GRAMMAR
IYANDWILKI1STS
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
LaL.G-r
AN ELEMENTARY
LATIN GRAMMAR
BY
HENRY JOHN EOBY
M.A., LL.D.
AND
A. S. WILKINS
LITT.D., LL.D.
F |gf>.
Hontion
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK
1893
All rights reserved
PEEFACE
THIS book is intended to be used as an introduction
to Mr. B,oby's Latin Grammar for Schools. Hence
much has been intentionally omitted which is com-
monly given in Latin grammars, but which is of little
or no use to the pupil who is engaged with the
elements of the language. Some parts of the larger
book have been reproduced with slight omissions and
occasional simplifications of language, other parts have
been greatly reduced, especially in the Syntax. The
main purposes of its preparation have been that the
pupil should have nothing to unlearn when he proceeds
to his more advanced work, and that Jie facts of the
language should be, so far as possible, explained, and
not left to be a matter of memory.
Some useful suggestions have been received from
Mr. S. G. Owen, of Christ Church, Oxford.
A. S. W.
CONTENTS
PAGE
1 . The Latin Language ...... 1
2. Alphabet 2
3-4. Consonants 3
5. Vowels 3
6. Quantity 4
7. Accent 4
8-9. Phonetic Changes . . . . . . 4
10-12. Inflexions in general 6
13-32. Inflexions of Nouns 8
First Class ( 14-18) 9
Second Class ( 19-24) 14
i Stems and Consonant Stems ( 25-31) . . 22
Greek Nouns (32) 28
33-39. Pronominal Adjectives .... 29
40. Certain Pronouns 33
41-43. Comparison of Adjectives .... 35
44-47. Numerals . . . . . . . 37
48-51. Adverbs 45
52-74. Inflexions of Verbs 49
Examples of Inflexions of Verbs Consonant and
a stems ( 56-64) . . . . . . 53
Other Vowel Conjugations ( 65-70) ... 66
Deponent Verbs (71) 74
. Irregular Verbs ( 72-74) 75
75-79. Verbal Stems . . . . . . . gl
-81. List of Irregular Verbs 84
vin ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
PAGE
82-155. Syntax 109
Principal Use of Cases ( 84) . . . .111
Nominative (85) 112
Accusative (86) 113
Dative (87) 114
Ablative (88) 115
Genitive (89) 117
90. Infinitive 118
91. Gerunds, Gerundive, Supine 118
92. Participles 120
93-95. Indeclinable Words 120
Adverbs ( 93), Prepositions ( 94), Conjunctions
(95) 120
96-102. Use of Verb Inflexions 122
Inflexions of Voice ( 96-99) .... 122
Inflexions of Person and Number ( 100-102) . 125
103-111. Indicative Mood and its Tenser . ... 128
112. Imperative Mood 134
113-123. Subjunctive Mood 135
124-129. Contrasted Uses of the Indicative .... 140
130-136. Reported Speech 142
137-139. Different Kinds of Sentences 148
140. Sequence of Tenses ...... 150
141-146. Some Uses of the Cases 151
147-151. Use of Pronouns
152-154. Use of Conjunctions 156
155. Interrogations , 157
APPENDIX
A. Roman Money 159
B. Roman Reckoning of Time . . . .160
C. Relations by Blood and Marriage . . .163
D. Abbreviations of Names . . . .163
E. Roman Writers 164
F. Prosody and Metre 165
ELEMENTARY LATIN GEAMMAE
1. LATIN was the language spoken by the inhabitants of a
district on the western side of Italy, hundreds of years B.C.
Of this tract the chief town was Rome, and the conquests
of the Romans spread the language over the neighbouring
countries. The modern languages of Italy, France, Spain,
Portugal, Wallachia, and of parts of Eastern Switzerland,
are derived from it ; and mainly through the influence of
the Christian Church it was the language principally used
in European literature, law, state documents, and learned
intercourse, during the Middle Ages.
The Latin language was at its best from about 100 B.C.
to about 100 A.D. The greatest writers nourished during
this period ; and it is the language of their writings which
is especially treated of in this grammar.
Latin belongs to the group of languages which includes
the Greek, Keltic, Teutonic, and Slavonic families in
Europe, and the chief languages of Persia and India in
Asia. There are many points of resemblance between
Latin and all of these, both in vocabulary and in in-
flexions.
KLKMKNTARY LATIN" (JKAMMAft
ALPHABET
2. The following table contains the letters of the Latin
alphabet as used in Cicero's time, with their names and
probable pronunciation.
Sign.
Name.
Pronounced as English
A
a
a in papa.
B
be
b
C
ce
k
D
de
d
E
e
a in late, or e in fife.
F
ef
f
G
ge
(j hard, as in give.
H
ha
]/, in h<i-t.
I
i
ee in feet, or i in machine.
K
ka
k
L
el
I
M
em
m (except at end of words).
N
en
n, but when before a guttural as ncj.
o
o, approaching to mi.
P
pe
P
Q
qu
q = k.
K
er
r (trilled).
S
cs
s, sharp, as in h't.^s, not, ///s.
T
te
t
V
u
oo in shoot or u in Irnlc.
X
ix
X
To which may be added two letters used only in copying
( !n:rl< words, namely
Y '/ I'Yoncl), or //. (Irnnaii.
:-, 01- perhaps dx.
VOWELS 3
CONSONANTS
3. Consonants are classified according to the character of the sound.
Of the Latin consonants p, b ; c, g ; t, d are momentary, or non-
continuous (often called mutes), that is to say, the voice cannot dwell
upon them ; s and f are continuous.
Again p, c, t, s, f are voiceless, i.e. they are not accompanied by
any sound of the voice ; b, g, d and usually r, 1, are voiced, x that is,
they cannot be pronounced without some sound of the voice.
If the air is allowed to pass through the nose instead of the mouth,
the sounds m, n, and ng (a single sound, as in sing) are produced
instead of b, d, g. Such sounds are called nasal.
k was little used, and was always followed by a ; q was always
followed by u, and qu (pronounced as in English) regarded in prosody
as a single consonant.
x was merely written for cs.
4. The following Table shows the classification of Latin consonants.
NON-CONTINUOUS.
NASAL. CONTINUOUS.
Voiceless. Voiced.
Usually Voiced. Voiceless. Voiced.
LABIAL p b
m
(lip sounds).
LABIODENTAL.
GUTTURAL c, k, q g
n before a
(throat sounds)
guttural.
DENTAL t d
n (when not s
(tooth sounds).
before a
guttural).
LINGUAL
(tongue sounds ; also called liquids)
r, 1
(usually)
VOWELS
5. a is the simplest vowel ; for e and i the back part of the tongue is
raised ; for o and u the lips are pushed forward, e is a middle sound
between a and i ; and o a middle sound between a and u.
i and u, when pronounced rapidly before other vowels, become
half consonants, and in modern books are usually printed j and v.
The sound of i or j then becomes as English y in yes ; the sound of
u or v becomes as French ou in oui, or nearly as English w in we.
1 For voiceless the terms sharp, hard, surd and Latin ' tenues ' are also
used ; for voiced the terms flat, soft, sonant and Latin ' mediae. '
4 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Diphthongs are sounds produced in the passage from one vowel
sound to another. The right rule for pronouncing diphthongs is to
sound the two vowels rapidly one after the other.
Thus au as Gorman on, a somewhat broader sound than the
ordinary English ow in cow, to/ru.
eu as a Cockney or Yankee pronunciation of oiv in cow, town.
ae nearly as the single vowel a in English hat, lengthened.
ei nearly as in English feint, or ai in faint.
oe between oiin boil, and ei in feint.
The vowels may be arranged thus, so as to suggest the relation of
one to another.
a
e o
i y u
QUANTITY
6. Vowels are either lony by nature, as it, or short by nature, as .
The pronunciation of the vowels is given by the following English
examples: aha, demesne, quinine, promote, Zulu. Vowels are said to
be (usually) long by position, when followed by two consonants, as
ardet ; more correctly the xi/l.ll>le is long, the vowel and the first, con-
sonant counting as a long vowel. Sometimes a vowel in such a. position,
may be taken as either long or short ; it is then called <<*/// ///<///, and is
marked thus, patrem.
ACCENT
7. One syllable in every Latin word which contains more than one,
is pronounced with more stress than the rest. In words of two
syllables the accent falls on the first syllable, as miiifiiiis ; in other
cases it falls on the last syllable but one. if thai be. long, either by
nature or by position, as i/idico, otherwise on the last, but two, as
indfoo.
PHONETIC CHANGES
8. Many words underwent changes which made them easier for the
Romans to pronounce. Some of the most frequent changes are the
following :
Whole syllables were sometimes omitted, as vene - flcium for
PHONETIC CHANGES 5
veneni-ficium, poison-making ; voluntas (for voluntitas), willing-
ness, from volens, willing.
When three consonants come together, the middle one is often
omitted, as fulmen, lightning (for fulgmen), from fulgere, to flash ;
mul-si (for mulcsi), perfect of mulcere, to stroke.
Of two consonants the former is often assimilated either (1)
completely or (2) partially to the latter, as (1) ces-si for ced-si,
eum-mus for sub-mus, puel-la for puer-la, op-pono for ob-pono,
ac-curro for ad-curro ; (2) scrip-tus for scrib-tus, op-tineo for
ob-tineo, con-tineo for com-tmeo, im-berbis for in-berbis.
s between two vowels is changed to r, as onus, oner-is (compare
onus-tus), dirlmo for dis-emo.
9. Vowels are changed often in composition and inflexions.
a. Eoot-vowels are changed, when by a syllable being prefixed, as in
compound words, the root syllable loses the first place.
Thus a changes usually to e before two consonants or before r, as
damno, condemno ; facio, effectus ; pario, comperio.
a to i usually before ng or any single consonant except r, as tango,
attingo ; facio, efficio.
e to i, as lego, colligo ; emo, adimo.
ae to i, as aestimo, existimo ; caedo, incido.
b. In suffixes usually
6 changes to i, as cardon-, cardmis ; alto-, alti-tudo.
e to I, as ille, illic ; unde, undique ; agmen, agmin-is,
but e remains before r, as piper, piper-is, and before two consonants, as
nutrimen, mitrlmentum (compare nutrimin-is).
c. Short vowels are often omitted between two consonants, as audac-
ter for audaci-ter, vinclum for vinculum, dextra for dextera.
h and v between two vowels are often omitted and the vowels
then coalesce, as ml for mini, prendo for prehendo, audisse for
audivisse, amaram for amaveram.
d. The quantity of vowels is sometimes changed ; thus short vowels
are lengthened
(1) When a consonant is omitted, as ju-mentum, a plough least,
from jugum, a yoke ; casus, a fall (for cadtus), from cadere, to fall.
(2) In forming the perfect tenses of verbs, as lego, legi, ago, egi.
(3) By contraction with another vowel, as fructuis (genitive of
fructus) is contracted to fructus.
e. Long vowels are shortened chiefly when the syllable becomes the
last in the word, as calcar for calcare, amator compared with the
genitive amatoris.
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
INFLEXIONS IN GENERAL
10. Latin, like English, has many words which never vary
in form, and many others which vary according to their
particular use. Thus man builds, men build, man built, j/tan's
building are all sayings which contain two words altered
in order to change the meaning. Of these words mau
expresses an existing thing, build expresses an action.
Grammarians call man a noun, build a verb. NOUNS
(including pronouns and adjectives) and VERBS are the
two great classes of words which are subject to change.
The other parts of speech (adverbs, conjunctions, preposi-
tions, interjections), commonly called particles, as happily,
and, after, alas, do not change.
In Latin, both nouns and verbs have more changes than
they have in English. These changes consist mainly of
additions or other changes at the end of the word, some-
times of additions at the beginning, sometimes of changes
in the middle. Thus in English man's, built, building show
additions or changes at the end of the word ; men (compared
with man) shows a change in the middle.
A word, so far as it thus changes according to its use,
is said to be inflected. The additions or changes are called
inflexions ; the more permanent part of the word is called
the stem. This remains unchanged unless affected by the
suffix.
11. Nouns are divided into two classes, nouns substantir<>,
which express things, and nouns adjective, which express the
nature of things. In English the former are inflected to
denote number and case, e.g. man, man's, men, men's. The
latter are not so inflected, e.g. good man, good man's (food),
good men. In Latin both nouns substantive and nouns
adjective are inflected. Nouns substantive are inflected
to denote the number as well as the case, as hominis,
man's ; homines, men ; hominum, 'men's. Nouns adjective
INFLEXIONS IN GENERAL 7
are trebly inflected, i.e. they are changed to denote the
gender (i.e. sex or imagined sex) of the person or thing
denoted, and they are changed also to denote the case
(like man's) and the number (like men), as bonus, good
he ; bona, good she bonum, good thing ; plural, boni, good
he's ; bonae, good she's ; bona, good things bonorum
(cibus), good men's (food), etc. Pronouns are sometimes
inflected like nouns, but more commonly like adjectives.
The inflexions in Latin nouns are, as has been shown,
much more numerous than in English.
12. Verbs again in Latin differ much from verbs in
English. Not only are there many more changes to express
different persons and numbers, different tenses and moods,
but each form of a verb in Latin, which is not of the
nature of a noun, is complete in itself and expresses
a complete meaning. In English we require a pronoun or
noun with the verb, e.g. I love, thou lovest, he loves. In Latin
amo expresses by itself / love, amas expresses by itself
thou lovest, amat expresses by itself a person loves, but may
l>e he loves or she loves. Different forms are used for the
plural, e.g. amamus, we love; amatis, ye love; amant,
they love.
Different forms again are used for past time, e.g.
amabam, I was loving ; amabas, thou wast loving ; amabat,
he was loving ; amabamus, we were, loving ; amabatis, ye
were loving; amabant, they were loving. Other forms slightly
or considerably changed are used to denote future time or
commands or wishes or the like. What in English is often
expressed by combinations of different words is in Latin
often expressed by changes in the same word.
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
13. The inflexions of nouns and pronouns are in the main
the same. The inflexions of verbs are quite distinct.
The inflexions of nouns are always additions to or altera-
tions in the end of the stem. They serve to mark the
gender, the case, and the number of the word.
There are in Latin
Three genders, called masculine, feminine, and neuter.
Six cases, called nominative, accusative, genitive, dative,
locative, and ablative. (The use of these cases is
explained in 84.)
(In some nouns another form is found to which the name of
vocative case has often been applied.)
Two numbers, singular and plural.
Nouns are divided into two classes
The first class has the genitive plural ending in -arum, or -erum,
or -orum.
The second class has the genitive plural ending in -uum, or -ium,
or in -um preceded by a consonant.
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS 9
FIRST CLASS
14. The first class contains stems ending in a or e or o.
1. Stems in a :
Examples. aqua (/.), water ; bona, a good she ; scrlba,
(m.), a clerk ; Claudia, a woman of the Claudian house.
Singular.
Nom. aqua
bona
scrlba
Claudia
Ace. aquam
bonam
scribam
Claudiam
Gen. ^)
Loc. V aquae
bonae
scribae
Claudiae
Dat. j
Abl. aqua
bona
scrlba
Claudia
Plural.
Nom. aquae bonae scribae Claudiae
Ace. aquas bonas scrlbas Claudias
Gen. aquarum bonarum scribarum Claudiarum
Loc. )
Dat. Vaquls boms scrlbis Claudiis
Abl. J
Old forms : genitive singular, -ai or -as for -ae ; aquai, famnias,
for aquae, familiae.
Poetic form : genitive plural, -um for -arum, caelicolum for
caelicolarum.
Old form : dat. abl. plural, flliabus for flliis.
Most nouns of this class are feminine, as terra, land;
silva, a wood', gloria, glwy ; amma, breath ; mora, delay.
Masculine are a few which denote male persons, such as
agricola, a farmer incola, an inhabitant ; advena, a new-
comer ; poeta, a poet ; transfuga, a deserter.
10 KLKMENTARY LATJN GRAMMAR
15. 2. Stems in e :
Two words only have forms for all cases, viz. res (/.),
a thing ; dies (in. /.), a day. Few have any plural.
Singular.
Nom. res dies acies
Ace. rem diem aciem
Gen. 1
Loc. / rei or re die! or die acii or acie
Dat. J
Abl. re die acie
Plural
Norn. )
A r res
Ace. j
dies
acies
Gen. rerum
dierum
not found
Loc. \
Dat. rebus
diebus
not found
Abl. j
In singular spes and fides are like res ; facies,
effigies, species, series like acies.
All these have in plural only the nom. and ace.
The termination -ei was sometimes two syllables, either -ei or -ei,
l>ut. generally probably a diphthong.
Thus rei, fldei in Lucretius; rei, fldei later; but also spei, rei,
fldei (-ei being one syllable).
The form die is used as the locative.
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
11
16.
3. Stems in :
Examples. dominus (m.\ a, lord; bonus (m. adj.}, a
good he ; bellum (n.), war ; bonum (n. adj.), a good thing.
Subst.
Adj.
Subst.
Adj.
Norn.
dominus
bonus
bellum
bonum
Ace.
dominum
bonum
bellum
bonum
Gen.
Loc.
- domim
bom
belli
bom
Dat.
Abl.
V domino
b6no
bello
bono
Plural
Nom.
domim
bom
bella
bona
Ace.
dominos
bonos
bella
bona
Gen.
Loc.
Dat.
Abl.
dominorum bonorum bellorum bonorum
domlnis
boms
beUls
bonls
Such masculine nouns have a form called the vocative
used in addressing a person : thus domine, lord ; bone,
my good man. But one word, deus, God, has no such form.
The nominative and accusative singular retained the
earlier -os and -om in old Latin. The gen. plur. is in -um
for -orum in some names of weights and measures, and of
nations in poetry, and in a few other cases.
Examples. Masculine annus, a year oculus, an eye ;
animus, the soul.
Feminine humus, the ground ; ' and many names of
trees, as alnus, alder; fagus, beech] populus, poplar;
quercus, oak ulmus, elm.
Neuter oppidum, a town ; forum, market -place :
verbum, a word.
Adjectives magnus, great ; multus, many; malus, bad;
longus, long; nudus, naked; primus, first; decimus, tenth.
12
KLKMENTARY LATIN GRAM MA II
17. Stems in -ro generally drop the final us in nomi-
native singular. Many omit e before r. Instances of
different kinds are
numerus, a number ; puer, a boy ; ager, a piece of land ;
vir, a man.
Nom. numerus
Ace. numerum
Gen.
Loc. j
Dat.
Abl.
numeri
Singular.
puer ager vir
puerum agrum virum
pueri
puero
agri
agro
viri
viro
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Loc.
Dat.
Abl.
Plural
numeri pueri agri viri
numeros puer 6s agros vir 6s
numerorum puerorum agrorum virorum
numeris
puerls
agris
viris
Like numerus are declined erus (or herus), a master ;
umerus (or humerus), a shoulder; and the adjectives
ferus, wild; properus, hasty:, pTOBp&rtiB, favourable.
Like puer, are s6cer, father-in-law ; gener, son-in-law ;
vesper, evening star ; and the adjectives asper, nmijh ;
liber, free \ miser, wretched ; tener, tender.
Similarly satur, satura, saturum, #iti<ifc<l.
Like ager are declined aper, a wild boar ; faber, a
workman ; liber, lark, a book ; and the adjectives noster,
our ; vester, your : dexter, riylit (hum/), and sinister, left,
are usually so declined, but sometimes retain the e, like
tener.
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
13
18. In the best period steins in -vo or -quo retained in nominative
and accusative singular -6s, -6m instead of -us, -urn.
Thus equos, a horse (also spelt ecus) ; aequom, equity ; but in
modern books we usually find -us, -um.
In substantives in -io the genitive singular ended in single i, ex-
cept in some poetry.
Nom. servos
aequom
filius
imperium
Ace. servom
aequom
fllium
imperium
Gen. 1
Loc. } servi
aequi
fill
imperl
Cat. 1
Abl. } servo
aequo
mio
imperio
Nom. servi
Ace. servos
Gen. servorum
Loc. ^
Dat. Iservis
Abl. J
Plural.
aequi
aequos
aequorum
aequis
filii imperia
fllios imperia
ftliorum imperiorum
flliis
imperils
Like servos are equos, a horse avos, a grandfather ; divos, a god ;
rivos, a stream ; cllvos, a slope ; coquos (or cocus), a cook ; and
many adjectives, as cavos, hollow ; novos, new ; parvos, small ;
saevos, raging ; vivos, alive ; exiguos, small ; vacuos, empty ;
antiques, ancient, etc.
Like aequom are aevom, age ; arvom, a ploughed field ; ovom,
an egg.
Like fllius are many proper names, as Claudius, Fabius, Livius,
Servius, Decius, Julius, Horatius, Verffilius, etc.
Like imperium are gaudium, joy ; odium, hatred ; offlcium, duty ;
consflium, advice, etc.
(N.B. Adjectives have gen. sing, always in -ii, as medii, egregii.)
14 ELEMENTARY LATIN CM? AM MA If.
SECOND CLASS
19. The second class of nouns contains stems ending in
u or i or a consonant.
1. Stems in U :
Examples manus (/.), hand visus (?.), sight ; genu
(n.), knee.
Singular.
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Loc.
Abl.
mantis visus
manum visum
manus visus
manui visui
j- maiiu visu
Plural.
genu
genu
genus
genui
genu
manus visus genua
Gen. manuum visuum genuum
Dat. |
Loc. /- manibus visibus genibus
Abl. )
So also gradus, a step ; aestus, heat gdmitus, a groan ;
tonitrus (also tonitru), thunder ductus, leading, etc.
The dative singular sometimes, especially in poetry, cuds in -u for
-ui, as visu.
Tim al)l. plural in sonic words ends in -ubus, as acus, needle,
jicubus ; arcus, bow, arctibus ; artus, joint, artubus ; partus.
bi-rlk, partiibus ; tribus, tribe, tribubxls.
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
15
20. Some words are found with inflexions both from o
stems and from u stems. The most important word of
this kind is domus (/.), a home.
Singular.
Plural.
Norn, domus
domus
Ace. domum
domos or domus
Gen. domus
domorum or
domuum
Dat. domui, rarely domo ^
Loc. domi
Abl. domo, rarely domu J
domibus
Singular.
Nom. colus, distaff cupressus
laurus
plnus
Ace. colum cupressum
lauruna
pinum
f coli f cupressi
ren ' \ colus \ cupressus
(lauri
\ laurus
(pini
I pinus
Dat. colo cupresso
lauro
pino
f colo f cupresso
\ colu \ cupressu
/lauro
I lauru
pinu
Nom. colus
Ace.
Plural.
I cupressi f lauri
\ cupressus (rarely) \ laurus
cupressus
( pini (rarely)
1 pinus
J pinos
\ pinus
pinorum
lauris
f lauros
I laurus
Gen.
Dat. \
Abl. I
quercus (oak) besides u stem has abl.
quercorum.
myrtus (myrtle) has rarely nom. ace. plur. myrtus.
is an o stem.
arcus (bow) besides u stem has gen. sing, arci or arqui ; humus
(the ground) has locative humi.
In Early Latin a genitive singular in i is frequent from verbal nouns,
as adventi, fructi, gemiti, quaesti, sumpti.
pinis
querco and gen. pi.
Otherwise it
16
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAK
21. 2. Stems in i :
Of these some have nominative in -es, some in -is,
some in -s preceded by a consonant or long vowel.
Instead of -ris we often find -er. Neuters have nomina-
tive in e.
Examples. nubes (/.), cloud; puppis (/.), stem of a
ship; tristis (m. /.), triste (n.\ sad; urbs (/.), city; lux
(/.), light; ars (/.), art; mare (??,), sea; animalis (adj.),
animal ; imber (m.), a storm of rain.
Nom. nubes
Ace. nubem
Gen. nubis
Dat. nubi
Nom. urbs
Ace. urbem
Ccn. urbis
Dat. urbi
Loc. ) ,
urbe
Singular.
puppis
puppim or
puppem
puppis
puppi
puppe
Plural.
tristis
tristem
triste
triste
Nom. nubes
Ace. nubes or
nubis
Gen. nubium
Dat. ,
Loc. [ nubibus
Abl. >
puppes
puppes or
puppis
puppium
puppibus
tristis
tristi
tristl
tristes tristia
tristes or tristia
tristis
tristium
Singular.
lux ars
lucem artem
lucis artis
lucl art!
luce arte
tristibus
imber
imbrem
imbris
imbri
imbrS or
imbri
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
17
Plural
Nom. urbes
Ace. urbes or
urbis
Gen. urbium
Dat. \
Loc. .' urbibus
luces
luces or
lucis
(not found)
lucibus
Abl. j
artes imbres
artes or imbres or
artis imbris
artium imbrium
artibus imbribus
Nom. mare
Ace. mare
Gen. marls
Dat. \
Loc. V marl
Abl. j
Nom. maria
Ace. maria
Gen. marium
Dat. 'j
Loc. > marlbus
Abl. j
Singular.
anlmalis animale
animalem animale
animalis
animal!
Plural
animales animalia
animales animalia
animalium
animalibus
As a substantive we have nom. ace. animal, abl. sing.
animale ; other cases like the adjective.
acer, sharp, has nom. sing, acer (m.), acris (./.), acre
(n.) Except for the use of acer for nom. s. masc. it is
declined exactly like tristis.
C
18
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
22.
3. Consonant stems :
STEMS ENDING IN MUTES form nom. sing, by adding s ;
t or d before this s is omitted.
e before final stem consonant becomes I except in nom.
sing, u before final stem consonant often becomes I,
except in nom. sing.
Sometimes where I in the other cases is the earlier form,
this becomes e in the nom. sing.
Examples. princeps (adj.), stem princep-, chief ;
judex (m. /.), stem judic-, a judge;
rex (m.), stem reg-, a king;
cl vitas (/.), stem civitat-, citizenship;
eques (in. /.), stem equSt-, horseman ;
caput (n.\ stem caput-, head ;
pes (m.), stem ped-, a foot.
Singular.
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Loc.
Abl.
princep-s (adj.)
princip-em (in. /.)
princep-s (n.)
princip-ls
princip-i
princip-e
Plural.
judex
judic-em
judic-Is
judic-i
judic-6
' princip-es (?./.) (no neut.) judlc-es
Gen. princip-um judic-um
,
Loc. V princip-ibus
Abl. J
rex
reg-em
reg-is
reg-i
reg-e
reg-es
reg-um
judic-Ibus reg-Ibus
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
19
civitat-e
Nom. civitas
Ace. civitat-em
Gen. civitat-is
Dat. civitat-i
Loc.
Abl.
^7'Jcivitat-es
Gen. civitat-um
Dat. \
Loc. > civitat-ibus
Abl. J
equds
equit-em
equit-is
equit-i
Plural.
6quit-es
equit-um
caput
caput
capit-is
capit-i
pes
ped-em
ped-is
ped-i
equit-6 capit-6 ped-e
capit-a ped-es
capit-um ped-um
equit-ibus capit-ibus ped-ibus
Civitas and a few other nouns with stem in tat- have
sometimes -mm in gen. plur.
23. STEMS ENDING IN n form the nominative singular
in one of two ways
Those ending in -on and -on (all being masc. or fern.)
drop the final n, the o then being always long in good
Latin ; in the cases other than nominative singular -6n
becomes -in.
Those ending in -en remain unchanged ; in the cases
other than nominative singular -en becomes -in. Most of
these are in -men, and all these except flamen (m.) are
neuter.
As Examples : homo (m. /.), stem homon-, a man ;
oratio (/.), stem oration-, speech ;
tibicen (m.), stem tlblcen-, a flute-player ;
nomen (n.), stem nomen-, a name.
20
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMA II
Singular.
Nom.
homo
oratio
tiblcen
nomen
Ace.
homin-em
oration-em
tibicin-em
nomen
Gen.
homin-is
oration-is
tibicin-is
nomin-is
Dat.
homin-i
oratiou-i
tibicin-I
nomin-i
LOP >
-LjUL. r
All l
homin-e
oration-e
tibicin-e
nomin-e
Abl. )
Plural
TsTnm 1
Xi (Jill* 1
A (~
homm-es
6ration-es
tibicm-es
nomin-a
Ace. j
Gen.
homin-um
oration-um
tibicin-um
nomin-um
Dat. )
Loc. V
homin-
oration-
tibicin-
iiomin-ibtls
Abl. )
ibus
ibus
Ibus
24. STEMS ENDING IN 1, r, s arc used as the nom. sing,
without addition or change, except that some neuters
change -or into -ur, others -6s into -us.
Stems in s change s into r (also -us into -er) before ;i
vowel, i.e. in all cases except nom. sing.
(Thus a nom. neut. in -us sometimes goes with a
genitive -oris, sometimes with a genitive -eris, according
as its stem is in -6s or -us.)
Stems in -er generally drop e in inflexion.
