An elementary Spanish grammar

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IVIicrosoft Corporation

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THE OXFORD SPANISH SERIES

EDITED BY

JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, F.B.A.

CERVANTES PROFESSOR OF SPANISH IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON

AN

ELEMENTARY

SPANISH GRAMMAR

BY

B. SANIN CANO

L^S'^i

^*

itTm.

O X f O R D

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1918

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK

TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY

HUMPHREY MILFORD

PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY

PREFACE

The author of this grammar has endeavoured to follow
the recommendations made by the Joint Committee on
Grammatical Terminology so far as those recommenda-
tions are applicable to the structure of the Spanish
language. The scheme put forward by the Joint Com-
mittee does not specially envisage the terminology of
Spanish grammar. The Spanish conjugation has impor-
tant peculiarities which, perhaps, call for the adoption oi
a special nomenclature for certain tenses of the subjunctive
mood (and even of the indicative). Yet, as the anarchy in
Spanish is, in this respect, even greater than in English
or French, the author has deemed it advisable to adopt
the recommendations of the Joint Committee for the sake
of uniformity and simplicity. Though not beyond criticism,
they tend on the w^hole to diminish the confusion wrought
in the minds of all students by the lack of a uniform
terminology.

In spite of the fact that the use of the term Direct Object
is not recommended by the Joint Committee, the author
has found himself compelled to employ it in order to avoid
misunderstanding : this misunderstanding might arise
from the fact that the term Indirect Object is included
among the recommendations, and is used in the present
work. The term Future in the Past has been adopted for
uniformity's sake. It is well, however, to state at this
point that the term does not cover every shade of meaning
which this tense may convey in Spanish : it has at any

42i)74b

iv PREFACE

rate the advantage of resembling the term used ,to
designate this tense in Spanish America ; that designation
is supported by the authority of Andres Belio, whose
methods and principles have been followed by the author
whenever it was possible, due regard being had to the
new aspects of the language and to the results of recent
investigation. Care has been taken to conform to recog-
nized usage, even when that usage appears to be at
variance with traditional rules.

In the matter of accentuation, the latest rules issued by
the Spanish Academy have been consistently followed,
even in cases where the Dictionar^^ of that learned body
is not in accord with those rules.

The author desires to express his indebtedness to the
general editor. Professor Fitzmaurice- Kelly has given
invaluable help by making many useful suggestions and in
reading the proofs.

B. SANIN CANO.

London, October 1918.

CONTENTS

PAGE

I. Pronunciation:

The Alphabet ....... i

Vowels I

Consonants 2

Accentuation .6

Division of Syllables 9

II. The Article . . . . . . . . 10

III. Nouns . .13

IV. Nouns {continued) :

Number . . . . . . . .18

V. The Adjective .22

Position of the Adjective 23

Hablar, to speak. First Conjugation ... 25

VI. The Adjective (continued) . . . . . 27
Hablar, to speak. First Conjugation . . 29
Feminine Endings of Nouns . . . .31

VII. Pronouns :

Personal Pronouns . . . . , -32

Possessive Adjectives 35

Possessive Pronouns ••.... 35
Hablar, to speak. First Conjugation . . 37

VIII. Auxiliary Verbs . . . . . . .40

^Conjugation of Haber, to have . . . .40

>s The Verb Ser, /o ^^ . . . ... 42

IX. Regular Verbs:

-\ Conjugation of Hablar, to speak ... 45

\ Aprender, to learn. Second Conjugation . 46

Numerals .' 48

Recibir, to receive. Third Conjugation . . 51

The Tenses of the Indicative Mood ... 52

vi CONTENTS

PAGE

X. The Adjective :

Degrees of Comparison . . . . .58

Demonstrative Adjectives .... 59

Reflexive Pronouns 60

The Superlative 63

j^^^^onjugation of Estar, to be, to stay, to remain 64

Neuter Gender 69

XI. Relative Pronouns 71

,J^^Conjugation of Tener, to have, to hold . . 73

XII. Relative Pronouns (continued) .... 77

Conjugation of Decir, to say, to tell (irregular) 79

\^ Spanish Forms of Address .... 80

XIII. The Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood . . 85

Conjugation of Querer, to want, to wish, to

love, to be fond of (irregular) ... 91

XIV. Impersonal Verbs 96

Conjugation of Saber, to know (irregular) . 98

XV. Examples of the Spanish Use of the Sub-
junctive Mood in its Various Forms com-
pared with the Indicative .... 104

XVI. Ordinal Numbers and Indeterminate Pronouns i 14
Indeterminate Pronouns and Adjectives , .118

XVII. Augmentatives and Diminutives — Prefixes and

Suffixes—Letter-writing .... 127

Prefixes - 131

Suffixes ....*.... 133

Letter-writing . 136

XVIII. Adverbs J . 141

XIX. Prepositions 154

Conjugation of Ir, to go , . . . . 162

XX. Prepositions {continued) 167

Conjugation of Venir, to come . . • 174

XXI. Conjunctions 179

Conjugation of Poner, to put, to lay (irregular) 184

CONTENTS vii

PAGE

XXII. Syntax of the Noun, Verb, and Adjective . 189

Conjugation of Caer, /o /a// (irregular) . 197

XXI II. Verbals (Derivados verbales) .... 202

Conjugation of Caber, to be contained in

(irregular) 210

XXIV. Present Participle and Gerund . . . 215

XXV. The Past Participle and Passive Voice . 225
Conjugation of Traer, to bring to, to carry to

(irregular) 236

XXVI. The Place of the Object Pronouns in the

Sentence— The Article— Interjections . 241

The Use of the Definite Article . . . 242

Interjections 249

V^Conjugation of Hacer, to make (irregular) . 251
^ Conjugation of Andar, to go, to walk

(irregular) . . . . . . . 251

Conjugation of Oir, /o /j^ar .... 252

Conjugation of Ver, /o s^6? .... 252

Conjugation of Dar, to give .... 253

XXVII. Word Order 257

Conjugation of Poder, to be able (irregular) . 266

XXVIII. Appendix: The Verb . . , . . 273

XXIX. List of the Principal Irregular, Anoma-
lous, and Defective Verbs .... 289

SPANISH VOCABULARY .297

ENGLISH VOCABULARY . . . . . .322

I

PRONUNCIATION

THE ALPHABET

1. — There are thirty different signs in the Spanish
alphabet : a, b, c, ch, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, 1, 11, m, n, n, o,
p, q, r, rr, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z.^ Their names in
Spanish are : a, be, ce, che, de, e, efe, ge, hache, i, jota,
ka, ele, elle, erne, ene, efie, o, pe, cu, ere, erre, ese, te,
u, ve, ve doble (or doble u), equis, ye (or i griega), zeta.

Vowels.

2. — The Spanish alphabet has only live vowel sounds,
corresponding to the letters a, e, i, o, u. The letter y at
the end of a word, or when it makes a word by itself,
represents the vowel sound of Spanish i. There is only
one sound for every Spanish vowel. The accent or stress,
and sometimes the number of consonants following, may
make the sound longer, but Spanish prosody does not
take these variations into account, and the five signs may
be regarded as corresponding to five different and in-
variable sounds. They are pronounced as follows : a like
a in far ; e like e in debtor; i like t in litany ; o like 0 in
border ; u like u in bull.

^ The Spanish Academy assigns only twenty-eight letters to the alpha-
bet : w and rrare excluded {Gramdtica Castellana, Madrid, 1913, p. 7). Yet
the same authority (p. 324), when classifying the consonants according
to the old system, places the y, r, and rr under the heading of palatals.
And further on (p. 376) the Academy says : ^ ch and 11, letters which are
single in their pronunciation and double in their representative signs,
must never be divided. . . . The rr is in the same case.'

2 PRONUNCIATION

i3.— The vowel sounds in Spanish are either strong
(llenas), a, e, o, or weak (debiles), i, u. This classification
should be kept in mind in order to determine whether two
or three contiguous vowels form a diphthong or triphthong
or not.

a. Two strong vowels do not form a diphthong : canoa
has three syllables ; leo and trae have two. A strong and
a weak vowel form a diphthong only when the stress does
not fall on the weak vowel : bien has one syllable ;
Europa has three. A combination of a strong with a weak
sound, bearing the stress on the weak vowel, forms two
syllables : baul has two syllables, oido three. Two weak
vowels can form a diphthong, but in some cases they
make two different syllables ; ruin has one syllable ; fuf
sounds like a diphthong ; but ruido has three syllables,
according to its Latin derivation (rugitus) and to the
general usage of Spanish poets.

b. Three vowels (two of them necessarily weak) form
a triphthong if the intermediate one is strong and the
stress falls on it. Ansiais has two syllables ; buey has
one.

Consonants,

4. — There is a substantial difference between Spanish
and English in the pronunciation of the vowels and con-
sonants. In Spanish the vowels are pronounced very
distinctly and without shades, except the stress of the
accented syllable. In English the variety of shades in the
pronunciation of vowels is so great that a foreigner is apt
to think they are pronounced rather indistinctly. The
consonants are in Spanish softer as a rule, and are not
sounded very distinctly, while in English they are sounded
clearly and with a certain stress.

5. — The following consonants have more or less the
same value in the two languages, save that they are
sounded less emphatically in Spanish :

PRONUNCIATION

barco, bronce.
carta, cruento,
cura,

ancho.
dedo, sed.^
frio, fuego.
Kabila,
ley, lobo, sal.
amor, mas.
antes, nada, no.
copo, paso, por.

b softer than in English

c strong before a, o, u or before an-
other consonant, like the c in cat
and crop

ch like English ch in charm

d softer than in English

f

k
1

m
n

p softer than in English

6. — In Spanish the following consonants have not the
same sounds as in English :

c before e or i \ cerca, cielo.

z before all I like English th in hazte, lazo, zo-

vowels or f thin ly^a,

consonants y

a. In Mexico, and in Central and South America, c before
e and i, and z before all vowels or consonants, are pro-
nounced like s.

7. — h is mute in Spanish hacha, hilo.

g before e or i. This is a peculiar gente, gitano.
Spanish sound, very strongly gut-
tural, resembling the Scotch ch in
loch

j before all vowels is pronounced like crujir, jamas,
the foregoing g joven.

g before a, o, u and before a con- augur, ganso,
sonant sounds like English g in gloria, grano,
garter lago.

^ In some parts of Spain and Spanish America there is a tendency to
drop the final d and say uste instead of listed. The termination -ado of
the past participle is pronounced sometimes as -ao, e.g. alabao instead of
alabado. The practice should not be encouraged. The Spaniards of
Madrid say improperly Madriz, ustez, instead of Madrid, usted.

B 2

PRONUNCIATION

gue, gui sound like English gu in amiguito, guerra.

guild
In giie, giii the three sounds g, u, and aguero, yeguita.

e (or i) are pronounced distinctly

a. In order to keep before e and i the hard sound
of c or g in forms derived from words having either
of these sounds in the last syllable before a or o, qu
is substituted for c, and gu for g : sacar, to draw,
saque, I drew; saco, bag, saquito, a small bag;
llegar, to arrive, llegue, I arrived ; algo, something,
alguito, a little. This rule must be borne in mind in
the conjugation of verbs ending in car or gar and
in the formation of derivatives.

8. — 11. This is a peculiar Spanish
sound similar to the English // in
brilliant or to the Italian gli in
scoglio

fi sounds like the English combination
of n and e in news

que, qui. In Spanish this combina-
tion is sounded like ke, ki in
English

r at the beginning of a word or after a
consonant in the middle of a word
has a strongly trilled sound, which
does not exist in English pronun-
ciation

r between two vowels, between a vowel
and a consonant, or at the end of
a word has a softer sound, as in
the English word round

rr occurs only between two vowels
and sounds like the initial r

s has always the sound of the initial
English 5 in soft. In Old Spanish

brillante.

cana, canon, se-

nuelo.
queso, aqui.

cobre, drama,
enredo, is-
raelita, rata.

cara, carta, ir.

carro, correr,
tierra.
asi, 030, rosa.

PRONUNCIATION

(before the seventeenth century)
the s had probably two sounds as
in French and Italian, but now
only one is used

t is pronounced almost like the English
/ in tellf but is not so markedly
explosive as in English

V There was a difference in the pro-
nunciation of b and v in Spanish
before the sixteenth century, but
since then usage has been uncer-
tain. At present the two letters
are pronounced alike both in
Spain and Spanish America. To
pronounce the Spanish v like the
French or Italian v is an affecta-
tion

w is sounded like th% English w in
Spanish words of English origin
and like the German w in the
Gothic names retained in Spa-
nish. The Gothic names may
also be spelt with a v

X is a double sound as in English :
between two vowels it is the equi-
valent of ks ; before a consonant
it can be represented as gs

y as a consonant between two vowels
or at the beginning of a word
sounds like the English y in you,
but is more emphatically pro-
nounced

antes, bota, tie,
toma.

hervir, uva, vaca,
vino.

Wamba or Vam-
ba.

examen (eksa-
men), texto.

Mayo, ya, yeso.

9. — Double consonants occur rarely in Spanish. The
rr is not, properly speaking, a double consonant : it has
the value of a single sound. The only consonants now

6 PRONUNCIATION

doubled are c and n. Double c occurs only before e or i,
the first sign being sounded k and the second th (as th in
thin): acci6n (akthion); acceder. Double n must be
pronounced so as to make the two letters sound distinctl}^
and separately : innocuo (in — n). The double s is used
only in two Spanish words: oessudoeste or uessudueste.
In these cases the two s's of the double sign are pro-
nounced distinctly and separately.

10. — There are some differences between the pronunciation
Spanish in Spain and in Spanish America : they are not of
great importance and any foreigner able to understand Spanish
as it is spoken in Spain will also understand the Spanish of
America. We have already mentioned the pronunciation of ce,
ci, and z in America. The 11 sounds like the consonant y in
some Spanish provinces and in some parts of Spanish America,
and in some parts of the same continent Hover, instead of being
pronounced gliover, giving to 11 the sound of the Italian gli
before a vowel, sounds more Hke chover. This, of course, is
incorrect, and people who know the language never pronounce
the 11 like oh.

The dropping of the d at the end of words is also an in-
correct practice which is followed in some parts of Spain and
of Spanish America. The correct pronunciation, though, is not
regarded as an affectation.

Accentuation.

11. — In order to avoid difficulties as to the pronunciation
of words with regard to the syllable bearing the stress,
Spanish writers have adopted of late a system of accen-
tuation now generally followed in all Spanish-speaking
countries.

Words having the stress on the syllable before the last
and ending in a vowel or in n or s, and words ending in
a consonant (except n or s) and having the stresis on the
last syllable, do not require the graphic accent : caballo,
casa, crimen, crisis, elefante. Muni, tribu, abril, Haba-
cue, ciudad, feroz, reloj, zigzag.

PRONUNCIATION 7

12. — Words not included in the above rule bear the
graphic accent, e.g. alii, anis, drbol, canape, capitdn,
cardcter, dejesemele, digotelo, Idmpara, murcielago,
Paisandu, patatus.

a. Monosyllables (except certain verbal forms) do not
require the graphic accent : pie, bien, Dios.

13. — Words having the stress on the last syllable and
ending in two vowels followed or not by a consonant must
have the graphic accent when the stress falls on a weak
vowel : Bails, laud, oir, pais, raiz, Raul.

14. — Words having the stress on the syllable before the
last and ending in two vowels, followed or not by n or s,
must have the accent marked on the weak vowel when
this vowel bears the stress : duo, Elias, frio, insiniian,
mercancia, pedian, podias.

15. — Words containing a stressed weak vowel followed
by a diphthong and the letter s have the accent indicated
on the stressed weak vowel : these words are generally
verbal forms : serials, subiriais. When the stress falls
on the strong vowel, in words of this form, they have also
the graphic accent, according to the general rule : auxi-
liais, cambiais, insinueis.

16. — When there is a diphthong in the syllable which,
according to the rules, should have the accent marked,
this mark is put on the strong vowel or on the second
weak vowel, if both are weak : alzapie, benjui, cienaga,
despues, dueleme, Fabidn, fraguo, oracidn.

17. — The monosyllabic verbal forms containing a diph-
thong have the graphic accent : fio (he trusted), fie (I
trusted), lie (I tied), fue (he was), dio (he gave), vi6 (he
saw), fui (I was). It is to be noted that the first three
words if not marked with the accent might be pronounced
differently and so give rise to confusion : fio (I trust), fie
(let him trust), lie (let him tie).

18. — Words of identical form are sometimes distin-
guished from one another by the use of the graphic
accent:

8 PRONUNCIATION

de, pref>osition (of) de, he give (subjunctive)

el, article (the) el, pronoun (he)

mas, but m4s, more

mi, my mi, me

se, pronoun se, I know, be thou

si, if si, yes, himself etc.

tu, thy tu, thou.

a. Some writers distinguish te (tea) and te (thee). But
the Academy in its Dictionary does not accentuate either
word graphically.

b, — Aun is accentuated (aun) when it comes after the
verb to which it refers. Aun no llega; no ha llegado
a6n.

c» Que, quien, cual, cuyo, cuando, donde, como,
cuanto, have the graphic accent in interrogative or ex-
clamatory sentences : i Que hora es? (What time is it ?) ;
; Cudn fdcilmente lo dice ! (How easily he says it !)

d. Solo has the accent marked when it is used like an
adverb instead of solamente.

e, Este, ese, aquel, esta, esa, aquella, and their plurals
have their graphic accent when the noun to which they
refer is omitted in the sentence.

Exercise in Pronunciation and Accentuation.

Acabado. Alcantara. Baratija. Baraunda. Buey.
Cabarrus. Cascara. Ceceo. Cisco. Debilidad. Decenio.
Desahucio. Descepar. Desmejorado. Diaz. Documenta-
cion. Estio. Extatico. Extremadura. Felicisimamente.
Feliz. Fie. Fie. Fi'o. Frenillo. Garra. Gesticulaciones.
Giganteo. Horroroso. Huerfano. Hui'da. Incineracion.
Inmenso. Innecesario. Irun. Jergon. Jinete. Joroba.
Kilogramo. Kilometro. Kirie. Lancha. Lapislazuli. Laud.
Laudes. Lejania. Lio. Lio. Llaneza. Llover. Machacar.
Mahometano. Malla. Mercaderia. Montevideo. Mudejar.
Noguera. Norzagaray. Oscilacion. Osculo. Ostracismo.
Pie. Pie. Pie. Polio. Poyo. Quer^taro. Quezaltenango.
Ramirez. Regara. Regara. Regimen. Rei. Rey.

PRONUNCIATION 9

Rodado, Seais. Seduciais. Seduciriais. Sosegan'as.
Sustentaculo. Tiepolo. Traicion. Traido. Tiiy. Vedia.
Vejamen. Venancio. Vidrioso. Vivienda. Wamba.
• Yegua. Yeguita. Zarabanda. Zarzuela. Zizana.

Division of Syllables.

19. — The following are the rules concerning the division
of words into syllables :

a. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the
second vowel. LI and rr, which represent single con-
sonantal sounds, follow this rule, and eh (although com-
posed of two different sounds, d and sh) is also considered
as a single consonant for the purpose of this rule :

a-Ui, ca-ra-co-les, ca-rri-co-che, co-rre-de-ra, me-sa,
va-ca, za-bu-Uir.

b. The first of two consonants placed between two
vowels goes, as a rule, with the preceding syllable, the
second with the following syllable :

ar-bol, cos-ta, in-cien-so.
But the combinations br, or, dr, fr, gr, pr, tr, and bl, el,
fl, gl, pi, go with the following syllable :
ca-bra, lu-cro, e-gre-gio, a-troz.
do-ble, de-cla-ro, ri-fle, se-giar, co-pla.

c. Three consonants comprising the above-mentioned
combinations are divided so that the first consonant goes
with the preceding syllable and the other two with the
following syllable :

an-clar, con-tra, ex-plo-sion, in-fras-cri-to, siem-bro.
If the second of the three consonants is an s, the first
two consonants go with the preceding syllable :
cons-pi-ra-cion, cons-ti-tu-ye, ins-tan-te, obs-ta-cu-lo.

d. Four consonants between two vowels are divided so
that the first two go with the preceding syllable :

ads-cri-bir, cons-truc-cion, ins-tru-men-to.

lo PRONUNCIATION

e. Prefixes like ab, des, sub, are exceptions to the
preceding rules :

ab-e-rran-te, des-a-ten-der, sub-lu-nar.
Nosotros, vosotros are divided thus : nos-o-tros, vos-
o-tros.

f. Diphthongs and triphthongs are inseparable :

an-cia-no, a-ve-ri-giieis, di-gdis.

The first or the last vowel of a word, even it it forms a
syllable by itself, should not be separated from the rest of the
word when it comes at the end of the line.

Divide the following words into syllables : adviento,
antracita, arrellanarse, caramelo, carrera, carricoche, con-
llevar, connotado, conspicuo, construyo, contribuyente,
desorientado, desunion, excelente, laudable, murcielago,
nosotras, sublunar, subrepticio, transferir.

II

THE ARTICLE

20. — The English definite article the is rendered in
Spanish by the words el, la, los, las. El is masculine
singular, la feminine singular, los masculine plural, and
las feminine plural.

el padre, the father.
la madre, the mother.
los hermanos, the brothers.
las hermanas, the sisters.
21. — The English indefinite article a, an is rendered in
Spanish by the words un (masc. singular), una (femin.
singular), which have a plural form unos (masc), unas
(fem.), equivalent to the indeterminate adjective some,
un hombre, a man ; unos hombres, men, some men.
una mujer, a woman; unas mujeres, women, some
women.

THE ARTICLE ii

22. — Thedefinite feminine article la cannot be used before
a feminine name beginning with a stressed a or ha ; in this
case el takes the place of la.

El dguila (fern.), the eagle.
El agua (fem.); the water.
El hacha (fem.), the axe.

But this change does not occur before an adjective : la
alta montana, the high mountain.

23. — The article el when preceded by the preposition
a loses its first letter and forms a single word with the
preposition : al viento, to the wind. The same change
occurs when preceded by de : del cuarto vecino, from the
next room.

24. — Possession is expressed in Spanish by means of
the preposition de : la hermana de Pablo, Paul's sister ;
or by means of the possessive adjectives as will be explained
further on.

25. — Negation in Spanish is expressed by the adverb
no, which is always placed before the verb. There is no
need of an auxiliary verb in negative or interrogative
sentences.

Juan no es rico.- John is not rich.

Ella no sabe. She does not know.

26. — Interrogative sentences are formed by placing the
verb before the subject.

I Es Juan rice ? Is John rich ?

^Sabe ella? Does she know?

Note that the interrogation is put at the beginning of the
sentence in an inverted form Q).

12

THE ARTICLE

Vocabulary.

[m, means masculine noun; /., feminine noun; adj\,
adjective; adv,, adverb; prep., preposition; conj., con-
junction.]

2iy prepay to.

abrir, to open ; abre, he

opens.
\ahora, adv,y now.
Alberto, w., Albert.
amigo, m,y friend ; amiga,

/., female friend,
bien, adv.y well,
casa,/., house.
cuando, adv.^ when.
• I cudndo ?, when ?
de, prep.y of, from,
en, prep,y in, at.
ensenar, to teach ; ensena,

he teaches.
es, is.

espanol, adj,y Spanish.
facil, adv,y easy.
fin, m,y end.

hablar, to speak; habla,

he speaks,
ingles, adj,y English.
Juan, John.
Iecci6n,/., lesson.
Lucia, Lucy,
llega, he arrives,
maestro, w., teacher.
no, adv.y not, no.
por, prep.y for, through, by.
puerta,/., door.
,salir, to go out, to leave;

sale, he goes out.
Senor, w., Sir.
Senora,/., Madam.
SI, adv.y yes.
tambien, adv.y also, too.
y, conj.y and.

Exercise,

El maestro es espanol. El maestro habla ingles. Lucia
no habla ingles. El maestro ensena espanol a Lucia y a
Juan, Juan es hermano de Lucia. El maestro ensena en
la casa de Juan, El amigo de Juan, Alberto, ensena ingles,
Alberto habla espanol tambien, Juan abre la puerta. El
maestro de Lucia y Juan llega. Ensena la leccidn. El
maestro ensena bien. La amiga de Lucia no habla es-
panol; no habla ingles: es italiana, ^ Habla bien ingles
el maestro? Si, senor: el maestro habla bien ingles.
I Es facil hablar espanol ? Si, seiior. i Es facil hablar bien
espanol ? No, senora. Alberto abre la puerta ahora. El
maestro sale al fin de la leccion.

THE ARTICLE i 13

Conversation.

— I Ensefia bien el maestro de Lucia? — Enseiia bien
el espafiol ; no ensefia bien el ingles. — i Cuando sale el
maestro de casa de Juan y Lucia? — Al fin de la leccion.
— I Habla espafiol la amiga de Lucia ? — No, la amiga de
Lucia es italiana. — ^ Es facil la leccion de espafiol ? —
Si, sefior, es facil ahora.

To TRANSLATE.

A lesson. When he comes. To speak. Spanish is easy.
John speaks English and Lucy speaks English too. Lucy
does not speak Italian. Italian is not easy. Albert speaks
English and Spanish. A fi:"iend. A female friend. John's
house. The door of Lucy's house. He speaks well.
When the teacher arrives, John opens the door. When
the teacher goes out, Lucy's female friend arrives.

Ill
NOUNS

27. — Nouns are of two genders in Spanish. These
genders are the masculine and the feminine.

As in English, names of male beings are masculine
and names of female beings are feminine. y

28. — Names of trees are masculine as a rule : el euca-
liptus ; el nogal, the walnut-tree ; el naranjo, the orange-
tree ; el abedul, the birch-tree ; el manzano, the apple-tree ;
el cerezo, the cherry-tree. There are a few exceptions :
la encina, the oak ; la higuera, the fig-tree ; la palmera,
the palm-tree ; la acacia, the acacia. Vid, parra, both of
which mean grape-vine, are feminine.

29. — ^The names of the months and the names of ihd^
days of the week are also masculine : Enero es lluvioso,

4 NOUNS

January is a rainy month ; salgo todos los lunes, I go out
every Monday.

30. — The names of rivers, mountains, and seas are mas-
culine : el Sena, the Seine ; el Tamesis, the Thames ; el
Orinoco, el Plata, el Amazonas; el Mediterrdneo, the
Mediterranean (sea) ; el Bdltico, the Baltic ; el Mar Negro,
the Black Sea. When not followed by a geographical
adjective the word mar can indifferently be used in the
masculine dr feminine gender. El Himalaya, the Hima-
layas, el Chimborazo, el Vesubio are masculine ; but la
Silla, a hill near Caracas, and las Alpujarras in Spain, are
feminine.

31. — Names of fruits are feminine : la manzana, the
apple ; la ciruela, the plum ; la almendra, the almond ;
la pera, the pear; la mora, the blackberry. The excep-.
tions are numerous : el coco, the coco-nut ; el limon, the
lemon ; el higo, the fig ; el aguacate, the alligator-pear ;
el melocot6n, the peach ; mango, mamey, nispero, mara-
non, zapote, etc.

32. — Names of countries ending in a are feminine :
China, Francia, France; la vieja Inglaterra, old England;
and .names of towns and villages of the same termination :
Sevilla es encantadora, Seville is charming: la sono-
lienta Bogotd, sleepy Bogota.^

33. — Nouns ending in o are for the most part masculine :
el lago, the lake; el cuerpo, the body; el cantaro, the
pitcher.

34. — Nouns ending in a are for the most part feminine :
la casa, the house ; la cabeza, the head ; la cdntara, the
pitcher.

^ a. Mano, hand, is feminine ; dia, day, is masculine. A
few nouns of Greek derivation ending in ma or ta are

^ ^ The names of the letters of the alphabet are all feminine : la a, la b,
la i, tina hache, la qu, la omega, la beta, la bmicron. Delta,

triangular alluvial tract at the mouth of a river, is masculine : el delta
del Orinoco.

NOUNS 15

masculine : emblema, emblem ; planeta, planet ; sistema,
system ; but asma, asthma ; diadema, diadem ; estrata-
gema, stratagem, are feminine.

35. — Nouns ending in d are for the most part feminine : .
ciudad, city, town ; merced, favour, mercy ; virtud, virtue ;
but ardid, trick ; cesped, turf, sod ; sud, south, and a very
few others, are masculine.

36. — Nouns ending in e are mostly mascuHne : the ex-/
ceptions (which are numerous) are learned by practice.!
Alambre, wire ; diente, tooth ; lacre, sealing-wax, are
masculine ; calle, street ; fuente, fountain, feminine ; arte,/
art, is masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural.

37. — Nouns ending in 1 are nearly all masculine; the jl
exceptions are few : cal, lime ; cdrcel, prison-house, jail ;
sal, salt, are feminine.

38. — Nouns ending in j^ are commonly masculine ; but
the exceptions are numerous. The termination ion im-
plies, as a rule, the feminine gender, but a few nouns
in ion are masculine. Almacen, store ; pan, bread; volu-
men, volume, are masculine. Sarten, frying-pan, is
feminine ; so also is condicion, condition ; but aluvion,
alluvion ; embrion, embryo ; turbion, squall, heavy .
shower; escorpion, scorpion; sarampion, measles, are
masculine.

39. — Nouns ending in jc^ are masculine : calor, heat ;
cardcter, character ; dolor, pain, sorrow ; zafir, sapphire.
The exceptions in nouns commonly used are few: flor,
flower; labor, work, task; segur, sickle, are feminine.
Mar (sea) can be used indifferently as masculine or
feminine when it is not qualified by a geographical ad-
jective, in which case, as we have already said, it is always
masculine.

Un mar tempestuoso or una A stormy sea.

mar tempestuosa.

Se dio a la mar. He sailed.

La mar estaba muy agitada. The sea was rough.

i6

NOUNS

El mar Adridtico. The Adriatic.

El mar Amarillo. The Yellow Sea.

El Archipielago (Mar Egeo). The Aegean Sea.

.V 40. — Nouns ending in u are masculine : espiritu, spirit,
ghost. But tribu, tribe, is feminine.

41. — Nouns ending in z are for the most part feminine ;
but there are many masculine nouns with this termination :
cicatriz, scar; coz, kick; cruz, cross; luz, light; nariz,
nose, are feminine. Arroz, rice ; barniz, varnish ; tamiz,

/-sieve, and some other less common words, are masculine.

Vocabulary.

vagua,/., water.

alto, adj,, high, tall.
, beber, to drink.

bueno, adj., good.

cafe, m,f coffee.

carne,/, meat.

care, adj\f dear.

cocina,/., kitchen.
.comprar, to buy; compra,
he buys.

comprender, to understand.
■ con, prep,, with.
> criado, m,, servant.

dar, to give.
/ decir, to say ; dice, he says.

hermana,/., sister.

hoy, adv,, to-day.

Inglaterra,/, England.
lUeva, he carries, he takes.

madre,/, mother.
,muy, adv,, very.

nine, nu, child, boy.

padre, m,, father.

pan, m,, bread.
, M.ra, prep.f for, to, in order
-^to.

^£^sear, to take a walk.
/pueSeThe can.

I que ?, what ?

siempre, adv,, always.
, tiene, he has ; tienen, they

have.
^ tomar, to take, to drink.

vino, m,, wine.

Exercise.

El maestro sale a pasear con Juan y Lucia para ensenar
bien la leccion del di'a. La madre y el criado salen a
comprar pan, cafe, y carne, cuando Juan y la hermana
salen con el maestro. El caf6 en Inglaterra es caro. El
cafe en Inglaterra no es siempre bueno. El pan es muy
bueno y la carne tambien. Alberto llega a la casa a comer
con Juan y Lucia. El padre habla con Alberto. Alberto

NOUNS 17

es alto. La madre llega con el criado. El criado lleva
.a la cocina el pan, el cafe y la carne. El maestro, Juan
y Lucia llegan de pasear. Juan quiere tomar agua. El
maestro no puede tomar agua ; puede y quiere tomar vino.
Juan comprende hoy la leccion muy bien. Pasear es muy
bueno para comprender la leccion. Lucia dice la leccion.

Conversation.

^ Sale a pasear el maestro ? ^Salen Juany Lucfa? ^Qu6
sale a comprar la madre ? i Cuando sale la madre a com-
prar cafe ? i Sale el criado ? i Para que sale el maestro
a pasear con Juan y Lucia? ,:, Es caro el cafe en Inglaterra?
I Es bueno ? ^ Es siempre bueno el cafe en Inglaterra ?
I Para qud llega Alberto ? i Habla Alberto en la casa con
el criado ? i Que lleva el criado a la cocina ? i Que quiere
tomar Juan? ^Toma vino Juan? <f,Toma vino Lucfa?
I Puede tomar agua el maestro ? ^ Que toma el maestro ?
I Es bueno pasear para comprender la leccion ?

To TRANSLATE.

H e goes out for a walk. H e understands English, Spanish,
and French. He speaks Italian very well: he does not
speak when he cannot understand. John goes out to buy
coffee and bread. There is a friend at the door. There
is a friend of the servant in the kitchen. When is the
servant going out ? Does the servant go out to-day ? The
boy can drink coffee. The servant is very tall. To-day is
a lesson-day. The teacher is now in the house. Coffee
is not always good in England. Meat is not very dear.
Wine is not good for the child. The servant speaks and
goes out. ' The coffee is not good to-day ', says the mother.
What does the father say ?

/

i8 NOUNS

IV
NOUNS {continued)

Number.

42. — The plural of nouns ending in an unstressed vowel
is formed by adding s tcfth^-singular.:^ /" ^

amigo, m,, friend w^^-^l^amigos, fnwpftls

calle,/., street ^ ^ calles, ^tre^s

letra, /., letter letras, letters

metropoli,/., capital metropolis, capitals

tribu,/, tribe tribus, tribes.

43.r-^The plural of nouns ending in a consonant or
a stressed vowel is formed by adding es to the singular.
In such cases final z changes to c, to preserv^e the same
sound.

aleli, ;;/., gilliflower alelies, gilliflowers

arbol, m., tree drboles, trees

as, m,y ace ases, aces

bajd, m.f pasha bajaes, pashas

ciudad,/., town ciudades, towns

hoz,/, sickle hoces, sickles

mar, m. or/, sea mares, seas

margen,/., margin mdrgenes, margins

reloj, w., watch, clock relojes, watches, clocks

una e, an e dos ees, two e's.

44. — Exceptions :

a. Although in nouns ending in the unstressed diph-
thongs ay, ey, oy, uy the y is a vowel and sounds like
a vowel in the singular, in the formation of the plural this
y is considered to be a consonant and is pronounced like
a consonant.

convoy, fn,^ convoy convoyes, convoys

^^Yff'i law leyes, laws.

b. mamd, papd, sofd add only an s : mamds, papds,
sofds (sofas).

NOUNS 19

c» Words ending in stressed e add only s: ^

cafe, m.y coffee-house cafes, coffee-houses

canape, m.j lounge, settee canapes, settees
pie, foot pies, feet.

The names of the letters of the alphabet ending in e
follow the general rule concerning the words ending in
stressed vowels : una ce, dos cees (a Cy two c's).

d. Words not stressed on the last syllable and ending
in 5 in the singular admit of no change to form the
plural:

el lunes, Monday los lunes, Mondays i*^

el miercoles, Wednesday los mi^rcoles, Wednesdays

la crisis,/, the crisis las crisis, the crises.

Family names ending in unaccented es, ez, or is admit
of no change.

El Senor Martinez, Mr. Los Senores Martinez, the

M artinez M artinez

ElSenorLlopis, Mr. Llopis Los Senores Llopis, the

Llopis.

e. The plural of frac (dress-coat) is fraques.

/ The addition of s or es to form the plural does not alter the
position of the stress in the word.

drbol, m.^ tree Arboles, trees

canon, ;//., cannon canones, cannons

murcielago, in.^ bat murcielagos, bats.

There are, however, two exceptions : cardcter, character,
makes caracteres ; regimen, regime, rule, makes reginienes.
One may say either crdteres or crateres, plural of crdter.

g. For the formation of the plural of adjectives the same rules
appl}j/as in the case of nouns.

Vocabulary.

^o, m,y overcoat, fur, ! acaba de llegar, he has just
sheher. I arrived.

\ abuelo, ;//., grandfather. agradable, adj,y agreeable,

vacabar, to finish, to end. pleasant.

c 2

20

NOUNS

, aire, m.j air.

aprender, to learn.
T baiil, m,j trunk,
calle,/, street.
• capaz, a<if/', able.
claro, adj.y clear.
continuar, to go on, to con-
tinue.
conveniente, adj.j conve-
nient.
rdebe, he must ; deben, they

must.
-descansar, to rest.
desear, to wish ; desea, he

wishes.
dia, ni.f day.
' discipulo, m., pupil.
Espafia,/., Spain.
estd, he is, she is, it is.
s extranjero, adj,y foreign.
extranjero, ;//., foreigner.
^gol^iiuiriijg,/., swallow.
grande, adj.j large, big,
great.

hombre, ;;/., man.
invierno, m., winter.
. ir, to go ; va, he goes ; van,

they go.
natural, adj., natural ; na-
turalmente,a^z;., of cou rse,
naturally.
noticia,/., news.
partida,/., party.
pensar, to think, to intend ;
piensa, he thinks, he in-
tends.
pero, coftj.f but.
poder, can ; puede, he can
porque, conj., because.
#pr6ximo, adj., next.
que, conj,^ that.
I qui6n ?, who ?
' rico, adj., rich.
r seguir, to go on, to follow.
.semana,/, week.
' todavia, adv., yet.
,viajar, to travel; viaje, m.,
trip, journey.

Exercise.

El abuelo llega hoy con una buena noticia. Dice que
piensa ir a Espana el invierno proximo. Juan y Lucia
deben ir con el. El maestro de espanol debe ir tambien,
porque los ninos deben continuar sus lecciones. El padre
no piensa ir; pero Alberto, el amigo de los ninos, desea
mucho viajar por Espana y el abuelo dice que quiere llevar
a Alberto con los ninos. Alberto desea ir naturalmente ;
pero no sabe todavia. Viajar es facil, pero es caro, y
Alberto no es rico. La amiga de Lucia no va a Espana,
acaba de llegar de Italia y quiere descansar. Dice que es
muy agradable viajar por Italia. Para el viaje debe el
abuelo comprar abrigos. Los ninos deben comprarbaules.
Juan es capaz de ir a comprar los baiiles y los abrigos.

NOUNS 21

El abuelo sale para Espana con las golondrinas, deseaaire
mas claro. El padre llega de la calle y dice que los di'as
son buenos para viajar ; esta con el un extranjero, hombre
muy rico, grande amigo de Espana y de los nifios. Dice
que el va tambien a viajar con ellos. El maestro, los
discipulos, los amigos de los ninos, el abuelo : | que buena
partida de viaje ! Para aprender un idioma extranjero
viajar es muy conveniente. Los discipulos deben viajar
con el maestro.

Conversation.

I Quien llega con una buena noticia ? i Con que llega
el abuelo ? i Que dice el ? ^ Van los ninos con el ?
I Cuando ? i Va el maestro ? i Desea Alberto ir ? ,1 Es ,
facil viajar? ^iVa a Espana la amiga de Lucia? ^ Que
dice la amiga de Lucia de su viaje a Italia? ^Que debe
comprar el abuelo para el viaje ? i Que deben comprar"^
los ninos ? i Quien va a comprar los abrigos y baules ?
I Quien llega de la calle con un extranjero ? l Quien es el
extranjero? ,:, Es viajar conveniente para aprender un
idioma extranjero ?

To TRANSLATE.

The grandfather and the foreigner are going {van) to
Spain. The children wish to go and John says the teacher
must go also. The Spanish lessons must go on. Spain is
not a very rich country. Winter is coming. Lucy mu^t
buy furs. A foreigner. A foreign teacher. To travel is
very pleasant for -children. A journey to Spain is very
expensive (caro), A rich man can travel. It is easyjbr
a rich man to travel. John's father arrives to-day^^^^^

V

22

THE ADJECTIVE

V
THE ADJECTIVE

45. — The Spanish adjective agrees in gender and number
with the noun or nouns to which it refers.

I. MascuHne adjectives ending in the singular in any
\/ vowel except o admit of no change in the formation of the
- feminine.

un animal indigena, a

native animal.
un hombre triste, a sad

man.
el asunto es baladi, the

subject is worthless.

la tribu indigena, the native

tribe.
la mala suerte, bad luck.

una conversaci6n baladi,

a trifling talk.

2. Adjectives ending in a consonant are also invariable,
as far as gender is concerned :

un cielo azul, a blue sky.

hombre ruin, low, mean

man.
el hecho mds singular, the

most singular fact.
un dicho cortes, a courteous

saying.
el dia feliz, the happy day.

la montaiia azul, the blue

mountain.
mujer ruin, low woman.

la conducta es singular,

^ the conduct is singular.

una frase cortes, a court-
eous phrase.

una feliz ocasion, a happy
occasion.

3. Adjectives ending in o in the masculine change the o
into a for the feminine.

nino bueno, good boy. nifia buena, good girl.

Exceptions : (a) Adjectives ending in dn, 6n, or add an a
to form the feminine : burl6n (masc), burlona (fem.),
waggish; haragdn (masc), haragana (fem.), idle; element©
perturb&.dor, disturbing element ; doctrina perturbadora,
subversive doctrine.

THE ADJECTIVE 23

The following adjectives in -or are invariable as regards
gender : mayor (larger), menor (smaller, younger), mejor
(better), peor (worse), superior, inferior, exterior, in-
terior, anterior, and some others less frequently used.

(b) Diminutives in ete and augmentatives in ote change

to eta, ota for the feminine : feote (masc), too ugly ; feota ^
(fem.); regordete (masc), chubby, plump; regordeta(fem.).

(c) Adjectives expressing nationality have two forms, one
for the masculine and one for the feminine, when ending
in o or in a consonant : andaluz (masc.) Andalusian,
andaluza (fem.); danes (masc.) Danish, danesa (fem.);
espanol (masc.) Spanish, espanola (fem.) ; htingaro (masc.)
Hungarian, hiingara (fem.).

Position of the Adjective^ *•

46. — The adjective is generally placed in Spanish after
the noun it qualifies : un hombre honrado, an honest man,
una mujer hermosa, modesta y desinteresada, a hand-
some, unpretentious, and disinterested woman. Adjectives
the meaning of which is inseparable from the meaning of
the noun which they qualify are, as a rule, placed before the
noun : blanca nieve, white snow ; verdes praderas, green ,
prairies :

Oh padre ! oh claro sol ! O father ! O bright sun !

47. — Possessive, demonstrative, and numeral adjectives
generally precede the noun : este nino, this child ;
nuestra casa, our house ; tres libros, three books ;
primera y segunda lecciones, first and second lessons.

48. — In some cases the position of the adjective affects
its meaning,

Grande hombre. Great man (in a moral sense)

Un hombre grande. A tall, big man.

Un pobre hombre. A simpleton, a good fellow.

Un hombre pobre. A poor man.

49.— There are no invariable rules in Spanish determining
the position of the adjective : it generally follows the noun, but

24

THE ADJECTIVE

usage is the best and only guide. In poetr}^ or in oratorical
passages the ordinary rules are not followed.

Xl

Ni aislada roca, ni escarpado

del didfaiiohoHzonte
el indeciso termino corta-
ban.

Nunez de Arce.

No isolated rock, no steep hill
limited the dim line of the
transparent horizon.

Vocabulary.

V

\)

acompanar, to accompany,

to go with.
acpstumbrar, to use, to

accustomT
acostumbrarse, to get used

to.
adelantado, adj,^ advanced,
adelante, adv,^ forward ;
^ en adelante, hereafter.
ademds, adv,y besides.
admirable, adj,^ admirable,

wonderful,
alegre, adj.^ joyful, glad,
alegria,/., joy.
alii, adv,^ there.
almacen, m.^ shop, store,

warehouse.
andaluz, m,, adj,^ Anda-

lusian.
aprender, to learn.
asi, adv.^ thus, so.
atenci6n, /, attention, care.
cliente, m.y client, customer.
^como? adv,y how?
componer, to make, to form,

to compose.
decidir, to decide; han

decidido, they have de-
cided.
dejar, to leave,
dependiente, ;;/., clerk,

seller,
durante, /)r^/>., during.

X entonces, adv,^ then ; para
-^ entonces, by then.
Jtentretenido, adj,^ amusing,

entertaining.
ese, esa, adj,y that.
esta.r, to be.
estudio, m.y study,
evitar, to avoid,
excursion, /., excursion,

trip.
expresarse, to express one-
self.
falta,/., lack.
hacer, to make.
J hay, there is, there are.
Yir a compras] to go shop-
ir a tiendas ) ping.
manana, adv,, to-morrow.
mirar, to look at ; con solo

mirar, simply by looking

at.
molestia,/., trouble.
mucho, mucha, adj,^ much ;

muchos, many.
novedades,/.,//., novelties,

new things.
objeto, m.y object, aim.
poco, poca, adj.^ little;

pocos, few.
poner, to put.
prdctica,/, practice.
practicar, to practise.
prima vera,/., spring.

THE ADJECTIVE

25

principal, adj.^ principal.

pronunciacion, /., pronun-
ciation.

servicial, adj,^ obliging, ser-
viceable.

si, conj.y if; si es posible,
if possible.

tienda,/, shop.
todo, toda, adj,^ every, all.
tomar parte, to take part.
varies, adj,y several, vari-
ous.
viajero, ;w., traveller.

Ser, to he.
Indicative,

Present,
soy, I am
eres, thou art
es, he, she, it is
somos, we are
sois, you are
son, they are
usted es, you are (sing.)
ustedes son, you arejpiur.)

Future,
sere, I shall be
seras, thou wilt be
serd, he, she, it will be
seremos, we shall be
sereis, you will be
seran, they will be
usted sera, you will be
ustedes serdn, you will be.

Regular Verbs. First Conjugation,

Hablar, to speak.

Indicative,

Future,
hablare, I shall speak
hablards, thou wilt speak
hablard, he or she will

speak
hablaremos, we shallspeak
hablareis, you will speak
hablaran, they will speak
usted hablara, you will

speak.

Note. Subject pronouns are not generally used with
the Spanish verb.

Exercise.

Han decidido dejar el viaje para la primavera proxima.
De esa manera puede Alberto acompanar a sus amigos y
asi toda la familia toma parte en la excursi6n que va a estar

Present,
hablo, I speak
hablas, thou speakest
habla, he or she speaks

hablamos, we speak
hablais, you speak
hablan, they speak
ustedr habla> yotr speak.

26 THE ADJECTIVE

muy entretenida. Ademas, para entonces ya Lucia y Juan
estaran muy adelantados en el estudio del espanol y
evitaran asi muchas molestias a los viajeros. En adelante
hablaran siempre en espanol para acostumbrarse a la pro-
nunciacion. Saben ya componer frases (phrases); pero
tienen dificultad (difficulty) en expresarse por falta de
practica. Mariana iran a un almacen espanol a hacer
compras, para hablar, si es posible, con el dependiente que
es un andaluz. Hay alli tambien varios americanos del
Sud que hablan espanol y acostumbran acompanar a los
clientes a ver el almacen : son alegres y serviciales. Van
siempre adelante y sefialan las novedades del di'a. Los
ninos compraran pocas cosas, pero practicaran el espanol
durante una hora o dos : ese es el principal objeto. En el
almacen hay cosas admirables y puede el cliente aprender
mucho con solo mirar y poner atencion.

Conversation.

I Quienes han decidido dejar el viaje para la primavera
proxima ? i Quien puede asi acompanar a sus amigos ?
(i^Como va a estar la excursion? ^Va toda la familia?
I Quienes estaran para entonces muy adelantados en el
estudio del espanol ? i Como evitaran molestias a los via-
jeros? lEn que idioma hablaran en adelante Juan y
Lucia ? I Para que ? i Saben ya componer frases ?
I Tienen dificultad en expresarse ? i Deben practicar
mucho ? I Cuando iran al almacdn ? i Con quien pueden
hablar espanol alli ? ^ Es espanol el dependiente ? i Hay
sudamericanos en el almacen? ^Quidnes sefialan las
novedades ? i Compraran los ninos muchas cosas ? i Que
objeto principal tienen en ir al almacen ? i Que hay en el
almacen ? i Que puede aprender alli el cliente ?

To TRANSLATE,

Los dias felices de la familia. Maria tiene abrigos
blancos y azules para el viaje a Espafia; Los grandes

THE ADJECTIVE 27

baiiles de Alberto no estan en la casa; el dejo en el
almacen los baules con las pieles y con todas las cosas para
el viaje. El padre de Alberto es un grande hombre. El
dependiente del almacen es hombre muy grande. Los
viajeros practican el espafiol : saben muchas palabras ; no
pueden formar frases. Deben tomar parte en la conver-
sacion. Varios amigos de los viajeros saben tambien
espanol; pero no lo practican ; hablan frances siempre.

VI

THE ADJECTIVE {continued)

50. — When placed immediately before the noun the
following adjectives drop their final o in the singular:

alguno, some, any primero, first

bueno, good postrero, last

male, bad tercero, third

ninguno, no, none uno, one.

51. — The apocopation in this case is obligatory for all
the above-mentioned words, except tercero, which in the
expression dentro de tercero dia (within three days or
before, the third day) may drop or keep the last o (e. g.
dentro del tercer dia).

Mai tiempo hace hoy. The weather is bad to-day.

Ese era su buen deseo. That was his good wish.

Algun dia lo vera ella. She will see him some day.

Ningun animal ha entrado. No animal has come in.

Un amigo de mi padre. A friend of my father.

El primer dia del ano. The first day of the year.

El tercer capitulo. The third chapter.

El postrer contratiempo. The last mishap.

52. — Grande loses its last syllable in the singular before
nouns beginning with any consonant, except h :

gran senor great lord "

gran dama great lady

gran terremoto great earthquake.

28

THE ADJECTIVE

In other cases the complete form is preferred :

grande economia de tiempo great saving of time
grande escrutinio great scrutiny.

53. — Ciento loses its last syllable before a noun or
before an adjective followed by a noun :

cien caballos a hundred horses

cien aventuradas em- a hundred venturesome
presas enterprises.

a. Before the other numerals, except mil, millon,
billon, etc., which in this case may be considered as nouns,
the apocopation does not occur. When used as a substan-
tive, the integral form is employed.

ciento un pesos

ciento veinte y seis metros

cien mil libras
cien millones de toneladas
^Cuantas vacas tiene? —
Ciento.

b, Doscientos, trescientos, cuatrocientos, etc., have
a feminine termination : doscientas mujeres, novecientas
cargas.

Vocabulary.

a hundred and one pesos
a hundred and twenty-six

metres
a hundred thousand pounds
a hundred million tons
How many cows have you ?

— A hundred.

a menudo, adv.j often.

ayer, adv.j yesterday.

casi, adv.f almost.

cisne, m.y swan.

como, adv,, like, as ; i c6mo ?
how?

conocimiento, m,, know-
ledge.

contar, to tell, to relate, to
count.

cuento, m,y story, tale.

danes, w., Dane; adj,,
Danish.

Don, m,f Sir, Mr.

donde, adv,f where.

durante, prep,, during.

el, pron,^ he (it).

extenso, adj\f extensive.

fuera, adv.f out.

habitante, m,, inhabitant.

hsLsta., prep,, till, until.

historia,/, history.

idioma, m., language.

lectura,/, reading.

leer, to read.

libro, m., book.

llamarse, to be called ;
Uamar, to call; ^como
se llama usted? what
is your name? este nino

THE ADJECTIVE

29

se llama Luis, this child's

name is Lewis.
memoria, /., memory ; de

memoria, by heart,
mismo, adj\^pron., same, self.
nacer, to be born; naci6,

he was born.
obra,/., work.
otro, adj\, other, another;

el otro dia, the other day.
pais, m.y country.
pasar, to pass; pasar la

noche, to spend the night.

pato, m,f duck.

placer, m.^ pleasure.

reciente, adj\j recent.

recitar, to recite.

sane, adj\j sound, healthy.

segiin, prepay according to.

Seiior, m,y Mr., Sir.

supo, he knew.

triste, adj\j sad.

venir, to come; viene, he

comes.
vida,/., life.
vivir, to live ; vive, he lives.

Past definite,
Fui, I was
fuiste, thou wast
fue, he was
fuimos, we were
fuisteis, you were
fueron, they were
usted fue (you were)
ustedes fueron (you
(plur,)

Ser, to be.

Indicative,

Imperfect,
era, I was, I used to be
eras, thou wast, thou usedst

to be
era, he was, he used to be
eramos, we were, we used
to be
{sing,) erais, you were, you used
were) to be

eran, they were, they used

to be
usted era, ustedes eran,
you were, you used to be.

Regular Verbs. First Conjugation,
Hablar, to speak.

Past definite,
hable, I spoke
hablaste, thou spokest
hablo, he spoke
hablamos, we spoke
hablasteis, you spoke

Indicative,

Imperfect,
hablaba, I spoke, I was
speaking, I used to speak
hablabas, thou spokest, etc.
hablaba, he spoke, etc.
hablabamos, we spoke, etc.

30 THE ADJECTIVE

Indieative Past definite. Indicative Imperfect,

hablaron, they spoke hablabais, you spoke, etc.

usted hablo, ustedes ha- hablaban, they spoke^ etc.
blaron, you spoke. usted hablaba, ustedes ha-

blaban, you spoke, you
were speaking.

Exercise.

El maestro de espanol se llama Don Manuel Quijano :
nacio en Espaiia, pero vive fuera de su pais hace tiempo :
viaja mucho. Fue maestro de idiomas en America.
Conoce casi toda Europa : habla de sus viajes con placer.
El pais que a menudo viene a su memoria es Dinamarca
(Denmark), donde tuvo muchos y muy buenos amigos,
segiin el dice. Sabe de memoria algunos cuentos de
Andersen. El otro dia durante la leccion recito el cuento
del pobre pato que paso una vida muy triste hasta el dia en
que supo que era un cisne. Dijo el maestro que ese
cuento era Ik historia de la vida del mismo Andersen.
El Sefior Quijano puede leer en danes las obras de
Andersen y dice que es lectura muy agradable y sana. En
espanol hay tambien libros que sera muy agradable leer
con un extenso conocimiento del idioma ; pero hablaremos
de lecturas en las proximas lecciones. Ahora llega Don
Manuel y el nos contara una entretenida historia como
la de ayer. Buenos di'as, Don Manuel. — Buenos dias,
amigos ; buenos dias, Lucia : usted es la alegria de la
casa. jJ^Sabe usted la leccion? ^Contara usted hoy la
historia del triste pato en espanol ? Lucia dice : conozco la
historia ; no se todas las palabras espafiolas del cuento.

Conversation.

I Como se llama el maestro ? i Donde nacid ? i Vive
en su pais ? i Por donde viaja ? i Que pai'ses conoce ?
I Qu6 pais de Europa viene a menudo a su memoria ?
I Donde queda Dinamarca ? i Como se llama el habitante

THE ADJECTIVE 31

de Dinamarca? ^Quien recito el cuento de Andersen?
,1, Como se llama el cuento ? i Quien paso una vida muy
triste ? I Hasta cuando paso eLpato una vida muy triste ?
I Es el pato grande como el cisne ? i Puede el Seiior
Quijano leer un buen libro en danes ? lEs agradable la
lectura de los cuentos de Andersen ? i Sabe usted leer
danes? ^ Hay buenos libros en espanol ? ^ Cuando
hablaremos de lecturas ? i Qui^n llega ahora ?

To TRANSLATE.

There are good books to read, agreeable books, sound
books at Don Manuel's house. There is a very amusing
Spanish book called Don Quixote, Don Manuel often reads
it. He knows some pages by heart. He will speak of
Don Quixote, There are also amusing stories in recent
Spanish books. Do you speak Spanish ? My friend will
speak Spanish. He practises with his teacher every day.
He has Spanish books. He can read Spanish, he cannot
speak very well. Lucy is the name of my friend : she
speaks English and Spanish. She teaches English to
Lewis and Mary. She has other lessons.

Feminine Endings of Nouns

64. — Sometimes there are in Spanish two different
words to express the masculine or the feminine of nouns
meaning living beings : el hombre, la mujer (man, woman),
el yerno, la nuera (son-in-law, daughter-in-law) ; el padre,
la madre (father, mother) ; caballo, yegua (horse, mare).

a. Usually masculine nouns ending in o or e form the
feminine in a, suppressing the masculine ending : el her-
mano, la hermana (the brother, the sister) ; el sirviente,
la sirvienta (the male servant, the female servant); el
prime, la prima (the male cousin, the female cousin) ; el
monje, la monja (the monk, the nun) ; regente, regenta
(regent, a man ; regent, a woman) ; but alcalde (mayor)
makes alcaldesa (mayoress); principe (prince) makes

32 THE ADJECTIVE

princesa (princess) ; sacerdote (priest) makes sacerdotisa
(priestess). Interprete (interpreter) and nouns expressing
nationality and ending in e are invariable : ateniense, m.
and f. (Athenian) ; caribe, m. and f. (Caribbean) ; complu-
tense, m. and f. (from Alcala de Henares).

b» Nouns ending in d, 1, n, r, s, add a to form the
feminine : huesped, huespeda (the host, the hostess ; the
guest, the lady guest); el general, la generala (the
general, the general's wife); el capitdn, la capitana
(the captain, the captain's wife) ; doctor, doctora
(doctor, doctoress); senior, senora (sir, lady); dios,
diosa (god, goddess); ingles, inglesa (Englishman,
Englishwoman). Baron (baron, baronet) makes baronesa
(baroness) ; conde (count) makes condesa (countess) ;
poeta (poet) makes poetisa (poetess) ; actor (actor) makes
actriz (actress) ; emperador (emperor) makes emperatriz
(empress) ; cantor (singer) makes cantora and cantatriz.

VII
PRONOUNS

Personal Pronouns.

55. — The personal pronouns in Spanish, are :

yo, I nosotros, nosotras, we

tu, thou vosotros, vosotras, you

el, he ; ella, she ellos, ellas, they

usted (sing.), you ustedes (pi.), you.

56. — The pronoun of the second person singular is tu,
a form which is only used when addressing persons with
whom one is on terms of familiarity, as between father and
son, between brothers, and between very intimate friends.
Vosotros, vosotras is the second person plural and is
used like the singular in familiar address. Orators
addressing their audience or public writers addressing
their readers generally use this form of the second person
plural.

PRONOUNS 33

67. — Usted is used in Spanish instead o( tii in formal
address: digame usted, tell me; iddnde estk usted?,
where are you ? It has a plural form, ustedes, to be used
when addressing more than one person. It should be noted
that usted, ustedes, although used as pronouns of the
second person, require the third person of the verb :
usted es, you are (sing.); ustedes saben, you (pi.) know.

a. These forms, in writing, are generally abbreviated
into Vd., Vds.

58.~As has already been said, personal pronouns in the
subject form need not be used with the verb, unless they are
required to avoid ambiguity or to emphasize the subject of the
sentence.

Usted me dijo que esperara, You told me to wait, but I was
pero yo no era de esa notof that opinion.
opinion.

As the verb era is the form both of the first and the third
persons singular of the imperfect, the pronoun must be used
in this case for the sake of preciseness.

59. — The object forms of the personal pronouns are as
follows ;

Direct form . Indirect form,

yo me me

tii ^ te te

el lo (or le) le

ella la le (or la)

nosotros (m.), nosotras (f.) nos nos

vosotros (m.), vosotras (f) os os

ellos los les

ellas las les

usted lo (m.), la (f ), le, a Vd.

a Vd.
ustedes los (m.). las ({,), les, a Vds.

a Vds.

a. The distinction here indicated betv.-een the direct and
indirect forms of the third person singular (masculine) is not
always observed by good writers. In Spain at present custom
seems to incline towards the use of le for the direct form when
referring to persons.

2129 I>

34 PRONOUNS

b. When preceded by a preposition the direct or in-
direct forms of the first and second persons singular are
mi, ti : a mi me buscan, no a ti, they are looking for me,
not for you. These forms we shall call prepositional or
accentuated forms. The other pronouns keep after a pre-
position the nominative form. Hablaban de nosotros,
they were talking about us.

c. The forms mi, ti after the preposition con form a
single word with it and add the syllable go :

Ven conmigo. Come along with me.
No puede vivir contigo. He cannot live with you. (See
§85,^)

60. — The direct and indirect forms are generally placed
before the verb : le (or lo) conozco, I know him ; me dicen,
they tell me ; te llam6 ella, she called you. They may,
at the beginning of a sentence, be placed after the verb (with
which they then form a single word) : cont6me todo lo
que sabia, he related to me all he knew ; pareciome al
principio muy dificil, it seemed to me very difficult at the
beginning. With the infinitive and the present participle
these forms now always follow the verb : vino a verme,
he came to see me ; perdio su tiempo buscandola, he lost
his time looking for her. Two or three forms may follow
the verb : traigamelo, bring it to me.

a. The direct object of the second person plural added
to the imperative plural causes this to lose the last d of
the verbal form. Amaos (not amad-os) los unos a los
otros, love each other. Yet we say idos (not ios), go
(you). The first person plural of the present subjunctive
also loses the last letter when nos is added to it : vdmonos,
let us go (not vamosnos) ; but not with the other forms of
the pronoun : dejemoslos, let us leave them ; avise-
mosles, let us advise them.

61. — The pronouns of the third person (el, ella) can be
translated in English he^ she, and also /*/ when el or ella

PRONOUNS 35

refers to an inanimate object which happens to be mascu-
line or feminine. Thus : Juan viene manana ; (el) desea
conocerte (John is coming to-morrow ; he wants to know
you) ; Luisa estk enferma ; (ella) no puede salir (Louise
is ill ; she cannot go out). ^Cudndo llegard el correo ?
— No se, acaso (el) no Hague hoy. (When will the post
arrive? — I do not know, perhaps it will not be in to-day.)
La casa es vieja, aunque de lejos (ella) parece nueva
(the house is old, although from a distance it looks new).

a. Nos as a nominative is employed by high dignitaries of the
Church, in decrees, letters, pastorals, instead of Yo : Nos, Juan
Manuel Rodriguez, por la gracia de Dies, ordenamos y man-
damos. The verb must be put in the first person plural.

b. Vos may be employed as a subject when one is addressing
God, the Saints, or persons in high authority. Vos, Senor,
conoceis nuestras flaquezas. The plural is required in such
forms of address, whether the vocative refers to several persons
or to a single one.

Possessive Adjectives.

62. — mi (pi. mis) my
tu (pi. tus) thy

su (pi. sus) his, her, your, its
nuestro (f. nuestra; pi. nuestros, nuestras) our
vuestro (f. vuestra ; pi. vuestros, vuestras) your
su (pi. sus), their, your.

63. — The second person plural of the personal pronouns
(vosotros, vosotras) and of the possessive adjectives (vuestro,
vuestra, vuestros, vuestras) is seldom employed in the col-
loquial Spanish of America.

Possessive Pronouns.
64. — The possessive pronouns are :

mio

mine

tuyo

thine

suyo

his, hers, yours, theirs

nuestro

ours

vuestro

yours.

D 2

36

PRONOUNS

65. — These pronouns are often used with the article, but
they may also be used without it.

Ese es tu libro y este es

el mio.
La casa no es suya sine

mia.
Tuyas serdn la responsa-

bilidad y la gloria.

Tliat is your book and this

is mine.
The house is not his but

mine.
The responsibility and the

glory will be yours.

a. To avoid ambiguity suyo in the sense of your or yours
is replaced by the form de usted, de ustedes, el de usted,
el de ustedes.

La palabra de usted de-
cidi6 el punto.

Your w^ord decided the case.

Vocabulary.

anoche, adv., last night.

ciudad,/., city, town.

conservar, to keep, to pre-
serve.

deseo, nL, wish.

djjo, he or she said.

educar, to educate, to train.

ejercicio, ;/?., exercise,theme.

es decir, that is to say.

estudiar, to study.

fdcilmente, adv., easily.

flaco, adj., frail; meagre,
lean, weak.

frase,/., phrase.

guerra,/., war.

hecho, m., fact; hecho,
part., made.

importante, adj., important.

interes, m., interest.

largo, adj., long.

mejor, adj., adv., better; lo
mejor, the best.

menos, adv., less.

inucho, adj., adv., much.

niiiez,/, childhood.

noche,/, night.

nombre, m», name, noun
(gram.).

olvidar, to forget; olvi-
dando, forgetting.

palabra,/, word.

pensar, to think ; pens6,
I thought.

principiar, to begin.

promesa,/, promise.

prometer, to promise ; pro-
metimos, we promised.

recordar, to recall, to re-
member.

repasar, to go over.

sabia (from saber), I knew.

si, conj., if, whether.

sin,prep., without ; sin duda,
without doubt, doubtless,
no doubt; sin embargo,
however.

suceso, m., event, inci-
dent.

PRONOUNS

37

talento, m., talent.

tarde, /., afternoon; even-
ing; buenas tardes, good
afternoon ,

ultimo, adj., last.

viejo, ;;/., old man ; viejo,

adj., old.
ya, adv., already.

Verbs.

Ser, io be
{auxiliary irregular).
Indicative, Future in the past,
serfa, I should be
serias, thou wouldst be

seria, he would be
seriamos, we should be

^ serials, you would be
serian, they would be

usted seria, you would be.

Habiar, to speak

[regular, first conjugation).

Indicative. Future in the past.

hablaria, I should speak

hablarias, thou wouldst

speak
hablaria, he would speak
habiar iamos, we should

speak
hablariais,you would speak
hablarian, they would

speak
usted hablaria, you would

speak.

PoDER (irregular), to be able, etc.

Indicative. Present,
puedo, I can
puedes, thou canst
puede, he can
podemos, we can
podeis, you can
pueden, they can
usted puede, you can.

Indicative. Past.

pude, I could
pudiste, thou couldst
pudo, he could
pudimos, we could
pudisteis, you could
pudieron, they could
usted pudo, you could.

Exercise.

* Ayer prometimos al Senor Quijano una buena leccidn
para ho}^ iLd. sabes bien, Lucia? — No muy bien, y
I tu, Juan ? — Anoche pense que la sabia, pero esta manana
la repase y no sabi'a ya dos o tres palabras y frases impor-
tantes. — Yo, dijo Lucia, olvido facilmente las frases ; pero
conservoen la memoria las palabras. El maestro dice que

38 PRONOUNS

es men OS malo lo contrario (contrary), es decir, olvidar las
palabras y conservar las frases en la memoria, y que lo
mejor de todo es, sin duda, poder recordar las unas y las
otras. Los viejos olvidan las palabras, pero no los hechos.
Mi abuela recordaba hasta en sus liltimos di'as los sucesos
de la guerra de Crimea ; pero olvidaba siempre los nombres
de los nuevos amigos que llegaban a casa con nuestro
padre. Hablaba mucho ; acababa una historia y principiaba
la siguiente, casi siempre en el mismo orden/ Juan dijo a
Lucia : ' Tu ya puedes formar frases largas en espanol ; yo
no puedo ; tu memoria es buena, mi memoria es mala.' —
'Aqui esta Don Manuel ya. Don Manuel, hablabamos
Juan y yo de usted, de la memoria y de la promesa de
ayer. — Buenas tardes, dice el maestro, y ^i^como esta la
leccion hoy?— La de Lucia buena, dice Juan ; mi leccion no
esta buena, mi memoria es flaca. ^ Estudiaba usted mucho
en su ninez, Don Manuel ? — Si, mucho. — i Era buena la
memoria de usted? — No era buena; pero, como ustedes
saben, el hombre puede educar la memoria. Yo la educaba
con ejercicios nuevos todos los di'as. Usted sabe la
leccion, Lucia, i que hace para aprender ? — Estudio de di'a
y de noche con mucho interes. Juan me dice que mi
memoria es muy buena; yo pienso que mi deseo de
aprender es mejor que mi memoria y que su talento.'

Conversation.

^ Quien prometio al Senor Quijano una buena leccion?
I Para cuando ? i Quien sabe la leccion ? i Sabe Juan
la leccion ? i Sabia Juan anoche la leccion ? i Cuando la
repasd ? i Que oWida Lucia facilmente ? i Que es menos
malo : olvidar las frases o las palabras ? i Que es lo
mejor? ,i. Que olvidan los viejos? I Que conservan los
viejos en la memoria? i Habla mucho la abuela? ,:, De
que habla? ^j^ Quien puede ya formar frases largas en
espanol ? i Era buena la memoria de Don Manuel, cuando
era nifio ? ^ Se puede educar la memoria ? i Que hace

PRONOUNS 39

Lucia para aprender la leccidn ? ^f, Es la memoria de Lucfa
mejor que la de Juan ? i Que piensa Lucia de su deseo de
aprender ?

Translate.

This man is a good friend of our teacher. He comes
from Madrid. His name is Peter Gonzalez. He can
speak English well. He studied it in Spain in his child-
hood. His education was very good : he can also speak
Italian and French. He could speak those languages
when he was still (todavia) a child. He thinks (that) he can
stay in London (Londres) a. week. We shall take a walk
with him every day. This morning we walked with him
in the Park (Parque), To-morrow it will be better to go
and (a) see the town. He must not go out without us. He
does not know the town ; and in a week he cannot see
much of it. These streets are very long. There are
man}' streets. We shall forget our lessons this week, if
we walk everyday in London with Sefior Gonzalez. — No:
he speaks good Spanish also, and we can talk to him in
this language. — I was forgetting it.

Translate.

Yo no se. Tii hablas mejor que yo. 6l y ella pueden
aprender el ejercicio. Vosotros no podeis aprenderlo.
Juan me ensena la leccion. El maestro nos ensefia el
ingles. El desea abrirle la puerta a usted. El padre debe
educar a su hijo. Juan tiene un hijo : debe educarle.
Maria tiene dos hijas : debe enseiiarles bien su (her)
idioma. No olvido la leccion cuando la estudio bien.
(f^Hablasespanol? — No lo hablo todavia. — ^Quien tiene los
libros ? — Maria los tiene en su casa. — (i,Que dijo el maestro
a los nifios ? — El maestro les dijo : estudien la lecci6n. A
nosotros nos dijo : si la olvidan, repasenla.

40 AUXILIARY VERBS

VIII

AUXILIARY VERBS

66. —The verbs ser (to be) and haber (to have) serve to
form the passive voice and the compound tenses in Spanish.
They are both irregular verbs.

a. Conjugation of Haber, to have.

Indicative.

Present, Imperfect,

he, I have - habia, 1 had
has, thou hast habias, thou hadst

ha, he has habia, he had

hemes, we have habiamos, we had

hab6is, 3^ou have habiais, you had

han, they have. habian, they had.

Past. Future,

hube, I had habre, I shall have

hubiste, thou hadst habrds, thou wilt have

hubo, he had habrd, he will have

hubimos, we had habremos, we shall have

hubisteis, you had habreis, you will have

hubieron, they had. habrdn, they will have.

Future in the past.

habria, I should have
habrias, thou wouldst have
habria, he w^ould have
habriamos, we should have
habriais, you would have
habrian, they would have.

Subjunctive.

Present (and future). Past (2nd form).

haya, I may have hubiera, that I had, or if

1 had, etc.
hayas, thou mayst have hubieras

AUXILIARY VERBS , 41

haya, he may have hubiera

hayamos, we may have hubieramos

hayais, you may have hubierais

hayan, they may have. hubieran.

Past (ist/orm). Future,

hubiese, that I had (if I hubiere, if I should have,

had) etc.

hubieses, that thou hadst hubieres

hubiese, that he had hubiere

hubiesemos, that we had hubieremos

hubieseis, that you had hubiereis

hubiesen, that they had. hubieren.

Imperative.

habe (tii), have (thou), Jiafe^ (vosotros), have

^ (you).

Past participle. Present participle.

habido, had. habiendo, having.

b. The use of the verb haber is Hmited in Spanish to
the formation of compound tenses (he hablado, I have
spoken), cuando hube entrado (as 1 had entered); to a
number of idioms : haber menester (to need, to want),
haber^dejto have to), ha tiempo (it is long since) ; and to
the impersonal clauses meaning existence and equivalent
to the English expressions : there is, there are, there was, .
etc. In the formation of these clauses, the plural is not
used in Spanish : hay agua en el jarro, there is water in
the jug ; hay manzanas sobre la mesa, there are apples
on the table.

c. He in he aqui, he ^li (behold) has wrongly been described
by grammarians as th^mperative oi haber.

d. The English verb to have, in the sense of holding or
owning, is in Spanish tener, which, however, is used as an
auxiliary in a limited numbej of cases (see § 76).

42

AUXILIARY VERBS

The Verb Ser, to be.

Indicative.

Present,
soy, I am
eres, thou art
es, he is
somos, we are
sois, you are
son, they are
usted es,ustedes son, you
are.

Past,
fui, I was
fuiste, thou wast
fue, he was
fuimos, we were
fuisteis, you were
fueron, they were
usted fue, ustedes fue-
ron, you were

Imperfect,

era, I was, etc.

eras

era

eramos

erais

eran

usted era, ustedes eran.

Future.

sere, I shall be
serds, thou wilt be
serd, he will be
seremos, we shall be
sereis, you will be
serdn, they will be
usted serd, ustedes se-
rkn, you will be.

Subjunctive.

Present.

sea, I may be
seas, thou mayst be
sea, he may be
seamos, we may be
sedis, you may be
sean, they may be
usted sea, ustedes sean,
you may be.

Past (istform),
fuese, I were
fueses, thou wert
fuese, he were
fuesemos, we were
fueseis, you were
fuesen, they were
usted fuese, ustedes fue-
sen, you were.

Past {2nd form),
fuera, I were, etc.
fueras
fuera
fueramos
fuerais
fueran

usted fuera, ustedes fue-
ran

Future.
fuere, if I were, etc.
fueljps
fuere
fueremos
fuereis
fueren

usted fuere, ustedes fue-
ren.

AUXILIARY VERBS

43

Indicative.

Future in the past.

seria, I should be, etc.
serias
seria
seriamos
serials
serian

usted seria, ustedes se-
rian.

Imperative.

se (tii), be (thou) ; sed, be
(you).

Past participle.
side, been.

Present participle.
siendo, being.

Vocabulary.

almorzar, to lunch.

atento, adj.^ attentive.

automovil, m.y automobile,
motor car.

bizcocho, m.y biscuit.

bollo, m.y cake.

buscar, to look for.

campo, m.y the country.

Castillo, m.y castle.

cerca, adv.y near ; cerca de,
near.

contar, to relate.

contento,ae^'., content, satis-
fied; contento de, satis-
fied with.

cosa,/., thing.

I cudnto ?, adv., how much ?
how long?

cuatro (numeral), four.

dar, to give ; daba, he gave.

decir, to say ; dijo, he said.

dulces, m, />/., sweetmeats.

durar, to last.

duro, adj.y hard.

emparedado, w., sandwich.

estar,tobe, to stay; estaba,
he was ; estoy, I am ;
estuvieron, they were.

excelente, adj., excellent.

fiambre, m.y cold meat.

frutas,/. pLy fruit.

genio, m.y character, dis-
position.

huevo, m.y egg ; huevos
duros, hard-boiled eggs.

idea,/., idea.

ire, I shall go.

necesario, adj.y necessary.

ocupado, part.y adj.y occu-
pied, busy.

paseo, m.y walk ; paseo en
coche, drive,

persona,/., person.

polio, m.y chicken ; polio
asado, roast chicken.

que, pron.y that, which.

quedar, to remain, to stay,
to be left ; to subsist.

rio, m.y river.

sardina,/, sardine.

tal vez, perhaps.

te, m,, tea.

uno, una (numeral), one ; a
la una, at one o'clock.

vecindad,/, vicinity, neigh-
bourhood.

44 AUXILIARY VERBS

Exercise.
Los ninos estuvieron ayer casi todo el di'a en el campo
con el maestro. El padre les dijo por la mafiana a Juan
y Lucia: 'El maestro me dice que esta contento devosotros :
yo tambi^n estoy contento de el y de vosotros. El Seiior
Quijano os llevara al campo en nuestro automovil. Sed
buenos y atentos con el ; es una persona excelente. Hay
pocos hombres como el. Yo no puedo ir hoy con voso-
tros : estoy muy ocupado en estos dias. Tal vez en la
semana prdxima ire yo al campo tambien : entonces me
acompanareis vosotros.* Cuando el padre acabo de hablar
llamaron a la puerta. Era Don Manuel Quijano que venia
a ensefiar la leccion. Quedo muy contento cuando los
ninos le contaron que el padre les daba el automovil para
ir a pasear. Don Manuel es hombre de muy buen genio :
con los ninos es alegre como si fuera un nifio. La idea de
ir al campo con sus discipulos lo lleno de alegn'a. Como
el paseo duraria todo el dia, Juan y Lucia buscaron el
fiambre que era necesario llevar. Almorzarian a la una,
cerca del ri'o, y tomarian te a las cuatro en la vecindad del
Castillo. Llevaron pan, huevos duros, carne fri'a, empare-
dadosdejamon, sardinas, bollos, bizcochos, un polio asado,
vino, frutas y dukes. Habia otras cosas para llevar; pero
no eran necesarias.

