have been difcovered* Veins of the galena are found beyond
the River aux Moiens. After various interruptions, the Teams of metallic
matter appear again above the falls of St. Anthony. Mafles of it are plen-
tiful, further to the north than the junction of the Ouifconfin with the
Mifliflippi. It is fo abundant that the Tatar natives of the region around
the Prairie des Chiens melt the lead, and bring it to the trading houfes as
an article of exchange. (Mtd. Repot. Vol. o, />. 87—88, and Pol. i?y

TO MINERALOGY. 213

The specular variety is sometimes called Looking
Glass Lead ore, on account of its great brilliancy, and in
Derbyshire, Slikenside ; the radiated variety is said always
to contain a portion of antimony. The granular variety
is sometimes nearly as fine-grained as steel.

Gelena is almost the only ore of the numerous ores
of lead, which is found in sufficient quantity to be
wrought for the lead it contains. This substance oc-
curs under great diversity of circumstance ; which owing
to the importance of the mineral, deserves a slight no-
tice.

In France, in the mine of Pompean, it is accompa-
nied by fossil wood ; near Medrin, it traverses nearly
perpendicular beds of limestone ; near Vienna it occurs
in schistus ; in Languedoc and the Vosges, in decom-
posed granite ; and in some places, in large veins, pas-
sing through primitive mountains.

At Bieyberg in Cafinthia, it occurs in beds, alterna-
ting with beds of compact carbonate of lime ; and in
grains disseminated through sandstone, and accompa-
nied by oxide of copper, and brown iron ore.

In Silesia it occurs in veins, and in rounded masses
in horizontal beds of ferruginous marl, resting upon
thicker beds of compact carbonate of lime, enclosing fos-
sil shells, and asphaltum.

In Spain the most important mines of sulphuret of
lead are situated in granite hills, in the province of Jaen,
and near the city of Canjagar.

In England, the most important mines are those of
Derbyshire, which are principally situated in compact
limestone, enclosing shells : the veins of lead ore are
sometimes nearly vertical, occasionally horizontal, and
they sometimes open into large caverns. In these moun-
tains is found the amygdaloid or toad stone, which in-
terrupts the vertical veins, but not the horizontal veins,
or rather beds. The lead ore is accompanied by carbo-
nated lime, sulphate of barytes, (of the variety called
cauk)and fluate of lime ; occasionally by petroleum and
elastic bitumen. It is confidently asserted that when the
variety of sulphuret of lead called Siikenside, is met
with, and by any means disturbed, a terrible explosion
ensues, by which considerable masses are detached

214 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

from the vein : this singular circumstance has not been
explained.

This substance is found in almost every mineral dis-
trict in the known world, and perhaps, next to certain
ores of iron, is the most common of metalliferous ores :
but it is said not to have been met with in any consider-
able quantity in the Altaic or Uralian chains of moun-
tains in the northern parts of Asia ; nor is it common in
Peru.

BLUE LEAD ORE.

Blue Lead Ore has only been found as Zschoppau in
Saxony, in veins, accompanied by other ores of lead,
and with quartz, tluor spar, &tc ; it occurs massive, and
crystallized in small six-sided prisms, and is of a colour
between lead grey and indigo blue, with a slight metal-
lic lustre.

TRIPLE SULPHURET OF LEAD.

This mineral is generally of a dark lead grey colour,
and shining metallic lustre ; it is mostly crystallized in
the form of the cube and its varieties ; it yields easily
to the knife, and is very brittle. It consists of 50 parts
ofsulpburet of lead, 30 of sulphuret of antimony, and
20 of sulphuret of copper. It has hitherto only been
found *n Huel Boys mine in Cornwall, in a north and
south vein passing through argillaceous schistus, and ac-
companied by sulphuret of zinc ; but some minerals
very nearly approximating to this substance in composi-
tion have been met with in other countries.

NATIVE MINIUM.

Native Minium is believed to be a pure oxide of lead,
which does not appear to have been ascertained by
analysis. Its ordinary colour is scarlet, but it is also
met with of various shades of grey, yellow, and brown ;
it occurs of indeterminate shapes, and pulverulent; the
latter variety is found in small beds, alternating with
clay and sulphuret of lead. It occurs in several places

TO MINERALOGY. 21 6

in Saxony, Germany, and France; also at Grassing-
ton Moor, in Craven ; and at Grasshill Chapel in York-
shire.

CARBONATE OP LEAD.*

This beautiful mineral is white, or of various shades
of grey and brown, and of a resinous lustre. It occurs
crystallized, acicular, and fibrous. The crystals are
translucent or transparent ; the acicular and fibrous most-
ly opake : it yields easily to the knife, is brittle, and
possesses double refraction in a high degree. The pri-
mitive form is a rectangular octohedron ; its crystals are
found in 12 varieties of form. The specific gravity of
Carbonate of Lead is 6.7 ; and it consists of 77 per
cent, of lead, 5 of oxygen, 16 of carbonic acid, and
about 2 of water. The Carbonate of lead is not very
abundant ; it is not found in large masses, and is always
accompanied by other ores of lead. It is met with in
Languedoc and Brittany, in France ; in the Hartz ; in
the lead hills in Scotland ; at Alston Moor in Cumber-
land ; in Durham ; and occasionally in Cornwall, but
principally of the acicular variety.

Sometimes this substance is tinged of a green colour
on the surface, by the carbonate of copper ; occasional-
ly it is of a metallic lead grey, exhibiting the partial
conversion of the carbonate into sulphuret of lead : and
at Grassfield mine near Nent-Head in Durham, carbo-
nate of Lead is found abundantly of an earthy texture,
and of a grey colour; but is tinged sometimes greenish,
yellowish, or reddish : it occurs massive, or granular,
and is very heavy.

* This beautiful white ore of lead is found near Abingdon in Virginia.
It occurs in lumps or mafles of flender, and fometimes radiating cryftals.
In the box of cryftals which I received from the proprietor, Mr. Sheffey,
were contained, befides the white ore, mafles of galena, and amorphous
1 umps of a yellowifh colour, like ochre.
t Found alfo at Perkiomen and Coneftoga. (Cc/trad,)

--.""' ;W
ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

«.. * ... • iJfl.i ' ^, :

MURIATE OF LEAl).^

Muriate of Lead is of a greenish yellow colour, and is
found crystallized in quadrangular prisms, which are
sometimes terminated by pyramids ; it is soft and some-
what transparent, and consists of 85.5 of oxide of lead;
8.5 of muriatic acid, and 6 of carbonic acid. It is
found at Cromford Level near Matlock, and in the
mountains of Bavaria.

• '. , . . v " }\ t - ,'". : x ' ' ' • • Jr

PHOSPHATE OF LEAD.f

Phosphate of Lead is of various shades of green, yel-
low, and yellowish brown ; but when reduced to pow-
der is always of a grey colour. It is found principally
in six-sided prisms, sometimes having six-sided pyra-
mids, but does not afford many varieties of form ; it is
divisible into an obtuse rhomboid, which therefore is
considered to be its primitive crystal. Its crystals are
generally somewhat translucent, possess a resinous lus-
tre, and are brittle. The green phosphate of lead
consists of 80 parts of oxide of lead, 18 of phosphoric
acid, and nearly 2 of muriatic acid.

The brown variety contains about 2 per cent, more of
the phosphoric acid, and 2 per cent, less of the oxide of
lead. A variety is found at Johngeorgenstadt in Saxo-
ny, consisting of about 77 parts of oxide of lead, 9 of
phosphoric acid, and 4 of arsenic acid, the rest being
water.

The Phosphate of Lead occurs in veins in primitive
and secondary mountains ; it sometimes accompanies
sulphuret of lead, carbonate of lead, iron ochre, quartz,
sulphate of barytes, and carbonate of lime. The green
phosphate occurs at Alston Moor in Cumberland, at Al-

* A carbonated muriate of lead of a cubic form with tetrahedral cryf-
tals, occurs in the lead mine of Southampton, Maffachufetts, among the
galena. The cryftals are nearly transparent, of a very light green, and
muated in clufters, (Meade.}

| Found at Perkiomen, Weftar and Southampton; among the other
forms of lead.

TO MINERALOGY 217

lonhead, Grasshill, and Teesdale in Durham ; at Nithis-
dale in Yorkshire ; and at Wanlockhead in Scotland.

SULPHATE OP LEAD.'

This substance mostly occurs in translucent crystals,
which are colourless, or of a smoke or yellowish grey
colour. The form of the primitive crystal is a rectan^
gular octohedron ; the crystals in my possession exhibit
30 varieties of form ; they are all from Cornwall. Sul-
phate of Lead is composed of about 71 parts of oxide
of lead, 24.8 of sulphuric acid, 2 of water, and 1 of
oxide of iron. It has been found in Andalusia in Spain ;
at Wanlockhead and the Lead hills in Scotland; but prin-
cipally in the Parys mine in Anglesea. In Cornwall, it
was met with in a copper vein in a mine called Veleno-
weth, very near the surface, and was accompanied by
the sulphuret of lead ; it occured in an ochreous brittle
substance, termed by the miner Gossen.

ARSENIATE OF LEAD.

The arseniate of Lead occurs principally in slender
six-sided crystals, which sometimes are fasciculated ;
or in fibres, of various shades of yellow, sometimes with
a tinge of green ; they are generally translucent, and
have a resinous lustre. The specific gravity of Arseni-
ate of Lead is about 6 ; it consists of 69.76 per cent, of
oxide of lead, 26.4 of arsenic acid, and 1.58 of muriatic
acid. In France, it has been met with in a Jead mine,
accompanied by quartz, fluate of lime, and sulphuret of
lead. In Andalusia, in felspar, with quartz and galena j
and in Hue I Unity mine in Cornwall, in a copper vein
situate in granite.

* Found in the Southampton mine in plates or tables, upon the cubes
of galena, and fometimes in the cavities of the quartzy matrix. Colour
with a ftrong glafly luftre. (Meade.)

T

218 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

MOLYBDATE OF LEAD.*

The Molybdate of Lead is met with principally in
crystals of various shades of yellow, having a glistening
resinous lustre ; it is soft, brittle, and somewhat trans-
lucent. The primitive crystal is an octohedron, with si-
milar and equal isosceles triangular planes. The crys-
tals in my possession exhibit 35 varieties of form. The
specific gravity of Molybdate of Lead is about 5 ; and
it consists of 58.4 parts of oxide of lead, 38 of molyb-
dic acid, and 2.08 of oxide of iron. It was first dis-
covered at Bleyberg in Carinthia, upon a compact lime-
stone ; and has been since found at Zimapan in Mexico,
on the same substance. It occurs also near Freyberg
and at Annaberg in Saxony, and at Felsobanya in Hun-
gary.

CHROMATE OF LEAD.