Samples : consul (TO.), stem consul-, a consul ;
mulier (/.), stem mulier-, a. 'iminmi ;
pater (m.), stem patSr-, a father
amor (TO.), stem amor-, /<>ce ;
tempus (n.), stem tempos-, time ;
6nus (n.), stem onus-, <i> Imnli'ii ;
mos (TO.), stem mos-, lulil ;
crus (n.), stem crus-, a Icy.
INFLEXIONS OF NOUNS
21
Singular.
Norn, consul mulier patSr amor
Ace. consul-em mulier-em patr-em amor-em
Gen. consul-is mulier-is patr-is amor-is
Dat. consul-i mulier-i patr-i amor-i
JLJUU.
Abl.
[ consul-e
mulier-e
patr-e
amor-6
Plural.
Acc.
> consul-es
mulier-es
patr-es
amor-es
Gen.
consul-um
mulier-um
patr-um
amor-um
Dat.
)
Loc.
J- consul-ibus
mulier-ibus
patr-ibus
amor-Ibus
Abl.
j
Singular.
Norn.
tempus
onus
mos
crus
Acc.
tempus
onus
mor-em
crus
Gen.
tempor-is
oner-is
mor-is
crur-is
Dat.
tempor-i
oner-i
mor-i
crur-I
Loc.
Abl.
> tempor-e
oner-e
mor-e
crur-e
Plural.
Ace" 1 '
i temp6r-a
oner-a
mor-es
crur-a
Gen.
tempor-um
oner-um
mor-um
crur-um
Dat. \
Loc. > tempor-ibus oner-ibus mor-ibus crur-Ibus
Abl. )
The principal adjectives with consonant stems are those
in -6s, which express the comparative degree of adjectives.
As Example : melior (adj.), stem melios-, better.
22 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Singular. Plural.
Nom. meli6r (w./.)m61ius (n.) Nom. ] m&liores (m.f.)
Ace. melior-em meliiis Ace. j melior (n.)
Gen. melior-is Gen. melior-um
Dat. melior-1 Dat. ^
Loc. ) Loc. > melior-ibus
Abl. } mehor - 6 Abl. j
Contrast of i fifoms and Consonant Stems
25. The class of i stems and the class of consonant stems have,
speaking generally, certain marked differences.
1. A very large proportion of the i steins have the syllable which
precedes the i long, sometimes from the length of the vowel, more
often from the i being preceded by two consonants, as fini-, parti-.
In the consonant stems the final stem consonant is always preceded
by a vowel, and this preceding vowel is generally short, as due-,
princip-.
2. Further, the i stems fall mainly into three divisions, thus
A. Substantives and adjectives of not more than two syllables in the
genitive singular, as nubes, gravis.
B. Adjectives with derivative suffixes, as aud-aci, ag-ili.
C. Adjectives compounded of noun stems, as in-ermi, tri-remi.
The consonant stems fall into three divisions, thus
A. Substantives (few) of not more than two syllables in the geni-
tive singular, as canis, mensis.
B. Substantives with derivative suffixes, as ima-gon, am-or.
Also adjectives in comparative degree.
C. Substantives and adjectives compounded of verbal stems, as
re-due, prae-sed.
CLASSIFICATION OF i STEMS 23
CLASSIFICATION OF i STEMS
26. A. The nouns of not more than two syllables in the genitive
singular have either
1. Disyllabic nominative in -es,
or 2. Disyllabic nominative in -is (m.f.), neuter in 6,
or 3. Disyllabic nominative in -er (for eris),
or 4. Monosyllabic nominatives.
1. Stems with disyllabic nominatives in -es: all feminine, as proles,
offspring ; sedes, seat.
except verres (m. ), a boar.
vates (m. /., gen. pi. often vatum), a seer.
2. Stems with disyllabic nominatives in -is.
(a) Adjectives, e.g.
dulcis sweet gravis heavy levis light
omnis all tristis sad turpis foul
etc.
(/3) Substantives.
Common in gender
anguis (abl. -i rarely) snake finis (abl. often -i) boundary
clvis citizen hostis enemy
testis witness
Masculine
amnis (abl. -i often) river
manes (pi.) ghosts
collis hill
orbis (abl. -i sometimes) a round
crinis hair
panis (no gen. pi. ) loaf
ensis sivord
piscis fish
fascia bundle
postis (abl. -i often) doorpost
follis leather bag
sentes (pi.) thorns
funis rope
torquis collar
fustis (abl. -i often) club
unguis (abl. -i some- nail, claw
ignis (abl. -i usually) fire
times)
24
I'LKMKNTARY LATIN GRAMMAB
Feminine
apis (gen. pi. apu\n bee
puppis (ace. -im or
sometimes)
-em, abl. -i or -e)
avis (abl. -i some- bird
restis (ace. -im usu-
times)
ally)
classis (abl. -i often) fleet, class
sitis (ace. -im, abl.
clavis (ace. -im some- key
-i, no plur.)
times)
tigris (also with stem
messis (ace. -im reaping
tigrid-)
sometimes)
turris (ace. -im usu-
navis (ace. -im, abl. ship
ally, abl. -i often)
-i often)
and others.
stern of ship
rope
thirst
tiger
tower
Neuter
mare (plural only nom. ace.) sea
mille (indecl. in sing.) thousand
rete (abl. sometimes rete) a net
3. Stems with disyllabic nominatives in -er
imber (m. abl. -i often) shower venter (m.) belly
linter (/. usually) boat liter (m.) skin bag
4. Stems with monosyllabic nominatives
Almost all have a long syllable, usually formed by two consonants,
preceding the i, e.g.
arx (gen. arcis)
urbs (gen. urbis)
a citadel
a city
All are feminine except
Masculines
dens (gen. dentis) a tooth
fons (gen. fontis) fount
mas (gen. pi. marum male
sometimes)
Neuters
lac (gen. lactis, no plur.) //////
lux (gen. lucis) liyht
plebs (gen. plebis) the common
people
mons (gen. mentis)
mus (gen. muris)
pons (gen. pontis)
mountain
mouse
bridge
plus (gen. pluris) m
plur. plures, w.f.
plura, n.
CLASSIFICATION OF 1 STF,MS 25
Notice also
nix (/.) (gen. nivis, stem nigvi-), snow (no gen. pi.)
vis (f.), force, thus declined
Singular. Plural.
Nom. vis vires
Ace. vim vires
Gen. vis (rare) virium
Dat. ? viribus
Abl. vi viribus
27. B. Adjectives with derivative suffixes.
"With long penult
-aci, -oci, -trici, as audax, bold ; atrox, cruel victrix, conquering.
-ati, -iti, as nostras, of our country ; penates (pi.), gods of our home.
-ali, -uli, -eli, -ili, as aequalis, equal ; tribulis, of a tribe ; crudelis,
cruel ; hostilis, of an enemy.
-ari, as familiaris, intimate.
(Neuter substantives usually drop the e in the nora. singular : as
animal, an animal ; laquear, a ceiling. )
-anti, -enti, present participles, as amans, loving ; serpens,
crawling.
-ensi, as forensis, of the forum.
-esti, as agrestis, of the fields ; caelestis, of heaven.
"With short penult
-ili, as agilis, active ; facilis, cosy.
-bri, -cri, -stri (for beri, etc. ), as celeber, crowded ; alacer, alert ;
equester, on horseback.
28. C. Adjectives compounded of noun stems, as inermis, un-
armed ; expers, without share ; insignis, distinguished.
D. A few others, as Conors, a troop ; indoles, native disposition :
and adjectives like hilaris, cheerful ; inanis, empty ; felix, happy ;
celer, swift ; memor, mindful ; viridis, green ; teres, round ; and a
few others.
26
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANT STEMS
29. A. Substantives disyllabic in genitive
(a) with disyllabic nom. : canis (m.f.), dog.
senex (gen. sems), old man ; mensis (m.), month (gen. pi. some-
times mensium) ; frater, brother ; mater, mother ; pater, father.
(b) with monosyllabic uom.
dux duels leader
grex gregis flock
rex regie king
pes pedis foot
praes praedis surety
vas vadis bail
Masculine.
lar
fur
flos
11103
ros
laris household
furls thief [god
floris fluii-i-r
naoris manner
roris dew
sol, soils, sun, and sal, sails, salt, have no gen. pi.
ops opis
nux nucis
precem (no nom. s.)
Feminine.
help
nut
prayer
crux
nex
vicem
crucis cross
necis murder
(no nom. s. ) change
6s
Neuter.
aeris bronze crus cruris leg
oris mouth jus juris law
6s, bone, has nom. pi. ossa, gen. ossium.
The following have no gen. plural
cor cordis heart ver
mel mellis honey rus
far farris spelt tus
veris spring
ruris country
turis incense
3O. B. Derivative substantives and a few adjectives.
Masculine with stems in ec, et, on (except verbal subst. in ion), or
or 6s
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANT STEMS
27
As vortex
vorticis
whirl
carbo
carbonis coal
abies
abietis
fir
histrio
histrionis actor
limes
limitis
boundary
amor
amoris love
honor
honoris honour
Also (masculine)
fornix
fornicis
vault
caro
carnis flesh
lapis
lapidis
pebble
nepos
nepotis grandson
turbo
turbmis
whirl
pecten
pectinis comb
margo
marginis
brink
sanguis
sangumis blood
cardo
cardinis
hinge
cinis
cmeris ash
ordo
ordinis
a row
pulvis
pulveris dust
Feminine in ic, id, gon, don, ic, tat, tut, and verbals in ion
As calix calicis cup cervix cervicis neck
cuspis cuspidis spear-point radix radicis root
virgo virginis girl civitas civitatis city
fortitude fortitu- courage voluptas voluptatis plea-
dmis [sure
legio legionis a body of sol- juventus juventutis youth
diers
ratio
rationis reckoning virtus virtutis manliness
Neuter in -men, -or, -ur, -6s (-oris), -us (-eris)
agmen
agminis
drove,
ebur
eboris ivory
troop
femur
femoris thigh
carmen
carminis
song
iter
itineris journey
nomen
nominis
name
cadaver
cadaveris corpse
aequor
aequoris
level
foedus
foederis treaty
fulgur
fulguris
lightning
genus
generis a kind
corpus
corporis
body
munus
muneris gift
lltus
litoris
shore
opus
operis work
31. C. Substantives and Adjectives compounded of Yerb stems
redux reducis (adj.) bringing back obsSs obsidis hostage
compos compotis (adj.) having power praesespraesidisj0resw&!?i
princeps principis (adj.) chief comes comitis companion
judex judicis judge miles, militis soldier
artifex artif icis skilled maker eques equitis
28 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
D. Also
custos (in. f.} custodis keeper merces (/. ) mercedis hire
heres (m. /.) heredis heir palus (/.) paludis a mar si i
sacerdos (m.) sacerdotis^n'es^ quies(/.) quietis rent
clnis (m.) cineris ash tellus (/.) telluris the earth
pulvis (m.) pulveris dust
32. Note, Many Greek words, especially proper names, used in
Latin retain some of the Greek case-endings. This is most frequent in
the poets. Thus we find
1. Stems in a :
Xom. Prusia or Prusias Atrida or Atrides Circa or Circe
Voc. Prusia or Prusia Atrida or Atride Circa or Circe
Ace. Prusiam or Prusian Atridam or Atriden Circam or Circen
Gen. Prusiae Atridae Circae or Circes
Dat. Prusiae Atridae Circae
Abl. Prusia Atrida Circa or Circe
2. Stems in o :
Nom. Epirus or Epiros
Voc. Epire
Ace. Epirum or Epiron
3. Stems in i or consonant :
Singular. Plural. ^'/m/ it far.
Ace. tigrim or tigrin tigres or tigridas Phyllida
Gen. tigris or tigridos tigrium Phyllidis or Phyllidos
Dat. tigri or tigridi tigribus Phyllidi
Abl. tigre or tigride tigribus PhylHde
In such words there are many irregularities.
PRONOMINAL AND SOME OTHER ADJECTIVES
29
PRONOMINAL AND SOME OTHER ADJECTIVES
33. Some adjectives have the genitive singular ending
in -ius, the dative in -1, alike for all genders. E.g. totus,
whole.
Singular.
Fern.
Masc.
Nom. totus
Ace. totum totam
Gen. totms in all genders
Loc.
Dat
Abl. toto tota
)
> toti in all genders
Neut.
v totum
toto
Plural.
Nom. toti totae
Ace. totos totas
Gen. totorum totarum
Loc. "|
Dat. > totls in all genders
Abl. )
tota
totorum
Similarly are declined unus, one ; ullus, any ; nullus,
none; solus, alone.
So ipse (in old language ipsus), ipsa, ipsum has gen.
ipsius, dat. ipsi for all genders.
Genitive. Dative.
alter altera alterum one of two alterius alteri
uter utra utrum which of two utrius utri
neuter neutra neutrum neither neutrius neutri
30
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
34. A few other pronominal adjectives are declined in
the same way except that they have d instead of in for the
last letter of the neuter nom. and ace. singular. Thus
Singular.
Masc. Fern.
alius other alia
alium aliam
alms in all genders
alii in all genders
alio alia
ille that ilia
ilium ill am
illms or illms in all genders
illi in all genders
illo ilia
Neut.
alitid
aliud
alio
illud
illud
illo
The plural is in all
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Loc. ]
Abl. )"
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Loc. I
Abl. j
So iste, that of yours, ista, istud.
like totus.
The demonstrative particle ce was sometimes ap-
pended to those cases of ille and iste which end in s (e.g.
illosce), and frequently in an abridged form (c) to the
others (except gen. plural). E.g. Dat. Loc. illic. The
neuters illud, istud become illuc, istuc.
35. hie, this, is declined as follows
Singular.
Masc. Fern. Neut.
Nom. hie haec hoc
Ace. hunc hanc hoc
Gen. huius (or hujus) in all genders
Loc. hie (adverb)
Dat. huic in all genders
Abl. hoc hac hoc
PRONOMINAL AND SOME OTHER ADJECTIVES 31
Plural
Masc. Fern. Neut.
Nom. hi hae haec
Ace. hos has haec
Gen. horum harum horum
Loc. \
Dat. > his in all genders
Abl. J
The fuller forms hosce, hasce, huiusce are found in Cicero.
Haec is rarely found for nom. fern. plur. Plautus has also hice (for
hie), etc.
36. Is, that, is thus declined
Singular.
Nom. is ea id
Ace. eum earn id
Gen. eius (ejus) in all genders
Loc. ibi (adverb)
Dat. ei in all genders
Abl. eo ea eo
Plural
Nom. 61 or ii
Ace. eos eas ea
Gen. eorum earum eorum
Loc. 1
Dat. > eis or iis in all genders
Abl. J
I and Is are sometimes written for ii, iis. ibus, dat. abl. plur.
also occurs rarely.
-pse is sometimes appended, as eumpse, eapse.
32
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
37. Idem (for is-dem) is thus declined
Singular.
Masc. Fern.
Neut.
Nom.
idem eadem
idem
Ace.
eundem eandem
idem
Gen.
eiusdem (ejusdem) in all genders
Loc.
ibidem
Dat.
eldem in all genders
Abl.
eodem eadem
eodem
Plural.
Nom.
eidem or Idem eaedem
eadem
Ace.
eosdem easdem
eadem
Gen.
eorundem earundem
eorundem
Loc.
^|
Dat.
> eisdem or Isdem in all genders
Abl.
j
38. Qui, who, which, what, any, relative, intoi rotative,
and indefinite pronoun, is thus declined
Singular.
Nom. qui quae quod
Ace. quern quam quod
Gen. cuius (cujus) in all genders
Dat. cui in all genders
Abl. quo qua quo
Plural.
Nom. qui quae quae
Ace. quos quas quae
Gen. quorum quarum quorum
I )at. ") ,
. , , >quibus in all genders
PRONOMINAL AND SOME OTHER ADJECTIVES 33
As ablatives of all genders, qui in sing., quis in
plural, are sometimes used.
The genitive cuius is occasionally treated as an adjec-
tive and declined cuia, cuium, etc.
As an indefinite pronoun, qua is more common than
quae in nom. sing. fern, and neut. plural.
As indefinite and interrogative pronouns, quis (m. /.),
quid (n.) are generally used for qui, quod, when not in
agreement with a substantive.
39. Similar are the compound pronouns
Adjectives. Substantives.
aliqui aliqua aliquod some aliquis aliquid
ecqui ecquaor ecquod any? ecquis ecquid
ecquae
qumam quaenam quodn&mwhat? quis- quid-
nam nam
quidam quaedam quoddam a certain one
quicun- quaecun- quodcun-
que que que whatsoever
quilibet quaelibet quodlibet any you like
quivis quaevis quodvis any you will
Also like quis, quid
quisquis quidquid or quicquid whatsoever
quisquam quidquam or quicquam any at all
And partly like quis, partly like qui
quispiam quaepiam quodpiam some
quisque quaeque quodque each
PECULIAR INFLEXIONS OF CERTAIN PRONOUNS
Personal Pronouns
40. The substantives called personal pronouns are very
peculiar in their inflexions, nor are all the cases formed
from the same stem.
34 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Singular.
Sing, and Plural.
1st Person. 2d Person.
3d Person (reflexive).
Nom.
ego tu
no nom.
Ace.
me te
se
Gen.
See below
Dat.
mini tibi
sibi
Abl.
me te
se
Plural
Nom. )
nos vos
Ace. j
Gen. nostrum vostrum or vestrum
Abl.
SINGULAR. Accusative and ablative. Se.se was fre-
quently used for se ; tete rarely for te.
The forms med and ted occur as accusatives and ablatives in
Plautus.
Genitive. As possessive genitive the adjectives meus,
my, mine ; tuus, thy, thine ; suus, his (her) own, were used : as
meus liber, my book ; mea filia, my daughter meum opus,
in-i/ work.
As objective genitive the gen. sing. neut. of the same
is used, viz. mei (of my being), tui, sui.
PLURAL. Genitive. As possessive genitive the adjectives
noster and vester (voster) and suus were used.
As objective genitives nostri, vestri, sui.
As partitive genitives nostrum, vestrum, suorum.
To all cases (except tu nom.) of the substantive pronouns the particle
-m6t is sometimes added. For tu, tutS or tutimSt is found.
The adjectives often have in the ablative case -met or -pte appended,
e,.(j. meopte, suamet ; rarely in the gen. sing., e.g. tuipte, and ace.
plur., e.g. suosmet, suamet.
DEGEEES OF COMPAEISON OF NOUNS ADJECTIVE 35
DEGREES OF COMPAEISON OF NOUNS ADJECTIVE
41. From many adjectives two derivative adjectives are
formed in order to denote the degree of the quality ex-
pressed by them. The simple form is called the positive.
The comparative expresses a higher degree of the quality in
a comparison of two things or persons. The superlative.
expresses the highest degree in a comparison of more than
two things or persons, as durus, hard ; durior, harder ;
durissinms, hardest.
The comparative is sometimes used to express that the
quality is possessed in too high a degree.
The superlative is sometimes used to express that the
quality is possessed in a very high degree.
Ordinary Formation of Comparative and Superlative
42. These derivative adjectives are formed from the
positive as follows
1. The stem of the comparative is formed by adding
ios to the last consonant of the stem, ie. by changing the
inflexion i or is of the genitive into ios. The s is changed
into r before vowels and in the nom. sing. masc. and
fern, (see 24). In the neuter nom. and ace. sing, ios
becomes ius.
2. The stem of the superlative is formed by adding
isslmo or issima to the last consonant of the stem.
Thus
Genitive. Comparative. Superlative.
dur-us, hard dur-i dur-ior dur-issimus
trist-is, sad trist-is trist-ior trist-issimus
felix (felic-s), happy fellc-is fellc-ior felic-issimus
Some adjectives form their superlative by doubling the
last consonant of the stem and adding imus. These are
(a) Adjectives with stems ending in ero or eri, the e
being omitted or retained in the comparative as in the
inflexions of the positive.
36 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
pulcher, /////, romp, pulchr-ior, supcrl. pulcher-rimus.
So niger, black ; piger, shithfn-1 ; ruber. red ; taeter,
foul ; vafer, cunning ; acer, sharp ; celeber, famous ;
saluber, health/id.
asper, routjli asperior asperrimus
So celer, swift ; dexter, rigid (also rarely supcrl. dexti-
mus) ; liber, free ; miser, wretched ; pauper, poor ; tener,
f ruder; uber, abundant. Also
vetus, old no comp. veterrimus
prosperus, prosperous prosperrimus
(/>) The following adjectives whose last stem consonant is
1: facilis, easy ; similis, like; difficilis, difficult ; disslmilis,
mi lifa\ gracilis, thin, slender'; humilis, low; as facil-is,
facil-limus.
Irregular or Defective Adjectives
(besides those named above, 2, a).
43. The following are either deficient in the positive
degree or form their comparative and superlative irregularly
or from a different stem
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
bonus, HOIK! melior optimus
malus, Imil pejor pessimus
magnus, (jmit. major maximus
parvus, small minor minimus
multus, mif/t plus (ucut.) plurimus
nequam (indccl.), ///>/:/// nequior nequissimus
dives) . divitior divitissimus (Cic.)
dis i r " :h ditior ditissimus
senex, l<t senior (natu maximus)
juvenis, yoiniij junior (natu minimus)
potis, pote (indccl.), alfc. potior, M/>;- potissimus
possible
(no positive) ocior, mi-iflcr ocissimus
frugi (iiulci:!.), ?/w//// frugalior frug-alissimus
NUMERALS
37
Sgtaus
benevolus, well-icishing
maledicus, evil-speaking
magmficus, splendid
citra (adv.), on this side
de (prep.), down from
Comparative.
egentior
Superlative,
egentissimus
benevolentior benevolentissimus
maledicentior maledicentissimus
magnificentior magnificentissimus
citerior citlmus
deterior, less good deterrimus
extra (adv. ), externus (adj. ), outside exterior / extremus
( extimus
infra (aclv. ), infer 1 (adj. ), low inferior infimus, imus
intra (adv.), within interior intimus
post, posterus, next (in / posterior, ( postremus
time)
prae (prep. ), before
prope (adv.), near
supra (adv.), super
high
ultra (adv. ), beyond
I hinder, later { postumus
prior primus
propior proximus
superior
ulterior
j supremus
last (in time)
v summus
ultimus, farthest
Adjectives used only in the positive
Many adjectives, which express a state or quality which does not
readily admit the idea of a higher or lower degree, e.g. material (e.g.
aureus, golden), time (e.g. nocturnus, nightly), special relationship (e.g.
paternus, fatherly), have no comparative or superlative. In some
others they are wanting without any such apparent reason. If a com-
parison is required in such adjectives, the defect is supplied by adding
magis and maxime. Thus magis mirus, more wonderful ; maxime
mirus, most wonderful.
NUMERALS
44. Cardinal Numerals answer the question " how
many?" (quot). Ordinal Numerals answer the question
"which in numerical order?" (quotus). Distributive
Numerals answer the question "how many each, or, at
each time?" (quoteni). Numeral Adverbs answer the
question " how many times ? " (quotiens).
1 Chiefly used in plural : inferi, the beings beloio ; superi, the beings
aboce ; infera, the places below ; supera, the places above.
38
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAE
List of
AK.\I;H E UOMAN SIGNS.
1 I.
2 ii.
LDINAL
(adjectives).
UTO.US, a, um
duo, ae, o
3
III.
ires, tria
4
nil. or IV.
quattuor
5
V.
quinque
6
VI.
sex
7
VII.
septem
8
VIH. or nx.
octo
9
vi HI. or ix.
novem
10
X.
decem
11
XI.
undecim
12
XII.
duodecim
13
XIII.
tredecim
14
xi 1 1 1. or xiv.
quattuordecim
15
XV.
quindecim
16
XVI.
sedecim
17
XVII.
septemdecim
18
xvni. or xi ix.
duodevlginti
19
xvi III. or XIX.
undevlginti
20
XX.
viginti
21
XXI.
unns et viginti
22
XXII.
duo et viginti
28
xxvin. or xxnx.
duodetriginta
29
xxvini. or xxix.
undetriginta
30
XXX.
triginta
40
XXXX. or XL.
quadraginta
50
L.
quinquaginta
60
LX.
sexaginta
70
LXX.
septuaginta
NUMERALS
39
Numerals
ORDINAL
(all declinable adjectives).
DISTRIBUTIVE
(all declinable adjec-
tives plural).
NUMERAL ADVERBS.
f primes, a, um f
| prior, first of two \
singuK, ae, a
semel
( secundws j
( alter \
bmi(for duini)
bis (for duis)
tertiws
terni (or trin^j
ter
quartws
quaterni
quater
quintws
quim
quinquiens
sextws
seni
sexiens
septimus
septeni
septiens
octavws
octoni
octiens
nonws
noveni
noviens
declines
dem
deciens
undecimws
undem
undeciens
duodecimos
duoden^
duodeciens
tertius deciimto 1
term dem
terdeciens
quartws decimws
quaterm' deni
quaterdeciens
quintws decimMS
quini dem
quindeciens
sextws decimws
seni dem
sedeciens
septimw.s decimws
septeni deni
septiens deciens
duodevlcensimws
duodevicem'
duodeviciens (?)
undevicensimws
undevicen^
undeviciens (?)
vlcensimws
vlcem
vlciens
unws (more rarely pri-
viceni singuK
semel et viciens
mws) et vicensim?^
alter et vicenslirms
viceni bin^
bis et viciens
duodetricensimws
duodetricem
duodetriciens
undetricensimiw
undetrlcem
undetriciens (?)
tricensimws
triceni
trlciens
quadragensimws
quadrageni
quadragiens
quinquagensim us
quinquageni
quinquagiens
sexagensimws
sexagem
sexagiens
septuagensimws
septuageni
septuagiens
40
ELEMENTARY LATIN GUAM MA 11
ARABIC SIGNS.
ROMAN SIGNS.
80
LXXX. Or XXC.
90
LXXXX. or xc.
98
XCVIII. or IK 1 .
99
xcix. or ic.
100
c.
101
01.
124
CXXIIIL or cxxiv.
200
CO.
230
ccxxx.
300
ccc.
400
cccc.
500
10. or D.
600
IOC.
700
IOCC.
800
IOCCO.
900
IOCCCC.
1000
clo. or M.
1235
CIOCCXXXV
2000
CIOCIO.
4000
CIOCIOCIOCIO.
5000
100.
6000
IOOCIO.
10,000
20,000
50,000
ooioo.
OOIOOOCIOO.
1000.
('AIM MS \i
(adjectives).
octoginta
nonaginta
octo et nonaginta
undecentum
centum
centum et
centum viginti quat-
tuor
duceiiti, ae, a
ducenti (ae,a)triginta
trecent^, ae, a
quadringent/, ac, <i
quingentf, ae. .
sescenta, ae, a
septingentf, ae, a
octingent/, a<>,
nongenti, <i<>, o
mille
mille ducenti (<>/'. //)
triginta quinque
duo
quattuor millia
qunque
sex
decem millia
viginti millia
quinquaginta millia
100,000
CCCIOOO.
centum millm
NUMERALS
41
ORDINAL
(all declinable adjectives).
octogensimws
nonagensinms
duodecentensimws
undecentensimiis
centensimws
centensim%s primus
DISTRIBUTIVE
(all declinable adjec-
tives plural).
octogem
nonagem
duodecentem
undecenteni
centeni
centem sin-
centensimws vicensi- centeni viceni
HQ.US quartus quaterm
ducentensimw.s ducem
ducentensinitfs tri- ducem tricem
censimws
trecentensimws treceni
quadringentensimi/5 quadringem
quingentensiniM^ quingeni
sescentensim^s sesceni
septingentensim?;6' septingeni
octingentensimz^s octingeni
nongent ensim MS nongeni
millensimws singul^
millensimw.5 ducen- singula
tensimws tricensi- ducena tri-
na.ua quint^^ cem quina
bis millensimws bina millia
quater millensim?ts quatern^ mil-
lift
quinquiens millen- quin millia
sexiens millensimws sena millia
deciens millensim?^- den milli
viciens millensim?^ vicena millift
quinquagiens mil- qiiinquagena
lensimws millia
centiensmillensimws centena
M'MKIt.VL ADVERBS.
octogiens
nonagiens
duodecentiens
undecentiens
centiens
centiens semel
centiens viciens
quater
ducentiens
ducentiens tri-
ciens
trecentiens
quadringentiens
quingentiens
sescentieiis
septingentiens
octingentiens
nongentiens
millions
millions ducen-
tiens triciens
quinquiens
bis milliens
quater milliens
quinquiens mil-
liens
sexiens milliens
deciens milliens
viciens milliens
quinquagiens
milliens
centiens milliens
42 KLKMKNTARY LATIN (iKAM.MAK
ARABIC SK^NS. ROMAN SICNS. MNAI.
(adjcc.tivcs).
500,000 10000. quingenta millia
1,000,000 ccccioooo. deciens centum mil-
lia
(a) The earlier form of ordinals in -inms ended in -umus.