Conversation.
I Donde estuvieron los ninos ayer con el maestro ?
I Cuando estuvieron los ninos en el campo ? i Con quien
estuvieron los ninos ayer en el campo ? i Estaba el padre
contento de sus hijos (children) ? i Quien llevaria a los
ninos en automovil ? i Que dijo del maestro el padre de los
ninos ? i Hay muchos hombres como el maestro ? i Puede
el padre ir con los ninos? i Cuando ira el padre a pasear
con los ninos? <:, Cuando llamaron a la puerta? ^ Quien
era ? i Quienes le contaron a Don Manuel que el padre
les daba su automovil para pasear ? i Para que daba el

AUXILIARY VERBS 45

padre su automovil ? lA quien daba el padre el auto-
m(5vil ? lEs Don Manuel hombre de buen genio ? ^ Es
alegre ? i Cuanto duraria el paseo ? i Que era necesario
llevar? ^^ Donde almorzarian ? ^ Donde tomarian el te?
^ Que cosas llevaron para el almuerzo y para el te?
I Habi'a otras cosas ? ^ Las llevaron ?

Translate.
We take tea at four o'clock. We lunch at one o'clock.
At what time do they lunch in Spain ? At noon or at
one o'clock. We were in town at one o'clock. He was
not with us. You (singular) are an excellent man. My
children are satisfied with their teacher. I wish to take
a walk with my friends. We shall have eggs, cold meat,
and fruit for luncheon. There is a boiled egg for you. There
is ham for the teacher's friend. Cold ham is a good thing
for luncheon. Can you pass me the wine? Where is it ?
I cannot see it. There it is near the biscuits.

IX

REGULAR VERBS

Conjugation of Hablar, /o speak,

61, Subjunctive.

Present. Past (2nd form).

hable, I may speak, let me hablara, I might speak

speak hablaras, thou mightest

hables, thou mayest speak speak

hable, he may speak, let hablara, he might speak

him. speak habldramos,we might speak

hablemos,w^e may speak, let hablarais, you might speak

us speak hablaran, they might speak.

hableis, you may speak, etc.
hablen, they may speak, etc.

Past (ist/orm). Future.

hablase, I might speak liablare, if I should speak

hablases, thou mightest hablares, if ihou wouldst

speak speak

46

REGULAR VERBS

hablase, he might speak
hablasemos,we might speak
hablaseiSy you might speak
hablasen, they might speak.

hablare, if he would speak
habldremos, if we should

speak
hablareis, if you would

speak
hablaren, if they would

speak.

Imperative.

habla, speak (thou)
hablad, speak (you)

Past participle,
hablado, spoken.

Present participle.
hablando, speaking.

Note. — The correspondence between the Spanish and
English tenses of the verb is not exact. The translation
suggested here for the subjunctive tenses is only applicable
to a limited number of cases, as will be seen in the chapters
dealing with the Spanish subjunctive.

Aprender, to learn, 2.nd Conjugation,
68. Indicative.

Present,

aprendo, I learn
aprendes, thou learnest
aprende, he learns
aprendemoSy we learn
aprendeis, you learn
aprenden, they learn.

Past.

aprendiy I learnt, etc.

aprendiste

aprendi6

aprendimos

aprendisteis

aprendieron.

Imperfect,

aprendia, I learnt, etc.

aprendias

aprendia

aprendiamos

aprendiais

aprendian.

Future.
aprendere, I shall learn, etc.
aprenderds
aprenderd
aprenderemos
aprendereis
aprender^iL

REGULAR VERBS

/.

Future tnlEe past,
aprenderia,! should learn, etc.
aprenderias
aprenUeria
aprenderiamos
aprenderiais
aprenderian.

^ 47

Subjunctive.

Present.

aprenda, I may learn, etc.

aprendas

aprenda

aprendamos

aprenddis

aprendan.

Past (istform),
aprendiese, if I should

learn, etc.
aprendieses
aprendiese
aprendi^semos
aprendieseis
aprendiesen.

Past (^nd form),

aprendiera, if I should

learn, etc.
aprendieras
aprendiera
aprendieramos
aprendierais
aprendieran.

Future,
aprendiere, that I might

learn, etc.
aprendieres
aprendiere
aprendieremos
aprendiereis
aprendieren.

Imperative.

aprende, learn (thou).
aprended, learn (you).

Past participle. Present participle.

aprendido. aprendiendo.

Vocabulary.

adelantar,to make progress,

to advance.
afecto, m,j affection.
agradar,^ to please ; me

agrada, it pleases me,

I Hke it.

a menudo, adv,y often, fre-
quently.

America del Sur,/, South
America.

capital,/., capital (city).

carta,/, letter.

48

REGULAR VERBS

comerciante, ;;/., merchant.

comunicacion, f., commu-
nication.

comunicar, to communicate.

conocer, to know, to be
acquainted with.

correctamente, adv,^ cor-
rectly.

creer, to believe.

Ae^^Qy prep.j since, from.

dificultad,/., difficulty.

entretanto, adv.y meanwhile.

enviar, to send.

escribir, to write.

escrito,escrita,fl'^/., written.

esperar, to wait.

establecer, to establish.

fechado, fechada, adj.^
dated.

interesantejrt^/., interesting.

Londres, London.

mes, ni.y month.

mill6n, m., million.

modesto, adj., modest.

nunca, adv., never.
pasado, pasada, adj., past,

last.
placer, ;;/., pleasure.
^oVyprep,, by; per medio,

by means.
progreso, ;;/., progress.
querido, querida, a^', dear.
recibir, to receive.
Repiiblica Argentina, /.,

Argentine Republic.
seguramente, adv.^ surely,
sincere, sincera, adj,, sin-
cere.
tener, to have, to hold ;

tuvo, he had.
litil, adj,j useful.
varies, variae, adj. pl.y

several, various,
veiiidero, venidera, adj.^

coming.
verdad, /., truth ; en ver-

dad, in truth, indeed.
visitar, to visit.

69.

une

des

tres

cuatre

cinco

seis

siete

oche

nueve

diez

once

doce

trece

caterce

quince

I

2

3

4
5
6

7
8

9
lo
II

12
13

H
J5

Numerals.
diez y seis
diez y siete
diez y eche
diez y nueve
veinte
veinte y une
veinte y dos
veinte y tres
treinta
cuarenta
cincuenta
sesenta
setenta
ochenta
neventa

16

17
18

19
20
21^
22

23
30
40

50
60

70
80
90

ciento 100

ciente une 101

doscientos 200

trescientos 300

mil

dos mil

mil ocho-
cientos
noventa

mil cuatro-
cientos
noventa
y dos

1000
2000

1890

1492

cien mil 100,000

1 instead of veinte y uno . . . veinte y nueve, veintiuno
veintinueve are frequently used in speech and writing.

REGULAR VERBS 49

Exercise.

Los ninos recibieron hoy una carta de un amigo que
vive en Buenos Aires, capital de la Republica Argentina.
Este amigo se llama Antonio. Sus padres son espanoles,
comerciantes ricos, establecidos en la America del Sur,
desde el ano 1890. Antonio nunca ha viajado, es todavfa
un nino ; pero sus padres desean enviarlo a Europa el ano
venidero. Conoce a Juan y a Lucia, porque Don Manuel,
que es amigo de los padres de Antonio, puso a sus discipulos
en comunicacidn con el para que practicaran el espafiol.
Hablar es cosa excelente para aprender un idioma, pero
escribir cartas es tambien litil ejercicio. ^ No aprenderan
ustedes el espafiol correctamente/ dijo el maestro a Juan
y Lucia, 'si no escriben a menudo.' La carta de Antonio
dice : ' Queridos amiguitos (little friends) : Recibi su carta
fechada el 24 fveinte y cuatro) del mes pasado en Londres.
Me agrada saber que hacen ustedes progresos en el estu-
dio del espaiiol. Es una lengua fAcU, hermosa, muy util :
setenta millones de personas hablan espanol en America
y en Espana. Su carta esta bien escrita. La noticia que
me dan de su viaje a Espana es muy interesante. Mis
padres me dicen que el ano venidero me enviaran a
Europa. Muy seguramente visitare la gran ciudad de
Londres, donde espero tener el placer de ver a ustedes.
Entretanto crean en el sincero afecto de su amigo que
desea verlos.* Los nifios pudieron leer y entender la
carta sin dificultad. En verdad estan ya adelantados
en el estudio del espanol ; pero ellos no lo creen asf,
porque son muy modestos.

Conversation.

I Qui^nes recibieron una carta hoy ? ^ De qui^n la
recibieron? iDe d6nde la recibieron? Cuando la reci-
bieron? ^Como se llama el amigo de los ninos? i Donde
vive ? I Quienes son sus padres ? ^^ De qu^ pais son los

2129 £

50 REGULAR VERBS

padres de Antonio ? i Que es Buenos Aires ? i D6nde
queda (is) la Republica Argentina ? i Cuando se estable-
cleron los padres de Antonio en la America del Sur?
I Qu6 desean ellos hacer con el nifio ? i Por que conocen
Juan y Lucia a Antonio? <:, Quien los puso en comuni-
cacion ? i Para que los puso en comunicacion ? lEs
conveniente hablar un idioma para aprenderlo ? ,? Es con-
veniente o necesario? <i,Que dijo el maestro a Juan y
Lucia ? I Puede usted repetir la carta de Antonio ?
I Cuando estaba fechada la carta de los ninos a Antonio ?
I Que dice Antonio de la carta de sus amigos ? i Que cree
Antonio de la lengua espanola ? i Donde hablan esa
lengua ? i Cuando espera venir Antonio a Europa ?
I Pudieron Juan y Lucia leer y entender la carta de su
amigo de Buenos Aires ? i Estan el y ella adelantados en
el espafiol ? i Creen ellos estar adelantados ? i Por que
no lo creen ?

Translate.

The study of Spanish is useful. Seventy millions of
people speak this language. Many nations communicate
their ideas by means of it. Nineteen different countries
and several dependencies (colonias) in Europe, America,
and Australasia use this language. The Spaniards took
it to America in the year 1492. It is a useful, clear,
beautiful, and very interesting language. If a man can
(sabe) speak or write Spanish he can communicate in this
language with many millions of people who cannot speak
any other language. You can travel in South America
Irom Mexico [Mejico) to the Argentine Republic and
speak Spanish always : the people will understand you.
The study of Spanish is also necessary to learn the
character of the people who speak it.

REGULAR VERBS

51

Recibir, to receive.

Third Conjugation.

70. Indicative.

Subjunctive,

Present,

Present.

recibo

reciba

recibes

recibas

recibe

reciba

recibimos

recibamos

recibis

recibais

reciben.

reciban.

Past.

Past (istform).

recibi

recibiese

recibiste

recibieses

recibi6

recibiese

recibimos

recibiesemos

recibisteis

recibieseis

recibieron.

recibiesen.

Imperfect.

Past [2nd form).

recibia

recibiera

recibias

recibieras

recibia

recibiera

recibiamos

recibieramos

recibiais

recibierais

recibian.

recibieran.

Future.

Future.

recibire

recibiere

recibiras

recibieres

recibird

recibiere

recibiremos

recibieremos

recibireis

recibiereis

recibirdn.

recibieren.

Future in the past.

Imperative.

recibiria

Present.

recibirias

recibe

recibiria

recibid.

recibiriamos

Past participle.

recibiriais

recibido.

recibirian.

Present participle.

recibiendo.

£ 2

52 REGULAR VERBS

a. There are in Spanish three different conjugations.
The verbs ending in ar, in the infinitive, are of the first
conjugation ; those ending in er belong to the second ; and
ir is the ending of the third. In the regular verbs the
stem (that is to say, what is left when ar, er, or ir is taken
from the infinitive) remains unaltered in all moods and
tenses. So habl-ar, to speak, is a regular verb of the first
conjugation ; aprend-er, to learn, is a regular verb of the

* second ; and recib-ir, to receive, belongs to the third. In
the conjugation of these three verbs the stem — habl-,
aprend-, recib-, serves, unaltered, to form all the tenses of
the verbs : habl-o, habl-e, habl-ase ; aprend-ia, aprend-
ere, aprend-iere; recib-iria, recib-id, recib-iendo. All

. the regular verbs, according to their ending, are conjugated
on the models habl-ar, aprend-er, recib-ir, the conjuga-
tions of which have been already given.

b. The compound tenses are formed in Spanish by
means of the auxiliary haber and the past participle of the
respective verb :

He hablado. I have spoken.

Cuando el hubo hablado, termin6 la sesi6n.

When he finished speaking, the sitting ended.

Ella habia aprendido la lecci6n cuando volvi de com-
pras.

She had learned her lesson when I returned from
shopping.

Yo no habria recibido su carta, sin demorar mipartida.

I should not have received her letter, had I not delayed
my departure.

Habre acabado el trabajo, cuando usted regrese.

1 shall have finished the work when you return.

The Tenses of the Indicative Mood.
71. — The Spanish present tense of the indicative mood is
used generally with the same meaning as in English :
Conozco los pormenores del negocio.
I know the particulars of the business.

REGULAR VERBS 53

Vivo por lo regular en el campo, durante el invierno.

I live customarily in the country during the winter.
Deseo a usted buen viaje.
I wish you a good voyage.

a. The verbal forms known in English as progressive or
continuous present are also used in Spanish. The verb estar
takes the place of the English to be,
Estd lloviendo, it is raining.

They are not so widely used in Spanish as in EngHsh :
llueve means ' it rains' or *it is raining'.

72. — The perfect, formed with the verb to have and
the past participle, refers to an action that has already
happened, but of which we wish to imply that some
traces are still noticeable, as though the action had just
ceased.

He visto a mi amigo. I have seen my friend.

This shade of meaning marks the difference between the
perfect and the past.

Mi padre murio el ano pasado. My father died last year.

a. When a date or a. special time is expressed in the
sentence the perfect should not be used. It would not
be correct to say in Spanish : mi padre ha muerto el
ano pasado.

73. — The imperfect is used to represent an action that
coincides either in part of its duration or all of it with
another past action.

Hablaban recio, cuando entre. They were talking aloud

as I went in.

a. In some cases the imperfect is used to make the expression
more vivid or to lend a certain touch of actuality.

iConocio usted a Castelar ? Fue el mejor orador de su tiempo.
iConocio usted a Castelar ? Era el mejor orador de su tiempo.
Did you know Castelar ? He was the best orator of his time.

The two Spanish expressions have the same meaning, but
the second suggests that the person mentioned is still present
in the mind's eye of the speaker.

54 • REGULAR VERBS

74. — ^There is scarcely any difference between the
Spanish and the English use of the future tense of the
indicative.

Ver^ mafiana a Pedro en el teatro.

I shall see Peter to-morrow at the theatre.

76. — The future in the past (hablaria, aprenderia,
recibiria) is generally used in conditional sentences, as we
shall see in connexion with the subjunctive dependent
statements. It is also used to express probability or con-
j ecture :

Seria mejor esperar, it would be better to wait.

As a tense of the indicative mood it refers to an action
that happens after a past fact :

Dijo que vendria hoy, he said he would come to-day.

Nos asegur6 que manana estaria acabada la obra.

He assured us that the work would be finished to-
morrow.

76. — The verb tener (to have, to hold) is also used in a few cases
to form compound tenses. The tenses so formed have usually
the same meaning as those resulting from the combination of
haber with the past participle of other verbs ; but occasionally
there is a difference that can be more easily perceived than
defined.

He dicho que salgan. I have said that they may go out.
Les tango dicho que salgan. I have told them to go out.
He terminado la tarea. I have finished the task.
Tengo terminada la obra. I have the work finished.

a. The employment of the verb tener in the formation of
compound tenses is limited to verbs used transitively : it would
be wrong to say tengo dormido for he dormido, I have slept.

b. The participle used with tener is not invariable as in the
case of the compound tenses formed with haber :

Est6 usted seguro de que para cuando vengan tendr6

aderezada la cena.
Be sure that I will have the supper ready when they arrive.
Tuve preparadas las camas desde las diez.
I had the beds ready since ten o'clock.

REGULAR VERBS

^

Vocabulary.

ademds, adv.y besides.

antes, adv,y before.

bajar, to come down, to go
down.

campo, m.y the country.

casar, to marry.

comer, to eat, to dine.

crecer, to grow, to grow up.

cuarto, m., room.

dejar, to leave.

descansar, to rest.

edad,/., age.

encontrar, to find, to find
out.

escuela,/, school ; escuela
de primeras letras, pri-
mary school.

fatigado, fatigada, adj.,
tired, fatigued.

fortuna,/, fortune.

gracioso, a^'., graceful.

gramdtica,/, grammar.

guapo, guapa, adj., good-
looking, pretty.

gustar de, to like, to be
fond of.

hacer, to do; hacer pro-
vecho, to do good.

hora, /, hour ; i que hora
es ?, what o'clock is it ?

India (la),/, India.

instante, w., instant.

junto, adj, adv.^ together,
near by.

Idstima, /, pity, compas-
sion ; es lastima, it is
a pity.

manana, /., morning ; ma-
nana, adv., to-morrow.

marido, m., husband.

medio, adj., half; media
hora, half an hour.

minuto, m., minute.

motivo, m.y motive.

muebles, m. pL, furniture ;
un mueble, a piece of
furniture.

parecer, to seem ; parece
bien, it seems right.

pariente, parienta, m, and
f., relative.

pensar, to think; piensa,
he thinks, she thinks or
you think.

permanecer, to stay.

preparar, to prepare.

provecho, m., profit, good,
advantage ; le hace pro-
vecho, it does him good.

senorita, /., young lady.
Miss.

s£, pron., himself, herself,
itself, themselves ; para
si, for himself, for herself.

solamente, solo, adv., only.

tarde,/., afternoon ; tarde,
adv., late.

tiempo, m., time, weather; ' ,^
buen tiempo, good wea-
ther.

tocador, ;;/., dressing-table ;
objetos de tocador, dres-
sing-table requisites.

traer, to bring; trajo, he
brought.

ver, to see ; veia, he or she
saw [imperfect).

vQZ,f., time, occasion.

56 REGULAR VERBS

Exercise.

Una amiga de los niiios, llamada Magdalena, que vive
siempre en el campo, vino esta manana a visitarlos. Trajo
varias cosas, porque piensa permanecer una semana. El
viaje de su casa a Londres duro cuatro horas y unos
minutos. Llego un poco fatigada. Lucia la llevo al cuarto
que habia preparado para ella y alii la dejo reposar unos
instantes. Magdalena llego a las cinco de la tarde. Tuvo
tiempo para descansar dos horas antes de bajar a comer.
En su cuarto encontro todos los muebles y objetos de
tocador necesarios : pudo no haber traido ella muchas de
las cosas que trajo.

Lucia esta muy contenta con k visita de su amiga. No
la veia desde los tiempos en que estudiaban juntas en la
escuela de primeras letras. Magdalena ha crecido mucho :
es una seiiorita muy guapa y muy graciosa : tiene diez y
siete afios solamente, pero parece tener veinte. La vida
del campo le hace provecho.

Lucia piensa llevar a su amiga a conocer en Londres los
lugares mas importantes. Manana iran a tiendas. Seria
una lastima para Magdalena regresar al campo sin conocer
las tiendas de Londres. Ademas tiene que comprar
vestidos para si y para su madre y hermanas. Tal vez
era este, despues de visitar a su amiga, el motivo principal
de su viaje.

La familia de Magdalena no gusta de venir a la ciudad.
En tres aiios solo han estado en Londres una vez, por
visitar a una parienta que se habia casado y dejaba a
Inglaterra para ir a vivir con su marido a la India.

Conversation.

I Quien vino a ver a los niiios ? i Donde vive Magda-
lena siempre ? i Cuando llego ella ? i Que trajo Magda-
lena ? I Cuanto tiempo piensa permanecer en Londres ?
I Cuantas horas dura el viaje de la casa de Magdalena a

REGULAR VERBS 57

Londres ? i Como llego ella ? i Quien la llevo a su
cuarto ? (i, Donde la dejo Lucia? ^A que hora llego?
I Tuvo tiempo para descansar antes de comer ? i Que
encontro en su cuarto ?

I Desde cuando no vei'a Lucia a Magdalena? i Donde
estuvieron juntas ? i Cuantos aiios tiene Magdalena ? <;, Es
muy crecida para su edad ? ^j, Es guapa ? i Es buena la
vida del campo para ella ? i Quien llevara a Magdalena
a conocer Londres ? i Regresara Magdalena sin conocer
las tiendas de Londres ? i Que piensa comprar ? ^ Para
qui^n comprara vestidos ? i Cual fue el principal motivo
de su visita a Londres ? lY despues ?

^ Gusta la familia de Magdalena de venir a la ciudad ?
^Cuantas veces han estado en Londres en tres anos?
^A quien venian a visitar? ^Adonde iba su parienta?
I Con quien iba ?

Translate.

My friend is coming [viene) to London to see me. He
can stay only a month : it is a pity. 1 expect to see him
next week. It seems (that) he is not very well. He
wishes to take a rest. It would be good to travel. The
weather is good.

The children go to school : they stay at school six
hours, from ten to four, five days of the week. It does
them good. They like to go to school. They will learn
useful thmgs. They are studying grammar.

They can read and write their language. When I was
at school I liked grammar very much. Now I am
studying other things.

The children will be at school all the year. They learn
many things at home, besides.

What time is it? When are you coming? It would
be well to wait. In an hour the teacher will be here.
We shall go with him to the country. He likes the
country. Magdalena goes with us. Another young lady

58 REGULAR VERBS

will be with her. — What is her name ? — We do not know :
we never saw her before. She was not at the school when
we were studying.

X

THE ADJECTIVE

Degrees of Comparison.

77. — Most adjectives form the comparative in Spanish
with the adverb mas (more) placed before the positive
form.

rico, rich ; mds rice, richer.

dure, hard ; mas dure, harder.

a, A few adjectives change their form in the comparative
degree.

bueno, good ; mejor, better.
male, bad ; peor, worse.

Saber es mejor que ate- To know is better than to

sorar riquezas. hoard riches.

No puede decirse que el It cannot be said that cold

frio sea siempre peor is always worse than

que el calor. heat.

h. The regular forms mds bueno, mds male are also
used, but less often.

c. The comparatives of grande, great, and pequeno,
little, are mayor, greater, and menor, smaller. They
serve specially to denote abstract differences :

Quien navega corre un He who travels by sea runs

gran peligro, pero quien a great risk, but he who

vuela corre un peligro flies runs greater risk.
mayor.

La falta es pequena, el The offence is slight, the

castigo menor. punishment slighter.

Mi hermano es mayor que My brother is two years
yo dos anos. older than I am.

THE ADJECTIVE 59

Luis es menor que los Luis is younger than the
otros tres estudiantes. other three students.

In other cases the ordinary form of comparison is pre-
ferred.

El huesped pidio una cu- The guest asked for a larger
chara mds grande. spoon.

d. It should be noted that the word than of the English
comparative is rendered in Spanish by que.

El sabe mds que yo y me- He knows more than I and
nos que su hermano. less than his brother.

e. Inferior, superior, anterior, posterior, ulterior are
not always used as comparatives in Spanish. They follow
the rules of the ordinary adjectives and do not require the
conjunction que but the preposition a after them, when
a comparison is meant.

Es superior a la calumnia. He is above slander.
Es inferior al desden. He is beneath contempt.

/. Comparison of equaHty is expressed in Spanish by
tan . . . como, tanto . . . come.

Es tan bueno como lo pa- He is as good as he seems
rece. to be.

Demonstrative Adjectives.

78. — There are in Spanish three demonstrative adjectives
corresponding to the three persons of the personal pro-
nouns. Este is the thing or person near the speaker, ese
is the thing or person near the person addressed, aquel is
the thing or person remote from both.
Le doy este libro para que I am giving you this book to

lo conserve. keep.

Acerqueme esa silla. Pass me that chair.

^Alcanza usted a ver Can you see those trees

aquellos arboles? yonder?

79. — The following are the forms of the demonstrative
adjectives:

Este, this (masc.) ese, that (masc.)

Esta, this (fem.) esa, that (fem.)

Estos, these (masc. pi.) esos, those (masc. pi.)

Estas, these (fem. pi.). esas, those (fem. pi.).

6o THE ADJECTIVE

Aquel, that (masc.)
Aquella, that (fern.)
Aquellos, those (masc. pi.)
Aquellas, those (fern. pi.).

80. — When used substantively, that is, when the sub-
stantive to which they refer is not expressed or when they
follow the substantive, the demonstratives are accentuated.

No quiero este sino ese. I do not want this, but that

one.
No es este el que yo co- This is not the one I know,

nozco sino aquel. but that.

El perro ese. That particular dog.

81. — Este and aquel are used in the sense of the latter
and the former:

El agua y el aire lo sal- Water and air saved him :

varon; aquella^ le ofrecio the former gave him food,

sustento, este* guio su the latter guided his boat

barco a un lugar seguro. to a safe spot.

a, Aquel means also remote times when not used in
connexion with este,

Aquellos fueron dias de Those were days of great
gran terror. terror.

82. — There is a neuter form esto, eso, aquello used with
reference to ideas previously expressed.

Esto es lo que refiere la This is what the newspaper

gaceta. says.

Aquello no parecia con- That did not seem to be in

forme con los hechos. accord with the facts.

Eso y lo que usted dice That and what you say are

estdn en contradicci6n. in conflict.

Reflexive Pronouns.

83. — The forms of the personal pronouns for the first
and second persons do not change in the reflexive con-
struction.

Me contento con patatas. I content myself with

potatoes.

THE ADJECTIVE 6i

Tii te abanicas. You fan yourself.

Nos alabamos. We praise ourselves.

Vuelve en ti. Control yourself.

84. — In the third person the form se takes the place of
the direct and indirect object in reflexive constructions.
After a preposition si is used instead of se.

]fcl se conoce. He knows himself.

Ella se da al estudio. She gives herself upto study.

Ellos se establecieron en Theysettled in Madrid; they

Madrid. came to reside in Madrid.

Ellas se admiran a si mis- They admire themselves,

mas.

Lo dijo para si. He said it to himself.

a. It is to be noted that the reflexive constructions in
Spanish do not always correspond to a reflexive form in
English.

85.— Se is also used in Spanish to denote the reciprocal
action of the verb, in the third person plural, both for the
direct and indirect object :

Se odian. They hate each other.

Seprodiganalabanzasmu- They lavish praise on each
tuas. other.

a. The reciprocal forms of the third person, singular and
plural, after a preposition are rendered by si.

Fastidia, habla siempre de He bores, he is always
si. ^ talking about himself.

Volvieron en si, despues de They recovered their senses
un gran susto. after a great fright.

Tienen querellas entre si. They have quarrels amongst

themselves.

b. Si preceded by the preposition con makes a single
word with it and adds go (see § 59, c),

Ella traia consigo un perro She was bringing a lap-dog
faldero. with her.

c. The form si cannot be used after the preposition sin,
because this preposition can scarcely take a reflexive or
reciprocal sense.

62 THE ADJECTIVE

d. The Academy in its Spanish Grammar lays it down
that in some cases the sense excludes the use of si in re-
flexive sentences and gives the following examples :

Mendoza llev6 a la exposicidn Mendoza took to the exhibition
su retrato hecho por el. his portrait painted by him-

self

Mis amigos de Villaviciosa My Villaviciosa friends sent
me enviaron flores, cul- me some flowers that they

tivadas per ellos. had cultivated themselves.

There is nothing reflexive in these examples. Flores cul-
tivadas por ellos is not a reflexive sentence : in the reflexive
sentence the subject and the object are one and the same.

86. — In Spanish there are certain constructions with se
which are reflexive only in form. (See § 310.)

Se sabe. It is known.

Se dijo entonces. It was then said.

Se conocian las intencio- The intentions of the enemy
nes del enemigo.^ were known (one knew

the intentions . . .).

87. — In some cases se is simply the form le or les
altered for the purpose of avoiding the alliteration resulting
from the concurrence of the direct and indirect forms of
the pronoun of the third person singular or plural, and has
no reflexive meaning :
Se lo di (= Le lo di). I gave it him.

Digaselo. Tell him so.

Pusoselo en la mano (= He put it in his hand.

Puso le lo en la mano).
Se lo avise a ellos. I made them aware of it.^

^ Se is here the equivalent of the Frencii on {on sait, on dit), which is
a contraction of the word homnte (man). Ii> Spanish we also use the
indeterminate pronoun uno in phrases of this kind :

Uno sabe a qu6 atenerse cuando One knows what one can depend

habla con gentes dignas de upon when one is speaking to

confianza. trustworthy people.

Una necesita el apoyo del hom- One needs the support of man (see

bre (a woman speaking) § i6i, a).

2 Note that in the use of these forms se is always put first. Se te
espera a las diez, you are expected at ten ; se nos notifico la de-
manda, we were served with the writ. Te goes before me, and le or
lo is the last.

THE ADJECTIVE 63

88. — The reflexive Spanish form is often translated in
English by means of an ordinary transitive verb and the
corresponding possessive pronoun :

Se corta las unas. He cuts his nails.

Se leerizaron los cabellos. His hair stood on end.

The Superlative.

89. — The superlative is formed in Spanish either by
means of the adverb muy placed before the adjective or by
adding the termination isimo, isima.

Muy bueno, very good.
Bellisimo, very handsome.

90. — The last vowel of the adjective, when it ends in
a vowel, is dropped to add the termination isimo or isima.
Triste, sad ; tristisimo, very sad. Adjectives of three or
more syllables, having the stress on the antepenultimate and
endingin eo, ico, fero, vomo, do not admit of this inflection.
Adjectives ending in co change c to qu to preserve the hard
sound of c : rice, riquisimo ; and those ending in go
change the g to gu to preserve the sound : amargo, bitter ;
amarguisimo.

91. — Adjectives having the diphthongs ie or ue in the
stressed syllable change these letters into e or o when the
termination is added. Ardiente, ardentisimo; bueno,
bonisimo. But the change does not take place when the
original Latin word has the ie or ue. Paciente (patiens\
pacientisimo ; frecuente {/requens\ frecuentisimo. Yet
fiero {{rom ferus) makes fierisimo.

92. — The following superlatives are irregular in their
formation : benevolo, benevolent — benevolentisimo, very,
most benevolent; fiel, faithful — fidelisimo, very faithful;
sagrado, sacred — sacratisimo, most sacred. Adjectives
ending in io double the vowel i in the superlatives : pic
(pious), piisimo (most pious). Some adjectives have two
forms for the superlative : pobre (poor), pobrisimo and

64

THE ADJECTIVE

paup^rrimo ; f^rtil (fertile), fertillsimo and uberrimo ;
bueno (good), bonisimo and 6ptimo; malo (bad), malisimo
and p6simo; grande (great), grandisimo and mdximo;
pequeno (small, little), pequenisimo and minimo. Note
that the second form is the Latin superlative.

93. — There is no exact correspondence as regards the
use of the superlative in English and Spanish. Juan es
alto, Luis es altlsimo y Carlos es el mas alto de los
tres ; John is tall, Louis is very tall, and Charles is the
tallest of the three. The first superlative (altfsimo) cannot
be rendered in English by tallest, and the second, which is
rendered in English by the tallest, is expressed in Spanish
by the article and the comparative form followed by de.
El mejor vino del mundo, the best wine in the world.
Note in this case the use of the preposition de instead of
the English itt,

94. — Conjugation of Estar, to be, to stay , to remain.

Indicative.
Present,

estoy, I am

estds, thou art

estd, he is

estamos, we are

estdis, you are

estdn, they are.
Past.

estuve, I was

estuviste, thou wast

estuvo, he was

estuvimos, we were

estuvisteis, you were

estuvieron, they were.
Imperfect,

estaba, I was

estabas, thou wast,
etc. [regular).

Subjunctive.
Present.
est6, I be, etc.
est6s
este

estemos
est^is
esten.

Past (ist form),
estuviese, I were
estiivieses, thou wert
estuviese, he were
estuviesemos, we were
estuvieseis, you were
estuviesen, they were.

Past (2nd form),
estuviera, I were
estuvieras, thou wert
estuviera, he were
estuvi^ramos, we were
estuvierais, you were
estuvieran, they were.

Indicative.
Future.

estare, I shall be, etc.
(regular).

Future in the past.

estaria, I should be, etc.
(regu/ar).

THE ADJECTIVE

Subjunctive.

^5

Future.
estuviere, if I were, etc.
estuvieres
estuviere
estuvieremos
estuviereis
e^tuvieren.

Imperative.

estd, be (thou)
estad, be (you'.

Past participle,
estado, been.

Present participle.
estando, being.
a. Estar and ser, though corresponding in most cases
to the English verb to he^ are not interchangeable in
Spanish : in fact the correct use of these two verbs is
a crucial test of the student's mastery of the language.
The rule most easy of application is that ser implies
permanency and estar implies position as well as tem-
p(5fary'ortransitory states of being.

La tierra es redonda. The earth is round.

La verdad fue siempre ene- Truth was always the eremy

miga del error
La piata estd cara en estos

dias.
Estuve ayer en el campo.

of error.
Silver is dear nowadays.

I was in the country yes-
terday.

This rule is not always applicable, and the best plan is to
follow good usage.

Vocabulary.

acarrear, to bring upon, to

bring to, to carry.
adoptar, to adopt.
arriesgar, to risk.

2129

auraento, m., increase,
autor, m.^ author, writer,
beneficio, w., benefit, fa-
vour.

66

THE ADJECTIVE

bien, m,y good ; adv,^ well.

castellano, adj.^ Castilian.

caudal, ;;/., wealth, plenty.

circulaci6n,/., circulation. ^

colegio, m.y college.

companero, ;w., companion.

contribuir, to contribute ;
contribuye, he contri-
butes.

correr, to run ; correr a,
to hasten to.

desconocido, adj\y un-
known.

dinero, m,y money.

docena,/., dozen.

en vez de, instead of.

escoger, to choose, to se-
lect.

establecer, to establish ;
se establece, he settles
down.

extraer, to draw, to extract.

festive, adj\y festive, humo-
rous.

f ranees, adj,^ French.

ganar, to win, to earn.

hacer, to make ; hizo, he
made.

heroe, m.^ hero.

hijo, m.y son.

inmenso, adj.y immense.

invertir, to invest, to invert.

justo, adj.y just.

ligar, to attach, to bind.

lograr, to get, to attain.

mejora,/., improvement.

mitad,/., half.

mode, fn,y mode, manner;
de modo que, so that.

natal, adj\y native, natal.

natural, adj\y native, na-
tural.

ni, conj\y nor, neither.

nieto, m.y grandson.

pdgina,/, page.

penetrance, adj.y keen, pene-
trating, shrewd.

perder, to lose ; pierde, he
loses.

poblacion,/., population.

pocos, pocas, adj. ply few.

poder, can ; podia, he
could.

poner, to put; pongo, I
put ; pone, he puts ;
puso, he put.

popular, adj.y popular.

per lo menos, at least.

premie, m.y reward.

privado, adj,y private.

producir, to produce.

proporcionar, to provide.

pues, conj.y because, as,
then.

recuperar, to recover, to
get back.

sacar, to draw, to draw
out.

sentido, m.y sense, mean-
ing.

siglo, m.y century.

sociedad,/., society.

sorpresa,/., surprise.

suelo, m.y soil, land, ground.

tomar, to take; tomar
carino, to become at-
tached.

venir, to come ; vino, he
came.

ventaja,/., advantage, bene-
fit, gain.

volver, to return, to come
back.

vuelta, /., return; a la
vuelta de, within, in the
course of.

THE ADJECTIVE 67

Exercise.

Juan y Lucia tuvieron hoy una agradable sorpresa. El
maestro les hizo leer una pagina de un escritor espaiiol
para ver si la entendian. Este escritor es Mariano Jose
de Larra, uno de los mas populares entre los autores
espaiioles de la primera mitad del siglo XIX. Nacio en
Madrid el 24 de Marzo de 1809. Cuando tenia ocho afios
paso a Francia con su padre e hizo en las escuelas de
aquel pais sus primeros estudios, de mode que, de (as)
nino, sabi'a mejor la lengua francesa que la espanola;
pero al volver a Espana, en 181 7, a un colegio de Madrid,
recupero inmediatamente el uso de su lengua natal, en
que vino a ser modelo. Esta es la pagina del festivo
escritor castellano : ^ Un extranjero que corre a un pais
que le es desconocido, para arriesgar en el sus caudales,
pone en circulacion un capital nuevo, contribuye al bien
de la sociedad, a quien hace un inmenso beneficio con su
talento y su dinero. Si pierde es un heroe ; si gana, es
muy justo que logre el premio de su trabajo (work), pues
nos proporciona ventajas que no podiamos acarrearnos
solos. Este extranjero que se establece en este pais
no viene a sacar de el el dinero ; a la vuelta de media
docena de anos, no es extranjero ya, ni puede ser extran-
jero ; sus intereses y su familia le (or lo) ligan al nuevo
pais que ha adoptado ; toma carino al suelo donde ha
hecho su fortuna, al pueblo donde ha escogido una com-
pafiera ; sus hijos son espafioles y sus nietos seran tambien
espanoles ; en vez de extraer el dinero ha venido a dejar
un capital que trai'a, invirtiendolo y haciendolo producir ;
ha dejado otro capital de talento, que vale por lo menos
tanto como el dinero; ha dado de comer a los pocos o
muchos naturales que ha ocupado (employed) necesaria-
mente ; ha hecho una mejora y ha contribuido al aumento
de la poblacion con su nueva familia.' El maestro cambio

F 2

68 THE ADJECTIVE

algunas palabras y frases para hacer mas facil el sentido
y los nifios entendieron muy bien.

Conversation.

I Qaien habia preparado una sorpresa para los nifios ?
^Que sorpresa fue esta ? iQm6n fue Mariano Jose de
Larra ? i Donde y cuando nacio ? i Que edad tenia cuando
fue a vivir a Francia ? i Con quien fue a Francia ? i Donde
hizo sus primeros estudios? i Que lengua aprendio cuando
era nino? i En que ano volvio a Espana? <i, Sabia todavia
el espanol ? i Como contribuye un extranjero al bien del
pais a donde va a establecerse ? c, Es justo que gane dinero
en el pais ? i Saca el dinero del pais donde se establece ?
I Continua siempre siendo extranjero ? i Quienes le ligan
al pais de adopcion ? i For que se toma carino al pais
adoptado ? i Son extranjeros sus hijos y sus nietos ?
I Que otro capital invierte que no es dinero ? i Cuanto
vale ese capital ? ^ A quien da de comer ? i Quienes
aumentan la poSlacion del pais ? i Entendieron los nifios
la pagina de Larra? ^ Q^^ ^"^i^o el maestro con algunas
palabras y frases ? ^^ Para que hizo el cambio ?

Translate.

A book written by Mariano Jose de Larra. I can under-
stand many pages of this book, but I cannot understand
it all. Larra was a shrewd writer ; he was also humorous.
There are many Spanish authors. Cervantes is the best.
His best book is Don Quixote, This book is gay and also
very sad.

Spain is a large country in Europe, France is larger,
Russia is the largest. France is very rich, but England
is the richest. South America is a very large continent.
It is not very well known in Europe. It is said that South
America is a very rich continent. It is known that South
America will be very rich.

THE ADJECTIVE 69

There is a desire to know where his house is. He settled
down in Madrid. He knows himself. She decided {se
decidid) to leave to-morrow. He was told the truth. He
is not known. She will be called to-day.

Translate.
Esta casa es nueva, aquella es novi'sima. Un autor
jovialisimo y poco conocido. Su libro se entiende facil-
mente. El espafiol es una lengua facil ; mas facil que
el frances o el italiano. La mailana ha sido clara ; el di'a
sera clarisimo. Se (I know) que Enrique llegara mafiana.
Dice que permanecera en Londres un mes o cinco semanas.
Piensa en ese tiempo conocer las cosas mas importantes
de la ciudad. Desea volver a Madrid. Visitara a Pan's.
Sus amigos de Francia desean verlo. Enrique ha vivido
en Pan's muchos anos. Tiene muchos amigos en esa
ciudad. Dice que vivin'a en Pan's con agrado.

XI

NEUTER GENDER— RELATIVE
PRONOUNS

95. — If we take into consideration simply the agreement
of noun and adjective there are two genders in Spanish :
masculine and feminine. But certain pronouns and adjec-
tives when used to refer to ideas, predicates, or statements
previously expressed have a neuter gender.

Se esto porque Juan me lo I know this, because John
dijo. told it me.

Esto and lo belong to the neuter gender. If instead of
the word esto, which means, in this case, something of
a general character to which reference has been made, we
use a noun of the feminine or masculine gender, both esto
and lo should give place to the corresponding masculine
or feminine forms.

70 NEUTER GENDER

^Sabeslanoticia? — Lase, Have you heard the news?

porque Juan me la dijo — Yes^ I know it because

y es esta : el Ministro John told me it, and it is

ha muerto. this : the Minister is dead.

96. — Adjectives used substantively to express abstract
qualities are preceded by the neuter form of the article :

Lo bueno. What is good.

Lo litil antes que lo agra- Usefulness before pleasure.

dable.

Lo futuro depende de lo The future depends on the

presente. present.

Lo mio y lo tuyo. What is mine and what is

yours.

97.— EUo is the neuter form of the pronoun of the third
person.

EUo puede ser cierto, pero It may be true, but I do not
yo no lo creo. believe it.

a. The forms for the direct and indirect object of the
third person neuter are lo and le respectively.

Ha llegado la reina, pero The queen has arrived, but
lo ocultan. the fact is concealed.

Lo replaces the statement * ha llegado la reina '.

In ha llegado la reina, pero la ocultan, the meaning is :

the queen has arrived, but they are concealing her.

Las gacetas lo afirman, yo The newspapers state it, I
no le doy credito. (Le, give no credence to it.
indirect object.)

98. — The neuter forms of the demonstrative pronouns
are : esto, eso, aquello. They are used with reference to
place and relation in accordance with the same rules as
the masculine and feminine forms.

Esto y lo que dice el diario This and what the news-
precipito mi viaje.^ paper says hastened my

departure.

^ Note tliat after two or more subjects of the neuter gender the verb
is in the singular.

NEUTER GENDER 71

Eso no estd bien. That is not right.

La lucha fue recia para lo- The struggle to get that was
grar aquello. hard.

99. — The infinitive form of the verb, which is often used
in Spanish as a noun, can be referred to in another sen-
tence only by means of a neuter form of the pronoun.

Desea estudiar, pero se He wants to stud}^, but he
desentiende de ello fa- is prone to neglect doing
cilmente. so.

a. It is to be noted that when the infinitive is used with
the definite article the form required is that of the mas«u-
line gender, but even in this case it must afterwards be
referred to by means of the neuter form of the pronoun :

El madrugar es sano ; es To rise early is wholesome ;
precisoacostumbrarsea it is necessary to get used
ello. to it.

a. A predicative noun, whether masculine or feminine, is
always referred to in the neuter gender:

(■Es usted la reina ? — Si lo Are you the queen? — Yes,

soy. I am.

t, Es usted mi vecino ? — Eso Are you my neighbour?—

es. Precisely.

100.— Note the idiomatic use of the neuter gender in the
following expressions, both colloquial and literary :
Lo melancolica que estaba la The sadness that pervaded the

tarde. afternoon.

Lo caras que estaban las The dearness that prevailed

frutas. in fruit.

; Y eso que era muy pobre ! And very poor at that.

A eso de las diez. Towards ten o'clock.

Ello es que su carrera esta The fact is that his career is

cortada. cut short.

Relative Pronouns.

101. — The relative pronouns in Spanish are que (invari-
able), that ; quien, quienes, who ; el cual, la cual, los
cuales, las cuales, which ; cuyo, cuya, cuyos, cuyas,

whose.

72 RELATIVE PRONOUNS

102. — Que may be used with reference both to persons
and things :

El comerciante que vive The merchantwhoHves near

cerca de tu casa. your house.

El viento que pasa. The passing wind.

a. Que may also be used in referring to clauses and
predicative nouns or adjectives, whether preceding or
following :

Fue llamada la isla San The island was called Saint
Juan de Ulua, en que John of Ulua, in which

anduvo la devocion mez- devotion and flattery were
clada con la lisonja. mixed together.

El suelo de Holanda, de The soil of Holland, un-
esteril e ingrato que era, grateful and barren as it
se ha convertido en un was, has been turned into
jardin continuado. one continuous garden.

b. In its invariable form que may be either subject or
object according to the nouns which it represents :

Este es el nino que llego This is the boy who arrived

ayer {subj\). yesterday.

El libro que divierte e in- The book that entertains

struye eselmejor(67//>/'.). and gives information is

the best.

Las casas que vendio el The houses the bank sold.

banco (obj.).

Los sucesos de que hago The events I recall to mind.

memoria [obj.),

c. Note that que, as a relative, cannot be omitted in
Spanish as in English.

d. Que may be used in connexion with the article, and
then it is the equivalent of who, he who, those who, that
which, etc. With the neuter article it means ' what '.

El que te adula te agravia. He who flatters you, insults

you.

Cuando llego la niiia com- When the girl arrived we
prendimos que ella era saw that she was the one
la que el venia a buscar. he was looking for.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

73

El premio pertenecera a
los que Ueguen primero.

^TienQ usted el libro que
busco ? — No, sino el que
dejo aqui D. Pedro.

Lo que dicen es cierto.

The prize will belong to
those who arrive first.

Have you the book I am
looking for? — No; but
that which Don Pedro left
here.

What they say is true.

103.— Conjugation of Tener, to liavc^ to hold.

Indicative.

Subjunctive

Present,

Present.

tengo

tenga

tienes

tengas

tiene

tenga

tenemos

tengamos

teneis

tengais

tienen.

tengan.

Past.

Past {ist form).

tuve

tuviese

tuviste

tuvieses

tuvo

tuviese

tuvimos

tuviesemos

tuvisteis

tuvieseis

tuvieron.

tuviesen.

Imperfect.

Past (2nd form).

tenia, etc. (regular).

tuviera

Future.

tuvieras

tendre

tuviera

tendras

tuvieramos

tendra

tuvierais

tendremos

tuvieran.

tendreis

Future.

tendran.

tuviere

Future in the past.

tuvieres

tendria

tuviere

tendrias

tuvieremos

tendria

tuviereis

tendriamos

tuvieren.

tendriais

Imperative.

tendrian.

ten

tened.

74

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Past participle,
tenido.

Present participle,
teniendo.

Vocabulary.

acerca de, about.

agricultura, /.^ agriculture.

algodon, tn.^ cotton.

algunos, algunas, adj, pL^
some.

alld, adv.j there.

aprecio, ni,y esteem, appre-
ciation.

azucar, ;;/., sugar.

cabeza, /, head; a la ca-
beza, at the head.

calumniado, adj,y slan-
dered.

calzado,;w.,boots, shoes, etc.

carrera, /, career.

casa comercial,/., commer-
cial house.

caucho, fn,y india-rubber.

cesar, to cease ; sin cesar,
incessantly.

civilizacion, /., civilization.

comercio, m.^ commerce,
trade.

come, adv,y as, like.

correspondencia, /., corre-
spondence ; Uevar co-
rrespondencia, to carry
on correspondence.

costumbre,/, custom, usage.

cuantioso, adj,y copious.

cuero, ni.y hide, leather.

deber, to owe, to be owing.

dedicar, to dedicate, to give
up to.

departamento, ;//., depart-
ment.

Diego, ;;/., James.

diferente, adj., different.

diligencia,/., industry, acti-
vity, diligence.

exito, ;;/., success.

exportar, to export.

exterior, adj., foreign.

factor, m,y factor, agent.

ferreteria, /., hardware.

fortuna,/, fortune, riches.

generos, m, pl.y goods.

gentes,/. />/., people.

honradez,/, honesty.

importar, to import.

lana,/, wool.

largo, adj.y long.

llevar, to carry.

mal, adv,y badly.

mercaderia, /, merchan-
dise, goods.

mostrador, ;;/., counter.

mundo, m.y world.

negar, to deny.

oficio, ;//., trade, occupation.

posicion,/., position.

pronto, adj. and adv,y
prompt, soon.

puesto, adj.y past participle
^poner, to put.

reputacion,/., reputation.

seguir, to follow, to pursue.

seguro, adj,y sure.

sino, conj.y but.

suave, adj,y mild, soft.

tiempo, ;;/., time, weather.

utensilio, m,y tool, utensil.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS 75

Exercise.

El padre de Juan piensa dedicar su hijo a la carrera
del comercio. En ella ha hecho Don Diego (asi se llama
el padre) su fortuna que es cuantiosa y con ella ha logrado
ganar la consideracion de las gentes y el aprecio de sus
cpmpafieros de oficio. Algunas personas dicen mal del
comercio; no se puede negar que algunos comerciantes
hacen mal uso de su posicion ; pero el calumniado mostra-
dor ha sido y es un factor de civilizacion. El comerciante
ha puesto en comunicacion los varies pai'ses y ha contri-
buido de este modo a hacer las costumbres mas suaves.

Juan desea tambien seguir la carrera del comercio.
Esta estudiando espanol, porque este idioma es hoy im-
portanti'simo para los que la siguen. A menudo recibe
Don Diego cartas en espanol, que no puede entender por-
que el no ha aprendido esta lengua, y las pasa a un de-
pendiente sudamericano que lleva la correspondencia con
los clientes de Espaiia y de Hispano America. Este
dependiente, que ha vivido en Inglaterra muy largo tiempo,
conoce bien las necesidades del comercio exterior y las
costumbres comerciales de Europa, de modo que sus
servicios son valiosisimos para Don Diego. Como los
negocios crecen sin cesar, es seguro que muy pronto Juan
estara a la cabeza de un departamento espanol en la casa
comercial de su padre. En vez de un dependiente espanol
o sudamericano tendra media docena. Esta casa exporta
a la America del Sud generos de algodon y de lana, ferre-
teria, utensilios de agricultural calzado y otras merca-
derias. Importa de alia cafe, cueros, caucho y aziicar.
La casa de Don Diego tiene una excelente reputacion no
solo en Europa sino en todo el mundo, Esto lo debe a su
honradez y diligencia y al exito.

Conversation.
(i^Como se llama el padre de Juan? ^A que carrera
piensa dedicar a su hijo ? i Como hizo Don Diego su

76 RELATIVE PRONOUNS

fortuna ? ^j^ Es grande su fortuna ? i Que ha logrado
ganar con su fortuna ? i Quien dice mal del comercio ?
I Hay comerciantes que hacen mal uso de su posicion ?
I Como ha contribuido el comercio a hacer mas suaves las
costumbres ?

(i,Que carrera desea seguir Juan? ^ Por que estudia
espanol ? i Que hace Don Diego con las cartas en espanol
que recibe a menudo ? i Quien lleva la correspondencia
con los clientes espafioles e hispanoamericanos ? i Donde
ha vivido el dependiente largo tiempo ? i Por que son
muy valiosos sus servicios para Don Diego ? i Por que
estara Juan pronto a la cabeza de un departamento
espanol en la casa comercial de su padre ? i Cuantos
dependientes espafioles o sudamericanos tendra entonces?
I Que generos exporta la casa a la America del Sur ?
I Que importa de alia ? ^ A que debe la casa de Don
Diego su excelente reputacion ?

Translate.

They say he will come to-morrow. We know that he
will come very soon, but we are not sure that he will be
here to-morrow. He will stay with us a week or two ; but
he will return to the country next month ; his family is
there. His family does not come to the city in winter.
They used to come in summer. I do not understand that :
I think the country is better in summer than in winter.
We have received a book from our sister. We read it for
a few hours in the morning. It is a most interesting book
about the customs of the animals in South America. We
have not in England many of the animals that we see in
this book ; the stories about them are extraordinary
[extraordinarias).

We expect to go to see our friends as soon as they leave
the school. We have not seen them this year. They live
in Manchester. Manchester is a large city. Our friends
like it very much. We have never been there.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS 77

Translate.

Vanios a leer en el libro de Lucia. Es lo mejor que
podemos hacer hoy. No se puede salir. El dia no esta
claro. Tal vez manana sera mejor. i Que vamos a leer?
Leamos acerca de las costumbres del mono (monkey).
Esto es muy entretenido. En aquellos paises la vida es
diferente de la vida de Europa; por eso los animales de
America son tambien diferentes de los animales de Europa.

I Que sabe usted de la nina que vive en la casa numero
15 ? — Se que su padre es comerciante. — i Sabe usted la
edad de la nina ? — Si, la se ; pero no debo decir eso
a usted. La casa en que vive es grande, clara (light,
bright), mu}^ buena para los ninos de su edad ; me gusta
mucho.

XII

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

104. — The relative quien (pi. quienes) is used to refer
to nouns representing persons, or things personified, and
is the equivalent of el que, la que, los que, las que.

Las que vienen son mis \

amigas. ! They who are coming are

Quienes vienen son mis j my friends.

amigas. f

a. But it must be noted that quien cannot always take
the place of the relative que, preceded by the various forms
of the article, even if these forms make reference to persons :
we can say el hombre que vino, but not el hombre quien
vino. To be properly used in subordinate clauses it must
include its antecedent :

Asegura, quien tiene ra- Somebody who has grounds
zones para saberlo, que for knowing it affirms
Juan ha muerto. that John has died.

78 RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Quien me busca me ha- He who looks for me will

llara. find me.

Entraron a las diez las The ladies, who proceeded

damas, quienes, sin es- to the drawing-room with-

perar la llegada de los out waiting for the arrival

hombres, pasaron al of the gentlemen, came in

salon. at ten o'clock.

In the last example quienes must necessarily be used,
because the relative que would imply that not all the ladies
arrived at ten, but only some of them, and these few alone
proceeded to the drawing-room. When the subject of
the subordinate clause does not limit the meaning of the
subject of the main clause quien must be used; otherwise
que is the proper word.

Las mujeres que llegaron The women who arrived late
tarde no encontraron did not find a seat.
puesto.

Not all the women, but those who came in late.
b. After a preposition quien is generally used, but que
is not excluded with de :

El soldado de quien (or de The soldier of whom we

que) hablabamos ayer. were speaking yesterday.

No se a quien acudir. I do not know to whom I

should apply.

El abogado a quien co- The lawyer I know and

nozco y con quien usted whom you have consulted

ha consultado el punto. on the matter.

105. — El cual, la cual, lo cual, los cuales, las cuales
are translated by who or which. This relative can be used
in reference to persons or things, instead of who or that or
which, specially after a preposition.

Hay en la costa un pehgro There is, on the coast, a
mayor, el cual debe evi- greater danger which must
tarse con un rodeo. ^ be avoided by means of a

circuit.

i Que might also be used in this case ; but el CUal has the advantage
of preciseness. Que might mean either the coast or the danger ; el Cual
can only mean the danger.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS 79

Estos son los principios, These are the principles ac-

segiin los cuales debe cording to which the con-

decidirse la controver- troversy must be decided.

sia (que, as a relative,

can never be used after

segiin).

Ya estan aqui los duenos Here are the owners of the

de la biblioteca, con los library, with whom you

cuales debe usted tratar. must deal.

106. — Cuyo is a relative and at the same time a posses-
sive adjective : it is the equivalent of whose, and may be used
with reference to persons, animals, or inanimate objects.

No conozco al hombre de I do not know the man of

cuyos hijos me hablaba whose sons you were

usted ayer. speaking to me yesterday.

Los libros cuya p^rdida The books the loss of which

iamentamos. we deplore.

a. Some good classical authors and certain bad writers of
our own time use cuyo instead of el cual, depriving it of its
secondary meaning of possession. This practice is fortunately
diminishing.

107.— Que, cual, quien, cuyo when used to frame
interrogative sentences, whether direct or indirect, are
accentuated.

I Que hora es ? What time is it ?

I De quien tiene usted la From whom did you get the

noticia ? news ?

I Cuyo es este libro ? Whose book is this ?

No se cual de mis amigos I do not know which of my

ha estado a verme. friends has been to see me.

108.— Conjugation of Decir, to say, to tell (irregular).

Indicative. Subjunctive.

Present. Present,

digo diga

dices digas

dice diga

decimos digamos

decis digdis

dicen. digan.

8o

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Past,

Past [istform).

dije

dijese

dijiste

dijeses

dijo

dijese

dijimos

dijesemos

dijisteis

dijeseis

dijeron.

dijesen.

Imperfect,

Past [2nd form].

decia, etc.

(regu/nr).

dijera

Future.

dijeras

dire

dijera

diras

dijeramos

dird

dijerais

diremos

dijeran.

direis

Future,

diran.

dijere

Future in the

past.

dije res

diria

t

dijere ^

dirias

dijeremos

diria

dijereis

diriamos

dijeren.

diriais

dirian.

Imperative.

#

decid

Past participle.

Present participle.

dicho.

diciendo.

Spanish Forms of Address.

109. — The word Senor in Spanish v/hen followed by
a family name is translated by Mr.^ and Seiiora by Mrs.

2,Sabe usted, Seiior Mar-
tinez, donde estd mi
amigo ?

Do you know, Mr. Marti-
nez, where my friend is?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS 8i

a. When the person concerned is not addressed directly,
Senor must be preceded by the article.

El Senor Martinez hablara Mr. Martinez will speak to-
esta noche en el salon de night in the lecture-room.

conferencias.

110. — Before a Christian name the word Don is used.
Don does not take the article.

DonGuillermo es profesor Mr. William is a professor
de idiomas. of languages.

a. In the feminine the word Dona is employed.

Dona Maria Gonzalez es Mrs. Mary Gonzalez is the
la mujer de nuestro wife of our friend.
amigo.

HI. — In Spain and in some Spanish American countries
Don and Dona (abbreviated into D., D*.) are considered to
be a more respectful title than Senor, Seiiora (abbreviated
Sr., Sra.)

a. The two titles are often used together : El Sr. D. Juan
de Robles ; la Sra. D'^. Ana de Nmiez.

Vocabulary.

actual, adj., actual, present.
America Meridional, f.,

South America.
aun, adv.y even.
bajo, prep.f under.
bastar, to suffice,
central, adj.y central.
clima, m.y climate.
comiin, adj,y common.

dominie, m,j domain.

entre, prep. y between.

extreme, m,, furthest end.

ganar,togain,towin; ganar
en, to increase.

imprenta,/., press.

laze, m,f bond, tie.

no obstante, con/., notwith-
standing.

conquistador, m., con- Norte, ;;/., North.

queror. obligarse, to oblige oneself,

curse, m», course. to engage oneself.

deber, to owe; debide a, \ obtener, to obtain, to secure.

owing to. \ orden,/ or ;;/., order.

descubrir, to discover. | origen, ;;/., origin, source.

difusion,/, diffusion. j pequeiio, adj., small, little.

2129 G

82

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

permiso, m., leave.

pertenecer, to belong,

por completo, wholly.

portugues, m. and adj,^ Por-
tuguese.

poseer, to possess, to own.

propagar, to propagate.

pureza,/., purity.

recorrer, to go over, to
travel.

region,/, region.

relative, adj.^ relative.

rey, m., king.

solicitar, to ask for.

solo, sola, adj\f only, alone.

Sur, w., South.

tampoco, adv,y not either,

neither, nor.
territorio, w., territory,
tierra,/., land, earth,
uniforme, adj.f uniform.
uso, m.y usage.
valer, to be worth ; no vale

la pena, it is not worth

while.
vecino, w., neighbour ; adj.,

neighbouring.
ya, adv., already, now.

Exercise.

Desde Mejico hasta el extremo Sur de la America Meri-
dional se habla una sola lengua en lo que antes estuvo bajo
el dominio del rey de Espana. Esta lengua es la lengua
espafiola que se conserva con relativa pureza en aquellas
regiones. Hay pequefias diferencias de un pais a otro,
pero el extranjero que aprende bien el espanol puede
hacerse entender desde Mejico hasta la Argentina sin difi-
cultad y puede a un mismo tiempo comprender a los habi-
tantes de todas aquellas repiiblicas.

Cuando los conquistadores solicitaban y obtenian permiso
para ir a descubrir tierras se obligaban a ponerlas bajo la
Corona (Crown) de Castilla y a propagar en ellas el idioma
castellano. Daban esta orden los re3^es porque en la misma
Espana el idioma no era uniforme. De esta manera los
espanoles americanos lograron tener en su lengua un uso
comun, cosa que al tiempo de la conquista no existia en
Espaiia, y aun hoy no se ha logrado por completo. Los
actuales habitantes de la America Espanola tienen sobre
los de otras partes del mundo la inmensa ventaja de poseer
un solo idioma, el cual, debido a la facilidad de las comuni-
caciones, que aumentan siempre, y a la difusion de la
imprenta, gana cada di'a en uniformidad, np obstante las

RELATIVE PRONOUNS 83

diferencias de clima y de costumbres entre los pueblos
donde se habla. En Europa, en el curso de pocas horas,
puede el viajero recorrer territorios en los cuales se hablan
lenguas diversas, de vario origen y aun sin lazo aparente
entre si. Los habitantes de los pequenos pai'ses como
Dinamarca deben aprender varios idiomas para poder
comunicarse con sus vecinos. En la America Meridional
el idioma castellano y el portugues, miiy semejante al
castellano, bastan para comunicarse con una poblacion
de muchos millones. En la America del Norte y en la
America Central se habla ingles en los Estados Unidos
y el Canada, y espanol en los otros paises.

Conversation.

^ Donde se habla la lengua espaiiola en America? ^A
quien pertenecieron antes esos territorios ? i Quien llev6
a America la lengua espafiola? ^Como se conserva alii
esta lengua? i Hay diferencias de un pais a otro ? i Son
grandes esas diferencias? i Hay diiicultad en hacerse en-
tender en la America Espanola hablando espanol ? i Puede
usted decir el nombre de las Republicas donde se habla es-
panol en America ? i Cual es la^ola republica de la America
Meridional donde no se habla espanol? ^Q^^ idioma
se habla en el Brasil (Brazil) ? i Quienes descubrieron la
America en el siglo XV ? i Quienes conquistaron la
America Espanola? ^Quienes conquistaron el Brasil?
I A que se obligaban los conquistadores cuando obtenian
permiso para ir a descubrir tierras ? l Por que daban los
reyes esta orden ? i Cual fue el resultado de ella ? i Era
uniforme la lengua en Espana al tiempo de la conquista ?
I Que ventaja tienen los habitantes de la America Espanola
sobre los de otras partes del mundo ? ^ De que manera gana
en uniformidad cada dia el espanol de America? <i, Que
idiomas bastan en Sud America para comunicarse con las
gentes ? <i, Y en la America del Norte ? <i, Es lo mismo
en Europa?

G 2

84 RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Translate.

What is this ? What house is this ? This is our friend's
house. Who lives in it ? Two foreigners who have come
(vem'do) to visit the country. Will they remain here long
{largo tiempo) ? They say they will stay here until the end
(el fin) of the year. They will spend the winter in town.

Can you tell me the name of the woman we saw yester-
day in the street when we were going to pay a visit to
Peter ? — Yesterday I did not know who she was ; to-day
I do know; Mrs. Ramirez told me. She is a Spanish
woman of whom it is said that she is writing a book about
this country: her name is Mrs. Arenal. She is a very
good writer (escritora)^ whose books are well known in
Spain and even in France and England. There are not
many authoresses (escritoras) in Spain.

What did Mr. Lopez tell you about his pupils ? — He said
Charles is good, Edward is indifferent (regular), but Mary,
whose exercises are always excellent, is the best. — What
languages is she learning? — French and Spanish: she
can now read and speak French without difficulty, but
she cannot understand French people when they talk
to each other. She knows Spanish better.

Translate.

Quien sabe espaiiol puede comunicarse con setenta
millones de hombres que hablan esta lengua. Quien tiene
a sus padres tiene todo lo mejor que se puede poseer en
el mundo. La mujer (woman) de quien hablabamos ayer
es hermana de D. Carlos, i De quien son estos libros ?
or ^Cuyos son estos libros? — Son del amigo de Juan, la
persona con quien visito usted ayer la biblioteca. Hoy
deben llegar Pedro, Juan y Guillermo, quienes, segun creo,
permaneceran en la ciudad unas semanas, durante las
cuales haran algunos negocios y visitaran los lugares mas
importantes. No conozco al autor cuyas obras he comprado

RELATIVE PRONOUNS 85

hoy y de las cuales se dice que todos los espanoles deben
leerlas.

I Es usted la madre de estos niiios ? — Sf lo soy. —
I Cual es el mayor de ellos ? — El mayor es Carlos ;
la menor, Maria. — i Estan ya en la escuela ? — No, tienen
maestro en casa. Su (their) padre no quiere ponerlos en
la escuela. El maestro, que es una persona excelente,
viene cuatro di'as en la semana, enseiia durante dos horas,
y sale a paseo con los nifios. Con tan buen maestro, el
padre dice que no es necesario poner los ninos en la
escuela. Aquf aprenden lo que deben aprender y solo
eso.

THE TENSES OF^THE SUBJUNCTIVE
MOOD

112. — The most extensive use of the subjunctive forms
is found in the subordinate sentences depending on a verb
expressing doubt, uncertainty, or some other frame of
mind. '"^

Dudo que Ueguen a tiempo. I doubt whether they will

"^""^ arrive in time.

Espero que usted recupere I hope you will soon recover

^^pronto la salud. (your health).

Temo que usted no guarde I fear you will not keep the

el secreto. secret.

Deseamos que todos esten We hope they are all satis-

satisfechos. fied.

Extrana que usted recurra He is surprised that you

a ellos. have resorted to them.

No creen que sea dema- They do not think it is too

siado tarde para empe- late to begin.

zar.

In all these examples the verb of the main clause is
in the indicative mood, present tense, and hence the verb
in the subordinate clause is also in the present tease.

86 TENSES OF THE

Esten satisfechos, recurra, sea are forms of the
present tense of the subjunctive, and they refer to some-
thing happening simultaneously with the expression of
the wish, surprise, or uncertainty ; but lleguen, recupere
and guarde refer to the future, that is, to something that
will happen after the expression of doubt, hope, or fear.
In Spanish, the present tense of the subjunctive mood
is also used to express future actions or states of being.

If we change the tense of the verb in the main clause,
the tense of the subordinate clause must be changed cor-
respondingly.

Yo dudaba que Uegaran I was in doubt whether

(or llegasen) a tiempo. they would arrive in time.

Temi que usted no guar- I was afraid you would not

dara el secrete. keep the secret (or I was

afraid of your not keeping
the secret).
Extraiiaria que usted lo I should be surprised at your

hiciera (or hiciese). doing it.

Esperaremos que vengan. We shall wait for their

arrival.

In the last example, vengan is used in a future sense,
because the verb of the main clause is in the future.

113. — There are two forms of the subjunctive mood to
denote the past tense in subordinate clauses such as we are
analysing : these two forms are hablase and hablara, and
they correspond to the past and to the imperfect of the
indicative.

If we say in the indicative :

Adverti que hablaban en I noticed that they were
el cuarto vecino, talking in the next room,

we must say, when changing the meaning of the verb in the
main clause from certainty to denial or doubt :

No dije que hablaran (or I did not say that they were
hablasen) en el cuarto talking in the next room.
vecino.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 87

Dudaba que hablasen en I was in doubt whether they
el cuarto vecino. were talking in the next

room.

In sentences of this kind, where the verb in the sub-
ordinate clause is dependent on another verb expressing
doubt, uncertainty, wish, surprise, etc., or a negation, the
two forms of the past tense of the subjunctive mood may
be indiscriminately used.

114. — The Spanish subjunctive is often employed to
express condition, hypothesis, or supposition. For this
purpose tKe^lornrused for the future is generally the one
ending in -re.

Le escribire manana si If I should have time I shall

tuviere tiempo. write to you to-morrow.

Si resolvieres leer el libro Should you make up your
que te recomiendo, avi- mind to read the book that

same para enviartelo. I am recommending you,

please let me know and I
w411 send it to you.

115. — When the condition is expressed by means of some
word other than si, the form of the present subjunctive
may be used, instead of the future, to express a coming
action or state of being.

Como sea (or fuere) posible If it is possible to delay my

demorar mi viaje, le departure I shall accom-

acompafiare al teatro pany you to the theatre

esta noche. to-night.

Note that with si the form sea is excluded. The
indicative might be used : si tengo tiempo le escribire
manana; but then we have a genuine indicative con-
struction, and the fine shade of doubt and desire implied
by tuviere would disappear.

a. For the past in the subjunctive of supposition the
forms to be used are hubiese or hubiera combined with
the past participle.

88 TENSES OF THE

Como hubiera (or hubiese) Had it been possible to de-

sido posible demorar mi lay my departure I should

partida le habria acorn- have accompanied you to

panadoalteatro anoche. the theatre last night.

116. — ^After verbs such as decir, creer, afirmar, pen^ar,

without negation the conditional sentence preceded by si
calls for the indicative forms both in the if-clause and the
then-clause :

El creia que, si los enemi- He thought that, should the

gos se presentaban per enemy appear on the right

el flanco derecho, seria flank, it would be easy to

facil rechazarlos. repulse him.

117. — If the supposition comes after a verb expressing
doubt, fear, hope, or negation the indicative is used in the
if-clause, but the subjunctive form in -ra or -se must be used
in the then-clause :

Dudaba que, si los enemi- He doubted of the possi-

gos se presentaban per bility "of defeating the

el flanco derecho, fuera- enemy should he appear

posible vencerlos. on the right flank.

118. — The subjunctive is also used to take the place of
the imperative forms of the first and third persons. As
orders can be given directly only in the second person,
the imperative mood has no first or third person. But as
sometimes the sense implies that we address the command
to ourselves or in the third person, these persons of the
imperative are supplied by what may be called the optative
forms of the subjunctive.

I Muramos ! Let us die I

Diga el lo que quiera, la Let him say what he likes :

verdad es que esta loco. the truth is that he is

crazy.

Pasen los hombres a la Let the men go to the right

derecha y las mujeres and the women to the left.

a la izquierda.

119. — Spanish has this peculiarity: that the second

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 89

person of the verb, when it is desired to express courtesy,
consideration, or lack of famiharity with the person ad-
dressed, is replaced by the third. In this case also the
optative forms take the place of the imperative. We say
in the direct use of the imperative :

Ven aca que te necesito. Come here, for I want you.
Tomad lo que os envian. Take what they send you.

But if the sense of command be implied with reference
to usted or ustedes, we say :

Venga usted aca que le (or Come here, for I want you.

lo) necesito.
Tomen ustedes lo que les Take what they send you.

envian.

120. — The imperative forms cannot be used negatively :
therefore the optative is used also instead of the imperative
in negative sentences of command.

No saigas. Do not go out.

No digdis eso. T)o not say that (plur,),

121. — The sentences in which the conditional sense im-
plies negation at the same time are not subject to the
same rules as apply to the ordinary forms of the con-
ditional sentences. In these sentences the forms in -se,
-ra, and -ria have not a past but a present meaning, and
their application, according to the best accepted usage, is
as follows: in the first part of the condition (or if-
clause) the sense requires the forms in -se or -ra; in
the second part (or then-clause) the form in -ria is accepted
by current usage, but the form in -ra is not excluded.

Si usted lo creyera (or If you believed it you would

creyese) procederia de act differently.
otro modo.

Como nosotros tuviera- Had we what we need, we

mos (or tuviesemos) lo should not be looking for

necesario, no pediria- employment.
mos empleo.

90 TENSES OF THE

Note that in both sentences a negative sense is conveyed :
if you believed it implies disbelief. The two languages
coincide in this peculiarity and also in the use of the past,
although the sense is manifestly present. If we say :
Como nosotros tuvieramos lo necesario, resolvimos
no pedir empleo (having what we needed, we decided not
to ask for employment), the sense is affirmative, and
the tense is manifestly past. In this case good usage
requires the past, resolvimos and not resolveriamos,
in the second part of the sentence.

122. — The compound forms hubiese hablado, hubiera
hablado, habria hablado, follow the same rules as the
simple forms.

Si hubiera (or hubiese) Had I known the news,

sabido la noticia, me I should have remained

habria quedado en casa. at home.

Como no hubiera compra- Had I not already bought

do ya sombrero, habria a hat, I should have taken

tomado el que me ofrecio* the one you offered me.
usted.

a. In Spanish as in English the conjunction si (if) may be
omitted in these sentences.

Hubiera 61 sabido lo que habia Had he known what had hap-
sucedido y no demorara su pened he would not have
partida. delayed his departure.

123. — When no condition is implied in phrases introduced
by the conjunction como, the past subjunctive may be
translated by means of the present participle in English.

Como no supieramos que Not knowing that he was
venia no lo esperamos. coming, we did not wait

* for him.

The English construction may also be used in Spanish :
No sabiendo que venia, no lo esperamos.

124. — Although some grammarians believe that they have
reduced to strict rules the use of the subjunctive forms of the
Spanish verb, it must be borne in mind that the best authors of

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

91

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries do not generally con-
form their practice to precise rules, ^as might be expected*,
because * we find that in language the correspondence between
fact-statements and thought-statements on the one hand, and
fact-forms and thought-forms on the other, is not always perfectly'
logical ' (Henry Sweet, A New English Grammar, p. 109).

125. — Conjugation of Querer, to want, to wishy to love^
to be fond q/" (irregular).

Indicative.

Subjunctive.

Present.

Present.

quiero

quiera

quieres

quieras

quiere

quiera

queremos

queramos

quereis

querais

quieren.

quieran.

Past.

Past (ist and 2nd forms).

quise

q^isiese or quisiera

quisiste

quisieses or quisieras

quiso

quisiese or quisiera

quisimos

quisiesemos or quisieramos

quisisteis

quisieseis or quisierais

quisieron.

quisiesen or quisieran.

Imperfect,

Future.

queria, etc. [regular)

quisiere

Future.

quisieres

querre

quisiere

querrds

quisieremos

querrd

quisiereis

querremos

quisieren.

querreis

Imperative.

querran.

Future in the past.
querria

quiere (tii)

quered (vosotros).

querrias

Past Participle.

querria

querido.

querriamos

' •

querriais

Present Participle. ■J^^'"*"'''
queriendo. "'" '''" "

querrian.

92

TENSES OF THE

Vocabulary.

acaso, adv,f perhaps.

adelanto, »/., progress; ad-
vance.

admirar, to admire; ad-
miracion, /., admiration.

antiguo, adj.^ old, ancient.

aplaudir, to applaud.

aprovechar, to profit by,
to take advantage of.

arte, m,, art.

auditorio, m,, audience.

aunque, conj,, although.

calcular, to calculate.

calurosamente, adv,, en-
thusiastically, warmly.

camino, m., road.

ciencia,/., science.

conferencia,/'., lecture; con-
ferenciante, m., lecturer.

cuenta, /., account; dar
cuenta de, to relate.

cuidado, m,, care.

cultivar, to cultivate.

curioso, adj.f curious.

despues de, adv,, after.

dictar, to deliver (a speech),
to dictate.

documento, ;;/., document.

dudar, to doubt.

edificar, to build, to edify.

egipoio,;;/.anda^'., Egyptian.

entusiasmo,w., enthusiasm.

escritura,/, writing.

exclamar, to exclaim.

grade, m.f degree.

hora avanzada de la
noche, late at night.

humanidad, /, humanity,
human kind.

ignorar, to be ignorant of.

indio, m.f Indian.

instructive, adj\f enlighten-
ing, instructive.

inventar, to invent.

ir, to go ; fuimes, we went;
fueren, they went.

labrar, to work ; labrar la
tierra, to till.

largamente, adv.^ at length.

levantar, to raise, to lift.

luna,^, moon.

lleno, adj., full.

mansion,/., mansion.

medir, to measure.

mejicano, m,, Mexican.

mevimiente, m.^ motion.

musica,/, music.

pintura, /, painting, pic-
ture.

peesia,/., poetry.

poseer, to possess ; pese-
yeran, they might pos-
sess.

preferir, to prefer.

primitive, adj,, primitive.

publicar, to publish.

pueble, ;;/., people.

siempre, adv., yet, at all
events.

serprendente, adj\, sur-
prising.

subyugar, to subdue.

suntuese, adj., sumptuous.

tejer, to weave.

tecar, to fall to one's share,
to touch.

tradicion,/., tradition.

tropa,/., troop.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 93

iQvl6 edad tiene usted ? How old are you ?
^Cu^ntos anos tiene su hijo de usted? How old is
your son ?

Exercise.