This beautiful substance is of an orange red colour ; it
has mostly been met with crystallized : the primitive
form of its crystals is an oblique four-sided prism ; the
varieties it assumes are very few. It consists of 64 parts
of oxide of lead, and 36 of chromic acid. This mine-
ral is extremely rare ; it was found in the gold mine of
Beresof, in the Uralian mountains in Siberia, upon a
quartzose gangue containing oxide of lead and oxide of
antimony, which occurred in a vein containing sulphuret
of lead, parallel with another containing decomposed
auriferous pyrites. These veins are situated in gneiss
and micaceous schistus. Pallas mentions having also
discovered this mineral 15 leagues higher north, dis-
seminated in beds of clay, and dispersed on beds of
sandstone, alternating with each other, and accompanied
by cubic crystals of auriferous pyrites.

This substance is said to be occasionally accompanied
by small acicular crystals of a green colour, which are

* Found at Perkionaen, cryftallized in fmall quadrangular tables with
bevelled edges. (Conrad") At Southampton, in fraall tabular cryftals of a
dark waxen colour, (Mcade.)

TO MINERALOGY.1 219

considered to consist of oxide of lead and Joxide of
chrome, but have not been analyzed.

ZINC.

Zinc is a bluish grey metal ; its tenacity is not great;
a piece one-tenth of an inch in diameter will hold iwen-
ty«six pounds without breaking ; and being far less duc-
tile than some other metals, its importance is thereby
diminished. Its specific gravity is about 7.

Zinc is never found in the pure metallic state, but mi-
neralized by sulphur, oxygen, the carbonic or the sul-
phuric acids ; and combined with oxide of iron, silex,
and with water. All the varieties of its ores may be said
to be comprehended in the four following species, most
of which have the appearance rather of earthy than of
metalliferous substances ; they belong chiefly to second-
ary countries.

Zinc is employed by the Chinese for coins : it enters
into the composition of many alloys. It is sometimes
used in medicine, and in oil painting.

BLENDE. SULPHUKET OF ZINC.*

Blende is met with of various shades of yellow,
brown, and black ; it occurs of indeterminate shapes,-
massive and crystallized ; it yields easily to the knife,
and is brittle.

The form of the primitive crystal of Blende, into
which the compact variety is readily reduced by clea-
vage, is the rhomboidal dodecahedron ; but the varieties
of form assumed by its crystals are very numerous,

* The Sulphuret of Zinc frequently accompanies the Sulphuret of
Lead ; as at the Rochefter mine in Ulfter county, N. Y. ; in that near
Baltimore ; at Perkiomen ; and Southampton.

Blende of different colours, is found in feveral other places ; its impor-
tance is derived more from its fitnefs for mineralogical cabinets, than its
value as an ore fit for working.

220 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

though not very intelligible, except such as are obvious-
ly allied to the tetrahedron, octohedron and the cube.

The massive variety of a brown colour, affords 50 parts
of zinc, 12 of iron, arid about 29 of sulphur ; some varie-
ties are phosphorescent by friction.

Blende is found in most mineral countries, especially
in beds in the older secondary. It is met with in metal-
liferous veins traversing primitive mountains, principally
in those containing copper and lead ; it often accompa-
nies, or is accompanied by, iron pyrites, native silver,
grey antimony, spathose iron, sulphate of barytes, calca-
reous spar, and quartz. It is very abundant in many of
the copper and tin veins of Cornwall, especially the
former, and at a small depth beneath the surface. Some
of the blendes of Hungary and Transylvania are auri-
ferous.

CALAMINE. CARBONATE OF ZINC.

^.'»; 'ii*jj *„ . - i ' ' % ' i '. ,/0"-<'

This substance is found earthy, compact, and crystal-
lized ; it yields easily to the knife, and has remarkably
the appearance of an earthy or stony substance.

The form of its primitive crystal is an obtuse rhom-
boid. It does not assume many varieties of form : but is
often found investing crystals of carbonated lime ; which,
in some instances, being decomposed, leave the cala-
raine in the forms they had assumed.

It is chiefly found accompanying sulphuret of lead, in
shell limestone ; and is particularly abundant in the
Mendip bills in Somersetshire ; at Holywell and other
places in Flintshire ; in Derbyshire ; and in Carinthia,
&c. In France, near Juliers, it forms very extensive
beds, and is accompanied by certain ores of lead and
iron.

It yields about 65 per cent, of oxide of zinc, and 35
of carbonic acid ; a variety is found in the Rutland
mine at Mallock, which is combined with carbonate of
copper.

TO MINERALOGi*. 221'

ELECTRIC CALAMINE.

The name of this mineral is derived from its property
of becoming electric when gently heated. Its colour is
greyish, bluish, or yellowish white ; it is found, in mass,
and also crystallized in small flat hexahedral prisms3
which are harder than common calamine.

It is found in Hungary, at Fribourg; and in Leices-
tershire, Flintshire, and at Wanlockhead. It differs
from the other ores of zinc in always containing a con-
siderable proportion of silex. The variety from Wan-
lockhead yields 66 of oxide of zinc, and 33 of silex.

SULPHATE OF ZINC. ;

This mineral is a white, limpid, soluble salt, and* is by
some mineralogists ranked amongst saline minerals; it
has a nauseous metallic taste, and is found filamentous,
massive, and stalactitical.

In the natural state it is rare, and chiefly occurs in
capillary efflorescences, or in stalactites, on the sides of
the workings in veins of sulphuret of zinc. It is thus
occasionally seen at Ramelsberg in Switzerland, it Idria
in Carniola, and at Schemnitz in Hungary. It also oc-
curs at Holywell in Flintshire. That of Ramelsberg
yields by analysis about 27 parts of oxide of zinc, 22
of sulphuric acid> 50 of water, and a trace of oxide of
manganese.

RED OXIDE OK ZINC.

This mineral was brought to me as long ago as the year 1 799, by a
perfon from New-Jerfey, who faid it contained zinc. He wifhed me to
make experiments upon it ; but I did not find opportunity or inclination
to analize it. I however gave fpecimens freely to my mineralogical
friends ; and among others, to Dr. Bruce.

It occurs among the iron ores of Sufiex county ; and is indeed the ce-
ment or matrix which connects the grains of various figures and magni-
tudes of an oxyd of iron that is cryftallized, though more commonly irre-
gular. It is found imbedded in calcareous fpar. Now and then, the oxyd
of zinc is whitifh, adhering to the black oxyd of iron.

It conSfls of Zinc 76 parts.

Oxygen 16

Oxides of manganefe and iron 8

zoo

T2

ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Its colour is light and dark red, approaching to blood red, ruby and au-
rora red. It is opaque, though generally tranflucent on the edges. Its
fracture foliated ; crofs-fracture flightly conchoidal. Luftre on the frefli
fracture, (hining ; after long expofure to the atmofphere, dull ; the furface
ii? time becoming covered with a pearly -white cruft. Conftitution brittle,
eafy to be powdered, and the powder brownifli-yellow, approaching to
orange. Steel fcratches it eafily. Its fpecific gravity is 6.aa. (Amer. Min.
Jour. p. 96—97.)

A very curious and interefting queftion arofe in Congrefs, when I was,
in 1810, a reprefentative from the city of New- York, to the popular
forjnch of that body. It involved the fubject of zinc, fpelter, teutenague,
and brafs teutenague, as connected with duties on importing them into the
United States, from foreign ports. The whole correfpondence and contro-
verfy, are recorded in Med. Repos. Vol. 15, p. 107—112. In my collec-
tion of minerals are fpecimens of each article, as I received them from thr
Collector of the Cuftoms at New- York.

" Zinc, is a metal well known to be abfolutely neceflary in making
brafs. It is imported from England and the Eaft- Indies. From the In-
dies, it is imported under the name of Teutenague, which the ftatute fays
is free. A metal by this name is not known in mineralogy ; how it ihould
have been noticed as free, is a myftery to thofe who know that it derived
ks name from a Spoon-maker, who lived in Birmingham about the year
1730. He made the difcovery, that tin and a fmall quantity of regulus of
antimony, produced a compound fomewhat better than tin and lead, which
makes pewter. Teutan, proud of the difcovery, gave it the name of Teu-
fenague, or Teutania, as it is more generally called. Little did the honeft
fpoon-maker think he would have been fo much honoured in our ftatute
Labis calaminaris is free ; this is the ore of zinc ; none of which is .impor-
ted, except a fmall quantity of the calcine, as a drug. It is well known, that
the Britifh prohibit the exportation of all metals, not manufactured : the
fhippers of zinc, therefore, are neceflitated to fhip zinc under the name of
fpelter. Spelter, in fadt, is a mixture of fine brafs and zinc granulated,
ufed by brafs founders and braziers, to folder. The brafs founders in this
country, make all they ufe ; it is not imported except in fmall quantities.
The only difference between Englifh and India zinc is about 5 per cent, in
favour of the Englilh, on account of its being lefs droffy. If the article of
zinc is to be admitted as free from duty it Ihould be exprefled under the
naflte of Spflftr, or Zinc" (C«r//V.)

QUICKSILVER on MERCURY.

The liquidity of Mercury at the ordinary temperature
of the atmosphere, is a remarkable character, and dis-
tinguishes it from all other metals, It is thirteen times
heavier than water. It is found pure ; and also com-
bined with silver, with sulphur, and with small quanti-
ties of silex, oxide of copper, carbon of bitumen ; and

TO MIXERALOGY. 223

mineralized in the state of an oxide, by the muriatic and
sulphuric acids.

Its ores are not numerous ; and being rarely found in
primitive rocks, is not considered to be a metal of the
newest formation.

The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Saxony, are said
to yield 100 tons annually; and those of Spain a still
greater quantity. The mines of Peru are by some sup-
posed to be still richer.

The uses of mercury in medicine, in the arts, and in
experimental philosophy are numerous ; but its chief
use is in the separation of gold and silver from their ores,
by a process called amalgamation. When amalgama-
ted with tin, and laid on glass, it forms mirrors.

NATIVE QUICKSILVER.

Native Quicksilver is of a silver white colour, and
splendent metallic lustre ; it occurs disseminated in glo-
bules, or collected in the cavities of its mines, which
are commonly situated in calcareous rocks, indurated
clay, or argillaceous schistus. It is mostly met with in
the mines containing the ores of quicksilver. It some-
times contains a little silver.

Quick silver is found in the Palatinate, Saxony, Bo-
hemia, Hungary and Transylvania ; and abundantly in
Peru.

NATIVE AMALGAM. SILVER AMALGAM.

This mineral is of a silver white, or of a greyish co-
lour, and is sometimes semi-fluid ; when compact it is
very brittle, which at once distinguishes it from silver :
it is mostly tarnished externally. It occurs also in small
octohedrons, in rhomboidal dodecahedrons, and in thin
laminae; and is commonly found in a kind of clay, which
is of various colours. It consists of 64 of mercury, and
36 of silver. It is a rare minei^l, and has principally
been met with at Rosenau in Hungary, and at Maers-
feldt and Moschellandsberg in the duchy of Deux-ponts.
It is said to be found in veins containing silver, travers-
ing tiiose enclosing quicksilver.