For -ensimus, -esimus is' often found.
Multiplicative adjectives are formed with the suffix -plex, -fold :
viz. simplex, sescuplex (one and a half fold], duplex, triplex,
quadruplex, quincuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex.
Others in -plus are generally used in neuter only, to denote a
2. Inflwhmx <>f Numeral*
45. Unus. For mode of declension see 33. In the
plural it is used only with substantives whose plural denote*
a singular, e.g. unae litterae, one epistle ; unae aedes,
one house (set of rooms, or of hearths 1) ; uni mores, out' mid
the same conduct ; uni Suevi, the single tribe of the Suevi (or
the Suevi alone).
Duo. The masc. and neut. are : nom. ace. duo, gen.
duorum or duum, dat. al)l. duobus. For the m. ace.
duos is also used. The fern, is : nom. duae, ace. duas,
gen. duarum or duum, dat. abl. duabus. In expressions
like, duodecim, duodeviginti, duoetvicesimus, duo is
not varied. Ambo, both, is similarly declined.
Nom. and ace. tres, n. tria, gen. trium, dat. and abl.
tribus.
All the other cardinal numbers up to centum are un-
derlined : so also is mille when used as an adjective. As
NUMERALS 43
(all declinable adjectives).
T DISTRIBUTIVE
(all declinable adjec- NUMERAL ADVERBS.
tives plural).
quingentiens mil- quingena mil- quingentiens mil-
lensimws- lia liens
deciens centiens deciens cen- deciens centiens
millensimws tena millift milliens
(b) The later form of numeral adverbs ended in -ies.
magnitude twice, etc., as great as another. These are simplus,
sescuplus, duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus.
Another series is bmarius, containing two, ternarius, quater-
narius, quinarius, senarius, septenarius, etc.
a substantive it has a declinable plural millia (more
correctly spelt milia), millmm, millibus : but in the
singular is rarely used except in nom. or ace. In expres-
sions like caesi sunt tria millia trecenti milites, we
must supply militum after millia. If the name of the
thing, etc., numbered precede, it is usually put in the
genitive, e.g. militum (not milites) tria millia trecenti
caesi sunt.
The other cardinal, and all the ordinal and distributive
numbers, are declinable adjectives with o stems. The
genitive plural of the cardinals and distributives is usually
in -um for -orum (cf. 16); e.g. multa praesens
quingentum nummum aeris (for quingentorum num-
morum), an immediate fine of 500 pounds of copper ; pueri
senum septenumque denum annorum, boys of sixteen
and seventeen years of age.
41 ELKMKNTAUY LATIN (il,'AM.MAi;
3. Order in coinjnnun'lin</
46. In compound numbers, \\-m\itldrtcr-n tonineteen inclusive, ihe
smaller is usually prclixcd to the larger without et, c.ij. septem decem
(or septemdecim), Septimus decimus, septeni deni, septiens
deciens ; but in cardinals and ordinals the order is sometimes reversed,
and in cardinals et is sometimes inserted, especially if the larger come,
first, e.g. decem septem, decem et septem, septem et decem ;
decimus septimus (Sen.)
From twenty-one to ninety-nine the rule is that cither the larger
should precede the smaller number without et, or the smaller precede
with et ; so viginti quattuor, lurntii-four, or quattuor et viginti,
j'uiir andtwenty. From //i///(f //// mnl n/ni upwards the larger number
usually comes first either without or (except with distributives) with
a- conjunction.
USE or CLASSES OF NUMERALS
47. The ordinal, not the cardinal, is used in giving the date, c.ij. Li tin:
year 1879 is anno millesimo octingentesimo septuagesimo nono.
The distributives are used
(1) To denote that the number belongs to each of several persons or
things, r.tj. Caesar et Ariovistus denos comites ad colloquium
addtixerunt, took ten com /< nil/it* each.
(2) In expressions of multiplication, <-.<j.
bis bina ////,( I n-n
ter novenae virgines ///.//<>: nine n/'r/s
deciens centena millia ten finite </. /nui'frn/, f/nn/Kitud
In these expressions the distributive numerals, /'.;/. deciens centena
millia, do not mean ti. mi/lion In I'ncli- /x'fuon, but a limn/rcil llnnisa inl
i a !..<, i ntr/i uf t,-ii times.
/Ji; /// H///I'/- is expressed by alterni, e.g. alternis diebus,
second <IKI/.
ADVERBS 45
ADVERBS
48. Adverbs and conjunctions are indeclinable words,
chiefly oblique cases of existing or lost words.
The chief pronominal adverbs of place and time and
some others will be found in the tables following.
Other adverbs, derived from adjectives and participles,
end
(a) in 6, or rarely 6, as
certo, certainly ; cito, quickly merito, deservedly
raro, seldom ; tuto, safely ; vero, in truth primo,
in the first place ; secundo, in the second place ;
postremo, lastly.
(b) in e, as
aegre, hardly ; docte, skilfully ; doctissime, most skil-
fully plane, quite ; recte, rightly ; valde, very.
(c) in e, as
bene, well ; male, badly ; facile, easily impune, with
impunity ; paene, almost rite, duly ; saepe, often ;
forte, by chance ; quoque, also.
(d) in -um, as
primum, for the first time iterum, for the second
time tertium, for the third time ; circum, round
nimium, too much.
(e) in -ter, especially from i stems, as
acriter, eagerly ; breviter, shortly; durlter, hardly ;
frequenter, frequently ; largiter, lavishly; similiter,
in like fashion.
(/) in -tus, denoting from, as
antiqultus, from of olcl ; funditus, from the bottom ;
pemtus, from the interior, deeply.
46 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
(g) -tim, chiefly from past participles, as
fiirtim, stealthily ; partim, partly ; cursim, swiftly ;
sensim, gradually ; statim, imn)c<linfelt/ ; nomina-
tim, by name ; paullatim, little by little,
Other noticeable adverbs are
manS, in the morning ; noctu, by night ; hodie, to-day ;
eras, to-morrow ; heri, yesterday ; temperi, in good time \
nuper, lately ; quotannis, yearly ; semper, always ; paul
lisper, for a little while ; diu, for long ; dudum, lately ;
demum, at last prideni, some time mjo ; extemplo, at
once] modo, only, just now; iterum, a second time; rursus,
back again; item, likewise; saltern, at least; etiam, <tl&> ;
ita, thus ; ergo, therefore ; ideo, on thaf act-inutt ; denuo,
afresh ; oppldo, quite ; brevi, in few words ; profecto,
ri'iill-i/ ; nimis, too much ; satis, enough ; vix, xcii/rc!// ;
fortassis, fortasse, perchance ; non, not ; immo, at the
u rather.
49. The following are the chief (pronominal) adverbs of time,
quando j ^ ? quamdiu j how lo '^ ' quoties i htnr f t&n ?
I when \ UN long ON \ c/\ jtn\ n*
quom, when allquamdiu, for some toties, so uf/ni
nunc, now Umjlli of timr, aliquoties, sc.rcnil
tune \ then quousque, till when? identldem,
turn J adhuc, hitherto nonnunquam | sometimes,
antehac, before thi* aliquando j i.e. notwn-
posthac, <ifler t/i.f.t quandoque J frequently
subinde, riii-m>'<tinf>-fi/ <tft,-nr<tnlx interdum, sometimes (i.e.
nondum, not yet occasiomtllii}
alias, at another ti an 1 unquam, ever (al'lcr nega-
interim \ meanwhile tives, H,.)
interea J usque, em- (of progressive
quondam \8ometime,
Olim J or hnrnflci-
ADVERBS
o
1
i
!'
'
.s
48
KLKMKNT.\I;Y LATIN CHAM. MAI;
INFLEXIONS OF VERBS 49
INFLEXIONS OF VEEBS
52. Latin verbs have inflexions to denote differences of
voice, person, number, mood, and tense.
1. There are two voices, the Active and the Passive.
2. Two numbers, the singular and plural.
3. Three persons (first, second, third) in each number.
In the Imperative mood there is no form for the first person
singular.
4. Three moods, Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.
5. Six tenses, in the Indicative mood, active voice :
(a) Three denoting incomplete action ; the Present,
Future, and Imperfect,
(b) Three denoting completed action; the Perfect,
Completed Future, and Pluperfect.
The Subjunctive has no future. The Imperative has no
tense except the present and the future.
Verbs in the passive voice have in the Indicative only
three simple tense-forms, those of incomplete action.
For the tenses of complete action in the passive voice
participles in combination with certain tenses of the verb
of being are used.
E
50 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
53. Certain verbal nouns are usually treated in connexion
with the verb. These are
(a) Two indeclinable substantives, called Infinitives (or
the Infinitive Mood). They are
The Present infinitive, denoting incomplete action, and
The Perfect, denoting completed action.
(b) Three verbal adjectives, called Participles, the Present
and Future belonging to the active voice ; the Past parti-
ciple belonging to the passive voice.
(c) A verbal substantive and adjective, called the Gerund
and Gerundive, usually classed, the first with the active, the
second with the passive voice.
(d) Two Supines, i.e. the accusative and ablative (or
dative) of a verbal noun.
The forms of the verb proper are often called collectively
the Finite Verb ; the verbal nouns above named are some-
times called the Infinite Verb.
54. Every single word in the Latin (finite) verb is a com-
plete sentence, the verbal stem being used not by itself,
but combined with suffixes marking the person and number
of the particular form, and sometimes also the tense, mood,
and voice.
The principles on which all verbs ;irc inflected are the
same. The differences in detail which are found are due
chiefly to the nature or ending of the stem.
The inflexions are attached to the stem in the following
order : inflexions of tense, of mood, of person, of number, of
INFLEXIONS OF VERBS 51
voice. The forms of the present tense, indicative mood,
singular number, active voice are the simplest, containing
only the verb stem with the sign of person. All other
parts of the verb (usually) contain also signs of tense, mood,
number, and voice. Of these the signs of tense and mood
are placed between the stem and the sign of person, and the
inflexions for number and voice are placed after them.
Thus dat is the present tense, indicative mood, third
person, singular number, active voice of a verbal stem
meaning give. It is composed of da- verbal stem, and
t sign of the third person : and thus is strictly give-he
(she, it), for which originally give-s is the English equi-
valent, but English, having lost its sense of the meaning of
the final s, now prefixes in addition the pronoun he (she, it),
as a separate word for the like purpose.
da-r-e-m-us is the first person plural, imperfect tense,
subjunctive mood, active voice, of the same stem, da-,
give. . The sound r here denotes past time, e the mood of
thought (instead of fact), m the speaker himself, us the action
of others with the speaker. Thus darenms analysed is give-
did-in-thought-I-they. If for -us we have -ur (daremur), the
speaker and others are passive instead of active.
55. The inflexions of tense may be divided into two
classes, viz. those which are common to several tenses or
forms, and those which are peculiar to the particular tense.
The inflexions common to several tenses or forms may
be referred to three forms of the verbal stem called the
Present stem, the Perfect stem, and the Supine stem.
1. The Present stem is very often the same as the
verbal stem, but not unfrequently is more or less modified.
52 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
From this present stem are formed all the tenses ami verbal
forms which express incomplete action, viz. both in Active
and Passive voices
Indicative Present, Future, Imperfect ;
Imperative Present, Future ;
Subjunctive Present, Imperfect ;
also the following verbal forms :
Present Infinitive ; Active and Passive ;
Present Participle ; Active (none in Passive) ;
Gerunds and Gerundive.
2. The Perfect stem is sometimes identical with the verb
stem and with the present stem, but usually is consider-
ably modified. From this perfect stem are formed all the
tenses denoting completed action, viz. in the Active
voice
Indicative Perfect, Completed Future, Pluperfect ;
Subjunctive Perfect, Pluperfect ;
also the Perfect Infinitive.
3. The Supine stem is always a modification of the
verbal stem, and from it are formed certain verbal nouns,
of which the forms called the supines, the past participle
passive, and future participle active are generally treated
in connexion with the verb.
The past participle passive is used with certain tenses
of the verb of beint/ to form the perfect, pluperfect and
completed future indicative, and the perfect and pluperfect
subjunctive, of the passive voice. (See 72.)
EXAMPLES OF THE INFLEXIONS OF VERBS 53
EXAMPLES OF THE INFLEXIONS OF VERBS
56. Verbs are as regards their inflexions divided into two
principal classes ; those whose stem ends in a consonant
and those whose stem ends in a vowel. The former may
be called for shortness consonant-verbs, the latter vowel-verbs.
Vowel-verbs may have a stem ending in a or i, or e or
u. Of these by far the most numerous are those with
stems ending in a, and this class differs most in its in-
flexions from consonant verbs. It is in the inflexions of
tenses formed from the present stem that these differences
are mainly found.
First will be given the system of inflected forms of a
consonant stem, reg-, rule, and of a vowel stem, ama-, love.
The English which corresponds most nearly to the Latin
forms of the Indicative and Imperative moods is added. The
English corresponding to the Subjunctive mood varies so
much with the character of the sentence in which it is
used, that none can properly be given here.
The quantity of the final syllables is marked as actually
used by Latin poets.
54
CONSONANT CONJUGATION
57. PRESENT STEM
Active Voice
Present
INDICATIVE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing. 1. rSg-0 / am ruling or / rule
r6g-am
2. r6g-ls Thou art ruling or Thou
r6g-as
rulest
3. re"g-it He is ruling or He rules
r6g-at
Plur. 1. re'g-im-'US We are ruling or We rule
r6g-am-us
2. rSg-It-IS Ye are ruling or Ye rule
re"g-at-Is
3. rSg-unt They are ruling or They
r6g-ant
rule
Future
Sing. 1. re"g-am / shall or will rule
2. r6g-es Thou wilt mlr
3. re"g-6t #e M rule
Plur. 1. r6g-em-us JFie shall or wi7/ r?t/e
2. re"g-et-is Ye will rule
3. re"g-ent They will rule
Imperfect
Sing. 1. rSg-eb-am / was ruling or I ri/lc<l
r6g-6r-em
2. re"g-eb-as Thou wast ruling
r6g-6r-es
or Thou ruledst
3. r6g-eb-at -He was ruling
r6g-6r-6t
or .fife rwZec?
Plur. 1. rgg-eb-am-tis We were ruliixj
r6g-6r-em-us
or We ruled
2. re"g-eb-at-Is F loerc wt/iwr/
r6g-6r-et-Is
or Fe rwfc^
3. r6g-eb-ant 77j-ei/ were ruling
r6g-6r-ent
or 27ti/ rwfccZ
VOWEL CONJUGATION
55
58.
INDICATIVE.
Sing. 1. am-o
2. am-as
3. am-at
Plur. 1. am-am-us
2. am-at-Is
3. am-ant
PRESENT STEM
Active Voice
Present
I am loving or / love
Thou art loving or Thou
He is loving or He loves
We are loving or We love
Ye are loving or Ye love
They are loving or They
SUBJUNCTIVE.
am-em
am-es
am-et
am-em-us
am-et-Is
am-ent
Sing. 1. am-ab-o
2. am-ab-Is
3. am-ab-it
Plur. 1. am-ab-Im-us
2. am-ab-It-Is
3. am-ab-unt
I shall love
Thou wilt love
He will love
We shall or will love
Ye will love
They will love
Imperfect
Sing.
Plur.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
am-ab-am
am-ab-as
am-ab-at
am-ab-am-us
am-ab-at-Is
am-ab-ant
I was loving or I loved
Thou wast loving
or TJiou lovedst
He was loving
or He loved
We were loving
or We loved
Ye were loving
or Ye loved
They were loving
or They loved
am-ar-em
am-ar-es
am-ar-et
am-ar-em-us
am-ar-et-Is
am-ar-ent
56
CONSONANT CONJUGATION
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Present.
Sing. 2.
Plur. 3.
rgg-6
rSg-It-6
Future.
Sing. 3 '
Plur. 2.
3.
1 rgg-It-o
r6g-It-6t-6
r6g-unt-o
Rule (thou)
Rule (ye)
j Thou shalt or must rule
\ He shall or must ride
Ye shall or raits* rWe
They shall or must rule
Verbal Noun-Forms
Infinitive Present
Participle Present S. Noni.
Ace.
Nom.
Gerund
r6g-ens ruling
reg-ent-em (m. f.), r6g-ens (n.)
> reg-end-um
59.
INDICATIVE.
Sing. 1. r6g-6r
2. r6g-6r-Is
3. r6g-It-ur
Plur. 1. r6g-Im-ur
2. reg-Im-In-i
3. r6g-unt-ur
PASSIVE VOICE
Present
/ am being ruled
or J am ruled
Thou art being ruled
or Thou art ruled
He is being ruled
or He is ruled
We are being ruled
or We are ruled
Ye are being
or Ye are ruled
Tli i'ij are being
or They are ruled
SUBJUNCTIVE.
rgg-ar-Js
or r6g-ar-6
rgg-at-ur
rgg-am-tir
reg-am-In-i
rgg-ant-ur
VOWEL CONJUGATION
57
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Present.
Sing. 2.
Plur. 2.
2.
am-a
am-at-e
2. ) (
Future. Sing. 3 | am-at-0 j
Plur. 2.
3.
am-at-6t-6
am-ant-0
Love (thou)
Love (ye)
T/wm sfta^ or mws
ffe ^ Qr
F<? shall or
They shall or mwsi love
Verbal Noun-Fwms
Infinitive Present am-ar-6 to love
Participle Present S. Nom. am-ans loving
Ace. am-ant-em (m. f.), am-ans (n.)
P m > am-and-um
Gerund
60.
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing. 1. am-6r I am being loved am-6r
or / am loved
2. am-ar-Is Thou art being loved am-er-is
or Thou art loved or am-er-6
3. am-at-tir He is being loved am-et-ur
or He is loved
Plur. 1. am-am-ur We are being loved am-em-ur
or We are loved
2. am-am-In-i Ye are being loved am-em-In-1
or Ye are loved
3. am-ant-ur They are being loved am-ent-ur
or They are loved
58
CONSONANT CONJUGATION
INDICATIVE.
Sing. 1. rgg-ar
2. reg-er-Is
or rgg-er-6
3. reg-et-tir
Plur. 1. r6g-em-tir
2. reg-em-hi-I
3. reg-ent-ur
Sing. 1. r6g-eb-ar
Future
I shall be ruled
Thou wilt be ruled
He will be ruled
We shall be ruled
Ye will be ruled
They will be ruled
Imperfect
I was being ruled
or I was ruled
2. r6g-eb-ar-Is Thou wast being ruled
or r6g-eb-ar-6 or Thou wast ruled
3. r6g-eb-at-ur He was being ruled
or He was ruled
Plur. 1. rgg-eb-am-tir We were being ruled
or We were ruled
2. r6g-eb-am-In-i Ye were being ruled
or Ye were ruled
3. r6g-eb-ant-ur They were being ruled
or They were ruled
IMPERATIVE
Present Sing. 2. r6g-6r-6 Be ruled
SUBJUNCTIVE.
r6g-6r-er-Is
or rSg-6r-er-6
reg-gr-et-ur
rgg-er-em-ur
r6g-6r-em-In-I
r6g-6r-ent-tir
Future
Plur. 2. reg-Im-In-i Be ye ruled
sing, i } re g -it-6r 1 27^ r;; ;;^
Plur. 3. r6g-unt-6r They shall or must be ruled
Verbal Noun-Forms
Infinitive Present r6g-i to be ruled
Gerundive Sing. Nom. m. rSg-end-tis
f. r6g-end-a
n. reg-end-um
to rule or to be ruled
(used adjectivally)
VOWEL CONJUGATION
59
Future
INDICATIVE.
Sing. 1. am-ab-6r I shall be loved
2. am-ab-er-Is Thou wilt be loved
or am-ab-6r-g
3. am-ab-It-tir He will be loved
Plur. 1. am-ab-ftn-tir We shall be loved
2. am-ab-Im-In-i Ye will be loved
3. am-ab-unt-tir They will be loved
Imperfect
Sing. 1. am-ab-ar I was being loved
or I was loved
2. am-ab-ar-Is Thou wast being loved
or am-ab-ar-6 or Thou wast loved
3. am-ab-at-ur He was being loved
or He was loved
Plur. 1. am-ab-am-iir We ivere being loved
or We were loved
2. am-ab-am-In-l Ye were being loved
or Ye were loved
3. am-ab-ant-ur TJiey were being loved
or They were loved
IMPERATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE.
am-ar-6r
am-ar-er-Is
or am-ar-er-6
am-ar-et-ur
am-ar-em-ur
am-ar-em-In-I
am-ar-ent-ur
Present
Sing. 2. am-ar-6
Plur. 2. am-am-In-I
Future Sing. ^ I am-at-6r
Plur. 3. am-ant-6r
Be (thou) loved
Be (ye] loved
Thou shalt or must be loved
He shall or must be loved
They shall or must be loved
Verbal Noun-Forms
Infinitive Present am-ar-I
Gerundive Sing. Nom. m. am-and-us )
f. am-and-a
n. am-and-um )
etc.
to be loved
to love or to be loved
(used adjectivally)
60
CONSONANT CONJUGATION
61.
PERFECT STEM
Active Voice
Perfect
INDICATIVE.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing. 1.
rex-i
I ruled or / have ruled
rex-6r-im
2.
rex-is-ti
Thou ruledst or Tfiou hast
rex-6r-Is
ruled
3.
rex-It
He ruled or He has ruled
rex-6r-It
Plur. 1.
rex-Im-us
We ruled or We have
rex-6r-im-us
ruled
2.
rex-is-tls
Yi' I'lilcd or Ye have ruled
rex-6r-It-Is
3.
rex-er-unt
They ruled or They have
rex-6r-int
or rex-er-e"
ruled
( 'om/pleted Future
Sing. 1.
2.
3.
rex-6r-o
rex-6r-Is
rex-6r-it
J luill Jarre ruled
Thou wilt have mini
He will have ruled
[The I seems to have
been properly short
in the fut. pert'. :ind
long in tlie ] it'll.
Plur. 1.
rex-6r-im-us We shall have rul'd
subj. ; but there :ire
2.
rex-gr-it-Is
Ye will have mini
many cases in which
3.
rex-6r-int
Thf'H will have mini
this rule is not ob-
1 T
served.]
Pluperfect
Sing. 1.
rex-6r-am
I had ruled
rex-is-sem
2.
rex-6r-as
Tliii'il, lunlxt mini
rex-is-ses
3.
rex-6r-at
Hi' had ruled
rex-is-s6t
Plur. 1.
rex-6r-am-us We had, mini
rex-is-sem-us
2.
rex-6r-at-Is
Ye hud mini
rex-is-set-Is
3.
rex-6r-ant
Tlii'if In ul mini
rex-is-sent
liifni /tire rex-is-s6 to hav< >mll
VOWEL CONJUGATION
61
62.
Sing.
Plur.
INDICATIVE.
1. amav-1
2. amav-isti
3. amav-It
1. amav-im-us
2. amav-is-tis
3. amav-er-unt
or amav-er-6
PERFECT STEM
Active Voice
Perfect
/ loved or liave loved
Thou lovedst or hast loved
He loved or has loved
ZFie loved or /z-aw &wed
Ye loved or /wive loved
or
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amav-gr-im
amav-6r-Is
amav-6r-it
amav-6r-im-us
amav-6r-it-Is
amav-6r-int
Sine
Plur.
Completed Future
1. amav-6r-o
2. amav-6r-Is
3. amav-6r-It
1. amav-6r-im-us
2. amav-er-it-Is
3. amav-6r-int
/ shall have
Thou wilt have loved
He will have loved
We shall have loved
Ye will have loved
They will have
Sing. 1. amav-6r-am / had loved amav-is-sem
2. amav-6r-as Thou hadst loved amav-is-ses
3. amav-6r-at He had loved amav-is-s6t
Plur. 1. amav-6r-am-us We had loved amav-is-sem-us
2. amav-6r-at-is Ye had loved amav-is-set-is
3. amav-6r-ant They had loved amav-is-sent
Infinitive amav-is-s6 to have loved
62 CONSONANT CONJUGATION
SUPINE STEM
Active Voice
Supine
rect-um, to rule, i.e. ace. case of verbal noun with u- stem
rect-u, in the ruling, i.e. ablat. case of verbal noun with u- stem
Part. Fut. (Sing. Norn.) rect-ur-us (m.) )
rect-ur-a (f.) > about to rule
rect-ur-um (n.) j
Infin. Fut. (Sing. Norn.) rect-ur-us, -a, -um esse, to be about to
rule
,, fuisse, to have been
about to rule
63. SUPINE STEM
Passive Voice
Perfect
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing, (m.) (f.) (n.)
1. rect-us rect-a rect-um sum rectus, recta, rectum sim
/ have been or am ruled
2. rect-us rect-a rect-um 6s ,, ,, sis
Thou hast been or art ruled
3. rect-us rect-a rect-um est sit
He (she, it) has been or is ruled
Plur.
1. rect-1 rect-ae rect-a sumus rect-1, rect-ae, rect-a slm-us
We have been or are ruled
2. rect-1 rect-ae rect-a estls sitls
Ye have been or are ruled
3. rect-1 rect-ae rect-a sunt sint
They have been or are ruled
VOWEL CONJUGATION
63
Supine
SUPINE STEM
Active Voice
amat-um to love
amat-u in the loving
Part. Fut. (Sing. Norn.) amat-ur-us (m.)
amat-ur-a (f.) ^ about to love
amat-ur-um (n.)
Infin. Fut. (Sing. Nom.) amat-ur-us, -a, -um esse, to be about to love
fuisse, to have been
about to love
64.
SUPINE STEM
Passive Voice
Perfect
Sing. INDICATIVE.
1. amat-us, -a, -um sum
I have been or am loved
2. amat-us, -a, -um es
Thou hast been or art loved
3. amat-us, -a, -um est
He (she, it) has been or is loved
Plur.
1. amat-I, -ae, -a sumus
We have been or are loved
2. amat-I, -ae, -a estis
Ye have been or are loved
3. amat-I, -ae, -a sunt
They have been or are loved
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amat-us, -a, -um sim
?3 SIS
sit
amat-i, -ae, -a simus
sitls
sint
64
CONSONANT CONJUGATION
Completed Future
Sing.
l. rect-us rect-a rect-um 6ro
2- ., ens
3. erit
Hur.
1. rect-1 rect-ae rect-a erimus
2. firltfs
3. grunt
I shall have been ruled
Thou wilt have been ruled
He (she, it) will have been
ruled
We shall have been ruled
Ye will have been mini
They will have been ruled
Pluperfect
Sing. INDICATIVE.
1. rect-us rect-a rect-um gram
I had been ruled
2. rect-us rect-a rect-um 6ras
Thou hadst been ruled
3. rect-us rect-a rect-um 6rat
He (she, if) had been ruled
SUBJUNCTIVE.
rect-us, -a, -um essem
esset
Plur.
1. rect-I rect-ae rect-a dramus rect-1, -ae, -a essemus
We had been ruled
2. rect-I rect-ae rect-a gratis ,, essetls
Ye had been ruled
3. rect-I rect-ae rect-a Srant essent
They had been ruled
Participle Perfect rect-US, -a, -um, ruled.
Infinitive Perfect (Sing. Nom.) rect-us, -a, -um esse, to have
been, or to be, ruled.
VOWEL CONJUGATION
65
Sing.
1. amat-us, -a, -um gro
2. grls
3. grit
Completed Future
e?t loved
He (s/ie, &) will have been loved
Plur.
1. amat-i, -ae, -a grlmus
erltls
3. grunt
been loved
Ye will have been loved
have been loved
Sing. INDICATIVE.
1. amat-us, -a, -um gram
I had been loved
2. amat-us, -a, -um 6ras
Thou hadst been loved
3. amat-us, -a, -um 6rat
He (she, it} had been loved
Pluperfect
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amat-us, -a, -um essem
esset
Plur.
1. amat-I, -ae, -a gramus
We had been loved
2. amat-i, -ae, -a gratis
Ye had been loved
3. amat-i, -ae, -a grant
They had been loved
amat-i -ae, -a essemus
essetis
55 J>
essent
Participle Perfect (Sing. Nom.) amat-us, -a, -um, loved.
Infinitive Perfect (Sing. Nom.) amat-us, -a, -um esse, to have
been, or to be, loved.
66
ELEMENTARY LATIN (illAMMAl;
OTHER VOWEL CONJUGATIONS
65. In some i-stems the i is retained throughout as part
of the stem : in others it is only found in certain parts, not
belonging to the original stem. To the latter class belong
capio, take ; cupio, desire ; facio, make ; fodio, dig ; pario,
bring forth ; rapio, seize ; sapio, have taste ; quatio, sJwt-ke ;
the compounds of these verbs and of the obsolete verbs
spScio (-spicio), see ; lacio (-licio), draw.