Fuimos anoche a la conferencia que dicto en el Ateneo
D. Federico (Frederick) sobre las costumbres de los meji-
canos, antes de la conquista de America. Es sorprendente
el grado de adelanto a que habia llegado ese pueblo. Los
mejicanos sabi'an tejer, labraban la tierra, edificaban suntuo-
sas mansiones ; conoci'an el arte de hacer caminos, tenlan
un genero (kind) de escritura como los antiguos egipcios y
cultivaban la miisica, la pintura y la poesia. Sabian medir
el tiempo y calculaban los movimientos de la luna. Dijo D.
Federico que si los espanoles hubieran tenido mas cuidado
en conservar las tradiciones de aquel pueblo, lacienciahabria
podido aprovecharlas en beneficio de la humanidad. Es
posible que aquellos indios poseyeran secretos que el
hombre moderno acaso ignore. El conferenciante dudaba
que al tiempo de la conquista los indios mejicanos subyu-
gados por los espanoles fuesen {or fueran) los mismos que
habian levantado las piramides (pyramids) que hoy son la
admiracion del mundo. Hablo largamente del Popol-Vuh^
uno de los documentos mas curiosos de la historia primi-
tiva de America, y dijo que, aunque este libro hubiera sido
escrito por los naturales, como se afirma (as it is stated),
despues de la conquista, siempre tiene gran merito por las
tradiciones de que da cuenta, las cuales no ban podido ser
inventadas por los autores del libro. Don Federico, lleno
de entusiasmo, llego a decir que el habria preferido vivir
en tiempo de Cortes, el conquistador de Mejico, si le
hubiese tocado hacer parte de las tropas que fueron a
Nueva Espana. ' No se hubieran perdido entonces, ex-
clamo, muchos de los ricos tesoros historicos, de cuya
existencia solo sabemos hoy por la tradicion.' La con-
ferencia fue muy instructiva, y aplaudida calurosamente por

94 TENSES OF THE

el auditorio. \ Quien pudiera guardarla toda en la memoria !
Como la publiquen, la compraremos sin diida.

Conversation.

I Quien dicto la conferencia en el Ateneo anoche ? ^ De
que hablo D. Federico? i Estaba civilizado Mejico antes
de la llegada de los espanoles ? i Que cosas sabi'an hacer
los mejicanos? ^ Conocian la escritura? ^Tenian cami-
nos ? I Podian medir el tiempo ? i Tuvieron cuidado los
espanoles de conservar todas las tradiciones de los indios ?
Si las hubieran conservado, i quien se aprovecharia hoy de
ellas ? <i. En beneficio de quien ? ^ Es posible que los indios
hubieran poseido secretos que hoy se ignoran ? i For quien
fueron subyugados los mejicanos? i Los indios subyuga-
dos por los espanoles era el mismo pueblo que habia
edificado los monumentos que se conservan hoy ? i Que
es el Popol-Vuh? ^ Quien escribio este libro? ^Cual
es su merito ? i Podri'a creerse que los autores in-
ventaran esas tradiciones? ^ Quien conquisto a Mejico?
I Que nombre dieron los espaiioles a Mejico ? ^ En
que tiempo hubiera querido vivir D. Federico? ^ Que
cosas habria el salvado si hubiera estado con las tropas de
Cortes? ^Como sabemos hoy de los tesoros historicos
perdidos en Mejico ? i Fue buena la conferencia ? i Quien
aplaudio ? i Como fueron los aplausos ? i Querria usted
saberla de memoria? Si la publican, ^la comprara
usted ?

Translate.

No puedo hacerlo porque no tengo tiempo ; si pudiera,
lo haria. Me dijo que esperara hasta manana, que como el
pudiese {or pudiera) hablar con D. Carlos, no dejaria de
comunicarle mis ideas. Estoy esperando : si Don Carlos
no quisiere comprar la casa, la tomare yo mismo.

Los que llegaren tarde no hallaran cuarto : hay muchos
huespedes (guests) ya en la casa. Como mi amigo no
tuviere donde quedarse, lo llevare a casa. Creo que no

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 95

haya modo de salir manana para Paris : hay muchos viajeros
que han estado esperando turno (turn).

I Donde estaria Carlos anoche ? — No creo que haya
estado en su casa. Mi hermano lo vio en la calle a una
hora avanzada de la noche. — i Sale siempre de noche ? —
No siempre, pero muy a menudo.

Los que quieran ir a la conferencia esta noche, deben
hablarle a D. Federico. Yo iria, si pudiese ; pero me
espera un amigo a quien debo acompafiar al teatro
(theatre). Acaso pueda ir a la proxima conferencia : es
el sabado a las cuatro.

Traiga usted los libros; el profesor ha llegado ya. No
esperemos mas. Carlos y Alberto no llegar^n a (in) tiempo.
Me dijeron que comenzaramos la leccion, si a las dos no
habi'an llegado.

Translate.

If he had spoken in (a) time, we should have known
also in time what was to be done. I believed he knew
that his father was here. Let us say what we know of
the lesson. The lecturer said he would have preferred to
live in the times of Hernan Cortes. It is easier to say
this than to believe it. Give me the book.

Do you know the lesson ? — I knew it la'st night, but I
may have forgotten it. I do not think you have forgotten
it. — Nor do I ; but there are many difficult phrases in the
exercise, and I should not wonder if I had forgotten some. —
Would you like to say one or two of the m*ost difficult
phrases ? I can tell you if they are not correctly formed
(formadas),

I want to buy a book, and I want to read it and give
it to you. — What book is that? — The Popol-Vuh, —
Curious title {titulo) ! Is it m Spanish ? Were it not in
Spanish or in English, we could not read it.

Let us not want to know more than the teacher ; he says
the exercise is not good : we must believe it. If it were
good, he would be the first (primero) to say so.

96

IMPERSONAL VERBS

XIV
IMPERSONAL VERBS

126. — The impersonal verbs, in Spanish as in English,
are only used in the third person singular of each tense ;
but while in English they are always introduced by the
neuter pronoun of the third person, in Spanish no subject
is expressed.

Nieva.

Estaba granizando cuando

llegue.
Ha llovido mucho este

verano.
Lloverd pronto, ya estd

tronando.

It snows.

It was hailing when I ar-
rived.

It has rained a great deal
this summer.

It will rain soon : it is
thundering already.

127. — There are a few verbs that are only occasionally
used as impersonal.

It is convenient to point out
at once the difference be-
tween the two points of
view.

It is enough for the present
to write the letter.

It is important to find out
what is the object of his
coming here.

128. — The verb ser combined with adjectives like
necesario, conveniente, importante, is used also in
sentences that appear to be impersonal, though the sub-
ject can be supplied.

Conviene senalar de una
vez la diferencia entre
los dos puntos de vista.

Basta escribir la carta por

ahora.
Importa descubrir el obje-

to de su venida.

Es necesario averiguar la

verdad.
Es preciso que usted lo

guie.

It is necessary to discover

the truth.
It is necessary that you

should show him the way.

In such phrases as these the subjunctive must be used
with the subject of the subordinate clause :

IMPERSONAL VERBS

97

Es necesario que yo saiga.

Es urgente que sepan la
noticia.

Era precise
regresara
mente.

que usted
inmediata-

It is necessary for me to go
out. (It is necessary that
I should go out.)

It is urgent for them to know
the news. (It is urgent
that they should know
the news.)

It was necessary for you to
come back immediately.

129. — Hacer is used impersonally to express the state
of the weather.

Hace frio. It is cold.

Hard mucho calor este It will be very hot this
verano. summer.

a, Hacer also expresses lapse of time :

Hace diez aiios no le veo. I have not seen him these

ten years.

130. — The verb haber is likewise used in an impersonal
form in the sense oi to exist^ like the verb to he in English
in such expressions as there is, there zvas, there were (see

Hay una reunion todas las

semanas en casa de los

Sudrez.
Habia por lo menos mil

compradores presentes.
Puede haber irrupciones

aereas el mes entrante.
Habrd misa solemne el

jueves.

There is a reception every
week at the Suarez's.

There were at least a thou-
sand buyers present.

There may be air raids next
month.

There will be a high mass
next Thursday.

a. Note that the inflexions of the verb are always in the
singular, even when in English the plural form is required.
In vSpanish the noun is in the accusative case, while in
English the noun is the nominative of the sentence.

b. In the expression ha tiempo, it is long since . . . ,
haber is also impersonal in appearance.

98

IMPERSONAL VERBS

131. — The verb haber followed by the conjunction que
is likewise used in an impersonal form to express necessity
or obligation.

Hay que tener presentes His wishes must be borne in

sus deseos. mind.

Hubo que abandonar las The positions had to be

posiciones. abandoned.

132.— Tener que has the same meaning, but it can be used in
all tenses and persons.

Tengo que salir. I have to go out.

Tendremos que aguardar We will have to wait until
hasta el lunes. Monday.

133. — Conjugation of Saber, to know (irregular).

Indicative.
Present,

se

sabes

sabe

sabemos

sabeis

saben.
Past,

supe

supiste

supo

supimos

supisteis

supieron.
Imperfect,

sabia, etc. [regular).
Future,

sabre

sabras

sabra .

sabremos

sabreis

sabran.
Future in the past.

sabria

sabrias

Subjunctive.
Present,

sepa

sepas \

sepa

sepamos

sepdis

sepan.
Past [istform).

supiese

supieses

supiese

supiesemos

supieseis

supiesen.

Past {2nd form),
supiera
supieras
supiera
supieramos
supierais
supieran .

Future.
supiere
supieres
supiere
supieremos

IMPERSONAL VERBS

99

sabria
sabriamos
sabriais
sabrian.

supiereis
supieren.

Imperative.

sabe
sabed.

Past participle,
sabido.

Present participle
sabiendo.

Vocabulary.

aconsejar, to advise.

avisar, to advise, to warn,
to notify.

ayuda,/, help.

barrio, m.^ quarter, ward.

caballo, m.y horse.

carga, /, burden, load, car-
go-
cargo, nhy charge; tener a

su cargo, to keep.
contar con, to count on, to

rely, to depend on.
desalquilado, adj\j vacant.
directamente, adv,y straight.
dolor, m,y pain; doloroso,

adj.y painful.
elegir, to choose, to elect,
embarcar, to ship ; embar-

carse, to go on board.
empezar, to begin, to start.
emprender, to undertake, to

start.
encima, adj.^ above, over ;

quitarse de encima, to

get rid of
enfermo, adj., ill, sick; en-

fermedad,/., illness, dis-
ease.
esposo, m.f husband ; es-

posa,/, wife.
estacion, station, season.

frio, m, and adj,j cold.

gasto, m.y expense.

gestion,/, conduct, manage-
ment; hacer gestiones,
to take steps.

la Habana,/, Havana.

hallar, to find ; hallar una
salida, to find an out-
let or solution.

horror, m.j horror, awe;
tomar horror a, to abhor.

huerfano, ;;/., fatherless,
orphan.

imposible, adj.^ impossible.

lejos, adv., far ; lejano, adj.,
distant.

Hover, to rain ; llueve, it
rains.

marcharse, to walk out, to
leave.

medio, adj., half; son las
dos y media, it is half
past two.

miseria,/, poverty, misery.

morir, to die; murio, he
died.

muerte,/, death.

Norte, m.y North.

Pacifico, adj,y Pacific.

parte,/., part ; por parte de,
on the part of; through.

PI 2

lOO

IMPERSONAL VERBS

pronto, adj.y adv., prompt,
quick ; promptly ; por lo
pronto, for the moment.

pueblo, m.f village, people.

punto, ;;/., point, question,
matter.

quit arse, to move away.

realizar, to realize, to sell.

sueldo, m., salary.

teatro, nt., theatre.
traste,?;;.,fret; daraltraste

con, to spoil, to destroy.
tronar, to thunder ; truena,

it thunders.
viuda,/., widow ; viudo, w.,

widower.
voz, /, voice ; dar voces.

to cry.

En casa de Juan, at John's. En casa de mi amigo,
at my friend's. Hace calor. It is hot.

domingo

lunes

martes

miercoles

jueves

viernes

sdbado.

Enero

Febrero

Marzo

El primero de Agosto. The first of August.

El dos de Enero. The second of January.

El treinta de Mayo. The thirtieth of May.

El veintiocho de Febrero. The twenty-eighth of Feb-
ruary.
El quince de Abril. The fifteenth of April.

Sunday

Abril

April

Monday

Mayo

May

Tuesday

Junio

June

Wednesday

Julio

July

Thursday

Agosto

August

Friday

Septiembre

September

Saturday.

Octubre

October

January

Noviembre

November

February

Diciembre

December.

March

Exercise.

Despues de la muerte de D. Martin su esposa y su hija,
que ya estaba hecha una mujer, se hallaron solas en
Matanzas, casi en la miseria, pues la enfermedad habia
dado al traste con lo poquisimo que quedaba. Realizaron los
muebles y se fueron a la Habana, donde tenian algunos
parientes, y estos, por quitarse la carga de encima, les aconse-
jaron marcharse a Espaiia y les dieron para el viaje y para
los primeros gastos que tuvieran hasta llegar a Madrid, que
era el punto que Justa habia elegido. Con su hermano
Ricardo no habia que contar, pues ella le habia tenido casi

IMPERSONAL VERfiS joi

siempre a su cargo en Barcelona; Pepe, el menor, que estaba
en un pueblo no lejos de la Habana, era bueno, pero tenia
un sueldo miserable y mucha familia, y, ademas, Justa habi'a
tornado horror a la Isla y lo que queri'a era ir a Espana,
que, por estar mas lejos, le pareci'a mejor. En Madrid
estaba su hermano Luis, y con su ayuda podrian hallar
alguna salida y por lo pronto hacer gestiones para ob-
tener la pension, a que, por parte de su padre, creian
tener derecho como huerfana y viuda. Asi, pues, se em-
barcaron madre e hija y emprendieron su ultimo viaje
a Espana; llegados aSantander, tomaro n el tren (train) para
Madrid, y desde la estacion del Norte fueron directamente
a casa de Luis, que vivia en el extremo del barrio del
Pacifico, creyendo darle una sorpresa, pues no le habian
avisado su llegada. Pero la sorpresa, y dolorosa, fue la
de las viajeras que hallaron el piso desalquilado, y, por
un vecino de la casa, supieron que Luis, con su mujer,
habi'a salido para Filipinas pocos dias antes, y que acaso
en aquel momento se estaria embarcando para Barcelona.

Angel Ganivet.

Conversation.

^Como quedaron, la esposa de D. Martin y su hija,
despues de la muerte de D. Martin ? i Como habian per-
dido lo poco que tenian ? i Donde murio el padre ?
(i^Adonde se marcharon la madre y la hija? ^Que tu-
vieron que vender para el viaje ? i Donde quedan la
Habana y Matanzas ? ^ Es Cuba un pais continejital ?
I Donde tenian parientes las sefioras ? i Que les aconse-
jaron estos parientes ? i Que les dieron para el viaje y
para los priraeros gastos que tuvieran hasta llegar
a Madrid ? i Que es Madrid ? i Quien habi'a elegido
a Madrid para ir a vivir aili ? i Quien era Justa? i Por
que no podi'an contar con Ricardo ? i Quien lo habia
tenido a su cargo en Barcelona ? i Donde estaba Pepe,

i^H/j v: '^IMPl^RSONAL VERBS

el hermano menor ? i Que se dice de Pepe ? i Por que
queri'a Justa venir a Espafia ? i Donde vivi'a su hermano
Luis ? i En que podria ayudarles ? i Por que creian
Justa y su madre tener derecho a pension ? lA que
ciudad de Espafia llegaron primero ? De Santander i a
donde fueron ? ^A que estacion llegaron en Madrid?
I En que barrio vivi'a Luis ? iLe habi'an avisado su
llegada ? i Por que no le avisaron ? i Quien recibio la
sorpresa? ^Adonde se habi'a marchado Luis? (f. Que
estaria haciendo Luis, tal vez, en ese momento ?

Translate.

It thunders. It was thundering last night when he
arrived. It rained yesterday from morning till night. He
feared it might rain before two o'clock.

It is necessary for him to know the day of my departure.
It is very important to decide this question. If it is not
decided to-day I shall have to inform my father. There is
an important question to (que) decide about our salary.
There were several measures to take before the end of the
month.

I have to go out. They had to remain at their friend's
because it was raining. It may be. It may not be. If
he does not arrive to-day I shall have to write to him that
the rooms in the hotel have been taken by another
traveller. We had to remain in a village three hours
before we could resume (contmuar) our voyage. It was
a sad place, but our friend, D. Luis, who lives there, took
us (nos llevd) to his house, and we remained there in very
good company until five o'clock, when we went back to the
station.

The horse was not known in America before the
Spanish conquest, and without it the conquest and
colonization [colonizacidn) of the continent would have
been much more difficult than it was. It might, perhaps,

IMPERSONAL VERBS 163

have been impossible. The natives feared these animals
that they had never seen before.

It is very, cold to-day. It will be warmer next month.

Translate.

I Que hora es ? Son las diez. i A que hora llego
usted ? Eran las nueve y media. Eran las nueve y diez
minutos cuando sail de casa. Es ya muy tarde para (to)
ir al teatro : son las nueve y cuarto. La conferencia de
m^fiana empezara a las dos ; debemos estar alii a las dos
menos cuarto (a quarter to two). Hace fri'o en Rusia
en el mes de Febrero. Cuando estuvimos en Sud America
hacia mucho calor.

^ Que dia del mes es hoy? Hoy es primero (first) de
Agosto. i Que dia de la semana ? Miercoles. i Cuantos
dias tiene la semana ? Siete. i Cuantos dias tiene Junio ?
Junio trae treinta dfas. iQue meses traen treinta y un
dias? Enero; Marzo, Mayo, Julio, Agosto, Octubre
y Diciembre. Su carta esta fechada el cinco de Octubre.
Creo que para (by) el diez de Noviembre ya mi hermano
habra recibido los libros necesarios para ir a la escuela.

Hace mucho tiempo no veo a Juan. Hace tres anos
y medio llego a esta ciudad un viajero sudamericano de
quien recibi las primeras lecciones de espanol. Veni'a de
Bolivia, hablaba muy bien su lengua y era hombre de ex-
tensos y variados conocimientos. Se llamaba D. Valeriano
Arce Rodriguez, tenia cuarenta y cinco anos y pareci'a ser
mucho mas joven.

104 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD COMPARED

XV

EXAMPLES OF THE SPANISH USE OF
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN ITS
VARIOUS FORMS COMPARED WITH
THE INDICATIVE

134. — Affirmative statement :

Present,

Me dice que le ha acon-
tecido una desgracia
(Indicative).
Past

Me dijo que le habia
acontecido una des-
gracia (Ind.).
Future,

Digo que para entonces
le habra acontecido
una desgracia (Ind.).

Doubt, negation; fear, &c. :

Present,

No me dice que le haya
acontecido una des-
gracia (Subjunctive).
Past,
Nome dijo que le hubiera
(or hubiese) aconte-
cido una desgracia
(Subj.).

He tells me he has met
with a misfortune.

He told me that he had
met with a misfortune.

I say that he will by then
have met with a mis-
fortune.

He does not tell me that
he has met with a mis-
fortune.

He did not tell me that
he had met with a mis-
fortune.^

1 Subordinate clauses governed by a verb implying negation or by
a negative sentence require the subjunctive, as we have said (§ 113) ;
but when the negation makes reference to the existence of an absolute
fact, to a necessity or obligation, the indicative may be used :

Esta senora no debe saber que This lady must not know that the

el muertoessuhijo (necessity). dead person is her son.

Esta senora no sabia que el This lady did not know that the

muerto fuera su hijo (doubt). dead person was her son.

WITH THE INDICATIVE

105

Future.

Temia que para enton- He feared that he might

ces le hubiera (or have met by then with

hubiese) acontecido a misfortune.

una desgracia (Subj.).

135. — While a positive statement requires the indicative
to be used for both the present and past in the principal
and subordinate clauses, in complex sentences express-
ing negation, doubt, hope, or similar states of mind, the
indicative is used in the main and the subjunctive in the
subordinate clauses.

136. — Conditional Sentences.

Present (or Future) with si :
Si paga sus deudas, con-
servard su buen nom-
bre (Indicative).

Should he pay his debts,
he will keep his good
name.

With other words indicating condition

Como pague sus deudas,
conservara su buen
nombre (Subjunctive in
the first clause).
Past.
Si pago sus deudas, con-
servo su buen nombre
(Indicative).
Future.
Si pagare sus deudas,
conservard su buen
nombre (Subjunctive in
the first clause, not in
the second).

Provided he pays his
debts, he will keep his
good name.

If he paid his debts, he
kept his good name.

If he should pay his debts,
he will keep his good
name.

Ignora que su madre ha caido
enferma (positive fact).

Ignora que su madre haya caido
enferma (doubt, uncertainty).

No se lo que me digo (positively).

No s6 que le diga (doubtfully).

He does not know that his mother

has been taken ill.
He does not know whether his

mother has been taken ill.
I do not know what I am saying,
r^^do not know what I should tell

you.

io6 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD COMPARED
137. — Condition implying negation :

Present.
Si pagara (or pagase)
sus deudas, conserva-
ria su buen nombre
(implying that he will
not pay).

Past

Si pagara (better, si hu-
biera pagado) en
aquella ocasion sus
deudas, conservara
(or hubiera conser-
vado or habria con-
servado) su buen nom-
bre.

138.— Optative (independent clauses).

If he paid his debts, he
would keep his good
name.

Had he then paid his
debts, he would have
kept his good name.

Present or Future.
Pasemos ahora a tratar

de Ids adverbios.
Traiga usted las obras

de Shakespeare.
No pretendamos alterar

el orden de la natura-

leza.

Let us now go on to deal

with the adverbs.
Bring the works of

Shakespeare.
Let us not pretend to

change the order of

nature.

139. — The following sentences may offer some difficulty
to the English student.

It was to find Don Jeronimo
that Don Quijote first
entered an inn.

La primera vez que Don
Quijote entrara en una
venta fue para encon-
trar en ella a Don Jero-
nimo.

In this sentence from a Spanish newspaper the use of
entrara instead of entro is not justified. This practice, it
is true, has been followed by good writers, but it should
not be encouraged. The sense is affirmative ; there is no
suggestion of doubt, wish or hope, and, therefore, good
usage calls for the indicative forms.

WITH THE INDICATIVE 107

140.— Solo huboenSevilla There was in Seville only

un caballero que no one gentleman who did

rindiera homenaje a not pay homage to Cer-

Cervantes. vantes.

The verb haber, when it implies existence, requires the
indicative forms in the clauses depending on it ; but in the
sentence given above the word solo implies a negation,
and the sense is : No hubo sino un caballero que no
rindiera homenaje, that is : There was but one gentleman
who di^ not pay homage. Hence the use of the subjunctive
is correct in this case.

141.— No era mas que la It was only the shadow of

sombra de una sensa- a sensation : as though he

cion : como si mirara were looking at somebody

(or mirase) beber a otro who was drinking and saw

y le viera tragar algo. him swallow something.

The if-clause here implies negation ; the subjunctive
forms in -se or -ra are quite correct.

142.— Querian que se lo They wanted me to put it to
dijera (or dijese) mas them more clearly.
claro.

Querer is one of the verbs which always govern the
subjunctive ; in the subordinate clauses depending on it
the forms in -se or -ra must be used for the past, as in the
sentence under consideration.

143.— Sea como fuere, sea lo que fuere, are idiomatic
phrases meaning ' however it may be *. Other verbs and
relatives can be used similarly :

Sea quien fuere. Whoever he might be.

Suceda lo que sucediere. Happen what may.

Venga lo que viniere. Whatever may happen.

Digalo quien lo dijere. Whoever may say so.

144. — The interjection ojala is an Arabic phrase adopted
by the Spaniards with its original meaning of Allah grant
that ... or Would to heaven^ and it, therefore, involves the
use of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses.

io8 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD COMPARED

Ojald no se sepa esto. May heaven grant that it

does not leak out.
Ojala lo hubiera sabido. I wish I had known it.

145.— ^A quien podia ecu- Who could have thought

rrirsele que los techos se that roofs might go up in

fueran por lo alto como the air like lifts ?
ascensores?

The main clause is an implied negation, the subor-
dinate clause, therefore, must be formed with a subjunctive.

146. — Aunque intentara Though he tried to sleep, it
dormir, fuele imposible. was impossible for him.

Aunque intento dormir would also be permissible : but
the past subjunctive gives to the sentence a shade of un-
fulfilled wish which the directness of the indicative does
not suggest. Yet this practice of using the subjunctive
instead of the indicative in cases similar to this is not
always justified. For instance, in the following sentence
of the same author terminara is not the best form to
adopt.

Pocos momentos habian A few moments had elapsed
pasado desde que ter- since the dinner had fin-
minara la comida. ished.

In fact the whole construction cannot be considered as
good idiomatic Spanish. The most natural way of ex-
pressing the same thought would be : Pocos momentos
habian transcurrido desde el fin de la comida.

147. — -Quiza estuviese (or Perhaps he was still in
estuviera) todavia en Mexico in i6o8.
Mejico en i6o8.

Quizd estaba todavia en Mejico en i6o8 is likewise
allowable ; but the subjunctive stresses the uncertainty of
the fact.

Aprieta la mano y reel- Shake hands and receive
beme por esposo si qui- me as your husband if you

sieres. like.

WITH THE INDICATIVE

109

Ouieres instead of quisieres would have the same
meaning in this sentence, but the subjunctive is more
polite, and implies uncertainty.

148. — No es de extranar
que su intercesion mo-
lestara a las gentes.

149. — No habia marco que
encerrara todo esto.

150. — Con estas razones
perdio el pobre caba-
Hero el juicio, y desvela-
base por entenderlas y
desentranarles el sen-
tido que no se lo sacara,
ni las entendiera el mis-
mo Aristoteles si resu-
citara para solo ello.
No estaba muy bien con
las heridas que Don Be-
lianis dabay recibia,por-
que se imaginaba que,
por grandes maestros
que le hubiesen curado,
no dejaria de tener el
rostro y todo el cuerpo
lleno de cicatrices y se-
nales. Pero, con todo,
alababa en su autor
aquel acabar su libro
con la promesa de aque-
11a inacabable aventura
y muchas veces le vino
deseo de tomar la pluma
y darle fin al pie de la
letra, como alii se pro-
mete ; y sin duda alguna
lo hiciera y aun saliera
con ello, si otros ma-
yores y continuos pen-
samientos no se lo estor-
baran.

(Cervantes.)

It is not to be wondered at
that his intercession an-
noyed the people.

There was no frame to en-
close all this.

Over conceits of this sort
the poor gentleman lost
his wits, and used to lie
awake striving to under-
stand them and worm the
meaning out of them ;
which Aristotle himself
could not have made out
or extracted had he come
to life again for that special
purpose. He was not at
all easy about the wounds
which .Don Belianis gave
and took, because it
seemed to him that, great
as were the surgeons who
had cured him, he must
have had his face and
body covered all over
with seams and scars.
He commended, however,
the author's way of end-
ing his book with the pro-
mise of that interminable
adventure, and many a
time was he tempted to
take up his pen and finish
it properly as is there pro-
posed, which no doubt he
would have done, and
made a successful piece
of work of it too, had not
greater and more absorb-
ing thoughts prevented
him. (Ormsby's trans.)

no SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD COMPARED

Vocabulary.

acercarse, to approach, to
draw near.

actitud,/, attitude.

ademan, m.^ gesture, atti-
tude.

dgil, adj.f nimble.

alcance, m.^ reach; po-
nerse al alcance, to get
within reach.

alimentar, alimentarse, to
feed, to feed on.

apoderarse, to possess one-
self of a thing, to get hold
of.

aproximarse, to approach,
to come near.

atacar, to attack.

atisbar, to watch, to spy, to
pry.

burlar, to hoax.

cada, adj\, each, each one.

carne,/., flesh, meat ; carne
humana, human flesh.

cazar, to hunt.

centre, ;;/., centre.

cerdo, m., pig, swine.

corto, adj.y short.

crecimiento, m.j growth.

cubierto, adj.j covered.

cuerpo, m,y body.

dano, m.f detriment, da-
mage ; en su dano, to
his detriment.

defender, to defend.

demasiado, adj,^ too much ;
adv,f too.

designacion, /., name, de-
signation.

devastacion,/, devastation.

devorar, to devour.

diferencia,/, difference.

divertirse,to amuse oneself.
enemigo, w., enemy.
entonces, adv.j conj.j then.
erroneo, adj,y wrong, er-
roneous.
extender, to extend, to

stretch ; extiende, he

extends.
falda,/, slope.
fastidiar, to annoy,
fuerte, adj.j strong,
fuerza,/, strength.
ganado, m.j cattle.
garra,/, paw.
gate, m.f cat.
gracia, /, gracefulness,

grace.
habitar, to inhabit.
hermoso, adj.y handsome.
huir, to flee, to run away ;

huye, he flees.
imitar, to imitate, to ape.
jaguar, m., jaguar.
ligero, adj.y swift.
macizo, adj.y massive, solid.
mancha,/, spot, stain.
miembro, ;;/., limb, member.
mono, ;;/., monkey.
montaiia,/, mountain.
montes, adj.y wild.
mula,/., mule.
musculoso, adj.y brawny,

muscular.
notable, adj.y remarkable,

notable.
obscure, adj.y dark.
observar, to observe.
orilla,/., bank (of a river).
paciencia,/., patience.
pie!,/, skin.
plenitud,/., fullness.

WITH THE INDICATIVE

III

popularmente, adv,y popu-
larly.

rapido, adj,^ quick, rapid,
swift.

ray ado, adj.^ striped.

rebaiio, ;;/., herd.

redondo, adj.y round.

robusto, adj.y robust.

selvoso, adj., woody.

^\n,prep.y without; sin em-
bargo, however.

soler, to accustom, to be
wont.

sugerir, to suggest.
tamano, m., size,
temible, adj., fearful.
tigre, rn.y tiger.
toro, m.y bull.
tortuga,/, turtle.
tratar, to try, to treat.
tropico, m.y tropic,
vaca,/, cow.

valerosamente, adv.y brave-
ly, courageously.
valle, m.y valley.
venado, m.y deer.

Exercise.
El jaguar.

De los gatds que habitan el nuevo mundo el mas grande
y mas hermoso es el jaguar, popularmente conocido en
aquellas regiones con el nombre de tigre, aunque la
designacion es erronea porque hay notables diferencias
entre el jaguar y el tigre del antiguo mundo. El jaguar,
en la plenitud de su crecimiento, es poco menor, en tamano,
que el tigre, pero en vez de tener, como este, la piel rayada,
esta cubierto de manchas redondas obscuras con un punto
negro en el centro de cada una de ellas.

Todo su cuerpo, robusto y musculoso, sugiere la idea
de fuerza. Sus miembros cortos y macizos no tienen la
gracia de los otros animales de su familia, pero es agil
como ellos, y rapido en sus movimientos.

Vive en los valles del tropico o en las faldas de las
montaiias selvosas, desde Panama hasta el Sud del Brasil.
Se alimenta de venados, de monos, y en las orillas de los
grandes rios atisba a las tortugas y se apodera de ellas
para devorarlas. No podria cazar monos, si estos animales
no se le acercaran por curiosidad a mirarlo. Los monos
se divierten en observar las actitudes del jaguar, tratan
de imitarlo y a veces se le aproximan con intencion de
fastidiarlo y burlarse de el. El jaguar espera con paciencia

112 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD COMPARED

que se pongan a su alcance y, cuando extiende la garra,
comprende el mono, demasiado tarde y en su dano, que
hay un animal mas fuerte que el y mas ligero en sus
ademanes de cazador.

En los rebafios suele hacer el jaguar grandes devasta-
ciones. El toro, sin embargo, no huye de el y defiende
a las vacas, poniendose delante de ellas cuando el enemigo
se acerca.

El jaguar no ataca al hombre, pero se defiende valero-
samente si es perseguido. Sin embargo, cuando llega
a devorar un hombre por defenderse, le toma gusto a la
carne humana y la busca despues cuando tiene hambre.
Es entonces un enemigo temible.

Caza tambien cerdos monteses y tiene predileccion por
la carne de caballo y de mula.

Conversation.

I Cual es el mas grande y mas hermoso de los gatos del
nuevo mundo? ^Con que otro nombre es conocido el
jaguar ? ,i^ Se le puede llamar tigre ? i Cual es el tamano
del jaguar en la plenitud de su crecimiento ? i Tiene el
jaguar la piel rayada? <i, Que tiene en vez de rayas?
I Como son las manchas ? i Puede usted decirme como
es el cuerpo del jaguar? ^ Que sugiere? Diga usted
como son los miembros de este animal. ^Tienen las
formas del jaguar la gracia de los otros animales de su
familia ? i Que otros animales de esta familia conoce
usted ?

I Donde habita el jaguar ? ^ De que se alimenta ? i Que
animal busca en las orillas de los grandes rios ? i Podri'a
el jaguar cazar monos, si ellos no lo buscaran ? i Como
se divierten los monos con el jaguar? ji^ Para que se le
acercan? ^Que hace entonces el jaguar? i Es el mono
mas ligero que el jaguar ?

^ Donde suele el jaguar hacer devastaciones ? ^ Huye
el toro del jaguar ? i Como defiende las vacas ?

WITH THE INDICATIVE 113

I Ataca el jaguar al hombre ? i Sabe defenderse de el ?
I Cuando busca el jaguaf la carne humana ? ^^ Es temible
entonces ?

lQw6 otros animales son perseguidos por el jaguar?
Diga usted otra vez lo que hemos leido acerca del jaguar.

Translate.

Quisiera yo tener tiempo para viajar. Iri'a a Espafia, a la
America Meridional, a Cuba y a Mejico. Muchas cosas
utiles puede el viajero aprender en esos paises, si observa
con atencion y sabe aprovechar lo que observa. Si yo
hubiera sabido hace dos ailos lo que se hoy acerca del
Nuevo Mundo, no habria permanecido en Europa todo
este tiempo. Ahora, sin embargo, tendre que estar aqui
muchos anos, porque estoy aprendiendo un oficio y cuando
lo sepa ya sera demasiado tarde para viajar.

Estuve anoche en casa de D. Santiago Izquierd®,
comerciante uruguayo, que vive en Londres hace diez
anos. Don Santiago no me dijo que pensara ir pronto
a la America del Sur ; pero sus amigos creen que, si el
pudiera, partiria inmediatamente. Su familia vive en
el Uruguay. Si su mujer y sus hijas vivieran siempre
en Europa, el no pensaria en volver a su patria, porque
ya no le gusta viajar. Tiene sesenta y nueve anos y
aunque es sano y robusto prefiere su casa al buque de
vapor (steamer) y al vagon del ferrocarril (railway carriage).

Es necesario que esperen ustedes hasta manana para
escribir la carta. El vapor llega esta noche y traera
correspondencia de Malaga. La semana pasada no fue
preciso esperar, porque no hubo vapor y era indiferente
escribir el miercoles o el sabado.

Translate.

Could you tell me what time it is? — It is two o'clock.
It was half past one when I left the railway station. — I must
be at home at ten minutes to four ; could you tell me at

2129 I

114 SUBJUNCTIVE AND INDICATIVE

what time I should be at the station ? — You must be at the
station at a quarter past three : after that there is a train
at thirty-five minutes past three. — That would be too late.

Is this your first journey to Spain ? — Yes. I always
wished to go there, but only now have I found time to do so.
I could have gone two years ago, but then my father was
going to Paris and I had to go with him. It would have
been better to go then, because I could have stayed two or
three months, in the autumn and the winter. Now I can
only be there for seven weeks. It is a very short time to
see all the things that I want to see in Spain. However,
as I know more of the Spanish language than I knew in
those days I hope to be able to study the country and
understand the people better.

Have you seen your friend Mr. Kennedy since his
arrival {llegadd)! — No; I wish {pjald) I had seen him.
He has two books for me, that I want to read to my father
during our stay in the country. Where is Mr. Kenned}^
now ? — I think he is in London, in the same house where
he used to live before. . . . Write to him. — I think that
is the best thinsr to do.

XVI

ORDINAL NUMBERS AND INDETER-
MINATE PRONOUNS

151. — The ordinal numbers are in Spanish :

Primero first

Segundo second

Tercero third

Cuarto fourth

Quinto fifth

Sexto sixth

Septimo seventh

Octavo eighth

Noveno (or nono) ninth

ORDINAL NUMBERS

"5

Decimo

tenth

Undecimo (or onceno)

eleventh

Duodecimo

twelfth

Decimotercio (or decimo

tercero)

thirteenth

Decimocuarto

fourteenth

Decimoquinto

fifteenth

(and so on) up to

Vigesimo

twentieth

Vigesimo primer o (or

vigesimo primo)

twenty-first

(and so on) up to

Trigesimo

thirtieth

Cuadragesimo

fortieth

Quincuagesimo

fiftieth

Sexagesimo

sixtieth

Septuagesimo

seventieth

Octogesimo

eightieth

Nonagesimo

ninetieth

Centesimo

hundredth

Ducentesimo

two hundredth

Trecentesimo

three hundredth

Cuadringentesimo

four hundredth

Quingentesimo

five hundredth

Sexcentesimo

six hundredth

Septingentesimo

seven hundredth

Octogentesimo

eight hundredth

Nonagentesimo

nine hundredth

Milesimo

thousandth

Dosmilesimo

two thousandth

Millonesimo

millionth.

Note. — In ordinals made of two words like decimo-
tercio common usage requires the alteration of both
elements of the word to form the feminine ; so we say :
capitulo decimoquinto, leccion decimatercera. But in
the last edition of the Dictionary of the Spanish Academy
we read Decimocuarta edicion.

162. — In Spanish the cardinal numbers are used to
express the day of the month, with the exception of the
first:

ii6 ORDINAL NUMBERS

Estamos a i^. (primero) de We are at the ist of May.

Mayo.

El golpe de estado de 2 The coup d'etat of the 2nd

(dos) de Diciembre. December.

Le esperaremos hasta el We shall wait for you until

21 (veintiuno) del mes the 21st of next month.

entrante.

153. — With the names of kings or popes the ordinals
are used up to 9th :

Felipe segundo. Philip II.

Carlos tercero. Charles III.

Carlos quinto. Charles V.

Pio nono. Pius IX.

a. Either the cardinal or the ordinal number may be
used in the case of tenth :

Leon diez or decimo. Leo X.

Carlos diez or decimo. Charles X.

h. From tenth upwards the cardinal numbers alone are
accepted by good usage, although as regards the names
of Popes some writers use the ordinals after ten also :

Luis diez y seis. Louis XVI.

Carlos doce. Charles XII.

Juan veinte y dos. John XXII.

154. — In quoting laws, chapters, pages, paragraphs the
cardinal numbers are used from two upwards :

El Congreso aprobo ayer Yesterday Congress passed

la ley dos. Law no. 2.

Hemos llegado al capitulo We have reached Chap-

siete. ter VII.

a. But the ordinal numbers are also recognized by good
usage up to twelfth :

El capitulo cuarto termina Chapter IV ends on page 55.
en la pdgina cincuenta
y cinco.

155. — With centuries the ordinal numbers are used
up to the tenth or twelfth :

AND INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS 117

En el siglo cuarto (IV) de

la era cristiana.
Vivio en el siglo decimo

(X).
El siglo once o undecimo.

In the fourth century of the
Christian era.

He lived in the tenth cen-
tury.

The eleventh century.

a. After twelfth the cardinal numbers are used :

El siglo diez y ocho.
El siglo veinte.

The eighteenth century.
The twentieth century.

156. — Ambos, ambas means the one and the other

conjointly :

Iban ambos a caballo.

£,Conoce usted al Alcalde
o al Secretario ? — Los
conozco a ambos.

They were both riding on

horseback.
Do you know the Mayor or

the Secretary? — I know

them both.

a. When the two objects to which reference is made are
not taken conjointly ambos cannot be used :

Is this parcel for John, for
me, or for both? — For
neither.

Who is the elder, you or
your brother? — I am the
elder of the two.

^Es este paquete para

Juan, para mi o para

ambos? — Para ninguno

de los dos.
^Quien es mayor, usted

o su hermano ? — Yo soy

el mayor de los dos (not

de ambos).^

b, ' Both ' is translated tanto . . . como or asi . . . como in
expressions like ' both the mother and the son were thrown
into the flames': tanto la niadre como la hija fueron
arrojadas a las llamas.

Se expresa muy bien asi He expresses himself very
ingles como en well both in English and

en

italiano.

Italian.

^ Yet we find in good writers :

Ni una ni otra de ambas posiciones None of these two standpoints
nos satisface (M. de Unamuno). is satisfactory to us.

So that, despite the grammarians, it is perhaps pedantry to condemn
this form of expression.

iia

ORDINAL NUMBERS

La victoria fue una sor-
presa lo mismo para
nosotros que para el
enemigo.

157. — The fraetioiial numbers
ordinals from fourth to twelfth :

The victory was a surprise
both for us and for the
enemy.

are the same as the

medio or mitad

half

tercio or tercera parte

third

cuarto

fourth

quinto

fifth

octavo (or ochavo)

eighth

duodecimo

twelfth.

a. From twelfth upwards fractional numbers are formed

y' the adding of -avo to the cardinal,

up to 999th :

dozavo (or duodecimo)

twelfth

catorzavo

fourteenth

veinteavo

twentieth

treintavo

thirtieth

centavo (or centesimo)

hundredth

novecientos sesenta y dosavo

962nd

milesimo

thousandth

millonesimo

millionth.

Indeterminate Pronouns and Adjectives.
158. — The indeterminate adjectives alguno, alguna,
algunos, algunas (some); ninguno, ninguna, ningunos,
ningunas (none, not any), lose the last letter in the
masculine singular when placed before a noun.

Debemos encontrar algun We must find some way to

modo de resolver el solve the problem.

problema.
Algunos viajeros pre-

firieron quedarse en el

puerto.
Ningun ciudadano puede

rehusar el cumplimiento

de su deber.
Ningunos libros tan

buenos como los del

editor Lopez.

Some travellers chose
remain in port.

No citizen can refuse
fulfil his duty.

to

to

No books so good as those
of Lopez, the publisher.

AND INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS 119

I Conoce usted los amigos
de la Sra. Mendez? —
He visto a alguno.

I Tiene usted parientes en
esta ciudad ? - No tengo
ningunos.

^Estan en la escuela todos
sus hermanos?— No to-
dos, pero algunos.

Do you know Mrs. Mendez's
friends ? — I have seen
one of them.

Have you any relatives in
this town ? — I have none.

Are all your brothers at
school? —Not all, but
some.

159. — Alguien (pronoun) takes the placeof algun hombre,
alguna persona, and cannot be used with reference to ani-
mals or inanimate beings.

Somebody has come.
He was talking to me of
somebody I did not know.

Alguien ha llegado.
Me hablaba de alguien a
quien yo no conocia.

160. — Nadie, also a pronoun, is the equivalent of nin*
guna persona, nobody.

I know nobody in Vallado-

lid.
Nobody pretends to have

won the prize.

a. As nadie means ninguno de, it cannot be used in
a partitive sense. It would be wrong to say : nadie de
sus hermanos quiso socorrerlo (none of his brothers
wanted to help him).

In this case ninguno takes the plaee of nadie:

No conozco a nadie en

Valladolid.
Nadie se cree con derecho

al premio.

Ninguno de los generales
acudio a la cita.

None of the generals an-
swered the summons.

161.— Uno u otro or cualquiera de los dos means either ^ and
ninguno de los dos is translated by neither.

Either the one or the other is

wrong or both are wrong.
Which of the two shall I con-

Uno u otro estdn equivocados

o ambos.
^A quien debo consultar de

los dos? — A cualquiera de

alios.
Espere a Juan y a Pedro

hasta las tres y ninguno

de los dos vino.

suit ? — Either.

I waited for John and Peter
until three o'clock and nei-
ther came.

I20 ORDINAL NUMBERS

a. Uno, una are indeterminate pronouns of the third person,
which are used sometimes instead of se. Uno no sabe que
decir, No se sabe que decir (one does not know what to say) :
see § 86, note.

162. — Nada means nothing, and refers often to general
ideas or concepts :

Nada es mejor que una Nothing is better than a

buena conciencia. good conscience.

Lainterrogue,peronodijo I questioned her, but she

nada. said nothing.

163.— It is to be noted that in Spanish ninguno, nada, and
nadie may be used with no to emphasize the negation.

No conozco a nadie aqui. I do not know anybody here.

Three or more negative expressions may be used in the same
phrase to emphasize its meaning ;

No dijo nada de nadie (three He did not say anything about

negations). anj^body.

No le he debido nunca nada I have never owed anything to

a nadie (four negations). anybody.

164. Cualquiera (whichever) may be used as adjective or
pronoun ; quienquiera is always a pronoun.

Aqui me encontrard usted You will find me here at

a cualquiera hora que whatever time you may

venga. come.

Cualquiera diria que es Anybody would say that you

usted extranjero. were a foreigner.

Quienquiera que sea, es Whoever he may be, it is

precise recibirlo. necessary to receive him.

a, Cualquiera and quienquiera take the plural forms
cualesquiera and quienesquiera.

Cualesquiera diversiones Any amusements to which

a que la juventud se youth is given should be

entregue deben estar watched over by parents.
vigiladas per los padres.

AND INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS 121

b. Cualquiera may lose the last letter when used as an
adjective and placed before the noun :

Me dijo que viniera cual- He told me to come any day
quier dia de la semana next week.

proxima.

165. — Todo, toda, todos, todas (all, every), is an indeter-
minate adjective which very often requires the article after
it : Todo el dia, toda la noche, all day, all night ; todas las
flores del jardin estan dedicadas a la celebracion de su
natalicio, all the flowers of the garden are destined for the
celebration of her birthday ; la casa toda, the entire
house.

a. It may be used pronominally or substantively :

Todos estamos expuestos We are all prone to err.

a errar.
Habla de todo con asom- He talks about everything

brosa frescura. with astonishing assur-

ance.
Todo me es igual. It is all the same to me.

b. Note the construction with the personal pronoun :

Todos nosotros estdbamos We were all sure of victory.
seguros de la victoria.

c. Todo used as a pronoun in a general sense is neuter :

Todo est^ bien : hemos con- Everything is right : we have
venido en ello (not el). agreed to it.

d. With nouns taken in a general sense todo is used without
the article : Toda autoridad procede del pueblo, all authority
derives from the people.

166. — Mas, menos and demas are invariable adjectives.

Mas casas hay en la aldea There are more houses in

que drboles. the village than trees.

Una pena menos. One sorrow less.

167. — Propio with the possessive adjectives means own :

Mi propia casa esta en My own house is at Madrid.

Madrid.
Lo vio con sus propios He saw it with his own eyes.

ojos.

122 ORDINAL NUMBERS

168. — Cada is an invariable adjective meaning each or

every :

Ponga cada libro en su Put each book in its place.

puesto.

Cada operario a su oficio. Every workman to his trade.

Cada dia trae su afdn. Each day brings its care.

Gana un peso en cada diez He makes a dollar on every

libros que vende. ten books he sells.

a. Cada cannot, as in English, be used pronominally in
Spanish. The words uno or cual must be added to it
when the noun to which it refers is not expressed.

Compre cien toneladas de I bought one hundred tons

heno a diez y echo pesos of hay at eighteen dollars

cada una. each.

Cada cual ocupo su puesto Every one took his place in

en la clase. the class.

169. — Sendos (sendas) means each one in the sense of
distribution :

Venian en sendas hacaneas. Each one came riding her

nag.

Y mirando (Sancho) a los del And (Sancho) looking pitifully
jardin tiernamente y con round about the garden ^yith
Idgrimas les dijo que le tears in his eyes, desired
ayudasen en aquel trance that they would in that dole-
con sendos paternoster y ful [emergency] join with
sendas avemarias (Cer- him each in a Pater-noster
VANTEs).' and an Ave Maria (Shelton).

^ It is to be noted that most of the English translations of Don Quixote
since Shelton's times have rendered this passage wrongly : Motteux says
' a few Paternosters and Ave-martas^ ; Duffield states that Sancho ' prayed
that they would each help him in that peril with two Paternosters and two
Aventarias\ and more recently Ormsby goes further in saying that
Sancho ' bade them help him . . . with plenty of Paternosters and Ave
Marias '. Watts says ' a couple '.

Sendos (from the Latin singuli) is not of frequent colloquial use, and
seems even to be disappearing from the literary language. Some people,
and a few writers amongst them, have given the word the unwarrantable
meaning of large, strong, out of proportion.

AND INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS 123

Vocabulary.

admitir, to admit, to accept.

albillo, ;;/., wine of white
grape.

amistad,/., friendship.

antes bien, on the contrary.

apetito, ;;/.; appetite.

asiento, nt., seat; hombre
de mucho asiento, solid,
well-balanced man.

bastante, adv., quite, very,
enough; bastante mas jo-
ven, a good deal younger.

bonito, adj,f pretty, good-
looking.

camisa,/, shirt.

cena,/., supper, dinner.

cesar, to cease, to stop.

clase,/, kind, class.

cocinera,/., woman-cook.

coloquio, m,y talk, conversa-
tion.

compatible, adj., suitable,
compatible.

corbata,/, neck-tie.

cordial, adj.y hearty, cordial.

chuleta,/., chop.

decencia,/., decency.

decente, adj\y decent.

deleitar, to please, to de-
light.

dentadura, /., set of teeth,
the teeth.

deparar, to ofter, to aftbrd.

despojar, to deprive of, to
despoil ; despojarse de su
traje, to undress, to strip.

diente, ;//., tooth.

donaire, m,, graceful car-
riage, wit, elegance.

emplear, to employ, to use.

entrar, to enter, to come or
go in.

escaso, adj\, scarce, short.

exponer, to lay down, to
explain.

fin, m.f end ; al fin, at
last.

formalidad, /., seriousness,
gravity, formality.

frisar, to approach, to bor-
der.

frito, adj.f fried.

gallego, ;;/. and adj., Gali-
cian.

habla,/, language, talk.

huesped, ;;/., guest, host.

inesperado, adj., unexpec-
ted.

instruir, to teach, to inform.

joven, adj., young.

lavar, to wash.

lavoteo, m.y hurried wash.

limpio, adj., clean.

locuacidad,/., talkativeness,
loquacity.

mah6n, ;;/., nankeen.

manchego, adj., belonging
to la Mancha.

migas, />/., marrow (dish);
crumbs.

misterioso,^^*., mysterious.

molestarse, to bother, to
worry.

narrar, to narrate, to relate.

nombrar, to name.

ocuparse en, to busy one-
self with.

ojo, m., eye.

patriota, ?;/. and/., patriot.

patrona, /, hostess, land-
lady.

peculio, m., money, pri-
vate purse, pecuniary re-
sources.

124

ORDINAL NUMBERS

pez, m.f fish.

pintoresco, adj.y pictures-
que.

poco, adj.y little; a poco,
shortly afterwards.

preceder, to precede.

presentar, to present, to
introduce.

presuroso, adj.^ hasty,
speedy.

prolijidad,/, prolixity.

recomendar, to recommend.

regordete, regordeta, adj.y
plump, chubby.

relaci6n,/, friendship ; con
relacion a, regarding.

risueno, adj.^ smiling.

ropa, /., clothes; ropita,
modest wardrobe.

rubicundo, adj\y ruddy, rosy
with health.

sazon, /., opportunity, sea-
son; a la sazon, for the
time being, at present.

servir, to serve; servir
la cena, to lay the sup-
per.

singular, adj,, singular,
single.

solo, adv,y only; tan solo,
only.

soltar, to let loose, to loose,
to loosen.

sosegado, adj,y quiet.

suerte,/. luck, chance.

sujeto, m.y person; adj\y
tied, liable.

terriblemente, adv., fright-
fully, terribly.

timido, adj.y timid, shy, coy.

toalla,/, towel.

torcer, to twist ; torcer los
ojos, to squint.

trabar, to bind, to tie ; tra-
bar relaciones, to become
friends.

traje, m., dress; trajecito,
unassuming, plain dress.

unico, adj.y only.

uva, /, grape; uvas de
albillo, white wine grapes.

vena,/, vein.

Ventura,/, chance, luck.

vestimenta,/., act of dress-
ing, dress.

vestir, vestirse, to dress.

vise, m., lustre ; persona
de viso, man of con-
sequence.

vivaracho, adj.y lively.

vivienda, /., house, resi-
dence, home.

Exercise.

Salio Mendizabal presuroso, Ilamando a su esposa e
hija, y a poco se presentaron estas con el agua y toallas
limpias. Era la patrona regordeta y vivaracha, bastante
mas joven que su marido; mala dentadura, el habla
gallega, manos de cocinera. La nifia, timida y rubi-
cunda, habria sido muy bonita si no torciera terrible-
mente los ojos. Precedialas el risueno padre que, al
presentar a la familia, volvio a soltar la vena de su

AND INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS 125

verbosidad (loquacity). El Sr. D. Fernando traeria, segi'in
el, buen apetito. Pronto se le serviria la cena. Casa mas
sosegada no se encontraba en todo Madrid, y como no
admitian sine huespedes recomendados, nunca tenian mas
que cinco o seis, y a la sazon, por ser verano, tan solo
dos, sin contar al Sr. D. Fernando, los cuales eran
personas de mucho asiento y formalidad. A la hora de
la cena los conoceria el nuevo huesped y trabaria con
uno y otro sujeto relaciones muy cordiales. . . . Dejaronle
al fin para que se lavase y, despojado de su trajecito
de mahon, se ocupo el huesped en sacar del baul la
unica ropita decente que trai'a, y camisa y corbata, para
vestirse con toda la decencia compatible con su escaso
peculio. Durante las operaciones de lavoteo y vesti-
menta no cesaba de pensar en la ventura inespera-
da y misteriosa con que entraba en Madrid. . . .
Cenando migas excelentes con uvas de albillo, peces del
Jarama fritos y chuletas a la papillotej hizo conocimiento
con los dos huespedes que la suerte le deparaba por com-
paneros de vivienda. ... El uno frisaba en los cincuenta
anos, y en las primeras frases del coloquio se declare
manchego y patriota. Su locuacidad no molestaba ; antes
bien, instruia deleitando, porque narraba los sucesos y
exponia las opiniones con singular donaire y una proli-
jidad pintoresca. Debia de tener muchas y muy buenas
amistades con personas en aquel tiempo de gran viso,
porque al nombrarlas empleaba casi siempre formas fami-
Hares. ... El segundo huesped era D. Pedro Hillo, natural
de Toro.

Conversation.
I Quien salio presuroso llamando a su esposa y a su
^ij^? (LQui^^ ^^^ Mendizabal? ^ Quienes trajeron el
agua y las toallas? <: Puede usted decirme como era la
patrona? i Era menor o mayor que su marido ? i Como
tenia las manos ? i Cual era su modo de hablar ? ^ Que
me dice usted de la nifia? i Era bonita? c Por que no

126 ORDINAL NUMBERS

era bonita? ^ Quien entro adelante ? <: Quien fiie pre-
sentado por Mendizabal a la familia ? i Que pensaba
Mendizabal del apetito de D. Fernando ? i Cuando le
servirian la cena al huesped ? <^ Era sosegada la casa?
I Admitian en ella toda clase de huespedes ? i Cuantos
tenian a la sazon ? i Por que ten fan tan pocos ? i Cuantos
eran, contando a D. Fernando ? i Eran los huespedes
personas cualesquiera ? <:A que hora los conoceria el
nuevo huesped? ^i, Para que lo dejaron? ^ Que vestido
(vestimenta) tenia puesto ? i Era rico ? i Tenia muchos
vestidos ? iDe donde saco su ropa ? ^ En que pensaba
esa tarde cuando se vestia? lQu6 fue la cena? ^A
qui^nes conocio en la cena? iQue edad tenia uno de
los huespedes ? iDe donde era ? i Conocia personas de
viso ? I Quien era el otro ? ^ De donde era natural ?

Translate.

Estuve en America en 1906. Viaje por Mejico, Guate-
mala, Cuba, Venezuela, Colombia, el Ecuador y el Peru.
Deseaba llegar a Colombia en Agosto, pero ya estaba
Septiembre muy adelantado, cuando vimos la costa. El
primero de Octubre sali de Bogota para, ir a Quito.
Emplee en el viaje veinte y dos dias, pasando por Panama.
Iban conmigo varias personas que conocian el pais y me
ayudaron con sus buenos consejos (advice). Es Quito
una ciudad de setenta mil habitantes, aunque algunos
autores dicen que tiene ochenta mil. Esta sobre la li'nea
equinoccial (Equator) a una altura (height) de nueve mil
trescientos noventa y cinco pies (feet). Es ciudad muy
antigua. Era una ciudad ya muy antigua cuando los
espaiioles la ocuparon en mil quinientos treinta y cuatro.
El Ecuador hizo parte durante algun tiempo, despues de
la independencia (independence), de la Repiiblica de
Colombia.

AND INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS 127

Translate.

Charles XII of Sweden is one of the most chivalrous
(cabal lerescas) and attractive figures in the history of Europe
during the first years of the eighteenth century. His life was
short and full of action and thought. He was only thirty-
six at the end of it.

Philip II of Spain built, twenty-eight miles from Madrid,
a palace {palacio\ which is known under [con) the name
of Escorial. They began (empezaron) to build it in 1573-
It was finished twenty-one years later.

Nobody now knows who were the first inhabitants of
America. Nothing is known of the communications that
may have existed [existtdo) between that Continent and
the Old World. But there are some reasons [razones)
for believing that communications existed. Whatever
these reasons may be^ we must say that there are no
conclusive [corKluyentes) proofs to decide the point.

Who has been here to see you to-day? — I do not know
that anybody has been to see me. The landlady would
have told me if anybody had called, and if anybody did
call he ought to have left his name, whoever he was.

XVII

AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES-
PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES—
LETTER-WRITING

170.-^In order to increase or diminish the meaning or
force of nouns, adjectives, and sometimes also of adverbs,
certain terminations are added to these words, according
to rules that are not always followed by usage in a
uniform manner. The words altered in this way are
called augmentatives when an increase in the meaning is
suggested, and diminutives in the contrary case.

128 AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES

a. The most frequently used endings for the formation
of augmentatives are -on, -azo, -ote :

arbol, arbolon, arbolote (large tree).
hombre, hombr6n (tall man).
perro, perrazo (big dog).
alto, altote (very high).

b. When the word to which the endings are to be added
ends in an unaccented vowel, this letter is dropped. It is
to be observed that the accent of the word changes to the
first vowel of the ending, -on and -ote have, in some few
words, a diminutive value :

rata, rat ; raton, mouse.

ala, wing;^al6n, wing stripped of its feathers.

isla, island ; islote, islet.

torre, tower ; torreon, turret.

c. In some cases these endings suggest the idea of
clumsiness or grotesqueness, and are used in a con-
temptuous sense :

soltero, single, unmarried man ; solteron, old, in-
corrigible bachelor.
libro, book ; librote, big, ill-planned book.

d. Two endings may sometimes be used conjointly to
emphasize the meaning of the augmentative :

hombre, hombron, hombronazo (big, loutish man).
picaro, picaron, picaronazo (great rogue).

171. — The diminutive endings are of much more frequent
occurrence than the augmentatives. The rules for the
use of the diminutive endings are less arbitrary than
those for the use of the augmentatives.

a. -ececito, -ececico, -ececillo, -ecezuelo, may be used,
according to the Academy, with monosyllables ending in
e. The rule has been coined for the word pie, foot, which
admits of the following forms : piececico, piececito, piece-
cillo. There are not many monosyllabic nouns or adjec-
tives ending in e in Spanish, and of these fe (faith) does not

AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES 129

admit of any diminutive termination, and, as for te (tea),
usage in very familiar language would only accept tecito.

b, -ecito, -ecico, -ecillo, -ezuelo are used —

(i) with monosyllables ending in a consonant or y :
flor, flower ; florecita, little flower.
nuez, nut ; nuececita, small nut.
red, net ; redecilla, small net, mesh.
rey, king ; reyezuelo, petty king.
sal, salt ; salecita, a little salt.

(2) with nouns or adjectives of two syllables having the
diphthongs ei, ie, or ue in the first syllable :

cuerpo, body ; cuerpecito, small body.

diente, tooth ; dientecillo, little tooth.

hueso, bone ; huesecillo, small bone.

peine, comb ; peinecito, peinecillo (also peineta),

small comb.
reina, queen ; reinecita (also reinita), little queen.

(3) with dissyllables ending in -io, -ia :

friecito, somewhat cold ; riecito, little river,
and (4) with dissyllables ending in unaccented -ia or -e :
bestia, beast ; bestezuela, bestiecilla, little beast.
calle, street ; callecita, small street.
hombre, hombrecito, hombrecillo, little man.

Yet in Spanish America diminutives such as Dieguito,
huesito, cuerpito are often heard.

c, -cico, -01110, -cito, -zuelo are added to words of more
then one syllable ending in r or n :

almacen, store ; almacencito, small store.
oracion, prayer ; oracioncita, little prayer.
joven, young man ; jovencito, little young man.
altar, altar ; altarcillo, altarcito, little altar.
labor, work ; laborcita, small piece of work.
bribon, rogue ; bribonzuelo, little rogue.
Yet we say Senorito, from the dissyllable Senor.

130 AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES

d. The endings -ico, •ito(less frequently -eto), -illo, -uelo
are applied to all words not comprised in the preceding
rules.

perrito, little dog ; patico, little duck ; arbolillo, little
tree ; pozuelo, little well ; ojalito, small buttonhole.

e. When the diminutive ending begins w^ith a vowel and
the word to which it is added ends with a vowel, the last
letter of the original is dropped : pie, pi-ececito ; casa,
cas-ita; libro, libr-ito; pozo, poz-uelo, poc-ito, poc-illo.^

/. The stress of the words, altered to form the diminu-
tives with all the endings specified in the preceding para-
graphs, changes to the penultimate syllable of the ending.

Casa, casita; cdmara, camarilla; oracion, oracion-
cita ; pie, piececillo ; escaparate, escaparatito ; arbol,
arbolillo.

g. Diminutives formed with the termination -in have the
stress on the last syllable : corbata, neck-tie, corbatin ;
camara, room, camarin ; flauta, flute, flautin.

h. Words ending in z alter this letter to c before an
ending the first letter of which is e or i : pez, fish, pececillo ;
nariz, nose, naricilla. Words ending in -ca, -co alter each
of these to que or qui in the diminutive: boca, mouth,
boquilla; loco, madman, loquito; barca, boat, barqueta.
Words ending in -ga, -go alter this termination to gue,
gui : Diego, James, Dieguito ; carga, load, carguita.
The object of these alterations, which, by the way, occur
in all kinds of inflexions, is simply to preserve the sound
of the letter in the original word.

172.— With the termination -on for the augmentatives, and -in
for the diminutives, the gender of the nouns changes sometimes :

pared,/, wall. paredon, m., large wall,

mujer,/, woman. mujeron, m., big, clumsy woman.

corbata,/., neck-tie. corbatin, m., small tie.

^ The Z changes to C before i to keep the soft sound : see below [h).

AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES 131

a. It is still more singular that masculine nouns ending in -a,
which should form the diminutive in -ito or -ico, preserve at the
end the a of the original, without changing the gender:
poeta, poet. poetilla, poetaster.

poema, poem. poemita, short, little poem.

This peculiarity occurs even with proper nouns of the mascu-
line gender ending in -as, which keep the a and the s in the
diminutive. A sonnet by Quevedo begins :

• Si un Eneillas (from Eneas) viera, si un Pimpollo.'

• Hola, poetilla, i le falta a usted una silaba para completar
alguno de esos que llama versos ? ' Cuervo, Apunfaciones.

173.— Adjectives may, in familiar style, be used in the
diminutive form : feito, rather plain ; blanquito, whitish. On
a more limited scale this is also the case with adverbs :
tardecito, a little late ; tempranito, rather early ; apenitas
(coll.), barely, only just ; and present participles : andandito,
just going on ; corriendito, in a bit of a hurry.

174. — Augmentatives and diminutives are of frequent occur-
rence in familiar conversation and in everyday language, but
are seldom used in serious literature. Sometimes a shade of
endearment is coupled with the meaning of the diminutives,
and in some cases they are used only to express affection, as
when a son speaks of his mother as mamacita. Senorita is the
unmarried lady, and senorito, in Spain, is, for the servants, either
the unmarried man, whatever his age, or the young husband.

Prefixes and Suffixes.
175.— A great number of prefixes and suffixes are common to
English and Spanish, and it often happens that words formed
with the addition of these elements preserve similar appearances
in both languages. This superficial Hkeness is apt to be decep-
tive, and the student should be cautioned against assuming that
similarity of form implies similarity of meaning.

Prefixes.
176.— Among the prefixes preserved in both languages in
words of Latin or Greek origin or of recent formation the
following are of frequent occurrence :
ab-, abs- : abrupto, abrupt ; abstinente, abstinent.
ad-: adornar, to adorn ; adherir, to adhere.
ante- : antecedente, antecedent ; antediluviano, antediluvian.

K 2

132 PREFIXES

anti-^. Anticristo, Antichrist; antidote, antidote ; antipodas,
antipodes.

bi- : bicicleta, bicycle ; bilateral, bilateral ; bilingiie, bilingual.

circun- : circunferencia, circumference ; circunstancia, circum-
stance ; circunspecto, circumspect.

com-, con-: conducta, conduct; combinar, to combine ; con-
tener, to contain ; convencer, to convince ; comenzar, to
commence.

contra- : contraste, contrast ; contrabando, contraband ; con-
troversia, controversy.

de- : devote, devout ; degradar, to degrade ; derivacion, deriva-
tion ; dependiente, dependent.

des-, dis- : desden, disdain ; descontar, to discount ; desmembrar,
to dismember; discrete, discreet; distante, distant; des-
gracia, in the sense of loss of favour, disgrace.

em-, en- : emblema, emblem ; embridn, embryo ; energia, energy ;
entusiasmo, enthusiasm.

ex-: excelente, excellent; extirpar, to extirpate; expatriar, to
expatriate; extender, to extend.

extra- : extraordinarie, extraordinary ; extravagante, extra-
vagant.

im-, in- (negative) : imposible, impossible ; impure, impure ;
inepto, inept ; insipide, insipid ; intacto, intact ; indepen-
diente, independent.

inter- : interprete, interpreter ; internacienal, international.

intre- : intreducir, to introduce.

per- : perfume, perfume ; perfidia, perfidy ; perfecte, perfect.

pes-, pest : pespener, to postpone ; postumo, posthumous.

pre- : precepto, precept ; preferir, to prefer ; presente, present.

preter- : preternatural, preternatural ; preterite, preterite.

pre- : profano, profane ; prodigio, prodigy ; producir, to pro-
duce ; proceder, to proceed.

re- : resistir, to resist ; redimir, to redeem.

sub- : subterrdneo, subterranean ; suburbie, suburb ; sugestion,
suggestion ; suberdinado, subordinate.

trans- : transiterio, transitory ; transfermar, to transform ;
transatldntice, transatlantic.

ultra-: ultramarine, ultramarine ; ultramontane, ultramontane.

SUFFIXES 133

Suffixes.

177.— Many of the Latin suffixes adopted by the Spanish
language for the formation of derivatives are also employed in
English, and a considerable number of words so formed are
similar in the two languages. But, as already stated, the
meaning of the words occasionally follows different Hnes.

178.— The following suffixes supply frequent cases of both
similarity of form and correspondence of meaning : *

•ble : amable, amiable (kind) ; tolerable, tolerable ; posible,
possible ; legible, legible (readable) ; durable, durable
(lasting) ; sensible in Spanish means ' sensitive '. The
English word ^sensible' corresponds to sensato in Spanish.

•ico : publico, public; tonico, tonic; cinico, cynic ; fan^tico,
fanatic. The suffix -ica used in Spanish to designate the
various branches of learning is in EngHsh -ic: Ibgica,
logic ; aritmetica, arithmetic ; but some of these nouns
are preferably used in the singular in Spanish, whereas in
English they generally require the plural : fisica, physics ;
optica, optics ; matem^tica or matemdticas, mathematics.

•ian, -iano : guardidn, guardian ; cristiano, Christian.

•ano : profano, profane ; pagano, pagan ; humano, human,
humane ; italiano, Italian.

-ante, -ante : habitante, inhabitant ; arrogante, arrogant ;
agente, agent ; estudiante, student ; inocente, innocent ;
decente, decent.

•ar (adjectives) : popular, popular ; singular, singular ; peculiar,
peculiar.

-al; animal, animal ; capital, capital ; legal, legal ; moral, moral ;
leal, loyal.

•ario : ordinario, ordinary ; primario, primary ; necesario,
necessary.

•ficar (-fy-verbs) : fortificar, to fortify; edificar, to edify.

-cto : acto, act ; perfecto, perfect ; intacto, intact.

•in, -ino : eland estino, clandestine ; argentino, Argentine ;
latino (people), latin (language), Latin ; cristalino, crys-
talline ; divino, divine.

■ina : fibrina, fibrine ; gelatina, gelatine ; glicerina, glycerine.

•es (national nouns) : frances, French ; ingles, English ; portu-
gues, Portuguese; japones, Japanese ; siames, Siamese.

134 . SUFFIXES

-oso : furioso, furious ; belicoso, bellicose ; gracioso, gracious,
graceful ; jocoso, jocose ; luminoso, luminous ; ominoso,
ominous. Some English adjectives of Latin origin ending
in -ous are formed differently from the Spanish, in which
they keep the same root : bdrbaro, barbarous (barbarian) ;
credulo, credulous ; obvio, obvious.

•orio : contradictorio, contradictory ; ilusorio, illusory ; satis-
factorio, satisfactor3\

•icia : avaricia, avarice ; justicia, justice.

•cia : falacia, fallacy ; inercia, inertia.

•ancia, -encia : constancia, constancy ; clemencia, clemency ;
ciencia, science.

•ion, -cion, -sion : aluvion, alluvion ; accion, action ; tension,
tension.

•on : razon, reason ; sazon, season.

•tor : rector, rector ; director, director ; actor, actor.

-or : honor, honour ; clamor, clamour ; esplendor, splendour.

•ura : figura, figure ; estructura, structure.

•ivo : activo, active ; positivo, positive ; nativo, native.

•icio : novicio, novice ; artificio, artifice (device).

•ada, -ata : arcada, arcade ; cabalgata, cavalcade ; balaustrada,
balustrade ; serenata, serenade.

•aje : lenguaje, language ; coraje, courage ; paje, page.

•mento, •miento : argumento, argument ; instrtimento, instru-
ment ; sentimiento, sentiment.

•ismo : despotismo, despotism ; egoismo, egoism, egotism.

•ista: egoista, egotist, egoist; florista, florist.

•idad, •edad-, -dad or •tad : civilidad, civility ; variedad, variety ;
libertad, liberty.

•bundo : vagabundo, vagabond ; moribundo, moribund.

itud : actitud, attitude ; gratitud, gratitude.

Note.— Suffixes like •umbra (pesadumbre, weight, sorrow),
•izo (hechizo, charm ; postizo, artificial), and others which are
not used in words of similar formation in the two languages,
are not included in this list.

LETTER-WRITING

135

Vocabulary.

acompafiar, to enclose, to
send along with.

acuerdo, ;;/., agreement ;
de acuerdo con, in ac-
cordance with.

articulo, ;;/., article, mer-
chandise.

cargo, ;;/., charge ; a cargo
de, against.

causar, to cause, to be the
cause of.

compania,/., company.

condicion,/., condition.

conocimiento, knowledge ;
conocimiento de em-
barque, bill of lading.

consideracion, /, consi-
deration; de considera-
cion, considerable.

contestar, to answer, to
reply to.

convenir, to agree, to agree
to.

corriente, adj.^ current, in-
stant.

cubrir, to cover, to pay.

curso, ni.y course.

decir, to say ; es decir, that
is to say.

demora,/., delay.

derecho, m,^ right, claim.

despacho, m.y despatch,
expedition.

dignar, to deign, to please.

estimado, adj,^ esteemed,
dear (as : dear Sir).

factura,/], invoice.

fruto, ;//., fruit, product,
commodity.

giro, m., bill of exchange,
draft.

gva.cia.^yf.pl.y thanks.

grato, adj., grateful, wel-
come, agreeable.

huelga,/, strike.

informacion, /., informa-
tion.

mercado, ;;/., market.

mercancia,/., merchandise,
commodity.

motivo, tn.y motive ; con
motive de, owing to, be-
cause of, by reason of.

nota, /, note, notice ; tomar
nota, to note.

pedir, to ask for, to order ;
pedido, w., order.

perjuicios, tn. pL, damages.

permitir, to allow ; per-
mitirse, to beg.

peseta (pta.), /, Spanish
coin, nominally the equi-
valent of a franc.

preciso, adj.^ precise.

recibo, ;;/., receipt.

reclamacion,/, claim.

remesa,/, remittance.

responsable, adj.^ respon-
sible.

sobre, prep.^ on, about,
above.

sumo, adj.y the utmost ; a lo
sumo, at most.

tal, deni. adj.y such, such a.

tardar, to delay, to be
late.

transporte, /;/., transport,
transportation ; compa-
nias de transporte, trans-
port companies.

venta,/, sale. ,

136 LETTER-WRITING

V19,—Letier-zvriting. The forms of address in common
use in Spanish are :

Estimado Senor, Dear Sir.
Estimado Senor Cueto, Dear Mr. Cueto.
Muy estimado Senor, My dear Sir.
Muy Sefior mio, Dear Sir.
Muy Senor nuestro, Dear Sir.
. Estimados Senores, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen.
Muy Senores mios (or nuestros), Dear Sirs.
Muy Senora mia (or Estimada Seiiora), Dear

Madam.
Mi querido Senor y amigo, Dear Mr. So and So.
Muy Seiior mio y amigo, Dear Mr. So and So.
Mi querido amigo, Dear Friend, My dear Friend.
Mi querido Carlos, Dear Charles, or My dear Charles.
Mi querido Doctor, My dear Doctor.

a. The letter to which one is referring is spoken
of as su apreciable, su estimada, su favorecida, your
esteemed, your favour, the word 'carta' being understood.

The following are some of the phrases used at the
beginning of letters :

Me refiero a su carta de In reference to your letter

. . .y . . . of.. . I .. .

Tengo el honor de avisar I beg to acknowledge the re-

a Vd. recibo de su apre- ceipt of your esteemed . . .

ciable ...

He sido favorecido con I have been favoured by

el recibo de su atenta yours of . . .

comunicacion de . . .

Me apresuro a contestar I hasten to reply to your

su apreciable del 20 de favour of the 20th inst. . . .

los corrientes . . .

La suya de 10 del pasado Yours of the loth ultimo is

est^ en mi poder ... to hand ...

Tengo a la vi&ta la ultima I have before me your last

de Vds. fechada el 10 de letter dated August the

Agosto . . . loth . . .

LETTER-WRITING 137

180. — It is the custom in Spain (though not in Spanish
America) to put at the end of the letter immediately before
the signature the initials q.b. s. m. (who kisses your hand)
in addressing a man, or q. b. s. p. (who kisses your feet)
when addressing a lady. These initials stand for que
besa su mano, que besa sus pies.

181. — The expressions Yours faithfully, Yours truly.
Your obedient servant, etc., are rendered in Spanish by
Su atento servidor, Su seguro servidor, Su muy atento
y seguro servidor, which are generally abbreviated into
S. A. S., S. S. S., or S.A.S.S. as follows : —

Soy de Vd. .

A. S. S. ^ ^"^

q. b. s. m.,
Gabriel Hernandez.

Yours faithfully,
Gabriel Hernandez.

Quedo de Vd. muy t

ASS remam

■q. b. s. m. Yours faithfully,

Luis Rocha. Luis Rocha.

En espe'ra de sus gratas Expecting to receive your

ordenes, tengo el honor kind orders, I have the

de ofrecerme honour to be

S. A. S. S. Yours faithfully...

No teniendo otro asunto a With nothing else for the

que referirme por ahora present,

quedo de Vd. I remain

A. S. S. Yours faithfully...

Saludamos a Yd. muy We are yours, etc.
atentamente.

Exercise.

1139, Long Acre.
Londres, W.C. 2, 26 de Marzo de 1918.
Senores Merino e Indaburu,
Malaga (Espafia).
^ Estimados Seiiores :

Con su apreciable de 20 de los corrientes tuvimos el
agrado de recibir la factura y el conocimiento de embarque

138 LETTER-WRITING

relatives a nuestro pedido de Febrero 3. Damos a Vds.
las gracias.por el despacho de las frutas, pero nos permi-
timos observar que la deniora en la expedicion de esta
mercanci'a puede causarnos perjuicios de consideracion.
Nosotros contabamos con que en esta, como en otras
ocasioneS; podriamos recibir en el curso de tres, a lo sumo
de cuatro semanas, los frutos pedidos, y nuestros clientes
en esta ciudad estaban seguros de poder realizar el articulo
en el mercado, si llegaba, como lo esperaban, a fines de
Febrero. Es posible que en caso contrario, es decir, si
no logran vender esta fruta, quieran hacernos a nosotros
responsables de la demora. Si asi fuere, sobre lo cual,
por otra parte, no tenemos hasta ahora informacion pre-
cisa, Vds. convendran con nosotros en que nos queda el
derecho de hacerles la debida reclamacion.

