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ELEMENTS

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY

A. MOQTJIN-TANDON,

MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, AMD OF THE IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF MEDICINE ;
PROFESSOR OF MEDICAL NATURAL HISTORY TO THE FACULTY OF MEDICINE AT PARIS.

With One Hundred and Twenty-four Illustrations.

TRANSLATED AND EDITED BT

ROBERT THOMAS HULME, M.RC.S.K, F.L.S.,

LECTURER ON DENTAL SURGERY;
MEMBER OF THE BOARD OF EXAMINERS OF THE COLLEGE OF DENTISTS OF ENGLAND.

LONDON:

H. BAILLIERE, PUBLISHER, 219, REGENT STREET.

NEW YOEK :

BAILLIERE BROTHERS, 440, Broadway.

PARIS:

J. B. BAILLIERE & FILS, Rue HautefeuUle.

MELBOURNE :

FERDINAND F. BAILLIERE.

MADRID:

BAILLY BAILLIERE, Calle del Principe.

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PRINTED BY W.H.OOX,
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The intimate relations which exist between the various de-
partments of Zoology and practical medicine render a work
embracing these subjects of considerable value to the medical
man. This is especially the case in a country like England,
possessing numerous colonies scattered over the surface of the
globe, ill one or other of which the young practitioner is
frequently destined to commence his career of responsibility
and usefulness.

At the present time there is no standard work in the English
language upon Medical Zoology, the only book especially
devoted to this subject being Dr. Stephenson's Medical Zoology
and Mineralogy, which was published as far back as 1832.
The numerous treatises on Materia Mediea refer only to those
animals which are employed as remedial agents, while the
writers on practical medicine seldom give more than a mere
outline of the Entozoa and of those Animals which are injurious
to man.

The work of M. Tandon contains a more complete account of
the Human Entozoa, and of those Animals which are either in-
jurious or beneficial to man in a medical point of view, and is
furnished with a larger number of illustrations, than any
previous publication on the same subject.

In the translation the text and arrangement of the original
work have been closely followed ; only a few passages and
two short chapters, the one on " False," and the other on

" Fabulous Helinintha," have been omitted. The place of
these omissions has been more than occupied by other matter ;
all which additions are distinguished by being placed in brackets.
The weights and measurements have been reduced from the
Preneh to the English scale, and are generally given in parts
of the pound avoirdupois, or in fractions or decimals of the
English inch. The principal responsibility which the Trans-
lator has taken upon liimself in the way of alteration has been
the addition of the passages already referred to. Some of the
numerous synonymes of the names of the animals which M.
Tandon has included in bis work have been omitted, as being
of little use to the student and apt to produce confusion. In
one or two instances a different name has been made use of
to the one proposed by the author ; in all such cases the one
adopted is that by which the iininw] has been generally known
in England, and of which the use has been recently confirmed
by its being retained in Kiichemneister's Manual of Entozoa.
In no department of Zoology has greater conftudon arisen from
the want of a uniform nomenclature than in Helminthology.

The Translator desires to return his best thanks to Professor
Quekett for the information he kindly afforded him, particularly
with regard to the Bothriocephalic latus ; an obligation which
will be found specially mentioned in its proper place. His ac-
knowledgments are no less due to Mr. Chatto, the librarian of
the College of Surgeons, for his ready and valuable assistance
in searching for names and references in the books of the
library. The illustrations have been accurately copied by Mr.
Joyce from the original wood cuts, and three additional en-
gravings have been added from other sources.

21, Jons Street,

Bebfomi Bow.

AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

I ha
of Zoo

Kimi
opt

:8E Elements of Medical Zoology have been written
principally for the use of those who are intended for the pro-
medicine or the practice of pharmacy.

I have been desirous of including within the limits of a small
ie, a clear and comprehensive description of those portions

Zoology which have any bearing upon medical science.

In such an undertaking there were two errors to he guarded
against. One was to avoid entering too much into the details
of either Comparative Anatomy or of Zoology. The majority
of students are already bachelors of science, and, therefore,
possess a general knowledge of the structure and class! lie at ion
of the Animal Kingdom. I did not consider that it fell within
the limits of the present work, when speaking of the Cantlia-
ridett, for example, to enter into a minute account of its ner-
vous system, or when describing the Viper, to dilate upon the
affinities of the genus or the family to wliieh it belongs. The
other error was not to describe at too great length the parts of
their products which are employed in medicine, and
to infringe upon another department.

Most authors who have written upon Medical Zoology have

lopted a purely Zoological arrangement. This plan un-
doubtedly possesses the advantage of imparting to their works
a more scientific and less arbitrary arrangement, but, neverthe-
less, it has also certain disadvantages ; it subordinates the
Medical Zoology too muck to Zoology proper, and deprives it

of that professional spirit which should govern all the studies
of either a medical or a pharmaceutical school. A writer on
Medical Zoology, who arranges his chapters according to the
" Animal Kingdom," of Cuvier, lor example, will be compelled
to speak of the Quadrumana and of the Lepidoplera, merely
because these animals constitute two important divisions in the
Zoological aeries. But the medical practitioner and the phar-
maceutist makeno use of cither Mrmlcoi/s: <>v [Sitf/<r/!ies. . .If on
the other hand the writer adopts a Zoological plan, but omits
those divisions or families in which the medical practitioner
lias no direct interest, his arrangement becomes disconnected
and incomplete, and ceases in fact to be an arrangement.
Again, there are animals distinguished from each other by their
characters aud structure, which the Zoologist places in dif-
ferent groups, often far apart, but which the medical practi-
tioner, on the contrary, brings together for the purpose of
studying them collectively, in consequence of the organs they
inhabit, the diseases they give rise to, or the remedies which
they require. Such is the' case with the Internal Parasites,
animals which are dispersed through the system of the Zoo-
logist, but which are associated in the works of medical
authors. 1

These considerations have induced me to adopt an arrange-
ment founded upon the characters of the animal or its Medico-
Zoological relations. Such an arrangement is more practical
than scientific ; but it is simple, convenient, aud well adapted
for the purposes of medical or of pharmaceutical study, and
avoids leading the reader into details which are foreign to his
daily occupation.

I shall briefly point out the order and the family to which
each animal belongs, and as the commencement of the work
contains a special chapter on the subject of classification, it will

1 Under the name of Enlozoa or Helmintha.

he easy for the student, who desires further information upon
this point, to ascertain either the class or the branch to which
the animal belongs, and even to learn the affinities and the
differences which arise from such an arrangement compared
with other arrangements.

Many animals and many animal productions, which were
formerly in use, are no longer employed in medicine. These
might hare been omitted, hut as it ia useful to have a know-
ledge of this ancient Materia Medica, and to be acquainted with
the history, the revolutions, and the progress of therapeutics, I
have given a short description of these animals and of their
productions in n separate chapter.

For a long time Medical Zoohv^y was made to include only
those animals or those parts of animals which are employed as
remedies. Thus, in the Materia Medico, of Linnn?UB about thirty
pages are occupied with the animals which, in his time, were
employed in medicine (Caatliariiks, Leeches, Coehineal itueef).
Bernard Peyrilhe, in his Lectures on Medical Natural History
(first edition), has devoted forty-six pages to the description of
these animals, but he ha3 somewhat extended the list and
includes the Internal Parasites, as the Ta?ni<s, the External .
Parasites, as the .Lice, and also those animals winch, without
being parasites, injure man either by sucking the fluids of his
body or by their poisonous properties, such as the Flea and the
Viper.

Medical Zoology ought also to include the Natural History
of man, and should investigate some of those more difficult
questions which are merely touched upon by the sciences of
anatomy and physiology. This important division of the sub-
ject has not been neglected.

In a still more extended sense Medical Zoology should
embrace the relations which exist between the various branches
of the science of animals, and the different departments of the
healing art. Thus Zoological anatomy, physiology, teratology,

and pathology are intimately connected with human anatomy,
physiology, teratology, and pathology, and are capable, in many
instances, of elucidating, or even of explaining, some of the
important problems connected with them ; hut to have ex-
amined such matters in an efficient manner would have led me
beyond the intentions of the present work.

I shall commence with the Natural History of Man or An-
thropology, Under this head I shall examine the principal
characters of our species, its perfection, its accidental degra-
dations, its unity, its races, and the manner in which it has
been classified by various writers.

This will he followed by a summary of the organization and
classification oi'lhe aniirml kingdom.

I shall then describe, imder the following heads :
I. Animals and the actual products employed in medicine.

II. Noxious animals, hut which are not poisonous nor yet

III. Poisonous animals.

IV. External parasites or Epizoa.
V. Internal parasites or Entozoa.

Piius, September 1, 1B59.

MAN, OB ASTHEOFOLOGY.

CHAPTER I. — ChABACTEBS OP MiK

Chapteb II. — Anatokv op Mam -
Chapter m. — Of a supfohed Wild Man
Chapter IV.— The Unity op the Humak Species
Chapter V. — Op the Races op Maw
Ceapteb VI.— The Huhas Kingdom

SECOND PABT.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY PEOPLE.

BOOK I.— Organization of
I. Organs and functions
H, Organs and functions of reproduction
ILL Organs and functions of relation

BOOK II.- Classification of Animals -'

I. Ancient ....

IT. Linmeus -

IIII. Lamarck -

IV. Cu-vier .....

V. Present state ....

OOK m.— Animals and the Animal products employed
in medicine - - - - -

SECTION 1 — Animals or Animal Productions fonnurl)' employed

in Medicine -
SECTION IL — Animals and Animal Productions <x
ployed in Medicine
Chapter I. — Animals employed whole
3 I. Seink

§ II. Wood Lice

§ III. Cochineal Insect

CONTESTS.

Chapter II. — Animals employed r
5 L l'joliyJorniota

L Phodcots

§ HI. Snails

§ IV. Oysters

§ V. Coral

§ VI. Sponga
Chapter III. — Anim

§ L Spermaceti

§ IL Bile

§ IIL Crabs' eyes

§ IV. Spider's web
SECTION m.— Animals o
stoutly emjili.ycil is
Chapter L — Liver On.

| I. Oil from the liver of the Cod

§ II. Oil from the liver of the Skate

§ IIL Oil from tho liver of the Shark
Chapter LT.— Music

§ L Musk

§ IL Civet

§ LLL Beaver

§ IV. Hyraoeum

§ V. Ambergris

I "

CHAPTER V.— GallS

§ I. Galls
§ n. Cases

SEC

Chapter ILL — Vesicatthg Ii

§ t Cantharides

§ n. Mylabris

§ III. Cerocoma

| IV. Meloe
Chapter IV. — Leeches

Chapter VI.— The Trehala
SECTION IV.— Animals or Animal Products employed a:
sories in Medicine -
§ L Bones
§ IL Blood
§ IH. Flesh
§ IV. Albumen

CONTENTS.

§ V. Gelatine

§ VI. Fat

§ VH. Oiis -

g VIII. Milk

§ IX. Eggs -

§ X. Honey

g XI. Wtis

§ XII. Hair and other Corneous substances

BOOK IV.— Noxious Animals, but which era not poison-
ous nor yet Parasites ...
Chapter I.— Animais noxious i>uhinq inwa Lives
§ I. Surra- salines
J II. Hfomopis
§ in. Cimicidse
§ IV. Nepa
§ V, Hippoboscid:e
§ VI. Tsetse
§ VII. Gnats
§ Till. Stinging Animals
| IX. Larvic of Flies

§ X. Other Insects which may be accidentally introduced
into the natural cavities of the body

IAPTEK II ANIMALS It

IOOK V. — Poisonous *"■"»!« ...
SECTION I. — Animals which convey their poison by the month
Chapter L— Poisonous Animals with Fangs

§ I. Vipers ....

§ IL Foreign Serpents ...

CuAFTIIFlIl. — POIBOHOCB AhIHALS ARMED WITH AnTEKNS If

§ I. Spiders .....

§ IT, Scolopcndra ...

ACTION II. — Animals which inoculate their poison by mt

of a special organ ....
Chapter I.— Ounithorybchus ...

.— Scorpions
I.— Hymknopteba ...

§ I. Beea ....

§ II. Humble Bee - - -

g HL Wasps ....

Kli CONTENTS.

SECTION HI.— Animal poisons

Humours analogous to poisons

- SI

BOOK VI.— External Parasites

r Epizoa -

SECTION L— Epiaoa living on the skin

- 25

Chapter I. — Lice

Chapter II. — Common Fl»a

- 2S

Chapter III.— Cmao«

Chapter IV. — Tices

- 30

Chapter V. — Aroades

Chapter VI.— Harvest Bud

- 30

SECTION II.— Epizoa living beneath the akin -

Cbaptee I. — Sarcoptpb

- 30

Chapter 11. — Acaropsb

Chapter III. — Dehodex

- 32

Chaptrs IV. — Some other species

f Aoari -

32;

BOOK VTI.— Internal Parasites

r Entozoa

- 32'

SECTION I.— Insect Entozoa

321

OSstriuea

- 321

SECTION H.— Crustaceous Entozo*

Lingualula

- 32<

SECTION IIL— Entozoie Worms or

Helmintlia

33C

Chapter I.— Ascarides

- 33;

Chapter II.— Oxthkis

34J

Chapter III. — Triohocephalps

- 34S

Chapter IV. — Akojitibtomuu

Chapter V.— St robot los

- 355

Chapter VI.— Spproptsra

359

Chapter VII.. — Filaria

- 359

Chapter VIII. ; — Theoosoma

36S

Chapter IX.— Fldkes

. - 370

Chapter X.— Festhoaria

375

Chapter XI.— Tsnia

- 378

Chapter XII.— Both riocephalds

386

Chapter XIII. — Cystic Heiwiktha

- 391

§ L— Cysticerci

391

§ II.— Echinococei

- 39*

§ HI. — Acephalocjsta

394

§ IV. — Transformations of Ihe Cystic Helminths

- 396

Chapter XIV. — Zooiooical views

403

SECTION IV.— Infusorial Entozoa

■ 405

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page Fig.

P.se

1. Head of European

37. Dragon Leech

140

2. Head of Kegto

38, Jaws of a Leech

- 142

3. Abd-el-Kader -

39, Leech bile -

144

4. Yen - -

40. Cynips -

- 149

5. Soulouque

41. Torebra of Cynips

149

6. Head of Negro

42. Common Gall -

- 151

7. Sciok

43, Section of Gall -

151

8. Wood-looaa -

44. Chinese Gall -

- 155

9. Armadillo

45. Turpentine Gall -

156

10. Cochineal insect

46, Lurinua of the Trehala

- 157

11. Eerrues

47. Trchala

157

12. African Elephant -

48, Helix pomatia -

- 175

18. Helix pomatia

49. Common Sturgeon

183

11. Cachalot

50. Sperm Whale -

- 189

15. Greenland Whale

51. Common Bee

197

16. Whalebone platos -

52. Mouth office

- 201

17. Crabs' eyes

53. Leg of Bee -

207

18. Cod

101

54. Whalebone

- 211

13. Thornback Ray

106

55. Htemopis

215

20. Squalus Aeanthias

109

56. Jaw of Hasmopis

- 216

91. Musk Deer

111

57. Common Bug

220

22. Musk apparatus

112

53. Rostrum ofBug

- 221

23. Musk sack

118

59. Reduvina,

222

24. Civet ....

115

60. Rostrum of Reduvina

- 223

25. Civet apparatus

116

61. Notonecta -

224

96. Zibeth ....

117

62. Rostrum of Notonecta

- 225

27. Beaver -

118

63. Nepa ■

226

28. Apparatus of the Castor

120

64. Rostrum of Nepa

- 227

29. Glands of the Castoreum

120

65, Horse Fly -

227

30. Banian - . - .

123

66. Beak of Horse Fly -

- 22S

31. Canthariiies

129

67. Tsetse -

228

32. Mylabrla . - -

134

68. Trunk of Tsetee

- 229

33. Cerocoma

135

69. Gnat -

230

34. Meloe ... -

137

70. Proboscis of Gnat -

- 231

36. Grey Leech

- 139

7 1. Proboscis in action

232

36, Green Leech -

140

72. Stinging hairs

- 235

IIBT OP ILLCSTJlATrONS.

73. Portuguese Man of War

74. Larvm of Fly

75. Hominivorous Fly -

76. Common Viper

77. Vipera Ammodytes -

78. Vipera Pelins

79. Head of a Viper

80. Poison apparatus

81. Cerastes iE^yptinuus

82. Crotalus Durissus

83. Poison fang -

84. Month of Spider -

85. Gland and Claw of Spider

86. Seolopendra

87. Hoad and claw of Scolo-

pondra • -

88. Common Scorpion

89. Gland and spine of Scor-

90. Poison apparatus of Bee

91. Head Louse

92. Rostrum of Head Louse
83, Body Louse

94. Pubic Louse

95. Flea ...

96. Mouth ofFlea

97. Female Sarcoptus -

93. Male Sarcoptus
99. Rostrum of Sarcoptus

50. Grooves foisted by the

Sarcoptus -
)1. AcaropsU
)2. Demodex

13. Lingualula

14. Aacaris ... 9

15. Structure of Ascaria - 3

16. Oxyuris ... a
>7. Trichocephalus - - 3
is. Ancylostomum Duoden&le 3
9. Strongylus 3

0. HeadandtailofKtroU£yhis3,

1. Filaria ...
3. Flake ....

3. Common Ttenia -

4. Head of Ticnia

5. Segment of Taania

6. Sexual organs of Tfcnia -

7. Rutiiricn-i-plialna latua •
S. Head of Bothriooephalus
9. Segments of Botfcrioce-

D. Sexual organs of Both-

riocephalus
t. Cystieerci -
i. Echinococci
i. Acephalocysta
I. Trichomonas vaginalis ■

ELEMENTS
MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

PART THE FIRST.
NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN, OR ANTHROPOLOGY.

» CHAPTER L

CHAHACTEES OF MAN.

Mas ia the chief of living beings.

Buffon considered him as the only animal with tiro lumit
and two feet.

Blumenbaeh pave as his attributes : ilie erect position and
the possession ofttro hands. 1

Other writers have combined these characters and have said
of man: Situs ercvtni, iimitus Juu: pedes bini.

To these principal characters, others have been subse-
quently added, which, although less determinate and occupy-
ing a subordinate rank, acquire a certain value by being
associated together : such are the want of organs of defence
(inermia), the absence of any natural covering against the
inclemencies of the seasons (nudus), a projecting chin,* the
contiguity of the teeth, or absence ot any vacant space
between them, 1 their evenness, that is, they are all of nearly
the same height. 4 the vertical position of the lower incisors, 5

•

1 Enciiis et hhnamt*. (Blum.)

3 MenliiiH prominulum.

1 Ihtilm iilrini/iie rdiquis apjiritximati.

' Di'tita* 'equates.

' Incisures inferiarea erecti.

the hands being provided with a ilislinctlv opposable thumb, 1
the feet having a strong; projecting hod. 8 the breasts bein^
two in number anil placet! en the chest, 1 aiul lastly, the posses-
sion of an extremely short coccyx.'

By combining the preceding characters, man may be said to
possess a body erect, unarmed, and almost uuked ; a projecting
chin, teeth touching each other, and of nearly the same height
(the lower incisors vertical), tun pet-feet hands (on the upper
Lvmbs), tbat is to Bay, having a distinctly opposable thumb;
two feet (on the lower limbs) plantigrade, and with a well-
developed projecting heel; two pectoral mainline, and the
coccyx not projecting.

All these are. however, physical characters : there are others
of a far higher order, which establish an immeasurable tnterv
between our species and all other animals. Man is especial
distinguished from even the most highly organized beings b
his understanding, 3 his perlVvi ilulity. his knowledge of (_H>i
his idea of the intiuite, his love of the beautiful, and by hia
moral sentiment.* Thus, the great Linnwus, in his Si/stema
Nalurte, after bestowing upon man the name of Sapiens, did
not draw up for our species a series of distinctive characters
taken from the number, the proportion, or the form o
bodily organs, in the manner lie has done for all other livi
beings. He justly despised the hands, the feet, the teeth, ai
the mamma?; he coulined himself to writing after the generic
name Homo, and repeated after his specific name these pro-
found and significant words : Noses tk ii'strM ! T

1 Manwum pollex plant- oppotittts.
' Calcaneum prominent el. calidum.
' Mamma pect/tralcs, diitx.

* Coccyx abbreviate.— To these have also been added the lobule ol

car, mill Hie |.rc-nuv. in tlu: ivuiiiiii), of tin; hymen and the menses.

s " Man surpasses in dignify nil creatnl iiiiii.i;* Ik- thai, emanation fr.
the Divine nature, "hmh animal r< in id t- 1 l 1 i.n f i r L - 1 1 n him." ( Daubentoo..)

6 "In him we li mi rrlieiuij, jusrikv. jiniduUL-u, piety, modesty, clemency,
valour, endunmee, faith, and nuineroua other virtues which ai" --*
with in animals." (A. Pare.)

* " Nosck IB 1PSDM grmliii ei) -prim nx i»tpit:,ti/r, tlkltimi/tie Stilt,
t/Hti)it!tjiii srriptum /illfrix titire.i* .tuprti IMaiae tcinplitm." (Linn.) — El
leben does not give the words nonce le ipsitm as the speeine eharaeti
After the gcncri..' name, liu ilislmeaii.he- man hy the following; attribute:
" Denies pn'mart'.- incixarts, supra •■< iiij>ra I V. Laniarii coniei tontjiti
iHnf. rr<]ttute#. Manns in p/i/mis, nan in phm'i-t : Mfimmif petiartdes II .
Cauda nulla." This is a very couiploLi: ami sei'miific deseriptio!

ANATOMY OF MAN.

CHAPTER II

ANATOMY OF MAN.

Man is provided with an interim] osseous skeleton. This

;eleton has an axis or column formed of 3*2 vertebra?, consisting
tit' 7 cervical, 12 dorsal. 5 lumbar, ."> sacral, and 3 coccygeal.

The head is placed at the upper part of the vertebral
eolnmn : it is composed of the cranium and face. In the
cranium there are H bones: 1 occipital, 2 temporal, 2 parietal,
1 frontal, 1 ethmoid, and 1 sphenoid. Li the face there are
14 bones: 2 superior maxillary, 2 malar, 2 nasal, 2 palatine,
1 vomer, 2 inferior spongy bones, 2 lachrymal, and 1 inferior
maxillary. Each jaw possesses 1 LI teeth : viz.) 4 incisors in the
centre, 2 canineB, 1 on either aide, and 10 molars or tuber-
culated grinders, 5 at each extremity, divided iuto false molars
and true molars; the canines are somewhat pointed and pro-
ject slightly beyond the edges of the incisors and the tubercles
of the molars.

Man lias 12 pairs of ribs articulated with the vertebral
column, 7 superior pairs or true ribs, which are united ante-
riorly to the sternum by cartilaginous processes, and 5 inferior
pairs or false ribs which anteriorly are free.

A portion of the vertebral column with the ribs and the

ernum bound the chest or thorax, a large conical cavity
which occupies the anterior and superior part of the trunk.

The inferior extremity oi' the vertebral column or coccyx has
aDove it a large pyramidal and triangular bone, termed the
sacrum ; this bone is united at the sides with the iliac or hip
bones.

The coccyx, the sacrum, and the two ossa imiominata form
another large irregidar cavity, which is open above and below,
but closed in front, and is known as the pelvis.

Between the pelvis and the thorax is the abdomen.

In man, the upper or thoracic limbs arc attached to the
superior and lateral parts of the trunk ; each consists of a
shoulder, arm, fore-arm, and hand.

The shoulder is formed in front by the clavicle and behind
by the scapula. The arm consists of the humerus ; the fore-
arm has the radius on its outer and the ulna on its inner side.
The' hand is divided into the carpus, metacarpus, and fingers.
The eaqius has 8 bones arranged in two rows: in the first row,
passing from without inwards, is the scaphoid, the semilunar,

the cuneiform, and the pisiform bone; in the second and ill
the same order is the trapezium, the trapezoid, the ob mag-
num, and the unciform bone. The metacarpus is formed by
5 bones, named according to their numerical order from with-
out to within. The fingers are 5 in number in each hand ;
they are named thumb, hides, middle, ring, and little finger,
or in their numerical order, passing; from without inwards;
each has three phalange*, except the thumb, which haa only
two.

The lower or abdominal limbs are articulated with the
inferior or lateral parts of the trunk, and consist, like the
superior, of four divisions — the hip, thigh, leg, and foot.

The hip hone, the analogue of the acapnia, tonus a part of
the pelvis, which ban been previously spoken of. The thigh
has only a single bone, the femur. The. leg has the fibula on
its outer, the tibia on its inner side, and the patella in front
and above. The foot is divided into the tarsus, metatarsus,
and toes. The tarsus is composed of 7 bones: viz., the calea-
neum, the astragalus, the scaphoid, the euboid, aud the 3
cuneiform bones. The metatarsus is composed of 5 bones,
arranged parallel to each other, and named according to their
numerical order, from within outwards. The toes are 5 in
number, and are also named after their numerical order aud
in the same direction : each has three phalanges, except the
great toe, which has only two.

In man, the length from the bend of the body to the sole of
the foot is generally equal to 1m! 1" hi* height. The distance
from the extremity of one middle finger to that of the other,
when the arms are extended, ia equal to the height of his body.

When the body is of average stoutness, the height is equal
to five times its diameter.

The head and ncek equal the sixth, and the head alone the
seventh aud a half part of the entire height of the body. The
long diameter of the face represents the tenth part, and the
latter is equal to the length of the palm of the hand.

Man ia remarkable for the general weakness of his organs
at the period of birth, and for the length of time required for
his physical education. He is partly naked and partly
covered; bis hair is distinguished for its length.

The human species i* especially I'rugivorous. Man drinks
without being impelled to it by thirst, and he alone makes use
of compound and fermented liquors. The latter he obtains
from the grape, the augar-emc, barley, rice, dates, the cocoa-
nut, the berries of the junipei'-tree, from the twigs of the pine

AS ATOMY OF MAN. 5

and the birch, from the sap uf certain trees, and from the
milk of several of the mammalia.

His frugivorous nature accords with the character of his
teeth, while his stomach is simple, and his alimentary canal of
moderate length. The intestines are divided into the small
and large intestines, the latter being provided with a rudimen-
tary .'aval appendage. The great omentum bangs in front of
the abdominal viscera, as far aa the pelvis. The heart is placed
obliquely upon the diaphragm, with its apex inclined towards
the left aide.

The human head has a facial angle which varies between 85°
and 64°. The maximum of 85° occurs in the European (fig. 1) ;

'5° in the Chinese ; and 70° in the Negro (tig. 2). [In
the adult Chimpanzee, the facial angle is only 35°, and in the
Orang 30°. Professor Owen has shown that the measure-
ments, which assigned a higher development of the facial angle
to these anthropoid apes, were made on young animals,
before the enormous canines of the second set of teeth had
made their appearance and before the large elongated muzzle
of the full-grown animal had become developed.]

The human brain is distinguished by several important
characters ; such as the great development of its anterior
lobes, and of the eorpua callosum, by the number of its convo-
lutions and anfractuosities, by the depth of the latter, and, as
a necessary consequence, by the great extent of the cerebral
surface ; it has been calculated that the volume of the enee-

Klon U to that of the body as 1 to 28. ' Its average weight

' In tho Sslmiri [a small a

A^TKItOPOLUGT.

is about 44oz. fiOgrs. avoirdupois. 1 The posterior portions o
the hemispheres overlap the cerebellum.

[The following tables of the average weight am! relative si/f
of the brain are taken from a paper hv the late Dr. Join
Keid, in the London and Edinburgh Monthly Journal <
Medical Science, for April, 1843.

Table I.

Average. Weiijht of the Encephulon hetireeit 23 ami 35 i/r,i
age, in the two Sexes. Mules, 5'S brains we'ujhe,!. F,/i.
36 brains icrii/hed,

HaLEB. FEMALES, DtFFERESCE E

F Males.

«br,

lb. o

Average weight of eneephalon

dr.
50 3i

lb, t

dr.

Tiedman says, " The female brain is lighter than that of t
male. It varies between 21bs. Soz. and 31bs. lloz. troy,
never found a female brain that weighed 41bs. The brain of
girl, an idiot, sixteen years old, weighed only lib. 6oz. ldr.
The female brain weighs on an average from 4 to 8
than that of the male ; and this difference is already per-
ceptible in a new-born child.

" The brain arrives, on an average, at its full size towards the
seventh and eighth year. Soemmering says, erroneously, that
the brain does not increase after the third year. Gall and
Spurzheim, on the other baud, are of opinion that the brain
continues to grow till the fourteenth year. The brothers
Wenzel have shown that the brain arrives at its full growth
about the seventh year. This is confirmed by Hamilton's
researches.

" Desmoulins is of opinion that the brain decreases in old
people. From this circumstance he explains the dinihiutioi

I ; 22 ; in some birds as 1 : 20 : IS : 16 Or : 12. The last proportion
occurs in the lorn-tit. (Is. ("ieoitYov Saint-TIilaire).

1 That of Iluiiiiymni nvi;.;ln-;l ;,<!hk, -isii grains, avoirdupois, which ia
probably the maximum woiirlii. The "i.idir. of 8-loz. llilgrs. avoirdu-
pois, which has been aliened to (Javier* brain, must be regarded as an
exaggeration; while that of Ti-uv- r.iu%rri. and (if nearly "Uoz, avoirdupois,
which aro supposed to have been the wek'hi <>\ tin: biiiins of Byron auii of
Cromwell, are impossible. [The hrain of the late Dr. Ambereronibie
weighed about Gin/.. ai'idrdup'.di. See (Juriiia '.:];'.■; .luurinti, Dee., 1844.]

of the functions of the nervous system nod intellectual powers.
The truth of this assertion has in it as yet beeu determined.
The brothers Wen/.cl and Hamilton deny it.

"It is remark a tile that the brain of a man. eighty-two years
old, was very small and weighed but 31bs. 2oz. 3dr. ; and the
brain of a woman, about eighty years old, weighed but
21bs. 9oz. ldr. I have generally tumid the cavity of the skull
smaller in old men than in middle-aged persons. It appears
to me, therefore, probable thiit the brain really decreases in
old age, only more remarkable in some persons than in
others." '

The following are the results obtained by Dr. Reid, with
;e to the weight of the brain at different periods of life.

Table II.

Males:

number of brains

Females

: number iifbinioa

weighed, 154.

weighed, 97.

Ago.

X umber

Kiieeriliuk'll.

Number

ilui.-ejikik'U.

weighed.

OX.

dr.

lto 4

2 to 4

5 „ 7

7 „ 10

7 „ 8

10 „ 13

—

— ■

—

13 „ 16

Hi-

—

16 „ 20

20 „ 30

5(1

20 „ 30

30 „ 40

40 „ 50

13*

40 „ 50

50 „ 60

60 „ 70

B S

60 „ 70

14-f

70& upw

This table shows that, the brain attains its greatest absolute
reight at an early age. The maximum is found in the table
f the male brains at between 16 and 20. Br. Heid, however,
states that this apparent excess of weight at that period over
the next forty years must have arisen from sources of fallacy
incidental to insufficient data. And in the group between 40
1 50, Dr. Iteid states that some brains much below the

ANATIIMV OF MAN.

were found, so aa to leave no doubt that the average
•eight in that group was to be attributed to that cireum-

A decided diminution in the weight of the brain was noticed
in females above Go years i if age, but among the males this was
not apparent until a later period.

" Anatomists," says Tiedmnn. " (lifter very much as to the
weight of the brain compared with the bulk and weight of the
body; for the weight of the body varies so much, that it is im-
possible to determine accurateh the proportion between it and
the brain. The weight of nn adult varieB from 100 to 800lbs.,
and changes both in health and when under the influence of
disease, depending in a great measure on nutrition. The
weight of tlie brain, although d liferent in adults, remains gene-
rally the same, unaltered by the increase or diminution of the
body. Thin persons have, therefore, relative to the size of the
body, a larger brain than stout people.

" From my researches I have drawn the following con-
clusions :

" 1. The brain of the new-born child is, relatively to the size
of the body, the largest ; the proportion is 1 : 6.

" 2. The human brain \a smaller, in comparison to the body,
the nearer man approaches to his full growth. In the second
year the proportion of the brain to the body is as 1 : 14 ; in
the third, 1 : 18 ; ni the fifteenth, 1 ; 24. In a full-grown
man, between the age of 20 and 70 years, as 1 : 35 to 45. In
lean persons the proportion is often as 1 : 22 to 27 ; in stout
persons as 1 : 50 to 100 and more.

"3. Although Aristotle has remarked that the female brain
is absolutely smaller than the male, it ta nevertheless not
relatively smaller compared with the body; for the female
body is, in general, lighter than that of the male. The female
brain is for the most part even larger than the male, compared
with the size of the body."

The brain of a man, eighty-two years old, was very small and
weighed but 31bs. 2oz, 3dr. ; and the brain of a woman, about
eighty years old, weighed 21bs, fioz. ldr.i

The following table gives the results obtained by Dr. Reid
from the examination of 92 bodies.

Table III.
? Weight of the Encephahn to the entire Body.

weighed, fii .

weighed, 35.

Number Encophalou.

Age.

Numberl Encephalon.

Years.

weighed. 1 ok- dr.

Yeara.

weighed

at. dr.

1 to 5

ItoSJ

2 to 4

1 to 8$

at 5

i „ 9;-i

5 „ 7

—

. — —

at 7

i » ioh

7 „ 10

1 „ 13Vj

13 to 15

1 „ 15}i

13 „ 15

—

1 „ 22

16 „ 20

1 „ 30J

20 „ 30

1 „ 85f|

20 „ 30

1 „ S8A

30 „ 40

1 „ 37A

30 „ 40

1 „ 34$

40 „ 50

1 „ 38

40 „ 50

1 „ 35

50 „ 60

1 „ 36?

50 „ 60

1 „ 38 5 V

60 „ 70

1 „ 30^

60&upw.

1 „ 38^ -|

Man's face is more or leas flat {o» suhlime), while that of
animals is provided with a snout, which in more or less pro-
jecting (os bestiale). The human face ia small relatively to the
nine of the cranium ; it is short, and has a vertical or slightly
oblique direction. The forehead projects, and the features
portray every thought and every change of feeling.

The organs of the senses are well developed. That of touch
is eitremely line, owing to the form of the hand, the softness
and flexibility of the skin, and the various positions which the
thumb is capable of assuming. 1 Taste is very delicate; and
that of smell easily distinguishes between different odours.
The ear has a marvellous power of appreciating the different
intonations of sound ; anil sight, although restricted to a short
distance, is nevertheless clear and distinct. The latter acts in
front, and not at the sides of the body, thereby producing
greater concentration and unity in its action.

Man alone is cosmopolitan; for he only is acquainted with
the use of fire and clothing. He appreciates and seeks for
causes. He observes the actual, lie conceives the possible, and
doubts the supernatural. (Bourdon.) He delights in amuse-

which are best

' In the monkeys it is the posterior pair of extremiui
adapted for prehension, and not the anterior or superior pair, as ia man.

ANATOMY OF MAN.

ment and luxury ; he hopes and repents ; lie langliB and weeps ;
he has the wonderful I'aculty of expressing abstract notions by
the aid of sound, and it is tipou this faculty that his memory
and his power of reasoning depend. (Cuvier.) The distinction
which reason establishes between man and animals ia ao great
that the most degraded Hottentot is capable of governing the
most perfect of the mammalia, whether in the form of a
mischievous monkey or of t lie sagacious elephant : he commands
them, he compels them to obey him, and renders them subaer-
vient to his use. (Adanaon.)

Man has been justly pronounced the chief of animals and
the ting of nature." He has no other musters thi
passions and his fellow-men ; his superiority does not depend
upon the strength of his body or the perfection of bis senses,
but upon the faculties of his soul and the powers of bis mind. 3

He haa measured the course of the stars, and calculated the
period of their return. He haa invented sigiia in which to
embody his ideas, and by which lie can preserve and transmit
them to posterity.* Lastlv, the multiplicity of his industrial
occupations bears a direct" relation to the variety of his amuse-
ments and the extent of his dominions.

Man'a body is adapted to the erect position. His upright
ness results partly from the central situation of the occipital
foramen (Daubenton), and to an arrangement of the vertebral
column, which is peculiar to himself (Serrea). [In a well-
formed European skull, the plane of the occipital foramen ia
horizontal, and its anterior extremity is about halt' way between
the tuberosity of the occipital bone and the incisors of the
upper jaw. This central position of the occipital foramen and
the condyles is one of the great peculiarities of man, who ia
destined to stand erect. His head, therefore, is almost equally
balanced on the top of the spine. In monkeys, who hold a
middle rank between man and quadrupeds, the foramen
magnum is placed farther back ; in the orang-utan, it is about
twice as far from the. foramina incisiia as front the back of the
head. Consequently, although monkeys can stand erect for a

1 "He comes naked upon the earth . . . to his great profit and advan-
tage be is armed wild innkT.-tainliiiM- and doLlied "ill) reason-" (A. Pare.)
" Man ie a ph!!i>vj/,!tnM.I an hind." (Virey.)

■ "Man ia more excellent and |.n-vi«i than all (lie animals." (A. Pare.)

1 " Robur ct rirex in eupieiiiiu." (Eusf.achi.)

* "Ho has reduced to writing ilie iloi.-iriiu's and spallations of philoso-
phers, ao that uy this means «v are still alik' to otovc-rse and to dispute
with Plato, Aristotle, and the other writers of antiquity." (A. Pare.)

ASTHUOrOLOOr.

time, they cannot do so long. 1 ] Mail's buck is less covered, or,
more correctly speaking, ii is more naked than his chest or his
abdomen; a character which docs not belong to any other
mammalian animal. (Blumeubach.) Mis loot is large and pro-
vided with a projecting heel, upon which the leg is placed in a
vertical position ; the toes are short and possess but little
flexibility, and the great toe, although larger and longer than,
the others, cannot be opposed to them. The muscles which
maintain the foot ami the thigh in a state of extension are
exceedingly powerful, and form the calf and the buttock. The
pelvis is large, the legs are placed apart aud give firmness to the
bipedal and erect position. Man could not, even it' he wished
it, move conveniently upon all lour limbs. The interior extremi-
ties, now become posterior, would he too long relatively to tbe
superior, which would be similarly converted into anterior
extremities. The length of the thighs would always bring the
knees against the ground. The shoulders, placed too widely

Sart, and the arms carried too far from the medium line, would
support the anterior part of the body. The heel would not
rest upon the ground. The weight of the head would not
be properly sustained. The eyes, instead of looking forward,
would be directed towards the ground. The arteries which
supply the brain not subdividing as in most quarupeds, the
blood which is requisite for the supply of so large on organ
would be poured into it with too much force, and frequent
apoplexies would be the result of the horizontal position.
(Cuvier.)

The straight and erect attitude of man is that of command.
Hia head, directed towards the heavens, offers an august and
dignified countenance. (A dun son.) It has been truly observed,
that the erect attitude of man constitutes one ot his great
physical distinctions, even as his intelligence forms a moral
distinction.

The nearly equal number of individuals belonging to the
two sexes proves that monogamy is the natural condition of

The male organ contains no central bone; it hangs in front
of the pubis, aud the prepuce does not attach it to the abdomen.
This fold of the skin covers the gland more or less completely,
and is provided with its proper frenum. The scrotum is placed
exterually, and is lax and wrinkled.

in Osteology, l>y Lather Holuen, p. II", Sail edition. London,

12 ASA.TOMT or MAN.

The womb is a simple oval cavity ; at the entrance of t
vagina there is generally a hymen or eanmculae tnyrtiformes.
The mamma; are placed on the chest, and thus accord with the
facility with which the female carries her infant in her arms.
(Cuvier.)

The human female has usually one young at a birth. Out
of 150 to 200 deliveries there does not occur above one example
of twins. It is extremely rare to meet with more. The
duration of pregnaney is nine months. Children born before
the seventh month seldom live.

A fietus of a month old is from .02 to .03 of an inch in
length j at two months it measures from an inch to an inch
and a half; at three mouths from two to two and a half inches;
at five mouths from eight and a half to ten and a halt' inches ;
at seven months from thirteen to fourteen inches; at eight
months from nearly fourteen to fifteen inches ; and at nine
months eighteen inches and a half.

[According to Miiller an embryo of thr fourth week measures
3J lines. At the commencement of the second month the length
of the embryo extends to a few lines or half an inch. The extre-
mities are visible in the form of leaf-like appendages, and the
cavity of the mouth evicts, and is wide open. In the course of
the third month the fietus acquires I lie length of two and a half
or three inches ; in the fourth, during which the sex becomes
distinguishable, it reaches to four inches ; and in the fifth to
twelve inches. At this period occur the formation of the fat,
and the further development of the rudimentary horny
structures, the nails and the down, lanugo, which appears over
the whole surface, and the eyelids coalesce. In the fifth month,
also, the movements of the embryo arc felt by the mother. A
fastus born during the sixth mouth breathes, but does not con-
tinue to live. In the xeventh linmr month the embryo acquires
the length of 16 inches or more, and if expelled from the
uterus is sometimes capable of living. In the eighth lu%
month its length is 16J- inches ; the testes at tki
descend from the abdominal cavity through the inguinal ring
into the scrotum, which had hitherto the form of empty folds
of the skin, and the eyelids become tree. In the ninth month
the hair appears on the head, and the embryo measures 17
inches in length. In the tenth lunar month its length reaches
18 or 20 inches. 1 ]

The milk teeth begin to appear some months after birth
yBalj, vol. u. pp. 15S8

ASTHBOrOIOGT. 13

[between the. fifth and eighth. 1 ] The incisors are the first
teeth which are cut [those of the lower jaw generally preceding
the upper by u week or two]. At two years of age [or from
that to two and a half ] the healthy child in provided with
twenty teeth. These teeth begin to be shed about the seventh
year, and are replaced by others. Of the twelve molar teeth,
which are never shed, four make their appearance at the age of
four years and a half, four at nine yenrs of age, and four much
later. The latter, termed the wisdom teeth, sometimes show
themselves towards the twentieth year, but occasionally not
until after the fortieth.

[The periods mentioned in the preceding paragraph for the
appearance of the permanent molars differ materially from
those at which they occur in this country. The first per-
manent molars do not appeal' before the seventh year, and
sometimes the four are not through the gum until the ninth
year. The second are in place between the twelfth and
thirteenth years. These numbers were obtained by Mr.
Saunders from the examination of a large number of children,
for the purpose of ascertaining how far the teeth might be
toasted wr the purpose of determining the age of children
employed in factories, and to prevent anv infringement of the
1'actories Eegulation Act. From all the eases which came
under his notice, 31 r, Saunders has drawn the following con-
clusions.

" Thus then it appears, that of 708 children of nine years of
age, 389 would have been pronounced, on an application of this
test, to be near the completion of their ninth year; that is,
they presented the lull developments of that age. But on the
principle already stated, that of reckoning the fourth tooth as
present when the three are fully developed, a still larger
majority will he obtained, and. instead of 3S9. the proportion
will be as follows : of 708 children, no less a number than
530 will be fully nine years of age. What then are the
deviations exhibited by the remaining 178? They are the
following: 12(1 would be pronounced eight years and Bis
months, and the remaining 52 eight years of age, so that the
extreme deviations are only twelve months, and these only in
the inconsiderable proportion (when compared with the results
obtained by other criteria) of 32 in 708.

" Again, of 338 children, of thirteen years of age, no less
than 294 might have been pronounced with confidence to he

' T. Bell : The Anatomy, Physiihgy, and Distant! of (In Ttctlt. |>. Si),
dedit. London, 1SU5.

of that age. The remaining 44 would have been considered as
follows : 36 in their thirteenth, iunl eight near the completion
of their twelfth year." 1 ]

The feet us increases the more rapidly as it approaches t
period of birth. The child increases less and less as it passe
from that period.

At birth the infant weighs from 3 kilogrammes (O'Glbs.
avoirdupois) to 3 kilogrammes and a half (7'71bs avoirdupois).
It has attained more than one quarter of its full height; '
two years and a half it has acquired tin 1 brill', and at nine
ten years of age the three quarters. At thirty years of age it
ceases to grow.

[The length of the new-born infant varies from about ]
inches to 22; the average, probably, being between IS and
19, though Koederar states it to he 20^ inches. The mean
weight is about 71hs. avoirdupois, or one twentieth of that ol
the adult. Dr. William Hunter states, that of many thou-
sand new-born perfect infants weighed at the British Hospital,
in Loudon, by Dr. Macaulay. the smallest waB about 4lbs.,
the largest lllbs. 2oe., while the greater number varied from
5 to &lbs. The average weight of 2(3 children at the natural
period, weighed by Boedercr, was about U-Jlbs. ; the lightest
Slllja. ; and the heaviest 81bs. The length of male slightly
exceeds that of female children, while the dillerenee in weight
is estimated by Dr. Clarke at about '.hi/., avoirdupois. In the
case of twins, the average weight of each twin is in general
less than that of children born at single births, though the
combined weight of both is greater. Dr. Clarke found that the
average weight of twelve twins was lllbs. avoirdupois each
pair; the heaviesi being Wilis., and (he lightest fc'.lbs. 2 ]

The average height of a man is 5378 feet. 3 A man is con-
sidered to be of the ordinary height when he measures from
5'249 to 5'754 feet. The woman is somewhat shorter,
man is said to be short when he is much under 5'249 feet, and
is called tall when he is above 5'7.>1 feci in bright. Men who
do not measure 3'2S0 feet are du-a,ji, \\ bile those- who exceed
6*5G0 feet a:

also Mr. Saunders'

1 Medical Gazette, vol. ii, 1837-38, p.
work, entitled, Thr '/'■ dh <i- T(M of Age.

' T. H. Tanner, .M.D., F.L.S.: A Practical Treatise
Infancy and Childhood, p. lti. London, 1S5S.

' According to Tcimn it is ;r-i'J5: uixording to Lulut, C'436; and accord-
injr tu SilliuiuaiiLi, .)-429 feet.

' By raising hie arms in the air a man measures from the sole of hie

ASTHKOrOLOGY. 15

[The skeleton of O'Byrne, the Irish giant, which is preserved
in the College of Surgeons, measures eight (bet from the
vertex to the sole of the foot. In the annual Register
Chronicle, for June, 1783 (vol. xxvi. p. 209), it is stated
that in August, 1780, O'Byrne measured eight feet, that in
1782 he had gained two inches, ami after he was dead he
measured eight feet four inches, lie died in 1783, aged only
22 : Ins death was hastened by excessive drinking, to which he
was always addicted. None of his family were of more than
ordinary stature.]

The varieties of the human race which differ most as re-
gards height are the Bosehesmans and the Patagonians.
Putting aside the exaggerated statements of some travellers,
we find that the proportion of their heights is as 8 to 27.'

[Darwin, iu his interesting narrative of flic voyage of the
Beagle, when speaking of the Patagonians, says : " Their
height, appears ".'renter lliau it really is, from their large
guanaco mantles, their long flowing hair, and general figure:
on an average their height is about sis feet, with some men
taller and only a few shorter; aud the women are also tall ;
altogether, they are certainly the tallest race we anywhere
saw.- Tlie skclcttui of a male Buschesuian in the College - of
Surgeons (No. 5,3157) measures lour feet five inches from the
vertex to the sole of the foot. If we assume that there is the
same relative difference between the length of the skeleton
and the body of the BoscheBman as there was in the case of
O'Byrne (viz., the one twenty-fifth of the whole height), then
the owner of the foregoing skeleton must have been four feet
seven inches high.]

The average weight of mankind, without reference to age or
sex, is 1151bs. avoirdupois. That of a man is 1211bs., and that
of a woman, llOlbs. Man attains lus greatest weight at about
forty years of age, and begins to diminish very perceptibly at
sixty. The average weight of the old person, in both sexes, is
about the same as that of the individual at nineteen years of
age.

foot to the tips of bia fingeis 8'fioO rent, and from the aolc of his foot to the
umbilicus S'^80 feet. (Silbermaun.)

' It has been cak'uUiteil that 1 1 1 e illi'ni-'.U'.-c hi size but ween the Shetland
pony and the larne Eiurlisli brewer's Ii.tsc is us I to 27. Thus the varia-
tion iu the size of the human race i- '.-i.dit times- less than what occurs in
the horse.

11 Charles Darwin, If. A., F.R.S. : Jtmrii'i/ ti/Ili-smnrli's kilo Out Natural
History and Gtotow uffhii Cin<iilriti nV/i d duriiiy (lit. Voyage of H.M.S.
Beagle round Ike World, p. 2Z± 2nd edit. London, 1845.

[M. Quetelet ' lias given the following table of the varktic
"ghts of full-grown and well-formed persons in kill
grammes ; the value of the number in avoirdupois has
placed beside them, omitting fractional parts when under
a pound.

Maximum. | Minimum. | Medium.

kil. lbs.
985 218
93'5 206

kil. Ibs.t

552 121j

:
I

A healthy chUd begins to talk when he is from twelve
fifteen months old, the first sound which he utters amongst
nearly all nations and in almost every language are the syl-
lables la, pa, ma, because they an. 1 the sounds which are I
easily pronounced. Some children will articidate very die
tinctly at two years of age, and will repeat nearly all that i
said to them; but the majority do not talk until they ai
years and a half old, and frequently not until much later.
(Ad.D.on.)

When the body lias attained ils lull height and size, it
begins to spread and to become fat. The minute vessels are
gradually filled up, the Bolids are rendered ?
after a life of longer or shorter duration, passed amidst more
or less excitement and anxiety, there comes old au'e, feebleness,
decrepitude, and death. (Cuvier.)

According to Duvilkrd (1800) the average duration is 28J
years. According, however, to the more recent statistics, it ia
33-63 years.

Men who have passed the average period of life usually
attain to 70 years of age. Persons who live to a hundred are
exceedingly rare, and stdl more so those who exceed that age.

[The returns of the Registrar General's Fifth Annual Report
show, that in England the average duration of life at birth i
41-18 years: and in children who have attained the age of o]
year it is 47'71 years for the male, or iS'ou years for the
female ; and for all children without reference to the ses it is
48' 13 years.

The following remarks are taken from l)r. Tanner's work on
the diseases of children : !

"Let us suppose," says this writer, "that 100,000 chil-
dren were born alive on the 1st January, 1841; and that

' "Anna!i.< ■!'I!i/"i:-it£ 1'nt'lv/ue," ftc, torn. x. p. 27.
' Op. oft. p. 6.

ANT HBOPO LOOT. 17

they were the offspring of all ranks imd classes of Englishmen.
From the usual proportion of the two seses registered, it will
appear, that 51,274 were boys, and 48,726 girls. Of the
100,000 children, 14,031 have perished during the first year,
leaving 85,369 alive on the 1st January, 1812; they were
exactly a year old, and are placed against the age ' 1 in the
table. On the 1st January, 1843, the survivors were two
years old, and in number 80,102; so that 5,267 have died in
the second year. On 1st January, 1846, the fifth birthday
was attained, and there were 74.201 living. Consequently, in
the first five years, 25,709 children out of 100,000 have died.
During the nest five years, when the children leave home
more, nud when — as it appears from the parliamentary
returns — great numbers pass part of the day at school, the
mortality becomes considerably less, so that we find 70,612
alive at the age of ten ; while ironi ten to fifteen the loss is
email, 68,627 living to Hie latter age. The loss of life among
girls now becomes rather greater than among boys, and it
continues so for the eusuing live years, when both sexes are
more detached from the care of their parents, and the majority
pursue the professions or trades by which they afterwards
gain a livelihood. The mortality appears to increase rather
rapidly from twelve to fifteen ; and then at a slow regular
rate from the age of fifteen to fifty-five : (Hi. 05!) attained the
age of twenty, it was stated that 51,274 hoys were born
alive to 48,726 girls; but the mortality in infancy is greater
among boys than girls ; so that 31,958 males attain the age
of twenty- live, and 31,023 females attain the age of twenty-
four. This is about the average age of marriage in England,
and the number of the two sexes is then nearly equal. The
chance of living from twenty-five to forty-five is rather in
favour of English women ; the violent deaths of men counter-
balancing t lie dangers of oh.il d-beari rig. At the age of sixty
37,9!)6 will be still alive, while 24^531 attain the age of
seventy ; *. e., 11,823 men, and 12,708 women, the mortality of
the latter being less than that of the former after fifty-five.
At the ago of eighty, there is 1ml little doubt, that about 9,000
of the 100,000 will still be found alive; but after this period
the observations grow uncertain, although we may calculate
that 1,140 will attain the age of ninety, 16 will be centena-
rians, and 1 man and 1 woman, out of the 100,000, may
remain to complete their one hundred and fourth year.

" For convenience of reference, these calculations are
arranged in the following table, which also contains a register

.NATOMY OF )

showing the p.cprrtatiuii <>f life ; i. e., the mean number of yei
which, lit any given age, the members of a coituu unity, tot'
one with (mother, m-iv e\j>tvt to live. The menu i/iu-n/ioii
life is found by adding the age to the expectation of Hi
tnuH. the mean duration of a hoy's life at live years is 5+
49-84— 54'04. The probable duration of life is the age at which
a given number of cliildren bora into the world will be reduced
one hall'; so that there is un ei-unl diuncc of their dying before
or after that age. Thus, ont of 51,274 males and 1S.72G
females, a total of 100,000 new-horn infants, about oue-1
of each sex will have died before eom-deting the age of forty- '
bo that the probable lifetime of an infant at birth is 45 yf

ie-half
y-five;
ears.

Life Table fob England

Age.

—

Ma]oa

Females

Expectation of Life.

Tel-sons.

Males.

Females.

100,000

51,274

48,726

4118

40-19

42-18 1

85,369

43,104

42.2(i:i

W18

46-71

47-55

80,102

40,3SM

39.714

49-19

48-82

1957 ;

77,302

39,018

38.374

49*89

4952

50-29

75,539

38.064

37,475

5011

49-74

50*48 1

74,201

37.385

36,816

5001

49*64

50-38 1

70,612

35.50 1.

35,018

4744

47*08

47-81

68,627

34.573

34,054

43-74

43-35

11-13 .

6(J,059

33.321.

32,735

40-34

39-88

40-81

63,295

31,958

31,337

36 99

30-47

37*52

60,332

30,473

29.859

33 08

33-13

34 25 !

57,172

28,807

28.305

30*40

29 83

30-99

53.825

27,145

20.680

2711

26*56

27-72

50,301

25,311

21,990

23-80

23*30

24*43

46.621

23.370

23,245

20-35

20*02

21-07 j

42,796

21,355

21,441

l-Mfl

16-68

17*63 |

37,996

18,808

19,188

14-00

1359

14-40 1

31,852

15,589

16.263

11-20

1086

11-52 j

24.531

11,823

12,708

8-78

851

9-03

16,664

7,867

8,797

6-74

653

6-92 |

9,398

4,316

5,082

5-07

492

5-20 1

4,021

1,780

2,241

3 75

364

3*83 1

ill)

1,140

481

659

2-74

2-68

2-77

174

105

2-13

2-22

2-06

100

—

104

—

— |

WILD MAS'. 19

" This table reads thus : Of 100,000 births, 51,274 will be
male children, and 48,721} females ; of which number 85,369
will be alive at the end of one year, or 43,10 1 males, ;tnd 42,265
females. So again, of the 100,000, uue male and one female
will live to the age of 104.

"To learn tin" expectntioiioflilV the table should be read as
follows : At birth, a child's expectation of life is 11'IS years ;
if a boy, 40' 19 years ; if a girl, 4218 years. Again, at the age
of 40, a person's expectation of life is 27*14 years; hence the
mean age to which persons who attain the age of 40 live, is
40+27'-'l4=fi7-14 years."]

The period when man is capable of reproducing hia species is
that of puberty ; this occurs at from twelve to sixteen years in
the male, and from eleven to fourteen in the female. The
eireum stances being otherwise the same, this period occurs
earlier in hot climates than iu those which are temperate, and
in the latter sooner than those in which are cold.

Puberty is the spriii^-iiiiieot' human life. Up to this period
nature has ouly supplied the child with what was necessary for
its nourishment and for its growth. His life has been co nfin ed
to himself, he has been incapable of transmitting it ; but the
moment when puberty arrives he has acquired, not only all that
is necessary for his individual existence, but he can also impart
existence to others. (Adanson.) This superfluity of life, which
seeks to extend itself without, is marked by several signs, such
as a change iu the voice, the growth of the heard, the enlarge-
ment of the throat, and the development of the sexual organs.

CHAPTER III.

OF A SEM09ED WTLD MAS.

Does man exist, or has he ever existed, in a wild state ?
The answer is, and should he, in the negative. Man {Homo
sapiens) is essentially a social being. 1 If when he first appeared
upon the earth, he remained for a time iu the so called state
of nature he must rapidly have emerged from that condition.
But this early sta^e uf society was never similar or analogous
to the kind of life which is led by even the most perfect of the

1 Ziuv irohlfixi)*. (Aristotle.)

mammalia d animals. Tin 1 least enlightened populations, and t:
lowest islanders, have always presented themselves in the co
dition of a society more or loss perfectly organized ; sometimes
even remarkably so, and manifesting, not only a craving for
civilization, but also the capacity of attaining it. In fact, t
in the smallest tribes, it is easy to recognise the presence
influence of those important moral uiBtiurts which relate t
family, to property, and to religion.

Human society is essentially distinguished from t
association of animals, such as those of beavers, bees,
ants, both by the motives which produce it. the advautaj
which are derived from it, and by its progress towards p
fection. (Kullier.)

It is with regret that we find a great naturalist admitting fi
the noblest of living beings the existence of a savage type
(ferns), l to which Tie gives as characters the quadrupedal
station, the absence of speech, and a covering of hair (tetraput,
mat us, hii-sutim)'

Several writers have published apocryphal histories
miserable individuals belonging to our Bpecies, who, liavir
been abandoned cither tlm m^h poverty or crime, have lived ii
woods, and caverns, amidst the beasts of the fields,
persons, having lost the power of speech, could only utt
discordant and inarticulate sounds, and approached to a sf
of imbecility.

It would be folly to seek with Lamettrie. 3 in these rare a
happily exceptional cases, the primitive type of the human r
These degenerated beings are physical and moral aberratioi
from the normal or civilized man, and not individuals who ha
returned to the primitive condition from which eivilizati<
originated.

Linnrous mentions nine of these cases ; but he does i
inquire into their origin, their authenticity, or their scientific
value ; he gives them without order or date, and withot '
detail or comment. All these unhappy beings are childi
not a single adult is amongst them ;' a very remarkable c

' Homo ferua (Linn.) hob ml rvir.'V,'<i.s. (Exorleben.)

' Aristotle and Pliny also believed in [.lie existence of a wild type of tt
human race.

* De Lauietirie has rehired ^.-vri-nl o>,am[iles, and from them he k
drawn the six (.diameters uiiieh In.' a--di;ii- U> ni;in in a -iltitc of nature.

' Lav rev li:i-i i-iHiktu in a va/ue liiiiiLuev i it' a «■ i 1 ■ 1 hull wliiisu skeletoa !]■
saw at Wilna. His description, which was probably taken from soi
hasty notes made at the time, stems to have been written under the p

a> MAN. 21

stance, and one which bIiows that a state of isolation is not
that which is adapted to our species. Some of these children
Lave been found with herds of Bheep and oxen, and others
even amongst wolves and bears! It is on this account that
Linna'iis has eharaclcn/.ed them by epithets indicative of their
singular association. (Jitriiih i/i-nt//*. hiwinux, hqiuitm, iirsuiun).

When we inquire into the origin of these cases, we are
astonished at the contradictions, the falsehoods, and the
absurdities which we meet with.

The following are two of the best authenticated examples r
The Young Girl of I'/iiniijingnr: and ih<< Young Savage of Tarn.

1. The young girl of 'C/ia//i/iai/iir[/ni''i 'hi Caaij'tra/cn, Linn.) had
IrVed in the woods, in the midst of the wild animals, but it was
not known what were the circumstances which led to this.
She was captured and taken to a chateau in the neighbourhood
where she was brought up. She resided for a long time in
Paris, and was known by the name of Mademoiselle Lebhmc.
We are indebted for her history to M. Racine.

In the month of September, 1731, the servants of the
Chateau de Sogny, near Chalons-sur-Marne, one night per-
ceived a sort of phantom on an apple-tree in the garden ; they
approached without noise and succeeded in surrounding the
tree. But, suddenly, the phantom leaped over their heads,
then over the wall of the garden and lied to the woods, where
it mounted a large tree. The master of the chateau directed
his servants, with the assistance of the country people, to cut
down the tree ; it was necessary to serve several in the same
way, in consequence of the phantom throwing itself from tree
to tree. It was suspected that it was a young savage of the
female sex, and the people endeavoured to pursuade her to
descend. The mistress of the chateau, thinking that hunger
aud thirst would soon induce her to do so, ordered a bowl of
water and some food to be placed at the trunk of the tree.
The young girl, for such it proved to he, tempted by the sight,
partly descended and then remounted. At length she came
down and proceeded to drink ; she performed this act by
dipping her chin in up to the mouth, and swallowed the liquid
in the same manner as a horse.

When she was secured, the nails both of her hands and feet
were very long and exceedingly strong, giving her great facility
in grasping the branches of the trees, and probably assisting
her to destroy the wild animals. The colour of her body was

conceived notion that the skeleton bore a strong resemblance to that of the
Orang-utan I

ASTiiitoroi.oov.

change in En i

■A upon some

of a blackish cast, but this disappeared with the cbanj
mode of living.

Taken to the chateau, she iinmcdiiiU'Iy seized upon
raw fowls, whieh the cook had in hie hands. She was not
acquainted with any language, or articulate sound, hut merely
attend barsh gut tend cries. She was. however, uble to imitate
the voices of certain quadrupeds and birds.

In winter time she was compelled to cover herself with
the BkinB of animals ; but at alt seasons of the year she must
have worn a girdle, to which she attached a short round club,
whieh slie made use of to protect herself from the wild beasts.
She once, as she al'leruards related, felled a wolf with a single
blow on the head. When she killed a hare with her stick,
she skinned it and cat it ; when, however, she had hunted one
down, she opened a vein with one of her nail*, drank the blood
and threw the rest away. Her mode of running was very
surprising ; there appeared to he scarcely any motion in '
feet and body, so that she seemed to glide along rather tl
run. She exhibited the same agility in swimming and seer
fish by diving. She ate the latter with great relish. She
able to remain a long time beneath the water, so that
would have supposed that the water was her natural element.

When she acquired the power of speech, she related that
she had lost a companion of her own age. with whom she used
to live. They were both swimming in a river (no doubt, the
Marne) when they heard a noise which induced them to dive
it was a sportsman, who having mistaken them at a disl
for water-fowls, had fired at them ; they came out Borne wi
off and went into a wood, where they found a chaplet. whii
both of them wanted for the purpose of making themseh
bracelets, her sister having struck her on the arm, she reti
it by a blow on the head, so violent, that as she expressed
her sister became red. Prompted by that natural impi
which leads us to succour those of our own kind, she imin
ately went in search of a tree which yielded a gum thi
according to her, would cure the injury she had inflicted ; whi
she returned her wounded companion was gone, and she ~ "
saw her again.

The exact age of the girl could not be ascertained, nor
locality from whence she had come. When questioned
signs as to where she was born, she pointed to a tree,
gave the persons, however, to understand that she bad travert
a great expanse of water. Condamine conceived the idea
ascertaining the place of her birth, by presenting to her

i her
than

<mfc

OF A BTTFOSED WILD MAN. 23

roots and the fruits of various American plants, in the hope
that Bhe might recognise amongst them some of the objects
which bIio had seen in her childhood, but tbe experiment was
unsuccessful.

For a long time she refused to be clothed.

At Paris she was placed in a convent, a solitude which was
very different from that of the woods, and rendered her
extremely melancholy.

This girl was not an idiot like most of the wild children
which have been described by writers. She knew how to cover
herself with skins to protect her from the cold, and could
arrange them with skill. She had made a belt in which to place
her stick; she entertained the idea of ornamenting herself with
a ehaplet; she desired to cure the wound she hud inflicted on
her sister, and she was actjiiainteil with the virtues of a certain
gum. Has the most perfect and the most exalted of the
mammalia ever exhibited such si^ns of intelligence, or such a
combination of ideas, as was presented by this unhappy girl,
who, from having been deserted, had fallen into her degraded
condition?

2. The young boy of Tarn, commonly called the wild boy of
Aeegron, was the subject of public curiosity at the beginning of
the present century. All Paris went to see this unfbrtunftte
being. He had received the name of Victor. The Abbe
Bonnaterre and Dr. ltard, have each of them published a full
and most interesting account of him.

The child was eleven or twelve years old, and had been seen
several times in the wood of Lacai.me (Trim*) tearing up the
ground in search of potatoes, which he eat raw; he also
collected acorns and chesnuts ; he slept upon dry leaves, and
upon any one approaching would climb into the trees.

Towards the end of the year 1799 he was met by two
sportsmen, who managed to secure him.

The chdd was quite naked, aud his habits most disgusting ;
he was ferocious and irritable, he was subject to spasmodic
movements, which wen* often of a convulsive character, and he
balanced himself to and fro like the animals in a menagerie.
He would endeavour to scratch those who thwarted him, but
he evinced no kind of affection, or recognition of those who
had charge of him. He appeared to be indifferent to almost
everything, but continually endeavoured to escape from the
habitations of men, in order that he might return to the woods.

He was incapable of uttering any sound, and the nervous
system was probably diseased.

A\THKOPOr.OQT.

Tl ii- unhappy being was taken to a village in :
hood. He contrived to escape at the end of a week, i
regained the mountains, where he wandered about ■for fiftt
mouths, covered only with a ragged shirt, enduring the mi
bitter cold and the most intense heat.

He was again captured upon his entering a lone house it
the Canton of Saint Sernirj, moat probably being driven to
by want of food. He was taken. to the hospital of
Affrique, thence to Bodez, and lastly, by the order of tl
minister, to Paris.

He arrived in the capital towards the end of the year 1800.

His height was about four feet three inches ; his skin
white and delicate; his hair was of a dark ehesnut colour;
face was rounded, his physiognomy agreeable, hut with little
expression; his eyes were deep set and black, and the t
lashes largely developed ; the mw long and somewhat poinl
his smile was pleasing ; the tongue was without any nn '
mat ion.

Hie body was covered with sears and lacerations from the
spines and branches of the trees. At the upper part of the
trachea was a transverse mark, about an inch and a half long,
which seemed to have been caused by some cutting instru-
ment !

Pinel regarded the little savage of Tarn as a miserable idiot,
attacked by an incurable disease, and pronounced him to be
incapable of instruction, or of becoming fitted for society.

l)r. Itard did not agree with this opinion, he ventured
entertain some hopes nf him. and endeavoured to bring him
in an establish incut lor the deaf and dumb. He has publish!
a long account of the results which were obtained at the end
of nine months. It must be admitted, that, in spite
apparent satisfaction of the doctor, these results were far from
brilliant. All that can he said is, that the little savage was
not entirely wanting in intelligence. But the purely animal
functions predominated in him over all others, and his look had
always a certain amount of vacancy, which is well expressed in
the engraving of his portrait. His voice was never capable of
producing more than certain discordant and almost inarticulate
sounds.

He manifested great dislike to sitting in a chair, or sleeping
in a bed. He often crawled on his knees, almost in the
manner of a monkey. It was with difficulty that he was
taught to walk slowly. For a longtime he refused all food,
either raw or cooked.

little

in ted;
.alfor-

n the

ted

WILD MAN. 25

He smelt all his fond before eating it. He had not" the
slightest idea of modesty.

One morning after a fall of snow lie uttered a cry of distress,
and quitting his bed ran first to the window, then to the
door, then impatiently from one to the other, and at last escaped,
half dressed, into the garden. There he manifested his joy by
the most piercing erics, rolled himself in the snow, and gather-
ing it up in h.'tixll'ulri swallowed it with an incredible avidity.
(Hard.)

The origin of this child ia uncertain ; it was suspected that
he hud been deserted when he was between four and five years
of age, and that he bad, therefore, passed seven years in the
forests. Some persons, who were worthy of credit, declared
that he was the legitimate child of a notary, who had been
inhumanly abandoned, because nature bad deprived him of the
power of speech.

Whatever he might have been, Pinel has justly observed
that the child was an idiot ; but in the history ot this idiot
there are two circumstances related by Dr. Itard, well
deserving ot' attention:

1. The child sometimes went by himself into the garden
belonging to the establishment of the deaf and dumb, and
seating himself on the edge of a reservoir, his balancing motion
gradually dimmished. ami his lu.niy l.ieeame perfectly quiet ; his
countenance then assumed all the appearance of a profound
and melancholy revery ; he would remain in that state for hours,
closely watehing the surface of the water, upon which, from
time to time, he would east the fragments of the dried leaves.

2. If during t lie night the bright rays of the moon entered
hiB chamber lie seldom failed to rise and place himself before
the window ; there he would remain standing during a con-
siderable part of the night, motionless, his neck extended, and
his eyes faxed upon the distant view illuminated by the moon,
in a state of ecstatic contemplation! . . .

Has anything ever been observed in the most intelligent
monkey which could be compared to the state of revery
exhibited by this diseased and idiot child ?

ANTHROPOLOGY.

CHAPTER IV.

THE UKITT OF 1

Man inhabits all the climates* of the earth, with the ex-
ception of those of the polar regions. The populations of the
various countries present certain differences in the form of tht
head, the expression of the countenance, the height of thi
body, the proportions of the limbs, the characters of the bai
the quantity of the beard, and in the colour of the ski
Nevertheless there exists but one species of man, and tl
populations of every country and of every period have descend!
from a. common stock.

Some naturalists have endeavoured to establish sevei
distinct species of men.

Linuteus in his Syttoma Natures (1766) admits two specie
of men, the Homo Sapiens and the Homo Troglodytes, tlnde
the latter title he includes the Albino ; these, howi
persons in a state of disease, and in the present day they are
not regarded as even constituting a variety, Linnaeus imagined
that this supposed second species lived in caverns, and for this
reason he bestowed unon it the name of troglodytes, eliarac-
teriaing it by the epithet of nocturnal (noctiiriiua). At the
end of his Manliumi jihnilnnim ulli-ni, which appeared five years
after the twelfth edition of the St/stema Nature, the illustrious
naturalist of Sweden committed the serious error of including
in the genus Homo an ape, the Gibbon of Buflbn. which he
names Homo Lar ; ' " a surprising error committed by a great
genius, which should never find i mi tutors." (Pouehet.)

Virey (1821 ) also admit ted two species of men, distinguished
by the difference of aperture in the facial angle ; in the one it
varies between 85° and 90° ; in the other between 75° and 82°.
Iu the apes it never exceeds 40°. These two species of men
include six races characterized hv their clour, and these again
comprise eleven sub-races, which are arranged according to the
regions they inhabit.

Desmoullna (1824) divided the genus man into eleven species
more or less distinct; the characters he gives them are often
established with considerable ability, but they ure always
insufficient to induce us to reject the unity of the human race.
He names these species: 1st, the Cclfti-Sci//!i-A rabs ; 2nd, the
Mongols; 3rd, the Ethiopians; 4th, the Euro- Africans ; 5th,
the Austro- Africans ; 6th, the Mnhn/s ur Oct-mntmx ; 7th, the

OF THE RACES OF MAN. 27

Popovs ; 8th, the Negro-Oceanians; 9th, the Australasians;
10th, Ihr Cuhnnlianx ; 11th, the Americans.

Bory de Saint-Vincent (1S25) goes even farther than
DeBmoulms ; hi* admits tifteen species of men. These are : let,
the Japetk ; 2nd, the Arabian ,- 3rd, the Hindoo ; 4th, the
Scythian; 5th, tin; ,SVhk' (Chinese); (ith, the Hyperborean;
7 tli, the Neptunian ; .Slh. llic Aitsfrrilitxiiiii; 9th, the Columbian ;
10th, the American ; 11th, the Pataijonian ; 12th, the Ethio-
pian ; 13th, the Cfcjfi'o; 14th, the Malanian; 15th, the ifo(-
tentot. He arranger* these fifteen species into two tribes: 1st,
the Leiotbix, or those with smooth hair; this division includes

thi'Jajiclic, A raid an. !iind,„>, Sfi/ihie. ami .SVm/i- species I icloLlijiiLir
to the Old World; the lIi/prrbomtH, Neptunian, und Australa-
sian spines, common to the Old aud the New, and the Colum-
bian, the American aod the Paiar/onian species, peculiar to the
New World; 2nd, the Oulotbis, or those with crisp hair, con-
taining the Ethiopian, Cii/fre. :\!t:hnuttn, anil Hottentot species.
In the present day man is generally regarded as constituting
a simple species, in which ail the individuals are capable of
mingling indiscriminately, and are able to produce an oftspring
which is as fruitful as its parents.

CHAPTER V.

THE HACES OF MAS.

While fully admitting the unity of the human species it is
impossible not to perceive the existence of numerous distinctions
between the various nations which people the globe, and of
hereditary peculiarities which are more or less permanent. It
is a matter of convenience to designate these particular modi-
fications by the title of race, and thus, while maintaining the
unity of the species, to recognise the existence of varieties.
These races art: sometimes propagated and preserved by the
act of generation, while at other times they become united
together, and are transformed by intermixture.

The idea of these modifications is extremely ancient. Moses,
and at a later period Ephoms tit' (.'unite, divided mankind, the
one into three races, after the three sons of Noah ; the other
into four, after the. four cardinal points.

Linn am s recognised four varieties of his Tfnmo sapiens, cor-
responding to the four quarters into which, in his time, the
earth was divided. 1

His variety, m'mslriisua, cannot constitute a rs

ANTHROPOLOGY.

um.-Tilwh proposed to establish five races: 1st, the CS
b; 2nd, the Mongolian; 3rd, the Ethiopian; ith, I

American ; 5th, the Malay.

M. Dumeril make§ sii : 1st, the Caucasian or Arab-E
fem I 2nd, the Hyperborean; 3rd, the Mongolian; 4th, t
American; 5th, the Malay ; (ith, the Ethiopian or Negro.

Bory de Saint-Vincent, whom we have previously seen t
tmguisnea fifteen species of men, admits also the existence (
race* and sub-races. Tims the Japelic, to which we belong, is
divided as follows :-

( A (ltn* toaatn I *• C<™«<««» Race (western).

i b. „ h^. | s; gj^aaa^

Int variety. 2nd variety.

Many naturalists, of whom we are one, admit with Cuvier
three principal races: 1st, tlie While or Caucasian; 2nd, the
Yellow or Mongolian ; 3rd, the Black or Ethiopian.

The Caucasian Race (fig. 3) occupies the whole of Europe,

OF THE RACES OF MAN. 29

the North of Africa, and Western Aaia as far as the Ganges.
It appears to have descended from the mountains of the Cau-
casus, from whence it derives its name.

The head is oval, and the forehead well developed, the eyes
are placed horizontally, the cheeks scarcely project, the jaws
are hut little advanced, the hair is Ion;; and smooth, and the
skin is of a pinkish white. This ran- is the most intelligent.

The Mongolian Sace (fig. 4) is found in Eastern Siberia,

Kamtschatkn, Russian America, China, Japan, and the Ludrone
and Plnllipine islands. It seems to have originated in tbe
Altai mountain b.

The face is flattened, the forehead low, oblique, and square
set ; the eves straight and oblique, the cheeks projecting, the
hair straight and black, the heard thin, and the skin of an olive
colour.

The Ethiopian Race (fig. r>) inhabits Africa to the south of
the Atlas mountains. It principal centre is Ethiopia, to which
it has given its name.

The skull is compressed (fig. 6), the nose flat, the jaws pro-
jecting, the lips thick, the hair woolly ami crisp, and the skin
more or less black. This race is tin- least intelligent.

There are several intermediate varieties between these three
races distinguished by characters more or less strongly marked;

ANTHBOPOtOGY.

Fig. 5. — SatitauifUe.

these may be regarded as i

^11 ii '"Hl^ races. "This has induced i

j0^ % ^\ ethnologists to enumerate as many

Jgr •-'~~~^ J4 >^. ^ ati oldTfla varieties or sub-v

JS^ /\ ^ of the human race. To the Cau-

Uon/foli/m, and J£/hia

plan they have added the Allf<

human, American, Hi

Australasian,

i Hottentot, and Caffre racea.

; divisions are eontained in

the moat recent and important

works which have been published

in thiB science. Their distinctive

'characters accord very closely to their ge(i;;i'a|.i]iical distribution.

The following is a summary id" the diameters of the several

aub-raees of mankind aa presented by my friend M. Is.

Greoflroy Sain t-llil aire, in his last course of lectures before the

Faculty of Sciences at Paris. I have arranged them in very

nearly the same manner as this learned naturalist.

Fig. 6.

Hair

Or THE EACES OF MAJT. 31

Table V.
Synoptical Table of the Human Races.

/projecting!^ °' ^^ ^^ i n

Skin 1 aDun( * ant *• Caucasian.

' ( copper coloured, beard scanty 2. Alleghanian.

/copper coloured 3. American.

''smooth tawny (small stature) ... 4. Hyperborean

Nose ( ^ e P re88e< ^ / f with the axis slightly

Skin. ] yellow I oblique . . 5. Malay.

eyes Iwith the axis very

^ ^ oblique . . 6. Mongolian.

very depressed (skin blackish). Lower

, limbs very slender 7. Australian.

crisp

very f black. ) very slender . 8. MaXanian.
4 depressed I Lower >
, Nose. \ Skin, 1 limbs. ) well developed . 9. Ethiopian.

(.tawny 10. Hottentot.

\ projecting (skin bronzed) 11. Caffre.

[Dr. R. Gk Latham, the latest English authority on the races
of men, in his work on the " Varieties of Man " has divided
the human species into three primary varieties, the Mongo-
lia^, the AtlantidsB, and the Japetidae. In his " Varieties of
the Human Species," published in Orr's " Circle of the
Sciences," l he has arranged them into nine principal groups.
Before enumerating these, it is necessary to observe that —

Ethnological facts are either physical or moral : physical, as
when a class is determined from the colour of the skin ; moral,
as when one is determined from the purity or impurity of the
habits.

Moral characteristics are either philological (that is, con-
nected with the language), or non-philological (that is, not so
connected).

The variations which occur in the different languages allow
of their being arranged under the four following heads :

1. Aptotic (from a not, and ptosis a case). — Languages with-
out inflections and monosyllabic, as the Chinese :

2. Agglutinate. — Languages which are inflectional, but
which have become so from the juxtaposition or composition
of different words.

3. Amalgamate. — Languages with inflections, which cannot
be shown to have originated in separate and independent
words.

1 Yol. i. p. 308.

initio
Lan-

ANTHBOPOLOHY.

Anaptofic (from ana back, and ptosis a case). — Langm _
which, like the English, once possessed inflections, but hi
fallen back or lost them.

Gaor/p 1. — Physiognomy : Mongol. Language : Monoi
labic. Area: Ladakh, Bulistau (or Little Tibet),
Nepal, Sikkim, Baton, Northern India, Arakhau, the Burmt
Empire, Siam Cambojin, Cochin China, Tonkin, China, the
Islands of Adaman, Nieobar, Carnicobar, Hainan, and tbB
Mergui Archipelago. Division*: Tibetan (or Bhot), Siamese
(or Thav), Burmese, I'egitan (or Mind). Kambogian Anemitii
(or Cochin Chinese), Chinese; various tribes imperfectly
tributed and described as Sub-Himalayaus, Xagaa, and "
Mincopie (or Adaman Islanders), and Nicobarians.

Gboup 2. — TACBArNAXB. — Physiognomy : Mongol.
guage: Agglutinate. Area: Mongolia, Mantsburia (the parts
north of I'ekin — the vallev of the river Amur, Selinga, or Sag-
halin), Siberia, Independent Tartary, Chinese Tartary, Turkia-
tan, Anatolia, Roumelia (or Turkey in Europe), parts of Bo-
khara, Persia, Armenia, Syria, the Crimea, Lapland, Finland,
Esthouia, Livonia, the Russian governments of Archangel,
Olonetz, Novrugond, St. Petersburg!!. Tver, Yaroslav, Vologda,
Permia, Yiatka, Kazan, Simbirsk, Saratov, Astrakhan, Cat
casus, Nizhninovogorod, Penza, Tambov, .Hungary, the Kui
Isles, Japan, Kamskatka. Divisions : 1. The Mongol!
Stock ; 2. The Tungusian Stock ; 8. The Turk Stock '
Lgrian Stock; 5. The Peninsular Stock.

Gboup 3.— The Causacian Stock in tue limited me.
ISO OF THE TEKM (DlOBCUHLAT) — Latham). — Physiognomy
European rather than Mongol. Lanqiwyr : Mouosyliabi
rather than European. Area : Caucasus. Divisions : 1. ™
Circassian; 2. Mizhjeji, The Irou; 4. The Georgians
Tue Lesgians ; (!. The Armenians.

Group 4. — The Pebsiak Stock. — Physiognomy: Caucasi
rather than Mongol. Language : in its present state with, bi
few inflexions. Area: Kurdistan, Persia, Beluchistan, parts
Bokara, the Kohistan of Cabul, Kafreatan. Divisions : Kuj
Persians, Biluelii, Afghans (Pushtu), Pirripamisans (popi
tions of Kall'rislau and the Kohistan uf Cabul).

Group 5.— The Ism as Stock. — Organization referalle
tteo types : in one the skin is dark, the face broad, the featui
coarse ; in the other, the feature? are regular, the head dulikhi
kephalic, the skin brunette rather than black. Language
Modified by foreign admixture; most so in the northern pai'
of India. Area : India, Ceylon, the Maldive islands, parts

OF TIIE RACES OF MAN. 88

the Monosyllabic frontier, the mountains of the southern parts
of Beluehistan, i. e., the country of the Brahui.

Group 6. — The Ocbas Gitoui'. — Area: The Peninsula of
Malacca, Sumatra, .lava, and the chain ending in Timor and
fiotti ; Borneo, and the chain leading to the Philippines ; the
Philippines; the Bashi and Babyani Isles; Formosa, Celebes,
and the Moluccas ; the islands between Timor and New
Guinea; Madagascar.

Gboup 7. — Tub Ameeicaxs. — Area i The Aleutian Isles,
North and South America; remarkable for the comparative
absence of domestic animals. Pligntm/norni/ : Modified Mon-
gol; the departure from the type being the most marked on
the water system of the Mississippi and the coast of the At-
lantic, Languages : Agglutinate.

Dr. Latham remarks upon this series that he finds "no such
misgivings as to the origin and affinities of the great American
group as liud place in most works on the subject." He neither
finds difficulty in connecting them with the Old World, nor
doubt as to the part thereof from which they came. Thus he
finds in North Eastern Asia just what the a priori probabili-
ties of the geographical relations of the two continents indicate.
His reasons for thus making short work of a hitherto long
question, lie in the recent additions to our geographical and
ethnograpical knowledge for the parts to the west of the
Bocky Mountains, for the northern parts more especially; for
Kussian America, for New Caledonia, and for the Oregon. It
is only lately that we have known much of these districts, espe-
cially in respect of their ethnology. More than this, it is
only recently that the Far li'est of the parts between the
Hoeky Mountains and Atlantic has been at all carefully
explored. What followed from this want of information ? It
followed, as a matter of course, that our notions of the so-
called lied Man of America were formed upon the Indians of
the Alleghany Mountains, the Mississippi, and the St. Law-
rence. But "these were extreme samples; samples of the
American in his state of greatest, contrast to the Asiatic. No
wonder, then, that the connection between them was mysterious
and uncertain. If investigators doubled, the want of data
justified them. The populations which were the likeliest to
supply the phenomena of transition were unknown or neglected.
Again, there was only one population common to the Old
and New World. This was the Eskimo, a population which
at one and the same time occupies the Aleutian Islands, the
Peninsula of Aliaska, the Island of Kadiak. the greater part of

ANTHBOFOUKIY.

Russian America, the const of the Arctic Sea. Greenland, and
Labrador. Here it cornea iu contact with the so-called lied
Indian of the Algonkin class.

Sow, between this so-called Red Indian of the Algonkin class,
and the Eskimo in geographical contact with him. there is a
broad line of demarcation — a line of demarcation ao broad as
tn suggest the idea of contrast rather than connection.
Hence, as long as we studied America on its eastern or At-
lantic side, we got nothing from the Eskimo; nothing from
the fart (apparently so important) of his being common to the
two hemispheres, and (as such) being likely to supply the con-
necting lint between them, lie was anything but such a link,
lie was rather a knife to separate than a baud to bind. Tet,
on the Western or Pacific side of the continent, this same
Eskimo bo graduates into the American Proper, and the Indian
Proper so graduates into the Eskimo, as to make the distinction
between the two groups as difficult as, on the east, it had
been easy." *

Group 8. — The Afhican Stock. — Organization: Head
rarely other thini dolikho-kephalic ; hair rarely straight,
always, with individuals resident on their native area, black.;
skin dark, in certain localities attaining the wrtrirnvm amount
of blackness. In such eases the hair is crisp, and the lips
thick ; »'. e., the physiognomy is Negro. Languages : Aggluti-
nate. Area : Africa, minus the Island of Madagascar (wholly
or in part), jilui Arabia and parts of Persia and Syria.

GnolIP 9.— The EUROPEAN GbOCP. — ; Physiognomy i Cau-
casian in the wider and more inconvenient sense of the term.
Languages .- Either unplaced, or Indo-European (so called).
Area: Western, Central, anil Southern Europe. Divisions;
A 1, The Basks; B 2, The Skipitar; C 3, The Kelts; 1) i.
The Greeks and Latins ; 5, The Sarmatians ; 6, The Germans.
The three divisions marked D are easily, conveniently, and
accurately looked on as sections of some higher denomination
—species (so to say) of a genus. To this most writers add
the Kelts ; some the Albanians. All exclude the Basks. The
name of this higher class, when it is limited to the divisions
under D, is Judo-Germanic; when extended to D and C aa
well, Indo-European. The present writer objects to it in
either form ; holding it to be a word as erroneous and incon-
venient as QnwMum in the wide tense of the term. Each, how-
ever, keeps its place and must be used, however unfit for use.]

1 Opus cit, p. ;M9.

■

THE HUMAN KINGDOM.

CHAPTER VL

Ma.NT naturalists have regarded mail merely as an animal;
although it is true, they have pronounced him to be tlie most
perfect and tiicjirst of animals.