224 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION,

CINNABAR.

Cinnabar is of various shades of red, frequently co-
chineal red. It is very heavy ; it occurs massive, when
it is dull and opake; it also occurs of a minutely fibrous
structure, with a glimmering silky lustre ; also lamellar,
of a shining lustre and translucent; and crystallized in the
regular hexahedral prism, which is considered to be
the form of its primitive crystal ; only one variety of
form has been noticed. It consists of 81 of mercury,
1-5 of sulphur, and 4 of iron.

A variety called Hepatic Cinnabar is united with
small portions of carbon, silex and oxide of copper;
and this variety sometimes occurs mixed in various pro-
portions with coarse coal or bituminous shale, and is
then called Bituminous Cinnabar.

The most abundant European mines of Cinnabar, are
those at Idria in Carniola (which principally yield the
hepatic variety), and those of Almaden in Spain, which
are situated in the independent coal-formation. The
ores of Cinnabar are usually accompanied by calcareous
spar, spathose iron, micaceous iron, and iron and cop-
per pyrites.

Cinnabar is said to occur sparingly in primitive strata.

HORN QUICKSILVER.

Horn Quicksilver is of a pearl grey colour, sometimes
of a greenish yellow ; it is soft, translucent, and of a
vitreous lustre ; it occurs massive ; also crystallized in
small 4 sided short prismatic crystals, terminated by 4
sided pyramids, and therefore in dodecahedrons : but
the plants of the summits are rhombic, the lateral
planes are six-sided. It consists of about 76 parts of
oxide of mercury, 16 of muriatic acid, and 7 of sulphu-
ric acid. It is found at Almaden in Spain, at Horso-
witz in Bohemia, and^ in the mines of Deux-ponts in
the cavities of a ferruginous clay, mingled with mala*
chite and grey copper, &c.

COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS.

Including non-metallic substances, the greater part
of which are eminently combustible, and whose
bases are carbon and sulphur.

SULPHUR.*

The nature and properties of Sulphur have already
been noticed in treating of combustibles generally.

Sulphur is found in the mineral, vegetable and ani*
mal kingdoms ; in the two latter it occurs so rarely, that all
the vast commercial demands for it are supplied from

* In the town of Phelps, about eleven miles to the northweft of Geneva,
are fituated the fulphureous fountains of Clifton.

From a fide-hill, in front of the public houfe, numerous fprings dif-
charge their waters. The ftones and rocks through which they iffue are
calcareous. The main body of them are filled with the remains of tefta-
ceous animals, and marine exuvisc. Some of them are formed differently
from any fhells I ever faw. Their ftiapes are fo fmgular and fantaftic,
that it is hard to refer feverul of them to any known or living fpecies.—
There are likewife plentiful depofites of calcareous carbonate. This lime
feems to have been held in folution by the water, and colled s among the
flones and other bodies where the current is gentle, or approaches to flag-
nation. It is affociated with a portion of the fulphur deposited by the in-
flammable air.

The water iflues in the greateft quantity from three principal fources. —
It is as abundant as from the moft plentiful fprings 1 ever faw. The wa-
ter, as it comes forth, is perfectly tranfparent. But it loon becomes
opaque, and of a yellowifh colour, refembling a diluted mixture of cream
with water. This hue appears, as it defcends the declivity, and becomes
ftill more manifeft as it traverfes the meadow, at the foot of the hill.

This yellowilh matter fettles on the rocks, ftones, mofe, and other
plants. On being collected, it proves to be brimftone. It is in a ft ate to
be friendly to vegetable life. For though it covers the leaves and ftems of
the aquatic plants, over which the water flows, it feems to do them no in-
jury. Though coated with fulphur, they enjoy entire health. There did
not appear any fign of blacknefs or erofion from this caufe, on the blades
of grafs which were conftantly expofed to it.

The water is equally friendly to the life of animals* Horfes drink it free-

226 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

the former source. It is found nearly pure ; and is then
termed Native sulphur. It is also found in combina-
tion with several of the metals, forming the various
pyrites, and the sulphuretted ores. In the state of an
acid, it occurs combined with some of the earths and
metals.

ly, and without any inconvenience. Other domeftic creatures do the
fame, and are refrefned as much by it, to all appearance, as by common
water. Human beings alib drink it, without any bad effedt. In Come,
it excites a little naufea, efpecially upon an empty ftomach. But this feems
to arife from the offenfivenefs of iulphur to the fmeli and tafte of fuch per-
fons, rather than from any thing deleterious in the water. A fifherman
aflured me that he had taken trouts with the hook in this fulphureous
brook. And it cannot be well fuppofed that there fhould be any thing
very difagreeable in the water, voluntarily vifited by fuch delicate and
dainty fifties. They probably are induced to approach the fource, for the
purpofe of feeding upon certain fpecies of worms, (one of which has fome
refemblance to the leech) which adhere in great numbers to the lower
fides of the ftones. This water is their refidence, and the trouts probably
enter it to make a prey of them.

The depofites of calcareous and fulphureous matters are not the only
things which diftinguifh thcfc fprings. A great quantity of vapour ef-
capes from them. This rifes to a confiderable height, and may be fmelled
many rods to leeward as you approach. The odour is that of inflammable
air holding fulphur in folution. In the ordinary condition of fulphur, the
hydrogen is too I'm all in quantity, relatively to the fuiphur, to rife with it
into the atmofphere. But when the proportions are reverfed, and the hy-
drogen is in a very large ratio to the fulphur, it carries away with itfelf a
portion of that material. Upon the fame principle that an abfolutely
large body of inflammable gas cai; elevate a balloon, a relatively large por-
tion of it can carry up atoms of fulphur. Thefe are wafted about, and dif-
fufed through the air.

Though the water, when it firft rifes from the earth is perfectly clear,
yet as was before obl'erv.t-d, it foon becomes turbid. This probably hap-
pens in confequence of the efcape of the inflammable air, leaving behind
that portion of fulphur which it is unable to carry off: and this dilengaged
fulphur firft changes the colour of the water, and then fettles on the leaves,
grafs, and ftones. In confequence of this copious extrication of gafeous
matters, the water is cold ; and it contains fome ingredient, which is pro-
bably a little uncombined fulphuric acid, which decompofes foap. For on
attempting to form a lather with it, curdles were immediately produced.

At a fhort diftance, lefs I fhould think than a quarter of a mile, and on
the other fide of the road, are other fulphureous oozings. In thefe, the
water is fmall in quantity. The fulphuretted hydrogen immediately ef-
capes : the fulphur which it does not carry off with it, is left behind.—
There being too little water to wafh it away, it accumulates in beds or
jloughs. This is alfo on a fide- hill : but, notwithftanding the favourable-
nefs of the fituation for carrying away the fulphur, it has gathered until a
fort of marfli or puddle, of perhaps ten rods in diameter has been formed.
Here it lies mixed with mud, leaves, flicks, and every ingredient that acci-
dent has thrown into it. The mafs is fo confiderable that it would be eafy
to (hovel uj> cart-loads of it ; but I did not hear that any attempts had been
made to refine, purify, or in any other way to manufacture it.

TO MIUERALOGr. 227

Native Sulphur is of a pale greenish yellow colour.
It occurs in mass, disseminated, in rounded fragments,
stalactitic, and crystallized. Its specific gravity is about
two.

It is sometimes, though rarely, found in veins in pri-
mitive mountains; its common repository is in beds of

If I was difpofed to offer a conjecture concerning th« produ&ion of this
inflammable air, and of the fulphur which accompanies it, I (hould derive
them from the animal remains which make fo large a proportion of the
calcareous ftrata hereabout. The rocks at this place, as well as at Niaga-
ra, and along the fhores of Lake Erie, are remarkable for the fetid fmell
they emit, on being rubbed or ftruck. This leads to a belief that both
hydrogen and fulphur enter into their competition. This is further mani-
fefted by the frequent appearance of them both, where thefe beds of mate-
rials are undergoing fpontaneous decompofition from internal caufes. In
fuch cafes, they are evident to the fenfes in their proper and feparate
forms. The incruftations of fulphur, in the fiflures of fome rocks, and the
extrication of hydrogen gas from the crevices of others, in this curious and
interefting region, perfuade one ftrongly, that fuch is the fact.

How it happened that organic fubftances make part of the deep and ex-
tenfive ftrata which underlay this country, may be refolved into the
greater queftion, by what means fuch materials enter into the compofition
of rocks in other parts of the world, and in fituations very remote from
the ocean. They lead the mind by indubitable evidence to the time when,
in ages too diftant for the chronologift to compute, the waters of the fea
covered the face of the land.

The country lying fouth of the lakes Ontario and Erie, bears within
itfelf full teftimony of the former dominion of oceanic water there. The
fait fpringsin Galen, Montezuma, Salina, and other places, may be conceived
as proceeding from beds of fal-gem in the bowels of the earth. And this
native fait may be confidered as a depofite made from the brine of the fea,
fometime fince the ftrata of limeftone were formed. When the fait- water
withdrew to the lakes, the upland was gradually freed from its fait, here,
as in other places, by the rains and the floods. The land being thus frefh-
ened, the falt-water collected in the lakes and refervoirs ; and had there
been no outlets, they would have been collections of briny fluids ftill. But
as all the lakes of our continent have channels for difcharging their con-
tents, it has happened in the courfe of aqueous circulation, that the primi-
tive faltnefs has difappeared, and thefe refervoirs of falt-water are now fil-
led with frefli. The lakes of North America have long fince undergone
the frefhening operation which the Black Sea is now undergoing. For it
may be predicted that the Euxine, which is now but a brackifh water, will,
in procefs of time, lofe the whole of its faltnefs.

The lakes having undergone this transformation, and fo altered then-
character, we look at firft with furprize upon the fait and (hells which are
left behind. Thefe, however, are monuments of the former ftate of things ;
and when duly confidered by the light which geology affords, enable us to
comprehend many of the fails which would be otherwife inexplicable.

My theory, then, of the fulphureous fprings at Clifton, is concifely this t
before the water of the ocean retired to the lakes, ftrata of limeftone were
depofited, and as parts thereof, vaft quantities of fhells, and other remains
of teftaceous and perhaps other animal matter. From thefe, there are ex>
tricated in fome places, hydrogen gas and fulphur : and water, gufhing

228 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

secondary gypsum, where it occurs in rounded masses ;
it is sometimes met with in beds of indurated marl, and
compact limestone : occasionally it occurs as an ingre-
dient in mineral waters. Volcanoes abound with sul-
phur, which sublimes in the rifts and cavities of the lava
in the neighbourhood of their craters.