Tomamos nota de que la demora ha procedido princi-
palmente de las dificultades en que se ban encontrado las
compafiias de transporte con motivo de las huelgas ; peroj
en tal caso, Vds., que conocen las condiciones en que
se hace la venta de la fruta, ban debido avisarnos por
telegrafo en mejor oportunidad.

Acompafia a la presente un giro a su favor por
ptas. 1035.^^, que cubre el saldo a cargo nuestro, de
acuerdo con su factura. Dignense avisarnos recibo.

En espera de sus gratas comunicaciones quedamos
de Vds.

A. S. S.
q. b. s. m.

G. Navarro e hijos.
Conversation.

I Como se empieza una carta en espafiol ? i Que fecha
tiene la carta de G. Navarro e hijos a Merino e Indaburu?
I De que mes y dia era la carta de Merino e Indaburu
a la cual contestaban G. Navarro e hijos el 26 de Marzo ?
I Que recibieron Navarro e hijos con la carta de Merino
e Indaburu? <:Que pedido despachaban estos senores?

LETTER-WRITING 139

I Habi'a sido despachado en tienipo el pedido ? ^r. En cuanto
tiempo pensaban Navarro e hijos que podrian recibir las
frutas ? ^ De que estaban seguros los clientes ? Si los
clientes no lograren vender la mercancia i a quien haran
responsable de los perjuicios? ^j^Tenian ellos informacion
precisa sobre si los clientes harian reclamacion ? i De
que procedio la demora en el despacho de las mercanci'as ?
i Que companias fueron afectadas por las huelgas ?
I Quienes debieron avisar por telegrafo que habi'a huelga ?
I Hubo remesa de dinero con la carta de Navarro e hijos?
I Que cosa es un giro ? i Cuanto valia el giro enviado
por Navarro e hijos? ^.Q^^ pagaban con eso ? Diga
usted que es una factura. i Que es un saldo ? De Vd.
algunos ejemplos de las frases usuales de cortesia con que
se terminan ordinariamente las cartas en espaiiol. i Que
quieren decir las iniciales ^ q. b. s. p/ y ^ q. b. s. m.' que se
colocan antes de la firma? ^Se usan estas iniciales en
America como en Espaiia ?

Translate.

La carta de mi padre llego por el correo (post) de ayer.
Recibi con ella doscientos veinte y cuatro pesos argentinos
para mis gastos de los tres meses siguientes. Mi padre
me dice que los negocios no van bien por ahora^ Las
cosechas han sido escasas y, naturalmente, los negocios
de comision en que el se ocupa no han estado muy activos.
Espera, sin embargo, que habra una mejora considerable
en el afio venidero.

Un amigo me escribe de Lima con fecha veinte y cinco
de Marzo que piensa venir aLondres en Junio con su familia.
Desea informacion sobre el precio (cost)de las subsistencias
(life) en esta ciudad. Le han dicho que las subsistencias son
aqui muy caras y quiere estar seguro de que los gastos no
son superiores (are not above) a su hacienda (his means).
Es hombre muy rico, pero no quisiera, segun me dice,
gastar mas de lo necesario para vivir decentemente.

I40 LETTER-WRITING

La Sta. Maria Rodriguez^ de Valparaiso, hija de D.
Valeriano, ha sido nombrada profesora de espanol en
el colegio donde recibio su diploma. Sus discipulos y
discipulas la estiman mucho y estan muy contentos de
recibir lecciones de ella ; pero quisieran que en vez de
tres les diera cinco lecciones por semana. Ella dice, sin
embargo, que el discipulo puede aprender mucho con su
solo esfuerzo (effort) y que tres lecciones semanales son
suficientes (enough) para los discipulos que tienen interes
en aprender el idioma. Durante la noche los discipulos
pueden ir a las conferencias que dicta (delivers) la Sefiorita
Rodriguez en espanol, en el Circulo Filologico.

Translate.

The post will arrive to-day. For three weeks we have
had no letters from our family. There have been delays in
the delivery {distribucidn) of letters ; perhaps the service of
steamers to and from South America has been very irregular.
We are all waiting for the arrival of the mail. We have
friends and relatives in South America and we do not like
to be without news from them for three weeks. There is
a mail from South America every fortnight, but as there
are two mails from New York to England every week, and
the communications between New York and the northern
part of South America are more frequent than between
England and South America, we sometimes receive via
New York letters from Colombia and Venezuela every
week. The coasts of these two South American countries
are the nearest both to New York and London on the
whole of the South American Continent.

It is necessary to make constant use of our memory to
learn a language. The things that we know well in a
language are those that we know by heart. The rules
{reglas) are very important, but they do not help {ayudan)
so well, when we want to speak or to write, as the words,
the phrases and the idioms (modismos) that we can repeat

LETTER-WRITING 141

without hesitation (vacilacion), because we know their
meaning and their form : to learn a language, then, is to
learn by heart as many words, phrases, and idioms as our
memory can retain [contener).

XVIII

ADVERBS

182. — It is not possible in an elementary grammar to
give a full list of Spanish adverbs. They are numerous.
Some are obsolescent ; the following are in common use :

183. — Adverbs of place :

*•

abajo, below. debajo, underneath, below.

adelante, ahead, forward, delante, before.

ahi, there. detras, behind.

all^, there, over there. donde, where.

alld, lejos, yonder. enfrente, opposite.

alii, there. fuera, out, outside.

aqui, here. junto, near.

arriba, above. lejos, far.

cerca, near.

a, Donde combined with the preposition a forms a single
word and is used with verbs meaning motion.

Iba adonde el honor me I was going where honour
mandaba. bade me go.

b. Aqui, ahi, alii (or alia) are demonstrative adverbs,
the meaning of which corresponds exactly with the idea of
location conveyed by the demonstrative adjectives este,
ese, a quel, aqui means en este lugar ; ahi, en ese lugar,
and alii or alia are put for en aquel lugar : Te escribi de
aqui la semana pasada a Valencia, para decirte que
Antonio, viniendo de ahi, tuvo un accidente, de resultas
del cual lo Uevaron a Jdtiva. De alii te habra dado
noticias de su salud.

142 ADVERBS

c. Donde is a relative adverb often used in combination
with aqui, ahi, alii :

Alii fiorecen las artes Arts flourish there where

donde el buen gusto de the good taste of the

los ciudadanos las re- citizens rewards them.
compensa.

d. Asi and como, tal and cual, combine in the same way.

Tal es el hijo cual ha The son is just what his

sido su padre. father was.

Asi toca el piano como She plays the piano as well

guisa el cocido. as she seasons the stew.

e. The relative adverbs sometimes include their ante-
cedents, like the relative pronouns. Donde las dan las
toman (Alii las dan donde las toman); they get what
they deserve (Spanish proverb). '

/. The relative adverbs donde, cuando, como when
used in clauses of interrogation are accentuated: ^ Donde
vives ? (where do you live ?) ; i Como lo sabe usted ?
(how do you know it ?) ; me pregunt6 cuando cerraba el
parlamento sus sesiones (he asked me when Parliament
would be prorogued).

184. — Adverbs of time.

ahora, now. luego, soon after.

anteayer, before yesterday, mafiana, to-morrow,

antes, before. mientras, meanwhile.

asi que, as soon as, when. nunca, never,

aun (aun), yet, still. pronto, soon.

ayer, yesterday. siempre, always.

despues, after, afterwards. tarde, late.

hoy, to-day. temprano, early.

jamds, never. todavia, still, yet.

185. — Adverbs of manner :

apenas, scarcely, hardly, conforme, according to.

asi, so. cual, as, like.

bien, well. despacio, slowly.

cabalmente, just. excepto, except.

como, as, like. mal, badly.

ADVERBS 143

mas bien, rather. salvo, except,

mientras, while. tal, such as.

quedo, softly^ gentl}'.

186. — A number of adjectives take, in their singular
masculine form, the place of the adverb : alto, aloud, in
a loud voice (; alto ! in exclamatory clauses means halt!) ;
recio, strongly, vigorously; claro, clearly; duro, in a
hard way, violently.

a. Adverbs of manner are usually formed by adding to the
feminine singular form of adjectives the termination -mente :
caro, dear, caramente, dearly ; rudo, rough, rudamente,
roughly ; suave, soft, suavemente, softly. When two or
more adverbs in -mente follow one another and qualify the
same word, all but the last one drop the ending -mente :

Hablo clara, precisa, ele- He spoke clearly, precisely,
gantemente. elegantly.

b. The suppression of the ending also takes place if
a conjunction intervenes :

Se expresa clara, aunque He expresses himself clear-
afectadamente. ly, but with affectation.

Obro sincera y leal pero He acted sincerely and
nodesapasionadamente. loyally, but not dispassio-

nately.

c. Adjectives in the superlative form are also convertible
into adverbs by the addition of -mente.

Trato a sus hijos cruelisi- He treated his sons most
mamente. cruelly.

187. — Como is a relative adverb of degree, often com-
bined with asi, in the same manner as relative pronouns
alternate in a sentence.

Asi lo hallamos como lo We found it as we had left

habiamos dejado. it.

Asi es como usted lo dice. It is as you put it.

Como me lo contaron te I tell it to you as it was told

le cuento (Asi como me to me.

lo contaron).

144

ADVERBS

188. — Note the following constructions :

Badly as society is organ-
ized, yet no well-directed
effort is lost.

At

sell

Mai organizada como esta

la sociedad, todavia no

se pierde esfuerzo al-

guno bien dirigido.
I A como venden el metro

de tela ?
Encontro Don Quijote con

dos como clerigos o estu-

diantes.
Esta como serio conmigo.

189. — Adverbs of degree :

algo, somewhat.
apenas, scarcely, hardly.
bastante, enough, quite,

pretty.
casi, almost.
cuanto, so much.
demasiado, too, too much.

a. Mucho and muy are one and the same word : the
first is used before or after verbs, after the adjectives
which it qualifies, and before comparatives.

Mucho siento no haber

how^ much do they

a metre of cloth ?
Don Quixote met two people

who looked like priests or

students.
He is rather stern to me.

mas, more.

mucho, much.

muy, much, very much.

nada, not at all.

poco, little.

tanto, as much.

venido antes.
Su bondad es mucho mas

visible que su sabiduria.
El nino duerme mucho

durante el dia.
Es bonita y mucho.

I much regret not having

come before.
His kindness is much more

evident than his wisdom.
The boy sleeps a good deal

during the day.
She is exceedingly pretty.

b. Muy occurs before the adjectives, adverbs, and
adverbial phrases which it qualifies.

Muy acostumbrado estoy
ya a la idea de la sepa-
racion.

I am now quite accustomed
to the idea of separation.

Muy en breve saldrd el

libro.
Se arrepintio de haber

hablado muy a la ligera.

The book will come out

very shortly.
He regretted having talked

very frivolously.

ADVERBS

145

c, Mucho is sometimes a neuter noun like nada, poco,
demasiado, and bastante.

^Que traes? — Mucho bue-

no.
Por lo poco se saca lo

mucho.
Confiesa que tiene mucho,

pero no demasiado, ni

siquiera lo bastante.

What have you brought?

— Many good things.
We may judge of the many

by the few.
He owns he has a great

deal, but not too much,

not even enough.

Mucho means in these sentences many things, poco few
things, and bastante enough things : that they are neuter
nouns is indicated by the article lo.

190. — Tanto and cuanto drop the last syllable before
an adjective or another adverb, except mds and its com-
paratives.

La ciudad estd ya tan
cerca que se ve la
iglesia.

Tan deseado como escaso.

Tanto le dije cuanto sabia.

i Estd enferma su herma-
na ! j Lo siento tanto !

jCuan constante ha sido
en su trabajo !

Tanto mejor si se calla.

The town is so near now

that the church can be

seen.
As longed for as [it is]

scarce.
I told him as much as I

knew.
So your sister is ill ! I am

so sorry

How steady he has been at

his work !
So much the better if he

keeps silent.

a, Tanto and cuanto are used correlatively, the former
being sometimes involved in the latter.

Tanto ha sufrido cuanto He has suffered as much as

puede soportar un hom- a man can bear.

. bre.

or,

Ha sufrido cuanto un
hombre puede soportar
(tanto cuanto).

He has suffered all a man
can bear.

146 ADVERBS

b. With comparatives tanto . . . cuanto are rendered in
English by ^the more ' or 'the less' :

Tanto mds lo deploro, The more I think of it, the

cuanto mas pienso en more I regret it.

ello.

Tanto menos lo esperd- The nearer it drew to us,

bamos cuanto mas se the less we expected it.

acercaba.

The order of the two clauses can be altered: Cuanto
mds pienso en ello, tanto mds lo deploro.

c. In the following sentence, which is often quoted, the
adjective tanto is opposed to the adverb cuanto :

No tanta astucia cuanto de- Not so much cunning as an
masiada hipocresia. excess of hypocrisy.

d. Tanto .... cuanto used correlatively can also be rendered
in English by * both ' :

Me decidi a comprar la casa, I decided to buy the house

tanto porqne era un buen both to please my wife and

negocio cuanto (or como) to do a good stroke of busi-

por complacer a mi mujer. ness.

191.— Tal and cual enter into similar constructions both as
adjectives and adverbs :

Tal la dejo cual (or como) la He left it such as you see it
ves ahora. now.

a. ^ All the more so, because ' is translated Tanto mds
cuanto.

Tanto mds cuanto yo no lo All the more so, because I do
conozco. not know him.

192.— Casi, as an adverb, should only be used to modify
adjectives, verbs, or adverbs ; at times it appears as though it
modified a noun : era casi noche, night had almost come
on ; casi un kilogramo de trigo, almost a kilogramme of wheat.
But it must be noted here that noche has an adverbial meaning
and uno is a numeral adjective. Yet such expressions as la casi
totalidad de los habitantes, almost the whole of the population,
though they are often used in the daily press, should not be
imitated.

ADVERBS

193. — Idioms :

Hace mds al caso. It is more to the point.

Per mds fuerte que s.ea. Strong as he may be.

194. — Adverbs of doubt :

acaso, perhaps.

quiza, quizas (^quien sabe?), perhaps.

tal vez, perhaps.

196. — Adverbs of affirmation :

cierto, certainly, truly.

si, yes.

verdaderamente, indeed, truly.

196. — Adverbs of negation :

No, not. nunca, never.

absolutamente no, No, not tampoco, neither.

at all ; by no means. nada, not at all, nothing,
ni, nor.

a. As already remarked, several negations may be used
in Spanish to emphasize the sense of the sentence (see
§ 163).

No nos dijo nunca nada He never told us anything
de esc. of the kind.

b. It is a peculiarity of Spanish that certain phrases of an
affirmative meaning, which are often employed to emphasize
a negation, may be used independently in a negative
sense :

En mi vida lo he visto I never saw him.

c. It may be noted that often in Spanish, as in English,
two negations are equivalent to an affirmation :

No es inesperado. It is not unexpected.

Se retire no sin haber He left, not without having

comunicado el triste communicated the sad

mensaje. message.

d. The reason why words like nada, nadie, and other Spanish
words implying negation in modern actual usage, may be

L 2

148 ADVERBS

preceded by a negative adverb without altering the sense of the
sentence, is because nada and nadie were not originally negative
words. Nada is * cosa nacida ' and nadie * hombre nacido '.

e. It must be noted that this use of the double negations in
Spanish is conditioned by the rule of putting the no before the
other words impl^nng a negative sense. We may say : No he
visto a nadie, I have seen nobody ; but the genius of the
language refuses to accept constructions like : ninguno de ellos
no me lo dijo, instead of ninguno de ellos me lo dijo (or no me
lo dijo ninguno de ellos), none of them told me of it.

197. — Adverbs modifying an adjective precede it
always : muy bueiio, supremamente util (most useful),
demasiado poca agua (too little water), bien dicho, mala-
mente expresado (poorly expressed).

a. Adverb equivalents modifying an adjective may be
placed after it. Pobre en extreme (extremely poor) ;
rico en demasia (too rich, rich to excess).

b. Adverbs or adverb equivalents modifying a verb
generally follow it, but they may also precede the verb :

Sabia bien la lecci6n, pero He knew the lesson well,

la expuso mediocre- but he explained it in-

mente, differently.

Estardn debidamente pre- They will be duly prepared

parados para el proximo next January.

Enero.

Bien sabia yo que usted I well knew you would be

vendria tarde. late.

c. No always precedes the adjective, the verb, the
adverb or adverb equivalents it modifies :

No quiere decirlo porque He does not want to say so

no estd seguro. because he is not sure.

No tan bueno como el, pero Not so well as he, but not

no por eso desechable. to be rejected for all that.

Despiertenme las aves con Let the birds awake me

su cantar sabroso, no with their delightful un-

aprendido. taught song.

ADVERBS

149

Vocabulary,

abatir, to put down, to
lower.

abundante, adj,y abundant.

adusto, adj., gloomy, stern.

alminar, m.^ minaret.

almoraduj, m,, sweet mar-
joram.

aXzsLV, to raise, to lift.

ameno, adj., pleasant.

arboleda, /., avenue, grove,
small wood.

aroma, m., aroma.

azahar, m., orange blossom.

bazar, m., bazaar.

bosque, m., wood.

brusco, adj., rough, rude ;
bruscamente, adv., ab-
ruptly, brusquely.

campo, m., field, country.

cercar, to surround, to be-
siege.

cinamomo, m,, cinnamon.

civilizado, adj., civilized.

comarca,/., region, country,
land.

cosecha,/., crop, harvest.

cuerno, m., horn.

damasco, m., damask.

dentro, adv., within, inside ;
per dentro, inside.

discurrir, to go about, to
discourse.

elevar, to raise, to lift, to
heave.

en, prep,, in ; en medio,
amidst, amid.

enhiesto, adj., erect, up-
right.

esplendido, adj., splendid.

feliz, adj., happy.

fertil, adj., fertile.

fuente, /., fountain, source,

spring.
grandeza, /, greatness.
imaginaci6n, /., imagina

tion.
impresionado, adj. , im

pressed.
infinito, adj., numberless

endless.
innumerable, adj., innumer

able.
jardin, m.^ garden.
lejos, adv., far; a lo lejos

in the distance.
locomotora, /./ locomotive

engine.
luna,/, moon ; media luna

crescent.
mdquina, /, machine ; ma-

quina de riego, irriga-
tion pump.
medio, m., middle; en

medio, amidst.
melancolico, adj., sad,

melancholy.
mezquita,/., mosque.
monton, m., heap.
monumental, adj., monu-
mental.
morador, m., dweller,
muralla,/, wall, rampart,
murmurador,^^/*., rippling;

m., gossip.
muro, m., wall.
Occidente, m., West.
otro, adj., other; en otro

tiempo, formerly.
pajaro, m., bird.
pdlido, adj., pale.

I50

ADVERBS

pardo, adj,^ brown, grey.
parlero, adj.y talkative \ pa-

jaro parlero, chirping

bird.
pender, to hang from, to be

hanging.
planicie,/, plain.
poblar, to populate.
poderoso, adj,^ mighty.
polvo, m.y dust.
proteger, to protect.
provincia,/., province.
provisto, adj,, furnished,

provided.
publico, adj.y public.
puerta,/, gate, door.
recuerdo, ;;/., recollection,

memory.
reinar, to rule, to reign, to

prevail.
resplandeciente, adj., re-
splendent, glittering.

riego, w., irrigation.

ruido, m.y noise.

sentirse, to feel ; me senti,
I felt.

silencio, ni.^ silence.

solazarse, to enjoy oneself

solido, adj,j solid.

sombrio, adj.^ sombre,
dark.

sonriente, adj.^ smiHng.

suceder, to follow.

tapiz, ;;/., tapestry, hang-
ings.

tierno, adj,^ tender.

torno, w., brake, lathe ; en
torno, around.

transeunte, m., passer-by.

trigo, w/., wheat.

tristeza,/., sadness.

verde, adj,^ green.

vivo, adj,y alive, lively ; vi-
vamente, adv.^ intensely.

Exercise.

Cordoba.

La locomotora corria por los campos de la provincia de
Cordoba. Cubiertos de tiernos trigos se extendi'an en
planicie de un verde palido, cortados bruscamente por el
muro sombrio y adusto de la sierra. Cuando nos acer-
camos a la ciudad, me senti impresionado vivamente por
la grandeza de sus recuerdos. Aquel monton de casas que
se alzaba pardo y melancolico entre el no y la montaiia
habia sido la gran ciudad del Occidente, la capital del
mundo civilizado. Al ruido, a la alegria que en otro
tiempo reinaran en ella, habi'an sucedido afios y afios,
siglos y siglos de silencio y tristeza. Veiala con la imagi-
nacion hermosa y feliz en medio de una comarca f<frtil,
sonriente, abundante en toda clase de cosechas, cercada de
murallas resplandecientes, provista de puertas monumen-

ADVERBS

151

tales, de infinitas calles, donde las maquinas de riego
abatian el polvo. Innumerables transeiintes discurrian
por ellas, entrando y saliendo de sus esplendidos bazares
a cuyas puertas pendian ricos damascos y tapices. En
todas partes se alzaban suntuosos palacios mas bellos y
suntuosos por dentro que por fuera : en todas partes
bosques y jardines piiblicos, donde sus felices moradores
se solazaban con el aroma del azahar, del cinamomo y
almoraduj. En torno de ella los amenos verjeles se
extendian a lo lejos, poblados de arboledas sombrias, de
fuentes murmuradoras, de pajaros parleros. Enhiesta
sobre el alminar de la mezquita, la media luna elevaba sus
cuernos poderosos protegiendo a la ciudad.

A. Palacio Valdes.
Conversation.
I Que es Cordoba ? i Cual es la capital de esa provincia
espanola ? i Que es una planicie ? i Que se cultiva en la
provincia de Cordoba ? i Que recuerdos impresionaron
al viajero, cuando se acercaba a la ciudad ? i Que fue en
un tiempo la ciudad de Cordoba ? En vez del ruido y la
alegria de otros tiempos i que ha habido en ella durante
siglos ysiglos? ^i^ Como la imaginaba el viajero? ^ En
que era abundante la comarca ? <^ De que estaba cercada ?
I Como abatian el polvo de las calles ? i Quienes en-
traban a los bazares y sali'an de ellos ? ^.Q^^ habi'a
colgado (hanging) en las puertas de los bazares ? i Eran
felices los habitantes ? ^f^ Donde se solazaban? i Que
aromas habi'a en los jardines ? Diga Vd. como eran los
campos en torno de la ciudad. i Donde se vei'a la media
luna ? I Que protegia la ciudad ? i Como se llaman en
espanol los extremos de la media luna ?

Translate.
Inmediatamente despues de la llegada del hijo mayor,
que vivi'a en America; los negocios*de la casa (firm) empe-
zaron (began) a mejorar. Don Gabriel, asi se llamaba el

152 ADVERBS

hijo mayor, trajo de sus viajes extenso conocimiento de los
negocios y una vasta (wide) experiencia que han sido
grandemente utiles para la casa. Toda casa de comercio
deberia enviar uno de sus socios (partners) a visitar los
paises con los cuales esta en relaciones comerciales. El
exito es muy frecuentemente el resultado de los conoci-
mientos obtenidos en viajes como estos.

Las gentes (people) del pueblo donde vive mi amigo lo
quieren mucho. Ha vivido alli veinte afios y ha sido muy
litil a la poblacion. Fundo (founded) una escuela donde
reciben ensenanza casi gratuita (free) mas de ciento veinte
ninos de las clases pobres. Fundo tambien un hospital
para nifios y se dice que cuanto mayor es el niimero
(number) de nifios que van a la escuela tanto menor es el
de los que entran al hospital. Ahora esta edificando un
pequeno teatro (theatre) porque dice que lo agradable es
tan necesario como lo util. El se cree feliz porque vive
util y agradablemente ocupado.

^Has visitado la Iglesia de San Agustin (Saint Augus-
tine's Church) ? — Cabalmente vengo de alia. Es un
bello edificio solidamente construido. No es pesado
(heavy), sin embargo. Ha sido construido recientemente
y con el tiempo sera muy visitado.

Translate.
There is a mountain, eight leagues [leguas) from Chololla,
called Popocatepetl, which means 'smoke mountain*, be-
cause smoke [humo] and fire {fuego) emanate from it
often and in great quantities. Cortes sent over there ten
Spaniards with many natives to serve as {de) guides and
carry provisions for them. The way up hill [de subtdd)
was steep [dspero) and full of obstacles [embarazoso).
They went up until they began to hear the noise; but
they did not dare {atreverse) to go to the top and see,
because the earth shook {temblaba) and there was so
much ash (cemza) that the road was obstructed, and

ADVERBS 153

so they wanted to return. But two of them, who must
have been either the bravest {mas valientes) or most
inquisitive {curiosos), determined to see the end and
mystery of such a wonderful and frightful fire, so as to
be able to report (dar razdn, informar) to the man
who sent them, not wishing to appear as faint-hearted
[medrosos) or cowards [ruines), and so, against the will of
the others and in spite of {a pesar de) the guides who
wished to inspire them with awe (aterrortzar), saying that
no human foot had ever trodden or human eyes ever seen
it, they went up, through the ashes, and reached the top
{la cima) under a thick cloud {nube) of smoke. (Lopez de
Gomara, Conquista de Mejico.)

Rice {arroz) forms the chief {principal) subsistence of
the people in India {la India), China {la China), Japan {el
Japdn), and other eastern {orientales) countries. Indeed
it supports {sirve de sustento a) more persons than any
other article of food. In Asia it is chiefly cultivated in
India, China, and Ceylon {Ceildn)) in Europe, in Lombardy
{Lombardia) and Spain ; in Africa, in Egypt ; in South
America, in Brazil and all over the tropical and damp
{humedas) regions, and in North America in the Carolinas
and Louisiana. Its cultivation {cultivo) requires an im-
mense quantity of moisture {humedad). It grows best
in fields which can be inundated.

General Bau, a German officer in the {al) service of
Russia who had contributed much to the elevation of the
great Catherine {Catalina), had orders to march {marchar)
to Holstein with a body of troops {tropas, soldados) of
which he had the command {mando). He was a soldier
of fortune {soldado aventureroy No one knew his
family or his native place. But he prided himself on {se
enorgullecia) his very humble origin. He introduced one
day a poor miller {molinero) and his wife {esposa) to his
officers and told them that the poor honest miller was his
brother, whose condition he tried to improve in the future.

154

PREPOSITIONS

XIX

PREPOSITIONS

198. — The Spanish prepositions are :

hasta, until, to, up to.
para, b}-, for, to, in order to.
per, for, through, by.
segiin, according to.
sin, without.
sobre, on, upon, about, con-

tras, atras, detras, after,
behind, backwards.

A, to, at, in, on, by.
ante, before.
bajo, under, below.
con, with, by.
contra, against.
de, of, from, by, with,
desde, from, since.
en, in, into, on, at.
entre, among, between.
hacia, towards.

199. — The correct use of the prepositions is the surest
test of knowledge of a language. There are no precise or
general rules in Spanish for the use of the prepositions, and
their correspondence with English prepositions is difficult
to establish, as the foregoing list shows. Assiduous
practice following the best usage is the only way to master
this section of Spanish grammar. The difficulty is increased
by the fact that good writers often differ as to w^hat is the
best usage.

200. — Preposition a :
Voy a la escuela.
Estoy escribiendole a mi

madre.
A decir verdad yo no lo vi.

Lo dejo a su arbitrio.
Es a saber.

A las diez de la manana.
El coche esta a la puerta.
Crecen a la sombra de

otros arboles.
I A come se vende el metro

de cinta?
A la intemperie.

I am going to school.

I am writing to my mother.

To tell the truth I did not

see him.
I leave it to you (to decide).
To wit.

At ten in the morning.
The coach is at the door.
They grow under the

shadow of other trees.
What is the price of a metre

of ribbon ?
In the open air, out of doors.

PREPOSITIONS 155

Se defendio a cuchilladas. He warded off the attacks

with his sword.

Pintar a la aguada. To paint in water-colours.

Al salir de casa lo vi. I saw him as I was leaving

home.
201. — The preposition a is always used with indirect

objects not expressed by pronouns.

Juan dio sus hijos todos a John gave all his sons to his

la patria. country.

Negaron a Luis la licencia Louis was refused the leave

que habia pedido. he had asked for.

Puso varies reparos a la He made several objections

conferencia. to the lecture.

a. The indirect object expressed by a pronoun does not
require the preposition unless when accompanied by mi,
ti, si, el, ella, or their plurals.

A mi me lo dicen no a ti. They say that to me, not to

you.

Envian un libro a el y un They are sending a book to

vestido a ella. him and a dress to her.

Nos senalo el camino a He pointed the way to us.

nosotros.

Vd. le dio a el un terrible You gave him a terrible

golpe. blow.

b. In the first, third, and fourth sentences there are two
elements to denote the indirect object: a mi, me; nos,
a nosotros; and le, a el. Although one of the two
elements is superfluous the construction is often used both
in colloquial and literary language to emphasize the
meaning of the phrase, to avoid ambiguity, or even for the
sake of elegance.

202. — A is obligatory before nouns which represent
determinate or known persons and are the direct object
of the verb (the preposition means in this case, as the
grammarians say, personalidad and determinacion). Proper
names of persons therefore always require it.
Quiero imitar a Amadis. I want to imitate Amadis.

No conozco a Gonzalez. I do not know Gonzalez.

156 PREPOSITIONS

203. — Proper names of inanimate things, such as locali-
ties or countries, require the preposition when not pre-
ceded by the article :

VisitoaBerlinenelverano He visited Berlin in the

de 1912. summer of 1912.

Pizarro conquisto el Peru. Pizarro conquered Peru.

Atraveso el Magdalena a He swam across the Magda-

nado. lena River.

204. — Alguien, nadie, quien as direct objects require the
preposition a :

Busca a alguien. He is looking for somebody.

I A quien llamas ? Whom are you calling ?

No encontre a nadie. I found nobody.

205. — Common nouns referring to persons (like hombre,
reina, nino) and preceded by the definite article also
require the preposition when they allude to specific persons
or people already mentioned.

Y Uamando a los galeotes, And calling the galley

. . . les dijo . . . slaves, he told them . . .

Defend! al alcalde. I defended the Mayor.

a. When taken in a general sense these common nouns
are not preceded by the preposition :

Busco socios para este I am looking for partners in
negocio. this business.

206. — The names of personified things must have the
preposition with the direct object :

Quise tanto a una canasta I became so fond of a sifting-

de colar atestada de basket full of linen that I

ropa blanca que la embraced it.^
abrace conmigo.

Las aves saludan al dia. The birds hail the day.

207. — We have said that in the impersonal use of haber
in Spanish the nouns that form part of the sentence are

^ Ormsby's elaborate translation of this passage of Cervantes' runs as
follows : ' / loved a washerwoman'' s basket of clean linen so well, and held
it so close in my embrace . . . .'

PREPOSITIONS 157

always in the accusative, while in English they are the
nominatives of the verb. These nouns never require a
preposition in Spanish.

Hay moros en la costa. There are Moors on the

coast.
Hubo quien lo asegurara. There was somebody who

affirmed it.
Habia el Obispo y la con- There were the Bishop and
gregacion de per medio. the congregation in the

- way.

208. — The preposition a used with the direct object
often serves the purpose of qualifying the sense of the
noun to which it refers.

Busco un medico means that one is looking for a doctor
of some sort, any doctor ; busco a un medico means that
one is looking for an individual doctor who has been
mentioned or is about to be described. For instance :
busco a un medico que estuvo aqui ayer, I am looking
for a doctor who was here yesterday.

209.— The use of the preposition a in Spanish with the
direct object is a peculiarity of the language. Neither in
French nor in Italian is it so employed. In Portuguese the
preposition a in the accusative is of rare occurrence and in
Roumanian another preposition is used for this purpose.^ The
practice is noticeable in Spanish from the beginnings of the
language and does not show any marked tendency to disappear.
The looseness and variety of Spanish syntax partially explain
the use of this particle instead of the Latin accusative. It
became necessary in order to distinguish between the subject
and the direct object, as their place in the sentence was not
always a sure indication.^

1 Am vazut pe frate tau (I have seen your brother).

2 Compare the following sentences :

Me recibio como enemigo. He received me as if he were my

enemy.
Me recibio como a enemigo. He received me as if I were his

enemy.

No doubt the necessity of establishing a difference like this gave rise
to the use of the preposition with the direct object.

c

158 PREPOSITIONS

In the colloquial language of Madrid and in the daily
papers the preposition is dropped before the names of places :

Recorri Madrid en coche. I drove about Madrid.

Conozco Paris. I know Paris.

This practice, though followed by a few modern writers,
should not be imitated ; it is against the genius of the language,
and adds nothing to its qualities of clearness and elegance.

210. — There are a number of nouns and adjectives
similarly used with the preposition a as though they were
v^bs. \^ , /\

-Horror al vacioA, Abhorrence of a vacuum.

Amor a la verdad. Love of truth.

Era guiado en todas sus He was guided in all his

acciones por el temor a doings by the fear of

la muerte. death.

211.— Sentences of the same meaning sometimes require the
preposition, and at other times are used without it. Compare
the following :

Honrards padre y madre; honra a tu padre y a tu madre ;
no tiene esposa, tiene a su hijo, que lo venera y lo enaltece
(he has no wife, he has his son who reveres and exalts him).

212. — When a sentence contains a verb which takes the
preposition a with an indirect object, the direct object is not
preceded by a ; but in such cases it is preferable to adopt
the passive form of the verb, specially when both objects
are proper names :

Presente Pedro a Juan I introduced Peter to John.
(Pedro fue presentado a
Juan por mi).

213. — Sometimes the preposition is dropped before the
direct object when the latter is modified by an adverbial
phrase beginning with a. Compare :

Conozco a sus amigos. I know your friends.

Conozco mis amigos a ob- I can tell even in the dark
scuras. who is my friend.

214. The preposition a and other prepositions are often

PREPOSITIONS

159

used in a pleonastic way with
the meaning of the sentence :

Es a usted a quien deseo

hablar.
Eso es a lo que me refiero. .

De su salud es de lo que se

trata.
Con ese dinero era con el

que tenia pensado com-

prarme un vestido.

215. — Note the following idi

Sordo a todos los ruegos.
Montar a caballo.
A mujeriegas.

A ojos vistas.

A dos leguas de la costa.

A todo vapor.
A hurtadillas.
A la francesa.
A eso de las diez.

A lo largo.
A la larga.
De largo a largo.

A la funeral a.

216. — Preposition de,

De is used in Spanish for the genitive case.

Hoy recibe la mujer de mi My brother's wife is at home

hermano. to-day.

Havenidoavisitar elsolar He has come to visit his

de sus abuelos. ancestors' home.

^ The neuter form of the article can also be used in expressions of
this kind :

Volar quieres con alas a lo polio,

Estando en cuatro pies a lo pollino < Go-ngora).

Habla a lo llano, a lo liso.

the verb ser to emphasize

It is to you (especially) I

want to speak.
That is the (very) thing I am

referring to.
Your health is the (main)

point we are dealing with.
That (and no other) was the

money with which I meant

to buy a dress.

oms :

Deaf to all prayers.

To ride on horseback.

To ride like a v/oman (side-
saddle).

Visibly^ manifestly.

At two leagues from the
coast.

At full steam.

Stealthily.

In the French fashion.^

At about ten o'clock, towards
ten o'clock.

Along, lengthwise.

At length.

From one end to the other,
lengthwise.

With reversed arms.

i6o PREPOSITIONS

217. — This preposition is also used in Spanish to
translate English epithet nouns : la puerta de la casa,
the house-door ; la plaza de mercado, the market-square ;
el reloj de sol, the sun-dial. It denotes likewise origin,
extraction, like ' from ' in English : viene del Jap6n, he
comes from Japan ; el caucho (goma elastica) se extrae de
plantas muy diversas, india-rubber is extracted from very
different plants. Hablo de memoria, I am speaking from
memory.

a. It is used to denote the material out of which things
are made or built : reloj de oro, gold watch ; gorra
de plumas, feather bonnet ; armazon de acero, steel
framework.

218. — De used after the verb deber means probability,
likelihood, or presumption. Compare the following ex-
pressions :

Hoy deben ser las elec- The elections must be held

clones. to-day.

Hoy deben de ser las elec- Very likely the elections

clones. will take place to-day.

a. It should be noted, however, that in common usage
and even amongst good writers deber used without a
preposition may mean probability or conjecture, but in
no case should the preposition be used where there is
absolute certainty or necessity.

219. — Note the following idioms :

Esta con el infeliz de su He is with that wretched

hermano. brother of his.

Habla asi de puro igno- He talks so out of sheer

rante. ignorance.

I Pobre de mi ! Woe is me !

De mi se decir que no lo As for me, I do not take it.
acepto.

220. — De sometimes takes the place of the comparative
que (than) when one of the terms is not expressed but
implied :

PREPOSITIONS

i6i

Fide mas de lo que se le

debe.^
Le dije mas de cuatro

cosas.

Fue mas noble y generoso
de lo que ustedes su-
ponen.

He is asking more than is
due to him.

I told him a few things
(i. e. home-truths, in an
admonitory sense).

He was nobler and more
generous than you sup-
pose.

221. — With the superlative the preposition de is some-
times used in Spanish when the English construction
requires ' in ' or * on '.

La montana mas alta del
mundo.

Buenos Aires es la ciudad
mas populosa del conti-
nente Sud americano.

The highest mountain in the
world.

Buenos Aires is the most
populous city on the South
American Continent.

Vocabulary.

abrumador, adj.y oppress-
ing, overwhelming.

abundar, to abound, to be
abundant in.

ante, prep.^ before, in the
presence of.

anunciar, to announce, to
forebode.

apreciar, to appreciate.

arteria, /., artery, large
street.

bulto, w., form, bulk.

cabello, fn.y hair.

cansarse, to get tired.

cara,/., face.

casino, m., casino.

ceder, to give way, to abate,
to cede.

cerveceria, /], ale-house,
brewery.

comandante, m,y command

der.
comodo, adj.^ comfortable,

easy,
concierto, m.y concert,
concurrido, adj.^ attended,

crowded,
desfilar, to pass by in single

file.
efecto,m., effect ; en efecto,

in fact.
elegante, adj,y elegant.
encender, to light, to kin-
dle.
epoca, /., epoch; en esta

epoca, in these days.
erizar, to bristle ; se le

erizaban los pelos, his

hair stood on end.
eso, pron., that ; y eso que

1 Lo que pide es mds que lo
se le debe.

What he is asking for is more than
what is due to him.

1 62

PREPOSITIONS

los tenia mojados, wet

as they were.
estio, m., summer.
farol, m.f lantern.
fila,/. row.
guarnecer, to provide, to

furnish ; el banco de

piedra con respaldo de

hierro que lo guarnece,

the stone bench furnished

with an iron back,
hierro, m., iron.
largo, adj., long ; a lo largo,

all along.
libre, adj., free.
mojar, to wet, to drench.
muchedumbre, /, crowd,

great number of.
muelle, m., pier, mole, jetty;

spring.
naranja,/, orange ; naran-

jo, m., orange-tree.
palmera,/., palm-tree.
pared, /, wall ; paredon,

thick wall.
perspectiva, /, prospect,

perspective, expectation.
piedra,/, stone.
plaza,/, square.

por, prep., for, by; por la
noche, at night ; por
cuenta de, on behalf of

primaveral, adj., belonging
to spring time.

prolongarse, to prolong, to
extend.

recluir, to seclude, to shut
up.

respaldo, m., back of a
chair.

sentarse, to sit down.

separar, to separate.

silla,/, chair.

sirviente, m., servant ; sir-
vienta,/, maid.

sudor, m., perspiration,
sweat.

telegrafo, m., telegraph ;
por telegrafo, by wire.

temperatura, /., tempera-
ture.

temprano, adv., early.

toldo, m., tent.

tomar, to take ; tomar el
fresco, to go for an air-
ing.

transitar, to pass by, to go
about.

222. — Conjugation of Ir, to go.

Indicative.

Subjunctive.

resent.

Present,

voy

vaya

vas

vayas

va

vaya

vamos

vayamos or vamos

vais

vaydis or vais

van.

vayan.

ast.

Past {istform).

fui

fuese

fuiste

fueses

PREPOSITIONS

163

Indicative

Subjunctive

fue

fuese

fuimos

fuesemos

fuisteis

fueseis

fueron.

fuesen.

Past [2nd form).
fuera
fueras
fuera
fueramos
fuerais
fueran.

Future,

ire, etc. (regular).
Imperfect,

iba, etc. [regular).

Future.
fuere
fueres
fuere
fueremos

Future in the past.

fuereis

iria, etc. [regular).

fueren.

Imperative.

ve (go

thou)

id (go you).

Past participle
ido.

Present participle.
yendo.

Exercise.

Sevilla.

En efecto, el calor por la noche cedi'a bastante ; pero
yo, acostumbrado a la temperatura primaveral de mi pais
durante el estio, lo sentia ya abrumador ; se me erizaban
los pelos (my hair stood on end), y eso que los tenia bien
mojados por el sudor, ante la perspectiva de las noches
que me anunciaban.

En la calle de las Sierpes, arteria principal de Sevilla
y centro del comercio elegante, se habia colocado un toldo
que la cubria toda, y gracias a el podia transitarse como-

M 2

i64 PREPOSITIONS

damente por tlla. Los casinos y cervecerias, en que
abunda, e§taban abiertos todos, y los transeuntes comuni-
caban con los de adentro libremente. Por la noche, la
gente que habi'a estado recluida durante el di'a en sus
casas, sali'a a tomar el fresco. Despues de comer me
gustaba permanecer una hora en la Britdnica^ viendo
desfilar la gente en compafiia de Villa. Cuando nos
cansabamos alli, los dias en que no ibamos a casa de
Anguita, o hasta que llegaba la hora de ir, soliamos dar
algunas vueltas por la plaza Nueva^ que, por serlo, es la
unica grande y regular que hay en la ciudad. En los
jardines del centro, que adornan naranjos y palmeras, se
colocaban filas de sillas y alli pasaban algunas horas de
la noche muchedumbre de familias.

— En esta epoca, me decia el comandante, se ven aqui
caras que no volvera Vd. a ver en todo el afio . . .

Otras veces nos ibamos hacia la orilla del no, donde,
las noches de luna, no encienden los faroles. A lo largo
del paredon que separa el paseo del muelle, habi'a muchos
bultos de mujeres sentadas en el banco de piedra con res-
paldo de hierro que lo guarnece.— A. Palacio Valdes.

Conversation.

I Que es Sevilla ? i Esta al Norte o al Sur de Espana ?
I Es de Sevilla el escritor que describe la ciudad ? i Viene
del Norte o del Sur? ^ Como sabe usted que viene del
Norte ? I Como es la temperatura del verano en el pais
de donde viene el viajero ? (f. A que horas empieza a ceder
el calor en Sevilla durante el verano ? i Que le pareci'a
esta temperatura al viajero del Norte ? i Que le hacia
erizar el cabello ? i Como tenia el cabello ? i Que clase
de noches le anunciaba ? i Como se llama la arteria
principal de Sevilla ? i Cual es, en Sevilla, el centro del
comercio elegante ? .i Con que cubren esta calle en el
verano ? i Podia transitarse por ella comodamente ?
I Donde se reclui'a la gente durante el di'a ? i Que hacia

PREPOSITIONS 165

por la noche ? i Por que podi'an comunicarse los tran-
seuntes con la gente que estaba dentro de los casinos, cafes
y cervecerias ? ^ En que cerveceria gustaba permanecer
el viajero ? i Que veia desde alli y en compania de quien ?
I A donde iban cuando se cansaban de estar en la Britdnical
I Cual es la linica plaza grande y regular que hay en
Sevilla ? i Como estan adornados los jardines del centro
de la plaza ? i Donde pasaban horas de la noche muchas
familias ? i Donde crecen los naranjos y las palmeras ?
<i, Hay naranjos en Inglaterra ? iSe ven en el verano en
Sevilla las mismas caras que en el resto del afio ? i Quidn
hizo esta observacion ? ^ A donde iba el viajero otras
veces? ^ En que noches no encienden alli los faroles?
I Que es un paredon ? i Donde se sentaban las gentes (the
people) que iban al paseo del muelle ? i De que son los
bancos ?

Translate.

A eso de las diez de la noche llegaron los huespedes
al hotel. Eran seis : el padre, la madre, un joven como
de 16 alios, una nifia de 9, y dos servientas. Habian
pedido cuartos por telegrafo ; de otra manera (otherwise)
no habrian encontrado acomodo (lodgings). El hotel es
pequeno y durante el verano es muy concurrido. La
estacion dura tres meses y en algunos afios se prolonga
hasta mediados (middle) del otono.

Como los huespedes no habian comido, fue necesario
prepararles una cena (supper) abundante. Se sentaron
a la mesa el padre, la madre y el joven. La nina se quedo
en el cuarto atendida por las sirvientas.

Despues de la cena, el Sr. D. Manuel Higuera (asi se
llamaba el nuevo huesped), D^. Candelaria, su esposa,
y el joven Ricardo pasaron al salon de conciertos (con-
cert-room) donde habia musica y canto. El salon estaba
casi lleno : parece que los huespedes gustan mucho de
la musica, y algunos de ellos, como la Srita. Emilia

i66 PREPOSITIONS

Villegas, de Valladolid, suelen tomar parte en los con-
ciertos. La Srita. Villegas canta con firmeza y buena
expresion y no sin sentimiento : la acompafia su hermano
don Andres que es un pianista de nombre en su ciudad
natal.

A las doce de la noche, acabado el concierto, D. Manuel
y su esposa se retiraron. Estaban fatigados del largo
viaje y deseaban levantarse temprano, porque hay en la
ciudad muchas cosas dignas de conocer (worth knowing).

Translate.

San Martin, 217.
Buenos Aires, June 27th, 1917.
Messrs. Lockwood, Sheen & Co.,

45, rua Coronel Moreira Cesar,
Rio de Janeiro.

Dear Sirs :

Our^ Mr. Charles Phillips, who is travelling in South
America on behalf of the firm, will hand you this letter.
We beg to introduce him to you, and should be much
obliged to you, should you extend [hacer extensivas) to him
the attention and courtesy that you have always shown
(manifestado) to our representatives when in your city.

Mr. Phillips is more than a representative of ours ; he is
a partner of our firm and we are much pleased to express
our confidence in the good results that his visit to Brazil
will have on the enlargement of our business in your city.
As he will have to visit the interior of the Republic and
you have no doubt connexions (relactones) with some of
the firms he is going to see, we should appreciate

* The pronoun 'our' in this case is often translated by ^ nuestro ' :
* nuestro D. Mauricio, nuestro D.Carlos.' More idiomatic would be:
^nuestro socio D. Mauricio, nuestro representante, nuestro agente,
nuestro socio viajero D. Carlos.* ^ Your city' (lower down) is translated
in cases like this by 6sa : * a nuestros represe ntantes en ^a

PREPOSITIONS 167

(apreciar) as a great favour a letter of introduction from
you to some of your acquaintances in the towns he intends
to visit.

Thanking you in advance, we are

Yours faithfully,

Jest Blanco y Cia.

I

XX

PREPOSITIONS {continued)

223. — The preposition con. Con is often used to indi-
cate instrumentality, the means or the way to do a thing.

Lo hizo con sus propias He did it with his own

manos. hands.

Trabajamos con ahinco en We worked with eagerness

esa obra. at that task.

Le hirio con la espada. He wounded him with the

sword.

Se hizo presente con He made his presence' felt

malos modos. in disagreeable ways.

224. — Con also denotes association, addition, or simul-
taneousness :

Saldre a dar un paseo con I shall go out for a walk

ella y con Dionisio. with her and Denis.

Toma cafe con leche. He takes coffee with milk.

Llego con la aurora. He arrived at dawn.

225, — Sometimes con loses its prepositional character
and becomes a conjunction, especially when followed by an
infinitive or todo :

Nunca nos cansamos de We never get tired of books

los libros que tratan de dealing with this subject,

esto, con ser muchos numerous though they

(aunque son muchos). are.

Es muy rico ; con todo, He is very rich; yet I do

yo no lo envidio. not envy him.

1 68

PREPOSITIONS

226. —Preposition contra.

Contra un mar de penas«
Estaba apoyado contra el

muro.
Contra viento y marea.

Contra means ' against ' :

Against a sea of troubles.
He was leaning against the

wall.
Against wind and tide.
(Against heavy odds.)

a. Contra is much used in composition : Contraataque,
counter-attack ; contrasena, counter-sign ; contramarcha,
counter-march ; contrapeso, counterpoise ; contraorden,
countermand.

227. — Preposition desde.

Desde means/r6)w when applied to space, and since when
applied to time :

Desde Madrid hasta la

costa.
Desde que lo vi la ultima

vez.

From Madrid to the coast.

Since the last time I saw
him.

228. — Preposition en.

* En ' denotes :

Time :
Estuvo aqui en el verano.

Place :
Lo veremos en Sevilla.

Manner :
Lo dijo en serio.

a. Constructed with the present participle, en means
that the action of the verb immediately precedes another
action :

He was here in the summer.

We shall see him at Seville.

He said so in earnest.

En llegando a casa le avi-
sare por telefono.

Immediately after my arrival
at home I shall let you
know over the telephone.
229. Preposition hasta. Hasta means
tillf until, to, up tOy with reference both to time and space.

Hasta el cabo del mundo. To the world's end.

Hasta mailana. Till to-morrow.

No lo sabremos hasta el We shall not hear of it
lunes. until Monday.

PREPOSITIONS 169

230. — Preposition para.

Para means end^ destinatioUy motion.

Trabaja para comer. He works for his food.

Se prepara para los exa- He is preparing for the

menes. examinations.

El tren parte a las ocho The train leaves at eight for

para Sevilla. Seville.

Metal excelente para sol- Excellent metal for solder.

dadura.

No lo hace mal para su He does not do it badly for

edad. his age.

Gaste mucho tiempo para It took me a long time to

conocer sus intenciones. know (to find out) his in-
tentions.

Bueno para comer. Good to eat.

a. Note the following idioms :

Para eso, era mejor no For all that, it would have
haber venido. - been better not to come.

Para mi santiguada ! My word !

Para eso que el no lo Even so, he did not know it.
sabia !

h. Many compound words are formed with para : para-
rrayos, lightning conductor; parasol, sunshade; para-
guas, umbrella ; parapoco, good for nothing, timid person.

231. — Preposition por.

This preposition takes in Spanish the place of by in
passive constructions. El mundo fue creado por Dios,
the world was created by God. Fueron destinados al
ejercito por su padre, they were intended for the army
by their father.

a. It denotes also length of time, place, manner of doing
things, cause or motive.

Me ausento por un ano. I am going to be away for

a year.
Pasa por Toledo el tren The train passes Toledo at

a las siete y cuarto. a quarter past seven.

Lo hace por fastidiarme. He does it to annoy me.

I70 PREPOSITIONS

Calla por astucia, no por He is silent out of cunning,

ignorancia. not from ignorance.

Anda por su hacienda. He is now at his farm.

232. — Note the following idioms in which this preposi-
tion is used.

Por lo que dice veo que I see he is wrong, from what

yerra. he says.

Todavia esta por saberse We have yet to learn who

quien fue el ladron. the thief was.

Por grande que sea su No matter how great his

saber es mds extensa su learning, his ignorance is

ignorancia. greater.

Por ahora prefiero que- For the time being I prefer

darme aqui. to remain here.

Por de contado el no ven- As a matter of course he

dra. will not come.

Por lo pronto mandemos In the meanwhile let us

el telegrama. send the telegram.

Por lo que a mi hace. As far as I am concerned

(as regards myself).

Por si me conoce, demore Delay the introduction, lest

la presentacion. he knows me.

Le avise por si acaso no I informed him, in case he

lo sabia. did not know it.

233. — In the formation of Spanish compound words this
preposition takes its Latin form, pro\ proponer, to pro-
pose ; pronombre, pronoun ; promocion, promotion.

234.— Preposition segun.
It means according to:

Decidio segun su leal saber He decided according to his
y entender. true knowledge and opi-

nion.

a. It is the only preposition that can be used in Spanish
by itself or at the end of a sentence, though colloquially
only.

Todo eso es segun. All that is according to

(depends on) circum-
stances.

PREPOSITIONS 171

^Vendrds manana? — Se- Will you come to-morrow?
gun. —It depends.

236. — Idioms :

Segiin se ve. On the face of it.

Segun y conforme . , . Just as (that is as it maybe).

236. — The prepositional object forms (mf, ti) should not be
used with segiin. Segiin mi, segiin ti, are grammatically
correct, but the^^ are not used either in colloquial or literary
style. They are replaced by expressions like : segiin mi
opinion, segtin tu parecer, segiin yo lo creo, segiin tii lo
imaginas. Segiin yo, segiin tii, which is sometimes heard, is
ungrammatical and inadmissible.* Something similar takes
place with entre (between, amidst). The prepositional forms
of the pronouns may be used with entre in a reflexive sense :
Entre mi decia, I said to myself; but not when it means reci-
procity: entre ti y mi (between you and me), which is now
and then found in ancient writers, is now out of use.'^

237. — Segiin que means as, in the measure in which,

Segiin que nos elevamos As we rise above the surface

sobre la superficie de la of the earth the air becomes

tierra se adelgaza mas y more and more rarified.
mas el aire.

238. — Preposition sobre :

Sobre means on, above, upon, and sometimes besides.

Hay ires libros sobre la There are three books on

mesa. the table.

Pone su opinion sobre He ranks his opinion above

todas las demds. all others.

* Segiin yo taken by itself is an ungrammatical expression, but not
when yo.is the subject of a following verb: segiin yo lo creo, SU
hermano estd para Uegar, according to my belief your brother is
coming. With the third person, and the plurals of the first and second,
the subject form can be used : segtin el no habrd elecciones este
ano, according to him there will be no elections this year.

2 With the integral forms of the 3rd person, and of the ist and 2nd
plural, the construction is admissible : Entre ellos y SU padre, between
them and their father ; entre nosotros y Don Diego, between us and
Don Diego. Instead of entre it y mi we must sa^'^ : ent7'e nosotros dos,
between us two.

172

PREPOSITIONS

No tenia pruebas sobre las

cualcs pudiera formar

opinion.
Zamora esta sobre el

Duero.^
Da dinero sobre prendas.
Los ejercitos iban sobre

Roma.
Sobre lo rustico tiene algo

de taimado.

Tomo sobre si los deberes
de su empleo.

He had no evidence to go
upon.

Zamora is on the Douro.

He lends money on security.
The armies were moving on

Rome.
Besides being provincial,

there is something sly

about him.
He took upon himself the

duties of his position.

a. Many words are formed with sobre placed before
nouns, adjectives, and verbs.* Sobrescrito, address on
an envelope ; sobrehueso, splint ; sobrehumano, super-
human ; sobreseer, to stay (in a legal action) ; sobreponer,
to superpose. In a certain number of compounds it pre-
serves its Latin form (super, supra) : supernumerario,
superfino, suprasensible.

239. — Preposition tras.

The etymological meaning of this preposition is a/ier or
behind^ but it sometimes is used in the sense of besides. It
is very often followed by de.

Estd tras de la puerta.
Tras de la cruz el diablo.
Echar la soga tras el cal-
dero.

It is behind the door.
The devil behind the cross.
To let the rope go after the

kettle (to let the accessory

go after the essential is

lost).
He is guilty and yet he is the

one who cries most.

Tras de ser culpado es el
que mds levanta el grito.

240. — In Spanish the preposition governs the verb in
the infinitive form, not in the present participle :

Cansado de esperar. Tired of waiting.

Comenzo por decir ... He began by saying . . .

^ Yet we say : Francfort del Main, del 6der, not Francfort sobre el
Main, sobre el Oder, Frankfort-on-the-Main, on-the-Oder.

PREPOSITIONS 173

Adelanto en el cuarto, no He advanced into the room

sin haber echado el ce- not witliout havinr locked

rrojo. the door.

Se le alaba por haber sido He is praised for having

el primero en llegar a las been the first to reach the

Irincheras. trenches.

241. — The preposition should not as a rule be separated
in Spanish from the object modified by it, and when two
prepositions govern the same object the best usage requires
the repetition of the object or the employment of the corre-
sponding pronoun : del publico y para el publico, of the
public and for the public ; con razon o sin ella, with or
without reason.

a. The English practice of separating the preposition
from its object when two prepositions govern the same noun
is not permissible in Spanish, although good writers have
tried to introduce it, e. g. : Providencias exigidas por, y
acomodadas al estado actual de la nacion, measures
required by and falHng in with the actual conditions of the
country. The best way to put this in Spanish would be :
Providencias exigidas por el estado actual de la nacion
y acomodadas a el.

242. — Two prepositions are frequently found combined
in Spanish :

Lo hara por de contado. He will do it of course.

Vestido para entre casa. Dress for indoors.

Lo sacode entre el monton. He took it from the heap.

Tras de la iglesia. Behind the church.

Desdeporlamananahasta From morning till night.
por la noche.

243.— Mediante, durante, excepto, incluso (or inclu-
sive), embargante, exclusive, and other words originally
used as adjectives, have now a prepositional character :

Espero hacerlo mediante I hope to do it, provided
su valiosa ayuda. you give me your valuable

help.

J 74

PREPOSITIONS

Mediante Dios (or Dios

mediante) llegaremos

manana.
Durante los dias que es-

tuvo aqui no dio senales

de locura.
Todos excepto Juan pueden

dartestimonio del hecho.
Todas las cartas incluso la '

de mi padre se leyeron

en la audiencia.
No obstante la tenacidad

del empeno fracaso su

empresa.

With God*s help we shall
arrive to-morrow.

During the days he was here
he gave no sign of being
mad.

All except John can bear
witness to the fact.

All the letters including my
father's were read in court
(at the hearings).

Notwithstanding the tena-
city of the effort, his
undertaking failed.

244.

Conjugation of Venir, to come.

Indicative.
Present,

vengo

vienes

viene

venimos

venis

vienen.
Past.

vine

viniste

vino

vinimos

vinisteis

vinieron.
Imperfect,

venia

venias, etc. (regular).

Future,
vendre
vendrds
vendra

Subjunctive.
Present,
venga
vengas
venga
vengamos
vengdis
vengan

Past (istform),

viniese

vinieses

viniese

viniesemos

vinieseis

viniesen.
Past (2nd form),

viniera

vinieras

viniera

vinieramos

vinierais

vinieran
Future.

viniere

vinieres

viniere

PREPOSITIONS

175

Indicative.
vendremos
vendreis
vendrdn.

Future in the pasL
vendria
vendrias
vendria
vendriamos
vendriais
vendrian.

Subjunctive.
vinieremos
viniereis
vinieren.

Imperative.

ven

venid.
Past participle.

venido.
Present participle.

viniendo.

Vocabulary.

abierto de par en par, wide

open.
acordarse, to remember, to

recall.
ancho, adj.^ wide, broad,
aparecer, to appear.
arana,/, spider.
canto, m.y song.
caramba ! interj.y gracious !

goodness !
ciego, adj.^ blind,
coger, to take, seize ; coger

de la mano, to take by

the hand.
corral, m., courtyard, poul-
try yard.
cucaracha,y., cockroach,
detenerse, to stop.
discurrir, to walk about, to .

stroll.
embaldosar, to pave,
encontrar, to find ; i come

seencuentrausted? how

are you ?
espiritu, m^y spirit, mind,
fiesta,/., feast, festival,
hecha : estara hecha un

corral, it must be like a

courtyard.
hormiguero, m.^ ant-heap;

hormiguero de gente,

swarm, crowd.
ir, to go; ^como le va?

how are you ?
loseta,/., small paving-tile.
parar, to stop, to stay;

I estd usted parando en

su casa ? are you staying

at your own house ?
poema, m., song, poem,
preguntar, to ask, to put a

question.
puesto que, conj.y since, as.
reconocer, to recognize, to

acknowledge, to realize.
rumoroso, adj.y noisy.
serene, adj.^ serene.
sillon, m., easy-chair.
tal, adj.y adv.y such; ^que

tal? how?
tampoco, adv.y neither, not

. . . either.
umbral, m.y threshold.
zaguan, m.y vestibule.

176 PREPOSITIONS

Hace tiempo que ... It is long since . . .

Tenga la bondad de de- Please tell me.

cirme.

Con mucho gusto. With great pleasure.

Perdon, perdone usted. - I am sorry, forgive me.

Dispense. Pardon me, excuse me.

De hoy en ocho dias. A week from to-day.

De manana en ocho dias. A week to-morrow.

^Como habiamos de sos- How could we conjecture?

pechar ? (expect ?)

Exercise.

Don Joaquin se detiene un momento en el umbral ; le
acompafia un criado.

— I Como esta usted, D. Joaquin ? le dice D^ Juana.

— lQu6 tal le va a usted, D. Joaquin? le dice
D. Antonio. — Sabiamos que habia llegado usted esta
manana ; pero j como habiamos de sospechar que viniese
usted por aqui esta tarde !

— lY ustedes ? ^ Y ustedes ? i Como se encuentran ?
; Caramba ! La verdad es que hace tiempo que no nos
veiamos. Y ahora, tampoco nos vemos . . . Digo, yo soy
el que no puedo ver a ustedes.

Doiia Juana ha acercado un sillon.

— Sientese usted aqui, D. Joaquin.

Don Antonio coge de la mano a Don Joaquin y lo lleva
hasta el sillon. D. Joaquin se sienta con cuidado, lenta-
mente. La puerta esta abierta de par en par ; aparece el
ancho zaguan limpio, embaldosado con losetas blancas y
negras ; por la calle discurre un hormiguero rumoroso de
gente.

— I Esta usted parando en su casa, D. Joaquin ? pregunta
D*^. Juana.

— Estoy en casa de mi hermana, dice Don Joaquin. Mi
casa estara hecha un corral ; todos los muebles estaran
llenos de cucarachas, de arafias y de polvo. Hace veinte
afios que no se abre . . . desde que yo me fui, Virginia me

PREPOSITIONS 177

escribe en las cartas que la linipia dos o tres veces al ano ;
pero yo no lo creo . . . Ademas, no quiero entrar en ella ;
yo no puedo ver nada y me daria tristeza el tocar, para
reconocerlos, aquellos muebles que vieron mi juventud . . .

— De modo, dice D. Antonio, que usted se ha acordado
este ano del pueblo y ha querido venir a ver la fiesta.

— Si, contesta D. Joaquin, si, he querido venir este ano.
Me he dicho : ' Puesto que ya quizas no pueda tener otra
ocasion, aprovecharemos esta, que tal vez sera la ultima'.
Y he venido a ver, es decir, a sentir el pueblo, a saludar
a los buenos amigos, como ustedes. , AzoRfN.

Conversation.

I Quien se ha detenido un momento ? i Donde se ha
detenido ? i Quien acompana a D. Joaquin ? i Quien habld
primero a D. Joaquin? <:, Quien lo saludo (greeted) en
seguida ? i Que sabian en casa de~ D. Antonio con respecto
a D. Joaquin ? i Sospechaban que llegaria esa tarde ?
I Como saludo D. Joaquin ? i Por que dice D. Joaquin :
* Hace tiempo que no nos veiamos y ahora tampoco nos
vemos, digo, soy yo el que no puede ver a ustedes ' ?
I Quien le acerca un sillon ? i Que le dice al acercar el
sillon ? I Quien lo toma de la mano ? i Adonde lo lleva ?
I Como se sienta D. Joaquin ? i Que se ve desde la
puerta ? i Corno esta la puerta ? i Puede usted describir
el zaguan ? i Que hay en la calle ? i Esta parando en su
casa D. Joaquin ? i Quien quiso saber esto ? i Donde
esta viviendo D. Joaquin ? i Que cree el de su propia
casa? I De que sospecha que estaran llenos los muebles ?
(i^Cuanto tiempo hace que la casa no se abre? ^i, Quien se
ocupa en limpiar la casa ? i Cuantas veces al ano la
limpia? i Lo cree asi D. Joaquin ? i Por que no quiere
D. Joaquin entrar en la casa? i De que le daria tristeza?
I A qut§ viene D. Joaquin al pueblo ? ^i, Piensavolver otras
veces ? I Ha venido a ver o a sendr el pueblo ? i Por que
dice 'r sentir'? '

2129 N

178 PREPOSITIONS

Translate.

The history of Spanish literature chronicles what
great Spaniards and Spanish Americans have felt and
thought and written in good prose and beautiful poetry in
their native tongue. The story is a long one, and its
beginnings are rather uncertain. It opens in Spain with
the Play of the Magian Kings (Auto de los Reyes Magos),
probably composed in the twelfth century, and it is still
unfinished in all lands where Spanish is the current lan-
guage. Into this narrative must be condensed the record,
extending over nearly eight hundred years, of the imagina-
tive life of a great people. Spanish literature has had
epochs of singular splendour and periods of weakness and
decay. It flourished with unsurpassed vigour and exube-
rance from the second half of the sixteenth century to the
middle of the seventeenth. It can scarcely be maintained
that the present time should be reckoned amongst the most
intense and auspicious moments of its activity. Every
Spaniard or Spanish American has good reason to be
proud of the work done by his forefathers in prose and
verse. Every one who can write a good book or a good
song may say to himself: ^ I belong to a noble company
which has been teaching and delighting the world for more
than seven centuries.' And that is a fact in which those
who write and those who read Spanish literature ought to
take no ignoble pride. This literature is written in Spanish,
a tongue evolved by the old inhabitants of the central
Spanish provinces out of the perishing Latin which the
Roman conquerors imposed upon them. It was first called
romance. Subsequently it took the name of Castilian from
the Spanish province of Castile whose kings kept the other
provinces together during long wars fought for the national
independence. When this tongue spread over all the
Spanish dominions it began to be called Spanish.

PREPOSITIONS 179

Translate.

Vendre con mi familia esta noche a saludar al Presidente
de la Repiiblica, a quien conozco desde mucho antes de
que lo eligieran. Me presentare ante el como un viejo
amigo que lucho (fought) contra sus enemigos con el mishio
empeno (determination) que el. Mis hijas y mi mujer
lo conocen tambien y lo estiman como yo. El ha sido
siempre atento y fiel para con sus amigos. Los que no
esperamps de el favores personales sino solamente lealtad
(loyalty) a sus principios podemos insistir (insist) en que
nos reciba. Estoy seguro de que me recibira y estara muy
contento de verme. No tengo dudas sobre la sinceridad
de sus sentimientos. Segiin me dicen sus amigos no ha
cambiado de ideas ni de sentimientos. Volvera a la vida
privada (private) sin perder uno solo de sus numerosos
amigos, y podra mirar hacia atras con espiritu sereno
(serene mind).

XXI

CONJUNCTIONS

245. — The original and most current conjunctions in
Spanish are the following :

y, and ni, nor que, that

o, or mas, but pues, since, then

pero, but sino, but, except si, if.

246. — Before words beginning with i or hi, y changes
to e: padre e hijo, father and son; Lucia e Isabel; but
the change does not occur when the initial i or hi is fol-
lowed by another vowel : cobre y hierro, copper and iron ;
se lanza y hiende los aires, he starts up and cleaves
the air ; receto belladona y hiosciamina, he prescribed
belladonna and hyoscyamine. The Spanish Academy lays

N 2

i8o CONJUNCTIONS

it down that in questions beginning with y followed by
a word the initial of which is i or hi the change should not
take place, so that in compliance with this rule we should
say ^ Y Ines? (And Agnes ?) ^ Y Ignacio ? (And Ignatius ?).

247.— O before a word beginning with o or ho becomes
u : azul claro u obscuro, light or dark blue ; dispone
u ordena que se pague el impuesto, he arranges for or
orders the tax to be paid.

a. Either . . , or , . , is rendered in Spanish by o . . .

0 . . . : O yo no he visto gente virtuosa en mi vida o la
de aquel lugar lo es, either I have not seen virtuous people
in my life or the inhabitants of that village are virtuous. •

248. — Ni means nor and is used in combination with no :
no lo vi ni lo oi, I did not see or hear him.
Ni . . . ni . . . is the equivalent of neither , . . nor . . .

Ni vuestros pies lo podrdn Neither can your feet bear
sufrir ni nosotros con- it, nor can we allow it.

sentir.

a. Ni can be used in combination with other words ot
a negative meaning :

Pas6 tres dias sin comer He neither ate nor drank for

ni beber. three days. ^

Nunca lo confes6, ni en el He never admitted it, not

cadalso. even on the scaffold.

Trabaja sin orden ni me- He works without order or

todo. method.

1 Quien lo creyera ni pu- Who would or could believe

diera creerlo ? it ?

b. Ni may be used by itself in the sense of y no : Me re-
cibio al fin, ni habria podido evitarlo ; he received me
at last, nor could he help it.

249. — Pero, sino, and mas mean but, Sino is used
when the first clause is negative and the sense of the
second excludes that of the former :

Lo sabia, pero lo he olvi- I knew it, but I have for-
dado. gotten it.

CONJUNCTIONS i8i

No solo no se cansaban Not only were they not

de oirle, sino que les weary of listening to him,

daba mucho gusto. but weregreatly interested.

No es pobre sino rico. He is not poor but rich.

a. Compare the following sentences :

No tiene sino dos hijos. He has only two sons.

Iba a caer . . . mas Car- She was on the point oi
denio, cogiendola entre falling . . . but Cardenio,

sus brazos, le dijo . . . clasping her in his arms,

said . . .

250.— Sino, meaning but, only, or not more than, is
a single word ; when it means if not it is written as two
words :

No ha estado en Londres He has been in London only

sino dos semanas. two weeks.

Si no ha estado en Lon- If he has been in London

dres sino dos semanas, but two weeks, he must

conocerd poco de la know little of the city.

ciudad.

251. — Whether ... or ... is translated into Spanish by
si . . . o . . .

Deseo saber si es turco I want to know whether he
o cristiano o lo uno y lo is a Turk or a Christian,

otro. or both.

252. — Que as a conjunction is translated into English by
'that'.

Lotario no era tan igno- Lothario was not so dull

rante que ... no hubiese but that ... he under-

dado en la cuenta. stood.

Sdbete que la fortaleza Know that the fortress has

estd ya rendida. surrendered.

253. — The conjunction que followed by a verb in the sub-
junctive is often translated into English by the infinitive:

Le dije que viniera. I told him to come.

No creo que sea honrado. I do not believe him to be

honest.
Es preciso que procures It behoves you to try and
verlo. see him.

1 82

CONJUNCTIONS

a. In constructions of this kind where the verb of the
main clause requires the use of the indicative in the
subordinate clause, the conjunction is often dropped in
English, but very rarely in Spanish :

Creo que vendrd manana. I think he will come to-
morrow.

We know the hour has
arrived.

Camila replied that it had
seemed to her that Lo-
thario looked at her.

b. After verbs meaning wishy demand^ request, que is
sometimes omitted, but the practice is not general, and
must be adopted cautiously :

Sabemos que ha llegado

la hora.
Camila le respondi6 que le

habia parecido que Lo-

tario la miraba.

Otro dia rogo Anselmo a

Lotario (que) dijese al-

guna cosa.
Suplico a usted (que) se

digne dar curse a esta

solicitud.
Espero (que) me respondas

sin tardanza.

Some other day Anselmo
asked Lothario to say
something.

I beg you to be pleased to
expedite this application.

I hope you will answer me
without delay.

254. — Many conjunctions are formed with que combined
with adverbs, prepositions, and other conjunctions :
Aunque (although), porque (because), conque (so . . .),
pues que (since), ya que (since), puesto que (since), su-
puesto que (granting that), asi que (so that).
Aunque es mayor el tra- So that, though the soldier

bajo del soldado, es mu-

cho menor el premio.

(Cervantes.)
No saiga, porque esta Ho-

viendo.
Conque te vas.
Pues que no tiene remedio

el mal, aceptemoslo va-

lerosamente.
Ya que usted lo confiesa,

pasemos a otra cosa.

has more to endure, his

reward is much less.

(Ormsby's transl.)
Do not go out, because it is

raining.
So, you are going.
Since there is no remedy for

the evil, let us face it

courageously.
Since you admit it, let us

pass to some other subject.

CONJUNCTIONS 183

Puesto que temes ser mal Since you fear that you will

recibido ^ a que ir ? not be well received, why

go?

Supuesto que la joya es de Granting that the jewel is of

tanto merito, ^por que such merit, why do you

quieres deshacerte de want to get rid of it ?
ella?

265. — Before the middle of the eighteenth century
puesto que and supuesto que were used in the sense
of ' aunque ' (although), a practice now completely
abandoned.

256.~A clause containing como, as a conjunction, is
rendered in English by the present participle, a construc-
tion also adopted in Spanish :

Como no supiera (or no sa- Not knowing the way, he

biendo) el camino, resol- decided to wait for the

vio esperar la Uegada arrival of other travel-

de otros caminantes. lers.

257. — Sometimes como is used instead of que to avoid
the repetition of this ubiquitous word :

Me dijo como no podia pa- He told me that he could

garme en el acto. not pay me directly.

Ordeno el senor de la casa The master of the house

como se llamase un me- ordered that a doctor

dico. should be called.

258. — The expressions no obstante, no embargante,
sin embargo, meaning notwithstanding, nevertheless,
however, are to be considered as conjunctions :

No obstante sus ruegos, Notwithstanding her en-
la desecharon. treaties she was refused.

Lo sabia y sin embargo se He knew it, and yet he

callo. remained silent.

a. These expressions are classified by some grammarians
(Bello —Cuervo) with the prepositions.

184

CONJUNCTIONS

259.— Conjugation of Poher, to put, to lay (irregular).

Indicative.

Subjunctive?

Present.

Present,

pongo

pones

pone

ponemos

poneis

ponen.

ponga

pongas

ponga

pongamos

pongdis

Past,

pongan.

puse

Past (istform).

pueiste

pusiese

puso°

pusieses

pusimos

pusiese

pusisteis

pusiesemos

pusieron.

pusieseis

Imperfect,

pusiesen.

ponia, etc. {regular)
Future,

Past {2nd form).

pondre

pusiera

pondrds

pusieras

pondrd

pusiera

pondremos

pusieramos

pondreis

pusierais

pondrdn.

pusieran.

Future in the past.

Future,

pondria

pusiere

pondrias

pusieres

pondria

pusiere

pondriamos

pusieremos

pondriais

pusiereis

pondrian.

pusieren.

Imperative.

pon

poned.

Past participle.

Present participle

puesto.

poniendo.

CONJUNCTIONS

185

Vocabulary.

a causa de, because of,
owing to.

a proposito, convenient ;
by the way.

aceptado, adj\y accepted.

boga, /. fashion ; en boga,
in vogue.

cataldn, m,y adj.^ Catalan,
Catalonian.

cerrar, to close ; cerrar la
entrada, to bar the en-
trance.

colonizar, to colonize.

comprender, to comprise,
to include, to understand.

contacto, m,^ contact.

contraer, to contract ; con-
trayendo, contracting, re-
ducing, shrinking.

desarrollo, m,y develop-
ment.

designar, to name, to de-
signate.

dialecto, m., dialect.

esencial, adj.y essential.

especialmente, adv.^ spe-
cially.

filologia comparada, com-
parative philology.

galo-romano, adj.y Gallo-
Roman.

gallego - portugues, adj,y

Galician-Portuguese.
geogrdfico, adj.y geographic,
influjo, m.y influence, influx.
intimo, adj.y intimate, close,
linguistico, adj.y linguistic.
Ueno, adj.y full; de Ueno,

fully, entirely.
manifiesto, adj.y manifest,

obvious.
marcado, adj.y marked.
modificar, to modify,
origen, m.y origin, source.
ore, m.y gold,
partir, to divide.
peninsular, adj.y peninsular.
punto de vista, point of

view,
rama,/, branch.
remontar, to remount ; re-

montar el curse, to go

up the stream, to trace

back the course.
romance, adj.y Romance,

Romanic.
sentido, m.y sense, meaning.
significado, m.y meaning.
tendencia,/, tendency.
tronco, m.y trunk, stock,
variedad,/, variety.
vulgar, adj.y vulgar.

Compare the following expressions :

A ver que sabe usted.
Vamos a ver a Juan.
I Quien viene ? — Vamos
a ver.

Let us see what you know.
We are going to see John.
Who is coming ? — Let us

i86 CONJUNCTIONS

Exercise.
Origenes de la lengua castellana.