Linnams and his scl 1 ' place man in a distinct genus under

the name of Homo. This genus is the first of the order An-
thropiiinurpha or Primates of the class Mammalia, which is
itself the first of the animal kingdom.

According to Cuvier(tS00),M.Dumeril (1806), Ch. Bonaparte
(1839), and Lesson (1S-I0), man should be placed apart in a
separate family. The two first and flic last designate tiiis family
by the name of llimnim, arid the tliinl by that of Hominides.

Eluinenbach (1779), Illiger (1811), and Blainville (1816),
arrange man in a distinct order; this order ia termed tnermis
by the first, erect! by the second, and man by the third. Ac-
cording to Zenker (1828), and Citrus (1834), he constitutes
the Otan Homo.

A small number of philosophical naturalists have regarded
man, not as the bead of the animal kingdom, but as eonsf.itu-
ting one of the giv-nt dieizioiw of nature ; they did not, how-
ever, give to this division the title of' kingdom. Amongst these
are Aristotle, Albert le Grand, Neaiider (1585), Ozanam
(1691), Ch. Bonnet (1764), Adanson (1772), Daubenton
(1782), Herder (1784), Vicq d'Azyr (1792), Geoffrey Saint-
Hilaire (1794), Lacepi'de (1799), and others. Voltaire seems
to have been 1 he first who looked upon man as constituting a
srpitraie kingdom} (Is. (Jeotl'rov tSaint-llilaire.)

De Brabancois (1816), Trevirauus (1820), and Fabre
d' Olivet (1822), admitted this kingdom; but they named it.
the first, moral kingdom, the second. Innimii kingdom (Mens-
chenreich), and the third, mjni' homimi.l. The Abbe Maupied
(1851) substituted for these titles that of social kingdom.
MoBt naturalists and ethnologists of the present day have
adopted this moral, human, or nominal kingdom. Amongst

1 See amongst others Enleben (1TT7), Gmelin (1788], Fischer (1839).

1 He (thi: Etcnuil ;irti ['.'■■.:!■) bus Upturn- til iijnin usiiii uix'iinization, feeling,
and reason; upon animals fueling, ami that ubii-b hm Itnn instiuct; and
npon vegetables nrgimi/aMoii evil v. Ui> [njivor. I liort'tin'is acts continually
over these Tbiiee Kinoj.oms. (Voltaire, edit. PsUisot, Paris, 17»a,
tom. xxsvi. p. 628. — Diatwjui-s c( uutrdiuun jjltilostiphiques, Sojlirouiiuc
et A del 08.)

1) 2

36 AXTnBopoi.otiT.

I. Is. Geof-

ml Series.
uniates

risli to
and of
a both

is said :

them, it ii sufficient to mention the names of MM. ]
froy Srvint- Hiljiirc, Urimaiid, llollard, Horaninow,
hotitt, Ni'iin d'Ksenbcch, .Kan Kayuaud. Bunge, and Bettea.

Cotwidered in regard to his organization, man approximates

■ ■ '■■■ "i. I In. ; I nit. I'niisiiii'ivd Willi respect to his

!n' ia I'jir removed from them. If we wish to
obtain a correct knowledge of his zoological relations, and of
his proper classification, we moat contemplate him in I
point* of view — that is to say, in his entirety. Pascal has bi
" Mao Is neither angel nor beast, but belongB to both."

In establishing a distinct kingdom for the reception of man,
and in placing it immediately above the animal kingdom, the
lord of creation is not confounded with the leasts, and yet he
is always in close affinity with the mammalia ; that is to say,
with the most perfect of the vertebrated animals.

Amongst living beings, or in the organic world, there i
therefore thrn: kingdoms: tin: frgctable, the animal, and t
horn inn I.

In the first, says M. Is. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, life is a
get.her vegetative ; in the second, to the vegetative life is adde
animal life ; in the third, to the vegetative and animal life is
superadded the moral life.

It may be said, the plant lines, the animal lives o
but man lives, feels, and thinks. In the first kiugdimi liib
simple, in the second tirr.jbld, ami in the third threefold, Yegeti
Iji/iti/, anamnlihi, and humnnitij, arc three terms which aiiec"
each other in a progressive order, as simple as it is logica"
is a series, in which, not only can none of the terms be t
posed, but in which neither can any of them be added to.
have no conception of anything in the organic word below the
plant, and what, organized being are we able to imagine higher
than man? There may be derives in the development of the
vital, the sensitive, and the intellectual faculties; but there ia
no intermediate condition between living and not living,
between feeling and nut feeling, ami between thinking and not
thinking. (Is. (iei.n'roy Saint- Hi laire.)

Man is the highest and ultimate term of creation. He occu-
pies the summit of the living pyramid. In the kingdom which
he constitutes (Hominal), there is but one genus (Homo),
and in this genua hut one species (Sapiens). This species
presents three varieties or principal races (Caucasian, Mon-
(iolian, and Ethiopian), and eight sub-varieties or secondary-
races {Alleghanian, American, lliqnjroortKiu. Malay, Australian,
Melanian, Hottentot, and Cajre).

SECOND PAET.
MEDICAL ZOOLOGY PROPER.

BOOK I.

OBGAHTZATION OF ANIMALS.

Ammals are living beings, containing a large amount of
nitrogen, having the power of digestion, and possessed of
sensation and locomotion.

Like all living beings, the body of an animal is the seat of a
double and continuous internal movement of molecular com-
position and decomposition (Blainville), by means of which it
incorporates into its substance materials derived from without,
and which take the place of other particles that are discharged
from within ; in this way every part of the body is insensibly
renewed. This double movement, by which the individual per-
petually takes from and gives to the external world, is one of
the distinctive characters of life.

The duration of life in each species is definitely fixed, but
circumstances may prolong it, or accidents or disease may
shorten or arrest it.

Life presents a series of phenomena, which are capable of
transmission. Every animal receives it from an annual, or
from two animals denominated its parents; for life comes from
life. (Cuvier.)

That portion of the animal which is capable of becoming a
new individual is called a germ, and the separation of this con-
stitutes its birth. So long as life continues, the body undergoes
a series of changes, which mark what is termed its ages. The
time which elapses between the birth of an individual and the
period when he attains his normal size is his youth; his increase
during this interval determines his amount of growth. When
he has attained his full dimensions, the time during which his
body and his energies appear to remain in a stationary con-
dition, constitutes his adult age. Lastly, the time during
which he becomes enfeebled, and his body seems to diminish,
forms the period of his old age.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

At a certain stage of their existence all animals a
of producing their like ; and they thus transfer to oth
that life of which they are permitted to have the
enjoyment.

When life ceases, the animal is said to he Send,

To he horn, to live, to reproduce, and to die, are :
characters which are common to all living beings.

After death, tiie physical and chemical laws, which 1
previously been rendered subservient to the I
dividual, now become predominant, and the constituent t
merits of the body are speedily decomposed.

All animals lire ultimately composed of Osi/arii, Ht/tlm
Carbon, and Nitrogen, which constitute their essential i-hem
ingredients.

[There are, however, several other elementary bodies which
enter in larger or small quantities into the composition of
different animal structures. Miiller enumerates seventeen aa
having been met with in the auimal kingdoi

J. Oxygen.
2. Hydrogea.
i!. Cur ho ii.

4. Nitrogen.
E. Sulphur, ini
6. Phosphorus
1. Chloriue
8. Fluorine

5. Potassium

10. Sodium

11. Calcium

12. Magnesium

the teeth and bones.

[i rhi.' t.iWl, ]iii!]iu-ri<um nigTum.
a some marine animals.]

The four elementary substances above mentioned comhin
in various ways and in different pro port ions ; they give rise t
a liquid element and to certain solid elements, which form t
foundation of the general structure of animals, or of th(
organization. The liquid element is the blood; fcl
elements are the tissues.

The blood, or nutrient fluid, is a liquid of a more
intense red, sometimes of rose, lilac, yellow, blueish,

0I10AXIZATH>\ (IF ANIMALS.

green colour, at other times it is almost colourless [as in most
of the in vert Hi nit i'il animals]. Examined beneath the micro-
scope it is seen to consist of two portions, a yellowish trans-
parent liquid, the tcritm, iiud of solid corpuscles, of a more or
less regular form, the globules. These globules are extremely
small. They arc of a circular form in nearly all the Mammalia,
oval in the Reptilin, and always flattened. Their surface is
smooth, rarely granulated (fraiuhoiseti). They contain a central
spot, surrounded by a kind of dark border. In the higher
animals the globules are composed of a nucleus (not/can), and
an envelope. The latter is much the largest, and generally
forms a more or less attenuated border around the nucleus.
In the lower animals, particularly those with colourless blood,
these two parts cannot be distinguished.

[The exceptions to the circular form of the blood corpuscles
of the mammalia occur iu the Camel and the Llama ; in these
animals the globules are elliptical like those of birds and the
cold-blooded Vertebrata. This peculiarity of the Camelidie was
first pointed out by Mandle. There is a considerable difference
in the si/e of the blood globulin in the d> lie rent Mammalia, a
fact which should be borne in mind in reference to the opera-
tion of transfusion. According to Mr. Gulliver ' the average
diameter of those of man is the ^-jeT of an inch, that of the
Elephant as much as xttj of an iuch, while in those of the
Napu musk deer it is not more than T j j-j T , and sometimes as
small as 15 % wlr of an inch. Miiller says "the diameter of the
red globules in _Mau varies between the f^u to ^Vyof an inch.
In others of the Mammalia the diameter of the blond globules
ranges between the eitremc dimensions which arc given above.
There is, however, no absolute rotation between the size of the
animal and that of his blood ginlniles; thus ihey are nearly the
Bame in the Horse as in the Bat ; while in the Sloth they are
larger than those of t he Ox. Mr. Gulliver has pointed out that
in investigations of this kind it is necessary to compare together
those animals which most resemble each other in their organi-
zation, and winch consequently belong to the same natural
family. By proceeding in this manner, he believes he has
been enabled to detect a certain relation between the size of
the individual and that of the blood corpuscles. Thus, in the
class Mammalia, the Elephant and the Whale possess the
largest globules; whilst the Chevrotain, the most diminutive
of tbe Ruminants, has the smallest.

1 See Gerber'a Anatomy by Gulliver. Appendix, p. 5 et sequent.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

The following is the description which Kolliker has give
oC iln- tinman blood globule in his Manual of Microscopi
Anatomy. 1

The ml globules, when examined individually, present th
following structure: Tbeir form is mostly that of a biconcav
or t^it circular dice, with rounded margins, and they accord
ingly appear to the observer to vary in shape, according a
dpeea or their aides, are directed towards him. In th«
former ease they are pale yellow, circular ooipuacka, wide!
almost alwavr- haw- ;i siiu r lit central ill- jj v< -ssiun, and this some,
times has the aspect of a elear central spot, sometimes of ■
dark central body, according as the corpuscle is in or out o
the focus of the microscope : (lie appearance in the latter ei
in opt to be confounded with that of a nucleus. When s<
from the side, however, the blood corpuscles show themselves
ob dark red-shnped structures, of the form of an elonga'
narrow ellipse, or like a biscuit seen edgewise. With reyart
their intimate structure, every blond globule consists of a y>
delicate yet tolerably firm and elastic colourless cell membrane,
composed chemically of a protein substance nearly allied to
fibrine ; contained in this envelope is a viscid coloured sub-
stance, which in the separate blood globules appears yellow,
and is composed principally of globuGne and hcematine. In
the adult, the contents of the blood globule present no tr
of morphological particles of granules, or oi a cell nucleus .
they are accordingly true vesicles, and on that account, as well
as from their shape not being globular, the name of "blood
cells " is to be preferred. The elasticity, softness, and pliability
of their envelope are so considerable, that they ere enabled to
accommodate themselves to vessels which are narrower than
their own diameter, and for the same reason, when they are
elongated, flattened, or otherwise altered in form by pressure
under the microscope, they an' able to resume their previous
shape, The blood globule* arc rendered the more capable of
adapting themselves to the vessels, by the fact that their
surface is quite smooth and slippery, so that they easily glide
along the similarly constructed walls of even the n
capillaries.

In examining the blood corpuscles the nature of the fluid
in which they are immersed must be borne in mind. If placed
in water, the specific gravity of which is less than that of the

OEGANIZATION OF ANIMALS. 41

serum of tlie Wood, they become biconvex in consequence of
the water passiug into the envelope by eudosmose. If, on the
other hand, the fiuid should be denser than the serum, its in
the case of a strong saline or saccharine solution, the corpus-
cles part with a portion of their contained fluid by exosmosis,
they put on a shrivelled aspect, and become granulated on their
surface; this shrivelled appearance may again he pit rid of by
diluting the menstruum and reducing its specific gravity to
the lowest point. 1 ]

The organic timet ace three in number : 1st, cellular tissue ;
2nd, muscular tissue; and 3rd, nervous tissue.

Cellular or areolar tissue is composed of numerous Camella),
which by their interlacement intercept a number of open spaces
termed cells. The whole of this tissue has been compared to a
sponge having the form of the entire body, and in which the
other parts of the animal are placed. When this cellular tissue
becomes condensed it forms layers of greater or less extent
(membra tins), or tubes more or less ramified (vessels), or fila-
ments of greater or less thickness (fibres).

Muscular tissue is composed of bundles of fibres, striated or
smooth, Bomethnes dotted, which have the property of con-
tracting with more or loss force.

Nereous tissue, sometimes called medullary matter, may he
compared to a soft pultaeeous mass, in which may be distin-
guished a number of microscopic fibres and vesicles of various
forms 1 containing a fatty substance (medullary nervous
matter), which readily changes into globules.

Some writers admit other organic tissues as distinct from
cellular j such, for example, as the fatty, glandular, and the
eluHi'w tissues.

The fatty or adipose tissue consists of vesicles having ex-
tremely delicate, colourless walls, filled with an oily fluid,
which is generally of a yellow colour. This fluid solidifies
after death in consequence of the diminished temperature.

Glandular tissue presents an infinity of minute delicate
ramified tubes, which by their interlacing constitute a paren-
chyma of a peculiar nature. All these tubes unite into a
common duct.

Elastic tissue is composed of homogeneous fibres, not striated
nor dotted, but ramifying and anastomosing together. These
fibres form ligamentous fascia? remarkable for their physical
elasticity, but which have no power of spontaneous contraction.

These tissues blend together, interlace, and combine for t
purpose of forming the varic,

three kinds: some serve to nourish the individual j others
bestow upon him the power of perpetuating his species;
while a third brine him in relation with the externa] world.
These are respeclnclv named, the on/am of nutrition, the
ofifriHH of rrproilncl 'iu/i, find (lie wr/iinx >>/' relation. The func-
tions which are accomplished by the first two are common to
animals ainl vegetables, ami aiv termed I lie rei/rta/ive or organic
function ,- those which are fulfilled by the third are named the
animal functions.

I.— Organs and Functions of Nutrition.

Nearly every animal possesses an internal cavity for t_
reception and digestion of its food. In the simplest species
this receptacle is the essential and almost only organ witb
which they are provided, while in the most perfect it ;'
merely an accessory apparatus. Nevertheless, it becom
more and complicated in proportion to the perfection of t
entire organism of which, properly speaking, it forms I
foundation.

Food consists of liquids and solids.

The first are taken into the mouth and comminuted by
means of the jaws ,* these are sometimes two in number, placed
one over the other, and act vertically ; at other times there are
as many as four [insects] ; these have a lateral position, and
act horizontally. The jaws, which have a vertical position, are
generally osseous* ; they arc covered by a pair of lips, and fur-
nished at their margins with hard ossicles or teeth ; these are
divided into incisors, canines, and molars. At other times,
a layer of corneous matter takes the place of the lips, the
jaws project, and become converted into mandibles, and the
whole forms a beak. The lateral jaws are calcareous or cor-
neous. The two superior are also termed niniiil/lles ; and the
two inferior jaics properly so called, or maxiUie, In the Crus-
tacea, the latter are accompauied by auxiliary jaws, termed
foot jaws. The inner margin of these organs is frequently ser-
rated or provided with teeth, or at other times with a small
moveable hook, or pointed claw.

Liquids are drawn up by means of a beak or rostrum, a
guekcr, or uproboscis.

After the food has been taken into the mouth, it passes to
the fauces or pharynx, and from thence it is conveyed into the
' s greatly in its form and in

vity. This cavity v

DBOunzmen of an-tu.u.s. 43

its capacity. In the simplest MwmiJH, it 13 a sac with a single
opening, which servos bctlj for the reception of the food, and
for tlu 1 discharge of t lie indigestible materials. Subsequently,
the sac becomes elongated info a muscular membranous canal,
provided with two openings, a mouth, and and an anus, each
of which fulfils a separate function. This canal dilates at a cer-
tain part and forms a stomach. This dictation divides the
digestive canal into three part.-' ; viz., that which precedes the
(stomach, the stomach itself, and the part which comes after
it. The anterior portion forms the axophoijus, anil the pos-
terior the intestine. The opening of the [esophagus into the
stomach is termed the cardia, that of the stomach into the in-
testine the pylorus. These openings may be brought close to
each other, ur placed some distance apart.

In genera], the oesophagus is not very long. This is espe-
cially the ease in those animals which have little or no neck.
In the ostrich, the (esophagus is remarkable for its length, while
in the ogrier it does not eiist. In some birds, this portion of
the canid dilates towards its lower part into a crop, and into a
second gastric cavity or glandular stomach, the vrnlriculus »uc-
cenluriatus.

The stomach is a regular or irregular cavity, with very thin
or with very thick walls. It haw, usually, the form of a glo-
bular or oval sac, or resembles that of the common bag-pipe.
There may be observed oue or two culs-de-sac ; when there are
two, one is often large and the other small. The stomach may
be simple or compound. If we regard the dilitations of the
oesophagus in the granivorous birds as gastric cavities, these
animals will then have three stomachs — the crop, the glandular
stomach, and the tjfcznrtl. In the O.r, and in all the ruminating
animals, there are four stomachs — the inglnvies or paunch, the
reticulum or honey-eomb stomach, the omasum or many-plies,
and the abomanum or reed. The common Dolphin (Delphinua
Delphi) has also four stomachs placed in succession. The
medicinal leech has eleven pairs of stomachs, of which the last
are very large, and were for a long time mistaken for a pair of
enormously developed cascums.

The intestine is the longest portion of the alimentary canal ;
it forms numerous folds or reduplications, named its conro-
lutions. This arrangement allows the canal to acquire con-
siderable dimensions. It is generally longer in the herbivorous
animals than in the carnivorous. In the first it is occasionally
as much as thirty times the length of the animal's body, while
' a the latter it iB often reduced to the same length. In some

MEDICAL ZOOLO0T.

a dis-

of the lower animals it is even short it than the body. In thoe
species in which the nature of the food is changed, in p
from the larval to the perfect stiitc ( Frog), the length of the
intestinal canal changes with the period of life ; the tube is
long while the creature is herbivorous, and is shortened when
it becomes carnivorous. The intestine is divided into the
small intestine or aiificiFcal, and into the large iiitt-n/iufi or
postcaval. These two divisions are. separated by the ileo-cmcal
value or valve of Bauhin. The first is divided into the duo-
denum, jejunum, and ileum; and the second into the caecum,
colon, and rectum.

The food is permeated by certain fluids which si
solve and adapt it for digestion ; these fluids are furnished b_
four kinds of secreting organs which are true appendage! of
the digestive canal; these are the sulivary t/lumfs, the liver, the
pancreas, and the i/ti.tlrii- ijhui <lx. which secrete (he gastric juice.

The salivary ylitmh are placed in the neighbourhood of the
mouth or of the oesophagus. They are usually two in number
and are more developed in the terrestrial than in the aquatic
animals.

The liver is a laTgc gland situated at the commencement o
the intestine or near the stomach : it sometimes surrounds tl
latter. In the leeches it is reduced to a network or thin k, _
of a brownish or blackish matter. The fluid secreted by the
liver has received the name of bile ; it is discharged into the
intestine or into the stomach. It is sometimes retained in a
special reservoir, thcyc// bladder.

The pancreas is another yliiml. smaller than the liver, anc
Tery variable in its form ; its secretion enters the duodenum
and its duct occasionally unites with that of the bde.

The gastric qUindx consist of minute tubuli situated in th<
thickness of the digestive mucous membrane; one end termi-
nates in a blind extremity, while the oilier opens on the inner
surface of the stomach, into which the tulmli discharge an acid
secretion, which acts principally on the animal portions of the
food.

Besides the glands now spoken of, there are others which
eliminate certain cxcreinenl itious fluids from the blood; amonj
the latter are the kidnrys. winch secrete the u

The alimentary matter, thus altered and Iran stormed, become
separated into two portions the chyle and the excrement; the
former is absorbed by the walls of the digestive cavity, while
the latter is discharged by the amis. The chyle is a white
opaque fluid, which becomes absorbed or conveyed by the

OBGASIZATION OF A2QMALS. 45

venaB lactea to the different organs, where it is mixed with the
blood with which the latter are supplied. Similar canals,
termed lymphatics, convey to the blood the residue of the
nutritive particles and the products of cutaneous absorption.

The blood is everywhere present in the substance of the
organs. In a great number of animals it is, moreover, con-
tained in a system of ramifying tubes or vessels : these tubes
being of two kinds — the one conveys the nutrient fluid to the
different parts of the body, and is named arteries ; the other
converges to the centre, or towards the centre of the animal, and
is called veins.

The movement of the nutritive fluid is sometimes irregular,
and at other times regular and circular. In the latter case it
is spoken of as the circulation. The current of the circulation
may be simple or double, or even triple. In the sanguisuga it is
in a manner multiple ; for independently of the general circu-
lation, these animals present partial circulations between every
five rings.

The circulation of the nutrient fluid is frequently assisted by
one or several special motor organs termed hearts. These
organs are more or less muscular, sometimes placed in the
middle of the body, at other times at each of the centres of
impulsion. Generally speaking there is only a single heart
provided with one, two, three, or four cavities. The cavities
which receive the blood are termed auricles, and those which
propel it ventricles. The latter are always thicker, stronger,
and more robust than the former.

In order that the blood may be capable of nourishing the
body, it requires to undergo a particular modification from
contact with the atmosphere. Hence a function arises which
may be regarded as an act of nutrition by means of gaseous
food (the complement of the nutrition, by solid and liquid
aliments), and which has received the name of respiration.
When the animal lives surrounded by the air, the respiratory
organ is hollow, and is termed a lung ; when the animal resides in
the water, it projects from the rest of the body and constitutes
a branchia. In the most perfect species, the lung appears to be
parenchymatous, but in reality it consists of an immense
number of microscopic cells. In the snails this organ assumes
the form of a large sac, which is covered on its inner and upper
surface by a network of vessels. This sac may be considered
as one of the constituent cells of the parenchymatous lung
enormously developed. In insects there are neither lun^s nor
branchiae, but a series of elastic tubes called trachea;, which

4(5

convey the air to every pari of the body. The openings of tL-
trachea? are placed along the sides of the body, and have
received the name of xfii/uiti/ti. In the animals which are pro-
vided with lungs, or with branehife, the blood is conveyed to
the air, while in those which have trachea? the air is carried to
the blood. The most perfect species, although they are
provided with n special organ of respiration, lit the same ''
absorb the air by the cutaneous surface of their bodies,
animals which are most ,-hnplv orgaui/.ed breath exclusively b
means of the skin.

When, the blood is perfectly formed it diffuses itself thtougl
the cells, or by the ramification and sub-division of i
vessels, into the tissues of the organs, and then beeomea a
verted into the various structure* which enter into their for
mation. Several of the most important organs in tl
economy appear to be provided for the production o
secretions, all of which concur in the act of assimilation.

II. — Organs and Functions of Reproduction.

Beproduetion is one of the most important functions
nature, for life is only given for the purpose of bestowing ''
It is by reproduction that species* sire preserved, that races are
propagated, and that the general balance of life is maintained.
There are animals which seem formed solely for the fulfil-
ment of this function ; they are horn, they reprodi
die.

Reproduction may be accomplished in several different wa;

In the species which are most simply organized, the animal
sometimes divides into several portions, each of which forms a
new individual ; this is termed i /fW/wwH.v re product ion ; at other
times the creature gives oil' from certain parts of its body buds
or getmnce, which at a fixed period become detached and give
rise to youn<r animals ; this is gemmiparotta reproduction. The
latter is said to be external or internal, according as it takes
place on the exterior of the body, or in a particular cavity
within which the buds are formed'. The animals which arise
from the Jistiipin-oun and i/eimniparous modes of reproduction
are termed by some writers vr/i/wic i/enerationg.

In the higher animals the act of re production is accomplished
by means of speeisil organs ; this is genemlhe reproduction o
generation. These organs are termed sexual, and consist c

and

ays.
mal

ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS. 47

the female organ, which furnishes the rudiment b of the new
individual (the germ), mid of the mute orpin, which produces
the fecundating liquor {seminal fluid) which vivifies the
former anil determines its development.

The female apparatus is essentially composed of the organ
which produces the germ, the ovary, and of a canal which con-
veys them to without, ami which lias received tin- nnmcofor/iliiet.

The tattle apparatus is sdways provided with a gland which
secretes the seminal fluid, the testicle, and of the excretory
canal of the gland, called rjai-iilii/ori/ duct.

In some of these animals the scats are united in the same
individual: these are named it ii ise.ru el or auilri:,/i/iu:us. In this
case either one individual may he sufficient of itself {Oyster)
for reproduction, or it may require the union of two individuals.
"When two androgynous individuals unite for the purpose of
reproduction, sometimes the two n ran us fulfil their functions
at the same time, and each individual fecundates the other
and is itself impregnated ; such is the case with the Snail
{Lima.r). At other times, the association of several, or
at least three, individuals is required, the central animal per-
forming the office of the male to the one in front of him, and
that of the female to one behind him, as in the case of the
Water snail (Li/vineits). More rarely the two portions
of the double sexual organs do not act at the same time;
each individual, notwithstanding its bisexual nature, only ful-
filling one office ; but having performed for example the office
of male, at a later period it acts as a female either with the
same individual, or with smother ( Aitcr/lus) .

In a great number of animals the sexes are separated and
placed on distinct individuals: these are said to he unisexual.

The #j«fe* externally resemble thfjewalr*. or differ from them
more or less distinctly. In a small number of cases the two
sexes would be taken to belong to different groups of animals.
The unisexual character necessitates the conjunction of two
individuals in the generative act; nevertheless these animals
present two modes of union, which are very distinct from each
other: in the one the fecundating fluid of the male is not
applied to the germ until it has passed out of the body of the
female {Carp), or at the moment of its discharge {Toad) ; in
the other its application takes place in the body of the mother
{Beaver). Sexual generation may therefore occur without
connection of the sexes, or this connection may be very slight
and accompanied by simple contact, or it may be accompanied
with love, and followed by true intromission {copulation).

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

Animals, which have a complicated sexual apparatus, besidi
the parts already mentioned, present others which are cbargi
with important functions. 'Ibe females are provided with
uterus or icornb, in which the germ resides for a longer or shorter
time before its birth ; tube*, or excretory canals, which receive
the germs from the ovaries. and conduct them to the uterus;
and a vagina or sheath, for the reception of the excitory organ
of the male. The orifice of the vagina is termed the vulva.
The males have veticulte neminales or reservoirs, in which the
seminal fluid is accumulated ; canals, or vata differentia, which
convey this fluid from the testicles to the reservoirs ;aud a verp
or penu, for its introduction into the apparatus of the ft
The extremity of the male organs is named the glam penis.

In some few of the lower animals, the female can produi
young without contact with the male. This form ot repro-
duction constitutes pnrtlirnog?Hc«is, and occurs in the Aphides
or plant lice. Under certain circumstances the eggs, which
thus become fruitful without the co-operation of the opposite
Bex, produce only mules; this Is termed arrenoto&tia, and takes
place in the honeybee (Apis mrllijica).

In the reproduction of some of the higher animals, the
fecundated ovum is deposited by the female; but it is not
until some time afterwards that it gives rise to a new individual;
these animals are oviparous (Birds), At other times the egg is
hatched at the moment of its expulsion, and the young animal
issues from the body of its parent with the fragments of its
former covering; such animals are said to be ovovivtparotu
(Viper). Lastly, the fecundated egg is not expelled from the
body of the parent, but is retained v, itliiu the uterus, and there
grows, develops itself, and is hatched. This constitutes the
viviparous reproduction of the MttnunaHa. In reality, all these
animals are ovigerous. Their mode of reproduction only diners
as regards the locality in which the development of the
takes place, and as to the time which it occupies.

The egg is essentially composed of the germ-vesicle o
trimita, and of a protecting envelope ; the latter may be single
and consist only of membrane, or it nm be double and eons : -*
of mrmbrane aud shell. In the oviparous and ovoviviparous a]
cies it moreover contains a certain amount of nutritive matte
(the vitettus or albumen). In the viviparous species the gem
receives its nourishment direct from the mother.

When the egg is hatched it gives rise sometimes to 8
dividual which resembles its parent (Hints), at other times t
one which dili'ers essentially from it (Buttcrjliet). This ii '

E ft AN I Z ATI ON OP ANIMALS. 40

mediate form between the germ and the perfect animal is
called a larva. The larva* are always agamic, vet in some
animals they have the power of reproduction. 1ml it is then
always gemmiparous or fissiparous. These forma of larvae
have received the name of scolex, and the existence of two
modes of reproduction in the same species constitutes alternate
genera/ion. Some animals pass through two or three inter-
mediate forma before arm in;; at the perfect state.
IH. — Organs and Functions of Belation.

Moat animals possess five seme*.

The sense of touch is that which is most frequently present,
and is seated in the general integument ; but it also resides in
certain special organs where it acquires a higher state of per-
fection. These organs are the lips, the barbs, and the tentacles of
certain animals, and the tail midfeet of others ; but, above all,
it is in the hands that the sense of toueh becomes most acute.

']'ii.->li- is ii species of touch of o still more delieate character;
it is placed at the entrance of the alimentary canal, princi-
pally in the floor of the mouth, in an organ termed the
tongue. The tongue is an elongated muscular body endowed
with greater or less motive power ; it is covered with papilla;
(conical, foitgiform, cin-umcallato?), spines, hooks, and even with
true teeth. In some animals, in which the sense of taste is but
slightly developed, the tongue is searious, cartilaginous, or
provided with a corneous investment.

Smell is the sense for the perception of odours. The ol-
factory organ is a single or double cai itj provided with a great
number of irregularities or anfraetuosities, which are invested
by a delicate membrane, the pituitary. This membrane com-
municates externally through the openings termed anterior
nares, nasal openings or nostrils; w certain animals these
openings are protected by cartilaginous plates, which form the
nose. The nasal fossa? have also posterior openings, v. Im-li lend
to the cavity of the pharynx ; these are named posterior nares.

In the snails the organ of smell is divided into two parts,
which are placed at the extremities of the larger horns or
tentaele*. It is composed of an oval or pyrii'orm ganglion,
from which the short but extremely ramified nerves spread
themselves over a peripheral pituitary membrane. There is no
nasal cavity, and consequently no external opening.

Sight is the faculty which enables animals to perceive ex-
ternal objects by means of the rays of light, and to appreciate
" 2 colours with which they are clothed. Vision takes place

the colours wi

■tain
neof

50 mehk

through the eyes. The eye ia a small hut complicated apparat
of a more or leas globular form. It is essentially composed
a retina or nervous element, of a choroid or vascular elemei
and of a sclerotic or fibrous element. The latter becomes
transparent in front of tho globe of the eye, and forms the
coram. There exists in the eye a per feet dioptric apparatus; this
consists of the tie/ueoux humour, the crystalline humour or lens,
and the vitreous humour. There are also some accessory parte,
as for example the moveable membranes or eyelids, which pro-
teet the apparatus ; they uiav be naked or provided with certain
hairs termed cilia or eyelashes. These membranes are gi
rally two in number, but occasionally (as in birds) there
third, the membrana nictUans.

The higher animals generally possess two eyes, while some o\
the lower forms have four, six, eight, or even more. The medi-
cinal leech has ten, hut they are altogether rudimentary. In
insects the eyes are of two kinds; the one small, simple, and
adapted for seeing objects which are near — these are termed
ocelli stem urn tit or gi tuple eyes; the other kind consists of large
compound eyes, generally adapted for seeing objects at a
distance ; they are composed of a variable number of simple
eyes aggregated and united together — these arc called compound
eyes, 1

Hearing is the sense which takes cognizance of those vibra-
tions of external bodies which are transmitted through the
surrounding medium, and give rise to sound; the organ through
which this is accomplished is the ear. In the lowest animals
the ear is reduced to a sack tilled with ;i special iluid, through
which the nerve is distributed, iind which contains a number of
Bmall stone-like masses termed otolitlics. This sack may or
may not communicate externally. In the higher animals the
auditory apparatus becomes more and more complicated. There
is observed: 1st, the essential part or vestibule; 2nd, certain
accessory parts which render it more sensitive; these are the
semi-circular canals, the cochlea, ami a. chain of small bones, con-
sisting of the xtttf >!■*. ihc os orbieulare, the i u c iw, nud the malleus;
3rd, the part which collects the vibrations, or the external ear,
consisting of the external auditory Jommen, and the concha.
The concha is sometimes replaced by a circle of leathers or

Several of the lower animals have neither n

s many as 12,000

OEGANIZATIOX OF ASIM.VL3. 51

Those species which have no distinct head, or the aeephala, an
always ill provided with organs of the senses ; many of them
seem only to have that of touch.

In the very lowest animals the nervous matter would appear
to be confounded with the general substance of the body.
There is no centre of sensation. In animals whose structure
is somewhat more com plicated, the nervous matter accumulates
at certain points, and produces ganglion or nervous centres.
These accumulations are at n rat small and irregularly dispersed.
"When the organization is still further advanced the nervous
centres become enlarged, and are brought near to each other ;
they then assume an annular arrangement around the neck, or
form an enlarged mass in the interior of the head. The
ganglions cither isolated or united in small groups give rise to
a rudimentary nervous system. The annular arrangement
around the neck forms mi wy-upluiiful riia/ ,- while 1 he iuvuiuti-
latiou of nervous matter in the head constitutes the eurep/ialon.
The superior ganglia of the n-sopkigeal ring are named the
cerebral ganglia, and the inferior the sitb-ceaophageal ganglia.
This kind of nervous system is termed ganglionic. The enee-
phalon is generally composed of the cerebrum or brain, the
cerebellum, the pons Varolei or mesencephalon, and of the
medulla oblongata, which is itself a continuation of the spinal
card. The whole of this nervous system is termed cerebro-
spinal.

The impressions which are received through the senses are
transmitted by the nerves to the central masses of the nervous
system. When the animal perceives a sensation it frequently
gives rise to an act of volition, which is also communicated by
the nerves, either to the organs of the senses, or to those of
motion.

The organs of motion are the limbs. These are made up of
two portions; the one active, the muscles; the other passive,
the bones, or certain hard parts which supply their place.

The muscles are soft, of various shades of red, or of a greyish
colour, and in some eases quite transparent ; they are formed
of irritable contractile fibres, having various degrees of con-
sistency, and arranged parallel to each otiier. Some are
destined to bend or shorten the parts (Jlexors); others to open
or elongate them (extensors). There are also muscles which
are not under the control of the will ; these are frequently
termed internal in contradistinction to the others, which are
always situated, more or less, tow aids the surhiee of the body.

[The muscles are usually divided into the voluntary and the

inv-ihinltiyi/. The first, called al^o (lie muscles of animal I
include those of |i>c<imoti<<n. ri->]*i rsii ion, ami ihose of the fac
these are under the control of the will. The second, which
comprise the muscles of the heart, the intestinal canal, and
some others, are not subject tn the influence of the will. The
ultimate fibres of these two sets of muscles differ in their ana-
tomical structure.

The fibres of the voluntary muscles are marked by parallel
transverse lines or stria?, and are known as striated muscular
fibre. The fibres of the involuntary muscles, with some ex-
ceptions, are smooth and marked at intervals with ohlong
corpuscles or nuclei ; the latter are best seen after the appli-
cation of acetic acid. The principle exception to this character
occurs in the muscles of the heart. The fibres of this organ
resemble those of the voluntary muscles in having stria?, but
they are less strongly marked, and are less regular, and the
fibres themselves arc smaller in diameter than ui the voluntary
muscles.]

The bonrs are hard, dry, and white. They are divided into
the long, short, and jltil hour* ; it is more particularly the first
which are met with in the limbs. The whole forms the skeleton
or solid framework of the animal. There are many species
which have no internal skeleton; but the skin becomes im-
pregnated with calcareous matter (Crturfish), or is converted
into a kind of corneous materiiil (Bir/li'x), which takes the
place of the osseous framework, and forms a kind of dermal
skeleton. In other animals, the skin is provided with special
folds {mantle), which are more or less developed, and secrete
calcareous plates of various forms to which the muscles are
attached, arid which either partially or completely protect the
usually extremely soft structures of the body; these plates
are termed sheik-. The shell consists of a single piece in the
univalves, as in the Snails, and of two pieces in the bivalves, i
in the Oyster.

BOOK II.

classification or animals.

I. Ancient. — The ancients divided animals into those v
blood, and into those without. They considered only th<
species were provided with this fluid, whose blood was o"

CLASSIFICATION OF 1.5 111 ALB, 53

colour, such as that of Bird* and Fiahen, believing that it did
not esist in those in which it was very pale or altogether
colourless, as in Insects and many Molluscs. These latter
animals were named by them ranrnfftttMOH*.

[This was the elassiiieai i,mi of Aristotle, who divided animals
into the enaima and into the umiiuia, literally into those with
blood and into those without blood. It is not, however, cor-
rect to say that the Father of natural history disbelieved in
the existence of a blood, or at least of a nutrient fluid analogous
to it, in the lower animals, since lie distinctly says: "Every
animal possesses a vital fluid, the loss of which occasions its
death;" but, as the colour of this fluid in the higher classes is
always red, for the purpose of distinctive description, he assumed
the colour as an essentia! quality, and named the two series as
above.]

The first classifications were extremely ai-hifniry systems; the
characters upon which they were established were sometimes
taken from the nature of the food, sometimes from the liinbs,
and at other times from the integument*. If the classifications
which were subsequently proposed were occasionally more
happy in their arrangements, these improvements were rather
the result of a kind of instinct, or of repeated attempts, than
of careful observation and reflection.

II. Liknjecs. — Linnams was the first to establish a rational
classification of the animal kingdom. 1 This great naturalist
arranged the various animals into sis classes ; Mammalia,
Birds, Amphibia. 1'ishos, insects, and Worms.

Mammal* I Maiiuindiu) are animals whose bodies arc provided
with a covering of hair ; they have two jaws, an upper and an
under, generally furnished with teeth, and covered by a pair of
lips ; the respiration is pulmonary ; the heart is quadrdocular ;
they have almost always four limbs, provided with hands or
feet; they are viviparous.

To this division he long the Apes, Bats, Bear*, the Beaver,
Musk Beer, Wild Boar, Whale, S{e.

1 This expression is unjust towards the memory of our illustrious
countryman Ray. Although hi* iu'tiui.1 I'liLssiikar.iuii ha." Wn .hl]]>its(.'<1l'i1
by others, yet (Javier, in his "Hisloiiv des Sniqu.-L's Natntvllcs," vol. H-
p. 454, ifler describing Bay's iirran^ement of the mammalia, says, "la
this classification we meet with the yerms of all tliuse which imvo been
made since. Liaateaa, especially, hus rakuu nearly ail hi> diameters from
thoae which Ray had pointed out ... . We are indebted to liny as the
pioneer and model of all the elassificatorri who have succeeded him, so
greatly was he endowed with the spirit of method." {Trans.)

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

Bird* (Ave*) are animals whose body is covered with feathi
they have two jaws, one superior, one inferior, without teeth
lips ; they arc eon verted into mandibles, and form the
the respiration is pulmonary; the heart quadriloeular ; tl
have always four limbs, two wings and two feet; they
oviparous.

To this division belong the Vultures, Woodpeckers,
Herons, Phcasanls, Thrushes, &C.

Amphibia {Amphibia) are animals whose body is g

covered with scales ; they have two jaws, one superior,

ferior, sometimes furnished with imperfectly developed teeth,
with or without lips; their respiration is pulmonary, rarely
branchial ; their heart triloeular or biWular ; they have some-
times four limbs, very rarely only two, and occasionally nr ~-
thev are almost always oviparous.

To this division belong the Tortoises, Lizards, Frogs, Vi
Snake*, Sturgeons, Ac.

Fishes (Pisces) are animals whose bodies are covered tril
scales ; they have two jaws, one superior, one inferior, some-
times provided with teeth and covered by lips; their respiration
ia branchial; their heart is biloeular; they have generally
four true limbs (Jius placed in pttirs), and in addition to these
accessory limbs (nini/lc Jinn) • they are almost always ovi-
parous.

To this division belong the Eel, Cod, Sole, Tunny, Salmon,
Carp, Ac.

Insects (Tnsecta) are animals whose body is covered with a
coriaceous or calcified skin ; they have four jaws placed
laterally ; their respiration is tracheal ; their heart unilocular;
they have generally sis limbs (always feet and sometimes two
or four wings), rarely more; they are provided with antenna?;
they are oviparous.

To this division belong the Canthariie* beetle, FUes, Fleas,
Tarantula, Scorpion, and Grai/ftsh.

Worms (Fei-me.s) are animals whose body is covered with a
soft skin, sometimes provided with a shell ; the jaws vary in
their number and arrangement, and are sometimes wanting;
the respiration is accomplished with or without a special
organ : the heart is unilocular or wanting ; the limbs are

rudimentary or absent ; they

vided with tentacle* ;

they are oviparous or reproduce without a true generative
act.

To this division belong Leeches, Snails, Slugs, the Oyster,
Jladrtjiores, and Coral*.

CLASSIFICATION .

The following table contains a synopsis of the principal
characters of these sii classes :

(Jnwa 1, Milium.

j arm (Mandibles 2. UrKns.

l _u | Lungs 3. -\nf-ii in

) Urandiiio 4. FisnES.

(Antennai 5. bnmL

(Tentacles 6. Womis.

The classification of Linnasue is extremely important, in
consequence of its scientific character, its simplicity, and its
convenience. It affords an excellent summary of all that was.
known at the time of its appearance, and has served as the
starting-point for the various classifications which have been
proposed since the period of this j I lusi rii ms. naturalist.

It is, however, very evident that the tirst four classes of this
classification are much more closely allied to each other than
the fourth is to the tilth, or the fifth to the sixth. The last is
moreover composed of very heterogeneous elements. It eon-
taios, for example, the I.i-erhrs and the Earth Wo™*, which arc
far more intimately allied to Insects; and the organization of
the Cuttle fishes and the Slugs is much more complicated than
that of the Worms, properly ho called, and is more allied to
that of Fishes than of Corals.

III. Lamarck. — Lamarck, taking as his basis the presence
or absence of the skeleton and the structure of the nervous
system, divided animals into those without vertebras or the
Inverlebrata, and into those with vertebra? or the Vertebrate. 1
The first he subdivided into the apathetic, which included part
of the Vermes of Linnrcus, and into the sensitive, which included
the remainder of the Vermes and the Insert a ol' 1 he same author.
The vertebratii he termed inf.-l/i'/'-ii/ animals, which corresponds
to the first four classes of Linnams.

Lamarck commenced with the simplest animals, and gradually
proceeded to those which were more elevated in the scale of
organization ; thus following an inverse order to that of his
predecessor.

[The taking these supposed endowments of the animals as the
ground of classification was quite inadmissible, and hence the
groups of Apathetic, Sensitive, and Intelligent animals have
never been adopted. The grouping together of the first four

1 Aristotle had termed these ;mirn:ils — animii'-t pmriJed "with blood.
[Lamarck's division of tiie animal kingdom into the Vcrtebrata and into
the Invert ebrata, corresponds to Aristotle's Etiaima and Anainia.]

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY,

classes of Linnreua, under the title of the Vertebrata,
remained a permanent acquisition to science.]

IV. Cutler. — Profiting by the observations of hia predf
eessors and hia own researches into the organi nation of t"
animal kingdom, G. Cuvier revised, eojTected, and perfect
the classification of Linnams. Like Lamarck, he recognised the
resemblance which existed between the first four groups, and
united them under the name of Vertebra/a, giving to this
assemblage the title of brunch. From the Vermes he separated
such animals as the cuttle-fish, the snail, and the oyster, to
forma second brunch, which he termed Mollusca. Amongst
the worms he discovered a small group with red blood (leeches
and earthworms ; these he associated with the insects, and
formed of them a third branch, the Articulata. The majority
of the remaining l~rrm.es having the parts of their bodieB
arranged like rays around a coininon centre, he named them
Badiata.

In Cuvier's classification there are, therefore, four principal
branches — the Vertebrata, the Mollusca, the Articulata, and the
Badiata. Tin' first group includes the Monkci/s, the Dog, the
Beaver, the Whale, the Birds, the Tortoises, tin- Frogs, and tl
Fish. The second contains the Buttles, Culthjish, Cain ma
Snails, Slugs, Ousters, and Mussels. In the third are t
Leeches, Earth- "■ or in. Vraujish, Crabs. Spiders. Cautharides, a
Bee. Lastly, in the fourth are the Star-fish, Tape-tt
y'hrrad-trorm. Conds. and Sponges.

The following are the characters of each of these branches :

1. Vertebrata. — Animals symmetrical, consisting <
similar halves. Body supported by an internal skeleton, »
posed of a number of separate pieces placed one over the otht
(vertebra 1 ), forming a spinal column and canal, terminatii
anteriorly in the head and posteriorly in a coccyx or tail.

Digestive canal complete ; jaws two in number, one either
before or above the other. A special organ of respiration
frequently double ; lungs or braneliiic. Heart thick, muscular,
frequently with four cavities, never less than two ; blood red,
warm or cold. Nervous system ce re bro- spinal ; five senses.
Limbs usually four, never more. Sexes separate.

2. Mollusca. — Animals seldom symmetrical ; that is, they are
composed of unequal portions. Body soft and without any
internal skeleton, but covered with a cutaneous envelope pro
vided with a particular fold (mantle), and often contuh
calcareous masses called shells.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ASIMAL9. 57

Digestive canal complete ; jaws one, two, ot three Ui number,
homy, sometime* rudimentary, anil at other limes wanting.
A Kj)i'ci;il respiratory organ sometimes pulmon:.
bmuuial Heart with two or three cavities; blood Botonrlatl

or of a bluish east, always cold. Nervous system ganglionic,
rarely symmetrical, and with no abdominal chain ; organ* of the
senses only slightly developed. Limbs imperfect or absent,
often consisting; of a large fleshy disc, at other times of a
byssua, but never of wings. Seiea separate, or united in the
same individual ; in the latter case two animals mutually im-
pregnate each other, or one animal may suffice of itself.

3. Artieiilatu. — Animals symmetrical; that is, composed of
two similar halves j marked "by a series of transverse constric-
tions, which divide them into a number of a

the appearance of being formed of a seriea of rings. Body with
no internal skeleton, but covered with a hard integument
(dermal skeleton), which is either calcareous or corneous.

Digestive canal complete ; jaws often four in number, alwavK
lateral. Heart replaced by a dorsal vessel, blood generally
colourless, sometimes pinkish, cold. Inspiratory organ rnontly
consisting of trachea;. Nervous system ganglionic, nlwnyrt
symmetrical, with an abdominal chain; organs of the neiwea
only partially developed. Limbs perfect, with ginglymojil
articulations, generally six in number, sometimes two ur four
wings. Sexes almost always separate.

4. S-infiata. — Animals syitimntriciil, but not formed of two
similar halves, generally consisting of parts having a rndinleil
arrangement. Body soft, without either an internal or i-tlcninl
skeleton. The animals sometimes live in societies, and socrclu
a horny or calcareous axis.

Digestive system extremely simple ; sometimes consisting of
a sac with two openings, at other times with only one. No
heart. Circulatory system reduced to a few rudimentary
vessels, blood colourless and cold. No special organ of respi-
ration. No encephalou or oesophageal ring, rarely ganglions,
sometimes nerves; no organs of the senses. Limbs repre-
sented by filamentary processes. Sexual organs very imper-
fect, often reduced to a simple ovary ; many reproduce by
gemmation and fission.

This classification may be tabulated as follows : —

I. , (askeletoa . . 1. Vejitebbata,
binary J no Be S mt ' ntfl } no skeleton. . 2. Moimsoa.
^ "Ugmonts
radiated

MEDICAL ZO0L0OY.

This classification, like that of Linnreus, proceeds from the
complex to the simple ; but it is mori' even, regular, and natural.
If the Mollmca were all formed of two dissimilar halves
lite the Snmh, and if all the liudiata had a strictly radiated
disposition, the classification of Cuvier might he symbolized
by the four following figures, each of which corresponds to one
of his branches :

(J 1. Vebteiik.uw.

2. Mollusca.

3. Aeticitiata.

Phesest state.— The investigations of modern anatomists
and systomatists have introduced some slight modifications
into the Cuverian distribution ; but these changes refer rather
to the orders than to the branches, to the details rather than
to the general arrangements. Although the names have been
often changed, the principal groups have remained almost
or entirely the same. Every one recognises the Vertebrate of
Cuvier, or of Lamarck, in the Osteozoaria of De Blainville; 1
hia Mollusca in lltrfarozixtnit of the same writer;- his Articu-
late in the Entomazanriit ;* aud liin Ttodiatn in the Actinoso-
wia; so that it is still the classification of Cuvier which pre-
vails.*

Nevertheless, this classification is far from perfect. If the

1 These are the Myeloneura of Ehrenbcrp, and the Hypocotyledoau of
Tan Beneden.

a M. Van Benudcn \v.\f uniii.il them to the Itfidialti under the name o(
A t> •:>■■< dijkdtmes.

3 There are the Epicotyledones of M. Van Benoden.

* Mr. Milne i!d wards li;.s iutfidiitoil .-uini' i in port nut changes.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 59

AloHitzrn seem more allied to the Vertebrata in respect t(j
S"Hif parts of their orsjaui/jilidii than the Artii-ittata, the latter
certainly resemble them much more with respect to their
faculties and their embryology, a fact which both Lamarck
and De Blainville were fully conscious of. The division,
liadinta especially, has been the subject of a great number
of criticisms. It includes animals which are fixed to the earth
after the manner of vegetables and also locomotive animals,
animals which have organs of the senses and those that are
without them. There is uo appearance of radiation in the
Tlinail-ironni or in the Flukes; nevertheless, these animals
have been placed in the same division as the Sra l[edge-hog»
and the Corah. The Tape-worms and the liothriocepliala have
segments placed end to end; why are they not arranged
amongst the Articulate?

A circumstance of the utmost importance, but one which
has not been sufficiently considered in the classification of
animals, ib, on the one hand, their stale of isolation or associa-
tion, and, on the other, the unity of the organisms or their
repetition.

Zoologists have long since shown that certain animals, as
the Polyps for example, possess a kind of life very different
from that of ordinary animals, inasmuch as, instead of being
isolated, numbers of them are grouped together and live in

societies. I, lumens terms them iniiiiialiir ninipu-siln. Cuvier,
speaking of these associations, savs, '■ The individuals are asso-
ciated in large numbers to form compound beings." There
are, therefore, isolated or solitary animals, and compound or
associated animals. Again, between these two kinds of ani-
mals there are others which are intermediate, and which
present neither the perfect isolation of the first, nor the multi-
plicity of the second. Natura no/i facit saltus ! Such, for
example, is the worm. Philosophical anatomy has taught us
that this annelid is composed of segments or articulations
placed in a linear arrangement, in each of which the same
organs are regularly repeated. It is a series of particular
organisms, each of which has a nervous centre, digestive, vas-
cular, secreting, and reproductive organs. It may be termed a
distinct series of animals, symmetrically and longitudinally
arranged, but intimately united and governed by a common
life. These special organisms have received the name of
Zoonites. (182(5.) Various physiological experiments have
shown that it is possible, artificially, to render each organ-
ism more independent of the whole, and to a certain extent

60 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

to isolate the particular life of the zoonites from that of thf
common life of the general association.

Nature even goes further, and in the tape-worm ' exhibits
these zoouites disengaging themselves, and becoming isolate'
at a certain stage of their existence. The same animal thui
furnishes science with a kind of (synthesis and analysis.

Lamarck perfeetlv nndcrstimd the ditl'erence which sepa-
rated a vertebra ted animal from an insect when he arranged
these animalB in two series : the Inartimlata. (that is to say,
the solitary animals, and the Articiila/a (that is, the zoonitex).
But this illustrious naturalist appears to have lost sight of this
fundamental idea, when be associated the polype or compound
animals with Inarticulatrd animal*.

I have therefore divided the miimal kingdom into three aub-
kingdoms: I. The Isolated animals; II. Zoanite animals _
III. The Associated animals. I divide the sub-kingdoms into
six branches, aceordhig to the characters of their nervous
systems, which mav he cerebro-spinal. ganglionic, rudimentary,
or wanting. I have retained, as far as possible, the na
generally admitted, especially those of Cuvier and De Bl
ville.

ANIMALS.

1st Sub-Kingdom. 2nd Sub-Kingdom. 3rd Sub-Kingdom,
ISOLATED. ZOONITES. ASSOCIATED.

1st. Branch.
Vebtkbbata

OsTEOZOARIA-

(Musk deer. Cod.)
2nd Branch. 4th Branch.

Moi J.USC A A N N E L] 1> A

MaLACOZOARIA. EntomozosriA.

(Cuttlefish. Oyster.) jBli.-minni,- beetle. Leech.)

3rd Branch. Cth Branch. 6th Branch.

Beterohobpha IUdiata Zoophtw

1 Linna;us haa said of the Tienias; " AniimdUa iac sum _

,ii>tij)Ut:i. i-iiii:nn .... lotettle. intra ■■in-fuliiii, artkiiiuiii itiiinttiti-itln r
sua fructijicatione." He adds elsewhere : " Omnia articidius propria w
gaudel." Vallieneri, Lamarck, ami Duveniny believed in the polyzoie
nature of the Turiiiu* jud similar jnmuals. JIM. Leuekart, Eaehrieht,
Steenstrup, Van Beneden, and Siebold, have illustrated the inultlplieity of
their organisms.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. CI

Amongst these branches", those of the Vertebraia and Mai-
luica of Cuvier remain aJuioat without alterut ion. The Annelida
represent the articulata of the great nut urn list with the
addition of the intestinal worms ; but his fourth group has
been altered and subdivided, JiLiinvillr had previously formed
it into two sub-kingdoms: the Aetinomorpha or the Radiata,

Epoperij so called, and the Hetertmorpha or Ileteroxoaria. I
me adopted this division ; but I have considered it better
to separate the truly astoeiated animals from those which, like
the Til-tuns and tin- Sin i ■•ihhi-n, already begin to show a state
of fusion ; in other words, into the radiated eoonites and into
the compound unimnh coin posed <>f distinct individuals.

A mere inspection of the table show* that a linear arrange-
ment of the branches and classes cannot he natural. If we
follow the order of the figures placed before each branch, the
Anitrliittt arc separated too fur from the MolUuea, and especially
from the Vertebraia. If, on the other hand, a linear arrange-
ment iB adopted, and the Articulata are placed after the Mol-
hisca, and the Radiata after the Jleteromorpha, the latter are
arranged at too great a distance from the Molhtica, and the
Radiata too far from the Annelida, The three groups of Iso-
lated or Snfflifl animals (I., II., and III.) form a natural
series. We pass in a natural manner from" the first to the
last through the Mollmca. The animals having a ganglionic
nervous system (II. and IV.) are brought together on a
horizontal line, and the question of the preeminence of the
Molluxca or of the Annelida, decided sonii'tiiiies in favour of
the first (Cuvier), sometimes in favour of the second (Cams),
obtains a solution. Uhiini ille lUTim^ed these animals below the
Vertebraia, giving to each the same rank ; that is, he placed
them at an equal distance. My method differs slightly from
his, inasmuch as I place the Annelida at a somewhat greater
distance. If hi some respects the Mollusca are endowed with
a less perfect organization and with a lower grade of instinct
than the latter, yet on the other hand they are single animals
and not zoonites. The animals with a rudimentary nervous
system, or in which it is wanting, offer so many points of
resembknee that they are arranged in a horizontal series (III.,
V., and VI.), which is quite as natural as that of the vertical
series of the isolated animals. We pass from the Hcteromor-
pka to the Zoophilia by means of the Radiata or Aefinozoaria.
The following is the number aud arrangement of the classes
contained in each of the branches : —

MEDICAL ZOiU.OiiV.

1st Sub-Kingdoi

J properlv eo <
"j called. (
(Coneliifera.

III. — HeTEBOHORI'HA (Nnfotur/iaiiu.

■ISOLATED.

Classes.
1, Masthalia (Musk deer).

3. Reptiua (Viper),

4. BATKACniA (Frog).

5. Pisces (Cod).
0. SItelairia' (Lancelet).

7. Cephaiopoda (Cuttlefish).

8. Ptebopoea (Clio lioreulis).
0. Gastebopoe-a (Slug).

10. Acephala (Oyster).

11, TuHioATA'(Aaciditt).

UA. j_Sarcodaria. 12. Inposioria' (Volvos).

2nd Sub-Kingdom.— ZOONITES.

Arliculal.a

projwrh f.v

Aotihizoaeia.

}•

Issiscta (Cantharides).
Arachnids (Scorpiuii).
Cm-.-T.ii'nA (Criivlisli).
IfoTiPKiu (Wheel tenimal
Asmliu (liocch).
Namatoidea (Threadworm).
Tmkkatoda (Fluke).
Ckstohjea (Tapeworm).

i. EoHisoDEHaATA (Star-fish).

3rd Sub-Kingdom.— ASSOCIATED.

1, Associated properly t
called 1 (Botrvllus).
( 2. Bbtozoa.
< 3. Polypipeba (Corala).

[ 4. Sl'OHQIABIA (Sp.illU!;).

1 Is. Ceoffroy Sfii nt- ¥T11 r< i ]■■.:-. C. Tionaparte.

* First section of 1 1 1 ■_■ ."':. M< ,-■« , I ■■.■■././.■ j(h of Cuvier.

■ Homogeneoun Infusoria of Cuvier.

' Twr/iellririrr. nf ?i>me writers.
1 Compound Acephala of Cuvier.

BOOK III.

A3TMALS AKD THE ANIMAL PRODUCTS EMPLOYED IS MEDICINE.

Ik the earlier ages of medicine, the remedies derived from
the animal kingdom were exceedingly numerous. It is only
necessary to examine the catalogues which have been left us
by the ancients to be convinced of this fact. These catalogues,
which were mere compilations of receipts, contain the most
extravagant remedies, brought together without any order,
and, generally speaking, unaccompanied by any critical
remarks.

Physicians having made the organization of man the sub-
ject of their special study at a very early period, it is hardly to
be wondered at if they sought to obtain from his body various
remedies against disease. Man was long regarded as an
fl.TMTnn.1 par excellence, and it was, therefore, thought that this
animal ought naturally to furnish a number of valuable
medicines.

Amongst other ancient remedies which were seriously
recommended, was the use of tanned human skin as a belt, the
nails and hairs either burnt or distilled, 1 the teeth, brain, saliva, 9
wax, 3 urine* the excrements, the fat (especially of a person
who had been hanged), the blood of a man who had been beheaded
drank while it was still warm, 5 and filings of the human skull
(Jtommis cranium raspatum) ! Lemery observes, " The skull
of a person who has died a violent death forms a quicker and
better remedy than that of a person who has died from a
lingering disease, or who has been taken from a cemetery,
because the first contains all his spirits, while in the others
they have been exhausted either by the disease or by the
earth." Boyle believed that powdered human skull, applied to
the skin, had permanently cured him of bleeding from the
nose.

1 The hair of children eased the gout; that of adults was employed
against the bite of a dog !

* The saliva of a man who had fasted was a specific against the poison of
serpents ! . . .

* Wax cured the sting of the scorpion !

4 The urine of eunuchs rendered women fruitful !

* At Rome, the warm blood of the gladiators was ordered in various
diseases ! In Egypt, kings attacked with elephantiasis were ordered baths
of human blood!

The progress of medical science and of common sense 1
long since freed ua of these therapeutical extravagancies. 1

ANIMALS OE ANIMAL PEODUC

1 FOEMEBLT EMPLOYED I3T

A large volume might he furmed of the statements which
are to be found in different authors, relating to the animals or
their productions which were formerly used in medicine, but
which are now abandoned,

Linnseus very properly discarded maiiv of the fake and
absurd statements of hia predecessors, tut one is surprised
to find still included amongst his Male fin .McJica the fat of
the teild cat (eati si/lrexlrix ti.rinu/iti), the text ivies of the horse
(equi testiculi) am! the ;mii's of the u~liiile (vr/i prinpiu) 1 .
The most celebrated men have always, to a certain extent,
been enslaved by the prejudices of their time.

The ancient therapeutists often sought 1'or what they termed
correspondence between the disease and the remedy, but it ia
impossible to conjecture what wen- the relations upon which
they founded the virtues of many animal substances. Thus, in
spitting of hlood, they recommended the patient to drink kid's
blood mixed with vinegar ; in diseases of the kidneys they
prescribed the back of a hare to be eaten raw or cooked, but
without touching- it will: the teeth; in diseases of the spleen,
they applied the spleen of a dog over the region of the affected
organ ; in disorder of the liver, they ordered the dried liver of
a wolf in wine sweetened with honey, or that of an ass bruised
in honey with two parts of celery and three outs ! . . ,

The following are Borne of these therapeutic agents which
belonged to the ancient medical /.oulogv, arranged in three
series :
I. The Entire Animal.

1st. Simply opened or levixeil.- "Bid, mole, pigeon, toad,

tree-frog, spider, scorpion.
2nd. Driei/or reilneed to pointer- I ledge-hog, tit-mous
water-wag-tail wren, goat sucker, plover, snake,

ASIJIAT, PBOmCTIONS, ETC.

toad,' e art h worm, bug, cricket, grasshopper,

3rd. Calcined and reduced to ashes. — Badger, moust

(mm combustits), crow, cuckoo, kingfisher, lizard.

salamander, slug, scarabueus.
4th. Infused in water. Magpie {aqua picarum, composi-

turn), swallow (aqua hirundinum).
5th. Boiled in milk.—ToaA,
6th. Infused in. oil. — Dog (oil of young dogs)? fox.

nawk, cameleon, scorpion (oil of Matlhiole),

coekroneh, earthworm.
7th. Distilled. -A lit s (waler of magnanimity).

II. Bones of the dog, wolf, hare (astragalus), horee, eta;

eagle (skull, vertebra), toad (left humerus'), carp,
shad, and whiting.

III. Blooo of the bat, lion, dog, mole, weasel, hare, rat, horse,

ass, elephant, rlduueeivs, hull, camel, stag, gout, gold-
finch, lark, pigeon, cock, pheasant, quail, ostrich, swan,
duck, tortoise, lizard, frog, tree-frog, and snake.

IV. Fat of monkey, dog, wolf, fox, wild eat, hedge-hog, badget

rabbit, hare, marmot, beaver, porcupine, dormouse,
ass, elephant, stag, fallow-deer, camel, eagle, falcon,
kite, common fowl, pheasant, cassowary, heron, frigate
bird, pelican, lizard, suake, frog, tree-frog,' carp, pike,
eel-pout, and lamprey.

V. Cove bin a.

1st. Skin of mole, horse, ass, rhinoceros, eagle, tench.

1 Zwelfer states that takes (a) composed of tlie toad preserved him from
the plague, and that the name remedy hod relieved, ami even cured, some
of his domestics aud friends of malignant diseases. Van Hcliaant also
applied this singular remedy to the skin.

* Catellos recent note* tutmero Ira, in throe or four pounds of olive oil.
Some used thein while they are alive {vivos), others after they were dead
(woofer).

■ Oligans Jacobasus pretends that the fat of the tree-frog causes teeth
Which have been rubbed with it to fall out without pain.

(a) The t«rm rate has been used instead of the obsolete word troche,
by which the oI'Kt pliLinitm^niisL.- disi^Tii.rird ■'-..■]"' :l in compounds com-
posed of various powders, raade up with my convenleal medium, not eon-
Wining sugar, iuto little calsen of various forms, ami afterwards dried. The
word trochiscus or troche is derived from trodios, a wheel, the cakes being
very often made up into that shape. See the section on the so-called crabs'
eves, p, 96.

2nd. Hair of cat, fox, hare, horse, sbb, elephant, goat,

3rd. Feathers of eagle, lark, partrii

VI. Shells.

1st. Univalve*- — snail, rudimentary Bhell of slug, whelk

dental! urn.
2nd. Bivalves — common mussel.
3rd. Epiphra//ma of the large Roman snail.

4th. Pearls n|' the pearl oyster and the mussel.

VII. NuTBlTlYE ORGANS.

1st. Jmrs of the pike, trout. .

2nd. Teeth of wok, badger, wild boar, cod, &c.

3rd. Toue/iic of grouse, liamingo. .

4th. Stomach of hedge-hog, pigeon, common fowl, c

ostrich, eel-pout.
5th. Intestines of wolf. .
(ith. Spleen of dog, ass. .
7th. Liver of wolf, mole, bear, badger, weasel, otti

hare, porcupine, elephant, goat, roebuck, eagle

swan, duck, lizard, frog, e _1
8th. Kidney* of ass. .
Oth. Lungs of fox (pi/liKuiies ]in:parati), weasel, h

;h. Heart o

10th. Heart of monkey, lion, mole, stag, cro
kingfisher, toad. .
VIII. Bile, thine, excrements.

1st. Bile of moil key, wit, dug. hedgr-hog, martin, weasel,
bear ( fel i».fpi.fsn/iiiii), huir, ass, pig, elephant,
goat, roebuck, fallow-deer, camel, eagle, peewit,
nightingale, bee-eater, pheasant, partridge, crane,
wood-cock, snipe, tortoise, lizard, frog, salmon,
pike, carp, eel-pout, eel. .

2nd. Urine of Etas, mule, rhinoceros, cow, goat, stag,
camel, lizard. .

3rd. Excrements of eat, dog {fed upon hones),' wolf,
fox, martin, weasel, hare, mouse, 3 ass, mule, pig,
elephant, ox, sheep, goat, roe-buck, fallow-deer,
camel, eagle, hawk, crow, kite, pee-wit, swallow,

1 Album gracum, apodittm ijr/rcvtn, nlhiim canis, nihil album, cy
prut.— Libavius gives the method of preparing and preserving the a
yrcecttm.

* Allium nigrum iterate nigrum, muscerda.

AXllCAL PRODUCTIONS, 'ETC. 6/

cuckoo, pigeon, common fowl, peacock, quail,

bustard, swan, goose, tortoise, lizard. 1 .
EL Obgans or bepboduction.

1st. Testicles of badger, weasel, otter, horse, ass, bare,

common fowl. .
2nd. Penis of ass, bull, stag {priapus cervi), whale, sea

tortoise. .

X. Eggs.

1st. Cheering of the eggs of the frog. 2 .
2nd. Entire eggs of lizard, barbel, pike, cuttle-
fish. .
3rd. Shell of crow, common fowl, quail, ostrich. .

XI. Obgans of belation.

1st. Brain of badger, hare, stag, camel, eagle, hawk,
crow, pee-wit, common fowl, partridge. .

2nd. Eye of hare, quail, crane. .

3rd. Ear-bone of carp, whiting, cod, pike. .

4th. Foot of hare (leporis tali). .

5th. Hoof of horse, mule, ass, elephant, rhinoceros,
tapir, elan (ungula preparata). 3 .

6th. Claws of hawk. .

7th. Claws of crab. .

XH. ACCESSOBT OBGANS.

1st. Horn of rhinoceros, ox, sheep, goat. .
2nd. Appendages of flying stag (horns). .

XIII. VaBIOUS PBODUCTIOtf.

1st. Suet of sheep. .

2nd. Dried tears of stag. .

3rd. Ink of cuttle-fish. .

4th. Cocoons of silk- worm {English drops), spider

{Montpellier drops). .
5th. Bezoars. A. Stony {intestinal concretions) 4 of

the monkey, wild boar, 5 Indian hog, 6 ox,*

1 See the Stercoral Pharmacopeia of C. F. Pauliini (Heilsame Drek-Apo-
theke, Frankfort, 1696, in-8).

* Ranarum sperma exsiccatum, sperma ranee.

* It was especially the hoof of the left foot which was employed.

4 The name bezoar is given to calcareous masses, more or less solid,
generally formed of concentric layers, and found in the stomach, intestines,
and urinary passages of quadrupeds.

* Pig stone, lapis pordnus.

6 Malacca stone, lapis porci Malacensis, yellow bezoar. The bezoar of
Ceylon (lapis porci Ceylanici) was larger and not so scarce.
v Masang ae vaca, Indian yellow, gUUe stone.

MEDICAL ZOOIOOT.

goat of Peru, 1 ibex, 1 camel, serpent, 1 viper.*
B. Hairy (agagrojthilet)* of horse, ox,

SECTION IL

Cebtais' animals and auimal productions formerly in
still occasionally, though very rarely, prescribed by medica

They may be divided into three groups : 1st, Animals e.
ployed whole; 2nd, Parts of animals ; 3rd, Animal production*.

CHAPTER I.

ABIMALS EMFLOtED WHOIE.

These animals are : 1st, the Scink; 2nd, Wood Lout
Cochineal Insect.

I. Scink.

The Scink of the pharmaceutist" is a small Saurian rept

belonging to the family Scineoidea; it is very comn

1 Western hezoar.

1 Oriental Ik::><h\ "reou rcsiumis bezoar.

1 Serpent stone, cobra de capello.

* Bezoar of Franco.

5 Concretions which form in the stomach anii intestines of various quad-
rupeds, from the accumulation of hairs swallowed by the animala in licking
themselves. The hairs become felteii together in balls.

6 Scinau officinales, Schreb. (Laeerta Sctneus, Linn.). The Araba term
it el Adda.

ANTMAI.S OCCASIOSALLT EMPLOYED IS MEDICINE, 69

Nubia, Abyssinia, Egypt, Arabia, and in the south of Algeria
and Morocco.

The body is from nine to twelve inches in length ; it
passes gradually into the tail, which is thick and corneal, Hid
forms nearly one third of the entire length. The colour of the
animal is of a silvery yellow, with dark transverse bands. The
muzzle is wedge-shaped. The teeth are small, close set, find
pointed. The feet are abort, the toes free, flat, and un-
guieulated.

Before it is brought to Europe it is dried, the intestines
having been previously removed, and the end of the tail cut off.
The space that was occupied by the intestines is filled with
aromatic plants, and it is then wrapped up in leaves of worm-
wood.

The Scin-k was long regarded as a most useful and valuable
remedy. In the Materia Medica it was said to be stimulant,
restorative, and nntisyphilitic, but especially serviceable in
restoring the powers of the body when they had been ex-
hausted by voluptuous indulgences.' ( Dioscuri des.) It entered
into the composition of several complicated formulae.

The common Lizard* has been proposed as a substitute for
the Scink. A species of AnolU? and an Iguana,* have also
been mentioned for the same purpose.

Very recently Dr. Goase, of Geneva, has advocated the
therapeutic properties of the Seinks. He maintains that the
undents were justified in employing them, and that these
animals possess powerful stiinubmf and sudorific properties,
which might be usefully employed in various diseases.

g II. "Wood-lice.

ndcr this name of Wbodltce 6 are included two small

l.\/rpii' .,,■/.';■.■'«: r/,: jn-u tJiJiru'li-iiriM, Linn.

Laceriii agilin, Linn. [The common Hzn.nl of this country is not the
Lacerta agilis of Liniueus, hut the Zuoiiea vivipara of Bell, or scaly lizard
of Pennant. See Hell's Brit, lieptileB.1

1 Atittliiis bidliiris, Cuv. |This i*[iei*iivi mis lir-l di~i'iiln--<I by Catesby in
bis Natural History of Carolina, under llie iistme of the Green lizard; it
is a very beaulii'ul species, of a ^rtciiish :;<>ld colour.]
' Iijuana df.limJin.ii mil, I,;iur. (/. »>.tiliri;llis, CuV.).

* The Sauriane are not the only reptiles whose medicinal virtues have
been extolled. The old tbera| 'en lists mado u-e of a volatile salt containing
a powder composed of viptrs, also cakes (sec note, p. 05], as well us a wine,
a syrup, a jelly, and an oil. The fat of these animals was recommended
in iivrvinis affections, and was considered to be a good cosmetic

• Qntici, Asdli.

MElUCil. ZOOI.O'IY.

cell™,
in old

species of isopod crustaeea. belonging to the family of the
Om'scidaj: tbe common Hood-louse (fig. S), and the' officinal
Armadillo (fig. 9),

1st, The common Wood-louse ' is constantly found

in the crevices of walla, under atones, and h

The body 19 oval, oblong, of a grey colour, and
' composed of a number of imbricated rings. It has
" four antenna;, the lateral ones being provided with
!* eight joints. It ia provided with two pointed ap-
pendaiiva at its posterior extremity.
■ Piff. 8. Wood-lice avoid the light and frequent damp

Wooft-ltiiwi. situations, where they Iced upon d worn posing animal
and vegetable matters ; their walk is naturally
slow, but they can move quickly when irritated- When
alarmed they have the singular power of rolling themselves up
into a bail; they are ovoviviparous. At birth the young have
only twelve feet [the adult animal baa fourteen, one
being attached to each of tbe seven rings, which form
thorax].

2nd, The of/ici/tu! Armadillo 1 ia met with in France, hut
belongs especially to Italy.

The Armadillo ia closely allied to the preceding species.
The rings are smooth and polished, and of a grey
colour. The lateral antenna' have only seven joints.
The posterior appendages of the body are not pro-
jecting.

The medicinal properties of the" If 'ood-louse and the
AmiOitiihi were long spoken of in lii^li terms. Those
individuals were preferred, which lived 011 walls and
on stones covered by saline particles. CJalen speaks Fig. 9.
of then- beneficial effects in obstructions of the Armadillo.
abdominal viscera; Baglivi considered them as
lithontripties, Vallisneri aa antiscorbutic, and Geoffrey aa
anti-rheumatic. . . . Most writers have mentioned them as
being aperient, laxative, and diuretic. It has been ascer-
tained that they contain the hvdrochlorates and nitrates
of potash and lime, which may possibly explain their former
reputation in medicine. These minute Crustacea entered into
the composition of numerous prescriptions. Patients awal-

1 Onisais miUvs, Linn. In the old pharmacopeia* it fas called Quito
and Poreettia.

1 Armadillo officinal*, Cnv. It was known aa prepared wood-louse or
armadillo of I In.- shops.

it it

AKIMAL8 OCCASIONALLY EMPLOYED IS MEDICINE. 71

lowed them raw, and that even while they were alive, con-
suming as many as two hundred in the course of the day.
De Haen seriously relates that in certain cases of weak sight,
patients had eaten these animals with bread, and that tin's
extraordinary remedy had been exceedingly efficacious.

§ III. Cochineal Insect.— Coccus Cacti, Linn.

The Cochineal is an insect belonging to the order Hemiptera,
the tribe Homoptera, and to the family G-allinsecta. They
constitute the genus Coccus of Linnaeus ; they are characterized
by a pectoral beak, an abdomen terminated by setae, and by the
presence of two wings in the male — none in the female.
*' 1st. Common Cochineal (fig. 10). — The Common Cochineal,
or Cochineal of the Nopal, 1 is an insect which is held in con-
siderable estimation, on account of the beautiful and brilliant
colour which it furnishes.

This animal was employed in medicine and in the arts long
before its true nature was ascertained. It was supposed to be
a small berry or grain, known as shining grain.* Lopez de
Gromara, in 1525, gave the first description of this insect, and
of the plant upon which it fed. Thierry de Menonville, in
1787, published an excellent treatise on the Cochineal.
Reaumur has given some details respecting the generation
and metamorphoses of those species which are met with in
France.

Habitat. — The Cochineal of commerce is found in different
parts of Mexico. It lives on several species of Nopal, par-
ticularly on the common,* the cochineal bearing, 4 and the Tuna *
species.

Description. — The Cochineal of the Nopal is a small insect.
The male and the female are not alike, and might be supposed
to belong to different genera. It has even been stated that
the individuals which had been taken for the male were para-
sites.

The body of the male is elongated, short anteriorly nar-

1 Adanson has seen students when herborizing eat some dozens of these
insects and find them very good.

* Pomet said (1694) that the Spaniards exposed them to the action of
heat, so that the young should not become developed in France.

■ 3 Opuntia vulgaris, Mill {Cactus Opuntia, Linn. ).

4 Opuntia coclienUlifera, Mill {Cactus cochenillifera, Linn.).

* Cpuntia Tuna, Mill {Cactus Bonplandia, Kunth).

MEDICAL BOOLOSTi

rowed behind, and of a deep red ; the head i

a rudimentary beak ; the imtentue a:
of moderate length, filiform, aud corn-

small, with
imtenme are

posed of eleven joints. The
is terminated bv tw

Fig. 10.— Oodiliicui. 1

by two seta*, longer
than the body, 'diverging, and very
ll.l slender. The wings reach beyond the
abdomen and cross each other horizon-
tally on the back; they are oblong and
Sierteetly transparent. The limbs are
ong, with a single joint to the tai
terminating in a hook. The
is quick and active.

The female is at least twice the si;
of the male, the body ii oval, obi
anteriorly, slightly attenuated bel
convex above, and flat below,
has ten distinct rings, of a brown
colour, covered with a white powder. It is provided with sa
extremely narrow, slightly conical, and very pointed rostrum
from 3 to 4 lines in length. The uhdominal seta* are shorter
than the body. The llmba are small, and the animal very
Blow,

The larval stage in both sexes does not last more than ten
days ; that of the pupa fifteen. The male does not live more
than a month. As soon as he is born he seeks the female and
when impregnation is accomplished ho dies. The female lives
a month longer, and during this time her abdomen becomeB
considerably enlarged. When the period for laying the
eggs has arrived she fixes herself to the plant. The e
remain adherent to the under surface of her body, so that
laying is hardly evident externally, As the abdomen emptu
itself its inferior piirioles approaeiies the upper and thus iorms
a considerable cavity below. Very si mn the parent insect dies,
her abdomen driest up, the skin becomes hard and shriveUed and
serves as a kind of shell for Llie protection of her offspring.

The eggs are from 250 to 300 in number, and are united
into a narrow band ; they are oval, of an intense red colour,
and are covered with a farinaceous secretion. They are hatel
in a few days. The larva- issue from beneath the dried-u]
remains of the parent by an opening at the posterior part, am
spread themselves over the nopals. During the first days

1 a, mile ; t, female.

the

ptie.

ANIMALS OCCASIONALLY EMPLOYED IJT MEDICINE. 73

their existence they traverse the tendercst parts of the plants,
and seek out a suitable spot to attach themselves to. Having
decided upon this, about one third of the individuals cover
themselves with a white powder, which assumes tin- form of a
eaeoon open at one end ; beneath this covering the larva
becomes transformed into a chrysalis, and then into the per-
fect insect. The abdominal seta' soon make their appearance
through the opening previously mentioned, and the animal
comes out backwards : these are the males. The other two-
thirds are the females, whose bodies daily increase in size,
while the males flutter around them, or walk over their backs.

Ci/Ifi cation. — The Cochineal is found wild in the woods, but
it is usually propagated and reared artificially. A certain
number of nopals arc planted around the houses to form a
uopalry. It is usually placed in an open situation, where there
is no shade, but where it is sheltered from the west winds. It
is surrounded by a hedge of reeds, as much to break the eurreutB
of air as to guard the plantation from the attacks of wild beasts.
A nopalry might not to be more than two acres in extent.
The ground having been properly prepared, the plantation is
formed by cuttings of the nopals planted about halfway in the
ground. The cuttings are placed a foot apart and arranged
in rows, with intervals of rather more than a yard between
them.

Females obtained from the woods, just before they are about
to lay their eggs, or insects filled with egfjs, which have been
preserved through the winter on the sheltered nopals, are
placed, to the number of ten or twelve, in small nests, com-
posed of the fibres of theeoeoa nut, or in small cylinders open at
the ends formed of the leavi-sof" the dwarf palm, and suspended
to the spines of the nopals ; at other times they are placed in
the crevices of the plant. This iB called sowing the cochineal.
The larvie soon come out of the nests and spread themselves
over the nopals. They are afterwards arranged in groups on
the most succulent and vigorous parts of the plant.

The principal care wliii-h is required in raising the Cochineals
is, to shelter thou from the effects of the wind and the rain;
this is done by simply placing matting over the nopals.

Thierry de Menonville introduced this valuable insect into
Saint Domingo, but the revolution of Haiti prevented the
Huceess of the experiment, and the insects were allowed to
nerish.

The Dutch succeeded in naturalizing them in Java. In
L845, that is, in about ten years after their introduction, the

quantity sold on account of the government amounted t
5,5131bs.

Living individuals have, on several occasions, been intro-
duced into Europe. Liunjeus tells us that Hulander presented
some to the Botanic Garden at Upsal in 1756.

The Cochineal has become acclimated in Spain, more par-
ticularly in the neighbourhood of Malagar and in the kingdor.
of Valencia.

In 180U, M. Sou coy lii'i*. a naval surgeon, brought home som
living Cochineals, which he transmitted to M. Robert, pro
feasor of botany at Toulon.

In 1827, the natu ri I izati on of the Cochineal waa attempt*
in Corsica, but without success. The same year it was ii '
duced into the Canary Isles, where it met with the 1
perfect success, for the eight and a half pounds of Cochines
which these islands exported in 1831, amounted to i
than S82.2001bs. in 1850. The diseased vines, upon which £
insects lived in 'the Canaries, have been lately rooted up a
replaced by nopals.

The Spanish Government, fully appreciating the value i
this branch of industry, forbade the exportation of the precioi
insect under the penalty of death. In spite, however, of this,
in 1831, M. Sjmonnet, a pharmaceutist of Algiers, had the
courage to run the risk of the nndrrtiiking and introduced the
first Cochineals into the French settlements. He procured the
insects from Valencia ; hut in consequence of had weather he
had the mortification to find his endeavours unsuccessful. Two
years afterwards, pr. Loze, a naval surgeon, brought several
pots of the cactus, each having from thirty to forty of the
Cochineal insects living upon them. At the end of 1834, he
presented to the Academy of Sciences samples of his first crops,
which were pronounced to be of an excellent quality. Recalled
in 1S36, M. Loze was obliged to leave his cacti and the
Cochineals in the garden of Hussein Bey, where they were
exposed to every kind of risk. Some time after, M. Hardy,
director of the central Nursery Garden, endeavoured to save
what might be left of them. It was with difficulty he could
find two or three of the nopals, with a few impregnated females
upon them; it was with these fragments that lie was enabled
to establish the vaJuiiblc cultivation of which we are speaking.
In 1846, 371hs. were sold at Marseilles by order of the Minister
of War. M. Chevreuil stated, that the produce from Algeria
was equal in value and in quality to that of Mexico. Prom
that time the cultivation of the Cochineal was rapidly developed.

ASIMAIS OCCASIONALLY EMPLOTED IN' MEDICISE.

■

In. ls.',3. in the province of Algiers nlone, there were four-
teen nopalries, containing 61, 500 nopals, and their produce
aold at 15 francs the kilogramme (2'2055lb. avoir.).

Collecting. The collecting of the Cochineals takes place
in the tine weather, shortly before the time for laying their
eggs, when the abdomen has attained its greatest size. Their
Bize at this period is nearly that of a pea.

The Cochineals which are sown in April are collected in the
June following. From these are chosen females which are
intended for the rearing of the summer cropj this begins
towards the end of May and is completed in Nqitcrnber; from
the second gathering females are again |uit aside lor the winter
crop. In a favourable season, three gatherings may be
obtained during the year.

Wncu the time for collecting baa arrived, cloths are spread
beneath the nopals, their joints are cut off and the insects
detached by passing a fine brush or the blunt edge of a knife
over the plant. This operation is ropeatdfl several times.
Some growers do not mutilate the nopals, and scrape the joints
without separating them from the trunk.

The Cochineals from the lirst gathering are considered the
most valuable..

The insects arc killed in several ways ; one is to place them
in -baskets and. steep them in boiling water, thev are afterwards
spread out on hurdles covered with elotbs, and dried, first in
the sun, and afterwards in the shade, where there is a free
current of air. By this method the insects lose in the water
the wlitte" powder with which they are covered. The Spaniards
term: these cocfiiiirlln rriwt/riifn. At other times the insects
are merely baked in an oven ; when prepared in this way, they
have an ashengrey colour, ami are named jusjieinl'i. Lastly,
the cochineals arc killed by being heated on iron plates, when
they, turn of a dark colour; this variety is known as the
cochinella nigra.

Reaumur says that it takes 05,000 insects to weigh a pound
Fr. (lib. loz. lO^dr. avoir.) while, according to M. Fee, it
does not require more than from 42 to 45,000.

Three varieties of cochineal are distinguished in commerce:
1st, The M.<:<lf/iit'. ' Jim: or rorhiiiclla -i,<<i>ru,ht of I he Spaniards ;

it is of a purplish grey colour and covered with a whitish
powder. 2nd, The Black cochineal ; this is the largest ; it is.

1 Meateqae is the name of a Mexican province. (Ed.) <

76 MEDICAL ZOO LOOT.

of a reddish or purplish black colour, and is almost or qui!
devoid of the white powder. 3rd, The Spleestre cochineal t
yrana Si/lnestria ,* this consists of the smallest insects ; it is of
a dullish red colour, and is of the least value. This variety is
obtained from the nopal plants which grow wild in the woods.

In order to give the cochineals the farinaceous appearance
which distinguishes the finest qualities, powdered talc
white lead is mixed with them, lu this way the black vari
is made to resemble the inesteque or fine variety.

TTses. — Cochineal has been recommended in hoopmgcou;
and dysury. It has also been used hi the form of a drink aa
remedy for the troublesome form of cough which follows
measles.

Carmine and lake carmine are formed from cochineal.

The colouring principle of cochineal (coohiwlla or carmine)
is a crystalbzal.de substance uf a brilliant purplish red colour,
It fuses at 112° F. It is insoluble in ether, but very soluble
in alcohol and whter. Alkalies change it to a violet colour,
and acids to an intense red. Cochineal will preserve
colouring properties unchanged for a century. (Hellot.)