Humbolt mentions its occurrence in a bed of quartz,
traversing a primitive mountain of micaceous schistus,
in Quito. He also cites two deposites in primitive por-

pfcyry- III

Sulphur occurs in rounded masses in blue marl in the
Apennines of Piedmont. In some of the glaciers of
Mont Blanc, it is disseminated in masses of sulphate of
lime and clay. At Conilla, near Cadiz in Spain, it oc-
curs in swine-stone. It is met with in the gypsum of

along, carries \vlth it a portion of the lime. The hydrogen gas fo fepara -
ted, is the menftruum for the fulphur, and the water for the lime. On
coming into the open air, the portions of fulphur and lime, which the gas
and the water cannot any longer retain in folution, are precipitated on the
adjacent bodies.

I have fpecimens from Clifton, of the fetid limeftone, madreporites, and
other marine animals, and of recent vegetable fubftances, incrufted with
Brimftone. I pofiefs, likewife, pieces of the fetid carbonate of lime, from
the falls of Niagara, carrying fulphur in a layer of the thicknefs of the
eighth of an inch.

- The fulphur fpnng, N.W. of Geneva, N. Y. is of fufficient fize and fall
for an overfhot mill, and its fcent is conveyed by the wind, nearly the dif-
tance of two miles. This fpring iffues out of the ground in two branches,
and adjoining to it are two large bogs of fulphur, into which a ftick may
be thruft fix feet deep or more. It is fuppofed, that at this fpring, the ma-
nufacture of brimftone, might be confiderably important. (Munro, MeJ,
Kefos. Pol. it, p. 69 — 70.)

The fulphur evolved by the putrefaction of maritime plants and marine
animals, fometimes floats in the form of a yellow fcum on the furface of
the pools and ftagnant ponds of fait water, along the coaft of New-York.
As a proof of it, among other evidences, I relate the following occurrence.
Being a few years ago, on a trip along the Sound, our party landed upon
Riker's ifland. The greater part of the company were amufing them-
felves at the Inn, when I returned from a (hort excurfion. I brought
with me a parcel of the fulphur I had gathered upon the furface of a pond,
on a fait marfh. Secretly, and without any knowledge on the part of my
fellow-voyagers, I threw fome of the brimftone into the fire, and brought
it forward on the hearth, while it was burning. The vapours, inftead of
afcending through the chimney, circulated through the room. The confe-
quence was, an univerfal cry arofe that a match was lighted, and that fome-
body was fmoktng them with brimftone.

Very lately, I received fpecimens of fulphur, elegantly cryftallizcd, from
the volcano, nearly extinct, fituate about fisty miles from Batavia, in the
ifland of Java.

TO MINERALOGY. 229

the salt springs of Lorraine. It also occurs in Hanover,
Hungary, Poland, Siberia, and other countries.

The warm springs of Aix la Chapelle, of Tripoli, &c.
deposite Sulphur when in contact with the air : it is also
contained in the waters of certain springs in France.

Volcanic Sulphur is met with in Italy, Iceland, and
Gaudaloupe in a volcanic mountain yet in activity. The
volcanoes of the Cordilleras in Quito, yield it in great
abundance and very pure.

But perhaps the most remarkable deposite of volca-
nic sulphur is that of Solfatara near Naples, in a kind
of sunken plain surrounded by rocks, which is regarded
as the crater of an ancient volcano ; and from it, ever
since the age of Pliny, has been obtained, a considerable
portion of the sulphur used in Europe.

The crystals of sulphur are not always well defined :
those from Sicily are the best, being frequently perfect ;
they have been met with 5 inches in length. The pri-
mitive crystal is a very acute octohedron, on which
are occasionally found the planes of several modifications.
The crystals are often semi-transparent : they are soft,
brittle and easily broken.

DIAMOND.

The Diamond, which is the hardest substance in na-
ture, was heretofore considered as an earthy or stony
substance ; but it is proved beyond a doubt not to be an
earthy substance. When exposed to a current of air,
and heated to the temperature of melting copper, it is
found to be gradually, but completely combustible. By
this process it may be wholly converted into carbonic
acid, and therefore consists of pure carbon.

Diamonds are either colourless, or of a yellowish, blu-
ish, yellowish green, clove brown, black brown, Prus-
sian blue, or rose red colour. They are always found
in detached crystals, the primitive form of which is the
regular octohedron ; but the varieties of form in which
they occur are numerous. Although the Diamond is so
extremely hard, it may be readily cleaved in particular
directions. When heated, it becomes phosphorescent.
It possesses only a simple refraction, but this may be at-

230 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

tributed greatly to its density, considered as a stone,
Newton, in remarking this, suspected that the Diamond
ought to be placed among combustibles. It is about
3y times heavier than water.

In India, the Diamond mines extend through a long
tract of country, from Bengal to Cape Comorin, at the
foot of a chain of mountains 50 miles in length : the chief
of them are now between Golconda and Masulipatam.
Diamonds are also procured from the Isle of Borneo
and from Brazil ; where, as well as in India, they are
found in beds of ferruginous sand or gravel.

Fifty years ago there were more than 20 places in the
kingdom of Golconda in which diamonds of different
sizes were found. At that period, 50 workings were
also wrought in the kingdom of Visapour. These mines
furnished more diamonds than the others j but being
smaller, the workings were abandoned. The Diamonds
of Pastael, 20 miles from Golconda, at the foot of the
Gate mountains, are the most in request. The mines
are situated at the conflux of two rivers ; they have pro-
duced the most noted diamonds, and amongst them that
which has obtained the name of the Pitt or Regent
Diamond, the finest of the crown jewels of France,
weighing 136 carats, or nearly one ounce, and which
was purchased for 2,500,000 livres.

From Mawe's Travels in the Interior of Brazil, we
find that the Diamond mines of that country are situated
Dearly due north of the mouth of the Rio Janeiro. The
capital of the district is called Tjuco. The country is
covered in all directions by grit-stone rocks, full of
rounded quartzose pebbles. The hills are very nume-
rous, and consist of grit alternating with micaceous
schistus, and present an immense number of blocks
composed of grit-stone imbedding rounded masses of
quartz, giving to the whole the appearance of a pud-
ding-stone. The general level of the country must be
considerably elevated ; it is very full of streams, which
fall into the rivers traversing the lower country in almost
every direction. Diamonds have been largely obtained
in various places in this district, and always from the
beds of the streams or rivers; most of which have
yielded them. The principal work is that called Man-

1-0 MINERALOGY. 231

danga on the river Jigitonhonha : which being shallow,
though broad, its waters are either dammed out, or di-
verted from their course, or pumped out by a particular
contrivance. The mud of the river is then removed,
discovering a stratum of cascalhao, which consists of
rounded pebbles and gravel ; this is taken up, and the
diamonds are washed out of it. Diamonds are by no
means peculiar to the beds of rivers or ravines ; they
have been found in cavities and water courses, on the
summits of the most lofty mountains of the district.

A diamond, found about 15 years ago in a rivulet cal-
led Abaite, a few leagues north of the Rio Plata, and
now in the possession of the Prince Regent of Portugal,
weighs seven-eighths of an ounce. It is of an octohe-
dron form.

One of the largest known diamonds was in the pos-
session of the late Empress of Russia ; it was of the
size of a pigeon's egg and weighed 193 carats or nearly
one ounce and one-third of an ounce.

The largest diamond hitherto found, is in the posses-
sion of the Rajah of Mattan, in the island of Borneo, in
which island it was found about 80 years ago. It is
shaped like an egg, with an indented hollow near the
smaller end. It is said to be of the finest water. It
weighs 367 carats. Now as 156 carats are equal to 1
oz. Troy, it is obvious that this diamond weighs 2 oz.
169.87 gr. Troy. Many years ago the governor of
Batavia tried to purchase this diamond. He sent a Mr.
Stuvart to the Rajah, who offered 150,000 dollars, two
large war brigs with their guns and ammunition, toge-
ther with a certain number of great guns, and a quantity
of powder and shot. The Rajah, however, refused to
deprive his family of so valuable an hereditary posses-
sion, to which the Malays attach the miraculous power
of curing all kinds of diseases, by means of the water
in which it is dipped, and with which they imagine that
the fortune of the family is connected.

The principal use of the diamond is in ornamental
jewellery; it is also employed by glaziers to cut glass,
and by lapidaries to engrave the harder gems ; but for

232 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

these purposes such only are used as cannot be cleaved
in particular directions.

MINERAL CARBON.

Mineral Carbon is of a greyish black colour, and is
destitute of bitumen : it consists of charcoal, with vari-
ous proportions of earth and iron.

It has a glimmering, silky lustre, and a fibrous appear-
ance, discovering a wood-like texture. It is somewhat
heavier than common charcoal, and is easier reduced
to ashes before the blowpipe, without either flame 'or
smoke.

It occurs in thin layers, in brown coal, slate coal, slaty
glance coal, and pitch coal ; but in quantities too small
to make separate use of.

PLUMBAGO. GRAPHITE.*

Plumbago is found in England, Scotland, France,
Spain, Germany, and some other countries. Plumba-
go is of a dark iron black, passing into steel grey.

It occurs in mass, in kidney-shaped lumps, or disse-
minated, in rocks. It has a glistening metallic lustre,
its fracture is granular and uneven ; it is unctuous to the
feel, soft, and not very brittle. When heated it does
not flame, nor can it support combustion by itself. Its
specific gravity somewhat exceeds 2.

Plumbago seems to belong exclusively to primitive
countries ; sometimes it enters into the composition of
rocks ; but is more usually found in detached masses, or
in beds.

The principal use of plumbago is in the making of what
are called black-lead pencils ; for which purpose none
has yet been discovered equal to that from Borrowdale in
Cumberland, where it occurs in a considerable moun-
tain of argillaceous schistus, traversed by veins of quartz;

* A manufacture of black-lead pencils, exifts in the city of New- York.
Graphite with rofy quartz, was lately brought to me from Fiflikill. SmalJ
quantities of it are not unfrequent. It is found in North Carolina, Penn-
(ylvania, New-Jerfey, New- York, Connecticut, Rhode-Ifland, Maflachu-
fetts, New-Hampftrirc, and Maine. (Cleave/and.)

TO MINERALOGY. 233

some account of the mine may be found in Parkes's
* Chemical Essays.' An inferior kind is met with in
several places in France. It is also found in Bavaria,
in Spain, and in Norway.

Whence this mineral obtained the name of black-lead
it is difficult to say, unless it was from the lead-coloured
streak which it gives upon paper. It has been ascertain-
ed that lead does not enter into its composition, but
that the purest plumbago consists of about 90 parts of
carbon and 10 of iron : an impure variety affords more
of silex and alumine than of carbon or iron.

MINERAL OIL.*

: • >v '"-• < ''' ! -i i**: ' • *' '4 '*'• v ' ( (i • '

Under this term are comprehended two substances,
Naptha and Petroleum ; both of which are liquid, high-
ly inflammable, and lighter than water.