Castellano es el nombre mas a proposito para designar
el cuerpo linguistico en que estan comprendidas la parte
central de Espana y las vastas regiones americanas y asia-
ticas' colonizadas desde el siglo xvi por los espanoles.
Podria llamarsele tambien tronco espanol, contrayendo el
significado esencialmente geografico de esta palabra
y usandolo en un sentido meraniente politico. Pero la
primera designacion es preferible, especialmente a causa
de haber estado en boga durante siglos, y porque aun los
habitantes de las comarcas que quedan fuera de las dos
Castillas lo aceptan de lleno y son los primeros en llamar
su idioma lengua castellana.

Es generalmente aceptado que el castellano es una de las
ramas del latin vulgar de Espana, la segunda de las cuales
es el gallego-portugues : las dos estan ahora separadas por
diferencias marcadisimas ; pero no es dificil remontar su
curso hasta el origen que es el romance espanol. Una
misma lengua original, modificada diversamente en el
curso de los siglos, se partio en dos variedades, el caste-
llano y el poftugues, al paso que el Catalan, la tercera
lengua peninsular, esta en mas intimo y mas visible con-
tacto con el galo-romano que eon el romance espanol.

En la formacion y desarrollo de estos tres grupos
distintos los sucesos politicos tuvieron no mediano influjo.

Los dialectos que se hablan en otras comarcas de
Espana no tienen importancia sino del punto de vista de la
filologia comparada. En America es manifiesta la ten-
dencia a conservar la uniformidad del idioma sin cerrarles
la entrada a las voces nuevas, a los modos mas ricos
y precisos de expresion.

Conversation.
I Cual es el nombre mas a proposito para designar la
lengua principal que Se habla en el centro de Espana ?

CONJUNCTIONS 187

I En que otras partes se habla esa misma lengua ? i Con
que otra designacion se la conoce ? i Cual es preferible
y por que ? i Que otras naciones a mas de la espanola
aceptan este nombre ? ^ De donde tomo su origen el
idioma castellano ? i Que otra lengua de la peninsula
tuvo el mismo origen? (i. Hay separacion entre ellas?
I Es facil remontar su curso ? i Cual fue la lengua que se
dividio en las dos variedades castellana y portuguesa?
^ Con que lengua tiene contact© el Catalan ?

^i^ Que otro elemento tuvo influjo en el desarrollo de
estos tres grupos de idiomas ?

I Tienen importancia los dialectos que se hablan en otras
comarcas de Espafia ? i Como se llama la ciencia que
trata de las relaciones de unas lenguas con otras, segun su
origen ? ^Sq conserva puro el castellano en America ?
^ I Que tendencia se nota alli ? i Les cierran los hispano-
americanos la entrada a las voces nuevas ?

Translate.

Esta es una edad de oro y hierro : estos dos metales
deciden, con la ciencia, de la suerte de los hombres y de
los pueblos. El oro y el hierro, o, mejor dicho, el acero
(steel) han ligado a las diversas naciones de la tierra unas
con otras. De acero son los rieles (rails), los buques, las
locomotoras que llevan de un pais a otro los diversos pro-
ductos de la agricultura y de la industria. El oro es la
base de la moneda (money) con que se pagan (are paid)
estos productos ; pero no es siempre la moneda misma.
No seria posible hacer con moneda de oro todas las trans-
acciones que se efectuan en el mundo en un solo di'a. Por
eso existen la moneda de papel o papel-moneda (paper-
money), el cheque, la letra de cambio (bill of exchange)
que tienen valor segun el credito de las naciones o de los
individuos.

El oro y los rieles, que unen comercialmente a unas
naciones con otras, sirven tambien para estrechar (tighten)

i88 CONJUNCTIONS

las relaciones politicas y para difundir (spread) las ideas.
Aunque parezca que la sociedad de transportes y el agente
comercial solo atienden a su propio provecho, una y otro
contribuyen eficazmente a suavizar (make mild, soften) las
costumbres y a mejorar (improve) el estado (condition)
moral de los pueblos.

Translate.

A curious point to decide in the study of a language is
the number of words used by the average man {hombre
promedial) and by the great writers. The most contra-
dictory statements on this point are to be found in very
trustworthy authors {autores dtgnos de credito). One says
that a farm-labourer [labrtego) uses only three hundred
words, a figure (cifra) that seems to be rather low
(mas bien baja^ tal vez bajd)y because the utensils of his-
house and the tools and implements of his daily labour
with their numerous parts and pieces evidently amount to
more than three hundred words.

We are told that one two-year-old girl used 489 and
another 1121 words, while a lady who has recorded {ha hecho
apuniaciones sobre) the vocabulary [lextco) of her son says
that in his seventeenth month he used 232 words, and when
six years old 2688 words at least, for it is probable that the
mother and her assistants, who noted down (apuntaban)
every word they heard the child use, even so did not get
hold of (wo cogierofiy-no se apoderaron de) its whole voca-
bulary. A Swedish [sueco) professor who has investigated
the vocabulary of Swedish peasants, and who emphasizes
(insiste en) its richness in technical terms, arrives at the
result that 26,000 is probably too small a figure, and
a Danish authority endorses {endosa, se adhiere a) this
view.

Shakespeare's vocabulary is often stated to be the
richest ever employed by any single man (por un hombre
solo). It has been calculated to comprise 21,000 words,

CONJUNCTIONS 189

or according to other writers 24,000 or 15,000. Milton*s
vocabulary is said to comprise 7000 or 8000 words, figures
that are also given to represent the number of words used
by Cervantes, the Spanish writer who was most copious not
only in words but also in variety of phrases and idioms.

XXII

SYNTAX OF THE NOUN, VERB, AND
ADJECTIVE

260. — The adjective must agree with the noun in gender
and number. We have seen that some adjectives are in-
variable in Spanish as far as gender is concerned : to these
the present rule does not apply with reference to gender.
There are also a few indeterminate and relative adjectives
which are invariable both as to gender and number : we
have mentioned que and cada in the preceding lessons.

a. Agreeing in gender and number :

No aprovecho el tiempo He did not take advantage

bueno para ese negocio. of the right moment for

that business.

Dejo pasar la buena epoca He let the favourable time

para esa empresa. for that enterprise pass.

Pasaron los buenos dias The good days (times) ot

de estos comerciantes. these merchants are over.

Recuerda con tristeza He recalls with sadness the

- las placidas horas de placid hoursof our country

nuestras excursiones al excursions.

campo.

b. Invariable adjectives as to gender;

El verde prado, la verde The green turf, the green

hierba, lo verde de la . grass, the greenness of the

llanura. plain.

Las verdes campinas de The green fields of Anda-

Andalucia, los verdes lusia, the green valleys.

valles.

190

SYNTAX OF THE NOUN,

c. Invariable adjectives as to gender and number:

La casa que visitamos

ayer.
El terreno que compraste,
Los hombres que llegaron

de Francia.
Cada libro tiene su merito.
Para cada diez hombres

un cabo.
Mds sal que frutas.
Mds hombres que ratas.
Juan y demds gente.

Para usted y para los

demas.
Alamos, nogales y demas

arboles que en las huer-

tas se crian.

The house we visited yester-
day.

The land you bought.

The men who arrived from
France.

Every book has its merit.

For each ten men a corporal.

More salt than fruit.
More men than rats.
John and the rest of the

people.
For you and the rest of you.

Poplars, walnut-trees and the
other trees which grow in
the cultivated lands.

d. An adjective that qualifies two or more nouns in
the singular number and of different or of the same
gender must be put in the masculine plural if it comes
after them :

El padre y la madre afli-
gidos por la miseria bus-
caron refugio en casa
de un pariente rico.

Afflicted by misery, father
and mother looked for
shelter at a wealthy re-
lative's house.

e. When the adjective precedes the nouns it may agree
with the first :

Su extremada hermosura
y talento le granjearon
muchos admiradores.

El gran tino y diligencia
del ministro salvaron la
Republican

Her extraordinary beauty

and cleverness won her

many admirers.
The great tact and diligence

of the Minister saved the

Republic.

* In such a case as this some writers use the plural form of the adjec-
tive, but the practice seems against the genius of the language :

Prociira sus mayores comodi- He looks for his better comfort and
dad y agrado. pleasure.

VERB AND ADJECTIVE

T91

/.In order to show that the adjective makes reference
to only one of the nouns the article or the possessive
or demonstrative adjective must be repeated before the
second :

The great tact and the dili-
gence . . .

H er extraordinary beauty
and her cleverness . . .

El gran tino y la dili-

gencia . . .
Su extremada hermosura

y su talento . . .

g. Adjectives like mismo, dicho, referido, mencionado
when preceding several nouns in the singular number
must be put in the plural :

Los mismos Antonio Perez
y Luis Rozo compare-
cieron en esta fecha.

Segiin el testimonio de los
mencionados albaiiil y
carpintero . . .

The same Antonio Perez and
Luis Rozo appeared on
this date.

According to the testimony
of the above-mentioned
bricklayer and carpenter

h» Note the difference of meaning in the following con-
structions :

The army of France and
Russia.

El ejercito de Francia y

Rusia (one army consist-
ing of troops of the two

countries).
El ejercito de Francia y

el de Rusia (two armies,

a French and a Russian

one).
Los ejercitos de Francia y

Rusia (one French and

one Russian army or

several armies of both

countries).

t. Titles like Majestad (Majesty), Alteza (Highness),
Seiioria (Lordship), which, strictly speaking, are of the
feminine gender, agree with the masculine when they refer
to men :
Su Alteza esta enfermo. His Highness is ill.

The army of France and the
army of Russia.

The armies of France and
Russia.

192 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN,

261. — A verb should agree in number and person with
its subject :

Tii eres sereno en el peli- You are calm before danger,

gro, pero deberias ser but you ought to be more

mds cauto. cautious.

Nosotros estabamos tran- We were quiet ; they dis-.

quilos; ellas se mani- played much uneasiness.

festaban muy inquietas.

262. — In some cases collective nouns form an exception
to this rule.

a. Singular collective nouns like gente, multitud (crowd),
pueblo (people), meaning an indeterminate aggregate of
persons or things, may be followed by the verb and also
the adjective in the plural :

Amotinose el pueblo, pero The people assembled mu-
a la primera descarga tinously, but at the first
huyeron despavoridos. volley they fled in terror.

b. Two conditions are needed to justify this exception :
the collective noun must be of an indeterminate kind, and
it must not be contained in the clause in which the
plural verb is to be used. Thus in the preceding example
amotinose is singular because pueblo belongs to the first
clause. We can say huyeron in the second clause because
the subject is tacit.

c. With collective nouns like regimiento, piara (herd ot
swine), academia, rebafio (herd), conclave, congreso,
recua (drove of pack mules), the jplural form of the verb is
not sanctioned by good usage, because these bodies cannot
be considered as of an indeterminate kind.

263. — Two or more nominatives in the singular number
require the verb in the plural number :

Inglaterra y Francia esta- England and France were

ban por la paz. in favour of peace.

El hambre, la sed, la incle- Hunger, thirst, the severity

menciadeltiempoyladu- of the weather and the

raciondelashostilidades continuance of hostilities,

habian quebrantado la • had broken the resistance

resistencia del enemigo. of the enemy.

VERB AND ADJECTIVE 193

a. Yet when the nouns do not refer to living beings the
verb may agree with the nearest subject : Un suspiro, una
palabra lo haria (or harian).

La hora, el tiempo, la sole- The hour, the season, the
dad, la voz y la destreza soHtude, the voice and the
del que cantaba causo skill of the singer all con-
adniiracion. spired to impress the

auditors with wonder.

A. In connexion with the foregoing rule, when a verb
refers to two or more pronouns of different persons the
second person takes precedence of the third, and the first
supersedes all other persons.

Tu y tu amigo no ireis al You and your friend will
campo este verano. not go to the country this

summer.

Vosotros, ellas y yo estu- You, they, and I were ex-
vimos expuestos a un posed to a great danger.
gran peligro.

c. When the members of a double subject are connected
with each other by the conjunction o the agreement with the
verb follows (contrary to the English usage) the same rules :

El padre o la hija salieron. The father or the daughter

went out.
El oyo estamos en un error. He is or I am in the wrong.
Tu, ellas o yo debemos You, they or I must be

estar presentes a la present at the ceremony.

ceremonia.

d, Usted, ustedes, which are pronouns of the second
person, require the verb in the third person. This anomaly
is easily explained by the origin of the word usted, which is
a contraction of Vuestra merced (Your Mercy, Your Lord-
ship), Vuesa Merced, expressions involving the use of the
third person : la Merced del Sr. ; la Senoria de Vosotros.^

264.— The conjunction ni follows special rules. When it
. comes before every one of the different subjects the verb
agrees with the one nearest to it or takes the plural:

1 Compare Lei and Ella in Italian, Sie in German.

8129 O

194

SYNTAX OF THE NOUN,

Ni la oposicion ni la anienaza Neither opposition nor threat
le disuadieron de su em- dissuaded him from his pur-

peno. pose.

a. When ni is put after the first subject the verb may agree
with it or be put in the plural. In this case no, and not ni, is
used with the first subject :

No lo disuadio de su empeno Opposition did not dissuade
la oposicibn ni la amenaza. him from his purpose, nor

threat either.

265. — Two nominatives connected by the comparatives
come, asi . . . como, tanto . . . como, or by the preposi-
tion con, require the plural of the verb to which they refer :

Asi el rice como el pobre
deben contribuir a pagar
los gastos de la Nacion.

Tanto la madre como la
hija fueron arrojadas a
las llamas.

La Muerte con todo su
escuadr6n volante vol-
vieron a su carreta y
prosiguieron su viaje.
(Cervantes.)

Both the rich and the poor
must contribute to pay the
expenses of the Nation.

Both mother and daughter
were thrown into the
flames.

And Death with his flying
squadron having returned
to their cart, each pursued
their way. (Motteux's
transl.)

a. But when the verb comes after the first nominative
and before the others the singular form is required :

La Muerte volvi6 a su And Death, etc.
carreta con todo su es-
cuadron volante y con-
tinu6 su viaje.

266. — Compare the following expressions :

Tu con todos tus hijos
vendreis a comer con
nosotros.

Vendrds con todos tus
hijos a comer con noso-
tros.

Con todos tus hijos ven-
drds a comer con noso-
tros. /

I You with all your children
will come to dine with us.

VERB' AND ADJECTIVE

195

267. — When todo used as a noun for purposes of
recapitulation is the last member of a multiple subject, the
verb must be put in the singular :

La franqueza, el valor,
la apariencia personal,
todo en el era atractivo.

His frankness^ his courage,
his personal appearance,
everything in him was
attractive.

268. — When the verb occurs between two nominatives
the number is determined by that to which the verb
directly refers :

La causa de Dies nos Ueva The cause of our God leads

y la de nuestro rey a
conquistar regiones no
conocidas.
Yo no lo se, ni mis vecinos
tampoco.

us, as does the cause of
our king, to conquer un-
known regions.
I do not know it, nor do my
neighbours either.

a. Exceptionally and as a consequence of this rule the verb
may be put in the singular when placed at the end of various
nominatives, if the last of these is in the singular:

La evidencia de la razon y The certainty afforded by
lajusticiade la causa sirvio reason and the justice of

(or sirvieron) de estimulo. the cause served as an en-

couragement.

269. — Two or more neuters take a singular verb :

Lo verde de las campinas
y lo bianco de las caba-
nas asoma ya en la le-
jania.

Pues sabe que lo male y
que lo bueno esta sujeto
a stibita mudanza. (Sa-
MANiEGo, FdbulaSf Oxford,
1917, p. 68.)

Esto y lo que se temia de
la tropa precipito la re-
soluci6n del gobiemo.

The verdure of the fields
and the whiteness of the
huts appear now in the
distance.

Because he knows that evil
and good are both subject
to sudden changes.

This and what was feared
from the troops hastened
the action of the govern-
ment.

02

196

SYNTAX OF THE -NOUN,

a. Two or more than two infinitives also require, as
neuters, the verb in the singular :

Madrugar, hacer ejercicio
y comer moderadamente
es provechosisimo para
la salud.

To get up early, to take a
walk and to eat moderately
is most beneficial to our
health.

b. Two or more noun clauses governed by que, if they
are the subjects of a single verb, also require the singular,
because in this case each clause is the equivalent of
a neuter subject :

Que usted fuera el dueno
de la casa y que quisiera
venderla me sorprendio.

That you were the owner of
the house and that you
wanted to sell it surprised
me.

c. When the two neuters (whether adjectives, infinitives
or clauses) imply reciprocity the plural is required :

Aprender y divertirse no To learn and to amuse one-
son incompatibles. self are not incompatible.

Lo belle y lo util no se There is no opposition be-
contradicen. tween beauty and useful-

ness.

Vocabulary.

acertar, to succeed, to hit
the mark.

apenas, adv,y scarcely.

asnal, adj.f belonging to the
donkey, asinine.

asno, m,f donkey, ass.

balde, m.j bucket.

borrico, m.j donkey, ass.

burro, m., ass.

casualidad,/, chance ; per
casualidad, by chance,
occasionally.

colar, to go into, to pene-
trate, to run into.

fdbula,/., fable.

fabulista, m, and/., fabulist.

flauta,/., flute.

flautista, m, and /., flute-
player.

ocurrir, to happen, to occur,
to come to one's mind.

oler, to smell; huele, it
smells.

prado, m.j field.

reglar,/., rule.

resoplido, m,y snort.

tocar, to play (to play an
instrument).

zagal, m., shepherd (pastor
is of more frequent use).

VERB- AND ADJECTIVE

197

270. — Idiomatic expressions.

For bueno que sea.
For mds que digan.
Rio arriba, rio abajo.
Manana por la manana.
For poco se cae.

Iba camino de Burgos.

Fara mi tengo que son las

diez.
Ahora caigo en la cuenta.
Eso se cae de su peso, eso

se viene rodado.
De veras.
En balde.
De balde.

However good it may be.
Whatever they may say.
Up stream, down stream.
To-morrow morning.
He was on the point of

faUing, he almost fell.
He was on the way to

Burgos.
As for me, I think it is ten

o'clock.
Now I see.
It is evident, it follows, it is

obvious.
In truth, truly.
In vain.
Gratis, free of cost.

271. Conjugation of Caer, to fall (irregular).

Subjunctive.

Indicative.

Present,
caigo
caes, etc. {regular)

Past.

cai {regular)
caiste {regular)
cayo {regular) ^
cairn OS {regular)
caisteis {regular)
cayeron {regular) ^

Imperfect,

caia, etc. {regular)

Future,
Caere, etc. {regular)

Future in the past,
caeria, etc. {regular)

Present,
caiga
caigas
caiga
caigamos
caigais
caigan.

Past {istform),

cayese, etc. {regular^)

Past {2nd form),

cay era, etc. {regular^)

Future,

cayere, etc. {regular^

1 Y takes the place of the unstressed initial i of the inflexional ending
in verbs of the and and 3rd conjugation when the stem ends in a vowel :
caer (cayo, cayese, cayendo), oir (oyo, oyere), huir (huyo, huyese).
Verbs in -eir do not follow this rule : they are irregular.

198 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN,

Imperative.

cae (regular)

caed (regular)
Past participle. Present participle.

caido (regular) cayendo (regular).

Exercise.
El burro flautista,

Esta fabulilla,
saiga bien o mal,
me ha ocurrido ahora
por casualidad.

Cerca de unos prados
que hay en mi lugar,
pasaba un borrico
por casualidad.

Una flauta en ellos
hallo, que un zagal
se dejo olvidada
por casualidad.

Acerc6se a olerla
el dicho animal,
y did un resoplido
por casualidad.

En la flauta el aire
se hubo de colar,
y sono la flauta
por casualidad.

i Oh ! dijo el borrico,
\ que bien se tocar !
j y diran que es mala
la musica asnal !

Sin reglas del arte,
borriquitos hay
que una vez aciertan
por casualidad.
(TomAs de Iriarte, Fdbulas, Oxford, 1918, p. 10.)

VERB AND ADJECTIVE 199

Conversation.

I Cual es el ti'tulo de esta fabula ? i Quien es su autor ?
I Como dice el autor que le ocurrio esta fabula ? i Cu^l
es el personaje unico de la fabula ? i Qu6 otras palabras
hay en la fabula para designar el burro ? i Qu6 diferencia
hay entre borrico y borriquito ? i Por d6nde pasaba el
asno de esta fabula ? ^ En que pueblo quedaban los
prados? ^Como acerto a pasar el borrico por estos
prados ? i Que hallo el borrico en ellos ? i Quien habi'a
olvidado la flauta? ^ Donde la habia dejado? ^Como
habia dejado olvidada la flauta el pastor? i Fud la inten-
cion del pastor dejar alli la flauta ? i Que hizo el burro
cuando vio la flauta ? ^i, Es natural que los burros se
acerquen a oler las cosas que ven? ^Solamente los
borricos hacen esto ? ^ De que sentido (sense) se valen
los animales en general para distinguir las cosas ? i Como
hizo el borrico sonar la flauta? ^Quiso hacerla sonar?
^Como sono la flauta? iQue dijo el borrico al oir sonar
la flauta ? i Era musica verdadera el sonido de la flauta ?
<i,Cual es la moraleja (moral) de la fabula? <:, Es posible
acertar sin saber las reglas del arte ? i Como se acierta
a veces sin saber las reglas ?

Translate.
Simon el Bohito (Simple Simon),
Simon el Bobito llamo al pastelero ^ :
'A ver los pasteles^! los quiero probar^!*
'Si, repuso* el otro, pero antes yo quiero
ver ese cuartillo"^ con que has de pagan'
Busco en los bolsillos^ el buen Simoncito
y dijo : ' De veras, no tengo ni unito/

A Simon Bobito le gusta el pescado^
y quiere volverse ^ tambi^n pescador,
y pasa las horas sentado, sentado
pescando en el balde de mama Leonor.

200 SYNTAX OF THE NOUN,

Empezando apenas a cuajarse^ el hielo^^
Simon el bobito se fue a patinar/^
cuando de repente^'^ se le rompe^^ el suelo
y grita: 'Me ahogo^M venganme a sacar!'

Vio un monton ^^ de tierra que estorbaba el paso ^^,
y unos preguntaban : ' i Que haremos aqui ? '
'Bobos, dijo el nino, resolviendo ^"^ el caso;
que abran un grande hoyo ^^ y la echen ^^ alli/

Lo enviaron por agua, y el fue volandito^^
llevando el cedazo-^ para echarla en el.
Asi que^'^ la traiga el buen Simoncito
seguira la historia pintoresca y fieP^

R. POMBO.

^ pieman. ^ pig^ s ^q taste. * reponer, to reply, is conju-

gated like poner. ^ fourth part of one real. This coin exists no

longer. ^ pocket. "^ fish. ^ to become. ^ coagulate ; used

here in the sense of hardening : ' As the frost was only beginning to
harden.^ ^^ hielo means also ice. ^^ skate. '^ suddenly, all of

a sudden. ^^ break. ^^ to drown. ^^ heap. ^^ estorbar

el paso, to obstruct the way, to hinder. ^^ to decide, to resolve.

^^ hole. ^^ to throw. ^® in a hurry. ^^ sieve. 22 vvhen,

as soon as. ^3 faithful, true.

Translate.

Joseph Joubert was born (and this date should be
remarked) in 1754, at Montignac, a little town in Perigord.
His father was a doctor with small means ^ and a large
family ; and Joseph, the eldest, had his own way to make
in the world. He was for eight years, as pupil first, and
afterwards as an assistant master ^, in the public school of
Toulouse, then managed by the Jesuits. Compelled ^ by
the weakness * of his health to give up ', at twenty-two, the
profession of teaching, he passed two important years of
his life in hard study, at home at Montignac ; and went in
1778 to try^ his fortune in the literary world of Paris,
then perhaps the most tempting"^ field which has ever
yet presented itself to a young man of letters®. He knew

VERB AND ADJECTIVE 201

Diderot, D'Alembert, Marmontel, Laharpe; he became
intimate with one of the celebrities of the next literary
generation, then, like himself, a young man — Chateau-
briand's friend, the future Grand Master '-* of the Uni-
versity, Fontanes. But, even then, it began to be observed
that M. Joubert ' cared ^^ far more about (de) perfecting
himself than about making himself a reputation '. . . .

When Napoleon, in 1809, reorganized the public in-
struction of France, founded ^^ the University, and made
M. de Fontanes its Grand Master, Fontanes had to
submit ^^ to the Emperor a list ^^ of persons to form the
council ^* of the new University. Third on his list,^'^ after
two distingiwshed names, Fontanes placed the unknown ^^
name of Joubert . . . Napoleon trusted ^'^ his Grand Master,
and Joubert became a councillor of the University.

M. Arnold.

1 small means, escasos medios. 2 assistant master, maestro

auxiliar. ^ obligado. * debilidad. ^ abandonar, dejar.

6 ensayar. ^ tentador. ^ man of letters, literate. ^ Gran

Maestre. 10 se cuidaba. " fundo. ^^ present ar. i^ lista.
1* consejo. ^^ third on his list, en tercet lugar en su lista.

16 desconocido. ^'^ confiaba en.

Exercise.

In the following sentences the present tense should be
changed into the past : —

Me dicen que el amigo Juan tiene una casa de campo,
en la orilla del rio, donde pasa el verano con su esposa
y sus hijos que gustan mucho del aire libre y necesitan
descansar al salir del colegio.

No quiere mi padre que yo vaya a Rusia sin el : espera
poder acompafiarme el afio proximo.

El general sabe el camino, el nos acompana hasta aqui;
pero como esta muy ocupado en la organizacion de un
nuevo ejercito vuelve a la ciudad por el primer tren, que
sale a las diez y cuarto.

Aqui esta el criado. Trae los caballos para el viaje;

202 SYNTAX OF NOUN, VERB, ADJECTIVE

prepara el fiambre ; paga la cuenta del hotel y nos senala
el camino. Es un hombre excelente, esta al servicio de
mi hermano a quien respeta y quiere como a su mismo
padre.

No conozco a D. Diego. Creo que tampoco 6\ me
conoce a mi. Es mas viejo de lo que dicen. Sus hijas
son bien educadas y graciosas.

XXIII
VERBALS (Derivados verbales) ^

272. — The infinitive. The infinitive is in the Spanish
language the word used to designate the verb. It ends in
■ar, -er, or -ir : saltar, creer, decir.

273. — The infinitive keeps its verbal character inasmuch
as it can take a subject or an object as well as the other
forms of the verb, but it does not express tense, number,
or person. Alabarlo yo no seria posible, to praise him
would not be possible for me. In this Spanish sentence
yo is the subject and lo the object of the infinitive alabar,
which, in its turn, is the subject of * no seria posible '. It
can also be combined with predicative adjectives or nouns.
Ser bueno o no serlo; pero no aparentarlo no sien-
dolo ; to be good or not to be good, but not to try to
appear so when one is not good.

274. — The object and the predicative pronoun now

^ This term is used by English grammarians to designate collectively
the infinitive, the gerund, and the participles : 'Verbals are words which
are considered to be *' parts ^' of verbs, and which in their nature partake
of the character of verb and noun, or of verb and adjective. The Past
Participles, as we have seen, are Verbals, and combine the characters of
Verb and Adjective. . . . Other verbals are the Infinitive, and Supine,
and the Gerund, which are Noun Verbals.' (Henry Cecil Wyld, Elementary
Lessons in English Grammar^ Oxford, 1915, p. 127.)

VERBALS

203

always follow the infinitive : Vine a ver a usted, I came
to see you; ^es ella la duena de la casa?: creo que
debe de serlo, is she the landlady ? I believe she probably
is; me parece verlo, I think I see it; puede usted
dejarlas salir, you may let them go out.

a. When the object is a pronoun without preposition it
forms a single word with the infinitive (see § 60).

275. — The infinitive is often used with the definite or
indefinite article :

El saber su llegada la

puso contenta.
En un abrir y cerrar de

ojos ya no estaba ella

en la sala.

To hear of his arrival made
her happy.

In the twinkling of an eye
she had already disap-
peared from the draw-
ing-room.

a. There are cases in which the infinitive used with the
articles ceases to be a verbal and follows all the rules
applicable to common nouns : it can then take the plural
ending :

El ser, los seres.

Corre un decir muy co-

mentado.
Los decires del club son

contradictorios.
El cantar de los cantares.

The being, the beings.

A much commented saying

is afloat.
The chatter in the club is

contradictory.
The Song of Solomon.

276. — In optative or imperative clauses the infinitive
may take the place of other forms of the verb :

; No cerrar la puerta ! (no
cerreis la puerta).

No matar (no mataras).

; Desecharlosmalospensa-
mientos !

A quien no sea de dnimo

esforzado no armarlo de

soldado (no lo armen).

(Samaniego, FdbulaSy

Oxford, 1918, p. 20.)

Do not close the door (mind

not to close the door).
Thou shalt not kill.
Reject bad thoughts.

Do not make a soldier of him
who has not a courageous
soul.

204 VERBALS

277. — After a preposition the infinitive is used in Spanish,
not the gerund as in EngHsh :

Ella se canso de decirle She grew tired of telHng

que era tarde. him that it was late.

Con hacerlo me conven- By doing it he will convince

cerd (see § 240). me.

278. — In combination with the preposition a indepen-
dently of other verbs the infinitive sometimes takes the
place of an if-clause :

A tener yo dinero, com- I should buy that book if
praria ese libro. I had the money.

a. Combined with the preposition a and the definite
article the infinitive denotes coincidence of time :

Al llegar a casa supe la I heard the news on reach-
noticia. ing home.

h. When used with con independently of another verb
the infinitive has the meaning of a gerund or of a clause
introduced by aunque :

Con ser tan sagaz no evito With all his cunning he

queleenganasen(Siendo could not help being

tan sagaz . . ., Aunque deceived (see § 225).
es tan sagaz . . .).

279. — The verbs oir and ver and a few others of the
same kind may take as their object an infinitive with which
they seem to form a single part of speech :

Vimos arder el bosque. We saw the wood burn (or,

burning).

I Oiste cantar el aria ? — Did you hear the air sung ?

La oi cantar. — I did hear it sung.

I Le oiste cantar el aria ? Did you hear him sing the

— Lo oi, or le oi (or, Se air ? — I heard him (or,

la oi cantar). I heard him sing it).

In the first sentence bosque is the otJject both of ver
and arder. In the second, aria is the object both of oir and
cantar ; here we can say la oi cantar or oi cantarla, in

VERBALS 205

the manner of lo 01 decir or 01 decirlo (I heard it said).
When the infinitive is not a verb used transitively it
cannot take the object. We cannot, therefore, say: vi
salirlo, but lo vi salir, I saw him go out.

In the sentence ^Le oiste cantar el aria? Le can be
taken to be a direct or indirect object: if the question
refers to the aria it is indirect ; if it refers to the singer
it is a direct object. ^Le oiste cantar el aria?
may, therefore, mean either: Did you hear the air he
sang ? or. Did you hear him sing the air ? If we say : i Lo
oiste cantar el aria? the sense can only be the latter,
because lo is always a direct object when it refers to the
third person masculine singular.

280. — A few verbs in Spanish, besides the two we have
mentioned in the preceding paragraph, do not require
a preposition before the infinitive. The following are
those of most frequent use :
acostum.brar, to be accus- pensar, to intend.

tomed. poder, to be able.

convenir, to be convenient, preferir, to prefer.

to suit. pretender, to claim, to pre-

creer, to believe, to think. tend,

deber, shall, ought. prohibir, to prohibit.

dejar, to let, to allow. prometer, to promise,

desear, to wish, to want. querer, to wish, to want,

escuchar, to listen to. recordar, to remember.

esperar, to hope. saber, to know,

imaginarse, to imagine. servirse, to please, to be

impedir, to prevent. so kind,

intentar, to attempt. soler, to be accustomed, to

lograr, to succeed in. be wont.

necesitar, to need, to want, temer, to fear,
parecer, to seem.

281. — Many verbs require the preposition a before an
infinitive. Usage is the sole guide, and they can only be
learned by practice. The following are a few of those in
most frequent use :

aprender, to learn. atre verse, to dare,

aspirar, to aspire. ayudar, to help.

2o6

VERBALS

comenzar, to begin.
contribuir, to contribute.
convidar, to invite.
correr, to run.
empezar, to begin.
ensenar, to teach.
forzar, to force.
invitar, to invite.
ir, to go.
Uegar, to arrive, to come,

to succeed.
pasar, to pass, to proceed,
renunciar, to renounce.
sacar, to draw out.
salir, to go out, come out.
tornar, to return, to do

again.
venir, to come.
volver, to turn to, to do

again.

282. — Verbs requiring con before an infinitive :

amenazar, to threaten. with,

contar, to depend on.
contentarse, to be satisfied

divertirse, to amuse oneself.

283. — Verbs requiring de

acabar (in the sense of

having just finished), to

end, to finish.
acusar, to accuse.
cansarse, to tire, to grow

weary,
cesar, to cease,
cuidarse, to take care, to

keep from,
dejar, to leave off, to cease.
descansar, to rest, to take

a rest.
desistir, to desist.

284. — Verbs requiring en

confiar, to trust in.

consentir, to consent, to
agree to.

consistir, to consist.

consumirse, to be con-
sumed.

convenir, to agree to.

ejercitarse, to employ one-
self.

empeiiarse, to persist.

esmerarse, to take pains

before an infinitive :

disuadir, to dissuade.
encargarse, to take upon

oneself
guardarse, to keep from, to

avoid.
hablar,to speak, to mention.
jactarse, to boast.
olvidarse, to forget.
preciarse, to boast.
privar, to deprive.
quejarse, to complain.
terminar, to finish.
tratar, to try, to endeavour.

before an infinitive :

in.

insistir, to insist.

obstinarse, to persist in.

ocuparse, to busy one-
self

parar, to come to.

pensar, to think of.

quedar, to come to, to agree.

tardar, to delay, to be late
in.

vacilar, to hesitate.

VERBALS 207

286. — Verbs requiring por before an infinitive :

acabar, to end by. rabiar, to be crazy for.

pugnar, to strive. trabajar, to work for, after.

286. — In combination with certain prepositions the in-
finitive has in Spanish a passive meaning :

Le llevan a ahorcar. ^ They are taking him to be

hung.
Eso estd todavia por sa- That is still to be known.

ber.
Esta fruta no es de comer. This fruit is not to be eaten.
No es cosa de alabar. It is not a thing to be

praised.^

287. — For the meaning of deber, followed by an infinitive
with or without the preposition de, see § 218. The following
phrases may further illustrate the correct usage :

Debe venir manaiia. He must come to-morrow.

Debio de estar muy ocupado, He was perhaps very busy, as
cuando no vino. he did not come.

288. — Haber and tener, followed by que and an infinitive,
imply necessity, obligation, duty ; in English, ^ to have to ' (see
§§ 76, 131) •
Hay que terminar el negocio The business has to be finished

antes del s^bado. before Saturday.

El Ministro Rodriguez tiene Rodriguez, the Minister, has to

que dimitir. resign.

Hay que tener paciencia.^ One has to be patient.

a. It is to be noted that tengo que combined with the
infinitive does not always mean necessity:

He venido porque tengo noti- I have come because I have
cias que comunicarles. news to communicate to you.

Pregiintela usted si tiene que Ask her whether she has any-
decir. thing to say.

El pobre no tuvo que decir. The poor man had nothing to

say.

^ Compare the Latin : vultus nimium lubricus aspici (Hor.) ; dignus
am art,

2 Haber de and tener de followed by an infinitive have the same
meaning as tener que:

Ha de saber usted que tenemos You must know that we have to
de morir. die.

Tener de is less used than haber de.

2o8 VERBALS

289.— In haber menester, to need, to be in need of, menester
is not an infinitive, as some good writers have thought, and as
the illiterate in some Spanish-speaking countries evidently
assume it to be (since they try to conjugate it). Menester
(trade) is the Latin noun fninisterium'^, and as such it takes
the plural ending : humildes menesteres, humble trades ; bajos
menesteres, low trades. The following examples show the
correct use of haber menester :

No es eso lo que yo quiero, ni That is neither what I wish

lo que yo he menester. nor what I need.

Ella habia menester mucho She was in need of much

dinero. money.

290. — With the verbs parecer, semejar, an infinitive may be
used as predicative noun or adjective :

Parecealejarselatempestad. The storm seems to be sub-
siding.

291. — In some cases the infinitive takes the place of the
subjunctive forms :
(a) With verbs meaning doubts disbeliefs negation^ fear :

Dudo haberme expresado I doubt having expressed

en tales terminos. myself in such terms.

Dudo que el se haya ex- I doubt that he expressed

presado en tales termi- himself in such terms.
nos.

Note that when the subject of the subordinate clause is
not the same as that of the main clause the use of the
infinitive is excluded.

(i) With verbs meaning purpose ^ intention :

Tambien deseo yo hacer I wish also to write another

otra * Pepita Jimenez '. ' Pepita Jimenez '.

Deseo que usted haga otra I wish you to write another

* Pepita Jimenez '. ' Pepita Jimenez '.

Asi pudiera cantar el ro- He might just as well be

mance de Calainos ; que singing the ballad of Ca-

todo fuera uno para su- lainos, for any good or

cedernos bien o mal en ill that comes to us in

nuestro negocio [para our business. (Ormsby's

que nos sucediera . . .]. transl.)
Cervantes.

^ French metier ^ Italian mesttere, Portuguese mester.

VERBALS

209

292. — To form a single grammatical element (whether
object or subject), the infinitive combined with no and the
definite article must be preceded by the no, which follows
the article :

El no saberlo yo fue la
causa de la demora.

My knowing it was not the
cause of delay.

My not knowing it was the
cause of the delay.

The sequence is of importance because its alteration
changes the meaning of the sentence :

No el saberlo yo fue la
causa de la demora (el
saberlo yo no fue la
causa . . .)

a. Note that constructions in which the infinitive takes
a subject pronoun are rendered in EngHsh by means of the
present participle preceded by the possessive adjective :

El haberlo visto yo no es

la unica prueba de su

existencia.
Todo lo que dices, Cipion,

entiendo, y el decirlo tii

y entenderlo yo me

causa nueva admiracion

y maravilla.

Cervantes.

My having seen it is not the
only proof of its existence.

I

understand all that you
say, Cipion, and your
saying it and my under-
standing it causes me
fresh wonder and amaze-
ment.

Vocabulary.

alia, adv.y there ; alia a su
manera, in his own pe-
culiar way.

anadir, to add.

aqui, adv,^ here ; de aqui,.
hence.

asegurar, to assure.

beatitud,/., beatitude, holi-
ness.

bienaventuranza, /, bless-
edness, holiness, rapture.

campanula,/., small bell;
de muchas campanulas,
of great standing.

cierto, adj,^ true ; adv.y cer-
tainly.

cifrar, to write in cipher;
cifrar en, to place.

confesar, to own, to con-
fess.

conforme con, in accord-
ance with.

2IO

VERBALS

criterio, m., judgment, stan-
dard.

chispa,/, spark.

desconfiado, adj.y diffident.

describir, to describe.

discrete, adj\y discreet, wise,
witty.

duda,/., doubt.

duque, m., duke.

ejemplar, m,y copy, speci-
men ; adj\y exemplary.

elogio, m,y praise.

embajador,;;^., ambassador.

embromar, to tease, to
annoy.

embuste, m,y artful tale, lie.

estampar, to print, to stamp.

falso, adj.y false, untrue.

forastero, m., stranger,
visitor.

guia, m, and /., guide,
guide-book; guia de fo-
rasteros, court guide,
directory.

inolvidable, adj\y unforget-
table.

inverosimil, or inverisimil,
adj.y unlikely.

jactarse, to boast.

lance, w., incident, episode.

licencia, /., leave, leave of
absence, licence, permit,
licentiousness.

luengo, adj.y long (obsolete :
used only in proverbs).

lugarefio, m.y villager.
malicioso, adj.y cunning.
mandar, to send, to com-
mand.
mayordomo, m.y butler,

majordomo.
mentira,/, lie, untruth.
monte, m.y mountain.
nacimiento, m.y birth ; lu-

gar de nacimiento, birth

place,
ofender, to offend.
papel, m.y paper, part;

hacer papel, to play

a part.
participar, to announce, to

participate, to partake.
pasmo, m.y wonder.
prodigio, m,y prodigy,
punta, /., point, sharp end

of a thing, top.
rayar en, to be near, to

border on.
referir, to relate.
refrdn, m.y proverb, saying.
registro, m.y register, mark,

book-mark.
suponer, to suppose, to

presume.
suposicion,/., supposition ;

de gran suposicion, of

great importance.
tone, m.y tone, tune ; darse

tono, to give one's self airs,
via,/., way.

293. — Conjugation of Caber, to be contained in (irregular).

Indicative. Subjunctive.

Present. Present.

quepo quepa

qtiepas
quepa

cabes
cabe

VERBALS 211

cabemos

quepamos

cabeis

quepdis

caben.

quepan.

Past

Past (ist and 2nd forms).

cupe

cupiese or cupiera

cupiste

cupieses or cupieras

cupo

cupiese or cupiera

cupimos

cupiesemos or cupiera

cupisteis

mos

cupieron.

cupieseis or cupierais

Imperfect,

cupiesen or cupieran.

cabia, etc. {regular).

Future,

Future,

cupiere

cabre

cupieres

cabrAs

cupiere

cabrd

cupieremos

cabremos

cupiereis

cabreis

cupieren.

cabrdn.

•f

Imperative.

Future in the past,
cabria

cabe (not used).
cabed.

cabrias

cabria

Past parliciple.

cabriamos

cabido.

cabriais

Present participle.

cabrian.

cabiendo.

294. — Idiomatic phrases :
Esto no cabe en lo posible.

No cabe en si de gozo.

No cabe duda.
No cabe argiiir.

No cabe en si.

Aqui no quepo.

No me cabe en la cabeza.

Esto no reza conmigo.
Asi reza el cuento.

This is beyond all possi-
bility.
He is beside himself with

joy-
There is no room for doubt.
There is no arguing.
(He is full of conceit.
I He cannot contain himself.
There is no room for me

here.
Itdoesnotenter into my head

(I do not understand it).
That does not apply to me.
So the story goes.

p 2

212 VERBALS

Esta conforme coti la pro- He is agreeable to the pro-

puesta. posal.

Tomar el portante. To go away.

Exercise.

I A quien no le agrada, cuando Vuelve al lugar de su
nacimientO; darse cierto tono, sin ofender a nadie, mani-
festando cuan importante papel ha hecho en el mundo ?

Gente hay que no espera para esto a ir a su lugar.
Nacido en uno muy pequefio de Andalucia tuve yo cierto
amigo que, como llegase a ser personaje de gran suposi-
cion y de muchas campanillas, cifraba su mayor deleite en
mandar a su pueblo todos los anos un ejemplar de la Guia
de forasteroSf con un registro en las varias paginas en que
estaba estampado su nombre. Un afio fue la Guia con
ocho registros, y el pasmo de los lugarefios, participado
por carta a mi amigo, le dio un contento que casi rayaba
en beatitud o bienaventuranza.

No es menor el gusto que se tiene en contar lances y
sucesos y en describir prodigios. De aqui sin duda el
refran : de luengas vias, luengas mentiras. Baste, pucs,
decir, en elogio de D. Fadrique, que el refran no rezo
con el nunca, porque era la verdad en persona. Lo que
no aseguramos es que fuese siempre creido en cuanto
refirio. Los lugarefios son maliciosos y desconfiados ; sue-
len tener un criterio alia a su manera, y a menudo las cosas
mas ciertas les parecen falsas o inverosimiles, y las
mentiras, por el contrario, muy conformes con la verdad.
Recuerdo que un mayordomo andaluz de cierto inol-
vidable y discreto Duque, que estuvo de embajador en
Napoles, fue a su pueblo con licencia. Cuando volvio
le embrom^bamos suponiendo que habria contado muchos
embustes. El nos confeso que si, y aun afiadio, jactandose
de ello, que todo se lo habian creido, menos una cosa.

— I Que cosa era esa ?, le preguntamos.

VERBALS 213

— Que cerca de Ndpoles, respondid, hay un monte que
echa chispas por la punta.

Conversation.

I Como se da tono el viajero cuando vuelve al lugar de
su nacimiento ? i Esperan siempre estas gentes volver
a su lugar para darse tono ? ,i. En que cifraba su mayor
deleite un personaje de gran suposicion nacido en un
pequefio lugar de Andalucia? i Que poni'a en el ejemplar
de la Gttia de forasteros que mandaba a su pueblo? i En
que partes de la Guia ponia registros ? Cuando su nombre
salio ocho veces en la guia i quienes fueron sorprendidos
y quien recibio gran contento? ^ Hasta que punto llego
el contento del personaje cuyo nombre habia sido estam-
pado ocho veces en la Guia de forasterosl

I Que quiere decir el refran : luengas viaSy luengas
mentirasl (i^Tiene el hombre gusto en contar lances
y describir prodigios? i Que refran o proverbio sale
de aqui? ^Se usa todavia en espanol la palabra luengo
en vez de largo ? i Contaba D. Fadrique historias que no
fuesen ciertas ? i Creian las gentes todo lo que el referia ?
^Como es, generalmente, el caracter de los lugarefios?
I Como suelen parecerles las cosas mas ciertas ? i Creian
los lugarefios todo lo que contaba el mayordomo del Duque ?
I Cual era la cosa que encontraban inverosimil ?

Translate.

Una zorra' diviso^ varias aves de corraP que estaban
en el gallinero^, y quiso acercarse a ellas con palabras
enganosas^ ^Tengo', les dijo, 'excelentes noticias^ que
comunicarles. Los animales han acordado la paz' uni-
versal. Bajen a celebrar^ conmigo esta feliz determina-
cion^'. Un gallo viejo, muy seguro de si^^, miro'^ a su
rededor^^ cautelosamente ^^ sin responder una palabra.
Notando la zorra la inquietud '* del gallo, le pregunto la
causa ^^ 'No es nada', explicd el gallo; 'estaba viendo

214 VERBALS

que vienen hacia aca dos perros ^^ '. La zorra se prepare
a tomar el portante. ' \ Que ! ', grito el gallo, ' i no han
acordado los animales la paz universal ? * ' Si/ replico la
zorra, 'pero es muy facil que esos perros no lo sepan
tod a via.'

1 fox. 2 noted, observed. ^ aves de corral, fowls (birds of the
court-yard). * roost. ^ artful, misleading. ^ news. ' peace.
8 celebrate. ^ decision, decree. i« seguro de si, on his guard.

^^ looked. ^^ around. ^^ cautiously. '* uneasiness. ^^ cause.
^^ dogs.

Translate.

Peter the Great and the Monk,
Peter the Great ordered many foreign books to be
translated ^ into the Russian '^ language, and among others
Puffendorfs ' Introduction to the knowledge of the States
of Europe*. A monk^ to whom the translation of this
book was entrusted^ presented it sometime afterwards
to the Emperor. The monarch examined the translation ;
at a certain chapter ^ however, he suddenly^ changed
countenance*^, turned indignantly^ to the monk and said :
* Fool ^, what did I order thee to do ? Is this a transla-
tion?' He then referred ^° to the original and showed^'
the poor monk a paragraph in which the author had
spoken with great asperity ^'^ of the Russians, but which had
not been translated. ^ Go ', resumed ^^ the monarch ^*, ' and
instantly ^'^ carry out^^ what I have bidden ^^ thee [to do].
It is not to flatter ^^ my subjects ^^ that I have ordered this
book to be translated, but to instruct ^^ and reform"
them.'

1 ordered many . . . books to be translated, dispuso que se tradujeran
muchos libros. ^ ruso, rusa. ^ monje. * to whom the

translation was entrusted, a quien se le Confi6 la traducci6n.
^ capitulo. ^ de repente. ' semblante, aspecto. ^ indignado,
indignadamente. » necio. lo recurrio. ^^ mostr6 a.

12 aspereza. ^^ continuo. '* monarca. ^^ sin demora.

16 ejecuta. ^^ mandado. i« lisonjear. ^^ stibditos.

20 instruir. ^i reformar.

r

PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND 215

XXIV

PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND

295. — The active participle as it existed in Latin (vocans),
and as it is still used in some Romance and Teutonic
languages, has disappeared from Spanish. Words in
■ante, -ente of verbal derivation, which are still called
active participles by some grammarians, are mere adjec-
tives, having lost all the characteristics of the verb :

Actitud insultante, gober- Insulting attitude, outgoing

nador saliente, ano en- governor, incoming year.
trante.

Es persona interesante. He is an interesting person.

Labor persistente. Persistent work.

a. Note that in some cases the ending of the verbal
adjective in Spanish corresponds to that of its English
equivalent : insistente (insistent), estudiante (student),
ignorante (ignorant).

b. They do not now admit of a subject or object as verbs
and real verbals do. They do not refer to any special
time and they change only to express plurality as do
adjectives generally.^

296. — The gerund (gerundio), ending for the verbs of
the first conjugation in -ando (habl-ando), and for those
of the second and third in -iendo (tem-iendo, sub-iendo),
is generally rendered by the English verbals ending
in -mg:

Y hablando asi conmovia And talking in this fashion,
las multitudes. he used to move the

crowds.

1 Aves producientes cantos, fuente manante metres, expressions
to be found in authors who wrote before the beginning of the sixteenth
century, are now entirely out of use. Lugarteniente, poderliabiente,
fehaciente, words in which the second element had a separate value as
an active participle, are nowadays mere nouns.

^i6 PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND

a. In sentences like this, the Spanish gerund takes the
place of an adverb, and is often rendered in English by
means of a preposition followed by the gerund or by an
adverb equivalent :

Termin6 diciendo que se He ended by saying that he

habia equivocado. had made a mistake.

Ensenando aprendemos. By teaching we learn (we

learn while we teach).

297. — The gerund ma}' take a subject and an object :

Llegando mi amigo a la On reaching the square my

plaza descubrio la vef- friend discovered the truth

dad del suceso (mi amigo of the matter,
is the subject of llegando).

Teniendo Juan tanto dinero John having so much un-

ocioso resolvio comprar productive cash made up

valores del estado (Juan his mind to buy State

subject, dinero object). securities.

298. — The subject of the gerund is as a rule the subject
of the principal sentence :

Siguiendo tu consejo, trate Following your advice, I
de evitar el peligro. tried to avoid the danger.

With verbs of action the gerund may refer to the ob-
ject :

La vi segando las mieses I saw her mowing the ripe

(yo la vi a ella segando wheat.

las mieses).
Le pillaron cambiando de He was caught while chang-

vestido (EUos lo pillaron ing his dress.

a el cambiando de ves-

tide).

299. — If the verb does not signify action or motion the
present participle cannot be used with reference to the
object :

Puse hoy en el correo I posted to-day a parcel
un paquete que contiene containing ten books.
diez libros (not conte-
niendo as is sometimes
said). ^

PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND 217

300. — In some cases the gerund is used as a mere
invariable adjective :

Boiling water dissolves bora-
cic acid more easily.

A burning forest is a beauti-
ful though sad sight.

El agua hirviendo disuelve

mejor el dcido borico,
Un bosque ardiendo es un

bello aunque triste es-

pectdculo.^

301. — The gerund may take as an object the enclitic
pronoun, which in this case forms a single word with it :
Dejdndonos en la calle Leaving us in the street he

penetro a sus aposen-
tos.
No logro convencerlos le-
yendoles la carta.

went into his rooms.

He did not succeed in con-
vincing them by reading
the letter to them.

302. — As regards time the gerund expresses either
immediate priority to or coexistence with the action or
state of mind implied by the principal verb of the sentence :

Viendose perdidos, resol- Seeing that they were lost,

vieron capitular (prio- they decided to capitulate.

rity).
Dando las once sali (co-
existence).
Dejando a un lado sus

propios negocios em-

pezo a ocuparse en

organizar los ajenos

(priority ; he first gave up

his own affairs, and then

attended to those of other

people).

303. — The gerund is often combined with the preposi-
tion en with the meaning of as soon as :

En llegando tratare de I shall try to see him as
verle. soon as I arrive.

^ A few gerunds in Spanish are used as nouns, having lost all the
characteristics of the verb : multiplicando (factor), sumando (item of
an addition), considerando (recital, in legal documents), educando
(pupil, student), examinando (examinee).

I went out on the stroke of

eleven.
Leaving aside his own affairs

he began to busy himself

with setting in order those

of other people. "

2i8 PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND

304. — It is to be noted that the EngHsh gerund when
used as the subject of a sentence and having an object of
its own is rendered in Spanish by the infinitive :

Comer frutas verdes es Eating unripe fruit is bad

nocivo para los nines. for children.

Tirar de un pesado ca- Pulling a heavy carriage

rruaje cuesta arriba es uphill is hard on a horse.
duro para un caballo.

305. — The present participle is frequently used in
Spanish for the formation of the continuous tenses with
estar: estoy escribiendo, I am writing; estuve aguar-
dando toda la noche, I was waiting all night; no me
dijo que estuviese pensando en mudarse, he did not tell
me that he was thinking of moving.

a. Yet the correspondence is not absolute in the use of
these tenses in the two languages, because the continuous
form has very often to be used in English to render the
Spanish imperfect :

Iba a pescar todas las

mananas cuando vivia

en el campo.
Llovia a cdntaros cuando

termino la conferencla.
Iba camino de Madrid

cuando le encontre por

primera vez.

I used to go a-fishing every

morning when I was living

in the country.
It was pouring in torrents

when the lecture finished.
I was going to Madrid when

I met him for the first

time.

b. The continuous construction is also used with ir,
venir, andar, continuar, quedar, seguir, and a few other
verbs the meaning of which implies motion :
Iba predicando la nueva He went preaching the new

ley por todas partes.
Vino cabalgando un fa-

moso corcel.
Quedamos aguardando sus

gratas ordenes.
Si siguiera estudiando, po-

dria hacer una brillante

carrera.

law in every direction.
He came riding a famous

courser.
We remain in expectation

of your kind orders.
If he would go on studying

he might be able to

develop a brilliant career.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND 219

Continuaba el ocupdndose He was going on putting
en poner orden en el things in order in the
barrio. quarter.

306. — The gerund is used as the ablative in Latin in
absolute clauses of an explanatory meaning :
No sabiendo el camino. Not knowing the way, he

resolvio pasar la noche
en la primer posada.
Faltdndoles absolutamen-
te los viveres se rindie-
ron a discrecion.

made up his mind to pass
the night at the first inn.
Being absolutely without
provisions they surren-
dered unconditionally.

a. Note that in constructions of this kind, and in all those in
which the gerund fulfils an adverbial function, the phrase is
clearer and more elegant in Spanish when the gerund is put at
the beginning:

Tendiendo per el suelo unas
pieles de ovejas, adereza-
ron los cabreros su riistica
cena.^

Spreading some sheep-skins
on the ground, the goatherds
served their rural supper.

Vocabulary.

agitarse, to bestir oneself.
amo, m,) master.
ansiar, to desire.
bdrbaro, adj.y barbarous.
callar, to be silent.
canonigo, m.^ canon.
criar, to breed, to rear,
cuadrupedo, m.y quadruped.
cuidar, to take care of.
debil, adj.y weak.
demds, adj., others,
desvelarse, to keep awake,

to be wakeful,
dormir, to sleep.
enfermo, adj\, ill, sick.
esperanza,/, hope.
estupido, ^^'., stupid, foolish.

exdnime, adj\y without
strength, exhausted.

falda, /, lap, skirt ; perro
de faldas, perro faldero,
falderillo, lap dog, pet
dog.

fatigar, to tire.

fatigarse, to get tired.

freno, m., bridle, brake.

hambre,/., hunger.

intinio, adj.y deep, intimate.

iniitii, useless.

mal, m.y evil, disease ; mal
de rabia, rabies, hydro-
phobia.

mandria, ;//., worthless per-
son, poltroon.

1 The construction : Los cabreros, tendiendo por el suelo, etc., is
equally grammatical, but not so clear and easy.

220 PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND

mendigo, m.y beggar, mendi-
cant.
metodo, m.y method, way.
morir, to die ; morir de

hambre, to starve, to die

of hunger.
ocio, m.y leisure, idleness,
plan, m., plane, level surface.
posada,/., inn.
postrar, to prostrate; pos-

trado, adj\y exhausted.
principe, m.y prince.
quebrantar, to vi^eaken ;

quebrantarse, to weaken

oneself.
quitar, to take away, to

remove.
rabia,/, rage, wrath, rabies.

replicar, to reply.

repose, m.y repose, rest.

revolcarse, to roll, to wal-
low.

riqueza,/., wealth.

salud,/, health.

semejante, adj.y such, simi-
lar, resembling.

sibaritico, adj,y sybaritic,
effeminate.

tabla,/., board.

trabajar, to work.

vago, adj\y idle, vacant,
vague.

venta,/., inn, sale.

zdngano, m.y drone.

zarandajas, /. />/., trifles,
odds-and-ends.

Exercise.
La yegua y la faldera,

Viajando dona Prdspera ^
con su yegua y su perra de faldas,

llegaron cansadisimas
por la noche a la venta o posada.

Quitanle a la cuadrupeda
silla, freno y demas zarandajas,

y revuelcase comoda
en un plan a nivel como tabla.

— ' i Que bdrbara, qu6 estupida ! *
la perrita le dijo al mirarla,

'con semejante metodo
se fatiga uno mas, se quebranta.

Yo misma estoy exanime,
aunque vine en las faldas de mi ama;

mas dormire a lo principe
y manana estare descansada.'

— 'Calla, la otra replicale.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND 221

Lo que postra es el ocio y las faldas :

los zanganos son debiles ;
solo aquel que trabaja, descansa.

Viniste cual canonigo,
y por eso te sientes postrada:

yo a ti y a Dona Prospera
traje encima y por eso estoy guapa.

El trabajo es paz I'ntima,
salud, fuerza, riqueza, esperanza;

perros vagos o iniitiles
mueren de hambre o les da mal de rabia.

Si ansias reposo^ agitate,
y desvelate y cuida la casa :

la vida sibaritica
cria enfermos, mendigos y mandrias.'

R. POMBO.

Conversation.

iCon quien viajaba Dona Prospera? ^A que hora
Uegaron a la posada? <:, Como llegaron ? ^Que le qui-
taron a la cuadrupeda? ^ Que hizo la yegua cuando le
hubieron quitado la silla y el freno ? i Donde se revolco ?
^Que dijo la perra faldera al ver revolcar a la yegua?
^i^Creia la perra que un caballo descansa revolcandose ?
I Como se sentia la perra ? i Donde habia reposado ella
durante el viaje? ^ Como pensaba dormir? ^j^ Estaria
descansada al dia siguiente ? i Que le replico la yegua ?
I Por que son debiles los zanganos ? ^ Se puede descansar
sin haber trabajado antes ? i Quien trajo encima a Dona
Prospera y a la perra faldera? Y, sin embargo, <[, quien
estaba mas cansada, la perra o la yegua ? i Como decia
sentirse la yegua ? iDe que mueren los perros vagos

0 inutiles? ^ Que consejo le dio la yegua a la perra?

1 Como acaban los que llevan vida sibaritica ?

222 PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND

Translate.

Meanwhile in France things moved (than) fast. By
breaking down {suprimiendo) the division between its
separate orders the States-General (Estados Generates)
became a National Assembly, and abolished {abolieron) the
privileges of the provincial parliaments, of the nobles,
and the Church [Iglesia], In October the mob (las
turbas) of Paris marched on Versailles and forced both
King and Assembly to return with them to the capital, and
a Constitution hastily put together [hecha de prisa) was
accepted by Lewis the Sixteenth in the stead of his old
despotic power.

The words used in Spanish to translate the English
nouns horse and mare are derived from Latin, but while
the first was formed from low Latin [caballus) the second,
or the feminine, can trace its origin back to equuSy the
word for 'horse' in classical Latin.

'Men who write Grammars do not suppose now that
they can set up [erigtr] a model of speech, however much
they may wish to do so. Hardly (apenas) any one [habrd
quien), as a matter of fact [en efecto\ alters (subjunctive
in Spanish, altere) his way of speaking because a Grammar
tells him that this way is wrong {improprio^ incorrecto)
and the other way is right [correcto). This would indeed
be putting the cart [carreta) before the horse. A Grammar
does not attempt [se propone) to teach people how they
ought (deben) to speak, but, on the contrary, unless (a
menos) it is a very bad or a very old work, it merely
states (muestra, expone) how, as a matter of fact, certain
people do speak at the time at which it is written.'
(Henry Cecil Wyld.)

Translate.

— Dime, i que vamos a hacer esta noche ?

— Por lo que hace a mi (so far as I am concerned)

PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND 223

pienso quedarme en casa. He trasnochado (sit up all
night, to go to bed very late) cinco veces esta semana y he
menester una noche siquiera de verdadero reposo.

— I Tienes alguna cosa especial que hacer ?

— No precisamente ; es que estoy cansado (the fact is,
I am tired).

— Pero a lo menos (at least), podre gozar de tu compafiia
(I shall be allowed to enjoy . . .).

— Supongo que no me quieres soltar (to let go, let
loose).

— No de buena gana (willingly), a lo menos.

— I Que te propones ? (What do you suggest ?).

— Nada especial todavia. Por eso te preguntaba.

— Al fin te haces entender (Now you are talking sense).

— Suponte que fueramos al casino.

— I A tomar vino o cerveza o algo peor ? No, gracias.

— Hay concierto alli esta noche.

— I Musica militar, cenas en mesitas aisladas ? Gracias,
muchisimas gracias.

— Entonces, vamos al teatro.

— Eso depende. ^i^ Que dan (play) esta noche ?

— Algo de Ibsen.

— No es mi autor favorito. i Cual de sus dramas?

— Me parece que han anunciado Los Aparecidos
(Ghosts).

— i Esa lamentable y dolorosa creacion !

— ti^ De suerte que la conoces ? i Ya la has visto repre-
sentar ?

— No, la he leido.

— Si, veo que tienes aqui todas las obras de Ibsen;
parece que no te disgustan (you do not dislike them), como
lo dices.

— Las leo para poder decir si me agradan o me cargan
(bore). Otros las alaban (praise) sin conocerlas.

— Y ^ que dices de Los Aparecidos ?

— Lo que has oi'do, que es un drama triste, lamentable.

224 PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND

que no me gusta; aunque me parece la obra de un
poderoso genio.

— De modo que no vas a verla,

— Si puedo evitarlo ([Not] if I can help it).

— Pues, por desgracia (unfortunately) no tengo otra
cosa que proponer.

— Gracias a mi buena suerte me he escapado esta
noche de que me saques a rodar por esas calles (to drag
me about).

— No te expresas en forma muy obsequiosa (compli-
mentary) que digamos (to be sure).

Exercise on the right use of the present participle
amd gerund.

Habiendo terminado ya la primera parte de su historia
de los Otomies, creyo que podia descansar viajando por
el centro de Mejico donde ellos habi'an resistido a Cortes
y donde estan viviendo aun en contacto pacifico con otras
razas. — Ensefiando aprendemos : en rigor, lo que apren-
demos ensefiando es lo que mejor sabemos. — Hojeando
(turning the leaves) un libro antiguo descubrio mi amigo
inesperadamente una fecha que habia menester para
terminar una conferencia que estaba preparando. — En
llegando a casa les escribire a mis abogados (solicitors)
que se entiendan (to come to an understanding) con los
herederos (heirs) de Don Jeronimo. — Vi a la hija del Sefior
Gonzalez pintando la tela que ha sido tan aplaudida en
la presente exposicion (exhibition) de pinturas. — Este nifio
estara dando que hacer al publico de aqui a diez afios
(In ten years from now this boy will cause people to be
interested in him).

225

XXV

THE PAST PARTICIPLE AND PASSIVE
VOICE

307. — The past participle of the regular verbs ends in
-ado or -ido : hablado, aprendido, recibido.

a. The past participle, as we have already noted, is used in
Spanish in the compound tenses (see §§ 66 b^ 'job, 72), formed
with haber: ha hablado, hemes venido, cuando hubo
salido, como hubieramos sabido. As a part of these
verbal forms the past participle is in Spanish invariable :
Lo habia conocido (masc.) ; no hemes estudiade la
leccion (fem.) ; han pasade las vacacienes (fem. pi.),
the holiday is over ; para maiiana habremos recibide les
libros (masc. pi.), by to-morrow we shall have received the
books.

b. As already stated (see §§ 66d, 'j6), the compound tenses
may also be formed with tener in a limited number
of cases, and with this verb the past participle is not
invariable :

Tenge advertide que par- I have given notice that I

tire mafiana. shall go out to-morrow.

Tendre encuadernades I shall have my books

mis libres el mes en- bound next month.
trante.

Tienen per ahera suspen- They have for the present

dida la ejecucion de la suspended the carrying

ebra. out of the wor k

c. Verbs used intransitively cannot form their compound
tenses with tener.

308. — The past participle combined with the tenses of
the verb ser enters into the formation of the passive voice

226

THE PAST PARTICIPLE

in Spanish ; as such it agrees in gender and number with
the noun to which it refers :

The fort will be destroyed
by the enemy.

She was sentenced by the
jury to a year of penal
servitude.

His past is known.

The ladies will be called
before the men.

El fuerte serd destruido

per el enemigo (masc.

sing.).
Fue condenada por el

jurado a un ano de pre-
sidio (fem. sing.).
Son conocidos sus ante-

cedentes (masc. pi.).
Serdn llamadas las seno-

ras primero queloshom-

bres (fem. pi.).

a. — The passive voice may also be expressed in Spanish
by means of the verb estar in a limited number of cases :

Esta terminado el juicio. The law suit is finished.

Manana estard descifrado The enigma will be unra-

el enigma. veiled to-morrow.

I Estd abierta la carta? Is the letter open ?

But here the past participle may be considered as a mere
adjective.

b. Similar sentences may be framed with quedar, to
remain, to stay, and with llevar, to take to, to carry :

Queda establecida la ver-

dad de su declaracion.
Lleva recorridas veinte

millas.

The truth of his statement

is established.
He has traversed twenty

miles.

309. — The pronominal form se of the third person is
much used in Spanish to form the passive voice :

Alii se pelea por la espada,
aqui por el caballo.

Se dice.

Se nos dice.

Se averigu6 que el error

procedla de una palabra

mal escrita.
Se le di6 una hora de ter-

There they fight (it is fought)

for the sword, here for the

horse.
It is said.
We are told.
It was found out that the

mistake originated in an

ill-written word.
An hour's time was given

AND PASSIVE VOICE 227

mino para contestar. him to answer.

Se le concedio una audien- An audience was granted to

cia. him (he was granted an

audience).
Se le (or la) dio una man- She was given an apple.

zana.

a. Passive constructions of this kind may take in Spanish
as in Enghsh the active form by means of the third person
plural of the respective verb :

Dicen (se dice). They say (it is said).

Nos dicen (se nos dice). They tell us (we are told).

Averiguaron el error (se They found the mistake (the

averiguo el error). mistake was found).

Le dieron (or la dieron) They gave her an apple (an

una manzana (se le dio apple was given her).

una manzana).

310. — Although the ordinary passive form la casa fue
vendida (the house was sold) is perfectly grammatical and
quite acceptable in Spanish, care should be taken not
to use it too frequently, and instead one may have
resource to the pronominal se : se vendio la casa ; se
realizaron nuestras esperanzas, our hopes were fulfilled ;
se nos espera ansiosamente, we are anxiously expected.
Nuestras esperanzas fueron realizadas, somos espera-
dos ansiosamente are expressions that cannot be con-
demned from a grammatical point of view, but they should
not be used very frequently, because they give an appear-
ance of affectation or strangeness to the style.

a. But there are cases in which the passive English con-
struction cannot and must not be literally translated into
Spanish. I am told, se me dice (never yo soy dicho).
The reason is obvious. In the ordinary passive inversion
the direct object becomes both in English and Spanish the
subject of the verb, but the indirect object remains the same.
Now in passive constructions like ' I am told a story ' the
subject corresponds to the indirect object of the active
sentence : * they tell me a story '. Le (or la) dieron una

Q2

228 THE PAST PARTICIPLE

manzana is the ordinary active construction in Spanish.
Turning it into the passive form we can say : le fue dada
una manzana, but not : ella fue dada una manzana (as
in EngHsh : 'she was given an apple 'y

b: Phrases, then, in which the pronoun combined with se
takes the form of an indirect object cannot be replaced by
the ordinary passive construction with the past participle :

Se me aconseja que aban- I am advised to relinquish

done mis derechos en my rights in this competi-

esta competencia. (Soy tion.

acohsejado que ...

would be ungrammatical.)

Se me dice que espere. I am told to wait.

c» If the pronoun combined with se is a direct object of
the verb, both passive forms are acceptable, but the one
with se is preferable when no ambiguity results from its
use :

Se me conoce muy bien en I am very well known in

esta plaza (or soy muy this city.

bien conocido en esta

plaza).
I Se me eye desde aqui ? Am I heard from here ?

(or I soy oido desde

aqui ?).

d. The passive voice formed by means of the pronominal se
has in Spanish an impersonal appearance, so that the verb may
be used in the singular, although in the ordinary passive form
the plural might be required :

Se veia a los reyes sentados The kings were seen sitting

en la tribuna. in the tribune.

Se interrogarA a los testigos. The witnesses will be ques-

(Serdn inter rogados los tes- tioned.
tigos.)

1 Even in EngHsh, according to Dr. Sweet, * we still hesitate over and
try to evade such passive constructions as she was given a watch, he was
granted an audience, because we still feel that she and he are in the dative,
not the accusative relation.' — New English Grammar, Oxford, 1903,
§ 2313-

AND PASSIVE VOICE 229

e. But when the object does not refer to human beings
the plural is required :
Se ven desde aqui las mon- The mountains separating

tanas que separan a Eu- Europe from Asia are seen

ropa de Asia. from here.

Se podan los ^rboles en Trees are pruned when the

menguante. moon is waning.

/. As the preposition a in Spanish is used before an object
noun to express personality/ the singular of the verb is used
when the preposition intervenes in sentences of this kind with
reference to things or animals :
Alii se trata a las bestias Beasts are affectionately trea-

con carino. ted there.

g. On the other hand the plural may be used with reference
to human beings when the preposition is dropped :
Se ven los reyes en el ta- The kings are seen on the

blade. . platform.

Se distinguen desde aqui los The riders are distinguishable

jinetes(or se distingue des- from here.

de aqui a los jinetes).

//. But care must be taken when using the plural in this kind
of sentence to avoid the ambiguity that may result from
the reflexive appearance of the form. Se ahorcaban los mal-
vados means *the wicked hanged themselves', rather than
* the wicked were hanged '. To express this last meaning the
singular and the preposition should be employed : Se ahorcaba
a los malvados.^

^ See § 202.

2 The indeterminate pronoun uno, una may, in phrases such as these,
take the place of se, and the substitution is very often useful to avoid the
ambiguity arising from the reflexive appearance given to the sentence by
the pronominal se.

Se ven los reyes en el tablado might mean '■ the kings see themselves
on the platform' or * the kings see each other on the platform'. To
avoid confusion, uno or una may be adopted in an active and direct
construction :

Uno ve los reyes en el tablado. One sees the kings on the platform.
Una (fern.) puededistinguir des- One can recognize the riders from

de aqui los jinetes. here.

In old Spanish texts hombte (man) is to be found instead of uno
in reflexive sentences :
El no maravillarse hombre de Not to be taken by surprise is

nada, basta a darnos vida enough to lead an easy life.

descansada (El no maravi-
llarse uno de nada . . .).

230

THE PAST PARTICIPLE

311.— Certain Spanish verbs may be used with the reflexiv©
forms in sentences devoid of all reflexive meaning. Their use
offers some difficulty to the English student :

Yo me rio, el se rie, ellos se

reian.
Se rie D. Juan de todo, pare

no niega nada.
Me acuerdo, el se acuerda,

no me acorde.

I laugh, he laughs, they were

laughing.
D. Juan scoffs at everything,

but denies nothing.
I remember, he remembers,

I did not remember.

a. Compare the difference between acordarse and re
cordar :
Me acorde tarda. I

remembered when it was

late.
I recall his voice and gesture.
I told him to remind me.
They could not then recall the

details pf the event.
He is trying to recollect.
Kindly remember me to him.

Recuerdo su voz y su gesto.
Le dije que ma acordara.
No se aisordaban ya de los

pormenores del suceso.
Est^ tratando de acordarse.
Tenga la bondad de darle re-

cuerdos de mi parte.

b. Estarse, quedarse, irsa, marcharse, salirse are also
reflexive in form but not in meaning :

No sa astd quieto. He does not keep quiet.

Se quadaron a obscuras. They remained in the dark.

Se va (or samarcha) maiiana. He is going away to-morrow\

Se salio al preso. The prisoner escaped.

c. Antojarse in the sense of /o long^ to yearn, to desire earnestly,
takes in its conjugation the reflexive form, although in fact it is
not a reflexive verb : ma antojo a vacas da comer frutas,
I occasionally long to eat fruit ; ellos sa antojaron esa noche
de ir al teatro, they were very desirous that night of going to
the theatre ; los ninos se antojarian de esa golosina si la
vieran, the children would long for that delicacy if they saw it.

d. Antojar when meaning to fancy, to imagine, to believe, is
not used in the first or second person : it can only be employed
in the third person singular, like the impersonal verbs :

Se me antoja que esta es una
nueva broma da Pedro.

Se les antojard que astamos
busc^ndolos.

Si sa ta antoja vanir manana,
avisama.

I fancy this is a new joke of

Peter's.
They will imagine that we are

looking for them.
If a fancy takes you to come

to-morrow, please let me

know.

AND PASSIVE VOICE 231

Como se le antoje a D*. Rosa If Doiia Rosa takes a fancy
leer el libro tendre que to read the book I shall have
ddrselo. to give it to her.

e. The verb ser is sometimes used with the pronominal se to
emphasize the meaning of the sentence :

trase una viejecita sin na- There was once a little old
dita que comer. lady who had nothing at all

to eat.

trase un hombre a una nariz There was once a man at-
pegado. tached to a nose.

/. With these verbs, which, though reflexive in form, are not
really so in their meaning, the passive construction with se
cannot be used in a general sense. It is correct to say :

Se cree que la epidemia cede. It is believed that the epidemic

is subsiding.

But it would be ambiguous to write :
Se imagina que nadar es One imagines that swimming
muy fdcil. is very easy ; or, he imagines

that swimming etc.

To avoid ambiguity a subject must be used with these verbs,
excluding the passive construction :

Uno se imagina que nadar es

muy fdcil.
La gente se imagina que

nadar es muy fdcil.
Nos imaginamos que nadar

es muy fdcil.

g. When a predicative adjective is combined by means of se
with verbs expressing existence, a subject noun or pronoun
must be used to avoid ambiguity, even when the verbs are not
reflexive in form :

En Espafia se vive feliz is incorrect. We must say : En
Espana uno vive feliz or La gente vive feliz en Espana
(People live happily in Spain).

312. — The past participle in its variable form is, like the
gerund (see § 306), often found in absolute clauses :

Terminados los prepara- Once the preliminaries

tivos, se dio principio a ended, the work was be-

la obra. gun.

Concluida la cena, toma- When supper was finished

mos el portante. we went out.

^ People think that swimming
is very easy.

232

THE PAST PARTICIPLE

313. — The invariable form appears in absolute clauses
with the past indicative or the present participle of haber :

He presented his creden-
tials as (soon as) he
arrived.

Having learned his inten-
tions, we made up our
minds not to associate
any longer with him.

a. Absolute clauses in which the variable form is com-
bined with a preposition :

Llegado que hubo, pre-
sento sus credenciales.

Habiendo conocido sus in-
tenciones resolvimos no
volver a asociarnos con
el.

Despues de oidas las
partes resumio el juicio
en pocas palabras.

Luego de sabida la noticia
se dispuso a partir.

Antes de dadas las ocho
ya estaba yo aqui.

After having heard the
parties he summed up the
case in a few words.

Just after hearing the news
he made ready to leave.

I was here before the stroke
of eight.

b. Instead of the participle the infinitive may be employed
in these clauses, saying despues de oir, luego de saber,
antes de dar.

314. — Passive sense implied by the preposition para and
the variable participle :

No es para ignorada esta
ingeniosa doctrina.

No son para contadas
todas mis tribulaciones.

This ingenious doctrine
should not remain un-
known.

They are not to be told, all
my tribulations.

In this case also the infinitive may take the place of the
participle : No es para ignorar, no son para contar.

315. — There are in Spanish a number of participles the
meaning of which instead of being passive, as in ordinary
use, is obviously active. Amado means the person or thing
which is loved ; hallado the person or thing which is or
has been found ; but agradecido means he who is grateful ]
callado, he who keeps silent) cansado may mean tired (m a
passive sense) : me ha cansado (he has tired me out), or

AND PASSIVE VOICE

233

tiresome (in an active sense) : es un libro muy cansado (it
is a tiresome book). Bebido may be the thing which has
been drunk or the person who has drunk to excess ;
atropellado, when used in a passive sense, means run
over, but in an active sense it is the equivalent o{ pushing,
hasty :

El huesped estd bebido.
Ha bebido mucho.