In 1736, there were imported into Europe 771,161 lbs. of
cochineal of the value of fifteen millions of francs. At the
present day, in the General Table of the commerce of France,
that country alone receives about 761,776 lbs., valued at three
millions of francs.

[A syrup of Cochineal has been introduced into the last
edition of the Pharmacopceia.

Sykupus Cocci (fyntp ofCocliinral). — Take of bruised cochi-
neal giv, boiling distilled water Oj. The cochineal is to
boiled for fifteen minutes in the water in a closed vessel
frequently stirring it; then strain. Add of sugar twice the
weight ol the strained liquid, and dissolve with a gentle heat.
Lastly, when the syrup has cooled, mis with each fluid ounce
half a fluid drachm of spirit.

Various properties have been assigned to cochineal, but
without the least foundation ; its only real use is as a colouring
matter. It is for this purpose that it is ordered to be added
to the tinctura fiirt/timunU camposila, and to the tinctura
cinchonas composita.']

2nd. Other species of Cocci. — Three other species of Coci
which are now almost entirely neglected were formerly used
medicine. These are : 1st, the Kermes; 2nd, the Coccus Poloi
cub ; 3rd, the Coccus Laces,

■ is
ds.
ice
or

■ws

ANIMALS OCCASIONALLY EMPLOTED IN MEDICINE. 77

1st. The Kerme» or Coccus of the oak ' lives upon a
particular species, peculiar to the South of Europe, known as
the Quercua eoceifcra (fig 11). This ia generally obtained
from Montpellier, Provence, and Spain.

This Bpecies of Coccus is larger than that of the nopal, the
female attaining the size of a large pea. It has no trace of
rings, iB of a globular form, and at first is of a bright red, but
afterwards of a dark violet colour. and is covered with a white
powder. It surrounds itself with line threads, out of which it
forma a kind of cocoon. Each female lays from 1,800 to 2,000

egg 8 -

By analysis kermcs yield a red
colouring matter similar to carmine,
a peculiar animal principle termed
coccinc, a yellow fatty matter, and
some phosphates and salts. (Las-
Baigne.)

2nd. The Coccus Polonicw* is
found in Poland andEuesia, and occa-
sionally in France, attached to tho
roots of a small plant, the Scleran-
that pcrennis ; it is also found on
the Potentffia irptans and P. alba
of Linnmus.

The male has 13 to 14 joints to
the antenna; and is provided with a
bushy tail. The female is of an
oral form and reddiBh colour ; the
first pair of feet are inaerted near

antennas and are very short and strong. The insect ia
icted in the Ukrane towarda the end of the month of June,

Fig. \\.—Kerma.

Coccue niids. Lion. ; commonly known in commerce And in pharmacy
as animal kvrm.fR, v-'jpl/iN^. t-enn^, k.'nnen of r 1 1 ._■ ,<]];, •■liining grain.

* Ooceui Poloiiirun, Linn, (l'.>i-i>ltin->)'h.,r/i 1'vlonirti. ISrandl), commonly
termed Saint John's blood. [Ia Germauy, during the ninth, twelfth, thir-
teenth, and fourteenth centuries, the rum! nerffl were bound to deliver
annually to the convents, a c< : r(:iin quantity of kermes, the coccus polonicur,
among the other products 'if industry. It was collected from tho trees,
upon Saint John's day. between eleven o'clock and noon, with religious
ceremonies, and was therefore called .l.,k<ti,i>i>',hit (Saint .'elm's blood), as
also tho German cochineal. At tha above period a great deal of the
German kermes wu-j consumed in Venice fin- diciii!; the scarlet to which
that city gives its name. (I.' re's Hie. of Arts ami Seienees, art, Kermes.)]
Another species is found in Armenia. /'. ILnmiii, Uranril (P. Anneuiea,
Burmcisler), which also yields a colouring matter used in the arts,

MEDICAL /uDl.ORV.

when the females are ripe. The abdomen is at this time
swollen and filled with a purple fluid. The plants are route
up with an iron instrument having the shape of a trowel. ™
cocci are freed from dirt by shaking them in sieves,
insects ore sprinkled with vinegar, or with hot water, and a
then dried in a warm place, or by the heat of the sun. but \ei _
slowly and with great care. If they are dried too ipiiekly the
colour ia changed. (Bernitz.)

3rd. The Coccus Ltircu ( Kerr) lives on several trees in India;
amongst others, upon the Ficus rcligioea, the F. Indica, the
Shamtuujvjtiba, the Crri/on hie. ij'rrunu inul the ISulfii frtmdosa.

The lac insect has the body oblong, flattened below and
convex above, narrowed towards the posterior extremity", and
furnished with a thickened ridge around the thorax and
abdomen ; the antenna) are filiform and bifurcated ; the eyes
are placed towards the inferior part of the head ; its rostrum

is placed beneath the thorax ; the ubd inal rings are obscure;

according to Kerr there are fourteen rings ; but according to
Eoxburgh there are only twelve ; the body is terminated by
two diverging seta'. (Kerr, tswa^ermann.) The male is f urnishec
with two large uieiul urinous wings.

The insects attach themselves to the twigs and the y
branches, which are about the thickness of the finger.

It has been supposed that the insect pierces the bark of tbe
trees upon which it lives, for the purpose of depositing its eggs,
and that a resinous matter oozes out of the wound, which:
dries upon tbe surface. The females of this species have the
same habits as those of the Cochineal insect, and like them
they become fixed at the period of "laying, and cover tbe eggs
with their dead bodies. As, however, they exist in great
numbers they become closely packed together and arranged in
lines. It has been stated that the resinous matter sucked up
by the insect is transuded through the pores of its body.
(Latreille.) It seems, however, more probable that the single
puncture of the bark made at tbe time when the insect
becomes fixed is sufficient to allow of the exudation of the resin,
in which the creature becomes enveloped, and to which it im-
parts its red colour.

When a branch covered with lac is examined a rough
irregular crust is seen on the bark, pierced by a number of
small holes, which communicate with cells placed
These ceDs are oval and terminate in a fine point towards tb<
wood and in a blunted extremity externally ; they are aboul
-fe of an inch in their greatest diameter; they seem to 1

ACTUALS OCCASIONALLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 79

moulded upon a very delicate shell (utricule, Virev). In the
interior there is seen in the centre a red fluid, a cottony
material of a white or rose colour, dark red globules, and small
oblong bodies of the same colour. The shell is the abdomen of
the parent insect, the globules are the eggs, and the oblong
bodies the young larvae.

It is the dead bodies of the females filled with eggs, and
united together by the resinous matter previously spoken of,
which form the substance known as lac, lac resin, or yum lac.

There are four kinds of lac known in commerce : 1st, Stick
Lac, in which the lac is still attached to the branches, where it
forms an irregular crust of variable thickness, and of a dark
x>paque red colour. 2nd, Seed Lac is that which has been
removed from the branches and pounded ; it generally occurs
in small fragments, and the colour is not so dark as that of
the first. [Seed lac is prepared by removing the resinous con-
cretion from the twigs; it is then coarsely pounded and
triturated with water in a mortar; the greater part of the
colouring matter is thus dissolved, and the granular portion
which remains after being dried in the sun constitutes Seed lac.
Bee art. Lac in Ure's Die. of Arts and Sciences.] 3rd, Shell
. Lac is that which has been melted in boiling water, and then
poured on to smooth polished stones. These plates resemble
glass of antimony, but they vary much in their colour, accord-
ing as they have been more or less deprived of the colouring
matter ; they are consequently distinguished as the brown, the
red, and the white. [In India the Seed Lac is put into oblong
bags of cotton cloth, which are held over a charcoal fire by a
man at each end, and as soon as it begins to melt the bag is
-twisted so as to strain the liquified resin through its substance,
and to make it drop upon smooth stems of the banyan tree
' (musa pwradisd). In this way the resin spreads into thin
plates, and constitutes the substance known in commerce by
the name of shell lac. (Ure.)] 4th, Thread Lac is a preparation
' made in England, which has the appearance of a number of
reddish semi-transparent threads closely pressed and packed
together.

[Although no longer employed in medicine, lac is extensively
used in the arts and manufactures ; it enters into the formation
' of sealing wax, of certain varnishes, of French polish, and is
used in the manufacture of waterproof hats. In addition to
this resinous matter, a dyeing material, known as lac-dye, is
.obtained from Stick lac. This is procured from a watery in-
fusion of the ground stick lac evaporated to dryness. The

MEDICAL ZOO LOOT.

residue is then made up into cakes about two inches square,
and half-an-inch thick, which arc stamped with the trade mark
of the manufacturer. In England this colouring matter i
employed for dyeing scarlet cloth, and is found to yield a
equally brilliant colour, and one less easily affected by t'
perspiration than that produced by cochineal.]

ASIMA1B EMPLOYED IN PAET.

These are animals which furnish certain calcareous or horc
structures which arc employed in medicine. They
principally of — 1st, Pachydermia ; 2nd, Cuttle JUhe
Oysters; 4th, Corah; 5th, Uponges,

§ I. Pachyderm ata.
Amongst these animals is the Elephant. {Ehphmi), one t
the proboscidian mammalia, whose tusks are formed of e
osseous substance known as ivory.

There are two species of Elephant ; that of India (Elepka
Indieits), 1 in which the summit of the head forms a sort of
pyramid ; the forehead is concave, and the ears small ; that of
Africa (Elephas Jfric/mus, Cuv.),in which the head is round,
the forehead convex, and the ears large, so as to cover the
shoulders. These animals are provided with tusks implanted
in the inter-maxillary
hone. They are two
very long pointed teeth,
curved and hollow to
the extent of half their
length. Those of the
African Elephant (fig.
12), are much larger
than those of the Indian
Elephant. The ivory of
both is characterized in
a transverse section by
curved lines passing
from the centre to the
circumference, crossing

' Porno miters consider Oiat there are two species of Indian Elephant
and have named thum Elepluu Aiiaticua and Elephas Sumalraitvs.

Fig. 12.— A/rkan Etepliant.

each other, and by that means intercepting lozenge-like or rhom-
boidal interspaces.

Ivory calcined until it becomes white has been regarded as
absorbent, astringent, and anthelmintic ; some therapeutists
have termed it spode or spodium ; others designate it as caput
•morlmuii. The various preparations into which it formerly
entered have now fallen entirely out of use.

The beautiful velvety black, known to painters as Ivory
Hack, is obtained by calcining this materia! in closed vessels.
[The calcined matter is afteruiLrds ground and then levigated
on a porphyry slab : it is much used in copper-plate printing.]

The tusks of tin- Eloplimit arc used in tht- making of artificial
teeth. It is also used in the manufacture of artificial teats,
pessaries, and other surgical instruments.

The tusks of the Hippopotamus I Jli/ipopo/nwug ampliibhts,
Lin.) and Wild Boar (Hun Scropha, Lin.) are also used in the
manufacture of artificial teeth.

[The tusks of I hi 1 lilrplunt are never UBed in the present day
in the construction of artificial teeth, whatever they might
have heen formerly: the objections to this materia] are that it
is more easily destroyed by the fluids of the mouth, and at the
same time is more costly than the teeth of some other animals,
■which are better adapted for the purpose. The tusks of the
Wild Boar, on account of their size alone, could seldom be made
available for the manufacture of artificial teeth. The only
teeth which hove ever been extensively used are the tusks of
the Hippopotamus and the Walrus.]

§ II. Sepiadte.

The SepiatJa: or Oirf/lf-fix/n-.s are molluscous animals belong-
ing to the decapod <lii ision of the cephalopoda ; they constitute
the genus Sepia of Linnaeus. The body of the animal is fleshy,
depressed, and contained in a mantle, having the form of a site,
terminated posteriorly in a blunted extremity, and bounded on
either side by a narrow lateral fin. The mouth is terminal
and surrounded by ten arms provided with suckers ; two of
these arms are pedunculated, and are much longer than the
others.

The most familiar species is the common CaUtr-fisli (Sppia

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

The Common Ctit/le-tish varies in length from three to twenty
eight inches. Its body is ova] and spread mit at the sides ; ■'
upper surface is marked by purplish or reddish spots, and with
white undulating lines upon a greyish or leaden coloured
ground. The aperture of the mantle is imperfectly divided
into three lobes; the two flus are united posteriorly. The
orifice of the mouth is circular, membranous, and more or less
fringed. There are two hard corneous jaws which shut into
each other and resemble the beak of a parrot. (Bondelet.) The
eyes are very large. The elongated arms or tentacles are nearly
the length of the body, and their dilated extremities i
furnished with a number of small pedunculated suckers. T
other arms are furnished on their inner surface with Severn
[four] rows of concave suckers.

The Guttle-fish feeds upon crabs, squills, and various mol-
lusca ; it breaks down the carapace or shells of these animals
with its beak-like jaws, and their further comminution is
accomplished by means of its strong muscular stomach, which
acts like a gizzard.

At the bottom of the abdominal sac is a bladder eontai:
a black liquid, known as the ink of the Cuttlefish . This b
der communicates by a small canal with the rectum. "When
the animal is pursued or threatened with danger if. discbarges
some of this black fluid, which diffuses itself through the water,
and in the midst- of the obseurity which it produces the creature-
endeavours to escape.' The pigment used in water colour
painting and known as Mmnau Sepia* is obtained from this
black liquid ; it has been stated that the Chinese colour, com-
monly known as Indian ink, is prepared from a species of
cephalopod allied to the Cuttle-fish. It is, however, almost
certain that this ink is prepared from a kind of soot.

Cuttle-fishes are bisexual and oviparous. Their eggs :
soft, of a blackish colour, and collected together like a bunch
of grapes, and hence the name of sea grapes, which is commonly
given to them.

The Cuttle-fish, encloses in its dorsal region a solid body,
known as the Cuttle bunt; Scpiu-in, or shell of the Cuttle-fish;
the French give it the name of hiscnil An mer? BlainviHe baa
proposed to call it Srpiosltiire. This body is of an elongated
oval form, somewhat broader behind than before, depressed,

icany

■s are

The

jveral

mol-

limals

on is

., which

vtaining
is blad-

WTum

1 Alrnai"ntit;ii 'pto >r wrultal (Linn.).
1 K<> Ii'ttcni'. pi mi it nl ii r (Linn.).
* Os officinale (Linn.).

▲2TCMJXS EMPLOTXD IS PABT. S3

extremely porous, and very light. Its superior surface is
convex ana granulated; its inferior is partly convex and
partly concave; it terminates posteriorly in a thin dilated
aliform margin, composed of calcareous and horny matter,
which, becoming everted, forms a wide and shallow concavity.
Quite at the extremity is a more solid portion, which has the
form of a conical hook or apophysis ; it is sometimes straight,
sometimes curved. The thickened part of the sepium is com-
posed of thin parallel calcareous plates, which are deposited in
such a manner that the last formed covers the greater part of
all the others, but leaves their posterior margins uncovered.
The principal ingredient is carbonate of lime.

The bone of the cuttle-ji*h was formerly employed as an
antiacid and absorbent. It enters into the preparation of
certain tooth-powders.

[The following is the formula of the tooth powder in the
French codex :

Bolarmcniac

Red coral

Bone of cuttle-fish aa Jj» gr. xiv.

Dragon's blood 5iv, gr. vii.

Cochineal 3j, gr. ij.

Cream of tartar Jj, 3iv, gr. xxi.

Powdered cinnamon . . . sij, gr. iv.

*■ Clovea Sij, gr. viy.

The cellular structure of the bone of the cuttle-fwli renders
iib so light that it floats on water. It was analysed by J ohn,
who gives the following as its composition : —

Hard, Upper or Porous

Outer Portion. Part.

Carbonate (with a trace of phosphate) of lime ... 80 ... 85

Non-gelatinous animal matter soluble in water

with common salt 7 . . . 7

Gelatinous membrane not soluble in water . . . . 9 . . . 4

Water, with a trace of magnesia 4 . . . 4

100 100

It is used in the arts as a polishing material, for forming
moulds for fine silver castings, and as a pounce to prevent ink
from spreading after erasures.]

§I1X Snails.

Snails are gasteropodous mollusca, belonging to the genus
Helix, the family HeUcidce, and to the order Pulmonilera.
The characters of the animal are — 1st, an elongated body,

o 2

■with a thick collar bilobed inferiorly ; four cylindrical tentacles
& crescent-shaped dentated upper mandible or jaw ; an ova!
elongated foot; tin.' respiratory orifice on the right side; reproduc-
tive orifice near the base of the right large or ocular tentacle.
2nd, Shell dextral, globose or depressed, the spire usually short,
with the last turn generally l«r»e ; umbilicus perforated or im-
perforated ; the columella straight or spiral ; aperture transverse,
oblique, and semilunar ; a thick peristome, terminating in an
abrupt or reflected margin.

Snails live in hedges, on dry plants, on the trunks of treea,
in the crevices of \v;iI1,j. and mi stones. They teed principally
upon vegetable substances. Their generative organs are
androgynous ; they contain a copulative pouch, the dart
enclosed in a sac, numerous vesicles, and a flngellum. At tha
period of copulation a large spcnnatopliora issues from the
male organ, and penetrates the female apparatus of another
individual. These animals are oviparous and deposit their eggs
in moist earth. The use of snails as a medicine has been
advocated at various times. At the commencement of the
present century Dr. Chrestien, of Montpellier, recommended
them to be used boiled or in the raw state after removal from
the shell. Other writers have recommended them to be
sprinkled with sugar ; this causes them to give out a large
quantity of their viscous Blime, which is to be taken by the
patient.

The species which is be.-t known is the llrlis poma/ia (Linn.),
or Roman snail. The shell of this species (fig. 13) is 1^ inch in

Fig. 13. — Helix Pomatia. 1
height, globose, obliquely bowed below, with fine and unequal

1 The animal in a state of extension, and a separate view of the jaw.

ACTUALS EMPLOYED IN 1

I^tudinal stria?, tolerably thick, verv slron:*. smooth, shining,
jue, of 11 reddish or dirty yellow, and with three or four
stinct yellow bauds. The spire is composed of five or six
■ -. turns, which rapidly increase up to the last, which is
large; the suture ia deep, the summit elevated, and the um-
bilicus oblique; the aperture is interrupted by the penulti-
mate curves, and is provided with an erected margin, which is
thickened aud of a reddish white internally. During winter
this aperture is closed by n membrane called the epiphragm,
which is convex, thick, cretaceous, and of a greyish colour.

These molluscs live in ^mlcns, vinevards, and forests.

Tlie Hrlix pomatia formerly entered" into the composition of
several pharmaceutical preparations. They were made into
broth, into a mucilage, a syrup, a jelly, and a pomade.
These preparations have long since fallen into disuse. Snails
were recommended in herpes ; they were allowed to crawl over
the aurta.ee of the skin ;uid deposit their mucus upon it. or
they were pounded and applied to the part. (Adanson.)
Dr. Gcehs, of Vienna, has extolled the efficacy of the pounded
ehell in epilepsy and in intermittent fevers (1815).

M. Oscar Figuier, of Montpellier, prepared a snail paste,
which enjoyed a certain amount of repute. The species em-
ployed iu the formation of this paste were the large garden
sna.il, H. asperm and K, vermieulata. The //. pomatia and
the wood snail, M. nemorali/t, might also be employed for this
purpose; but these species, which are bo common in the
northern and temperate p;irts of France, are not met with in
the south.

According to M. Soubeiran, a hundred individuals of the
Mdix pouiniiii , which weigh two pounds, when they have been
freed from their shells, yield about one pound three ounces of
flesh, while one hundred of the H. nemoralix of the average
size do not give much more than ten ounces.

Snails contain a peculiar mucilaginous principle, whose
characters are imperfectly known, but which seems to have
some resemblance to gelatine smd mucus. 11. Oscar Figuier
thinks that the properties of these molluscs are partly owing
to an oil with a sulplnii'uii.s ndnnr. which may be extracted by
means of ether, and to which he has given the name of
kelicine. He recommends that this principle should be re-
tained as much as possible unaltered in all the pharmaceutical
preparations. According to a recent analysis of 11. Gohley,
kelicine cannot be considered as a proximate principle; it does

MIMICAL /OOl.dGL",

nous blood, of

ebriiie. 1

e Academy of

not contain sulphur; it consists, like human venous
oleine, margarine, cholesteriue, lecithin?, aud cerebrine.

In n work preBeuted some months back to the Academy
Medicine, M. Eugene Fournier has examined the proportions
of inucilagc, of iodine, of sulphur, and of phosphorus, which
are contained in snails. He shows thnt these proportions
vary according to the loealitiea in which animals live and
according to the nature of their food. He is of opinion that
these principles might be artificially increased, and that the
animals might even he made to assimilate other principles,
such as doses of opium, belladonna, digitalis, aud of arsenic.
It is known that these molluscs can feed without inc
enee upon various substances, which exercise a more
decided action upon man.

M. Chatin considers that the Limnevs itagnalit of our ponds
and marshes may he substituted for snails in the formation of
syrups and lozenges. It is true that this mollusc has less
mucilage, hut an equal weight of them coutains four times as
much iodine.

The English obtain from Prince's Island a large species
Achatina (A. earinata), which they have introduced in
Europe as a remedy in phthisis.

§ IV.— Oysters.

Oysters are acephalous conchiferous molluscs, with only one
adductor muscle (ilonomviina) ; they belong to the genus
Ostrca, which may be regarded as the type of the family
OBtreida?.

The body of the aiiinial is of an oblong oval form, flat, often
irregular, and covered by a thick mantle, which is fringed at
its margins. The mouth is furnished with elongated trian-
gular palpi. No foot. The branchiie are largo curved, nearly
equal, the external shorter than the internal. The shell 19
attached, hivalved, irregular, foliaceous, rough, and generally
thick; upper valve short, flat, and moveable; lower valve'
larger and convex. Hinge toothless. Ligament partly in-
ternal, and inserted on both sides into an oblong cavity.

Oysters live near the shore, at moderate depths, where the
water is tranquil. They are sometimes developed in vast
numbers, forming what are termed oyster banks. Some (
these banks are miles in extent, and seem to be inexhaustible

1 Dr. Lamare has recently recommended helicini In plitlusk.

AX1MALS EMPLOYED IX - PABT. 87

In 1819, a bank was discovered near one of the islands of
Zealand, which for the space of a year supplied the inhabitants
of the Low Countries with such abundance of oysters, that the
price of these shell-fish fell to tenpence a hundred ; as, how-
ever, this bank happened to be situated almost on a level with
low water, the winter being very severe, it was entirely destroyed.
(Deshayes.)

Of all Bhell-fish, oysters are probably those whose faculties
are the most limited. Fixed to the rock or to some sub-
marine body, the only food which they obtain is that which is
brought to them bv the currents of the ocean, and they give
no other signs of life than that of opening and closing their
valves. Nevertheless, it appears that under certain circum-
stances they may have the power of removing themselves from
the spot to which they have been attached.

These animals are androgynous, but the male and female
organs do not perform their functions at the same time. The
seminal fluid makes its appearance before the ova.

The young oysters are lodged in the mantle of the mother,
from whence they sally forth and swim around her, by means
of their vibratile cilia, but take refuge between the maternal
valves on the approach of the slightest danger.

The shell of the oyster, like all others, consists of carbonate,
with a small quantity of phosphate, of lime ; it was formerly
extolled as a powerful absorbent and antiacid, and even as a
lithontriptic. The shells were calcined and reduced to a very
fine powder. In the present day the carbonate of lime or of
magnesia is used instead. They are still, however, used in the
preparation of certain dentifrices.

l£ however, the valves of these molluscs are but little
thought of as a remedy, the animal on the contrary is higlily
prized as an article of food. The oyster fishery has for many
years been an important branch or industry and commerce.
These molluscs will be noticed again when speaking of the
flesh of animals.

§ V.— Coral.

Red coral 1 is a marine production, distinguished by its
hardness, its capability of receiving a high polish, and by its
fine red colour.

Coral is found attached to rocks at the bottom of the sea.

1 CoraUium nobile (Gorgonia nobUis, Ellis ; Jsis nobUis, Linn. ; Coral'
Hum rubrun, Lamk.).

MEDICAL

It is met with in different parts of the Mediterranean and in
the Ked Sea ; it exists at various depths, hut never less than
three yards, nor more than three hundred.

Coral was lor a long time regarded it marine plant ; it is now
known to he the production of polyps which live in societies,
"When seen in the oeean this kind of coral resembles the
trunk of a small leafless shrub.

The centra] part of the coral is as hard as marble, and its
surface is marked by parallel hut irregular stria>. This axial
portion is covered by a soft fleshy layer, farmed of delicate
membrane and fibres reticulated together, and inclosing a.
number of glandular bodies, filled with a milky fluid, which
seem to unite it to the calcareous portion. In the fleshy mass
are depressions in which the bodies uf (lie p"lvps are lodged;
these consist of a globular portion which is fixed, and of a free
exsectile cylindrical portion terminated by a mouth sur-
rounded by eight tentacula or arms, which are notched at
their margins.

The Coral from the coasts of Franco is considered to have
the brightest and deepest colour, probably because it ih more
carefully selected than that of other countries. That of Italy
rivals it in beauty ; that of Barbary is larger, but not so bril-
liant. I'ive varieties of eoral are known in commerce, and are
distinguished by the following fanciful titles: — 1, The Frotk
of Blood ; 2nd, 'The Flower of Blood ,- 3rd, 4th, and 5th, Blood
of the First, Second, and Third quality.

According to Vogel Coral contains nearly fnur-fifths o
weight of carbonate of lime ; it also contains magnesia and

[Witting states that 100 grains of red coral yield the follow-
ing constituents i—

Carbonate of lime 83'2S

Carbonate of magnesia 3'30

Oiideofiron 4'25

Animal gelatine anil sand 7 75

Loss 1-25

lOO'OO]

Coral was formerly employed medicinally, and was looked
upon as a tonic and an absorbent. M. Desboia, of Hochefort,
pretends that it is tonic, because its colour is owing to i
martial principle, that is to say, to a salt of iron; but there a
bo many better ways of administering this metal that 1
sooner the pretended touic properties of coral or its coloui'

ASIMAL9 EMPLOYED 1* PABT. 89

matters arc forgotten, the better. It has, moreover, been
shown that this colour does not depend upon iron, but upon a
red matter containing nitrogen, similar to that which deco-
rates various shells, and which is deprived of all colour by the
action of the feeblest acids. (Fremy.) With regard to ita
absorbent properties, there are several bodies which arc better
adapted for this purpose, so that even in this respect coral
could not long continue to be used.

The old practitioners administered coral in the form of a
powder, bolus, electuary, as a drink, and as a tincture ; they
also made use of a magestry or precipitate of coral, which was
held in considerable repute. Lemery considered it adapted to
renovate the heart.

At the present time, coral is only used as a mechanical
agent for the purpose of cleaning the teeth. It can only act
Very Blightly as an absorbent, and still less as a tonic.

Other upecies. — The old Materia Mcdiea also included Black
coral, the Oori/onia Antipithes of Linmeus, and White coral,
which was a mixture of Ociilina and the Can/ophi/llia ; the
Ociilina virginea (Lamk.) being the species which was princi-
pally made use of.

The same virtues were attributed to these corals as to the
Bed.

The Black eornl is distinguished from the Bed bv the horny
nature of the stem, and by its flexibility and smoothness.

White coral differs still more ; the axis is stony or calcare-
ous, but the polyps are contained in lamellated star-like cavities,
and not in the fleshy cortical substance.

§ VI. Sponge.

Sponqe consists of aggregations of animals belonging to the
class of Polyps.

The species which is best known is the common domestic
sponge or Spongia officinalis. Like the corals it is an inhabitant
of the sea; it is very abundant in the Mediterranean, especially
around the islands of the Grecian Archipelago. It is found
attached to the rocks where they are least exposed to the
action of the waves and currents.

The Common sponqe presents itself in masses of various
forms and sizes ; it is of a brown colour, and composed of a
b'ght elastic and resisting tissue, which is traversed in every
direction by numerous interspaces. This tissue consists of
delicate flexible interlaced fibres provided with pores (ytcula,

MEDICAL ZOOLOOY,

Lamk.) mid irregular canals, which com muni en te freely with
each other. In this tissue there is found n number of silieious
ur cutaneous particles (spicule), having a slender, simple, or
tricuspid form.

In its living state the Common Sponge is covered with
mucous layers consisting of a kind of animated jelly. The
moat opposite opinions have been entertained with regard to
the nature of sponges. Amongst the ancients, come regarded
them as plants ; others as being of a twofold n.iture. that is to
Bay, as vegetables which served as a residence for certain
polyps. IHoseorides, Pliny, and their commentators, ha'
divided Sponges into males and females. liondclet, the '
Bauhins. liny, Touruefirt. Vaillant, Marsigli, and others,
placed them in the vegetable kingdom ; while Nieremberg,
Peyssonel, Tremhlay, Ellis, Lamouroux, and others, have mr'
tained their animal nature. In the present day, the lat
opinion is generally admitted to be the correct one. Eve
different hypotheses have been held as regards this animal
nature: 1st. That the fibrous portion and the muco-gelati-
nous layer constitute a single animal. 2nd. That the muco-
gelatinous layer alone forms the auimal. 3rd. That the sponge
is a compound being, consisting of an aggregation of polyps,
living in the Biibstauee of the enveloping imico-gelatinous sub-
stance. 4th. That these polyps exist only in the interspaces,
of the fibrous mass. 5th. That the polyps are found both in
the muco- gelatinous layer and in the fibrous mass. The fourth
hypothesis is the true one.

The animalcules of the Sponges are a species of membranous
tubes, capable of extending and retracting themselves. They
have been compared to polyps deprived of tentacles and
reduced to their most simple conditions.

Sponges have yellow or whitish seed-like eggs, from which
non-ciliated embryos are produced, iu the interior of which
contractile cells become developed, and subsequently spicules,
which are ultimately covered with vibrntile cilia. (Lieberkuhn,
Bowerbank.) Several of these embryos unite together to form
a colony, in which their individuality becomes exceedingly in-
distinct.

Sponge is composed of an animal matter which has been
compared to albumen and to minus {Jihroiiir, Mulder). It is
soluble in sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, and in
liquor potassa. These solutions give a precipitate with nut-
galls. Besides carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, sponge
contains iodine, sulphur, ami phosphorus. It also contains

AXItfAXS EMPLOYED 15 PABT. 01

bromine, carbonate, and phosphate of lime, sea salt, and traces
of silica, magnesia, and alumina.

Formerly Sponges were strongly calcined, or they were made
hot and then reduced to a powder, which was used as a remedy
in goitre and scrofula. Its curative properties were owing to
the presence of iodine. 1

Sponges were also used in surgery, to dilate certain wounda
or natural cavities. For this purpose the sponge when per-
fectly dry was dipped into melted wax and then compressed
between two iron plates until cold, the pieces of sponge pre-
pared in this manner were called tents.

Every one is acquainted with the numerous domestic pur*
poses for which sponge is used.

Other species. — Besides the last species, which is known in
common as the Fine Syrian Sponge, there are seven others :
1st. Fine Archipelago Sponge, which is probably only a variety
of the former; it is used for domestic purposes; it is also
employed in the manufacture of porcelain and in litho-
graphy. 3rd. Fine hard Sponge, commonly called Grecian
Sponge; this is employed for domestic purposes, and also in
certain manufactures. 4th. White Sponge of Syria, called
also Venetian Sponge; this is made use of for the same pur-
poses as the former. 5th. Gelatine (geline) Sponge, which
comes from the coast of Barbary. 6th. The Brown Sponge of
Barbary, also called Marseilles Sponge, the Spongia communis
of naturalists ; this is used for cleaning rooms ana similar pur-
poses ; it is fished on the coast of Tunis. 7th. The Sponge of
Salonica (Gervais, Van Beneden).

CHAPTER III.

ANIMAL PBODUCTS.

The animal productions which require to be noticed are:
1st, Spermaceti; 2nd, Bile; 3rd, Crabs' eyes; 4th, The Web
of the Spider.

§ I. Spermaceti.
Spermaceti is a substance which is obtained from several

1 In ancient pharmacy the burnt bodies of the Alcyonia were also em-
ployed, the same virtues being attributed to them as to the sponges. The'
species which was principally used was the Alcyonium Lyncurium of
Lamouroux, commonly called the Sea quince or Sea orange.

92 MEDtCAX ZOOLOOT.

epecies of cetacean mammals, particularly from the cachalot or
spermaceti whale. It is also obtained from the common or
Greenland whale.

1. The Great Cachalot (Phyteter macrocephaluu, Linn.) is an
enormous animal, 1 which is met with in all parts of the ocean.
Anderson measured one which was 70 feet in length. This
mammal (fig. 14) is of a blackish blue colour, darkest on the
back [the under surface is whitish, find liI.su around the eyes] ;
the head is very large, especially at its anterior part.
The upper jaw has no teeth, or if they are present they
— *~ Tudimentary and hidden in the gum. The lower jaw
md about three feet shorter than the upper; it is
provided on each side with from twenty to thirty cylindrical
slightly curved teeth on either side. The vent is single, and
not double, as in most of the C'etaeea. The eyes arc projecting
and placed on eminences. The dorsal fin is reduced to a callous
prominence. The tail is bilobed and is very flexible.

j. 14.— CachaioU

The Cachalot in swimming usually produces a foaming of the
water, showing its back and the fleshy eminence which sur-
rounds the vent ; its movements are not rapid.

[Beale states, that when undisturbed the animal passes tran-
quilly along, just below the surface of the water, at the rate of
about three or four miles an hour, its progress being effected
by a gentle oblique motion of the t;iil from side to side; when
proceeding at its usual rate, the body lies horizontally ; the
water by its progress being somewhat disl nrhod, is known by
the whalers under the name of " White water ;" in this mode
of swimming it is able to obtain a velocity of about seven
miles an hour. When it swims at a more rapid rate, the action
of the tail is altered, the water is struck directly upwards and
downwards, and each time the blow is made with the inferior

* Longitudo srepe texaginta pedum (Linn.).

AX1MAI.S EMPLOYED IN PART. 03

MiriV>'. the head sinks down eight or ten feet, and when 1 3so
blow is reversed it rises out of the water presenting to it only
the sharp cut-water portion.]

2. The Greenland Whale {Baltmta MytHettV, Linn.). This
animal is usually regarded its the most voluminoOJ of the
Cetacea, and therefore, of all known animals.' Its diniensiona

Fig. 15. — Greenland WJialr,

have, however, been greatly exaggerated. Seoresby, who wnB
present at the capture of three limidred and twenty-two indi-
viduals, has never seen one which measured more thu IV

sixty-five to seventy feet in length. 8 Its greatest circum-
ference is I'rom thirty to forty feet.

The Whalebone, Whale has no tocth, but there are rudiments

of these organs in the lower jaw of the young animal. ((ieollVov

Saint-Hilaire.) The upper jaw is kcel-shnpcd, and is provided

on each side with a series of thin transverse plates, upwarda

of three hundred in number,

composed of the baleen or

whalebone (fig. 1G). TheBe

Elates terminate at their ju-
nior margin in a fringe of
coarse hair. The tongue is
fleshy and very thick. The
animal has no dorsal fin.
The Whale, is an inhabi-
tant of the Arctic regions. The species which is met with in
the South Atlantic ocean, the Jialcena Auxtralis of Kleir, or
Whale of the Southern Ocean, differs e.-sejitiallv from that of
the North, the Ealama mysticetua ,■ it is the smallest of the two

1 Maxima* omnium nmmnUum (Linn.).
* Liunseus awerte that they occasionally a
(tape 100 pedum).

Fig. IS.— Whaleb,

i the length of 100 feet

94 MEDICAL ZOOLOOT.

species, usually measuring from thirty-five to forty-five feet*
but frequently extending to fifty.

3. Spermaceti. — This substance is found in the cellular tissue
which separates the membranes of the brain in the Cachalot.
The whole of the upper portion of the skull consists of large
cavities covered in, and separated from each other, by cartila-
ginous walls. It is iu these cavities that the sperniacetiia con-
tained. l The cavity which is occupied by the encephalon
appears relatively small to the entire volume of the head.
Camper found in a head, measuring eighteen feet bug, that
this cavitv was only twelve inches iu width, nineiu length, ai *
seven in depth.

In the living animal the spermaceti is dissolved in on oily
liquid, but in the dead animal it becomes solidified. This h
purified by being squeezed through coarse bags ; it is then
boiled in an alkaline ley, which frees it from any remaining
oil ; it is then washed and melted.

In a Cachalot from the Moluccas, which was sixty-four feet
long, M. Quoy calculated there were twentv-fbur barrels of
spermaceti, each containing two hundred and seventy-five
pounds, so that the entire quantity amounted to more than six
thousand sis hundred pounds.

The spermaceti of commerce and of the pharmaceutists is a
white, friable Bubstance, soft to the touch, and breaking into
shining greasy-looking seales. It melts at 113 c Fah. Boiling
alcohol will dissolve the one seven hundredth of it.

Chemists have long regarded spermaceti as a compound
body, saponiliable by the action of alcohol, and to a cert '
extent analogous to the neutral fats. 8 M. Heintz, iu wo
which he has recently published, assigns a more complicate
composition to the substance. M. Chevreul obtained frot

Sermaceti a peculiar body, to which lie gave the name of cetmt
is is a white, laminated, friable substance, which melts a.
120° Fah., and has no action on litmus. Boiling alcohol will
dissolve two and a half parts of it.

Spermaceti was formerly ad mini stored in diseases of the
lungs and kidneys. In the present day it is uo longer used
internally, but it enters into the formation of certain cerates
or pomades, which are applied to cracked breasts and to the

Eustules of small pos ; it is also employed in the manufacture of
p salve.
[There aro Wo preparations of spermaceti in the London

ACTUALS EM PLOT ED IN PART. 05

Pharmacopeia, the Ceratum Cetacei and the Vngitentum Cetacei;
they are both composed oi spermaceti, white wax, and olive oil,
the latter- being the softest in consequence of the smaller
quantity of wax and larger quantity of spermaceti, which is
used in its preparation. They are employed as dressings for
Misters and excoriated surfaces.]

§ H. Bile.

Bile is a fluid which is secreted by the liver, and is received
into a special receptacle termed the gall bladder, from whence
it passes into the duodenum. Some of the mammalia are un-
provided, with this bladder, and the bile does not then remain
for a time in the liver, but is immediately discharged into the
intestine.

Bile is a limpid viscous fluid, heavier than water, usually of
yellow or green colour, having a faint nauseous odour, which,
by a certain change, approaches to that of muse, and a sweetish
Irat at the same time a bitter taste. It may be evaporated
without undergoing decomposition.

The bile of the Ox is sometimes employed in the form of an
extract. Its specific gravity is 1*026 at a temperature of 12°
Fah. When warmed in closed vessels bile becomes thickened,
froths np, solidifies, and forms the substance known as extract
of bile ; it readily mixes both with water and alcohol.

[Ox Bile (Fel Bovinum, sen Tauri). — An extract of Ox bile
was formerly used in medicine, and it has been lately reintro-
duced. Dr. Copland l says he has made use of the inspissated
Ox gall for many years with advantage, lie recommends it in
mesenteric affections, and has found it exceedingly useful
where the secretion of the bile has been deficient and the
mucous membrane of the alimentary canal irritable and relaxed.
Dr. Clay, 2 of Manchester, says, " its eliect upon the system is
not purgative ; but it acts as a mere solvent of the material
contained within the intestinal canal ; producing no excitement
to propel ; but by liquifying the mass facilitates its excretion."
It acts as an aperient, and may be given in doses of 3 j to ^j
daily.]

Bite contains 7 per cent, of solid matter, which is held in
solution by mucus ; it consists of two nitrogenous soaps, having
a Bweet but, at the same time, bitter taste ; the choleic of soda
and the tauro-choleic of soda. The first, the biline of Berzelius,
is the most abundant ; it contains an organic crystallizable

1 Die. Pract. Med. vol. ii. p. 725. f Med. Times, 1842.

MEDICAL. ZOOLOGY.

acid, which has no sulphur amongst its constituent elements.
The second ia present in smaller ip^nlitics ; its acid is un-
cry stall inable, and contains sulphur. Besides these substances,
bile contains oleic and margarie acids, cholesterine, some eoloui
ing matter, and eertaiu salts.

The bile of the sheep, the dog, and the cat differ slightly
from that of the OX,

§ III. Crabs'-eye».

The great reputation which crabs' eyes formerly enjoyed a
medicine, has greatly dimiuished since the commencement of
the present century,

The River Grub or Cnii/-JisJt ( .hlirettsJIuvitilMit) ie a decapod
crustacean, which inhabits the rivers and brooks of Eoropt
It hides itself beneath the stones at the hottom,
hollows of the hauks. It seldom comes out of its hiding-pla
exeept for the purpose of procuring its food, which consists c
the dead hodies of submerged quarupeds, fishes, molluscs, the
larvat of insects, worms, and all kinds of decomposing animal
matter.

The Cray-Jink is an animal with an elongated body, varying
in colour, according to the locality from which it comes, from
a greenish or clear brown to a blueish green, The head is
confounded with and united to the thorax. The carapace ia
semi-cylindrical, and terminates anteriorly in a curved pointed
rostrum, which is marked in the centre with a transverse,
groove. The rostrum is dentatcd laterally, and has a double
tooth on the upper part of its base. Th'e four antenna are
thin and setaceous ; the external large, and supported upon a
pedicle with three joints; the internal short and bifid. The
eyes are hemispherical, and their diameter is not greater than
that of their pedicles. The month is furnished with six pairs
of modified limbs; the first pair has received the name of
mandibles, and the last that of foot jaws. The abdomen (im-
properly termed the tail) is large, composed of six segments,
and curved interiorly. The first pair of thoracic limbs are
much larger than the others ; they arc of unequal size, and are
armed on their inner edge with tine teeth ; they support a
pair of strong pincers, of which the external joint is fixed,
while the internal, which is much the smallest, is moveable.
The four last pairs of limbs are slender, and of nearly e j
size ; the second and third are also each of them provided \
a pair of pincers ; but in these it is the external joint, and
the internal, whieh is moveable. The five pairs of abdor

ANIMALS EMPLOYED in PART. 97

or false feet are adapted for snimniiiii;- The tail is formed of
five large plates, rounded nl their iii:n*L, r ins and ciliated; the ex-
ternal plates are divided into two distinct pieces by a transverse
suture.

The Crabs moult at the end of tlio spring. These Crustacea
copulate with their abdomens opposite to each other. Two
months afterwards the female lavs her eggs. The eggs,
varying in number from twenty to forty, are collected together
in bundles, and fixed to the false l'eet, by means of a slender
flexible pedicle, which is slightly enlarged at its base. The
eggs are spherical and of a reddish brown colour. The females
carry these grape-like bodies about with them until the young
are hatched.

When tlii' Crahx are about to cast their shell, two calcareous
masses are found in the lateral compartments of the stomach.
These bodies have received the name of crabs' eyes. 1 They
disappear after the moult has taken place. Reaumur ascertained
that they served for the formation and hardening of the new
skin. It appears, in fact, that the pouches of the stomach,
which have just been mentioned, shortly before the casting of the
shell occurs, secrete the calcareous salts, which exist in excess
in the blood, and form these stony manses. .At a later period
the stones are gradually dissolved and serve to calcify and
harden the new skin.

These concretions (fig. 17) are round bodies, convex on one
side, and flattened on the other, compressed, narrow at their
edge, and marked on one side with a circular groove. These
masses are hard, smooth, and white, consisting of super-iir
layers of carbonate of lime and
of a certain quantity of it
It is their form and the circular I
groove which have obtained tor \
them the name of crabs* eyes.
Their diameter varies from Fig- 17.-

seven to fifteen lines in diameter, and their weight from seven
and a half to twenty-two aud a hidf grains. M. Guibourt has
noticed that when tiiese concretions are placed in boding water
they become of a rose colour, which is a modification of the
colour that the shell acquires when similarly treated.
■ Tbe crabs' stones which are most esteemed come from
Astrakan. They have been prescribed as absorbents in acidity
of the stomach. They were reduced to a powder, washed,

1 Gratis' ttMies, a,n,Tai<rnt« ;-a aticuH cfincrormn.

vlule. consist

J)8 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

ground with a small quantity of water, miied into a paste, and
made up in the form of lo/,enges, which were then dried and
known, as prepared erabs' eyes. Formerly these lozenges (called
trochiaci) entered into the emu posit ion of a number of phartna-
ceutieal preparations, which are no longer in use.

Other substances, producing the s:imc Hl'ccts, and more certain
in their action, luce been substituted Cor the crabs' eyes ; as, for
example, chalk and magnesia.

Some dentists still make use of these concretions in the
manufacture of dentifrices.

§ IV. Spider's Web.

Spiders, or more correctly speaking the Annwuhe, constitute
a numerous tribe belonging to the class Arachnida. Liunams
placed them all in the genus Arancn, anil classed them with
the insects. There are more than two hundred species in the
neighbourhood of Paris.

These animals have the head united to the thorax, the
abdomen distinct, and supported upon a short pedicle. The
abdomen is very large, especially in the females; the skin is
soft and flexible. Spider* have six or eight simple eyes in the
form, of hemispherical tubercles, which shine in the dark like
those of cats. They have eight long slender legs, terminating
in the male in two notched claws, and in the females in a
single one. The organs of generation are placed in the former
sex on either side of the head at the extremity of the palpi.

[Only a portion of the generative organs are situated at the
extremity of the palpi, consisting of a kind of vesieuhe seminalis
or sperm reservoirs, and of the intromittcut organ. The true
testicles are placed in the abdomen, between the lobes of the
liver. They consist of two long simple interlaced cieca, from
which two deferent canals pass to the anterior part of the
under surface of the abdomen, and terminate by two
approximate orifices, or else by a common opening between
two apertures, winch lead to the pulmonary organs. During
the breeding season these testicles are found laden with
spermatozoa in various stages of development. These must be
first transferred to the extremity of the palpi, and afterwards
applied to the vulva of the female. 1 The female organs are
found at the middle and inferior part of the abdomen near to,
its commencement.]

1 See Owen — Lectures on the Inrertthrata, p. 4(
1855; alao SicKoU!- ■Aiitiiuiiii/u/ the havittbratu
H. D., p. 394, London, 1851,

ANIMALS EMPLOYED IS PART. 00

Those animals mr exceedingly ferocious and cruel, so that
c.i'M iln' season of love does not niter the savageness of their
nature. The males, which arc much smaller and feebler than
the females, are compelled to approach them with great
caution. " One day," says De Geer, " I witnessed a male gently
approaching his female, who was tranquilly reposing in the
centre of her web ; he made use of nil the usual precautious,
and several times retreated as if from fear. . . At length he
placed himself beneath her, but at the cost of his life, for in a
moment the female seized him with her claws, which she had
only to close upon him; she then enveloped him iu her threads,
and began to suck his blood. " I declare," be adds, " the
spectacle filled me with a kiud of horror antl indignation."

.Some females carry I hen' eggs mil lei' their abdomen. Others,
when the young are hatched, place them on their back.

Most of the spiders can form a web, either for the purpose
of ensnaring their prey, i>r for protecting their eggs.

Every one is acquainted with the tr?b of the spider. The
silk of which it h composed is secreted by irregular grape-like
ghmds (Treviranus.) from ( hese glands nine pairs of tortuous
canals are given off, which ultimately terminate in small reser-
voirs, in which the silky material is perfected. The three central
pairs of reservoirs are the largest . the middle ones are placed
very obliquely ; the others are arranged nearly transversely. The
excretory canals of the three central pairs are nearly straight
and parallel; those of t lie remaining six are narrower and more
or less tortuous. Allot' them converge to the posterior part of
the abdomen.

Beneath the anus there may be observed sis fleshy pro-
jections arranged in pairs ; they are cylindrical or conical, ami
pierced at their extremities with an infinite number of minute
apertures. These are the gpimtarets. The two upper pro-
jections are the largest, the two inferior the smallest, and those
in the middle the least prominent.

While in the body of the animal the material for the forma-
tion of the thread is a viscous liquid. This substance is
transformed into a glutinous thread, which becomes firm as it
dries.

Each thread, although extremely delicate, is, nevertheless,
composed of as many filaments as there are pores in the
difl'erent spinnarets.

Some Spiders form a large triangular linri/oritn] web, with a
small tubular chamber in one of the angles. Others construct
a loose net-work, which is placed vertically, and in the centre
it 2

100

which cover
ng. Others!
which they

of whicli they remain motionless. There are botiid which i
up a hole in the wall or the rook with n silken covering,
construct an extivmely delicate net-work, from which they
hang suspended. Others throw off long threads, which trail
along from the hinder parts of their bodies. Certain tropical
spiders weave a net sufficiently strong to entangle some of the
smaller birds, and even to offer a certain amount of resistance
to man.

It is needless to repeat all the marvellous statements which
have been made upon the medicinal properties of the Spider's
web. Formerly it was used as a cataplasm in hysteria. They
were administered internally in the form of pills in fever.
The celebrated Mont pel tier tlropx were obtained from them by
distillation, and were recommended as a preventative to
apoplexy.

If the tceb of the. Spider is ever employed in the present day,
it is for the purpose iff anvj-1 ing luniinrrhagefrom the capillary
vessels. 1

SECTION III.

The animals, or animal productions, which arc endowed with
medicinal properties, and which are capable of exercising a
decided influence over our bodies, and are therefore constantly
employed in medicine, are but few in number.

These therapeutic agents will be arranged in seven divisions;
1. Liver oil. 2. Musk. 3. Vesicating intent*. 4. Leeches.
5. Galls. 6. Trehala.

1IYEE OIL.

For some years the oil from the livers offish have b.
frequently administered, so that its manufacture and commer

1 Tlie two-spined ant, Furmira hiynn-u (Oliv.), of Cayenne, constnii.
with the down whuii iii-udinpaiiiois t h o st'ixls ol'u culUm true (probably tL_
Bombiii- •jh-i/wiiin. A i] 1)1,,) a ii obi. onm[u>-rii ui n wry Jinc kind of felt which
ia used with aatonifthiuj; Hnueeaa In stopping hemorrhage. (Iicscalier."

■

UTDULS OOKBTASItl EMPLOYED IS MEDICIXE.

101

- have lately become of considerable importance. It is stated
that on the coast of Malabar alone, in the year 1804, 721.065
gallons were exported, estimated in the official documents at
tlie value of 517,167 franca.

§ I. Oil from the Liver of the Ood.

1. Cod. — OH from the liter of Ike Cod 1 is prtm-ipally
furnished bv the common Cod, Godot Morrhua (Linn,), Morrttta
BRbjni (H. Cloq.).

This well-known fish belongs to the order Malaeopterygii
mbbraehiata, ami to the family Gadidat.

It inhabits every part of the Northern ocean, between the
40° and 70° of latitude. An incalculable number are found
every year on a submarine mountain, known as the Bank «f
Newfoundland , which extends for one hundred and fifty leagues
in front of the island of the same name. England employs
10,000 men in this fishery. Thirty-six millions of Cod are
salted on an average every year. One man will sometimes
take from three to four hundred in a day, occupied from
morning to night, in throwing his line, and in withdrawing the
captured Cod. This fish is distinguished for its astonishing
fecundity. Leenwenhoek calculated that each feuiali' con-
tained 8,344,000 germs. The germs or roe furnish a kind of
caviare. [True caviare is the salted roe of the Sturgeon ; it is
much esteemed by the Russians, and is imported as a Injury
into this country, but is an oily unwholesome kind of food.]

The Cod (fig. 18) varies in length from three to four and a
hall' feet, and measures about one loot in circumference; it
weighs from fifteen to more than twent y pounds. | The weight
of the common cod varies between twelve and eighty, op a

hundred pounds ; see GrillUhs's Cuvier.] The body of the fish is
elongated, smooth, of a greyish yellow colour, brown on the

1 Oleum jecorii Marrhutc, or oktun Aaclli mujitrif, of i1il> older writers.

102

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

|i;u-k. white on the ventral surface, and marked with a,
white line on either side. Its head is strong and compressed,
the mouth large, and the lower jaw provided with a single barb.
It has three dorsal and two anal nus. The thoracic fins are
slender and pointed : the niudal lin is not forked.

The Cod is a. most voracious animal ; it feeds on fish, more
especially on the herrings, and on various Crustacea and
molluscs.

2. OH. — -The liver of the Coil is very voluminous, and fur-
nishes a large quantity of oil.

Tins oil was formerly employed for the purposes of illumin-
ation, and in the manufacture of chamois leather ; but it waa
used in a very impure state, not heius obtained exclusively
from the Cod, but mixed with oil from the Shark, Tunny,
Conger eel, and many other fishes. Since this oil haa
been employed in medicine the great object has been to
procure it free from all such admixtures. Besides the
common Cod, this kind of oil may be obtained from several
other fishes, which were formerly arranged in the same group
with it, and which have similar characters and properties.

The genus G-tuhtx of Idmifctis having been broken up by
modern ichthyologists, unfortunately for science the name haa
disappeared, whereas it should have been retained for the
group to which the typical species belongs.

The following are, however, the other Gadoids, which
principally furnish the Corf lion- oil, or nlrinii jreoris Horrhuie;
the Itortie, 1 the llae/rfi/rfc* the dtpalan, 3 the Make* the
Whilinq? the Coal-JMifi the Liny? I he Torsi-* and the Bur-
bots The flesh of these species is usually esteemed as food,
both fresh and salted.

Cod liver oil is brought from Dunkirk, Ostend, England,
and Holland. Large quantities are manufactured at Bergen,
in Norway (Jongh), also on the islands of Lofodes and St.
John, in New found]:! ml (flogs)- From the latter locality
alone there were exported in 1823, 415,000 kilogrammes of oil,

I Gadus Calliirin.i, Liim. (M^rrhna Callarias, Cuv.)
'Gadus jEghfimif, I. inn. (M-,itIiihi. Jj^iiu, Cuv.)
'■'Ondim minute, Miill. iM'm-thnn miaaln, Cuv.)

' Mrr/n:iii- viilij-irix, l.'nv. ( (,'itila.i Merluri.iis, Linn.)
: ' M- rl iiiijas rui'Mfi: Cnv Hindus Mirlaii'ins, Linn,}

II .Vi'rltiiiiiwt Ctir/jii»iiriu.i, Cuv. 1.1,'iulu- Cmhimarius, Linn.)
> Motca vulgaris, Cuv. ( Gadus Mu'va, Linn.)

4 UrasioiHS mili/ntis, Cuv. (Gadus B-romme, Miill.)
9 Lota vulgaris, Cuv. ( Gadus Lota, Linn.)

■

A5TMALS COSBTAXTLT EMPLOYED IN MEDICISI.

and in 182S, 1,895,000 kilogrammes. Each kilogramme
weighs 2*20531bs. avoirdupois.

There are three varieties of Cod liver oil:— 1. The While,

2. The Brown, and 3. The Black. The first is the colour of
Madeira wine, or of a golden yellow, and has little or no
odour. The second haa the colour of Malaga wine, or is of a
pale brown ; the odour is more strongly marked, and its con-
sistency is thicker than that of the first. The third is of a
clear chocolate or dark brown colour ; it has a very strong
odour, and is still thicker than the second.

The White ail is that which is obtained first, by simply
allowing the livers to drain in tubs pierced at the bottom
with a number of holes, or provided with stopcocks, or
they are placed in a kind of cage whose sides are formed of
coarse linen cloth; the quantity which is procured of this
kind of oil is equal to about half the weight of the livera
euijilovC'l. The blood and other impurities sink down, and
the oil floats at the top.

The Brown oil is that which is separated afterwards, when
the substance of the liver is beginning to decompose. The
separation of the oil is soiiielimes last-cued iiv pressure.

The Black oil is that which is obtained by hoiling the livers
in water, and by pressing out all the oil thnt remains in the
putrid mass from which the two previous kinds have been
extracted.

All these oils have undergone more or less fermentation,
and, in the latter case, the oil has also been subject to the
influence of heat.

In commerce, there is a fourth quality of the oil, called in
England the pale, and in France the white. This variety has
a yellow tinge, of the colour of champagne ; it haa very little
odour or taste. It iB the spontaneous production of the first
stage of decomposition which the livers undergo at the ordi-
nary temperature of the atmosphere, bel ween the time of the
fishing and the operation of extracting the oil. There is
sometimes an interval of several days, which is a sufficient time
for the commencement of decomposition.

It is only within these few years that these four kinds of
oils, especially the three first, have been met witli in a pure
state in the shop of the druggist. They are now clarified and
decolorized by chemical processes, rendered more limpid and
less nauseous, part, of their chavactcvistie odour heing removed,
and probably at the same time some of their properties ; they
are also mixed with other oils. The consequence of this is,

MEUIl/AL /OOI.OtVY.

commerce are of
Ik. 1 liivii-esses of

tliixt raauy of tiie white or blanched oils of
very sliifht medicinal value.

Dr. Fleury lias justly observed that all the processes
extraction, which have heen just mentioned, depend upon the
putrefaction and fermentation of the livers, and that this is
the source of the dark colour, the nauseous odour, and repul-
sive flavour of the oil. He ha a therefore proposed a new
method of preparation, which yields an oil that is clearer, has
less smell, and is better flavoured, and, above all, produces it in
greater abundance. This method consists in taking; the fresh
livers, washing, and then draining them, and putting them in
a pan, in which they are submitted to the action of a hot water
bath. In about twenty minutes the oil begins to swim at the
top. The operation lasts about three quarters of an hour.
There remains in the pan a quantity of refuse, which is
strained through a flannel or coarse cloth ; this part of the
process may he aided by gently pressing the strainer.

Mr. Hogg also prepares an oil from the fresh livers, but he
employs a vessel with a double bottom, and instead of hot
water he bents his apparatus by moans of steam. His oil is
paler, more limpid, more transparent, and of a b'gbter yellow
than that which is called white oil. It has the smell of the
fresh fish, and has scarcely any taste. It is known as Hogg't
golden green oil. (.Tough,)

Lastly, Dr. Delattre, of Dieppe, conceived the idea of
guarding the livers from the action at' the atmosphere during the
extraction of the oil. For this purpose he lias constructed an
apparatus consisting of three lar^e earthen vessels of aglobular
form, which are hall' buried in a large sand bath, heated by
means of a therm o-syphon. These vessels communicate with a
reservoir, from which a current of carbonic acid gas is given
off, which expels the air from them. The sand-bath is not
heated until all the air has been expelled. The use of this
apparatus prevents the formation of oleic, sulphuric, and
phosphoric acids.

M. Delattre distinguishes live varieties of Cod liver oil.
1st. The Virgin,; 2nd, The Pole yellow; 3rd. The White;
4th. The Brown; and 5th. The Blaek oil. He has deposited
selected samples of these live varieties in the museum of the
Faculty of Medicine. The virgin oil is obtained by exposing
the fresh livers, immediately after their extraction from the
fish to a dry heat of the temperature of 104° Fah. The
yellow and while oils are procured, the first by a temperature
of 122' Fah., and the second by a temperature of from 140°

a>'im.u,s COW

nmorn iv mii'I'.-i^f.

106

. to lSS 13 Fah. The brown oil is obtained from livers
ich have been kept three or four days ; fttid the A/uci from
a which are from ten to fifteen daya old.
cording to M. Delattre the ftrown oil is the only one

i should be used for medicinal purposes. Tin' virgin oil

i i ' ■ ' ■ i. i . ■ -;ir\ refinement. Tlie tfclkw and the ic/i///' Inm:

.. ..n't I rr i|ii;ilitii's I kill the brown ; while the W."-£. nnHaiiiiiig

chiili'ie and acetic acids, has a disagreeable acridity, which
should cause it to be rejected.

Coil liver oil, however it is obtained, should have thechurac-
teriBtic odour of the sardine and a fresh flavour, without any
Bond taste; at a temperature of 59 J Fah. it shoidd stand at
392" of Lefebvre's oleometer. When a few drops are poured
on to a piece of glass placed upon white paper, on adding a
Very small quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid, it shoidd

? reduce a carmine tint, inclining to the colour of catechu.
Gobley.)

OaA mer oil is a compound of oleine, of margarine, chlorine,
iodine, bromine, sulphur, phosphorus, and of various acids;
there is also found a small quantity of lime, magnesia, and
soda, and a particular principle called GaJuim:

Gaduine is a, colouring matter, which is at first yellow, but
becomes gradually darker upon exposure to the air. It is
soluble in alkalies.

Some writerB have endeavoured to refer the medicinal pro-
perties of Coil Liwr Oil tn the presence of iodine, and for this
reason the proportion in which this substance is present has
been very carefully inquired into. According to M. Berthi,
there is 4'7 grs. in every 2 2 lbs. avoirdupois. A ceo riling to
more recent analyses, it is not more than & grs., but the
quantity varies in different samples of the oil, and according to
the time of year. The hitter is the proportion which is found
in the yellow oil. In the while oil there was found 3'9 gr., in
the brown oil 3'7 gr., and in the black oil only 36 gr.
(Delattre.)

Some practitioners consider that the bromine and the phos-
phorus may aeeoimt for the action of this substance. Soubei-
ran says that a great part of its medicinal virtues depends upon
the oil itself, and upon the aromatic and sapid bodies which
are mixed with it.

§ II. Oil from the Liver of the Skate,
il physicians have proposed to substitute the oil pro-
I from the liver of the Skate for that which is obtained

from the liver of the cod. They have even insisted upon the
superiority of the latter for medicinal purposes ; this supposed
superiority depended partly upon the fact that the oil from the
liver of the SA-nft j was prepared with greater care, and was leas
repugnant to the patient, than the commercial oil derived from
the liver of the cod, which was thick and black. (Guihourt.)

It was also supposed thai ahntr oil contained re iodine than

that of the cod. Experience has shown that this is not the
case.

1. .Boys.— The Rays are fishes belonging to the order
Selachia and to the family liaiida' ; they may he recognized by
the flattened form of their bodies, which resembles a disc,
arising from the enormous size of their pectoral Una, which join
each other anteriorly, and extend backwards along the sides of
the abdomen as far as the ventral fins. The eyes are placed on
the dorsal surface of the disc ; while the mouth, the branchial
apertures, and the nostrils are on the abdominal.

This kind of oil is obtained principally from the Thornback,
the Skate, the siin>i Ji'hji. and The J:'n//le Hay. The following
ia a brief summary of their characters :

n i j armed with prickles 1. Thornback,

a3KS - • ■ j unarmed .... 2. Skate.

nnin«l moderate .... 3. Stiwj Ray,

L Bplnett - ■ j very long . . . . 4. Eagle Ray,

The Thornback, Saia clnvala (Linn.), from the shores of t
Mediterranean, is of a brown colour, spotted with white a
black. The body attains a length of twelve feet.

Y\g. 19.— Thornback Say.

iSlMALS CCWCSTASTLT EMPLOTBD IS MEDICTXB.

107

The Skate {Rata Rati*, Linn.) is a loienge shape. The bark
is rough. It is larger than the preceding. Some have been
caught weighing as much as eighty-five pounds. [Cuvier says,
more than two hundred pounds.] Its liver yields a large
quantity of oil.

The Sting Ray (Raia Pnsfinara, Linn.) is not uncommon in
Sh M editerranawL The head is heart shaped ; its body is of
u brown or livid green colour above, and white below. It doea
in it weigh more than from lour to sis pounds.

The Eagle Ray (Rata Aquila, Liim.) In thia aperies the
pectoral fins do not extend around the head, which is left free ;
and the tail is extremely narrow and long, and has been com-
pared to a whip. This species is found in the Ocean and in
the Mediterranean sea.

2. The Oil— Skate Oil is of a clear yellow, or of a light

Elden colour : sometimes it has on orange or reddish tint. It
s the same density as that from the cod, hut not so strong
a flavour.

This oil iB manufactured on the coast of Normandy, When
pure it is known in commerce as Rouen oil. It is sometimes
mixed with cod oil.

Shale, oil may he manufactured by the pharmaceutist. Two
methods have been recommended. In the one the livers are
boiled in water and the oil is collected, which swims at the top ;
in the other, which is that of M. Gobley, the liven are cut m
thin slices, and then warmed in a vessel until the oil has
separated. The liquid, which is obtained by thia means, is
then strained through a woollen cloth, making use of slight
pressure. It seems to the writer that it would be better to
prepare this oil in the same manner as that of the cod, either
by means of a water bath, as in the plan pursued by M. Fleury,
or by means of a vapour bath, as in that of Sir. Hogg's, taking
care, according to the method of M. Delattre, to make use of
glass globes instead of pans.

MM. Girardin and Preissier have compared together the
oils obtained from the liver of 'the. Skate snid from that of the
Cod. The flrBt preserves its normal yellow colour in a stream
of chlorine even at the end of halt' an hour, while the Becond
rapidly assumes a dark brown tint. Skate oil becomes of a
clear red by the action of cold sulphuric acid, and the mixture
when shaken acquires at the end of a quarter of an hour a dark
violet colour, while the oil from the eod rapidly turns black.
These characters are far from being constant.

According to M. Personne skate oil contains less iodine

108

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

than the cod oil. One litre or 1'67 of a pint, prepared
direct heat, yielded M. Gobley 3S5 of a grain of iodide
potassium. This chemist was unable to find any trace
phosphorus. M. Delattre in some recent analyses obtained the
following results: — 1st. That the proportion of iodine in shite.
oil 18 one half the quantity of that m the cod oil. 2nd. That
the sulphur is one quarter less. 3rd. That the phosphorus, on
the contrary, is one third more.

The oil of (lie skate is very mild, and infants of a month old
are perfectly able to bear it. (Delattre.)

§ III. Oil from the Liver of the Shark.

Dr. CoUas baa published an interesting account in t
Kevue Colonials upon the medical and surgical employment of
this oil in the French establishments in India.

1. Shark. — The Sharks, like the Bays, belong to the order
Selachia.

The genus Soimlus contains a large number of species, all of
which are distinguished by the length of their bodieB, and by
the possession of a large muscular tail. The snout is supported
by the cartilaginous processes which are appended to the
anterior part of the skull ; the branchial apertures are placed
at the sides of the neek ; the eyes are also situated on the
lateral parts of the head ; the pectoral tins arc of moderate size.

TheBe animals sometimes acquire a very large size ; they are
extremely voracious, and their -riot Unions appetite leads them to
seek with aridity after every kind of living prey.

The majority are ovoriviparoua ; some of them discharge
their eggs surrounded by a horny case.

The genus Squalug, like the Baiida', belongs to the tribe of
cartilaginous fishes; it seems, therefore, logical to admit a
priori that The oil obtained from their liver should possess the
same qualities as that from the latter group. But even sup-
posing that Shark oil is inferior, it is not less important to
know that, in case of necessity, it may be substituted for that
of the Bay or the Cod family. (Collas.)

The Sharks are a very common fish, and are easily captured;
they frequent the shores, and are seldom found in the open
sea. In the tropics, however, they are met with at a great
distance from land. In the bays 1 liev arc said to live in shoals.

There are several species which are capable of yielding the
oil. Dr. Delattre has obtained it from the Si/itiihtx Acanthiag
(fig. 20), from the lesser spoil W I)G<jjUh {St/tinhis vatulits, Linn.),

AS'iM.u.s coiraTASTLi employed rs

from the UummtU of [jaciepede (or Squttlu* o-ntrina, Liim.),
from the MmkJUh ( Squalu* Squatina, Linn.), the Squaliu ifw-
tcltis, Linn., anil from the Fos Shark (Squalut vvlpet, GmeL).

Fig. 20.— Syualus Aaintltiat.

2. Oil. — Dr. Collas gives the following directions for the
extraction of the oil from the liver of the shark. After care-
fully washing the liver and removing the gall bladder, it is cut
in pieces and boiled in water in a large earthen vessel for nearly
an hour. The tire must not be too fierce. The liquid is to be
constantly stirred with a wooden spoon. When the oil floats
at the surface it is removed. The residue is allowed to remain
for a couple of days in an open vessel. The liver is then boded
over again and the oil removed as it swims at the surface.
These oils are nest Altered iu order to free them from im-
purities.

Shark's liver oil has a fine amber colour, like pale brandy.
At a temperature of 86° Fah. it is perfectly limpid. Its Bmell
and taste resemble that of cod oil. When it is left undisturbed
for sometime it throws down a considerable quantity of stearine,
which appears as a white granular substance. Dr. Collas has
given it the name of xqualiii, in order to distinguish it from the
ordinary stearine of commerce, lie believes that this sub-
stance might bo useful as the medium for applying certain
topical remedies, which are used in the treatment of wounds
and ulcers. He recommends it as a substitute for certain
local applications, which are made use of in diseases of the
skin. Bqualin does not seem to become rank like lard. It has
also a much greater consistence than the latter kind of grease,
which becomes fluid at the ordinary temperature of Pondi-
eherry, and which requires to be mixed with suet in order to
give it the consistency of pomade.

According to Dr. Dekttre the active principles are present
in larger proportions in the oil of the shark than in that of the
cod; it is richer in iodine and in phosphorus, but it contains
less bromine and sulphur. The increase in the quantity of
iodine is double w bat is b.'Mt in the bromine.

SIEDTCAL ZOOLOGY.

Compared irith the oil from the rav it contains one and a
half times more iodine, and only one-iifth less phosphorus.

CHAPTER II.

In Medical Zoology the name of mwsk hearing is given to
those animals which furnish medicine with the peculiar sub-
stance known as mush, and some other analogous productions.

True musk, and the substances which have the closest re-
semblance to it, Bueh as civet and castoreum, are secreted by
special organs. Mgraceam, which differs from the former in
several respects, is furnished by the digestive organs. It is
the same as regards ambergris.

All the animals which produce musk, or a substance re-
sembling musk, belong to the class Mammalia. 1

We shall examine in a separate chapter each of theft
substances: 1. Musk; 2. Civet; 3. Castoreum; 4. Hgra
5. Ambergris.

§ I. Musk.

1. The Animal. — -The musk deer {Moselms moschiferus,
Linn.)* is a mammalian animal belonging to the order Eu-
minantia, and to the family Mosehida,

It inhabits the mountains ami wooded districts of Thibet
and China. Buftbn has described cue of these animals, which

1 Secretions resembling musk are found in some other mammalia,
as for example in Hie Genetic, the II: tm.-in, : Lie Hmi./i-r, ihe Musaraxgne,
the Muik Rat, the Ondatra, and (lie Husk Ox. Tin.- Crocodile also gives
off on odour of mask. The same is tin; ca?e with the fluids of several of
the Cephalnpoda, and with that of some {natch, especially the Aromia
niaschata ; bat neither these animal: 1 imr tln-iv soituI iund have been made
use of as antispasmodics. The (ail nf I he Desman u!' Muscovy, or Muii
Hat of Russia (Mtitial. : Musrmila. ticoltV.), U SimeHil fur as, a perfume. .*'
owes its odour to a sul'stauee whieh is secreted by tivo small lollicuh
glands placed nt its base. The oiimir is so strong That- it jienetrates II
flesh 0? the pike and other fish ivhirh hare fid upon this animal. Pall
states that a thermometer wlii.-li he liiul made use of for ascertaining tl
temperature of an individual remained impregnated ir" 1 - ! '

"In China its common name is C/tc-hia/ta, thai is to say, the Deer whii
ihsrhanj-s an atlt'iir i it is aU<> called Sr. Ir. i, rhe 'l\i,,rtjo or the C "'

of the Tartars, the Kmlari of the Caliini.-s and M ononis, liie Dsaanja ol

TuiiKLisiauit of the Veiiisoy, (Ik: ILiiulc (..f ili..-r .if the Baikal, the Dschija
of those of the Cent a, tlief.Vwi or Gluo, or Allah, of the Tangnta of Thibe
the Bios of the Ostiaks, the Kuboraa ■: the Kiistiuns of the Yeniscy, a
their Saiga or""'

a the borders of the Baikal.

AXtHALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED TS MEDICINE. HI

the Duke of Trillion' preserved for three years at his chateau
of the Hermitage near Versailles, where the creature seemed
to have become acclimated.

This anima! (tig, 21) is about the size of a young roebuck
sis months old. The colour of the skin is blackish with a
mixture of yellow and red-
dish brown. It, however,
varies considerably ; in the
t young animal it. ia of a red-
dish grey, with patches of
win!..' arranged in linos,
while in the old it is of a
blackish brown colour. The
most constant character of
tin' fur throughout the life
of the animal is the pre-
sence of two white bauds
bordered with black, and
em-losing between them a
ijliick bund, which extends
along the under part of the
neck from the throat to the chest. The tail and a heart-shaped
space around it are naked in the male, and always moistened
with a strong smelling humour. On the other hand, the
females, during the whole of life, and the males, up to two
years of age, have the tail covered with hair on its upper part,
and with wool on its under part. The animal has no horns.
The mouth opens as far back as the molar teeth. The male
has two canines in the upper jaw developed into the form of
tusks ; these teeth project external W on cadi side of the mouth;
they pasB downwards, curving backwards, and have the
posterior edge adapted for cutting. The eyes are propor-

Fig. 21.- Tim- Mink Deer.

tionsJiy of a large size, and hav

' I"}]" 1 -

The

ears are moderately long, covered externally with reddish
black hair, and internally with long grey hairs. The hinder
limbs are longer and stronger than the anterior. An im-
portant oBteologica] character is the presence of a Blender
fibula, extending from the head of the tibia to the extremity
of the astragulua. The feet are small. The anterior have two
spurs which touch the ground, the external being the largest.
The posterior have two unequal hoofs, the internal being much
longer than the external.

The Musk Deer is a timid, nocturnal mammal, very rapid in
its course ; it has a leaping motion something like that of the

MEmCAL ZOOLOGY.

hare; it leads a solitary

upon the leaves, bark, and roots o

Musk apparatus (fig. 22). — This consists of a sac. which is
only present in the male ; il is placed tin I lie median line of the
abdomen, between the navel and the orifice of the prepuce, but
neareHt to the latter. This sac is of a rounded oval form, flat
on its superior or adherent surface, hut convex and covered
with hair on its inferior or free surface. In the adults this sae
is from two to three inches long, an inch and a quarter to two
inches in width, and from seven to ten lines in depth. When
the skin is removed two bundles of muscular fasciculi are seen,
which pass from the groia and surround the sac. (Pallas.)
Immediately beneath in the proper envelope of the sac com-
posed of three separate membranes. The first {fibrous coat of
Pereira) has, on its external surface, some longitudinal folds,
and in its interior numerous depressions : il receives branches
from the iliac artery, (Pallas.) The second {pearly coat of
Pereira) is thin, whitish, and with external projections, which
correspond to the excavations of the first membrane ; it has
also numerous grooves, which are traversed by blood vessels.
Lastly, the third {Epidermoid coat of Pereira) is still more
delicate than the second ; some have supposed they could
distinguish an external silverv layer, and an internal layer of a
reddish brown or yellowish colour. On the inner surface of

d to

cL c &

Fig. 23. — Mush Apparatus. 1
tho sac are strongly marked folds and excavations. Each ex.
cavation contains two or more oval corpuscles of a yellowisl
or reddish brown colour. These small bodies are glands for the
secretion of the musk. They appear to be composed of a very

1 a, muFk sac cut vertically ; b, its orifice ; c, orifice of the prepnee it
its brush of airs ; rf, the glans traversed by the filiform prolongation '
urethra; e, testicle.

AJrMiXfl COKST-IXTLY EMPLOYED IS Mimt'lSE. U8

thin membrane, containing a brownish coloured substance
Towardl the middle' of ihe external or convey surfaci- nl' (lit-
sac is a short canal, which passes obliquely, is about a line it)
width, and lias its internal opening surrounded by a number
ing hairs. A tittle behind tins orifice is that of the
j.rvjiii.-.-, ■ bod of slit bounded by a brush of red-coloured

Musk. — In the living animal the mttti has the Consistence
of honey, is of a brownish red colour, ami has n u-rv strong
odour.

The Chinese missionaries pretend that this secretion driven
the carnivorous animals from the musk deer and thu
a means of defence. Pallaa supposes that thif matter is inlemh'il
to excite voluptuous feelings in the female during connection.
It appears that during this act, the musk sac is compressed,
and that a portion of the semifluid mutter escapes and lubri-
cates the organ of the male. Oken compares musk to the
sebacious mailer secreted by the prepuce.

When the musk is dry it becomes almost solid, granular,
and of a very dark brown. It feels unctuous arid fatty to the
touch. It has a bitter and aromatic taste. Its stud! is rtill
exceedingly powerful; a very small quantity will u:ciit a large

mass of any substance, and it will be retained forn long I ■

The Bcent is agreeable when much diluted.

Each sac, (iig. 23) does not contain
more than 370 grains in the adult, and
123 grains in the old animal.

Two kinds of musk are known in
commerce : 1st. The Tonquin or
Chinese Musk ; and 2nd. The Kiilmrdin.
or Russian musk. The Tonquin is more
highly estimated than the Kabardin.
This substance is not always sur-
rounded by the natural sue, ami drug-
gists therefore distinguish between
VHtkimiketactm&muKkoutoflheaae. Fig. 23.-J1f a*4 Soft

Musk contains ammonia, a volatile oil, stcarinc, oleine, ''ho.
lesterine, an oil united with ammonia, gelatine allunnon, liiiriui',
a substance soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol, hydro-
chlorate of ammonia, and several other salts. (Blondeauand
Gnibourt.) According to Dr. Hank', bitter almonds, when
mixed with a sulutiuu containing musk, entirely neutralize the
odour of the latter. It appears, however, that the odouris not
destroyed since it returns to its original strength when the

114

MEDICAL zooioer.

hydrocyanic acid is dissipated. The golden sulpburet of an-
timony, when mixed with musk, also removes its odour.
Kermes mineral gives it ji smell of unious. (liley.) The Arabs
were the first who introduced musli into medicine.

Musk is adulterated by introducing earth, sand, and even
iron and lead into the sac. Sometimes the scent is replaced
by dried blood, muscle, gelatine, was, asphalte, styrax,
benzoin, &c.

[Musk is a remedy but little used in the present day. It
acts as a stimulant on the nervous and vascular systems, but
is liable to produce eructation aud derangement of the stomach.
It may be given in substance, cither in the form of boluses, or
suspended in water by moans of saccharine or mucilaginous
substances. Its dose is from eight to fifteen grams. (Pereira.)]

2. Otker species. — Three other species of deer are mentioned
at capable of yielding musk :— 1. The Napa. 2. The Kran-
ehil. 3. The Chrrroluiit of f he Altai.

The Nhpu {AL.i.tch an J<ic<w /':!//{■«. lialhVs) is t'oimd in the woods
of Java and Sumatra, where it feeds on the berries of a species of
Ardisia. It is twenty-one inches lung and fourteen high; the
colour is brown mottled with black on the back, grey mixed
with white on the flanks, and white on the abdomen and the
inner parts of the thighs. At the posterior angle of the lower
jaw is a white line which extends to each side of the chin. A
black line unites the i-ve with the nostrils. Its horns are short
and straight. The tail is tufted, and white at its termination
as well as below.

2. The Kranchil (.tfoxefats KmnrJiil. Raffles) inhabits the
forests of Sumatra, where it feeds upon the fruit of the Omelina
villous; it is sixteen inches long and ton inches in circumference.
The fur is of a reddish brown, passing into black on the back,
and white on the inner parts of the thighs. The line on each
side of the jaw reaches as far as the shoulder. It has no
black line between the eyes and the nostrils. The tail ia tufted,
and white at its termination.

3. The Chevrotiiinof the Altai {Moxchus Attaints, Esch.) in-
habits, as its name implies, the Altai mountains. (Johst.)
has two white lines on its neck.

The Civet belongs to the genus Viverra of Cuvier, forn
part of the di^itigrade division of the Carnivora. It iseha
terized by the possession of three false molars [premolars o
Owen] above, and four below, of which the anterior are som

ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDIOINE. 115

times lost, two large tubercular teeth [motors of Owen] above,
and one below — in all forty teeth, Tim genus comprises two
species which require to he noticed. 1st. The Common Civet;
2nd. The Zibet!, Civet.

Common Civet, (fig. 24). — The Common or true Civet ( Viverrti
Civrttii, ' Sell rub.) inhabits Guillen, Congo, find Ethiopia..

This small mammalia is about twenty-eight inches long,
independent of the tail, and from ten to fourteen inches high
at the shoulders. It has been compared to a fox, but it ia
longer and does not stand so high. The hair is coarse and
long, forming a kind of crest on the back, which becomes
blended with the tail ; this crest rises up when the civet is
irritated. The fur of the animal is of a dark brown, varied
with pitches and bands of a blackish brown. The spine of the
baek is of a black brown colour, and the flanks are irregularly
spotted with the same. These patches become converted into
black bands on the chest, the shoulders, and the buttocks. Two
ilique bands of this colour are seen on the sides of the neck ;

Fig aj.-aVf.

they are separated from each other by an interval of a greyish
white colour. The bead is elongated' and of a whitish colour
but the circumference of the eyes, the cheeks and the chin, are
brown, as well as the feet mid the posterior half of the tail ;
the latter has three or four light coloured rnnrs towards its
base. The muzzle of the Civet is pointed, but rather less so
than that of the Fox ; the animal has long whiskers, and a tail
Bhorter than its body.

These animals are very ferocious, but are, nevertheless,

1 In Darfnur it is r.iilo'l (lull [cat) l>y t lie Auiis. anil Mzourcm by the
NegToes. It is also nailed Kitakua in Ethiopia, JSzimc or Nifusi in Congo,
and Kaslor in G aineii.

lie

MEDICAL ZOOLOUr.

brought up in a domesticated state. They possess great
activity and run like a dog. Their eyes shine in the dark.
During the night they hunt: after small ijnarlnipeds and birdB.
Civet apparatus (fig. 25.) — Tins (.'(insists of two sacs, situated
iu the neighbourhood of the genital organs. They are present
in both sexes.

These sacs are each about the size of an almond. The inner
surface is pierced with a number of apertures com muni eating
with the 'glandular follicles, which secrete the scent. The
follicles are surrounded by a very vascular membrane. A
muscle covers the whole ami has the power of compressing the
secreting follicles as well as the sac, and thus expels the civet.
The sacs opeu into a kind of eloaea or shallow pouch, placed
between the anus and the genital organs.

Besides the scent glands, there is. also, on each side the
anal orifice, a small opening from which a blackish and very
offensive humour is discharged. This opening communicates
with a round gland smaller than that which produces the civet.
Civet scent. —Civet 1 ia an unc-
tuous substance of a fatty resinous
nature, which is at first semifluid
and of a yellow colour, but after-
I c wards becomes very thick and of
a brown colour. It has a dis-
agreeable ammoniacal odour, often
. very strong, resembling a mixture
1 of musk and fecal matter. Its
; taste is acrid and burning.

Civet is composed of ammonia,
elaine, stearine, mucus, resin, a
volatile oil, a yellow colouring
matter of snbearbouate and phos-
phate of lime and of oxide of iron.
( Boutron- Charlard.)

The Civet is reared in a domestic
state in various parts of Africa, for
the sake of its perfume. Some dealers bine as many as three
hundred. They are fed excliisivelv upon llesh. which gives a
strong penetrating odour to the perfume. (Aucapitaine.) Every
eight days the contents of the sac are scraped out by means of a

Fig. 25.-

1 ZebedoHhe Arabs (Fiunreum, Gerv.).

'a a, glaurii whiuli ..ri.-ivto i.be rivet; their oni'iircs opening into tho
pouch; e e.anal glanda; dd, their Orifices; e, anus ; f, vulva; u, clitoris.

aMU.m.s Constantly SUPLOrSD IS MEDICINE. 117

small spoon, or a hollow piece of bamboo, the animal having
been previously secured.

2nd. ZlBETi'l Civet (fig. 26).— The Zibetk Civet or Zibetk
Zibstha, Linn.) ■ inhabits the Molucca and Philippine
islands.

The animal i« from twelve to Bisteen inches Ion;;, and thir-
teen inches high ; the fur is of a yellowish grey, marked with
a number of black spots, Bometimes so dose 'together as [41
form lines, especially towards its posterior pari. The tail ifl
black along the whole of its upper part, but marked with black
and white along the sides, giving it the appearance of half
rings; the abdomen is urry ; ;\ lilack band eoiiimences behind
the upper part of the ear. describes the segment of a circle as
far as the fore limb, and forms the boundary of the spotted
portion, separating it from the pure white of the sides and
under part of the neck. Another band, somen hat larger, com.

kPig. 28.— Zibetk.
•a at the base of the ear, taking the same curve as the
first, from which it is separated by a white band of equal
width, and then unites with that from the opposite side under-
neath the neck. A third descends vertically, a little below the
ear. Lastly, a fourth, which divides the grey of the cheeks
from the white of the neck, corresponds to the ascending por-
tion of the lower jaw.

The animal is nocturnal ; it appears to be omnivorous, but
givcB the preference to fruits.

The Zibrth di tiers from the Civet, principally by the absence
of the dorsal crest, by the shortness of its fur, by the lateral
bands of the neck, and by the half rings on its tail. The
animal is bred like the Civet, and its perfume is collected in
the same manner; it is afterwards spread out on the leaves of the
pepper plant, in order to separate the hairs from it; it is aho
said to be washed with salt and water or with lemon juice,
before it is packed up in leaden hoses.

The unlit of the Zibetk resembles that of the Civet. Both

1 It is the Coot or Baar of the Arabs, and the Sawadu Punce of the
Malabaru.

K.—

118 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

these substances are adulterated with laudanum nud storax ;
at other times with dried blood, grease, od of nutmegs, and a
email quantity of musk.

§ HI. The Beaver.

Animal. — The Beaver (Cmfor Fiber, Linn.) belongs to the
order Rodentia and to the family Sciurida.

This animal inhabits the uncultivated districts of Canada
and Siberia. A few are found in Prussia, in Poland, and in
France, where it is named Bievres. It is supposed that
the small river called Bievres, which empties itself into the
Seine, at Paris, owes its name to its having been formerly
frequented by these animals. The hist Beavers which were
met with in France were found upon the banks of the Rhone
and the Gardon. Some writers consider that the Beaver of
France is a different speeds from that found in Canada.