Naptha is nearly colourless and transparent ; it burns
with a blue flame, much smoke, gives out a penetrating
odour, and leaves no residuum. It appears to be the on-
ly fluid iu which oxygen does not exist in a consider-
able proportion ; advantage has been taken of this cir-
cumstance by Sir H. Davy, who employed it, for that rea-
son, in preserving the new metals discovered by him.

The most copious springs of naptha are on the coast
of the Caspian sea in the peninsula of Apcheron ; the
surrounding country is calcareous, and the soil which
affords the naptha is sandy and marly. It perpetually
gives out vapours of a penetrating odour and very in*-
flammable : it is said that the people of the country dress
their food by means of it, for which purpose they pass it
through earthen pipes. By distillation it yields naptha
pure for medicine. The Persians employ the residuum
to burn in their lamps instead of oil. A considerable
revenue is derived from it by the Chief of the coun-
try.

* Petroleum is found native in the weftern diftri<a of New- York,,
where it is colle&ed from the furface of certain waters, and fold by the name
of Seneka Oil. It is employed both inwardly and outwardly, as a remedy-;
and is extolled by the people, for its efficacy againft difeafes, more efpe—
daily of the ftomach, inteftines, kidneys, fldn, joints, &c. It is procured?,
too, in Ohio, and rated by many as a valuable medicine,

234 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Naptha is also found in Calabria; on Mount Zibio
near Modena ; in Sicily, and in America, &c. ; but it is
supposed that travellers have sometimes mistaken pe-
troleum for naptha.

In 1802, near the village of Amiano, in the state of
Parma, a spring of naptha of a topaz yellow colour,
was discovered, which readily burns without leaving any
residue ; it rises in sufficient quantity to light up the city
of Genoa, for which purpose it is employed.

Petroleum, at the usual temperature, is rather thicker
than common tar, has a strong disagreeable odour, and
is of a blackish or reddish brown colour. It is very
combustible, giving out during combustion a very thick
black smoke, and leaving very little residue in the form
of a black coal.

It is found in many countries, principally in those pro-
ducing coal. At several places in France. In England, at
Ormskirk in Lancashire, and at Coalbrookdale ; occa-
sionally in Cornwall and in Scotland. It occurs also in
Bavaria, Switzerland, and in Italy near Parma. Near
the latter place, the Petroleum gives out so powerful an
odour, that the workmen cannot long endure it at the
bottom of the Petroleum wells, without danger of faint-
ing. It is found in many other parts of Europe and in
America.

It is most plentifully found in Asia : round the town of
Rainanghong in the Birman empire, there are 520 wells
in full activity, into which petroleum flows from over
coal. No water ever penetrates into these wells. The
quantity of petroleum annually produced by them
amounts to more than 400,000 hogsheads. To the in-
habitants, its uses are important ; from Moussoul to Bag-
dad it is used instead of oil for lamps ; mixed with eartli
Or ashes, it serves for fuel

When naptha is exposed to the air and light, it be-
comes brown, thickens, and seems to pass into petro-
leum : and when petroleum is distilled, an oil is obtain-
ed from it similar to naptha. When petroleum is expo-
sed to the air, it thickens and passes into a kind of bitu-
tnen. Considerable alliance is thus proved to exist be-
tween Mineral Oil and Bitumen.

TO MINERALOGY. 235

BITUMEN.^

The elementary constituents of Bitumen are carbon
and hydrogen, occasionally nitrogen, and most probably
some oxygen, which it is supposed, by its action on the
other principles, and in proportion to its quantity, tends
to form the harder Bitumens.

Bitumen is either elastic or compact.

Elastic bitumen is of various shades of brown. It has
a slightly bituminous odour, and is about the weight of
water. It burns readily with a large flame and much
smoke, but melts by a gentle heat, and is thereby con*
verted into a substance resembling petroleum, or mal-
tha, or asphalt, according to its previous consistence.

Elastic bitumen takes up the traces of a pencil in
the same manner as the Caoutchouc or India rubber,
whence it has obtained the name of Mineral Caout-
chouc.

Hitherto it has only been found in the Odin mine,
near Castleton in Derbyshire, in a secondary limestone,
accompanied by calcareous spar, fluor, blende, galena,
pyrites, and asphalt. Elastic bitumen consists chiefly
of bituminous oil, hydrogen gas, and charcoal ; very
small proportions of other substances have been detected
by analysis.

Compact bitumen is of a brownish-black colour ; one
variety may be impressed with the nail, and is called
maltha ; another is very brittle, and is called asphalt.

* The ancient bricks of Babylon, feveral of which I have had the beft
opportunities to examine, have a portion of bitumen adhering to them.—
This is black, and emits by burning, a fomewhat aromatic vapour. It ap-
pears to have loft none of its peculiar qualities, during the term of per-
haps 3000 or 4000 years, fmcc it was firft incorporated as a cement, in the
walls and towers conftrucled by the ancient inhabitants of Shinaar. The
fpecimens I poflefs, of modern bitumen from Bofrah, or its vicinity, are
fubftantially the fame with that ufed of old. (H. Austin.}

Afphaltum of St. Antonio, at the weftern extremity of Cuba, is com-
pact, deep black, and capable of fupporting a flame, when heated and fet
on fire.

That from Trinidad ifland is not fo pure ; but is dated to be much more
abundant.

Specimens from St, Stephens, near the Alabama river, were fent me by
Mr, Magoffin.

236 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Maltha is brownish black and opake : it is tough, and
soft enough to take an impression of the nail : it has a
strong disagreeable odour, and is nearly twice as heavy
as water. It consists of bitumen mixed with about 8 per
cent, of carbon and a little earth.

Maltha is found in France, at a place called Puy de
la Pege ; where it renders the soil so viscous, that it ad-
heres strongly to the foot of the traveller. It is also
found in a mountain in Persia, between Schiraz and
Bender-congo, where it is called baumemomie. It is
collected with care, and sent to the King of Persia as
being efficacious in the cure of wounds. It is occasion-
ally used as a pitch, and in certain varnishes to preserve
iron from rust ; it is said to enter into the composition
of black sealing wax.

Asphalt is brownish black ; it occurs in mass, or dis-
seminated, or stalactitic ; it is opake, smooth and brittle,
and somewhat unctuous to the touch, and gives out when
rubbed a slightly bituminous odour. It is not so heavy
as maltha.

By combustion, it leaves a small quantity of ashes. It
consists chiefly of bituminous oil, hydrogen gas and
charcoal, but the latter is in much greater proportion
than in elastic bitumen ; oxide of iron, and two or three
of the earths, sometimes constitute very small propor-
tions of it.

It is found in the Palatinate ; in France ; at Neufcha-
tel in Switzerland ; in large strata at Aolona in Albania ;
and in large pieces on the shores, or floating on the sur-
face, of the Asphaltic lake in Judea, called the Dead
Sea ; which is said to have obtained the latter name
from the belief that the Asphaltum caused the death of
birds attempting to fly over it. It abounds in the islands
of Barbadoes and Trinidad in the West Indies. In the
latter it occurs in a vast stratum, three miles in circum-
ference, called the Tar-lake ; the thickness of which is
unknown. A gentle heat renders it ductile, and when
mixed with grease or common pitch, it is used for pay-
ing the bottoms of ships, and is supposed to protect
them from that pest of the West Indian seas, the teredo
or borer.

TO MINERALOGY. 237

Asphalt is also employed as a varnish, and an essen-
tial part of the best wax, or varnish, for the use of en-
gravers.

Both varieties of Bitumen, as well as the Mineral Oils,
are unknown in primitive rocks, except in veins ; they
seem to belong exclusively to alluvial or primitive for-
mations, in which they most commonly occur in calca-
reous, or clayey soils, or in the productions of volcanoes.
They are said to be mostly found in the neighbourhood
of salt formations. Some have conceived that the bitu-
mens and mineral oils have originated in the destruction
of the multitude of animals and vegetables found in the
earth ; of which we are every day discovering the re-
mains.

The ancients employed bitumen in the construction
of their buildings ; and it is said that all historians agree
that the bricks of which the walls of Babylon were built,
were cemented with hot bitumen ; which gave them
very great solidity. Bitumen was carried down by the
waters of a river which joined the Euphrates ; it was also
found in the salt springs in the neighbourhood of Baby-
lon. The Egyptians are also said to have employed it
for the embalming of bodies ; constituting what we now
call mummies.

Bitumen enters into the composition of the black in-
durated marl or shale which accompanies common coal ;
and which is generally mixed with it in variable propor-
tions. It is likewise found in certain limestones ; for
instance that of Aberthaw, of which bitumen forms about
2 per cent.

COAL.

The bituminous substance called coal, though ranked
among minerals because its basis is pure carbon, is now
by many believed to be of vegetable origin, because the
substance which lies upon the coal, is always filled with
vegetable remains ; as well as because a wood-like ap-
pearance may be traced through every species of coal,
even the most compact.

Mineralogists are not agreed in their arrangement of
this important genus of mineral inflammables.

238 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Coal may be divided into four species : brown coal,
black coal, cannel coal, and glance coal.

BIIOWN COAL is imperfectly bituminous, of a brown
colour, and of a vegetable texture. It may be divided
into three varieties : Bituminized wood, Earthy Brown
Coal, Compact Brown Coal, and Moor Coal.

Bituminized wood is of a dark brown colour. Its ex-
ternal shape exactly resembles that of compressed trunks
and branches of trees ; its internal texture is precisely
that of wood, retaining not unfrequently that of the
bark. It is opake, soft, somewhat flexible, and almost
light enough to float upon water. It burns with a clear
flame, though with but little heat, and gives out a bitu-
minous odour, often mixed with that of sulphur.

The surturbrand of Iceland contains 58 per cent, of
watery and volatile inflammable matter, leaving 42 per
cent, of carbonaceous and earthy residue.

Bituminized wood occurs in alluvial land among beds
of compact brown coal ; sometimes also forming beds of
itself. It is also met with in dispersed fragments in al-
luvial soil. It abounds in the newest floetz-trap forma-
tion, and forms masses in limestone and sandstone be-
longing to the independent coal formation. In the Prus-
sian amber mines, it forms the stratum immediately
above the amber, and nodules and stalactites of this
beautiful substance are generally found intermixed with
it.

Earthy Brown Coal is blackish or wood brown, or
yellowish grey ; it occurs in mass, of a consistence be-
tween solid and friable ; it is without lustre ; soils the
fingers a little ; it is very soft, falls easily to pieces, and
it is a little heavier than water.

It readily takes fire, and burns with a weak flame and
disagreeable bituminous odour. It contains 15 to 20 per
cent, of earth and oxide of iron, the remainder being
water and inflammable matter. It often contains pyrites,
and then passes into alum earth.

It is found in similar situations with bituminized
wood : in the neighbourhood of Leipsig it occurs in
beds from 20 to 40 feet thick, and of great extent.