No me gustan sus modales,

es muy atropellado.
Fue atropellado por un

automovil.
Mi perro es muy agrade-

cido.
Ha agradecido mis fa-

vores.
Es hombre callado.

Ha callado parte de la
verdad.

The guest is tipsy.

He has drunk a great deal.

I do not like his manners,
he is very pushing.

He was run over by an
automobile.

My dog is very grateful.

He has thanked me for the
favours shown to him.

He is a silent (not talkative)
man.

He has not told the whole
truth.

a. Nacido (born), muerto (dead), atrevido (daring) are
participles of the type known as ' deponentes ' (deponent),
because they are passive in form but active in meaning.

316. — Contrary to the usage followed in the case of the
other two verbals (infinitive and gerund) the past participle
does not combine with the enclitic forms of the object pro-
noun to form a single word with them. These forms pre-
cede or follow the auxiliary verb :

Me han llamado.

Hanle ofrecido un empleo.

Seanle muy agradecidos

sus favores !
Te han incluido en la

lista.^

They have called me.
They have offered an office

to him.
May his favours be much

appreciated !
You have been put on the

list.

1 The use of the enclitic forms with the past participle in absolute
clauses is not recommended by good authors, but instances of this

234

THE PAST PARTICIPLE

317. — The variable participle combined with ser, estar,
parecer, may be considered as a predicative adjective and
as such can be referred to only by means of the neuter
forms of the pronouns :

Parecen cansadas y lo
estdn en realidad.

^Estdn preparados los an-
damios ? — Si lo estin.

^Fue reconocida la deuda?
— Lo fue.

They seem tired, and so they
are indeed.

Isthe scaffolding prepared ?
— Yes, it is.

Was the debt acknow-
ledged ? — It was.^

318. — Faltar, to be wanting, to be in need of^ to lack, to
miss, is used in peculiar constructions, with an appearance
of reflexiveness :

Me falta un libro en mi bi-

blioteca.
Nos falta tiempo.

Nos faltan tres libras
esterlinas para pagar
la cuenta del mes.

Me falta dinero.

Le falta su hermano.

Poco falto
cayera.

I Son las
poco.

para que se
diez ? — Falta

A book is missing from my

library.
We have not enough time

(We have no time).
We are short of £3 to pay

the monthly bill.

I am in need of money.
He misses his brother (He

is missing his brother).
He nearly fell.

Is it ten o'clock? — Short
of it.

a. The pronoun used with this verb is always an in-
direct object, me, nos, le. The noun following the verb

construction are found, though they are not frequent : Respondio . . .
que, impuestales la penitencia, podrian ser recibidos : He answered
that, once the penance was imposed on them, they might be received.

^ It is to be observed that the use of the participles both present and
past in Spanish has, to some extent, closer affinities with English usage
than with the construction followed in the other Romance languages,
notwithstanding the fact that the actual English ending of the present
participle is not a participial inflexion but a noun-suffix.

AND PASSIVE VOICE

235

looks like a direct object, but is in fact a subject, because
the verb must agree with it :

A Juan no le faltan rique- John does not lack riches or

zas ni honores. honours.

A ellos les falto paciencia They had no patience that

ese dia. day.

Vocabulary.

acontecer, to happen.

agasajar, to receive and
treat kindly.

Alberto Magno, Albertus
Magnus^ Albert the Great.

Alemania,/, Germany.

aspecto, m.y aspect, appear-
ance, view.

atraer, to attract, to draw.

cabana,/., hut.

cielo, m., heaven.

constelacion, /., constella-
tion.

descuido, m.^ neglect, care-
lessness.

desear, to wish.

disposicion, /, disposition,
inclination.

gratitud,/, gratitude, thank-
fulness.

madera,/, wood.

mdgico, adj. J magic.

maravilloso, adj,^ wonder-
ful, marvellous.

peregrinacion, /, peregri-
nation, pilgrimage.

pescado, w., caught fish.

pescador, m., fisher.

pez, m.y fish in general.

pico, m., small amount, odd;
seis mil y pico de anos,
six thousand years odd ;
(of birds) beak, bill.

planeta, m.y planet.

ponderar, to extol, to exag-
gerate.

red,/, net.

responder, to answer, to
reply.

rogar, to pray.

signo, m.^ sign, signal.

virtud, /, virtue, force,
quality.

Idiomatic expressions.

escaleras arriba, upstairs.

escaleras abajo, down-
stairs.

Me doy por vencido, I give
up, I surrender.

No puedo mas, I can do no
more.

No pudo menos de llorar,

she could not help cry-
ing.

Dos de las ventanas dan
a la calle, two of the
windows face the street.

Yo no me meto con usted,
I do not want to have
anything to do with you.

236

THE PAST PARTICIPLE

Dar en el bianco, to hit the

mark.
Ese traje le sienta bien,

that dress suits her well.

No me importa eso, I do

not care for that.
No importa, ya estd dicho,

never mind, it is said now.

319." Conjugation of Traer, to bring to^ to carry to
(irregular).

Indicative.

Subjunctive.

Present,

Present,

traigo

traiga

traes

traigas

trae

traiga

traemos

traigamos

traeis

traigais

traen.

traigan.

Past.

Past (istform).

traje

trajese

trajiste

trajeses

trajo

trajese

trajimos

trajesemos

trajisteis

trajeseis

trajeron.

trajesen.

Imperfect,

Past (2nd form).

traia, etc. {regular)

trajera

trajeras

trajera

trajeramos

trajerais

trajeran.

Future,

Future.

traer6, etc. (regular)

trajere

trajeres

Future in the past.

trajere

traeria, etc. (regular).

trajeremos

trajereis

trajeren.

h

MPERATIVE.

trae

traed.

Past participle.

Present participle.

traido (regular).

trayendo (regular).

AND PASSIVE VOICE 237

a. Note the difference between traer and llevar :

Tr^igame un libro. Bring me a book.

Traiga agua para estos ninos. Bring water to these children.

Lleve este dinero al Banco. Take this money to the Bank.

Lleve a mi hermano con Take my brother with you.

usted.

El viento se llev6 las cartas. The wind carried away the

letters.

b. Traer means to bring a thing to a place near the person
who is speaking : llevar is to take to a place distant from the
person who is speaking. Ir a traer means to fetch. Vaya
a traer agua para el enfermo, fetch some water for the patient.
Argumento muy llevado y traido, a very trite argument ; a most
commonplace suggestion.

Exercise.

Cuentan de Alberto Magno que, yendo en peregrinacion
de Roma a Alemania, paso una noche a las orillas del
Po, en la cabana de un pescador. Agasajado alli muy
bien, quiso el doctor probar su gratitud al huesped y le
hizo y le dio un pez de madera, tan maravilloso que,
puesto en la red, atraia a todos los peces vivos. No hay
que ponderar la ventura del pescador con su pez magico.
Cierto dia, con todo, tuvo un descuido y el pez se le
perdio. Entonces se puso en camino, fue a Alemania,
busco a Alberto y le rogo que le hiciese otro pez semejante
al primero. Alberto respondio que lo deseaba ; mas que
para hacer otro pez que tuviese todas las virtudes del
antiguo, era menester esperar a que el cielo presentase
identico aspecto y disposicion en constelaciones, signos
y planetas, que en la noche en que el primer pez se hizo,
lo cual no podia acontecer sino dentro de seis mil y pico
de afios. J. Valera.

Conversation.

^Quien iba en peregrinacion de Roma a Alemania?
I Donde paso la noche ? i Que es una cabana ? i Cerca de
que rio quedaba la cabana del pescador ? i Como fue

238 THE PAST PARTICIPLE

tratado Alberto Magno por el pescador? ^i^ Por que quiso
el Doctor probar su gratitud ? i Que le dio al huesped ?
,1, De que estaba hecho el pez ? i Por que atrai'a los otros
peces ? I Como llama usted en espafiol el tejido que usan
los Pescadores para coger pescado ? i Quedo contento el
pescador con el regalo (present) ? ^i^'Como perdio el pesca-
dor su pez de madera? (i. Que hizo entonces ? ^Que le
pidio a Alberto ? ^ Que respondio Alberto ? Si deseaba
hacer otro pez semejante al primitivo ^por que no lo
haci'a ? I Que debia haber en el cielo para que fuera posible
hacer el pez ? i Dentro de cuanto tiempo volverian a pre-
sentarse las constelaciones en el mismo aspecto que teni'an
la noche en que el Doctor hizo el primer pez ?

Translate.

La pequefia ciudad esta por todas partes circundada^
de huertas^ Muchas sendas^ la cortan* en diversas
direcciones. A un lado y otro ^ de cada senda hay una
cerca^ de granados"^, zarza-moras ^, mimbres^'y otras
plantas. En muchas sendas hay un arroyo^^ cristalino
a cada lado ; en otras un solo arroyo. Todas ellas gozan ^^,
en primavera, verano y otono ^^, de abundante sombra ^^,
merced a ^^ los alamos ^^ corpulentos ^^ y frondosos ^^ no-
gales *^, y demas arboles de todo genero que en las huertas
se crian.

La tierra^* es alli tan generosa ^^ y feraz ^\ que no puede
uno imaginarse el sinnumero ^^ de flores ^^ y la masa de
verdura^* que ciiien^^ las margenes^^ de los arroyos, espar-
ciendo ^^ grato y campestre ^^ aroma. Campanillas '^'^y mos-
quetas ^^, violetas ^^ moradas ^^ y blancas, lirios ^^ y marga-
ritas ^* abren alli sus calices ^^ y lucen ^^ su hermosura ^'^,

El soP^ radiante'*^, que brilla'^^ en el cielo despejado ''^
y dora ^"^ el aire diafano *\ hace mas esplendida la escena ^*.
Increible ^^ multitud de pajaros la anima *^ y alegra con
sus trinos^"^ y gorjeos^^ En Andalucia, huyendo de la
tierra de secano^'-^, buscando el agua y la sombra, se

AND PASSIVE VOICE 239

refugian ^^ las aves en estos oasis de regadio '^ donde hay
frescura^^ y tupidas'^^ enramadas'^\

Tales eran los sitios ^'^ por donde paseaba el Comendador
con las dos bonitas muchachas ^^ Apenas salieron ^^ de la
poblacion ^^ tomaron la senda que llaman del medio. Ellas
cogi'an floreS; se deleitaban oyendo cantar los colorines^^
o reian^^ sin saber de que. El Comendador meditaba,
senti'a gran bienestar *^^, gozaba de todo, aunque mas tran-
quilamente ^^ que ellas. J. Valera.

1 surrounded. ^ vegetable gardens, irrigated land. ^ path.

* cross. ^ on both sides. ^ fence. "^ pomegranate tree.

^ bramble-berry. ^ osier. ^^ brook. ^^ enjoy. ^^ autumn.

^^ shade. ^* owing to. ^^ poplar. ^^ stout, huge. ^^ leafy.

1^ walnut-tree. '^ earth. 20 generous. 21 fruitful, fertile.

22 immeasurable amount. ^s flower. 24 mass of verdure. ^^ to

gird. 26 bank. 27 spread. 28 ymvsI. 29 bell-flower. ^^ musk-
rose. ^1 violet. 32 purple. ^^ lily. *' daisy. ^

rose. 31 violet. ^2 purple. ^3 jjiy^ 81 daisy. ^5 ealyx.

36 display. ^7 beauty. ^8 sun. '"^ radiant, brilliant. ^^ shine.
^^ clear. •*2 gild, tinge with gold. ^3 diaphanous. ^* scene.

^^ incredible. ^^ encourages. '''' trill. *^ chirp. *^ unirri-

gated land. ^^ take refuge. ^^ irrigation. ^2 coolness, ^3 leafy.
^^ groves. ^^ sites. ^^ girl. ^"^ they had just gone out of.

^8 village. ^^ linnet. ^^ laugh. ^^ comfort, well-being. 62 j^

a more quiet manner.

Translate.

— How do you do?^ Allow me to introduce D. Pedro
Gonzalez Ri'os from Saragossa.

— I am much pleased to see you.

— Where can we leave our horses ?

— The hotel porter will take care of them. Robert,
take these horses to the stablest Tell the stableman^ to
give them plenty* of hay^, but no oats%- they must be tired.

— Yes, sir. At what time shall I have them ready '^ ?

— You need not trouble.^ We are going back to town
in our motor car. Well, gentlemen^, now we must go
into the lounge ^^ and have a good cup " of coffee. This
place is supposed to be very good for the purpose.

240 THE PAST PARTICIPLE

— Very many thanks. We were beginning to feel really
hungry.

— In that case you would like, perhaps, to have some-
thing more substantial. Would you like to add a couple ^'^
of eggs, ham ^^ and tomatoes ^* to our frugal lunch '^ ?

— They would not do any harm.

— Do they make butter ^^ and cheese ^'^ in this neighbour-
hood ?

— Yes, there is a co-operative dairy ^^ Every farmer ^^
milks ^'' his own cows^^, but at eight o'clock every morning
the co-operative carts pass along and take all the milk^^
to the great dairy, where it is duly handled '^^ by experts^*
and made into ^^ butter and cheese by means of scientific
and very inexpensive ^^ proceedings ".

— The villagers ^^ should be grateful to the men who
organized ^**^ this great dairy on the trade union system ^^

— Yes, they ought to be ; but they think that the profits ^^
might be increased by a more careful management ^^

1 ^Como estd usted ? 2 caballerizas. ^ mozo de cuadra,

caballerizo. * bastante, harto. ^ heno. ^ avena. "^ listo.
8 No te afanes. ^ senores, caballeros. ^^ salon de hotel.

11 taza. 12 par. 13 jamon. ** tomate. ^^ almuerzo.

>6 mantequilla or manteca de vaca. ^^ queso. ^^ lecheria

cooperativa. ^^ dueno de cortijo. 20 ordena. 21 vacas.

22 leche. 23 debidamente tratada. 24 peritos. 25 convertida.
26 barato. 27 procedimiento. 28 aldeanos. 29 organizar.

30 sistema cooperativo. ^^ ganancias. ^2 administracion.

Exercise on the Passive Voice.

Son conocidas sus intenciones. Se sabe lo que desea.
No han sido vendidos los libros de D. Inocencio todavia.
Se ha esperado hasta hoy para dar la orden de embarque.
Fue destruida por los enemigos gran parte de la ciudad.
La parte mas graciosa de la costa se ve desde aqui. No
se diga (it must not be said) que nosotras no la respetamos.
Sus obras han sido traducidas a todas las lenguas europeas.
Se conjetura (conjecture) que la familia sabe ya la noticia;

AND PASSIVE VOICE

241

pero se cree que cllos tienen esperanza de que no sea
cierta (true). Se dice que habra crisis ministerial al
abrirse las Cortes (Spanish Parliament). No se 01a,
donde nosotros estabamos, nada de lo que decia el orador.
Se camina (travel) por sierras fragosas (craggy, rough hills)
tres di'as antes de llegar a la hermita (hermitage). Se da el
algodon (cotton grows or is grown) en los valles templados
y humedos de la zona torrida (torrid zone). Se cultivaba
la patata entre los indios al tiempo del descubrimiento.

XXVI

THE PLACE OF THE OBJECT PRONOUNS
IN THE SENTENCE.— THE ARTICLE.—
INTERJECTIONS

320. — The object pronouns me, te, le, lo, la, se, nos,
OS, les, los, las, when combined with each other and with
a verb, follow precise rules as to the order of the sentence.

a. The form se must be placed before any other form,
whether preceding or following the verb :

I am told.

You will be duly informed.

su

Se me dice.

Se te informara

tiempo.
Se les deja en libertad de

elegir.
Se OS ve muy de tarde en

tarde.

Se les dara tiempo de ma-
durar el negocio.

Digaselo.

Traigaseme lo que he pe-
dido.

Olvidarasete mi nombre
antes de poco (the form
* Se te olvidara' is pre-
ferable).

They are free to choose.

You are quite a stranger.
(One sees you only once in

a long time.)
Time will be given to them

to think the matter over.
Tell it to him.
Let what I have asked for

be brought to me.
You will have forgotten my

name before long.

242 PLACE OF OBJECT PRONOUNS

b, Te and its plural os precede all other forms except

se:

Te lo dirdn (or dirintelo).
Te me vienes con un palo.

Te nos vendes por amigo

y no eres creido.
Os lo comprardn sin duda.

c, Le, lo, la, les, los, las

Me lo ensefia el curso na-
tural del raciocinio.

Me le dirds que no he
recibido carta suya hace
dos semanas.

Ensenamelo.

Digasemele (not often used

out of the grammars).
Os lo presto.
Dejamelo.

They will tell it to you.
You come against me with

a club.
You pose as our friend and

you are not believed.
No doubt they will buy it

from you.

take the last place.

The natural course of reason-
ing shows it to me.

You will please tell him forme
that I have not had any
letter from him for
weeks.

Show it to me, please.

Let him be told it on
account.

I lend it to you.

Leave it to me.

two

my

The Use of the Definite Article.

321. — The two languages differ somewhat in the use
of the definite article, although the general rule stating
that 'the definite article is placed before a noun to show that
the idea expressed by the noun has been already stated '
is applicable both to English and Spanish. ' Thus in the
fable of the wolf and the dog the two animals are intro-
duced at first as un lobo and un perro (a wolf, a dog),
and are then spoken of as el lobo, el perro (the wolf, the
dog) : una noche di6 un lobo con un perro ; el lobo era
todo huesos y pellejo, mientras que el perro estaba tan
gordo como era posible estarlo ' (one night a wolf fell in
with a dog ; the wolf was all skin and bones, while the
dog was as fat as he could be).

322. — Yet there are in Spanish a considerable number
of exceptions to this rule.

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

243

a. Nouns used in the fullest extent of their meaning
require the article as a rule :

El deber primero, la di-
version despues.

La verdad prevalecera al
fin.

El precio de la plata sube
cuando baja el del oro.

El temor es mal conse-
jero.

Ama la gloria.

Duty before pleasure.

Truth will at last prevail.

The price of silver rises

when that of gold falls.
Fear is a bad adviser.

He loves glory.

b. Yet the names of material things when taken in a
general sense may be used without the article :

Entra agua per la ventana. Water is coming in through

the window.
Ruedan piedras y lode Stones and mud are rolling

montana abajo. downhill.

AUi se encuentra oro, pla- Gold^ platinum and precious

tino y piedras preciosas. stones are found there.

c» To designate the hour, the day of the week, the day
of the month, or the number of the year the article is
generally used :

My friend arrives at one

o'clock.
They close at twelve on

Saturdays.
Herbirthdayis on August 27.

I met him (made his ac-
. quaintance) in 1912.

d. Before nouns expressing titles the article is required :

Llega mi amigo a la una.

Cierran los sabados a las

doce.
Su cumpleanos es el 27 de

Agosto.
Le conoci el ano 1912.

El Emperador Carlos V.

La reina de Inglaterra.
El Alcalde de Valladolid.
Los Condes de Florida-

blanca.
El seiior Romero.

The Emperor Charles the

Fifth.
The Queen of England.
The Mayor of Valladolid.
The Counts of Florida-

blanca.
Mr. Romero.

R 2

244 ^HE DEFINITE ARTICLE

e. No article is put before Don, Dona, Fray, San or
Santo ; nor before Sefior when the person to whom it
appHes is directly addressed :

Sefior Uricoechea, ^sabe Do you know, Mr. Urico-

usted quien estuvo aqui echea, who was here this

esta manana ? — No, Don morning? — No, Don Ri-

Ricardo, no lo se. cardo, I don't know.

Estimado sefior y amigo : My dear Sir : . . ,

Dofia Mercedes Ruiz vive Dona Mercedes Ruiz lives

cerca de San Francisco. near San Francisco.

Fray Bartolome de las Fray Bartolome de las

Casas fue llamado el Casas was called the

Apostol de Indias. Apostle of the Indies.

Estoy leyendo la vida de I am reading the life of Saint

San Marcos. Mark.

/. Yet with the names of the old patriarchs the article is
still often used before Santo: El Santo Job; also when
Santo precedes another title : El Santo Apostol, el Santo
Rey.

g. With the names of rivers and mountains the article is
generally required : el Tigris y el Eufrates, el Tdmesis,
el Orinoco, jel Chimborazo, la Silla, las Alpujarras, los
Andes.

h. Adjectives in the neuter gender used as nouns must
necessarily have the article :

Lo bueno de la historia es The best of the story is that

que pasa en nuestros it happens in our time.
dias.

Me gusta lo antiguo, pero I like the antique, but I do

no desecho lo moderno. not reject modernity.

' /. Compare the following expressions :

Hablo espanol. I speak Spanish.

Cuando sepas hablar el When you know how to

castellano. talk Castilian.

Habla y escribe ingles (or He speaks and writes

el ingles). English.

^. In the formation of the genitive case one of the
articles is dropped ih English when the sign of the

ft

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE 245

genitive is used. The Spanish genitive case always requires
the article :

El padre de la nina esta de The girl's father has re-

vuelta. turned.

El regimiento del rey paso The king's regiment passed

esta mafiana por aqui. here this morning.

323. In the following instances the article is not required :

a. Before proper names :

Roberto Gonzalez, de Me- Roberto Gonzalez of Mexico

jico, es dueno de esta owns this property.
hacienda.

Juan XXII fue portugues John XXII was a native of

de nacion. Portugal.

b. The article placed before proper names of persons,
especially in the masculine, gives an unfavourable sense :

Aqui estuvo el Perico esta That fellow Peter was here

manana. this morning.

La Isabel y la Juana com- Elizabeth and Jane appea-

parecieron ayer ante el red yesterday before the

juez. judge.

c. The feminine article used with the names of actresses
does not necessarily imply disrespect. Between members
of a family it may be a term of endearment :

Oi cantar a la Rosa en el I heard Miss Rosa sing at

Real. the Royal Theatre.

La Pepita llega hoy. Pepita arrives to-day.

d. The plural article is used with family names as in
English : Los Perez, los Cordovas, los Osorios y Onates
y Mendinuetas y Gamboas. Las Caicedos (the Misses
Caicedo). With a few famous old Italian family names
the article is used in Spanish : el Tasso, el Ariosto, el
Ticiano, el Petrarca. Not el Dante, because Dante is a
Christian name.

e. Proper names of countries, towns, or islands do not
take the article as a rule :

Este libro trata de This book deals with
America. America.

246

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

Conozco a Venezuela, I know Venezuela, I am

vengo de China, perma- on the way from China, I

necere en Irlanda hasta shall stay in Ireland until

conocerla mejor. I know it better.

/. Proper names preceded or followed by an adjective or
adjective equivalent take the article :

El sencillo Don Antonio

(or El sencillo de Don

Antonio) consintio en

dar su firma.
La buena Maria le acom-

pano hasta que salio del

hospital.
La Venezuela de hace

cuarenta anos pocos

saben lo que era.
El Ramirez de que usted

me habla debe haber

partido.
La Atenas de Pericles no

se parece a la Atenas

de hoy.

Simple Don Antonio
sented to sign.

con-

Good Mary accompanied

him until he left the

hospital.
Eew people know what

Venezuela was like forty

years ago.
The Ramirez you mention

must have left.

The Athens of Pericles is
not like the Athens of to-
day.

g, A few names of towns and countries require the
article : La Habana (Havana), La Coruiia (Corunna), el
Ferrol, el Callao, La Plata, el Paraguay, el Peru, el
Canada, los Estados Unidos (United States), el Ecuador,
el Brasil, el Uruguay, el Congo, el Japon, and most of
those in which an adjective forms part of the geographical
denomination : la Nueva Guinea, la Guayana Inglesa, la
America Meridional, los Paises Bajos, la Republica
Argentina or la Argentina. Yet we say Costa Rica.

h. One may say Egipto or el Egipto, China or la China,
Indostdn or el Indostdn. The article is sometimes inter-
polated by slovenly writers before nouns like Francia,
Espana, Inglaterra, Suecia, etc. : this inelegant practice
cannot be justified on the ground of good usage or addi-
tional clearness.

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

247

i. In the case of vocatives or exclamations the noun
takes no article :

. donde vive

Condesa,

usted ?
Venerables hermanos, la

fiesta ha terminado.
I Mala manera de acabar !

k. Nouns in apposition do not take the article unless it
forms part of the noun :

Countess, where

live ?
Venerable brothers,

feast is at an end.
A bad endinof !

do you
the

La serrana, joven de buen

mirar.
La suficiencia, defecto

capital del sabio a

medias, lo habia hecho

antipatico.
Napoleon, dueno de la

mayor parte de Europa,

era mds vulnerable que

el Primer Consul.^
Lope de Vega, el Fenix de

Ids ingenios.

/. Predicative nouns may be used without the article :

Es animal peligroso de las
selvas americanas.

Esc son tortas y pan pin-
tado.

Es medico de pocas luces
y cirujano de mucha san-
gre fria.

The highland girl, a young
woman of good looks.

Self-assertion, the main fault
of the mediocre scholar,
has made him displeasing.

Napoleon, the master of the
greater part of Europe,
was more vulnerable than
the First Consul.

Lope de Vega, a Phoenix
amongst the men of genius.

It is a dangerous animal of

the American forests.
All that is trifling.

He is a doctor of scanty
knowledge and a surgeon
with much presence of
mind.

m. Nouns following a preposition in proverbial or every-
day phrases do not, as a rule, take the article :

A fuerza de sufrimientos. By dint of sufferings.
A sangre y fuego. By fire and sword.

1 Yet, when the noun in apposition is qualified by an adjective in the
superlative degree, the article is required as in English :
Shakespeare, el m^s excelso Shakespeare, the most sublime of

de Ids poetas dramdticos. dramatic poets.

Tu, el mejor de los amigos. You, the best of friends.

248 THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

A campo traviesa. ^ Across the fields.

Bajo pena de multa. Under penalty of a fine.

Con razon o sin ella. Rightly or wrongly.

De higos a brevas. Now and then.

De sabios es mudar de Wise men change their
opini6n. opinion easily.

En tierra de cristianos. In a Christian land.

Entre lobo y can. Doubtful (between wolf and

dog).

Entre manos. In hand, at hand.

Para verdades el tiempo. With time the truth will

leak out.

Per mar y por tierra. By sea and land.

Per amor de Dios. For goodness' sake.

A ciencia y paciencia de He carried out his plan in
las autoridades llevo a the face and with the
cabo su plan. connivance of the autho-

rities.

m Yet we say por la razon o la fuerza, by right or
might, contra la fuerza no hay valor, courage avails
nothing against force.

0. When, depending on a verb, one of these phrases
refers to a noun the article is necessarily excluded :

Por razon de su enferme- He was discharged on ac-

dad lo licenciaron. count of illness.

A causa de la demora 3e The performance was dis-

suspendio la represen- continued on account of

tacion. the delay.

/. According to Cuervo 'it is contrary to the genius
of the language to use the article after a when this prepo-
sition is used to signify instrumentality \

Trabajado a cincel. Chisel work.

Duelo a espada. Duel with the sword.

q. The employment or the absence of the article may
give a different meaning to the phrase :

Esta en cama Luis. Lewis is ill in bed.

Luis esta en la cama. Lewis is in bed.

Da la razon de su dicho. He gives a reason for his

sayings.

INTERJECTIONS

249

Dio razon de su fortuna.

He rendered account of his
fortune (figuratively ; he
squandered his fortune).

r. Note the following idiomatic expressions where the
article is omitted :

Voy a casa.
Sale de casa temprano.
Estd siempre en casa.
Anda per casa de D^

Mercedes.
Va de caza.

I am going home.
He goes out early.
He is always at home.
He is at Dona Mercedes*.

He is going hunting.

Interjections.

324. — The following are the most usual interjections in
Spanish. They have no meaning outside their interjec-
tional ones :

Oh ! i Ah !

Ay!

Ha!

Ea ! (encourgaement).

Huy !

Ole ! i Hola !

Puf ! (aversion).

Bah ! (contempt, affected

surprise).
i Ca ! i quid !

Oh ! Ah !
Oh ! alas ! ah !
Ha!

Come on !
Be careful.
Halloo !
Ugh! Fie!
Pshaw !

To express
contradict.

doubt or to

325. — Some words of independent meaning are used as
interjections :

; Cielos !
; Dios mio !
i Ojala !
I Vaya !
i Toma !
i Anda !
I Dale !

Heavens !
Dear me !
Would to heaven !
Well ! really !
Indeed !
Go ! go away !
So ! Again !

250

INTERJECTIONS, etc.

326. — Adjectives used as interjections require the prepo-
sition de after them :

I Pobre de mi ! Ah me ! Poor me !

I Desgraciado de ti ! Unfortunate that you are !

i Necio de mi !

Fool that I was !

Vocabulary.

absorto, adj,, abstracted,
absorbed in thought.

aficionado, adj\, given to ;
m.f amateur.

afirmar, to affirm, to state.

bajo, adv., in a low voice.

biblioteca,/, library.

conque, conj,, so, then.

deshacerse, to disappear.

despacho, m., office, mes-
sage.

dramdtico, adj.,^ dramatic.

entregado, adj., given to,
delivered.

escondrijo, m,, corner,
hiding-place.

estante, m., stand, shelf.

extraiio, adj\, strange.

golpe, m,, blow ; dar golpes
en el suelo, to strike on
the floor.

i hola ! mterj,, halloo !

novelista, m., novelist.

parar, to stop; venir a
parar, to come to.

pensativo, adj., thoughtful.

permanecer, to remain.

por aqui, around here.

publicar, to publish.

recordar, to recall, to re-
member.

revolver, to turn up; to
search, turning things up ;
rummage among.

silencioso, adj., silent.

sonreir, to smile.

subir, to go up ; subirse, to
get on, to mount.

tejuelo, m,, printer's title.

temporada,/, season, time.

usar, to use, to make use of.

valer, to be worth.

volumen, m,, volume.

327. — Idiomatic phrases : —
Volver means sometimes to do a thing again :
Volver a llenar, to refill.
Volver a copiar, to recopy.
Volver a hacer una cosa, to do a thing again.
Volver a las andadas, to start again with an old

habit, especially a bad one.
Andar a vueltas de algo, to be struggling for some-
thing.

HACER, ANDAR

251

No hay que darle vueltas, talking is of no use.
Andar a obscuras, to walk in the dark, to be in the
dark.
328. Conjugation of Hacer, to make (irregular).
Indicative.

hago, haces, etc. — [regular).
hice, hiciste, hizo, hicimos,

hicisteis, hicieron.
hacia, etc. [regular),
hare, haras, hard, haremos,

hareis, haran.
haria, harias, haria, haria-
mos, hariais, harian.

Present,
Past.

Imperfect.
Future,

Future in the past.

Subjunctive.
Present,

Past [ist and 2nd forms).

Future,
Imperative.
Past participle.
Present participle.

haga, hagas, haga, hagamos,

hagdis, hagan.
hiciese or hiciera, hicieses or

hicieras, etc.
hiciere, hicieres, etc.
haz ; haced [regular).
hecho.
haciendo [regular).

329. Conjugation of Andar, to go^ to walk (irregular).

Indicative.

Present.

ando, etc. [regular).

Past.
anduve
anduviste
anduvo
anduvimos
anduvisteis
anduvieron.

Imperfect.

andaba, etc. [regular).

Subjunctive.
Present.

ande, etc. [regular).

Past [istform),
anduviese
anduvieses
anduviese
anduviesemos
anduvieseis
anduviesen.

Past [2nd form).
anduviera
anduvieras
anduviera

252

ANDAR, OIR, VER

Indicative.

Future,

andare, etc. [regular).

Future in the past,

andaria, etc. {regular).

Subjunctive.
anduvieramos
anduvierais
anduvieran.

Future,
anduviere
anduvieres
anduviere
anduvieremos
anduviereis
anduvieren

Imperative.
2iTiA^. (regular)
andad [regular).

Past participle.
andado [regular).

Present participle,
andando [regular).

330.

Conjugation of Oir, to hear.

Indicative.

Present.

Past.

Imperfect.

Future.

Future in the past.

oigo, oyes, oye, oimos [regu-

lar), ois [regular), oyen
01, etc. [regular).
oia, etc. [regular).
oire, etc. [regular),
oiria, etc. [regular).

Subjunctive.

Present,

Past [ist and 2nd forms).
Future.

oiga, oigas, oiga, oigamos,

oigais, oigan.
oyese or oyera, etc. [regular),
oyere, etc. [regular).

Imperative.
Past participle.
Present participle.

oye ; oid [regular),
oido [regular).
oyendo [regular).

331. Conjugation of Ver, to see.

Indicative.

Present.
Past.

Veo, ves, etc. [regular),
vi, etc. (rejorular).

VER, DAR

Imperfect.

veia, veias, veia,
veiais, veian.

253

veiamos,

Future.

vere, etc. (regular).

Future in the past.

veria, etc. {regular).

Subjunctive.

Present.

vea, veas, vea, veamos,

veais, vean.

Past (ist and 2nd forms).

viese or viera, etc. {regular).

Future.

viere, vieres, etc. {regular).

Imperative.

ve, ved {regular).

Past participle.

visto.

Present participle.

viendo {regular).

a. Conjugation of Dar, to give.

Indicative.

Present.

doy, das, etc. {regular).

Past.

di, diste, dio, dimes, disteis,

dieron.

Imperfect.

daba, dabas, etc. {regular).

Future.

dare, etc. {regular).

Future in the past.

daria, etc. {regular).

Subjunctive.

Present.

De, etc. {regular).

■ Past {ist and 2nd forms).

diese or diera, dieses or die-

ras, diese or diera, diese-

mos or dieramos, dieseis

or dierais, diesen or dieran.

Future,

diere, dieres, etc.

Imperative.

da, dad {regular).

Past participle.

dado {regular).

Present participle.

dando {regular).

Exercise.

— I Que quiere decir esto de Azorin ?

Rafael ha cogido un libro del estante, ha leido en el
tejuelo : La Bruyere, Les caracteres y luego bajo : Azorin,
y se ha vuelto hacia D. Pascual para preguntarle que
significa esta palabra.

254 OBJECT PRONOUNS, ARTICLE, etc.

— Es, dice D. Pascual, un escritor que hubo aqui hace
cincuenta o sesenta anos. Yo no le conoci ; pero se lo he
oi'do contar a los viejos.

— I Era de aqui ese escritor ? pregunta Rafael.

— No se, contesta D. Pascual ; creo que si ; este libro
debio de ser de el.

— Y I como lo tiene usted ?

— Probablemente el tendria alguna biblioteca que,
con el tiempo, se deshari'a, y este libro vino a parar
aqui.

— Y I dice usted que se llamaba Azori'n ?

— No ; el nombre era otro ; esto era un pseudonimo.
Se llamaba . . .

Don Pascual permanece silencioso, absorto, un momento,
tratando de sacar de los escondrijos de su cerebro el
nombre de este escritor ; pero no lo consigue.

— No recuerdo, dice al fin, cansado de pensar ;
pero este nombre es el que usaba siempre en sus
escritos.

Rafael que es un poco aficionado a la literatura se queda
pensativo.

— Es extrafio, dice, i De modo que en este pueblo
hemos tenido un escritor ?

— Yo creo que tenia antes por aqui uno de los libros que
publico, dice D. Pascual.

— j Hombre ! exclama Rafael, i Conque publicaba
libros ? Entonces era un escritor de consideracion . . .

Don Pascual se sube a una silla y va registrando los
volumenes del estante. Rafael tambien se sube a otra silla
y revuelve libros grandes y chicos. De pronto entra
D. Andres, se para un momento en el centro del despacho,
mira a D. Pascual, mira a Rafael, sonrie, da unos golpecitos
con el baston en el suelo y dice :

— I Bravo ! j Bravo ! Hoy estan ustedes entregados a
la literatura . . .

— j Hola ! D. Andres, dice Rafael.

OBJECT PRONOUNS, ARTICLE, etc. 255

— Estabamos buscando un libro de aquel escritor que
hubo aqui que se llamaba Azorin, afiade D. Pascual.

— I Azorin ? i Azori'n ? pregunta D. Andres que no ha
oido hablar sino muy vagamente de este personaje. Si, si,
un escritor que vivio aqui hace muchos anos. Si, seiior ;
SI, si . . .

Y da dos o tres golpecitos mas en el suelo con el baston.

— I Usted recuerda, D. Andres, que libros son los que
publico este escritor ? pregunta D. Pascual.

— ^ Dice usted libros? replica D. Andres. Pero ese
Azorin, i no fue autor dramatico ?

— No, contesta D. Pascual ; yo aseguraria que fue
novelista. Anos atras andaba por aqui un libro de el que
yo le vi leer algunas veces a mi padre ; pero debe de
haberse perdido.

— Si, si, afirma D. Andres ; yo recuerdo haber visto aqui
algunas veces ese libro. Su padre de usted decia que el
habia conocido a Azorin . . .

— Mi padre era de su misma edad, dice D. Pascual; el
me deci'a que habia hablado con el muchas veces en el
jardi'n del Casino Viejo.

— Pero I vivi'a aqui siempre ? pregunta Rafael.

■ — No, contesta D. Pascual; su familia si vivi'a aqui;
pero el pasaba largas temporadas en Madrid y solia venir
al pueblo los veranos.

— Yo tengo idea, observa D. Andres, de que vivi'a en la
calle de la Fuente, en la casa que hace esquina a la del
Espejo.

— No, no, contesta D. Pascual, no, el vivi'a en la calle
de los Huertos, en la casa que es hoy de D. Leandro . . .

— No es eso lo que yo le 01 a D. Frutos, que le trato
tambien mucho, replica D. Andres. D. Frutos deci'a que el
vivio en la calle de la Fuente, donde hoy vive D. Bartolome,
el medico ... (To be continued.)

256 OBJECT PRONOUNS, ARTICLE, etc.

Translate.

Azorin is the assumed name (pseuddnimo) of Jose
Martinez Ruiz, a Spanish writer, born at Yecla, in Murcia,
in 1876. He is very extensively known in Spain and
Spanish America and amongst literary men of all European
countries. He has written novels, critical and historical
essays (ensayos), and a series (serte) of curious books
aiming at (que tienen por objeto) the description of life
in ancient [la vieja) and contemporary [contempordnea)
Spain.

In the short sketch [bosquejo) that we have given here
he tries to describe in a humorous way the manner in
which his popularity will begin to disappear in fifty or sixty
years from now. The most respectable personalities of the
small town where he was born would not be able (capaces)
to tell, in half a century, whether Azorin wrote novels,
poems, or dramas. They will not be sure whether his
name was Azorin or Martinez, and there will be some
doubts concerning the existence of two authors who were
known to the literary world under the name of Azorin,
when, in effect, there was only one.

This, of course, is a very modest view of the writer's real
merits {meritos\ He is a very well-known Spanish
author, and although we cannot say that his name will live
for centuries, because literary reputations are very uncertain
[inciertos] values (valores), yet we believe we are justified
in saying (podemos en justicia decir) that his claims
(derechos) to immortality are supported {confinnados^
apoyados) by very substantial (sustanctoso, solido) work
and by the number and the quality of th<e ideas that he has
tried to spread (divulgar) in his country.

Translate.
Un caballero notorio ^ por su avaricia^ tenia tres hijos,
uno de los cuales era de buen natural ^, pero atolondrado *.
Cuando se veia en dificultades se excusaba ^ diciendo que

OBJECT PRONOUNS, ARTICLE, ETC. 257

estaba tratando de conocer la vida. Su padre vivi'a tan
fastidiado ^ con su prodigalidad ^ que resolvio desheredarlel
Sus amigos intercedieron^ en su favor, pero sus esfuerzos'^
resultaron" vanos.^^

Cuando el viejo caballero sintio aproximarse su fin, llamd
a sus hijos y les dijo : ' Dejo a mi hijo Juan toda mi
hacienda ^^ y le deseo que sea frugaP* '. Juan, en tono
adolorido,^^ como es usual en tales ocasiones, le rogo al
cielo que prolongara la vida de su padre y le diera salud
para continuar gozando de la manda '^

El padre dijo en seguida : * Dejo a mi hijo Diego (James)
mi dinero que monta^'^ a cuatro mil libras' (pounds
sterling). 'jAh! padre mio/ dijo Diego, naturalmente
muy afligido ^^, ' quiera el cielo darte vida y salud para que
goces tii mismo de la manda.' El padre, dirigiendose en
seguida al manirroto ^^, le dijo : ^ Por lo que hace a ^- ti,
Ricardo (Richard), tu nunca llegaras a ser nada. Nunca
seras rico. Te dejo un chelin ^^ para que te compres un
cabestro ^^' * Ah, padre mio,' dijo Ricardo con voz tristi-
sima, ' quiera el cielo concederte ^^ vida y salud para que
goces tii mismo de la manda '.

^ notorious, known. ^ avarice. ^ good-natured. * frivolous.

^ excuse oneself. ^ annoyed. "^ prodigality. ^ disinherit.

^ intercede. i^ effort. ^^ result. ** vain. ^* estate.

^* frugal, economical. ^^ sorrowful. ^^ gift. ^'^ amounts.

1^ in great affliction. ^^ spendthrift (literally, leaky hands), ^o ^g

regards, ^i shilling. ^^ halter. 23 grant.

XXVII

WORD ORDER

332. — The position of the different parts of speech in the
sentence does not follow strict rules in any language ; much
less so in Spanish, the syntax of which is remarkable for
its looseness. The direct or regular order of the woi:ds
should be as follows : the article, the noun (nominative),

2129 S

258 WORD ORDER

the adjective^ the verb, and the object. The adverbs
modifying the adjective are generally placed before it,
and those modifying the verb may precede or follow,
except no, which is always placed before the verb. El
hombre honrado cumple puntualmente las mds in-
significantes promesas que llegare a hacer, the honest
man fulfils punctually the most insignificant promises
he may make. . This is the regular or direct order of
the sentences, which, except as regards the position of
the adjective with respect to the noun, is the same in
English and Spanish.

333. — There are, however, numerous deviations from
this regular order.

a. The article always precedes the noun to which it
refers. One or more adjectives connected or not by
a conjunction or by other parts of speech may intervene
between the article and the noun : el viento, the wind ;
el frio viento, the cold wind ; el continue y desapacible
viento del Este, the uninterrupted and unpleasant East
wind ; la bien conocida y no menos tierna historia de
Maria, the well-known and not less touching history of
Maria. Even adjective equivalents may be placed between
the article and the noun : < La su para ellos mal andante
caballeria,' but this would now sound affected except in
poetry.

b. The article used to be put before possessive adjec-
tives: this practice, which has disappeared from common
usage, survives still in the Lord's Prayer : Santificado sea
el tu nombre, hallowed be Thy name ; venga a nos el tu
reino. Thy kingdom come.

c. The article may be placed after the noun when used
with proper names to which an adjective is added to
denote a difference between persons or things of the same
denomination : Carlos el Temerario, Charles the Bold ;
Felipe el Hermoso, Philip the Handsome; Carlos el
Hechizado, Charles the Bewitched.

WORD ORDER 259

d. Demonstrative adjectives are regularly placed before
the noun : estas casas, estos soberbios edificios, aque-
11a insuperable bondad suya (that unsurpassable kindness
of his); but they may be placed after the noun for the sake of
emphasis: el nine este da mucho que hacer, this boy
here gives much trouble ; se habla todavia de la mujer
aquella, they still talk of that famous woman. Note that
the graphic accent is required in this case.

e. Possessive adjectives precede the noun. Mi destine,
my destiny ; sus grandes deseos, his vehement wishes.
They may follow the noun for the sake of emphasis, and
in that case they take the complete form which characterizes
the pronoun : este es el libro mio, this is my book ; en
ese barrio quedan las casas suyas, his houses are
situated in that quarter.

/. Cardinal numerals always precede the noun : Dos
hijos y cuatro hijas, two sons and two daughters;
ciento dos muertos y doscientos cincuenta heridos,
one hundred and two dead and two hundred and fifty
wounded.

g. Ordinals may either precede or follow the noun ; we
must necessarily say el primer hombre (when referring to
Adam), el primer Ministro, the Prime Minister, but we can
choose between el primer capitulo or el capitulo primero,
la tercera vez or la vez tercera.

h. Que, quien, el que, el cual follow the noun to which
they refer : la casa que vemos de aqui, the house we
see from here ; fui a ver al Ministro, quien me asegura
que el peligro ha desaparecido, I have been to see the
Minister, who assures me that the danger has disappeared.

/. In interrogative clauses the relative (which in such
cases bears the graphic accent) may be placed at the begin-
ning of the sentence unless preceded by a preposition :

s 2

26o WORD ORDER

I Que dice el diario ? What does the newspaper

say?
I Quien trajo la carta ? Who brought the letter ?

I Para que me llamas ? What do you call me for ?

I De quien tiene usted la From whom have you the
noticia ? news ?

k. The adjective, as a rule, follows the noun it
qualifies : Dias obscures fueron esos para una raza
amedrentada per supersticiones numerosas, those
were dark days for a race scared by numerous supersti-
tions.

/. The following exceptions should be borne in mind :
Adjectives implying an essential or inseparable quality of
the noun to which they refer are generally placed before
it : mansas ovejas, negra noche, azul espacio (meaning
the blue sky), sus conocidas intenciones, his undisguised
intentions ; los inveterados vicios de la monarquia,
the deep-rooted vices of the monarchy.

m» Adjectives of very general meaning may also precede
the noun : gran pais ; buena apariencia (good appear-
ance); malas maneras (bad manners); utiles y nuevos
descubrimientos (useful and new discoveries).

n. With proper nouns the adjective precedes, unless it
be used with the article to differentiate between persons
of the same name: el sarcdstico Marcial ; el pobre
Verlaine; el ambicioso Carlos; el tufbio Magdalena,
the muddy Magdalena ; el proceloso Cdntabro, the
stormy Bay of Biscay ; el ruble Tiber, the reddish Tiber ;
el azul Danubie, the blue Danube. Though la bella
Francia is correct, yet we say la Francia inmortal, la
Grecia sefistica y pendenciera (sophistical and quarrel-
some Greece).

o. Adjectives modified by adverbs or adverb equivalents
should follow the noun : mentanas tan abruptas cemo
solitarias, mountains as precipitous as they are solitary.

WORD ORDER 261

The expression tan abruptas como solitarias montanas

is, however, found in poetry or in elevated prose.

p. Very often one adjective precedes and another
follows the noun in conformity with the foregoing rules.
Tiene lagrimas el fondo de su gran mirada azul, there
are tears in the depths of her large blue eyes.

q. The adverb is placed before the adjective or adverb
qualified by it : muy bueno, demasiado rice (too rich),
perfectamente bien, no tan mal (not so badly), mucho
major (much better). It may follow or precede the verb :
Usted sabe muy bien , . ., or muy bien sabe usted
. . ., you know very well ; aguarda ansiosamente (or
ansiosamente aguarda) noticias de su hija, she is
anxiously awaiting news of her daughter ; tarde acor-
daste (or acordaste tarde), it was late when you
noticed it.

r. No always precedes the verb, the adjective, or the
adverb it qualifies : Y no lloramos mas en aquel dia, and
we did not weep any longer that day ; no muy triste, not
very sad ; no indigno de figurar al lado de los mejores,
not unworthy to be placed alongside of the best ; no mujer
sine angel, not a woman but an angel.

334. — Elements of the sentence. The regular order of
the different parts of the sentence is in Spanish the
same as in English. El ambiente esta suave como una
muselina, the surrounding air is soft like muslin. El
jaguar destruye el ganado, the jaguar destroys the
herd.

a. When the object is expressed by a noun, it is custo-
mary to place it after the verb :
Escribionovelasycuentos. He wrote novels and short

stories.
Presencio una larga serie He witnessed a long pro-

de triunfos en la pista. cession of turf triumphs.

Oigamosalos gramaticos. Let us listen to the gram-
marians.
Despertaron al carcelero. They awoke the gaoler.

262 WORD ORDER

b. When a direct and an indirect object are governed by
the same verb, the direct object comes first if both are nouns
or if one of them is the prepositional form of a pronoun :

Pedir peras al olmo. To expect pears on elm-trees

(to ask for the unattain-
able).
Dio un libro al major estu- He gave a book to his best

diante. pupil.

Entregue esta carta al Deliver this letter, please,

destinatario. to the addressee.

Di mi palabra a usted. I gave you my word.

335. — Yet in poetry, in elevated prose, or in familiar
conversation the order implied by the preceding rules is
often altered :

Un hombre conozco, ve- I know a man, a resident of

cine de Lerida, que Lerida, who has the secret.
posee el secreto.

Temas de dolor espiritual, Topics of spiritual affliction

Quevedo los convierte are turned by Quevedo

en temas de escarnio. into matters of jest.

Dire a usted la verdad. I will teH you the truth.

La mujer y la tela no la Test neither women nor

cates a la candela. cloth by fire.

336. — If the direct object is represented by a noun and
the indirect one by a pronoun without preposition the latter
is placed before the verb or may follow it immediately, com-
bining with the verb to make a single word :

Le conto (or Contole) una He told him a story to keep
historia para tenerlo him quiet.

tranquilo.

a. A peculiarity of Spanish is the redundant use of the
indirect form of the pronoun in sentences of this kind :

Le di a la senora el pa- I gave the lady the hand-
nuelo que habia dejado kerchief she had dropped.

caer (Di a la Sra. el
paiiuelo is no less per-
missible and has the same
meaning).

WORD ORDER 263

Lo que le dije a usted (or What I told you.

lo que dije).

Le ofrecieron un empleo a They offered a post to John.

Juan (or Ofrecieron un

empleo a Juan).

Es precise que a la socie- It is necessary to offer an

dad se la (or le) de una apology to society.

satisfaccion.

I No podemos decir que a May we not say that we owe

los viajeros franceses a debt of gratitude to the

les debemos la gratitud French travellers inspired

de que hayan sentido la by the sublime beauty of

soberana belleza del the Guadarrama ?

Guadarrama?

b. With the direct object this construction may only be
adopted when the second element is a prepositional pro-
noun :

Lallamaron a ella primero. They called her first.
Le conoci a usted dema- I knew you too late.
siado tarde.

c. It would be wrong (although it is heard now and then)
to say : La llamaron a Juana primero, Lo conoci a Pedro
en casa de usted.

d. There is yet another redundant use of the indirect
form of the pronoun which is called the superfluous dative
(dativo superfluo) by the grammarians. It serves to
emphasize the meaning of the sentence in which it is
employed, and hence very often it is not really superfluous :

Me temo que os enganeis. I am afraid you are mis-
taken.

Temo que os enganeis would mean literally the same,
but the insertion of me emphasizes the fear.

Se bebio la leche de un He drank the milk at a
tiron. (The indirect object draught.

se is added to imply good
appetite and enjoyment.)

e. It should be noted that the verb is not reflexive,
although the form is quite similar to the verbs of this type

264 WORD ORDER

(Nos comimos todo el pan que hallamos, we ate all the
bread we found).

/. The superfluous dative is also employed with the
reflexive verbs of the genuine type :
Se me murio mi hijo. I have lost my son.

The expression murio mi hijo or se murio mi hijo does
not convey the meaning of actuality that the use of the
superfluous dative implies.
Se me durmio el nino en The child went to sleep in

los brazos. my arms.

In this instance, as we have remarked before (see § 88),
the indirect object is used to imply possession (los brazes,
my arms).

337. — When both the indirect and direct objects are
pronouns, the order of the sentence is governed by the
rules given in § 320 :

Me lo dijo (or Dijomelo). He said it to me.

No me lo repita, por favor. Do not repeat it to me,

please.
Nos la trajeron medio They brought her half dead

muerta. to us.

Te me das por vencido. You surrender to me.

338. — The pronominal forms may be placed before the
verb or after it at the beginning of a clause or a sentence
(see § 60) :

Suplicome (or Me suplico) He begged me to accompany
que lo acompanara. him.

a. They cannot be placed after the verb when it is pre-
ceded by no, nor at the beginning of subordinate clauses
introduced by the conjunction que or by the relatives in
general.

No me dijo que lo supiera. He did not tell me he knew

it.

No encontre quien me I did not find anybody to

guiara. lead me.

No me importa. I do not care, I do not mind.

No los conoci ni los co- I did not, nor do I, know

nozco. them.

WORD ORDER 265

b. They must always follow (except in poetry) the im-
perative and optative forms (not preceded by a negation
or by que) :

Trdigame un diario de la Bring me a morning paper.

manana.

Sepanlo todos los intere- Let all concerned know it.

sados.

Mandadlos poner en liber- Give orders to set them free.

tad.

Idos de aqui. Go away from here.

Amaos ^ los unos a los Love each other.

otros.

Que los saquen de aqui. Let them be taken out of

here.

No se lo garantice. Do not go security for it.

c. The infinitive and present participle, with or without
negation, now invariably take the pronominal forms at the
end ;

No sabiendolo a fondo re- Not knowing it thoroughly
solvio no decirlo. he made up his mind not

to say it.

Ignorarlo es acaso lo me- Not to know it is perhaps
jor. best.

339.— In some cases it appears as though the meaning of the
sentence were unaffected by using the pronominal forms either
before or after the principal verb or after the infinitive governed
by it : vinieron a encontrarme (they came to meet me) means
exactly the same as me vinieron a encontrar or vinieronme a
encontrar. Quiero saberlo, lo quiero saber, quierolo saber are
equivalent expressions. Analogy has made a single grammatical
element of the two verbs, and the verb used transitively com-
municates its character to the verb used intransitively. But this
alternative is not permissible when the infinitive is a verb used
intransitively : vilo salir or lo vi salir is correct, but vi salirlo
is not countenanced by grammar or by usage.^

1 Note that this imperative form, in all verbs except ir, loses the final
d when OS is added to it. See § 60 a.

2 On going more deeply into this peculiarity of Spanish syntax, w^e may
notice that the sentences in which the three different forms can be used
indiscriminately are those formed by verbs which govern an infinitive

266 WORD ORDER

a. The reflexive verbs admit of this double or triple con-
struction both with the infinitive and the gerund : Quiero acos-
tarme, me quiero acostar, I want to go to bed ; Estoy divir-
tiiendome, me estoy divirtiendo, estoyme divirtiendo, I am
amusing myself.

b. Conjugation of Poder, to be able (irregular).
Indicative.

Present puedo, puedes, puede, podemos

(regular\ podeis [regular)j pueden.
Past. pude, pudiste, pudo, pudimos, pu-

disteis, pudieron.
Imperfect. podfa, etc. {regular).

Future. podre, podrds, podrd, podremos,

podreis, podrdn.
Future in the past, podria, podrias,podria, podriamos,

podriais, podrian.
Subjunctive.

Present. pueda, puedas, pueda, podamos

(regular), poddis (regular), puedan.
Past (istform). pudiese, pudieses, etc.
Past (2nd form). pudiera, pudieras, etc.
Future. pudiere, pudieres, etc.

Imperative (is lacking).
Past participle. podido.

Present participle, pudiendo.

either without any preposition or by means of the preposition a, which
implies a transitive meaning, or de, which occasionally may have the
same character :

Venimos a verlo, or Lo venimos We are coming to see you.

a ver.
Acabo de saberlo, or Lo acabo I have just heard of it.

de saber.
Dejaron de molestarte, or Te They gave up annoying you.

dejaron de molestar.

With other prepositions the case is not so obvious. We may say
Empezo por decirme, but less acceptable is Me empezb por decir,
though it is heard sometimes.

WORD ORDER

267

Vocabulary.

apretar, to press, to urge.

asegurar, to fix ; to affirm.

ciencia, /., science, know-
ledge; a ciencia cierta,
with positive certainty.

confundir, to confuse, to
confound.

conviccion,/, conviction.

definitivo, adj.^ definite ; en
definitiva, in fine, sum-
ming up.

desquitarse, to get even
with, to take revenge.

dolido, adj.y sorry, sorrow-
ful, chagrined.

esfuerzo, m,, effort.

firmar, to sign.

gafas,//>/., spectacles.

guardar, to keep ; se guar-
da en el bolsillo, he puts
in his pocket.

herrador, m.y farrier.

huerto, m.^ orchard.

infructuoso, adj.^ fruitless.

membrillo, m,y quince ;
quince-tree.

nariz,/, nose.

obrar, to act.

opinar, to be of opinion.

peri6dico, m.y newspaper,
journal, periodical.

poesia,/., poetry, a poem.

ponerse mal con alguno, to
be at odds with some-
body.

prof undo, adj.y deep.

prosa,/, prose.

recitar, to recite.

reloj, m., clock, watch.

respetar, to respect.

sonar, to strike, to sound.

tornar, to turn; tornar a
decir, to say again.

trance, m., emergency, diffi-
culty.

verso, m.y verse.

Exercise (end of the preceding one).
Don Fulgencio entra.

— jCaramba! (strange!), exclama D. Fulgencio. Les
veo a ustedes discutiendo terriblemente.

— Usted sabe, D. Fulgencio, ^donde vivio Azorin ? le
pregunta D. Pascual.

— i Orden, orden ! exclama D. Fulgencio asegurandose
las gafas sobre la nariz. Ante todo, ^se refieren (refer
to) ustedes a un escritor que hubo en este pueblo que se
llamaba asi ?

— Si, senor, contesta D. Pascual, est^bamos aqui
diciendo si este Azorin era novelista o autor dramatico . . .

— i Orden, orden ! torna a repetir D. Fulgencio. Con-
viene no confundir a este escritor que se firmaba asi, con
otro que hubo alios despues y que escribio algunas obras

268 WORD ORDER

para el teatro. Yo tengo entendido que Azorin estuvo en
algunos periodicos de Madrid y que, ademas, publico un
libro de versos.

— ^ Dice usted de versos? pregunta Rafael, que ha
escrito algunas poesias en un semanario de la provincia.

— Si, senor, de versos, afirma con una profunda convic-
cion D. Fulgencio.

— Entonces, ese libro de versos i sera el que andamos
buscando aqui ?

— Perdon, dice sonriendo D. Pascual, yo respeto las
opiniones de ustedes; pero creo que el libro que yo he
visto afios atras era de prosa.

— No, senor, no, afirma con la misma conviccion de
antes D. Fulgencio. Ese libro es de versos. Yo le he
tenido muchas veces en mis manos.

— Mire usted, D. Fulgencio, que yo me acuerdo mwy
bien de lo que he visto, se atreve a decir D. Pascual.

— ; Caramba ! exclama D. Fulgencio, dolido de que se
pongan en duda sus palabras. j Si estare yo seguro de que
eran versos, cuando llegue a aprenderme algunos de
memoria !

Si le aprietan un poco, este seiior es capaz de hacer un
esfuerzo y recitar una poesia de Azorin ; pero D. Pascual,
que le respeta, no llega a ponerle en este trance. Don
Pascual se contenta con volverse hacia D. Andres y
preguntarle :

— Y usted ,1, que opina ? i Recuerda usted si era de
versos o de prosa el libro de Azorin ?

— i Hombre ! exclama D. Andres que no quiere disgustar
a D. Pascual ni ponerse mal con D. Fulgencio, y que en
definitiva no ha visto nunca la obra de Azorin. j Hombre !
Yo tengo un cierto recuerdo de que era prosa; pero al
mismo tiempo recuerdo tambien haber oi'do recitar algo de
Azorin asi como versos . . .

Rafael, durante esta breve discusion, ha continuado
buscando el libro en los estantes.

WORD ORDER 269

— iNo lo encuentra usted? le pregunta D. Pascual.

— No, contesta Rafael, pero me voy a llevar este.

Y se guarda un libro en el bolsillo, para desquitarse de
sus pesquisas infructuosas.

Un reloj suena las cuatro.

— I Adonde vamos esta tarde ? dice D. Fulgencio. i A
la Solana o al huerto del Herrador?

— Iremos al huerto y veremos como marchan los mem-
brillos, contesta D. Andres.

Y todos salen. AzoRfN.

Conversation.

^Quien es Azori'n ? ,i,D6nde nacio? lEn que afio
nacio ? i Cual es su verdadero nombre ? Que ha escrito ?
I Es conocido en Espafia ? ^ En que otros pai'ses es cono-
cido ? Segun el i es probable que la posteridad lo olvide ?
I Sabian los caballeros que figuran en este dialogo quien
era Azorin ? ^ Lo sabian a ciencia cierta ? i Ha escrito
dramas el Senor Martinez Ruiz? ^ Ha escrito poemas?
I Que libros ha escrito ?

^Adonde fueron los del dialogo terminada la discusion
sobre las obras de Azorin ? i Que iban a ver al huerto del
Herrador ? i Que es un membrillo ? <i La conoce usted ?
^i, A que fruta se parece ?

Translate.
Cervantes' penury.
For the moment Cervantes was condemned ^ to continue
his tedious^ routine work ^—making up* his books, having
his accounts checked ^ by the Treasury^ at Madrid. The
personal note is seldom audible '^ in the official record ^ of
his doings ^ but there are signs that he was in very low
water ^^ in the year 159O; when he thought of leaving Spain.
On July 14 he empowered ^^ his wife and his sister
Magdalena — both resident in Madrid at this time— to
collect ^^ all manner of debts owing to him. He needed ^^

270

WORD ORDER

all the money he could scrape together ^\ The Administra-
tion ^^, though remiss ^^ in paying its servants, was puncti-
lious " in examining their accounts ; though their salaries
were in arrears ^^, they were expected to make long journeys,
and to pay all incidental expenses, without drawing upon ^^
the public funds ^^ which passed through (por) their hands.
The thing could not be done. Cervantes was zealous"
enough as a commissary '^^, but he had no head^^ for
figures '^^ and the unmethodical ^^ man had to deal ^^ with
complex % confused ^^ entries "^^^ which might have puzzled ^"
a trained ^^ accountant ^l He was constantly occupied in
producing ^^ his vouchers ^* ; he had before him the prospect
of going to Madrid to have his accounts examined, and
when the time for this ordeaP^ came (in December 1590)
he empowered a substituted^ to act for him. Meanwhile
he was in a state of poverty " extreme. One little fact ^^
speaks volumes.^^ On November 8, 1590, he needed some
common cloth *^ to cover his nakedness *^ and he obtained
it at last from Miguel de Caviedes and Company of
Seville : but not till his friend Gutierrez became security ^'^
for the price (ten ducats), and not till he and Gutierrez had
signed a bond *^ in the presence of four notaries — enough to
guarantee^* the National Debt. J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly.

^ condenado. ^ enfadoso. ^' routine work, trabajo rutinario.

* make up, completar, acabar, ^ revisar. ^ Tesoreria. "^ per-

ceptible. ® cronica, apunte. ^ hechos. '^^ to be in very low

water, estar con el agua hasta el cuello. ^^ dar poder. ^2 percibir,

cobrar. ^^ necesitar. ^* scrape together, }untar. *^ gobierno,

administracion. ^^ remiso. ^^ exigente, puntilloso, ^^ in arrears, sin
pagar. '^ girar a cargo de. 20 fondos, dineros. 21 diligente, celoso.
22 comisario, delegado. ^3 jjo tenia cabeza para. ^* niimeros, cifras.
26 inmetodico. ^6 entenderse, arreglarselas. 27 complejo. ^8 qq^,
fuso, 29 partidas, asientos. ^^ aturrullar. ^^ experto. ^2 ^on-
tador. '^ presentar. ^^ comprobantes. ^^ prueba, tortura.

3^' substituto, suplente. ^"^ pobreza. ^^ hecho. ^^ speaks volumes, vale
por muchos volumenes. *° tela ordinaria. ^^ desnudez. ^^ become
secutity, salir fiador. *^ obligaci<3n. . ** garantizar.

WORD ORDER 271

Translate.
Gil Bias va a la Universidad,

Dijome un di'a mi tio ^ : ' Ola, Gil Bias, ya no eres nino :
tienes diez y siete anos y Dios te ha dado habilidad ^ Hemos
menester ^ pensar en ayudarte. Estoy resuelto * a enviarte
a la Universidad de Salamanca, donde con tu ingenio'^ y
con tu talento no dejaras de colocarte'' en algun buen
puesto. Para tu viaje te dare algiin dinero, y la mula, que
vale de diez a doce doblones', la que podras vender en
Salamanca, y mantenerte ^ despues con el dinero, hasta que
logres ^ algiin empleo que te de de comer honradamente/
No podia mi tio proponerme^^ cosa mas a mi gusto",
porque reventaba^^ por ver mundo: sin embargo, supe
vencerme ^^ y disimular '^ mi alegria. Cuando llego la hora
de marchar, solo me mostre afligido^^ del sentimiento de
separarme de un tio a quien debia tantas obligaciones '* :
enterneciose *^ el buen sefior de manera que me did mas
dinero del que me daria si hubiera leido o penetrado lo que
pasaba en lo intimo de mi corazon. Antes de montar^^
quise ir a dar un abrazo a^^ mi padre y a mi madre, los
cuales no anduvieron escasos en materia de consejos'*^.
Exhortaronme ^^ a que todos los dias encomendase a Dios '^
a mi tio, a vivir cristianamente ^^, a no mezclarme ^* nunca
en negocios peligrosos y sobre todo a no desear, y mucho
menos a tomar lo ajeno^^ contra la voluntad de su dueno^^
Despues de haberme arengado^*^ largamente, me regalaron^^
con su bendicion ^^, la linica cosa que podia esperar de
ellos. Inmediatamente monte en mi mula y sali de la
ciudad.

^ uncle. 2 ability. ^ ^gg^ § 289). * resolved, ^ ingenuity,

adroitness. ^ colocarse en un puesto, to get employment. ' doub-
loon, old Spanish coin (about 20 pesetas). ^ support yourself. ^ get,
secure. ^° to propose. ^^ mds a mi gusto, more to my taste.

*2 to be anxious, to desire vehemently, to burst. *^ conquer myself.

" conceal. *^ afflicted. *« deber obligaciones a alguno, to be

272 WORD ORDER

under obligations to somebody. ^'^ to be moved. ^^ go on horse-

back. ^^ dar un abrazo, embrace. 20 qjj materia de consejos,
regarding advice. ^i exhort, admonish. 22 encomendar a Dios, to
pray for. 23 \[\^q ^ Christian. 24 ^q meddle, to interfere. 25 some-
body else^s property. ^c owner. 27 harangue. 28 ^q make a
present, 29 blessing.

Change the order of the words in the following sentences on
this model: A la tercera esquina esta la entrada, or La
entrada esta a la tercera esquina, or Esta la entrada a la
tercera esquina, or Esta a la esquina tercera la entrada : —

Te conozco. Una mujer he visto que no la conozco
mas hermosa. Da al nino esta manzana. Para una familia
de cinco personas o seis la casa es buena. El primer
capitulo se aprende con facilidad. Se descubre desde
aqui gran parte de la provincia. Bien esta que tu lo digas.
Que el lo niegue resulta probable. Me lo dijeron. Per-
diosele. Me lo dijo a mi. Regaloselo a ella. Lo que te
ban dicho es cierto. Para salir debes abrir la puerta. A
la tercera esquina (corner) esta la entrada (entrance). Esta
bueno el tiempo para salir a dar un paseo. Vinieron a
decirnos. Le salieron al encuentro. Dejaronlo hablar
tres horas seguidas.

Si a un padre un hijo querido

A la guerra se le va,

Para el camino le da

Un Don y un buen apelHdo (surname).

El que Ponce se ha llamado
Le anade luego Leon,
El que Guevara, Ladron

Y Mendoza el que es Hurtado.

Yo conoci a un tal por cual (a guy, a nobody)
Que a cierto conde servia

Y Sotillo se decia.

Crecio un poco su caudal (means),

Salio de misero y roto (wretched and tattered),
Hizo una ausencia de un mes,

WORD ORDER 273

Conocile yo despues,
Y ya se llamaba Soto.

Vino a fortuna mejor,
Eran sus nombres de gonces (hinges) ;
Llego a ser rico; y entonces
Se llamo Sotomayor,

Calder6n de la Barca.

XXVIII
APPENDIX

THE VERB

340. — The Inflexions, There are three conjugations in
Spanish, as we have seen. The different tenses and persons
are formed by adding to the stem certain inflexions which are
common to all regular verbs belonging to the same conjugation.
The stem of the verb is obtained by taking from the infinitive the
ending -ar, -er, -ir. Thus habl- is the stem of hablar, com-
prend- is the stem of comprender, and recib- is the stem of
recibir. The stress of the verb, which falls always, as far as
the infinitive is concerned, on the last syllable, hablar, com-
prender, recibir, alters its position according to the tenses and
persons ; hablo, hablamos, hable, habldbamos, habldsemos,
hablare, hablaria.

341.— The future and future in the past of the indicative mood
are formed from the infinitive, not from the stem. Hablar-e,
comprender-ds. The reason of this apparent anomaly is
that these two tenses were compound forms resulting from the
combination of the infinitive with the present and the imperfect
of haber. Hablar-he, comprender-has.^ Taking the infinitive
as the stem of the future and future in the past, the inflexional
endings for these tenses are the same in the three conjuga-

1 The two forms were used interchangeably : descogerd e obrarlo
ha (Juan Ruiz, Libro del buen amovj pag. ii, ed. de ^ La Lectura').
Casarme-he con ella, encerrarela, harela a mis mafias (Cervantes,
El celoso exiremeno).

2129 T

274

APPENDIX

tions. The first conjugation differs completely (except in the
first person of the present indicative and the future and
future in the past) from the other two. The second and
third conjugations differ only in the first and second persons
plural of the present indicative and in the imperative plural : in
all other tenses and persons they are the same.
342. — Endings of the three conjugations:

Indicative Mood.

Subjunctive Mood.

Present,

Present,

]

c.

2.

3.

I.

2 and 3.

■o

•o

•0

•e

•a

-as

•es

•es

•es

•as

•a

•e

•e

•e

a

amos

•emos -imos

•emos

•amos

dis

-eis

•is

■eis

•dis

-an

I

•en

•en.

•en

an.

Past,

Past [ist form).

I.

2 and 3.

T.

2 and 3.

■e

•i

•ase

•iese

-aste

•iste

-ases

•ieses

•6

•16

-ase

•iese

•amos

•imos

-dsemos

■iesemos

•asteis

•isteis

-aseis

-ieseis

•aron

-ieron.

•asen

•iesen.

Imperfect,

Past (2nd form).

I.

2 and 3.

I.

2 and 3.

•aba

•ia

•ara

•iera

•abas

•ias

•aras

•ieras

-aba

•ia

•ara

•iera

■dbamos

-iamos

■dramos

•ieramos

-abais

•iais

-arais

•ierais

•aban

•ian.

•aran

•ieran.

Future,

Future,

i»

y 2, and 3.

I.

2 and 3.

•e

•are

•iere

-^s

•ares

•ieres

-^

-are

•iere

-emos

•^remos

•ieremos

•eis

■areis

•iereis

-^n.

-aren

•ieren.

-

THE

VERB

2'

Indicative Mood.

Imperative Mood.

Future in the past

I.

2.

3.

I, 2, and 3.

-la

•a

•e

•e

-las

—

-la

•lamos

•ad

■ed

•id

•iais

—

—

•ian.

Infinitive,

Past Participle,

Present Participle,

I. 2. 3.

I.

2 and 3.

I.

2 and 3.

ar -er -ir.

-ado

•ido.

•ando

-iendo.

343. — Orthographic changes. In order to preserve the sound
of the final consonant of the stem, certain orthographic changes
are made which are not considered to imply any irregularity in
the formation of the tenses.

344.— The final z of the stem in verbs of the first conjugation
changes to c before endings beginning v^ith e:

caz-ar, to hunt ; cac-e, I hunted ; cac-emos, let us hunt.

345. — The final c of the stem in verbs of the second and third
conjugation changes to z before an inflexion beginning with
a or o:

mec-er, to swing ; mez-o, I swing ; mez-an, let them swing.
unc-ir, to yoke ; unz-o, I yoke ; unz-dis, yoke ye.
346. — The final c of the stem in verbs of the first conjugation
changes to qu before e of the inflexional endings :

revoc-ar, to revoke ; revoqu-e, I revoked.
347.— The final qu of the stem in verbs of the third conjugation
becomes c before a or o of the endings :

delinqu-ir, to break the law ; delinc-o, I break the law.
348. — The final g of the stem in verbs of the first conjugation
becomes gu before the initial e of the inflexions :
lleg-ar, to arrive ; llegu-^, I arrived,
349. — The final gu of the stem in verbs of the third con-
jugation changes to g before inflexions beginning with a
or o:

segu-ir, to follow ; sig-o, I follow ; sig-amos, let us follow.
T 2

276 APPENDIX

350. — The final g of the stem in verbs of the second and third
conjugation becomes j before a or o of the inflexions :
cog-er, to take; coj-o, I take ; coj-an, let them take.
eleg-ir, to elect, to choose ; elij-o, I choose ; elij-a, let him
choose.
351. — The verbs ending in -guar require the diaeresis on the
u when the inflexion begins with an e :

aguar, to put water in, to dilute ; agiie, I diluted.
352.— Verbs the stem of which ends in 11 or n lose the
unstressed initial i of the inflexion if another vowel-sound
follows :

bull-ir, to stir; bull-o (not buUio), he bestirred himself.
gan-ir, to yelp ; gan-6, he yelped. But in bullia the i is
preserved because it is stressed.^
353. — Verbs of the second and third conjugation, the stem of
which ends in a vowel, change to y the unstressed initial i of
the inflexion when followed by another vowel :
ca-er, to fall ; ca-yo (not caio), he fell,
le-er, to read ; le-yere (not le-iere), he might read,
o-ir, to hear ; o-yeron, they heard.
hu-ir, to fly ; hu-yo, he fled.
354. — The verbs in -eir are irregular, and they drop the initial
unstressed i of the inflexions, as will be seen later .^

355. — Irregular verbs. The irregularity of Spanish verbs is
caused either by the introduction of new sounds between the
stem and the inflexion, or by alteration of the stem, or by
alteration of the inflexion. The irregular verbs are classified
in different ways by grammarians. The classification in itself
is of no importance so long as all the irregular verbs in general
use are clearly set forth.

1 The Academy includes these amongst the irregular verbs, which
does not seem justifiable, because Spanish phonetics reject the combina-
tion nio, Hie, etc., when the i is unstressed. Henchir, to fill, to tighten,
the only verb ending in -chir in Spanish, loses the unstressed i. Yet it
keeps it in hincbio to avoid confusion with hincho (swelled).

2 It is to be noted that most of these changes are general rules
applicable to derivation in all its forms : frac, fraques ; rapaz, rapaces ;
loco, loquito; lago, laguito; duque, ducal, etc., as previously
explained.

THE VERB 277

I. Verbs which take on an additional sound between the stem and
the inflexion :

a. Lucir (and compounds of lucir), and all verbs ending in
-acer, -ecer, -ocer (except hacer; mecer, to rock ; cocer, to cook ;
yacer, to lie down ; and placer, to please, and their compounds),
take a c between the stem and the inflexion in the first person
of the present indicative and in all persons of the present
subjunctive: the c of the stem changes to z to preserve the
sound.

Lucir, to shine, to display.
Pres, ind. Luzco, I shine, I display.
Pres. subj\ Luzca, luzcas, luzca, luzcamos, luzcdis, luzcan.

Conocer, to know,
Pres, ind. Conozco.

Pres. subj. Conozca, conozcas, conozca, conozcamos,
conozcais, conozcan.

Nacer, crecer, agradecer, amanecer (to dawn), anochecer (to
get dark), are conjugated like conocer; pacer (to graze) is not
used in the first person singular of the present indicative, but
in the subjunctive present it follows conocer. Yacer (to lie)
follows conocer, but it is also and more often conjugated
as yazgo, yazga, yazgas, etc., or even yago, yaga, yagas (this
last form is not often heard).

Asir has asgo in the first person singular of the present
indicative, and asga, asgas, asga, asgamas, asgdis, asgan in
the present subjunctive.

b. Verbs ending in -ducir have the same irregularity as lucir,
and form the past of the indicative in -uje, -ujiste, -ujo, -ujimos,
•ujisteis, -ujeron, and the past and future of the subjunctive in
•ujese, -ujeses (etc.), -ujera, -ujeras (etc.), -ujere, -ujeres (etc.).

Traducir, to translate.

Indicative.

Present, traduzco.

Past, traduje

tradujiste

tradujo

tradujimos

tradujisteis

tradujeron.

278 APPENDIX

Subjunctive.

Present, traduzca Past {2nd form), tradujera

traduzcas tradujeras

traduzca tradujera

traduzcamos tradujeramos

traduzcdis tradujerais

traduzcan. trg,dujeran.