The Beaver (fig. 27) is from three to four feet in length
from the muzzle to the end of the tail, and from twelve to
sixteen inches in width across the chest; the fur consists of
two kinds of hair, the one close set, very fine, and of a grey
colour; the other lunger, coarser , and of a brown colour. The
head resembles that of the Marmot ; it is nearly a

Fig. 27.-

it is wide; the ears are short; each jaw has ten teeth, o
sisting of two incisors and four molars on each aide. In a
skull of the Canadian Beaver {No. 21130), in the College c
Surgeons, the lower incisor measured i^ inches in the curve o:
the tooth, while the upper incisor from the same head ^
only 3$ inches. All these teeth are bevelled off from withi
outwards so as to form a cuttiug edge ; they a_ _
yellow colour on their anterior surface, and white intern
The crowns of the molars are flat and impinge vertically up<
each other; they may be described aa a lamina o" '

ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEDICINE. 119

upon itself so as to form three indentions on the outer edge
ami our mi the inner; in the lower teeth this arrangement ia
reversed. (Cuvier.) The mamma' are four in number, two of
which are situated between the anterior limbs near the neck,
and two on the chest. Tlie feet have five short toe*, quite
distinct, azul provided on the fore limbs with very strong
claws, those on the hind limbs are longer and are united by an
it- membrane. The tail is oval, Hat, thick, and
covered with scales. This tail answers at the same time the
purposes of a trowel and an oar ; the animal constantly making
use of it in swimming, and also to mould the earth with which
construe ts its habitation.

Hmrirs resemble land .'inhiials as regards the anterior parts
of their bodies, and aquatic animals with respect to the
posterior parts. During the summer time they live solitary
or in couples in holes near the water. At the approach of
winter, they assemble in large numbers on the borders of the
river or lake. If the water is smooth and undisturbed they
build their huts ou the banks; if, however, the water is swift;
and shallow, they first construct a strong dam across it,
formed of fallen trees, branches, stones, and mud; the whole
being covered with a solid outer layer. The side of the dam
next the stream is always perpendicular, while the opposite
one is shelving. When it is built up the Bearers form their
hut* against it ; they are made of the same materials, only of
a smaller size ; there are several stages of them ; each is suffi-
ciently large to contain eight or ten Beavers. The works are
carried ou only during the night, ami executed with surprising
rapidity. Yet the only implements which the lieu vers possess
are their claws, their teeth, and their tail. ' When they have
completed their dam and their dwelling-places, they lay up a
store of bark for the winter and shut themselves in their
houses.

Castor apparatus (fig. 28).— The castor is secreted by two
large glands placed in the neighbourhood of the sesual organs.
The ancients mistook these glmuls tor the animal's testicles.

Beneath the tail of the Jieaiwr is a shallow pouch, which
may be compared to the cloaca of the bird (AdauBon), and into
which the arms and genital organs open. The anal orifice
appears behind quite at the commencement of the tail. In the
middle on either side are the openings of several small glands,
termed the anal ijlrtiuh, which secrete an oily, yellow, disagree-
able fluid, distinct from the caUoreum. These glands are

" (Linn.)

nsirueiuio domos ad ripas lupera

n mtnafim

MEJIICAL ZOOLOGY.

■

oblong, lobed, nnd are each accompanied by one or two neees-
sory glands. In front of the pouch is the genital orifice,
which communicates with the preputial canal. The latter ib
cylindrical, and covered with small papilla', which are pointed,
of a blackish colour, and are directed backwards. It is to the
right and left of this groove that llir glands arc placed 'which
secrete the castoreum. These glands consist of two oval, pyri-
f'onn sacs of uneuual size, which open into the preputial
groove by two large orifices. Those of the adult animal are
at least three inches in length, and sometimes as much as five ;
they are larger than the testicles, and cannot be confounded
with them. Moreover, they are
present in the female as well
as in the male, but they are some-
what less developed. The outer
surface is irregular, and in the in-
terior are a number of delicate ciecal
processes which secrete the caxto-

Castoreum. — In the living animal
the castoreum is an almost fluid
unctuous substance of a strong
penetrating and even ftetid odour.

Fig-. 28.— Apparatus of the castor.' Fig-. 29.— Glands oftlie
' a a, castor glands; b b, their orifices* in the preputial canal; c,

penis ivitli its peculiariv formal prepuc; ; il. or.cniiu: nf ilii' proputial i:
en, analglandH; //, their orifices; g, anus ; h, part o! tlie tail; (, prus
h !:, Cov.pci-'si.'liiu'ls: II, tlie vtsiimla; semmale.s ; in m, different ca '
Lin: t-?.ii.ii-les: ... tlis> bladder.

* a a, dried glands of the ©antorcum; 6, a portion of tlie preputial a

ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEIHCTNi:. 121

The castoreuin of commerce is dried iu the two sites still united
r, 29). These sacs are pyriform, elongated, Bome-
what compressed and wrinkled, n(' a blackish brown colour ex-
ternally, and of a yellow or reddish brown internally. When
cut into their contents resemble a compact resinous muss,
intermixed with membrane or with whitish fibres. Its odour
is pary penetrating, and almost foetid; its taste is acid and

Castoreum varies in value, according to its age, and to that
of the animal which furnished it, and possibly according
to how near the creature was to the period of heat. It loses
its qualities very rapidly when kept in a moist situation.

Linmcns believed that this substance was better when
obtained from Beavers which bad fed principally on the bark
of the poplar. M. Paul Gervaia, having had the opportunity
of dissecting Beavers from the Klione, was struck with the
resemblance between the odour of their cusftirrtim and that of
the young shoots of the willow-tree, or of its bark when
macerated. These trees form a large portion of the food of the
Beaver.

There are two qualities of castoreum .- 1. American; 2.
Russian. The first is divided into Canadian castoreum and
Hudson's ha;/ castoreum.

Castoreum contains castorine, a volatile oil, salicine, carbolic
acid, benzoic acid, albumen, a fatty matter, mucus, carbonate
of ammonia, and the salts of soda and potash.

Cuslurint-wwi discovered by I'randt [indBizio ; it crystallizes
in long diaphanous crystals find fasciculi ; its odour is the same
as that of the castoreum ; it has a coppery taste. It is insoluble
in cold alcohol and in water, but dissolves in boiling alcohol
and volatile oils.

Castoreum is adulterated in various ways : 1. The sacs are
opened and the scent removed, ils pliu-e being supplied with
dried blood, galbanum, or gum nminoniacum. 2. Artificial
sacs are manufactured with the scrotum of the goat, or from
the gall-bladder of various animals ; in this case the sac is falsi-
fied as well as its contents.

Castoreum is administered in several ways — in injections, in
drinks, and in pills. Prom this substance is prepared a dis-
tilled water, a common tincture, an [etherized tincture, and a

Byrup.

[Castoreum was formerly employed in certain derangements
of the nervous system, such as hysteria, apoplexy, Ac. It was
-'-- supposed to exert a special influence over the uterus, and

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

was used to promote the lochlal discharge, and for the expulsion
of retained placenta. In the present day it is hut little em-

f loved, being generally regarded as an almost inert remedy.
t is best given in substance, either reduced to powder, or m
the form of a pill. The dose should ho at least 3ij- (Pe-

The London Pharmaeopieia contains a tincture of Castor
(Tinctura Qrsforei), wMeh is made by macerating two ounces
and a half of castor in two pints of rectified spirits lor fourteen
days and then straining. This preparation, says Pereira, con-
tains only half a drachm of castor in one fluid ounce of the
tincture, and it would, therefore, be necessary to administer
two ounces of the tincture to give a medium dose of castor
(3j). The dose directed in the Pharmacopoeia is xx Wl to
«!)■]

§ IV. The Hyraceum.

AniMAL.— The Daman of Hie Cape ' (Hgrax Capensis, Ehr.,
Cavia Capensis, Pall.). — This animal was regarded liv Pallas and
Enleben as a Rodent, and by Cuvier and Illiger as a Pachy-
derm. M. Is. Geotf'rov Saint-liilaire, founding his opinion
upon its organization and habits, considered ii as forming the
connecting link between these orders. The toes have irregular
corneous formations, partly resembling hoofs and partly
claws.

The Banian inhabits the Cape of &ood Hope, Abyssinia,
and even as far as Lebanon. It never descends into the
plains.

This small mammal (fig. 30) is the size of a Marmot. (Pallas,)
"With the exception of not having a horn it is almost a Rhino-
ceros in miniature. (Cuvier.) Its form is heavy, short, and low
on its feet. The fur consists of long, close-set, soft, silky hair,
and of very fine scanty woolly libres. Its general colour is of
a greyish brown. The head is thick and terminated by a short
thick muzzle. The cars are short, run ml, and bordered by fine
hairs; the neck is short and wider than it is long. The upper
jaw has two strong incisors, which curve downwards; in the
young animal there are two very small canines ; the lower jaw,

■Commonly called Badger of the rochs (KVj>)i-'huii. KHp-Jasje, or
KUp-iiasxc) or Marmot of the Cape. The Abj»6inian9 call it Gike accord-
ing to Slmv.. niiii AJibiio iux'rinliii!; fo Hi'ul-i ; ibt Libiimans, [he sheep qf
Israel (Ganm'm Israel.)

ANTMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IN MEBICINE.

somewhat duster Han
the upper, has lour in-
cisors, but no canines.
(Cuvier.) On the upper
lip are a number of long
stiff black haire. There
are also a quantity of
large hairs beneath the
eyebrows and beneath
the throat. The abdo-
men is very wide. The
palms of the feet are
naked and covered with
soft Bkin. The fore

feet have four toes, and the hind feet only three ; these toes
terminate iu small round hoofs, excepting the innermost toe of
the hind foot, which is armed with nn oblique hooked claw.
There is no visible tail ; the coccyx is reduced to a small
tubercle. There are three mammre on each aide, of which the
anterior is axillary, ami the two others inguinal.

The Daman is a very active animal am! cleanly in its habits;
although naturally savage and timid, it is easily tamed, and is
even capable of forming attachments. Its food consists of the
fruits and roots of aromatic plants ; it is particularly fond of
: Cyclopia qriiistoides, an elegant shrub belonging to the
" of papilionaces.

jim ofhyrgceum. — -This substance is found in small masses
the sides of rocky mountains, in the clefts of the rocks, in
__iveras T and in those places generally which are frequented by
the Damans. The inhabitants collect these fragments while
they are fresh, soft, anil somewhat glutinous.

Sparmann, Thunberg, Burcbell, and Lichtenstein, all agree
in regarding the Daman of the Cape as the animal which pro-
duces the hyraceum.

But how is this substance formed ? Is it by special glands
the Musk-deer, the Civet, and the Castor T The anatomy-
the genital organs, which has been published by Pallas, is
loaed to this conclusion.

the hyraceum, merely the dried urine of the Daman ?
.ceording to Sparmann and Thunberg the Dutch call this sub-
stance Badger's urine (JDassen-pisnat or ilivyrxpix) ■. they believe
that the Damans have the habit of always discharging their
rine in the same place, and that the urine in drying deposits
certain substance, which gradually condenses and ultimately

as in
oftb

Acco

124

forms the hi/raceum. It will be presently seen that this ex-
planation ib to a certain extent correct.

Krausa suspected that it might be the menstrual discharge
of the animal, but there is nothing to confirm thia notion.

Dr. Edward Martiuv considers the hyraeewm as the secretion
of the preputial glands, am! probalih also id' largely developed
Taginal glands. But these elands would not have been over-
looked by Pallas in bis dissections.

Several modern writers admit, and it appears to the author
correctly, that this substance is nothing more than the excre-
ments of the animal mixed with its urine which have been
dcpo-ilcd and dried in the crevices of the rock, and
frequented by the animal. (Pereira, Yem'aux.) The ex-
amination of the hi/riu-i-um made by L, Snubeiran, and its
analysis by Scbrader and by Reichel, fully confirm this vi
the matter.

Hyracmtm. — This is a solid, hard, heavy substance,
blackish brown colour, with certain portions clearer or more
brilliant, and having a resinous appearance. It can be cut
with a knife and softened between the lingers. It has some
resemblance to the bdellium of India and to black myrrh.
(Gruibourt.) When exposed to a moist atmosphere it Boftena
and becomes more or less glutinous. Its odour is strong and
disagreeable, somewhat analogous to that of custoreum, but not
ao strong, ami fnnicwlial urinous. Its taste is bitter, astrin-
gent, and acrid.

Hyraccum is very soluble in water, to which it imparts a yel-
low colour, especially when the water is hot ; it leaves a clear
brownish yellow coloured residue. It is but partially soluble
in alcohol, and in ether, to which it imparts a very light yelli
tint. (L. Soubeiran.)

"When examined by the microscope it is found to contain
particles of plants ; as for example, tbe husks of grasses, frag-
ments of cellular and fibrous tissue, and portions of tracheal
vessels. There are also present hairs, purl idea of silicious
sand, and granules of uric acid. (L. Soubeiran.)

Chemical analysis shows that hj/remeum contains a yelh
colouring matter soluble in common alcohol and in water,
brown matter soluble in water, a green resin soluble
alcohol, a small quantity of i'attv matter, and a large amount
of insoluble residue, containing the remains of vegetable fibres
and quartz. (Schrader.)

The hyracntm of commerce is packed in cylindrical
boxeSj each containing about a pound.

ANIMALS CONSTANTLY KM I'l.OVKH IS HKHI CI \ I'

This substance has been proposed an a substitute for easto-
irum; some years ago it W8B brought into use in OOOSi
of the high price of castnivimi. Al tin' present linn. 1 it is very
rarely employed, and in all probability it will shortly he
numbered with those Bubstances which, after having been
boasted of as pa run vim, have been rejected from the liat of the
,. (L. Soubeirau.)

Materia 3

§ V. Ambergris.

Origin of Ambergris. — Various hypotheses have been
put forward with respect to the origin of Ambergria.

Avicenna and Serapiou assert that it is a bairn which grows
upon the reeks, in the same manner as mushrooms do upon
trees, and which afterwards falls into the sea.

Cardan preten da that it is the dried saliva of the sea-cow.

(fernandez Lopez considers it to be the excrements of certain
birds which had led upon odoriferous plants.

Others have regarded ambergris as the condensed froth of
the sea, or as a kind of greasy earth which has become
hardened, as bitumen, ils a species of resin, as a kind of
gum, as the sperm of the whale, or as the excrement of
crocodiles, Ac.

Virey pronounces ambergris to be a species of adipocire
arising from the decomposition of various odoriferous Poulps,
which reside in the open sea. A circumstance which appeared
to give some support to this suggestion, was the discovery on
several occasions of horny mandibles in the interior of the
pieces of amber precisely similar to those of the Cephalopoda.

Pelletier and Caventou, who have given a good analysis of
ambergris, describe it as a biliary calculus.

Hcrval llarel has the credit of first recognizing the true
source of this odoriferous substance. According to this
writer it is produced by several large animals of the whale
species. It is a residue of digestion, a kind of intestinal cal-
culus or eoprolite.

This statement has been confirmed by Swediaur and by
Borne Delile. It is known that the Japanese call ambergris,
kuasura no fuu; that is to Bay, excrement of the whale.
(Kampfer.)

Ambergris forms in masses in the alimentary canal of tho
""achalots, 1 and is discharged with their excrements. Some

1 Seep. B2, and Fig. 14.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

persons consider that this substance is a normal production of
all the Cachalots ; others suppose that it is a morbid and, con-
sequently, an accidental formation.

The Cachalots ace capable ol' furnishing if in large quantities.
A whaleman obtained forty -tour pounds from the intestines of
one individual, and one hundred and fourteen from those of

Ambergris is sometimes found floating on the sea, at other
times on the shore, mixed with the excrements of the Cachalots,
occasionally, as has just been Tiientioned, in the intestines them-
selves. This substance is regularly collected on the coasts of
Japan, of the Molucca islands, of India, of Madagascar, and
of Brazil. When the Cachalots are opened the ambergris is
found in the cmcum, and never in any other part of the intes-
tinal canal.

The food taken by these Cetacea seems to influence the
formation of the ambergris. It appears that there
species of Poulps (Eledons) which have the odour of musk ;
that the Cuttle-fish and other molluscs, and even small fish,
which have not been proncrly digested, give rise to this sub-
stance. It is known that amongst these animals there are
some which exhale a musk-like odour. "When the American
fishermen discover aiiibvrjris in any part, they immediately
conclude that it is frequented by some of the Cetacea.

Some have supposed that only the Cachalot has the property
of producing nmbfri/ris ; others, with more reason, admit that it
is produced both by the Cachalot and the Baliena. The principal
species which produce it are the Physeter macrocephalus ' and
the Balmna mysticetus*

2. Amberoiuk (amhra cinerea). — This is a tolerably hard,
solid substance, of a greasy waxy nature; it is lighter than water,
and melts at a low temperature. Its colour is a greyish black,
sometimes yellow or brown; it is often covered with a white
efflorescence, which forms on its surface and penetrates some
little distance into the interior. Ambergris has a mild sweet
odour, which extends to a considerable distance, and scarcely
any taste. It is more or less Boluble in water and in alcohol,
according to its state of purity.

Ambergris forms irregular masses, sometimes composed of
concentric superimposed layers, and at other tiniCB of small
irregular roundish grains. In the interior there are occasion-

.ii.. p.,.

ANIMALS CONSTANTLY EMPLOYED IK MEDICINE. 127

ally found the remains of molluscs and of fishes, such aa the
mandibles, scales, and bones. The masses are generally from
two ounces to a pound in weight. Tbey are, however, found
weighing as much aa from ten to twenty pounds. A spermaceti
whale which was stranded in 1741 near Bayonne, had a mane
of amber in its interior which weighed more than ten pounds.
Masses have been mentioned of from one to more than two
hundred pounds weight. The East India Company, in 1695,
had a mass weighing one hundred and sixty pounds. In 1721,
Yiilmout de Honiara saw a mass of more than two hundred
pounds in weight. Another has been mentioned weighing
eight hundred and sixty-six pounds, which, however, seema
scarcely credible.

Ambergris contains nmbreine, a sweet balsamic alcoholic ex-
tract, with benzoic acid, aqueous extract, beu/.oiu acid, and
chloride of sodium. (John.)

Ambreine was discovered by Jill. Pelletier and Caventoti ;
its properties are analogous to those of cholesterol e. This sub-
stance is white, insipid, has a Bweet smell, and is insoluble in
water, but dissolves in alcohol and ether.

It has been stated that Foxes arc very fond of amberijrU, and
that they come down to the coasts in search of it, eat it and return
it in the same state as they swallowed it with regard to ita
perfume, hut altered in colour. This propensity is supposed to
account lor the existence til' pieces of whitish ambergris which
are found at some distance from the sea on the Landes of
Aquitain and which the inhabitants term Fox amber (Bory) t

[In England ambergris is only used as a perfume.]

VESICATING INSECTS.

Vesicating or blistering insects are those whieh have the
power of producing a vesicular inflammation of the skin. These
insects are valuable external agents. They are rarely ad-
min iatered internally.

The blistering insects consist of Cantharides, belonging to
the order t'olooptera and to I lie tribe 1 letcroraera.

These insects originally formed a portion of the genus Meloe
of Linnaeus, characterized by a rounded thorax and an inflected

CHAPTER III.

I claviform

1 Coruiroiiift.

( MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

head. This group baa been divided into thirteen genera.
blistering iiiM-Tln form nine of these genera, of which foui
are more important than the others, and require to he par-
ticularly noticed. These genera are: 1. Giathurides ; 2. My-
labra; 3. Gerocoma; 4. Meloe. The characters which dis-
tinguish them arc principally furnished by the wings and the
antennse. The fallowing is a summary of "these characters.

, normally developed . (filiform I. Cantharidei.

I A ntennte

Wings J

*■ absent ....
The five remaining genera which possess more or less vesicat-
ing properties are Hyclew, Itecatoma, Lydus, (Enas, and To-
traonLv.

Dorthes asserts that the ancients employed the caterpillar of
the Pnaleena Pilyocampa as a substitute for the Cautharides. 1
§ I. Can thai-ides.

1. Common Canthabtdes {Canthark vesicaforia, Lat.). a
This insect is the principle blistering agent in us

Aldrovandus, Johnston, Gesner, and others h
under the name of Ocmtkarides several different species of
coleoptera, sometimes oven insects belonging to other orders.

1. Habitation — Cautliarides arc common in the southern
countries of Europe. They are found on the ash, lilac, privet,
and jasmine. They are also met with on I lie elder, rose, apple,
willow, aud poplar trees. Richard found them on the honey-
suckle and on the ehamaocerasus. Others have observed them,
hut more rarely, on the walnut, the eynoglossus (dog's tongue),
and even on wheat. Tiny often assemble in large numbers,
and devour the leaves of the plant very rapidly. Paul Her-
mann saw a large ash entirely destroyed by being deprived
of its leaveB by these insects.

2. Description. — The Common Otmtharides (fig. 31) is a
coleopterous insect, measuring from six to eleven lines in
length, and from one to two lines in breadth. Its body i
elongated and cylindrical ; the head is large and cordiform ; :

1 According io Hentz, there ia in the United States a species of Spider
(Tegenariamtdicinalii,y< alck) uli'idi I huiiilialiiiimlBuBeaa a blistering agent.
This species ik common in the neighbourhood of riiilodelphia. "'
properties ore attributed to (!■«■ Clu/iiu atnlit-iivilu, Walck.

1 Lytta visiattorui, i'uhi-., Melae ri:.iira(tirim, I. inn., commonly called Can
thai-idea of the shops. Spanish fly, Cautharides fly.

BLI8TE11INO INSECTS. 120

s furnished mlli 1"iil t fiiifunii anti'mirc, composed of elevei
joints. Tlit* thorax i* nar-
rower thnn the base of the
head ; it is small, anil has the
pfothorax almost si.] us
deep furrow ia seen
middle of the head and of the
thorns. The elytra
long as the abdomen, flexible,
covered with fine markings,
and provided with two longi
tudinal nervures along the in
nor margin ; they cover up the
membranous and transparent
wings. The feet are slender,
and the filiform tarsi termi-
nate in a pair of very curved Vig. 31— C<ut<toufe».'
honks which are covered with

thick-set hairs on their under surface. There are five joints
in the tarsi of the two first pairs of feet, and only four in the
last. The body and the elytra arc of a golden green colour
with a metallic lustre, hut the anteiime are black.

The animal gives off a very strong, disagreeable, poisonous
odour, which spreads to a great distance.

The males are smaller than the females. Audouin has given
an accurate description of the copulation of these insects,
which he witnessed on the branch of a lilac tree. The male
harasses the female, who at first sluggishly opposes him, hut
afterwards oners an active resistance. He then mounts on
her bad and seizes her antenna? with his fore feet. On the
first joint of the tarsus of these feet there is a deep groove, and
ou the tibia a strong spine or hook, which, when the joint is
flexed, enters the groove and forms a compile ring. It is with
this kind of pincers that the male grasps the antenna? of the
female, which he pulls and handles like a pair of horns. Having
thus obtained the mastery, the act of copulation soon takes
place. It lasts for about four hours. At the end of this time the
female, who has hitherto remained immoveable, and apparently
indifferent, struggles violently. The male, who ia weakened,
fails off, and the intromit tent organ is torn away and remains
in the vagina of the female.

'«. SrviTiil oggt adhering together, magnified ; b, a single egg more highly

130 MK1HCAL ZOOLOGY.

After copulation the females bun" themselves in the earth,
where they lay a considerable number of small eggB ; these a
cylindrical, somewhat fattened at their sides, slightly c
of a yellowish colour, and agglutinated together (fig. 31

The larva.- which iaaue forth have a soft elongated body, o
a yellowish white colour, composed of thirteen segments and
provided with six abort scaly feet ; the head is rounded,
furnished with two small filiform antenna', and a mouth armed
with two stroll!," jaws and four palpi. Some writers assert that
the larva? feed upon roots ; others believe that they are para-
sites. Adanson says that they devour the ants.

3. Colleetiiiif. — The collecting of the Chnt/uiridcs takes pla
early in the morning before sunrise, while the animals are st:
in an enfeebled state. Kor the purpose of eollectiug them, large
cloths are spread at the foot of the trees and shrubs, which are
then well shaken.

Some writers recommend the persons who are engaged in
collecting the insects to provide themselves with a mask and
gloves. These precautions are, however, altogether UBeless-
(Berthoud.)

For the purpose of destroying the Cunlharldes they are
steeped in boiling water or in hot vinegar, or they are exposed
to the vapour of the latter after beini; placed in linen bags, or
on horse-hair sieves. M. Lutrand recommends their being
exposed to the vapour of chloroform. They are afterwards
placed in a drying room.

In the process of drying the insects lose considerably i:
weight, so that each insect weighs very liti le inure than a g

They are preserved in stoppered bottles.

In choosing Vniitliiii-ii/i-x those th:it are fresh, dry, and whole
should be selected. When they are three or four years old
they are liable to be attacked by several small insects, which
entirely destroy them, devouring even the elytra and the other
bard parts. Even the best closed vessels will not always pre-
serve them. They are eaten by a aniall coleopterous insect,
theAntAreitua muxte-oriim, by the I'fiiicn, and by 1 lie Dermestes.
Various means have been proposed for preserving them, but
Unfortunately they are often insufficient. Camphor, which ia
effectual for the moths, is of no use in the case of the Anthrenua.
Murcury placed at the bottom of the bottle ia said to be an
excellent means of preservation. (Soubeirau.)

[Dr. Percira say* he has found the addition of a few dropa of
acetic acid an effectual remedy against the attacks of the mites
(Aeana domculicus).']

•ably in
a grain.

BLISTERING INSECTS. 131

The Celonla niiraia, Linn., and the CaUiehrorna muscata are
often found mixed with Cantharidrt, as well as a species of
Chryxomela. (Emmel.)

[These insects fire mixed by the dealers with the Cantharides
for the purpose of fraud : they have no blistering properties,
and are easily distinguished by the form and proportions of
their bodies, I

4. Active part. — The ancients believed that the vesicating
properties of Cantharides resided in the hairs which cover their
bodies. The active principle of these animals, Ctuiflitiridiii,
was discovered by Robiquet in 1S40. This principle isa white
crvstallisable substance, with an extremely acrid taate. When
applied to the skin it rapidly raises a blister; taken inter-
nally it is a virulent poison, t'nntharidin is fusible, very
volatile, and is entirely dissipated when exposed to the air at
the ordinary temperature. It is insoluble in water, but dis-
solves in alcohol, more so in hot than in cold. Ether also dis-
solves it.

Is the cantliaridin distributed indiscriminately throughout
all parts of the animal? Hippocrates considered that the
antennie, the head, the elytra, trie wings, and the feet are inert,
and recommended that they should be rejected. Sclvwilgue
has revived this opinion. Linutcus. on tin' < -on trary, maintains
that the vesicating properh resides nearly equally in every
part of the insect. H, L'loquet and Audouin are also of this
opinion. M. Furines, however, hris stated that a blister made
from the powdered antenna', elytra, wings, and feet, after being
applied for thirty hours, produced no effect. M. Berthoud in
some recent experiments found that 3s5S grains troy (250
grammes) of the thorax and the abdomen, which he terms soft
parts, yielded 65 grains of cautharadin ; and that 1929 grains
(125 grammes) of the antenna', heads, elytra, wings, and feet,
which be terms corneous ^xrWs, yielded 'S17 grains, which is in
the proportion of 4 to 1.

Do Cantkaridee lose their vesicating properties by age P
Foster assures us that when these insects have fallen into the
condition of dust their remains have no action.

Dumeril, on the other hand, has successfully employed Can-
tiiaride* which had been preserved \\>v twenty \ ears. "We must
not Buppose, as some phariiiurt'niists have done, that the active
principle of these insects is not eaten by their parasites ; if this
were really the case, the CimllutriJi^ v.\wi-}\ had been attacked by
them, instead of losing their qualities, would, on the contrary,
become more active. Observation shows that the excrement

! MEDICAL ZOO 1,0 or.

and remains of these parasites have no vesicating properties, and
as they become mixed with the fragments of the Vonlhi.ridrg,
the refuse which remains in the bottles ean have but a very
slight action. According to M. Farines, the properties of the
dust of the worm-eaten Citiitkaridct, compared with the ordi-
nary powder, diminish in the ratio of 7 to 10^. On the other
hand, Bobiquet, M. O uibourt, and Virey, in analysing this dust,
have found hut a very small quantity of cantharidiu. 31.
Berthoud obtained 1 i"> grs. of cantharidin from 1929 grs. of
dust; that is, about three fifths the quantity which would be
furnished by the same weight of sound Cantharides. It is,
therefore, evident that the remains of the worm-eaten insects
would not be altogether inert.'

2. Otheb Species. — The genus Cantharis contains a large
number of Bpecies. Dejean enumerate* thirty ; and Audouin
raises the number to sisty-four. It is, however, very rarely
that any other species is employed than the one which has just
been spoken of.

In the South of 1'' ranee, a species termed Qmiharti dubia,
Fabr., Lylta dubia of Oliver, is found on the luceru. The body
of this insect is black, and the head of a reddish colour, divided
into two portions by a longitudinal black line.

According to M. Courbou the piinefnfed Canfharhs, Lytta
adsperna, Klug, Epicau/n ai/xpi'isti, Uej.. from "Montevideo, is an
excellent vesicant, and acts more quickly than the common
Oanffuvu.

The latter species lives on the beetroot ; it is from T * to-^of
an inch in length. I'ln- head. iin.ir:i\. ami ahdnincri are of an ashen
grey colour, covered with small black spots. The antenna; are
black, and the feet of a reddish colour.

Other Canthar'ulc* have been mentioned possessing vesicating
properties, as for example that of Syria, l.i/tla fyriaca, Fabr.,
and a species from Arabia, which lives on wheat, Li/tfa set/eliim,
Fabr. ... M. Leelerc describes in his thesis (1835) seven
species, whose properties he had experimented upon. . . M.
Courbon has also enumerated two species of Cantharis, the
Epicaiita cnrfrwui'i. lleiche, and the Li/tlu vidua, Klug. [Ctinxima
vidua, Dej.,) both from the neighbourhood of Montevideo.

[There are five preparations of Cantharides in the London
Pharmacopieia.

1 M. Limouain-Lamotto announced to tUe Pharmaceutical Society of
Paris, tlmt blisters made from thtr viirm-caU'ii remains liud acted well.
This statement was strongly contested, out was subsequently eotifinncd
by M. Dubuc.

BLISTERING INSECTS.

133

. AcETirw Cantuaridir (EpUfxutiewm), i~inetjar of Ciin-
■iden (Epixpostic). — Take of Cantharides rubbed <o powder
jij; acetic acid Oj. Macerate the Cantharides with utewsid
for eight day."- froquenik shaking ; kt.stlv press and strain.
This ia lined as an extemporaneous biiHter.

2. Tinctuea Cantharidis, Tincture of Cnntliaritlet. — Take
of bruised Cant handes 3iv; proof spirit Oij. Macerate for seven
days, then press and strain.

The action of this preparation is diuretic and stimulant ; the
dose is mlO to 3j- It should be given in some demulcent
liquid, as barley water or linseed leu. Iu effects on the bladder
must be carefully watched. (Pereira.) It is occasionally used
externally as a rubefacient.

3. CXBAIEH Casth All JOts, Cerate of Cantharides. — Cautha-
ridea rubbed to a very fine ponder 3jj ; s|K'rmaeeti cerate ^vi.
Add the Cantharides to the cerate, softened by heat, and mis.

ThiB ia used to promote a discharge from a blistered sur-
face and to stimulate issues and indolent ulcers. It is a more
powerful preparation than (he next, which is used for (lie same
purpose, and consequently it is more liable to affect the bladder,
and to produce Luliammatinu of the lymphatics and general
irritation.

4. UsoirBNTTM CaStbabims, Ointment of Cn»th<trii!>:i. -
Cantharides rubbed to a very tine powder jpij ; distilled water

fxij : cerate of resin lbj. Iioil the water with the cantharides
own to one half and strain. Mis the cerate with the strained
liquor, afterwards let it evaporate to a proper consistence.
This is milder but less efficacious than the former.

5. EmFJ.ASTRUM CaNTBARIIJIS, Plaster of Canthariden. —

Take of Cantharides rubbed to a very tine powder lbj : wax
and suet each ^viiiss; resin 3iij ; lard ^vj. To the was, suet,
and lard, liquified together, add the resin previously melted,
then remove them from the fire, and a little before they con-
crete, sprinkle in the cantharides and mix.

"In making blistering plasters, care must be taken not to
add the cantharides while the melted lard is quite hot, as the
heat greatly injures the vesicating powers of the insect. For
a similar reason the plaster should be spread by the thumb, a
heated spatula being objectionable. To prevent the blister
moving after its application to the skin, itB margin should be
covered with adhesive plaster. In order to guard against any
affection of the urinary organs, place a piece of thin book
muslin or silver (tissue) paper between the plaster and the
■kin. The efficacy of the blister depends on the fatty matter

ssolviug the Cautharidin and transuding through the muslin

131

or paper. SoTiie recommended the paper to be soaked in oil,
which is supposed to dissolve the cantharidin. Now oil, not
being tuisc.i hie with the blood, is not readily absorbed; and hence
it is supposed arises its proteetive influence. The usual time
requisite for a blistering plaster to remain in contact with the
skin is twelve hours; the vesicle is then to be ent at its most
depending pari and dressed with sp.Tma.rcti ointment. When
we wish to make a perpetual blister, (he cerate of cantharidea
is employed as a dressing, or, if we wish to escite less irritation
and prevent the | hiss ibi lit y of the urinary organs being affected,
the eerate of savin." (Pereira.)]

§ II. Mylabris.

The number of inserts belonging to the genus Mylabris ia
very considerable. Oliver has described something like sixty.
At the present time there are nearly two hundred. There are
few groups in whieh the species have been more confounded
together, or m which the synonyms are in greater confusion.
(Guerin.)

The body of these insects is generally black. Some have
tbe elytra of a dark yellow with black bandB or s[

These insects are very timid, and when it is attempted to
capture them they fold up their feet and antennas, and, falling
down, assume the appearance of death.

1. Tbe Mylabris of the CHUXHU'(Hg. 32), .1/iih/tmaVAorii,
Fabr., Meloe eiehorii, Linn.— This species is the one which is
best known, and which has been most carefully examined. It
is supposed to be the insect which Dioscorides and Pliny have
mentioned under the name of Cantbaria.

Habitat. — This Mi/lnbrie is found in several
u * of the warm parts of Europe.

*\*d"j? the flowers of the wild chicory, and on several
^Ju other plants belonging to the family composite.
A Description.- -The elytra are ot an obscure

/illA yellow, with three large, somewhat zigzag, black
■flWl\S bands. The first band is interrupted and some-
/ \ times reduced to three or four spots.
4 * This species of Mvlnbris is employed in Italy

Fig. 32. Hylabra. Greece, Egypt, and as far as China. Some
writers, however, think that the one found in France
different from that of China, and that the latter alone em
tutes the true JSglabrit of ilie, chicory. The others form oi.
or two distinct species. It is at least certain that Liunieua ha
confounded several species under the name of Meloe eiehorii.

il.lSTJlllMl INSECTS.

135

2. Otheb Species.— The speck's most nearly allied to the
* of the Chicory are :
. The enrUibfo Mi/Uibri.-i, Mi/Lihri* ciiriabilis, Pall., to which
•. Bretonneau has drawn attention.

2. The MylahrUofXi.l.t, Mylabrit Sidm, Fnbr.. M. jwstuhttn,
31iv., is a lur^e species which lives in China, niid forma an

extensive article of eimimcrce. According to Soubeiran it is
largely employed in Germany, where it ia imported by the
English merchants.

3. The Blue Mylabris. Mylabrit ci/gnexcrns, Illig., has been
recommended by M. Farmcs, a phanuacent ist of Pcrjiignan.

The folio win g are the distinctive characters of these three
species compared with those of the common species.
y bauirls . I ochre yellow

Jiuimi si";™p<»i ;■ «££■*£&

(entire . . 2. Mvlii/irueariunint.

Iroddish brown .1. Mylabru Sida,

points 4. Mylabris eiiyitarais.

According to Dr. CoIIbb, the Indian Mylabrit, Myhtbr'u
Indicti, Fussl., M. punctual, Fa.br., is successfully employed at
Pondi cherry.

il, Gruerin-Meneville has mentioned as a vesicating insect
the Mylabris of the olive tree, Mylabris olem, Cbevrol, which is
found in Algeria- 1

III. Cerocoma.

The Cerocoma of Schceffer (fig. 33) Cerocoma SeJto-Jiri, Fabr.
Woe Schcr[feri, I,inn., is a small insect which lives on the
graminea;, umbel life raj, and the compost tie. It buries its head
in the flowers. It is found in the neighbourhood of Paris.

The insect is from five to seven lines in length ; it is covered
with down, and is of a golden green colour ■ the
bead is small and black ; tltc thorax is of the
same colour, while the antenna* and the feet an
yellow; the elytra are the same length as tb
abdomen, and are very flexible. The animal i
an active flyer.

There are several other species belonging to
the genus Cerocoma in France, in Spain, and in
the East, but their vesicating properties have not

Th,

Melot
gram i

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

§ IV. Meloe.

The name of Meloe is given to insects allied to Mylabra and
Cantharis ; they are remarkable for the shortness of the
elytra and the absence of wings.

These insects are generally of a blaek colour, but this is
often mixed with shades of green and blue. The elytra are
frequently punctated or rough.

The Meloe are very fertile. CJodard saw a female deposit in
two layings 2212 eggs. The eggs are very small.

When the Ian':!' arc born they attach themselves to hyme-
noptera, which are searching for food ; by this means they are
transported to the nests of the bees, where they continue to
live and complete their development. According to M. Fabre
the larva? of the Meloe pass through four distinct forma before
arriving at the pupa stage; these consist of the primitive
larval tonu, of a second larval form, of a pseudo chrysalis, and
of a third larval form. The primitive larva is coriaceous, and
attaches itself to the hymenoptera ; the object of this is that
the larva may be transported to a cell containing honey.
When it reaches a cell it devours the egg of the hymenoptera.
The second larva is soft, and differs altogether externally from
the first ; it feeds upon the honey. The pseudo chrysalis has
the body covered with a corneous integument, and is deprived
of motion; it is* half in vacillated in the cast-off skin of the second
larval form. The third larval form resembles the second; it is
half enclosed in the cast-off integument of the pseudo chrysalis,
as the latter was in those of the second larval form. After the
latter stage the metamorphoses follow the usual course ; the
larva becoming a true pupa, and the pupa a perfect insect.

When a Meloe is irritated or attempted to be captured,
it discharges from the joinl a of its le^s a viscid, acrid liquid, of
a yellow colour, and having the odour of amber or of violets.
An entomologist, at Montpellier, who had incautiously handled
some of these insects, had his hands the next- duv covered with
pustules. MM. Amoreux and II. Cloquet, however, assert
that they have often handled them without experiencing any
ill effects.

the Mylabri* bimaculata , 01 L r . r""j'.iTiil«i! n;i ivit.li the l.'.yiiinichiim eree&unt,
a plant belonging to the family Asclepiadaeea;, and upon which the in-
sect lived. This piviciulcr] f]>«rilii: iniisr In: fliissci! wiiii the innumerable
remedies which have been pmpo^d without the least success against this
fearful disease (Diimtrili, ainont'st which are also Found the Cttoinia attrata,
the ProsctiralHPUfi, and the Tdophora.

Species. — Four species of Meloe are more particularly

made me of; the following is a short summary of their

„■ , . 1 thn middle (dark violet) . 1. Met* pntambttm.

(.filiform j notched (deep black with red

( bauds) 4. M'h* HMhilit.

L The -3/Wob Prowarabata, Linn,, (fig, 81) has the elytra
slightly rugose. It is very common in
Prance. The Melne Gallicui, Dej., ap-
pears to be a variety.

2. The Meloe rugo*u». Marsh, has the
elytra extremely rugose. It is not un-
common in the south of France, as for
example in the environs of Montpellier.

3. The Melon variegatut, Donav., has
the elytra slightly rugose. It is found
in the neighbourhood of Paris. ,f

4. The Mrloc maialix, Linn., is dis-
tinguished from the three previous spe-
cies by the presence of transverse bands
of a red colour on the abdomen. This
insect is found in Spain.

The use of the following species has also been recommended t
the Meloe titttummtlis, Oliv., which is found in the neighbour-
hood of Paris; the Meloe punctata*, Oliv,, under which til hi
two species have been confounded, viz,,, the Tucciut of Rossi,
and the coriarius of Hofmansegg ; and the Meloe Algeria,
Linn., which inhabits Sardinia.

Fig. H.-JMM

CHAPTER IV.

Leeches are abranchial Annelida belonging to the family
Hirundinida and to the genus 'Hirudo.

They are found in ponds, ditches, marshes, streams, and
rivulets.

The body of these animals is elongated, flattened, gradually
narrowed anteriorly, and obtuse posteriorly ; it is soft, viscous,
and slippery to the feel, and is composed i>f ninety- live equal and
very distinct rings, which project at the sides. Leeches, when.

13S MEBICAL ZOOLOGY - .

they contract their bodies, assume the form of an olive. Their
colour is more or leas of a greenish cast. The back baa
parallel longitudinal bands of a reddish or brownish hue,
spotted ivit.h black, continuous or intercepted, and sometimes
reduced to mere points. The ventral surface is either of a
uniform colour or spotted with black, aud bordered on
side by a straight or undulating hand of the same colour.

The anterior extremity is provided with an oral sucker, not
very concave, aud with the upper lip almost lancet-shaped.
Within the mouth are three jaws furnished with minute teeth.
The eyes are ten in number, but are hardly visible ; they are
placed on the upper lip, where they form a curved line, the
anterior being the largest. The posterior extremity of '■
body is also terminated by a lvuml obliipieh placed sucker, at
the base of which and at its upper part is the anal orifice-
Leeches are androgynous. The sexual orifices are placed on
the anterior third of the belly ; the male orifice between the
twenty-seventh aud twenty- eighth ring, and the female five
rings farther back. The first is a minute pore, surrounded by
a thickened margin, and the second a small transverse slit.

The copulation of these animals is double. In the act two
individuals approach each other; t lair bellies tire placed opposite
to each other, but in the contrary direction, so that the oral
sucker of each is turned towards the anal sucker of the other.
In this position the leeches unite with each other and copu-
lation takes place.

The period of ^'station lasts from twenty-five to forty days.
When a leech is impregnated an enlargement takes place
around the sexual apertures, which has received the
the girdle or clitellum.

At the time of laying their i.ggs tin.' 1 .et'eht's come from the
water and seek tor some moist earth, where they can make a
hole or gallery; they then discharge from their muciparous
sacs a clear white and transparent liquid. ( Ebrard.) This froth
has all the appearance of white of egg after it has been beaten
up. (Wedecke.) The animal, by a scries of contractions of the
anterior part of its body, facilitates the discharge of thiB fluid
(Ebrard), and becomes entirely surrounded by it. The clitel-
lum swells, and a pellicle is formed upon its surface. The
worm appears to suffer, it twists about in every direction, the
posterior part of its body remaining almost stationary and
serving as the point of resistance. At the end of a certain
time, the leech quickly withdraws its head from the pellicle
before mentioned, and at the same time this is detached from

■ litellum.
from tbifl kind
Bar. onen at i

139

clitellum. The Leech then extricates itself backwards
tins kind of membranous case. It thus forms an oval
open at each end. The two orifices are then closed
up by a thick brown mass. Before the animal comes out
toe case, it has deposited a number of small ei^s, iii-ch iiLiyjjsiiiecl
by a large quantity of albuminous matter. The sac becomes
more solid, assumes a darker colour, and forms a closed
capsule (anbryophore, Fennond). This kind of shell is not
analogous to the covering of the eggs of the other oviparouB
animals; it isasimple secretion from the skin; akind of structure
which reminds one of the caducous membrane of the mammalia.
The frothy matter surrounding the shell dries, becomes of a
reddish colour, then brown, and ultimately forms a spongy net-
work, which transforms the capsule into a species ot cocoon.

The mere drying of the frothy mucus would not suffice to
form the tissue of which we have been s
bable that the capsule exercises some iuiiueuce on its forma-
tion, for the spongy tissues alwajB begin to be organized
from within outwards, so that the deepest
portion is often found converted into the
spongy tissue, while the superficial portion
BtiU remains in the frothy state. If the
transformation into the spongy tissue arose
solely from drying, it is evident that this
change should commence on the exterior.
(Weber.) Possibly the deposition of the
frothy matter takes place at intervals, and
the part which is not dried, is that which

last secreted ?

Each Leech produces two cocoons, rarely

Every cocoon encloses from ten to eighteen
jgs. Chatelain has counted as many as
twenty-one, and Charpeutier twenty-six.

The eggs are hatched between the twenty-
fifth and twenty-eighth day. (Aeliard, Chate-
lain.) The temperature seems to exercise
some influence on their development. At this
time the young l.rrr.hm force oft' the flaps or
opereula at the extremities of the capsule,
pass through the spongy tissue, sometimes
winding their way through the different
laminre, and emerge at various parts of the
surface.

At birth the leeches are about £l
inch in length. They are filiform, transpa-
rent, of an ashen colour approaching to
white; scfmehuveaivililishcast. Theireyes
are easily distinguished at the end of a few
days ; the dorsal banda or spots make their
appearance ; and by degrees the young
animal assumes the livery of its parents.
During the first days, when the young
Leeches are alarmed or are pursued by
their enemies, they return to their cocoon
and hide themselves in the spongy tissue.

1. Species, — Writers have described
not less than fifty different species of
Leeches; many of these are, nowever,
mere varieties mil. distincUv characterized.
In a recent work the number is reduced
to seventeen, and even of these more than
half are still very imperfectly known.

There are three principal varieties of
Leeches employed in France. These are :
1st, The Greg Leech; 2 ._, .
Green Leech. Leech ; 3rd, The Dragon Leech. The fol-
lowing iB a summary of their characters :

spotted. not spotted.
Grey Leech 2. Green Leech. 3, Dragon Leech.
[Trm EnffHsii «■

1. The Grey or Medicinal Leech,
Hirudo medicinalis, Linn., Saiignixiigu
mediciiialk, Sav., (fig. 30) is an inhabitant
of Europe and certain parts of northern
Africa. The body is olive green, mixed
with grey. On the back are six rusty
red longitudinal stripes ; the sides are
olive green. The helly is spotted with
black.

2. The Green- or officinal Leech, Hirudo
qfficiitalis, Moq., Sanguuvga officinalis,

DZ^on Leech. Sav., (fig. 36) is found in the same

genera
Bangui

LUOSM. 141

localities as the former, The body is of a dear "live or green

'aur. The hack has ai.\ rusty red longitudinal bands,

ierally continuous. The margins are of an olive colour

on the back and on the belly. This species differs but

liltli' from the Grey Leech.

The Dragon or 2V(iirf Leech, IJinidn tencfina, Johns.,
^ iiUiu/ii in/rrri'p/,1, Jtoij., (iig. 37,) in found in Algeria and
the "whole of Baroary. The body is of a clear brilliant green
colour. The hack has bii rows of spots, which are generally
very distinct ; the margins are of an orange or reddish colour.
The belly is sometimes apotted with black, sometimes not.

The last species has been long regarded as being of an in-
ferior quality ; Init recent experiments have shown that it is
quite us mmrl as the Grey Leech. (Milton, Tripier.)

These three leeches offer numerous varieties, which have been
described in special monographs on the subject. The colours
of the bands, the way in which they are intercepted, and the
form of the spots, have been made the ground for giving a
number of names which are quite undeserving of serious
attention. The climate, the water, and the soil seem to in-
fluence these points of difference. Leeches are Bometimes
named after the country from which they come ; thus we have
the Spanish, the Portuguese, the Hungarian, the African, the
Algerian, and the Morocco Leech. The merchants divide the
Leeches into /mm//, middle nzed, and large. The very small arc
called threads (filet*); those which are just born sprouts
(tjerutemtmt); and the very large ones cows {niches).

The dealers nl'l en gorge the Lrrchc*. be fore selling them, with
blood from the slaughter-houses, and thus convert the JileU
into small ones, and the small ones into the middle-sized.

Smut' years hack, under the name of Haimenteria, M. Fillippi
introduced a new genua of American Hirundinidre, which
differs from the ordinary Leeches in the structure of the mouth;
this organ is provided with a stiff, pointed, small, protrusile
sucker instead of the three jaws. This learned zoologist has
described three species: the llwmenteria Ghi/i.iiii, 11, Mcxicanu,
" H. officinalis. The first is found in the river Amazon, the
r two in Mexico. The advantages offered by these species
be referred to subsequently.
2. Action on Man. — It has been long known that Leeches
a pierce the skin of man, and of other vertebrata, for the
purpose of sucking their blood. The attention of observers
was directed at a very early period to the organs with which
these creatures are enabled to inflict their wounds. But the

descn
and/

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

lieroBcope or
seek arc very

first naturalists were unprovided either with the microscope
the magnifying glass, and these organs of the Leech
small and deep-seated.

Arnaud de Velleneuve believed that the Grey Leech had a
small prohoscis in its mouth, similar to that of the Gnats ;
Gesner supposed that it was armed with a cleft and tubular
tongue. Poupart imagined that the animal had no cutting
instruments, and that it caused deep lacerations by a violent
sucking action. Rondelet is one of the first who pointed out
the presence of three small teeth or jaws ; his knowledge of
them was, however, very imperfect. Muralto examined them
more carefully. Dom Allou, Morand, Eraun, Kunzemann,
and Brandt have described the jaws of the Leech more or less
correctly.

1. Jams (38). — The jaws of the Leech are three in number
placed longitudinally : one superior and median, two others
inferior and lateral. If the oral sucker is laid open, these
organs are found closely approximated at their posterior ex-
tremity and diverging at their anterior.

The jaws of the Leech are semicircular, thin, cartilaginous,
moderately strong, smooth and whitish bodies, having one
straight margin, which is fixed, and provided with a process
firmly imbedded in the muscles, while a second margin is free,
rounded, and cutting.

The process enlarges after its commencement, but is not
branched. The convex border is

JHk^ /v I 1 '/V anvnigfd i.-We together. Dom

w'' : 'tm \ vilii^ '"■' All. in mill Careua Ixilievcd there

■PV IvIKHB? Were tW0 r ° WS "*' teet ^ ' t ' U8 '

WJSSmj however, was an optical illusion,
jif-il lllWHf/ caused by the curious form of

these small bodies. M Brandt
has only represented thirty-five
teeth ; the writer has counted
from forty-six to eighty-three ;
' ie average number is from sixty-
s to sixty-seven. These teeth
chevron -shaped like the letter V reversed ; they are ar-
ranged parallel to each other and are placed across the cutting
edge of the jaw (fig. 38), having their angle turned towards

1 n, oral undif/r : il. onil sm.'ker 0| >•:"'« 1 i" slimy i"t (lirec jnwi ; c, jaw
magnified, seen in profile: d, portion of a. jaw highly magnified, su as io
show the ehevmn.4n&ped denticles.

Fig. 3B.— Jaw, of a leech. 1

LEECHES. 143

the axis of the mouth. Viewed sideways, the teeth appear
like a number of elongated processes, blunted and swollen at
pointed at their summits, and arranged symmetri-
cally like the teeth of a comb, but with a slightly radiated dis-
position. Viewed from above, and under a low magnifying
power, their basal enlargements appear like two rows i "
parallel projections.

The denticles are unequal in size, the smallest being placed
anteriorly. They increase in volume from before backwards,
that is to say, towards the deepest part of the mouth. The
two extremities of the jaws have no teeth. These denticles
have been compared physiologically to the incisors of
mammalia.

The jaws arc lodged in a kind of depression of which the
margins barely rise above them.

Eaeh jaw is provided at its base with a small fasciculus o
muscular fibres, which diverge backwards and are intermingled
With the muscles of the pharynx (fig. 38, b).

There is also observed m the tissue of these organs fibres, some
of which are transverse and pass from one extremity to the
other, while others are longitudinal and oblique, and pass
from cnrli denticle to the base of the jaw.

A little in front of the jaws, in the interior of the sucker,
is a strong tendinous ring, which forms the circumference of
the mouth.

2. The manner of biting. — When the Leech is about to bite

elongates the oral sucker ; it then contracts the extremity
the two lips, which become everted. The upper is a little

■re shortened than the lower, so that the organ ceases to be
longated, and becomes more or less circular.

The Leech then draws a small papiliform piece of the skin
into its mouth. (Poupart.)

The three jaws are brought forwards; they emerge from
ses, and are closely applied against the liille papiliform
of the skin. The muscular tibrea of the sucker and
tendinous ring on its inner surface then contract and act
■nately. At the same time, the special muscles of the
jaws draw them forcibly from before backwards, and the pro-
cess of skin is wounded in three places.

The denticles at the posterior extremity commence the
incision, these being the strongest and the sharpest.

The points of resistance are the rings of the sucker which
at that time are drawn very closely together, and are firmly
applied to the surface of the skin.

the n:

it elc
of th
more
elong
Th

The

•lterm
jaws d

144

Mf.iucAii zfDi.nor.

wheels cut in
;han those of

In biting, the jaws act like small dentated wheels
halves, op like very line curved saws.

The teeth of the Leech being so much Bofter than thoBe of
other animals, one is surprised to Hud bodies which have so
little firmness producing such deep incisions. BlainviHe thinks
that the fibrous cartilaginous tissue of the dentieleB owes its
rigidity to the contraction of their muscular fibres, and this
opinion is probably correct. If the transverse fibres and the
longitudinal fibres, which cross them, are made to contract at
the same time, the jaw must necessarily become rigid. More-
over, the longitudinal tibreB passing obliquely, the effect of
their contraction must be to elevate and render the points of
the chevron-shaped denticles more projecting.

The person wno is bitten has at first a sensation of pressure
on the part where tho Leech has fixed itself. This increases,
and is soon followed by a sharp acute pain, resembling a com-
bination of pricking and tearing.

3. The wound. — The wound of the Leech has a triradiate
form produced by the three linear incisions, uniting in a com-
mon centre, and forming three nearly equal

gles with each other (fig. 39). Aldrovandus
. uja given a perfectly correct description of the
fc;,v; wound. 1

In consequence of the lines enlarging towards

the centre, and their margins being somewhat

undulating (the wound being rather jagged than

Leedi-bite. cleanly cut), and as the little crust which covers

them passes slightly beyond their edges, it often

happens that the three angles are partially filled up, and the

wound becomes somewhat of a triangular form.

Sometimes the wound inflames and loses its proper form ;
it may also give rise to a slight suppuration, or even to a
partial erysipelaB.

The HiEmenteria which have been mentioned previously do
not produce a true bite. According to the experiments of M.
Craveri, their wound is small and have* no traces behind. (!)

4. Suction. — After a Leech has punctured the skin, the
mouth, aided by the muscular fibres which constitute the
sucker, and especially the ring by which it is surrounded, per-
forms the act of suction.

Morand pretends that the anterior sucker acts like a pump,
and that it is aided by the tongue, which performs the part of

1 " Htlgendo Iri'in'ur,: vulnum HifMI tmprimunt, ita ul radii ab una centra
terni eeque distant!* procedant."

GSSCHXa. 145

a piston. Unfortunately for this explanation Leeches have
no tongue ; Morand having mistaken tor the latter organ the
sulxesophagenl ganglia placed mii tin- estorinr of t hi' O'sophanus,

Durondeau believed that the whole of the digestive system
from the tail to the head served to draw tlie blood. But one
simple fact suffi ces to destroy this theory ; it is this — that when
a Leech is cut in two, it will still continue to perform the act
of suction. Moreover, the structure of the alimentary canal is
physically opposed to this i;cueral not of iiribibition.

The experiments of Sway ne and Johnson have shown that
in the operation of which we are speaking the animal does not
withdraw its jaws from the wound, as many writers have
asserted. We admit this fact, which we have also verified,
but we believe that the muscular fibres which draw the jaws
backwards and press them together towards a common centre,
relax a little, the jaws then return to the beginning of the in-
cisions, and as they diverge leave the centre of the wound
exposed. This part of the wound is the largest and the
deepest, and is that which principally furnishes the current of
blood.

3. The quantity of liloo/l drawn. — Writers have never been
agreed as to the quantity of blood which a Leech is capable of
drawing.

Tyson remarks that this animal eats more than its own
weight at a meal. He compares it to a silk- worm, which, in the
course of a day, will consume a quantity of leaves of a greater
weight than its own body.

Bay says, that a Leech weighing 130 grs. will suck up three
times that quantity of blood ; while Adanson states that one
weighing 30 grs. will absorb 240 grs., that is to say, eight
times its own weight. Simon Bonnet believed the average
quantity to be from 92 grs. to 138 grs. ; but as a considerable
quantity of blood oozes from the wound, if left to itself the
patient probably loses from 118 grs. to 277 grs. of blood.
According to M. Alpliouse Sanson one Leech will consume
247 grs. ; according to my own calculations it would he
231 grs.

Braun has remarked that the quantity of blood sucked up
does not increase in proportion to the size of the animal.
According to this writer a young Leech will consume three
times its weight, and a full-grown one only twice its weight.
According to M. Alphonse Sanson the small will consume
three times aud four-fifths ; the middle sized small four times
and two-thirds ; the middle sized large seven times ; and the

MEDICAL KOIIMKIV.

146

large five times and one-third of their own weight. I havi
repeated these experiments with the following results.
Sanson experimented on six individuals ; my calculations fire
based upon the results obtained from twentv individuals.
Small Leeches, two and a half times; the small middle-si zed,
four times ; the large middle-sized, five and a half times ; and
the large, live times and one eleventh part of their own weight.
We find, therefore, that the middle sized large Leechet are
those which relatively consume the largest quantity of blood.

[Pereira says, " the quantity of blood a leech is capable of
drawing varies considerably. 1 believe four drachms to be the
maximum. On an average I do not think we ought to
estimate it at more than one drachm and a half. Of course
this has no reference to that lust after the animal has fallen
off, which varies according to the vascularity of the part ; in
children being oftentimes very considerable. When the leech
has had sufficient it drops off; but it is said if the tail be
snipped, the animal will continue to bite, the blood passing
out posteriorly as fast as it is taken in by the mouth. I have
tried several, but they usually let go their hold the instant the
tail iB cut. H. Cloquet has made the same remark.] 1

These results, however, will vary with the species and race
of Leech employed; according also as to whether the indi-
viduals are strong or unheal thy ; as to whether they are par-
tially gorged or not, and also as to whether they have come
direct from the waters of their native marshes, or from the
artificial reservoir of a chemist's shop.

The digestive system of the Leech consists of eleven pairs
of gastric pouches. These pouches increase in Bize as they
proceed backwards, the last pair being very much larger
than those which precede them. Tliis arrangement accounts
for the large quantity of blood which these animals are capable
of retaining.

For a long time it was the custom to throw away all
Leeches which had been used, but they are now disgorged and
preserved for a future occasion. This disgorgement can be
accomplished in various ways, as with salt, alum, sugar, ashes,
tobacco, ipecacuanha, chalk, lime, charcoal, sawdust; or with
salt and water, sea water, dilute vinegar, wine, beer, infusion
of absinth, &c. Some have recommended friction, pressure,
or even puiietm-iui: the animal. One of llie best methods of
disgorgement is to place the Leeches in a solution composed of

' Pereira, Materia Medico, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 2197, 3rd ed. Loadon, 1853.

T.ELCHEK. 147

teen parts of sea salt to one hundred of water at a tempera-
; of between 104" Fall, and 1 13" Fah. The Leeches are
l pressed gently, and afterwards placed in freah water,

in some places the Leeches are simply thrown into the re-
servoirs, where they are left l'or some months.

The gorged Leeches are excellent for the purpose of repro-
duction.

3. HiurDisicoLTuitE. — The enormous consumption of
Leeches and their increasing scarceness have induced persona
to rear them artificially, Hirudinieulture has for some years
been an important branch of cam n nice, particularly in the
Gironde and some other districts of the southern departments.

The Leeches are placed in large ai'tinViiil marshes, in which
the water is always Kept at a uniform level. Care is taken to
place a supply of clay or of peat at the bottom and on the
margins. Aquatic plants are also provided for the puriiiea-
tion of the water and on which the Leeches can ml) them-
selves or take refiige.

M. Vayson, of Bordeaux, has recently suggested a smnll
domestic marsh (avai/sonier), which will be exceedingly useful
to the pharmaceutist and to persons who are desirous of
raising Leeches on a small scale. This apparatus consists of
a common earthen vessel, having the form of a truncated eone
reversed. The lower part is perforated by a number of holes,
but not so large as to allow of the Leeches passing through
them; the vessel is then rilled with peat earth, and a number
of Leeches are placed upon it. which embed themselves in the
earth. The upper opeuiiu; of the vessel is then covered up
with a piece of coarse canvas. WLen it is desired to send
the leeches to a distance the earth is made as damp as possi-
ble, and the vessel is packed in a box or wicker basket.
When it is only wanted to preserve the animals, the lower
part of the vessel Js placed in water to the depth of about four
inches, and the creatures are left to themselves. In conse-
quence of the infiltration, the lower liivers of the peat are soon
saturated with water, while the upper portiou is almost dry.
The Leeches know perfectly well how to choose between these
two extremes the layer which is best adapted for them, and
form in it galleries, in which they live, grow, and produce
their cocoons. The vagsonier will answer both for the pre-

rvation, the conveyance, and reproduction of the Leeches.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

Galls ' are excrescences or growths of the tissues of plants
arising from the puncture of certain insects, and which are
destined to lodge and nourish their larva. These excrescences
are hollow and consist of an astringent tissue.

They may be divided into two kinds : 1. Galls; 2. Case*.

The first are more or less of a round form, have very thick
waUs, and are produced by different species of Ci/nifs.

The seeond are more or lesB elongated, have very thin walls,
and are produced by different species of Aphides.

1. Crutps. — The Cj/nips are minute Hymenoptera, belong-
ing to the subdivision Terebrantia and to the family Pupivora.

These insects have the head very small and the thorax
dilated superiorly ; they look aB if they were deformed ; the
abdomen ib compressed into a keel and cutting on its under
surface, obliquely truncated, and obtuse at its termination.

The Cynips puncture the plants by means of a Bpeeial in-
strument; and introduce one or several eggs into the small
cavity they have formed. The eggn soou increase in size ; the
larvae have no feet, but are often provided with fleshy tubercles
in place of them. The larvae are enclosed in the gall, which,
grows around them, and where they remain for five or six
months; some of them undergo their metamorphoses in this
kind of prison, while others issue forth ami bury themselves in
the earth.

Oynipn of the common f/'rfl—l'i/iu/hi i/allwtinctoria, Linn.
(tig. 40). — This is oue of the most interesting of these small
insects. It is of a pale yellow colour, and is covered with
a whitish silky down ; the under surface of the abdomen is
black and shining ; the nervures of the anterior wings are

Terebra (fig. 41). — The instrument by means of which the
insect punctures the plant and produces the gall is only
present in the female. It is a kind of auger or borer placed
at the extremity of the body, having a curved form, and lodged

1 These formations belong to botany as well as to zoology.

in the interior of the abdomen ; its posterior extremity
i beneath the anus, in a centra] canal, between two long

ty ia

long

half sheath. The borer

Fig. 40.— Cynipt.

Fig. 11.— Terebra of Cynipt}

if it consisted of a single and very delicate seta
ifttreille), but when magnified it is seen to be composed of

_ree capillary pointed thread*, of which the central is some-

•hat longer than the two lateral.
The Cyiilps thrust this instrument into the tissues of the

When a twig or a leaf has been punctured, the nutrient
juices flow towards the wound, and an excrescence is formed,
which gradually increases iu Bize and hardness.

2. G alls .—There are few plants which do not have galls,
but they are found more especially on the oak, poplar, elm,
birch, pine, rose-tree, ivy, Ac.

These excrescences have sometimes only a single cavity, in-
habited by one larva ; at other times there are several cavities,
either communicating with each other or separate, and form-
ing the dwelling-places of a similar number of larva. The
larva gradually consume the interior of their house, without
however destroying it, as the latter continues to increase m
proportion to the growth of the insect.

Eeaumur noticed that the kind of insect exercised great
influence over the form and consistency of the gall, so that
where there are several of these excrescences growing on the
same leaf, some may be woody, others herbaceous ; some
smooth or tuberculated, while others are granulated or haired.

In a medical point of view galls mav lie divided into the
or true gttlfo and into the Iitiiri/ i/a'lh or beJcgua&t.
True yulh. — These well-known productions are of a more

1 A, extremity of the abdomen, mainlined : n, terclirn ; h. the valves; B,
B teriilira separate and still more magnified ; a, the three threads of the
relira ; b b, the valves.

or loss rounded form, regular or irregular hi shape, and
or less solid. The best known is the Aleppo gall 1 (fig. +2),
whieh is found on the dyers' oak. Querent infectoria. It is
produced by the species of Cynips which has been previously
spoken of. This gall is about the size of a nut ; it is heai-y,
and of a globular form ; the surface is smooth, but presents
here and there some irregular tubercles. Its colour is a
blackish or yellowish green ; it has strong astringent pro-
perties. Care is taken to gather the gull before the insect
has escaped.

The galh, which are left on the trees, and which are col-
lected after the escape of the Cynips, may be recognized by
the presence of a round hole, which is made by the insect, and
by their lightness. These galls are only slightly astringent,
and are of a liuhler ci.dmir ('white mills). The best galls come
from Syria ; those of Smyrna or the Morea are larger, but
lighter, and not so good in quality.

"When a gull is cut through there is seen — I, a Bmall cavity
in the centre, in which is the larva ; 2, a not very thick,
light, spongy layer, of u yellow or brown colour in its sub-
stance, but white at the surface around the central cavity ;
this layer contains a small quantity of starch (G-uibourt), and
appears intended for the nourishment of the insect ; 3, three
or four large cavities, which appear to be formed by the
separation or folding together of certain fleshy curved scales;
these provide 1'or the respiration of the larva ; 4, another sub-
stance which is present in la rue quantities, and has ft compact
radiating structure, which when magnified is seen to be made
up of shining particles ; 5, an external green layer containing
chlorophus and a volatile oil.

The different species of oak produce a great number of galls
more or less resembling the common '/nil,'' Some of these have
been carefully examined.

The smooth ijull. which .Reaumur termed gall of the petiole
of the oak, grows on the young branches of the English oak
{Querout setstfhra, Smith), in the neighbourhood of Paris, and
on those of the Qirn-cnn I'gmtitictr, Willd., near Bordeaux. It
is from T 6 „ to T "g of an inch in diameter ; it is light, spherical,
without tubercles, of a reddish colour, and of a spongy texture.

1 Commonly called natiiull, i"iiaier'.i ■/•'<'/. Luanl ijall, and black or green

* The other pills 'niv (lidr nrij-'iutu (liferent species of Cynips; amongst
f hem ie that of the common oak (C quercut folii, Linn.), and that of the
C. i/nercta toga: of Fabricius.

^^m

OALLS. 1-31

Sometimes it contains only a single cavity, while at other
timea there are three- or four, and the fame number of ('i/iii/is.
With this species may he associated the round galls on
the leaves of the oak, those which Beaamor terms ou rnmt
galls, and the gooseberry seed i/olh, which onlv did'er in respect
to their size.

a nux

Fig. 42.— Common Gall.

The crowned gall \s probably produced hy the buds being
puncturing at an early stage of their development. Its form
is spherical, and it has a short pedicle ; ithove there is a, crown
of blunt spines or tubereleB. Sueh is the small crowned gall of
Aleppo.

The. horned gaM of M. Guibourt appears as if it were attached
by its centre to a very young branch. It is irregular, and seems
to be formed by the union of several bodies, which are dilated
at their bases, and horned at their summits. It is light,
woody, of a yellowish colour, and hollowed internally into
a number of chambers, each of which is surrounded by a

air chambers ; ij, radiated nub-

152 MEDICAL ZOOLOHY.

radiating substance. Each chamber opens externally by a
separate aperture.

The gall of Hungary, called also gall of Piedmont, is an
irregular excrescence, which grows, un the nvorn of the English
oak, after the ovary has been fee undated. The gall sometimes
occupies half the cup, while the remainder of the acorn growB
beside it ; at other times, it occupies the whole cup. In the
centre of the gall is a small cavity, surrounded by a layer of
half-woody matter ; air enters the cavity from its summit.

The xf/uti in 011.1 i/ti/l, which Reaumur called artichoke gall, is
also found on the English oak. It resembles the cone of the
hop; it arises from the abnormal development of the in-
vofucrum of the female flower previous to fecundation.
Internally, there is a kind of woody receptacle, which Reaumur
compared to the lower part of the artichoke ; this also arises
from the excessive development of the base of the involuerum.
The receptacle projects slightly at the margin, which gives it a
cup-like appearance. 1

The characters of the several galls which have been men-
tioned might be arranged as follows : —

! (tubercular . . 1. Aleppo,

spherical ■? non-

(_ tubercular . . 2. Smooth.

spherical S. Croimtd.

G* 11 ^ / -^.^i., (with horns i. Hiyrneii.

! irregular j without homB 5 . Hungarian.

Several 6. Squamous.

Nutgalls contain tannin, gallic, ellagic, and luteogallic
acids; chlorophyl, a volatile oil, extractive matter, woody
fibre, gum, starch, liquid sugar, albumen, and various salts,
amongst others the failures of potash and lime, Berzeliua also
admits the presence of a small quantity of pectic acid, and
combined with the tannin.

M. Pelou/.e has carefully studied the tannin obtained from
nutgalls. It is a solid, coluurlesn. inodorous, non-cry stallizablB
substance; it has an astringent but not bitter taste; it red-
dens litmus ; it is very soluble in water, but scarcely at all so
in ether ; and it gives a black or green precipitate with the

' Tour no lb rl siaics that ;u- S.du the ir;ill- t.f Sulria pnmifcra, Linn., ore
colk'tlu'l I"! - Lin: |nir[i'W i>! iiuikiii" i kliiil »!' Mrariineitt ufthcrn. Accord-
ing to Lesson the name might he done with those of the ground ivy
{Glechoma hederacea, Linn.),

153

salts of the peroxide of iron. It is one of the most powerful
astringents known.

Nutgalls or tannin are made into pills, into an ointment, an
electuary, and into various drinks and gargles; from them is
prepared the antihtemoi't'hoidal ointment of Cullen, and a
powder for the purposes of embalming.

[There are three preparations of galls ordered in the.
Pharmacopoeia.

1. Df.coctfm GAi.t.-E, Decoction of Gnl/s. — Bruised galls
Jijss; distilled water Oij. Boil down to a pint and strain.
Employed its a chemical antidote and teat.

2. Tisctuha Gali-e, Tincture of OalU.- — Bruised galls Jv ;
proof spirit Oij. Macerate for seven days, then press and
Btrain. A powerful astringent. Dose from f3ss. to f3ij.
Diluted with water, it forms a useful and convenient astrin-
gent, gargle, and wash. (Pereira.)

3. UtJGUENTUM G-ALL.e Oompositum, Compound oint-
ment of Gulls. — Finely powdered nut-galls jvj; lard Ivj.
powdered opium 3iss. Rub together. Astringent. Used in
nremorrhoidal affections. Mixed, says Pereira, with zinc oint-
ment it is applied to piles after the inflammatory stage is
passed.]

2. Bedeguars? — This name is given to galls which are
covered with numerous close-set fibres or hairs.

The bedtguars which are best known are those of the rose
tree; they are caused by the Cynipa route of Linnffius (Diplo-
levis roxit, Oliv.), a small liynicnoptei'ous insect of a shining
black colour, with the feet and abdomen, excepting at its ter-
mination, of a feruginous brown colour ; the wings are trans-
Earent, and of a smoky hue.* MM. Brandt and Ratzebourg
ave given a good description of them.

The bedegaare are round or oval, more or less irregular, ex-
crescences, sometimes resembling medlars (Blanchard); they
are covered with filiform or scale-like processes ; they are often
branched, and are of a green, reddish, or purple colour. In
the interior are a number of larva* living in separate cells,
which are each provided with hard thick walls ; in these the
insects pass the winter as pupa).

' Commonly calli'il st.fi ripi-lcs, »r vferctiil.lc sponges. [In soma parts of
England they arc railed liohin's cushion.]

3 In these e.Miv.-ci'ruc^ ihi!vc i» often found the Di/iMepit bedtgaris of

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

Formerly bedeguars were employed in medicine on account
of their stringent properties.

§ II. Cases.

The eases or vesirlrs (follkuli, Linn.) not only differ from tl
galls by their less rounded form, their thinness, and the kind
of insect which gives rise to them, but also with regard t
their cavity, which is always much larger, and is capable <
containing an entire colony of the insects.

1. AtHinns. — The aphides or plant-lice which reside L
the cases are small hemiptera, belonging to the subdivision
Homoptera, and to the family of the Hymenelytra.

The body is soft and ovate ; the head small, with the antennas
longer than the body ; the second segment of the thorax is
large and elevated ; the elytra and the wings membranous.
At the extremity of the abdomen are two hollow tubercles, from
which a saccharine fluid is discharged.

These insects feed upon the juices of the plants, upon which
they live in large numbers. In spring and summer eacb
colony contains demi-pupa. which are apterous, but afterwards
acquire wings, and other individuals who are always apterous.
All these individuals are females, who are ovoviviparous without
previous copulation. The ytiung emerge from the posterior
part of the abdomen of the mother. The males only ap-
pear towards the close of summer ; these are also apterous ;
they impregnate the last generation, which is produced by
the preceding individuals; these impregnated females are ovi-
parous. The influence of a single impregnation extends over
several generations to the number of eight or nine. (Bonnet,
Duvau.)

The Aphides multiply enormously. Reaumur calculated
that five generations proceeding from a single mother, if no
obstacle intervened, might give rise to the astounding number
of 5,904,900,000 individuals.

■Rerfram,— This organ, which is nearly perpendicular, arises
from the loader surface of the head, between the anterior
pair of limbs ; it is composed of three joints. The animal
uses it to puncture the leaves and young twigs of the plant. 1

2. Casus. — One of the must curious of these formations is that
which is known as the Chinese gall (fig. 44).*

1 The disease of certain trees, known as ,
ferent species of Aphides.
* In China it is commonly called Yea-fou-

', ia produced by dif-

o a 1,1.8. 155

his case grows on the leaves of DUU/Uum rccrmoswn, Zucc., 1
;ree of Japan, belonging to the family hamamelida.
se,)- According to M. Guibourt it is also developed
ids of the tree.

The insect which produces these cases belongs to the genus
Aphis, or to one which is closely allied to it (Doubleday) ; it
has been named Aphis Ohitumnt, Bell.

It is a minute ovate insect, truncated posteriorly with
moderut ' '

The
size, ott

erately long antenna?, composed of five unequal joints.
-' ". ches '

Chinese Galls are large : some equal a (
, others the closed hand. (Duhalde.)
Their form is an irregular oblong, with
angular protuberances, which sometimes
have the appearance of horns ; some are
single, others are bifurcated, and occasion-
ally they are divided into ttu-ee or more
lobes. The colour of these eases is at
first a dull green, it then becomesyellow,
and ultimately of a reddish <;rey. Thesur-
. face has a soft feel like that of velvet;
when examined by a lens it is seen to be
covered with a very short compact down.
The cavity of the excrescence isvery large,
arising from the thinness of its walls
{vj t° A °f an ' nt 'h). The tissue of
which it is composed is firm, hard, and
brittle. When one of these galls is broken
it has a whitish, translucent, and re-
6 ino us appearance. Its taste is astringent
without any flavour or smell of resin.
(Guibourt.) The inner surface is covered Fig. 44.— Chinese Gall.
with a substance, having ,i ihalky appearance. (Pereira.) In
the interior is found the remains of a large number of Aphides.
The Chinese gulls are gathered in before the occurrence oi frost ;
the insects which they contain are destroyed by exposing them
to the vapour of boiling water.

These cases are of great use, and are held in high estimation
in China as a powerful astringent, not only for medical pur-
poses, but also for dyeing.

Allied to the ('hiix-xr yttllx are m-la in excrescences which are
found in the East, and also in the South of France, and which
are produced by another species of Aphis .- these are the

' Commonly called in Japan Ou pey-tse, Ou-pti-tse, Woo-pti-tse.
* According to M. Seheuk it is a torcirinthaccu), tlio Rhus semiatuta,
Murr. viir. Osbtkii DC.

156

MEDICAL ZOOLOliV.

s of the pistadas. These false gallB are found on

the Pistacia vera, P. Terehinlhus, and the

^ P. Len/inem. The insect which produces

^fc themiathe Jp/ii* Pistacia:, Linn., a small

^^g black insect, with a roughened thorax,

?s from the piBtacias are at first
if a green and afterwards of a red colour,
nammelnted, light, with a turpentine
lavour, and very astringent.

They are distinguished into three kinds,
according to their form : the riliauote,
which grow at the extremity of the
tranches ; the globular, which occur on
the peduncles; and those which are formed
like a cushion on the surface of the
leaves. The first are sometimes three
nches in length and resemble the pod
■i' a leguminous plant. They are known
n Judea under the name of caroub.
The second and third often resemble the
fruit of the turpentine tree. These are
known under the name of baisonges?

These excrescences are eaten by the
inhabitants of the East. They are often
employed as a substitute for the common
Fig.45.— Turpentine GalL g a U 8j a, ne l they are also used as a red dye.

CHAPTER VI.

THE TEEHALA.

The trehala or tric/tla 3 is a singular case which is well known
at Constantinople and in some some parts of the East.

At the last great exhibition some of these cases were sent
from Turkey by M. Delia Sudda as a particular Bpecies of
Tttarnm, without any other explanation appended to them than
the word trehala.

This production is described in the Persiau Pharmacopceia

1 It is probable that. Linnieus has included several species under the same
name, ami that this character is peculiar to the tentiscus.

' In the Levant the Arabs call theru egi, emji. or basengi, and the Turks
badienge.

GALLS. 157

of brother Ange, of Toulouse, under the name of sehakar tigal,
which means sugar of nests.

It was at first supposed that the trehala was obtained from
an onopordon. It was afterwards jisiTrtuiiii'd that it grows on
the branches of a Syrian echinope. ( Deoaune.) It is produced
by an insect, and is found principally in the desert between
Aleppo and Bagdad. (Bourlier.)

1. Larinus.— This insect is neither a Cynips nor an Aphis,
but a tetrameroua Coleoptera belonging to the family Khyn-
cophora. It belongs to the genus Larinus, and has been
named by M. Chevrolat Larinus subrugosus. It is closely
allied to the Larinus onopordoms, Germ.

The Larinus subritgoxus (fig, tii) is of an oblong form and of
a black colour. It has a projecting snout, to the middle of
which the antenna? are attached. The elytra cover the whole
of the posterior part of the abdomen ; they are oblong, and
terminate each in a soil and slightly recurred point. Their
surface is marked by ten punctated lines, which commence at
the anterior margin aud unite before reaching the opposite ex-
tremity .

. ill.— Larinus rftlie Trehala.'

Pi s

47. -Trehala.'

2. The Case (fig. 47).— Thi

i is

an oval form,

and

a, the case; A, Ijirinw subrugnsas a
a, trehala before the escape of the in

the

ft, a

of its escape,
vertical section of

neof

158 MEDICAL zoOLoar.

attached in the direction of" its length to a branch of the t
Its greatest diameter measures from T fi LI to -^ of ail inch in
length; its external surface is very irregular, and of a light
grey colour. The under surface in. flattened and marked by a
deep groove where it was attached to the branch. When
separated a large circular hole is found at one extremity, by
which the insert escaped.

The cavity of the trehrfa is large, and the perfect insect is
often found in it just ready to escape.

The internal surface is smooth and of a whitish or reddish
colour.

Its tissue is not very thick ; it is irregular, hard, and h
amylaceous appearance. It cracks when bitten, has a sweet
taste, and yields mucilage.

In water at the onlinarv temperature the /rflmla swells, but
only partially dissolves, and changes into a mucilaginous mass.
Iodine changes it to a blue colour, and in some caBes to that
of red wi

Analysis shows that it contains gum, a particular kind of
starch which is much less soluble in water thau that from the
potato, and a new kind of erystallizablo sugar, analogous to
that from the sugar-cane, but much more solid; M. Berthelot
has given this the name of trehalose.

It is during tln L larval stage of ils existence that the Larinut
xiibriHjomix constructs this curious kind of case.

Does the treltala result solely from a wound inflicted by the
insect '! Is it au excrescence similar tn the galls produced by
the Cynipicbe, and to the cases uf the \ pliules ? or is it a nest
which is made by the Liirinttx ? M. Guibourt admits the
second mode as the way in which it is formed. A circum-
stance which supports this opinion is the fact that the trehala
is not attached by a point or a pedicle like the galls, but is
fixed along its whole length by the groove which embraces the
point of Bupport. It appears that the larva of the Larimts
collects a considerable quiintity of saccharine and amylaceous
matter, which il procures from the echiuops, and that it con-
structs its dwelling by disgorging this matter and moulding it
with its rostrum.

M. Uourlier thinks that the format inn of the sugar, which is
found in the case, might he explained by the presence of albu-
minous matters in the saliva with which the insect binds
together the starchy materials.

Brother Ange and M. Guibourt think that the nest serves
the Larinus for a habitation during the whole of iis life ; 1

BONB, 159

am. however, inclined to believe with M, li'mrlier, that the
insect emerges after it bus assumed its perfect form." If it
were otherwise, how could copulation take place, since each
ease contains only one individual r 1 Moreover, most of the
nests which I have examined were pierced at one end and
were empty.

The trehalas are generally collected before the animal has
eseaped.

In Turkey and Syria a decoction ia made of the nests of the
Larinus by breaking up about an ounce of them, placing the
pieces in a pint and a half of boiling water, and stirring them
for a quarter of an hour. This preparation is given to persona
in affections of the respiratory organs, particularly those who
are attacked with bronchitis.

The treha/a is also employed as food. The use of it is as
niversal in the East as that of salep and tapioca is in Trance. 1

Thbke are certain animal productions which are made use
f rather as food than as remedies, and are interesting as a
latter of hygiene rather than of therapeutics. It is true they
sometimes enter inio the formation of various medicines, but
it is only as the medium through which the more active
principles are administered ; some of them are used merely to
tract, clarify, or colour other medicines.
These substances may he arranged under twelve heads : 1st,
ips; 2nd, blood; 3rd, flesh; 4th, albumen; 6th, gelatine ;
\,fat; 7th, oil; 8th, milk; i)th, eggs ; 10th, honey; 11th,
| 12th, the hair, and other corneous parts.

§ L Botes,

Bojiet are employed in the manufacture of gelatine. There
are two methods of extracting it. The first, which is the pro-
cess of Papin, consists in breaking the bones in pieces and

' A closely allied insect, the Larinus admtalyirus of I kjoaD, out of wliich
B gt'UUB Rhiwedha hnn been formed, km obtained a reputation an an
""*"'). (Gerbi, l.alreille.) Suijii: swedes of f'araliiih-. (.'/»■ wi'mii'/iJh-,
'nrtlidir have lie.'u uieiilioued ad possui-siiu; similar [irq per tits.
lori, Hirsch.)

ICO

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

boiling them at a temperature over 212° Fan. ; thiB is done b
placing them in ;ili lip-tight Teasel k'nncd a digester. [If sue!
a vessel is hall- filled with water and exposed to the heat o" "
fire, the steam which is formed baa no means of escape, i
therefore presses upon the water and prevents the further
formation of steam till the temperature of the water i
above the boiling point]. In the second, the chondral is
deprived of the phosphate and carbonate of lime by the action
dilute hydrochloric acid, and ia afterwards converted intc
gelatine by prolonged boiling under the ordinary pressure c
the atmosphere. This method is not so good as the former.

When bone* are calcined in closed vessels they leave 1
residuum of chare.™!, and about seven tenths of their weight
of calcareous salts. This charcoal is known as animal charcoal
or bone black. It ia impregnated with sulphuret of calcium,
and empyreumatie matters, which enable it to decolorize
liquids, but it imparts to them a disagreeable flavour. To
deprive it of these mutters, it must be acted on by hydrochloric
acid, which not only frees it from all smell, but at the same
time increases it? ihvutan/.iiig properties.

It is well known that animal charcoal is used for the pur-
pose of decolouring various liquids, and especially syrups.
M. Lebourdais has recently employed it in the extraction of
the alkaloids.

The bones of the sheep are said to be more easily acted on
by acids, and is therefore recommended for the preparation c "
phosphorus.

The ancients recommended the use of the blood of a
and even of man, in certain diseases. We have previous!*
stated that the use of this fluid is entirely abandoned i:
present day. 1

The blood of the mammalia and of birds is eaten after it has
been prepared in various ways, more particularly after it 1
been coagulated and mixed with apices.

Blood ia employed in the preparing and clarifying syrups,
by calcining it with the phosphate of lime, the chalk, and
especially the potash of certain varieties of animal charcoal
which possess deeulorizing properties iu an eminent degree.

Decomposed at a red heat with iron and carbonate of potash,
blood, like all nitrogenous animal substances, produces terroey-
anuret of potassium,

1 See page G3.

ILOOD. 161

The serum of the blood has been larcely employed in paint-
ing. (Carbonel.) Mixed with quick lime or with slacked lime
reduced to powder, and to a suitable consistence, it forms a
kind of glazing which resists the action of the sun and the rain.

[The Animril C/mnioiil. Curhtt miimalix nf the rimrmacopeeia,
is directed to be prepared from bullock's blood by fire.
Transfusion.

The idea of injecting the blood of a living animal into the
body of another appears to have been first suggested by a
celebrated G-erman chemist, Libaviua, at the commencement of
the 17th century. The operation was first actually performed
in London by Lower on a dog in 1(305, and lor the first time
on the human subject by a medical man in Paris of the name
of Denis in 1667, the blood which he made use of being that
of the sheep. Several fatal accidents having followed the
operation, it was forbidden to be used in France bv a decree
of parliament, except by the previous permission of 1 he faculty
of medicine at Paris, and from that time it I'ell into disrepute.
It was again brought into notice by Dr. Bluudell in 1818, and
a paper has recently been published by Dr. Waller ' in the
Transactions of the Obstetrical Society, advocating the use of
Transfusion in certain eases of Ixeniorrhage.