66. PRESENT STEM
Active Voice
INDICATIVE MOOD
Singular. Present
1. trlb-u-O, assign c&p-i-o, take aud-i-0, hear
2. trib-u-Is cap-Is aud-ls
3. trib-u-It cap-It aud-It
Plural.
1. trlb-u-Im-us cap-Im-tis aud-Im-us
2. trlb-u-it-Is cap-It-Is aud-lt-Is
3. trlb-u-unt cap-i-unt aud-i-unt
Singular.
1. trlb-u-am
2. trlb-u-es
3. trlb-u-6t
Plural.
1. trlb-u-em-us
2. trlb-u-et-Is
3. trlb-u-ent
Future
cap-i-am
cap-i-es
cap-i-6t
cap-i-em-us
cap-i-et-Is
cap-i-ent
aud-i-am
aud-i-es
aud-i-6t
aud-i-em-us
aud-i-et-Is
aud-i-ent
mdn-e-o, warn
m6n-es
m6n-em-us
m6n-et-Is
mdn-ent
m6n-eb-o
mdn-eb-Is
m6n-eb-It
m6n-eb-Im-iis
m6n-eb-It-Is
m6n-eb-unt
OTHER VOWEL CONJUGATIONS
67
Imperfect
cap-i-eb-am aud-i-eb-am
eap-i-eb-as aud-i-eb-as
cap i-eb-at aud-i-eb-at
mdn-eb-am
mdn-eb-as
m6n-eb-at
Singular.
1. trlb-u-eb-am
2. trib-u-eb-as
3. trib-u-eb-at
Plural.
1. trib-u-eb-am-us cap-i-eb-am-us aud-i-eb-am-us m6n-eb-am-us
2. trlb-u-eb-at-Is cap-i-eb-at-is aud-i-eb-at-Is mdn-eb-at-Is
3. trib-u-eb-ant cap-i-eb-ant aud-i-eb-ant m6n-eb-ant
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Singular.
Present
2. trIb-u-6
cap-6
aud-1
Plural.
2. trlb-u-it-e
cap-it-6
aud-It-6
Singular.
Future
I' | trlb-u-it-o
3. )
cap-it-o
aud-lt-o
Plural.
2. trib-u-it-6t-6
cap-it-6t-e aud-it-61
3. trib-u-unt-o cap-i-unt-o aud-i-unt-o
Verbal Noun-Fwms
Infin. Pres.
trib-u-er-6
mon-e
m6n-et-e
m6n-et-o
m6n-et-6t-6
m6n-ent-o
cap-6r-6
Part. Pres. (Sing. Nom.)
trib-u-ens cap-i-ens
Gerund (Sing. Nom.)
trib-u-end-um cap-i-end-um aud-i-end-um m6n-end-um
aud-lr-6
aud-i-ens
mdn-er-6
mdn-ens
68 ELEMENTARY LATIN (JKAMMAR
67.
PRESENT STEM
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE MOOD
Singular.
1. trib-u-6r
2. trlb-u-er-is
3. trib-u-it-ur
Present
cap-i-6r aud-i-6r
cap-6r-Is aud-lr-is
cap-it-tir aud-It-ur
m6n-e-6r
m6n-er-Is
m6n-et-ur
Plural.
1. trib-u-Im-ur
2. trib-u-Imm-1
3. trib-u-unt-ur
cap-Im-iir aud-im-ur
cap-Imin-1 aud-imln-I
cap-i-unt-ur aud-i-unt-ur
mdn-em-ur
m6n-emin-l
mon-ent-ur
Singular.
1. trib-u-ar
2. trib-u-er-ls
3. trlb-u-et-ur
Future
cap-i-ar aud-i-ar
cap i-er-is aud-i-er-Is
cap-i-et-ur aud-i-et-ur
m6n-eb-6r
m6n-eb-6r-Is
m6n-eb-It-ur
Plural.
1. trlb-u-em-fir
2. trlb-u-emin-i
3. trlb-u-ent-ur
cap-i-em-iir aud-i-em-ur
cap-i-emin-i aud-i-emln-I
c^p-i-ent-ur aud-i-ent-ur
m6n-eb-Im-ur
mdn-eb-imm-i
m6n-eb-unt-ur
Singular. Imperfect
1. trib-u-eb-ar cap-i-eb-ar aud-i-eb-ar m6n-eb-ar
2. trlb-u-eb-ar-Is cap-i-eb-ar-Is aud-i-eb-ar-Is mdn-eb-ar-is
3. trlb-u-eb-at-ur cap-i-eb-at-ur aud-i-eb-at-ur m6n-eb-at-tir
Plural.
1. trlb-u-eb-am-
ur
2. trlb-u-eb-
amln-i
3. trlb-u-eb-ant-
ur
cap-i-eb-am-ur aud-i-eb-am-
ur
cap-i-eb- aud-i-eb-
amin-i ainin-i
cap-i-eb-ant- aud-i-eb-ant-
ur tir
m6n-eb-am-tlr
m6n - eb -
amln-i
mdn-eb-ant-
ur
OTHER VOWEL CONJUGATIONS
69
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Singular. Present
2. trib-u-er-6 cap-6r-S aud-lr-6 mdn-er-6
Plural.
2. trib-u-imin-i cap-imm-1 aud-lmln-i m6n-emin-I
Singular. Future
2' Urib-u-It-dr cap-It-6r aud-lt-6r mdn-et-6r
Plural.
3. trib-u-unt-6r cap-i-unt-6r aud-i-unt-6r m6n-ent-6r
Verbal Noun-Forms
Infin. Pres.
trlb-u-l cap-I aud-Ir-I mon-er-1
Gerundive (Sing. Nom.)
trib-u-end-us cap-i-end-us aud-i-end-us m6n-end-tis
68.
PRESENT STEM
Active Voice
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Singular.
1. trlb-u-am
2. trlb-u-as
3. trib-u-at
Present
cap-i-am aud-i-am
cap-i-as aud-i-as
cap-i-at aud-i-at
m6n-e-am
m6n-e-as
mdn-e-at
Plural.
1. trib-u-am-us
2. trib-u-at-is
3. trib-u-ant
cap-iam-tis
cap-i-at-is
cap-i-ant
aud-i-am-us
aud-i-at-is
aud-i-ant
mdn-e-am-us
m6n-e-at-is
mdn-e-ant
70
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Singular.
1. trlb-u-6r-em
2. trlb-u-gr-es
3. trib-u-6r-et
Imperfect
cap-gr-em aud-lr-em
cap-gr-es aud-Ir-es
aud-lr-et
mdn-er-em
mon-er-es
mdn-er-gt
Plural.
l. trlb-u-gr-em- cap-6r-em-fis aud-ir-em-us m6n-er-em-us
2. trib-u-6r-et-is
3. trib-u-6r-ent
cap-6r-et-Is
cap-6r-ent
aud-ir-et-is
aud-lr-ent
m6n-er-et-Is
m6n-er-ent
Singular.
L trib-u-ar
2. trib-u-ar-is
3. trib-u-at-fir
Plural.
1. trlb-u-am-fir
2. trlb-u-amm-i
3. trlb-u-ant-ur
Passive Voice
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Pres&rd
cap-i-ar aud-i-ar
cap-i-ar-is aud-i-ar-is
cap-i-at-fir aud-i-at-fir
cap-i-am-ur
cap-i-amln-l
cap-i-ant-ur
aud-i-am-tir
aud-i-amln-l
aud-i-ant-ur
m6n-e-ar
m6n-e-ar-Is
m6n-e-at-fir
m6n-e-am-ur
m6n-e-amln-i
mdn-e-ant-tir
Singular. Imperfect
1. trib-u-6r-6r cap-6r-6r aud-Ir-6r m6n-er-6r
2. trib-u-6r-er-Is cap-6r-er-Is aud-ir-er-is mdn-er-er-Is
3. trib-u-6r-et-ur cap-6r-et-ur aud-ir-et-ur m6n-er-et-ur
Plural.
1. trlb-u-6r-em- cap-6r-em-tir aud-ir-em-tir mdn-er-em-ur
fir
2. tr!b-u-6r- cap-6r-emln-i aud-lr-emln-i mdn-er-emln-l
emln-l
3. trlb-u-gr-ent- cap-6r-ent-tir aud-Ir-ent-ur m6n-er-ent-ur
fir
OTHER VOWEL CONJUGATIONS
71
Singular.
1. trlbu-I
2. trlbu-is-ti
3. tribu-It
Plural.
1. trlbu-frn-us
2. trlbu-is-tls
3. trlbu-er-unt
Singular.
1. trlbu-Sr-o
2. trlbu-er-is
3. trlbu-er-It
Plural.
1. trlbu-e'r-frn-us
2. trlbu-gr-it-Is
3. tribu-er-int
PERFECT STEM
Active Voice
INDICATIVE MOOD
Perfect
cep-i
cep-is-tl
cep-it
audiv-1
audlv-is-tl
audlv-it
cep-im-iis audiv-im-us
cep-is-tis audlv-is-tls
cep-er-unt audiv-er-unt
Completed Future
cep-6r-o audlv-6r-o
cep-6r-is audlv-6r-is
cep-6r-it audlv-6r-It
cep-6r-Im- audiv-Sr-Im-
11S US
cep-er-it-Is audlv-6r-It-Is
cep-er-int audlv-6r-int
mdnu-1
mdnu-is-ti
m6nu-it
m6nu-Im-us
m6nu-is-tis
m6nu-er-unt
m6nu-6r-o
m6nu-6r-is
m6nu-6r-It
m6r.u-6r-Im-us
m6nu-6r-it-Is
monu-6r-int
Pluperfect
cep-6r-am audiv-6r-am m6nu-6r-am
cep-6r-as audlv-6r-as m6nu-6r-as
cep-6r-at audlv-6r-at m6nu-6r-at
Singular.
1. trlbu-gr-am
2. trlbu-6r-as
3. tribu-er-at
Plural.
1. tribu-6r-am-us cep-^r-am- audiv-6r-am- m6nu-gr-am-us
us us
2. tribu-6r-at-Is cep-6r-at-Is audlv-6r-at-Is m6nu-6r-at-is
3. trlbu-er-ant cep-er-ant audlv-6r-ant monu-er-ant
72
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Singular. Perfect
1. tribu-gr-im cep-6r-im audlv-6r-im m6nu-6r-im
2. trlbu-e"r-is cep-er-is audlv-6r-is m6nu-6r-is
3. tribu-6r-it cep-er-it audiv-6r-it m6nu-6r-it
Plural.
1. trlbu-er-im-us cep-6r-lm- audiv-er-Im- m6nu-6r-Im-tis
us us
2. tribu-er-it-Is cep-6r-It-Is audiv-6r-it-is m6nu-6r-lt-Js
3. tribu-6r-int cep-er-int audlv-6r-int m6nu-6r-int
Singular. Pluperfect
\. tribu-is-sem cep-is-sem audiv-is-sem m6nu-is-sem
2. tribu-is-ses cep-is-ses audiv-is-ses m6nu-is-ses
3. trlbu-is-s6t cep-is-set audlv-is-s6t m6nu-is-s6t
Plural.
1. tribu-is-sem-us cep-is-sem- audiv-is-sem- mdnu-is-sem-
us us us
cep-is-set-Is audlv-is-set-Is m6nu-is-set-Is
cep-is-sent audlv-is-sent m6nu-is-sent
2. tribu-is-set-is
3. trlbu-is-sent
70.
SUPINE STEM
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE MOOD
Singular.
1. trlbut-us
2-
3-
Plural.
1. tribut-i
2-
3.
capt-us audit-us m6nlt-us
capt-i
audit I
m6nlt i
sum
es
est
sumus
estis
sunt
OTHER VOWEL CONJUGATIONS
73
Singular.
1. tribut-us
2.
3.
Completed Future
capt-us audit-us mdnit-us
6ro
erlt
Plural.
1. trlbut-i
2-
3.
capt-i audit-i m6nit-i
grlmus
grltis
grunt
Singular.
1. tribut-us
2-
3.
Pluperfect
capt-us audit-us m6nlt-us
gram
gras
Plural.
1. tribut-i
2-
3.
capt-i audit-i m6nlt-i
gramus
gratis
grant
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Singular.
Perfect
1. tribut-us
2.
3.
capt-us audit-us mdnit-us
sim
sis
sit
Plural.
1. tribut-i
2-
3-
capt-i audit-i m6nlt-i
J) M
> :> it
simus
sitls
sint
Singular.
Pluperfect
1. tribut-us
2.
3-
capt-us audit-us mdnit-us
essem
esses
esset
74
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Plural.
1. tribut-1
2.
3.
capt-I
audlt-i m6nrt-I
essemfls
essetls
essent
DEPONENT VERBS
71. Deponent verbs have the inflexions of the passive
voice with the active meanings, and have also a present
and future participle active and the gerunds and supines.
The following examples are given (for brevity's sake)
only in the first person singular, or other leading form :
sequ-, follow ; preca-, pray ; vere-, fear.
INDICATIVE MOOD
Present,
Future,
vgrebor
vSrebar
sgquor, I follow prgcor
or am following
sgquar, / shall prgcabor
follow
Imperfect. sgquebar, I was prgcabar
following or I
followed
sgcutus sum, I prgcatus sum v6ritus sum
followed or have
followed
Comp. Fut. s6cutus 6ro, I prScatus 6ro vgrltus 6ro
shall have
followed
Pluperfect, s6cutus gram, pre"catus gram vgritus gram
/ had followed
Perfect.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Present.
Imperfect.
Perfect.
sequar
secutus sim
s6cutus essem
pr6cer v6rear
pr6carer vgrerer
prdcatus sim vgritus sim
pr6catus essem veritus essem
INFLEXIONS OF IRREGULAR VERBS 75
IMPERATIVE MOOD
Present. sSquSrg, follow prScard v6rer6
(thou)
Future. sScutor, tlwu prdcator vgretor
shall follow
Verbal Nouns
INFINITIVE.
Present. sequi, to follow prgcari vSreri
Perfect. s6cutus esse, precatus esse veritus esse
to have fol-
lowed
PARTICIPLES.
Present. sequens, follow- prScans v6rens
ing
Future. s6cuturus, going pr^caturus vgriturus
to follow
Past. sdcutus, having prgcatus v6rltus
followed
GERUND. sdquendum, fol- pr^candum vgrendum
lowing
GERUNDIVE, sequendus, to pr6candus verendus
follow or to be
followed
INFLEXIONS OF IRREGULAE VERBS
72. The tenses of the verb of being are partly from a root
es- whence s-um (for esum), and partly from the root fu-.
Pos-sum, / am able or / can, is a compound of pote sum,
and usually retains the t before a vowel but assimilates
it to a following -s. The perfect potui is not a
compound.
76
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Present. INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing. 1. sum, / am pos-sum, I can sim possim
2. e"s, Thou art pot6s, Thou canst sis possis
3. est, He is pdtest, He can sit posslt
Plur. 1. sumus, We are possumus, We can simus posslmus
2. es-tls, Ye are pdtestis, Ye can sltls possitis
3. sunt, They are possunt, They can sint possint
Future.
Sing. 1. 6ro, / shall be pdt&ro, / shall be able
2. 6rXa,2%<mw#*&4p6t8rtS, Thou wilt be able
3. grit, He will be pdtgrlt, He will be able
Plur. 1. grlmus, We p6t6rlmus, We shall be able
shall be
2. gritls, Ye will be p6t6rltls, Ye will be ubh
3. grunt, They will pdt^runt, They will be able
be
Imperfect.
Sing. 1. eram, I was pdtSram, I could, essem possem
or might
2. e"ras, Thou wad pdteras
esses posses
3. erat, He was pdterat
ess6t posset
Plur. 1 . gramus, We were p6t6ramus
essemus possemus
2. eratls, Ye were pdt gratis
essetis possetls
3. grant, They were pdtdrant
essent possent
Perfect,
Sing. 1. fui, / was or pdtui, / could or
fue'rim p6tu6rim
have been wit/lit
2. fuisti, Thou pdtuisti
fu6rls pdtu6rls
wast or hast
been
3. fult, He was potult
fu6rlt p6tu6rlt
I ' 1 1 1 1 . 1 . fulmus, We we re pdtulmus
fu6ri- p6tu6rl-
miis mus
2. faistiiB,Yewere pdtuistls
fudrltls p6tu6rltls
3. fuerunt or pdtuerunt or
fuSrint p6tu6rint
fuere, 7V/r// /rr/v potuere
INFLEXIONS OF IRREGULAR VERBS 77
Comp. Future.
Sing. 1. fuero, / shall pdtu6ro, I shall have been able
have been
2. fugris
pdtugrls
3. fuSrlt
p6tu6rlt
Plur. 1. fuerlmus
pdtudrimus
2. fueritis
p6tu6ritis
3. fugrint
p6tuerint
Pluperfect.
Sing. 1 . fue'ram, / had
pdtugram, / had
fuissem pdtuissem
been, etc.
been able, etc.
2. fuSras
p6tu6ras
fuisses pdtuisses
3. fuerat
p6tu6rat
fuissdt p6tuiss6t
Plur. 1. fue'ramus
p6tu6ramus
fuisse- pdtuisse-
mus mus
2. fueratls
pdtugratis
fuissetis pdtuissetls
3. fugrant
p6tu6rant
fuissent potuissent
IMPERATIVE
Present Sing. 2. 6s, be Future Sing. 2 and 3. esto
Plur. 2. estS, be ye Plur. 2. estotg
3. sunto
Verbal Nouns
INFINITIVE. Present, esse, to be posse, to be able
Perfect, fuisse, to have been pdtuisse, to have been
able
Future, fdre or futurus esse, to be going to be
PARTICIPLES. Pres. (s-ens or ens) pdtens, powerful, only
only in compounds. adj.
Future, futurus, "going to be
For the imperfect subj. forem, fores, foret, foremus,
foretis, forent are frequently used. For the present
(3d person) fuat is rarely used.
78
ELEMENTARY LATIN CKAMMAII
Like sum are inflected its compounds, viz.---
absum (pcrf. abfui or afui), am dinty.
adsum or assum (perf. adfui or affui), am present.
desum (de-est, de-eram, etc., pronounced dest,
deram, etc.), am wanting.
insum, am in ; intersum, am among ; obsum, <un
in the way of.
praesum, am over (3d pens. sing, praeest, sonic
times written praest).
prosum, am for, benefit (prod- before a vowel ; f.<j.
prod-es, prod-ero).
subsum, am under, supersum, am
Of these absum and praesum alone have a present
participle absens, praesens.
73.
INDICATIVE MOOD
Nolo
Do, Volo, (Ne-volo),
Present Tense, give. be willing, be unwilling.
Sing. 1. do vdlo nolo
2. das vis non vis
3. dat vult non vult
Plur. 1. damus vdlumus nolumus
2. datis vultis non vultis
3. dant volunt nolunt
Future Sing. 1. dabo vdlam (not used)
2. dabis vdles noles
Imperf. Sing. ].. dabam vdlebam nolebam
Perf. Sing. 1. d6di vdlui nolui
Malo
(Ma-volo
for mag-volo),
prefer,
malo
mavis
mavult
malumus
mavultis
malunt
(not used)
males
malebam
malui
SUBJUNCTIVK
Present Sing. 1. dem v6lim nolim
Plur. 1. demus v6limus nolimus
Imperf. Sing. i. darem vellem nollem
malim
malimus
mallem
INFLEXIONS OF IRREGULAR VERBS
79
IMPERATIVE
Present. Sing. 2. da
Plur. 2. date
Future. Sing. 2. dato
Plur. 2. datote
3. danto
noli
nolite
nollto
nolitote
nolunto
INFINITIVE
Present, dare velle
Future, daturus esse
nolle
PARTICIPLE
Present, dans vdlens
Future, daturus
Perfect, datus
GERUND, dandum volendum
GERUNDIVE, dandus
74. Fio
Eo (used as pas-
nolens
malle
(not us
(stem i-),
sive of facio), Edo,
Fero,
Feror,
go.
become.
eat.
bear.
be borne.
Present.
60
fio
edo
f6ro
ferdr
is
fis
edis or es
fers
ferris
It
fit
edit or est
fert
fertur
imus
edimus
ferimus
fgrimur
itis
Sditis or
fertis
ferimmi
estis
e"unt
fiunt
gdunt
ferunt
fdruntur
Future.
Ibo
flam
edam
feram
f^rar
ibis
fies
edes
feres
fdreris
Imperfect.
ibam
fiebam
edebam
ferebam
ferebar
Perfect.
ivi
factus sum
edi
tuli
latus sum
80
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Present.
6am flam
eamus fiamus
Imperfect.
irem
1
ite
Ito
itote
gunto
ire
Iturus
flerem
fi
fite
fieri
factum iri
SUBJUNCTIVE
edam or fgram
6dim
6damus or fgramus
edimus
6d6rem or ferrem
essem
IMPERATIVE
6de or es f6r
6dlteoresteferte
6ditoorestoferto
6dltote or fertote
estote
6dunto fdrunto
INFINITIVE
6d6reoresse ferre
esurus esse laturus
f6rar
f6ramur
ferrer
ferre
fdrlmlni
fertor
f6runtor
ferri
latum iri
PARTICIPLE
lens edens ferens
Gen.
6untis
esurus laturus
factus latus
Gerund.
6undum faciendum 6dendum ferendum
Gerundive.
-eundus faclendus 6dendus ferendus
(in conip.)
Queo, nSqueo, resemble eo but have no imperative, participle, or
^eriuid. Only the present indie, and subj. are at all frequent.
Quis and quit (pres. act.) arc only used after non, as non quis,
non quit (for nequis, etc.)
VERBAL STEMS 81
VERBAL STEMS
75. Most verbs exhibit in the present stem the regular
stem of the verb without alteration, as
reg-, regere ; caed-, caedere ; ama-, amare ; audi-,
audire, etc.
In some verbs, however, there is one of the following
changes :
(a) Reduplication of the stem, as gen- makes gignere
for gi-gen-ere.
(b) Lengthening of the stem vowel, as due-, ducere ;
fid-, fidere.
(c) Suffixing n, as tern-, tem-n-gre ; si-, si-n-ere.
(d) Inserting m or n before the final stem consonant, as
rup-, rumpere ; tag-, tangere ; fid-, findere.
(e) Suffixing so or isc, as no-, no-sc-ere ; splende-,
spleiide-sc-ere ; pac-, pac-isc-i.
76. The perfect stem is in a few cases the same as the
verbal stem, but usually it is formed by
(a) Reduplication, as posco, poposci ;
(b) Lengthening the stem vowel, as leg-o, legi ;
(c) Suffixing s, as carpo, carpsi ;
(d) Suffixing either u or v, as trem-o, tremui ; ama-,
amavi.
77. The supine stem is formed by suffixing t (the supine
itself ending in -turn is here usually given).
If the verb-stem ends in a long vowel, this is generally
retained, as ama-, amare, amat-um ; ere-, crescere,
cretum ; acu-, acuere, acutum.
G
82 ELEMENTARY LATIN GlfAMMAK
If the verb-stem ends in ;i short \o\vrl, this vowel is
usually changed to 1 or omitted, as
crepa crepare crepitum
mone monere monltum
fugi fugere fugltum
If the verb-stem ends in a consonant, this consonant is
either
retained, as carp-ere, carp-turn
or assimilated, as reg-ere, rec-tum
If the stem end in d or t or two consonants, the first
being a liquid, the supine ends in -sura, as
flect-ere flexum (for fleet-turn)
plaud-ere plausum (for plaud-tum)
sparg-ere sparsum (for sparg-tum)
defend-ere defensum (for defend-tum)
The same change of -turn to -sum takes place also if
a verb-stem ends in a short vowel preceded by d or t or
two consonants, as above.
fodi-o, fodere, fossum
prande-, prandere, pransum
mulge-, mulgere, mulsum
senti-, sentire, sensum
78. (a) Verbs with stems in a, e, and i usually have
perfect in -avi, -evi, -ivi
supine in -atum, -etum, -itum
(I) Verbs with stems in a or e have perfect in -ui,
supine in -itum.
In these verbs the a or e combines with the inifi;il
vowel of the suffix in tenses formed from the present stem,
so as to show a or e, as
s6namus sonare sonui sonitum
monemus monere monui monitum
VERBAL STEMS
83
The root-vowel is almost always short.
But there are many exceptions, particularly
(c) Verbs with stems in -u have perfect in -ui, supine
in -utum (sometimes -uitum).
Those in -ve have root-syllable lengthened and perfect
in i simple, as vovere, vovi, votum.
(d) Some consonant verbs whose root-syllable is short
have perfect in -ui, supine in -itum, as fremo, fremui,
fremitum.
(e) Many verbs whose root-syllable is long, especially
when this is because it ends in more than one consonant,
have perfect in -si, and supine in -turn or -sum, as
carpere
augere
sugere
sentire
carpsi
auxi
suxi
sensi
carptum
auctum
suctum
sensum
79. The following are exceptions to (d)
jubeo jussi
allicio allexi
dlligo dllexi
tego texi
quatio
quassi
maneo
mansi
cupio
cupivi
rudo
rudivi
eo
ivi
queo
quivi
sero
sevi
bibo
bibi
flndo
fidi
ago
egi
sedeo
sedi
premo pressi
coquo coxi
aspicio aspexi
rego rexi
traho traxi
veho vexi
divldo divisi
peto
lino
sino
petivi
livi or levi
sivi
scindo soldi
venio veni
video vidi
84
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAll
Exceptions to
M-
sorbeo
sorbui
torpeo
torpui
arceo
arcui
sterto
stertui
oportet
oportuit
sordeo
sordui
calleo
callui
palleo
pallui
areo
arui
pareo
parui
terreo
terrui
torreo
torrui
censeo
censui
texo
texui
ferveo
ferbui
horreo
horrui
verto
verti
cudo
cudi
scando
scandi
mando
mandi
pando
pandi
strideo
stridi
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS
80. The following list contains all the principal verbs
which may be regarded as somewhat irregular.
N.B. (1) The supine is not much used, but is here
mentioned wherever it or a perfect participle is known, as
this is similarly formed.
N.B. (2) Where the English translation as given here,
whether with or without a preposition, allows of the im-
mediate addition of an object, the verb is transitive (though
it may perhaps also be used intransitively), e.g. arcesso,
send for laedo, hurt, are transitive. Where the English
translation here given requires the addition of a preposition
in order to make sense with an object, the verb is intran-
sitive, e.g. noceo, be hurtful.
Present.
accerso.
Supine.
Pret.
Infinitive.
Stan,
Perfect.
See arcesso
ago, do, drive egi actum aggre" ag-
adlgo, drive to, compel, adegi, adactum, adiggre. So the
other compounds, c..\<vj>t
cogo, compel, cdegi, coactum, cogdre.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 85
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
aio, say
The following forms only are preserved : Pres. aio, als, aTt,
aiunt. Imperf. aiebam, etc., complete. Pres. subj.
aias, aiat. The participle aiens is used only as adjective.
algeo, be cold alsi algere alg-e-
alo, nourish, raise alui altum ale"re al-
(alltum, post-Augustan)
amlcio, clothe amictum amlcire amlc-i-
ango, throttle, vex angSre ang-
apiscor, fasten to aptus sum aptum apisci ap-i-
oneself, get
More usual is compound adlpiscor, adeptus sum, adlpisci.
arceo, inclose, keep arcui (artus, adj. arcere arc-e-
off narrow)
exerceo, exercise, exercui, exercltum, exercere. So also
coerceo.
arcesso,/*/, sen, J arcessivi arcessitum arcess6re | arce^-
Another form (perhaps of different origin) is accerso.
ardeo, be on fire arsi (arsurus) ardere arde-
audeo, dare ausus sum ausum audere aud-e-
?|T e _ V imperat. hail, also aveto, plur. avete, inf. avere
augeo, increase auxi auctum augere aug-e-
(trans.), endow
bibo, drink bibi bib6re bib-
For supine and fut. part, potum, poturus are used.
cado, fall cecidi casum cadere cad-
occldo, fall, occidi, occasum, occlddre. The other com-
pounds have no supine.
caedo,/M, cut, slay cecidi caesum caeddre caed-
occido, slay, occldi, occisum, occidere. So other compounds.
86 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Pres.
]' resent. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
-cando, light ; only in compounds
e.g. accendo, accendi, accensum, accend&re.
cano, sing, play cScini (cantus, cangre can-
(on harp, etc.) subst.)
conclno, sing together, concmui, concentum, conclne're. So
other compounds.
capesso, undertake capesslvi capessltum capessgre { c pe
( capessi-
capio, take cepi captum capere cap-I-
concipio, concepi, conceptum, conclp6re. So most other
compounds.
careo, be in want carui (carlturus) carere car-e-
carpo, nibble, pluck carpsi carptum carp&re carp-
decerpo, pluck off, decerpsi, decerptum, decerpgre. So other
compounds.
caveo, beware, be- cavi cautum cavere cav-e-
ware of
cedo, give way, cessi cessum cedgre ced-
yield up
c6d6, give, said to be old imper. 2nd pers. sing. The plural
cette (for c6dlte) only in early dramatic poets.