Past {ist form), tradujese Future. trad|ijere

tradujeses tradujereS

tradujese tradujere

tradujesemos tradujeremos

tradujeseis tradujereis

tradujesen. tradujeren.

c. Verbs ending in -uir, in which the two vowels are separately
pronounced. They all (except inmiscuir, according to the
Spanish Academy) take a y between the stem and the ending
in the three persons of the singular and the third person plural
of the present indicative, in all persons of the present subjunc-
tive, and in the singular of the imperative. Verbs like seguir,
delinquir, etc., in which the u is not sounded, do not belong to
this class.

Huir, to flee, to run away.
Indicative. Subjunctive.

'esent. huyo

Present, huya

huyes

huyas

huye

huya

(3 pi.) huyen.

huyamos

huydis

huyan.

Imperative. 1

tiuye.^

d. Salir and valer take a g between the stem and the ending
in the first person of the present indicative and in all persons
of the present subjunctive. The imperative singular is formed
by the stem alone without inflexion. They change the final
vowel of the infinitive to d in the formation of the future and
future in the past.

' In huyo, huyese, huyendo etc. the y is the i of the inflexion modified
according to the phonetic changes of the regular verbs ; see § 353.

THE VERB

2^9

Valer, to be worth.
Indicative. Subjunctive.

Present.

Present,

valga

valgo.

valgas

Future.

valga

valdre, valdrds, etc.

valgamos

Future in the past.

valgdis

valdria, valdrias, etc.

valgan.

Imperative.

val.

II. Verbs which change their stem :

a. A considerable number of verbs of the first and second
conjugation having e or o in the last syllable of the stem change
the e to ie and the o to ue in the three persons singular and
the third person plural of the present indicative and present
subjunctive and in the singular of the imperative :

I. Cerrar, to close ^ to shut. 2. Mover, to move.

Indicative.

Subjunctive.

Indicative.

Subjunctive.

Present, cierro

Present, cierre

muevo

mueva

cierras

cierres

mueves

muevas

cierra

cierre

mueve

mueva

(3 pi.) cierran

cierren

niueven

muevan

Imperative, cierra.

Imperative, mueve.

Adquirir (derived from querer) and jugar (which originally
was spelt and pronounced jogar) are included in this group :
adquiero, adquieres, etc. ; juego, juegas, etc.

Errar, to make mistakes, to err, belongs to this group, but it
changes the e to ye, instead of ie, as there is a tendency in
Spanish to give the sound of y to the initial i followed by a
vowel : yodo (iodo), yegua.

Verbs in -ar which change e into ie :

acertar, to hit the mark, to

guess right.
acrecentar, to increase.

adestrar, to train.

alentar, to breathe, to en-
courage.

apacentar, to graze, to feed.

apretar, to press, to compress,
to urge.

arrendar, to let.

asentar, to put down, to note
down, to set.

aserrar, to saw.

atravesar, to cross, to bar.

calentar, to warm.

cegar, to blind.

cimentar, to lay the founda-
tion, to cement.

comenzar, to begin.

confesar, to confess, to own.

denegar, to deny ; denegarse,
to refuse.

derrengar, to cripple.

desterrar, to exile.

28o

APPENDIX

dezmar, to decimate.

empedrar, to pave with stones.

empezar, to begin.

encerrar, to imprison, to shut
in, to contain.

encomendar, to entrust, to re-
commend.

encubertar,to put under cover.

endentar, to gear, to engage.

enmendar, to mend, to make
good ; enmendarse, to grow
better, to reform.

ensangrentar, to stain with
blood.

enterrar, to bury.

escarmentar, to be taught by
experience, to make one re-
pent.

estregar, to rub.*

fregar, to rub.

gobernar, to rule, to govern.

helar, to freeze.

herrar, to shoe.

invernar, to spend the winter.

Verbs in -er changing the e of
ascender, to ascend,
atender, to attend,
earner, to sift.
contender, to fight,
defender, to defend,
encender, to light.
entender, to understand.
extender, to extend, to stretch

out.

manifestar, to manifest, to

show.
mentar, to mention,
merendar, to sup.
negar, to deny,
nevar, to snow.
pensar, to think.
plegar, to fold, to pleat,
quebrar, to break,
recomendar, to recommend,
regar, to water, to irrigate,
remendar, to mend, to patch,
rev en tar, to burst.
segar, to mow.
sembrar, to sow.
sentar, to seat, to fit ; sentarse,

to sit down,
sosegar, to keep quiet, to

tranquillize,
temblar, to tremble,
tentar, to touch, to tempt,
trasegar, to move around, to

shuffle, to pour over,
tropezar, to stumble.

the stem into ie :

heder, to stink.

hender, to cleave, to split.

perder, to lose.

tender, to tend, to aim at, to

lay.
trascender, to transcend, to

pass beyond, to smell,
verier, to shed, to spill.

Verbs in -ar changing the o

acordar, to agree, to remind.
acostarse, to go to bed.
almorzar, to lunch,
amoblar, to furnish (also

amueblar).
amolar, to grind,
apostar, to bet.
aprobar, to approve.
asolar, to lay waste,
avergonzar, to make one

ashamed.

of the stem into tie:

colar, to filter.

colgar, to hang.

concordar, to be in accord.

consolar, to comfort.

contar, to count.

costar, to cost.

degoUar, to cut the throat, to

slaughter.
demostrar, to prove,
descoUar, to tower over, to be

prominent.

* It is also used as a regular verb : estrego, estregas, etc.

THE VERB

281

desolar, to devastate, to deso-
late.

desollar, to skin, to flay.

desovar, to spawn.

emporcar, to soil. *

encontrar, to find, to meet.

encovar, to put into a cave.

engrosar, to become stout.

esforzarse, to try to.

forzar, to force, to compel.

holgar, to be idle, to be useless ;
holgarse, to be pleased.

hollar, to tread.

improbar, to disapprove.

mostrar, to show.

poblar, to populate.

probar, to prove.

recordar, to remind, to re-
member.

recostarse, to lean against, to
recline.

renovar, to renew.

reprobar, to reprobate, to con-
demn, to reprove.

resoUar, to breathe, to take
breath.

revolcarse, to wallow, to roll.

rodar, to roll, to run on wheels,
to turn around.

rogar, to pray, to beg.

soldar, to solder.

soltar, to let loose, to loosen.

sonar, to sound.

sonar, to dream.

tostar, to roast, to toast.

trocar, to barter, to exchange.

tronar, to thunder.

volar, to fly.

volcar, to turn upside down,
to overturn.

Verbs in -er which change the o of the stem into ue :

absolver, to absolve.
cocer, to cook,
doler, to feel pain, to ache,
envolver, to wrap.
Hover, to rain.
moler, to grind.
morder, to bite.
mover, to move.
oler, to smell.^

resolver, to decide, to solve,

to resolve,
revolver, to revolve, to stir,
soler, to be wont, to be apt, to

be accustomed.
torcer, to twist, to distort, to

turn.
volver, to return, to turn over,

to come back.2

Note.— As a rule all compound verbs follow the irregularity
of the simple form. Devolver is conjugated like volver,
desalentar like alentar, conmover like mover.

b. A few verbs of the third conjugation having e in the last
syllable of the stem change it into i in the three persons singular
and third plural of the present indicative, in the third person
singular and plural of the past, in all the tenses of the subjunctive
mood, as well as in the imperative singular and the present
participle.

1 This verb takes an initial h in the irregular persons: huelo,
hueles, huele. In the regular forms the ti is not needed : olia, oliste»
oliendo.

2 The past participle of volver is vuelto.

282

APPENDIX
Corregir, to correct.

Indicative.

Present, corrijo

corriges •
corrige
(3 pi.) corrigen.

Past, (3 sg.) corrigio

(3 pi.) corrigieron.

Subjunctive.
Present, corrija
corrijas
corrija
corrijamos
corrijdis
corrijan.

Subjunctive.

Past (istform).

corrigiese

corrigieses, etc.
Past (2nd form),

corrigiera

corrigieras, etc.
Future,

corrigiera

corrigieres, etc.
Imperative.

corrige.
Pres, Participle,

corrigiendo.

1

Note. — All verbs in -eir (like reir, freir, desleir) belong to
this group, and they have a peculiarity with regard to all the
irregular forms in which the inflexion begins with unstressed i.
This is dropped in order to avoid the repetition of the vowel :
rio (not riio) ; deslio (not desliio), he diluted ; friese, he might
fry ; desliera, he would dilute.

Verbs belonging to this group are :

cenir, to gird.

colegir, to gather, to infer.

comedirse, to be civil, to con-
trol oneself.

competir, to compete.

concebir, to conceive.

conseguir, to obtain, to get, to
succeed.

derretir, to melt.

desleir, to dissolve, to dilute.

elegir, to choose, to elect, to
select.

embestir, to rush against, to
assail.

engrelrse, to become con-
ceited.

expedir, to dispatch, to ex-
pedite.

freir, to fry.

gemir, to groan, to moan.

henchir, to fill up, to swell.

impedir,to obstruct, to prevent.

investir, to clothe, to sur-
round.

medir, to measure.

pedir, to ask for, to beg, to
order.

perseguir, to persecute.

proseguir, to follow, to con-
tinue.

regir, to govern, to rule.

reir, to laugh.

rendir, to render, to submit, to
surrender.

renir, to quarrel, to scold, to
fight.

repetir, to repeat.

seguir, to follow.

servir, to serve.

sonreir, to smile.

tenir, to dye.

vestir, to clothe, to dress.

THE VERB

283

c. A few verbs of the third conjugation, which have e in the
last syllable of the stem, change this e into ie in the three
persons singular and third person plural of the present indica-
tive and present subjunctive and in the imperative singular;
they change this e into i in the first and second persons plural of
the present subjunctive, in the third person singular and plural
of the past indicative, in all the persons of the pasts and future
of the subjunctive, and in the present participle.

Divertir, to amuse.
Indicative.
Present, divierto
diviertes
divierte
(3 pi.) divierten.
Past. (3 sg.) divirtio

(3 pi.) divirtieron.

Subjunctive.
Present, divierta
diviertas
divierta
divirtamos
divirt^is
diviertan.

Subjunctive.
Past (istform).

divirtiese

divirtieses, etc.
Past {2nd form).

divirtiera

divirtieras, etc.
Future.

divirtiere

divirtieres, etc.

Imperative.

divierte.
Present Participle.

divirtiendo.

Principal verbs belonging to

adherir, to adhere.
advertir, to advise.
arrepentirse, to repent,
asentir, to assent.
concernir, to concern.
conferir, to confer.
consentir, to consent.
convertir, to convert,
desmentir, to give the lie.
diferir, to differ.
digerir, to digest.
discernir, to discern, to distin-
guish,
disentir, to differ, to disagree,
erguir, to raise up, to erect.^
herir, to wound, to strike.
hervir, to boil.

this group :

inferir, to infer, to come to the
conclusion.

ingerir, to insert, to graft ; in-
gerirse, to interfere.

invertir, to invert, to reverse,
to invest.

mentir, to lie.

pervertir, to pervert, to seduce,
to mislead.

preferir, to prefer.

referir, to refer.

requerir, to request.

subvertir, to subvert.

sugerir, to suggest.

transferir, to convey, to trans-
fer.

zaherir, to upbraid, to tease.

1 The initial ie becomes ye, as in the case of errar ; so we say yergO,
yergues, etc.

284 APPENDIX

Dormir, to sleep, and morir, to die, change o into ue in all
the forms in which the verbs of this group take ie instead of e,
and o into u in all the forms in which these verbs take an i
instead of the e of the stem :

Duermo, durmio, durmiese, durmiendo.

Muere, murieron, muriesemos, muriendo.

Note. — Some of the verbs of this group and of the foregoing
group form verbal nouns or adjectives in -iente, following the
irregularity of the gerund : riente (laughing) from reir ; siguiente
(following) from seguir ; sirviente (servant) from servir ; hiriente
(striking) from herir ; durmiente (sleeper) from dormir ; hir-
viente (boiling) from hervir. Yet we say diferente from diferir ;
preferente from preferir ; concerniente from concernir.

III. Besides the verbs classified in the preceding groups
there are certain irregular verbs that do not admit of any
special classification. They are called anomalous by the gram-
marians. These verbs are :

andar, to go, to walk, § 329. poder, to be able, § 339 b,

caber, to be contained in, § 293. poner, to put, § 259.

caer, to fall, § 271. querer, to wish, § 125.

dar, to give, § 331 a. saber, to know, § 133.

decir, to say, to tell, § 108. ser, to be, § 66 d,

estar, to be, § 94. tener, to have, § 103.

haber, to have, § 66 a. traer, to bring, § 319.

hacer, to make, § 328. venir, to come, § 244.

ir, to go, § 222. ver, to see, § 331.^
oir, to hear, § 330.

Note. — The compounds of decir are conjugated like the
simple verb, except in the future and future in the past, w^hich
are regular: bendecire (I shall bless), maldecirian (they would
curse), nos desdeciremos (we shall recent), el contradeciria
(he would contradict). The past participle of bendecir, mal-
decir, is both regular (bendecido, maldecido) and irregular
(bendito, maldito), not following dicho in either case. Ben-
decido and maldecido are used with haber: el obispo ha

* Pudrir, which is the form accepted by the Academy instead of
podrir, to rot, is now a regular verb. But the Academy accepts the
two forms for the infinitive and also for the past participle : pudrido
and podrido. Abrir, cubrir, escribir, imprimir are irregular only in
the past participle : abierto, cubierto, escrito, impreso.

THE VERB 285

bendecido a su grey, the Bishop has given his blessing to his
flock. Bendito and maldito are to-day mere adjectives : agua
bendita, aquella generacion maldita. Contradecir can be
conjugated like deeir in the future and future in the past
(contradire, contradiria), but the regular forms contradecir^,
contra deciria, are of frequent use, and have the official sanction
of the Spanish Academy. Desdecir and predecir are always
regular in the future and future in the past. All the com-
pounds (unlike the simple verb) are regular in the imperative.
Predice (not predi) ; contradicele (contradict him) ; bendice
a tu siervo (bless thy servant). Satisfacer, to satisfy, is
conjugated hke hacer, but it keeps the f of the stem : satis-
fago, satisfice, satisfacia, satisfare, satisfaria, satisficiese,
satisficiera, satisficiere, satisfecho. In the imperative one
can say satisfaz or satis face, the regular form being preferable.
Rarefacer, to rarefy, follows satisfacer. Other compounds Hke
deshacer, contrahacer, rehacer, are conjugated like hacer.
Compounds of other verbs, like componer, convenir, desoir,
desandar, recaer, etc., follow the simple form.

356. — There is a correspondence between the different tenses
of the verb, so that the irregularity of certain tenses involves
a similar irregularity in cognate forms. The irregularity of
the present indicative involves the irregularity of the present
subjunctive, and possibly of the imperative. The irregularity of
the past indicative involves the same kind of irregularity in the
pasts and future of the subjunctive and in the present participle ;
the irregularity of the future indicative extends to the future in
the past. Dar is the only verb which, being irregular in the first
person singular of the present indicative, is not irregular in the
subjunctive present (see § 331 a).

357.— When a verb is regular in the first person of the
present indicative it can be asserted that it is regular in all its
moods, tenses, and persons. There is only one exception,
andar, which is irregular in the past indicative and in the pasts
and future of the subjunctive.

S58.— Defective verbs. The defective verbs in Spanish are those
that cannot be used in certain tenses or persons. Abolir (to
abolish), aguerrir (to become trained for war), arrecirse (to grow
numb), aterirse (to grow stiff with cold), desmarrirse (to grow
sad), despavorir (to become frightened), embair (to deceive),

286 APPENDIX

empedernirse (to grow hard as stone), garantir (to guarantee),
manir (to rot), and a few others less common, are only employed
in those forms in which the inflexion is an i or begins with an
i : aboli (I abolished), nosotros abolimos (we abolish), aboliese
(that he would abolish); but it would be wrong to say abolo,
aboles, abolan.

a, Balbucir (to stammer) is not used in the first person
singular of the present indicative nor in the present subjunc-
tive. In these cases balbucear, which is regular, is used
instead.

b, Concernir (to concern) is used only in the third person
singular and plural of each tense, and must be accompanied by
the pronominal form: me concierne (it concerns me), esas
cosas no os conciernen a vosotros (those things do not
concern you).

c, Placer (to please, to be pleased) is still used in its old
forms : plugo (past indicative), pluguiese, pluguiera, pluguiere
(pasts and future of the subjunctive), plague (present subjunc-
tive) ; also in a pronominal form and only in the third person :
como no le pluguiese venir, fuimos a verle, as it was not his
pleasure to come, we went to see him. Placia, place, regular
forms, and plazca, are quite usual in the pronominal form : me
place saber que estd bien, it pleases me to know that he is
well ; te plazca o no te plazca, has de venir, you have to come,
whether it pleases you or not.

d, Raer, to erase, to scrape, is not used in the first person of
the present indicative nor in the present subjunctive: it is
conjugated like caer.

e, Roer, to gnaw, has no first person of the present indicative.
In the present subjunctive roa or roya, roas or royas, etc.,
can be used : corroer only admits of corroa, corroas, corroa,
corroamos, corrodis, corroan, for the subjunctive. It is used
in all its persons and tenses except the first person singular of
the present indicative.

/. Soler, to be in the habit of, is still used in the present and
imperfect of the indicative, and in the past participle.

The past definite is dying away, and the other forms are little
used.

THE VERB

287

359.

Irregular Past Participles.

The following

abrir

cubrir

decir

escribir

hacer

imprimir

morir

poner

solver

ver

volver

verbs have an

to open
to cover
to say
to write
to make
to print
to die
to put
to solve
to see
to return

irregular past

abierto

cubierto

dicho

escrito

hecho

impreso

muerto

puesto

suelto

visto

vuelto

participle :

opened

covered

said

written

made

printed

dead

put

solved

seen

returned.

360. — A few verbs have two past participles, a regular and an
irregular one :

freir, to fry freido frito

matar, to kill matado muerto

prender, to arrest, to take root prendido preso

proveer, to provide proveido provisto

romper, to break rompido roto.

a, Frito and freido can be used indifferently with haber :
han freido (or frito) los huevos, they have fried the eggs ;
with ser, estar, and tener only frito is permissible : la torta
estd frita, the cake is fried ; me tiene usted frito, you bore
me. As an adjective only the form frito can be used : aqui
venden huevos fritos, fried eggs are sold here.

b, Matado, past participle of matar, is used in a reflexive
sense : Juan se ha matado, John has killed himself ; or it is used
to mean slaughtered : habian matado mucho ganado a causa de
la sequia, they had slaughtered a great deal of cattle as a result
of the drought ; or with reference to the sores caused to horses,
mules, or cattle by saddle or harness : tu silla ha matado a mi
caballo, your saddle has bruised my horse's back. In all other
cases muerto is preferable: han muerto a ese infeliz, they
have killed that wretched man.

c, Prender, in the sense of to arrest, generally forms preso :
est^ preso, han sido presos ; but the form prendido is preferable
with haber : han prendido al supuesto reo, they have arrested
the supposed criminal. In other senses prendido is the only
form accepted : ha prendido el incendio, the fire has caught ;
no ha prendido la planta, the plant has not taken root.

288 APPENDIX

d. Provisto, from proveer, means furnished, supplied with.
Proveido is applied to decisions of the courts or of the adminis-
tration : Luis ha provisto bien su despensa, Louis has supphed
his pantry with plenty of provisions ; su casa estd bien pro-
vista, his house is well furnished ; el gobierno ha proveido el
empleo, the Government has filled the vacancy (even in this
last case provisto is equally acceptable).

e, Rompido (seldom heard) is used figuratively : ha rompido
en dicterios, he broke forth into insults. Roto may be employed
both in a literal and a metaphorical sense: el nino se habia
roto una pierna, the child had had one of its legs broken ; se
han roto las hostilidades, hostilities have broken out.

289

XXIX

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL IRREGULAR, ANOMA-
LOUS, AND DEFECTIVE VERBS

(The numerals and letters after each verb mark the group to which it
belongs, def. means defective.)

Abastecer

Abnegar

Abolir .

Aborrecer

Ab solver

Abstenerse

Abstraer

Acaecer

Acertar

Acontecer

Acordar

Acostarse

Acrecentar

Adestrar

Adherir

Adolecer

Adormecer

Adqnirir

Aducir .

Advertir

Aforar

Agorar

Agradecer

Aguerrir

Alentar

Aliquebrar

Almorzar

Amanecer

Amoblar ^

La

Amolar

ILai

Andar .

def.

Anochecer ,

La

Anteponer .

ILa2

Antever

III.

Apacentar .

III.

Aparecer

La

Apercollar .

11. a I

Apetecer

La

Apostar ^

II. a 2

Apretar

11. a 2

Aprobar

IL a I

Argilir

ILa I

Arrecirse

II. c

Arrendar

La

Arrepentirse

La

Ascender .

IL a I

Asentir

Lb

Aserrar

II.c

Asir

II. a 2

Asolar .

ILa 2

Asonar

La

Atender

def.

Atenerse

ILa I

Atentar ■'

ILa I

Aterirse

ILa. 2

Aterrar ^

La

Atestar ^

II. a 2

Atraer

ILa 2

III.

La

in.

IIL
ILa I
La
ILa 2
La
ILa 2
ILa I
ILa 2
Lc
def
ILa I
ILc
IL a I
II.c
IL a I
La
ILa 2
ILa 2
II. a I
IIL
IL a I
def.
ILa I
ILa I
IIL

1 Amueblar, which means the same, is regular.

2 Meaning ' to bet^ this verb is irregular ; meaning * to place relays *
or * to post soldiers ^, it is regular.

3 In the sense of * making an attempt against somebody ' this verb is
regular.

^ Meaning * t® inspire terror, awe ^ aterrar is regular.

s When taken in the sense of ' to witness ' this verb is regular.

290 LIST OF IRREGULAR, ANOMALOUS

Atravesar .

II. a I

Consonar

Atribuir

I. c

Constituir ,

Atronar

II. a 2

Constrenir .

Avenir .

III.

Construir

Aventar

II. a I

Contar .

Avergonzar .

II. a 2

Contender .

Azolar .

11. a 2

Contener
Contorcerse .

Balbucir

def.

Contradecir .

Bendecir

III.

Contraer

Contrahacer

Caber .

III.

Contraponer

Caer .

III.

Contravenir .

Calentar

II. a I

Contribuir .

Carecer

La

Controvertir

Cegar .

II. a I

Convalecer .

Cenir .

II. b

Convenir

Cerner .

II. a I

Convertir

Cerrar .

II. a I

Corregir

Cimentar

II. a I

Corroer

Circuir .

I. c

Costar .

Clarecer

I. a

Crecer .

Cocer .

II. a 2

Colar .

II. a 2

Dar

Colegir .

II. b

Decaer .

Colgar .

II. a 2

Decir .

Comedir

II. b

Decrecer .

Comenzar .

II. a I

Deducir

Compadecer

La

Defender

Comparecer

La

Deferir

Competir

11. b

Degollar

Complacer .

La

Demoler

Componer .

III.

Demostrar

Comprobar .

11. a 2

Denegar

Concebir

11. b

Denegrecer

Concernir .

. def.

Denostar

Concertar .

II. a I

Deponer

Concluir

I.c

Derrengar

Concordar .

II. a 2

Derretir

Condescender

II. a I

Derrocar

Condolerse .

IL a 2

Derruir

Conducir

Lb

Desacertar

Conferir

ILc

Desacordar

Confesar

Il.ai

Desadvertir

Confluir

Ld

Desaforar

Conmover .

ILa2

Desagradece

r

Conocer

L2

Desalentar

Conseguir .

Il.b

Desamoblar

Consentir

ILc

Desandar

Consolar

ILa2

Desaparecer

AND DEFECTIVE VERBS

291

Desapretar .

II. a I

Deshacer .

III.

Desaprobar .

. II. a 2

Deshelar

II. a I

Desarrendar

II. a I

Desherbar .

IL a I

Desasir

I. a

Desherrar .

ILai

Desasosegar

II. a I

Desleir

ILb

Desatender .

II. a I

Deslucir

La

Desatentar .

II. a I

Desmarrirse

def.

Desaterrar .

II. a I

Desmedirse .

ILb

Desavenir .

III.

Dcsmembrar

IL a I

Desaventar .

11. a I

Desmentir .

ILc

Descaecer .

La

Desnierecer.

La

Descender .

II. a I

Desobedecer

La

Descenir

II. b

Desoir .

IIL

Descolgar .

II. a 2

Desolar

. ILa2

Descollar

II. a 2

Desoldar

II. a 2

Descomedirse

11. b

Desollar

. IL a 2

Descomponer

II. a 2

Desosar ^

. ILa2

Desconcertar

II. a I

Desparecer .

La

Desconocer .

La

Despavorir .

def.

Desconsentir

ILc

Despedir

ILb

Desconsolar

ILa2

Despertar .

II. a I

Descontar .

ILa2

Desplacer .

def.

Desconvenir

III.

Desplegar .

IL a I

Descordar .

ILa2

Despoblar .

II. a 2

Desdecir

in.

Destenir

. ILb

Desempedrar

II. a I

Desterrar

. IL a I

Desencarecer

La

Destituir

Lc

Desencerrar

ILai

Destorcer .

II. a 2

Desencordar

II a 2

Destruir

. Lc

Desencrudecer

La

Desvanecer .

La

Desenfurecerse

La

Desvergonzarse

IL a 2

Desengrosar

XL a 2

Detener

IIL

Desenmohecer

La

Detraer

IIL

Desenmudecer

La

Devolver

ILa2

Desentenderse

11. a I

Dezmar

ILai

Desenterrar

II. a I

Diferir .

ILc

Desentorpeeer

La

Digerir

IL c

Desentristecer

La

Di uir .

Lc

Desentumecer

La

Discernir

ILc

Desenvolver

ILai

Discordar .

II. a 2

Deservir

11. b

Disentir

ILc

Desfallecer .

La

Disminuir .

Lc

Desfavorecer

La

Disolver

ILa2

Desflocar

ILa2

Disonar

ILa2

Desflorecer .

La

Disponer

IIL

Desfortalecer

La

Distraer

IIL

Desgobernar

ILai

Distribuir .

Lc

Desguarnecer

La

Divertir

ILc

1 This verb 1

akes an h befor

E ue : deshueso, d€

^shueses.

U

2

292 LIST OF IRREGULAR, ANOMALOUS

Doler .

II. a 2

Enmudecer .

Dormir

II. c

Ennegrecer .
Ennoblecer .

Elegir .

II. b

Enorgullecer

Embair

def.

Enrarecer .

Embebecer .

La

Enriquecer .

Embellecer .

La

Enrobustecer

Embestir

ILb

Enrojecer .

Emblandecer

La

Enronquecer

Emblanquecer .

La

Enronecer .

Embobecer .

La

Ensalmorar .

Embravecer

La

Ensangrentar

Embrutecer

La

Ensoberbecer

Emparentar

11. a I

En sonar

Empedernir

def.

Ensordecer .

Empedrar .

ILai

Entallecer .

Empequenecer .

La

Entender

Empezar

ILai

Entenebrecer

Empobrecer

La

Enternecer .

Enaltecer

La

Enterrar

Enardecer .

La

Entontecer .

Encallecer .

La

Entorpecer .

Encalvecer .

La

Entredecir .

Encanecer .

La

Entrelucir .

Encarecer .

La

Entremorir .

Encender

II. a I

Entreoir

Encerrar

ILai

Entreparecerse .

Encomendar

ILai

Entreponer .

Encontrar .

ILa2

Entretener .

Encordar

II. a 2

Entrever

Encrudecer .

La

Entristecer

Encruelecer

La

Entumecer .

Encubertar .

ILai

Envanecer .

Endentar

ILai

Envejecer .

Endurecer .

La

Enverdecer .

Enfierecerse

La

Envilecer

Enflaquecer

La

Envolver

Enfranquecer

La

Equivaler .

Enfurecer .

La

Erguir .

Engrandecer

La

Errar . . .

Engreir

ILb

Escarmentar

Engrosar

11. a 2

Escarnecer .

Engrumecerse

La

Esclarecer .

Enhestar

ILai

Escocer

Enloquecer .

La

Esforzar

Enlucir

. La

Establecer .

Enmagrecer

La

Estar .

Enmelar

IL a I

Estatuir

Enmendar .

11. a I

Estremecer .

Enmohecer .

La

Estrenir

AND DEFECTIVE VERBS

293

Excluir

I.c

Inducir

Lb

Expedir

II. b

Inferir .

II. c

Exponer

III.

Influir .

Lc

Extender

II. a I

Ingerir .

II.c

Extraer

III.

Inquirir

11. a I

Instituir

1. c

Fallecer

. La

Instruir

Lc

Favorecer .

La

Interponer .

HI.

Fenecer

I. a

Intervenir .

111.

Florecer

La

Introducir .

1. b

Fluir .

I.c

Invernar

11. a I

Fortalecer .

La

Invertir

H. c

Forzar .

11. a 2

Investir

ILb

Fregar .

II. a I

Ir.

IIL

Freir .

ILb

Garantir

def.

Jugar .

IL a 2

Gemir .
Gobernar

ILb
II. a I

Languidecer

La

Guarecer

La

Liquefacer .

La

Guarnecer .

La

Lobreguecer

La

Lucir .

La

Haber .

. HI.

Llover .

lLa2

Hacendar .

IL a I

Hacer .

III.

Maldecir

IIL

Heder .

Il.a I

Maltraer

IIL

Helar .

Il.ai

Manifestar .

IL ai

Hender

11. a I

Manir .

def.

Henir .

ILb

Mantener

HI.

Herir .

H. b

Medir .

11. b

Herrar .

ILai

Melar .

H. ai

Hervir .

11. c

Mentar^

H.ai

Holgar .

11. a 2

Mentir^

11. c

Hollar .

11. a 2

Merecer

La

Huir .

I.c

Merendar

H. ai

Humedecer .

La

Moler .

Il.a 2

Morder

11. a 2

Imbuir .

I.c

Morir .

11. c

Impedir

ILb

Mostrar

ILa2

Imponer

HI.

Mover .

IL a 2

Improbar .

ILa2

Incensar

11. a I

Nacer .

La

Incluir .

Lc

Negar .

11. a I

Indisponer .

HI.

Nevar .

H. a I

1 The I St person

singular of t

le present indicative

is the same

for these two verbs

: miento vl lie

; or I mention). The

and and 3rd

persons singular and the 3rd plural of the present indicative of mentar
are the same as the 2nd and 3rd singular and 3rd plural of tiie present
subjunctive of mentir.

294 LIST OF IRREGULAR, ANOMALOUS

Obedecer

Obscurecer

Obstruir

Obtener

Ofrecer

Gir

Oler .

Oponer

Pacer .

Padecer

Palidecer

Parecer

Pedir .

Pensar .

Perder .

Perecer

Permanecer

Perseguir

Pertenecer ,

Pervertir

Placer .

Plegar .

Poblar .

Poder .

Podrir {or

Poner .

Posponer

Preconocer

Predecir

Predisponer

Preferir

Prelucir

Presentir

Presuponer

Pre vale cer

Prevenir

Prever .

Probar .

Producir

Proferir

Promover

Proponer

Proseguir

Prove nir

Quebrar
Ouerer

Raer \

pud

La

Rarefacer .

I. a

Reaparecer .
Reblandecer

I. c

III.

Recaer.

La

Recalentar .

IIL

Recenir

III.

Recluir

IIL

Recocer

Recolar*

def.

Recolegir

La

Recomendar

La

Recomponer

La

Reconducir .

11. b

Reconocer .

ILai

Reconstruir .

ILai

Recontar

La

Reconvalecer

La

Reconvenir .

II. b

Recordar .

La

Recostar

IL c

Recrudecer .

def.

Reducir

IL ax

Reelegir

ILa2

Reencomendar .

IIL

Referir .

llLfootnote

Reflorecer .

IIL

Refluir.

IIL

Reforzar

La

Refregar

IIL

Refreir

IIL

Regar .

ILc

Regimentar .

La

Regir .

ILc

Regoldar

IIL

Rehacer

La

Rehenchir .

III.

Reherir

IIL

Rehervir

IL a 2

Rehuir .

Lb

Rehumedecer

ILc

Reir .

ILa2

Rejuvenecer

IIL

Relentecer .

ILb

Relucir

IIL

Remendar .

Remoler

ILai

Remorder .

IIL

Remover

Renacer

def.

Rendir .

AND DEFECTIVE VERBS

295

Renegar , .

II. a I

Sarmentar .

ILai

Renovar

II. a 2

Satisfacer .

IIL

Reilir .

II. b

Segar . , " .

ILai

Repacer

I. a

Seguir .

ILb

Repadecer .

I. a

Senibrar

ILai

Repensar

II. a I

Sentar .

ILa I

Repetir

II. b

Sentir .

ILc

Replegar

II. a I

Ser . . .

IIL

Repoblar

II. a 2

Serrar .

ILai

Reponer

III.

Servir .

ILb

Reprobar

II. a 2

Sobrentender

ILai

Reproducir .

Lb

Sobreponer .

IIL

Requebrar .

II. a I

Sobresalir .

Ld

Requerer

III.

Sobresolar .

IL a 2

Requerir

II. a I

Sobrevenir .

III.

Resembrar .

II. a I

Solar .

ILa 2

Resentirse .

II. c

Soldar .

II. a 2

Resolver

II. a 2

Soler .

def.

Resollar

II. a 2

Soltar .

ILa 2

Resonar

II. a 2

Solver .

II. a 2

Resplandecer

La

Sonar .

II. a 2

Resquebrar .

ILai

Sonreir

ILb

Restablecer .

La

Sonar .

ILa 2

Restituir

Lc

Sosegar

ILai

Restregar .

Lai

Sostener

IIL

Retemblar .

Lai

Soterrar

ILai

Retener

III.

Subarrendar

ILai

Retentar

Lai

Subentender

ILai

Retenir

11. b

Subseguir .

.ILb

Retorcer

IL a 2

Subtender .

ILai

Retostar

ILa2

Subvenir

IIL

Retraer

in.

Subvertir

. ILc

Retribuir .

Lc

Sugerir

ILc

Retronar

ILa2

Superponer .

IIL

Revenirse .

II. a I

Supervenir .

IIL

Reventar

Il.a I

Suponer

IIL

Rever .

III.

Sustituir

Lc

Reverdecer .

La

Sustraer

IIL

Reverter

ILai

Revestir

Il.b

Temblar

ILai

Revolcarse .

ILa2

Tender

. IL a I

Revolver

Il.a 2

Tener .

IIL

Robustecer .

La

Tentar .

II. a I

Rodar .

Il.a 2

Tefiir .

ILb

Roer .

def.

Torcer .

ILa 2

Rogar .

Il.a 2

Tostar .

II. a 2

Traducir

Lb

Saber .

IIL

Traer .

. IIL

Salir .

Ld

Transferir .

ILc

Salpimentar.

ILai

i Transponer .

IIL

296 LIST OF IRREG., ANOM., DEFECT. VERBS

Trascender .

11. a I

Venir .

III.

Trascordarse

11. a 2

Ver .

111.

Trasegar

II. a I

Verdecer

I. a

Traslucirse .

I. a

Verter .

II. a I

Trasoir

III.

Vestir .

II. b

Trasonar

II. a 2

Volar .

II. a 2

Trastrocar .

II. a 2

Volcar .

II. a 2

Trasvolar .

II. a 2

Volver .

II. a 2

Trocar

II. a 2

Tronar

II. a 2

Yacer . .

La

Tropezar

II. a I

Yuxtaponer .

111.

Valer

I.d

Zaherir

II. c

SPANISH VOCABULARY

(Abbreviations : adj,^ adjective ; adv.^ adverb ; conj., conjunction ; /., noun

feminine; ni., noun masculine; />/., plural; prep.^ preposition; pron.,

pronoun ; rel.t relative.)

a, prep.^ to, at, on.

abajo, adv.^ below.

abandonar, to leave, to ne-
glect, to relinquish, to give
up.

abandono, m,^ neglect.

abatir, to put down, to lower,
to abate.

abeto, m., spruce-tree.

abogado, m,^ lawyer.

abrazar, abrazarse, to em-
brace, to hug.

abrigo, in, shelter, overcoat.

abril, m.^ April.

abrir, to open.

abrumador, adj.^ oppressive,
overwhelming.

absorto, adj.^ abstracted, ab-
sorbed in thought.

abstenerse, to abstain.

abuelo, m,, grandfather ; abue-
los, grandparents.

abundant e, adj,^ abundant.

aburrir, to bore ; aburrirse, to
be bored, to become tired.

ac^, adv.^ hither, here.

acabar, to end, to finish, to put
an end to ; acabar de, to have
just . . .

academia,/., academy.

acarrear, to carry, to bring to.

acarreo, carrying, cartage.

acaso, w., chance, fate.

acaso, afifz/., perhaps, by chance.

aceptar, to accept.

acera,/, side-walk, pavement.

acerca de, prep.^ about, con-
cerning.

acercarse, to come near, to
approach.

acero, m.^ steel.

acertar, to hit the mark, to
succeed.

aclarar, to make clear, to
illustrate, to clarify.

acomodar, to accommodate.

acompanar, to accompany.

aconsejar, to advise.

acontecer, to happen, to ar-
rive.

acontecimiento, m., event.

acordar, to agree ; acordarse,
to remember, to recall, to re-
collect.

acostarse, to lie down, to go to
bed.

acostumbrar, to use, to ac-
custom.

actitud,/., attitude.

acto, m,,^ act.

actual, adj.^ present, actual.

acuerdo, m.^ agreement; de
acuerdo con, in accordance
with.

adelantar, to go forward, to
advance.

adelante, adv.^ ahead, for-
ward.

adelanto, m., progress, ad-
vance.

ademdn, m., gesture, attitude.

adenids, adv,^ besides.

administracion, /, manage-
ment, administration.

admirable, adj., wonderful.

admirar, to admire.

admitir, to admit, to accept.

adoptar, to adopt.

adquirir, to acquire, to get, to
obtain.

298

SPANISH VOCABULARY

adusto, adj,^ gloomy, grim,

stern,
advertir, to take notice of, to

observe, to warn.
afdn, m,^ anxiety. Estar en

afanes, to be in trouble, in

difficulties.
afanarse, to toil, to worry,
afecto,- tn,^ affection,
afeitarse, to shave, to enamel

the face,
aficionado, adj.^ given to ; m.,

amateur.
afirmar, to state, to afilrm.
aiigido, adj.^ afflicted, sad.
agasajar, to receive and treat

kindly, to regale.
^gil, adj., nimble, supple, agile,
agitarse, to bestir oneself.
agradable, adj.^ agreeable,

pleasant,
agradar, to please,
agradecer, to thank.
agregar, to add.
agricultura,/, agriculture.
agua,/, water.

aguardar, to wait for, to await.
ahi, adv., there,
ahogarse, to drown.
ahora, adv., now.
aire, m., air.
alabar, to praise,
^lamo, w., poplar,
albergue, m,, shelter.
albillo, fn., wine of white

grape,
alcalde, m., mayor, alcade.
alcance, m., reach.
alcanzar,to reach, to overtake,
aldea,/., village,
alegrar, to gladden; alegrarse,

to be glad.
alegre, adj., glad, happy,
alegria, f., happiness, merri-
ment, joy.
algo, pron., adv., something,

somewhat.
algodon, m.., cotton.
alguien, pron., someone, some-
body.

BXgnno, adj., pron., some, some-
body.

alimentar, to feed; alimen-
tarse de, to feed on.

alimento, m., food, nourish-
ment.

almacen, m., store, ware-
house.

alminar, m., minaret.

almoraduj, m., sweet mar-
joram.

almorzar, to lunch, to break-
fast.

almuerzo, m., luncheon, break-
fast.

alrededor, adv., around.

alto, adj., high, tall.

altura,/, height, altitude.

alzar, to raise.

all^, ^^z;., there, thither; nids
alld, beyond.

alii, adv., there.

amable, adj., kind, lovable.

amar, to love.

amarillo, adj., yellow.

ambos, -as, adj., pron., both.

ameno, adj., pleasant, agree-
able.

amigo, in., friend.

amistad,/., friendship.

amo, m., proprietor, master.

anciano,a<^'.,old; ;//., aged man.

ancho, adj., wide, broad.

anchura,/, width, breadth.

andaluz, adj., Andalusian.

andar, to go, to walk.

dngel, m,, angel.

angosto, adj., narrow.

animal, m., animal.

animar, to encourage, to en-
liven.

anoche, adv., last night.

anochecer, to grow dusky.

ansiar, to desire.

ansioso, adj., anxious.

ante, prep., before.

anteayer, adv., the day before
yesterday.

anteojos, m. pi., eye-glasses,
spectacles.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

299

anterior, adj.^ former, first.

antes, adv,^ before, formerly.

anticipacion, /., anticipation ;
con anticipacion, in ad-
vance.

antier, adv.^ see anteayer.

antiguo, adj.^ ancient, old.

antojarse, to take a fancy to,
to long, to desire vehemently.

anual, adj,^ annual.

anunciar, to announce, to ad-
vertise.

anadir, to add.

alio, w., year ; ano bisiesto,
leap year.

apagar, to put out, to extin-
guish.

aparecer, to appear.

apariencia,/., appearance.

apellido, m,, surname.

apenas, adv,^ ?:carcely, hardly,
as soon as.

apetito, m., appetite.

aplaudir, to applaud.

apoderado, m,^ attorney.

apoderarse de, to possess one-
self of, to get hold of.

apreciable, adj,^ esteemed.

apreciar, to appreciate.

aprecio, m,^ esteem, apprecia-
tion.

aprender, to learn.

apresurarse, to hasten.

apretar, to press, to tighten.

aprisa, adv.^ fast, quickly.

aprovechar, to profit by, to
take advantage.

aproximar, to approach.

apurar, to hasten, to worry.

aquel, adj. and pron,, th^t ; the
former.

aqui, adv., here.

arana,/, spider.

^rbol, m., tree.

arboleda, f., avenue of trees,
grove, wood.

arengar, to deliver a speech.

argiiir, to argue.
argument o, m., argument.
arma,/, weapoUj arm.

aroma, w., aroma.

arreglar, to arrange, to settle.

arriesgar, to risk.

arte,/., art.

arteria,/., artery.

articulo, m., article.

artista, m., artist.

asar, to roast ; polio asado,
roast chicken.

asegurar, to assure, to insure,
to assert, to fix.

asi, adv.y so, thus.

asiento, m., seat; hombre de
mucho asiento, solid, well-
balanced man.

asistir, to be present, to attend.

asno, m., donkey.

aspecto, m.y aspect, appear-
ance.

dspero, adj., rough, rugged ;
aspereza,/., asperity.

asunto, m., subject, business,
matter.

atacar, to attack, to assault.

atar, to tie, to fasten, to bind.

atencion, /., attention, favour.

atento, adj., attentive, respect-
ful.

aterrorizar, to inspire with
awe, fright.

atisbar, to watch, to pry, to spy.

atractivo, m., charm, attrac-
tion.

atraer, to attract, to draw
nearer.

atreverse, to dare ; to venture.

atribuir, to attribute, to ascribe.

atropellar, to rush, to run over,
to trample.

auditorio, rn., audience.

aumentar, to increase.

aumento, m,, increase.

aun, adv., even, still ; aun no,
not yet.

aunqiie, conj., though.

automovil or auto, m., automo-
bile, taxicab, or car.
autor, m., author,
a ve,/., bird ; ave de corral, fowl,
a vena,/., oats.

300

SPANISH VOCABULARY

averiguar, to ascertain, to find

out.
avisar, to warn, to inform, to

give notice,
ayer, c^v,, yesterday,
ayuda,/., help, support, aid.
ayudar, to help.
azahar, m., orange-blossom,
aziicar, w., sugar.
azul, adj,, blue.

bajar, to lower ; to go down
or come down.

bajo, adj.^ low ; adv.^ in a low
voice.

bajo, prep,^ under, below.

balde, m.y bucket ; en balde,
in vain ; de balde, gratis.

banco, m., bank.

bano, m., bath.

bdrbaro, m. and adj., bar-
barian, barbarous.

barco, m,, boat.

barrio, m., quarter, district.

base,/., basis.

bastante, adv. and adj.,
enough, quite.

bastar, to suffice, to be enough.

bast6n, m., walking-stick, cane.

baiil, m.y trunk, chest.

bazar, m., bazaar.

beber, to drink.

bello, adj., beautiful.

beneficio, m., benefit.

bestia,/, beast.

biblioteca,/, library.

bien, adv., well.

bien, m., good.

bienaventuranza, /., blessed-
ness.

bienes, m. pi., goods, property.

bienestar, m., well-being, con-
tentment.

bisiesto, adj., see ano.

bizcocho, m., biscuit.

bianco, adj., white.

bobo, m., fool ; adj., foolish.

boca,/, mouth.

boga,/., vogue.

bolsillo, m., pocket.

bollo, m., cake,
bondad,/., kindness.
bonito, adj., nice, pretty,
borracho, adj., m., drunk,

drunken, drunkard.
borrico, m,, ass, donkey,
bosque, m., wood, forest.
brillante, bright, brilliant.
brillar, to shine.
britdnico, adj., British.
brusco, adj., brusque, rough.
bueno, adj., good,
bulto, m., form ; bale,
buque, m,, vessel, ship,
burro, m., donkey,
buscar, to look for, to search,

to seek,
butaca,/, armchair.

cabalgar, to ride.

caballero, m., gentleman, sir.

caballo, m., horse.

cabana, /., hut, cabin.

cabello, m., hair.

caber, to be contained in.

cabeza,/, head.

cada,a^*.,/>row., each, each one.

caer, to fall.

cafe, m,y coffee ; restaurant,
cafe, coffee-house.

calcular, to calculate, to reckon.

caldo, m., broth.

calentar, to warm, to heat.

calentura,/., fever.

calor, m., heat, warmth ; hace
calor, it is hot.

calumniar, to slander.

calurosamente, adv., warmly.

calzado, m., foot-wear.

callarse, to be silent.

calle,/, street.

cama,/, bed.

cambiar, to change, to ex-
change.

camino, m., road, way.

camisa,/, shirt.

campana, /., bell ; campa-
nilla, small bell ; de cam-
panillas, important.

campesino, m., peasant.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

301

campo, m., field, country.
canape, m., couch, settee.
canasto, m., basket.
cansado, adj., tired, bored,

fatigued ; tiresome.
cansar, to tire, to fatigue.
cantar, to sing.
capaz, adj,, capable, able,
capital,/!, capital (town).
capitdn, m,, captain.
capitulo, ;w., chapter.
capricho, m,, caprice, fancy,
cara,/, face.
i caramba ! inierj., gracious !

goodness !
c^rcel,/., jail.
cardinal, adj., cardinal,
carga,/., burden, cargo.
cargo, m., employment, posi-
tion, charge.
carne, f., flesh, meat.
caro, dear, expensive,
carrera,/., course, career,
carreta,/., waggon.
carro, m., waggon, car.
carta,/, letter,
casa, /., house, home ; casa de

comercio, commercial house,

firm.
casar, to marry, wed ; casarse,

to be married.
casi, adv., almost, nearly,
casino, m., casino.
caso, m., case, fact.
castellano, m., Castilian.
castigar, to punish.
Castillo, m., castle,
casualidad,/., chance.
cataldn, m., Catalonian.
catedrdtico, m., professor.
catorce, num., fourteen.
caucho, m., india-rubber,
caudal, m., property, wealth,

means.
caudaloso, adj., (river) large;

copious,
causa,/., cause; a causa de,

because of.
causar, to cause, to be the

cause of.

cautela,/, caution, prudence.

caverna,/, cave.

cazar, to hunt.

cedazo, m., sieve.

ceder, to cede, to give away.

celebrar, to celebrate, to per-
form.

celebre, adj., celebrated, fa-
mous, notorious.

cena,/, dinner, supper.

cenar, to dine, to sup.

ceniza,/, ash, ashes.

centavo, m., cent.

central, adj., central.

centro, m., centre.
I cenir, to gird.

cerca,/, enclosure, hedge.

cerca, adv., nearly, near.

cercar, to surround, to be-
siege.

cerdo, m., pig.

cerrar, to shut, to close.

cerveceria, /., ale - house,
brewery.

cerveza,/, beer.

cesar, cesar de, to cease.

ciego, adj., blind.

cielo, m., heaven.

ciencia,/, science.

ciento (cien), num., one hun-
dred .

cierto, adj., certain, sure, true.

cifrar en, to place in.

cima,/, top, summit.

cinamomo, m., cinnamon.

cinco, num., five.

cincuenta, num., fifty.

cisne, m., swan.

ciudad,/, city, town.

civilizacibn,/, civilization.

claro, adj., clear.

clase,/, kind, class.

cl^sico, adj., classic.

cliente, m,, client, customer.

clima, m., cHmate.

cobre, m., copper.

cocer, to boil, to cook.

cocina,/, kitchen, cooking.

cocinero, m. (/ cocinera),
cook.

302

SPANISH VOCABULARY

coger, to catch ; to pick.

colar, to go in, to penetrate, to
run in ; to pass through, to
strain.

colegio, m., college, school.

colocar, to place, to put.

coloquio, m., talk, conversa-
tion.

Colorado, adj., red.

comandante, in., commander.

comarca, /, region, tract,
country.

comedia,/, play, comedy.

comenzar, to begin.

comer, to eat, to dine.

comerciante, m., merchant.

comercio, m., trade, commerce.

comida, /, food, dinner, meal.

como, adv., as, like.

i como ? interrogative adv.,
how?

comodidad,/., comfort.

companero, m., companion,
comrade.

compania, /., company, so-
ciety.

comparar, to compare.

compatible, adj., suitable.

competir, to compete.

comprar, to buy.

comprender, to understand,
to realize, to comprise.

computar, to compute.

comiin, adj., common.

comunicacion;/, communica-
tion.

comunicar, to communicate.

con, prep., with ; con tal que,
provided.

conceder, to grant.

concierto, m., concert.

concurrido, adj., attended.

condicion,/, condition.

conferencia,/., lecture.

confesar, to confess, to own.

confiar, to trust.

confirmar, to confirm.

conforme, adj., agreeable, re-
signed ; adv., according to.

confundir, to confuse.

I conocer, to know, to be ac-
quainted with.

conocimiento, m., knowledge ;
conocimiento de embarque,
bill of lading.

con que, conj., so, then.

conquistar, to conquer.

conseguir, to get, to procure.

consejo, m.,^ advice ; council
(body of councillors).

conservar,to preserve,to keep.

considerar, to consider, to
think over.

consiguiente,a<^'., consequent ;
per consiguiente, conse-
quently, therefore.

construir, to build, to construct.

consultar, to consult.

contacto, m., contact.

contar, to tell, to relate,to count.

contener, to contain.

contentarse, to be satisfied
with.

contento,^^^'., satisfied, happy.

contestar, to answer, to reply.

continuar, to continue, to go
on, to resume.

contra, prep., against.

contrario, adj., contrary, op-
posite.

contribuir, to contribute.

conveniente, adj., convenient.

convenir, to suit, to agree, to
be proper or becoming.

convento, m., convent.

convertir,to convert, to change.

conviccion,/., conviction.

convidar, to invite.

copiar, to copy.

corazon, m., heart.

corbata,/., tie, necktie, cravat.

cordial, adj., cordial, heart-felt.

corral, m., courtyard, poultry
yard.

correctamente, adv.^ correctly,
right, rightly.

corregir, to correct.

correo, m., mail, post.

correr, to run ; (water) to flow;
correr a, to hasten to.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

303

correspondencia, /., corres-
pondence.

corriente,/, current, stream.

corriente, <7^*., current, (date)
instant.

cortar, to cut, to sever.

cortes, adj.^ courteous.

corto, adj.^ short.

cosa,/, thing, matter.

cosecha,/, harvest, crop.

costa, y!, coast ; costas, /. />/.,
costs.

costar, to cost.

costumbre,/, custom, habit.

crear, to create.

crecer, to grow.

crecimiento, m.^ growth.

credito, w., credit.

creer, to beHeve.

criado, in.^ servant.

criar, to breed, to bear.

cristalino, adj.^ clear, crystal-
hne, Hmpid.

cristiano, adj. and m.^ Chris-
tian.

criterio, ;;^., criterion, standard,
judgment.

cuadra,/., stable.

cuadro, m.^ picture.

cuadriipedo, m.^ quadruped.

cuajar, to coagulate, to harden.

cual, rel,^ which ; cu^l? which ?

cuando, adj.^ when.

cuantioso, adj.^ large, copious.

cuanto, adj.^ as much as.

cu^nto ? adj.^ adv., how much ?

cuarto, m., room, quarter.

cuatro, num., four.

cubierta,/, cover.

cubierto, adj., covered.

cubrir, to cover.

cucaracha,/, cockroach.

cuchillo, m., knife.

cuenta, /, account ; tener en
cuenta, to bear in mind ; por
cuenta de, on behalf of.

cuento, m., story, narrative.

cuerno, m., horn.

cuero, m., leather, hide.

cuerpo, m,y body.

cuidado, m., care.

cuidar, to take care of.

cultivar, to cultivate.

cumbre,/., top, summit.

cumplir, to fulfil.

curloso, adj., curious, inquisi-
tive.

curiosidad,/, curiosity.

curso, m., course.

cuyo (-a, -OS, -as), reL, whose,
of which.

cheque, m., cheque ; (America) ,
check,

chico,<7<^*., little; m., small boy.

chimenea,/, chimney.

chispa,/., spark.

chistoso, adj., humorous, witty.

choza,/., hut, cabin.

chuleta,/., chop.

damasco, m., damask.

dano, m., harm, injury, da-
mage.

dar, to give, to produce ; dar
a luz, to give birth to, to
publish.

de, prep., of, from, with.

debajo, adv., underneath.

debar, m,, duty.

debar, to owe, must, ought.

debil, adj., weak.

dacencia,/, decency.

dacenta, adj., decent.

dacidir, to decide.

decimo, adj., tenth.

decir, to say, to tell.

dadicar, to dedicate.

defender, to defend.

dafinitiva, /. : an dafinitiva,
summing up, in fine.

dajar, to leave, to let.

dalanta, adv., before, in front.

deleitar, to please, to delight.

demasiado, adj. and adv., too,
too much, (pi.) too many.

damora,/, delay; sindamora,
instantly, without delay.

dantadura,/, set of teeth.

dantro, adv., within, inside.

daparar, to offer, to afford.

304

SPANISH VOCABULARY

departamento, /;/., compart-
ment, department.

dependiente, m., clerk.

derecho, w., right.

desalquilado, adj,, vacant.

desarrollar, to develop.

desarrollo, m., development.

desayunar, desayunarse, to
breakfast.

descansar, to rest.

desconfiado, adj., diffident.

desconocido, adj., unknown.

describir, to describe.

descubrir, to discover.

descuidar, to neglect; to be
careless.

descuido, neglect, negligence,
carelessness.

desde, prep., from, since.

desear, to desire, to wish.

desensillar, to unsaddle.

desenvolver, to develop, to
unwrap.

deseo, m., wish, desire.

desgracia,/, misfortune.

desgraciado, adj., unfortunate.

deshacer, to undo ; desha-
cerse, to disappear.

designacion,/, name, designa-
tion.

desocupado, adj., idle, vacant,

despacio, adv., slowly.

despacho, m., dispatch, ex-
pedition.

despejado, adj., clear, bright.

despojar, to deprive of; das-
pojarse de su traje, to un-
dress.

despu^s, adv., afterwards, after.

desquitarse, to get even.

destino, m., destination; des-
tiny ; journey's end ; fate.

desvelarse, to keep awake, to
be wakeful.

detener, to detain, to stop, to
arrest.

determinar, to determine, to
decide.

detr^s, adv., behind ; — de, be-
hind, after, at the back of.

devastacion,/., devastation.

devolver, to return.

devorar, to devour, to eat
up.

dia, m., day; de dia, by day ;
al otro dia, next day.

diablo, m., devil.

dialecto, tn., dialect.

dictar, to deliver (a speech),
to dictate.

dicho, m., saying.

diente, m., tooth.

diez, num., ten.

diferente, adj., different.

diferir, to defer, to differ.

dificil, adj., difficult.

dificultad,/, difficulty.
j dignarse, to deign, to please.

digno, adj., worthy.

diligente, adj., diligent, indus-
trious.

dinero, m., money.

Dies, m., God.

directamente, adv., straight.

dirigir, to direct, to address.

discipulo, m,, pupil, student,
disciple.

discreto, adj., discreet, wise,
witty.

discurrir, to go about, to dis-
course.

discusion,/, discussion.

disimular, to feign.

disipar, to waste, to squander.

disminuir, to diminish, to les-
sen.

disponer, to arrange, to order,
to bid.

disposici6n,yi, disposition.

disputa,/., dispute, contest.

distante, adj., distant, far.

distinguir, to distinguish, to
discern.

distinto, adj., different.

diverse, adj., different.

divertirse, to amuse oneself.

divisar, to observe, to per-
ceive.

doble, adj., double.

docena,/, dozen.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

305

documento, m,, document.

doler, to ache, to feel pain ;
dolido,^^*., sorry, sorrowful.

dolor, m., grief, pain, sorrow.

domingo, w., Sunday.

donaire, m.y grace, elegance.

donde, adv.^ where ; ^ donde ?,
where ?

dormir, to sleep; dormirse,
to fall asleep.

dos, num., two.

drama, m.y drama, play.

duda,/., doubt; dudar, to doubt.

dueno, m., owner.

dulce, adj., sweet ; w., sweet-
meat.

duque, m., duke.

durante, prep,, during, in the
meantime.

durar, to last.

dure, adj., hard.

e (row/, used instead of y before
initial i or hi, § 246), and.

echar, to throw, to put forth ;
echar a correr, to start run-
ning.

edad,/., age.

edificar, to build,

edificio, m., building, edifice,
structure.

educar, to instruct, to educate,
to train.

efecto, m., effect.

ejemplar, m., copy; adj,y ex-
emplary.

ejecutar, to carry out, to exe-
cute.

ejercicio, m,, exercise, theme.

elegir, to elect, to choose.

elevado, adj., high, lofty,
elevated.

elogio, m., praise.

embajador, m., ambassador.

embaldosar, to pave, to floor.

embarcar, to ship, to go on
shipboard.

embelesarse, to be charmed.

embromar, to tease, to annoy.

embuste, 7n., lie.

emision,/., issue.

emparedado, m,, sandwich.

empefio, desire, effort, engage-
ment.

emperador, m., emperor.

empezar, to begin.

emplear, to employ, to use.

empleo, employment, use.

emprender, to undertake.

en, prep., in, at, on ; en medio,
amidst, amid.

encargo, m., order, charge.

encender, to kindle.

encima, above, on top.

encina,/., evergreen oak.

encontrar, to find, to njeet.

enemigo, m., enemy.

Enero, m., January.

enfermo, <7^'., ill, sick; m.,
patient.

enganar, to deceive ; enga-
narse, to be mistaken.

enhiesto, adj., upright, erect.

enorme, adj., enormous.

enramada,/., bower, grove.

ensenar, to teach, to show.

enteramente, adv., entirely.

enterarse, to become aware,
to discover.

enternecerse, to be touched,

entonces, adv., then.

entrada,/., entrance, opening.

entrar, to enter, to get in, to
go in, to come in.

entre, prep., between, amidst,
among, in.

entregar, to deliver, to hand,
to give.

entretanto, adv,, meanwhile.

entretenido, adj,, amusing,
entertaining.

entusiasmo, m., enthusiasm.

enviar, to send.

epoca,/., epoch, age, time.

equivocaci6n,/,mistake,error.

era,/., threshing-floor, potato-
patch ; era.

erizsLT, to bristle.

error, m., error, riistake.

escapar, to escape, to flee.

X

3o6

SPANISH VOCABULARY

escaso, adj.^ scarce, short,
escena,/., scene.
escoger, to select, to choose.
escondrijo, m., hiding-place.
escribir, to write,
escritor, m.^ writer, author.
escritura,/., writing, deed.
escuchar, to listen to ; to

hear,
escuela,/., school,
ese, pron., that.
esencial, adj\, essential.
esfuerzo, m,, effort.
esmeradamente, adv., care-
fully.
espacio, w., space, room.
espada, /., sword.
espantar, to frighten.
espanol, adj., m., Spanish,

Spaniard.
esparcir, to spread, to scatter.
especial, adj., special,
especie,/., kind, species.
espejo, m., mirror.
esperanza,/., hope.
esperar, to await, to wait, to

expect, to hope for.
espeso, adj., dense, thick.
espiritu, w., spirit, mind.
esplendido, adj., splendid,

magnificent.
esposa,/., wife ; esposas,/. pL,

handcuffs.
esposo, m., husband,
esquina,/, corner.
establecer, to" establish.
estacion,/., season, station.
estado, m., state, condition ;

los Estados Unidos, the

United States.
estampar, to print, to stamp.
estante, m., shelf, bookcase.
estar, to be.
Este, m. and adj., East.
este, pron,, this.
estilo, m., style.
estimar, to prize, to esteem.
estlo, w., summer,
estorbar, to hinder, to obstruct,

to hamper.

estudiar, to study, to investi-
gate.

estudio, m., study.

esttipido, adj., stupid, foolish.

eterno, adj., eternal.

evitar, to avoid.

exacto, adj., exact.

examinar, to examine ; to look
into.

excelente, adj., excellent.

excepto, adv., except, but, ex-
cepting.

exclamar, to exclaim.

exhortar, to exhort, to warn.

existir, to exist, to be.

exito, m., outcome, success.

explicar, to explain.

exponer,to lay down,to explain.

exportar, to export.

expresarse, to express one's
self

expreso, adj., in., express.

extender, to extend.

extenso, adj., extensive.

exterior, adj., external, out-,
ward ; m., outside.

extraer, to draw, to extract.

extranjero, adj., foreign.

extranjero, m., foreigner; en
el extranjero, abroad.

extrano, m., stranger ; adj.,
strange.

extremidad, /., extreme part,
extremity.

extreme, in., extremity ; en
extreme, extremely.

fabricar, to manufacture, to

make.
fdbtila,/, fable,
fdcil, adj., easy,
factura,/., bill, invoice.
falda,/, skirt.
false, adj., untrue, false,
falta,/., fault.
faltar, to be lacking, to be

missing.
familia,/, family.
famoso, adj., famous.
fantasma, m., phantom.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

307

farol, in., lantern, street lamp.

fastidiar, to annoy.

fatiga,/, hardship, toil, fatigue.

fatigado, adj., tired, fatigued.

favor, w., favour.

fe,/, faith.

Febrero, m., February.

fecha,/, date.

fechado, adj., dated.

feliz, adj., happy.

fee, adj., ugly.

feroz, adj., fierce, ferocious.

ferreteria, /, hardware, hard-
ware store.

ferrocarril, tn., railway, rail-
road.

fertil, adj., fertile.

festivo, adj., festive, jovial.

fiambre, m., cold meat.

fiel, adj., faithful.

fiesta, /, feast, festival, festi-
vity, merry-making.

figurarse, to fancy, to imagine.

fila,/., row, file.

fin, m., end, purpose.

firma,y], signature, firm.

firmar, to sign.

flaco, adj., meagre, weak, frail.

flauta,/, flute.

flor,/., flower.

florecer, to bloom.

forastero, m., stranger.

formalidad, /, seriousness,
gravity, formality.

forma.r, to form.

frac, m., dress-coat.

franco, adj., frank.

frase,/., phrase.

frecuente, adj., frequent.

freir, to fry ; frito, adj., fried.

freno, ;;/., bridle, brake.

frente,/, forehead.

fresco, adj., cool, fresh.

frescura,/., coolness.

frio, m. and adj., cold.

frisar, to approach, to be on
the boundary of.

fruto, 771., fruit ; fruta, /,
fruit (edible).

fit ego, m,, fire.

fuente,/, spring, source, foun-
tain.

fuera, adv., outside, out.

fuerte, adj., strong.

fuerza,/, strength.

fulano, 7n., So-and-So.

fundar, to found.

future, m, and adj., future,
coming.

gafas, / pL, spectacles, eye-
glasses.

gallego, adj., Galician.

gallina,/, hen.

gallinero, ;;/., hennery, hen-
roost.

gallo, m., cock, rooster.

gana,/, inclination, mind, de-
sire.

ganado, in., cattle.

ganancia,/, profit.

ganar, to earn, to win.

ganir, to yelp.

garra,/., claw.

gastar, to spend.

gasto, m., expense.

gate, in., cat.

general, m. and adj., general.

genero, m., kind ; pL, generos,
goods.

generoso, adj., generous.

genio, m., character, disposi-
tion, genius.

gente,/, people.

geogrdfico, adj., geographic.

gestion,/., management.

girar, to turn, to revolve ; to
draw on.

giro, in., draft, bill of ex-
change.

gloria,/., glory.

gobernador, m., governor.

gobierno, m., government.

golfo, m., gulf, bay.

golondrina, /, swallow.

golpe, m., blow.

gorrion, in., sparrow.

gozar de, to enjoy.

gracia,/, grace, favour.

gracias,/. pL, thanks.

3o8

SPANISH VOCABULARY

gracioso, adj.^ graceful, arch,
amusing.

grado, w., degree.

gramdtica,/, grammar.

gran, grande, adj,^ large, big,
great.

grandeza,/, greatness.

gratitud, /., gratitude, thank-
fulness.

grato, adj.^ pleasing, agree-
able.

gritar, to scream, to cry.

grupo, Wf ., group.

guante, in., glove.

guapo, adj., handsome, pretty,
neat ; sprightly, gallant.

guardar, to keep, to guard, to
watch.

guarnecer, to garnish, to
border, to protect.

guerra,/., war.

guia, m, and/., guide.

guisar, to cook.

gustar de, to like, to be fond of.

gusto, m., taste, pleasure.

haber, to have.

hdbil, adj,, able, skilful.

habitacion, /., room, apart-
ment.

habitante, m., inhabitant.

habitar, to inhabit.

habla, /, language, talk, dis-
course.

hablar, to speak, to talk.

hacendado, m., farmer, land-
owner.

hacer, to make, to do.

hacia,/r^/>., towards.

hacienda,/, farm.

hallar, to find ; — se, to be.

hambre, /, hunger; tener
hambre, to be hungry.

harto, adv., quite, plenty ; adj.,^
full, complete.

hasta, prep., as far as, until,
till, even.

hecho, m.^ fact ; part., made.

hemisferio, m., hemisphere.

heno, m., hay.

heredar, to inherit.

herida,/, wound.

hermano, m., brother ; her-
niana,/., sister.

hermoso, adj., beautiful ; hand-
some, fine.

hermosura,/, beauty.

heroe, in., hero.

herrador, in., farrier.

herramienta,/, tool.

hielo, m,, ice, frost.

hierro, in., iron.

hijo, w., son ; hija,/., daughter.

hinchar, to swell.

historia,/, history.

historico, adj», historic.

hombre, w., man.

honrado, adj., honest.

hora,/, hour.

hormiga,/, ant.

hormiguero, m., ant-hill.

horrible, adj., horrible, awful.

horror, in., horror, awe.

hotel, m., hotel.

hoy, adv., to-day.

hoyo, m., hole, pit.

hueco, nt. and adj., hollow.

huelga,/., strike.

huerta,/., vegetable garden.

huerto, m., orchard, fruit gar-
den.

huesped, m., guest, host,
boarder.

huespeda,/., guest (or hostess) ;
landlady.

huevo, m., ^g'g.

huir, to flee, to run away.

humano, adj., human ; humane.

humanidad, /, human kind,
humanity.

hiimedo, adj., moist, wet, damp.

humilde, adj., humble.

humo, in., smoke.

idea,/., idea.

id^ntico, a^'., identical, equal.
idioma, ;;/., language.
iglesia, /I, church.
ignorante, adj., m., stupid,
io^norant.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

309

ignorar, to be ignorant of.

imaginacion,/, imagination.

imitar, to imitate.

imperio, m., empire.

impertinente, adj,, imperti-
nent.

importancia, /., importance.

importante, adj., important.

importar, to import.

imposible, adj., impossible.

imprenta,/, press.

impresionar, to impress.

imprimir, to print.

incierto, adj., uncertain.

incluir, to include.

indeciso, adj., hesitating, un-
decided.

indigena, m., native.

indignado, adj., indignant.

indio, m., Indian.

indudable, adj., unquestion-
able, undoubted.

inesperado, unexpected.

infeliz, adj., unhappy, luck-
less.

inferior, adj\, inferior, lower.

infinito, infinite, endless.

influjo, m., influence, influx.

informar, to inform, to re-
port.

infructuoso, adj., fruitless.

ingles, adj., m., English.

inmediatamente, adv,, im-
mediately.

inmediato, adj., immediate.

inmortal, immortal.

innumerable, a^*., numberless.

inocente, adj., innocent.

in olvidable,^<r//'., unforgettable.

inquietud,/, uneasiness, rest-
lessness.

insistir, to insist.

insoportable, adj., unbearable.

instante, m., instant.

instructivo, adj., instructive,
enhghtening.

inteligente, adj., intelligent,
clever.

interes, m., interest.

interesante, adj., interesting.

interior, m., inner part ; adj.,
inside.

internar, to confine, to take to
the interior of a country.

interrumpir, to interrupt.

intimo, adj., intimate, deep.

introducir, to introduce.

iniitil, adj., useless.

inverosimil, adj., unlikely.

invertir, to invert; to in-
vest.

invierno, m.^ winter.

ir, to go.

isla,/, island.

istmo, m., isthmus.

izquierdo, adj., left.

jabon, m., soap,
jactarse, to boast of.
jaguar, m,, jaguar,
jamds, adv., never, ever,
jamon, m., ham.
jardin, m., garden,
jinete, m., horseman, rider,
joven, in,, young man; /.,

young girl,
joya,/, jewel,
jueves, m., Thursday,
juez, m,, judge,
jugar, to play,
junio, m., June.
Junta Directiva, /., Board of

Directors,
juntamente, adv., together,

jointly.
juntar, to join.
junto, adj., together, adv., close

by, near to.
justicia,/., justice.
justo, adj., just.
juventud,/, youth.

labrar, to till, to cultivate.
labriego, m., farm-labourer.
lado, m., side.
l^grima,/., tear,
lana,/., wool.

lance, m., incident, episode.
largo, adj., long; a lo largo,
along.

310

SPANISH VOCABULARY

last! ma, /.J pity.

latin, fHf latin.

lavar, to wash.

lavoteo, m., hasty washing.

leccion,/., lesson.

lectura,/, reading.

leche,/, milk.

lecheria,/., dairy.

leer, to read.

lejos, adv., far.

lento, adj,, slow ; lentamente,
adv., slowly.

letra,/, letter.

le van tar, to lift, to raise.

libre, adj., free.

libro, m., book.

licencia, /, leave of absence,
permit, licence.

ligar, to bind, to attach.

ligero, adj., thin, light, slight ;
gentle, swift.

limpiar, to clean.

limpio, adj., clean.

lindo, adj., pretty.

linea,/, line.

liquido, m.^ adj., liquid.

lirio, m., lily.

lisonjear, to flatter.

\i%\.o,adj., ready, handy ; clever.

lobo, m., wolf

locomotora,/, locomotive.

locuacidad,/., loquacity, talka-
tiveness.

lograr, to attain, to succeed.

loseta,/, small paving tile.

lucir, to show, to shine.

luego, adv., soon, then.

lugar, m., place, village ; en
lugar de, instead of

lugareiio, peasant, country-
man.

Itina,/, moon.

lunes, m., Monday.

luz, /, light; dar a luz, to
publish, to issue, to give
birth to.

llamar, to call, to be called, to
name; ^como se llama?

what is his name ?

llegada,/., arrival.

llegar, to arrive, to come.

llenar, to fill.

lleno, adj., full ; de lleno, fully,

entirely.
Uevar, to carry, to take to, to

bear, to bring.
llorar, to cry, to weep.
Hover, to rain.
Uuvia,/., rain.

macizo, adj., massive, solid.

madera,/., wood, lumber.

madre,/, mother.

madrugada,/, morning.

madrugar, to rise early.

madurar, to ripen.

maduro, adj., ripe.

maestro, m., maestra, /.,
teacher.

m^gico, adj., magic.

magnifico, adj., magnificent.

mahon, m., nankeen.

maiz, m., maize, corn.

mal, adv., badly, wrong.

mal, malo, adj., bad.

maleta,y., valise.

malicia,/, cunning, malice.

malicioso, adj,, cunning, ma-
licious.

mani^,/., mamma, mother.

manclia,/., stain, spot.

manchego, adj., appertaining
to la Mancha.

mandar, to send, to command,
to order.

mandria, m., good-for-nothing
person, poltroon.

manera,/, manner, way.

manga,/., sleeve.

manifestar, to manifest, to in-
form.

manifiesto, adj., manifest, ob-
vious.

manjar, m., food, article of
food.

mano,/, hand.

mansion,/., mansion.

manso, adj., tame, gentle.

manteca de vaca,/, butter.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

311

mantener, to keep, to uphold.

mantequilla,/., butter.

manzana,/, apple.

manzano, m., apple-tree.

manana, /i, morning ; adv., to-
morrow.

m^quina,/, machine, engine.

maquinaria,/., machinery.

mar, m.,f.y sea.

maravilla,/., marvel, wonder.

maravilloso, adj., marvellous,
wonderful.

marcar, to register, to mark,
to brand.

marcha, /., course ; march,
progress.

marchar, to walk, to march ;
marcharse, to go away, to
leave.

margarita,/., daisy.

marido, m., husband.

martes, w., Tuesday.

Marzo, m., March.

mds, adv., more; mds bien,
rather.

mas, conj., but.

matar, to kill.

materia, /., matter; en ma-
teria de, regarding, concern-
ing.

material, w., material.

mayor, adj., larger, greater;
elder, older.

mayordomo, m., butler, major-
domo.

mecer, to stir, to rock.

mediados (a), towards the
middle.

medico, m., doctor.

medida,/, measure ; a medida
que, in proportion as.

medio, m., middle ; pL, means ;
en medio, amid ; per medio,
through, throughout, by
means of.

medio, adj., half, mean, aver-
age.

mediodia, m., noon, midday.

medir, to measure.

mejor, adj,, adv., better.

mejora,/., improvement.
melancolico, adj., melancholy,
membrillo, m., quince,
memoria, /, memory ; /. pi.,

regards, remembrances.
mendigo, m., beggar, mendi-
cant.
menor, adj,, smaller, younger ;

m., minor.
menos, adj., adv., less, minus ;

a menos, unless,
mentir, to lie; mentira, /,

lie.
menudo, adj., fine, minute ; a

menudo, often, frequently,
mercaderla,/, merchandise.
mercado, m., market.
mercancia,/., merchandise,
merced, /, reward, mercy ;

merced a, owing to.
merito, m., merit,
mero, adj., mere.
mes, m., month,
meter, to put, to put into ;

meterse, to meddle, to inter-
fere,
metodo, m., method, way.
mezclar, to mix; mezclarse,

to meddle, to interfere.
mezquino, adj., poor, meagre,

mean,
mezquita,/., mosque,
miedo, m., fear,
miembro, m., limb, member,
mientras, conj., while; mien-

tras que, whereas,
migas, /;{>/., marrow, crumbs.
mil, num., thousand,
milla,/., mile.
millon, m., million.
ministro, m., minister, cabinet

officer, secretary of state.
minute, m., minute,
mirada,/, glance, look.
mirar, to look at, to gaze.
miseria,/, poverty, misery.
misero, adj., miserable.
mismo, adj., same, very; el

mismo, himself.
misterio, m., mystery.

312

SPANISH VOCABULARY

mitad,/., half.

moda,/., fashion, style.

moderno, adj.^ modern.

modesto, adj.^ modest.

modificar, to modify.

modista, /., milliner, dress-
maker.

modo, m,^ manner, way; de
modo que, so that.

mojado, adj.^ wet, damp.

mojar, to wet, to drench.

molestar, to bother, to annoy,
to trouble, to worry.

momento, ni,^ moment.

monarca, w., monarch, ruler.

moneda,/., coin.

monje, m,^ monk.

mono, m.^ monkey, ape.

monstruo, nu^ monster, pro-

montana,/., mountam.

montar, to mount, to ride.

monte, m.^ mountain.

monton, m.^ heap.

monumental, adj.^ monumen-
tal.

morado, adj.^ purple, violet,

morador, m.^^ dweller.

moral eja,/, moral.

morder, to bite.

moreno, adj.^ brown.

morir, to die.

mortal, adj.^ mortal.

mostrador, m.^ counter.

mostrar, to show. ^

motivo, m.^ motive.

mover, to move.

movimiento, fn.^ motion.

mozo, m.^ servant; young man.

muchacha,/, girl.

muchedumbre,/, crowd, multi-
tude.

mucho, adj,^ much, a great
deal of.

mucho, adv.^ much, a great
deal.

muebles, m, />/., furniture.

muelle, m.^ spring, quay.

muerte,/., death.

muerto, adj.^ dead.

mujer,/., woman, wife.

mula,/.; mule.

mundo, m., world.

muralla,/., wall, rampart.

murcielago, m.^ bat.

murmurar,to grumble, to com-
plain.

muro, m.^ wall.

musculoso, adj.^ brawny, mus-
cular.

miisica,/., music.

muy, adv,^ very.

nacer, to be born.

nacimiento, m,^ birth, source.

nada, />row.,j^., nothing.

nadar, to swim.

nadie, pron., no one, nobody.

naranja, f., orange.

nariz, /., nose.

narrar, to narrate, to relate.

natal, adj.^ native, natal.

natural, m,, native ; adj., na-
tural.

naturaleza, /., nature.

necesario, adj., necessary.

necesitar, to need.

necio, m., fool ; adj., silly.

negar, to deny ; -se, to refuse.

negocio, m., business, affair.

negro, m. and adj., black.

nevado, adj., snowy ; m., snow-
covered mountain.

ni, con/., nor ; ni . . . ni, neither
. . . nor.

nieto, m., grandson.

nieve,/., snow.

ninez,/, childhood.

nino, m., child.

no, adv,, not, no.

noche, /, night ; de noche, at
or by night ; esta noche, to-
night.

nogal, m., walnut-tree.

nombrar, to appoint, to name,
to nominate.

n ombre, m., name.