It appears that in 1785 Dr. Harewood, afterwards professor
of anatomy at Cambridge, drew attention in his "Thesis on
Transfusion of Blood " to the value of this remedy in cases of
hemorrhage. He, however, asserted that the blood of an
herbivorous animal might be substituted for that of a car-
nivorous animal, and vice vi-rsii, without injury. Dr. Blundell,"
on the contrary, maintained that the blood which is made use
of must be from the same species of animal as that into which
it is to be injected. Various experiments have now shown
that this is the case, and that, although the injections of the
blood of a different species may iviivc the animal for a time,
it ultimately dies. This result may be accounted for by
the difference which has been shown to exist in the size of the
blood globules of different animals. Prevost and Dumas found
that when the blood of the cow or the sheep was injected into
cats or rabbits, the exsanguinated animals at first revived,
but did not ultimately recover ; the temperature of the body
speedily diminished, the pulse became rapid, other fatal
symptoms came on, and the animals died almost always before

1 Transactions nfihe OUMriral Simielii »f I.i,ud„n, 1659, vol. 1, p. 81.
■ Researches Physiological and Pathological, 1321 ; eee also Medicu-
Chirurg. Trims., 1818, vol. 9, p. 56.

102 MEDICAL ZOOJ.OOT.

the sixth day. Blundell met with the same results from ii
jecting human blood into the veins of a dog, while, on the otht
Band, he kept a dog alive for three weeks without food by the
daily injection of a tew ounces of the blood of one of its own
speeies into the jugular veins. " Of all eases of hemorrhage,"
says Dr. Waller, " none seem mure favourable for a trial of this
operation, than those which occur during the puerperal state,
which from their severity are termed noonings." In performing
the operation three things arc m.'Cessarv to be observed : —

First, that great care be taken to get rid of any air that
may be contained in the syringe ; secondly, to introduce the
blood very slowly, experiments having proved that a sudden
and large supply overwhelms the action of the heart, and
causes immediate death ; thirdly, to wait a few minutes
between each injection. The syringe \ised by the author is
lined with tin, and is capable of containing two ounces of
fluid ; it is furnished with a long tubule for the convenient in-
jection into the vein ; a funnel communicates with the barrel
of the syringe, through which the blood passes without being
received into an intermediate vessel.

It is seldom, if ever, necessary to inject a large quantity of
blood: it is bet-U-r to discontinue the operation as soon as the
rally is decisive, and there is no returning collapse. In one
case attended by the author, four ounces only were sufficient
to produce this effect. As a general rule, from eight to twelve
ounces may he safely injected].

s III. Fleeh.

The flesh of animals is of the utmost importance in hygi
both as regards its nutritive p
with which it is capable of bein
digested.

Meat contains a variable umonnt of: — 1st, substances c
taining a proteiue base (Albumen, fibrine, and easeine) ; 2nd,
gelatine ; 3rd, fatty matters ; 4th, osmazome. Albumen,
fibrine, and caselne are more or Icsb easy of digestion, but
have no great nutritive properties. Gelatine is a food which
is easy of digestion, hut neither has this much power of nu-
trition. Fatty substances are difficult of digestion and contain
very little nutriment. Osina/.oine or extract of meat is a food
easy of digestion and of excellent properties.

The meat which man makes use of may he arranged into
seven principal groups: — 1, Meats properly so called; 2, the

FLESH. 1G3

Jlesh of poultry ; 3, of game; 4,ofJtf:h; 5. of Mollusea; 6, of
Articulata ,- 7. of Sadiata. Those animals whose flesh is only
eaten occasionally, and as it were exceptionally, have been
omitted, aB, for example, the Turtles, several large Reptiles,
Froqs, and some Inserts. Amongst these animals the principal
are the fresh or jrew Turtle, C'lielonia JUiilns. l.utr., which is
ao common in certain portions of the Atlantic ocean, the
Iguanas of the Antilles and Brazil, lamina tlelieatissirna, Laur.,
tvbercttlata, Lanr.. cornuta, Lacep., oarulea, Daud., xn&finciata,
Brongn., the Basilisk of the .Moluccas, .llus'lieim crittatw*,
Bory, the niigrutury hx-iist, 0,-i/lhis iHii/rntiyriiiK, jE/ji/ptim, and
TataricuB, Linn., &c.

1. Meats jn-'ipi -rlii so rolled, or butcher's meats, are five in
number, and stand in the following order as regards their
capability of digestion: — 1. Mutton/ 2, Beef; 3. Lamb: 4.
Veal; 5. Pork. The muscle or flesh of these animals contains
in every 100 parts :

Water. Albumen. Gelatine.

Mutton .... 71 parts. 22 parts. 7 parts.

Beef ..... 74 — 28 — 6 —

Lamb .... 75 — 27 — 6 —

Veal 75 — 19 — 6 —

Pork 76 — 19 — 5 —

Very young animals yield a food which is easy of digestion,
but which has little nutriment ; this arises from their flesh con-
taining a greater proportion of gelatine and fat, but less
albumen, fibriiie, and osmazome. Old animals yienl the
nutritive elements, but are difficult of digestion ; their fibrine
having become hard and dense, and their osmazome more
abundant. The sucking pig is, however, less digestible than
the mature animal, which is owing principally to the prepon-
derance of the gelatine.

The part of the animal tissues, which is most easy of
digestion and the most nutritious, is the muscular fibre or
fibrine ; after" that the liver, kidnev. pancreas, and brain ; and
lastly, the tendons, aponeuroses, and lungs.

[Bam Meat. — This was first recommended by Professor
"Weisse, 1 of St. 1'ctersburgh, in the diarrliieii "I* children, which
occurs during weaning, "Two teaspmml'uls," says Dr. Tanner, 2
"of finely chopped heel' or mutton mav bo given daily to a child
one year old : and if it crave for more, and evidence is afforded

1 Journal far Kinderliranhhecten, lieraufiyegeben von F. J. Behread und
A. Hildebnmd, vol. i, p. 9 9, Berlin, 1845.
* Oputjanctl, p. 346.

M 2

164 UEDTCAl KOOLOGT.

of its digestion, the quantity may be increased. It ib very
remarkable til at debilitated children, who refuse all other kinds
of food, will eagerly take this; hut as the strength is regained
the desire for it passes away."]

The quantity of meat consumed in France in 1830 baa been
estimated at 907,152,619 lbs. troy, of which 764,875,059 were
furnished by the pig, ox, Bheep, and goat (J. fieynaud) ; the
names are arranged in the order of their importance.

[In London it i* difficult to ascertain the quantity of meat,
fish, and poultry which is brought for the supply of its two
million and a half of inhabitants. The following calculations,
which are taken from Dr. "Wynter'a interesting work,
"Curiosities of Civilisation," can only he regarded us approxi-
mations to the truth ; but in every case there is little doubt they
are below tlie actual amount which is consumed.

According to the ollicial account the number of live stock
exhibited at Smithileld in IWtt was :—

Oxen, 294,571 ; sheep, 1,150,060 ; calves, 36,791 ; piga,
29,593. Total, 1,893,888.

But this is far from giving a true idea of the whole amount
brought into London. Much stock arrives in the capital which
never enters the great mart. A more eon-eel estimate of the
flocks and herds which arc aiunially i-oiisimied in London may
be gathered from a report of the numbers transmitted by the
different lines of railway, compiled from official sources fay
Mr. Ormonhy, the cattle -traffic manager of the North Western
Bail way.

Oxen.

Sk „p.

Calves.

Pigs.

Total for
1853.

By Eastern Counties - -
„ L. & N. Western - -
„ lireat Northern - - -
„ Great Western - - -
„ L. & S. Western - -
„ South Eastern - -
„ London & Brighten & S

Coast

„ Sen from North of Eng

land & Scotland - ■

„ Sea from Ireland - - •

Imported from the Con Linen

Driven in by marl, mid iron

the neighbourhood o

the metropolis (oh

tained from the toll-gate

Total - - •

81,744

70.43.')
15,439
6,813
4,885
875

14,662
2,311

55,065

(.69,096

277,735
2.1S.44.">
!2(!.:l:l3
HW,lil)7
lOO.Lloi
58.320
13,690
11,141
3,472
22LI.91S

462,172

5,11:

569

2,32(

1,781

114

117

421

25,720

62,114

23,427

24,2*7
8,973
2,909

'* 14S

3,672

6,476

10,131

48,295

366,398
348,280
145,308
116,649
108,162
59,451
14,734
29,896
11,280
320,934

641,647

rc.'i.lps

1,6311,793

101.776

lliT.-iii

2,182,609

The following table, obtained from the daily bills of entries
at the Custom House, shows the continental sources from
whence Loudon derives o portion of its food.

From

Holland - - -
Denmark - - -
Hanaeatii: Towua
Belgium ...

Purtugul - - -

Total

ai.iJtii aaivjis

In addition to the live cattle which are thus brought to
the London markets, there i* a large quantity of country
killed meat conveyed In the railways to the dead meat markets,
the principal of which are Leadeuhall and Newgate markets.
According to the rot urns obtained from the different railway
companies, the following was the weight of country killed
meat convoyed by the undermentioned lines: — ■

I Eastern Counties 10,398 tons.
North Western 4.602
Great Western 5,200
Great Northern 13,152
South-Eastern 1,085
South- Western 2,000
Brighton and South-Coast .... 100

30.-^7
Thus no less than 30,487 tons of meat are annually
" pitched " at Newgate aud Leadeuhall markets. As the
Scotch boats convey about 700 tons more, there are at least
87,187 touH of t'rmnt'ry killed meat trough! to Loudon by steam.
Taking into ncooiint the t|iiimiitv nf meat derived from all
sources, Dr. Wynter gives a summary of the grand total in
the following table : —

Beasts.

Sheep.

Calyes.

Figs.
31,200

31,200
127,852

Live stock brought to London

Total supply of li>f stock and meal
lo London ......

156,000
5,200

468,00(
41,600

31,200

31,200
101,776

161,200
322,189

SOB.Sffl

1,630,793

4S3.:)s>

2,110.311,"

132,376

15-1,052

MEDICAL ZOOLOGT

Thia, he says, he is convinced is still below the truth, for
does not include the country killed meat sold at Farringdi
and Whitecbapei markets. The total value of this enormi
supply of flesh cannot be much less than fourteen millii
annually,]

2. The /ft** A of poultry is obtained principally from foi
species, which Btand in the following order as regards thi
easiness of digestion : — 1, the Ibwl ; 2, the Turkey; " '
Duck ; and 4, the Goose.

These birds afford a tibre which has but little density,
slight quantity of gelatine, and iml much osiuas'.ome. Their flesl
is easy of digestion. According to Brande 100 parts of the
fowl yield 73 parts of water, 20 of albumen, and 7 of gelatine.

Like butcher's meat, the younger the animal the greater it
the digestibility of these birds. Domestication general!'
renders the flesh tenderer, and more easily acted on by thi
gastric juice. When these birds are shut up and gorged t. :
grow to a large size, aud become charged with fat. Oci
sionally some, of their organs, especially the liver, been:
hypertrophied {Geese, Duels). The tissues are then
and more indigestible.

3. Game. — The principal species niimiigHt the mammalia are
the— 1, Goaf, C< : .rvt/s caprrolus, Linn. ; 2, the Hare, Lepy
tiwidim, Linn.; 8, the h'ubliil, Lrjittv etlmeuhu, Linn.; ai
amongst the birdB — 1, the Partridge ; l 2, the Pheasant
Phasianvs Colchicus, Linn. ; I), the Grouse; 2 4, the Pigeon;
5, the Woodcock, £>rolopti.r nt.ificntti, Linn.

The flesh of game is generally easy of digestion; but that
the birds with Ion;; beaks must, be excepted ; it contains ve
little gelatine or fat. To secure its being easily digested
must, however, be taken in moderate quantities.

In 1857 Paris alone consumed poultry and game to i.
value of 17,052,013 francs.

[The great emporiums for game and poultry in London a
Leadenhall and Newgate markets, It is impossible to obt
anything like an acurate account of the quantity consumed ii

1 In France there are four species of Partridge : the Common Partridge
Perdii cbierea, Lath., the Viiei-awy l'mir\,U)r, P. srxatilis, Mej., the Met,
Partridge, P. rttljia, I'. pis*., ami tliu Muck Partridge, P. petrosa, Lath. Th
latter is of rare occurrence,

5 In France tlioiv an: tlirw si<::r]<:± uf GVrms»; the Wood Grouse, Tttrat
UrryiiHa/i, Linn., the Muck Cot'k, 'P. tttrij, [Jan., and the Common Grouse
'/'. Inyn/ius, Linn,

3 In Franco Ihero are Jour species of Pigeons : Columba palumbvt, Q.

i C. Turtur.

FLESH. 167

the metropolis. The following estimate was given to Dr.
Wynter * hy a dealer who turns over 100,000/. a year in this
trade. As the list takes no account of the quantity which
goes direct to- the retailer, nor of the thousands sent as
-presents, it must fall short of the actual consumption.

Grouse 100,000

Partridges 125,000

Pheasants 70,000

Snipes 80,000

Wild Birds (mostly small) 150,000
Plovers ....... 150,000

Quails 30,000

Larks 400,000

Widgeon 70,000

Teal 30,000

Wild Ducks 200,000

Pigeons 400,000

Domestic Fowls .... 2,000,000

Geese 100,000

Ducks 350,000

Turkeys 104,000

Hares 100,000

Babbits 1,300,000

Total 5,759,000]

4, Msh. — Man uses a great number of fish as articles of
food. Amongst these animals twelve principal species require
to be mentioned; these are — 1, Common Whiting, Merhtngus
vulgaris, Cuv. ;* 2, the Sake, Merlucius vulgaris, Cuv. ; 3, the
Cod, Morrhua vulgaris, H. Cloq. ; 4, the Sole, Solea vulgaris,
Cuv. ; 5, the Plaice, Platessa vulgaris, Cuv. ; 6, the Trout,
Salar Ausonii, Valenc, Salmo fario, Linn. ; 7, the Pike, Esox
Lucius, Linn. ; 8, the Carp, Cyprvnus carpio, Linn. ; 9, the
fFurbot, Rhombus maximus, Cuv. ;* 10, the Salmon, Salmo
Salmo, Valenc. ; 11, the Mackerel, Scomber Scomberus, Linn. ;
12, the Herring, Clupea harengus, Linn.

According to Brande, 100 parts of haddock yield 82 parts of

1 Curiosities of Civilization, by Andrew Wynter, M.D., p. 224, London,
1860.

* The Coal Fish, M. Carbonarius, Cuv., and the Pollock, M. Pollachius,
are also used as food.

8 The Sole, Plaice, and Turbot are commonly known as flat fish. Others
of these fish which are eaten, are the Brill, Rhombus vulgaris, Cuv., and the
Flounder, Platessa Flesus, Cuv.

168

MEIJIi'AI, ZOOTOMY,

■

water. 13 of albumen and fibrinc, and 5 of gelatine ; and the
sole 73 parts of water, 5 of albumen and fibrine, and 6 of
gelatine.

Placed according to their facility of digestion, fish might be
arranged in the following manner: 1, Sea fish with white
flesh ; 2, Flat fish also with white flesh ; 3, Fresh water fish ;
4, Fish with red flesh.

The flesh of these animals usually eon tains less nourishmet
tluin that of the other vertebrata. 1

5. Flesh of MoUutea.—Amoagtk these animals
Oysters; 2, Venerida ; 3, Mussels; 4, Snails; 5,
oilier j/iiriutile mi/I murine aperies. These animals are a
in the order "f I heir rapaeiry lor digestion.

The species of Oysters 2 which are eaten in France, i
Atlantic coasts, are the Common Oyster, Ostrea ei/n/is. Linn.;
and the Horse Oyster, O. Jlippojms, Linn.; on the Mediterra-
nean eoasts. the Jl-ilitern/iiivi Oyster, O. rusiirea, Fav. non
Deal)., I.i. M'-'li/err/uiea of M. ile Serrt/s, and the O, lacteola
of Moquin Tandon. In Corsica is eaten the O. lamellosi
Broechi. There is also found in the Mediterranean the cres

Under the name of the Common Oyster are ineluded &
varieties ; for those of C/iwi//e of Mnrcnnes, and of Ostend, I
altogether different from each other.

At Home the Oysters from the Lucrin lalic were held i
high estimation (iiobilissimus cibus), Nero preferred thoa
from Corsica. Naples obtains Oysters from the lake I
which enjoy a eertaiii reputation. (L'oste.) Excellent OyxU
are found in Algeria, near Bone. Those from the coast o
Languedoc are of an inferior quality. At PariH and i
north of France there is an enormous consumption of Oyster
from Mareirnes, Caneale, and Ostend.

Fresh Oysters arc easy of digestion provided they are not
eaten in too large quantities. Their eajwbility of digestion is
owing to the salt water they contain and to the bile which is
present in their largely developed liver.

Oysters are generally eaten entire and while they are still
alive. J Some persons reject the heard and fringes of the
mantle in the larger varieties, and eat only the central portion.

Eaw Oysters are B delicate, savoury, and strengtl

1 In 1857 Paris alone consumed lish to the value of 9,169,£

' See page 86.

* Fitra epula, Liun.

of fooji. Adolphe Pasquier and Sainte Marie have recoui-
mended them as remedies. They are suitable in dyspepsia
and in chronic aJreetaani of the digestive organs, and even in
diseases of the chest. They are often recommended to the
convalescent.

Cooked Oyster* are indigestible,

Ottreacvlture . — The artificial production of Oyster* has
become an important branch of industry. 1 As far back as tie
time of Kondelet. tbe art of souring these molluscs was known.
In the present day this art has become greatly developed, and
the multiplication of these animals is carried on on a large
scale. The natural banks are divided into several portions,
which are successively fished, and then allowed to repose for
some time, in order that the animals may be replenished.
Means are also taken to favour and hasten this process.
Besides this, artificial banks are formed, which, like the natural
banks, are divided into separate portions.

The Oysters are placed in large reservoirs, where they grow
and become of a green colour; this is called bedding the
Oyster*. At Marennes these reservoirs are termed clairet.
They are like a number of fields, which have been inundated,
placed along the banks of the Seudre ; they differ, however,
from the ordinary beds or reservoirs, inasmuch aa they are not
covered by the tides. (Coste.) An oyster, sii to eight months
old, when placed in the elaire*, requires two years before it
arrives at its proper size and condition. By far tbe greater
portion of those which are eaten never arrive at this state.
The full-grown oyster when placed in tbe reservoirs becomes
of a green colour in a few days. (Coste.)

The green colour of the Oyster does not affect tbe whole at
the animal. It shows itself more particularly on tbe four
branchial folds ; there are also trace* of it on the inner surface
of tbe first pair of labial palpi, on the external surface of tbe
second, and in a part of the alimentary canal.

For a long time it was supposed that tbe green colour of the
Oysters was owing to the sou of tbe reservoirs, to tbe decom-
position of the ulva and other water plants, or to a diseased
condition of the liver, a kind of jaundice, which imparted a
green colour to the parenehyms of tbe breathing organs.
Gaillon asserted that ft arose from one of the navicube, VArie
osfreariiu, which penetrated tbe substance of the animaL
Bory de Saint-Vincent proved that this vibrio wan not natu-
rally of a green colour, Out, that under certain eirenasataneea,
1 In 1557 Fsrti iimnii I l/>»,37» fnaa "art* irfsyma.

170 MEJ3ICAL ZOOLOGY.

it became coloured like the Oyster, and by tbe
According to thin naturalist, the green colour depends upon
molecular substance (the green waller of Priestley), which
becomes developed in .ill waters under the influence of ligl
According to M. Valenciennes, this colour is caused by
peculiar animal production differing from every organic sub-
stance which has hitherto I icon examined. M. Berthelot has
analyzed this substance, and finds tlint it dues possess peculiar
characters. It does not resemble either the colouring agent
of the bile, of the blood, or of any of the ordinary organic
colouring substances.

These green molecules enter the bronchia 1 during the act
respiration, where they become arrested, and ultimately gor;
obstruct, and colour the organ. At the same time, one of t
principal functions of the body being interfered with, tl
animal becomes distended and subject to a kind oi
which renders its tissues more tender and more delicate. 1

[The London market 2 is principally supplied with Oysters
from beds at Whitstable, Rochester, Milton, Colchester, Bun>
ham, Faversham, and Quceuborough. all artificial beds, fur-
nishing natives. Those of the river Crouch, or Burnhani
oysters, are pre-eminent for their marine flavour ; probably on
account of the facilities for rapid importation of them in "
condition. Besides these, considerable quantities of
oysters, or those which grow upon natural bids, and which are
sometimes called rock oysters, are brought from various parts
of the coast. The sea oyster is often, before being brought to
market, kept for a time in artificial beds to improve its flavour.
Much of the quality depends on the ground and condition of
the beds, and oysters of different years from the same p!
often vary materially in this respect. They are considered
grown for tbe market when from five to se
oysters at four years. The age is shown by the annual
of growth or shoots on the convex valve. Up to thi
four years, each annual growth is easily observed, hut
their maturity it is not so easy to count the layers,
oysters become very thick in the shell. In the neighbourly
of fresh water tbe oyster grows fast, and improves in body
flavour.

In London the chief consumption of the common or i
oyster is "from the 4th of August to January, and

1 See p. 86.

1 A History <■/' llriti-Ji .M/ilhisni ai.it iL-ir ShelU, In- fclward Forbes »]
Silvanus Hauley, vol, 2, pp. 313—319, London, 1653,

FLMH. 171

from October to March. The consumption is said to be
greatest :n the hottest months after the commencement of the
oyster season ; the warmer the weather, the more oysters are
consumed. They are brought to market in craft of various
sizes ; they are [lacked in bulk closely in the hold ; in. some
cases a cask of salt water is kept, from which to sprinkle them
superficially. Those that come by rail are packed with their
convex shells downwards, in bags and barrels. From the
boats they are transferred to the salesmen, who keep them in
a little salt and spring water, and shift them every twelve
hours. Some pretend to improve them by "feeding" them
with oatmeal. Oysters, like other bivalves, live chiefly on
infusoria. The quantity consumed annually in London varies
in different seasons. One informant slates twenty thousand
bushels of natives, one hundred thousand bushels of common
oyBters, to be about the mark ; another estimates the quantity
Si.ild iu tin 1 season, from I lie -II h of August to the I1MU of -May,
to be nearly one hundred thousand London bushels, each
bushel being three Manchester or imperial bushels ; and that
about thirty thousand bushels of natives are sold during the
same period by various companies. During the season com-
mencing on August the 4th, 1848, and ending May 12th,
1849, M. Wmkeiuleu estimates about one hundred and thirty
thousand bushels of oysters to have been sold in London,
though of that quantity about .one fourth was sent away to
various parts of the United Kingdom and the Continent.

Oysters of good repute are iished in the neighbourhood of
tbe Channel Islands. There are tw r o oyster-banks, the one off
Guernsey, and the other off Jersey. The former is of little
importance ; the latter of considerable value. They belong to
the region of ovster-bauk.s, which extends ill on" the coasts of
Normandy and Brittany. Dr. Knapp states that the number
annually procured here t'or the use of the Channel Islands and
English markets cannot be less than eight hundred thousand
tubs, each tub containing two English bushels ; and in some
years thrice that quantity is believed to be procured from
those hanks during the season. As many as three hundred
cntterB have been employed upon them dredging. The oysters,
on the Jersey bank, are of large size, and are sold at from five
to seven shillings the tub, or from three to four pence per

The oyster-fishery of most consequence in Scotland is that
of the Frith of Forth. The oyster beds there extend about
twenty miles, from the Island of Muera to Lockenzie, and are

172 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

dredged in from four to six or seven fathoms water,
price varies, wholesale (1S53), from two shillings to
shillings and sixpence tin.' hundred; the retail price from
and sixpence to four shillings and sixpence, or even
shillings. Mr. George Moffat, fish dealer in Edinburgh,
mates the number of oysters dredged in the Forth in
season at 2,027,520 • only three fourth parts of which, how-
ever, it is believed, are sent to Edinburgh, being 1,520,640,
The same gentleman has calculated that 7,346 oysters are
daily consumed in Edinburgh during the season, from the
beginning of SqiteinluT till the end of April.

On both sides of Ireland oysters abound in many places.
There are oyster beds in the Shannon, said, in 1836, to yield i
revenue of 1,400J. annually, and to employ seventy men ani
sixteen boats.]

The VeneridiE and the Mi/lilidis (ire far from being held h
such repute as Oysters. These mollusca are eaten both tm
and cooked.

The Veneridce are collected in considerable quantities, !
are eaten by the poorer classes.

It is principally two species which are fished: the Tetau
viiyiiiea, Lion., and the I'ertwi tlecmisata, Linn., which h
what smaller than the former.

The Common MttKicl, Mf/lihia a/nlin, are sought after in
many countries. An apothecary of Orleans has published a
wort on the employment of these mollusca in affections of the
air passages.

Other salt and fresh water bivalves are eaten, as the Olamt,
Razor-fishes, Scollops, CocMas, &C.

[In England the common Mussel 1 is much used in many
places for food, and still more for bait. Dr. Knapp, <._
Edinburgh, has given a very interesting account of the
quantities of this animal destroyed annual! v in the neighbour-
hood of that city. " As an article of food," he states these
cannot be uBcd fewer than ten bushels per week in Edinburgh
and Leith, say for forty weeks in the year, in all 400 bushels
annually. Each bushel of mussels, when shelled and freed
from all refuse, will probably contain from three to four pints
of the animals, or about 900 or 1000, according to their size
Taking the latter number, there will be consmned in Edinburgl
and Leith about 400,000 mussels. This is a mere trifle com-
pared to the enormous number used as bait for all sorts o

>s aad Hauley, Opus cit, vol. 2, p. 1 7L

fiah, especially haddocks, cod, ling, halibut, plaice, Bkate,
whiting, &c. In Newhaven alone there arc four large deep-sea
fishing boats, which generally go out three times a week, and
fish for about thirty weeks in the year, excluding Sundays and
bad weather. Each of these hosts carries eight men, with eight
lines of 800 yards in length, which, at a low calculation, take
1200 mussels to bait each time they are used; so that each
boat will use 2W,80O mussels per week, equal to 864,000 per
annum. There are sixteen smaller boats, whose consumption
of mussels comes to 3,456,000. The total consumption of
mussels for bait annually in Newh.ivcu alone may be reckoned
at 4,320,000. At all the other fishing stations in this district
a similar use is made of these abundant and prolific shell-fish,
bo that Dr. Knap]) calculates that thirty or forty millions are
used for bait alone by the fishermen of this district each year.
The best mussels at Newhaven arc fished in three fathoms of
water, and are sold at BJ. per basket, each containing nearly a
bushel. Supposing each bushel contained 1000 mussels, this
quantity would be worth more than 1300Z.

The common Caekle is a sp.vies of shell-fish held in little or
no estimation by the rich, but to the poor it is in some parts
almost a necessary of life, and in others it affords thein a cheap
and palatable luxury.

The following remarks are taken from the authors already
quoted :

The edible Cockle, CnrJittiit eMe, inhabits most parts of the
British coast, especially where there are large tracts of sand.
The variety most common in our markets rarely exceeds an
inch and four-fifths in length by an inch and a half in breadth,
auJ comes in most instances from estuary sands. Every where
this excellent mollusk is sought after for food, and it is one of
the most savoury of its tribe; indeed, preferred by many
persons to the oyster. It is equally good raw and cooked,
dressed either by rousting or boiling, and gives a delicious
flavour to fish sauce. In times of scarcity Ctrl-let have afforded
valuable supplies of food for the poor, and in the Zetland isles
bushels of their shells may be seen near cottages. Lieut.
Thomas informs us that in Sanda, among the Orkney isles,
during the late failure of the potato crop many of the poorer
people subsisted almost entirely on Cockles.

The following estimate of the quantity of fish of all kinds

which arc hrought to the London market, is quoted from Mr.

Mayhew's "London Labour and London Poor" byDr.Wynter,'

1 Opus rir, p. 212.

174 MEDK

who remarks upon it, that the figures seemed to him to lie si
enormous, that he hesitatingly submitted the table to one o
the largest salesmen, who aBBured him that it was i
statement.

Description of Fish.

No. of Fish.

Weight of
Fish.

Salmon and Salmon Trout {29,000 boxes, 14

406,000

3,480,000

Li vi: Oml (averaging lolhs. each) -
Si'li-j. (averaging jib. each) -

4 00,000

4,000,000

97,520,000

2ii..«Kn,0ilil

Wlr'tini: On-i'vupsi^ Sox. each)
Haddock (averaging albs, each) -
Plaico (averaging lib. each) -

17,920,000

6. :20,0ft)

2,470,000

5,040,1100

33,600,000

IVj.lVHI.IHll

Min'ki'rfl iavi!i-:-iL;!nj; lib. each) -

33,520,000

23,520,000

Fresh Herrings (250,000 barrels, 700 flsli p"

175,000,000

42,000,000

Ditto in bulk

1,050,000,000

252,000,000

Eels from Holland (principally), England, ani
Ireland (6 Ash per lb.) -

4,000,000

I 9,797,760

(1,505,280
{ I27.6B0

rloiind'.'i's (7200 qrtns. 36 fish per orta.)

359,200

43,200

Dabs (T500 qrtns. 36 fish per qrtn.) -

270,000

43,790

Barrelled Cod (15,000 barrels, 40 fish per

760,000

4,200,000

Dried Salt Cod (51bs. each) - - - -

1,600,000

8,000,000

Smoked Haddock (65,000 barrels, 300 fish per

19,500,000 10,920,000

Hl..;i|..'i> (Ulis.uori hi.n-rl-, 150 fisli per barrel)

147,000,000 10,600.000

Red Herrings (100,000 barrels, 500 fish per

barrel) .......

50,000,000

1 4,000,000

Dried Sprats (9,600 large bundles, 30 fish per

bundle) .......

388,000

96,000

Oysters ■ T"*. - *. - -

495,896.000

T.-il>sri-rs iavcrniriiii; lib, each fish)

1,200,000

Crabs (averaging lib. each fish) -

600,000

Shrimps (326 to a pint) -

493.428,648

Wilka (227 to half bushel) -

4,943.200

Mussels (1000 to half bushel)

50,400.000

Cockles (2000 to half bushel)

lVriwinklos (Jimih.o half bushel)

304,000,000

The species -if Simih whit-h are sought for in France are, i
the North, the Edible snail, Helix I'oinal in (lig. -18); the Woo,
snail, H. Syluatiea, Drap. ; and the Grove Snail, JL nemorttlit
Linn. At Hontpellier, the common snail, H, aspersa, Mul

the II. Lvrmie ulala. Mull. ; the H. Fitatut, Miill. ; and even the
H. variabilis, Drap. In the department of the Vaucluse, the

Helix pemalia.'

?ulata, H, Fisana, H. variabilis, the
Heath snail, H. ericetorum, and BometimM the H. Altfira,
Lran. In Provence, the species just enumerated, and in addi-
tion H. aperta, Born, and II. mflnnvslonia, Drap. In certain
localities the ITrlix wpitiun and II. linmta are also eaten ; and
in others the H. hortemus, Mull., and II. urbuetorum, Linn.,
or Shrub snail.

All these snails do not produce eiaetly the same kind of
flesh. Epicures set u r reat storo Ijv the Ilrlij: vcnitwutata, which
is known at Montpellier by the name of the Mbrmuta (modest),
because it draws itself far into its shell. The If. uatica is con-
sidered still more tender and delicate ; it is called in Provence
Tapada (closed), on account of the eak'itreous lid which closee
up the shell. The species which is hardest is the Helix
ponuitia.

Snails are principally collected towards the close of winter,
before they have taken fresh food. It is said that those in-
dividuals which inhabit elevated situations are the best; it is
also asserted that the animals retain the flavour and perfume
of the plants they have eaten. This is, no doubt, the reason
why the Snails of certain countries, or of certain districts, are
held in high repute.

The flesh of Snails is generally tough and insipid. It is
necessary to prepare them with strong seasonings, as with
plenty of ham, anchovies, parsley, aromatic herbs, pepper, or
garlic. It is moreover a kind of food which digests but
slowly.

imal qitcnrted, with a separate view of the jmr.

sn to

on.)'

176

At various periods considerable pains have been taken
obtain these lnollusks in large quantities.

The Kornans kept them in pens called cochlearia, (Varron.)'
They were fattened with various plants. A amall quantity of
wine and Bome laurel leaves were added to give them a better
flavour. The pens were situated in moist shady plaees, and
were surrounded by a ditch or wall. Pliny has not forg.
to transmit to us the name of the person who invented the
cochlearia. 1 Addison has given a lull description of that
capuchin monks at Fribourg.

Besides these, many of the marine Cia.-deropods are eat ,

for instance, some of the Mitrrridie, Turbos, Liitorimdw, B\
cinidw, Strombid/s, and PatdlidtE.

6. Flesh of Arliculata. — Amongst these animals is the Ori
fish, Astacus ftuviatilf.8 ; 3 2, the Prawn, Pahsmtm aerraiu* ;
the Common tqihiy LobsU-r, Puliiivrus rulqaris ; 4, the Lobxtt
Momarw vulgaris ; 5, the Common ulioro Crab, Corvinu* Me

The flesh of all these animals is hard and fibrous, and is apl
to resist the action of the gastric juice. Nevertheless, that of
the Gray-fish is nut very dillieult of digestion; but the other
species, especially the Lobsters and the Crabs, are frequent
sources of indigestion.

[Enormous quantities of Lobsters are consumed in London;
they are taken on various parts of the English e oast, particularly
on rocky shores. From the southern and western coasts a con-
siderable number are constantly sent off to the London markets,
by the South- Western Mail way from Southampton, and by the
Great Western from Bristol ; also by steamers from Guernsey
and Jersey ; and again from the coast of Ireland to Liverpool.
From the coast of Scot] a ml, the Ovl;ney and Lewes islands, it
is computed that not less than 150,000 reach the market at
Billingsgate; but the principal supply is from Norway, from
whence there is sent not less than £i00,000. There is often in
the season a supplv at Billingsgate of not less than from 20,000
to 25,000 lobsters in one day],*

7. The flesh of Radio to. — Amongst this group are several
Species of the Sea Jl.cdge-hog. The inhabitants of Provence
and of Langucdoc are Join! of the Echinus meitlentm, Linn.
_E. lividux, Deslong. ; and E. granulans, Lamk. The latter

1 Cochlearium vivaria (Pliny).

* He calls Mm Fulvias Hispima.
' See p. 96, M. Lereboullet has recently described two new species. A,

lofiuicomii and A. pailipes.

* A Htiiory of British Crustacea, by Thos. Bel], p. 2*3, London, 184S.

177

species, is also procured on the coasts of Naples and La Mancbe.
Ill Corsica and Algeria the Echinus mi-lo, Liimk,, is miide use
of. Some species of Holothuria are also eaten lit Naples, the
Holothuria tubulosa, Blainv. ; at the Ladrone islands, the II.
OtUm mti*, Quoy and Qaim; and in China, the Tn/niiuj. II.
fdulii. Less.

BuoTii. — The flesh of animals serves for the preparation of
hi;,U,x, ■! liquid and very nourishing kind of food, which is ex-
tremely useful both to the invalid and to the convalescent.

Broth is an aqueous solution, the base of which consists of
some kind of flesh ; it is made by boiling the meat for a long
time oyer a slow fire. Broth always contains gelatine, fat,
and osmazoine. Some vegetables, such as carrots, turnips, or
lettuces, are generally added, which somewhat alter Us cnm-
position. The broth which is principally used is made from
Beef. The more this kind of I'md is onncentratod the greater
is the amount of nourishment which it contains ; 2'iO lbs. of
meat will yield two hundred basins of broth of more iban half
a pint each, or altogether 17t> piuts of broth, and 110 lbs. of
the boiled meat.

Broth is also made from bones, to which n small quantity of
meat is added and a largi- quantity .it' vegetables. The quantity
procured from the bones is to thai which is obtained from meat
as 3 to 2. One hundred pounds of meat, of which a quarter is
employed to make broth, with two pounds and a quarter of
gelatine obtained from bones, w ill give two hundred basins of
broth and eleven pounds of boiled meat ; while the remainder
would furuisli fort v- four pounds of roast meat.

[In cases of irritable stomach, where the ordinary ltinds of
food cannot be retained, as, for instance, in the obstinate
nausea and vomiting which sometimes accompany pregnancy,
a preparation known under the name of Liebiifs New Soup for
Invalids is reeouunemled us being often t'nlcrated when every
other kind (if food is rejected. It is (mule as follows; —

Take i lb. of newly killed beef or fowl, chop it very line,
add 1£ lb. of distilled water, four drops of pure muriatic acid,
34 to 67 grains of common salt, and stir well together. After
an hour the whole is to be thrown on a conical hair sieve, and
the fluid allowed to pass through without any pressure. The
first thick portions which run through are to be returned to
the sieve, until the Huid tillers through quite clear. On the
flesh residue in the sieve pour slowly ' lb. nf distilled water,
and let it percolate through. There will be thus obtained
rather more than a pound of cold fluid (cold extract of flesh)

178 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

of a red colour, and possessing a pleasant taste of soup ; <
which from one tableepoonful to a cup may he taken a
pleasure. It must not he warmed, since it is rendered muddj
by heat, awl deposits a thick coagulmu of alhumen and tht
colouring matter of blood. When the flavour is thougl
disagreeable it may be concealed by the addition of a
claret]. 1

There are several other kinds of broth which are occasion*
made use of ; these are : — ■

1. Veal broth.— This contains only a small quantity i

felatine, of fat, and of osmazome, and is not very nourishing.
t is employed as a drink rather tliiin as food. When much
diluted it constitutes Veal water. A broth is also prepared
from the lungs of the calf.

2. Chicken broth.— This contains gelatine, a small quantity
of fat and of osmazome. It is still lighter and less nourishing
food than the preceding.

3. Tortoise hroth is prepared rom the flesh of the Tettvdo
Grwca, Linn., of the T. Mauritania!, Dinner, and of the T.
marginata, Selieepf. These species are Terrestrial, and common
in Algeria; the third is also found in the Morea. Some of the
fresh water tortoises may be substituted for them, such as yel-
low Tortoise, Texiutlo Europata, Gray, from the south of
Europe, or the Emi/x (\t*pir/r, Ni.-h\i\. ami I he _/:'. Sir/rix, Dumer ;
the one inhabits the eastern parts of Europe, aud the other
Spain and Algeria.

4. Viper broth, Vipera A.ipi.t, "Mei-rem, is made from the
animal after the head, skin, and intestines have been removed.
This broth was formerly regarded :is a powerful remedy in
obstinate gonorrhea, and ;is capable of restorinn the powers of
the body when they have been exhausted by excess. It is
nearly banished from the list of materia medica.

5. Frog broth. — This contains gelatine and a small quantity
of osmazome. It is insipid, and has very Little nutriment. It
is considered to he a cooling diet : it is made from the green
or common Frog, Sana gtcvlenta, I.iun., aud also from the
Sana temporaria, Linn. : 125 grammes or 1!)28 grains of frog's
thighs are put into 500 grammes or four times the same
quantity of water.

[The common Frog of this country is the Kana tem-
poraria : the R. eBCulenta, or edible Frog, does not exist in
England.]

j :■

G. Snail broth. — This is even less nourishing than the last.
In. the north of France it is made from the large HelLt
pomatia; in the south from //. an/irrsii and venniculata ;' in the
Isle of France the Navicella elliptica, Latnk., is made use of for
this purpose.

7. Ountrr broth. — This is regarded as a restorative and an
aphrodisiac.*

8. Cray-Jish broth- — This alsi> ranks as a restorative, and
was formerly recommended in phthisis, in leprosy, and other
cutaneous affections.*

§ IV. Albumen.

Albumen is a colourless, inodorous, and tasteless substance,
which is coagulated bv heat. This coagulation commences at
a temperature of lOi 6 Fnh., but it is not complete except at a
temperature of from 140" to 158°. "When its solution is
extremely diluted, heat does not thicken it; but by boiling
and evaporating it in vacuo a residue is obtained of insoluble
albumen. Alcohol precipitates albumen from its solutions.
If water ia poured upon the precipitate, a portion of it is
redissolved ; another portion is converted into coagulated
albumen. The latter contains all the properties of fluid albu-
men, except its solubility. Albumen contains a small quantity
of sulphur and of phosphorus.

It ia very useful in the treatment of the first stage of
poisoning from the salts of copper and of mercury. Mixed
with a large quantity of water it is successfully employed as
an emollient. Some practitioners have recommended it in the
treatment of certain cases of yellow lever. Mixed with oil it
is stated to relieve the pain in parts which have beeu burnt ;
it has also been administered in diseases of the eyes. In some
cases of fracture the limb is surrounded by hut bandages Boaked
in albumen; it has been used as a dressing for slight exco-
riations of the skin. It is, however, principally employed for
clarifying wine, beer, and vegetable juices. Its nutrient pro-
perties, either alone or in combination with other animal
principles, have been previously noticed.'
§ V. Gelatine.
This substance is obtained by boiling the skin, ligaments,
tendons, membranes, cellular tissue, or bones of animals in

1 See pages B3, 174.
' See pages 8B, 168.
' See page 96.
* Seepage 162.

180

MEDICAL ZOill.lH.V.

n*tnf»d

water.' It ib first obtained in solution by evaporation ;
then concentrated, and as it cools it forma a tremulous
and becomes gelatine

A question arises as to v.-[ii'tiicv-'/i'l,t/iiif exists ready formed
in tbe animal structures which yield it, or whether the com-
position of then' structures is changed by the action of the
i appears to be the most

£le molecular movement,
e game aa that of the

boiling water? The latter opin
probable ; but the alteration ih a e
for the composition of gelatine i
tissue from which it is derived.

Pure gelatine is solid, but its hardness and consistence
vary greatly ; it is heavier than water, semi-transparent,
colourless, inodorous, and tasteless. It possesses great ad-
hesive properties, and it is from this substance that common
glue, Flanders glue,* month glue, and food lozenges are made.
Gelatine is only slightly soluble in cold water, but readily
dissolves in boiling water. In order that a hot solution should
form a jelly in cooling, it must contain at least 2-£ parte of
gelatine to every 100 of water. If it is boiled too long a certain
quantity of water becomes united with the gelatine, which in
consequence is changed, and will no longer form a jelly.

Gelatine is partially soluble in dilute, but not in strong
alcohol; it is precipitated by tannin.

Ligaments and tendons by boiling yield a kind of gelatine, to

which Mudler has given the name of choudrin. It differs

principally from ordinary gelatine in not being precipitated

by tannin.

It i

if pharmacy.

The purest gelatine is tnown under the name of grenetine
[from Grenet, the name of the maker] ; it is more especially
employed in pharmaceutical preparations.

Stag's Hou.v (wiik Cera').— During the summer the fur
of the common Stag is of a yellowish brown colour, with a
black line along the back, while the sides of the animal are
marked with numerous pale spots. In winter time it is of a
unif orm greyish brown colour. The rump, the buttocks, and
the tail are always of a pale reddish colour. The head of the
Stag is provided with horns, which were formerly used in the
manufacture of medicated jellies and of emollient drinks.
The horns are shed every year during the spring and are

e from young animals.]

re-produced in the summer. At first the new horns are
simple protuberances, and are known by the name of Jaqt, but
as they grow thev branch into a number of projections termed
antlers. The extremities of the antlers are known in pharmacy
as horn tips. In the fourth vear tlie horn termini
expansion termed the palm, which is provided with a number
of points. The burr is a rough channelled projed li tin-
base of the horn. The female of the Stag or Jtiml hoi H
horns.

The horn tips are divided into small fragments by tucniin of
a knife or a file. They are then boiled for some time in wafer,
to which thev give up their gelatinous principle. Isinglass is
now generally substituted for Stub's horn.

Besides gelatine, Stag's horn furnished several oilier pre-
parations, which are uow rarely made use of. These TOM
1. Volatile essence of Stag* horn, which is only au olonginoiM
Bubcarbouate of ammonia. 2. Vuhitile oil of Slo-j's horn; this
is very similar to Dippel's auiinal oil, and consists essentially
of subearbonate of ammonia.

Stags' horns were also calcined (cornu uttuw), ground Up,
and made into lozenges.

[A preparation of this kind is Btill retained in the Phurmo-
copfflia.

CoHNU rsTTTM. Burnt horn. — Burn pieces of homt in an
open vessel until they bei otiic perfcel Iv while ; then powder mid
prepare them in the same manner as directed with respect to

In the older editions of the Pharmacopeia this prepara! ion
was termed Cornu Cervi ustitin and Cornu Cervi calcinatum,
and was accordingly directed to be made from Stags' horns.

This substance is sometimes used in the manufacture of
tooth powder; it contains u large ipiaulitv of phosphate and tl
small quantity of carbonate of lime; it can only ncl niecliaiii-
cally as a fine powder, and is in no respect superior to the
common prepared chalk.]

The same uses were formerly made of the horns of the Elk,
C. Alee*. Linn. ; the Fallow Deer, C. Dama, Linn. ; and of the
Eein Deer, C. Tarundus, Linn.

Isinglakb,- Tsivt/hm or Fish ghte \* the prepared air blad-
der or swimming bladder of the Sturgeon. The Sturgeons
(Acipenser) belong to the cartilaginous fishes and to the family
StvriotiiiltE.

The flesh of these animals is held in high estimation. Their
feeundity is extraordinary; a single female has been known
to contain 1,467,857 eggs. When these musses of eggs or

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

s Bolted, they form the article of food

The species from which isinglass
the Huso or G-reat Sturgeon. It i:
Seunuo, the Sterlet, and the Stttrio or common 8tm
The following ia a summary of the character! of these
species :

(entire ( short The Huso.

The lipi

J Snont

long {

- 1 i.ii ■_■ i . i and m
tuned and broad

1 known as
procured is

The IIuso, Aripmsi-r Hum, Linn., inhabits the tributary
streams of the Caspian and Black seas. It ib sometuues pro-
cured in the Po.

The back is of a dark blue, almost black colour, and the
belly of a clear yellow ; the body is long, the head large, and
the snout very obtuse. It is from 10 ft. to 16 ft. long, and
weighs upwards of 200 lbs. ; it has been known to measure as
much as 30 ft., and to exceed 2000 lbs. in weight.

The Sewrugn, A. strfhilux, I'albis, inhabits the rivers which
empty themselves into the Black and Caspian seas, particularly
thf Volga and the Danube.

The back is of a brown colour, and the belly white. It
seldom more than 3J ft. in length.

The Sterlet, A. Buthenus, Linn., is found in the Caspi
aea, in the Volga and the Ural.

It is distinguished by the blaek colour of its back, by
yellow plates, and by its white belly shaded with pink ;
upper and candid lints arc grey, and the lower Ted. The plal
which coyer the body arc arranged in three rows.

It is of the same Bize as the previous specie*; i
rare to meet with individuals 4£ ft. in length. Its weight
from 30 lba. to 37 lbs.

The Common Stun/eon, A. Stttrio, Linn. (fig. 4!
species is found in various parts of the ocean, in the Medi-
terranean, the Red. the Eusiue, and the Caspian aeas

In the summer time it ascends the great rivers, particular!
the Volga, the Danube, the Po, the Garonne, the Loire, tl
Rhine, &c. (Laeepede.)

[This species has been caught in the river ThameB.]

The plates on the body are arranged in five longitut
rows. Individuals arc commonly met with varying from 13
to 16 ft. in length. One which was captured in the Loire,
presented to Francis I„ measured nearly 20 ft. ; some are si
to have measured 25 ft.

GEHTuns. 168

In the preparation of isinglass, the air bladder of the
Sturgeon is first well cleaned, stripped of rta exh

brane, which is of a diirk brown colour, and freed l'i i all the

blood which it contains. It is thou split open longil nihimlU .

cut up into pieces, wash (.'il, kneaded by llii' hands", aiade up
into different forms, and afterwards left to dry gradually ID
the shade.

Four kinds of raw isinglass are known in commerce i 1. E|ff<

Isinglass [long mid short staph' of Foolish market]. Thin con-
sists of small cylinders folded upon themselves so as In bear a
rude resemblance to an ancient lyre. 2, Ilfnr/-n/»i
[also known as long and short staple]. This null diffeffl ffOtB
the former as to the manner in ivbich the cylinders an- folded.
3. Book isinglass. This consists of layers fob led into squares
and joined together by means of a sleel which jiassi'S through
them. 4. Leaf isinglass, which only differs iron thfl former
in the folds being separate. The first is the pureil and I In-
most valuable.

Isinglass is also sold in the form of tablet*. This is of less
value than the other kinds, and is made by boiling tho Bnl,
heads, and other parts of the Sturgeon, and thru spreading
them out on boards.

Isinglass is bleached by means of sulphurous acid. When
cut up into long strips, a very excellent kind of QlS*glua
is made from "it, which is known as English glue.

From purified isinglass is also formed another kind of fish-
glue, known as glass glue or vitreous glue (cilreuse).

It is calculated that 1000 large Sturgeons yield lit! t lbs. of
isinglass, which is about 4 m. 3^ dr. for each individual. The
Sterlets would not produce more than 80 lbs., which is about
one-third of the former quantity.

Isinglass is principally obtained from the ports of Russia
on the borders of the Caspian Sea. The Dutch were formerly

164

largely engaged in this kind of manufacture, but the article
was of au inferior quality.

Isinglass is almost entirely composed of an animal substance
which is readily conycrled into gelatine.

Ishighiss is light, coriaceous, of a whitish colour, semi-
transparent, and bears some resemblance to parchment ; it is
tasteless, inodorous, and insoluble in cold water, but dissolves
in boiling water, and forms a transparent jelly in cooling.
Fifteen grains of mtii/his* are snlUeient to impart a firm con-
sistence to an ounce of water.

Besides the various species of Sturgeon, isinglass may be
obtained from the air bladder of several other fish, as this
organ always contains a large quantity • ■£" gelatine; but this
kind of isinglass is of an inferior quality to that from the S
geon. Thus it is obtained from some of the Siluridte ; and a
Lyons a very transparent vitreous-like isinglat
the scales of the Carp.

An inferior kind of itiittghm is known i:
is made from the air bladder of the Cod, and also a false
isinglass manufactured from the stomach of the calf. Pereira,
Las described a kind of false ismi/his* from Para, which is
nothing more than the ovary of some large fish, probably, he
says, of the SuiUs O-iaas.

Isingliss is used for the purpose of clarifying numerous
liquids. [Cotirl or Blurt shaking Piaster is made with a
solution of isinglass and tincture of benzoin laid upon black
sarsenet.]

It is employed in the making of jollies, syrups, and blanc-
mange. [Considered medicinally, it is emollient and demul-
cent. It is employed, dissolved in water or milk, and rendered
palatable by acid and sugar, as a nutritious substance for
invalids and' convalescents. (Pereira.)]

Sippocollr is a kind of ulue made from the skin of th
which comes from India and China, it is obtained from t:
tilages of the Ass and the Zelra ,- it answers for the t
purposes as isinglass. It is considered to be a. mild astr
gent.

Skin. — The skin of some c
For several purposes.

That of the Chatiwis, Antifope niph-npra, Pall., is valuable o
account of its great pliability ; it is used for the purpose o

1 It is also known under the Dame of iodMai or hoUai. The ChinMi
call it itgu-kiao mhoki-hao. It in a strongly siromatiseil gelatin'

rating mercury fVoin other metals; by ft™ mm},', tht CDW-
y passes through the pores of tin- skin while the impurities
are retained.

That of the Gnzrlh: . bi/i/c/ie Dotvm, Pall., is used for pocking
the hepatic and socotrine nines of commerce.

The akin of the Skeep, Ovis Aries, Linn., according to the
mode in which it is prepared, furnishes purclimi nl and chuumis
and nioroeco leather. In pharmacy it is used for the making
of piasters.

Nests of Esculent Swallow.— The nests of these birds
maybe associated with in ins; hiss, which they closely resemble
in their appearance. The birds belong to the family of the
Hirundinida).

There are five species of the ICttaitent Sictillow; four of
which belong to the Indian Archipelago. Only one species is
found in the Isle of France. The principal species are the
Common Esculent Sirtil/uic,' distinguished by a white natch
at the base of the tail feathers, and the fiicus-eat iug swailow,-
which is of a uniform brown colour.

The nests have an oval cup-like form, they are from 2J to
2£ inches in length and about an inch and a half in width.
They are firmly attached to the rock. They have a yellow
colour, are semi-transparent, and of a firm and tenacious con-
sistence. The free edge of the nests is somewhat thickened,
their surface is rough, and when broken they present a
vitreous-like fracture. They are formed in successive layers.

Many naturalists have supposed that these nests were com-
posed of the remains of certain lisli. or of the mucilage of various
Zoophytes ; others have believed that the birds formed them
from the juice of a tree, with the fronds of lichens, or from
gelatinous sea weeds. It is now ascertained that at the period
of nidification the birds disgorge a viscid humour, which is
secreted by the salivary glands or by the follicles of the crop ;'
it is analogous to the fluid with which the European swallows
cement the clay of which their nests are constructed.*

There are three gatherings of the nests in a year. Those
which are intended for the first laving of eggs are the purest
and the most valuable ; those which belong to the last aro

1 Callocalui i-xr.it/inru. Urat, HirunJn iwuihata, Linn.

5 Ctilhettiiti fm-ifilutiiii, C. .Boiiup., Hirtindt) fiiciftujti, Thutib., Calfocatia

iifica, Gray.

' E. Home, Blyt, L&idlej, Itler.

* According to a Chinese physician these ucsta are formed of the con-

"dttttd yuslric juiei: tritli:>iit uinj ■itlmUlim. (Iticr.)

MS D1C At ZOOLOGY.

mixed with feathers and fragments of vegetation. In Bom.
there are found portions of algte and lichens, ((iuibourt.)
It is probable that the nests of the different spews do not

resemble earh other.

The material of which the nests are composed is insoluble
in cold water, but softens by moisture ; it dissolves in boiling
water in the same manner as gelatine. Every 100 parts
contain 9025 of animal matter and some salts. (Muller.) The
nests are supposed to possess restorative properties. (Cuvier).
They are used for the purpose of making soups and various
kinds of ragouts. They are also prepared like mushrooms.
Their substance softens and resembles vermicelli.
§ VI. Fat.

Fat is a secretion of the adipose tissue of animals. It exists
in considerable quantities beneath the skin, on the surface of
the muscles, in the omentum, at the base of the heart, and
around the kidneys. It becomes fluid at a temperature of
from 59° to 10-1° Pah.

The fat of the Pig has received the name of hofa lard, this
term being more especially applied to it after it has been
purified. The fat of the Sheep is termed met.

Fat is freed from the foreign matters with which it is mixed
by cutting it into Bmall pieces, melting it at a moderate tem-
perature in water, then pouring it efl' and filtering it through
a fine cloth. Some persons recommend that the water in
which the melting takes place should have a certain quantity
of sulphuric acid mixed with it. [Many plans of purifying
fats have been proposed ; one of the best is to mix two per
cent, of strong sulphuric acid with a quantity of water, in
which the tallow is heated for some time with much stirring ;
to allow the materials to cool, to take off the supernatant fat,
and re-melt it with abundance of hot water. 1 ]

Fat is usually of a sottish consistence, but varies in this
respect according to the animal, and according to the part
from which it iB obtained. It is lighter than water, colourless,
or of a yellow tint, sometimes odorous, sometimes inodorous,
and has a bland insipid taste. It is essentially composed of
elaine, a body which is liquid at a temperature of 46° Fah.,
and is only slightly soluble in alcohol even when boiling, and
of stearine, which melts at a temperature of 100° Fah., [Brande
says about 110° Fah.,] and is still less soluble in alcohol.
Acted upon by a solution of caustic potassa these substances
1 Sue I're's Die. of Arts anil Sciences, art. Fat

and

187

are converted into two acids : oleic acid, which ia principally
derived i'rom the elaine, and marganc acid, winch appears to
be formed in a great measure by the atearine.

Lard is a while, soil, semi-trans parent fat, Kith little or no
Bmell ; it melts at about S0 C ' Fab. [In order to separate this
fat from the membrane in which it is contained, it is melted over
a slow Are, then strained through flannel or linen, and poured
■while b'quid into a bladder, where it solidifies on cooling {adept
pr<rparafw). Occasionally salt is added to preserve it; but
uncalled lard should he employed for medicinal purposes. By
melting in boiling water, lard may be deprived of any salt
which may have been mixed with it. "While solidifying, lard
should be kept stirred, to prevent the separation of the stearine
and elaine. (Fereira.)]

Suet is a white hard fat ; it melts at from 98° to 125° Fah.

Beef fat is of a pale yellow colour ; it has scarcely any smell,

id melts at 100° Fah.

Sear's fat is of a yellowish white colour, semi-fluid, of a
peculiar odour, and has a nauseous taste.

Goose fat is of a yellow colour and has a disagreeable smell ;
it melts below 80 n Fah.

Ostrich fat, Stmthio Canning, Linn. — This is a fine, white,
firm fat, with only a slight odour resembling that of the pre-
ceding ; it melts at about 79° Fab. ' (Duroziez.)

Writers mention several other kinds of fat, which were
formerly used in medicine ; a b'st of these has been given in
the first book of this work.*

Lard is used in the manufacture of the various kinds of oint-
ments and pomades.

After a certain time fat undergoes a change; it turns yellow
and becomes rancid. 3 In order to prevent lard from turning
rancid, it should be carefully covered up and kept in a cool
place. M. Deschanip (d'Ava'lhm) recommends that it should be
impregnated with the odoriferous and resinous principles of the
buds of the poplar or with benzoin. The first process consists in
adding from twelve to one hundred of the buds. This fat is of
a green colour, and cannot, therefore, be used for making white
pomades. It becomes of an orange colour when mixed with an
alkali. Benxoinated fat is prepared by heating in a water-bath
for two or three hours four parts of pounded benzoin in 100

1 An Ostrich will supply nearly one-tbird of its weight of fat. (Gos

1 MM. Fl. Provost and Em. Rousseau state that the fat of the Ostrich
has very little tendency to become ranoid.

i MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

parts of fresh fat, and stirring while cooling. This fat beeomem
rancid sooner than that which has been mixed with the buds
of the poplar. M. Koubeiran proposes to substitute, for the
benzoin, th% balaam of tola, which is left in the preparation of
the syrup. One hundredth part by weight of the tolu dissolved
in alcohol is to be mixed with the lard; it is then to be warmed
and stirred for the purpose of evaporating the spirit.

Lard is adulterated with inferior kinds of fat and with salt.
Plaster of Paris i* also sometimes mixed with lard. The two
last adulterations are easily detected by melting the lard ii
water; the salt is dissolved, aud the plaster is precipitated.
(ChevaUier.)

§ Vll. Oils.

Animal oils 1 are fatty substances characterised by the great
fusibility remaining liquid al a temperature below (.>""
50° Fab.

Animal oil is produced in great abundance by the Whale
and the Porpoise.

Whale oil, known under the name of FUh oil. is obtained
from the Common Urwnlaml Whale"- and by the Rorqual,
species of Whales in which the skin of the throat and the belly
is arranged in folds or plica. The fat or blubber of these ani-
mals is iirst rut away with enormous knives ; it is then divided
into smaller pieces, packed in casks, and afterwards melted.

This kind of oil is thick, of a dark brown colour, aud has a
rancid fishy smell ; it becomes congealed at a temperature of
32° Fah. The Whale produces an enormous quantity of oil ;
a single individual is capable of yielding a ship's cargo.' [A
ship's cargo will, of course, vary with the size of the vessel
and the quantity of oil, with the species of whale and the a L
and size of the individual ; hut. after making all allowance for
the difference which may arise from these causes, the above
statement seems exaggerated. The largest cargo ^ver known
by Dr. ScoreBby to have been brought to this country, wi
that by Captain Moutor, of the Resolution, of Peterhead, i .
1814. It consisted of I'ortv-l'our whales, yielding two hundred
and ninety-nine tons of oil, which sold at f!l,3(iis : and adding
the whalebone and the bounty, which was at that time allowed
to whaling vessels by the government, the entire return*
amounted to £11,000. The total value of the British whale-

OILS — MILK.

fishery for t lie same year, which was a yery favourable olio,
was £700,000.]

Tk» Oil of the Porpoiee, Drlphinm globia-pt, Cuv„ is of a
citron colour, and its sp. gr, 0'91 at a temperature of 68'"'' Fall.
It is vi-n soluble in alcohol. It contains less cetine 1 than
wbale oB> and much more phocine.

According to M. Bertbelot the latter principle forms a tenth
part; in another species, probably the Dclphinim marginahu,
l)uvern., the same chemist found only the one hundredth part of
this substauce. In other Cetacea there are only tracea of
phocine.

OU is obtained from the Ihtgong and the Spermaceti whale*

Oil is also found in the organs or in the productions of some
other animals ; as. for instance, in the yelk of birds' eggtj this
is easily extracted by compression.

In the distillation of mtrogenised organic matters, such na
Wood, bones, muscle, &c, a very thick, brown, extremely fetid
oil is obtained. When this lias been distilled several times, it

forma a colourless liquid, which has long been known as Sip-
pel's animal oil; it was formerly in great repute in the treat-
~ '* "f diseases of the nervoiiB system.

Milk is

glands of the female mammalia.

what viscid fluid, with an agreeable odour, which 11

by heat, and has a mild sweet taste.

Milk consists of a mucdaginous solution, which holds in
■uspensiona fatty matter composed of small spherical globules.

§ vm. Milk,
i emulsive fluid, which is secreted by the mammary
white, opaque, si

' SM p. 9.

MEUTCAt ZOOLOGY.

r caseine, albumen, butter, sugi

190

It is composed of easeur
of milk, and several salts.

"When milk is evaporated, as in boiling, <
it, a pellicle forms on the surface, and if this is removed it i
replaced by a second. This pellicle is almost entirely t
posed of caseous matter and of cream.

The principal milks are those of the Cow, the Sheep, the
Goat, the Woman, the Ass, and the Mure.

1. Cow's milk has a density of 1-0324. It is of a yellowish
white colour, very opaque, and with a sweet taste. It contains
in every 1000 parts, 885 parts of water, 35 of soluble and in-
soluble caseous matter aud albumen, 30 of butter, 40 of sugar
of milk, of the phosphates of lime, magnesia, potash, soda,
and iron, of the chlorides of potassium and sodium, and
of soda.

When milk is left undisturbed its surface becomes gradually
covered with a thick, unctuous, yellow layer ; this is cream ; it
consists of large globules, which, when united by the process
of churning, forms butter. The cream separates but slowly, in
consequence of its density differing but little from that of the
milk ; it is compiist/d of butter (huh/nun) and of milk. "When
agitated the butter separates and leaves a fluid termed butter-
milk. This liquid contains all the elements of the milk, but
ODly a very little caseum, and a large proportion of butyric
acid. When nearly all the cream has been removed, it is
skimmed milk ,- when this is left to itself acetic and lactic acids
are formed and coagulate the casein. A clear yellow liquid
with a sweet taste then separates, which is termed icliey. The
coagulation of the caseous matter (curds) is usually accom-
plished by artificial means.

When milk is filtered it leaves behind it the insoluble
caseous matter and the fat globules; a clear fluid passes
through, which becomes thickened and coagulated by heat in
proportion to the quantity of albumen which it contains.

The caseous matter or casein exists in considerable quantity
in milk under the form of very minute globules ; it is insipid
and inodorous. Its composition is the same as that of
albumen.

Butter, 1 or the fatty matter of milk, is met with in the form
of globules, varying in Size from ,,-giyy t"-nroVoo °f an inch. It
is composed of three fatty bodieB : oleine t
and butyrine.

1 In Psria there was consumed, in 1S67, 10,661,366 francs worth of

MTtK. 101

Sugar of milk or Bait of milk (lac/inr) is solid, Of » I* Mr}

flavour, and with no smell. It crackles l».'twoen I lie tooth. It
crystallizes in white, semi trans pa rent, regular prisms. \t the
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere water will diwuilvo one-
ninth part of its weight. Occasionally a mniill ••unrilily of
blood is found in milk. (Lepage.) -More niroly then ll titO

found infuse.) I* Nil aniimileuho u lii'-li change its onloitr

2. Sheep's milk has a density of 10406. It give-t man
cream and butter than that of the Cow; hut its hutU'r in
softer, and melts mure easily, while ita casein is mure pinn
and more viBeid.

3. Goat's milk has a density of 1*08-10. It giws off lln>
odour of the goat. Its fatty matter is thick, anil ils butter
firm and white, hut is less in quantity than in the two prtTJOU
milks.

4. Human milk has a density of I 028. II euiitainH a i

Biderable quantity of sugar of milk and very little milrinO.
Tbe latter is very soft, viscous, and tremulous. This mill, con-

a good deal of cream.

5. Ass's milk has a density of 10855. It has tint KHM Mf*>
ince, smell, and taste aa human milk. It contain* li- i

I, and what there is is not wo thick ; its buiicr El soil,
bite, and insipid ; its casein is less in quantity, ami snl'l.
" Mare's milk has a density of HW-Hi. II contains yen
I butter; its casein ia soft, and its scrum tnlerahlV
indant. The Kalmucks, by acidulating and fermenting tins
k, obtain from it araka. (Paliaa.)
L ACTO D ENS imetf.h.— Que veil ne has invented an instrument
r the purpose of determining the density ot' milk, which ho
terms a lactodensivinter. It is an areometer. The density of
■water being 1000, the average density of pure milk from tho
Cow is 1031., and when the cream has hecn separated IUII8 (the
temperature being 59° Fah.). As a matter of convenience the
two left hand figures are omitted. Thus, when the instrument
marks 25 or 80 degrees, it shows that the density of the
milk which has beeu examined is 1025 or 1030, or in other
words that a litre (1700 pint) of the milk weighs either
1025 grammes (2 lhs. 8 oz. 478 grs. Troy), or 1030 grammes
(2 lbs. 9 oz. 65 grs. Troy). The density 'of milk which has not
been deprived of its cream should vary between 29 and 33
degrees, that of skimmed milk between 325 and 37'5. The
addition of one tenth part of water to milk will lower the in-
dicator three degrees, and in skimmed milk 325.

Ckeamometeb. — This is another instrument proposed by

Quevenne. Ab skimmed milk becomes more dense, its pro-
perties may be changed by removing a portion of the cream,
and then adding a certain quantity of water. Unfortunately
this is what happens every day. The laetodensimeter will
detect this double fraud, out the ereamotneter will.

The latter instrument consists of a kind of gage, of
tolerable size, and divided into 100 parts. This is allowed
to remain in the fresh milk for twelve hours. The cream
gradually rises to the surface. The average quantity of cream,
is 11 to 12 for every hundred partB of milk. All milk which,
yields a leBs quantity than this has been more or less deprived
of itsscream. One of the inconveniences of this instrument is
that it only affords the required information after the lapse of
twelve hours. It has been recommended to substitute for it
simple agitation. A given quantity of milk is to he boiled for
ten minutes, taking care that it is continually shaken during
this time. It is then placed in a flask. When it is cooled
down to - — 4" Fab., the mouth of the vessel is closed, and it is
well shaken until all the butter is separated. It is then
strained through a fine cloth. The butter is then to be
washed, pressed, and « cighed. Every litre (l'7ti0 pint)
of milk ought to yield at leaBt 30 grammes of butter (4626750
grs. Troy).

Lactoscope, — This instrument is intended in certain cases
to indicate the richness of the milk in butter. It was invented
by M. Donne. Its action depends upon the opacity which the
liquid receives from the presence of the fat globules. The
instrument consists of two plain glasses, between which the
liquid is placed ; the instrument is then examined in a dark
place by the flame of a candle through this layer. The glasses
are separated from each other until the opacity is such that
the flame ceases to be visible. The thickness of the layer
which is required to produce this result should be thinner in
proportion to the quantity of fatty matter present. One of
the glasses is fixed ; the other on a moveable foot, one turn of
which corresponds ti> a thii-kness of B -L of an inch. The cir-
cumference is divided into fifty equal portions, which constitute
degrees; a good milk should mark 34 degrees. Unfortunately
for the accuracy of the lactoscope, the opacity of the milk
does not depend only upon the fat globules, but also upon
the caseine held in solution; it also depends upon the various
substances which are introduced by the dealers.

Adulteration. — Of late years the adulterations which are
practised on milk have been carefully inquired into. One

11)15

plan IB to remove the cream, anil tlien mis the milk with
water; in order to restore to it its opacity and consistence, as
weU as to remove the blue tint which is induced hv the mini,
teration, sugar, glucose, farina, and dextrine are added ; various
other substances are also made use of, such as infusions of rioe,
barley, 4c,; gummy and albuminous matters, lish glue, liquorice
juice, the colouring matter of the marigold, and baked carrot*
(Chevallier.)

Preservation. —The lower the temperature the better milk
keeps; but in order to preserve it for any length of time \ annus
plana have been proposed.

1. Concentrate the milk to one third or one half) |>ul il
into well- stoppered vessels and expose them to the beat of I
water bath for a period of two hours. (Ap/ier/'s process.)

2. Evaporate at a low temperature, and drive in air, which
iacilitates its thickening. {(Jul/nis's proceM.)

3. The foregoing processes are now abandoned. The follow-
ing are much better: — To every litre (1*760778 pint) of milk
add from 75 to 80 grammes (1157 to 1234 grs.) of sugar. It
]"b then concentrated in u flat -bottomed vessel in which the
liquid is kept constant I v moving in order to prevent the form-
ation of a pellicle. Wnen it has become reduced lo one-lit'lli
of its original volume, it is put into tin boxes, which are then
treated according to Appert's method. ( Lupim'x prucrxs.)

4. The milk is charged with carbonic acid bj the same kind
of machine as is used in the manufacture oIWH/.it water; il is
then placed in bottles in the usual manner. (lictheV* procesn.)

5. Lastly, milk is preserved without the addition of any
foreign substance, and without the abstraction of its cream, or
the evaporation of its aqueous particles. It is simply placed
in a tin vessel which is provided with a pewter tube. This is
warmed for three-quarters of an hour in a water bath for the
purpose of expelling all the air, and the tube is then hermeti-
cally closed by means of pincers. (Mabru'x process.)

§ IX. Eggs.

The eggs which are employed in medicine are those of the
common fowl, Phasianux Q alius, Linn.

Every egg consists of a calcareous covering or shell; of a
semi-opaque membranous envelope which covers the internal
surface of the shell ; of the glairy liniments or ehalazm which
connect the envelopes with their contents ; of the white or
albumen, a transparent liquid with a very slight tint of a
greenish yellow, and which is contained in a loose cellular

194 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

tissue, varying in density in the different layers ; of the yel
low or ■uiMlug, a globular opaque mass of a golden yellov
colour surrounded by a very delicate membrane, the vitellin
membrane, mid suspended in the midst of the albumen ; last!
of the germ of the bird or eieatrimda, a small white body whict
adheres to the yelk.

A hen's egg contains on an average 367 grs. Troy of the
white, and 321 grs. Trov of the yelk.

The shell is composed of animal matter, carbonate of lime,
a small quantity of carbonate of magnesia and of phosphate
of lime, with slight traces of an oxide of iron. Sulphur is
present in the animal matter and beeomes liberated in the
form of sulphuretted liydrngcu, when shells which have been
previously calcined are acted upon bv the stronger acids.

The internal membrane appears to be of an albuminous
nature. (Vauqueliu.) This also contains a small quantity of
sulphur. It readily dissolves in liquor potansiC without pro-
ducing ammonia.

White of egg consists of a solution of albumen, with the
presence of certain salts, a small quantity of sugar and pro-
bably also of carbonate of soda. It almost entirely dissolves
in either eold or tepid water, leaving only a few particles of
.membrane. In boiling water the albumen becomes coagulated,
and forms a white compact mass.

The yelk consists of a large quantity of water, of vitelline, of
margarine, and of oleine, of a viscous matter, of cholcsterine,
of osmazone, of a colouring matter, of the sails usually present
in animals, aud contains traces of lactic acid. (G-obley.)

The oil of the yelk is composed of oleine, margarine, of a
small quantity oi' uliolcsterine, and of colouring matter.

There are two kinds of colouring matter in the yelk ; the one
is red, contains iron, and resembles the colouring matter of the
-blood; the other is yellow, and appears to be analogous to the
colouring matter of the bile.

Eggs are said to he fresh when they have not been laid more
than two days in summer or six in winter.

Eggs change in proportion to the length of time they have
been laid. The evaporation of the water in their interior takes
place through the pores of the shell, and forms a apace at one
extremity (air chamber).

If the white of an egg is coagulated which is not fresh, when
the shell is broken a depression is seen at one end. When
eggs have been laid some time the ehalaza? become relaxed,
and lose the power of supporting the yelk ; the hitter, in con-

195

sequence of its greater Specific gr&Ylty, falls to the lowest part.
Farmers mid egg-merchants nsi-,=rt:iiii this tact by examining the
egg before a lighted candle, or bv the light of the sun.

Fresh egga, when gently shaken in the direction of their
length, give no evidence of any internal displacement. Stale
eggs, on the contrary, give rise to a slight shock, arising from
the displacement of their contents. M. Delaine, of Dijon, has
given the following directions for ascertaining whether an egg
is fresh or not :— Dissolve eight ounces of common salt in
1"760 pint of water, and when the water is dis.-ii.iHed place the
egg in the solution. If it has been laid the same day it i;ues
direct to the bottom of the vessel ; if not. it does not sink so
far; and if it is three days old it floats in the liquid ; if it is
more than five days old it comes to the surface, and the shell
projects in proportion to the age of the egg.

Eggs may be preserved fresh for a whole year by covering
the pores of the shell with Famish, with a layer of was, or with
some fatty substances. Cadet Gassicourt recommends the
egg* to be placed in a vessel in layers, and then to pour in
lime water, containing a small excess of the powdered lime, so
that the eggs shall be covered to the depth of from six to seven
inches of the liquid.

It is supposed that, in this case, a deposit of carbonate of
lime takes place, which fills up the pores of the shell, render-
ing it thereby imperii) cable to air, and so preserving the animal
matter in its interior.

, The following process has been proposed by M. Delarue : —
Take 1543 grs. of slack lime for every 200 eggs. Mix with
the lime, as intimately as possible. 15-i grs. of powdered sugar;
the whole is then to be placed in millieient water to cover the
egga. In fifteen days the operation is completed. The small
quantity of saccharate of lime which Is formed penetrates the
shell, anil prevents the entrance of air.

The Chinese place their eggs in water holding in solution a
tenth part of sea salt until their density becomes greater than
that of the liquid.

Eggs may also be preserved bv placing them in ashes, dry
sand, bran, millet seed, saw dust, powdered charcoal, Ac.

The parts of the egg which aro employed in medicine are the
white and the yelk.

The white ib used for clarifying syrups and many other
liquids ; this effect is produced by its eoagidation by the heat
from the liquid, or by the acids or tho spirit contained in it.
The coagulated albumen forms a kind of mesh, which, as it

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

i the impurities
n emulsions. It

sinks to the bottom of the liquid, i

The yelk enterB into the formation of certain emulsions. It
serves for making emulsions with resins, gum resins, and
volatile oils. The yelk can be perfectly mixed with witter.

Eggs form a valuable and plentiful source of human food.
The annual consumption of hens' eggs in Paris ib about 115 for
each individual. 8 In the rest of France, especially in the
country places, this number is doubled. It is calculated that
7,231,160,000 eggs are consumed in France independent of
those which are exported to other countries, or which are used
for the purpose of hatching.

[The white of egg is a valuable remedy in cases of poisoning
by bichloride of mercury, sulphate of copper, and bichloride of
tin. Its efficacy in these eases depends on the combination of
the albumen with the oxide or chloride of the metal. (Pereira.)
There is no necessity of separating the white from the yelk, as
the latter is ellicacious as well as the former.

Eggs beaten up with warm water, and to which a small
quantity of brandy or port wine has been added, and then,
flavoured with sugar or nutmeg, are valuble adjuncts to the
dietary of I.I10 wick room.

The Mistuba. Spihitds Vini Gaxlici consists of Brandy
and Cinnamon "Water each f §iv, the Yelks of two Eggs,
Purified Sugar ^as, Oil of Cinnamon m.ij. ML*. — This pre-
paration is stimulant and restorative, and is used in the last
stage of low fevers and in cases of exhaustion. The dose 11
from f^ss to fjiss.]

§ X.— Honey.

The honey-producing animals are Beet, Wasps, and some
allied insects.

The Aphides also secrete a sweet fluid by means of a pair of
abdominal glands which communicate with two tubes on the
upper surface of the abdomen.

It is stated that honey has been found in the
certain exotic species of Ants, but it is doubtful whether they
have not stolen it from some other animals. However this
may he, the most perfect melliferous animals are the Bees.

1. Bees. — The Common or Money Bee. Apix MelUfica, Linn.,
is an insect belonging to the order Hyineuoptera, and to the
family Anthophila.

i come originally from llrceeo,
} different parts of

Fig.

The fema
now known

is large, strong, and lias an elongated hod'
ating, and upon her devolves the laving of ' (
male or drone ; b, female or queen

The Bee appears to hav«
from whence it has been transported
Europe.

Every one is familiar with these insects ; the body iw covered
with hairs, is of a brownish black colour and is marked with a
transverse greyish band on the abdomen. The antenna) are
filiform and shorter than the combined length of the head ami
the thorax. The Bimple eyeB are arranged in the form of a
triangle, placed in the females on the forehead, and in the
males on the vertex.

Bees live in societies called swarms. When one of these
swarms is artificially lodged it constitutes a hive, Each
Bwarm constructs a very peculiar and complicated nest. It
consists of partitions compiled of hexagonal cells. These par-
titions are arranged perpendicularly ; each consists of two rows
of cells placed opposite each other and connected together by
their bases, so that the cells themselves are placed horizontally.
Each partition with its double series of cells forma a comb.

It is in the interior of these cells that the eggs are deposited
and the food is Btored up.

Each swarm consists of three kinds of individtllll ! I . ■

ttale; 2, male*; 3, neuter* or workers (fig. 51).
* v 6

which the ancients called a king, but which is
queen, is found solitary in every s'

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

The mates or drones vary in number from 600 to 1000 in
each roum. They are smaller, leas robust, and have a shorter'
abdomen than the female. They have no sting. Their office
is to impregnate the female.

The workers or neuters number from twelve to twenty or
even thirty thousand in each hive, and are the smallest mem-
bers of the community-. The working bees have a sting. The
duties of these are to take charge of the eggs and of the young,
and to construct the combs. They generally divide these
labours amongst them: some attend evlurjivoly to the young —
these are the nursing lees ; others collect the nectar and pollen
of the flowers and form from them the honey and the wax,
construct the combs, and lay up a supply of food— these are the
wax workers.

Many writers regard the associations of Bees as a republic.
Linnams terms the government a gynoeratic republic. This'
celebrated naturalist believed that the queen is guarded from
sight by the workers, and that she is not able to emerge
from her dominions ; this, however, is an error. The associa-
tion of Sees appears rather to be a true monarchy, at the head
of which is placed a sovereign, who is the only one of her sex,
and who is solely engaged in laying eggs. But who governs the.
society ? It governs itself; each sex. each individual instinct-
ively,necessarily, and blindly exceutes the functions which are
assigned to it ; and each displays the same zeal, skill, and per-
fection in the fulfilment of its duties.

Copulation takes place at the beginning of Bummer, out of
the hive. The female rises into the air until she is lost to sight,
surrounded by a crowd of males. (Huher.) One only of the
latter is summoned to partake of her favours. This male
usually belongs to another hive. (Hainet.) The female soon
returns, bearing at the extremity of her abdomen the genital
organs of the male.

As soon as the female is impregnated, and the males are no
longer of any use to the community, the workers wound them
with their stings, and put them to death. This slaughter
usually takes place in the month of August, when the vicinity
of the hivo is covered with the dead bodies.

Two days after the queen has been impregnated she begins
to lay her eggs, and becomes the object of the attention and
solicitude of the entire colony. The workers clean her by
rubbing her with their probosces, and from time to time pre-
sent her with the honey with they have disgorged.

There are several layings. Keaumur has calculated the

number of eggs which the female can lay in the course of thru
weeks at 12,000. She generally deposits from 200 to -HH) a
day. 1 The eggs are oblong, slightly curved, attenuated at the
extremity, by which they arc attached to the cell, and arc
somewhnt transparent. These eggs produce workers and a
single female.

It has been recently stated, that the queen haH (he power of
lay iu« eggs before copulation as well as after it has taken
place, when the seminal fluid has lost its livimilatiiii; |io\\crs,
but that these eggs only give rise to males. It is also supposed
that, after she has been lecimdated. she ean prevent t he seminal
fluid from coming in contact with the eggs, ami thai she ran
thus deposit male germs at her pleasure.

The neuters are imperfect females ; that is to say, individuals
who have been arrested in their development, and do not
possess the copulative vesicle. Nevertheless, under certain cir-
cumstances they do lay eggs, but they are always male eggs.

Suitable cells are prepared I'or the reception of the
new generation. Each egg has its particular cell. The cells
which are intended for workers are regular and perfectly equal
polyhedra. Those for the males are somewhat larger, ue lea*
regular, nearly cylindrical, and as if they were eni;ine-tiii'neil
The male cells are dispersed amongst those of llie workers.
The cells for the females hang down.

The eggs are hatched at the end of four or live days, v\ hen
there comes forth a small whitish larva, composed of fourteen
segments with a corneous head and uo feet. The larva remain!
motionless within its cell. The workers feed it with a mixture
of honey and pollen, of which the quantity varies according to
the age of the individual.

Five or six days after they are born, the period for their
metamorphosis has arrived, and the workers then close up the
mouth of the cells with a convex lid or cup of wax.

The larvfe spin around their bodies a covering of silk, and at
the end of three days they arc transformed into nymphs.

"When they have remained in this state seven days and a
half, they undergo their last metamorphosis, and are changed
into Seem. They then eat their way through the lid, and
emerge from their cells.

The males are twenty-one days from the time they are
hatched until they assume their perfect state. The females
are thirteen days. The nature of the food exercises great
influence over the duration of this period. By varying the

1 Lioiiitui savH l.h:K c;n:-li qiiv-'.'n Lij- Jn.LOO ivyear.

200 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

food of the larvse, the workers con at their option produce
workers or queens ; that is to Bay, females whose development
has been arrested, or females who are normally developed.
When a swarm has loBt its queen, the workers demolish
several of the ordinary colls lor the purpose of forming a royal
ceil. A larva is placed in this, and after being fed on the
necessary kind of food, instead of producing a working bee, it
ia transformed into a queen.

When the young bees have come forth, the workers im-
mediately clean out the cells, and prepare them for the
reception of another set of eggs. This, however, is not the
case with the royal cells ; these are destroyed, and fresh oneB
formed for every laying.

When a queen is born in a hive, a great agitation is per-
ceived, and the whole colony appears to be in motion ; on the
one hand, the old queen endeavours to reach her new-horn
rival for the purpose of plunging her sting into her body,
while on the other hand crowds of workers interpose to defend
her. Some are charged with wax, and eeein desirous of
enclosing the new queen in her cell, aud to provide for her
safety by making her a prisoner. In a short time the old
queen issues forth from the hive, with all the appearance of
anger, and is accompanied by a large number of the com-
munity, She and her partisans assemble together at some
distance from the old hive, and become the founders of a new
colony. The young queen remains behind, and is soon at
the head of a numerous society by the successive development
of the larva; belonging to her generation. In this manner a
young swarm is produced, which take possession of the first
hive.

If two or three queens are born at the same time, they
wage war against each other until only one of them ia left
alive, who, having couquered her rivals, becomes the sovereign
of the new society.

When a Beeond queen is introduced into a hive, she is
either destroyed by the legitimate sovereign, or by a number
of the workers, who precipitate themselves upon her,
plunge their stings into her body. (Huher, He Beauvoys.)

Sometimes one colony will attack another in order to rob
it of its provisions. If it should be victorious, the hont
belonging to the enemy is carried off, and transferred to the
own hive. Sees paBS the winter in a torpid state,
recently been proposed to preserve them during their lctharj
in a kind of pits.

Fig. 62.- Mouth*

201

». 52).— See* are

a proboscis, which
is the homologue of the lower lip
of other insects.

Swamraerdam thought the pro-
boaciB was tubular, and perforated
i at its extremity, and that thua it
was organised to draw up the
juices of the flower after the
manner of a pump. According
to this celebrated anatomist the
most external pieces, which form
the case, served only to separate
the petals, while the inner por-
tions were intended to compress
;he tube, and cause the ascent of the sugared fluid. This
ruction was favoured by the pressure of the atmosphere, and
by the dilitation of the abdomen, which formed the vacuum of
the pump.

Beaumur has given a more correct account of this apparatus

and of the functions which are performed by the different

He has shown that the proboscis is a kind of velvetty

u ib, which by its movements becomes charged with the

meyed liquor ; that this fluid then passes between the

„xternal pieces or jaws, and thus gains an opening at its base,

which had escaped the notice of Swammerdam.

It appears, therefore, that the instrument with which the
Bees collect the honey is not entitled to be termed a, proboscis.
Entomologists have named it the Ugula.

The Ugula is a long, lancet-shaped, slender, obtuse body,
marked with transverse lines, and covered with hairs, which
are directed from the base towards the apex. It is contracted
at its commencement, and appears to be articulated by a
pedicle, which is short and truncated ntiteriorly, while poste-
riorly it is attenuated, and then suddenly dilated. On either
side of the contracted portion are two appendages, paraglossa,
having the form of short obtuse processes furnished with hairs.
Further back, where it becomes dilated are the labial palpi.
These are longer than the paraglossia, but shorter than the
tongue; they pass from behind forwards, and from within to
without ; they diminish in size towards their termination, and

a number of unequal joints. Still further
buck are the narrow lancet-shaped jaum, looking as if they
were provided with a median nervure.

The opening of the mouth is situated at the upper port oi
the base of the tongue ; it is of a moderate size, and is closed
ty a small Heidi v triangular lube, which Reaumur' named the
tongue. This aperture, which is the opening of the pharynx,
communicates with a dilated esophagus. When a Bee is
compressed between the lingers a drop of honey often issues
from this spot.

The nectar of flowers and the various sweet vegetable juicea
after they have been imbibed and swallowed by the Bee
become modified in the stomach (Reaumur), and transformed
into honey. This is disgorged and deposited by the animals in
particular cells prepared for the purpose in the layers of the

3. HoNET. — Honei/ (mrl) is a sugared, perfumed, semifluid
substance of the consistence of syrup, and of a more or less
golden yellow colour.