It is used as an inferior kind of fuel, when little heat
is required ; for which purpose it is moistened with wa-

TO MINERALOGY. 230

ter, well beaten, and made into masses like bricks. In
the vicinity of Cologne, a variety is found of a rich reddish
brown colour, which is prepared as a pigment under the
name of Cologne umber, which is employed as a colour
both in distemper and oil painting. It is also found in
Hesse, Bohemia, Saxony, and Iceland. The Dutch are
said to employ it in the adulteration -of snuff, to which it
imparts, when used in certain proportion, a peculiar
softness.

Compact Brown Coal, is of a blackish brown colour.
It occurs in mass ; its fracture is fibrous lamellar ; its
cross fracture somewhat conchoidal ; it has a resinous
lustre, and is moderately hard. Its specific gravity is
about 4.5.

It burns readily with a weak flame, and a disagreeble
odour ; by combustion, it leaves a small quantity of
white ashes : 200 grains yield by distillation, 90 of char-
coal, 60 of acidulous water, 21 of thick, brown, oily
bitumen, and 29 of hydrogen, carburelted hydrogen,
and carbonic acid.

In England, it is found at Bovey near Exeter, and is
called Bovey coal : at this place there are 17 strata
within the depth of 74 feet from the surface, alternating
with alluvial clay ; the greatest thickness of the seams
or beds is between 6 and 8 feet. Brown coal is also
found in various parts of the territory of Hesse, and in
other parts of Germany ; also in Denmark, Greenland,
and Italy.

It is used for fuel : it passes into bituminous wood and
moor coal, and sometimes into pitch coal.

Moor coal is of a darkish brown colour. It occurs in
mass, forming verv thick beds, and is always full of cre-
vices. Internally it displays a considerably resinous lus-
tre. Its longitudinal fracture is somewhat slaty ; its cross
fracture approaches to conchoidal; its fragments are
trapezoidal or rhomboidal. In its chemical characters
it resembles the preceding variety of Brown coal.

It occurs in alluvial land, and in the newest floetz-trap
formation. It is met with very frequently in Bohemia ;
it is also found in Transylvania, and other parts of the
Austrian dominions \ also in Denmark, and the Ferroe
islands.

240 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

BLACK COAL, the SLATE COAL of Mineralogists, is
perfectly bituminous ; it may be said to comprehend all
the varieties of common coal used for economical pur-
poses. It may generally be said to be of a black colour,
having an irridescent tarnish, and a high resinous lustre.
It is composed of about 60 parts of carbon, and 36 of
maltha and asphalt, and from 3 to 6 per cent, of earth
and oxide of iron.

Slate coal is found principa"y in the independent coal
formation, and is the most widely diffused of any of the
species. It is often mixed with pyrites, and penetrated
by thin veins of quartz or calcareous spar. It always
occurs in nearly horizontal strata, which are abundant
in Durham, Northumberland, Yorkshire, and in some
other parts of England, and in several parts of Europe.

The two points which are principally to be attended
to with regard to common coal, in an economical point
of view, are the intensity of heat and the duration of com-
bustion, and these are chiefly influenced by the propor-
tion of asphalt contained in the coal. That in which
the bituminous part is chiefly maltha, with only a small
quantity of asphalt, kindles very easily, burns briskly and
quickly with a bright blaze, cakes but little, requires no
stirring, and by a single combustion is reduced to loose
ashes ; such are the varieties of coal from Lancashire,
Scotland, and most of those which .are raised on the
western side of England.

Those on the other hand, in which asphalt prevails,
kindle difficultly, and after lying some time on the fire,
become soft, and almost in a state of semifusion ; they
then cohere and cake, swell considerably, and throw out
on every side tubercular scoriae, accompanied by bright
jets of flame. In consequence of the cohesion and tu-
mefaction of the coals, the passage of the air is inter-
rupted, the fire burns hollow, and would be extinguished
if the top were not broken in from time to time. The pro-
duce of ashes is smaller than in the free burning coals ;
the greater part of them being mixed in the carbona-
ceous part of the coal and forming grey scorias, com-
monly known by the name of cinders, which being burnt
again with fresh fuel, give out an intense heat, and are
slowly reduced, partly to heavy ashes, partly to slag. The

TO MINER ALOG IT, 241

best coal of Northumberland, Durham, and Yorkshire,
is of this kind ; it burns slower, and gives out more heat
than the preceding, and in general bears a higher price.

Cannel Coal or Candle Coal, is of a greyish black co-
lour, and has a glistening resinous lustre. Its fracture is
cpnchoidal. It is brittle, but is the most difficultly fran-
gible of all the coals, and is somewhat heavier than jet.
It is very inflammable, and burns quickly, but does not
cake, and leaves behind 3 or 4 per cent of ashes.

It occurs in the independent coal formation. It is
found in great plenty and remarkably pure, at Wigan in
Lancashire, and occasionally in most other English
collieries.

Its chief use is as fuel, but the purest from Wigan may
be worked in the turning lathe, from which it receives
a high polish ; hence it is shaped into various ornamen-
tal utensils ; and when cut into beads, is not to be dis-
tinguished from jet.

The Splent Coal, which abounds at Glimerton, near
Edinburgh, is considered to be an inferior variety of
cannel coal.

Glance CoaL Of this there are three varieties, the
conchoidal, the columnar, and the slaty.

Conchoidal Glance Coal is iron black ; it occurs in
mass, with a bright shining metallic lustre and a perfect-
ly conchoidal fracture. It is moderately hard, frangible,
and light.

It burns without flame or smell, and leaves a white
ash. It is of rare occurrence, having been met with
only at Newcastle and in the Meissner at Hesse. That
from the latter place has been analyzed, and contains
nearly 97 of charcoal, 2 of alumine, and 1 of oxide of
iron.

Columnar Glance Coal is of a dark greyish black ; it
occurs in mass and possesses a shining lustre, between
resinous and metallic. Its fracture is not perfectly con-
choidal ; is very soft, frangible, and light, and always
occurs in thick, curved, parallel, columnar, distinct con-
cretions, having smooth glimmering surfaces.

It burns without flame or smell, leaving a greyish white
ash. It has hitherto only been found at the Meissreria

X

ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

Hesse, where it occurs, together with other coal, in the
newest flcetz-trap formation.

Slaty Glance Coal, Anthracite, Kilkenny Coaly or
Welch Culm, is a dark iron black colour, verging on
steel grey ; it occurs in mass ; has a bright metallic
lustre ; its fracture is somewhat slaty and curved in one
direction, and somewhat conchoidal in the other ; it
breaks easily, and is but little heavier than water.

When pulverized and heated, it becomes red and
slowly consumes with a very light lambent flame, with-
out smoke, and when pure emits no sulphureous or bitu-
minous odour ; it leaves a variable proportion of reddish
ashes.

The Kilkenny coal is somewhat harder than is cus-
tomary with this variety.

Slaty Glance coal consists of carbon, with from 3 to
30 per cent, of earth and iron.

This mineral occurs in imbedded masses, beds, or
veins, in primitive, transition, and floetz rocks. It is
found in gneiss, in micaceous schistus, in mineral veins,
with calcareous spar, native silver, mineral pilch, arid
red iron ore ; and has been discovered by Jameson in
the independent coal formation in the isle of Arraq.

•->• JET. PITCH COAL.*

Jet is generally of a velvet black ; it occurs in mas?,
and sometimes in the shapes of branches, with a regular
woody structure, it has a brilliant, resinous lustre, and
a perfectly conchoidal fracture : it is soft and brittle,
and is but little heavier than water.

It burns with a greenish flame and a strong bitu-

* Coal is faid to exift abundantly near Cape Breton, and in the N. E,
part of Nova Scotia.

The coal of Rhode-lfland is mingled with quartz, and occafionally with
fibrous afbeftos. Yet it has but little hydrogen, and Ids bitumen It is
overlaid by coarfe fhale, containing numerous and flrong impreflions of
ferns.

The indications of coal along Connecticut river, have raifed high expec-
tations, even in the minds of miners and geologifts. But the digging,
boring and fearching, have not hitherto difclofed any thing very confide-
rable. Tht fmall famples I have feen, abound in bitumen, and icem to
be fufficiently inflammable. It has been fuppofed that the bituminous

TO MINERALOGY. 243

minous smell, leaving a yellowish ash. It occurs princi-
pally in marly, schistose, calcareous, or sandy beds.

It is met with in several places in France : where it is
sometimes found enclosing amber. In one place it oc-
curs in oblique beds, at a considerable depth, between
beds of sandstone. It is likewise found near Wettem-
berg in Saxony, and in several places in Spain. It oc-
curs in the Prussian amber mines in detached fragments,
and is there called black amber.

In France, Germany, and Spain, it is worked into va-
rious trinkets, chiefly worn as part of the mourning habit;
but when not sufficiently fine and hard for that purpose,
it is used as fuel.

AMBER.

'. VvX ; *

Is a mineral of a yellow or- reddish' brown, or of a
greenish or yellowish" white colour. It is found in no-

fchiftus which contains th figures of fifties, overlays co2ff and the con-
jecture carries great weight.

The coal around New-York, as on Lnng-Tfland and Staten-Ifland, for
example, confifts moftly of carbonized or vitriolated wood. The speci-
mens of coal from the neighbourhood of Newark, Mi4dletown. and feme,
other places, though they afford indications of bitumen, are too fcanty to
be of any economical ufe.

In Pennfylvania, there are two great coal formations ; one fituated S.E»
of the mountains, and the other N.W. The former is the glance coal, ex-
tending almoft from Delaware along the head waters of the Lehigh and
Schuylkiil, and to Wilkefbarre on the Sufquehannah, and along the Junia-
ta. The latter abounds at Pit* (burgh, and in the adjoining lands along the
Allegheny and Monongahela riven., as well as extenfively on both fides
of ihe Ohio. (Darby.}

A confiderahle body of coal exifts on the fouth fide of James river, in
Virginia. This is extenfively in ufe for fuel, and tranfported to dmant
places, coaftwife. It refts upon a primitive bottom, and is overlaid by
ihale, containing vegetable impreffions. (Maclure.)

* Amber has been found near Crofwick's Creek, a few miles from
Trenton. There are two varieties, the white and the yellow. Of the lat-
ter, I have a fpecimen from General Wilfon, about two inches long, and
an inch broad ; a part of a larger mafs. It has a granular or cryftaJline
conftitution internally ; and appears externally, as if it had been moulded
«r figured by the contact of wood. There vcz fragments offtells connected
with it. Thefe are probably marine, as a belemnite was brought along,
the better to (how the locality. 1 his amber lies in the alluvial foil, reft-
ing upon carbonated wood, fcattered in grains through ihell-marl, and
minglt-d with decompofmg pyrites. Though after friction it readily at-
tracts light fubftances, it is not fine and tranfparent enough for ornamen-
tal purpofes.

244 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION

dules or rounded masses, from the size of coarse sand U
that of a man's head.