-cello, strike (?) only in compounds : celsus, adj. high cell-
percello, strike down, perculi, perculsus, percellere.
censeo, count, give censui censum censere cens-e-
opinion
-,. ( cre-
adj. sure
The meaning see is confined to pros., fut, and impcrf. tenses,
decerno, decide, decrevi, decretum, decernere. So
other compounds.
civi cltum
The i stem is rare in the simple verb ; the e stem raiv in
the compounds.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 87
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
cingo, gird cinxi cinctum cinggre cing-
claudo, shut clausi clausum claudere claud-
concludo, shut up, conclusi, conclusum, concludere. So
the other compounds.
coepio, begin coepi coeptum coepSre coepl-
Pres. incl. and subj. in Plautus only. Otherwise only perfect
stem in use, except that coeptus and coepturus are also
used.
colo, till, pay at- cdlui cultum cdldre c61-
tention to
consulo, consult consului consultum consulere consul-
ctiQLUO, C ooJc coxi coctum cdqudre cdqv-
credo. See do
cr6po, rattle crgpui crgpltum crdpare cr6p-a-
cresco, grow crevi cretum cresc6re cre-
cubo, lie, lie ill cubui cubltum cubare cub-a-
cudo, hammer cudi cusum cud6re cud-
-cumbo, lie, only in compounds
accumbo, lie up (at table), accubui, accubltum, accumbgre.
So the other compounds.
cupio, desire cupivi cupitum cup6re cup-I-
curro, run cucurri cursum currdre curr-
The compounds sometimes retain the reduplication, e.g.
accucurri, decucurri ; more usually drop it, e.g. accurri.
deleo, Uot out delevi deletum delere dele-
dlco, say dixi dictum dic6re dlc-
disco, learn didlci discere die-
Compounds retain reduplication, e.g. edldici.
divido, divide divisi dlvlsum divld^re dl-vid-
do, (/we (see p. 78) d6di datum dare da-
The half-compounds circumdo, surround ; pessumdo, ruin ;
satisdo, satisfy ; venumdo, expose to sale, follow do pre-
cisely.
88 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
credo, entrust, believe ; vendo, sell ; and the compounds with
monosyllabic prepositions have consonant -stems, e.g.
credo, credidi, creditum, credere ; abdo, hide away,
abdidi, abditum, abdere.
The reduplication is usually retained in the compounds.
For the passives of vendo and perdo, ruin, veneo and pe"reo
are used. But perditus and perdendus are in use.
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitire. Stem.
ddceo, teach ddcui doctum ddcere d6c-6-
d61eo, be in pain ddlui (d6llturus) ddlere d61-6-
ddmo, tame ddmui d6mrtum ddmare ddm-a-
duco, draw, lead, duxi ductum ducSre duc-
account
6do, eat edi esum 6d6re 6d-
c6m6do has comesum and c6mestum.
&mo,buy(oTig.take) emi emptum 6m6re 6m-
adimo, take away, ademi, ademptum, adlm6re. So other
compounds except
(1) coSmo (coemi, coemptum), which retains e.
(2) The earlier compounds como, demo, promo, sumo,
which make compsi, comptum, etc.
eo, go (see p. 79) Ivi Itum ire i
Compounds always omit V in 1st pers. perf., e.g. adii ; and
usually in other persons of perfect tenses.
veneo, be for sab', perf. venii, no supine, is a compound of
eo. See do above.
facio, fnake, do feci factum fac6re facl-
For the passive in tenses formed from present stem, fio is used.
prof icio, make progress, profeci, profectum, proflcdre. So
the other compounds with prepositions.
But calgfacio, make warm, trgmefacio, make to tr<>n>l>I<; etc.,
retain a.
prdflciscor, set out (on a journey), travel, prdfectum, pr6-
flcisci.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 89
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
fallo, deceive, elude fSfelli falsum failure fall-
refello, refute, rSfelli, r6fell6re.
farcio, stuff farsi fartum farcire farc-I-
rSfercio, refers!, rSfertum, refercire.
fatgor, acknowledge fassum fateri fat-6-
conflteor, confess, confessum, conflteri. So profiteer,
profess.
fatisco ) yawn (fessus,adj. ( fatisce're
fatiscor (old) / droop weary] \ fatisci
def Stiscor, to be worn out, defessum, def 6tisci.
fveo,le favourable favi fautum favere fav-e-
-fendo, strike, only in compounds fend-
defendo, ward off, guard, defend!, defensum, defende"re.
So also offendo, strike against.
ferio, strike fdrlre f6r-l-
(percussi, percussum are often used as perfect and supine.)
fe"ro,&mr(seep.79) (ttili) (latum) ferre fer-
Perfect and supine are borrowed from tollo.
affe"ro, bring to attuli allatum afferre
auf6ro, take away abstuli ablatum auferre
diffgro, put off distuli dllatum differre
off6ro, briny to obtuli oblatum oflferre
r6f6ro, bring back rettuli relatum referre
refert, it is of importance (probably for rei fert), is used as
impersonal, suffgro, endure, has for perf. rarely sustuli,
usually sustinui.
ferveo, boil, glow fervere ferv-6-
A consonantal stem (e.g. fervit, fervSre) frequent in poets.
fido, trust flsum fid^re fld-
fisus sum is used for perf., / have trusted.
90 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Sv}^ lujlnitirf. Stem.
figo, fix fixi fixum figure fig-
Also fictus as past participle.
findo, cleave fidi fissum find6re fid-
fingo, form, invent finxi fictum finggre f ig-
f io, become (see p. 7 9) f Jen fi-
The compound infit, he begins, only in this one form (poetical).
flecto, bend flexi flexum Hectare flect-
fleo, weep flevi fletum flere fle-
-fligo, strike, only in compounds
affligo, strike against, knock down, afflixi, afflictum,
So the other compounds, except profllgo, put to rout, profli-
gavi, profligatum, profligate.
fluo, flow fluxi flu6re flugv-
(fluxus, adj. loose ; fluctus, sub. a wave.}
ffidio, dig fodi fossum f6d6re f6d-i-
fatur, he speaks fatum fari fa-
The following only found : pres. ind. fatur ; fut. fabor,
fabitur ; perf. fatus est ; pluperf. fatus eram, erat ;
iinper. fare ; inf. fari ; part, fantem, etc. (no nomina-
tive, except in phrase fans atque infans, Plant.), fatus,
fando, fandus, and fatn.
In compounds we have also -famur, -famini ; -fabar, -farer,
etc., and in imperat. (act. and dep.), praefato, praefamino.
fdveo, keep warm, fovi fotum fdvere fdv-6-
cherish
frango, In-edk in fregi fractum frangdre frag-
pieces
Compounds as confringo, smash, confregi, confractum, con-
fringfire.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 91
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
fr6mo, roar, snort frSmui fremitum frSmere fr6m-
fiendo, gnash (with the teeth) j frendere frend-
frico, nib fricui Mcare fric-a-
frlgeo, be cold frixi frigere frlg-e-
fruor, enjoy myself fructum frui frugv-
Fut. part, fruiturus.
fbglo, flee, fly from fugi (fugiturus) fuggre fug-I-
fulcio, prop fulsi fultum fulcire fulc-i-
fulgeo, flash fulsi fulgere fulg-e-
A consonantal stem, e.g. fulgit, fulgere, is found in poets.
fundo, pour, rout fudi fusum fund^re fud-
(an enemy)
fungor, get quit, dis- functum fungi fung-
charge myself (of a duty, etc.)
furis, thou ragest fur6re fur-
Only furis, furit, furunt, furebas, furebat, furore, furens
are found.
gaudeo, be glad gavlsum gaudere gavid-e-
gavisus sum, J rejoiced.
ge"mo, sigh, groan ggmui ggmitum g6m6re g6m-
g6ro, carry, perform gessi gestum g6r6re g6s-
gigno, beget, pro- g6nui g6nitum gigndre ge"n-
duce
gradior, step gressum gradi grad-i-
Compounds as aggrgdior, attack, aggressum, aggredi.
-gruo, only in compounds gru-
congruo, agree, congrui, congru^re. So also ingruo,
impend.
habeo, have habui habltum habere hab-6-
92 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
So the compounds cohibeo, hold in, cohibui, cohibitum,
cohibere, debeo (for de-hibeo), owe, debui, debitum,
debere ; praebeo (for praehibeo), affwd, praebui,
praebitum, praebere.
Pres.
Present. Perfect. <. Infinit
haereo, stick, intr. haesi haesum haerere haer-e-
haurio,f//va/.(/mwhausi haustum haurlre haus-1-
(water)
Put. part, hausturus (Cic.) and hausurus (Verg.) : both in
later writers. The subst. is haustus.
hisco, gape, open the mouth, to spunk hiscgre hi-
jaceo, lie jacui (jaciturus) jacere jac-6-
jacio, cast jeci jactum jac6re jac-I-
ablcio (sometimes spelt abjicio), throw away, abjeci, abjec-
tum, abicere. So the other compounds. Dissicio is
for dis-jicio.
porricio, offer (sacrifices), etc., porrectum, porrlc6re (without
perf.) '
Ico, strike lei ictum Ic6re ic-
Present is rare (fgrio is generally used instead).
incesso, attack incessi incessSre incess-
indulgeo, yield, indulsi indulgere indulg-e-
intr.
inauam, say inquii { JJJ* or
The following forms only occur. Pres. irid. inquam, inguls,
inquit, inquimus, inquiunt. Fut. inquies, inquiet.
inquiebat. Perf. inquii, inquisti, inquit.
2nd sing, inque, inquito, plur. inquite.
irascor, grow angry Iratum Irasci ira-
Iratus sum, 1 <nn, angry ; succensui, / (fired uj>, i.e.) grew
angry.
jubeo, i>ul jussi jussum jubere jub-e-
jungo, yoJff., join junxi junctum junggre jung-
juvo, //'//>, itriiiiht juvi jutum juvare juv-a-
Ful. part, juvaturus. Adjuvo lias adjuturus.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 93
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
labor, slip, glide lapsum labi lab-
lacesso, provoke lacesslvi lacessitum lacessSre <
-lacio, draw, only in compounds laci-
alllcio, draw to, entice, allexi, allectum, allicere. So illicio,
pelllcio.
ellcio, draw out, elicui, ellcltum, ellcSre.
laedo, strike (rare), laesi laesum laedere laed-
hurt.
collldo, dash together, colllsi, collisum, collidSre. So allldo,
etc.
lambo, lick Iambi (once) lambSre lamb-
( lavatum
lavo, wash lavi < lautum lavare lav-a-
( lotum
A consonantal stem (e.g. lavit, Iav6re, etc.) is frequent in
poets. For compounds see luo.
I6go, pick up, choose, legi lectum I6g6re I6g-
read
colllgo, collect, collegi, collectum, colllggre. So compounds
generally :
Except that (1) alle"gO, choose besides ; perlggo, read through ;
praelggo, read to others ; relSgO, read again ; sublggo,
pick up, substitute, retain e
(2) intelligo, understand ; neglSgO, neglect, retain e and
have perf. in -xi, e.g. neglexi. (Rarely intellegi,
neglegi.) dlllgo, esteem, has dilexi.
Only used in 3rd pers. sing. Also participle libens. The
stem vowel was in early times u ; e.g. lubet.
94
ELKMKNTAIIY LATIN CKAMMAU
liceo, be on sale
llceor, bid for
llcet, it is per-
mitted
Liceto, licens,
Pret.
1'ii'j'ict. Slij'iin 1 . Jiljiin'
Hcui licltum licere llc-6-
Hcltus sum liceri lic-fi-
I Hcuit
{ licltum est
Only used in 3rd pers. Barely in plural.
llCltus, also found.
lino, besmear levi litum linere II-
In post-Augustan writers, we have linio, llnlvi, Hnitum,
Hnire.
linquo, leave llqui
The compound, r61inquo,
more usual.
llqueo, be dear, Hcui
fluid
liquor, melt, intr.
Idquor, speak Idcutum
luceo, be light, beam luxi
ludo, sport lusi lusum
(luctus,
subs.)
Iinqu6re
rSlictum, rdlinquere, is
llquere Hqu-6-
luxi
liqui
Idqui
lucere
Iud6re
lugere
Hqu-
16qu-
luc-e-
lud-
lug-e-
lugeo, mourn.,
trans.
luo, pay, expiate lui Iu6re lu-
Compounds retain the original meaning, wash (luo = lavo),
and have past part. e.y. dlluo, dilui, dilutum, dlludre.
mando, cJiew mandi(once) mansum mand^re mand-
maneo, remain, mansi mansum manere man-6-
await
emlneo, project, emlnui, emlnere (no sujiine).
permaneo retains a.
mgdeor, be a remedy mSderi m6d-6-
-m6niscor, only in compounds m&n-
Only perfect stem (with present meaning) in use. M&mlni,
I remember. Imperative memento, mementote.
commlniscor, devise, commentum, comminisci. So also
rdmlniscor, call to mind.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS
95
Present. 1'i-rjh-l.
mgreo, earn m6rui
mergo, sink, trans, mersi
metier, measure
m6to, mow (messem
feci)
mStuo, fear m6tui
mico, quiver, flash micui
emico, emicui, fut. part, emlcaturus.
dlmico, dimicavi (dimicui twice in Ovid), dimicatum.
inixtum )
mistuni j
mlsgritum
misertum rare
Sv.pinc.
Pro.
Infinitive.
Stem.
meritum
merere
m6r-6-
mersum
mensum
merggre
metiri
merg-
met-1-
messnm
metere
met-
metu6re
m6tu-
micare
mic-a-
misceo, mix miscui
mis6reor, feel pity
miscere misc-6-
misdreri m!s6r-6-
miseret and (in early writers) miseretur, miser escit are
used impersonally.
mitto, let go, send mlsi
missum
mitt^re
mitt-
m6lo, grind
mdlui
mtilltum
m6l6re
mdl-
mdneo, warn
mdnui
uionitum
monere
mon-e-
mordeo, bite
mdmordi
morsum
mordere
mord-e-
mdrior, die
mortuus
(mdritur-
mdri
mor-i-
sum
us)
Inf. morlri, emoriri, several times in Plant, once in Ter., once
in Ovid.
motum mdvere
mulsum mulcere
mulgere
m&veo, move, trans, movi
mulceo, stroke mulsi
mulgeo, milk mulsi
-mungo, only in compound
m6v-6-
mulc-e-
mulg-e-
mung-
emungo, wipe (nose), emunxi, emunctum, emunge're.
nanciscor, grain
nascor, be born
natum
nancisci
nasci
gna-
Originally gnascor, whence agnatus, cognatus, prognatus.
But enascor, enatus.
96 ELEMENTARY LATIN CKA.M.MAli
Pres.
I'n I'crfni. Sttpl l/(tinitiri: Stem.
necto, link together nexi nexum nect6re nect-
nexui is probably from nexo, nex6re, which is an early form.
neo, spin nevi netum(Ulp.) nere ne-
ngqueo. See queo ; and 74
nitor, lean, strive niti gnict
Originally gnictor, kneel : g6nu, knee. Fut. part, nisurus :
BO also compounds. Nixus generally in sense of lean-
ing, nisus, striving. Conitor, adnitor,. enitor, have
both forms frequently (in sense of bearing children always
enixa).
-niveo, only in compound nigv-
coniveo, shut the eyes, comvi, conixi (both rare), conivere.
ndceo, be hurtful ndcui (ndclturus) nocere n6c-6-
nosco, get to know novi,Iknow notum noscdre gno-
notus only as adj. known ; fut. part, is not used.
agnosco, recognise, cognosce, learn, have supines agnltum,
cognitum ; ignosco, forgive, ignotum.
nubo, put on a veil nupsi nuptum nub6re nub-
(as a bride), be married Part, nupta, married
-nuo, nod, only in compounds : but nutus is used as subst. nu-
annuo, annul, annugre. abnuo has fut. part, abnulturus.
obllviscor (orig. cover with oblitum obllvisci ob-llv-i-
black), forget
occulo, conceal occului occultum occuldre ob-cul-
odi, perf., / hate (osurus) 6d-
exosus, perosus are used with an active meaning as parti-
ciples, and with sum, etc., as perfect.
-6leo, grow, intrans., is only used in compounds, and is a different
word from 61eo, smell.
abSleo, destroy, abdlevi, abdlltum, abdlere.
abolesco, decay, abdlevi, no supine, abolesc6re. So also
Indlesco.
addlesco, grow up, addlevi, adolescgre, adultus, adj. grown
up.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 97
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
. x- x , / adolevi adultum
adoleo (increase i), offer (in sacrifice), burn j ad6lui a( i61ere
obs6lesco, wear out, intr. obsdlevi, obsolescere, obs61etus,
adj. worn out. So also exolesco.
6leo, smell (intr.) olui dlere 61-6-
dportet, it behoves 6portu.it 6portere 6port-6-
Only used in 3rd pers. sing.
opperior. See -pgrio
ordior, begin (trans.) orsum ordlri ord-1-
6rior, rise ortum 6rlri 6r-I-
Fut. part. 6rlturus ; gerundive 6riundus used as adj. sprung
from. Pres. ind. orgris, 6ritur, 6rimur, imperf. subj.
orlrer, or6rer. The compound adorior has in pres.
ind. ad6rlris, ad6rltur.
paciscor, bargain pgplgi pactum pacisci pac-
compaciscor or comp6ciscor lias compactum or compec-
tum.
paenltet, it repents paenltuit paenltere paenIt-6-
Rarely personal, paenitendum is also found, paenitens
as adj. penitent.
spread out ' pandi passum pand6re
dispando has dispansum, dispessum. Expando, expan-
sum.
pegi pang.re
compingo, compegi, compactum, compinggre. So impingo.
oppango, oppegi, oppactum, oppangdre. Depango, re-
pango, also retain a.
parco, le sparing pgperci (parsurus) parcere pare-
Sometimes parsi in early writers.
comperco, compersi, compercgre.
H
98 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Pres.
Present. Supine. Infinitive. X/v,.
pareo, appear, be parui (parlturus) parere par-6-
obedient.
pario, get, bring p6p6ri partum pargre par-I-
forth
Fut. part, parlturus.
par ens, a parent, is an old participle of this verb.
compe'rio ^ ascertain, compSri, compertum, com-
comp6rior (rare) j pgrire.
r6pe"rio, find, repperi, rgpertum, r6pe"rire.
p&sco, pasture, feed pavi pastum pasce"re pas-
pascor is used of the animals feeding.
depasco follows pasco.
compesco (lit. pasture together?), confine, compescui, com-
pesce"re (no supine).
patior, suffer passum pati pat-I-
perp6tior, perpessus sum, perpeti.
paveo, quake with pavi pavere pav-e-
fear
pecto, comb pexi(once) pexum pectSre pect-
pello, push, drive pgpuli pulsum pellgre pell-
back
appello (esp. of a ship, put in\ appuli, appulsum, appel-
16re. So the other compounds. Rgpello always has
reppuli or repuli.
pendeo, hang, intr. pgpendi pensum pendere pend-e-
pendo, weigh, pay, pgpendi pensum pendSre pend-
value
Originally hang, trans. So suspendo, hang up.
-pSrio, only in compounds, except perltus, skilled p6r-i-
ap6rio (ab perio ?), uncover, open, ap6rui, apertum, ap6rire.
expSrior, try, expertum, exp6riri.
6p6rio (ob perio ?), cover, 6p6rui, 6pertum, 6p6rlre.
opperior, wait for, oppertum and opperitum, oppdriri.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 99
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
pgto, seek, aim at I ^^ p6tltum p6t6re | j^
Only used in 3rd pers. sing. The gerund and gerundive are
also found.
Pfe-
pingo, paint pinxi pictum ping&r . .
pinso ) 7 / pinsui J pinsitum ( pinsgre pins-
piso } p l jpinsi Ipistum { pisdre pis-
plango, beat (esp. planxi planctum plangSre plang-
the breast in grief)
plaudo, dap (the plausi plausum plauddre plaud-
hands, etc.)
explode (hiss off, i.e. drive away by hissing}, explosi, ex-
plosum, explodere. So the other compounds.
plecto, strike, punish (rare except in passive) plectgre plect-
-plecto, twine plexum -plectSre plect-
Only in part. perf. Compounds are always of deponent form.
amplector, twine oneself round, embrace, amplexum, am-
plecti. So complector, embrace.
-pleo, fill, only in compounds pie-
Compounds as compleo, complevi, completion, complere.
pllco, fold plicatum pllcare pllc-a-
appllco, apply, put ( appllcavi, appllcatum \ aT1Tl1f Sre
in (to shore) \ applicui, applicltum / a
So the other compounds : the prae- Augustan writers used
almost always -avi, -atum. The simple verb is rarely
used.
pluo, rain < ^.^ .. pluSre pluv-
pono, place pdsui pdsitum pon6re po-si-
poslvi often in Plautus. postum (simple and compound)
often in poetry.
100 ELEMENTARY LATIN GUAM MA It
Prc.-M Perfect. Supl Injlultirc.
posco, demand pdposci poscgre posc-
Conipounds retain reduplication, as depdposci, expdposci.
possideo. See sSdeo
possum, be able potui (see 72) posse potes-
pdtior, be master pdtltum p6tiri p6t-i
In pres. ind. almost always p&tltur, potlmur ; imp. subj.
pot6rer or potirer, and so throughout the tense.
poto, drink potavi potum potare pot-a-
Fut. part, potaturus and poturus ; part. perf. potus, havimj
drunk.
prandeo, breakfast prandi pransum prandere prand-e-
pransus, having breakfasted.
prShendo, lay hold prehendi prehensum prShen- prehend-
of d6re
Often contracted into prendo, etc.
pr6mo, press press! pressum pr6m6re pr6m-
comprlmo, compress, compress!, compressum, comprimdre.
So the other compounds.
prof iciscor. See facio
pudet, it shames j ^^^ egt (puditurum) pudere pud-6-
Only in 3rd pers. sing., but gerund and gerundive are also
found. Pudens as adj. inuik-*t.
pungo, prick pupugi punctum pungere
Compounds have for perfect -punxi.
conqulro, conquisivi, conquisltum, conc[ulr6re. So the
other compounds.
quaeso, quaesumus, prythee, are old colloquial forms of 1st
pers.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 101
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
quatio, shake, trans. quassum quate"re quat-i-
concutio, concussi, concussum, concutSre. So the other
compounds.
queo, be able (7 4} qulvi qultum quire qul-
quSror, complain questum quSri qu6r-
quiesco, rest quievi quietum quiesce're qui-e-
rado, scrape rasi rasum radgre rad-
rapio, snatch, hurry rapui raptum rapere rap-i-
aivay, trans.
arripio, seize, arripui, arreptum, arrlpgre. So the other
compounds.
refert. See f6ro
rego, keep straight, rexi rectum r6gere r6g-
rule
Compounds as arrlgo, raise, arrexi, arrectum, arrig6re.
So pergo, continue, perrexi, perrectum, perg6re,
whence expergiscor (begin to stretch myself out), awake
myself, experrectum.
surgo (sub-rego), rise, surrexi, surrectum, surg^re.
reor, think ratum reri ra-
reor has no present part.
repo, creep repsi reptum repere rep-
rideo, smile, laugh risi risum ridere rid-e-
rodo, gnaw rosi rosum rod^re rod-
rumpo, break rupi ruptum rumpdre rup-
ruo, tumble, dash rui -rutum ruere ru-
Generally intrans. Fut. part. (post-Augustan) ruiturus.
saepio, hedge in saepsi saeptum saepire saep-i-
salio ) 7 j salitum _ fl11 x rp I sal-i-
tsalsum sall-
salio, leap salui (saltus salire sal-i-
subst.)
desilio, leap down, desilui, deslllre. So the other compounds.
salve, hail ! also salvete inf. salvere and fat. salvebis
102 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Swpine. Injhntlre. Stem.
sancio, hallow, ordain sanxi sanctum sanclre sanc-i-
sancltum (rarely)
sapio, have a savour saplvi sap6re sap-I-
of, be wise
desipio, he foolish, no perf. or sup., desipgre.
rSsipisco, recover senses, rSsIpui and rSsiplvi, r6slpisc6re.
sarcio, patch sarsi sartum sarclre sarc-i-
sario, hoe sarui (once) saritum sarlre sar-i-
Also written sarrio. Perf. also sarrlvi.
scalpo, scrape scalpsi scalptum scalpgre scalp-
scando, climb scandi scansum scandgre scand-
ascendo, ascendi, ascensum, ascend6re. So the other
compounds.
scindo, tear, cut scldi scissum scind^re scld-
scisco, enact scivi scitum sciscdre sci-
scrlbo, ivrite scrips! scriptum scrlbere scrlb-
sculpo, carve (in sculpsi sculptum sculp6re sculp-
stone, etc.)
s6co, cut secui sectum s6care s6c-a-
s6deo, sit sedi sessum s6dere s6d-6-
possldeo, occupy, possedi, possessum, possldere. So the
other compounds, except supersedeo, refrain, circum-
sedeo, sit around, which do not change the e.
sentio, feel, think sensi sensum sentire sent-I-
assentior, assensus sum, is used as deponent (besides
assentio).
sSpSlio, bury s6p6llvi s6pultum sSpglire s6p6l-I-
s6quor, follow s^cutum s6qui s6qu-
s6ro, sow, plant sevi satum s6r6re sa-
s6ro, put in rows (serta, garlands) s6r6re s6r-
Compounds as consfiro, join, cons&rui, consertum, cons6r6re.
serpo, crawl serpsi serptum serpdre serp-
sido, M-ftli-, iuir. sldi sid6re sid-
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 103
sedi and sessum from sSdeo are the usual perfect and supine,
and so in the compounds.
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
slno, put, leave off sivi situm sin&re sl-
In subj. perf. sirim, slris, slrit, sirint.
desino, desii (2, desisti, 3, desiit, pluperf. desigram, perf.
subj. desiSrim), desitum, desmdre. (Cicero and Caesar
generally use destiti from desisto for perf.)
sisto, set, stay,tT&ns. stiti(rare) statum sistSre sta-
desisto, leave off, destiti, destltum, desistere. So the com-
pounds, all being intransitive. The reduplication is
retained.
sdleo, be wont sdlitum sdlere s6l-6-
Perf. sdlitus sum, / was accustomed.
solvo, loose, pay solvi sdlutum solvgre solv-
Perf. often solui in poets, and so in compounds.
s6no, sound sdnui sonitum sonare sdn-a-
Fut. part, sdnaturus (once in Hor.) In prae-Augustan poets
sometimes son6re, sonit, sonunt.
sorbeo, sup up, sorbui (sorbitio, sorbere sorb-6-
suck in subst.)
absorbeo, absorbui, absorbere. So other compounds.
(Rarely absorpsi, exsorpsi.)
spargo, scatter, be- sparsi sparsum spargere sparg-
sprinkle
Compounds as conspergo, conspersi, conspersum, con-
sperg6re.
sp6cio (or spicio 1) look, only in Plautus sp6c-i-
asplcio, aspexi, aspectum, aspicere. So the other com-
pounds.
104
Present.
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Perfect.
Pres.
Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
spondeo,
oneself
statuo,
(with oneself)
sterno, throw on
the ground, cover
sterto, snore stertui
stinguo (rare), stamp,
spdpondi sponsum spondere spond-e-
statui statutum statu6re statu-
stravi
stratum
stertgre stert-
stingu&re stingu-
exstinguo, exstinxi, exstinctum, exstingue're. So the
other compounds.
sto, stand stSti statum stare sta-
praesto, be superior, warrant, render, praestlti, praestatum
(also praestltum), praestare. The other compounds
have fut. part, -staturus (constaturus, Luc. Mart.), but
no supine : those with disyllabic prepositions retain e
in the perf. (e.g. circumstgti).
strSpo, make a din strgpui strgpitum strgpSre str6p-
strideo, hiss, screech stridi stridere strld-e-
A consonantal form (e.g. stridunt, Strid6re) is found in
Augustan poets.
strlg-
string-
structum struere strugu-
suasum suadere suad-e-
suetum suesc6re sue-
strinxi strictum stringgre
sir VLO, heap up, build struxi
suadep, recommend suasi
suesco, accustom suevi
oneself
sugo, suck suxi
taceo, be silent tacui
suctum
taciturn
sugdre
tacere
taedet, it wearieth taesum est
sug-
tac-e-
taed-e-
For perf. the compound pertaesum est is more common.
tango, touch t6t!gi tactum tangere tag-
attingo, attlgi, attactum, atting&re. S> ili' riher com-
pounds.