The collecting of the honey takes place during the months
of September and October. There are various ways of ob-
taining it. The old method was not without danger to the
operators as well as to the Bees. The head was covered with a
mask, the hands with gloves, and the legs with cloths. The
hive was then smoked. When the Bees, having been driven
out by the smoke, had assembled at the top of their abode, the
hive was turned topsy-turvy. The combs had then to he cut
away, and, in order that the insects should not be injured in
the operation, they .were compelled to retire further off by
again smoking them by means of a piece of smouldering tow
or linen fixed to the end of a stick, so that it could be directed
towards the comb to which the Bees had attached themselves.
This method was exceedingly detrimental to the multiplication
of the Bees. In the present day a different plan is adopted.
In the evening the hive is gently raised from its support, laid
upon its side, and left in this position during the night. Early
the next morning an empty hive is rubbed with honey, and
fixed with its opening upwards; the other hive is then placed
upon it, bo that the two openings correspond. By this means
the full hive is placed below the other in a reversed position ;
it is then struck repeatedly with a small stick, and the animals,
in consecpience, pass into the upper hive. When all or the

1 Epiphurimx or ejiighssa (Snvignj).

number of the Bees are supposed to haw entered I lie
ity hive is detached, and placed where the full hive 1ml
i removed from. The latter is then reversed upon n cloth,
which the combs fall. The Been whirh remain behind are
'en off, either by moving then with a feather, or by smoking
Some recommend the fumes of tobacco, :iml athui
chloroform.

In order to extract the honey from the comba they lire
upon sieves, or in coarse sacks, and exposed to a slight
v simply to the warmth of the sun; ji viscous fluid
a from them, which is known as virgin honey; it is the
pure and the most valuable.

hen no more honey cornea away the comba are broken uj>,
then allowed to drain again, and this time the I" n I
lewhat increased.
After this the combs arepreased, care having firs!. Iicen
iken to remove the eggs. By this means a hirger supply of
honey is obtained, but of an inferior quality, holding iu sus-
pension a certain amount of extraneous matter, which either
at the top or amka to the bottom. The honey muni
some time to settle, and then skimmed and oarSfoUj
id off.
The less heat and the less amount of pressure which »<■<■ QHd
e better the honey.

Good honey ia aoft, of a pale yellow colour, with granular
particles disperaed through the semifluid portions. It is
entirely soluble in water, and capable of undergoing siN-nlmHc
fermentation. It has a bland, sweet, pleasant, and more or
less aromatic flavour.

Writers distinguish sis kinds of honey : l.t.liat I'niiii Mount
Hymetta, from Mount Ida, from Million, and from Cuba; 2.
that of Narbonne; 3. that of Gatinaia; i. that of Saintonge;
5. that of Burgundy ; (j. that of Brittany.

The honey from Mount Hymetta was celebrated in the curliest
ages of the world. Martial, Horace, and Kiliua Italian have
extolled its flavour and its perfume. It is a white, liquid, aud
transparent honey.

Narbonne honey enjoya a well-merited reputation in phar-
macy. ItisHomewhiit solid, < if a whitish colour, very granular, with
a strong smell and an aromatic taste, which is nceasioually slightly
pungent. It contains a small quantity of wax and acid. ThiB
honey Comes almost exclusively from the little town of
Gorbierea.
The honey of Gatinais is next in esteem after that of

be let

the be
One

20-t MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

Narbonne. It ia not so granular as the latter,

colour, and less aromatic. It has a pale y

very sweet taste. It cornea from that portii

ment of Seine et Manic which ia to the south of the Seine, and

from a part of Orleans. It is often sold in Paris under the

name of Narbonne honey. It is the best for the preparation

of syrups.

Saintonge honey is very thick, less granular than that from
Narbonne, but nearly as white. It has a strong aromatic
odour and an agreable flavour. It is very similar to that from.
GAtinais, but it ia not of ao deep a colour. Thia honey is
principally employed in the country where it is produced.

Burgundy honey is held in less repute than the former

The honey of Brittany is the moat inferior of all. It is
of a brown red colour. It has a sharp taste, and a amell re-
sembling gingerbread, which sometimes ia not at all agreeable.
It contains a fuaible granular matter, soluble in water and in
alcohol. It ia seldom employed in medicine. It is especially
reserved for veterinary purposes. The nature of the flowers
influences the colour, taste, perfume, and other qualities of the
honey.

Some honeys are abnoat white ; others are of a golden

Kllow, red, fawn, brown, and even black colour. A Bee
longing to Madagascar and the Isle of Bourbon (Apti
waicolor, Latr.) produces a green honey. 1

The honey prepared from the nectar of the labiata is
generally very much perfumed; that from the South of France
appears to owe its good qualities to the great number of these
plants, which are found in that part of the country. The
aromatic odour which eharai-lemcs the honey from the neigh-
bourhood of Montpollier, part icularly that from the sources of the
Lez, appeara to be owing to this circumstance. Sauvage stateH,
that having planted a hedge of roaemary before a hive, of which
the honey had no particular Bmell, from that time it became
perfumed. M. Biot noticed in the Balearic ialea, and
TJe Candolle in the Corbieres, near Narbonne, that the honey
of theae countries owed its supcrioritv lo the same family of
plants. Olivier haa stated, that the honey of Upper Provence,
which is of an excellent quality, is collected from lavender.
The good qualities of Cuban honey arise from the orange

' It is obtained from the Mimosa heterophytta wd from the Weirmnnna

HOITEY. 205

flower. Bosc states thai the delteiouaneBS of the honey from
the neighbourhood of the orangery at Versailles ia owing to the
Bame cause. It ia add that it ia the black or buck wheat
which gives the inferior qualities to the honey of Brittany.
The makers of gingerbread at Hheima are aaid to pay a higher
price for the honey which is obtained in the spring from the
willows, than that which is obtained in autumn from the buck
wheat. (Allaire.) The aromatic flavour and odour of the honey
from Gatiiiais appear to depend upon The flowers of the
safiron, which are produced in large quantities in that country.
The yew, according to Virgil, and the box tree, according to
Pliny, imparted a better flavour to the honey of Corsica.

Aristotle pretends, that at a certain period of the year the
honey from the neighbourhood of the Caucasus rendered those
who ate it insensible. Xenophon and Diodorus of Sicily
relate that the soldiers became furiously intoxicated after
eating the honey in the neighbourhood of Trebizond. These
statements have been confirmed by several modern writers.
Tournefort believes that these deleterious properties are owing
to the flowers of the Aziilea J'ontica ; others that they depend
hi a great measure on the Shododendrum Ponticum. Gulden-
staedt tasted some honey which was collected from these
shrubs. It was of a dark brown colour, with a bitter taste,
and caused deafness and giddiness. Smith Barton has de-
scribed the aymptomB produced by a poisonous honey found in
South Pensylvania, near the Ohio. During his voyage to the
Brazils, Auguste de Saint-Hilaire remained in a state of
delirium for several hours from only taking two teaspoonfula
of a mild plensant honey gathered by a bee, Pollutes Leche-
guana, A. St.-Hil. ; from a species of fir tree, the PaUulinia
uustralis.

Various writers have published cases which show that honey
collected from narcotic or poisonous plants may produce
nausea, colic, and even actual poisoning. Lambert says that
the honey collected from a certain tree in Colchis produced
vomiting. La bill an here suspects that the poisonous efi'ects in
Asia Minor are caused by the Cocculus suberosus. In Brazil a
drink called grappe is concocted from wild honey and certain
fruits, which causes vomiting. (Roulox Baror.) The honey
from Pensylvania, South Carolina, Georgia, and the two
Floridas, when it has been collected from the Kalmia
august ij'ul i<t„ lutijbliu, or liinnta, or from the Andromeda Mariana,
produces disorder of the stomach, vomiting, convulsions, and
sometimes death. Haller mentions the case of two Alpine

villagers who were poisoned by honey from the aconite.
Serlnge mentions another instance where two Swiss herdsmen
having eaten aome honey, I'olleeted frmn tin- Actmitum Napelhu
and lycotonum, 1 were seized with convulsions and delirium;
one of them, who was unable to vomit, died discharging blood
and froth from his mouth.

The qualities and effects of honey are veiy variable,
which is excellent at one period of the year may become
noxious at another. Every bee-keeper knows that the
hive produces a somewhat different honey every month owing
to the difference in the flowers upon which the Bees feed.

Honey is a mixture, in variable proportions, of two different
sugars: glucose, which is solid. erystaUiflable, and perfectly
resembles the solid sugar of the raisin ; the other is liquid, non-
crystalliBable, and has a rotatory movement to the left.
Soubeiran has mentioned a third sugar, distinguished from that
in grains by being convertible by acids, and from the fluid
sugar in having a rotatory motion towards the right. Small
quantities have also been found of a vegetable acid, and
colouring and odorous principles which exercise so much influence
over the qualities of the honey. According to M. Guibourt,
some honeys appear to contain manna.

Honey is adulterated by the addition of water, starch, the
pulp of ohesnuts, bean or maize flour ; gum tragacanth and
sand are also mixed with it. Then' adulterations are detected
by dissolving the honey in water, when the starch and other
matters sink to the bottom. The addition of iodine produces
a blue colour. Honey is also adulterated with starch sugar.
"When this is the case, it has a peculiar appearance and a
disagreeable taste. Dissolved in water it gives a copious
precipitate with oxalate of ammonia and the salts of baryta, in
consequence of the sulphate which it contains.

Under the name of Narbonne honey, various inferior kinds
are sold, which have been whitened, and to which the perfume
of the best honeys has been imparted by straining it over
flowers of rosemary.

§ XI. Wax.

Bees* are the principal (c^r- producing animals.

It has long been known that certain vegetables, as, for
example, the Ceroxylon andicola, and the Benincasa cerifera,

1 This was the honej c
Pabr.
s See p, 196.

toe Common Humbk Bee, Bomiuj U

-wax. 207

produce a substance con.-u.sf big of wax and some other prin-
ciples. 1 The twigs, leaves, and fruits of many plants are
covered with a powder, which is a waxy matter differing very
little from that which is produced by Bees. Prom these
circumstances it was supposed that the insect received the wax
already prepared from the plant; it has, however, been shown
to be an animal formation. No doubt the Bee obtains the
elements of the wax from the plants ; but she modifies and
transforms them.

Bonnet and Hunter maintained that wax was a secretion.
It is, however, to the experiments of Iluher of Geneva that
we are indebted for a practical demonstration of the fact. He
enclosed a swarm of Beea in a new hive, and gave them
nothing but honey and water. At the end of some days the
insects had constructed several layers of cells of a very pure
wax. MM. Dumas and Milne Edwards repeated the ex-
periment with both honey and sugar, and obtained the same
result.

1. Wax Organs. — Hunter and Huber asserted that the
elaboration of the wax took place by means of eight small
pouches placed between the lower segments of the abdomen.
M. Leon Dufour denies the existence of these presumed wax
pouches. Some writers, guided by the fact that secretions of
the nature of wax are met with in several other insects,
conclude that the wax of the Bee accumulates by exudation on
the inner surface of the deUeate membranes,
which bind the joints of their feet together.
According to M, Leon Dufour, the Bee swal-
lows the pollen and other vegetable substances
which contain the elements of the wax. It
then yields this matter fully elaborated from
i the mouth in a sort pulpy condition. This
pulp is deposited and formed, as it were, in a
kind of mould, in the wax receptacles placed
along the lateral parts of the abdomen, where
it assumes the form and consistency of plates.
The legs of the Bee, and especially the
posterior pair (fig. 53), are admirably adapted for

1 The wax of Japan ia found in the fruit of the Rhus sutxedancum.
Myrtle wax is obtained fo>:n the wnoil nt' Mi/rim cerifera. Other kinds of
wax axe extracted i'mm the f-nittm sebijentm. G:lti*ii<t* wriferita, Myristica
sebifera, and Myristica Bicuhyba.

' Hinder litnb of a worker : a, basket seen on its outer or convex surface;
the inner or concave ia placed opposite to it; b, the brush.

208 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

the purposes for which thcv arc required, and have the first joint
of the tarsus dilated. This dilatation is most marked in the
workers; it has a square form, and its inner surface is provided
with several rows of still' hairs placed transversely, which gives
to this part the name of the brash. The leg is dilated, and
forma a triangular cavity on its inner surface, which is known
as the basket; the outer surface is somewhat convex, and
bordered by long curved hairs.

It is by means of this simple apparatus that the workers
gather the pollen and waxy secretions of the plant. The
pollen is supplied by the stamens, and the waxy secretions,
which cover the leaves and the fruit, readily adhere to the
hairs of the Bee. These materials are gathered together in
small pellets by means of the brushes, and are then deposited
in the basket by the second pair of feet. The workers may be
often seen returning to the hive with their bushels completely
full. Keaumur calculated that eight baskets full of pollen
would weigh '771 of a grain. Each Bee will make four or five
journeys in a flay, carrying two baskets full each time ; conse-
quently, in the space of a month, 18,000. workers would
accumulate 8S lbs. avoir, of this material.

Such are the instruments with which the Bees collect and
transport the elements of the wax, and such is the manner
in which they gather, accumulate, and carry away theBe pre-
cioub materials.

It has been previously seen how the animal prepares, dis-
gorges, and elaborates the wax, and how it deposits it in the
cavities of its abdomen.

The plates of wax are small, and appear as if they were

formed of [irvpeudjcnlnj- fibres. ( Dujardin.)
The basket, or dilated portion of the Bee's

mail

hook with which it draws the plates of wax from the sides of
its body. The insect deposits them one upon the other, like
layers of bricks, and moulds them into the walls of its cells.

For this purpose the Bee makes use of its mandibles. 1
These organs are very small in the males and the femaleB, but
they are well developed in the workers. They are hollowed
out, and divided into two portions by a longitudinal ridge.
When the mandibles are approximated, they form a pair
of cutting pincers, and at the same time a kind of groove. It
is with these instruments that the animals construct the
beautiful cells of their comb.

1 See p. 201, fig. B2, B.

It has jiiBt been stated tlinl IS, 000 workers in tbe space of
a month will bring to their hive more than 88 lbs. of pollen.
But at the end of a year the Bame number of insects will only
have yielded a little more than 2 lbs. of genuine was. What
then haa become of the remainder of the pollen? It has
evidently been either consumed as food, or rejected as useless.

2. Wax.— Wax is a combustible inriteriiil of which the
Bees compose the cells or comb, which is provided for the
reception of their young and their food.

When the honey has been removed from the corah, it is
melted at a moderate heat of from 143° to 145° Fab. It is
then poured into moulds, and forms the yellow or crude wax.
It oweB its colour and its odour to foreign matters. 1

For the purpose of purifying the wax, it is made up into
inin ribbons or films, or it is melted and poured in the liquid
state on to cylinders of wood, which revolve horizontally in
the water, and divide it into lumps. The films or lumps of wax
are then placed on webs of canvas, and exposed in a meadow
to the action of air and sun light, care being taken that it is
sprinkled every night with water. By degrees the was loses
its yellow colour and becomes bleached, the process com-
mencing at the surface, and gradually proceeding inwards.
ThiB process has Ihc inconvenience of occupying a long time,
and in some establishments the process of bleaching by
chlorine has been imbstitiLVed for it. Immersion of the lumps
or ribbons of was in a solution of chlorine, or exposing them
to the action of chlorine gas, produces in a short time the
same effects as the former process does in a long time. The
same thing may be accomplished by means of other chemical
substances.

A small quantity of suet is often mixed with the wax hi
order to restore to it the suppleness it has lost.

Wax which has been completely deprived of its colour, is
called virgin or irliite wax.

Virgin wax should be solid, opaque, white, brittle, and
without any decided taste or smell. It softens and becomes
malleable at a moderate temperature. It melts at about 149°
Fab., and when thrown on red hot coals it inflames and burns

■ax seen beneath the microscope have
the appearance of an amorphous substance. If, however, they
are melted on the glass plate, and then allowed to cool, they

adulterated with potato starch. (DclpccK)

210

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

assume a crystalline structure. This structure becomes n
evident when it is examined by polarized light, and when c
of the thin plates of gypsum, which M. Biot terms sensitive
plates, is placed over it. (Dujardin.)

"Was contains three distinct principles — viz., cerine,
cine, and ceroleine. Tbe cerine, or cerotic acid, forms thi
greatest part of the compound; it melts at 172° Fob.; it
dissolves in boiling alcohol, which throws it down as a deposit
in coaling. Mvriciiie is white, inodorous, and tasteless; it
melts at 161° i'ah. ; it requires 2tH) parts of boiling alcohol to
dissolve it. Ceroleine forms only a very small proportion of
the was, about 1 or 5 per cent. ; it melts at 84 lab. ; it is
soft and very soluble both in alcohol aud ether, even when
cold.

Wax forms the basis of cerates. It also enters into the
composition of a great number of unguents and plasters.
It has even been recommended medicinally in the form of
electuary, emulsion, and pills.

[Wax forms the hardening material of all the cerates of the
pharmacopceiu. The two simple cerates are the common cerate
and the cerate of spermaceti ; the latter has already been
noticed under the head of spermaceti. 1

Ckkathm, Cerate. — Wax |xs, Olive oil Oj. Add the oil
to the melted was, and mk.

Wax also enters into the composition of several of the
plasters and ointments of the pharmacopoeia.]

Other kisdh of Wax. — Certain species of Cocci exude a
waxy material, which bears some resemblance to spermaceti, and
from which boogies are made. The Coccus Sinensis (Westwood)
furnishes the Chinese Wax. The Coccus ceriferu* (Fabr.),
which lives in Bengal, produces a similar substance. In
the Common Gacltinral,* principally in the variety known as
Sileer Cochineal, a white powder is seen on the females,
which consists of wax.

§ XII. Hair and other Corneous Substances.

Hairs, hoofs, and feathers have long since been banished
from the materia medica; 1 but the corneous parts of animals
still render us important services in other respects.

Horsehair is employed in the manufacture of mattresses,
chairs, and various kinds of elastic tissues.

■

IIAIB AKD OTIIliB COUNEOrS SUBSTANCES.

Fig. 61— Whaltbont.

211

The hair of the os, after being calcined, has been profitably
employed for some years, by M. Liauce, in the preparation of
kermes mineral.

.8 sufficient to recall the various uses to which whalebone 1
is applied. This material consists of corneous plates from 6 to
9 feet in length, arranged
parallel to each other, and
attached vertically to the pala-
p tine surface of the maxillary
bones (fig. 54). These plates
have their inner edges narrow,
and terminating in a number
of coarse fibres, which are the
free ends of the fibres of
which the plates are composed. "When the mouth of the
whale is closed on a swarm of moHusea, or on a shoal of small
fishes, the water escapes through the intervals of the platea
and the fringes of coarse hair. Thus the whole forms a kind
of filter, which strains off the water, but retains what
was in it.

The feathers of Birds are used for making mattresses,
bolsters, quilts, and various kinds of ornaments. The body
feathers (Hm, Grehn, Pmyurn), the down {Goose, Eider duck),
the great wing and tail feathers (Ostrich, Goose, Grow), and the
covertures which protect the base of the latter (Peacock. Egret,
Marabout) are all employed for some purpose or another.

Feathers form an important branch of commerce ; in 1833,
there was imported into France 230,222 lbs. of feathers of the
value of £29,318.

MEDICAL ZOO LOOT.

BOOK IV.

NOXJQCS ASISTAiS, but which ARE SOT POISOSOCS 1

CHAPTER I.

ASTMAXa BOSI0C8 DlTHrRG THEIB LIVES.
General Observations.

The noxious animals which are not poisonous nor yet parasites
are those in which there is no special gland for the secretion of
a poison, and which are not permanent inhabitants either of
the interior or of the esterior of our bodies.

There are some, however, which not only eause pain, hut
also produce other symptoms, which seem to show that there is
something more than a mere mechanical action in their
puncture. The saliva which is deposited in the wound probably
possesses some specific action.

The number at those animals is very considerable. There
are many species, both large and small, which every one is
acquainted with, which wound us with their horns, their teeth,
their beak, their claws, or with particular instruments. It is
unnecessary to enumerate their names. Generally speaking,
they are animals which avoid man. They only wound hin
when they are attacked, tormented, or mutilated, or when they
are endeavouring to escape from the hand which has seized

It has been asserted that several large tailless bats belonging
to South America, and particularly the Vampire ' and the
Javelin Bat, I'liiilhutloma huttntatum, Ouv., could destroy a man
by sucking his blood. It is now ascertained that these
animals only inflict small circular or elliptical wounds, which
are painful, and are sometimes accompanied by a considerable
amount of local inflammation (Azara Tsehiidi) : in some rare
cases this may assume a poisonous character from the state of
the climate. (Cuvier.)

' Vumpyrus spectrum, Spix, Vespectilio Vaiapyms, Lmn., commonlj
known in Brazil aa the A mttrogiun

HOSlOrS ATJIMA1S.

The Musaraiqne, the Bat, and even the Squirrel, can bite so
as to draw blood. It is the same with certain Birds, and
lome large kinds of Lizards.

Other Birds defend themselves with the spur attached to
their foot, or with tin; points of their wings.

Several Species of linys inflict wounds with tin' toothed spine
of their tail ; and the Weaver with the spines of their fins.

The Torpedo and iji/nutotiis u'ivc electric shocks.

The Crustacea will seize the fingers or the skin with their
Btrong dentated claws.

Many Insects bite, prick, or scratch, Ac.

The injuries which can be inflicted by Ants have been
greatly exaggerated. The bites of these minute animals are
altogether insignificant, at least in our country. Some foreign
Ants are more disagreeable, especially when they occur in
large numbers; such as the Anta of Southern Afrie*, mentioned
by Father Labat ; the Flaminq Ants (Flammanfs) of the
woods of Cayenne, which, according to Barrere, give rise to
febrile disturbances ; and the Fire Ant of Surinam, of which
Stedroan has given an account. Adanson relates that certain
Red Ants of Senegal bve in the branches of a species of oak,
where they compose their nest of the leaves, and that they
throw themselves on persons who are so imprudent as to come
near, and bite them severely. This celebrated naturalist was
once attacked by these insect's ; bis hands and face were covered
with blisters as if they had been burnt.

It is known that a kind of acid vapour {formic acid) is
eihaled fi-om the bodies of the Ants. The vapour is not a
poison, but it. may produce some alight action on our bodies, 1
and may even produce small blister*, accompanied with a
peculiar kind oi itching. It is asserted that a large number
of these insects assembled together on one spot, or the vapour
arising from a formicary, is capable of producing a species of
erysipelas.

The Flies in our country sometimes bite very disagreably,
especially towards the autumn ; but these insects are rather
inconvenient than hurtful.

One of the/*<w most to be dreaded is a species of Stomosys,
which appears about the middle of the summer, and assembles
in swarms around the heads of horses and of cattle ; it also
attacks man.

ru/a, Linn.) crawls over a piece of litmua

214

There are many inserts which exhale a very disagreeable,
stinking odour. This smell arises from a fluid which they
disgorge, or transude from some part of their body, principally
when they are touched. Some of the hcitles belonging to the
families of Siljihidip and Cnruhidw discharge a very ibstid fluid
from the mouth. The Brachinidw or Bombardier beetles dis-
charge a still more offensive fluid from the anus. The large
Cicada pour out a fluid which is probably an urinary secretion.
The Blattidm have two vesicles at the side of the anus, which
impart a most nauseous odour to our food. The Coed exude
a bitter and acrid liquid from between the articulations of the
thorax and the tarsi of the anterior feet.

Lastly, the Flies and other insects which frequent putrid
meat, and other kinds of filth, may convey to our bodies the
germs of dangerous disorders.

The present division of the work will be devoted to the con-
sideration of: 1. The Serrasalmes ; 2. Hone Leech; 3. Bugs;
4. The Nepa; 5. The Hipjioboscidm ; 6. The Tsetse; 7. The
Gnats; 8. Stinging animals; 9. The Larvee of Flies; 10.
Insects introduced accidentally into the natural cavities of the

§ I. Che Serra-salmes.

The Serra-sr.ihirrn (J't/nticcntmu!) are fishes belonging to the
Salmonidw. They live together in shoals, and are carnivorous.
They attack with the greatest ferocity all animals which may
chance to come into the same waters as themselves, not ex-
cepting even man himself. They fix themselves on to the skin
and tear their victims with their triangular cutting teeth.
Their bite is so sharp and so quick that it is not felt more than
the cut of a razor. (A. de St. Hilaire.)

One of the best known spe.-ies is the .Piranha or Demi Fish 1
discovered by M. de Caatelnau in Uruguay, in the rivers
Tocantin and Amazon.

When any object is thrown into the water inhabited by the
Piranhas, these fish immediately attack it. One of the com-
panions of M. de Castelnau, being oppressed by the heat,
wished to bathe, but no sooner had he entered the water than
he was attacked by a shoal of the Piranhas, and he saw his
blood pouring forth and discolouring the water. He made for
the bank, which was fortunately close at hand, and he thus es-
caped what was otherwise certain death. (De Castelnau.)

§ II. Hcemopls.

ILemopis SANainsTUJA, Moq., or Hone Leech (fig. 55). —
This creature ia met with in nearly every part of Europe. It
is iiiuiul in Sweden, in the South of Spain, in Portugal, and in
Turkey. It is very common in the North of Africa along all
parts of the coast, and ha* been found ia
all the waters which have been visited by
the French troops in their furtheBt ad-
vances into the desert. Larrey noticed it
in Egypt, and Barker Webb in the Canary
Islands.

The Hamopis inhabits the marshes,
ditches, and smaller rivulets. The full-
grown animals usuaUy bury themselves
in the mud. The young appear to prefer
the running waters, where they remain at
the surface ready to plunge below upon
the slightest disturbance. (Guyon.)

Description. — The body of the H&mopis
is soft, depressed, elongated, and gradually
narrowed towards the anterior extremity ;
when it is squeezed between the lingers it
feels bike a dead or diseased medicinal
Leech. The body has from !15 to 97 short I
and rather indistinct rings, and an upper I
lip composed of three segments. The back '
is of a brown or greenish brown colour,
sometimes approaching to a reddish or
Sienna earth colour, or to an olive or green
eolour. It has generally longitudinal rows
of minute close-set black spots. There are Fig. 55. —Hamopia.
usually sis of these rows, but sometimes
only four, and still more rarely only two. In many indi-
viduals theBe spots are replaced by one or two large hands
of a red colour, shaded off at the margins. Individuals are
occasionally met with, in which the back is of a uniform colour.
The margins are not very prominent, and are marked by a
very distinct 1 line of au orange, yellow, nr reddish brown colour.
Thebellyis of a uniform blackish slate colour, geuerally darker
than the back, sometimes of a red or of au olive colour, and at
other times of a dull black ; sometimes it is marked with obscure,
isolated, irregular spots, and at other times it is free from
1 Margins lateraiifiavo, Linn.

them. The suckers are smooth, slender, and of the t
colour aa the belly ; the mini ie half the sine of the ventral.
The eyes are ten in number, very distinct, and arrange
curved line ; sk are placed on the first segment.

At the period of reproduction the r/i//-l///tt/' i-i paler than the
rest of the body ; it commences at the 22nd ring, and termin-
ates at the 28th. Of the male and female orifices the first ia
placed between the 24th and 25th rings, and the second
between the 29th and 30th.

The cocoons are oval, Btnaller and shorter than those of
the medicinal Leech, and covered with a looser and more
irregular tissue. In one M, Tandon found eight embryos.

The Horse Leech has often been confounded with the true
Leeches. It differs : 1, as regards its size, which is somewhat
larger; 2, by its jaw*, which are smaller, not so strong, and
furnished with a smaller number of teeth (thirty instead of
sixty), which are not so pointed (tig. 56) ; 3, by a softer and
less contracted body ; 4, by the rings being less marked, less
coriaceous, and forming during their contraction ridges, which
i apparent ; 5, by smaller and not such prominent
", by the absence of the rod or brown
dorsal bands ; 7, by the belly

cutaneous tubercles ;

Fig. 58. — Jam of Hamnpis.'

being darker than the back,
and having no black mar-
ginal bands.

2. Its action ox the
YEJiTKiiiiATA. — Aldrovamlus
believed that nine of these
Leeches were able to kill a
horse. This statement, which lias been repeated by Gisler,
Weser, Miiller, and many other writers, has latterly been dis-
puted. It bears the impress of exaggeration, and is, there-
lore, rejected. It has even been asserted that these annelides
do not pierce the skin of the vertebra tu or suck their blood.

The Morse Leech has been dearly proved to be aa eager
after blood as the Medicinal Leech, but the latter is provided
with the means of penetrating the skin at any part, even such
skins as those of the parhvdermata. while the IT&mopix, with
■ ita less developed aud more feeblv armed jaws, can only pene-
trate the mucous membranes. Hence the necessity which
this species is under of introducing itself into the natural
cavities of horses, oxen, and other animals.

217

Dr. Guyon lias frequently found in the neighbourhood of
Algiers Horse Leeches lodged in the nose, pharynx, and air
assagea of the animals which have been slaughtered for the

3 of the troops and the people. Amongst other instances
ox had twelve of these leeches in the mouth and fauces,
five around the anterior part of the glottis, four in the ven-
tricles of the larynx, and six about the fourth or fifth ring of
the trachea ; altogether twenty-seven. These Leeches were
still attached: twelve hours after the death of the animal.

The camels and the mules are frequently tormented by the
Hwmopis, which penetrates into the nasal fosBse and into the
air passages. These annelides easily gain entrance into the
mouths of animals which come to the water they inhabit for the
purpose of drinking. Whatever part of the body the Hamopis
may be lodged in, it is always attached by means of the anal
sucker, which fixes itself firmly to the mucous membrane.
The oral sucker applies itself to the surrounding parts accord-
ing to the caprice of the leech. Thus, upon examining the
mucous membrane in the neighbourhood of im Hivmopix, it is
seen to be covered with a number of small wounds and cica-
trices. (Guyon.) "When the Leeches are sufficiently gorged,
they detaeb. themselves from their victims at the time of their
visiting the watering places, and thus regain their natural
habitation.

Dr. Guyon has made some experiments upon these animals.
He introduced them into the sesophagus and oviduct of fowls,
and into the naBal fossa 1 and the rectum of rabbits. At the
end of thirteen days the aniinnls appeared very much wasted;
they eat but little, and bad a melancholy appearance. The
fowls perished in about thirty days, and the rabbits in about

M. Tandon also made several experiments ; he placed two
large Horse Leeches at the back of the mouth of two small rab-
bits. The animals penetrated into the trachea; one stopped
at the commencement of the canal, the other passed completely
in. The first rabbit died in about an hour and a hall", wliile,
the second was suffocated in three quarters of an hour.

The Horse Leech is one of the main causes of disease in the
animals of Algeria. It is not, however, probable that nine of
them would destroy a horse, as Btated by Aldrovandus,
since it has been seen that an ox was capable of supporting
twenty-seven without receiving any material injury. At the
same time they might cause the animal to be very unwell, and
■if nine full-grown leeches were to fix themselves on the same

218

part of the air pnssngos, the animal might hi
the ease of the rabbits mentioned above.

3. Action on Man.— The Hiemopia also introduces itself
into the mouth, pharynx, nasal fossa?, larynx, and trachea of
man. Most if not all the cases, which have been recorded by
writers, of Leeches being lodged in the alimentary canal or air
passages of our species, are to be referred to the Hamopis in a
country where these imiiiiiils are abundant; great caution should
be used in drinking water from the rivulets, and especially
from the marshes.

The young worms, which are not more than -fa inch in
length and not thicker than a fine thread, are carried along by
the water, and swallowed without being noticed. They
become arrested and hx themselves to various parts of the
mouth, especially to (he back part of it.

At first a slight pricking is felt at the back of the mouth,
and afterwards the presence of a foreign body.

It has been stated that the bite of the Hamopis is more
painful than that of the Medicinal Leer/,. (Savigny, Audouin.)
M. Tandon at first supposed that the difference depended upon
the jaws being less compressed, and the teeth being not so
sharp, or in consequence of the mucous membranes which are
wounded being very sensitive. But M. Guyon has satisfied
himself that their wounds arc not very serious ; only the pre-
sence of the animals in the nasal fossic, and still more so in the
air passages, produces great inconvenience, and in Borne cases
threatens the individual with suffocation.

The wounds inflicted by the lliemupis heal very quickly
when the animals which inflicted them are removed.

The Home Leech was noticed in 1756 at the Biege of Mahon.
Since that time a great number of Boldiers and travellers have
suffered from imprudently drinking the water from ditches and
marshes. Larrev in E^ypt, Bory St. Vincent in Spain, and
Barny in Algeria, have often been consulted by soldiers who
had these animals attached to the back of the mouth or to
the air passages.

Dr. G-uyon once found one of these leeches on the conjunc-
tiva of a soldier, where it had got while he was washing him self.
On another occasion he extracted one from the vagina of a
young girl who had been for some time in the water.

This gentleman could not succeed in inducing the Hasmopis
to bite the external parts of the human body. M. Tandon
also attempted the same thing on several occasions, but with
no better success. He placed some of these leeches of different

i the parts of his own body where the skin is most
slicste, he also tried them on the arm and thigh of a child,
but the animals never attempted to bite. On one occasion he
bathed the inner surface of his iirm with blood; the leech
moved about and felt the blood, it even dilated its sucker, but
it never cut the skin or made any attempt to do so.

The Horse Leech is never employed in medicine, 1 the reason
for which ia sufficiently evident. In the countries where they
are abundant, they might he used instead of the common Leech
in the few instances in which it is required to apply them to
the mucous membranes at the entrance of one of the internal
cavities of the body. It would, however, be very necessary to
watch the animal, in order to prevent its entering too far.

§ III. Cimiaidse.

The CimicidfS, or Bugs, belong to the order Hemiptera and
o the family GeoeoreH.

Linnams, who was the founder of group Cimrx, assigned as
itB characters — rostrum inflected; antenna' longer than the
thorax; wings four, placed transversely, the upper pair coria-
ceous; the body flattened, and the feet adapted lor running.

This genus, which is far from a natural one, contains 121
species. Linnieus was compelled to divide it into twelve
sections, according to the presence or absence of wings, the
nature of the elytra, the thickness of the body, and the form and
characters of the antennas. At the present time the Linnaian
genus corresponds to more than forty genera, containing more
than 1000 species.

1, Commok Bog (fig. 57).— Every one is familiar with the
Common Bug or Bed Bug, Cimex hrliihrius, Linn. There are
few persons who have not at some time or another been bitten
ty this disagreeable and stinking inseet.

The bug lives in the crevices and corners of old wood ;
behind curtains, looking-glasses, and picture- frames ; in all
kinds of old furniture, and especially in bedsteads. The
Battened form of its body enables it to penetrate into the
narrowest aperture.

The animal avoids the light,- hilling itself during the day-
time. It seldom remains on our bodies or on our dress.

The Bug is said to have been introduced into Europe.

1 Nocturnam fatidvm animal. (Linn.)

iodv. about -fa mch
Fig. 57.— Bug.

MEDICAL ZOOLOOT.

However, Aristotle, Pliny, and liio-cureles distinctly refer U
it. The ancients gave it the name of Oorii. The insect wai
not known in Filmland before the 1 7th century. It
to have been Imported from America in ltililj, with a cargo o
wood.' Othera believe that it came from India.

Description. — The Bed Bug has an oval body, about fa inch
in length, somewhat narrowed anteriorly,
thin at the sides, very depressed, soft, and
of a reddish or ferruginous brown colour.
It is covered with very short hairB. The
head is of a square form and provided at
the commencement of the rostrum with a
hood which serves as a sheath to the base of i
the latter. The eyes are round and block ;
the antennas setiform and composed of four
cylindrical joints ; the first very Bhort ; the
second thick, long, cylindrical, and partially
covered, with hairs; the third very long, much slenderer than
the othera, and slightly dilated at its extremity. The thorax
has the first segment hoi [owed out anteriorly, and truncated pos-
teriorly ; the sides are dilated, rounded, and membranous. The
animal has small rudimentary elytra. It has no wings. The
legs arc of moderate size and black at their extremities; the
tarsi are short, and consist of three joints ; the first is very
slightly developed, the second is conico-cylindricaL the last is
somewhat shorter th;m the second, cylindrical, andarmed with
two strong hooks. The abdomen is large, oval, composed of
eight segments, fimbriated at its margins, very depressed, and
easily crushed between the fingers. It is marked with a black
spot posteriorly.

The scent of these insects arises from a fluid, which is
secreted by a pyriform reddish gland, placed in the centre of
the metathorax, and opening between the posterior legs.

Bugs lay their eggs about the month of May. The e_
have an oblong form and are of a white colour. They are
slightly narrowed at one extremity, where there is a small,
round, slightly convex operculum, which closes up the orifice
from whence the larva issues forth. When seen under the

1 tiimuenB, upon the authority of Aiu'lusi, Kta*c= thai this insect was
introduced into liuslntnl shortly lid'onj 1 070. 11 outlet relates that in 1503,
two ladies having Vvti hiir.jn 'hiring iho uii-lii hi I no Bnijs, inquired of a

Biuiiiiiiil mau to know what these Utile iiiiimula were. This circ *"

proves that the introduction of these animals was prior to 1686,

Fig. 58— Eaitrua. 1

cimcinx. 221'

croscope, the shell of these eggs is found to be covered with

ioute projections.

The larva di tiers from the perfect insect by the absence of
the elytra, and by its paler colour, which is more or less of a
yellow tint.

Mouth (fig. SH). — This consists of a short rostrum, which
does not reach farther than the base
of the first pair of limbs. In a state
of repose it is lodged in a small groove
directly under the thorax. The
rostrum contains three joints ; the
first and second are cylindrical, some-
what depressed, and of nearly equal
length; the second is stouter; and the
third, which is conical, is somewhat
longer than the others. This apparatus
contains three stiff-pointed seta?.

Action on Man.- — All are aware of the avidity with which
these animals attack man, and with what eagerness they suck
his blood. They also torment young pigeons and some other
animals.

The odour of man's body attracts these insectB. When one
has the misfortune to sleep in a room infested with bugs, they
issue forth from their hiding-places as soon as the light is
extinguished, and hasten in multitudes towards tie bed. Some
mount the walls and reaching the ceiling, let themselves fall

Having got to the sleeper, they seek out the parts of his
body most favourable for their purpose, plunge their rostrum
into his skin and gorge themselves with his blood.

These animals do not draw up the blood by suction,
after the manner of the Leech. The buccal apparatus, which
is nearly the same in all sucking insects, does not allow
of this kind of action. The set© of the mouth when placed
together move alternately up and down, causing the blood to
mount into the icsophaguw, much in the same manner as water
in a chain-pump. (Dumeril.) This ascent is favoured by the
viscous nature of the fluid, and especially by its globules.

Bug* do not attack the partB about the genital organs or
about the anus. They may, however, introduce themselves into
the ears or nose, and gain entrance to the frontal sinuses, at

1 a, end of the rostrum j b, its base ; c c, portions of the antcmue ; dd,

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

not, however,
the nail of the

least, when they are young (Easpail) ; they do not,
remain there long.

M. Dumeril found the egga of the Bug under the nail
great toe in a dead hody. Thia is, however, an exceptional
case, as these insects are not permanent inhabitants o! man's
body. So soon as they have gorged themselves with his blood
they leave him.

The bite of the Bug gives a kind of smarting painful sei
tion; it produces a red mark with a depressed spot in
centre; it frequently produces a small blister.

2. Otheh. Species. — M. Signoret has discovered
species which lives in the Island <>f Reunion ; he has described
it under the name of the Round Bug, Acantkia rotwndata, Sign.

M. E. Everamann has described and figured a third species
under the name of the Vilmtr-d Bug, Acauthia ciliata, Everam.,
which lives in the houses at Kasan.

It is smaller than the common apecies, and differs also in
being of a more oval form and of a reddish grey colour. It is
covered with grey or yellow hairs, and has a strong rostrum.

Tins specieB does not live in company in the erevieea of old
wood, but leads a solitary life on the walls and furniture. It
is sluggish, and moves hut slowly ; it appears stupid, and like
an insect benumbed with the cola.

Its hite produces a considerable amount of swelling, which
lasts for some time ; it is much more painful than that of the
Common Bug. (Everamann.)

3. Allied Insects. — With the Bugs may be associated the
Rcdus'tida and the Notonectulce.

1. The Iteduvius personatus (fig. 59) ia a common insect in
France. It is occasionally found in the neighbourhood of
Paris ; it lives in houses, taking up its abode in ovens and
chimneys.

The animal is from half to three-quarters of
an inch in length, oblong, flattened above, of a
brownish colour, with obscure markings on the
thorax. It resembles a long fly; the bead is
narrow, supported on a distinct neck, and is pro-
vided with compound eyes and with two simple
eyes. The thorax is nearly triangular, very
distinct, and almost bilobed ; the anterior lobe,
which is usually the smallest, is separated from
the poaterior by a groove. The elytra are as
long as the abdomen, placed horizontally, very -pie. 59.
thin, and partially overlap each other. The Eeduvina.

nsa-
the

gs are well developed and are used in flight. In flying
insect makes a slight noise, similar to that which is
produced by the Oioccridie and the Lungicornes Beetles, but
the separate sounds succeed each ether more rapidly; this
noise is produced In- the friction of the head against the thorax.
Tlie legs are long and slender, the tarsi short and provided
with three joints. The abdomen is flattened above and con-
vex below.

The Beduvina gives nil' a disagreeable odour, which has been
compared to that of a moose. These animals nourish them-
selves by sucking the bodies of other insects, hunting them
and piercing them with their pointed rostrum.

The larve, which are very hideous, 1 also lead a life of rapine ;
they even pursue the Common Bug. (Linmeus, Fabricius.) These
larvae resemble small spiders; they discharge trnm the whule nf
their body a viHcid humour, to which all the dust, earth, and
offensive matter adheres with which the animal comes in con-
tact. They hide themselves in corners and in holes in walls,
and in heaps of dirt ; 2 they watch until some insect approaches
and then throw themselves upon him ; at other times, when
pressed by hunger, they advance slowly or by sudden jerks,
but cautiously, so as not to alarm their victim, upon whom
they suddenly precipitate themselves and Beize him with their
fore feet. (De freer.)

Mouth, (fig. 60). — The beak of the Reduvius personatus is
short (about -J b . inch) and curved ; the surface
is armed with stiff hairs ; it consists of four
joints, of which the first is the thickest,
the third the longest, and the fourth the
shortest ; the base of it is covered by a rudi-
mentary upper lip ; its termination is received
into a groove on the under surface of the
thorax ; the beak encloses four stiff lancet-
like setfe. It appeared to M. Tandon as if Fig.
two of these seta were serrated at their edges.

Action on Man. — The Beduvina attacks man, and the wounds
which it inflicts are very painful. Latreille was once bitten
on the shoulder by one of these insects ; his whole arm became
swollen and continued so for some hours.

Entomologists are agreed that these insects are not provided

1 Larea hofrida, psrsatmta, Linn.
■ Cimez stercurarius, Frisoh.

* a, first joint; h, second joint; c, third joint; d, terminal joint; * ""
pound eye ; /, single eye.

— EnKtrum.'

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

221

with a poison ; and, in fact, at present no gland or reservoir for
the reception of such a fluid has hitherto been discovered. If,
however, the bite of the Ri-ducnia was purely mechanical, howifl
it possible to explain the rapidity with which it kills or stupiflea
small insects (De Geer), and also the phenomena which it pro-
duces on our own species p These effects ore probably caused
by the saliva.

Other Species. — There is a red and a black species, and
also the Beduvittx mtrntttx, whew bites are equally painful.

According to Major Davis, another species, BeAmuiMrrstm
(Fabr.), is met with in India, which produces slight electric
shocks.

2. The Noloifctu qlnura is a species of water ]
rnonly known as the Boat Fh/ (fig. GI); it is very different from
the Bpeeies of liuijg which have been previously mentioned.

This animal is found in the neighbourhood of Paris and
throughout nearlv the whole of Europe ; it is aquatic, and lives
in ditches, ponds, and other masses of stagnant water; it
usually maintains itself at the surface of the water, but L
diately plunges beneath when any one approaches.

Description. — The body is about half an inch in length,
oblong, narrow, nearly cylindrical, somewhat con-
tracted posteriorly, convex above, flattened below, ■
and has its sides fringed with long hairs, which
spread out and sustain the animal in the water; the
head is large and of a grey or greenish colour ; the
eyes are large, oblong, and occupy all the sides of J
the head ; the antennro are shorter than the head, and K
composed of four slender joints ; the first is very I
short and cylindrical, the second is longer and I
slightly bent, the third is cylindrical and not quite '
so long or so thin as the second, the last is shorter

d slenderer than the third. The thorax is wider p;„ gi_

than it is

dark grey posteriorly. The elytra are about the same
length as the abdomen, and of a greenish grey colour, with
black spots on their anterior iiau-^iiis, the wings are mem-
branous, of the same length as the elytra, and of a white
colour; the four anterior feet are short, and constructed in the
usual manner ; the posterior are double their length, they are
strongly ciliated, and their tarsi are unprovided with hookB ;
the hinder limbs act as oars. The abdomen is black above, and
greenish grey at the extremity.

The Water Bugs in the various stages of larva, nymph, and
perfect insect, feed upon small aquatic insects, which they

ciKicr&x. 225

seize with the hooka of the anterior feet and pierce with their
beak. These animals are exceedingly voracious, and when
other insects are not present they will devour their own species.
They have a very singular mode of swimming, placing themselves
on their backs, and generally in an inclined position. From this
circumstance they have received (lie asms of Notoneeta, which
literally meana bnck swimming. The head is somewhat higher
than the rest of the body when the animal ascends through
the water, and a little lower when it remains at the surface or
when it descends; while in the act of swimming, the anterior
limbs are placed against the thorax and only the posterior pair
or oars are in motion ; when, however, the animals are on the
mud at the bottom of the water, or on a leaf, or when they are
walking, it is the anterior feet which are brought into use,
the posterior remaining motionless, and trailing after the

De Geer has described the male organs of the Water Bug ;
they are contained in the last segment of the abdomen. If the
belly is compressed, a large scaly piece issues forth of a black
colour and cleft at its extremity ; at this part a portion is
seen projecting from between two plates, which is the penis.

In the act of copulation the male and the female place
themselves side by side, the male being
somewhat the lowest; they swim about f
joined together in this manner with |
great swiftness.

The eggs are deposited on the stems |
and leaves of aquatic plants, and even
on the epidermis of I. lie insects ; they
are oblong, cylindrical, and of a yel-
low colour ; they are hatched at the
commencement of spring.

The young larva immediately begin
to swim about ; they resemble the per-
fect insect, only they have no wings.
The nymphaj have rudiments of the

Mouth (fig. 62). — The beak is very I
strong and about T l 5 of an inch in I
length; it has an elongated conical
form and is composed of tour joints, of

' A, head seen in profile ; a, rostrum ; b, first joint J c, second joint ; a
thirdjoint; e, terminal joint : /, nidiimiril of tlnMipner lip ; B, rostrun
separate ; C, seta with fringed margin ; D, one of the two straight sets:.

Pig. fl2.-

■

MEDIC At ZOOLOGY.

which the first is thick, the third the longest, and the laat very
slender and not very pointed. The sucker ia formed of a short,
pointed, superior piece, and of three slender sharp-pointed set»
as long as the case. One of them is ciliated on one side and
plumose towards its extremity.

Action on man. — The Notomcta bite strongly, hut these
insects do not emerge from the water, aud consequently, unlike
the Muduvina, they do not enter into houses ; they are only to
be feared when the hand is incautiously placed into the element
in which they reside; the pain they occasion is tolerably

As the insects which are attacked by the Notonecta soon
die, BOmewriti-iN h;nv siuppiised that they discharge u poisonous
fluid into the wouud ; hut where is this poison organ to be
found ? Is it not the saliva which, in this case, also exercises
a poisonous influence F

§ IV. Neps.
The Grey Nepa, Nepa cinerea, Linn., (fig. 63,) commonly
called Water Scorpion or Water Spider, is a
Heniipterous insect belonging to the section He-
teroptera and to the family Hydrocores. It is
common throughout the whole of France [and
England"!, where it lives in ditches, marshes, and
other pools of fresh water.

The body is three-quarters of an inch long, of
m oblong oval form, very depressed, and of an
ashen colour, with red on the upper part of the
abdomen ; it terminates in a tail consisting of
two slender filaments, which are tubes, through
which the animal breathes. The antenna* are
short, three-jointed, and cleft; the thorax is nearly
—Ntpa. Bquare ; the elytra are horizontal, coriaceous,
and of a dingy grey ; the anterior limbs have the
coxaa short,and the thighs large and terminated by strong pincers,
which give the insect some resemblance to the scorpion.

The Nepa swims slowly and with difficulty (Lamk.), it often
walks at the bottom of the water; it comes forth at night
time, and flics with great agility.

The eggs resemble small grains surrounded by seven bands;
the insect deposits them on the stems of the water plants.

The larva) are hatched in the middle of summer ; they differ
from the perfect insect in the absence of wings and of the
abdominal filaments ; the nymphai are provided with elytra.

Mouth (fig.
almoBt perpen
short, conical

HIPFOB03CIB.E.

227

Mouth (fig. 64). — This consists of a curved rostrum, placed
almost perpendicularly (Lunik.); itia
short, conical, pointed, and tolerably
stout ; the rostrum is composed of
three joints, of winch the secuiid in
the longest. It encloses four slender
pointed threads ; two are provided on
one side with a hind of straight
narrow hla.de, and are very finely
notched towards the base ; the others
are finer, and have also a narrow
edge, but less developed than in the
former ; one of them is provided at
its termination with a number of
fine hairs directed from behind for-
wards.

Action on maw.— The Xepa bite
very sharply, and cause a good deal
of pain; the wound is not dangerous.

§ V. HippoboscidtB.

The Horse Fly, Hippobosca equina, Linn., (fig. G5,) is an
insect belonging to the order Diptera, and to the family
Pupipara.

This insect settles on horses and cattle, generally beneath the
tail near the anus ; they select the parts which are devoid of hair.

Description.— The Horse Fly is of a brown colour mottled
with yeUow and white ; it has a small head,
a short thorax, and a flat abdomen; the
antenna! have the form of tubercles, and are
immersed within the head; the eyes are
compound and occupy the entire side of the
head ; it has no simple eyes ; the wings are
horizontal, obtuse, partially cross each other, Fig. 65.— Hurse. Fly.
and extend beyond the abdomen ; the bal-
ancers are placed beneath two flattened scale-like eminences ;
its limbs are well developed, and give the animal something of
the appearance of a spider.

These insectB walk quickly and often sideways; their flight
is abrupt and rapid.

The female lavs neither an egg nor a larva, but a true nymph ;

1 A, Rostrum seen From I lie siilu : a, first .joint : /•, wciind joint ; e, ter
miual joint ; B, rust rum squirmc ; C, sttn: tuiiiaiin;d in the rostrum ; a,
one of the two setas with a lateral blade ; b, filiated seta; c, non-ciliated

« 2

medicai zooioor.

228

this is of a large size, and fills up the whole of the abdomen ;
ita skin hardens after it is bom. The Horse Fly emerges from
the nympha by detaching a portion of the envelope. (Eeaumur.)

Mouth (fig. 66). — This consists of a short, straight, cylindrical
beak (haiuitellum), formed by the union of two modified palpi ;
these resemble a pair of small blades, or coriaceous valves ; they
are flat, oblong, straight, and terminate in a rounded extremity ;
thi j v him from tin' clypcus, which is hollowed out at its lower
border, pass parallel to each other, and then form by their re-
union a semitnbe, which covers the sucker.

The sucker is a large filiform, cylindrical, curved process,
wbich commences from a kind of bulb in the

I mouth ; this apparently simple process consists of

two sets, one superior, one inferior ; the first has
a canal on its under surface which covers over the
second.
It is with this instrument that the Mippobosea
/^y^"T~~^ BO * ormcn t'B horses and cattle as to drive them
' I \ frantic ; it punctures the skin and eagerly sucka
Fig. 6*i.-Beai. their blood.
Action on man. — According to the experience
of Eeaumur, the Hippobosca is as eager after the blood of man
as of the other mammalia. The same naturalist assures us
that its bite is not more acute than that of a flea; Eeaumur
is, however, mistaken in this respect, as the bite of this insect
is very painful.
% VI. Tsetse.
The Tsetse or Tsetse (fig. 67) is a very formidable Fly which
inhabits Africa. Bruce, who met with it
in Abyssinia, has given a bad drawing of
^ it, but has correctly described its habits. 1

^vjlt •^ MM. Arnaud, iivingstone, Oswald, L.

f 3^^^Sjfes^> de Castelnau, and Anderson, have collected
many curious details L-oiiooniinc; this insect.
Mr. Westwood has given a very good de-
letion of it. .

[tie Tsetse belongs to the genus Glossina.
It is named the Htlinij Glossina, Glossma
morsitans, Westw.*

Fig. 67.— Tsetse.

1 Mr. Anderson has ..

a very correct drawing of the insect in the

■ This insect i a called Zebud in the Chaldean version of the Bible, Zimh
a the Arabian version, and Tsaitsalya in tin: Kiii i ■...].! inn; \\i-i Greeks give it
be name of Cynomyu, and ihe Negroes of Tie-Tse.

les

tttTT

will

Nearly all the central countries of South Africa are more or
infested by the 'Txetae; it is very common in all the countries
situated to the north of Lake Ngnmi ; and is again met with in
Soudan and in the tropical districts.

This insect usually frequents the bushes and reeds on the
borders of marshes. It is larger than the common fly, and of
a whitish yellow colour; the thorax is of a pale cheanut on its
upper surface, is covered with grey hairs, and has four longitu-
dinal interrupted black bands in the centre ; its proboscis
(fig. 68) is twice as long as the head, and is extremely slender;
it resembles a fine corneous thread; the palpi are straight, of
the same length as the proboscis, and form ft sheath for it ;
the abdomen is of a light yellow with darker spots or bands ;
the wings are smoke-coloured.

The buzzing of the Tbetse is a mixture of a dull and a sharp
sound, producing a very discordant noise ;
this buzzing spreads a terror and dis-
order amongst men and animals which
even the mid beasts of the eountn
when they are twice their number
not produce. (Bruce.)

Its vision is extremely acute, and it darts
like an arrow upon the animal that it
intends to attack : it always makes its
puncture between the belly and the thighs,
when a swelling soon rises up around the
wound.

The horse, the ox, and the dog, after they have been attacked
by this insect, waste away and die in the course of a few
days ; those which are fat and in good condition soon die, while
the others drag on a miserable existence for some weeks; three
or four flies are sufficient to produce these disastrous results.
The blood of the animals which die is altered and diminished
in quantity ; the fat in the neighbourhood of the wound is soft,
viscous, and of a yellow colour ; in general, some portion of
the intestines is enormously swollen ; the flesh putrifies very
quickly (Castlenau) ; and the heart, the lungs, and the liver
are more or less affected. The goat is the only domesticated
animal which can live with impunity in the midst of these
flies ; dogs escape the danger when they are fed exclusively by
means of the chase, but it' these animals are fed with milk they
invariably die; on the contrary, the calf has nothing to fear
so long as it sucks.

The bite of the Tsetse ts not dangerous to the wild

Fig. 68— Trunk.

230

the elephant, zebra, buffalo, and the various kinds of antelopea
and gazelles whieh abound in the countries inhabited by this
fly, do not experience any ill effects from it.

These insects do not bite when it is bright moonlight, or
when the nights are very cold.

Action on man. — The 7W«-« also attacks our species, but its
action on man is attended with but little danger; its bite is very
analogous to that of the gnat's, 1 but the pain does not last so
long. (De Castelnau.) M. Arnaud, however, suffered for some
months after being bitten by one of these inserts.

M. Chapman, one of those who have penetrated the furthest
into the interior of South Africa, states, that whilst he was
hunting, having a small hole in hit iiraM nude by* pin, he has
often seen one of the Tsetse, which appeared to know that it
eould not penetrate his dress, dart down, and, without ever
missing its mark, wound him through the undefended opening.
Is the Tsetse a poisonous animal ? Its effect on the domesti-
cated animals would appear to answer the question in the
affirmative, but its action on man declares the contrary. How
then are we to explain itw fatal HI'ivl.-; oil cattle? At the same
time these results vary in different species, and in some they
are of no consequence.

§ VII. Gnats.
The Chmts, Cnh\r, arc insects lichin^ini; to the order Diptera, to
the tribe Kemovera. and to the family of the C'ulicidie. Linnieus
assigned as their charac-
ter the possession of se-
taceous darts enclosed
in a flexible sheath.

1. The Commoh
Gnat. (fig. 69), CUw
pipiens, Linn., is the
best known species.

This insect has a long
body and limbs, covered
with hairB, and of a grey
colour ; the antenna? are
plumose in the males ;
the eyes are large, and
converge posteriorly ;

the palpi are projecting, filiform, and covered with hairs; the
abdomen has eight hrown coloured rings.
These insects are very abundant, especially where there is much
■water. They assemble in swarms, which, as they ascend and de-
Bcend, perform a variety of movements, and create a singing
noise aa they follow in the track of man and other animals.
They are fond of blood, but they also suck the juices of
flowers.

Copulation takes place towards the close of the day. The
female deposits her eggs on the surface of the water, and,
crossing the hinder legs, arranges them beside each other in a
perpendicular direction ; the eggs have the shape of a sugar-
loaf, and the mass forms a small boat, which floats on the
surface of the water; each female lays about 300 eggs a year.

The eggs are hatched in about two days ; the larva} abound
in ponds, marshes, and stagnant waters, especially during the
spring; the head of the lame is provided with ciliated appen-
dages, which enable them to procure their food ; the abdomen
is long and cylindrical, and terminates in a respiratory tube.
The animal suspends itself in the water with its head down-
wards for the purpose of breathing. These larva? swim about
by suddea darts ; when the water is disturbed they precipi-
tate themselves with great rapidity to the bottom, with
a zig-zag motion. (Lamark.) They
change into nymph*, which can row — ■
themselves about by means of their
tail and two fin-like appendages ;
they have two corneous tubes |
beneath the thorax. Lamark ©
rectly observes that this second state |
of the Gnat ia, properly speaking,
neither a larva, a chrysalis, nor a
nympha ; all the metamorphoses
take place in about three or four
weeks.

Mouth (fig. 70). — Reaumur has
given an admirable description of
the mouth of the Gnat, and of the '
manner in which it acts. There is Fig. 70.— Proboscis*

1 A, proboscis ; a, lower lip, forming a sheath ; b, jawa and mandibles,
having the form of filaments united together ; <■, upper lip, farming a. fifth
filiament; dd, eyes; e, head;,//, uijutilliirv palpi i B, Hpuate filaments;
a, one of the two serrated filaments ; b, one of the two with lancet-shaped
pointa; c, upper Up,

232 medical zoolort.

a long, slender, projecting proboscis, composed— 1, of a
braaous cylindrical tube, terminating in two small lips, forming
a slight enlargement or disc ; 2, of a sucker or dart formed by
the union of five scaly and setaceous threads. The tube is cleft
superiorly, forming a half canal, but the terminal lips are
united above so as to form a ring around the dart ; of the five
threads, two are terminated by a small lancet-shaped dilatation,
two others have on their outer edge near the point very fine
teeth directed from before backwards, while the fifth is set%
ceous and armed with fine Bpines throughout its entire length.
Action on man. — The bite of the Gnat, which is scarcely
felt in temperate climates, becomes unbearable in hot countries.
These animals follow man everywhere ; they enter his houses,
particularly at night, announcing their presence by a loud
singing noise, and pierce his skin, which even his clothes are
not sufficient to protect.

When a Gnat mis selected (he part which he intends to suck,
he applies the terminal expansion of the proboscis to the
spot ; he then thrusts out the dart from the centre of the
expansion and penetrates the skin ; in proportion as the
dart is buried, the external protecting tube, whose ex-
pansion is fastened around the wound, becomes longer than
the portion which ia not inserted
"ig. 71, A) ; as the tube is cleft
i its upper surface it opens from
jove downwards, leaving the dart
exposed; it becomes bent and forms
| at first an arch, of which the dart
is the cord ; it afterwards forms an
angle, which is at first very obtuse,
and afterwards very acute. At a
certain time the head of the animal
makes its nearest possible approach
to the terminal expansion, and the
groove forms between the latter
and the bite a vertical fold (fig.
I 71, B).

A m orei it regarded the Gnat as
a poisonous insect ; this is some-
3 there ie no gland for the secretion of a
poison. it appears, however, that when the animal has
punctured the skin it disgorges into it a drop of fluid, which

1 A, proboscis when the Beta! are first introduced ; B, proboscis when
the seta; are completely immersed.

is probably saliva ; the sets) which form the dart leave a narrow

Sjaee between tbem, but sufficient to give passage to thia
uid. It is through the same channel that the blood ia
pumped up by the insect. Beaumur believed that the saliva
poured out by the Gnat is also intended to render the blood
more fluid. M. Dumeril thinks that it first exercises a narcotic
action, which momentarily deadens the local sensibility ; this
enables the insect to suck without being perceived; afterwards
it gives rise to an acute inflammation accompanied with consider-
able pain, and a small edematous spot, which every one is familiar
with. Persons are sometimes completely disfigured by the
bites inflicted by Gnats and the inflammation which accompanies
them. These bites, when they are severe and numerous,
produce restlessness and even fever | the insupportable itch-
ing caused by them compels the person to be perpetually
scratching himself, but even this affords only a momentary
reb'ef ; the more the person scratches himself the more the
local inflamation and the pain seem to increase ; the pain
varies not only according to the size and vigour of the Gnat,
but also according to the susceptibility of the part which ia
bitten.

2. Otheb species. — The principal Gnat* in France besides
the Common Gnat are the llim/cil Glial, (Jalex annulatus, Fabr.,
which is of a brown colour with transverse bands of white, and
the Oiilex puUcar'm, Linn., which has no hands, but three indis-
tinct spots. The latter is the largest ; it inhabits the southern
parts, particularly in the nei^hbi-nHiooil of Cette.

The Greepini/ Gnat, Simiilann reptan*, Latr., which is black
with a white ring, and about the size of a flea, is common in
Sweden, and forms the type of the genus Sisnulium.

The Musquitoes of America are true Gnats; those of the
French Colonies appear to belong to the genus Simulium.
The bite of these insects is extremely painful ; cloth clothes do
not always preserve the person against their attacks. When
these animals bite a person who is asleep he wakes up with
his body covered with small pimples with a black spot, or a
collection of dark serum in the centre surrounded by a ring of
a deep fawn colour (Bouftiers) ; a severe itching is felt, the
person scratches himself, the skin becomes abraided, and the
inflammation continues to spread.

In the moist forests of the Isle of France and of Mada-
gascar, there is an insect which appears to be closely allied to
the Gnats, whose bite also causes intolerable pain; it is named
Bigaye or Rizigaye.

234 medical zoology.

In conclusion, it must be observed, tbat amongst the Diptera
there are animals lesa known and Icbb common than the Q-nats
which do not spare man when they hare an opportunity of
attacking him. Such is the case with the Autumn Fly, Conops
calcitrant, Linn., which bites the legs, especially on the ap-
proach of rain 5 and also with the Breese Fly, Tahanug bovinus,
Linn.

§ Vm. Stinging Animals.

The caterpillars of several of the Bombyciilw, or nocturnal
moths, called Processionaiy Mo/hx,' which live in societies on the
oak and the pine, protected by n silken covering,* are clothed with
fine hairs, which become blended with the covering of their
nest and the tiBsue of their cocoons ; these fine hairs penetrate
the skin, and cause great irritation and even swelling of the part.
Other species which are mentioned as producing similar effects
are the Bombyx of the oak, Fhalama ijuercus, Linn. ; ft Liparis,
Liparis aurifiua, Ochaen, whose caterpillar resides in wood; and
a lAthoaia, Lithoxia caniola, Fabr., whose caterpillar lives on
walls.

The ancients were acquainted with urtieatiug Caterpillars ;
Dioscorides mentions tbern under the name of Eutoma; the
Romans called them Eruew.

"When Reaumur was engaged in studying the habits of the
Proccssionary Moth, he experienced great irritation of the
skin on his hands, fingers, and body, especially about the
nostrils and around the eyes ; he was constantly sneezing, and
could only partially open his eyes ; his skin became inflamed
and covered with red patches and pustules; this state lasted for
four or five days. When these hairs, says Reaumur, become
buried in the skin, they are like so many small spines, which
it is very difficult to remove.

On one occasion the celebrated naturalist inadvertently
caused an exanthematous eruption on the neck and shoulders
of four ladies who had assisted him in some of his experiments,
yet the ladies had never touched either the caterpillars or
their nests.

Charles Bonnet, after taking some of these Caterpillars out
of the water in which they had been drowned, found that his
fingers became numbed ; they afterwards began to itch, fol-
lowed by a burning sensation and swelling.

Charles Morreu made some experiments which proved the

1 The principal are the Procetiionary Moth; properly bo called, Phalana
proceaioaea, Lien., anil the I'ityacampa. Bomhyz Pityucampa, God.

* There arc 600, 7U0, ujid even 300 in a neat. (Morren.)

-rfth

-s

in a

BTISQISQ ANIMALS.

f these hairs at a distance ; like Reaumur, he saw the
.of scales and hairs fly off into the air from the vessels
. the Caterpillars were kept ; these became dispersed
about and produced the affection of which he speaks. These
filaments are not the ordinary hair which covers the caterpillar,
but are extremely small and invisible to the naked eye, and
become detached when the animal changes into o chrysalis.
(Heaumur, Morren.) These hairs (tig. 72) are of various
lengths, and are more or
less pointed, but they often
get broken and are trun-
cated ; some are transpa-
rent, others are somewhat i
opaque and marked with
luiigiiudinal atri», or are
finely punctated ; there
are sonic which appear to
be hollow, divided into
compartments by trans-
verse partitions, and filled
vrfth some peculiar sub-
:e. Heaumur says he
seen a hair in the

Ltre of each swelling.

Do theBe hairs act merely
mechanical manner,
or has the matter which occasionally fills the interior of them
anything to do Kith the irritation, as Charles Morren supposes?
Is it true that the presence of formic acid has been detected in
many of them p Whatever it may be, it is necessary to be on
one's guard against the species of Caterpillars u Inch have just
been mentioned, and, generally speaking, of all those which are
covered with hairs.

M. Borkhausen does not hesitate to say, that when the
irritating action of the I'/wrxxioiittn/ Moths takes place in the
interior of the lungs, or of the alimentary canal, that death
may ensue ?

The ancients employed urtieatinj; Caterpillars in the forma-
tion of sinapisms. (Dioscorides.) Reaumur and Dortbes thought
that when pounded they might, under certain circumstances,

•■ made useful as a substitute for Ca ntharides. 1

Certain marine animals, at the head of which are the Actinite

id the Medium, have more or less urticating properties.
See page 12 7.

Fig. 72. — Stiut/iny llirir*

236

HEDICiL ZOOLOGY.

These animals are commonly known by the name ol
Nettle.* *

A Gi/anea* of Pond i cherry is particularly mentioned a
which secretes an eitremely acrid and irritating finid.

The Physalia, or Portuguese Man of War, also causes a con-
siderable amount of irritation ; it is provided with an oblique
, wrinkled crest, which stands
1 up like a sail ; when they are
I taken hold of they produce a
I tolerably acute burning sensation,
which continues for some time ;
I sometimes it causes a feeling of
faintness(I)utertre,I.eblond);but
generally speaking the effects do
not extend beyond the hand. The
I commonest species is the Rhyaalia
I pelagica, Bobc.

1 The stinging apparatus of the
Medus» consists of microscopic
capsuleB situated in the skin, on
which they form minute projec-
I tions ; they are principally noticed
on the extremities of the long
tentacles. These capsules are
hard and transparent ; they con-
tain a second thin and flexible
membrane, at the bottom of which is a long slender thread
coiled up when in repose ; this thread can emerge from the
capsule, and its base is then seen to be provided with a
number of sharp points like the barbs of a hook (Jiastte,
Corda).

Certain capsules have a small dart, which is provided with
gland and lateral muscles.

This apparatus serves the Mudusie as a means of attack and
defence. The burning sensation which these animals produce
when they are touched, and which is most perceptible on the
mucous membranes, has, been aptly compared to the effect
of stinging nettles ; it may even give me to vesications.

The Rhizostoma Aldrovandi, which lives in the Mediter-
ranean, and that of Cuvier, Rhixaxtonia Vurierii, found in La
Manehe, secrete a slime which is eitremely irritating ; a single
drop is sufficient to produce inflammation of the conjunctiva
1 The offspring of tbtsc an.ima.la are Polyp*.
■ Medtua {Cyaaea) Caliparea, Eeyn.

LAKVi OF FLIEB. 237

md the eyelids ; this slime produces a number of small papilla)

n the hand, which are accompanied with an intolerable itching.

§ IX. Larva of Flies.

The larval of certain Flies often torment the human species.

, "W. Hope has published an interesting work on the

lubject ; he nas given the name of mi/asis to the disorders

produced by these animals and other Diptera.

1. Species.— The larva which are most frequently met with
in wious parts of the body belong principalis to lour species:
1. The Flesh Fly; 2. The Bluebottle Fly; 3. The Golden Fly;
4. The Haminivurous Fly. The following is a summary of
their characters : —

[ widely separated behind

[ Thorax

1. Flesh Ffy.

I black, abdomen blue

with black bands . 2. Bluebottle Fig.
. | golden green, abdo-
■■. men without bands 3. Golden Fly.

dark blue, abdomen
\ with purple bands. 4. Homixivonut
Fly.
The Flesh Flif is very common, and is the largest of the
four. Its body iB of a golden yellow anteriorly, and covered
with long, stout, black hairs ; the thorax is grey, with four
longitudinal black bands ; the abdomen is of a shining black
colour, with four square white spots on each ring.

This insect Hies rapidly, and produces a constant buzzing
noise ; it is ovo viviparous.

It hunts about for decomposing flesh for the purpose of
depositing its larvie upon it.
TheBe are soft, whitish coloured I
grubs, without feet, terminating I
in a pointed extremity ante- 1
riorly, but thick and truncated I
posteriorly. The mouth is a |
sucker, tumished with
hooks, adapted to tear and I
divide their food (fig. 74).

The Blue or Meat Fly'
one of the largest species found „. „

in France ; its size is, however,
less than that of the Flesh Fly. The head is of a brown colour,

1 Sarcophaga a
' Caltiphora vi
phala, De Geer.

<%:- ^

MEDICAL ZDOtOGT.

with yellowish reflexions ; its presence is indicated by its loud
buzzing noise ; its sense of smell is very acute, and it recognises
the presence of meat, especially when it is fresh, at a long
distance off. It is oviparous as well as the two following
species ; its larva is called a maggot.

The Golden Fly' ia about the same
lize its the common house fly. It lays
I eggs principally upon carrion. Its Lai
I devour dead bodies, even those which
I have been injected, (flaspail.)

The Iiowiiui-<>ruii..i Ply, Liu-ilia komi-

livora, Coq. (fig, 75), inhabits Cayenne.

[t is about the third of an inch in length ;

' the palpi are of a yellow colour, and the

Fig. 75. head very large ; the face is of a golden

Hcmimvorvu, Fit,. ye ll ow> au( i the feet black ; the wings are

transparent and smoke-coloured, especially towards their base.

(Coquerel.)

2. Action on man.— It is well known that the larva of
the three first species of Flien which have been mentioned may
be deposited and developed in wounds, and in the natural
cavities of the human body.

It is especially in hospitals that these untoward events take
place. Several surgeons met with the same thing in Algeria
and in the Crimea.

Instances of the larvce of Flits being vomited or found in the
stomach are not rare. Mr. Hope mentions seven or eight cases. 3
The presence of these animals in the intestines ia less frequent.
Brera mentions one example, and Mr. Hope a second.

Latham found the larvce of a Fly in the maxillary sinus of
a woman. Vohlfant and Mangles met with them in the frontal
sinuses. A curious instance at the last kind has been published
by Dr. Astros, of Aix. A woman, while sleeping in the open
air, was attacked by Flies, which deposited their eggs, or their
larva?, in her nostrils. For three days she felt a slight dull
pain, which appeared to commence in the frontal sinus and
extended to the right temple. The pain was followed by a
tingling sensation, and a peculiar kind of noise, resembling that
produced by an insect gnawing a piece of wood. The noise
was heard by other persons beside* tlie patient. For two days
after bleeding at the nose, the patient discharged a considerable

1 Lucilia Casar, Rnb JV-y,, Mimfu Cirsar, Linn.

* See Airel, Osiimder, I'M-mii. Joerdefis. — Tlie larra of the JUatca
metcorica, Fabr., is souietiuiea developed in the stomach of man.

a one hundred and

LABV.S OF FLIES.

number of the larvce of a My. As many a
thirteen were counted. 1

Dr. Chevreul, of Angers, aaw ten of tlie larva of a Sleek Fly
come out of the ear-passage in a child of dirty habits.

Ruysch found them in the urinary passages.

Professor Lallemand extracted upwards of twenty of the
same kind of larva; from the vagina of a female, who had had
ulceration of the neck of the uterus for eighteen months.

In 1826, at the Hotel-Dieu, at Montpellier, a student re-
moved in the presence of M, Tandou thirty larvce of a Fly from
d cancer at the bottom of the abdomen of an unfortunate
patient who was dying.

Andry, Panarolus, Lieutaud, Bertrand, Alibert, and others,
have recorded similar instances.

These examples are fortunately rare. The injuries which are
inflicted by the hominieiiroiai Fly are, however, more frequent.
The larvse of this species are often met with in the nasal and
frontal sinuses in Guiana. M. Coquerel met with a consider-
able number in a condemned criminal, who was killed by them.
Dr. Saint- Pair saw six similar eases iu 1855 and 1856. Three
of the patients died after great suffering ; two of them had the
nose entirely destroyed, and the last escaped with only the
mutilation of this organ. 1

At first the patients experience only a slight uneasiness in
the nasal foBS«. This is followed by headache and icdema of the
parts about the nose, which extends more or less on to the face ;
afterwards there is free haemorrhage from the nose and acute
pain in the suborbital region, which the patients compare to
being beaten with a hammer. Ulcerations subsequently occur
on the nose, through which some of the larvai escape. The
general symptoms are the same as those which accompany
acute inflammation ; this is followed by erysipelas of the nead
and face, sometimes by meningitis, and lastly bv death.

In one of the cases recorded by M. Saint-Pair, 800 larva
were expelled by means of injections ; but it was impossible to
get rid of them all. They soon gained the globe of the eye
and crawled between the eyelids. The lower eyelid became
gangrenous, and the inferior margin of the orbit was exposed.

1 M. Legrand da Ssutle has recently communicated a similar instance
to the Insstitut. It occurred in a young girl nine years of age, whoso frontal
sinuses contaiueil it uuiubur of /n>T<r which produced perpetual frontal head-
ache, accompanied with convulsions.

* Dr. Daniel has recorded another instance which was fatal, and in which
the left ear was filled with larvw.

MEDICAL ;

The larvse entered the mouth and eat away the gums, laying
bare the superior maxilla. The patient dit-d Wronteen days
aft '

de.
no

after he had entered the hoBpital.
Another patient, under the

found in the nasal fossa and in the pharynx. After
death the mucous membrane of these cavities was found to be
nothing but a black putrid mass.

Can, however, the larva of the Flies of our country, or of
any other, penetrate the skin so long^ as it is healthy and the
surface unbroken P Unfortunately it is too clearly proved that
these animals are capable of abvaiding the Bkin.

Leeuwenhoeck relates a case in which a number of tumours
about the size of the end of the finger made their appearance
on the leg of a lady ; the limb ultimately became of a monstrous
Bize. In one of the tumours there was found some of the larvaj
of a Flesh Fly.

M. Hope states an instance of a young man in Jamaica, who
bad lame in the substance of the cheek and of the gums. It
has just been seen that the larvie of the hominivorous Fly, after
having destroyed the naaul fonate, produced similar ravages.

Saltzmann saw a young man in the hospital at Strashurg
whose whole akin was penetrated by thousands of larva. In
the groin and on the legs masses of flesh were completely de-
stroyed. The left eye was eaten away. The patient died.

In June, 1829, John Page, a pauper, died ironi the injuries
inflicted upon him by the larva; of a Fly at Asbornby, in Lin-
colnshire. The man was in the habit of strolling about the
country, and subsisted on the pittance he obtained from door
to door ; the support he usually received from the benevolent
was bread and meat ; and after satisfying the cravings of
nature, it was his custom to deposit the surplus provisions,
particularly the meat, betwixt his shirt and skin. Having a
considerable portion of this provision in Btore so deposited, he
was taken rather unwell, and laid himself down in a field;
when from the heat of the season at that time, the meat
speedily became putrid, and was of course struck by the flies ;
these not only proceeded to devour the inanimate pieces of
flesh, but also literally to prey upon the living subatanee ; and
when the wretched man was accidentally found by some of the
inhabitants, he was so eaten by the maggots that his death
seemed inevitable. The surgeon who saw him declared that
his body was in_ such a Btate, that dressing it must be little
short of instantaneous death, and in fact the man only sur-

LABV.E OF FLIES. 241

ived the operation a few hours. White maggots of enormous
size were crawling in and upon his body, which they had most
shockingly mangled, and the removing of the external ones
served only to render the sight more horrid.'

M. J. Cloquet lias published a atill more remarkable case.
A rag gatherer, about fifty years of age, waa found sleeping in
a ditch in the Boulevard of Paris, near Montfaucon, and taken
to the hospital of St. Louis. The skin of his head was raised
up in rounded taniours, which had irregular openings through
which the flesh could be seen in a putrid state. An enormous
number of the larv<z of a fly were moving about inside the
tumours. Fifteen to twenty of the larva' escaped from between
his eyelids, which were swollen and closed up. The cornea
were opaque and as well as the sclerotic had been perforated.
The eyeballs appeared to be empty. Other larva- issued from
the nose and the ears. They were also lodged at the orifice of
the prepuce and around the onus. The unhappy man personi-
fied all the horrors of the affliction of Job. Never, says M.
Cloquet, had I seen a spectacle more horrible or disgusting
than this miserable being, devoured alive by these larva: of the
carrion fly.

The previous cases must remove any doubt as to the state-
ment of Plutarch with respect to the great criminals, who, he
says, were condemned by the kings of Persia, to be eaten alive
by the larva; of Flies. The guilty person was placed between
two boats of the same size, turned one over the other, the head,
the hands, and the feet being left uncovered. His iace was ex-
posed to the sun, smeared with honey. The larvie which were
born penetrated into the flesh of the unhappy being. . .Mith-
ridates, who was exposed by Artaxerxes Longimanus to this
horrible punishment, lived for seventy days in the most cruel
agonies. When the upper boat was removed all his flesh and
his entrails were seen to be eaten away by myriads of worms.

"With the exception of the (Estrida, which will he noticed in
another chapter, neither the Flies nor their larva: can be
regarded as parasites. They are never observed on man except
by accident. Even the ho-minivorouj Fly does not form an
exception to this statement. Generally these larva are
introduced into our bodies, so to speak, in spite of themselves.
In true parasitism, where one individual liveB at the cost of

' M. Tandon relates this case on the authority of M, Koulin, but it 19
originally recorded in Brown's edition of While's History uf ,-idlovrnt, p.
!!■!, London, 1810. (Ed.)

242 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

another, the latter is not destroyed by it, except under peculiar
circumstances. If it had been otherwise, the species of para-
site, or of the animal which nourishes it, most necessarily
have disappeared; a fact which is contrary to the general laws
of nature. Kunzmann correctly observes that the wounds
made by insects for tho purpose of feeding at our expense, are
never followed by such serious consequences as those which
they inflict upon us ia self-defence.

§ X. Other Insects which may be accidentally introduced into

the natural cavities of the body.

All that has been said in the previous ohapterwiih reference
to the introduction of the larvm of Flies into the natural
cavities of man's body will also apply to other insects. Aa
regards the latter, however, they are Bometimes larvm and
sometimes the perfect insect. It must also be observed, that
these false parasites are not always carnivorous animals ; they
are, therefore, not always able to nourish themselves at the
expense of man's tissues, bo that they soon perish for want of
food. Their being placed in a locality which is not adapted for
them is generally fatal.

Many writers have mentioned cases of this kind. Fabricius,
of Hiluen, Tulpius, Lister, Paykull, Boson, Thompson, Bate-
man, Lemaout, and others, have given examples of them. The
JSphemerides des curieux de la nature contains some of these
cases, and Mr. Hope has i-nllerti'd together all the instances of
this kind, which appeared to him to be authentic.

The cavities of the body, which are attacked by these animals,
are first the alimentary canal, then the nostrils, the auditory-
canal, and the lachrymal duct.

These insects belong especially to the Coleoptera, amongst
which the principal that have been mentioned, are : Sphod-
rus leucothalrrms} Clairv., the Dytiscus marginatum, the Oxypo-
rus uubterraneus* Fabr., the Pmderus elongatus, Fabr., the
Staphylinus politus, the 5. punctulatiis, and the S. fuecipes,
Fabr., the Dermestes lardarius, Linn., the Qeotrupes vernalis,'
Latr., the Slaps mortisaga* Oliv., the Tenebrio molitor, Linn.,
the Forjieula auricwlaria and F. minor, Linn.

Amongst the Myriopoda or thousand feet, the Geophilus
electricus i has been particularly named.

1 Carabia Itacoi/iatmus, Linn.

* Sttiphylinus subterranem, Linn.
' Scarabawi vernalis, Linn.

* Tenebrio mortisaga, Linn.
1 Scolopendra electricus, Linn.

OTHEH IKBECTS KHICn MAT BE INTRODUCED, ETC.

Amongst the Lepidoptera or Butterflies, hare been men-
tioned, the Aglosm pinjiialis and A. farinalia, Latr., and the
Cabbage butterfly, Pieris brassier, Schr.'

Mr. Hope has given the name of canthariasis to the injuries
produced by the Coleoptera and the Myriopoda ; MessrB. Kirby
and Spenee had previously given the name of xolecftiasis, or
leholechiaiik, to those which were caused by tin.' lepidoptera.

It is easy to explain the entrance of those insects into the
stomach and intestines, which feed upon lard, tat, flour, and
other substances, which Berve for food ; but it is more difficult
to account for their introduction into the other natural
cavities.

The presence of these insects in the alimentary canal seldom
produces much inconvenience, especially when the animals, or
their larva?, are small and few in number. Sometimes they are
partly or entirely digested, at other times they merely act as
foreign bodies, deranging the stomach and the intestines. The
Oantkarides, the Mylabra, or the Mt-luc, when swallowed incau-
tiously, or when they have been given for criminal purposes,
may produce a kind of poisoning, and even death.

Adult insects, which are rejected by vomiting, or which are
passed by the bowels, never appear to have been long in the
body, nor is there any evidence that it was there they underwent
their metamorphoses. They have probably been swallowed
after their transformation.

The introduction of these hirvsr into i lie other natural cavities
of the body is usually attended with serious symptoms.

M. Seoutetten relates the case of a fanner ot' Metz, who ex-
perienced a very disagreeable irritation in the nostrils, accom-
panied with an abundant secretion of mucus. In addition to
this he had frequent headaches, and the pain which was at first
bearable soon became very severe, and increased in intensity with
every paroxysm. The mucus discharge was mixed with blood
and exhaled a fetid odour. This was followed by an involuntary
discharge of water from the eyes, nausea, and vomiting. Some-
times the pain was so intense that the patient was afraid he
should lose his senses. The features became distorted, the
jaws contracted, and the temporal arteries pulsated violently.

1 Papitio bnutica, Linn.
— To what insect does the larva belong which takes up its abode in the
cribriform-plate of the ethmoid bone, and predneel Ibo A iMM kuown by the
name P6ew>h in the north-neat of India. * The larva is small, articulated,
and terminates in a spiral tail ; the mouth and eyes are very distinct.
( Taruck-Chander-Lahoiy . )

B. 2

The senses of hearing and of sight were so sensitive that the
least noise or light was quite unbearable. At other times t

Etient became completely delirious, pressed his head betwee
i hands, find did not know how to endure himself. These
paroxysms occurred five or six times during the day, and t
often during the night. One of them continued for fiftee
days almost without interruption. After lasting a year, his
sufferings were suddenly terminated by the expulsion of i
living Sfohpeiitlra eleefrica Hi inches in length. 1

Mr. Hope only mentions one case of death caused by the
pretence of a meal-worm, Trnebrio molitor, in the nasal ft

CHAPTER II.

ANIMALS T5JUBIOU3 AS FOOD.

Mast animals are mentioned, whose flesh is injurious when
taken as food, and which can produce symptoms resembling
those of poisoning ; but these animals are not, correctly speak-
ing, venomous or pot 'no no us animals ; none of them are provided
with a poiBon or with an organ for the secretion oi poison.
The majority only act id this manner under particular circum-
stances. Others are rather indigestible than directly injurious.
TheBe animals consist of: 1, Fishes; 2, MoUusca ; and 8,
Crustacea.

1. Fishes. — It has long been known that many persons
have been more or less ill after eating certain species of Fi#h.
These disorders in some cases have terminated iu death.
Adanson saw negroes die alter severe vomiting and convulsions
from eating of the <Jst radons or Trunk Fishes, Dr.Praeger men-
tions four cases > if poituniiui; followed by death, which happened to
I sailors, belonging to Danish, Dutch, and French vessels, from
partaking of these fish. One of them had only eaten the liver.
The Fish, nevertheless, are not poisonous animals. What
then is the cause of their injurious effects ?
1, It has been supposed that it depended upon some morbid
condition of the flesh, which predisposed it to undergo rapid
decomposition (Burrows), and in consequence gave rise to symp-
toms resembling poisoning. This opmion has been founded
upon seeing half the fish, which was eaten while it was fresh,

ahimals nunaiotrs as food.

245

producing no ill effects, while the other half, which was eaten
on the next day or the day after, has been followed by serious
disturbances. The injurious efieote which are produced by the
2Wny, Tkymnus vulgarix, Cuv., after its flesh has began to
change, is well known. (Cuvier and Valenciennes.)

2. Other persons hare believed that at the period of spawning,
or at all times, the animal contains certain portions which cannot
be eaten with impunity, while all the rest eun. They endeavour
in this way to account for the ditferent eili.vts which have been
observed. For example, the Barbel is very injurious at the
period of reproduction. Its injurious properties depend upon
the ova. 1 M. Moouin-Tandon knew ayoung man at Toulouse,
who had acute gastric pains, and who vomited a certain quantity
of blood after eating half a Barbel.