Norte, m.. North.

nos, pron., us.

nosotros (as), pron,, we, us

SPANISH VOCABULARY

313

nota,/, note.

notable, adj.^ noteworthy, re-
markable.

noticia,/., news, information.

novedad,/., novelty.

novela,/., novel.

Noviembre, m,^ November.

nube,/, cloud.

nuestro, adj. pron., our.

nueva, /, new^s.

nueve, num.^ nine.

nuevo, adj.^ new.

nuez,/., nut.

numero, m., number.

nunca, adv., never.

nutritivo, adj., nutritious, nou-
rishing.

objeto, m., object ; con el ob-
jeto de, in order to, for the
purpose of.

obligar, to force, to compel, to
oblige.

obra, /., work ; obrar, to act.

obscuro, adj., dark.

obsequiar, to present.

observar, to notice, to ob-
serve.

obstdculo, m., obstacle.

obtener, to obtain, to get, to
procure.

ocasion, /, opportunity, time,
occasion.

Occidente, m., West.

ocio, m., leisure, idleness.

ocultar, to hide, to conceal.

ocupado, adj., busy.

ocupar, to occupy ; ocuparse
en, to busy oneself with.

ocurrir, to occur, to come to
one's mind.

ocho, num., eight.

Oeste, m., West.

ofender, to offend.

oficial, m\, officer; adj., official.

oficio, m., trade, occupation,
business.

ofrecer, to offer.

oido, m., ear, hearing.

oir, to hear.

ojald, interj., would to Heaven,

I wish that.
ojo, m., eye.
oler, to smell.
olor, m., odour.
olvidar, to forget,
onza,/., ounce,
operacion,/, operation,
opinar, to be of opinion, to

opine.
oponerse, to oppose,
orden, m. and/, order,
ordenar, to order, to dispose,
ordenar, to milk.
ordinario, adj., ordinary.
organizar, to organize. .
organo, m,, organ.
orgullo, m., pride,
oriental, adj.y eastern, east.
Oriente, m.. East,
origen, m., origin, source ; dar

— a, to give rise to.
orilla,/, bank, shore.
oro, m., gold,
otono, ni., autumn, fall.
otro, adj., other, another.

paciencia,/., patience,
pacifico, adj., peaceful, pacific,
padre, m., father ; pL parents,
pagar, to pay.
pdgina,/., page.
pais, m., country, land.
pdjaro, m., bird,
palabra,/., word,
pdlido, adj., pale.
palm era,/., palm-tree.
pan, m., bread.
pantalbn, m., trousers.
pano, m., cloth, stuff.
panuelo, m., handkerchief.
papd, m., papa, father,
papel, m., paper ; role, part.
papel moneda, m., paper

money.
par, in., pair, couple.
para, prep., for, to, in order

to.
parar, to stop.
pardo, ad/., grey, brown.

314

SPANISH VOCABULARY

parecer, to appear, to seem, to
look like.

pared, /, wall ; paredon, m.,
great wall, rampart.

pareja,/, pair, couple.

pariente, m., relative.

parlero, adj., chirping, talka-
tive.

parte,/., part.

participar, to communicate, to
let know, to take part in.

particular, adj., private.

partida, /., departure, start,
party.

partido, m., party, side.

partir, to start, to set out, to
leave, to go, to divide.

pasado, adj., past, last.

pasar, to pass, spend.

pasear, pasearse, to walk, to
take a walk.

paseo, m., walk, promenade,
journey.

pasmo, m., wonder.

paso, m.y passage, way, open-
ing.

pastel, m., pie ; pasteles,
pastry.

pastel arc, m., pieman.

patinar, to skate.

pato, m.y duck.

patriota, m., patriot.

patrona,/., hostess, landlady.

paz,/., peace.

peculio, m., money, pecuniary
means.

pedir, to ask, to beg, to order ;
pedir prestado, to borrow.

peligroT^., danger.

peligroso, adj., dangerous,
perilous.

pena,/., trouble, pain, sorrow.

pender, to hang, to be hanging,
to depend.

penetrante, adj., keen, pene-
trating.

peninsula,/., peninsula.

pensamiento, m., thought.

pensar, to think, to think of,
to intend to.

pensativo, adj., thoughtful.

pension,/., pension.

pequeno, adj., small, little.

pera,/, pear.

perder, to lose.

parecer, to perish.

peregrinacion, /., peregrina-
tion, pilgrimage.

periodico, tn., newspaper.

pariodo, m., period.

perjuicio, m., damage, pre-
judice, detriment.

parmanacar,to remain, to stay.

permiso, m., permission, leave.

parmitir, to allow, to permit.

paro, conj., but.

parro, m., dog.

persona, /!, person.

parspactiva, /, prospect, out-
look, expectation.

pertenacer, to belong.

pesar, m,, sorrow ; a pesar da,
in spite of.

pesar, to weigh, to be sorry.

pascado, m., fish (for the table) .

pascador, m., fisher.

pescar, to fish, to angle.

peseta,/, twenty cents.

peso, m., weight ; dollar.

pesquisa,/, search.

pez, m., fish.

pico, m., peak, beak, bill ; sals
mil y pico, six thousand odd.

pie, m., foot ; astar de pie, to
stand.

piadra,/., stone.

piel,/, skin, hide.

pierna,/, leg.

piaza,/, piece,

pillar, to catch, to seize.

pintar, to paint.

pintor, m., painter.

pintorasco, adj., picturesque.

pintura,/, picture, paint.

piso, m., floor, story.'

placer, m., pleasure.

plan, m., plan, scheme.

planeta, m., planet.

planicia,/., plain.

plata,/, silver.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

3^5

plaza,/, square.

plenittid,/, fulness.

pluma,/., feather, pen.

poblacion,/., town, population.

poblar, to populate.

pobre, adj.^ poor.

poco, adj.^ little ; pL^ few.

poder, m., power; poderoso,
powerful

poder, to be able.

poesia,/., poetr}''.

poeta, m.^ poet.

politico, m., politician ; adj.^
political, polite.

polvo, m.^ powder, dust.

polio, m., chicken.

ponderar, to exaggerate, to
extol.

poner, to put, to place.

Poniente, w., West.

popular, adj.^ popular.

por, by, for, through ; por
aqui, around here.

por que, conj.^ because.

I por que ?, why ?

porvenir, m.^ future.

posada,/, inn.

poseer, to possess.

posible, adj.^ possible.

posicion,/, position.

practicar, to practise.

pr^ctico, adj,^ practical ; m.^
pilot.

prado, m., meadow, turf.

precaucion, /., care, precau-
tion.

preceder, to precede.

precio, m.^ price.

precisamente, adv.^ precisely.

preciso, adj.^ precise.

preferir, to prefer.

pregunta,/., question.

preguntar, to ask.

preinio, ni,^ reward, prize.

prepararse, to prepare.

presentar, to present, to intro-
duce.

presente, m.^ present, gift ;
adj,^ present.

preso, adj.^ arrested.

prestar, to lend ; pedir pres-
tado, to borrow.

presuroso, adj.^ hasty, speedy,
prompt.

primavera,/., spring.

primer, primero, adj.^ first.

primitivo, adj., primitive.

principal,^., patron, manager;
adj., principal.

principe, m., prince.

principiar, to begin.

probar, to prove, to taste, to
test.

prodigio, m., prodigy.

producir, to produce.

product©, m., product, pro-
ceeds.

profesor, rn.^ professor.

prof undo, adj., deep.

prolijidad,/, prolixity.

prolongar, to prolong.

promesa,/., promise.

prometer, to promise.

pronto, adv., adj., soon.

pronunciacion, /., pronuncia-
tion.

pronunciar,to utter (a speech);
to deliver, to pronounce.

propiamente, adv., properly.

propiedad, f., estate, property,
propriety.

propio, adj., proper, own.

proponer, to propose.

proporcionar, to afford, to
provide.

proposito, m., purpose ; a pro-
posito, convenient ; by the
way.

proteger, to protect.

provecho, m., profit, advan-
tage, benefit ; le hace pro-
vecho, it does him good.

provechoso, adj., profitable,
advantageous, beneficial.

proveer, to provide, to supply
(with).

provincia,/, province.

provisto, adj., provided.

proximo, adj., near, next.

publicar, to publish.

3i6

SPANISH VOCABULARY

publico, adj.^ public ; w., public.

pueblo, m,^ village, people.

puerta,/., door, gate.

puerto, m,, port, harbour.

pues, conj,, since, well, for, as,
then.

puesto que, conj.^ since, inas-
much as, because.

punta,/., end, top.

punto, m,, point, question,
matter.

punto de vista, point of view.

pure, adj.^ pure.

que, reL^ that, which, who.
que, conj.^ that, in order that,
quebrantarse, to feel broken,

to weaken,
quedar, to remain.
querer, to want, to wish,
querido, adj.^ dear.
queso, w., cheese,
quien, rel, pron,^ who.
quinto, num., fifth,
quitar, to remove, to take off,

to rob.
quizd, quizds, adv., perhaps.

rabia,/, rage, wrath, rabies.
rabiar, to be angry, to long
' eagerly for, to become rabid,
raiz,/., root,
rama,/., branch, bough.
rdpido, adj\, rapid, swift, fast.
rapidez,/, rapidity, swiftness.
raton, m., mouse.
raya, /, line, parting of the

hair, stripe,
rayar, to draw lines ; rayar

en, to border on.
razon,/, reason ; tener razon,

to be right.
realizar, to realize, to sell,
rebano, m., herd.
rebosar, to overflow.
recibir, to receive.
recibo, w., receipt.
recitar, to recite.
reclamacion,/, claim.
recluir, to seclude.

recoger, to gather, to harvest.

recomendacion, /., recom-
mendation.

recomendar, to recommend.

recordar, to recall, to re-
member.

recuerdo, m.^ recollection ;
souvenir.

recuperar, to get back, to re-
cover.

recurrir, to resort to, to refer.

rechazar, to refuse.

red, /!, net.

rededor, m., surroundings ; al
rededor, around.

redondo, adj., round ; en re-
dondo, a la redonda, a-
round.

referir, to tell, to relate, to
narrate, to refer to.-

reformar, to reform.

refrdn, m., adage; proverb.

refugiarse, to take refuge, to
seek shelter.

regalar, to give, to make a
present of

regalo, w., gift, present.

region,/, region.

registro, m., record, registra-
tion, book-mark.

regla,/., rule.

regordete, adj., plump.

regresar, to return.

regular, adj., indifferent.

reinar, to rule.

reir, reirse, to laugh.

relacibn, /., relation, report,
account; friendship.

reloj, m., watch.

remedio, m., remedy.

remesa,/, remittance.

remontar, to remount, to trace
back.

rendir, to yield, to bear.

repasar, to go over, to glance
over, to rehearse.

repente, de repente, suddenly,
all of a sudden.

repetir, to repeat.

replicar, to reply, to answer.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

317

reponer, to replace, to retort,
to reply.

reposo, m.y repose, rest.

representar, to represent, to
give, to act.

repiiblica,/, republic.

reputacion,/, reputation.

resolver, to solve, to decide.

respaldo, m., back of a chair.

respecto, m., relation ; con
respecto a, with reference
to, with regard to.

respetar, to respect.

respeto, m., respect.

resplandeciente, adj., resplen-
dent.

responder, to reply.

responsable, adj., responsible.

respuesta, f., answer, re-
sponse.

resto, m., remainder, rest*

resuelto, adj., resolute, deter-
mined.

resnltado, m., result, outcome.

resultar, to result, to come.

retrato, m., portrait.

revolver, to turn, to turn up.

ray, m., king.

rico, adj., rich.

riego, m,, irrigation.

riel, m., rail.

rigor, m., rigour, strictness.

rio, m., river.

riqueza,/., wealth, riches.

risa,/., laughter.

risueno, adj., smiling.

robusto, adj., robust, strong.

rodear, to surround.

rogar, to beg, to entreat, to ask.

rojo, adj., red.

romance, adj., Romance, Ro-
manic.

romper, to break;

ropa,/., clothes.

rosa,/, rose.

rubicundo, adj., reddish, rosy.

ruego, m., request, prayer.

ritido, m., noise.

ruin, adj., inferior, poor, mean,
coward.

rumoroso, adj., noisy.

s^bado, m., Saturday.

saber, to know, to know how.

sabio, adj., learned, wise.

sacar, to extract, to take out,
to draw.

saldo, ;w., balance, settle-
ment.

salida,/., exit, outlet.

salir, to go out, to leave ; to
turn out.

salto, m., leap ; waterfall, ca-
taract.

salud,/., health.

saludar, to salute, to bow.

saludo, m., salutation, greet-
ing.

san, santo, m., saint.

sano, adj., sound, healthy.

sardina,/., sardine.

sastre, m., tailor.

satisfacer, to satisfy, to give
satisfaction.

sazon, /., opportunity, season.

sed,/!, thirst ; tengo sed, I am
thirsty.

seda,/, silk.

seguida,/., continuation ; en se-
guida, afterwards, to follow.

seguir, to follow, to go on, to
pursue.

segtin, prep., according to, as.

segundo, m., adj., second.

seguridad,7^., certainty, safety;
con — , with certainty.

seguro, adj., sure, certain ; de
— , surely ; estar — de que,
to be sure that.

seis, num., six.

selvoso, adj., woody, wooded.

semana,/, week.

semanario, m., weekly paper.

semblante, m., features, coun-
tenance.

semejante, adj., similar, such.

sencillo, adj., simple, plain.

senda,/., path.

sentado, adj., seated, sitting.

sentar, to seat, to establish;

3i8

SPANISH VOCABULARY

sentarse, to sit down, to sit,
to perch.

sentido, m., sense, direction.

sentir, to feel, to regret, to be
sorry.

sena,/, sign ; senas, address.

senor, m., sir, gentleman.

senora,/., wife, lady, madam.

seiiorita,/., miss, young lady.

separar, to remove, to separ-
ate.

Septiembre, m., September.

ser, m., being.

ser, to be.

sereno, adj,^ serene.

servicial, adj., obliging.

servicio, w., service.

servir, to serve, to be good
for ; servirse, to please.

sesenta, nvim., sixty.

setenta, num., seventy.

si, conj., i^, whether.

si, adv., yes.

sibarita, m., sybarite.

sibaritico, adj., sybaritic, effe-
minate.

siempre, adv.', always, ever ;
conj., yet.

siete, num., seven.

siglo, m., century.

significado, m., meaning.

significar, to mean.

signo, m., sign, signal.

siguiente, adj., following, next.

silencio, m., silence.

silencioso, adj., silent.

silla,/., chair, saddle.

sillon, m., easy chair.

sin, prep,, without ; sin em-
bargo, nevertheless, yet.

sincero, adj., sincere.

singular, adj., singular.

sine, conj., but.

siquiera, adv., even.

sirvienta,/., maid.

sistema, m., system.

sitio, m., place, spot.

situado, adj., situated.

sobre, prep., on, upon, above.

sobre, m., envelope.

sobresalir, to excel.

sobretodo, m., overcoat ; sobre
todo, adv., specially, prin-
cipally.

sobrino,;^., nephew; sobrina,
/, niece.

sociedad,/, society.

sol, m., sun.

solamente, adv., only.

solazarse, to enjoy oneself.

soler, to be accustomed to, to
be wont, to happen.

solido, adj., solid.

solo, adj., single, alone, sole.

solo, adv., only.

soltar, to let loose, to loosen.

sombra, /, shade, shadow.

sombrero, m., hat.

sombrio, adj., sombre, gloomy.

sonar, to sound, to strike.

sonido, m., sound.

sonreirse, to smile.

sorprendente, adj., surpris-
ing.

sorprender, to surprise.

sorpresa,/, surprise.

sosegado, adj., quiet.

sospechar, to suspect, to con-
jecture.

suavemente, adv., softly, gent-

siibdito, m., subject.

subir, to ascend, to go up, to
rise.

subjuntivo, m., subjunctive.

subyugar, to subdue.

suceder, to happen ; to follow.

suceso, m., event, incident.

sudamericano, adj.. South
American.

sudor, m., perspiration, sweat.

sueldo, m., salary.

suelo, m., ground, soil, floor.

suerte, /., fate, luck, sort,
chance.

suficiente, adj., enough ; suffi-
cient.

sugerir, to suggest.

sujeto, m., person ; adj., tied,
liable.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

319

suma,/., sum.

sumar, to add, to sum up.

sumo, adj,^ supreme ; a lo

sumo, at the utmost.
suntuoso, adj.^ sumptuous.
superior, adj.^ superior, upper.
suponer, to suppose.
supuesto, adj,, supposed ; per

supuesto, of course.
Sur, m, and adj.^ South.

tabla,/., board.

tacto, m.^ tact.

tal, adj.^ such ; con tal que,

provided ; tal vez, perhaps.
tal per cual, ;/^., guy, a nobody.
talento, m.^ talent.
tamano, m,^ size, bulk.
tambien, adv.^ also.
tampoco, adv.^ nor, neither.
tan, tanto, adv., so ; as.
tanto, adj., as much, so much ;

//., as many, so many.
tapiz, m., tapestry.
tardar, to delay, to be late.
tarde,/, afternoon ; adv., late,
taza,/, cup.
te, m., tea.
teatro, }n., theatre.
tejer, to weave.
tejuelo, m., binder's title.
telegrafo, m., telegraph.
telegrama, m., telegram.
temer, to fear, to be afraid.
temible, adj.^ awful.
temporada,/., season, time.
temprano, adj. and adv., early.
tendencia,/, tendency.
tenedor, m., fork ; — de libros,

book-keeper, accountant.
tener, to have ; to hold.
terminar, to end, to finish, to

conclude, to determine.
terrene, m.^ ground, land.
terrible, adj., terrible, awful.
territorio, m., territory, piece

of land.
tiempo, m., time, weather.
tienda, /, store, shop, tent ;

ir a tiendas, to go shopping.

tierno, adj.^ tender, young.

tierra,/, earth, land, ground.

tigre, in., tiger.

timido, adj., timid, shy.

tinta,/, ink.

tic, m., uncle ; tia, ., aunt.

tirar, to shoot, to draw, to

throw away.
tiro, m., shot ; caballo de tiro,

draught horse.
titulo, w., title.
toalla,/, towel.
tocador, m., dressing-table,
tocante a, prep., concerning,

as to, with respect to.
tocar, to touch, to play (an

instrument) ; to fall to one's

share.
todavia, adv., still, yet.
todo, adj., all, every,
toldo, ;;/., tent.
tomar, to take, to drink,
tomate, m., tomato.
tomo, m., volume, tome.
tone, m., tone, tune ; darse

tone, to give oneself airs.
ton to, adj., foolish, silly.
torcer, to twist.
tormento, m., torment.
tornar, to return.
torno, m., lathe; en torno,

around.
toro, m., bull,
tortuga,/, turtle,
tostada,/, toast.
trabajar, to work.
trabajo, m., work.
trabar, to tie, to bind.
tradicion,/., tradition.
traducir, to translate.
traer, to bring, to carry,
traje, //^., costume, dress, gown,
trance, m., emergency.
tranquilo, adj., tranquil, quiet,
transetinte, m., passer-by.
transitar, to go, to pass by.
transportar, to transport.
transporte, m., transporta-
tion.
tro.^, prep,, after, behind.

320

SPANISH VOCABULARY

traste, m., fret ; dar al traste

con . . . , to spoil.
tratar, to treat, to try ; se tra-

ta de, it is a question of.
trace, num., thirteen,
treinta, num., thirty.
tren, m., train,
tres, num,, three.
trigo, m., wheat.
triste, adj., sad, melancholy.
triunfo, m., victory, triumph.
tronar, to thunder.
tronco, m., trunk.
tropa,/, troop.
tropico, m,, tropic.
turco, adj., 5w65/.,Turkish,Turk.

u, conj,, or (before o or ho,

§ 247)-

ultimamente, adv., lately, re-
cently.

ultimo, adj., late, last, latest.

umbral, m., threshold.

linico, adj., sole, only.

uniformidad, f., uniformit}^

unir, to unite, to join.

universal, adj., universal.

universidad,/, universit3^

universo, m., universe.

uno, una, (numeral) one.

usar, to use, to v^ear.

usted, pron., you.

usual, adj., usual.

utensilio, m., utensil.

titil, adj., useful.

utiles, m. pi., implements,
utensils.

uva,/, grape.

vaca,/, cow, beef.

vacilar, to hesitate.

vago, adj., idle, vacant, vague.

valer, to be worth, to be
valuable.

valeroso, adj., brave, coura-
geous.

valiente, adj., brave.

valioso, adj., valuable.

valor, m., value, bravery,
courage.

valle, m., valley.

vapor, m., steam ; steamer,
steamboat.

variedad, /, variety.

varios, adj., several, various.

vecindad, /., neighbourhood,
vicinity.

vecino, tn., neighbour.

veinte, num., twenty.

venado, m., deer ; venison.

veneer, to conquer.

vender, to sell.

venidero, adj., coming, ap-
proaching.

venir, to come ; venir a parar,
to come to.

venta,/., sale, inn,roadside inn.

ventaja,/., advantage.

ventajoso, adj., advantageous.

Ventura,/., chance, luck.

ver, to see.

verano, m., summer.

verbo, m., verb.

verdad, /, truth; en verdad,
indeed.

verdadero, adj., truthful, true,
real.

verde, m., adj., green.

verso, m.., verse.

vestido, m., dress, suit, gar-
ment.

vestimenta,/, see vestido.

vestir, vestirse, to dress.

vez, /., time, turn ; otra vez,
again ; tal vez, perhaps ; en
vez de, instead of; a la vez,
at the same time.

via, /., way ; via ferrea, rail-
way.

viajar, to travel.

viaje, m., travel, voyage, jour-
ney, trip.

viajero, m., traveller.

vida,/, life.

viejo, adj., old.

viernes, m,., Friday.

vino, m , wine.

violeta,/, violet; <i!^'., purple.

virtud,/., virtue, quality, force.

visita,/., call, visit ; visitor.

SPANISH VOCABULARY

321

visitar, to visit.
viso, m.y lustre, sheen,
vista,/., sight, eyesight, gaze;

a la vista de, in sight of; a

tres dias vista, at three days

sight.
viudo, widower ; viuda, widow.
vivaracho, adj., lively.
vivienda,/, house, residence.
vivir, to live.
vivo, adj., alive, live, bright,

keen, lively.
Vizcaino, m.and adj., Biscayan.
volandito, adv., in a hurry.
volar, to fly.
volcdn, m., volcano.
volumen, m., volume, bulk.
volver, to turn, to return.
volverse, to become.
vos, proH., you.
vosotros, profu, you.
voz,/., voice.

vuelta,/, turn, return,
vuestro, pron., your,
vulgar, adj., ordinary, com-
mon, vulgar.

wagon or vag6n, ph., (railway)
coach, car (for passengers).

ya, adv., already,
yegua,/, mare.
yo, pron., I.
yugo, m,, yoke.

zagal, m., shepherd,
zagudn, vestibule, hall, lobby,
zdngano, m., drone,
zapatero, m,, shoemaker.
zapato, m,, shoe,
zarandajas, /. pL, trifles, ac-
cessories,
zona,/., zone.
zorra, /, zorro, m., vixen, fox.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

va, transitive verb ; vn, intransitive verb.

a, an, un, una.
abandon, va.^ abandonar.
able, habil, capaz ; to be — ,

poder.
abound, vn.^ abundar.
^hontjprep., acerca de, respecto

de, sobre ; cerca de.
above, prep.^ sobre, encima de.
ahroady adv., en el extranjero.
absolute, absolute.
absorb, va., absorber.
abstain, vn., abstenerse.
abstracted, absorto.
abundant, abundante.
accept, va,, aceptar.
accessories, las zarandajas.
accompany, va., acompanar.
according to, segun.
account, la cuenta ; on — of, a

causa de, por motivo de,
ache, vn., doler.
acquainted : to be — with,

conocer.
acquire, va., adquirir.
across, prep., al traves de.
act, el acto ; va., obrar.
add, va., anadir, agregar.
address, la direccion ; las

senas ; el discurso ; va.,

dirigir.
admire, va., admirar.
adopt, va.y adoptar.
advance, vn., avanzar ; ade-

lantar.
advantage, la ventaja, el pro-

vecho.
advantageous, ventajoso, pro-

vechoso.
advice, el consejo.
advise, va., aconsejar.
affair, el asunto, el negocio.

affection, el afecto.

afford, va., proporcionar.

afraid : to be — , tener niiedo ;
temer.

after, prep., tras, detras de ;
despues de.

afternoon, la tarde.

afterwards, adv., despues.

again, adv., otra vez.

against, prep., contra.

age, la edad.

ago, ha, hace. •

agree, vn., convenir.

agreeable, simpatico ; con-
forme.

agreement, el convenio.

aid, la ayuda.

air, el aire ; el ambiente.

ale-house, la cerveceria.

alike, adv., igualmente.

alive, vivo.

all, todo ; not at— , de ningiin
modo."

allow, va., permitir ; conceder.

almost, adv., casi.

alone, solo.

alone, adv., solo ; a solas.

along, prep., a lo largo de.

already, ya.

also, tambien.

although, aunque.

always, siempre.

amateur, aficionado.

ambassador, el embajador.

amiable, amable, bueno.

amidst, prep., en medio, entre.

among, prep., entre.

amount, vn., montar, ascen-
der.

amuse, va., divertir.

ancient, antiguo.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

323

and, y (e before i or hi).

angel, el angel.

animal, d animal.

angry, enojado ; to get — ,

enfadarse.
announce, va.j anunciar.
annoy, va., molestar ; embro-

mar.
annual, anual.
another, otro ; one — , uno a

otro.
answer, la contestacion ; la

respuesta.
ant, la hormiga.
ant-hill, el hormiguero.
anxiety, la ansiedad.
anxiously, adv,, con ansia,

ansiosamente.
any, alguno. .
anybody, alguien, alguno.
anything, algo.
anywhere, en alguna parte.
ape, el mono,
appear, vh., parecer.
appetite, el apetito.
applaud, va., aplaudir.
apple, la manzana.
appoint, va., nombrar.
appreciate, va., apreciar.
approach, V7i., acercarse ; va.,

acercarse a, aproximarse a,

frisar en.
April, Abril.
argue, va., arguir.
arm, el brazo.
around, prep., alrededor de ;

— here, por aqui.
arrange, va., arreglar, dis-

poner.
arrested, adj., preso.
arrive, vn., llegar.
art, el arte,
artery, la arteria.
article, el objeto.
artist, el artista.
as, adv,, como; cual.
ascend, va., subin
ashes, la ceniza.
ask, va., pedir ; interrogar.
ass, el asno ; el borrico.

assume, va., tomar, asumir.
assure, va., asegurar.
at, en ; a ; — last, al fin.
attack, va., atacar.
attain, va., lograr.
attend, vn., asistir, concurrir.
attorney, el apoderado.
attract, va., atraer.
audience, la audiencia, el audi-

torio.
aunt, la tia.

automobile, el automovil.
autumn, el otoSo.
average, el promedio.
avoid, va., evitar.
await, va., aguardar ; esperar.
awake, vn., despertar ; keep

— , desvelarse.
awful, horrible, terrible.

back, la espalda ; (of a chair

or document) el respaldo,
bad, malo, mal.
badly, adv , mal.
balance, el saldo.
bale, el bulto.
bank, el banco ; la orilla ; la

ribera.
barbarian, el barbaro.
basis, la base,
basket, la cesta, el eesto.
bat, el murcielago.
bath, el bano.
bay, la bahia, el golfo.
be, vn., ser, estar.
beak, el pico.
tear, va., llevar ; — in mind,

tener presente.
beast, la bestia.
beautiful, hermoso, bello.
beauty, la belleza.
because, porque ; pues.
become, vn., llegar a ser, ha-

cerse.
bed, la cama; to go to — ,

acostarse.
beer, la cerveza.
before, adv., antes ; the day

— , el dia anterior ; the

night — , la noche anterior.

Y 2

324

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

before, prep,^ antes de ; de-

lante de, ante,
beg, va.^ pedir, rogar.
beggar, el mendigo ; el po-

bre.
begin, va.^ vn., empezar.
behind, a^z;., atras, detras ; prep.

detras de.
being, el ser.
believe, va., vn,, creer.
bell, la campana.
belong, vn.y pertenecer.
below, adv.^ abajo, debajo ;

prep.y debajo de.
beneath, adv., debajo.
benefit, el beneficio.
besides, adv.^ ademas; prep.,

ademas de.
best, mejor.
better, mejor ; it is — that,

mas vale que.
between, prep., entre. '
beyond, adv., mas alia ; prep.,

mas alia de.
big, grande.
bill of exchange, la letra de

cambio, el giro.
bill of lading, el conocimiento

de embarque.
bind, va., atar ; — up, envolver,

ligar, trabar.
bird, el pajaro.
birth, el nacimiento.
biscuit, el bizcocho, la ga-

lleta.
bite, va., morder.
black, negro.
blacksmith, el herrero ; el

herrador.
blind, adj.y ciego.
blow, el golpe.
blue, el azul ; adj., azul.
board, la tabla.
Board of Directors, la Junta

Directiva.
boarder, el (or la) huesped.
boast, vn., jactarse.
boat, el barco.
body, el cuerpo.
boil, va., cocer ; vn., hervir.

bolster, el travesero. •
book, el libro ; book-mark, el

registro. ^

boot, la bota.
born, nacido ; to be born,

nacer.
borrow, va., pedir prestado.
both, ambos (-as).
bother, va., molestar.
bough, la rama.
bow, va., vn., inclinar ; saludar.
bower, la enramada.
boy, el muchacho ; el chico ;

little — , el chiquillo.
branch, la rama ; el ramal.
bravo, valiente.
brawny, musculoso.
bread, el pan.
break, va., romper ; to feel

broken, quebrantarse.
breakfast, el almuerzo ; el des-

ayuno.
breakfast, vn., almorzar.
breath, el aliento.
breed, va., criar.
brewery, la cerveceria.
bridle, el freno, la brida.
bright, despejado.
brilliant, brillante.
bring, traer.
bristling, erizado.
British, britanico.
broad, ancho.
brook, el arroyo.
broth, el caldo.
brother, el hermano.
brown, moreno.
bucket, el balde.
build, va., construir, edificar ;

erigir.
building, el edificio.
bulk, el bulto.
bull, el toro.
business, los negocios ; el ne-

gocio.
busy, ocupado.
but, conj., pero, mas ; skio.
butler, el mayordomo.
butter, la manteca ; la mante-

quilla.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

325

buy, vaT, comprar.

cabin, la choza.
cake, el bizcocho, el bollo.
calculate, va., vn., calcular.
call, va., llamar ; {noun) la

visita.
canon, el canonigo.
capable, capaz.
capital, la capital (city).
captain, el capitan.
car, el vagon ; (tramway) el

carro.
cardinal, el cardenal ; adj.^

cardinal.
care, el cuidado ; el esmero.
careful, cuidadoso.
carefully, esmeradamente.
cargo, la carga.
carry, va., llevar, acarrear ;

carry out, ejecutar, llevar a

cabo.
case, el caso ; la caja.
casino, el casino.
Castilian, adj,, castellano.
castle, el castillo.
catch, va,, coger ; pillar,
cattle, el ganado.
cause, la causa.
cause, va.^ ocasionar ; obligar.
caution, la cautela.
cave, la cueva, la caverna.
cease, va., vn,, cesar, dejar

de.
celebrate, va., celebrar.
celebrated, celebre.
cent, el centavo.
centre, el centre.
century, el siglo.
certain, cierto*
certainly, per cierto.
certainty, la seguridad, la

certidumbre.
chair, la silla; arm-chair,

butaca.
chance, la ventura, la suerte.
change, el cambio.
change, va., vn., cambiar,

cambiarse ; transformarse.
chapter, el capitulo.

character, el temperamento,

el genio, el caracter.
characteristic, el rasgo ca-

racteristico.
charge, el cargo.
Charles, Carlos,
charm, el primor, el enc^nto,

el atractivo ; va.y embelesar.
cheese, el queso.
cheque, el cheque,
chicken, el polio.
chief, el jefe.
child, el nino, la niiia.
children, los ninos ; los hijos.
chimney, la chimenea.
choose, va., elegir, escoger.
chop, la chuleta.
Christian, cristiano.
church, la iglesia.
cinnamon, el cinamomo.
circumstance, la circunstancia.
city, la'ciudad.
claim, la reclamacion.
claim, va,, reclamar.
class, la clase.
claw, la garra.
clean, limpio ; va., limpiar.
clear, claro.
clerk, el dependiente.
clever, listo, inteligente.
client, el cliente.
climate, el clima.
close, va., cerrar ; encerrar.
close by, prep., junto a.
cloth, la tela, el pano.
clothes, la ropa.
clothing, la ropa.
cloud, la nube.
coagulate, vn., cuajar.
coast, la costa ; — line, la linea

de la costa, el litoral.
coat, la chaqueta ; dress coat,

el frac.
cock, el gallo.
cockroach, la cucaracha.
coflfee, el cafe.
coin, la moneda.
cold, el frio.
cold, adj., fri'o.
college, el colegio.

326

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

come, vn,, venir ; (to arrive)
llegar; — back, volver,
regresar; — in, entrar; —
out, salir.

comfort, la comodidad.

comfortable, comedo.

coming (future), venidero.

commander, el comandante, el
comendador.

commence, va.^ vn., empezar,
comenzar.

commercial traveller,el agente
viajero.

common, comun ; vulgar.

communicate, va,, vn., comu-
nicar.

companion, el companero.

compel, va., obligar.

compete, vn., competir..

complete, va.^ terminar.

compress, z^^.j comprimir, ap re-
tar.

comprise, va., comprender.

compute, va., computar.

conceal, va., ocultar.

concerning, />r^/»., respecto de,
tocante a.

concert, el concierto.

conduct, la conducta.

confide, va., vn,^ confiar.

confine, va., internar.

confuse, va.^ confundin

conquer, va., conquistar, ven-
eer.

consequently, por consiguien-
te ; por lo tanto.

consider, va., considerar.

consult, va., consultar.

contain, va., contener.

content, content©.

contented [with], content©
[de].

contents, el contenido.

contest, V)i., disputar.

continue, va., vn., seguir, con-
tin uar.

contrary, contrario.

convenience, la comodidad.

convent, el convent©.

convert, va., convertir.

cook, el cociner©, la cocinera.

cook, va., c©cer ; guisar.

cool, fresco.

copious, cuantios©, c©pi©s©.

copper, el cobre.

copy, la c©pia ; el ejemplar.

corn, el maiz ; el trig©.

corner, el rincon ; la esquina.

cost, el cost©.

cost, va., c©star.

cotton, el alg©d6n.

couch, el canape.

council, el c©nsej©.

count, va., contar.

countenance, el semblante.

counter, el m©strad©r.

country, el pais, el camp©, la

patria ; la campina.
courage, el valor.
course, la carrera, el curs© ; of

— , por supuesto.
courtesy, la cortesia.
courtyard, el corral.
cousin, el prim©, la prima,
cover, la cubierta, el abrig©.
cover, va., cubrir.
covert, el esc©ndrij©.
cow, la vaca,
create, va., crear.
credit, el credit©,
crescent, la media luna.
crop, la cosecha.
crumb, la miga.
cry, el grit© ; vn», gritar.
crystalline, cristalin©.
cunning, la malicia, la astncia ;

adj., malicios©, astut©.
cup, la taza.
current, adj., cerriente.
custom-house, la aduana.
cut, va., c©rtar,

daily, el diari© (newspaper) ;

adv. , diariamente.
dairy, la lecheria.
daisy, la margarita.
damage, el dan© ; va., dete-

ri©rar.
damask, el damasc©.
damp, humed©.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

327

danger, el peligro.

dare, vn., atreverse.

dark, obscuro ; to get -, obs-
curecer.

date, la fecha.

date, va., fechar.

daughter, la hija.

day, el dia.

dead, muerto.

dear, caro, querido.

death, la muerte.

deceive, va., enganar.

decide, va., vn,, decidir ; re-
solver ; determinar,

deed, la accion ; la escritura,
el documento.

deep, profundo.

deer, el venado.

degree, el grade.

deign, vn., dignarse.

delay, 1^;^., demorar; (noun) Isl
demora.

delicate, delicado.

delight, va., deleitar ; to be
— ed, estar encantado.

deliver, va., entregar. — a lec-
ture, dictar una conferencia.

deny, va., negar.

departure, la partida.

deprive, va., privar, quitar.

describe, va., describir.

desire, el deseo, el empeno, la
gana.

desire, va,, desear, ansiar.

destination, el destine.

detain, va., detener.

determine, va., vn., deter-
minar, terminar.

devastation, la devastacion.

develop, va., desarrollar, des-
envolver ; vn., desarrollarse.

development, el desarrollo.

devil, el diablo.

die, vn., morir.

different, diferente, diverse.

difficult, dificil.

diffident, desconfiade.

difficulty, la dificultad.

diligent, diligente.

diminish, va., vn., disminuir.

dine, vn., comer.

dinner, la comida.

direct, va., dirigir.

disciple, el discipulo.

discourse, vn., discurrir.

discover, va., descubrir.

discovery, el descubrimiente.

discreet, discrete.

dish, el manjar.

distant, lejano ; to be — , dis-

tar, vn.
distinguish, va., distinguir.
do, va., hacer.

doctor, el doctor ; el medico,
dog, el perro.
dollar, (Spain) el dure ^ (S. A.)

el peso.
donkey, el asno.
door, la puerta.
double, deble.
doubt, la duda.
doubt, va., dudar.
dozen, la docena.
draft, el giro, la letra de

cambio.
draw, va., atraer ; va.,vn., tirar ;

draw on, girar a cargo de.
drench, va., mojar.
dress, el traje.

dress, va., vn,, vestir, vestirse. ,
dressing-table, el tocador.
drink, va., beber.
drone, el zangano.
drown, vn., ahogarse.
drunken, borracho.
duck, el pate,
due, debido.
duke, el duqiie.
during, pirp., durante,
dust, el polvo.
duty, el deber.

each, cada ; cada uno, cada

cual.
.ear, el oido.
earn, va., ganar.
earth, la tierra.
East, el Oriente.
eastern, oriental,
easy, facil.

328

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

eat, va,f comer ; tomar.

effort, el esfuerzo.

eggf el huevo.

eight, ocho.

eighty, ochenta.

either, uno ii otro.

elect, va,y elegir ; nombrar.

eleven, once.

embark, w/., embarcarse ; 7'<7.,

embarcar.
embrace, va.^ abrazar.
emergency, el trance.
empire, el imperio.
employ, va., emplear.
employment, el cargo.
enchanting, encantador.
enclosure, la cerca.
encourage, va., animar.
end, el fin ; el proposito.
end, vn.f acabar.
endles?, infinito.
enemy, el enemigo.
engagement, el compromiso,

el empeno.
engine, la maquina, la maquina

de vapor.
England, Inglaterra.
English, ingles.
Englishman, el ingles.
enjoy, va,, gozar de, solazarse.
enormous, enorme.
enough, bastante.
enter, va., entrar.
entertaining, entretenido.
enthusiasm, el entusiasmo.
entirely, por complete,
entrance, la entrada.
entrust, va., confiar.
envelope, el sobre.
episode, el episodio, el lance,
epoch, la epoca.
escape, vn,, escaparse.
establish, va., establecer.
esteem, va., estimar.
even, aun ; hasta ; siquiera.
evening, la tarde.
event, el suceso.
every, todo.
evolve, vii.y formarse, desarro-

llarse, desenvolverse.

exact, exacto.
exaggerate, va,, ponderar.
examine, va,, examinar.
excel, vn., sobresalir.
excellent, excelente.
except, prep, excepto.
exclaim, vn., exclamar.
exercise, el ejercicio.
exhort, va., exhortar.
exist, vn., existir.
exit, la salida.
expect, va., esperar.
expense, el gasto.
expensive, costoso, caro.
explain, explicar.
export, va., exportar.
extend, va., vn., extender.
extensive, extenso.
extract, va., extraer, sacar.
extreme, extremado, extremo.
eye, el ojo.
eyeglasses, los anteojos.

fable, la fabula.

face, la cara ; el semblante.

fact, el hecho ; in — , efectiva-

mente.
faith, la fe.
faithful, fiel.
false, falso.
fall, vn., caer.
family, la familia.
famous, famoso.
fancy, va., figurarse.
far, adv., lejos.
farm, la hacienda.
farmer, el colono ; el labrador ;

el hacendado.
farrier, el herrador.
fashion, la moda.
fast, adv.y aprisa; adj. Hgero,

liviano.
father, el padre,
fault, la culpa.
favour, el favor, la gracia,

la merced.
fear, el temor, el miedo.
fear, va., vn., temer; recelar.
feast, la fiesta.
feature, la faccion.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

329

feed, va., alimentar.

feel, va., sentir.

feign, va., vn., fingir, disi-

mular.
fever, la fiebre.
few, pocos, algunos ; a — , unos

pocos.
field, el campo.
fierce, feroz.
fifteen, quince.
fifty, cincuenta.
fill, va., llenar.
find, va.y hallar, encontrar.
finish, va.j acabar, terminar ;

completar.
fire, la lumbre ; el fuego ; la

candela.
fireplace, el hogar ; la chi-

menea.
firm, la casa de comercio ; adj.,

fir me.
first, primero.
fish, el pez ; el pescado.
fish, vn,, pescar.
five, cinco.
flatter, va.j lisonjear.
flavour, el sabor.
flee, vn., huir, escaparse.
floor, el suelo, el piso.
flower, la flor.
flute, la flauta.
fly, vn,, volar.
follow, va.f vn,, seguir.
following, siguiente.
fond, carinoso; to be — of,

gustar.
food, el alimento ; la comida ;

el manjar.
fool, el necio ; el loco.
foolish, tonto.
foot, el pie.
footwear, el calzado.
for, prep., para, per.
for, conj., pues ; puesto que.
forehead, la frente.
foreign, extranjero.
foreigner, el extranjero.
forest, el bosque ; la selva.
forget, va., olvidar.
form, la forma.

former, anterior ; the — ...

the latter, aquel . . . 6ste , , ,
fortune, el caudal, la fortuna.
forty, cuarenta.
forward, adelante.
found, va., fundar.
four, cuatro.
fourteen, catorce.
fowl, el (fern.) ave de corral.
fox, el zorro.
frank, franco.
free, libre.
freely, libremente.
French, frances.
frequently, con frecuencia.
fresh, fresco ; — water, el {fern.)

agua dulce.
fried, frito.

friend, el amigo, la amiga.
frighten, aterrorizar, espantar.
from, de, desde.
frost, el hielo.
fruit, la fruta.
fruitless, infructuoso.
fry, va., freir.
fulfil, va., cumplir.
full, lleno.
fully, plenamente, entera-

mente^
furnish, va., suministrar ;

amueblar.
furniture, los muebles; piece

of — , el mueble.
future, el futuro.

gain, el provecho, la ganan-
cia.

Galician, el gallego.

garden, el jardin.

garnish, va., guarnecer.

gather, va., recoger.

gaze at, va., mirar; con-
templar.

gentleman, el caballero ; el
senor.

gesture, el ademan.

get, vn., llegar ; va., lograr ;
conseguir.

ghost, el fantasma.

330

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

gift, el regalo, el presente.

gird, va., ceiiir.

girl, la nina, la joven ; la mu-

chacha.
give, va., dar ; regalar ; give

way, ceder ; give up, dejar,

abandonar.
glad, alegre.
glance, la mirada ; vn., echar

una mirada.
gloomy, lugubre, sombrio.
glory, la gloria.
glove, el guante.
go, vn,y ir; — back, volver;

— down, bajar ; — out,

salir ; — up, subir ; — over,

repasar; — shopping, ir a

tiendas.
God, Dies,
good, bueno.

goods. Ids generos ; el genero.
government, el gobierno.
governor, el gobernador.
grace, el donaire, la gracia.
graceful, gracioso, donairoso.
grammar, la gramatica.
granddaughter, la nieta.
grandfather, el abuelo.
grandson, el nieto.
grant, va,, otorgar, ceder,

conceder.
grape, la uva.
grass, la yerba ; la grama,
great, grande.
green, verde.
grey, gris, pardo.
grief, el pesar, el dolor,
grieve, va., pesar.
ground, el suelo.
grounds, el terrene,
grove, la enramada.
grow, vn.^ crecer.
grumble, vn., murmurar.
guest, el huesped.
guide, el guia, la guia.
guidebook, la guia ; court

guide, la guia de forasteros.
gulf, el golfo.

habit, la costumbre ; el habito.

hair, el pelo.

half, la mitad.

half, medio; — an hour,

media hora.
ham, el jamon.
hand, la mano ; va.^ entregar.
handkerchief, el panuelo.
hang, va., ahorcar, colgar,

pender.
happen, vn,, suceder ; pasar.
happiness, la felicidad.
happy, feliz ; alegre.
harbour, el puerto ; la rada.
hard, dure.
harden, vn., endurecer, cua-

jar.
hardship, la penalidad.
hardware, la ferreteria.
hasten, vn., apurar, apresu-

rarse.
hasty, presuroso.
hat, el sombrero.
have, va., tener; {auxiliary)

haber ; — just, acabar de.
hay, el heno.
he, el.

head, la cabeza.
health, la salud.
healthful, saludable, sano.
healthy, sano.
heap, el monton.
heap, va., amontonar.
hear, va», oir.

heart, el corazon ; las entranas.
heat, el calor ; to heat, ca-

lentar.
heaven, el cielo.
height, la altura.
help, la ayuda.
help, va., ay u dar.
hen, la gallina.
her, su ; {object) la, le.
herd, el rebaiio.
here, adv., aqui.
hesitate, vn., vacilar.
hesitating, indeciso.
hide, la piel.

hide, va,^ esconder, ocultar.
high, alto ; elevado.
him, le, lo.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

331

hinder, va,, impedir, estorbar.

hinge, el gozne or gonce.

his, su (/»/. sus).

history, la historia.

hold, va.^ tener ; poseer.

hole, el hueco, el hoyo.

honest, honrado.

hope, la esperanza.

hope, va., vn.^ esperar.

horn, el cuerno.

horse, el caballo ; horseman,

el jinete.
host, la multitud ; el huesped.
hot, caliente.
hotel, el hotel,
hour, la hora ; half an — ,

media hora.
house, la casa.
how ? I come ?
how much ? i cuanto ?
however, sin embargo.
humble, humilde.
hundred, ciento, cien.
hunger, el {fern.) hambre.
hungry, hambriento ; to be

— , tener hambre.
hunt, va.j cazar.
hunting, la caza.
hurriedly, a toda prisa.
hurry, va.^ apresiirar; vn.,

apresurarse.
husband, el marido ; el es-

poso.
hut, la cabana.

I, yo.

ice, el hielo.

idle, desocupado, ocioso.

if, si.

ignorant, ignorante ; to be ~

of, ignorar.
ill, enfermo.

imagination, la imaginacion.
immediate, inmediato.
import, va.^ importar.
important, importante ; it is

— that, importa que.
impress, va., impresionar.
improvement, la mejora.

in, en ; — order to, para, a

fin de.
incident, el lance,
include, va.^ incluir.
increase, va.^ aumentar.
indeed, en efecto.
Indian, adj., indio.
india-rubber, el caucho, la

goma elastica.
indigenous, indigena.
indignant, indignado.
industrious, laborioso, dili-

gente.
inform, va., avisar ; informar.
inhabit, va.^ habitar.
inhabitant, el habitante.
inherit, va,^ heredar.
injury, el dano.
ink, la tinta.
inn, la posada.
inner, interior.
innocent, inocente.
inquisitive, curioso.
insist, vn., insistir.
instant, el instante ; adj., del

mes corriente.
instantly, sin demora ; en el

acto.
instead of, en vez de.
instruct, x;a.,encargar; educar,

instruir.
intelligence, la inteligencia.
intelligent, inteligente.
interest, el interes.
interest, va., interesar.
interesting, interesante.
interfere, vn., meterse, entre-

meterse, intervenir.
intern, va., internar.
interrupt, va., interrumpir.
intimate, adj., intimo.
introduce, t/<7.,presentar, intro-

ducir.
invest, va., investir ; invertir.
invite, va., convidar, invitar.
invoice, la factura.
irrigation, el riego.
island, la isla.
issue, la emision, la salida.
it, el, ella, ello ; lo, la.

332

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

jaguar, el jaguar,
jail, la carcel.
January, enero.
jewel, la alhaja, la joya.
John, Juan,
join, va.j juntar, unir.
journey, el viaje.
jovial, festive, jovial,
judge, el juez.
June, junio.
just, justo.
justice, la justicia.

keen, penetrante, agudo.

keep, va., guardar ; conservar ;
— on, vn., continuar.

kill, va., matar.

kind, la especie ; human kind,
el genero humane.

kind, bondadoso ; amable.

kindle, va., encender.

king, el rey.

kitchen, la cocina.

knife, el cuchillo.

know, va., saber; (to be ac-
quainted with) conocer.

knowledge, el conocimiento.

lack, la falta.

lack, va.^ faltar, hacer falta.

lady, la seiiora.

land, la tierra ; el terrene.

language, el idioma; el (fern.)

habla ; la lengua.
lantern, la linterna, el farol.
large, grande.
last, ultime ; at — , al fin ; —

night, anoche.
last, vn,, durar.
late, tarde ; to be late, tardar.
Latin, el latin,
laughter, la risa.
lawyer, el abegade.
league, la legua (about three

miles) ; la liga.
leap, el salto ; leap year, el afio

bisieste.
learn, va.^ aprender. '
leather, el cuero.

leave, el permiso, la licencia.

leave, va., dejar ; vn., partir.

lecture, la cenferencia.

left, izquierde.

left-hand side, el lade izquier-
de, la izquierda.

leg, la pierna.

leisure, el ecie.

lend, va.y prestar.

less, adv, menes ; ddj.^ menor.

lesson, la leccion.

let, va.y dejar ; let loose,
seltar.

letter, la carta ; la letra.

library, la biblieteca.

lie, la mentira; artful lie, el
embuste.

lie, vn,, mentir.

life, la vida.

lift, va., levantar.

light, la luz ; adj,^ ligere.

like, va.^ gustar.

lily, el lirie.

limb, el miembre.

limit, el li'mite.

limpid, cristaline.

line, la linea, la raya.

liquid, el liquide ; adj\, liquide.

list, la lista.

listen, vn., escuchar.

little, pequerie ; chice.

live, vn., vivir ; subsistir.

lively, vivarache, vive.

lobby, el zaguan.

locomotive, la lecomotora.

London, Londres.

long, large.

long, ^'/^., ansiar ; antejarse.

longer, adv., per mas tiempo.

look, la mirada ; vn., mirar.

look into, va., examinar.

loose, va.f seltar, aflejar.

loquacity, la lecuacidad.

lose, va., perder.

loss, la perdida.

Louis, Luis.

lounge, el salon de hotel.

love, va.f querer.

low, baje.

lower, inferior.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

333

lower, va,, bajar.
loyalty, la lealtad.
luck, la suerte.

machine, la maquina.
Madam, Senora.
magian, magician, el mago.
magnificent, magnifico ; es-

plendido.
maid, la mujer soltera; sir-

vienta.
maize, el maiz.
make, va., hacer.
malice, la nialicia.
man, el hombre.
management, la gestion, la

direccion.
manifest, va., manifestar ; adj./

manifiesto.
manner, el modo ; la manera.
manufacture, la manufactura,

la fabrica.
many, muchos.
mare, la yegua.
marjoram, la mejorana ; sweet

marjoram, el almoraduj.
mark, va,, notar, registrar.
market, el mercado.
marrow, el tuetano ; (dish) las

migas.
marry, va., casar; casarse con.
marvel, la maravilla.
marvellous, maravilloso.
master, el amo, el maestro.
matter, el asunto, la materia.
mayor, el alcalde,
me, me.

meadow, el prado.
meagre, flaco, mezquino.
mean, medio ; mezquino.
means, los medios.
meanwhile, entretanto.
measure, la medida.
measure, va., medir.
meat, la carne ; cold meat,

el fiambre.
meet, va., encontrar.
melancholy, melancolico.
member, el miembro ; el socio,
memory, la memoria.

merchandise, la mercaderia.

merchant, el comerciante.

mere, mero.

merit, el merito.

Messrs., Senores, Sres.

Mexico, Mejico.

middle, el centro ; la mitad ;

el medio,
mile, la milla (=i'6 kilo-

metros).
milk, la leche.
miller, el molinero.
minaret, el alminar.
mind, el espiritu, la mente.
minister, el ministro.
minute, el minuto; adj., me-

nudo.
mirror, el espejo.
miserable, miserable.
misfortune, la desgracia.
miss, va., echar de menos or
echar menos ; hacer falta ;
to be missing, faltar.
Miss, Senorita, Srita.
mistake, el error ; la equi-
vocacion.

mistress, el ( fem.) ama ; la
dueiia.

mix, va., mezclar.

mode, el medio ; el modo.

modern, moderho.

modest, modesto.

modify, va., modificar.

moist, hiimedo.

moment, el momento; critical
moment, el lance, el trance.

monarch, el monarca.

money, el dinero ; el peculio.

monk, el monje.

monkey, el mono.

monster, el monstruo.

month, el mes.

moon, la luna.

more, mas.

morning, la manana ; la ma-
drugada.

mother, la madre.

motion, el movimiento. .

motive, el motivo.

mount, vn., montar.

334

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

mountain, la montafia ; . el

monte.
mouse, el raton.
mouth, la boca.
move, va.^ mover.
much, adj, and adv,, mucho.
mule, la mula.
murderer, el asesino.
music, la musica.
my, mi, mis.
mystery, el misterio.

name, el nombre ; la designa-

cion ; family name, el ape-

llido.
nankeen, el mahon.
narrow, estrecho ; angosto.
native, adj\, natal; el indigena,

el natural.
nature, la naturaleza.
near, adv., cerca.
necessary, precise, necesario.
necktie, la corbata.
need, va,, necesitar.
neglect, va., descuidar.
neighbour, el vecino.
neither, tampoco.
nephew, el sobrino.
nest, el nido.
net, la red.

never, adv., jamas, nunca.
nevertheless, sin embargo.
new, nuevo.

news, las noticias ; la noticia.
newspaper, el periodico ; el

diario.
next, proximo.
niece, la sobrina.
night, la noche ; at — , de

noche ; last night, anoche.
nine, nueve.

no, adv., no; adj., ninguno.
noise, el ruido.
noisy, rumoroso, ruidoso.
nominate, va., nombrar.
none, ninguno.
nor, tampoco ; neither ... —

. • ., ni . . . ni . . .
north, el norte.
nose, la nariz.

not, no.

note, la nota ; — book, el libro
de apuntes.

noteworthy, notable, digno de
nota.

nothing, nada.

notice, la nota; to take no-
tice, notar, distinguir.

notice, va,, notar, observar.

novel, la novela.

novelty, la novedad.

now, ahora, ya ; — and then,
de vez en cuando.

number, el numero.

numberless, innumerable, sin
numero.

nut, la nuez.

nutritious, nutritivo.

oak, el roble ; la encina.
oats {plur.), la avena.
object, el objeto.
oblige, va., obligar.
obliging, servicial.
obstacle, obstaculo.
obtain, va., obtener ; allegar.
occasion, la ocasion ; on this

— , esta vez.
occupy, va., ocupar.
occur, vn., ocurrir.
October, Octubre.
odd, impar; twenty odd,

veinte y pico.
odour, el olor.
odourless, inodoro.
of, de.

offend, va., ofender.
offer, va., ofrecer.
officer, el oficial.
often, a menudo.
oil, el aceite.

old, viejo ; anciano ; antiguo.
on, en, sobre.
one, un, uno.
only, adv,, solamente, solo;

adj., unico.
open, abierto.
open, va., abrir.
opportunity, la oportunidad.
oppressing, abrumador.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

335

or, o, u.

orange, la naranja ; orange

blossom, el azahar.
orange-tree, el naranjo.
orchard, la huerta.
order, el {or la) orden ; in —

to, a fin de.
order, va., pedir ; ordenar.
origin, el origen.
osier, el mimbre.
other, otro ; demas.
ounce, la onza.
our, nuestro -a, -os, -as.
out, adv., fuera.
outlet, la salida.
outside, adv.f fuera.
over, sobre, encima de.
overcoat, el abrigo, el sobre-

todo, el gaban.
overflow, la crecida ; vn,, re-

bosar.
owe, vol., deber.
owing to, debido a.
own, propio.
owner, el dueno.
ox, el buey.

page, la pagina.

painting, el cuadro.

pair, el par, la pareja.

pale, palido.

palm, la palmera.

paper, el papel ; daily — , el

diario.
parents, los padres,
part, la parte.

party, la partida, el partido.
pass, va., vn., pasar ; — the

night, pasar la noche, per-

noctar ; — by, transitar.
passer-by, el transeunte.
past, pasado.
path, la senda.
patience, la paciencia.
pattern, el diseiio, el patron,

la norma.
pave, va., embaldosar.
pay, va., pagar.
peace, la paz.
peaceful, pacifico.

pear, la pera.

peasant, el lugareno, el cain-

pesino ; la lugarena.
pen, la pluma.
penetrating, penetrante.
people, la gente.
perceive, va,, percibir, divisar.
perhaps, tal vez, quiza, quizas.
perilous, peligroso.
perish, vn., perecer.
permission, el permiso.
person, la persona, el sujeto.
philology, la filologia.
phrase, la frase.
picture, el cuadro.
picturesque, pintorescp.
pie, el pastel.

piece, el pedazo ; la pieza.
pig, el cerdo.
pigment, el color.
pilgrimage, la peregrinacion.
pity, la lastima, la compasion.
place, el sitio ; to place in,

cifrar.
plan, el plan ; el proyecto.
planet, el planeta.
play, el drama.
play, va,, vn., jugar ; deseni-

peiiar.
pleasure, el gusto ; to take —

in, tener gusto en.
plenty, adv., harto.
plump, regordete.
pocket, el bolsillo.
poet, el poeta.
point, el sitio ; el punto ; la

punta.
poisonous, venenoso.
pole, la varilla.
police, la polici'a.
politician, el politico.
poor, pobre ; mezquino.
poplar, el alamo.
populate, va., poblar.
port, el puerto.
portrait, el retrato.
post, el correo.
poverty, la pobreza; lamiseria.
power, el poder ; la facultad.
powerful, poderoso.

33^

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

practical, efectivo.
practice, la practica.
practise, va., practicar.
praise, la alabanza ; el elogio.
praise, va,^ alabar.
prefer, va,^ preferir.
prepare,z^«.,preparar,aderezar.
present, el presente, el regalo ;

adj., actual ; presente ; at — ,

actualmente.
preserve, va,y conservar.
press, la prensa.
pretty, bonito.
price, el precio.
pride, el orgullo.
print, va., imprimir.
private, particular, privado.
procure, va., obtener.
produce, 2;<^.,producir; presen-

tar.
profession, la profesion.
professor, el catedratico ; el

profesor.
promise, la promesa ; va.^ pro-
meter.
promptly, prontamente.
proper, propio ; natural.
properly, adv,, debidamente.
property, la propiedad ; la

hacienda.
prospect, la perspectiva.
prosperous, prospero.
protect, va., resguardar ; pro-

teger; guardar.
proud, orgulloso. •

prove, va,, probar.
provided, conj,, con tal que.
public, el publico.
publish, va., publican
pupil, el discipulo.
pure, adj., puro.
purpose, el fin, el objeto, el

proposito.
put, va., poner ; colocar.
put out, va., apagar.

quarter, el barrio ; un cuarto,

la cuarta parte.
question, la pregunta.
quickly, adv., rapidamente.

quiet, sosegado, tranquilo.
quince, el membrillo.
quite, adv., enteramente, del
todo.

race, la raza.

rage, la rabia, la colera.

rail, el riel.

railroad, railway, el ferro-

carril.
rain, la lluvia.
rain, vn., Hover,
raise, va., levantar, alzar.
rapidity, la rapidez.
rather, mas bien.
reach, va., Uegar a ; alcanzar.
read, va., vn., leer.
readily, adv., prontamente.
reading, la lectura.
ready, listo.
realize, va., hacerse cargo de ;

caer en la cuenta.
reason, la razon.
recall, va., recordar.
receive, va., recibir.
recently, recientemente.
recite, va., recitar.
reckon, va., contar, tener per.
recollection, el recuerdo.
recommend, va., recomendar ;

encomendar.
record, la relacion, el registro.
recover, va., recuperar, reco-

brar.
red, Colorado, rojo.
refer, va., referir ; vn., recurrir.
refuge, el refugio ; to take

refuge, refugiarse.
refuse, va., vn., rehusar ; re-

chazar.
region, la comarca.
regret, va., sentir, lamentar.
relation, relative, el pariente.
remain, t'w.jpermanecer; que-

dar; quedarse.
remember, va., recordar
remittance, la remesa.
repeat, va., repetir.
reply, la respuesta.
report, el informe, la relacion.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

337

report, va.., informar.
request, el ruego.
resolute, resuelto.
resort, vn., recurrir.
respect, va., respetar.
resplendent, resplandeciente.
rest, el descanso ; el repose,
rest, va.^ apoyar ; vn., des-

cansar.
result, el resultado.
resume, vn., continuar.
return, va.^ devolver ; volver ;

vn.^ regresar.
reward, va., recompensar ;

{noun) el premio, la recom-

pensa.
rice, el arroz.
rich, rico.

riches (/>/.), la riqueza,
ride, va., cabalgar.
right, el derecho.
right, derecho, recto, justo ;

adv.y correctamente.
rise, vn,, levantarse ; rise

early, madrugar.
risk, va., arriesgar.
river, el rio.
road, el camino.
roast, va,, asar.
robust, robusto.
rock, la roca ; la pena.
Romance, romance ; Romanic,

romance.
room, el cuarto ; el espacio.
roost, el gallinero.
root, la raiz.
rose, la rosa.
rough, aspero ; brusco.
round, redondo.
row, la hilera, la fila.
rule, la regla.
rxxn, vn., correr ; run away,

huir.
running, corriente.
rush, vn., arrojarse ; atropellar.

sad, triste ; afligido.
saddle, la silla.
safe, en salvo ; seguro.
safety, la seguridad.

Saint, Santo, San.

sale, la venta.

salute, va., saludar.

S9,ndwich, el emparcdado.

sardine, la sardina.

satin, el raso.

satisfied, contento ; satistecho,

Saturday, el sabado.

say, va., decir.

saying, el dicho, el proverbio.

scarce, escaso.

scarcely, adv., apenas.

school, la escuela.

science, la ciencia.

scream, vn., gritar.

sea, el or la mar ; — coast, la

costa del mar.
season, la estacion, la sazon ;

la temporada.
seat, va., sentar.
seat, el asiento.
seclude, va., recluir.
second, el segundo ; adj\, se-

gundo.
see, va., vn., ver.
seem, vn., parecer.
select, va., escoger.
sell, va., vender,
send, va., mandar, enviar.
sense, el sentido.
separate, adj., separado ; va.,

separar.
serene, sereno.
serious, serio ; grave ; formal,
servant, el sirviente, el mozo.
set, va., poner ; colocar.
seven, siete.

seventeenth, decimoseptimo.
seventy, setenta.
several, varios, -as.
shade, la sombra.
shadow, la sombra.
shave, va., afeitar.
shelf, el estante.
shelter, el albergue ; la cubierta.
shepherd-boy, el zagal.
shine, vn., brillar ; lucir.
ship, el buque.
ship, va., embarcar ; vn., em-

barcarse.

338

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

shirt, la camisa.
shoe, el zapato.
shoemaker, el zapatero.
shopping: to go —, ir a

tiendas.
shore, la orilla.
short, corto.
show, va.y mostrar ; ensenar ;

lucir.
sick, enfermo.
side, el lado ; el borde.
sieve, el cedazo.
sight, la vista ; in — of, a la

vista de.
sign, el signo.
sign, va.j firmar.
signal, la senal.
signature, la firma.
silent, silencioso ; to be — ,

callar.
silk, la seda.
silly, necio ; tonto.
silver, la plata
similar, semejante.
simple, sencillo.
since, desde, despues de ;

desde que.
sincere, sincere,
sing, va,y vn.^ cantar.
single, solo.
singular, singular.
sir, senor.
sister, la hermana.
sit, vn,, sentarse.
sitting, sentado.
situated, situado.
situation, el sitio.
six, seis.

sixteen, diez y seis.
sixty, sesenta.
size, el tamano.
skate, vn,, patinar.
skin, la piel.
skirt, la saya ; la falda.
slander, la calumnia.
slaughter, va., matar.
sleep, el sueno.
sleep, vn,^ dormir.
sleeve, la manga,
slight, ligero.

slow, lento ; slowly {adv.\

despacio.
small, pequeno ; chico.
smell, vn.^ oler.
smile, vn.f sonreir ; sonreirse.
smoke, el humo.
snow, la nieve.
so, asi ; tanto.
soap, el jabon.
sofa, el sofa.
soft, suave.
sole, solo.
some, alguno.
son, el hijo.

song, el canto, el poema.
soon, pronto.

sound, el sonido ; adj.^ sano.
sound, vn., sonar.
south, el sur ; el mediodia.
Spain, Espana {fern.).
Spaniard, el espanol, la espa-

nola.
Spanish, espanol.
spark, la chispa.
speak, vn,, va., hablar.
special, especial,
species, la especie.
spectacles, los anteojos, las

gafas.
speech, el discurso.
speedy, presuroso.
spend, va., gastar ; pasar.
spider, la arana.
spirit, el espiritu.
spite, el despecho ; in spite of,

a pesar de, a despecho de.
spot, la mancha ; el sitio ; el

lugar.
spread, va,, extender,
spring, el muelle ; la prima-

vera ; la fuente.
squander, va,, disipar, derro-

char.
square, el cuadrado ; la plaza,
squint, vn., torcer los ojos,

bizquear.
stable, la cuadra.
stain, la mancha.
stamp, va., estampar.
stand, vn.f estar de pie.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

339

start, vn., partir, salir.
state, el estado.
state, va., exponer, afirmar.
statement, la declaracion, la

exposicion.
station, la estacion.
steam, el vapor ; — engine, la

maquina de vapor,
steamer, el vapor.
steel, el acero.
still, adv., todavia, aun ; —

more, aun mas.
stir, va., menear ; mecer.
stone, la piedra.
stop, vn.y parar.
store, la tienda.
story, el cuento ; la historia.
straight, recto ; adv., directa-

mente.
strain, va., colar.
stranger, el desconocido, la

desconocida ; el forastero.
street, la calle.
strength, la fuerza.
strictly, en rigor.
strike, va., herir.
strike, la huelga.
strong, fuerte.
student, el alumno.
study, el estudio.
study, va., vn , estudiar.
stupid, estupido, imbecil.
style, el estilo.
subdue, va., subyugar.
subject, la materia ; el asiinto ;

el subdito.
subjunctive, el subjuntivo.
^\xhmit,va„ someter, presentar.
subsequently, adv., despues,

luego.
succeed, vn., obtener exito;

lograr.
success, el exito.
such, tal, semejante; — a,

semejante.
suddenly, adv., de repente.
suffice, vn,, bastar.
sufficient, bastante ; to be — ,

bastar.
sugar, el azucar.

suggest, va,, sugerir.
suitable, propio ; compatible,
sum, la suma.
summer, el verano.
summit, la cumbre.
sumptuous, suntuoso.
sun, el sol.
Sunday, el domingo.
supper, la cena.
supple, agil.
supply, va., proveer.
suppose, va., suponer.
sure, seguro.

surprising, sorprendente.
surround, va., rodear ; cercar.
swan, el cisne.
sweet, dulce.

swell, vn., crecer ; hinchar.
swiftness, la velocidad.
swim, vn., nadar.
sword, la espada.
system, el sistema.

tact, el tacto.

tailor, el sastre.

take, va., tomar ; (take to)

llevar ; (take off) quitar.
tale, el cuento.
talk, vn,, hablar.
talk, el coloquio.
talkativeness, la locuacidad.
tall, alto.
tame, man so.
tapestry, el tapiz.
taste, va., probar.
taste, el gusto.
tea, el te. •

teach, ensenar.
teacher, el maestro, la maes-

tra; el profesor,la profesora.
tear, la lagrima.
tell, va., contar ; decir.
ten, diez.
tend, vn., tender,
tender, tierno.
tent, la tienda.
territory, el territorio.
than, que.
thank, va,, agradecer ; — you,

gracias.

340

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

thankfulness, la gratitud.
that, conj,^ que ; (relative) que ;

{demonstrative) ese, aquel.
thaw, va., deshelar.
the, el.

theatre, el teatro.
their, su, sus.

then, adv,^ entonces ; luego.
there, adv.^ ahi, alii.
they, ellos, ellas.
thick, espeso, denso ; six

inches — , seis pulgadas de

espesor.
thin, delgado ; enjuto de car-

nes, flaco.
thing, la cosa.
think, vn,^ pensar ; creer.
third, tercero.
thirst, la sed.
thirteen, trece.
thirty, treinta.
this, este.
though, aunque.
thought, el pensamiento.
thoughtful, pensativo.
thousand, mil.
three, tres.
threshold, el umbral.
through, por ; al traves de.
throw, i/a., ec bar; arrojar.
thunder, el trueno.
Thursday, el jueves.
tiger, el tigre.
till, va.^ labrar ; prep,^ hasta.
time, el tiempo ; at the same

time, a la vez, a un mismo

tiempo.
timid, timido.
tire, va., cansar.
title, el titulo.
to, a ; hasta.
toast, va,^ tostar.
toast, la tostada.
to-day, adv,^ hoy.
together, juntos ; adv.^ junta-

mente, junto,
to-morrow, adv.^ maiiana; —

morning, manaiia por la

maiiana.
tone, el tono.

tongue, la lengua.

to-night, adv.y esta noche.

too,«</z^.,tambien ; demasiado.

tool, la herramienta.

tooth, el diente ; set of teeth,
la dentadura postiza.

top, la cumbre.

torment, el tormento.

touch, va., tocar.

towards, hacia.

towel, la toalla.

town, la poblacion ; la ciudad.

track, la pista.

trade, el comercio, el oficio.

train, el tren.

transit, el transito.

translate, va,^ traducir.

translation, la traduccion.

transportation, el transporte.

travel, vn,^ viajar.

traveller, el viajero ; com-
mercial — , el agente viajero.

tree, el arbol.

trifles, las zarandajas.

trip, el viaje.

triumph, el triunfo.

troop, la tropa.

trouble, el pesar ; la pena.

trousers, los pantalones.

trunk, el tronco-; el haul.

trust, va.^ vn., confiar.

trustworthy, digno de credito,
digno de confianza.

try,^^.,tratar,probar; ensayar.

turf, el cesped, la pista ; el
hipodromo.

Turkish, turco.

turn, va.^ vn., volver ; girar,
revolver ; (noun) el turno.

twelve, doce.

twenty, veinte.

twice, dos veces.

twist, va., torcer.

two, dos ; — hundred, dos-
cientos.

ultimo (date), pasado (mes).
unbearable, inaguantable ; in-

soportable.
unclCy el tio.

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

341

under, underneath, adv.^ de-

bajo ; prep., debajo de.
understand, va., vn., com-

prender; entender.
undertake, va., emprender.
undo, va., deshacer.
undoubted, indudable.
uneasiness, la inquietud.
unexpected, inesperado.
unhappy, infeliz.
uniformity, la uniformidad.
unite, va., unir.
unknown, ignoto ; descono-

cido.
unless, a menos que or de.
unlikely, inverosimil orinveri-

simil.
unsaddle, va., desensillar.
until, hasta ; hasta que.
upon, en, sobre, encima de.
upright (erect), enhiesto.
us, nos.
use, el USD.
use, va., emplear ; usar; v.n.,

acostumbrar.
useful, util.
useless, inutil.
usual, ordinario ; usual.
utensil, el utensilio ; utensils,

Ids utiles,
utter, ?^«.,proferir; pronunciar.

vacant, vago, vacante.

valise, la maleta.

valuable, precioso ; valioso.

value, el valor.

variety, la variedad.

vary, vn., variar.

vegetable, la legumbre ; —
garden, la huerta.

verb, el verbo.

verse, el verso.

very, muy.

vestibule, el zaguan, el vesti-
bule.

victory, la victoria.

view (point of), el punto de
vista.

village, la aldea ; el lugar.

violet, la violeta.

virtue, la virtud.

visit, la visita.

visitor, la visita.

vogue, la voga or boga.

voice, la voz.

volume, el volumen ; el tomo.

waggon, la carreta.

wait, vn., aguardar.

wake, va.y despertar.

wakeful, desvelado.

walk, el paseo.

walk, vn., andar ; caminar,

walking-stick, el baston.

wall, la tapia ; la muralla.

walnut-tree, el nogal.

want, va,, querer ; desear.

war, la guerra.

warm, caliente ; it is warm,

hace calor.
warmth, el calor.
warn, va., advertir ; avisar.
wash, va., lavar.
waste, va., disipan
watch, z/<3!.,contemplar; mirar,

atisbar.
watch, el reloj de bolsillo.
water, el {fern.) agua.
waterfall, el salto de agua.
way, el camino; la via ; el modo.
we, nosotros, -as.
weak, debil.
wealth, el caudal.
weapon, el {fern.) arma.
weather, el tiempo.
Wednesday, el mi^rcoles.
week, la semana.
weep, vn., llorar.
weigh, va,, pesar.
weight, el peso.
well, adv., bien.
west, el oeste ; el occidente ; el

poniente, el ocaso.
wet, mojado ; humedo.
what,ique?,iquecosa?; icual?;

lo que.
whatever, cualquier cosa, lo

que ; — may be, sea cual

fuere.
wheat, el trigo.

342

ENGLISH VOCABULARY

when, adv,, cuando.
where, adv., donde.
whereas, mientras que.
whether, conj.^ si . . .
which, {inter.) cual ; {rel.) que,

el cual.
while, adv,, mientras, mientras

que.
white, bianco.
who, {inter,) iquien?; {rel.)

quien, que.
whose, cuyo.
why, per que.
widow, la viuda.
widower, el viudo.
wife, la esposa.
wine, el vino,
winter, el invierno.
wise, sabio ; cuerdo.
wish, va.y querer ; desear.
with, con.
within, {adv.) dentro ; {prep.)

dentro de.
without, prep., sin.
witty, chistoso.
wolf, el lobo.
woman, la mujer.
wonder, el pasmo, la mara-

villa.
wonderful, maravilloso.
wood, la madera, la leiia ; el

bosque.
woody, selvoso.
wool, la lana.

word, la palabra, el vocablo.
work, el trabajo ; la obra, la

labor.

work, vn.^ trabajar.

world, el mundo.

worry, va., vn., fastidiar, abu-

rrir.
worth, el merito, el valor; it

is not worth while, no vale

la pena.
worthy, digno.
wound, la herida.
wrath, la colera.
write, va.j vn.^ escribir.
writer, el escritor.
writing, el escrito, la escri-

tura.
wrong, errado, falso.

yard, la yarda (91 centimetres).

year, el alio.

yellow, adj., amarillo.

yelp, vn., gaiiir.

yes, adv., si ; — indeed ! i ya lo

creo !
yesterday, adv., ayer.
yet, conj., sin embargo ; adv.,

aun, todavia.
yield, va., vn,, ceder; dar,

rendir.
yoke, va., uncir.
yoke, el yugo.
you, usted, ustedes.
young,joven. — man,eljoven,

el mozo.
your, de usted, de ustedes ; su,

sus.
youth, la juventud.

zone, la zona.

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