LIST OF IRREGUULR VERBS
105
r Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine. Infinitive. Stem.
cover texi tectum te"g6re tSg-
temno, despise -tempsi -temptum temnSre tem-
(only in the compound contemno)
tendo, stretch, tend tStendi tentum tendSre tend-
Compounds have -tensum occasionally.
t6neo, hold tSnui tentum (rare) tenere tSn-e"-
detineo, detinui, detentum, detlnere. So the other com-
pounds.
tergeo, wipe tersi tersum tergere
A consonantal stem (e.g. tergit, terguntur) is
sometimes.
terg-e-
also found
tero, rub
terreo, frighten
texo, weave
trlvi
terrui
texiii
tritum
territum terrere
textum texere
tingo
tinguo /
dip, dye tinxi
tollo, lift up, re- (sustuli) (sublatum) tol!6re
ter-
tri-
terr-6-
tex-
tingu-
toll-
tiili (in prae-August. poets tetuli) and latum (for tlatum)
are the proper perf. and supine : but as these are taken
by fgro, tollo takes the perf. and supine of its compound
sustollo.
The compounds have no perf. or supine.
tondeo, shear tdtondi
tonsum
tondere
tond-e-
tono, thunder tonui
tonitum
t6nare
ton-a-
torqueo, twist, whirl torsi
tortum
torquere
torqu-e-
torreo, roast torrui
tostum
torrere
tors-e-
traho, drag traxi
tractum
trahere
trah-
tr6mo, tremble tremui
trdmdre
tr6m-
trudo, thrust trusi
trusum
trud6re
trud-
tueor, look at, protect
1 tuitum
tueri
tu-6-
106 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
tutus, adj. safe.
tutatus sum (from tutor) is generally used as perfect ;
tutus or tuitus sum are rare. There is also a present
with stem in -u (e.rj. tuimur, contuor, etc.)
Pres.
Present. Perfect. Supine, Infinlt
tundo, thump tutudi tundgre tud-
contundo, contudi, contusum, contundere. So pertundo.
turgeo, swell tursi (very rare) turgere turg-e-
vado, go vad6re vad-
invado, invasi, invasum, invadere. So other compounds.
valeo, be strong valui (vallturus) valere val-6-
v6ho, carry vexi vectum v6here v6h-
Pres. part, and gerund also used intransitively, riding.
vello, pull, pluck velli vulsum vell6re vell-
VUlsi, both in simple and compounds, is sometimes found.
vSndo, sell. See do
veneo, be sold. See eo
vSnio, come veni ventum v6mre v6n-i-
vSreor, be awed at v6rltum v6reri v6r-e-
vergo, incline vergdre verg-
verro, 'brush verri(rare) versum verr6re verr-
verto, turn verti versum vert6re vert-
So the compounds generally, but
divertor, put up (at an inn), divert! (pcrf.), diversum,
divert! (inf.)
rSvertor, return, perf. revert!, reversum, revert! (inf.),
reversus, having returned.
praevertor, attend to first, is entirely deponent.
vescor, feed oneself vesci vesc-
v&to, forbid v6tui vfitltum v6tare vet-a-
Persius has a perfect v6tavi.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS
107
Perfect.
vldi
Present.
Video, see
vldeor, visum, vlderi, very common in sense of seem.
Supine.
visum
Pres.
Infinitive. Stem.
videre vid-e-
vieo, plait (twigs, etc.)
Part, vietus shrivelled.
vincio, bind vinxi
vinco, conquer vici
viso, visit visi
vivo, live vixi
ulciscor, avenge oneself on,
avenge
lingo
vietum viere
vinctum
vietum
vietum
ultum
vincire
vincSre
vls6re
vive"re
ulcisci
unguo
grease
unxi
vi-e-
vinc-I-
vlc-
vis-
vigv-
ulc-
ungu-
vdl-
v6lo, will vdlui velle
So its compounds nolo, malo ; see 73.
volvo, roll volvi vdlutum volvere volv-
involvo and evolvo sometimes have perf. -vdlui.
v6mo, vomit vdmui vdmltum vdme're vdm-
vdveo, vow vovi votum vdvere vdv-e-
urgeo, push, press ursi urgere urg-e-
uro, burn ussi ustum ur6re us-
amb-uro, ambussi, ambustum, ambur6re, whence perhaps
by a wrong division comburo, and bustum.
Other compounds (exuro, etc.) follow the usual form,
utor, avail oneself, make use usum uti ut-
81. The following verbs (with many others) are used as
deponents ; but some of them are also used, especially in
the past participle, as passive :
adsentiri, assent ; also passive
apisci, get
arbitrari, fudge
aucupari, catch at
augurari, take omens
blandiri, play the coax
108
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
comitari, accompany; also passive
commlnisci, devise
comperiri, find out ; usually
passive
contemplari, contcmplnt,
criminari, accuse
cunctari, delay
dignari, think worthy, dignatus
also passive
dommari, play the lord
execrari, curse ; execratus also
passive
exordiri, commence speaking
experiri, try ; expertus also
passive
far!, speak ; effatus also passive
fateri, confess
fenerari, lend money
frustrari, disappoint ; also pas-
sive
gloriari, boast
gravari, take ill
hortari, exhort
imitari, imitate ; imitatus also
passive
interpretari, interpret ; inter -
pretatus, also passive
largiri, make gifts
lucrari, make gain
luctari, struggle
ludif icari, make sport of
medicari, npi>ln
usually medicare
meditari, meditate ; rneditatus
also passive
mentiri, tell a lie ; mentitus
also passive
mereri, deserve, earn ; rnerere
more usually carii
moderari, rule ; moderatus
also passive
modular!, modulate ; modulatus
also passive
obllvisci, forget
opinari, be of opinion
pacisci, bargain ; pactus also
passive
partiri, share ; also partire
popular!, lay waste ; also popu-
lare
puniri, punish ; usually punire
sectari, follow
sortiri, cast lots
testif icari, testari, drdarr, cull
to witness ; also passive in par-
ticiple
tutari, to defend
venerari,
ulcisci, avenge
Some past participles are used with an active sense as
if deponents, though the usual form of the verb is active.
adultus, groini up
cenatus, having dined
jurat us, having sworn ;
tus, having conspired
nupta, mar n't'il
occasus, of the sun
sunk
osus, exosus, perosus,
hated
conjura- placitus, having plr^<J
potus, h-aviitg drunk
pransus, han'ti;/ lm<lfuxf<-<l
quietus, at /v.s/
suetus, accustomed
tacitus, s!l<' nt
SYNTAX 109
SYNTAX
82. When we speak we either name a person or thing,
or we declare something of a person or thing.
1. Names of persons or things are in Grammar called
Nouns.
There are many kinds of objects, and therefore many
kinds of nouns, as rex, king ; Roma, Rome ; flos, flower ;
terra, land ; exercitus, army ; mens, mind justitia,
justice.
One noun is often not enough to mark out the particular
object which we have in mind. Another noun is then
added, as rex Romulus, King Romulus urbs Roma, the
city Rome.
Such an additional noun (or name) is called an attribute
to the first noun, which in this use is called a Substantive.
Some nouns are generally used as such additional names,
and are therefore called Adjectives. They describe an
object by some particular quality or appearance which it
has, as albus flos, white flower ; magnus exercitus, great
army.
Adjectives in Latin having inflexions for gender as well
as number can be used by themselves, like other nouns, as
substantives. Thus albus is white Tie ; alba, white she ;
album, white thing albi, white males albae, white females ;
alba, white things. Other nouns, i.e. substantives, are
treated as having usually only one gender.
110 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
83. 2. Naming an object is generally not enough. AVe
wish to say something about it. Every complete saying
(called in Grammar a sentence} contains at least two ideas :
(a) The person or thing of which we speak, called the
Subject.
(b) Our declaration respecting it, called the Predicate.
A complete thought is expressed most simply either (a)
by a verb, or (b) by two nouns.
(a) A verb contains in its personal suffixes the subject,
in its stem the predicate, as curr-o, / run ; curr-it, he (she,
it) runs-, ama-mus, we love; ama-tis, ye love; splende-nt,
they shine.
The first and second person require no further defini-
tion, but the third person is very vague. The name of the
person or thing intended is usually added in the nominative
case, as equus currit, (the) horse runs (literally horse-he
run-he) ; flores splendent, flowers shine.
(b) When the thought is expressed by two nouns, one is
subject, the other usually an adjective is predicate. But
to make it clear that the adjective (or other noun) is not an
attribute, but is a predicate, some part of the verb sum is
generally used. Thus equus albus may mean white ln>w,
or horse is white ; equus est albus shows that albus is
predicate, not attribute of equus. So Julius est consul,
Julius is consul; exercitus erat magnus, the army was
large Roma fuit urbs, Home was a city, or the city was
Rome.
If the subject of a verb is expressed, the verb has
(usually) the same number and person as the subject, c.<j.
ego amo, / lo've ; flores rubent, flowers are red ; vos
fugitis, you are flying.
PRINCIPAL USE OF CASES 111
PRINCIPAL USE OF CASES
84. The nominative denotes the subject of the sentence,
as Julius regnat, Julius reigns.
The accusative, dative, and ablative are principally used
with verbs.
The accusative denotes the direct object of a verb's
action, e.g'
Julius regit urbem, Julius rules the city.
Carpo florem, I pluck a flower.
Arant terrain, They plough the land.
The dative denotes the indirect object, i.e. the person or
thing indirectly affected by the verb's action. A transitive
verb has often such an indirect object besides the direct
object; an intransitive verb has such an indirect object
only, as
Carpo florem tibi, I pluck the flower for thee.
Arant terrain hostibus, They plough the land for
the enemies.
Flos splendet tibi, The flower shines for thee.
Pater sum tibi, / am father to you.
The ablative denotes the instrument or cause or other
attendant circumstances of the verb's action, as
Carpo florem manu, I pluck the flower with my hand.
Perit timore, He perishes from fright.
112 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
The genitive is used with nouns rather than with verbs,
and denotes the possessor or object or class of a person or
thing, as
Marci servus, Marcus's slave.
Floris splendor, The floiver's brightness.
Timor periculi, Fear of risk.
Portissimus militum, Bravest (he) of the soldiers.
All these cases have other uses as well as those named.
(See below.)
The case of a declinable attribute or predicate is the
same as that of the substantive or subject.
The gender and number of an adjective is usually the
same as that of the substantive of which it is attribute or
predicate.
NOMINATIVE
85. The NOMINATIVE is used to express
1 . Person or thing spoken of, i.e. the subject of the sentence
Dixit Claudius, Claudius spoke.
Crescit amor, Love grows.
2. Person or thing spoken to
Musa veni, Come, muse.
Audite Romani, Listen, ye llomans.
In o stems the shorter form called the VOCATIVE is used
Marce cave, Marcus, beware.
Quid ais, Claudi ? What sayest than, Claw/ in* '/
ACCUSATIVE 113
ACCUSATIVE
86. The ACCUSATIVE is used to express-
1. Direct object of a transitive verb
Fer opem, Bring help.
Urit flamma domos, Flame burns the houses.
Aquilas fugiunt columbae, Doves flee eagles.
2. Place towards which
Mitto vos domum, / send you home.
Romam veniunt, They come to Home.
3. Space over which
Pedem unum processit, He stepped forward (a
distance of) one foot.
Nix quattuor pedes alta, Snow four feet deep.
4. Time during which
Diem totum stertebat, He was snoring a whole day.
Vixerant viginti annos, Tliey lived twenty years.
">. Extent of action
Nos aliquid Rutulos juvimus, We have helped the
JKutulians somewhat.
Tremit artus, He trembles all over his limbs.
Often with a substantive of like meaning to the verb
Cur non eosdem cursus cucurrerunt ? Why have
they not run the same courses ?
Itque reditque viam, He goes and returns the road.
I
114 ELEMENTARY LATIN (i HAM MA I;
DATIVE
87. 1. Person to or for whom (indirect object)
Hoc tibi facio, I do this for you.
Dat librum illi, lie gives him the book.
Nocet aqua saxis, Jf'afer i* hurtful to flic rocks.
Omnibus mors divitias aufert, Death takes away
riches (for, i.e.) from all.
2. This dative is frequently used with the verb esse to
denote the possessor or the agent
Possessor Est mihi pater, There is a father for me, i.e. I
hure a father.
Longae regibus sunt manus, Kings have long
1 lands.
Agent Haec mihi sunt dicta, These thhit/s are for me
things spoken, i.e. I have said this.
Hoc Caesari fuit agendum, This mi* for
Caesar a thing to do, i.e. Caesar had In </o this.
3. Purpose for which (adjectival or predicative dative).
An indirect object is often used in same sentence
Hoc mihi curae est, This ?'x a nmffe,- of an.rirfi/ to me.
Paupertatem probro habent, The// freat ^o/r/1// as
disgraceful.
Equitatum auxilio Caesari mittunt, They send the
cavalri/ us J/e//> In Caesar.
Rem publicam quaestui habet, //> -mal-fs <i trad<-
of politics.
ABLATIVE 115
ABLATIVE
88. 1. Instrument or price
Gladio regem ferit, He strikes the king with a
sword.
Cornibus tauri, apri dentibus, niorsu leones se
tutantur, Bulls defend themselves with horns, boars
with tusks, lions by biting.
Vendidit hie auro patriam, This man sold his
country for gold.
2. Cause
Maerore et lacrimis senescebat, He grew old from
grief and tears.
Paene ille timore, ego risu corrui, He all but
collapsed from fear, I from laughter.
3. Part concerned
Aeger pedibus, III in the feet.
Mancipiis locuples, Rich in slaves.
4. Manner and circumstances ; usually with an attribute
Nullis impedimentis ibat, He was marching without
baggage.
Aequo animo hoc tuli, / bore this with an even mind.
The ablative of circumstances is very common in
Latin with a participle, especially in the passive
voice, as
Regibus exactis consules creati sunt, When the
kings had been driven out, consuls were elected.
116 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMA1!
5. Quality or description
Qua facie fuit? (Of what face was he?) win it vx he
like in the face ?
Agesilaus statura fuit humili et corpore exiguo,
Agesilaus was of low stature and small body (or low in
*t it lure and small in body).
6. With comparatives it expresses both (a) the standard of
comparison and (b) the measure
(a) Quid durius est saxo ? quid mollius unda ?
What is harder than stone ? what softer than water ?
(b) Tanto major caedes fuit, So much the greater was
the slaughter.
7. Place whence
Roma fugit, He fled from Rome.
Senex rure venit, The old man comes from the country.
8. Place where is expressed by the locative in -o and -a
stems, and by the ablative in others
Rhodi negotiatur, He is trading at Rhodus.
Est Capuae, He is at Capua.
But sometimes an ablative is used, as
Romae Tibur amo, Tibure Romam, At Rome I love
Tihur, at Tibur I love Rome.
Bellum terra marique comparat, He is preparing
war by land and sea.
9. Time when or within which
Aedes Kalendis vota est, 77/r t cm pie in is rowed on
the Kalends.
Tribus horis Romam pervenit, In tJnrr hours he
ri'iii'licil. Rani'-.
GENITIVE 117
GENITIVE
89. 1. Person or thing possessing or causing (possessive
genitive)
Crassi films, Crassus's son.
Hectoris Andromache, Hector's (wife) Andromache.
Cornua mnae, The Moon's horns.
2. Divided whole (partitive genitive)
Portissimus G-raecorum, Bravest of Greeks.
Parum prudentiae, But little (of) prudence.
3. Quality or description
Fossa centum pedum, A hundred-foot ditch (i.e. in
length).
Vir consili magni, A man of great policy.
4. Object of action, after nouns
Vir tenax propositi, A man firm of purpose.
Timor nostrum, Fear of the enemies.
5. Secondary object to certain verbs of accusing, remember-
ing, pitying, filling, etc.
Admonuit ilium sceleris, He reminded him of his
Accusat Marcum furti, He accuses Marcus of theft.
Taedet me vitae, I am weary of life (lit. it irks me
of life).
Implent fossam sanguinis, They fill the ditch with
Hood.
118 ELEMENTAKY LATIN GUAM MAR
INFINITIVE
90. The infinitive is an indeclinable verbal substantive,
and is used in some respects as a verb, in other respects
as a noun. It is found chiefly as
1. Object to a verb, especially verbs of will, power, duty,
custom, etc. (The subject of the infinitive is usually
the same as the subject of the verb.)
Debeo venire, I ought to come.
Loqui didicerat, He had learnt to talk.
Vincere scis, Hannibal ; victoria uti nescis, You
understand winning, Hannibal ; you do not understand
a victory.
2. With a subject in the accusative, the two together being
the object of a verb. (In English ' that ' with a finite
verb is often used.)
Scio te loqui, / know of your talking.
Dicit se abire, He says he is going away.
3. Subject to a verb, either by itself or with an accusative
Certum est mihi dicer e, / am determined to speak.
Te venire pergratum est, It is very pleasant that you
are coming, or your coming is very pleasant to me.
GERUNDS, GEEUNDIVE, SUPINE
91. 1. The oblique cases of the gerund are used as if they
were the genitive, dative, and ablative of the infinitive.
The accusative is used only with prepositions
Avidus loquendi, Greedy of talk.
Hi scribendo adfuerunt, These were present at the
writing.
GERUNDS, GERUNDIVE, SUPINE 119
Caesar dando, Cato nihil largiendo gloriam
adeptus est, Caesar gained glory by giving, Cato by
making no largesses.
Haec ad judicandum sunt facillima, These matters
are very easy to judge.
2. The gerundive is used often in place of the gerund,
when the gerund would have a direct object. The
object is then attracted into the case of the gerund, and
the gerundive put in the gender and number of this
object
Consilium inibant urbis delendae et civium
trucidandorum for urbem delendi et cives
trucidandi, They were forming a, plan for destroying
the city and butchering the citizens.
Decemviros litibus judicandis creavit,^ appointed
a commission of ten for judging suits.
3. In the nominative the gerund is used as subject to est;
the gerundive is used as predicate to what would
otherwise have been object to the gerund
Est mihi ambulandum, / must walk (lit. Walking is
for me).
Haec sunt agenda for Haec est agendum, These
things must be done.
Urbs defendenda est for Defendendum est
urbem, The city must be defended.
4. The accusative of verbal substantives in -us (i.e. the
supine in -um) is used after a verb of motion, and
often has itself an object
Haec risum veni, Come and (lit. to) have a laugh at
these things.
Questum injurias eo, / am going to complain of the
wrongs.
120 KLKMKNTAKY LATIX CKA.M.MAl;
PARTICIPLES
92. The Participles are verbal adjectives, and take direct
and indirect objects. The present and future participles
are active ; the past participle is passive unless the verb
be a deponent, in which case it is usually active, some-
times either active or passive
Venio agros visurus, / am coming to sec the lands.
Vidit consulem exercitui imperantem, He saw
the consul commanding the army.
Consule interfecto, haec looutus est, On the consul
being killed, lie spoke thus.
INDECLINABLE WORDS
93. Adverbs are used with verbs and adjectives
Bene dicit, He says well.
Valde Justus, Very just (man).
Res acute dictae, Sharp sayings (lit. things sharply said).
Some adverbs are also used as prepositions.
94. Prepositions are used with verbs in composition,
and with nouns in the accusative and ablative cases.
"With verbs, as
venio, / come. subvenio, / come vp.
devenio, / come down. pervenio, / come through.
advenio, / cm in 1 . /<>. evenio, / come out, etc.
The principal prepositions
With accusative case only are
ad, to. clam, ?/y//wv/v/ to.
adversus, towards. erga, Inirnnh.
ante, before. ob, on a muni I <>/'.
apud, at, penes, in power of.
circum, r<nnn/. per, through.
INDECLINABLE WORDS 121
post, behind. ultra, beyond.
. prope, near. extra, outside.
secundum, following. intra, within.
inter, between. contra, against.
praeter, beside. supra, above.
propter, near. infra, below.
trans, across. juxta, near.
citra, on this side of.
With ablative case only
ab or a, from. prae, in front of.
cum, with. pro, for.
de, down from. sine, without.
ex or e, out of.
With accusative and ablative
in, in ; sub, subter, under ; super, above :
The accusative is used when motion towards is implied,
the ablative when rest at is implied
In jus ducere, To lead into court.
In jure res est, The matter is in court.
Sub montem ibat, He was coming to the foot of the
mountain.
Sub monte consedit, He sat down at the foot of the
mountain.
95. Conjunctions et, -que (appended to a word),
atque or ac, and ; sed, at, but ; autem, however tamen,
yet ; aut, vel, -ve (appended to a word), or ; seu, whether, or.
Negative particles non, baud, not; nee or neque,
neither, nor ; ne, not, lest ; ni, nisi, unless.
Interrogative ne (appended to another word) puts a
simple question ; nonne expects answer yes ; num expects
answer no ; utrum . . . an, whether . . . or.
An affirmative answer is given by etiam, ita, vero,
etc. ; a negative by non, minime.
122 ELEMENTARY LATIN (IK A MM Alt
USE OF VERB INFLEXIONS. INFLEXIONS
OF VOICE
96. VERBS with ACTIVE inflexions are of two classes,
TRANSITIVE and INTRANSITIVE. Some verbs belong to both.
TRANSITIVE verbs express an action conceived in con-
nexion with an object upon which it is exercised, e.g.
amo, / love ; moneo, / warn ; audio, / hear ; 6do, / eat',
pello, I push ; rego, / guide ; tolero, / bear ; uro, / bum ;
laedo, I wound.
But it is not necessary that the object should be actually
expressed, e.g. edo, / eat, does not cease to be a transitive
verb because no food is specified.
INTRANSITIVE (or NEUTER) verbs express a state of being,
or an action not conceived in connexion with any object,
as thereby affected, e.g. curro, / run; horreo, / shiver;
gaudeo, / rejoice ; praesum, / am at the head ; ardeo, 7
am on fire ; noceo, / am hurtful.
Such a state or action may affect other persons or
things indirectly, and this indirect object may be expressed
in an oblique case, usually the dative, just as a similarly
indirect object may be expressed with a transitive verb,
e.g. mihi gaudeo, non tibi, / rejoice for myself, not
for you; praesum exercitui, / am at the head of the
army.
97. Verbs with PASSIVE inflexions are of two classes,
viz. verbs which have also an active voice, and verbs which
have no (corresponding) active voice. The latter are called
DEPONENTS. (See list on p. 107.)
In verbs which have also an active voice, passive
inflexions are used principally to bring into prominence
either the object of the action by making it the subject of
the sentence, or the occurrence of the action, without
INFLEXIONS OF VOICE 123
specifying the agent. Thus vincit Gallos, lie conquers the
Gauls ; G-alli vincuntur, the Gauls are conquered ; vincitur,
a victory is gained.
If the object of the action be a person or thing, i.e. if
the verb be transitive, the passive may be used in both
numbers and all three persons. Thus, laedo, I wound, may
have for object me, te, eum (earn, id), nos, vos, eos (eas,
ea). Consequently in the passive we may have (ego)
laedor, (tu) laederis, (is, ea, id) laeditur, (nos) laedimur,
(vos) laedimini, (ei, eae, ea) laeduntur, / am (being)
wounded, thou art wounded, etc.
If the verb be intransitive, and therefore express merely
the existence or occurrence of an action, the passive is used
in the third person singular only. Thus noceo, / am
hurtful, I do hurt ; nocetur, hurtfulness exists, hurt is (being)
done ; eo, / go ', itur, going takes place, is (being) done ;
suadebo, / will give advice ; suadebitur, advice will be
given.
98. Besides the more usual case, in which the subject is
acted on by others, passive inflexions are sometimes used
in speaking: (1) of an action done by the subject to him-
self ; and more frequently (2) of an action experienced
without any specified external agency, e.g.
(1) cingor, accingor, I gird myself; dedor, give myself
up ; erigor, raise myself ; exerceor, exercise myself.
(2) corresponding in English to verbs used intransi-
tively : alor, I feed; corrumpor, spoil ; delector, delight;
flndor, split ; lavor, bathe ; moveor, move ; inutor, change.
The simple import of the passive inflexions is the same
in all these cases, viz. that the subject is also the object of
the action.
DEPONENTS have passive inflexions, but the meaning
and construction of verbs with active inflexions. Some
124 ELEMENTARY LATIN CKAMMAK
deponents are transitive, e.g. fateor, / confess ; some in-
transitive, e.g. epulor, / banquet.
99. In the CONSTRUCTION of passive verbs several points
require notice.
If a transitive verb be changed from the active to the
passive voice, the following additional changes are required.
if the sentence is to express the same fact as it expressed
with the active form.
(a) The object of the active verb becomes subject to the
passive verb.
(b) Any word containing a fuller description of the
object (a secondary predicate) changes from the accusative
to the nominative.
(c) The agent (subject of the active verb) is put in the
ablative with the prep. ab.
f laedit
Druso adjuto-
eg Lucius I rem ded . t gave Marcus to Drum*
Marcum , as a helper.
consulem esse
,. ., says Marcus is consul.
[" [ is b<'iii</ vnintd-'il !j
| laeditur Lucius.
Marcus J Druso adjutor ,, J was given by Luc lux In
a Lucio 1 datus est ls 1 Drusus as a In Iper.
consul esse dicitur is beiv</ / /'// lj L w I a
[ [ to be con xii I.
An intransitive verb is not used in the passive except
impersonally, and no further change is required, except
usually the omission of the agent. (If the agent is expressed,
it will be usually in the ablative with ab as above.)
Persuasum est homini ; factum est ; ventum est ;
vincimur; duxit, Themamvas pcwnnl<'<l , itivas done;
they came : we are beaten ; he took (his wife).
INFLEXIONS OF PERSON AND NUMBER 125
USE OF VERBAL INFLEXIONS OF PERSON
AND NUMBER
100. The finite verb contains both subject and predi-
cate in itself, the personal inflexions expressing the subject,
and the stem expressing the predicate.
Hence, whenever in English an unemphatic pronoun is
sufficient to denote the subject without risk of mistake, the
finite verb in Latin requires no addition for this purpose.
This is so with the verb
1. In the first or second person.
Thus curro, / run, currimus, refer to the person or
persons speaking; curris, curritis, curre, currite, to
the person or persons spoken to.
But the pronouns may be added for the sake of emphasis
or contrast.
Quod ego fui ad Trasumennum, ad Cannas, id tu
hodie es. (Liv.) What I was at Trasumennus (and)
at Cannae, that you are to-day.
Negat cuncta Italia, negat senatus, negatis vos.
(Cic.) All Italy denies (it), the Senate denies it, you
deny it.
2. In the third person, when it is the same as the subject
of the last preceding verb of the same number and person,
provided it is suited to the sense. (Very frequent.)
Venit Verres in aedem Castoris ; considerat tem-
plum ; versat se ; quaerit, quid agat. (Cic.) Verres
comes into the temple of Castor; he examines the sanctuary ;
lie turns about ; he asks what he is to do.
126 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
3. In certain verbs in the third person singular, where
the fact of the action, state, or feeling is the prominent
point and the doer is left indefinite. Such verbs are called
IMPERSONALS, and may be classified as follows
(a) The verbs miseret, it pities; piget, it vexes; pudet,
it shames; paenitet, it repents; ta,edei,itivearies: e.g. Ipsius
facti pudet. Miseret me aliorum.
(b) Intransitive verbs are sometimes so used, generally
in the passive voice (see 99).
Dicto paretur. Cui parci potuit ? Obedience is rendered
to the bidding. To whom could mercy be shown ?
As the finite verb always contains its own subject in its personal
inflexions, the separate word, usually called its subject, is, strictly
speaking, in apposition to these inflexions for the purpose of closer
definition.
101. When the subject is expressed by a separate word,
the finite verb is in the same number and person as its
subject.
Te aerumnae premunt omnes, qui te florentem
putas. (Cic.) All troubles pi-ess upon you who think
yourself prosperous.
Exceptions
(a) If the subject be a substantive in the singular
number, but denotes more than one person, the verb is
sometimes in the plural.
Diffugmnt alii ad naves ; pars scandunt rursus
equum. (Verg.) Some fly scattered to the ships;
part climb again the horse.
INFLEXIONS OF PERSON AND NUMBER 127
(b) The verb, if it follows a predicate, sometimes con-
forms to it in number. (This is rare, except where either
substantive might be considered the subject.)
Amantium irae amoris integratio est. (Ter. ) Quarrels
of lovers are a renewal of love.
Contentum rebus suis esse maximae sunt certissi-
maeque divitiae. (Cic.) To be satisfied with one's
own possessions is the greatest and surest wealth.
102. When the subject is composed of two or more
substantives, denoting different persons or things, but re-
garded as in connexion with each other, the verb is put
in the plural : in the first person plural, if the subject con-
tain the first person ; and in the second person plural, if the
subject contain the second person and not the first.
Si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus. (Cic.)
If ymi and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well.
When two or more subjects require the same predi-
cate, but are not represented as acting together, the predi-
cate is usually expressed only once, and is put in the
number and person required by the subject nearest to it in
the sentence.
Vir bonus et sapiens dici delector ego ac tu, / am
delighted to be catted a good and wise man, and so are
you.