It is sometimes transparent, always translucent, and
occasionally encloses insects of the ant species, in re-
markable preservation. It is somewhat heavier than
water. The strong electric powers of amber are gene-
rally known. This property gave rise to the science of
electricity, which was so called from HAEKT^V (Electron)
the Greek name for amber. It seems to belong exclu-
sively to countries of late formation.

In Greenland, Kamschatka, and Moravia, it is found
in grains disseminated through coal. It also occurs on
the shores of the Baltic, of Sicily, and of the Adriatic
sea ; in Poland, France, Italy, and many other coun-
tries ; and occasionally in the beds of gravel in the
neighbourhood of London, and on the coast of Norfolk
and of Suffolk. Near the sea coast in Prussia, there are
regular mines of amber : under a stratum of sand and
clay about 20 feet thick, succeeds a stratum of trees 40
or 50 feet tbick, half decomposed, impregnated with py-
rites and bitumen, and of a blackish brown colour.
Parts of these trees are impregnated with amber, which
sometimes is found in stalactites depending from them.
Under the stratum of trees were found pyrites, sulphate
of iron and coarse sand, in which were rounded masses
of amber. The mine is worked to the depth of JOO
feet, and from the circumstances in which the amber is
found, it seems plain that it originates from vegetable
juices.

The real nature and origin of amber are not under-
stood : it is generally considered to be a fossil resin,
somewhat mineralized. It yields by distillation an acid,
called the succinlc acid, (succinum being the Latin for
amber) and leaves as the residue, an extremely black,
shining coal, which is employed as the basis of the finest
black varnishes. When exposed to flame in the open
air, amber takes fire and burns with a yellowish flame,
giving out a dense, pungent^ aromatic smoke, and leav-
ing a light, shining, black coal.

TO MINERALOGY.

MF.LL1TE. HONETSTONE.

The MelJite is a rare mineral, having hitherto only
been found in Thuringia, in the district of Saal, and m
Switzerland. It occurs on bituminous wood, and earthy
coal, and is generally accompanied by sulphur. In
Switzerland it is accompanied by asphaltum.

The honeystone is softer than amber, is transparent,
brittle, and electric ; possesses a double refraction, and
is found crystallized in the octohedron.

When burnt in the open air, neither smoke nor flame
are observable, and it eventually acquires the colour and
consistence of chalk. The Mellite is composed of 84
parts of mellitic acid, about 14 of alurnine, 2 of silex,
anil some iron. Its composition differs essentially from
that of every other combustible mineral.

RETINASPHALT.

Retinasphalt has been found at Bovey Tracey in De-
vonshire, adhering to brown coal in the form of irregu-
lar opake lumps of a pale brownish yellow colour, with
a glistening lustre and imperfect conchoidal fracture- It
is very brittle and soft, and somewhat heavier than wa-
ter. When placed on a hot iron, it rnelts, smokes, and
burns with a bright flame, giving out a fragrant odour ;
it consists of 55 parts of resin, 42 of asphalt, and 3 of
earth.

FOSSIL COPAL.* HIGHGATE R£SIN.

Fossil Copal or Highgate Resin was found in con-
siderable quantity in the bed of blue clay of which

* I have received Foflil Copal from Jucatan, whence it is fometimes>
brought to New- York. The mafles are as large occafionally as a man's-
fift, of a yellowifh tranfparency and a refinous fracture. It is ufually dug-;
out of the ground, and feems occafionally to be wafhed from the upland!
into the fea ; for navigators have obferved cepal to be raifed from the boo-
torn, with the mud that adheres to their anchors.

x a

246 ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION, &C.

Highgate Hill near London, in great measure consists.
It is in irregular roundish pieces of a light yellowish
dirty brown colour, sometimes transparent and with a
resinous lustre ; it is brittle, yields easily to the knife,
and is but little heavier than water. It gives out a
resinous aromatic odour when heated, and melts into
a limpid fluid; when applied to the flame of a can^
die it takes fire, and before the blow-pipe burns away
entirely,

INDEX.

Aberthaw Limeftone, 107

Analcitne

'54

Acanticonite 27

Anatafe

169

ACCESSARY CONSTITUENTS

Andalufite '

8a

OF MINERALS vi

Anhydrite

in

ACIDS x

Anhydrous Gypfuni

III

relative ages oft as Mineral

Anthophyllite

33

Constituents^ x

ANTIMONY

209

Actinolite 40

native

209

Adamantine fpar 74

grey

2IO

Adularia 47

fulphuret of

210

./Elites 156

red

110

Agate ii

white

2IO

ribbon iz 74

oxide of

210

ruin 12

Antimonial ochre

211

Agalmatolite 50
Agaric Mineral 94
Alabafter 113

filver
Anthracite
Apatite

1 86
24*
108

oriental 93

Aphrite

94

ALKALIES xyii

Aplome

27

analysts of xviii

Aquam-Sne

126

as Mineral Consti-

ARGU,

tuents xviii

Argillaceous substances

73

ALKALINE MINERALS 135

rocks

73

Allanite 171

odour

73

Alloy of Indium and Olmium 206
Allochroite 30

fchiftus
Iron-ftone

75
156

Almandine 13
ruby 86

Argillo-ferruginous limeftone
Arragonite

107

IO2

Alluvial clay 24

Arfenic

177

Alum 86

native

178

earth 87

oxide of

17*

Hone 87

fulphuret of

178

ilate 88

Arfenical pyrites

179

ALUMINE 78

cobalt

181

fubfulphate of 86

antimonial filve?

186

fulphate of 86

Arfeniate of iron

1 60

ALUMIUM 73

copper

198

Amalgam, native 223

lead

217

filver 323

Afbeftus

34

Amazonian-done 59

ligniform

35

Amber 243

common

36

Amethyft 3

Afteria

75

oriental 75

Afparagus-ftone

109

Amianthus 3J

Avanturine

4

AMMONIA 145

Augite

37

fulphate of 145

Automalite

79

muriate of -145

Aurum graphicum

208'

Amygdaloid 69

Axc-ftone

5$

INDEX,

Axinite

29 1 Briftol diamonds

Azurite

81

Brittle fulphuret of filver

filver glance

Baikalite

3^

Bronzite

Balas Ruby

85

Brown coal

BARIUM

129

earthy

Barytes

129

compact

carbonate of

130

iron- ore

fulphate of

iron-ochre

Bafalt

*64

fpar

Bafakic hornblende
Bafanite
Beilftein

36

7»
59

volcanic hyacinth
Cacholong
Calcareous fpar

Bell-metal-ore

1 66 CALCIUM"

Beryl

126

Calc-finter

BISMUTH

*75

Calamine

native

176

eledric

fulphuret of

176

Calp

ochre

177

Cannel coal

oxide of

177

CARBON

Bifmuthic filver

188

mineral

Biftre

23

Carbonate of barytes

Bitterfpar

104

copper

Bitumen

235

lead

elaftic

215

lime

compact

"235

magnefia

Bituminized wood

238

potafh

Bituminous cinnabar

324

filver

limeftonc

99

foda

Black chalk

13

ftrontian

coal

240

zinc

copper

Carbuncle

iron- ore

*5?

Carnelian

filver

188

Carrara marble

lead

*33

Cat's- eye

Black-wad

162

Cawk

Blende

2*19

Celeftine

Blood- ftone

12

Cerin

Blue carbonate of copper

I96

Cerite

felfpar

82

CERIUM

iron-ore

158

Chabafie

lead -ore

Chalcedony

fpinelle

53 81

Chalk

Bog iron-ore

black

Bolognian-ftone

132

red

Bole

33

Chert

,

armemc

Chiaftolite

brown

23

CHLORINE

red

Chlorite

yellotr

*3

common

Boracitc

122

fcaly

Borate of magnefia

123

flate

foda

X4I

Chlorophane

BORON

xiii CHROME

Botryolite

2 1 6 (Chroma te of iron

Bright white- cobalt

llftj lead

INDEX.

Chryfoberyll

79

COPPER, carbonate of 196

Chryfocolla

196

emerald 197

Chryfolite

109 118

fahlerz 193

opalefcent

79

glance 192

oriental

75 79

grey 193

of Vefuvius

20

martial arfeniate of 200

Chryfoprafe

t

muriate of 197

Cimolite

12

native 191

Cinnabar

224

nickel 183

hepatic

22^

pyrites 194

bituminous
Cinnamonftone

22;
22

purple 195
phofphate of 198

Clay

24

red oxide of 195

alluvial

. 5^

ruby 195

fire

2<

fulphate of 197

indurated

26

fulphuret of 19*

iron

69

white 194

iron-ftone

156

yellow 194

pipe

»5

Sornifh diamonds 3

potter's

Corundum 74

porcelain

*5

3ottam marble 97

flate

62

Crofs-ftone 34

Clinkftone

56

Cryolite 88

Coal

Cubic Zeolite 54

black

240

Cupreous arfeniate of iron 200

brown

238

Cyanite 77

earthy

238

compact

Datholite 116

cannel

241

Diamond 229

glance

241

Diafpore 78

columnar

241

Dioptafe 197

conchoid*]

241

Dipyre 17

flaty

242

Dolomite 105

Kilkenny

242

Double- refracting- fpar 9*

Kimmeridge

70

)rawing-flate 13

moor

% ^Q

pitch
flate

242
240

EARTHS xiv
analysis of the XV

fplent

241

as mineral constituents XV

COBALT

180

r dative ages of the XVI

arfenical

181

bright white

181 Earthy cobalt 182

earthy

182

Egyptian jafpcr 31

grey
red

181
182

pebble 31
Eifenkeifel 6

fulphate of

182

Eifenthon 69

Coecolite

38

Elaftic bitumen 235

Colophonite

41

Electric calamine 221

COMBUSTIBLES

xxiv

ELEMENTS OF MINERALS vi

CO MBUSTIBLE MINERALS 225

Emerald 127

Common limeftone
Compact limeftone

97
97

copper 197
oriental 75

bitumen

Emery 76

COPPER

189

Epidote 27

arfeniate

198

Epfom falts 122

black

195 Euclafe 125

INDEX.

EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS

Sritftone

[xxvii

Jypfum

Fahlerz

193

anhydrous

Falfe Topazes

13

earthy

Felfpar

47

plumofe

blue

8z

common

48

laematites red

compact

48

brown

glafly

49

black

green

48

larmotome

Labradore

49

•lauyne

lamellar

48

ieavy-fpar

tough

59

columnar

Fettftein

57

granular

Fibrolite :

76

ieliotrope

Fire clay

26

iepatic Cinnabar

marble

97

lepatite

Fiflveye ftone

45

iighgate Refin

Flint

9

loiiey ftone

ferruginous

9

iorn ftone

Flinty flatc

71

iorn filver

Flos Ferri

104

quickfilver

Fluate of lime

109

lyacinth

Fluor

109

"*', brown volcanic

FlA'ORINE

xii

of Compoftella

Foflil copal

345

iyalite

Fuller's Earth

63

riydrargillite

HYDROGEN

Gabronite

62

i-lydrophane

Gadolinite

1*9

Hyperfthene

Gahnite

79

Galena

ftI2

Iceland fpar

Garnet

ai

xhthyophthalmite

noble or precious

Xj

!docrafe

Glance coal

441

[ndicolite

columnar

241

Indurated clay

conchoidal

241

flatc

flat/

talc

< copper

19*

IRIDIUM

Glauberite

"5

[RON

GLUCINE

arfeniate of

GLUCINUM

*2J

chromate of

GOLD .

loo

clay

native

aoi

cupreous arfeniate of

Graphite

232

glance

Granular limeftone

94

native

Graphic tellurium

ao8

meteoric

Green earth

4(

ochre

felfpar

48

ore, blue

vitriol

bog

carbonate of copper
Grenatite

196
78

black-
haematites

©rey antimony
cobalt

aio
18

brown
haematites

A^»# copper

19'

magnetic

tnanganefe

16

pea

INDEX.