3. Some naturalists have suggested that the injuries of
JFish depended upon the substances upon which they had fed ;
that they had swallowed mineral, animal, or vegetable sub-
stances, which were of a dangerous nature. Some have spoken
of submarine copper, sulphate of baryta, sulphate of iron, the salts
of iodine, &c. ; narcotic fruits or plantB have been mentioned.
Crabs, Annellides, Starfishes, miri'osi-o|ii<' Medusa;, eggs, Ac.,
have also been named. It is said that the Batistes are very in-
digestible, and even poisonous, after they have fed upon certain
Zoophytes.

4. Several medical men have thought that the very prepara-
tion which Fish undergo is sufficient to engender injurious
properties in their flesh. Persons have been mentioned who
could not eat fried Fish without vomiting. (Xouyer-Willermay.)

5. Lastly, other medical men have maintained that the in-
jurious effects depended upon the state of the person who was
affected, and not even on the nature of the Fish which had been

It is very probable that all these suppositions are correct.
Several of the causes which have been suggested may occur
simultaneously.

Are there, however, Fish which are dangerous at all times,
and under every circumstance ? If we arc to place any re-
liance on the statements of travellers and naturalists, certain
species possess this character at the moment they are caught,
both when they are in spawn and when they are not in spawn,
whatever maybe their age, (.he nature of their food, or the way
in which they are cooked. The species which have been men-

1 Ova cholcram envsant, Tim.

in-

OBO
.J

lioned as being the most dangerous belonging to the gem
Meletta,* Sphyrawa,* Caranx,' Scants.* Diodon* and Oneion^

Most of tbe bo termed poisonous Fishes are only bo at times
that is to say, when they have led upon certain animals at tl
period of reproduction, or under certain other peculiar
stances. Such are the File Jish, the Conger eel, the Mackerel,
and the Herring.

It is more particularly in hot climates that it is necessary to
guard against the ill efteets of these Fish. M. Fonssagrives
observes that the species, which are to be most dreaded are in-
habitants of the tropical seas, and that the species which
dangerous in our climates become still more bo in th<

The first Bymptom produced by eating these Fish is disorder'
of the stomach; this Sb followed bypain in the epigastrium, ac-
companied by a feeling of oppression and dyspniea. General
symptoms supervene, ushered in by shiverings and cold sweats.
The countenance becomes injected and swollen, and red spots
or vesicular eruptions break out over the body. These erup-
tions are often followed by an irritation or itching, which is
sometimes quite unbearable. The patient has constant nausea,
pain, vomiting, and spasmodic affections of the bowels, simula-
ting cholera, deafness, and imperfect vision ; he becomes eoma-
toze and passes into a peculiar state of insensibility. When
the patient escapes death, his convalescence iB long and
difficult.

2. MoLLiisci. — Two cases of poisoning are recorded from
Snails which had been collected ; the one series from a
belladonna plant, the other from the sumac, cariaria mifrti-
folia, Linn. Mussels' 1 and Oysters* are the species of mol-
lusca which most frequently produce these accidents. There
ia great difficulty in explaining the way in which they act,
and various suggestions have been put forth ; such as the
presence of copper in the rocks on which they live, their
having been attached to the copper bottoms of vessels, the

1 For example, the poisonous Meletta, Meletta venenoaa, and JIT. TKriisa,
Valeac.

* The large Sphyraina, Sphyrona Caracuda, Cuv., and the S. Becu*a>

3 Caranx fallax, Cuv.

* Scarus capitaneus, Cuv.
! Diaton tigrin us, Cuv.

* Gneiun macti/uluB), Bibron.

FOTSONOBB ANIMALS.

preBence of a small crab, which lodges within their valves,
the spawn of the Star fishes, or of certain Medusa, which
they had eaten (Lamouroui), a peculiar disease to which
they may he liable, the fermentation and decomposition of their
tissues, and even the ■ phases of the moon, &C.

3. Cbiistacea.- — Certain Orustacca produce similar disorders
to those which have just been described. AmongBt these ani-
mals the principal are the Land Crab, Oecarrinus rvricola,
(is it when they have eaten the fruit of the msnchineal tree ?)'
and the Hermit Crab, Paauru* Berrtliardus.

Prawn* and Shrimp* have also been mentioned, but it must
be by the merest accident that these Crustacea, as well as the
Hermit Crab, can produce any injurious effects.

NOUS ANIMALS.

The name of Poisonous Animal* is given to all those creatures
which produce a poison. These animals are provided with
special gl aii ds for the secretion of the poisonous fluid, andwith an
apparatus for its transmission ; some convey the poison by means
of the mouth, or by some part of the mouth modified for that
purpose ; while others are provided with a special organ. This
division of the poisonous animals into those which transmit the
poison by means of their mouth, and into those which a

Amongst the animals which are injurious, bat not poisonous,
it has been previously seen that some possess a saliva which
appears to have properties that are very analogous to a poison ;
-"- ^\ e cage ^ the Hedttviiia and the Gnat*.*

ANIMALS WHICH CONVEY THEIE POISON BY THB MOUTH.

The animals which convey their poison by means of the

mouth, or by means of some part of the mouth, have special

1 Detectaturfructiliui jaandaellie el inJe srepe vcrtenatus fertar. (Linn.)

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

teeth or fangs in the interior of this cavity provided for that
purpose, or they have, placed hy the side of it, clatc-shaped

antenna: or foot-jaws, which, like the fangs, a ■"

the organ which secretes the poison. 1

e connected with

1. Common Vipek.-
to he carefully avoidei
Habitat.— The Con.

CHAPTER I

POISONOUS AKIMALS WITH PANGS.

The poisonous animals provided with fangs are the Ophidia or
Serpents. The most dangerous are the Vipers. MM. Du-
meril place them in the sub-order Boleaoglypba, characterised
by the possession of an upper jaw, which has the two anterior
teeth hollowed out into a canal.

§ I. Vipers.
The Common Viper or Asp 1 in a serpent

It belongs to the family Yiperina.
3rt Viper is frequently found in the
Cevennea, in Lozere, and Aveyron.
It especially abounds at Montmo-
rency, and in the Forest of Fontaine-
hleau; it usually keeps near the
I roads and footpaths, in stumps of
I trees, on bits of rock, or beneath
stones and bushes.

Description. — -It varies from 1 to
2} feet in length.) the body at its
d inch in diameter ; the general colour
is brown or of a reddish tinge, passing into an ashen or blackish
1 It is stated that certain Mollusca, as, for example, the Coitei and the
Pleurolomn, inflict bites which inflame and beeome dangerous. It is sup-
posed hy some thai this dq.i-mfs upon ?. |.n>:su[i « hidi lii-j animals introduce
into the wound. Whence, however, it mat be asked, does this poison come 1
M. Loven supposes that the hooks or teeth pith ulik-;i Un iiuigue la armed
arc deeply buried in the wound, and produce the subsequent inflammation.
Captain Beecher was wounded by a specimen of the Conns aulicus, and the
wound swelled and became very painful. Has the animals, aa M. Loven
supposes, the power of discharging these lingual teeth!
* Vipera aspii, Merrcm ; Ctilubtr aspis, Linn.; Vipera Cherseax, Lair.
[It appears from ilie description in ilie n U, and from what is said of the
other species, that this is not the Common Viper of England. The species
which is known in this country aa the Cn'iimon Viper or Adder, as it is
frequently termed, is that which in ineniioned in the next page under the
title of Viperu Berus, and which is described in Hell's British Reptiles, 2nd
edit., p. 61, under the name of Ptlias Berus, snd which is the only species
of Viper that is met with in Great, Britain. (Ed.)]

Fig. 7

- Common Piper.

thickest part is nearly a

POISONOUS »5IMll.a, 'HO

band on the back, and a row of irregular dark *\>»tn > >■ ■ I In-
sides; specimens of a uniform colour an m ; the bfll) It off
slate colour; the bead of the Viper is of h tuDtrifSfjUlft form,
BOmewhat larger than the neck, obtuse unci bmoattd Ubf>
riorly.aiul covered with granulated scales; toemuula i« KrTWMl
by su small scales, two of which are perforated In I In' mulnli,
which form two black spots ; on the upper part an- Iwn Murk
linea united in the form of a V i the upper j«ir a wliitimh mnl
spotted with black, while the lower is ol a yellow colour ; I lu*
eyes, which are very small, active, anil bright, tfl ■OMflfd
with black; the tongue is long, forkeil, of ft black or greylidi
colour, soft and retractile ; the scales are imbricated mnl etiri
nated, characters which distinguish them i'nmi tho»i> of Um
Colubrida>.
The males ;ire generally smaller tlmii I lie fciiiftlm.
This reptile is fond ot heat, especially moist Inni , || nmi :l
after shrew mice, field mice, and even inolcn, dtftrOTlng « birgn
number of these animals; it also foodl upon Uufdl, I'rngs, "mull
molluscous animals, insects, and worms. It hiilcn itself in llut
day and pursues the animals upon which it Uth during tlui
night time.

The Viper appears to be a timid animal ; its nOTOMBtl IN
abrupt, sluggish, and irregular; tlie instincts of the niiiiniil lire
but feebly developed; it is incapable of being tiwflW him thf
Colubridie, and when retained in captivity it refuse* il» I'ooil.
At the approach of winter it retires into In. lei- in J.i Innhl
ings, into the decayed trunks of trees, into the earth, or under
moss; several of them are usually rolled op togelhoi', mid in
this manner they pass the cold wcnlhcr in a lorpul state.

The male has a double penis, which increases in si/,o during
copulation, and fixes the two sexes so firmly together (hit a
they are disturbed during the act, the male, which i* weaker
than the femalo, is carried away backward* hy the hitter.

The Viper is ovovivi parous. (Aristotle..) The young urn
born with the fragments of egg awe adhering to them ; the cgg»,
just before they hatched, an' as large lis those of the wren.

2. Otebb Species. — There arc two other speeds of I'iprr
in Europe — the Ammodytea and the Bern*. The following table,
gives the characters which distinguish them from the CBnMMfl

l !}»■>■ :

g , /truncated .... 1. Vipera AtpU.

\ elongated . . . . '1. Viptnt .imimi-h/i..:'.
with plates 3. Vipera Berut.

250

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

The Vipera Ammodytes, which baa a horn on the muzzle, 1 (_ D .
77,) inhabits the mountains of Dauphine ; the head is separated
from the body by a distinct neck ; the muzzle is prolonged
into a soft, obtuse, elevated point.

Fig 1 . 77. — Vipera Ammodytes. Fig. 7S. — Vipera Peliut.

The Vipera Berus (Daud), or small Viper, 2 (fig. 78), is found
in the neighbourhood of Paris. It was this species which bit
M. Constant Dumeril in the Forest of Senart in September, 1851.

Fig. 79.— Head of a Viper.'

The body is elongated, the neek much constricted, and with

a brown line along the back ; it has a large pentagonal plate

hollowed out anteriorly on the summit of the head ;* behind

1 Coluber Awmodytes, Linn. ; Echidna Ammodyles, Merrem.

1 Pelius Berus, Merrem ; Coluber Berus, Linn.

' Head of Pelius Berus [Common English Viper]. — a, poison gland,
seen through an opening in the external pterygoid muscle ; b, its duet ; c,
termination of the duct at the base of the poison fang; d, poison fang; t,
external opening ; /, fangs of replacement ; g, external pterygoid muscle ;
h, internal pterygoid imnrinj t lachrymal gland; j, anterior temporal
muscle ; *, elevator muscle of the loner jaw ; /, depressor muscle of the
lower jaw; m, retractor muscle of the lower jaw; n, tongue ; o, its laryngeal
opening; p. its bifurcation.

* In the Common Viper [that is, of France, Vipera aspis,] there ia a small
hexagonal plate at the same part.

Tig. 80.

this are two oblong irregularly pentagonal plates. The head
ia somewhat convex, (fig. 79.)

Naturalists consider that the present species differs suffi-
ciently from the two first to form a distinct genus. (Pelius.)

3. Poison Apparatus. — This consists of— 1, the Oland; 2,
the Duct ; 3, the Poison Ihng.

1. Oland.— This is situated by the side of the head, behind and
partly below the globe of the
eye, above the superior max-
illary and transverse bones,
in front of the anterior tem-
poral muscle ; it is embraced
by the external pterygoid
muscle, which forms over it,
especially anteriorly, a strong
tendinous covering; it is
rather an assemblage of lobes
than a gland, properly so '
called. The substance of
the gland is soft and yellow,
and has a spongy appearance; examined beneath the microscope
it presents a series of oval dilatations or lobules composed of a
granular tissue ; these dilatations are arranged very regularly
along the course of the excretory ducts, like the barbs of a
feather, along the two sides of its axis. The number of these
lobes varies in different individuals ; M. Leon Soubeiran has
generally found from 6 to 8, independently of a certain number
of secondary lobes placed at the commencement of the principal

2. Duct. — The duct of the poison gland is a narrow cylin-
drical canal ; it passes from behind forwards in a nearly
horizontal direction and terminates in the fang of the same
side; towards its middle portion, juBt below the inferior
margin of the orbit, the canal forms an oval dilatation. It is
this enlargement, which is very slight in the Vipera aspis, that
has been described under the name of the poison reservoir.
M. Soubeiran has recently examined this part, and he finds
that its walls contain a number of simple follicles, which oi
into the cavity, and form a special glandular apparatus placed

kthe course of the excretory eanal, like the prostate of the
anc
■ III,
|>

1 Poison apparatus of Pelius Benin [Common English Viper]. — n, pinnated
_nd ramified gland; b b, its duct; H, reservoir placed in the course of the
duel; d, fang, out vertically; e, basal orifice, receiving the duct of the
gland ; / its terminal orifice.

252

gasteropoda in the course of their deferent canal. The follicles
which he has described appear to be moat numerous towards
the posterior extremity ; they are very long, and appear to be
separated from each other.

3. Poison Fang. — The fang is a tooth moulded into the form
of a tube ; it is much longer than the other teeth, and is placed
in the upper jaw ; there is one on either side the mouth. They
are very pointed and curved, the convexity being placed ante-
riorly, and provided with a narrow canal, which commenceB at
the anterior surface of the base and terminates by an extremely
narrow elongated aperture on the same surface of the apex of
the fang. A fine canal passes through the convexity and con-
nects the two apertureB. This canal is sometimes obliterated.

The two lower thirds of the fang are invested by a strong
fold of the gum ( mccu*, Mead). They extend backwards, and
form a groove or case, which receives and conceals the tooth
when not in use.

These organs are firmly attached, and, as it were, anchylosed
to the superior maxillary bones. The latter bones are very
small and very short, but enjoy great freedom of motion. There
are two muscks which govern these movements; these are the
external pterygoid, which elevates the bone, and the internal
pterygoid, which depresses it.

Immediately behind \.\\t: fangs are two or three smaller teeth,
or the forms of teeth, destined to replace those which are in
use when lost (Hosa) ; these are unattached, and are enclosed
in the fold of gum previously mentioned.

In a state of repose the fangs are concealed ; but they are
withdrawn from the fold of the gum and elevated when the
animal is about to use them. But it was an error to suppose,
in consequence of this, that the teeth themselves are moveable ;
it is the maxillary bone to which the iiing is united that alone
moves. The remaining teeth in the upper part of the mouth
are attached to the palate, where they form a double row.

4. Action on Man. — 1. Bite. Eedi appears to have been the
first who accurately described the effects of the Viper. Mead
and Fontana described still more carefully the bite and the
poisonous action of this dangerous serpent.

Vipers habitually employ the formidable weapon with which
they are armed to destroy the small animals upon which they
live. They avoid man, but when trod upon or handled they
become enraged and defend themselves with their poison fangs.

"When a Viper is struck it first coils itself up, leaving its
head in the centre or at the Buinmit of the coil, and drawn a

POisosrors asimalb. 253

little back, as it' for the purpose of reconnoitring. Speedily the
animal uncoila itself like a spring. Its body is then launched
out with such rapidity, that, for a moment, the eye cannot
follow it. In this movement the Viper clears a space nearly
equal to its own length, for it must lie observed that it never
quits the ground, where it remains supported on ita tail, or on
the posterior part of its body, ready to coil ilselt' up again and
launch itself forth afresh to aim a second blow, if the first should
fail. To do this the Viper distends its mouth, draws back its
fangs, arranges them in the right direction, and then plungea
them into its enemy by the blow of its head or of its upper
jaw, which strikes the object like a hammer; when this is done
the fangs are immediately withdrawn. The lower jaw, which is
closed at the same moment, serves as a pnint of resistance and
favours the entrance of the poison fangs ; hut this assistance is
very slight, and the animal, as has just been Btated, acta by
striking rather than by biting. There are, however, times
when the Viper bites without coiling itself up, and then launching
itself forth. This occurs, for instance, when the creature meets
with some Btnall animal, which it destroys at its leisure, and
without rage, or when it is seized by the tad or the middle of
the body, when, it turns round and plunges in its fangs. Aa
the teeth are buried in the tissues of the body the poison ia
driven down the cannls which pass through them by the action,
of the muscles' which rinse the mouth, and this injection takes
place with all the more force in proportion to the vigour and
rage of the serpent and to the supply of poison with which it
is furnished.

2. Wound. — -The wounds inflicted by the Viper have a pecu-
liar appearance, which allows them to be recognised by mere
inspection, and to he distinguished from those of anon- venomous
serpent, as, for example, from those of a Coluhra. In fact, all
serpents which are not furnished with fangs produce a number
of punctures formed by the teeth of the two jaws, which are
arranged in two curved lines, with the concavities looking
towards each other. In the bite of the Viper there are only
two large punctures corresponding to the two poison fangB. !

These wounds inllmne, become red and swollen, and some-
times livid ; at other times they are surrounded with vesicles
or watery bulla.

1 The external pterygoid muscle, in contracting for the purpose of raising
the fang at the same time, compresses the glaud which it covera,

' Plutarch mentions the presence of two hardly perceptible
which the Asp hid inflicted on the arm of Cleopatra.

254

Th
been

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

The general symptoms which accompany the wound have
been frequently described. The person at first experiences
pain in the part which has been bitten, which gradually extends
itself throughout the limb, and even to the internal organs.
The swelling, the redness, and the lividity, spread to the neigh-
bouring parts ; faintings come on, the pulse becomes rapid,
small, and irregular. There are gastric derangements, bilious
vomitings, difficult respiration, profuse cold sweats ; disturbance
of the vision and of the intellect, and convulsions, which are
almost always followed In general jaundice. There is sometimes
acute pain in the region of the umbilicus. The blood which
issues from the wound often becomes black; after a time it
changes into a sanies ; and lastly, in some instances, which are
fortunately very rare, gangreue comes on.

In weak, sickly, or timid persons, and in those who have just
eaten, the symptoms increase more rapidly, and are more Bevere
than in those who are strong, healthy, courageous, and who at
the time are fasting.

The bite of the l'ip-'r is generally dangerous.

Ambrose Pare relates, that during his residence at Mont-
pellier with Charles IX. he was bitten in the extremity of his
mdei finger, when examining a Viper. He felt a sharp pain,
but that the immediate application of a ligature and tincture
of opium cured it in a few days.

When Bernard de Jussieu was herborizing in the month
of July, 1747, on the hills of Montmartre, one of his pupils
seized a Viper, which he mistook for a Colubra ; the serpent
bit him in three places (on both thumbs, and on the index-
finger of the right hand). At first there was swelling and
inflammation, afterwards t'ainr.ings, and a yellowness, which was
limited to the fore arm. There were no other derangements.

It would be easy to multiply similar examples. At the same
time it must not be supposed that these bites are never tataL
In certain cases they may cause death.

Bedard relates in his lectures the case of a young man in the
neighbourhood of Angers, who, happening to fall down in a
meadow, was bitten in several places by a Viper, and died in
consequence in the course of a few hours.

A woman bitten in the thigh died at the end of thirty-seven
hours.

M. Dusoaxd mentions eleven cases, four of which were fatal.

Matthiole records a case which proves that a Viper, even
when cut in two, may still bite when handled incautiously. A
countryman falling down in a meadow, happened to divide one

roisotfotra animals. 256

i the middle ; he seized the portion of the
trunk to which the head was attached in an awkward manner,
and was in consequence bitten in the finger, and died from the
effects of the wound. 1

Eedi and Saviard speak also of severe bites inflicted by Vipers
whose heads were separated from the body.

Dr. Scoutetten mentions a similar instance. In July, 1837,
a young man in the neighbourhood of Met?,, when seeking for
worms for the purpose of fishing, saw two serpents, which he
mistook for Oolubm. He cut them in pieces with a pickaxe ;
soon afterwards, having taken hold of one of the heads, he felt
himself bitten in the right index finger ; he shook his hand
violently, and it was only after several efforts that he succeeded
in disengaging it.

[The common Viper, says Bell,* ib everywhere deservedly
feared on account of its venom, which, although less virulent
than that of many other species, is yet sufficiently so to produce
severe symptoms, and sometimes, in the warmer climates, even
fatal results. In this country I have never seen a ease which
terminated in death, nor have I been able to trace to an authen-
tic source any of tbe numerous reports of such a termination
which have at various times been confidently promulgated. At
the same time the symptoms are frequently so threatening, that
I cannot but conclude that in very hot weather, and when not
only the reptde is in full activity and power, but the constitu-
tion of the victim in a state of great irritability and diminished
power, a bite from the Common Viper would very probably
prove fatal. The remedies usually employed are the external

^ application of oil, and the internal administration of ammonia.]
S II. Foreign Serpents,
The principal foreign serpents which are poisonous are —
1. the Cerastes; 2. the Crotali; 3. the Bothrops ; 4. the

1. The Cebasteb or horned Serpents, are allied to the Vipers.
They differ from them in their supra orbital plates, rising up
into pointed processes, and assuming the appearance of a pan*
of small horns.

The principal species are the Cerastes of Egypt, Cerastes JEgyp-
tiaeus (fig. 81), and the Cerastes of Persia, Ger. Persicus. These
animals are justly dreaded ; the first species, which is also met

1 Mntthiole says on Ike ipol, but this is hardly credible.
* Boil's British Reptilet, 2nd ed. p. 62, London.

25G

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

with in the Sahara of Algeria, and in Morocco, is said
death in a few hours.

2. The CBOTii]
», are serpents

lid to cause
:, or Battle

■

^^^^J/m^^ to tne family Crotalidre ; they
^^flR BB^ flrC ^ ar S e an< ^ strong, and may

_^^flP B fflTT r attain a length of more than

' -^3 Hr^T^y^ upper part of their bo die a

H^^^^/ covered with si m pie scales.

Ti*-'' ^l£g- BSE^t The end of the tad is furnished

^^^wflhk with several horny rings, which
^^"■^n; lock loosely into each, and pro-
Fig. 81.— Cmufrt AZgyptiaau. duce a rattling noise as the
anhnal moves along, and hence
the name of Eattle Snakes. Their poison fangs are very long,
and the poison reservoir of considerable size.

^The principal species ape — the Ci-olahm Durissus (fig. 82) of
South America ; the Oro-
^^^^^^^^^^^^^ t«l*>* horridus of Tropical

v ,'- I fife America, particularly of

Jfl ^^P Mexico. Guiana, and Bra-

} jfl Ifi^^^ *& '< alu ' L tlle Orotalm mili-

i « ^I^T "'"'* ^ rom ^^S 011 ' '-The

H^^^f latter species is said to be

i. '--;■=, the most dangerous.

'■'";;-£ (Bs3(^K*. ^- Qe C rof "ti naturally

*^^^^^^^^^l^^^^g?^^^ inspire a feeling of dreao,
^^^mmtr f or their p<iison will de-

Fig. 82. — Crotulus Duristus. stroy an ox or a horse

almost instantaneously.
Dogs will resist its influence somewhat longer. A Crotaliui,
about three feet long, killed one of these animals in fifteen,
minutes ; a second at the end of two hours ; and a third at the
end of three. Four days afterwards it wounded a dog, which
only survived thirty seconds, and another which only lived four
minutes. Three days afterwards a frog perished in two seconds,
& chicken in eight minutes, and a white amphisbena also in
eight minutes. (Halm.)

M. Eousseau rapidly destroyed pigeons by forcing into then-
pectoral muscles the iangs of a Crotalu* which had been dead
two days.

These animals
poison produt

POI80KOC8 ANIMALS.

__e applied immediately death may be averted. According to
Sir Everard Home, when a finger has been bitten it passes
into a complete state of mortification ; in other casea, the
edges of the wound become gangrenous, the cellular tiaaue is
destroyed, and the muscles are greatly inliamed. According to
Laurenti, the bite of these terrible serpents produces swelling
of the body and of the tongue, the mouth seems on fire, the
thirst is excessive, and the person diea in the eourae of a few
minutes in a state of frightful agony. In the ease of the un-
fortunate Drake, who was bitten in the hand, and in whom the
wound was cauterised an hour afterwards, there were huntings,
stertorous breathing, scarcely any pulse, and involuntary evacu-
ations ; the eyes were closed, the pupils contracted, the body
eold, and the limbs iiisensible ; he died at the end of nine
hourB. (Philorel.)

When the patient is so fortunate as to escape death, he
sometimes feels the effect of the injury for the remainder of
his life. Lesseur, who was wounded at Simon, eight years
afterwards, when he was in Paris, felt a great weight in the
limb which had been wounded.

M. Alfred Duges waa bitten on the 21st of August, 1857, at
Silao, in Mexico, by a vi:iuii<; Vrvtti/ux.' about eight inches long,
on the upper part of the second joint of the index-finger of the
left hand ; he felt a most agonising pain at the moment, as if
some caustic had been applied to a recent wound ; the part was
strongly ligatured, and the wound cauterised with nitrate of
silver ; there was great exhaustion, cold sweats, a feeling of
intense anxiety about the region of the heart, and the mouth
was very clammy; at the end of an hour the wound was cauter-
ised a second time, on this occasion with the bromide of iron ;
the hand by Hub time was very much swollen, and the arm
painful up to the axilla; cataplasms and embrocations of olive
"Iwere applied to the limb. On the 22ud, the finger and the

wis of the hand were greatly enlarged, and could not bear the

ast pressure; its condition might lie compared to that of a large
chilblain. On the 23rd, the swelling and the pain had some-
what subsided. On the 24th and 25th, the hand became of a
deep brown colour, and waa still much swollen. On the 27th,
the colour was less intense, but the patient still felt pain in
closing the finger. (A. Duges.)

3. The Bothrops, or Javelin Snakes, also belong to the family
if the Crotolida? ; they are characterised by the possession of
cavities hollowed out behind the a small cor-

a the Crotalut triitriatvi i Durissus.

MIDI C XL ZOOLOGY.

'■■-■ Bealea are

ead.

naire. vTOBerlu

neous spine at the extremity of the tail. The t
carinated, and there are no large plates on the head.

The most formidable species is the Jaeelia Snake, properly
to called, or Yellow Viper ofMnrtiiiiijite. 1

This serpent inhabits Martinique and St. Lucia. In 1826,
a reward ot two shillings was offered in these islands for every
head of one of these snakes. In the neighbourhood of Fort
EoyaL, 700 were killed in three months. (Kufz.) This serpent
is about six feet long ; its colour varies from a clear yellow to
a dark brown ; the head is large.

The wound of the Javelin Snake is always fatal to the
smaller mammalia ; sometimes it will also destroy the larger
ones, such as the os.

The negroes who work in the plantations, and the Boldiers
on duty at Martinique, are often wounded by these dangerous
reptiles. M. Blot has recorded three eases (a negro, a negress,
ami a mulatto,) in which death occurred almost immediately
alter the bite was inflicted. M. Guyon saw several soldiers
perish ; death generally occurs in three, twelve, or twenty-four
hours, or some days, after the aceident.

The person who is bitten usually feels an acute pain, which
is followed by a livid swelling ; his hody loses its warmth, and his
sensibility damnifies or become* extinguished; at the same time,
he experiences extreme las-
situde, and a general feeling
of illness, the pulse and the
respiration become feeble, the
idt L ;i:i wonder, conia comes on,
a blue tint spreads over the
surface of the skill; some-
tunes there is intense thirst,
paralysis, and occasionally a
congested state of the lungs,
which is followed by a more
or less copious and bloody
expectoration. (Guy on.)
Another species of Javelin

1 But/traps lancedalus, WlgL, Vipera lunewluta, DeimL, V. Maycra,
Shaw Triyonotcpt'iilxis lannvialits, Upp., commontv raited the Ydtuw
Serptnl of the Antilles.

' Poison ap|)iirai u-i nf Buthrupn Januara- <t, (ana; h, it* terminal Open-
ing-; c, its haul opening : d. poiriuii canal ; c, maxillary hone ; /.pterygoid
bone ; o, tendon of external pterygoid muscle ; h, tendon of internal ptery-
goid muscle.

■

;

Fig. 83.— Poison Fun jr.

POISONOUS J

the Jararaea} is found, in Brazil, which inflicts much
injury upon the natives.

Br. Auzoux presented to M. Tandon a prepared head of the
last-named serpent, from which the accompanying drawing has
been taken (fig. 83).

4. The Nain. or Spn-tarlcd Si-qienta? [called also the Hooded
Snakes,] have the body large anterior! v, and forming a kind of
disc, owing to the singular power which these animals possess
of expanding the first pair ot ribs. These serpents aro met with
in Arabia and in India.

The principal species is the Spn-tnrleil Serpent, properly
so called, 1 or the Vubra tie Oapello. It has, on the cervical
expansion of the body, a brown mark in the form of a pair of
of. spectacles.

This group also contains I. lie ibtjr Sri -p put* which appears
to be the true Asp of the ancients, celebrated as having caused
the death of Cleopatra.

The Naia produce most dangerous wounds ; the subtility of
of the poison is such that death is almost instantaneous.

A chicken, bitten by one of these animals, brought by an
Indian juggler, vomited ; its limbs became rigid, and it died in
about ten minutes. A second chicken, slightly bitten twice,
died in eight minutes.

Some years ago, one of the keepers of the reptiles at the
Zoological Gardens in London was wounded by one of these
snakes ; the man died in about half an hour. One of the most
remarkable phenomena which lie exhibited before his death,
was a paralysis of the inspiratory muscles of the thorax.
(Quam.J

[Early on the morning of the 20th of October, when in a
state of inebriety, the man took out the Cobra aud put
it round his waist ; after play ins; with it some lime, the animal
bit him at the root of the nose. He was brought into the
University College Hospital about forty minutes after the
accident; the patient's face was slightly livid, the respiration
imperfect; he walked with difficulty from the cab to the ward,
and pointed to his throat as the seat of pain ; he could not
speak, had difficulty in standing, and was unable to swallow.

' Botlirops Jararaca, Duiner, Cuphias Jararuca, Neuw.

* The three previous genera am SoleuuKlypha, like the Vipers ; the Ntiaa
arc I'terogryphn, characterised by having tho poison fang grooved and not
perforated at its hase.

' Ifaja tripudiaui, Merrem. Coluber Naja, Linn.

* Naja Haje, Sehleg., Coluber Haje, Linn.

B 2

■

Tie fa»w had wxaded the njtfe t*± rf the now, I
the omk! Um and the inner eactito* of the ere; a
Ml itftiivMhtHMB^IllMII
ataporiafMry feD oVaed apon f iiiia t aa , ]
of the e j tre «il r act in, and the patient died mac
Mate fi/t v-fi r e minutes a:
Dr. "'

Cobra.]

I by order of the East India Company in 1T9C
■hi af rcnman bAb tie peraani had hca*i t

CHAPTER II

A3TXAX4 AMEI1 WITH A5TXXX.C IS 1

OF CLAWS, OB WITH TOOT Ji*S.

The venomous mijmiiU which inoculate their poison by m
of antenna; terminating in a pair of pincers are the Arackaula
and those which perform the act b v means of foot-jaws are t*
Scolopendrida. All of them belong to classes of animals wbi
have no teethorupper and under jawslike those of the Yertebi
their jaws consist of lateral pieces which move in a horizo
direction. Sometimes the animal has attached to the 1
appendages or talons, improperly regarded as mandibles ; these
are the clawed antennae which produce and inject tbe poison.
Sometimes they have a pair of small dilated feet, placed very
close to the mouth, and terminating in a strong hook;
are the foot-jaics.

§ I. Spiders.

Spidert, and the web which they form, have been previot
noticed.*

1. The Cave Spideb. 1 — This species ia very common :
t'rance and Italy.

Tbe body is about half an inch in length, covered with b
of a dark grey colour ; it has a number of triangular bla
spots along the middle of the tack and the abdomen;
iii;irnli!)li;H arn (jrceii or of a steel blue colour.

2. Other Species. — The moat important are:—
1. The Mi/galee* {Crab Spider* and Mason Spiders), remark-
able for th« Luriniual insertion of their palpi.

1 Lancet, 1852, vol. 2, p. 897.

• Segatria cellarit, Latr., Aranta Flori

WtUL

' Mj/gaU, Walck.

, Rossi, Segatria ptrfida

cretory

POISONOUS ANIMALS. 201

2. The Cluhioncs, in which the eyes are arranged in two lines. 1

3. The Theridions, especially the Malmigiiatte? of Corsica and
Italy, and the Maettmf of South America.

4. The Phohi, particularly the Phalmigioidfa, or Domestic
Spider with long feet*

5. TheJjpeira.aiiuuigsd which there isihv,1 mm it Jiadema,lj'mn. s
Lastly. The Tarantula, which is considered in a separate

section.

3. Poison apparatus (fig. 84). — Nature has provided the
Spiders with twnc/iirlii'tTrs uraii/nnne, terminat-
ing in a pair of claws, and placed in front of
the mouth ; these constitute the poison appa- ■
ratus.

The secreting glands are placed at the base
of these claws, and extend more or less into '
the region of the head ; these are vasiform
tortuous tubes, terminating in a blind ex-
tremity, and surrounded by a layer of muscu-
lar fibres, having a spiral arrangement ; Fig. 84 — Mouth?
towards the anterior part, these glandular
tubes are suddenly narrowed and form a t'
duct, which passes through the claw
and terminates at its extremity.

The chelici'i-s ci insists of three pieces,
a lower, a middle, and a terminal piece.
The first piece is short ; the middle
iB large and stout, and furnished with
numerous hairs ; towards its termina-
tion, and on its inner side, is a double
row of hard conical scaly points, having
the appearance of teeth ; there are
three of these teeth on each side, and
a seventh which is placed lower down.
The third piece, which is termed the
hook or claw, is moveable, and articu- Fig. $5.- Gland and Claw. 7
lated to the middle piece. The claw is

' The Chibiuna Nulrir, Lair., is especially dangerous.

» Theridim Vi-imtUrium, tt'al^k., Aranua 'vi-giUtala, Rossi.

' Theridioit niurtttni,, WiUi'k.. Amnm maclana, Fabr.

* Pholctn phalaniji'iides. Walck.

• Epira diadema, Walck. There is a species of Epira in Sew Holland
which the natives make use of as food.

'bi, manililiU's or clawod antenna; : I) b, ilitir claws; cc, jaws; ltd
enormous maxillary palpi.
7 a, poison gland ; b, part of the canal placed in the mandihle ; c, claw

of a conical form, curved inwards, very pointed, and perfei
smooth ; when not in use it is folded inwards, and lies betwi
the two rows of teeth aa in a groove. Near the point
claw, and on its under surface, is a narrow opening to allow
the exit of the poison. Leeuwenhoi k was the iirst who pt " '
out this aperture, which is very narrow, and not easily seen.
Mead erroneously denied its existence.

4. Action on man. — "When a spider bites it drives both
claws into its victim, and at the same time a drop of poison is
distilled into each of the wounds.

Much has been said of the poison of the Spider. LutrciUe
has stated that the bite of one of a moderate size is sufficiei
to kill a house fly in a few minutes. Other observers have in-
formed us that the bite of oue of the large Spider* of South
America (Myyale) would destroy a humming bird, or even a
pigeon.

Are Spiders, especially those of Europe, dangerous to man?
Is it true that the wonnds of several species have been followed
bv serious results, and even hv death itself?

Martin Lister saw some of these bites accompanied by in-
flammation. Is this fact quite certain? Sehnrig mentions
the case of a bite having produced chlorosis. Cromstock
speaks of another which mused St. Vitus's Dance. But these
writers and these instances are scarcely to be depended on.
Turner, Scaliger, Flacourt, Brogiani, and others, also regarded
itjiiilrrx as very dangerous animals.

On the other hand, Knincois Bon states that he had been
bitten more than once, hut that he had never felt the least ill
effects from it, and he believed, therefore, that theae ani-
mals were not poisonous. Robert, Boyle, and Amoreux
entertained the same opinion. De Geer, remembering that
Clerck had been often hit ten liv fSpiders without experiencing
any inconvenience, concluded that they are not poisonous.
Lastly, H. Cloquet observed that the poison of theae animals
had no effect upon himself.

It is, however, certain that in hot climates, Spiders are
able to produce, especially in young children and in women,
a certain amount of local pain, which is followed by a small
livid inflamed spot, and sometimes even by a pustule. Some-
times there is only a red spot, which is hardly perceptible ; while
at other times there iB a true tumour. It is seldom that the
bites are accompanied by general symptoms, but when this is
d, its terminal opening ; e, groove bounded by the leeth, and receiving the
clan- when not in use.

P0IS0N0V9 ANIMALS. 263

tho ease the symptoms are similar to those which are produced
by other poisons.

Latreille considers it is necessary to be careful of Spiders,
especially the large species, whan tlicy are met with in hot
climates, Rossi asserts that the Midmiijaat-le can produce
serious disturbances aud even death. The latter assertion
seems to he an exaggeration. It is. however, supported by
several modern observers (Cauro, Graells, Lambotte). A
medical man of the name of Bonifacio mentioned a case of this
kind to M. Moquin Taudon (1S52). According to Thiebaud
de Berneaud, in the Island of Elba this Spider is as much
dreaded as the Scorpion.

M. Abbot declares that the bite of the Malmignatte of
America is exceedingly dangerous.

Are we to admit with Fabricius, that the hunting Spider of
South America can cause a violent attack of fever iu man ?
Must we also give credence to the following statement of
Adanson? This celebrated naturalist states that in Senegal
he felt for a whole year a kind of painful shivering, the course
of which was indicated by a red line along the back and on the
chest, where a large species of Spider bad passed 1 white he
was changing hiB shirt.

It has been previously mentioned * that the Tt-genaria medi-
cinali* and the Chiiiium:- mviliciiiidis have vesicating properties.
It iB also asserted tliat the latter is narcotel and irritates the
bladder. M. Ozanam has published a memoir on the employ-
ment of Spiders in medicine.

Tarantula. — The Spiders known under the name of Taran-
tula are especially mentioned as lining exceedingly poisonous.

These animals belong to the genus Lyeosa of Latreille ; they
are characterised by having the eyes arranged in an elongated
quadrilateral form, the two hinder ones not heing supported on
eminences, and by the first pair of feet being louger than the
second. The abdomen of the Tarantula is oval, and the whole
body is covered with a thick coating of down.

Most of them live upon the ground, where they form holes,
which they enlarge us they grow older, and line with a coating
of silk. Some reside in walls or in cavities of rocks. They
keep close to their dwelling, watching for their prey, upon
which they dart with astonishing rapidity. They can run very
quickly.

The number of species of tho Lyeosa is very considerable.
1 The animal, therefore, had not bitten him I
' See p. 128.

264 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

Two species only require to be noticed, the common Tarantula,
and the Tarantula with a Uaek abdomen.

The common Tarantula ' inhabits the south of Italy,
very common in Apulia and in Calahria. It is about :
in length. Its body is entirely black, with the under surfs
of the abdomen red, with n black band across the

The Tarantula with a hhirk abdomen 2 is found in the South
of France. It is smaller than the former. The under surface
of the abdomen is black, with the exception of the margins,
which are red.

A number of fabulous tales, all of them equally absurd, have
been related of the Tarantula. Many medical men have writ-
ten concerning this Spider. Estimable obse
whom may be mentioned Baglivi, have given a long account of
the dangers which attend them. 1 Ancient authors have declared
that the poison of the Tarantula has brought on in man symp-
toms resembling those of a milignant fever. According to
others it only produces erysipelatous spots and slight cramps
or tingliugs. Many think that the bites of this Spider produce
convulsive attacks which compel the patients to perform a wild
and irregular kind of dance. This disease has even received
the name of tarantula. The patients have been called taranto-
lati. It has been seriously asscrtnl that the supposed malady
could only be cured by the aid of music. Some medical men
have even carried the absurdity so far as to name those airs which
are best adapted to soothe the tarantolati. Samuel Hafenrefl'er,
professor at Ulm, in his treatise on diseases of the skin, has not
failed to mention them.

The fear which was formerly inspired by the Tarantula has
been overcome in the present day. Serrao, physician to the
king of Naples, endeavoured to undeceive the public with
regard tn faraitfi.ini. ami the remedies which had been proposed
for the disease. The abbe Bertholon relates that a country-
man having consented to be bitten by the Tarantula, the only
effect was a slight swelling, which disappeared in twenty-four
hours. Epiphane Ferdinand declared, in 1621, that in twenty
years he had never known a person in Naples die from the bite
of the Tarantula. Dr. Laurent, who inhabited that city for a
long time, declares that tho Tarantula only produces a sharp

1 Lyeoia Tarantula, Latr., Aranea Tarantula, Linn.

* Lycosa melunogastra, Latr., Tarantula Nurbonensis, Wftlck.

1 It appears that Baglivi was acquainted with the Tarantula with thi
black abdomen. Chabrier, of Montpellier, has made some curious observa-
tions on the same species.

P0IB0S0U8 AJflliALH.

pain, such na ia caused by the bite of a bet ind bfa

lowed by a alight iuihimm.it ion. which in ooomS ilk ftOCOtt'

ponied by a small pustule, which, however, is easily rHDOYtd b]
the application of simple emollients, or even pure water, I Kent I
We are acquainted in the present day with tT 11 -■nthtnll iW
instances of serious disorders and convulsion*, produced bi bhfl
if these animals. As the Tarantula are Hpiih-r I

e aud inhabitanta of hoi countries, ji in mil v pi-udciil i.< ■ n l
^linst being bitten by them.

Dr. Salvatore, of Henzi, Home yearn back rem I, M il"-
Academy of Medicine at Pane, ■ memoir In wbiob u ral ill i
the case of a harvestmnu who was bitten in the 1'iHit ; while iu--i
asleep he suddenly woke up with a feeling of acute [>aiu in the
injured part, lie soon began to feel giddy, then
and feebleness of the muscular system, and ullirwardj nam!
prostration and delirium. The effect of munc was 1-rii-d ! Tin
patient danced, he perspired abundantly, and KM i

Epiphane Ferdinand maintains that tarantism ia a triif
disease. M. Ozanam has very ren'iitlj ri'in'mlni'i'd lliii oplnJcm
He considers that the disease is chiiractenscil hj a peculiar run
dition of the nervous system, over which music ban a aalutary
effect.

§ II. Scolopendra.

The Scolopk^dra are insects hclmit;ui<; I" I In- unli i \I\ li-i

poda and to the family Chilopoda, They mv coin nit li r I

Milltpides. 1

The characters of this genua aw an elonijBted depressed body,
composed of not less than twenty articulations : Hie anli'mi.n
are somewhat longer than the head, letaeeous, mid formed of
seventeen segments; there are four pairs of small simple me.
and twenty-one pairs of feet, of which the last are inclined
towards the median line, and form a kind of tail.

The Scolopendra
hiding beneath stones, the £

old worm-eaten trees. These animals feed on the eaiih-uorm
and on small insects.

The species which is most dreaded in the South of Franco
and of Europe is the Scolopendra ci-ngulutn.

These insects vary considerably in size ; the largest of the
Scolopendra of Europe do not measure more than live inches
in length, while those of India attain to eight inches. [The
largest British species rarely exceed two indies in length,]

1 Centipeda, KiiBMdfl of Ibo older writers.

i very quickly; they avoid the light,
the beams of bouses, and the hark of

266

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

« S 2. POISON i

\^ J> The mouth of the Scolopendra is c

^^n*^ j&&^^ posed of a square-shaped Lip, of two
^ijC5i mandibles, of two palpi, or small foot

fctttttdf jawg, and of tt second lip formed by

JJ^RKt another pair of dilated foot jaiei, which

■Cf^ are joined together at their commence-

y»wj^ ment. The latter (Jbrcipes) ' are the

jJWff, orgaus which constitute the formidable

tt»B^ weapons of the animal.

>»JR|*4 The poison gland is lodged in the in-

Prf'il \ teriorot these organs towards their base. 1

Fig. 86.— Scolopendra.* It is oval 7 oblong, and provided with a

long narrow excretory canal. The forceps

terminate in a strong pointed

moveable hook; the claw is pro-

I vided with a small oblong aperture

u its under surface, which allows

| of the exit of the poiBon. 5

This opening in the Scolopendra,
I Scopoliana, is close to the point on
I its under surface, and not within
I the curve, which is strongly ea-
I rinated; a very slender canal passes
| from it to the base of the claw.

3. Action on man. — The bite

I of the Scolopendra pierces the skin

I and inoculates its poison like that

| of the Spider. The claws are

sed and seize the tissue one on

either side, they are then pressed

horizontally together aud inflict

1 Pressures seuforcipts, Leeuwenh.

1 M. Lespee has studied [lie poison apparatus of a tropical species of
Seotvpendra, which was tumid alive at hnrdcaus in a buadle of ox hides
which had come from I'oiHliehery. 'flic ylarid reached halfway up the large
joint of the claw, resting against its external pciuon ; it was oblong, obtuse
at the base, narrowed aiiieninLy. and presented a! that part an oblique
canal, which passed to the claw. Its tissue was very soft, of a pinkish hue,
and punctated. Its canal was tolerably large and not quite equal in length to
the large diameter of the gland. The bock was strong, curved, and painted.

■ Leeuweiihoek and Mead have described (lie claw of the Scolopendra
from the East Indies. They represent r.lie , .polling [lie same as it has been
described above. In a Scolopendra. observed by _\L l.o.-pes, the opening
was also below, but at the base of the claw.

* Head and anterior part of the Scolopemlra Scapalvma, Koch.

3 A, head of Sc^'iii-mlni SrujH/lituta, -ecu from below : a a, the claws ;

poiaosoua asimals.

Eiunds, into each of which a drop of poison is
^...^ .pedes," savs A.uibroise Pare, " excite considerable
irritation, redness, and swelling in the part they have bitten."

The inhabitants of hot climates have a great dread of the
Scolopendra. The species which are found in these countries,
being larger than those of the North, secrete a greater quantity
of poison, and probably also one that is more dangerous.

In general the Scolopendra of our climates have but little
danger attached to them. Amoreux says that those in the
neighbourhood of Moutpellier are free from poison. This
talented naturalist is evidently mistaken. These insects in the
South of France secrete a poison Like the rest of their class ;
only it is small in quantity, and not very active.

M. Murrain Tandon knew the case of a medical student, who,
when herborizing at Maguelonne, in 1826, was bitten in the
finger; the wound caused severe pain, and the part was very
perceptibly swollen, but there were no other ill effects. The
next day f lie finder was in its usual state ; only there was a
dark spot where it had been punctured.

M. Robelin, prosector to the faculty of Sciences at
Montpellier. was bit ten in the second joint of the middle finger
by a large Scolopendra (i} inches in length). He felt a very
acute pain, which was followed by swelling of the whole limb.
He was compelled to carry his arm in a sling ; and in spite of
the wounds being cauterised, the symptoms lasted nearly eight
days.

The bitea of the Scolopendra often occasion a febrile con-
dition, accompanied with shlverings.

Some foreign species, amongst others the Scolopendra marsi-
tans, Linn., inflict wounds which are still more painful, and
cause still more serious symptoms.

Worbe declares that there exists a species in Senegal which
often produces very serious disturbances ; but that, contrary to
the common opinion, it docs not. cause death. A young Frenchman
who had recently arrived at the Isle of St. Louis laid on a mat-
trass placed in an office, when one night hi.; awoke in violent pain,
uttered a piercing cry, and, getting up hurriedly, complained of
horrible tortures over his knee. In a few minutes the part
was swollen as large as the fist, having a bhtrk point in its
centre (probably two). The usual remedies were employed,

b, the ja«v: c, maxillary palpi : (/, labruin; e e, partialis of the unteanre ;
/.inferior ansli of first ring; B, foot jaw (ruin the right side, seen from
below: a, poison gland ; 6,itn canal; e, opening ■'[' l-Iu'.i ; d, inferior groove;
e, oblique coarse of groove,

MEDICAL 2 00 LOST.

and in five hours the pain aad the swelling had disappeared.
(Worbe.)

In the following case death was the result: In 1828 an
officer of the garrison at Cayenne came out of a dancing-n
and drank some water ont of a small jus. It was dark, and a
Scolopendra, which was probably lodged in the neck of the jug
entered the mouth ami at larked llir pharynx. The surgeon of
the regiment extracted the insect in bitB. The pain was very
acute and the swelling enormous. Fearful disturbance of the
nervous system came on, and the officer died in a short time.
(V. Mougeot.)

Are we to believe, with Bontius, that the Scolopendra of the
East Indies can cause an affection resembling madness?

Some travellers have pretended that the virulent poison pre-
pared by certain Indian tribes on the Upper Orinoco, the Eio
Negro, and the Amazon, and known under the name of curare,
contains the poison of a Scolopendra} (Dc Caatelnau.)

The animals which possess a special organ for the insertion
of their poisons are — 1. The Ornifhorhynchus ; 2, the Scorpions ;
3. certain Kymenoptera. In the first the organ is placed on the
binder feet; in the second and iiiird it is situated at the extremity
of the abdomen, sometimes externally, and fixed (Scorpions),
sometimes internally and protractile (Thjmrnoptera) .

In the Ornitliorhynchus the poison apparatus belongs to the
male; in the Hymenoptem it is limited to the female ; in the
Scorpion both sexes are furnished with it.

CHAPTER I.

OBNITHOBBmrCHu" S.

The OmitliorhynchvK. Oritit!/urhi//ir/itix parmloxue, is a mam-
malian animal belonging to the order Edentata, and to the
tribe Monotremata.

' The Iuli, which also belongs to the Myriopoda, according to some
writers, are venomous insects. The lliironeaii itpcrius. lulus ierrestris, it is
true, secrete a scented substance ivlijch li.i- 1 .■:.■.. n i .-< . 1 1 : j ■ ; l ren [ to the (ieutonide
of nitrogen. This substance causes little or ao irritation. In the Antilles
there is an lulus, whose secretion can produce a tolerably acute inflammation
of the eyes. (Sale.)

roisosroirs ajomals. 269

It inhabits the rivers and marshes of New Holland, in the
neighbourhood of Port Jackson.

It is a very curious animal, remarkable for the elongated,
depressed, fiah-like form of ita body, and for its curious
flattened beak, furnished at its margins with trausverse laminre,
and bearing a close resemblance to the bill of a duck. The
teeth are only present at the back part of the mouth, two on
each aide in both the upper and under jaws; they are rootless,
with flattened crowns, and are composed of numerous small ver-
tical tubes. The tail is compressed ; the feet have a membrane
which unites the toes, and stretches beyond the claws in the
anterior, but terminates immediately after its commencement
in the posterior feet.

1. Poison apparatus. — This apparatus consists of a gland, an
excretory canal, and a spur.

The gland is placed beneath the akin, on the external surface
of the femur j 1 it is large, triangular, convex above, concave
below, smooth, composed of several lobes, and covered with a
delicate but firm membrane ; it is of a brown colour. From
this arises a small canal with thick walls ; it descends behind
the thigh and leg, becomes narrower, and terminates in a small
Bac situated in an excavation of the foot. This eac, which is
about T 2 S of an inch in diameter, ia a reaervoir in which the
poison accumulates ; from the centre of it another very minute
membranous canal passes off, which communicates with the
inoculating organ.

This organ is a large, conical, pointed spur, which is attached
to the tarsus, and furnished with a canal. It consists of a
layer of horny material and a bone of the same form placed
within the latter. (Van der Hasven.) Its orifice is near the
point on the convex surface. It is of a tolerable size, and of an
oval form. (Blainville, Meckel.)

2. Action on man. — According to Van der ilieven the poison
of the Ornithorynckus exercises no injurious influence upon
man, although its effects are often very disagreeable. Such, at
least, is the opinion which is generally entertained at Port
Jackson.

"When the animal is attacked, it endeavours to strike with ita
hind feet and wound with its apura. The wound which it
inflicts causes acute pain, accompanied by inflammation.
The part swells, but there is no iiiskmec knwn iif du;itli hiving
ensued. Sir J. Jamison, of Botany Bay, having wounded an
Ornithorynckus with his gun, a person who was with him was
1 Glandulafeaoralei, Meckel.

270 MEDICAL Z00LOGT.

struck in taking up the animal. In a short time the limb
swollen, and all the symptoms were present which are produced
by the bite of a venomous animal ; in spite of the immediate
application of remedies, the wound continued painful for
long time, arid the person lost the use of his Innb for more
than, a month. (Van der Hceven.)

CHAPTER II.

BCOBPION8.

Scorpions belong to the class Arachnida, to the order Pedi-
palpl, and to the family Kcorpinnida?. The head is confounded
with the thorax, the body is elongated, and the abdomen ter-
minates abruptly in a long tail, composed of sis joints, of
which the last is reflected, and terminates in a hooked claw.

The Scorpions are characterised by their enormous palpi, of
which the first or basal joint has the form of a rounded concave
jaw, and at their termination a pair of pincers.

Beneath the body, near the commencement of the abdomen,
there are two peculiar appendages, called the combs. 1 These
organs consist of a stem or basal portion, composed of two
slender rods, closely united together, and a series of teeth, which
axe attached to and are capable of moving on a corresponding
number of bvlhs or marginal tubercles. Writers are not agreed
upon the uses of these curious appendages. Amoreux compares
them to a pair of ventral fin*, and states that they move in
unison with the feet. Tulk thinks they are intended to trim
the palpi, the tarsi, and the end of the tail. Treviranus regards
them as venereal organs. Leon Ihdina- believes that they serve
to grasp aiul stimulate the genital organs.

The Scorpio:/' inhabit warm climates ; they are not found on
mountains, or where the sub-alpine plants grow. (L. Dufour.)
They live on the ground, under stones and pieces of wood, in
dark, moist situations. They frequent the cellars and under-
ground parts of houses. They only emerge from their hiding-
places in the evening or at night time.

These creatures teed upon wood-lice, spiders, and small in-
sects. They are especially carnivorous animals, even devouring
their own species, the old ones eating the young. The Scor-
pions move slowly and deliberately, carrying their clawed palpi
Htretched out in front of them, as if feeling for any obstacles

1 Pectinea duo labtut

tr pectus etai

(Lin

POISONOUS ANIMALS.

271

wen
Dog
gen i

Lt may he in their way. The tail is then straight, and trailH
,ong the ground. When they are irritated Hie palpi are imme-
diately retracted, for t!ie purpose of defending the head; at the
same time the tail is curved on to the back, and becomes rigid.
The animal vibrates the poison spine backwards and forwards
in front of its mouth, prepared to strike at any moment. At
first the Scorpions retreat backwards, like the crabs and some
of the spiders, but they soon advance with boldness and impe-
tuosity. The extremity of the tail is provided with a number
of strong muscles, which provide for it various movements,
inimals possess both strength and courage. A small
i will often attack and destroy a spider larger than
It seizes it with one or both of its claws, and thep
ikes it on the head. If the spider endeavours to surround
the Scorpion with its threads, when the latter has killed the
spider, he cuts off all its feet with its pincers, and conveys the
mutilated body to his mout.li, and either eats it entire or sucks
the Boft parts, and then abandons the carcase. (Adanaon.)

Small birds which have been wounded by a Scorpion stagger,
tremble, appear to be suffocating, and turn round as if they
were giddy. They soon fall down, become convulsed, and die.
Dogs have heen known to perish in about five hours, after a
'eneral swelling of the body, vomitings, and convulsions.
A,l„n„,n.)
The males are smaller than the females ; the penis is double,
and placed near the combs. The females have two vulval.
During copulation tliev are placed upon their backs.

The eggs are 40 (Eedi) or 60 (L. Dufour) in number. The

Sriod of gestation lasts a year. The animal is ovo viviparous,
urmg the first few days the female carries her young on her
back.

1. Species. — The principal species are— 1. The Common;
2. the Palmated; 3. the Red; 4. the African Scorpion. The
following is a summary of their characters :—

i 2 paira (9 teeth) 1. Common Scorpion.

«i .™i ' n v..;™ _™i. -!** 5 s teeth ■ - 2 ' 1'alinatcd Scorpion,

ealatoral 3 p»in«unb mth j 23 l0L . th , . 3. Red Scorpion.

( 5 pairs (13 teeth) 4. African Scorpion.

The Common Enro/inm Scorpion* (lig. SS) is common in the
rhole of the South of France. It is an inch and a half in
;ngth. It is of a more or less dark brown colour.

1 Scorpio Earopttui, Linn., Sc. Jluvicaudus, Gecr.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

The palmated Scorpion* inhabits Algeria ; it is about the

same irolijur a» the c

moil species.

Fig. 88.

Scorpion.

'■ Scorpion* is ibi
at Souvignargues, Cette, Nar-
bonne, and Port Venires. It
s met with most frequently in
he vegetable zone which in-
cludes the olive. It is from 3
to 3i inches in length ; it ia of
a clear yellow colour, with the
spine of the tail of a blackish
colour. This species is remark-
able for the number of teeth on the combs, there being from
thirty to thirty-three.

The African Scorpion 3 is peculiar to Algeria. It is sis
inches long, and of a blackish brown colour.
2. Poison APPABiTTTS (fig. 89). — This terrible instrument
of the Scorpion occupies the laat joint of the
tail (in canda venerium). It consists of a
dilated portion and a spine.

The dilated portion, improperly called
■iiipulla, is a kind of oval knot covered with
a tew hairs ; it is convex below, and has a
slight medium longitudinal groove ; at this
part there is a kind of raphe, which indi-
cates the line of separation between the
I two glands which secrete the poison. When
an incision is carefully made at this part,
the dilated portion may be penetrated with-
out injury to its contents, in consequence of
a very delicate, almost linear, space which
separates the interna] pans. (L. Dufour.)

The dilatation is formed by two closely approximated sub-
hemispherical bodies ; that is to say, they are flat on the side
which is next the central space, and conves on the opposite
side. Each of these bodies is drawn out into a slender neck
towards the spine.

These bodies have been supposed to be hollow capsules,

' Sc.palmalus, Ehr., Baliiai jialmatns, Koch.

* Sc. Occilanut, Amor., Bulhus Occilaaas, Leach commonly called the
ushi'i: or ifrlfow Scorpion,

1 Scorpio Tunetamu, Redi, Sc. J/a, partim Linn., Sc. ftinestus, Ehr.
This and the preceding species belong to the section Andronecha.

* A, spine and dilatation containing the poison ; B, section of the dilata-
tion towards its centre, showing the two glands surrounded by a muscular

polsoNorra insects.

whose wnlk arp composed of a multitude of minute glands,
closely impacted together, and communicating with each other.
M. Leon Dufour, however, asserts that they are solid, and con-
sist of a white opaque libro-eartilaginous structure. He adds,
that wheu carefully torn, four or five vessels may he seen,
principally in the convex portion ; some of these are simple,
others of them are branched and ramify between the muscles.
These vessels, of which it is not easy lo determine the precise
distribution, are not simple markings, as the mere inspection of
them might lead one to suppose, since they can be raised up
with the point of a needle. They all converge to a central or
median trunk, which gradually narrows as it enters the neck.
They are therefore secreting organs with regard to their
branches, and excretory organs as regards their trunk. The
latter part is composed of an external contractile coat, contain-
ing an elastic tube, which may be traced into the spine.
(L. Dufour.)

Jean Holier discovered a layer of flat, smooth, muscular fas-
ciculi around these bodies. M. Blanchard has given a drawing
of these fibres, which arc directed from before backwards.

The spine is a kind of strong terminal vlait; which is elon-
gated, slightly curved, and very pointed. 1 Near the point, and
somewhat towards the under surface, are two small openings 3
of an oblong form, obtuse next the point, and narrowed at the
opposite extremity. ThotB openings appear to be rather closer
to each other on the convex than on the concave margin.

M. Leon Dufour believes I hat each gland is provided with
an excretory canal, and that the two, passing parallel to each
other, terminate separately in one of the small apertures of the
spine. M. Blanchard states that there is only one canal for
the two glands. The delicate dissections and accurate drawingH
of this skilful anatomist leave no doubt that such is the case.

"Wben the Scorpion is about to strike, an exceedingly minute
drop of the poison is seen to exude at the extremity of the
Hpine, the discharge taking place before this is introduced
into the flesh of the victim ; tut the Becretion becomes more
abundant when the point meets with the resisting body.
(Blanchard.) The poison is expelled by the contraction of the
surrounding muscular fibres.

1 Macro arcuahia, Linn.

* Galen did not consider that the spine of the Scorpion was perforated.
Leenwenhoek, Vallisncri, Ghedini, and Linna:u6 mention three apertures ;
Mead and Hauptrtuia saw very distinctly two lateral openingB in the red
Scorpion,

274

MEDICAl Z00LOOT,

3. Action ok man. — The wound of the Scorpion generally

Eroduees a dark red spot, which gradually enlarges and becomes
lack in the centre. This spot lasts lor seven or eight days,
rarely as long aB a fortnight. Ambrose Pare has accurately de-
scribed the effects of one of theBe wounds. " There comes on,"
he says, " an inflammation in the wounded part, accompanied
with much redness, pain, and swelling. The patient has sweats
and chills, like a person attacked with fever, and a creeping
sensation over the surface of the body.

The experiments of Eedi, Fallopius, Morgagni, and Amoreux,
have shown that the Scorpions of Europe are not dangerous.
The common species only produces local and trifling dis-
turbances.

The red, which is larger, produces more
Maupertuis killed a dog in five hours by causing him to
bitten under the belly.

If we are to Delieve Dr. Maccari, who has had tbe
to experiment upon himself, severe and even fatal consequences
may ensue in man. The poison of the last species is more
active in proportion to the age of the animal.

It will be readily supposed, from what has been said, that
the African Scorpion, which is remarkable for its great
can inflict serious wounds. Mallet de la Brossiere wit
alarming symptoms in two persons who were wounded at
The symptoms generally consist of pain and swelling
wounded part, vomiting, accompanied with fever and a nervot

igerous.

Qg dis-

effecte.

1 to be

2ourage

Dr. Guyon has related Beveral cases which were followed h
death in Algeria. It should be mentioned that in these c
the wound occurred on the head.

Bontius declares that the wound of the great Scorpion of
India, a species which is often confounded with that of Africa^
but whieh is much larger, produce* insanity.

According to M. Cassan, at St. Lucia, in the torrid zone,
there is a large Scorpion whose poison causes death in a very
short time.

It may be slated generally that Scorpions are danger
proportion to their size, their age, the state of irritation they
may be in, and the temperature of the climate in which they
reside, The wounds, however, even of the largest species are
rarely fatal.

CHAPTER III.

HYMENOFTERA.

The poisonous Hymenoptera are — 1. The Sees; '2. The

Mumble Sees; 3. The Wasps. The Bees and the Humble. Been

belong to the family Mellif'era, anil the If- 'tups 1 to theDiploptera.

§ I. Bees.

The Common or Money Bee, Apis Mdli/icii, Linn., has already

n mentioned when speaking of huney and was. 1

. Poison apparatus (fig. 00).— This apparatus is only

Fig- SO.— Poison Apparatus.*
present in the females and in the workers ; the males are not

' The Scoliidtr, the Pompflini, and the other Hymenoptera furnished with
a sting, may also attack man.

3 See p. 193.

3 A, extremity of the ahdiim.-n, with the Minii retnicicd ; a, sting in its
case ; b, its base, composed of I'anilagi' and lnustlts : H. ]>oUon apparatus;
o, poison glands: b, poison reservoir: i;. its excretory canal ; dd, extremities
of the two darts forming the sting; t, the dans conjoined ; /, sheath of the
sting opened above; a, scaly appendages forming together a cleft piece ;

27G

provided with it. The ancients believed that they were pro-
vided with a sting, hut that they disdained to make use of it.

The poison apparatus consists of glands for secreting the
poison, and of a sting for its inoculation. In order to under-
stand the structure of these organs, the extremity of the
abdomen must be carefully dissected.

Glands. — These organs are two in number, having the form
of simple flexible tubes terminating in a blind extremity; 4 their
ultimate structure resembles that of the salivary glands. Each
of these bodies gives rise to a small canal ; those canals unite
together and form a single very tortuous duet, which opens into
the reservoir ; this is a tolerably large oblong fusiform sac, some-
times slightly constricted in its centre, and provided with very
thin muscular membranes and contractile walls. At the oppo-
site extremity of the reservoir is an excretory canal, which
leads to the base of the sting.

Sting. — This is placed at the posterior extremity of the body.

"When not in use the sting is completely enclosed in the
abdomen ; it can be protruded and retracted at the will of the
animal, and can also be moved in any given direction so as to
encounter the object which (lie insect is desirous of stinging.

The sting of a Bee has been accurately described by Swam-
merdam and Beaumur ; it is composed of — 1, a base ; 2, a case;
3, a dart.

1. The hose consists of several cartilaginous pieces ; Swam-
merdam reckons eight, and Keaumur six. Audouin observes
that the latter writer overlooked two pieces which had been
described by Bwammerdam. M. Dumeril has recognized the
presence of a ninth piece placed on tho median line, and
having the form of the letter V. The branches of the latter
piece are directed forwards and articulated with the case;
their office is, possible, to draw the latter inwards. The other
eight pieces are arranged four on each side; they are united
together by a strong membrane, and the whole constitutes a
kiud of envelope, which, by its external circumference, is at-
tached to the last segment of the abdomen, while its internal
surface surrounds the sting. Connected with the eight nieces
are four muscles, two of which are protractors, and two
retractors.

h h, eight cartilaginous pieces which support the hase of the darts and
attach them to the abdomen ; i i, protractor and retractor muscles of these
pieces ; k, extremity of a dart magnified to show the point and the teeth

piiiL'fil iilun^- ils (inter edge.

it neighbouring genera the tabular glands arc ramified.

roisosora insects. 2i7

Belonging also to the base of the sting are two long whitish
membranous appendages, eaeh of which is grooved, accompanies
the sheath, ana partly covers it. Swaumierdam considers that
these bodies arc destined to move the ease inwards and out-
wards. Keaumur believes that they prevent the soft parts of
the abdomen from coming in contact with the case, and vice

2. The ease is a horny covering, dilated towards its base,
and gradually diminishing to the extremity, which is very
pointed. The case is incomplete ; that is to say, it does not
form a perfectly closed cylinder ; it Jb a half canal, or ib grooved,
longitudinal, and interiorly.

3. The dart is a double organ ; it consists of two long
delicate setro, which are received into the case, but do not
entirely till it ; they are placed close to each other on their
inner surfaces, which are smooth, but traversed throughout
their entire length by a delicate groove. The apices are
extremely pointed, and furnished on their outer edges with
ten small teeth directed from before backwards. These setfe
separate and diverge towards the base ; they are articulated
with the cartilaginous pieces; they are accompanied on their
under surface by the case, which also divides into two branches,

2. Action on man.— Wound. — When a Bee wishes to mate
use of its weapon, it protrudes ils sting by the contraction of
the muscles whieh attach it to the hist segment of the abdo-
men. The case, which is pointed, penetrates the body which is
attacked, and thus furnishes a point of resistance to the baBe.
The muscles of the latter act upon the seta:, which are buried
deeper in the skin, and are sometimes so firmly fixed by means
of their teeth, that when the animal wishes to escape, the
whole of the sting is torn from its body and mutilates the
rectum and the oviduct ; the sting then remains in the wound,
and the animal soon dies. In the aet of penetration the sting
has a quivering motion, which lastB for some minutes. (Kunz-

If the sting merely caused a puncture of the skin, the
wound would not be followed by am injurious effects ; but the
instrument discharges a certain quantity of poison. The
reservoir containing the poison contracts, and its contents are
driven along the excretory canal, and enter the space produced
by the divergence of the seta! at their base; it then passes
along the canal formed between the set*, and by that means
enters the wound.

That it is the poison of the Bee, and not merely the wound,

I of only
gs, papil-

378 MEUICAL ZOOLOGY.

which produces the pain and inflammation in the part, is proved
by taking a small quantity of the fluid on the point of a
needle and inserting it into the skin, when the same symptoms
are immediately produced as those which arise from the wound
made by the Bee itself, (Audouin.)

Dr. Kunzinann has noticed that when the abdomen has
been cut off from a live Bee, twelve hours afterwards, the
least touch is sufficient to cause the sting to protrude
the same force and rapidity as if the animal was still alive, and
the person may he wounded just as eft'ectually as when that
ia the case.

The effect of the bite is usually alight,
transient pain ; sometimes, however, it causes sw
lary eruptions, erysipelas, and even a phlegmon!
tion, followed by suppuration and gangrene. When the sting
remains in the wound, the irritation appears to be much
greater than at other times.

Fabrice, of Hilden, relates the case of a young girl who
wounded near the ear ; the swelling extended over the head,
and was followed by an abscess.

Zacutus saw the sting of a Bee produce gangrene around
the wound.

In the Raccoglitorr mtdieo & Maw is recorded the case
a man, thirty-sis years of age, of a sanguine temperament, ai
athletic form, who was stung by three or four Bees on t
back of the hand; immediuteh' hi* sisiht became dim, he k
his strength, and his body was covered with a profuse pers]
ration ; the lace was greatly injected, there were violent pains
the head, a folding <>l' oppression, with general disturbance
the system, and the fear of death. He was put to bed, and i
eruption of small vesicles, similar to those produced by a
nettle, broke out on the lower extremities, aivompanied with in-
flammation and intense fever; in an hour afterwards all these
symptoms disappeared as if by magic.

Debrest, de C'usset, mentions the case of a villager, ab>
thirty years of age, who was stung by a Bee below the eyebi
be fell to the ground, his face became, inflamed, and, i
losing a large quantity of blood from the nose, died in a :
minutes. Is this case well authenticated ?

It may be readily supposed that if a person is wounded
several Bees at once, if, for instance, he should be attacked te
a Bwarm, that the results might be serious. (Amoreux.)

In the Archives Generates de Medicine, is the case of

poisosotrs DfSECTB. 279

who died after being wounded by a number of Bees on the
chest and face.'

At the siege of Massa, the crusaders were attacked by
swarms of Bee*, which the besieged threw upon them with
their hives. This novel kind of tioe ^really incommoded the

a recommends that in extracting the sting imme-
diately after it has been inserted it should not be taken hold
of by the dilated extremity of the sheath, which is alwayB filled
with poison, and would therefore communicate more of it to
the wound ; it should be grasped below this part without com-
pressing it as it is drawn from below upwards.

§ II. Humble Bee.

The Humble Bees are larger than the Bees, and are remark-
able for their transverse upper lip, and for their false pro-
boBeis, which is shorter than the body. The principal species
are the — Lapidary or Red-tailed Bee; the Moss or Carder Bee ;
and the Common Humble Bee.

The Red-tailed Bee, Bombus lapidarius, has the body black,
with the last three segments of the abdomen red; it makes its
nest on the ground, at the bottom of old walls and between
tones.

The Moss or Carder Bee, Bombus maseorum, is of a yellow
colour, with the hairs of the thorax of a fawn colour.

The Common Humble Bee, Bombus terrestris, is black, with
the posterior portion of the thorax and base of the abdomen
yellow; the thorax is black, with a bright yellow band
anteriorly ; the basal segment of the abdomen black, second
yellow, third black, and the three posterior ones white.

The sting of these insects is more puwerfnl than that of the
Bee, and occasions more pain and severe inflammation. The .
poiBon glands are not single, but double.

In 1679, several persons in Poland were stung by targe
Hmnhle Bees ; the wounds produced swellings and inflamma-
tion, which could only be arrested by deep scarification.

J III. Wasps.
The Wasps have their lower lip the same length as their
mandibleB, and their wings are folded up when in a state of
repose. The two species which are to be guarded against in
France [and also in England] are the Common Wasp and the
Hornet.

' Br. Kuuzmann mentions the death of a horse.

MEDICAL ZOOIOGT.

The Common Wasp, Vettpa milgrtrit, is rather less than nn
inch in length ; it is of a black colour, with yellow in front of
the head, and a black spot in the middle ; it has several yellow
spots on the thorax, and a band of the same colour, with
three hlack spots on the posterior margin of each segment.

The Horn/'/. 1'i^pn th-ubm. is more than an inch in length;
the head is of a fawn colour, with yellow in front ; the thorax
black, marked with spots of a fawn colour ; the abdominal
segments of a blackish brown, with a yellow band with two
or three black spots.

The pain from the sting of the lVu*p is sharp, hut that from
the Hornet is very severe. (Amoreux.)

Eeaumur tested the eil'eet of these insects on hiuiself and on
his servant. "Being stung by a Wasp" says this celebrated
naturalist, "I thought I might gain something from his
infliction by bearing it with a good grace. I allowed the
animal to wound me at his leisure ; when be had withdrawn
his sting of his own accord, i irritated and placed him on
the hand of a domestic, who was not expecting to be
stung, but the wound did not cause him much pain. I
then made the Wasp sting me a second time, when I
scarcely felt it. The poisonous fluid was nearly exhausted
by the former experiments, and I could not induce the
Wasp to make a fourth wound. This experiment, and some
others, which people will probably not care to repeat, have
taught me that where the animals are undisturbed the sting
is never left in the wound. The ating is flexible, and is not
driven straight in, but forms a curved or zigzag wound. If
the insect is compelled to withdraw it suddenly, the friction
is sufficient to retain the stins, which is somewhat hooked, and
tears it oft'. On the other hand, if the animal is not disturbed
it withdraws the sting gradually. Tin- sting of the Hornet is
more severe than that of the IVaup : in this country, however,
it is not of that importance which it is represented by some
writers, who prescribe for it all the remedies which they make
use of against the most dangerous poisons."

A lady, says Riehoraud. was wounded by a Hornet on the
middle finger of the left hand. The pain was very severe ; in
a few moments her whole body was swollen ; the skin became
inflamed and covered with wheals, and a violent fever set in.
Cabanis treated the patient successfully. In a few hours the
swelling, redness, and fever subsided. On the fourth day,
nothing remained, of all this disturbance, but a small black
spot which marked the situation of the wound.

Haldanus re]
hand, was foil

desquamation c

animal roiaoys.

281

Haldanus relates a case where the wound of a Wasp, on the
hand, was followed by a total prostration of strength and
desquamation over the whole surface of the body.

Lansoni speaks of a woman who was wounded on the cheek,
and had, in consequence, an ulcer, which lasted for three
months.

Facts of this kind are far from common, and cases of death
are still more rare.

In 1776 a gardener at Nancy, when eating an apple, which
contained a Wasp, was bitten on the soft palate. It produced
a violent inflammation, pain, and great swelling. The man
died in a few hours.

Chaumeton mentions the ease of a young man who was
wounded in tin 1 throat by a Was-p, which lie had not perceiyed, at
the bottom of a glass. The effects were exceedingly rapid.
The throat inflamed, and the young man died suffocated.

In a communication from Montbard to the Patrie, of
September 19th, 1858, it is stated, that "the youngest son of
M. L., a briekmaker, died from the sting of a Wasp. The un-
fortunate youth, who was sixteen years of age, was drinking
from a bottle, when a Wasp, which he had not seen, got into
his thrnnt aud wounded him. He died suffocated from the
swelling, which enBued before any assistance could be pro-
cured."

Some of the cases which are related of scyere injuries arising
from the sting of the Bee are no doubt to be referred to those
of the Wasp and Hornet.

It is an old saying that the stings of twenty-seven Wasps
are sufficient to kill a man, and thotte of sis Hornets a horse. 1

SECTION III.

ANIMAI, POISONS.

These poisons are fluids secreted by special glands and
provide the animal with the means of attack ur defence.

A poison differs from a vims, in the latter being a morbid
and accidental formation, transmitting the C'vuiinal disease from
one individual to another, and which is reproduced by the
disease it has occasioned.

Poisons are diminished in intensity during their action, which

1 SeTeral miters have related the case of n mare mid her foal being dc-
itroyed by a sirariii i>f H'jm lOiii'li the former hart disturbed from Bear
the bush to which she was fat-teucd.

ib always more or less prompt ; they are decomposed in the
production of their specific eft'eets. A virus remains for some
time in a state of apparent inaction, to acquire after a longer
or shorter time its greatest intensity ; it increases in viru-
lence by the production of its morbid effects. 1

The ancients supposed that in poisonous animals there were
two poles of antagonism, one of which was seated in the poison
apparatus, the other in the head. Charms pretends that the
disorder produced by the Viper consisted principally in iU
opening the door to the. irritated spirits.

The various poisons are not identical ; there are probably
several kinds ; some, even in very small quantities, produce
great pain, while others cause only a very slight amount
pain. The danger of their inoculation is not in proportion to
tho ill effectB they give rise to. Some act upon the entire
organism, while others act only locally. There are those which,
are almost invariably fetal ; while others only cause trifling
disorders.

Some writers have asserted that each poison according to its
nature acts on a particular system of organs. The ancients
believed that the poiwn of the Asp was somniferous. Fon-
tana maintains that that of the Viper acts on the nervous
system, and toajfuliites the blood. According to MM. Brainard
and Burnett, that of the CrotaUtt disorganises the blood glo-
bules, and renders the blood more liquid. According to
Amoreux that of insects more especially aft'ects the skin.

In all eases the poisoning when it is virulent commences in
the neighbourhood of the wound, from whence it spreads and
becomes general. Death sometimes occurs very rapidly
(Crotalus). In other cases it only takes place after a longer
or shorter interval {Viper). Whatever may he the rapidity
of the poisoning it is never instantaneous. There requires a
certain time for the effects to be developed either in the part
which was bitten or in the system generally.

The action of these poisons varies very much according to
circumstances which serves to explain some of the contradictions
that are met with in different writers. Their action appears
to he increased by an increase in the temperature,* by the

1 Limiseus defines » poison as follows: " Vbhekcm est quod perexigua dos
corpori Aumanp ingeshm uuf extu-i admolum. ri i/uii,luiu pwuliari, effectus
producit violentissuHus, qui in jierair'n-m -fimitalis rl ritir trudimt." (Eianth.

A5TM1X HUSO?*.

L and also at the period of heat.
naked by cold, b v weakness, by age.

figoa* ■ • I ■*£* ntlnc .1
It is, on the coatrarv. di
and by disease, and ah»o w

The /wnmir karmlese
they are dangerous when introduced br modulation. The
anneals sere aware of that distinction- Celsua distinctly says
that no injory arise* from swallowing these p * i aatu. 1 This fart
was, however, only clearly established by the experiments
of Redi. Fontana,'and Cbarras, It is alio well known that
boars and herons habitually reed upon Viper* without ex-
perienehsg any inconvenience from it.

The potion* do not lose their properties by drying. 1 Mangili
killed pigeons with potion which had been dry for eighteen
months. Naturalists and others with good reason dread
wounds which might be caused br the fangs of the Crolalu* or
the Viper long after the animal* have been dead.

It is believed that immersion in alcohol does not destroy the
noxious properties of the potion. SI. Joly killed sparrows by
wounding them with the fengs of a riper, which had been pre-
served in spirits. It appears, however, that long immersion in
this Buid ultimately destroys the poisonous properties. Duver-
noy having taken some of the poison from a Crotaltu durtitnt,
preserved in a jar, on the end of a lancet, and having introduced
it under the akin of the ear and thigh of a rabbit, no effects
were produced.

1. Ophidiaxs. — The potions of the Ophidht are the most
terrible and the best known.

That of the Viper was first thoroughly investigated by Fon-
tana, who made more than six thousand experiments in reference
to this subject.

The quantity of poison contained in each apparatus of the
Viper was estimated by Fontana at something more than ,* B of
& grain, or a grain and a half for the two. M. Tandon calcu-
lates that there is as much as one grain in each. Into every
wound the animal discharges about ^ of a grain of the poison.

The potion of the Viper (venenum Vipens) when fresh has
something of an oleaginous consistence. Eedi compares it to oil
of sweet almonds. The poison is almost colourless, slightly
opalescent by reflected light, or of a pale yellow colour. That

1 " Fnvmni lerpaitit iton gattu, ted euljitre meet." (Celaus.) — Galen
relates the case of a man whose servant wag wishing to kill him gave him
wine in which he had steeped a Viptr, mid this cured him of his disease.

* M. Paul Gervaia, however, states that he wounded a young dog with the
fangs of a dried Crtitalia, and that the; produced no poisonous effects.

MEDICAL 2 00 LOOT.

of the different species of Cro/ahs is green, and that
Javelin snake transparent. (Guy on.)

At the moment of its secretion the poison of serpents is
neither acid nor alkaline. According, however, to Dr. Rous-
seau, that of a Crotahis slightly reddens the tincture of turnsole.

The poison of the Viper has no distinct flavour. According
to some it is at first insipid, but sift it wards leaves a somewhat
astringent taste in the fauces : according to others it possesses
an intolerable acridity, which it is difficult to describe. 1 It haa
scarcely any odour. It falls to the bottom of water, in which it
preserves its viscidity for some time, but is ultimately dissolved,
W hen dried on a plate of glass it looks like a layer of gum full
of cracks.

In the dried state the poison dissolves in water; hut it
soluble in sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, which only acts
partially upon it, and it assumes the condition of a liquid paste.
It acts in the same manner with regard to nitric acid, except that
it becomes somewhat yellower. The vegetable acids, the alkalies
and oils, do not dissolve, it. "When heated it does not melt, but
swells up, and becomes thick. Placed in contact with flame

occurs with vegetable matters.

Prince Lucien Bonaparte has shown that the poison of the
Viper consists essentially of a principle to which he has given
the name echidnine or ripcriite. This principle presents itself
under the appearance of a colourless, n-ini^psiiviit, and rather
thick varnish. It has no smell or positive flavour. It does not
redden the tincture of turnsole, nor does it render the syrup of
violets green. It has some resemblance to gum Arabic ; but
it contains nitrogen. Dissolved in a solution of caustic potash,
the hydrated binoxide of copper turns it of a beautiful violet
colour, a phenomenon which also occurs n r ith gelatine and
albumen.

Thapoison of the Viper appears to act much more powerfully
on man than on animals.

It is injurious to all the warm-blooded vertebrata. The
larger species do not die, but the small generally succumb.
Thus the horse 2 almost always resists it, the sheep often, the

1 M. L.-A. tie Monlesijiiiou averts that he has tasted it several til .

without on liiiiimii 1 1 mi t; iniil anv 'li-linet taste,

1 Best: mentions ilic nisi' of rwo Iuj]>-.-s ;\\vx\\ were !>ii.teu in America by
the black Viper, the one on the leg, the other in the tongue. The Gist

AwniAL poiaoNa. 285

it sometimes, 1 a pigeon diea in eight or ten minutes, and a

The animals which are bitten in the cheat, abdomen, liver, or
intestinea die in a ahort apace of time.

Animals wounded in the ears, the head, the periosteum, the
dura-mater, the brain, the marrow of the bonea, the cornea, or
stomach, seldom manifest any appreciable phenomena.

When the poison of tire Viper is applied lightly to the
abraided skin of a rabbit or a guinea pig, it is not followed by

I death ; applied to the muacular fibre or to the nerves, it pro-
duces no effect.
The -poison of two Vipers injected into the jugular vein of a
large rabbit produced death m less than two minutes, after
giving rise to eriee and convulsions. The blood becomes
coagulated in the ventricles of the heart. The mysentery, the
intestinea, and the muaclea of the abdomen are inflamed.
The poison of the. Viper does not produce any appreciable
change when applied to the warm and palpitating parts which
have been removed from an animal.
The coldblooded vertebrata reaiat the effects of the poiaon
longer than the warmblooded. A lizard died at the end of half
an hour ; in the tortoise death enauea very slowly in whatever
part the animal may he bitten. The common snake and the
slow-worm arc not affected by it. It is the same with the eel,
the snail, and the leech.

A Viper wounded by another Viper does not die. A Viper
which sends its fangs into ita lower jaw or any other part of its
body, does not appear to be inconvenienced by it.*

What is the quantity of the Viper * poison which is requisite
to kill a man ? The two hundredth part of a grain inserted
into the muscles is sufficient to destroy a small bird almoat in-
stantaneously ; it takes sis times as much to kill a pigeon.
^Po^tana calculated that it requires more than two grains to
produce death in man.* As the whole apparatus only contains
escaped with a swelling, whieb lasted for some days, and a weakness which
continued for some weeks ; the noottd died in lag (Uau an. hour.

1 Is it true, as stated by Lenz. that the Hedgehog may be bitten with
impunity on the snout and lips, and even on the tongue ?

" Fontwna says that small animals die In from fifteen to twenty seconds.

* The bite of a Javelin Snake is equally harmless to himself. (Ouyon.)
A cage is mentioned of a Rattle Snake dying from the effeets of his own
bite. (Halm.)

* And eight for an ox.

MEDICAL ZOOLOQT.

two grains, 1 and that each wound only introduces the -fV of a
grain, it would follow that a person might be bitten by several
Vipers without dying, and that one could never cause death :
this, however, is contrary to what has been observed. It has
been shown that under certain circumstances a single wound
may be fatal. The calcination of Montana is, therefore,
excessive.

The poison of Serpents has been recommended in America as
a remedial agent ; it has been pretended, tbat persona who
were inoculated with it were secure against tbe yellow fever
and tbe black vomit. Peyrilhe states, that the poison of the
Viper has been tried in hydrophobia. He somewhat amusingly
adds, " this remedy should only be used with the consent of
the patient and the approval of the magistrate." M. Desmartis,
of Bordeaux, submitted to the Academy of Sciences a memoir
on the employment of poisons in medicine. He also recom-
mends the bite of the Viper against hydrophobia.

2. Arachnida. — The poison of these animals bas received
but little attention. Orfila places that of Spiders amongst the
list of septic poisons ; but be forms bis opinion rather from its
effects than from its nature.