128 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
THE INDICATIVE MOOD AND TENSES
103. The Indicative Mood is the primary and ordinary
form of the finite verb, and is therefore used wherever there
is no special reason for employing the imperative or subjunc-
tive. Not only facts but suppositions and commands can
be put in the indicative mood, but only when the writer or
speaker relies on the context, or evident sense, to guard
against misapprehension, and does not care to mark the
supposition or the command by the form of the expression.
The tenses of the Latin verb in the indicative mood
may be divided either (i) according to the time to which
they relate, or (ii) according to the completeness or incom-
pleteness of the action spoken of.
104. i. Time to which the tenses relate
According to the time to which they relate, the tenses
are either primary or secondary.
The primary tenses mark a state or action as going on,
over, or still in the future at the time at which we are
speaking, or at some time at which we assume that we
are present and watching events.
The secondary tenses mark a state or action as going on,
over, or still in the future at some other time of which we
are speaking, and which we affirm (by the use of secondary
tenses) to be past.
INDICATIVE MOOD AND TENSES
129
Contemporary.
Subsequent.
Subsequent to
present time
but antecedent
to some future
event.
Antecedent.
ACTIVE VOICE
PRIMARY.
Present ; dico,
/ am saying.
Future ; dicam,
I shall (you, he will}
say.
Completed Future ;
dixero, / shall
(you, he will) have
Perfect; dixi,
/ have said.
SECONDARY.
Imperfect; dicebam,
I ivas saying.
Aorist ; dixi, / said
(i.e. after something
had happened).
Pluperfect; dixeram,
I had said.
Subsequent.
Subsequent to
present time
but antecedent
to some future
event.
Antecedent.
PASSIVE VOICE
PRIMARY.
Contemporary. Pres.
Fut.
f am
being loved.
( amabor, I
shall (you, he
( will) be loved.
Completed Future ;
amatus ero (or
fuero), I shall (you,
he will) have been
loved.
( amatus
Perf
'
sum, / am
(or have been)
loved.
SECONDARY.
being
( amatus
Aor. < sum, I
( loved.
Plup
L
P amatus
eram (or
fueram), I
had beenloved.
1 '50 ELEMENTARY LATIN CKAMMAi;
105. ii. Completeness or incompleteness of the <u1in
The present, future, and imperfect tenses express incom-
plete action (and hence are sometimes called respectively
present imperfect, future imperfect, past imperfect).
e.g. laedo, laedor, / am wounding, am lei//;/ 'vaumlcil ;
laedam, laedar, I shall wound, shall be wounded ; laede-
bam, laedebar, / was wounding, was being wounded.
The perfect, completed future, and pluperfect express
completed action (and hence are sometimes called respec-
tively present perfect, future perfect, past perfect).
e.g. laesi, laesus sum, I have wounded, have been wounded-.
laesero, laesus ero, / shall have wounded, shall have been
wounded- laeseram, laesus eram, I had wounded, had been
The use of a tense of incomplete action rather than of
complete action implies
1. Continuance of an action contrasted with its con-
clusion.
e.g. dico, / am speaking dixi, / have done my speech.
2. Continuance of an action contrasted with a single
act.
e.g. videbam, I ic<i* looking at; vidi, I caught sight of;
poteram, I had it in my power ; potui, I proved able.
3. Purpose or attempt contrasted with actual perform-
ance.
e.g. servabam, 1 tried to save ; servavi, 1 oclnallij
saved ; dabat, he offered dedit, he gave.
4. The action itself contrasted with the resulting con-
dition.
e.g. venio, I am on my way; veni, / <nn here ; peribo,
/ shall die ; periero, / shall be dam/.
INDICATIVE MOOD AND TENSES 131
106. The PRESENT tense expresses
1. An action at the time of speaking.
Hie ego Servium exspecto. (Cic.) Here I am awaiting
Servius.
Nunc, cum vos intueor, Romanes esse video. (Liv.)
Now when I look on you, I see that there are Romans.
2. An action in past time, but rhetorically assumed to
be present. This is frequent in vivid narrations. (Historic
present.)
Archagatho negotium dedit, ut argentum ad mare
deportaretur. Ascendit in oppidum Archa-
gathus : jubet omnis proferre quod haberent.
Metus erat summus. (Cic.) He gave A. the
duty of seeing that the silver was brought down to the
sea. A. goes up into the town. He orders all to
bring out what they had. There was the greatest alarm.
Vix ea fatus eram : tremere omnia visa repente ;
summissi petimus terram et vox fertur ad
auris. (Verg.) / had hardly spoken ; everything seemed
suddenly to be trembling ; sinking down we drop to the
ground, and a voice is borne to our ears.
107. The FUTURE denotes an action taking place, or (in
verbs signifying a state) a state existing, in future time.
Subordinate sentences, qualifying a principal future
sentence (whether such future sentence is expressed in
indicative or imperative, or subjunctive of command, etc.),
and referring to the same time, have regularly and usually
the future. (In English the present is generally found.)
Naturam si sequemur ducem, nunquam aberrabi-
mus. (Cic.) If we follow Nature as our guide, we shall
never go astray.
132 ELEMENTARY LATIN (JRAMMAR
108. The IMPERFECT tense expresses
1. A continuous action contemporaneous with past
action or time referred to.
Postremam Romanorum aciem invadimt. Turn
Marius apud primes agebat, quod ibi Jugurtha
cum plurimis erat, They attack the rear rank f lln
Romans. At the time Marius was busy in the //'////,
because Jugurtha was there with most of his men.
2. In letters it often denotes an action at the time of
writing as being past when the correspondent receives the
letter.
Haec ego scribebam hora noctis nona. Milo cam-
pum jam tenebat : Marcellus candidatus ita
stertebat, ut ego vicinus audirem, / am writing
this at the ninth hour of the night. Milo is already in
possession of the field ; Marcellus a candidate is snoring
so loud that I can hear him next door.
3. Habitual or repeated action in past time.
Dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius, Ifortcn-
sius used to speak better than he has written.
4. An action commenced, or attempted, or proposed in
past time.
Consistit utrumque agmen, et ad proelium sese
expediebant. (Liv.) Each army takes up its position,
and they begin to make ready for battle.
109. The PERFECT tense expresses an action done in
past time. As contrasted with the imperfect, it denotes a
single act, not a continued state ; a fact, not a description.
As contrasted with the present, it denotes that the action
is already completed.
1. AURIST or HISTORICAL PERFECT. An action which
took place in past time, either singly or in succession to
other actions. So usually in a continued narrative.
INDICATIVE MOOD AND TENSES 133
Postremo Catilma in senatum venit. Turn M.
Tullius consul orationem habuit quam postea
scriptam edidit, Finally Catilina came into the
Senate. Then Marcus Tullius the consul delivered a
speech, which he afterwards wrote down and published.
Veni, vidi, vici, / came, I saw, I conquered.
L. Lucullus per multos annos Asiae provinciae
praefuit, L. Lucullus governed the province of Asia for
many years.
2. PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT. An action already
completed before the present time, so that the result,
rather than the action itself, is present to the mind.
Membris utimur prius quam didicimus, cujus ea
utilitatis causa habeamus, We use our limbs
before ice have learnt for the sake of what advantage we
possess them.
110. The COMPLETED future denotes an action in future
time completed at some point in future time.
Cum tu haec leges, ego ilium fortasse convenero,
When you read this, I shall perhaps have met him.
Eum cum videro, Arpmum pergam, When I have seen
him, I will proceed to Arpmum.
The PLUPERFECT denotes an action in past time, done
before another past action.
Prius omnia pati decrevit quam bellum sumere,
quia temptatum antea secus cesserat. (Sail.)
He resolved to endure everything rather than engage in
war, because (when) attempted before it had turned out ill.
Hanno cum eis, qui postremi jam profligato proelio
advenerant, vivus capitur. (Liv.) Hanno, with
those who had come last, when the battle was already
decided, is taken alive.
134 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Future participle active with the verb sum
111. In order to denote what a person purposes, or is
destined to do in future time, especially if regarded from
a point in the past or future, the future participle active is
used with the different tenses of the verb sum : thus
PRIMARY. SECONDARY.
Contemporary. dicturus sum, I am dicturus eram, 1
about to (or mean to was at the time about
or am to) say. to (or / meant to or
was to) saij.
Subsequent. dicturus ero, / shall dicturus fui, I was
be about to say. (once) about to say.
Antecedent. dicturus fueram, 1
had meant to sail.
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD
112. The Imperative Mood is used to express a command
or request.
The PRESENT is used of the present time, or without any
implied reference to a defined future time.
The FUTURE is used with express reference to the time
following, or to some particular case that may occur, and
therefore is frequent in legal forms.
Cura ut valeas. Cogite oves, pueri, Take care to ke<>]>
well. Collect the sheep, my bat/*.
Cum haec confessus eris, negate turn sane, si voles,
te pecuniam accepisse, When you linn 1 iiilmiUctl
this, then by all mc<nx d?Hi/, if you />/<'.', ilmi you
money.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 135
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
113. The subjunctive mood is distinguished from the
indicative by expressing an action or event as thought or
supposed, rather than as done or narrated. This general
distinction is modified in different kinds of sentences.
In simple or principal sentences the subjunctive is used
to express
(A) A supposition, or
(C) A desire, as
(A) Velim, / should wish ; but volo, / wish.
Videres, You would have seen ; videbas, You saw.
(C) Vivas, May you live ; vivis, You live.
Amemus patriam, Let us love our country.
Amamus patriam, We (do) love our country.
114. In dependent or subordinate sentences the sub-
junctive is used chiefly after relatives (qui,quae, quod) and
the following conjunctions (all of which are also frequently
used with the indicative mood)
si, nisi (B)
ut, quin, dura (D, E)
cum (F)
quod (G)
1 15. The usages of the subjunctive may be classed under
eight heads, the first two of which may conveniently be
taken together.
(A, B) Conditional sentences. If the principal sentence
has the subjunctive, the subordinate sentence containing
the condition has the subjunctive also. The case is put as
one not actual.
136 KLKMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
Si jubeas, faciam, If I/OH- diovld. conn/mud, I xhotdd Jo.
Si jusseris, faciam or fecerim, Jf you should Imn- hidden,
I should do or should hure dune.
Si juberes, facer em, If you should have been bidding, I
should have been doing (or Were, you lidding, 1 wen
doing).
Si jussisses, fecissem, If you had hidden, I should hnre done.
Sometimes the conditional particle is not expressed
Roges me, dicam, Should you ask me, I should MI/.
Rogasses me, dicerem, Had you <i*kcd -me, I dwiild hare
been saijlmj.
N.B. For distinction's sake we may call the subjunctive
in the principal sentence a HYPOTHETICAL subjunctive ;
that in the subordinate sentence a CONDITIONAL sub-
junctive.
116. The hypothetical subjunctive (A) is often used
without the condition being expressed, as
Velim, videres (as above).
Quis dicat ? Who would say ?
Illius impulsu moenia mota forent, fit/ a blow from
him (i.e. if he had struck then/) ?n///x iconld linn- been
stirred.
So also the conditional clause (B) is sometimes found
with si, but without any principal clause expressed.
O si ille adesset, if he had been present / (How different
would things have been if).
Frequently in sentences of comparison with ut, si,
quasi, tamquam, etc.
Scipio privatus, ut si consul esset, haec jussit, Scipio,
^ a private -muit, <ix if he Inid lire// ennxnl, (jure fltete order*
(i.e. as he would have done if, etc.)
Quasi hoc mihi difficile sit ! A* if 1his would he dij/irtdf
to nir (i.e. }'i>n xjH-nh r/x f/nii. irun-ld xjit'tik ij\ etc.)
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 137
117. (C) Optative and jussive sentences. Wish, command,
or duty are often expressed by the subjunctive
Valeant cives mei, sint beati, May my fellow -citizens
fare well, happy may they be.
Often with utinam, as
Utinam populus Romanus unam cervicem haberet
(Caligula), that the Roman people had but one neck !
Quid faciat ? JTJiat must he do ?
In prohibitions addressed to individuals the perfect (not
the present) second person is used, as
Ne transieris Iberum, ne quid rei tibi sit cum
Saguntinis, Cross not the Ebro, hare nothing to do with
the men of Saguntum.
118. Frequently this subjunctive of command is in
apparent dependence on another verb of willing or bidding,
as
Nolo me videat senex, I do not want the old man to see me.
Cave putes hoc ita esse, Beware of thinking this to be so.
Nuntiavit patribus urbem munirent, He took the mes-
sage to the Fathers that they were to fortify the city.
119. (D) Final sentences. A purpose is often expressed
by the subjunctive after ut, ne, quin, dum and the relative
qui (quae, quod)
Mitto legatum qui dicat, / send an ambassador who is to
say.
Mitto eum ut dicat, / send him that he may sat/, or send
him to sa;i.
Esse oportet ut vivas, non vivere ut edas, You should
eat to live, not live to eat.
Scribebat Aelius orationes quas alii dicer ent, Aelius
used to write speeches for others to deliver.
138 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
A special use occurs after verbs of fearing. The English
use a negative, where the Latins do not, and vice versa, as
Timeo ut dicas, I fear that you will not say it.
Timeo ne dicas, I fear your saying it, or lest yon, shmild w// if.
O puer, ut sis vitalis metiio, Boy, I fear you will not be
long-lived (lit. how you are to le long-lived).
Timeo ne non impetrem, I fear lest I should not get it.
120. (E) Consecutive sentences express actions which
mark or naturally follow.
This use is most common with relatives or with ///.
When a negative is required, ut non, not ne, is used.
Sunt qui putent, There are people who think (such ax In
think}.
Saepe fit ut ei qui debent non respondeant ad
tempus, It often happens (in such a way) tlntt dchfors
do not answer the claims punctual///.
Sometimes in concessions and indignant questions
Ut erraverim, legentes non decepi, Support' I Junr
erred, I have not deceived readers.
Quamquam quid loquor ? te ut ulla res frangat ? tu
ut unquam te corrigas? And yd -n-lntl <nn 1 wit/ing?
(Can it be) that anything should uretiL: y<m, ? flint yini.
should ever correct yourself !
121. (F) Sentences expressing the <itlen<l<tnt circum-
stances chiefly with relative qui and cum, in ordiiiiirv
historical narration. The English translation often requires
a participle or the adverb since or ulthn-injli.
Peccavi qui a te discesserim, / waned /// Irnrlug i/mi
(since I left '//on).
Zenonem, cum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter,
Iti'hnj al tttht'iix, I ollcinli'il '/ji'inix Icctnrr^ fri'/jiinitl i/.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 139
Epaminondas cum vicisset Lacedaemonios, quae-
sivit salvusiie esset clipeus, E. having conquered
the Lacedaemonians asked if his shield was safe.
Pylades cum sis, dices te esse Orestem ? Being Pylades
(seeing that you are Pylades), will you say that you are
Orestes ?
122. (G) The subjunctive is often used of reported
reasons or definitions and reported (or indirect) questions
Laudat Africanum, quod fuerit abstinens, He praises
Africanus for being abstinent. (The being abstinent is
the reason given by him for praising Africanus.)
Magna proponit iis qui regem occiderint praemia,
He offers great reioards to any who should have slain the
king, (qui regem occiderint is a definition included
in the proclamation.)
Ubi nunc sim nescio, / know not where I am now. (Ubi
nunc sum? nescio, Where am I noiv? I know not.)
Rogitant me ut valeam, quid agam, They keep asking
me how I am in health, what I am doing.
123. (H) The subjunctive is often used in sentences de-
pendent on another subjunctive, or on an infinitive, to
show that the action is not spoken of as a fact in itself,
but only as part of a thought.
Thus, a direct sentence has the indicative
Romulus ut natus est exponitur, Romulus is exposed as
soon as he is born.
But in a reported sentence
Romulum ut natus sit exponi dicunt, They say
Romulus is exposed as soon as he is born.
Si Romulus ut natus sit exponatur ferant di opem,
If Romulus should be exposed as soon as he is born, the
gods would bring help.
140 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAi;
CONTRASTED USES OF THE INDICATIVE
124. The indicative mood in conditional sentences
assumes a fact, without making any implication as to its
truth (cp. 115).
Si veneno te t oiler e volui, cur te iratum feci ? If I
wished to take you off by poison, why did I wake you
angry?
Si deus es, tribuere mortalibus beneficia debes, //
(r/x //OIL .w//) you arc a god, you ought to c<>nf< r benefits on
men.
125. The indicative is used after a relative to express a
fact or a definition without any signification either of
purpose (cp. 119).
Misi quendam qui dixit, / sent a certain man, who suit/.
Scribebat Aelius orationes quas alii dicebant, Ad inn
'/!.<c<l to write speeches, which other* delivered.
Or of quality (cp. 120).
Sunt multi qui eripiunt aliis quod aliis largiaiitur,
Tli fir- are many who (us fm-f) 1aJ:e from, some in
flic purpose of giving it to a fliers
Quem multi timent, necesse est multos timeat, A
'limn whom many fear, m/ixl needs fear
126. Dum is used with the indicative for while, to l<m<i
as, until, when no purpose is implied (cp. 119).
Hoc feci dum licuit, / did this as Jan;/ a* I /(v/x allowed.
Dum veniunt amici, solus inambulavit, Jllrilr ///X/'/'/VWx
were arriving he widkal HJ> <nnl <Imr,i, nloue.
Mihi curae erit dum sciero quid egeris, // wllf be mi
In me. unlit / Inirr h'unit wJnif i/<m I/ore done.
CONTRASTED USES OF THE INDICATIVE 141
127. The indicative is used with cum to denote the
time at which anything happened, without implying any
sort of connexion (cp. 121).
Cum Placentiam consul venit, jam abierat Hannibal,
At the time when the consul reached Placentm, Hannibal
had already gone away.
Hannibal subibat muros cum repente erumpunt
Romani, H. was coming up to the walls, when the Romans
suddenly sally out.
Sometimes cum with the indicative means whenever.
Cum ad villam veni hoc me delectat, Whenever I have
come to my country home, this delights me.
128. The indicative is used with quod, quia, quoniam,
quando, to express a reason which the speaker gives as his
own (cp. 122).
Iratus es quod eum defendo quern tu accusas, You
are angry because I am defending the man whom you are
prosecuting.
Quando te in jure conspicio hoc dicam, Since I see you
in court, I will say this.
129. Relative clauses, which contain definitions of the
object of a verb, must be carefully distinguished from
dependent questions which are themselves the object of a
verb.
Scio quod quaeris, / know (the thing) which you are asking,
i.e. the answer to your question.
Scio quid quaeras, / know what you are asking, i.e. what
your question is.
H2 KI.KMKNTAKY LATIN C
OF REPORTED SPEECH
130. When a statement is directly made, a question
directly put, or a supposition directly expressed, the fmit/inii/c
is said to be direct (oratio recta). So also in a report
which preserves the independent form in which the speech,
etc., was delivered ; as ' Caesar said : I am about to march,'
etc.
When a statement, question, or supposition is reported
in a form which makes it dependent in construction on
some such word as said, the language is said to be oblique
or indirect (oratio obliqua) ; thus, ' Caesar said that he
was about to march.'
131. (A) The MOODS used in the oratio obliqua are the
infinitive and subjunctive, never (unless by an irregularity)
the indicative.
1. All statements in principal sentences in the in-
dicative mood in the oratio recta become infinitives in
the oratio obliqua. Those relative sentences in which
qui = et is or nam is, cum = et turn, etc. (being not
really subordinate sentences), are properly and usually put
in the infinitive.
2. Questions in the indicative mood in oratio recta
are, if closely dependent on a verb of asking, put in the
subjunctive, being in fact ordinary indirect questions ; but,
if they are part of the continuous report of a speech,
they are put in the infinitive if of the first or third person ;
in the subjunctive if of the second person.
<'.(j. Quid facio ? becomes quid (se) facere ?
Quid facis ? becomes quid (ille) faceret ?
Quid facit ? becomes quid (ilium) facere ?
(But rogavit, quid (ipse, ille, etc.) faceret for all
alike.)
OF REPORTED SPEECH 143
3. All subordinate sentences, as also all sentences in
the subjunctive and imperative moods in oratio recta,
are put in the subjunctive.
Darius, qui rex Persarum est, advenit, Darius, ivho is
the king of the Persians, is approaching,
becomes in a reported sentence :
Darium, qui rex Persarum esset, advenire dixerunt,
They said that Darius, who was the king of the Persians,
was approaching.
But in the apodosis to a conditional sentence the imper-
fect and pluperfect subjunctive are (in oratio obliqua)
expressed in the active voice by the future participle with
fuisse : in the passive, by using the periphrasis futurum
fuisse ut. The future participle with esse is used also for
the present (and sometimes for the imperfect) subjunctive
active ; and fore or futurum esse ut for the present
(and sometimes for the imperfect) subjunctive passive.
e.g. Si habeam, dem becomes dixit se daturum
essesihaberet
Si haberem, darem becomes dixit se daturum
fuisse si ha-
beret or habu-
isset
Si mansissem, inter- becomes dixit futurum
fectus essem, fuisse ut inter-
ficeretur, si
mansisset.
132. (B) 1. The tenses of the infinitive are present, or
perfect, or future according as the time would have been
present, past, or future in the oratio recta.
2. The tenses of the subjunctive are usually secondary,
viz. imperfect and pluperfect, especially in commands or
questions ; but the present and perfect are sometimes used,
especially if the verb on which the whole oratio obliqua
depends be in the present.
1 ! 1
KLKMKNTAKY LATIN GRAMMAB
133. (C) In ordinary historical accounts no other pe.wni,
than the third can in general be used. Thus
1. Instead of pronouns of the first person, the pronouns
se, suus, ipse, and instead of pronouns of the second
person, is, ille, are used in the requisite cases.
The pronouns hie, this iiear -uif, and iste, that near //<>u,
are rarely found in oratio obliqua.
(Nos and noster are sometimes used by Caesar of the
Roman people or Roman army generally.)
2. All finite verbs are put in the third person.
134. The following tabular statement of the above
may be useful
(A) MOOD : PRINCIPAL SENTENCES.
Oratio Recta. Oratio Obliqua.
Indicative Infinitive.
In nclive, future ]>art.
with fuisse, or some-
times (for present or
imperfect) esse.
In passive futurum
fuisse ut, etc., or
sometimes (for present.
or imperfect) fore or
futurum esse ut, etc.
Statements
Subjunctive (hypothesis)
, T ,. ,. flst& 3rd pers. Infinitive
rt . , ( Indicative -' . , , .
Questions J (2nd pers. Subjunctive
(Subjunctive Subjunctive
Command* or Imperative |
]'!( ihibitions Subjunctive j
SUBORDINATE SENTENCES.
Indicative )
Subjunctive J
Subjunctive
Subjunctive
OF REPORTED SPEKCII
145
(B) TENSE.
Present [
Future j
Completed Future
Perfect
Imperfect
Subjunctive.
Imperfect, sometimes
Present
Pluperfect, sometimes
Perfect
Imperfect
p, ft/ ordinary Pluperfect
| hypothetical Future participle with
fuerim
Present
Future
Completed Future
Perfect )
Imperfect >
Pluperfect j
Infinitive.
Present
Fut. part, with
Perfect
(C) PERSON.
ego, meus, nos, nos-
ter, tu, tuus, vos,
vester, iste, is, ille.
hie, nunc, often by
se, suus, ipse (usually),
of the subject of the
sentence : is, ille, of
what is not the sub-
ject.
ille, turn, tune
135. The above rules will be best illustrated by the
following extracts
ORATIO RECTA. ORATIO OBLIQUA.
(Is ita cum Caesare
Si pa- egit) : Si pacem populus
cem populus Romanus Romanus cum Helvetiis
cum Helvetiis fa,ciet, in faceret, in earn partem
earn partem ibunt atque ibi ituros atque ibi futures Hel-
erunt Helvetii, ubi tu eos vetios, ubi eos Caesar con-
constituem atque esse stituisset atque esse volu-
voluerzs; sin bello persequi
sin bello persequi
146
ELEMENTARY LATIX GRAMMAR
ORATIO RECTA.
persevera&is, reminiscitor et
veteris incommodi populi
Bomani et pristinae vir-
tutis Helvetiorum. Quod
improviso unum pagum
adortus es, cum ii qui
flumen trausierant suis
auxilium ferre non pot-
erant, ne ob earn rem aut
tuae magnopere virtuti
tribueris aut nos despezms.
Nos ita a patribus majori-
busque nostris didicmws ut
magis virtute, quam dolo
contendawws aut insidiis
nitamwr. Quare ne com-
jniseris ut hie locus ubi
constitimMs ex calamitate
populi Bomani et inter-
necione exercitus nomen
capiai aut memoriam pro-
Aat (Caes.)
Eo mihi
minus dubitationis dafatr,
quod eas res quas vos
(legati Helvetii) comme-
moTamstis memoria teneo,
atque eo gravius fero quo
minus merito populi Bom.
accidenwf ; qui si alicujus
injuriae sibi conscius fuis-
set, non fuit difficile ca-
vere : sed eo deceptus est,
quod neque commissum a
se intellegeia^ quare time-
ret, neque sine causa
ORATIO OBLIQUA.
perseveraref, TemiwBceretur
et veteris incommodi
populi Bomani et pris-
tinae virtutis Helveti-
orum. Quod improviso
unum pagum adortus esset,
cum ii qui flumen trans-
issent suis auxilium ferre
non -possent, ne ob earn
rem aut suae magnopere
virtuti tribuere* aut ipsos
despice?-ef : se ita a patribus
majoribusque suis didict'sse,
ut magis virtute, quam
dolo contender^ aut in-
sidiis uiterentnr. Quare ne
commi^e?-e^ ut is locus ubi
coustitissent ex calamitate
populi Bomani et inter-
necione exercitus nomen
capered aut memoriam pro-
cieret.
(His Caesar ita re-
spondit) : Eo sibi minus
dubitationis dan', quod
eas res quas legati Hel-
vetii commemorassm^ me-
moria tenerei, atque eo
gravius ferre quo minus
merito populi Bom. ac-
citiLissent : qui si alicujus
injuriae sibi conscius fuis-
set, non fuissc difficile
cavere ; sed eo deceptu?,
quod neque commissum
a se intellegerei quare ti-
meret, neque sine causa
OF REPORTED SPEECH
147
ORATIO RECTA.
timendum puta&a. Quod
si veteris contumeliae
oblivisci voZo, num eti-
arn recentium injuriarum,
quod me invito iter per
provinciam per vim
tempt ash's, quod Aeduos,
quod Ambarros, quod Allo-
brogas vexasfo's,niemoriam
deponere possum ? Quod
vestra victoria tam inso-
lenter gloriemini, quodque
tam diu vos impune in-
jurias tulisse 2 admiramm*,
eodem pertinet. Cum haec
ita sint, tamen si ob-
sides a vobis mihi dabuntur,
uti ea quae pollicemini
facturos intellegam, et si
Aeduis de injuriis, quas
ipsis sociisque eorum in-
tulistis, item si Allobrogi-
bus satisfacie^s, vobiscum.
pacem faciam.
Quid
est levius aut turpius
quam auctore hoste de
summis rebus capere con-
silium ?
ORATIO OBLTQUA.
timendum putaref. Quod
si veteris contumeliae
oblivisci vellct, num etiam
recentium injuriarum,
quod eo l invito iter per
provinciam per vim tem-
ptassewi, quod Aeduos,
quod Ambarros, quod
Allobrogas vexassen^, me-
moriam deponere posse ?
Quod sua victoria tam
insolenter gloriarentur,
quodque tam diu se im-
pune injurias tulisse ad-
m.irarentur, eodem pertinere.
Cum ea ita sint, tamen
si obsides ab eis sibi
dentur, uti ea quae pol-
liceantur facturos intellegaf,
et si Aeduis de injuriis,
quas ipsis sociisque eorum
intulermf, item si Allo-
brogibus satisfaciawf, sese
cum iis pacem esse fac-
turum. (Caes.)
(Tribuni militum nihil
temere agendum existi-
mabant) : Quid esse levius
aut turpius quam auctore
hoste de summis rebus
capere consilium ? (Caes.)
1 eo is used for se because it does not refer to the subject of the
clause in which it occurs.
2 'Have carried off scot-free,' i.e. 'have not been punished far.'
148 KLKMENTAltY LATIN C.KAMMAR
O RATIO RECTA. OllATIO OBLIQUA.
(Litteras ad senatum
Deorum immortalium be- misit,) deum immortalium
nignitate, weis consiliis, benignitate, .SUM consiliis,
patientia militum, Veii patientia militum, Veio*
jam erunt in potestate jam/ore in potestate populi
populi Bomani : quid de Romani : quid de praeda
praeda faciendum censeti* ? faciendum censerent? (Liv.)