Iron ore pifiform

J57

Jme, tungftate of

167

red

152

jimeftone

90

haematites

153

Aberthaw

107

phofphated

158

bituminous

99

pyrites

3 cQ

common

97

fpathofe
iulphate

158
159

compact,
granular

97
94

fulphuret of

150

magnefian

106

tungftate of

167

primitive

94

Iferine

170

Jthomarga

Lithographic art

108

Jade

58

!,oam

24

common

58

L,umachelli marble

97

Jargoon

124

L,ychnites

95

Jargoon of Ceylon

124

Madreporite

101

Jafper

ii

MAGNESIA

117

oriental

12

borate of

122

ribbon

12

carbonate of

12O

Jenite

14

native 117

121

Jet
JewVhoufe tin

242
164

fulphate of
Magnefian limeftone

121
106

Magnefite

120

Kaolin

26 49

MAGNESIUM

117

Kilkenny coal
Kiilas

242
62

Magnetic iron ore
Malachite

196

Kimmeridge coal

70

MANGANESE

161

Koupholite

19

grey

161

Kuplernickel

183

phofphate of

163

fulphuret of

162

Labradore Felfpar

49

white

16*

Lapis Lazuli

Marble, Carrara

95

Latialite

53

cottam

97

Laumonite

16

fire

97

Lava

j,

lumachelli

97

Lazulite

81

(lychnites)

95

LEAD

21

of Luni

95

arfeniate of

21

Parian

95

carbonate of

21,

(Pentelicus)

95

chromate of

21

ruin

97

mo ly bate of

21

ftutuary

94

muriate of

21

verd antique

97

ore, blue

21

Marekanite

52

phofphate of

21

Marl

102

fulphate of
fulphuret of

21
21

Martial arfeniate of copper
Meerfchaum

200
32

triple fulphuret of

21

Meionite

80

Lepidolite

5

Melanite

26

Leucite

4

MclJite

245

Lias

IO

Mcllitic acid

XIV

Lilalite

5

Melilite

68

LIME

8S

Menaccanite

170

carbonate of

9C

> Menilite

8

fluare ot

109 MERCURY

222

nun.e of

115 Mcfotype

43

phofphate of
iulphate of

108 MetalliferiMU ore, description of

II2< METALLIFEROUS MINERALS

XX

INDEX.

METALS

xvii

i Nitre

u comparative ages of the XX

NITROGEN

comparative vieiu

of

Noble opal

the

XXI

Meteoric iren

149

Obfidian

Mica

42

Ochre

Miemite

104

red

MINERAL ELEMENTS

V

Octohedrite

Mineral caoutchouc

335

Olivin

oil

333

Onyx

Mifpickel

179

eye

Mocha-ftone

ii

Oolite

Molybdate of lead

218

Opal

MOLYBDENA

163

common

sulphuret of

163

ferruginous

Moon-ftone
Moor- coal 4

48

jafper
noble

Mountain cork

35

femi

leather

35

wood

wood
Muller's glafs

Dpalefcent chryfolite
Oriental alabafter

Muriacite
Muriate of ammonia

in

145

atnethyft
chryfolite

sr

197
216

emerald
jafper

filver

188

ruby

foda

142

topaz

Mufcovy glafs

42

Orpiment
OSMIUM

Nacrite

49

Oxide of antimony

Naptha

arfenic

Native amalgam

223

bifmuth

antimony,

209

copper

arfenic

178

tin

bifmuth

176

OXYGEN

copper

181

gold

201

Parian marble

iron

148

PALLADIUM

magnefia 117 121

native

NATIVE METALS, &c.

147

Pea iron-ore

meteoric iron

149

Pea-ftone

minium

214

Pearlftone

palladium

207

Pearlfpar

platina

204

Petroleum

quickfilver

323

Petuntze

filver

185

Pharmacolite

fulphur

227

Phofphate of copper

tellurium

207

iron

Natrolite

44

lead

Natron

140

lime

Nickel

183

manganefe

copper

183

PHOSPHORUS

ochre

184

Pierre a batir

Nigrine

169

de tnppes

Nitrate of lime

"5

Finite

potato

137 Pipe clay

95

206
[207
157

TOO

50

105

*34
48
116
198
158
216
108
163

XI

99
JtZ

77

INDEX.

Pifiform iron ore

157

Red haematites iron-ore

Pifolile

100

iron -ore

Pitch- blende

173

ochre

Pitchftone

55

fchori

of Menil-moutant

8

filver

Plafma

11

vitriol

PLATINA

aca

Meddle

native

20J

•' etinafphalt

Pleonafte

to

RHODIUM

Plumbago

232

-< ibbon agate

Plumhiferous tellurium

208

jaiper

Porcelain clay

25

loe-ftone

Porcellanite

26

*ock-falt

POTASH

135

,£ottenflone

carbonate of

136

:iubellite

nitrate of

137

.•! ubicelle

POTASSIUM

135

Ruby, almandine

Potftone

39

balas

Potter's clay
Prafe

25
4

oriental
fpinelle

Prehnite

18

copper

Pumice

44

filver

Purple copper

193

Ruin agate

Pycnite

85

Rutil

Pyrites, arfenical

179

Rutillite

common

1 ci

copper

194

Sahlite

iron

150

Sal ammoniac

magnetic

151

Saline minerals

tin

166

Salt, common

white

15 *

rock

Pyrope

39

fprings

Pyrophyfolite
Pyroxene

84

37

Saltpetre
Sandftone

Sanidin

Quartz
compacH
cryftaBized

a
4

2

Sapphire
Sapphirin
Sappare

fat

5

Sarcolite

ferruginous

6

Sard

fibrous

4

Sardonyx

granular

4

Satin fpar

milk

5

Sauffurite,

pfeudomorphous

5

Scaly talc

rofe

5

chloride

fpongiform

5

Scapolite

QUICKSILVER

22Z

Scheelin

horn

224

Schiefer fpar

native

223

Schiller fpar

Schorl

Realgar

178

red

Red antimony

210

violet

bole
chalk 23
cobalt

154

182

Schorlaceous beryl
Scotch pebble
Selenite

copper

*95 Semi-opal

154
154
154

169

3 T54

245

20$

12 7*

12 7*

100

14*

77

I

86
86

75

85

195

187

12

l69

170

38

145

X

142
142
143
J37
7

49
75
53
77

12

93

59
49
60

58
167

93
37
61

44 169

3©

«5

12

112

Serpentine

119 Spodumeof

47

common

120'

Stalagamite

93

noble

120

Star-done

75

primitive

I2CK

Stangenfpath

Shale

69-

•Staurolite

78

* bituminous

70

Statuary marble

94

brown bituminous

7©'

Steatite

15

Siberite

44

Stilbite

17

SILEX

I

Stinkftone

99

Siliceous fchiftas

71

Stourbridge clay

26

earth

I

Striped jafper

13 7t

S1LICIUM

I

STRONTIAN

j-r*

SILVER

184

carbonate of

x'33

Amalgam
antimonial

223,

IS

fulphate of
Strontianite

134

133

bifmuthic

188

STRONTIUM

133

black

188

Subfulphate of alumine

86

brittle fulphurejt of
carbonate of

187
188

Succinic acid
Sulphate of alumine

xiii
86

glance

187

ammonia

145

horn

188

barytes

*3r

muriate of

188

cobalt

182

cative

185

copper

197

red

187

iron

159

ruby

lead

fulphuret of

186

lime

112

vitreous

1-86

magnefia

X2X

white

187

foda

141

Sfate-clay

69

ftrontian

134

coal

24°

zinc

221

flinty

71

SULPHUR xxvi 22.?

indurated

native

227

fpar

93

volcanic

229

Smaragdite

40

Sulphnret of antimony

210

Soap-ftone

59

arfenic

I78

S.ODA

138

bifmuth

176

borate of

141

copper

192

carbonate of

139

iron

150

muriate of

lead

212

fulpbate of
Sodalite

14*

manganefe
molybdena -

l62
163

SQDIU1S/I

138

filvcr

186

Spmmite

80

tin

166

Spar, calcareous

90

zinc

210

double refracting

92

Surturbrand

238

Iceland

92

Swimming-ftone

5

fatin

93

Swine-ftone

99

fchiefer

93

flate

93

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XXV

Spathofe iron

158

Tabular fpar

14

Sphen*

170

Tak

45

Spioelle ruby

85

indurated

46

blue

53 81

fcaly

49

xincifcfous

79

Venetian

46

Spincllane

68

Tantalite

173

.Splent coal

241 TANTALIUJfl

TELLURIUM

207 Vitriol, gree*

Tellurium, native

207

red

graphic

208

Volcanic glafe

plumbiferoaa

loft

fulphut

TERMS, explanation of

xxvi

Terra figillata

23

Wacke

Thallfte

27

WAT£R

Thumerftone

Wavellite

TIN

164

Welch culm

oxide 6f

165

Wernerite

pyrites
fulphuret eC

166
166

WhetHate
Whin-ftone

wood

166

White antimony

Titanite

169

copper

TITANIUM

168

manganefe

Toadftone

69

filvef

Topaz

83

Wither ite

oriental

Wolfram

rock

84

Wood opal

Touchftone

7'

ftone

Tourmalines

tin

Tremolite

32

Triphane

47

Yellow bole

Triple fulphuret of lead:

214

copper

Tripoli

22

Yenite

Trona

139

YTTRIA

Tufa

102

Yttrotantalitte

TUNGSTEN

I67

YTTRIUM

Tungftate of iron

167

lime

l67

Zeolite, cubic

Turquoiffe

197

ZINC

carbonate of

URANIUM

172

fulphate

Uranite

162

fulphuret

Uran-ochre

173

Zinciferous fpinelle

ZIRCON

Verd antique

97

Zirconite

Vefuvian

20

ZIRCONIUM

Violet fchorl of Danphine

30

Zoyfite

Vitreous filver

186

18*
51

229

69
ix

67

aio
194
i6z
187
130

6?

166

23
194

14
ia8

374

54

79
123

124

123

19

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