136. When an indicative mood is found in the midst of
oratio obliqua, it expresses an assertion of the narrator,
not of the person whose speech is being reported, as
Caesar per exploratores certior factus est, ex ea
parte vici, quam Gallis concesserat, omnes
noctu discessisse. (Caes.)
(The clause quam Gallis concesserat is Caesar's
explanation for the benefit of his readers : the scouts would
describe it to him otherwise.)
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES
137. A simple sentence contains only one assertion. A
cum pound sentence contains two or more assertions, one hv
the side of the other (co-ordinate), usually connected ]>y a
conjunction, or a relative, as
Rem cognoscit et sententiam dicit, J/c limr* flic case
tuul gives his opinion.
A complex sentence contains two or more sentences, of
which one is jn-inri./>(il, and the others si/hon/f/nifc to it.
tfn.l>ni'di.n(ite sentences arc xiil>x1tintlntL f/d/rr/in/J, or <nl-
verbial, according as they tako iht- pbiro of a, subst.-mtive,
an adjective, or an adverb.
138. Sllbstmtivdl sontonces may roprosonf, ;i sn])sl,an-
tivc, in flic nominative or the ;ic.<-us;i,t ive case, ;is
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES 149
(</.) Gratum est quod venisti, Your arrival is welcome,
literally that you have come is welcome.
(b) Scio eum venisse, / know of his arrival, literally /
know him to have come.
(c) Scio cur venerit, / know the purpose of his coming,
literally / know why he came ; a dependent question.
(d) Peto ut omnes poenas dent, / *k for the punish-
ment of all, literally / ask that all may pay penalties.
Such 'sentences as the last are properly sentences of
purpose or result.
139. Adjectival sentences are always introduced by a
relative adjective or adverb.
Hie est quern quaerimus, This is the man we are seeking.
Adverbial sentences qualify verbs or adjectives, and
are introduced by a conjunction or a relative adverb.
The following are the chief ideas denoted by such
sentences :
1. Place, where, whence, whither. (Local) with ubi,
unde, quo, etc.
2. Time, when, during which, until, after, before, as
often as. (Temporal) with cum, ut, dum, postquam,
etc.
3. Manner, as, as though. (Comparative) with ut,
quasi, velut.
4. Purpose, in order that, lest. (Final) with ut, ne,
ut ne.
5. Result, so that. (Consecutive} with ut, ut non.
6. Condition, if, provided that, if only. (Conditional)
with si, dum, dum modo.
7. Cause, because, since. (Causal) with quod, cum,
quia, etc.
8. Concession, although. (Concessive) with etsi, quam-
quam, ut, etc.
150 ELEMENTARY LATIN (J1IAMMAK
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
140. In subordinate sentences the time is determined
by the time of the principal sentence. Hence the present
and perfect subjunctive are used in sentences dependent on
primary tenses, the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive
in sentences dependent on secondary tenses. (The his-
torical present, 106, 2, is treated sometimes as primary,
sometimes as secondary.)
1. In dependent interrogative sentences we have
(a) Vidi (perf.)"! / have seen]
Video ; quid facias I see Ywhat you are doing
Videbo } I shall see )
(b) quid feceris what you Imee done
(c) quid facturus sis what you will do
(d) Videram "j / had seen "\
Videbam /quidfaceres I was seeing Ywhat you were doing
Vidi(aor.)J I saw
(e) quid fecisses irhtif- //<>u liad dmn-
(/) quid facturus esses what you were going
in do
2. In consecutive sentences the sequence is the same,
except that sometimes the perfect subjunctive is used after
a secondary tense to denote a distinct historical fact, as
Inde factum est ut Galli urbem ceperint (not caper-
ent), Hence it //(/j^icucd that the Gauls took the town.
3. In final and jussive sentences the present is used
after primary tenses, the imperfect after secondary tenses.
Occlusit portas ut hostes excludat, lie ha* sJntf lh<>
<J<df* In I'ci'ft oilt tf/C. C/n /ii/f.
Occlusit portas ut hostes excluderet, ITc dud the ijufex
to hep out the enemy.
NOTES ON SOME USES OF THE CASES 151
NOTES ON SOME USES OF THE CASES
141. Some transitive verbs take two accusatives, one
marking the person, the other the thing affected : these
are : doceo, teach ; celo, hide ; posco, flagito, demand ;
rogo, ask ; oro, pray, as
Pacem te omnes oramus, We all pray you for peace.
The latter accusative is retained even after a passive
verb, as
Rogatus est sententiam, He was asked his opinion.
142. An accusative is used by the poets after a passive
verb to denote (a) a part of the body, (b) a thing worn,
as
Tunica inducitur artus, His limbs are clothed with a tunic.
Vestes induta recinctas, Clad in high-girt robes.
143. (a) The dative is very common after verbs com-
pounded with a preposition, as
Imponimus onera jumentis, We place burdens on beasts.
But in prose the preposition is often repeated with its
proper case.
(b) The following verbs may be translated by a transitive
verb in English, but in Latin they denote a state, rather
than a direct action, and are therefore followed by the
dative
adversor, am opposed.
aemulor, am rival.
blandior, am coaxing.
diflldo, am distrustful.
displiceo, am displeasing.
faveo, am favourable.
fido, am trustful (so confldo).
irascor, am growing angry.
152 ELEMENTARY LATIN CiKA.M.MAl;
medeor, am healing,
noceo, din hurtful.
nubo, take the veil, i.e. marry (of a woman).
parco, am sparing.
pareo, am obedient.
place o, am pleasing.
praesto, am superior.
satisfacio, do enough for.
servio, am a slave to.
studeo, am zealous.
supplico, am suppliant to.
tempero, am sparing.
And compounds of sum : such as, adsum, am beetle
obsum, am in the way of; praesum, am over',
prosum, am on behalf of, i. e. of use to.
(c) Other verbs take a dative of the person and :m
accusative of the thing, which latter is often omitted, or
replaced by a substantival clause, as
credo, trust.
ignosco, overlook, pardon.
impero, order.
invideo, grudge.
minor, threaten.
persuadeo, persuade.
suadeo, advise.
As hoc tibi credo, I entrust thi* to you; tibi credo, /
believe you-, Crasso invideo divitias, I grudge, C. Ins
wealth; Crasso invideo, / ciinj ('nixxux; imperat
Gallis frumentum, he orders corn of flic <!<iii/s :
imperat servo ut redeat, he orders the slave to rcfuni.
<lative of the agent is used in prose only with
gn-undivo, and sometimes passive |>;irticiples, and adjec-
tives in -bilis.
NOTES ON SOME USES OF THE CASES 153
144. Prepositions are required with the ablative
1. To denote an agent rather than an instrument, as
A Caesare gladio occisus est, He was slain by Caesar
with a sword.
2. When with means in company with, not lij means of,
as
Venit cum due-bus servis, He came with two slaves,
3. To express manner, when no epithet is employed,
(except in a few adverbial expressions), as
Dixit cum prudentia, He spoke with foresight.
4. To denote place ivhere, with a common noun, or the
interior or neighbourhood of a town or country, as
In castris, in the camp ; ad Romam, near Rome ; in
Hispania, in Spain.
But with medius and totus in is usually omitted.
5. Usually to denote place whence, under the same
conditions, as
Ex Italia pulsus est, He was banished from Italy.
De saxo dejectus est, He was thrown down from the rock.
145. The following verbs are followed by an ablative,
which originally denoted the instrument : utor, use (lit.
employ myself) ; vescor, feed on (lit. feed myself) ;
fungor, discharge (lit. busy myself); fruor, enjoy (lit.
enjoy myself) ; nitor, lean on (lit. support myself) ;
potior, master (lit. make myself powerful). So also opus
est, there is work to be done with, i.e. I need ; usus est,
there is employment, i.e. I want.
Oculi suo munere funguntur, The eyes discharge their
function.
Luce fruimur, We enjoy the light.
Opus est nobis animis, We require count ye.
154 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
146. (a) The genitive case is not used, as often in
English, where a part of a thing, not really divided, is
denoted by an adjective, as
Summus mons, The top of the mountain.
Tota urbs, The whole of the city.
A versa chart a, The lack of the paper.
(I) The following impersonal verbs denoting mental
emotion are followed by an accusative of the person and a
genitive of the object or source of the emotion : (me)
miseret, (/) feel pity ; pudet, feel shame ; paenitet, feel
discontent ; piget, feel annoyance ; taedet, feel weariness ;
so also misereor, / feel pity ; but not miseror, / com-
miserate, which takes an accusative : as
Paenitet te fortunae. You are discontented with your lot.
USE OF PRONOUNS
147. Hie is the demonstrative pronoun of the first
person, iste of the second, ille of the third. Hence hie
is used of the nearer, sometimes " the latter " ; ille of the
more remote, sometimes "the former"; (ille is also used
of a well-known person or thing :) iste of something
despised or disliked.
Is denotes some person or thing named in the con-
text, where mere reference without emphasis is required.
148. Se, suus are used with reference to the subject
of the sentence ; sometimes we should use himself, them-
selves, his own, their own, in English, but by no means
always. Thus Caesar Catoni dixit verba ejus sibi
displicere, Caesar told Cato that his (Cato's) words (//*/i/<'<i*n/
him (Caesar). Ipse is an adjective of emphasis : if a
pronoun of the first or second person is not expressed,
it is understood to refer to the third person.
Neque sane, quid ipse sentiret, ostendit, Nor indeed
did he show ivhat he thought himself.
USE OF PRONOUNS 1 ">;")
149. The indefinite pronouns quis, quispiam, aliquis,
quidam are used in affirmative sentences to denote
" some one " ; quis is used thus only in relative sentences,
and after cum, si, nisi, ne, num. Sometimes, if the
sense requires it, they can be used in negative sentences
also, but this is rarely the case except with quis.
Si quis aliquando quidpiam dixerit, If some one has
at some time or other said something.
The pronouns quisquam (subst.) and ullus (adj.),
any, are used only in negative sentences and such as
imply a negative : quivis and quilibet, any you please,
may be used in affirmative or, if the sense requires it, in
negative sentences. Compare
Non puto quemquam hoc facere posse, / do not think
that any one at all can do this, with
Non puto quemvis hoc facere posse, / do not think
that any one you please (i.e. every one) can do this.
150. Uterque, each, is used of two only, quisque, each,
of more than two. In the plural uterque and quisque
are used of two sets or groups, and of more than two
sets or groups respectively. Quisque is often used with
se or suus, or with a superlative or an ordinal : as
pro se quisque dixit, each spoke for himself ; optimus
quisque, all the best people; decimus quisque occisus
est, every tenth man was killed. Quisquis, quicunque,
whoever, are properly used as indefinite relatives : as qui-
cunque hoc dicit, errat, whoever says this, is mistaken.
But they are sometimes used when quivis, etc., would be
more exact. Alius is other generally ; alter, the other of
two, or the second; ceteri, the rest. Alius alius is one
another ; alter alter, the one the other; unus et alter
is one or two. If alius is repeated in the same clause it is
translated different : alius aliud videt, different men see
15(1 ELK.MKNTAKY LATIN (iKAM.MAK
151. The first person plural is often used for the
singular
Excurremus legati ad Pisoneni, / duill <j<> p//" * a com-
missioner to Piso.
The second person plural is never used for the singular.
For the indefinite " one " we find such expressions as
(1) The second person singular subjunctive : dicas, one
would say.
(2) quis or aliquis : si quis dicat, if one si wild M/I.
(3) an impersonal : non licet ire, one n/n// //<>f </d.
(4) a relative with is : is qui dicit, one who
USE OF CONJUNCTIONS
152. Et simply connects words and sentences ; atque
adds something on which more stress i,s laid ; -que
generally adds something of less importance to complete
the idea.
As a rule, if there are three co-ordinate \vords a con-
junction is used twice, or else not at all
Summa fide, constantia, justitia, or
Summa fide et constantia et justitia.
Not as in English.
153. Sed, verum, ceterum, autem, vero, at, and
sometimes quod, are used as adversative conjunction
contrast the meaning while connecting sentences ; autem
and vero are never placed first in a clause.
154. Aut, or, is used where the (lill'riviice is important,
vel, or, where it is slight : hence aut aut, either or, sug-
gest that two statements are mutually exclusive, vel vel,
either or (if yon />fc<i*>\ that, lutth may ho tni<\ or that
the choice is unimportant. Sive (seu) sive (seu),
trhrfhrr t>r, arc used when it is uncertain or indifferent
which alternative should Le taken.
INTERROGATIONS 157
INTERROGATIONS
155. In simple questions -ne suggests nothing as to
the answer; videsne ? do you see? nonne suggests an
affirmative answer : nonne vides ? do you not see ? num
suggests a negative answer : num vides? you do not see, do
In alternative questions utrum ? whether ? is often pre-
fixed to the first member, but sometimes -ne is used and
sometimes no particle is employed ; the second is intro-
duced by an.
Utriim hoc nescis an parvi facis? Do you not know
this, or do you care little for it ? (Or nescisne
an ... 9)
Sometimes an introduces a simple question, when it is
asked in consequence of something previously said.
An putas me hoc dixisse ? Do you think, then, that I
said this ?
In dependent simple questions num loses its special
force, and is only introductory ; an is similarly used, but
less commonly.
Rogavit num puer abiisset, He asked whether the boy
had gone away.
Nescio an adsit, / do not know whether he is here.
In dependent alternative questions necne is more
common than annon for " or not."
APPENDIX
A. ROMAN MONEY
THE earliest coinage at Rome was of copper (aes), alloyed
with tin and lead. The chief coin was the as, which was
supposed to weigh a pound, though no extant pieces quite reach
this weight. It was divided into 12 imciae ; and coins were
struck for the half-pound (semis), four ounces (triens), three
ounces (quadrans), two ounces (sextans), and ounce (uncia).
By degrees the as was reduced in weight, until in B.C. 217
it weighed only one uncia, and afterwards only half an uncia.
In B.C. 269 silver coins were first struck, the denarius =10
asses, the quinarius = 5 asses, and the sestertius = 2 J asses.
(Sestertius = semis tertius, a half -as the third, i.e. 2|" asses.)
After B.C. 217 16 asses went to the denarius, and therefore
four to the sestertius ; and the value of the denarius was
reduced to that of * T of a pound of silver. For the time of the
Republic the value of the sestertius was nearly 2d., that of
the denarius about 8jd. Julius Caesar struck a gold coin
called aureus, equal to 25 denarii.
In reckoning money the sestertius was commonly used.
Up to 2000 cardinal numbers are prefixed, e.g. ducentos
sestertios accepit, he received 200 sesterces. But when milia
would have been used, instead of milia sestertium, it was
usual to say sestertia, the genitive plural being taken as a
neuter singular and declined : e.g. septem sestertia misit, he
sent 7000 sesterces. Forms like sestertium sexagena milia,
60,000 sesterces, are, however, also found. In the case of
160 ELEMENTARY LATIN CJJAMMAI!
amounts requiring the use of centum milia, numeral adverbs
were prefixed ; and as the use of these always implied centum
milia, these words were usually omitted : thus vicies sester-
tium = vicies centum milia sestertium, 2,000,000 sesterces.
Witli such numbers sestertium was again declined, but only in
the singular : e.g. sestertio decies fundum emi, / Imuuht Hie.
estate for a million (sesterces). Mille sestertium = 8 10s.
nearly ; decies sestertium = 8500 nearly. (Translate Accepi
vicies ducenta triginta quinque milia quadringentos decem
et septem nummos. Cic.)
Interest was in early times at the rate of -^. T of the capital
for a year of ten months (equal to 10 per cent for twelve
months), or fenus unciarium. Afterwards interest was cal-
culated, as in Greece, by the month, and the legal rate was , ^ n>
of the capital (sors) each month, i.e. 12 per cent. This was
called centesima. Lower rates were denoted by names derived
from the fractions of the as, e.rj. usurae quadrantes = .. per
cent : higher rates by distributive numerals, e.y. quinae cen-
tesimae = 60 per cent.
The most common measures were
Weight : libra = | of a pound Troy.
Length : pes =11-6 English inches ; passus = 5 pedes.
Surface: jugemm = about | of an English acre.
Capacity: sextarius = nearly a pint; modius = nearly a
peck.
B. ROMAN RECKONING OF TIME
The year was generally described by the names of the two
consuls who held office din-ing it. .It was commonly dated l>y
the number of years that had elapsed since, the. foundation of
the city, attributed to B.C. 753. Thus "in B.C. (53" would be
expressed anno urbis conditae sexcentesimo nonagesimo
primo M. Tullio Cicerone et C. Antonio consulibus.
The year was originally divider! into ten months, beginning
with March : the, names were mensis Martius (//" month <>f
Mar*\ Aprilis (of opniin<j\ Maius (of ifmii-tli\ Junius (of
thriving ty, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, Novem-
APPENDIX 161
her, December (the ffth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth
months}. To these were afterwards added Januarius (the month
of beginning farm work}, and Februarius (of cleansing}. After
B.C. 153 the year was held to begin with January 1st. In B.C.
44, after the murder of Julius Caesar, the month Quin tills was
called Julius in his honour, and in B.C. 8 the month Sextilis
received the name Augustus in honour of the Emperor
Augustus.
The days of the month were computed from three days in
each, called respectively Kalendae, Nonae, and Idus. The
name of the month was added to these as an adjective in agree-
ment. The Kalends were the first days of each month, on
which it was the custom to proclaim (calare) to the people the
name and divisions of the month. The Ides were probably the
days of the shining (root id) of the full moon. The Nones
were nine days (according to the inclusive reckoning of the
Romans) before the Ides.
Up to the time of the reform of the Calendar by Julius
Caesar in B.C. 45, four months March, May, July, and
October had 31 days, seven had 29, and one, February, had 28.
Every other year an intercalated month of 22 or 23 days was
inserted after February 23rd. After the reform the months
were made of the same length as at present, i.e. two days were
added to January, August, and December, and February 24th
(the sixth day before March 1st) was reckoned twice over in
every fourth year, hence called annus bissextilis.
In the four months originally long the Ides fell on the 15th,
and the Nones consequently on the 7th ; in all the others the
Ides fell on the 13th and the Nones on the 5th.
The days of each month were counted backwards from the
next chief day, the days between the Kalends and the Nones
from the Nones, those between the Nones and the Ides from
the Ides, and those between the Ides and the Kalends of the
next month from the Kalends. The day before was denoted
by pridie, followed by an accusative. In all other cases the
reckoning was inclusive: thus January 13th was "the third
day before the Ides," March 25th " the eighth day before the
Kalends of April." There were two ways of expressing the
M
162
ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
date in Latin : either the preposition ante was omitted alto-
gether, although the case remained the accusative, as if it were
present: e.g. tertio (die ante) Idus Januarias, or it was
transposed, and by an attraction put the ordinal numeral also
into the accusative: e.g. ante diem octavum Kalendas
Apriles, commonly written iii Id. Jan., a.d. viii Kal. Apr.
Sometimes such a phrase as the last is governed by another
preposition, as ex a.d. iii Non. Jim. usque ad prid. Kal.
Sept., from June 3rd to August 31st.
The civil day began at midnight and extended to midnight.
But the natural day was from sunrise to sunset. This period
was divided into twelve hours (horae) of equal length. At
Rome the day in midwinter is rather less than nine hours long ;
at midsummer it is rather more than fifteen hours. Hence a
hora in winter was equal to about forty-five of our minutes, in
summer to about seventy-five. The seventh hour always began
at midday. The night was divided for military purposes into
four watches (vigiliae) of equal length.
The following table gives the days of the months for the
period after B.C. 45. Before that date, the dates in January,
August, and December would answer to those in April, etc.
JANUARY (so Aug. and
Dec.)
1. Kal. Jan.
2. a.d. iv Non. Jan.
3. a.d. iii Non. Jan.
4. Prid. Non. Jan.
5. Non. Jan.
6. a.d. viii Id. Jan.
7. a.d. vii Id. Jan.
8. a.d. vi Id. Jan.
12. Prid. Id. Jan.
13. Id. Jan.
14. a.d. xix Kal. Feb.
15. a.d. xviii Kal. Feb.
16. a.d. xvii Kal. l'Vl>.
30. a.d. iii Kal. Feb.
31. Prid. Kal. Feb.
February is like April, except that Feb. 14th is a.d. xvi Kal.
Mart, and so on to Feb. 28th, which is Prid. Kal. Mart.
MARCH (so May,
Arm i, (so June,
July, October).
Sept. Nov.)
Kal. Mart.
Kal. Apr.
a.d. vi Non. Mart.
a.d. iv Non. Apr.
a.d. v Non. Mart.
a.d. iii Non. Apr.
a.d. iv Non. Mart.
Prid. Non. Apr.
a.d. iii Non. Mart.
Prid. Non. Mart.
Non. Apr.
a.d. viii Id. Apr.
Non. Mart.
a.d. vii Id. A pi 1 .
a.d. viii Id. Mart.
a.d. vi Id. Apr.
a.d. iv Id. Mart.
I'ri.l. Id. Apr.
a.d. iii Id. Mart.
Prid. Id. Mart.
Id. Apr.
a.d. xviii Kal. Mai.
Id. Mart,
a.d. xvii Kal. Mai.
a.d. xvii Kal. Apr.
a.d. xvi Kal. Mai.
a.d. iii Kal. Apr.
Prid. Kal. Mai.
Prid. Kal. Apr.
APPENDIX
163
C. RELATIONS B? BLOOD AND MARRIAGE
1.
proavus
avus =
1
avia
pro
av
1VUS
is = avia
1
patruus
patruelis
I
amita
1
amitinus
1 1
pater = mater
avunculus
1
amitinus (?)
1
matertera
I
consobrinus
1 1
frater ego
I
soror
filius
I
nepos
overca = pate
(step-
nother)
r = mater = vitricus
(step-
father)
socer=
(father-
in-law)
= socrus
(mother-
in-law)
\ 1 ^
nurus = filiu
L_
nepos nept
s fi
is ne
. ! .1.
privignus pnvigna
ia = gener
pos
I
neptis
D. ABBREVIATIONS
A Roman had always two names, sometimes three, or even
more. The first (praenomen) denoted the individual, the second
(nomen) the gens or " house " from which he came, the third
(cognomen) the family within the gens to which he belonged, if
the " house " was so divided. There was often also an agnomen,
a personal or inherited surname. The praenomina were coni-
monlv abbreviated as follows
164 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
A. Aulus. Mam. Mamercus.
App. Appius. N. or Num. Numerius.
C. Gaius. P. Publius.
Cn. Gnaeus. Q. Quintus.
D. Deciinus. S. or Sex. Sextus.
K. Kaeso. Ser. Servius.
L. Lucius. Sp. Spurius.
M. Marcus. T. Titus.
M'. Manius. Ti. Tiberius.
In old Latin C was used for C and G alike : hence its re-
tention to denote Gaius and Gnaeus.
E. ROMAN WRITERS
The following dates of Roman writers are to be remembered
T. Maccius Plautus, B.C. 254-184; comedies.
P. Terentius Afer, B.C. 185-159; comedies.
M. Tullius Cicero, B.C. 106-43 ; speeches, treatises on philo-
sophy and rhetoric, letters.
C. Julius Caesar, B.C. 101-44 ; history of his wars (other
writings not preserved).
Cornelius Nepos (rather later) ; lives of famous men.
T. Lucretius Cams, B.C. 90-55 ; philosophical poem.
C. Valerius Catullus, B.C. 87-54 ; poetry of various kinds.
C. Sallustius Crispus, B.C. 87-34 ; history.
P. Vergilius Maro, B.C. 70-19 ; rural and epic poems.
Q. Horatius Flaccus, B.C. 65-8 ; lyrical, satirical, and moral
poems.
T. Livius, B.C. 59 A.D. 16 ; history of Rome.
Albius Tibullus, B.C. 54 B.C. 19 ; love poetry.
Sex. Propertius, B.C. 50 after B.C. 16 ; love poetry.
P. Ovidius Naso, B.C. 43 A.D. 17 ; poetry of various kinds.
Phaedrus (about this time) ; fables in verse.
Of later writers the most noteworthy are the philosopher,
Seneca ; the satirist, Persius ; the epic poets, Lucan, Valerius,
Silius, and Statins ; the learned Pliny, and his nephew Pliny
the Younger, who has left many letters ; Quintilian, who wrote
on rhetoric ; Tacitus, the historian ; and Juvenal, the satirist.
APPENDIX 165
F. PROSODY AND METRE
1. Metre in Latin verse consists in a regular succession of
long and short syllables, and is not determined by accent, as in
English verse.
2. A syllable is long, if the vowel is either (1) long by
nature, or (2) long by position.
Diphthongs, and vowels resulting from contraction, are long
by nature, as aurum, cogo (for cdlgo).
3. Vowels are made long by position, if they are followed
by two consonants, whether in the same word or in two different
words, as pater est, but pater dat. But if the vowel was
originally short, the short quantity may be retained before a
mute (p, 6, c, g, t, d) or /, followed by a liquid (r, I) in the
same word, as aper, aprum or aprum.
4. Vowels are short which come before another vowel, or h
followed by a vowel, in the same word, as deus, traho.
Long vowels and diphthongs are shortened before another
vowel in composition, as pra~eustus.
Except sometimes in the genitives of pronouns in -lus, in
the genitive of e-stems in -ei, in fio (except before -er), and in
Greek words.
5. In words of more than one syllable, a final
a and e are short, except that a is long in
(a) ablative of a-stems, mensa ;
(6) imperative of a-verbs, ama ;
(c) indeclinable words, contra (but ita, quia).
e is long in
(a) cases of e-stems, facie ;
(6) imperative of e- verbs, mone ;
(c) adverbs from o-stems, docte (but be'ne', male),
i is long, except in quasi and nisi ; it is common in
mihi, tlbi, sibi, ubi, Ibi.
o is long, except in Sg6, citd, dud, mdd5.
(In later poetry some other words have o common.)
u is long.
166 ELEMENTARY LATIN GRAMMAR
6. Final syllables ending in a single consonant, except s,
are short. But in compounds of par this is long, as dispar ; and
also in illuc, istuc ; in lllic, istic (nom.) it is common.
7. Of final syllables in s
as, 6S, OS, are long ;
is, US, are short.
But (1) when the genitive ends in -6tis, -Itis, -Idis, the
nominative is e"S, as milSs, obsgs ; with the exception
of abies, aries, paries.
(2) abe"s, etc., from absum, etc., pone's (preposition), exds,
compds, imp6s.
(3) is in (a) accusative, dat., and abL plur., as omnis,
mensis.
(6) 2nd sing. pres. ind. of i-verbs, as audis.
(c) velis, nolis, mails, possis (and other com-
pounds of sum).
(d) 2nd pers. sing. fut. perf. and perf. subj., as
amavSris, where it is common.
(4) us in (a) gen. sing, and nom. and ace. plur. of u-stems.
(6) nom. sing, of nouns where the stem lias
long u, as palus, paludis ; virtus, vir-
tutis.
[There are many Greek words used in Latin poetry to
which these rules do not apply ; and some exceptions, not often
occurring, have been omitted.]
In monosyllables the following exceptions to the above rules
are to be noted : e, me, te, se, ne ; die, hie (adverb), hie (pro-
noun), sic, hoc, hue, due ; sal, sol ; en, quin, sin, non ; far,
lar, par, ver, cur, fur ; 6s, glis, vis, lis ; grus, sus. Notice
also 6s (ossis), but 6s (oris).
8. When a word ending in a vowel or diphthong was
followed by another beginning with a vowel or h, the fin.il
vowel or diphthong of the former word was omitted or slunv.l
over in pronunciation, so as not to count as a syllable in the
verse. This is called elision.
A final ra was pronounced so lightly as not to prevent
elision. Thus ilium habet, ipse adest, vive hodie are read
as equal to ill-abet, ips-adest, viv-odie.
APPENDIX 167
). The metres most usual in Latin verse are (1) Hexameters,
(2)
The hexameter verse consists of six measures, each either a
dactyl or a spondee. In a dactyl, one long syllable is followed
by two short ones (- ^) ; in a spondee there are two long
syllables ( ). A dactyl is therefore equal in metrical length
to a spondee.
In a hexameter the first four measures or feet may be dactyls
or spondees at pleasure ; the fifth is always (with rare excep-
tions) a dactyl, the sixth a spondee. (The last syllable of a
line, if not long by nature, is counted so for the metre.) There
is always a caesura, i.e. a place where a word ends in the
middle of a foot, either in the third foot, or in the fourth, or
commonly in both.
e.y. Pellibus| mcubu|itl|stra|tis som nosque pe|tivit.
10. Elegiac couplets consist of a hexameter, followed by a
pentameter. The pentameter consists of two parts, each answer-
ing to the first two feet and a half of the hexameter, except
that in the latter half spondees are not admitted. Thus
e.g. Optima | cum ca|ra[| matre re|hcta sor|or.
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POCKET
Acme Library Card Pocket
LOWE-MARTIN CO. LIMITED