Fontnna says, that of the Scorpion is white and viscid, and that
when it is placed upon the tongue it produces a sharp and
burning taste. This poison resembles gum. According to
M. Blanchard it holds in suspension irregular granules ; it is
acid, and reddens litmus paper.

According to Amoreux, it acts on the cold-blooded animals
in the same manner as on the other vcrtebrata. It has been
seen that this is not the case with the poison of tbe Serpents.
It is worthy of remark, that the poi-vm of the Viper produces
but little suffering when it is introduced into the tissues, even
when it proves fatal, wbde that of the Arachnids occasions
more or less pain, but seldom kills.

M. Onanam believes that he has recognized therapeutic pro-
perties in the poison of the Araehnida, and that it is sometimes
sudorific, and at other times anti-periodic.

3. Insects.— Very little is known of the poison of the fft/me-
noptera. Swammerdam believed that this poison was the bile
of the animal. It is a clear, limpid fluid, which quickly coagu-
lates when exposed to the air. It does not alter vegetable

be slightly styptic. Swammerdam and

1 It has beer, previously mentioned that Montana only estimated it at a
pram and a half.

The
Triton
of poi

tioool

an
tat

ANIMAL P0IB05S. 287

Ludovic, having placed some of the poison on the tongue,
experienced a bitter taste, which gradually became more acrid
and penetrating, extended over the whole of the mouth, as far
as the fauces, and produced a How of saliva, as if they had been
chewing pellitory root. Fontana declares that this poison acts
on the tongue like a powerful caustic. Ludovic compares the
sensation to that which is produced b_y nitric acid on the skin.
Other writers describe it as a burning sensation. According
to Adanson. the poison of the Bee is more active in the summer
than in winter.

Humours analogous to Poisons
The viscid exudation winch lubricates the skin of the Toad, the
iton, and the Salamander, is at present regarded as a species
poison; it appears to answer the purpose of repelling the
of those animals by its nauseous odour and disagreeable
But these animals have no instrument for the inocula-
tion of the fluid, and at the same time it is so situated that they
cannot directly employ it as a means of attack and defence.
1. Toad.— The humour of the common Toad, Bufo vidgariz,
secreted by cutaneous ghmds or pustules placed on the back
and in the situation of the parotid gland.
This is a thick, viscid, milky fluid, with a slight yellow tint
" poisonous odour. It has a disagreeable, caustic, bitter
! ; it reddens turmeric ; it solidifies on exposure to the air,
and when placed on a plate of glass it assumes a scaly appear-
ance. It is soluble in alcohol, which shows that it is not an
albuminous substance. According to Pelletier, it contains an
acid, partly free and partly combined with a base. It is this
acid to which it appears to owe its acrid properties.

In the experiments of MM. Grat inlet and Cloez, birds, such
as linnets and finches, which were inoculated with this fluid,
died in about six minutes, but without being convulsed. These
animals opened their beaks, and staggered aa if in a state of
drunkenness ; they lost the power of co-ordinating their move-
ments. In a short time they closed their eyes, as if they were
goilii; to sleep, mid fell down dead.

These gentlemen ascertained that this fluid destroyed birds
even after it had been dried. Two milligrammes ( T ^ gr.)
have destroyed a linnet in lil'ieeu minutes.

It acts equally after its acid lias been saturated with potash.
When a small quantity of the fluid is introduced beneath the

1 According to some writers it also nerves to Jiiuiuisli the effects of the
ma's rays.

akin of smaller mammalia, such as the dog or goat, it kills them
in less than an hour,

M. Vulpian has repeated and varied these experiments with
the common Toad and Natter Jack Toad, Bufo calamiia. He
experimented on dogs and Guinea pigs, and proved that these
animals died in from hall' an hour to an hour and a half. The
symptoms which were noticed might be divided into several
Btages — -1st, a period of excitement ; 2nd, one of depression ;
3rd, vomiting or attempts at vomiting; -1th, intoxication i
dog, but convulsions in the Guinea pig, and then death.

The fluid of the Toad acta as a poison on frogs, and generally
killa them in the course of an hour. It is even sufficient if a
certain quantity of it is spread on the hack of these animals.
The fluid has no action on the Toads themselves.

This fluid acts powerfully on the heart, and arrests its move-
ments. MM. Gratiolet and Cloez have noticed, in the dead
bodies of birds, the singular fact that the semicircular canals of
the ear are always filled with blood.

It is asserted that in certain countries the Indians hunt after
several species of TimJh with pointed sticks. They transfix: the
animals with these sticks, and when they have collected a con-
siderable quantity of them they place them before a large fire,
but at a sufficient distance to prevent their being roasted. The
heat excites the cutaneous secretion, which is collected by the
Indians aa it is discharged from the pustules for the purpose of
poisoning their arrows.

2. Triton, or Aquatic Salamander, Triton cristatu*. — The
humour of this species in secreted by numerous follicles which
project along the sides of the neck, back, loins, and tail. When
these wart-like bodies are pressed the fluid comes out in drops.
The experiment succeeds better if the animal's body is pre-
viously dried by wiping it with a cloth.

The fluid is of a white colour, or of a very faint yellow, and
somewhat thicker than milk. It gives off a poisonous, pene-
trating, and disagreeable odour. When examined beneatn the
microscope it appears to consist of a number of oval globules.
It thickens on exposure to the air, coagulates, and becomes of
a yellow colour. It dries rapidly, and when in the dry Btate
on a plate of glass, il appears cracked, like a thin layer of gum
Arabic. 1 It does not readily mix with water ; it will do so par-

1 If a Triton is killed by immersion in alcohol, the middle parte of its

body become covered with the milky fluid. whi.:h ..i/uUtes in the form

of a very thin layer. Clii- Mating la thickest on the rides of the neck and
at the commencement of the tail. (H. Cioeae,)

POISONOUS AHIMALS. 289 .

tially, but Roon forms an irregular coagulum. Alcohol coagu-
lates almost tlie whole of it. 1 Wheu the fluid is placed on the
tongue, it does not at first produce any (libit, but in the couree
of a few minutes a burning sensation is felt in the fauces.

This fluid poisons ranch in the same manner as that of the
Toad, but it also produces violent convulsions.

With only a small quantity, M. Vulpian haa succeeded in
killing dogs, Guinea pigs, and frogs.

This fluid acts less energetically than that of the Toad.
Death took plane in frogs only at the end of from bis to twelve
hours. When placed on the back of these animals it had no
effect. (Vulpian.)

Like the milky humour of the Toad, it acts powerfully on
the heart, but it does not destroy its irritability bo completely
as the latter.

The humour of the Tritons appears to have a stupifying rather
than an exciting effect; it does not produce either nausea or
vomiting. Lastly, it has no action on the Tritons themselves.
(Vulpian.)

M. Philipaux, whilst making some experiments on the
Tritons, was suddenly attacked with inflammation of the con-
junctiva, which lasted for two days.

Two other persons, who were wiping some Tritons, having
got some of the water in which these animals were placed on
their face and eyes, met with similar results. (Vulpian.)
3. Terrestrial tiitlamnnilrr. Kahniwntlnt mtia/ltila. — This ai
produces a milky fluid, which is principally contained in the
warty tubercles on the loins.

The humour resembles that of the Tritons.
Laeepede says, that when a drop is placed upon the tongue
it causes a burning sensation. Duges performed some ex-
periments with this fluid. He gave pieces of bread and Bitiall
quantities of honey, mixed with the fluid, to doves and sparrows,
who eat them without experiencing any inconvenience. Duges
therefore concluded that the fluid is not poisonous; but if
the learned professor had administered the poison of the Viper
or the Crotaltis to these animals in the same way, he would
have met with similar results. The injurious effects of the
humour of the Salamanders are only produced when it is ino-
culated into a wound, and so introduced into the circulation.

' If & Triton is killed 1>y immersion in alcohol, the middle portion of its

body bccmn'- i\iv.-:vl n-iiu rli-. milky fluid, which coagulates iu the form of
a very thin layer. This coating is thickest od the sides of the neck and at
the commencement of the tail (H. Gosse.)

290 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

The experiments of MM. Gratiolet and Cloez on the terre*
trial Salamander, and which have since been repeated by M.
Vnlpian, leave no doubt aa to the poisonous property o'
milky fluid which is furnished by this animal.

When introduced beneath the skin of the wing or of the
thigh of a small bird, such its a lark, for instance, it does not
appear to act as a caustic. At first the animal seems not to
bo inconvenienced by it, but in the course of two or three
minutes a singular disturbance is set up, the leathers are
bristled, the bird staggers, opens its beak, and snaps it convul-
sively. At the same i ime it becomes rigid, turns its head back-
wards, utters plaintive cries, is agitated, and after rolling o
several times it soon dies. (Gratiolet and Cloez.)

A Yellow Hammer, inoculated in the thigh, died in twenty-
two hours. A Chaffinch, inoculated under the wing, died i
twenty-five minutes ; a pigeon, in twenty ; other birds, in t '
or seven minutes; and a Yellow Hammer, in less thai
minutes. In general death occurs the more speedily in propor-
tion to the small quantity of blood which iB lost. (Gratiolet
and Cloez.)

Experiments which have been tried on small mammalia
not been attended with the same results. Guinea pigs and
mice, which were inoculated in the thigh, in the course of ten
infinites manifested greai anxiety. At times the respiration waa
panting and painful. The animals continually fell oft' to sleep,
but this was interrupted In slight convulsiiins, resembling elec-
tric shocks. At the end of some hours these disturbances dis-
appeared, and tin: animals recovered their usual state o:
Thus a quantity of the fluid which would have been sufficient
to destroy a dove, only produced slight temporary convulsions
in a mouse. But, a dove being much larger than a mouse, the
reason of this difference can only be referred to the nature and
organization of the animals avte\l upon. (Gratiolet and Cloez.)
In conclusion, all birds which were subjected to the action of
the fluid of this Salamander had epileptic convulsions, but did
not die.

The fluid of the Salamander is injurious to frogs, but pro-
duces no effect on the Salu in and <:>:<; themselves. (Vulpian.)

In general it appears to be less active than the fluid of the
Toads or Tritons, During the whole period of its action, the
disturbances of the heart are sb'ght.

EXTERNAL

EXTEENAL PARASITES <

Aa there are creatures termed Parasites, which live on the
Surface or in the interior of other animals, feeding upon their
fluids, or upon the substance of their bodies, bo, also, there are
lome 'which live at the expense of man.

The human parasites arc generally very small animals. Their
species are not numerous, hut the number of the individuals is
sometimes appalling.

At different periods considerable importance has been at-
tributed to these parasitic animals. An English medical writer
who lived at the commencement of the last century, imagined
that all diseases were to be referred to the presence of micro-
scopic animals.' M. Eospail has lately advocated the same
doctrine.

In medicine the title of Ejtizoa is given to those Parasites
which derive their nourishment from the skin ; they have dJbo
been named Eutozmi or Ectoparasites.

Some of the E-p'izoa are born upon that part of the body on
which they reaide {Lice), while others come from without
{Fleas).

The Epizoa may be divided into two scries: 1st, those which
reside upon the surface of the Bkiu ; 2nd, those which live in
the interior of it.

. LIVING ON THE SKIN.

The Epizoa which live upon the skin are : 1, the Louse ,- 2,
the Flea; 3, the Chigoe; 4, the Ticks; 5, the Argot ; G, the
Harvest Bug.

CHAPTER I.

The genus Louse or Pediculus belongs to the order Hcniip-
tera, and to the fimilv Ro-lrata. Its characters are — antennie

292

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

aa long aa the thorax ; a sucker inclosed rr
sheath, and armed with retractile hooka ; ey.
either side behind the antenna; ; abdomen more or
at its margins ; three pairs of feet, and no wings.
There are four species of Lice which infest the
ject; 1. Mead louse; 2. Bodu louse; 3. Louse
sons; 4. Pubic huge. The following ia a suinm
characters :

I ash coloured (tabulated) . .
K foblong, thorax distinct, vm hb. Abdomen I ^nf'

\ rounded and confounded with thorax ■ . • ■ > ■

1. Heao Louse (fig. 91).— The head
commonly known, and baa been figured i
This spei '

Head Luus

common Lome 1
arious worke.
ies, as its name implies,
found on the head in people who
are neglectful of their person, and
especially in children. It is, how-
ever, never met with in very young
children, as, for example, in those
who have not been weaned. (Na-
talie Guillot.)

The body of the insect is flat-
tened and somewhat transparent,
smooth in the centre, slightly wrin-
kled at the sides, and of a
grey colour, with patches of black
in the neighbourhood of the atr~
mata. "When the animal ia old or filled with food it has a r

tinee. On each aide, there ia, generally, an indistinct
line divided into a number of small spots in tbe direction of the
segments. The head is ovo-rhomboidal and has no palpi. T 1 —
antenna? are filiform, about the same length aa the head, a
composed of five nearly equal joints; they are in a state of col
atant vibration when the animal is moving about. (De Geer.)
The eyes are simple, round, black, and placed very far behind the
antennas ; the thorax is nearly square, one fourth the length o

disease ; such as measles, rheumatism, gout, pleurisy, jaundice, and whit-
low*. With the exception of the itch insect, which appears to have bi
drawn from nature, a!! (In- oilier-; iiru purtlv iui;is. r :n;irv beings,

1 Pedleului capitis, Dc Geer, P. tiumanut. Linn., P. ctrvicalU, Leach.

' A, female actn from the back ; B, extremity of the abdomen ii
male, showing iu spur; C, the egg or nit attached to a hair.

EXTERNAL FAIIABITES.

the abdomen, rather narrower in front than behind, and divided
into three divisions by shallow indentations ; the limbs consist
of a hip composed of two pieces, a thigh, a leg, and a tarsus con-
sisting of one large joint. The tarsus terminates in a stout hook,
which is received into a notched projection ; the two together act
like a pair of pinchers, and enable the animal to fix itself to the
hairs. The abdomen is of an ova! form, indented and lobulated
at its margins. There are eight segments and sixteen stigmata.
The traeheie are festooned, and may be seen through the
skin, forming a number of curves, which alternate with the
marginal lobes. Swammerdam suspected that Lice were andro-
gynous, in consequence of bis having found ovaries in all those
which he dissected. Adanson aud Lamarck fell into the same
error. It would appear that Swammerdam. had only met with
the female. Leeuwenhoek determined the existence of the
two sexes. The males have at the extremity of the abdomen,
which is rounded, a horny, conical, recurved, pointed spur,
with which they can inflict a wound. This spur seems to be
the sheath of the genital organ. In the female the extremity
of the abdomen is grooved, and during copulation she plaeeB
herself on the back of the male.

Lice are oviparous, and their eggs, which are found attached
to the hairs, are termed nit* (fig. 91, U). They are oblong or
rather slightly pyriform, of a white colour, and open at their
upper part.

The young are hatched in five or six days; they cast their
skin several times, and, at the end of eighteen days, are capable
of reproduction. A Louse has beeu known to produce fifty
eggs in the course of six days, and there were others still re-
maining in its body. 1 According *° a calculation of Leeuwen-
hoek's, two female* mis;lif; become the grandmothers of 10,000
lice in the space of eight weeks ; others have calculated that
the second generation of a single individual might furnish
2500 liee, and the third generation 125,000 ; but the usual rate
of reproduction does not advance with this frightful rapidity.

1. Mouth (iig. 92). — In front of the head there is a short
conical fleshy projection, containing a sucker {Rostruvi), which
the animal can protrude and retract at pleasure. This sucker
is only seen when in action. Leeuwenhoek lias compared it to
a fine thread ; but, contrary to his usual habit, he observed it but
very imperfectly.

291

■\
<■

Irieal sheath, .
tremity, and

This organ is an obtuse, sub cylindrical :
I oapable of being dilated at its extremity,
I then presenting six small hooks, which curve
I from oefore backwards, and which, from their
I position and direction, are evidently intended to
I retain the sucker in the skin.

In the interior of the sheath arc four capillary

| threads, which are round, very pointed, and

closely packed together.

HusiruHi ' This structure of the month confirms the opinion

of Fabricius, who regarded the lice as degraded

Hemiptera, deprived of wings. (Burmeister.)

2. Action on man. — -Lice puncture those parts of the skin
covered with hair and suck up it* juices by means of the ap-
paratus which has just been described. It has been supposed
that the itching which these insects produce is caused by the
spur of the male, and not by the oral sucker, which belongs to
both sexes. But if the creature first made a wound with its
spur in order that it might subsequently- introduce the sucker,,
then the female ought also to be provided with one. Accord-,
ing to the account of some writers the entrance of the sucker
into the Bkin does not cause any sensation, unless it touches a
nerve. Leeuwenhoek made the experiment on his own hand.

Are we to believe, with Linnaeus, 3 that in rainy weather
these insects descend the sides of the head ?

Bonr Louse (tig. 93).— The Body or

tes Louse' was for a long time confounded

I with the former. It was De Geer who first dis- ,

lliii^iiislnd betyveen the two insects.

I As its name implies, this Loans is found on

I different parts of the body and on the clothes.

I It is somewhat larger, of a lighter colour, and

I less strongly marked than the common Louse.

I It has a uniform tinge of a dirty white colour.*

I The skin is not so hard, and the eyes are more,

prominent. (Offers.) The junction of the

F Js- 03 - thorax and abdomen is more constricted, and,

y oust. t k o f ormep j 8 gcarcely one-third the size of the

1 A, buccal projection beginning to be everted : B, the Bame fully ex-
truded, and bei'iinx 1 i: 'iiviniil inio a tubular rostrum ; a, body of rostrum
b, hooka ai Eta I'ntiviniiy ; <\ pMroet, tamed uf four topQLuj threads.

' " Inxlawe plitriti. di-si.rndit ad latem rn/iilis." (Linn.)

1 Ptdicului corporis, De Geer, P. knmtnms, Linn.

' A black variety is mot with on the bodies of Ethiopians, Pcdiculu*

°M

„:?,:

EXTERNAL PAHA6ITE8. 295

latter. The mnrginal lobules are indistinct, and the feet are
closer together and more slender.

ThiB species causes greater irritation than the Former.

3. Lice of sick persons. 1 — This name liaB been proposed fora

use which gives rise to a disease termed phthirwsis.

MM. Alt and Burmeister have given a minute description of
this species. It is of a pale yellow colour. The head is
rounded. The antenna; arc longer, and the thorax larger than
'n the hotly Louse. The thorns is of a trapezoid form,
than one-third the size of the abdomen. Its margins
an:- in-arly even.

This species seems to differ in its habits from the other Lice,
inasmuch as it introduces itself under the skin. It is as-
serted that it deposits its eggs under the epidermis, and that
each nest becomes a bulla; or vesirle. from whence the young
Lice escape as soon as they are hatched to spread and multiply
themselves in the surrounding parts : in this way the disease
continues to spread, and its severity increases with each suc-
ceeding generation. (Raspail.)

This disease has been mentioned by several writers.
Torestus speaks of a young girl who was afflicted with it, and
Borellus of a soldier. Bernard Valentin relates the history of
a man forty years of age, who was troubled with an intolerable
itching on all parts of his body, ami with large tubercles, which
were filled with an enormous number of Lice. Bremser once
met with a mass of Lice in a tumour on the head. M. Jules
Cloquet in another invalid found some thousands of these
creatures in a sub-cutaneous cavity. Cazal quotes the case
of an old man, sixty -five years of age, who could not scratch
himself without a swarm of these ineeeta issuing from his neck
and shoulders ; they were renewed with an astonishing rapidity
.... Dr. Jules Sichel, in 1825, published a monograph on
pthiriasis, in which he enumerates the various parts in which
this disease has made its appearance.

Instances of death have been mentioned, but M. Bayer re-
gards these cases as doubtful. If, however, we are to believe
the aucient writers, the king Antioehus, the philosopher
Pherecydes, Sylla the dictator, Agrippa, Valerius Masimus,
the emperor Arnould, cardinal Duprat, and Philip the Second,
king of Spain, died from this disease. Historians state that
Lice were seen to issue from the body of Herod as a stream

pubescent, y nigrescent, Olfura ; another of a brownish red has been found
on the Circenlanders.

' Pcdiculm tabetcentium, Alt, P. subcutaneta, Hasp.

296

ISSUE

Nov
toft

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY,

issues from the earth. It is stated that Fonocroau, bishop of

Noyon, was covered with such multitudes that it was necessary

to fasten his body in a leathern neb before he was buried. .(P)

4. The Pubic Louse 1 (fig.

94). — ThiB species, which is

known by the common name of

Crab Louse, attaches itself to

the hairs of the sexual organs.

the arm pits, and even oi the

eyebrowB.* It is never met with

in the head or in the beard.

Hitherto it has only been found

in the white races.

Its body is large and de-
pressed ; the thorax very short.
The four posterior feet are
Fig. 91.— Pubic Louse. 1 tolerably large, recurved, and

so arranged as to hook them-
selves into the skin, so that it is extremely difficult to induce
the animal to leave go its hold.*

The eggs are oblong, and adhere to the hairs by an expansion
which forms a sheath around them.

The rostrum of this species iB Btronger than that of the other
Lice. The akin is covered by small red-coloured patches

Animals which may be mistaken for lice.

The Lice of other mammalia and those particular forms of
Lice belonging to tlie melius Ricinus (if De Geer, which infest
birds, may accidentally yet upon man and cause more or lesa
irritation, but in general this is all the injury they produce.
The latter species have the mouth formed for biting, and are
furnished with a pair of hooked mandibles,
they can bite with considerable force and give riae to a number
of round or oval red spots, but these are seldom accompanied by
pustules or vesicles.

The same thing may happen with certain arachnida belong-
ing to the genus Dermanyssus of Duges. These vi

1 I'edicnlu* pubis, Lion., P. i
frrui, OlfprH.— Luach proposed U
name of Pfithirus.

' " They are found attached to the eyelids." (CelsuB.)

9 a, an egg attached to a hair.

1 " They are so firmly attached to the akin that it ia aearccly possible to
detach them." (A. Pare\)

CHAPTER II.

THE COMMOS FLEA.

EXTEBNAE PABASTTES.

with in hen-roosta and pigeon-houses, even long after the birda
upon whieh they lived have ceased to frequent these places.

Another species of araehnida belonging to the genua Gamatus
of Latreille, gets upon the clothes, and from tbem upon the
body ; these animals do not fix themselves to one spot, but
move about over the surface of the skin. Persons who are
travelling in the country are occasionally tormented by them.

The Ornithomya (Latr.), a species of fly infesting certain
birds, may also gain access to man, and attach itself to his skin
by means of its claws.

The genus Pulex belongs to the, Siphonoptera of Latreille,
but is now approximated to the Diptera, notwithstanding that
it is unprovided with wings. 1 This genus Is characterised by
a straight unjointed rostrum, which incloses two blades or
lancets, and which is covered at its base by two scales ; the
eyes, are two in number, and scarcely project from the sides
of the head ; the abdomen is compressed ; the limbs are sis in
number, and adapted for leaping.

The Common Flea* (fig. 95) has an oval compressed body
covered with a strong chitinous integument of a shining red-
dish brown colour. The body is invested with a kind of
armour, and when it is erushed a slight noise is heard from the
resistance and rupture of the skin. The greatest diameter of
the F lea is from the back to the belly, which both terminate in
a thin sharp edge. The body is divided into twelve segments,
of which three form the short thorax and seven the abdomen.
The head ia small, compressed, rounded above, and forms a
kind of hood. In front of this are two abort, nearly cylindri-
cal antennie, composed of four joints, of which the second ia
moderately long, and the third large and notched. When the
Flea is moving about these organs are in a state of constant
vibration ; but when at rest they are hud along the sides and
in front of the head. (De Greer.) The eyes are simple, large,

[' Althoagh the Kings are not functionally developed, traces of them are
present ia the form of it pair of small scales attacheil to the middle segment
qf the thorax, and of a much larger pair appended to the third segment of
the thorax, which cover the aides of the first and part qf the second abdo-
minal segments. Ed.]

* Pakx hommil, Du£cs, P. irritant, Linn., P. vulgaris, De Oeer.

Fig. B6.-

and rotuid. Behind each there is a small aperti

be closed up by a moveable
| valve. The limb's of the Flea
3 long, strong, and spinous,
I and the tarsi five-jointed, ter-
■ -limiting in a pair of strong
aws. The anterior pair of
mbs are placed at Borne dis-
I tance from the otberB, and are
■ inserted almost immediately
beneath the head. The pos-
terior are the strongest, and
enable the animal to accomplish leaps which are greatly dis-
proportioned to the size of its body. The abdomen is very
large, and each of its segments is composed of two pieces, a
superior and an inferior : this arrangement permits of the
enormous distensions which the body undergoes after the ani-
mal has been sucking the blood of its prey, or after impregna-
tion. The penultimate ring of the body supports a number of
very slender spines, which are inserted in a corresponding
number of minute areola ; this segment has received the name
of pytjidiv/in.

Fleas are bisexual. The male is only half the size of the
female, and the back of the latter is the most convex. During
copulation the abdomenB of the insect b are placed opposite to
each other, the male being underneath. 2

The female lays eight to twelve smooth oval eggs ; they are
slightly viscid, and of a white colour. Ke Geer detected a
Flea in the act of depositing her eggs. ThiB animal does not
attach its eggs either to the hairs or to the skin, but drops
them by chance upon the ground. (Bcesel.) The eggs roll
about like globules of mercury. They are generally found in
the crevices of the floor, in old furniture, in dirty linen, or in
any place where filth has accumulated.*

Along with the eggs there are found a quantity of dark pur-
ple grains of various forms. These purtii-Jes are not the excre-
ments of the insect, but dried blood obtained at man's expence,
and intended for the nourishment of the larvse. (Defrance.)

At the end of four or five days in summer, and of eleven in
winter, the larvas ibbuc forth under the form of long cylindrical

1 a, male ; b, female; c, egg.

* " Femma in coitu ascendil in eerpiu morij." (Leeuwenhoek.) "Main
femina jungitur." (Linn.)

J They have been met with beneath the nails of the feet.

ms, whose bodies are composed of thirteen segments plenti-
fully furnished with hairs. The head is scaly, of a yellow
colour, provided with autennie, and the posterior extremity of
the body is furnished with two hooks. The larv» have no feet
(Leeuwenhoek, Rrcsel) ; but they are very active, twisting
about in all directions, and moving along with the bead erect
( De trance) . At first they are
white, but afterwards of a reddish |
colour. In eleven or fifteen days,
nccordiog to the time of year, the I
larva? inclose themselves ii
silky, oblong, whitish coci
within which they are trans- I
formed into pupa; ; the latter are |
provided with limbs placed close
to the sides of the body. (De-
fraace.)

It takes from twelve to fifteen |
days before the pupaa bec<
perfect Fleas.

1. Mouth (fig. 96).— The beak I
or rostellum of the common Flea
is placed almost perpendicularly ;
when not in use, it is curved slightly backwards and concealed
between the long thigh joints of the anterior pair of limbs.
The mouth consists of three parts :

1. An oblong plate (lower lip or labrum) supporting two
palpi, each composed of four segments, of which the second is
the largest.

2. Of an external articulated Bheath, which supports and
receives into a groove on its under surface a pair of lancets.
The case is composed of two piece? ( jaws) placed close toge-
ther, oblong, concave, each supporting a palpus inserted very
low down, and which is made up of four segments, of which the
first is tolerably large.

3. Of two straight blades or long sharp lancets, with serrated
margins. These lancets are employed in puncturing the flesh
and in sucking.

2. Action on man.— Fleas produce a disagreeable itching as

Part, of the Mo«.

' A,

icivd : a, left jaw; b, the lancets or mandibles ; c, left labial palpus;
illary pal|)i ; B, parts of the rostrum; a a. maxilla or inferior

t.'iii.'h with iis ynilTHi. ; Ii b. iIjc: hiufets or mandibles ; e, lower lip, with
!0 palpi ; 0, point of one of the lancets.

rom the ter-
ite sensation,

300 MEDlCAt ZOOLOQI.

they move over the sensitive portions of the skin from
minal hooka of their feet.

The puncture of these insects ' causes a more acute
"When the Flea is about to inflict its wound, it separates the two
valves of the sheath, which protects the lancets, and plunges
them into the skin. It then immediately begins to suck, and
fills itself with the blood.

The quantity of blood which this creature can absorb is verv
considerable in comparison with its size. It may be esti-
mated by the volume of the gorged abdomen and the largo
amount of its excrement which partly retains the colour of the

The puncture of the Flea leaves a small reddish spot on the
skin, in the centre of which is a minute, almost microscopic
aperture; in infants, m ftmmlrs, and in persons whose skin IB
exceedingly delicate, there is also a. slight swelling. (Bartbez.)
Very rarely this tumefaction is followed by a vesicle, or by
slight inflammation.

2. Otuee species.— Linnaius believed that the human Flea
and those of other animals constituted only a single species.
Bose was the first to remark that the Fleas of the mole and of
the fox presented some differences in their organization.
Duges has examined the Fleae of the Jog, mouse, and bat ; he
has compared them with that of man, and has shown that each
of them forms a. distinct species. Thus, the head of the Flea
which frequents the dog, has a number of spines below ; whilst
there are only four spines placed posteriorly in that of the
mouse; and two which are situated anteriorly iu that of the
bat. In that of man there are none. The eyes are large in the
latter species, of moderate size in the Flea of the dog, small in
that of the mouse, and wanting in that of the bat.

CHAPTER III.

The Cldgoe or Jigger* is one of the most troublesome para-
sites known.

It is an inhabitant of tropical America, particularly Guiana
and Brazil. It resides in the forests, on various shrubs and

1 Momu pvticum. (Sauvagesl.

' Dermalophilut penetrans. Oner., Pulex penetrant, Linn., Sar
penetrant, Guild. At Saint Domingo and Guiana it ia commonly

EXTERNAL PARASTTBS. 301

plants, and especially on the dried leaves. They are sometimes
so numerous, that the clothes and body of a person who may
have seated himself on the ground or on a fallen tree, are imme-
diately covered with them.

1. Description. — The Chigoe is smaller than the common
Flea, but it acquires a considerable size when gorged with
blood. The insect is of an elongated oval form ; it is flattened,
of a reddish brown eolour, with a white spot on the back. Its
skin is so tough that it is torn with difficulty. The articulations
of its feet arc of a whitish eolour.

The males are smaller than the females. The abdomen of
the latter is proportionally more developed than in the other
sex, and becomes of a globular form after impregnation.

The eggs are oval, oblong, and whitish. They appear to be
attached to the mother by a very short funis. It is thought
that when these insects do not attack the human species they
deposit their eggs in the ground. (Pohl, Kollar.)

The larva of the Chigoe lias not hitherto been detected.

2. Mouth.— This organ is only imperfectly known ; it is only
ascertained that the aniaial possesses a long, rigid, pointed
rostrum, proportionally larger than that of the common Flea.

3. Action on wan.— The Chigoet attack men, but it is only
the females after they have become impregnated, for the pur-
pose of depositing their young, and providing them with nutri-
ment. These insects are found principally upon the feet,
where they penetrate between the flesh and the nails. They
are very rarely met with on its dorsal surface, on the hands,
or on other parts of the body. Persons who travel without
shoes axe more exposed to these attacks than others ; those
who perspire much are less liable to them.

In spite of the length of its rostrum, the Chigoe introduces
itself without causing any pain, or changing the colour of the
skin, at least during the earliest portion of* its sojourn. In a
few days the parasite begins to develop itBelf, and its presence
is indicated by a slight itching, which gradually increases, and
ultimately beeomes intolerable. When the presence of the
Chigoe is accompanied by an appreciable amount of pain, half
of its body has already penetrated the tissue. The animal at
first resembles a brown speck ; this speck gradually increases ;

Nigva ; in Brazil, Jatecuba, Mygor, and Tunga. The Spaniards, on their
first arrival in America, named h Chega and Chego ; and the French, pique
and Chique. Is it not the Pedtcuht rkmaides of Linnscos 1 " Habitat in
America, pellet obambulanliuai in/runs, sanguintm haurieiti, is iitova deponent,
xlcera cacoetliica cauians." (Uolandcr.)

. MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

it booh assumes the appearance of a reddish swelling, in which

is difficult to recognise au abdomen.

The Chigoe shortly attains the size of a sniaU pea. Its body

nothing more than an enormous sac, resembling a cyst, of a
brown or livid colour, containing a sanious pus. In the inte-
rior of the abdomen are a vast number of globules, which are
the eggs.

It is very difficult to make these formidable parasites quit
their hold ; they allow the rostrum to be broken off before they
will disengage themselves from the tissue in which they have
inserted it. When handled too roughly, the rostrum, head, and
feet remain behind, and soon give rise to an unhealthy inflam-
mation or ill-conditioned ulcer. 1

The feet are so met 11110* i-mtivelv covered, and, as it were, eaten
away by the Chigoes. When the animal has made its puncture,
the skin presents a small white spot, surrounded by a circle of
inflammation, which afterwards swells up and forms an ill-
deiined tumour. When the parasites are numerous and close
together, the disease may present a certain amount of danger.

The Chigoes are sometimes found between the claws of the
dog, but more particularly on the under surface of the feet o
the hog ; these pachyderms have been even regarded as propa-
gators of this species of insects. (J, Goudot.)

CHAPTER IV.

to the family
encase the sucker
which is truncated

TICKS.

The Tick*, or Ixodes, arc arachnidans h
of the Acaridffi or Mites, in which the p
and form with it a short, projecting be
and somewhat dilated at its extremity.

The Ticks frequent thick woods, hooking themselves to low
growing plants by their anterior feet, while the others remain
extended. (Latreillc.) They attach themselves to the different
mammalia, and fix themselves to their skins.

These animals lay an enormous number of eggs. M. Cha-
brier asserts that they issue forth from the mouth.

1. Species.— In France the two principal species are —
1. The Wolf Tick; 2. Reticulated Tick.

The Wolf Tick of the French, Ixodes Ricinus, ~La.tr., Acanis

Bicinus, Linn., Acarus reduvius, De Geer, is of a deep blood-

' " Ulcera cacoelhica txcitat." (Lion.)

Lav be mentioned the Niipuj,
e Greer, A. Americana*, Luin.,

EXTERNAL PARASITES. 303

red colour, with the anterior scaly plate obscure ; the sides of
the body are margined, and provided with a few hairs.

It attaches itself to dogs.

The reticulated Tick, Ixodes reticulatm. Latr., Acamx redu-
vius, Schrank, Ci/nnrhicslcs pictus, Ilerm., is of an ash colour;
marked with small spots and annular lines of a reddish brown.
The margins of the abdomen are striate,], ami the palpi almost
oval.

It attaches itself to oxen, sheep, and several of the domes-
ticated mammalia.

Amongst the foreign speci
Lb. Nigua, Guer, Acarws Nigut,

and the human Tick, lx. huminix, Koch, a species of arachnida
which is atiD very imperfectly known.

2. The mouth. — The beak or rostrum of the Tick is obtuse
anteriorly. It presents — 1. a supporting piece, formed by a
small scale received into a groove of the thorax, serving as a
receptacle for the hase of the sneker ; 2. a sheath, composed of
two very short scaly portions, concave on their inner surfaces,
rounded and somewhat enlarged at their termination (each of
these pieces, when seen beneath a magnifying glass, appears
to be divided transversely) ; 3. a sucker, placed in the sheath,
consisting of three very hard, horny, conical blades, of which
the two iateral are the smallest, and cover the third ; the latter
is large, obtuse at its extremity, and somewhat transparent ; its
margins, and tho whole of its inferior Hiiri'aee, are covered with a
multitude of strong serrated teeth ; in the centre it is furnished
with a groove.

3. Action on man. — M. Easpail states that, between the
month of December, 1868, and the month of May, 18(30, on
several occasions he found young Ticks having but eight feet
(a circumstance which proves Ihev were adults) on the head of
his daughter, who was between three and four years of age.
The terriblo irritation which the child sull'ered showed that the
skin had been deeply wounded.

Some twenty years since, a young man, on his return from
hunting in the neighbourhood of Melun, found on his arm a
small livid swelling, as large as a lentil, and accompanied with
considerable pain : it was an enormous Tick, which ho had got
in the forests.

Dr. Ernest Cosson, when travelling in Algeria, in 185G, and
when he was in the oasis of Asia, in the province of Oran, was
obliged to pitch his tent on a piece of ground which was fre-
quented by sheep. The next morning his servant woke him

304 MEDICAL Z0010GY.

bt breast the
caused him

1«, ...mo wot

up, having three Ticks cloBe together on his right
size of a pea. The presence of these parasites caused
great pain.

The Sick* plunge their beaks into the skin in the same way
as one may thrust in a trochar. The Btiiall recurved hooks
which cover the Burface prevent their being withdrawn from
the part they have penetrated. The sucker is bo firmly em-
bedded that it can only be removed by force, and at the same
time tearing away a portion of the skin which adheres to it.

These arachmilii an- extremely voracious, and suck up a large
quantity of blood. Their body, which is capable of undergoing
great distension at its sides and on the upper part, swells out
and assumes the appearance of a livid excrescence.

A Tick has been known to penetrate a small tumour on the
abdomen of a female. (Hussem.)

CHAPTER V.

The Argades are araclmida which are closely allied to the
Ticks; they differ from them by the inferior situation of the
mouth and by their free conical palpi, composed of four articu-
lations.

These animals have an oval elliptical body \ it is very flat, coria-
ceous, granulated, and very extensible.

They are exceedingly i'ondof blood. Some writers have com-
pared them to the Bugs, which they resemble somewhat in their
general appearance ; they do not quit the body, however, like
the latter, but fix themselves after the manner of the Ticks.
They are true Epizoa.

1. Species.— There are two principal specieB which require
to be noticed; these are — 1. the Argot of Persia; 2. the
Chinche.

The Argas of Persia, or Bug of Miana, Argas Persicus, Fiseb,
is common at Minna, in Persia. Its size is about that of the
common Bug j the body is rough, of a blood-red colour, and
covered with some elevated white spots.

The Argas of Chinche, Aiyns Chinche, Gerv., inhabits
Columbia, where it has been found by M. Justin Goudot.

It is of the same Bize as the former, and of a reddish colour.

2. The mouth. — In the Argades the beak reBembles that of
the Ixodes, but it is placed inferiorly, and is uncovered.

3. Action ok man. — For a long time it was supposed that

EXTERNAL PABASTTBS. 305

the Art/afcs only attacked pigeons ; we have, however, a Euro-
pean speck's, the Bordered Art/a*, Art/, margina/us, Latr., which
frequents the dove-cots and sucks the blooa of these birds.

At the present time it is well known that these parasites will
attack man. In Persia it is saitl that they give the preference
to strangers (?) The bite produces acute pain, and it lias hen
even asserted that they may tiring on consumption and death.
(Fischer.)

The Chincke inflicts great injury in Columbia. (Goudot.)

HAH VEST BOO.

The Harvest hug. Lrpluxuatuwiiuhn. Latr., Acarus aut rimnalis-
Shaw, ib also a species ot'Acarus.

As the Araehnida are usually provided in the perfect state
with eight feet, and only sis in the larval stage, Siebold, bub-
pected that the il.arvesl liui;. which lias only six feet, was an in-
completely developed animal, and it has, in fact, proved to be
the larva of one of the Trombidiidre.

The Harvest bug is very common in France ; it is found on
the blades of grass and other plants of moderate height, under
heaps of dried leaves, in the fields and the woods ; it is also met
with on small shrubs, such as gooseberry bushes and furzes.
Defraneo met with it in gardens, on clods of earth, on trellis-
work, and in the orangeries, probably waiting for an oppor-
tunity to attach themselves to some mammalia or to man.
He has seen them on the ears, eyelids, and on the under
surface of the belly of the dog. This parasite also attacks cats,
but it does not seem to cause them much inconvenience.

1. Description. — The Harvest hug is very minute, and re-
quires a sharp eye to detect it, unless there are several of them
together. The body is oval, soft, shining, and of a bright red
colour. It has short four-jointed palpi; tiie thorax and abdo-
men are distinct. The feet are slender, of equal length, and
terminated by rudimentary suckers.

2. Mouth. — According' to Shaw, the Isptus is provided with
a sucker or protractile rostrum. This instrument is very small,
stiff, and pointed ; but M. Tandou has never had the oppor-
tunity of examining it.

3. Action on man. — Those who live in the country, espe-
cially women and children, are perfectly familiar with the Har-

I MEDICAL ZOOLOQY.

yest bug. It makes ite appearance, or ratter renders people
conscious of its presence, about the middle of July, and disap-
pears towards the middle of September. These animals a
moat plentiful in hot, dry seasonB. (Defrance.)

The Harvest bugs attach themselves to man, and work thi
way beneath his akin, near the roots of the hairs. They ei
dally attack persona with delicate skins, appearing to pr
the legs, the inner part of the thighs, and the lower part of tl
abdomen; but they are also found on the chest and arm
M. Dumeril once saw more than a dozen of these a
together at the base of a single hair in a child.

These animals can move about with considerable rapidit;
and will mount from the feet to the head iD a very short spac
of time. They are often stopped by the garters and the bandi
of the dress, when they attach themselves to the part wher
their progress has been arrested.

M. Dumeril considers that the Harvest bugs fix themaelvt
by their claws, and insinuate their sucker beneath the epidermis
and that it ia principally the movements of the feet and claws,
which give nae to the accompanying irritation and intlar
mation.

The analogy between these creatures and the other parasiti
arachnida, induces M. Tandon to think that the injury must b
produced by the beak; hut that, possibly, the saliva t" "
animal has some specific action, since the pain which the ai
give rise to ia quite disproporlioued to the microscopic appeai
ance of the instrument which they plunge into the skin.

The wound of the Marcrxt bmj occasions an acute burnir
and insupportable itching, which deprives the person of slee
Latreille compares it to that of the itch insect. The e'
becomes swollen and red, and sometimes even of a
colour. It forms irregular spots of a very large size, compar
to that of the parasite. The persons attacked scratch ther
selves until they bleed, and thus increase the violence and exter
of the inflammation.

The vesicles produced by these insects soon heal if the*
are not touched, but if they are constantly irritated they will
terminate in suppuration.

John has seen tlu-i-e unimals produce an cxanthematous e
tion. Moses also mentions a case of papillar and vesictil
inflammation, accompanied by an insupportable itching, in i
whole family, from the same cause. The circumference
irritable spots were covered with red patches ; when e:

EAHASITIC INSECTS. 307

microscopically, they appeared to contain numbers of the Har-
vest bug.

The Chigoe and the Harvest bug form a kind of transition
between the external euticulnr parasites and the internal cuti-
tieular parasites ; that ia to say, between i he Epigoa which live
upon the surface of the skin, and the Epizoa which reside in
the substance of its tissue.

Tn:
tut; '.

SECTION II.

EPIZOA LIVING BEKEATH THE SKIH,

zon which live beneath the skin are— 1. the Sarcop-
2. the Aearopsis ; 3. the Demodex ; and 4. some species of
Acarida; which are imperfectly known.

CHAPTER I.

rTHB SARCOFTU3.
The Sarcoptus, or Itch insect, is an arachnidan belonging to
the family of the Acaridse.

Histokt. — The history of this animal is exceedingly curious.
Avenzoa, an Arabian physician of the twelfth century, appears
to have been the first tn notice the pivsence of a small animal
in the itch, so small that it is scarcely visible, and is hidden beneath
the epidermis, bat which escapes when an opening is made. He
gave it the name of Soab. Babeliih twice mentions the itch
InBect. He relates that one of the ancestors of Pantagruel,
Enay, was very expert in, removing mites from the hands. In
another place, Ponurge is asked, but where did I get this insect
which is between, my fingers? Amhroise Pare is still more
explicit ; he says, " The cirons are small animals, always bidden
beneath the skin, under which they ereep and move about,
gnawing it away hit by bit, and producing a most troublesome

irritation and itching " Scaliger, Aldrovandus,

Mouifet, and especially Costoni ami Wiehmami, have spoken
of the itch insect. In spite, however, of these authorities, and
of the tolerablv n ecu ran-' tiinnvs published in the Acta emdi-
torum 1682, by M. A. C. LV 1726, and by De Geer in 177S,

1 The an

fi/njticiaa i<;

iding the ani-
irv to the hos-

308 MEDICAL ZOOLOGT.

many practitioners, not. having succeeded in
mal, considered its existence as very doubtful.

In 1812, (rail's, of Belbe/.e. the chid' apothecary to the hos-
pital of Saint Louis, published a treatise on the itch, in which
he declared he had seen more than three hundred of the insects,
all of them having the same form, hut provided sometimes with
eight feet, sometimes with six, :i circumstance which he referred
to the difference of the sexes. Gales does not describe the
animal, but he gives a drawing of it. Tin's treatise was favour-
ably received, and tho presence of an animal in the disease in
question was again admitted without opposition. The drawing
given by this writer continued to be copied into various works
for the space of fifteen years as an exact representation of the
Parasite of the itch. Unfortunately, this drawing differed
materially from the animal described by those who had first
written upon it. Doubts wen- again entertained, and the sub-
ject was investigated more closely. Gales declared he had
found the animals in the pustules themselves, where it is quite
certain he never saw them. Alibert and Biett made a great
many searches for it, but they were always unsuccessful. It
waB suspected that the writer of the treatise had imposed upon
the public. At length M. Raspail discovered that the anima l
figured was nothing more than the cheese mite.

Persons were again incredulous, and the existence of the
itch insect was denied a second time. In 1821, Mouronval
published a dissertation to prove the cause of the itch was
neither a maggot nor a virus. The author had examined more.
than i-ii/h/irn hinn/i-nl persons attacked with itch. Lastly, Dr.
Lugoc oflcred 30U francs as a premium to any one who would
undertake to demonstrate the presence of an animal in the
itch.

However, in 1834, a medical student, "Francois Eenucci, a
native of Corsica, who was clinical assistant to Professor
Alibert, offered to extract and demonstrate the presence of the
creature which had given rise to so much controversy. The ex-
periment was perfectly successful, avid some of the students who
were present succeeded themselves in iusolaf ing the insect. It
was proved, therefore, that the older writers were correct, and
that there really is a special parasite which gives rise to the
itch, and the matter was thus finally set at rest.

itiffuri'nl i-arittiis "/ iitinate inwis irliieh inii in: seen by Moans nf a, good
micimcti/if- iii lim Umni ami tiriiw <if tick peti/ifr, and uj t/ivsc li/m are about
io become so, Paris, iu-S. See p. 291.

FAHASITIC INSECTS.

MM. Raspail, Leroy, and Vandenkeck have studied the
structure and physiology of this curious animal. Several recent
writers, amongst whom it is sufficient to mention the names of
MM. Aubti, Biett, Cazenave, Gras. Hi'bra, Piogey, and Rayer
have added several important poratfl of detail to what was
previously known; but most of these gentlemen have eon.
aidered the matter rather from a pathological than from a
natural history point of view. M. Bourguiguon presented the
French Institute An Entomological and 1'u/holoaical Treatise
on ihf. Itch insect of man. This important work received the
approval of the Institute, and was ordered to be printed.
Lastly, M. Lamjuetiu, in a valuable thesis, has recently sup-
plied several points which were incomplete in the remark-
able monograph just mentioned, and M. Robin, at the repeat
of M. Tandon, has made a careful examination of the various
parts of the rostrum with the microscope.

2. Classification. — Liunseus at first regarded this parasite
as a well-defined species, and placed it in the genus Acarus,
naming it Acorns scabei. Afterwards he associated it with the
Flour mite, under the name of Acarus Sim. He assigned
as a reason for this, that nurses often communicated the itch
to children who had any irritation on the skin, by powder-
ing them with old ihini 1 ir.hir.k irus itijrs/ed by mites, Pallas has

clearly distinguished between the Acarus of the itch and that
which is found in flour. Latreille admitted the distinction,
and proposed a new genus, under the name of Sareoptus' for
the reception of the first.- From that time the creature has
been known as the Sairoj'tus scabei.

The Sarcoptus diners from the Acarus in not having the
body divided into two portions, and in the cephalotborax not
being distinct from the abdomen; by their ieet being arranged
in two groups, those of the first pair being large, those of the
Becond very small, the first pair terminating in prolongations,
which support carunculse, having the form of suckers. In
the Acari these caruncuiro are rudimentary, and without any
prolongation. The Sarcopti are further characterised by the
absence of eyes, and by a rostrum in which may be noticed two
mandibles, two masilli, two maxillary palpi, and a lower lip.

3. Dehcbiptton. — The Itch insect (fig. 97) is extremely
minute, so that it is only just visible to the naked eye ; it is
■012 of an inch in length, and 009 of an inch in breadth. The
body is nearly circular, flattened, and has been compared to
that of a tortoise. (P. Borel.) It is soft, shining, slightly,

1 ZipJ flesh, aad k&htw to cut.

RIO

t ran spa

31KIITCAT. ZOOLOGY.

transparent, of 8 white colour, a little opalescent, and has a
pinkish tint. The dorsal
surface ie convex, and the
ventral somewhat less bo.
The margin is slightly un-
dulating, find the surface of
the abdomen is marked by
more or less parallel, irre-
gular, but often curved, lines

The rostrum is anterior,
small, and straight; it is
somewhat oval and obtuse ;
at its commencement there
are observed two hairs.

The posterior part of the
body is very obtuse, and
often slightly mde;
wards the centre.

The limbs are eight in
number, two pairs in front,
and two pairs placed farther
back, and at some distance from the others. The limbs a:
short, conical, distinctly jointed, and furnished with Btiff hai:
of various lengths. The two anterior pairs have the tbigl
divergent from each other ; the feet terminate in a very Blende
straight, rigid, tubular portion, provided at its extremity witfc
a vesicular cushion or sucker. This slender portion, with its
sucker, has been named the ambulacrum (nrolium). The fou]
posterior legs terminate in a long, curved, pointed thread, o
brown colour, without any sucker ; these limbs are abdomii
and not thoracic, a very important and distinctive charact
M. Bourguignon has ascertained that each limb consists of a
hip, trochanter, Bmall trochanter, thigh, leg, and tareus.

The body of the insect has a few hairs scattered here and
there, and on its dorsal surface are three kinds of horny appen-
dages or spines; the first are arranged symmetrically on ita
central and posterior part ; these are fourteen in number ;
they are of a conical form, are traversed by a canal, and fur-
nished with a dilatation or basal follicle ; the second are
smaller, and placed near the first ; the third are still more
minute ; they are arranged in concentric lines, have no canal,
and reBemble conical pointed tubercles,
i, Ihe egg.

PAKA.SITIC INSECTS. 311

The animal being a °fti nature haa furnished it with hard
resisting parts, or apodemata, which perform the part of a skele-
ton. These apodemata have a horny appearance, are of a dull
red colour, aad form a solid frame work, to which the muscles
are attached. On examining the Siircopitus on its ventral sur-
face, there are seen three of theBe apodemata, of which the
central one, which is placed longitudinally, performs the office
of a sternum. Anteriorly it is bifurcated, and each branch
again divides into two, the innermost of which unite to form a
complete ring, while the external pass to the base of the limb.
The lateral apodemata are analogous to the scaly pieces named

? itinera, which in many insects give insertion to the limbs,
hey are composed of a long, curved portion, and of two
branches, the internal passing to the anterior limb, the external
to the second limb. There are also epimera having a similar
arrangement at the base of the posterior limbs.

The digestive system of the Sarcoplus contains a mouth placed
at the anterior part of the rostrum, and consisting of mandibles
and maxilla?, which will be presently described. It is probably
these mandibles and maxillae that Leroy and Vandenkeck have
spoken of as teeth.

The month communicates with a long and straight eesophagiiB.
Arrived at the anterior third of the body, this canal terminates
in an oblique reniform stomach, transparent, and very difficult
to he seen. (Wieger.) The intestine is short and slightly un-
dulating ; it contains a number of brown granules, which oc-
casionally accumulate towards the commencement of the
rectum. The latter is nearly a straight canal. The anus may
be observed on the dorsal sin-face in the middle of the indenta-

eopt
the

vers

mer

tion on its posterior margin.

Neither stigmata nor tracheae are to be met with in the Sar-

eoptus. M. Bowgnignon thinks that the animal respires by

the mouth. It is more reasonable to suppose that in this kind

:hnida this function is fulfilled by means of the skin.

In the centre of the anterior fourth of the body, and placed
,_, inst the cesophagus, may be noticed a small, oblong, trans-
verse mass, from whence a number of extremely delicate fila-
ments radiate. This is the nervous system.

state of repose the Sarcopti have their limbs retracted
beneath their bodies, as under a carapace. When they walk
they extend these organs, stretch out their ambulacra, and
fasten their suckers. They can tunnel their way with con-
siderable speed. M. Bourguignon considers that one of these
insects could travel from the hand to the shoulder in less than

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

The Sareopti are unisexual.
I males (fig. 98) are scarcer than the
I females, the proportion being not
I more than one ot the former to ter.
I of the latter. We owe the discover;
I of the males 1" Mil. Bourgogne and
I Lanquetin. The following are the
I characters iu which they differ from.
I the females ; they are smaller (008

eh), more oblong, natter,
I darker colour, and more active ; the
] rostrum is proportionally smaller
I and less triangular ; they have not
I so many homy appendages on the
I dorsal surface : the anterior apode-
mata extend beyond the anterior
third of the body, reaching nearly
to its centre ; the posterior limbs
are not ao wide np;irt. and the epimera on eai-li side are united
together ; the third pair of feet are furnished with longer
hairs ; lastly, the fourth pair are mueli shorter, and have am-
bulacra terminated by a sucker.

The genital apparatus of the male is placed towards the
middle of the body, near the third pair of limbs. It is sup-
ported anteriorly bv a median apodemata, which is articulated
with those of the last pair of limbs. The male organ consists
of a deferent canal ; of three bifurcated portions, which re-
present the testicles ; of one or two median glandular bodies,
which probably fulfil the part of prostate glands; and of a toler-
ably long perns, contained in a groove. The male orifice opens
a little in Iront of the posterior margin of the body.

The vulva is placed on the ventral surface, at a short dis-
tance from the sternal apodemrta : it i.n a slightly Binuous
opening about '003 of an inch (Cli. Rubin) in length. It com-
municates with a granular body, which is hardly discernible
except at the period of reproduction.

At the time of heat, the males quit their dwelling-places
during the night to go in search of the females. They are.
much more active than the latter, running about from right to
left, and occasionally fighting with each other. M. Bourguig-
non once found two males and a single female in the same
spot. The latter immediately began to fight, but a

' were aware they wore discovered, they speedily took to

PASASITIC INSECTS. 313

These acari copulate belly to belly. (Worms.) A single
union suffices for impregnation. When the eggs enlarge they
are scattered through all parts of the body. The eggs (fig.
97. it) are quite enormous when compared with the size of the
mother; when laid, they are at least one-third the length of the
animal. The female usually lays one egg daily, and has several
layings in succession ; she can produce as many as twenty in
the course of a month. The eggs are rarely placed in groups
of three or four. When laid they are eiipsoid or oral, slightly
depressed, semitranBparent, and have a whitish pearly look.
They resemble the pearls of the l/nio margaritifer. They
measure '007 of an inch in the long diameter, and '003 of aa
inch in the short. It has been noticed that they are partly
developed within the body. It is not until they have been
laid ten or twelve days that they are hatched.

At birth the Sarcopti are not more than '006 of au inch in
length. They have six feet instead of eight, oue of the pos- -
terior pairs being wanting. These larvuj are very active, they
shelter themselves beneath the loose particles of the epidermis,
and seem incapable of boring a channel for themselves. At the
end of some days they are somewhat swollen, the skin becomes
iirst wrinkled, then torn, and afterwards falls off. An additional
pair of feet are developed, and the animal arrives at its perfect

4. The Moutu (fig. 99). — M. Ch. Robin has carefully
examined the rostrum of the Sarcnpliot (head of Rovirguignon) .
There is seen, first, a pair of strong oblong mandibles, carry-

ing towards their extremity and
moveable hook ; this is pointed,
somewhat curved, and when not
in use it is received into an ob-
lique groove, with irregular den-
tated margins situated on the
opposite side of the prolonged

Eortion of the organ. This pro-
inged portion, together with
the hook just mentioned, acts
like a pair of pinchers. Next
are the maxilla} ; these are small,
narrow, and curved from without
inwardB. Their base is articu-
lated to a small square piece,

i their upper Bide a small

311.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

the mentum or chin. Their free extremity is directed abruptly
from within outwards. The palpi are large pieces, supported
by the maxilla-, curved, pointed, and composed of three unequal
joints. The terminal joint, which is the smallest, presents ex-
ternally a single lung hair, while the middle joint has two.
The lower lip is nearly triangular, and somewhat pointed.
Towards its base and on both sides there is a very long hair]
above and near to its middle portion it is provided with t
lancet-shaped tongue. The whole of the rostrum is surrounded
at its commencement by a thin sinuous margin (cntnerostoma).
This margin advances on to the sides of the palpi in the form
of transparent membranous plates, which arc as long as the
organs themselves. It is these processes which have been
mistaken sometimes for false palpi, and sometimes for lips,

5. Action on man. — The Sarcopti are found more especially
upon the hands, in the intervals of the fingers, on the anterior
surface of the wrist, on the penis, in the bend of the arm,
the breasts and on the abdomen in women, on the ankle, ai
last, more rarely on other parts of the body, the face forming
nearly always an exception. (Lanquetin.)

Their presence is recognised by that of the grooves,
latter will be noticed presently ; their importance has 1
strongly insisted upon as a means of diagnosis by MM. Bie
Cazenave, and Piogey.

The Sarcopti give rise to an intolerable itching, causing tht
patients to scratch themselves violently, and thereby iucrease
the disorder of the Bkin. The disease produced by the Sav
copti has received the name of the itch. 1

The Sarcoptus of the itch is a nocturnal burrowing animal,
and is admirably adapted 1'or eating its way through our
tisanes, and living in them. Its great object, when it finds
itself on the skin, is to discover a fitting locality for its
habitation. It carefully explores the cracks and folds of the
epidermis ; it tapB the base of the hairs where the follicle has
raised the euticular covering (Bourguignon), and if the spot
seems suitable it immediately sets to work,

In the hollowing out of its gallery, the Sarcoptvs is found to
exhibit distinct preferences. It prefers the hands; it is found
in this part of the body seventy times out of a hundred ; it has
been noticed eight times out often on the penis. (Piogey.)

ing three hairs ; d, lower lip, with its Email lancet- shaped tongue in
middle, and supporting two small hairs; B, a mandible separated
its hook.

1 Psora, Linn., scabies, Sanvages, loepsordenaic, Piorry,

the

M. Bourguitfiu'in states that on the 4th of February, 1846,
he placed a female ou his left fore arm. The animal, having
found a small portion of the epidermis detached between two
hairs, immediately fixed itself, and in less than ten minutes
had disappeared beneath the epidermis. But as the fore-arm
was not to its taste, the mischievous Sarcoptus, availing itself
of the sleep of the experimenter, during the night emerged
from its retreat to seek its fortune in some other part of the
body.

When a Sarcoptus, after several attempts, has selected a
locality which suits him, he elevates himself by the long hairs
attached to the posterior feet, so as to place himself at a con-
siderable angle with the skin, and with the rostrum placed
below. This position facilitates the first incision of the cuticle, 1
and the rostrum iB Boon buried beneath the epidermis. The
little miner continues working for about a quarter of an hour.
At the end of that time, he withdraws himself: it might be
supposed that he was about to select some other spot, but that
is not the case ; it is a necessary and intentional proceeding.
The animal next cuts the skin to the right and to the left of
the part where he first commenced. (Bourguignon.) The
object of this operation is easily understood as the original
aperture would not allow its body to enter, which is ao much
larger than the rostrum. The Snrcnptus, therefore, enlarges
the passage so as to allow of hia passing in. From this time he
is entirely buried in the skin, and doeB not again come out.
He continues to excavate to the right and to the left of him,
and in this way forms a curved passage. In this work the
jaws and the palpi move horizontally, and the niaxillse nearly
vertically, M. Tandon does not consider that the hook be-
longing to the latter can be used in the work of excavation,
on account of its minute size (the supposed functions of this
organ are Bpoken of subsequently) ; the lower branch, however,
of the pincers may act as a kind of scoop.

The first difficulties having been overcome the parasite now
rapidly advances.* The horny appendage and the stiff hairs
support him, and furnish him with points of resistance in hia
diminutive gallery. They are straightened out when the animal
is at work, but are laid smooth when he advances.

It is usually during the night that the animals are engaged
in excavating their galleries.

Fig. 100.— Groove.'

and about two-thirds
of a line in diameter.
They resemble the
kind of mark whii
is formed by a
being drawn ligh'
over the skin. (Ca:
rare, Lanquetan.)
is not correct to com-
pare them to a
scratch. 2 These gal-
leries are curved, un-
dulating, or even
angular ; when fol-
atraight. They never

lowing a natural fold of the skin they
open into each other.

The colour varies with the state of the patient. In voi
children and in persons with a delicate skin, the gallei
appear of a greyish white ; in those who are dirty, and whi
skin is hard and coarse, they become of a dark blackish coloi
They also become of a particular colour in persons who
engaged in certain occupations. (Lanquetin.) At certi
intervals, and generaUy where the furrows of the epidt
cross each other, the galleries are pierced by small open a
which allow the access of the external air, and mark the spi
where the little miner has rested himself. These openinj
sometimes look like very small black dots ; it is through thi
that the young escape.

Along the track of the galleries, or in its immediate vicinii
is a vesicle about the sir.e of a grain of millet seed, roundi
pointed, and transparent at the summit, of a rose tint in t'
child, and of a dark red or brownish colour in the adult,
base is sometimes surrounded by an inflamed areola, while
other times the part of the skin upon which it is placed is
These vesicles are sometimes apart, sometimes close togethei

1 It is said that at the pe
activity, and that at that ti
four lo five lines.

itialicutum longum
larcoptua at the e

■r sulvuli relinquunL" (Caral.

Lin of t:

i, Sarcoptua at the end of its gallery! b, the d
moult ; e c. eggs, the first about to be hatched ; d d, excrements ; e, youn)
or larva ; f, entriiii.ro ro iho lmIIl.ty ; ;; ;i. -in;; 1 1 ...jujiuii;.'", through which ti
air gains access to the interior of the gallery.

PABA8ITI0 IH8E0TS. 317

at the end of a certain time are often confluent. In their interior
is a serous or viscous flniii. I rtmspareiil', and of a yellow or rose
colour ; sometimes there is also a small portion of blood ; it is
then that the vesicle has a brownish tint. Occasionally the
gallery passes over the vesicle and rests upon it, an arrange-
ment which is easily understood, from the circumstance that
the gallery is beneath the epiiknnh, while the vesicle is beneath
the derm or cutis. (Piogey, Lanquetin.)

The vesicle is not always present, owing to its passing
through its existence in four or five days, while the gallery
lasts for several months.

One end of the galleries terminates in a projection, which
requires to be cim-iullv studied. This projection 1 looks like a
very small but well-defined white spot ; where this communicates
with the gallery, the latter appears as if it were interrupted ; tliis
arises from it* being deeper at its termination. It is in this
depression that the Sorooptu* a lodged, for it is never met with
in the vesicle. (Renucci.) When the skin is carefully raised it
points to the posterior part of the animal. It was in conse-
quence of persons seeking for the Sarr.optus in the vesicle
itself that they were unable to find it, and were therefore led
to deny its existence. 8

The males do not form a gallery ; they are satisfied with ex-
cavating a space sufficient to conceal themselves in ; they hide
themselves beneath a, raised portion of the epidermis, so small
that it is scarcely visible to the naked eye. Their hiding-place
is always near that of the female. (Lanquetin.)

In order to obtain a Harcoptux the epidermis must be torn
away with a pin or a needle at about ,-£-5 of an inch from'
the white spot ; the part must be dissected very gently towards
the centre of the prominence already mentioned, the instrument
roust then be passed beneath the animalcule, and the creature
carefully removed. (Henucci.) The only difficulty in the oper-
ation is to avoid killing the Sarcoptus. "When exposed, the
little parasite looks like a grain of starch ; he conceals his
rostrum and his limbs beneath the carapace, and pretends to
be dead ; il'he is placed on the finger he remains for some time
motionless, but he soon regains his liveliness and moves
quickly away. (Eenueci.)

Is the Sarcoptus of the itch a venomous animal ? M. Tandon

1 Acariaa emiaence. (Bazia.)

■ "Hoe obiter obaervaadum Syronea, noa ia ipsis pustulifi, aed prope
habitant." (Moufftt, 1834.) " Acarua sub ipsa pustule uiinime qwcreuduB
at, eed longiua ruccsait, scqueado rugam euticulio observatur." (Lina.)

313

MEDICiL ZOO LOOT.

are miniature
lers ; they are
ch ia received

■

has no hesitation in believing that it

representations of the antennal pincers of the spidera .
provided with a moveable and pointed hook, which is received
into a groove with dentated margins, and can be opened in
accordance with the wants of the animal. In the spiders the
two hooks which are external move almost horizontally from
without to within, so as to antagonise each other, and ao aa
to seize and pierce their prey, in the Sarcoptu* these organs
are placed superiorly, and act from above downwards, but
without antagonising, so aa to bury themselves in the tissue
and inoculate it with the poison. It has not, indeed, been
proved that the hook of the parasite ia perforated at ita ex-
tremity, 1 but it ia reasonable to suppose that it is so ; since
that of certain acari, animals which are closely allied to it,
and whose mouth differs essentially from that of the Spidt
does present a small but distinct opening. (Haspail.)

When the Sarcvptus is working at its gallery it does n<
make use of its poison; but when the animal stops in any pai
to eat, or for the purpose of depositing its eggs, it pierces the
tissue with its jaws, and discharges some drops of liquid. This
fluid acts like the poison of the Cynips. and produces a swelling
or vesicle, which may be regarded as an animal gall: 1 thia explains
why the vesicles are situated deeper than the galleries. With
regard to those which are not placed in the tracks of the latter,
they probably arise from the abaoqjtiou of the venomous fluid
by the lymphatics.

6. Other sPECiEa.— It has been supposed that in Norway
there is another species of Sarcoptus peculiar to man, forming
a different kind of gall, the animal producing thick scabs, which
spread over nearly the whole of the body. Professor Boeek of
Christiana observed three cases of this disease in 1852. The
scabs presented masses of the Xart-opti, anil of their excrements
and eggs. M. Boeck found that these Xtir.-wpfi did not differ

Pfrom the species which has just been described. This view "
been confirmed liv the observations of MM. Cazenave, Chanzil
Lanquetin, Bourguignon, and Hehra.
The Sarcop/i of the mammalia differ from that of man ; thug
the species belonging to the horse, of which a good representa-
tion nas been given by M. Gohier and 51. Kaspail, has a very
straight rostrum ; all the feet have caruncuhe, and at the same
time two rigid haira longer than the ambulacra.

n.)

PARASITIC INSECTS. 319

Can the itch u? animals communicate itself to man ?

M. Dumeril believes he has proved that a Phaseolome from
New Holland transmitted its itch to several persons who were
employed in the Museum of Natural History,

Other examples appear to show that the Sareopti of the
horse, the camel, the ox, the lion, the dog, and the cat, may be
developed on man, and produce a cutaneous disease similar to
that which occurs on the animal from which it had been taken.

It has moreover been recently shown that the species of
Sarcoptits which has hitherto been supposed to be pecidiar to
man is met with on the hog and the llama. (Lanquetin, Kobin.)

CHAPTER II.

THE ACAKOPSE.

Allied to the Sarcoptm is an animal discovered by Dr. Leroy
de Mericourt in Newfoundland upon the person of an offieer
■who had come from the Havannah, and of which he has published
a description and drawing. M. Alexandre Laboulbene has
provisionally arranged this acarus in the group Tyrogh/phus,
although he considers it must constitute ;i distinct genus.

Before he was acquainted with M. Laboulbene's memoir,
M. Tandon had named this animal in his lectures the Acaropse ;
he therefore continues to speak of it under this title.

Description. — The AiwopM- of Mrrimurt, Acaropeis Meri~
courti, Tt/roglyphus
Mericourti, Laboulb.,
Acaropsis peclinata,
Moq. (iig. 101), is a
Bmallaearus,027ofan
inch in length, oval,
covere d withlon g flex-
ible hairs.and of apale
colour ; the rostrum
(head, Laboulb.) is
projecting, conical,
and with a pointed 1

prolongation ; the f> ig . ioi._^ cor(ps

palpi are enormous,

1 A, animal aeen from its Lack , B, right palpus.

■

XEDIC.1X rOOLOGT.

and greatly dilated it their base ; they form two oblong conical
bodies, attenuated at tbeir extremities, slightly curved, and their

size is out of all proportion to that of the animal. These two
palpi are extremelv divergent ; at the extremity is seen — -1, a
feind of slender hook, slightly curved from without inwards, not
verv pointed, and possibly articulated and moveable ; 2, another
hook placed internally, smaller and more slender, curved in
the same direction, of an oval shape, very pointed, beautifully
pectinated on its inner margin, and supporting at its base a
slender curved hair, which surpasses it in length, and appears
to be inserted on a small projection. The animal haa no eyes ;
the thorax is confounded with the abdomen ; the feet are eight
in number, long, strong, and covered with hairs, but not having
one third the thickness of the palpi. They seem to terminate
in a rudimentary caruncule.

The animal is undoubtedly an Acarus, but it is distingi
from all the known genera by the enormous development a
size of its palpi and by the singular pectinated organ by whicl
they are terminated. The pointed rostrum appears to be i

Ced of modified jaws, which are straight, pointed, and form ■
k.

Ought not the enormous didai'tile arms, described as palpi,
to be considered us antennae converted into pincers ?

2. Actios on mas, — The Aoarypri* Mtrieourti was noticed
in a patient with an exanthemntous eruption. Three indi-
viduals were procured from pus which was discharged from the
ear after inflammation of the auditory canal. They seemed to
have lived in the pimples on the skin Burrounded by a serous

Was the animal really developed in the pimple, or did it
come from without ? It is extremely probable that it is a
species of Acarus peculiar to this exanthema.

CHAPTER III.

THE BEMODEX.

TflE Betnodese foHkulorwm, Owen, Arams foil 'ten Jorum, Simon
(fig. 102), wuh discovered almost simultaneously by M. Gustavo,
Simon, and M. Henle, in 1842. M. Dujardin has Btudied it
upon his own person, and M. Grubv carefully examined it
IMS,

821

1. Description. — The Demode? folUmhintm is one of the
lowest organised of the
Araehnida, and has a
worm-like form. It mea-
sures from T B5 to tJj of
an inch in length, and
from -i^ to -y^o of an
inch in breadth. The |
body is somewhat flat-
tened, of a greyish white
andaeini-tranaparent; the
head is confounded with
the thorax, and forms an
oblongeephalothorax;the ;
rostrum is small, and is 1
composed of two lateral i'jg. 102.— Demodex.'

palpi wit!) a sucker placed

between them. The hist or terminal joint of the palpi appears to
be notched ; above the sucker is a triangular lip formed by two
slender pieces plaeed close together; the abdomen, which is
small in the young animal, is elongated in the adult, and
gradually narrows and terminates in a point ; it might be
compared to a long tail, and gives the animal a vermiform
appearance. When the Demodex ia in motion, its diminutive
feet are moved alternately and with great quickness; they
are aided by the palpi and the rostrum, as well as by the
vermicular contractions of the abdomen. The feet are eight in
number, and are placed at equal intervals; they are short,
cornea], and composed of three joints, of which the last is pro-
vided with three hooks, one long and two short. The young
animal has only six feet ; these organs are remarkable for their
shortness, Beared y rendiing to the margin of I lie eephalothorax ;
they appear to lie quite rudimentary, especially when they are
compared with those of the Sarcopti.

When examined under a microscope with a high power,
the body of the Demodex presents a number of minute granules,
and some roundish uneven transparent corpuscles, which are
possibly the eggs or the canmelv young animals.

The Demodex is oviparous. The eggs arc very large in pro-
portion to the size of the animal ; they are elongated and
somewhat pointed at the ends. (Lanquetin.) M. Tandon
examined one, shortly before it was hatched, when the feet
and rostrum of the young animal could be seen within it.

1 A, animal Been from the abdomen; B, rostrum; C, egg.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

r, and
rpical
learlT
i the

itory

ften

: out

Three principal forms of tbis Acarua have been observed :-
1, the cephalothorax, equalling one-third of the length of the
abdomen, which is soft, terminated bv a rounded extremity, and
marked by fine transverse lines — this iB probably the typic; "
form ; 2, the cephalothorax, as long as the abdomen or nea
bo: 3, the cephalothorax. longer than the abdomen, and I
latter terminating in a point.

2. Actios os mas.— The Drmodex occurs in both sexes and
at every age, excepting that of the young infant. M. Simon
found them in the nose, and M, Heule in the external auditory
canal. They appear to be very common, since out of every t
individuals they will be found in at least one or two.
Gruby states that he met with them in forty persona i
of sixty.

The Demodex is found in the normal or dilated ducts of the
sebaceous glands, particularly in those of the alas of the noae;
they also live in the follicles of the hairs of the nose, especially
those which are distended by epithelial cells, or by the accumu-
lation of fatty globules ; lastly, they are found in the follicles
of the hairs of the lace, lips, forehead, and cheeks.

The animals are placed parallel to the axis of the follicle
with their heads directed towards the base of the sac. Persons
whose skins are greasy and those who have freckles seem to be
most liable to them.

These Arachnids generally live in small communities;
many as from fifteen to eighteen may be found in a 6
follicle.

The Demodex is entangled in the midst of the fatty a
sebaceous matter. .

These animals do not cause any diseased action. "When the)
are numerous the skin swells and becomes red and wrinkled ;
the mouths of the follicles are much dilated, and there is a
considerable amount of itching.

In order to procure these animals it is sufficient to s^
the parts which are affected by them between the fingers,
then to examine the expressed matter beneath the microscope.
[The addition of a drop of sweet oil to the small particle of
sebaceous or fatty matter in which the Demodex is enclosed
facilitates the finding of the animal, and serves to free it from
the extraneous matter.] In the dead body, sections of the-
skin may be made in the direction of the 1
follicles.

PABASITIC INSECTS.

CHAPTER IV.

SOME OTHER SPECIES OF ACAP.I.

The Bermanyms of Bory, Dermanyg&a* Boryi, Gerv. ThiB
species of Arachnida was observed on a lady forty years of
age, and has been described and figured by Bory de Saint-
Vincent.

The lady was troubled with a slight itching on every part
her of body; this gradually increased, and at length became
unbearable ; whenever she rubbed or scratched the parts which
were most irritable, a number of little acari, hardly visible to
the naked eye, came forth ; the largest was not half the size
of a tobacco seed ; they were of a brownish colour, and ran
about by thousands in every direction. Several of them, when
placed in a box on a piece of muslin, lived from forty-eight to
fifty hours.

Did these animals really come from the body of the person p

Was it not the same in this ease as in a similar one related
by M. Simon of a woman at Berlin, whose skin appeared to
produce a number of small acari ? It was found that they
were the common Dermaayasus, Avium, which the woman got
every day in passing through a hen-house. 1

2. The Dermanyshts of Busk. — Is the acaniB described by
M. Busk to be considered as another species of Dermanyssut
which is peculiar to man ? This creature was found in some
large sorea on the soles of the feet of a black sailor.

The patient appeared to have contracted the disease by wear-
ing a pair of shoes which, he had lent to another negro, whose
feet were ulcerated in a similar manner. The latter was an
inhabitant of Sierra Leone, a circumstance which is remarkable
in conjunction with the fact that in some water which was
brought from the river Sirrae, on the coast of Africa, one very
nearly perfect specimen, and fragments of others very similar
to, if not identical with, the one noticed in the negro's foot,
were found. 8

3. EtiTABBua cancbtfoemis.— This arachnida was noticed
by Dr. Hessling in 1852, in a case of plica polonica. The
animal has a rounded cordiform shaped body, very obtuse, and,
as it were, hollowed out in front. The feet are close together,
and somewhat curved.

:it, vol. ii. p. 242.

DOB

KIDICA1 200L0CT.

CffiLOGXATiiTB mobsitans. — This species was also found
by Dr. Hessling under the same circumstances as the preceding.
Tin- body is rigid, and somewhat pointed anteriorly and
posteriorly. The feet are arranged in two groups, like those
of the fwcoptus, and armed with small hairs.

M. Heading does not consider that either of these insects
is peculiar to the disease, but that it merely afforded a favour-
able locality for their development.

We find, therefore, that it is especially amongst the Acari
that we meet with the cutieular paraaites. Messrs. Kirby and
Spence have proposed to designate the diseases which these
animals give nse to by the general name of Acariatit.

BOOK VII.

ENTEBNAL PABAS1TES OB ENTOZOA.

The study of the External Barotites naturally leads to that
of the Internal Barotites. The number of the latter animals is
very considerable, if we associate with the true Parasites the
animals which accidentally suck our blood or devour our organs,
creatures which are sometimes' even more formidable than those
that we are about to describe. The Internal Barotites, that
is to say, the animals whieli live constantly at the espense of
man, either when he is in health or in 8 state of disease, are
not numerous, nor need they alarm us, for the disorders which
they give rise to are not in general very severe. Thus, as it haa
been mentioned elsewhere, 2 it is one of the conditions of para-
sitism that the animal upon which the parasite lives must not
be destroyed by it. "W e have seen that children sometimes
support thousands of worms, and yet they do not appear to be
ill. It is true that in many cases the parasite does not so much
attack the organism in which it is placed as its superabundant
products. (Beneden.)

In medical Natural History the term Entozoa is given to
those parasites which live in the cavities or tissues of the body.
Some writers have proposed to call them Entopartmtes.

Most of the Entozoa are born externally, and are only intro-
duced in man's body at some determinate period of their
existence.

These animals may he divided into four series — 1. Insect
Entozoa ; 2. Cretaceous Entozoa ; 3. Entozoic "Wobms ;
4. Ikjtusobial Entozoa.

PAEA3ITIC INSECTS.

SECTION L

INSECT ENTOZOA.

Veterinary surgeons and entomologists hare long known
that the ox, sheep, horse, dog, &c., are tormented hy the larvae
of certain, flies which live in their bodies as true parasites.
These larv* belong to the family (Extridea.

It was thought at first that tnese Insects were only met with
in the mammalia. Condamine and Barrere state that they
have found them under the skin and in the nostrils of man ;
but their accounts are very indefinite. Rudolphi admits the
fact. Latreille relates that larvae similar to those of the
(EUridea had been extracted several times from the maxillary
and frontal sinuses of man ; these cases are, however, by no
means well authenticated.

The majority of these instances, and many others which it
would be easy to accumulate, are wanting in accuracy, and
would equally apply to the larvas of the Museida as of the

Facts which unfortunately cannot be doubted, prove that the
larva; of some of the latter family, which are parasitic upon the
mammalia, may occasionally be developed in man ; and that it
is even possible that one or two spedes ex..-?! which are peculiar
to him.

1. Ctjtehebba nokialis, Goud. — M. Justin Goudot has
mentioned that a species of (Eetrus, which he names Cuterebra
noxalie, commits serious ravages in certain parts of America,
more particularly iu New Grenada.

The genua Cuterebra was proposed by Bracy Clark, and
adopted by Latreille. Its characters are — cavity of the mouth
straight and triangular, forming a small retractile proboscis ;
no palpi ; and the antenna) with a plumose style.

The Cuterebra noxialis has been found in the ox, the dog,

and the

.M'-" ; "'

Its presence in man ii

Description. — : The insect is eight lines in length. It has the
forehead projecting, obtuse, brown, and covered with blackish
hair ; the antennas are yellow, with the first joint furnished at
its extremity with a small tuft of short hairs ; the eyes are
brown, with a blackish hand in the middle ; the thorax,
of a blueish tinge, marked with grey and black longitudinal
bands, is covered with very short black hairs ; the abdomen,
spotted with a beautiful blue colour, has a dirty white tinge on

326 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

the first segment, and on the anterior margin of the second ;
the wings are brown ; and the feet yellow, with hairs of the same
colour (male).

The larva is known in Cayenne as the Macaque, and in New
Grenada as the Gvstmo. It attains a length of nearly thirteen
lines. Its body is smooth, and of a whitish colour. The first
three segments are covered with irregularities, in the form of
very small black spines ; the three following have two circular
rows of hooks of the same colour, more robust, and directed
backwards. The mouth is armed with two hooks.

2. Other species. — Linna?us, in a letter to Pallas, mentions
another larva of a diptera which lives in the human body.
GmeUn speaks of this insect under the name of (Extrus komini*.
This is also found in America.

The knowledge which we have of tbJB animal is confined to
its size, which is that of the common fly ; and to its colour,
which is a uniform brown (totusfuscus).

Its larva lives sis months under the skin of the abdomen.

This is very probably another species of the Cuterebra. But
is it really confined to man, or does it, like the preceding
species, belong to the mammalia as well as to man ? M. Justin
Guidot regards it as altogether an imaginary species. 1

The larva of an (Estrus was found on the head of a man in
Trinity Island. It is deposited in the College of Surgeons in
London. Mr. Hope has named it (Estrus Guildingii. Is this
a distinct species from that of M. Goudot P

Lastly, several cases have been observed in Europe of
(Es/n'Jea being found in the human body ; such as the Toon, or
(Extrus of the ox, and the (Estrus of the sheep. The one belongs
to the genus Mypodentia, 1 the other to the genus Cephalemyia ; s
the first is characterised by the opening of the mouth being
T-shaped, and by the absence of palpi and antennas ; the second
by the mouth being round, by tuberculiform palpi, and by
antenna; consisting of a simple style.

3. Action on man.— The Guterebra are found on various
parts of the body, but more especially on those which are acci-
dentally uncovered.

Pray Pedro Simon, in hia History of the Conquest of JVew

1 And that it is the same with regard to the (Estrus humanus of RudoIpM
and M. Guerin Menevillo.

1 Hapodemut hovis, Latr. ; (Estrus bonis, Linn. ; called by Reaumur Warn

M-

3 Ctphalemyia ovis, Latr. ; jEstrua ovis, Linn. ; called by Reaumur Fig of

PAHASITIC IS3ECT3. 327

Grenada, mentions certain larves which torment the human
species. He says that they settle principally between the collar
oi the cuirass and the skin.

Arture, physician to the King of Cayenne, says, that worms,
which cause considerable tumours, are sometimes found in
America, on the bodies of persona who are of unclean habits.

Alexander Humboldt states, that in South America he saw
Indianswhose abdomens were covered with small turn ours, which
he presumed were caused by the larvae of certain (Estridea.

Dr. Eoulin has reported an interesting case which occurred
at Mariquita, in Columbia. A man had on bis scrotum a tumour
of a conical form, measuring something more than, two inches
in diameter at its base, and about five or six lines in height.
The apex, which was very red, presented a small opening, about
a line across. Dr. Eoulin having enlarged the opening with a
lancet, a whitish pyriform larva issued forth, measuring as much
as ten lines in length and five or six in breadth. On the
thickest part of its body it had several rows of blackish spines.
The larva resembles one which in those districts is met with
in the skin of the cattle, chiefly on the sides of the neck and
on the shoulders. Dr. Eoulin saw a second larva of the same
kind in another man, in the skin near the nape of the neck.

The observations published by Dr. Guyon are perfectly in
accordance with the details which have just been recorded. He
found parasitic larva; in a negro on the twelfth day of a variolous
eruption. In the pustules on his legs there were whitish
worms, which the patient expelled bj gently tapping his limbs.

M. Justin Goudot and Weddell have noticed similar in-
stances, the first in New Grenada, and the second in Brazil.
These facts have been confirmed by other cases collected by
Mr. Say at Philadelphia, by Mr. Howship at Surinam, and by
M. Percheron in Peru.

All these diptera appear to belong to the Cuterebra, but it
is not ascertained that all belong to one and the same species.

When a larva begins to develop itself in any part of the
skin, a slight pain is felt, and a swelling, with a minute open-
ing, from which a small quantity of a serous fluid issues, is
perceived in the neighbourhood. At this period it is easy to
get rid of the parasite; a mercurial friction and a small quan-
tity of ammonia are sufficient to kill it.

If curative means arc neglected, the animal grows rapidly,
buries itself deeper in the tissues, and produces a tumour,
which becomes gradually larger and more painful. It is then
necessary to extract the larva.

MZDICA1 ZOOLOfiT.

Il is ninrc particularly at five or sis o'clock in the m Grain*
arifl at night, that the larva begin t<i suck. M. Goudot oom-
pcrea Hie MUtttion which they produce to that of a number of
Deedla being driven into the skin, only the punctures occur
in jjjrka.

The (Enlrii of Europe introduce themselves far more rarely
into the body of man than the Ciitrrebra of America.

Wohlfart lias published a remarkable ease of an old man
who had been troubled for several days with an intense
headache, and who afterwards discharged from his nose eighteen
worms ; these were placed in a. glasB, with a small quantity of
earth, and were metamorphosed at the end of a month.
Wohlfart lias given drawings of the larvic, and the flies which
come from them, but, unfortunately, they are very badly
■wnted

Datham, in England, states that lie procured the lame o_
(BftH, similar to those of the os, from the frontal sinus of a
woman.

Braey Clark reports that a larva of the same speciea !
been I'Mracted from the jaw of another woman.

In the Juurnitl d" Y'ltndri-momle is the case of a eountr
woman, who, being exceedingly thirsty, drank some i
out of a muddy pond, where a shepherd was in the habit a
watering his flock. The water got into her nostrils as well a
her mouth ; some days subsequently, after being very ill, a
when she had taken an emetic, she discharged about sevent]
two smalt white worms, precisely similar to those which z
found in the nasal fossfe of the sheep.

Bobineau-Desvoidy communicated to the Entomolog
Society of France the ease of a woman who, after suffering ii _
violent pains and symptoms of inflammation of the neck of tl
bladder, expelled with the urine the larva of an (Estrus-
learned entomologist gives no intimation as to the genus t
which the larva belonged.

Bateman speaks of three lame of the (Estri being taken from
I he throat of a. man. and .Mr. Hope of another larva found in tl;
stomach of a dead body. Eudolphi, in Prussia, Esehricht, L.
Denmark, and Metaxa, in Italy, have mentioned the presence
of other larva? in the ear, beneath the skin of the forehead, and
elsewhere .... Unfortunately, in all these cases tho species
of (Estri cannot be determined.

PAHARITTC IUSECTS.

CEUBTACEOtTS ENTOZOA.

The Linguatula.

Thf. Linguatula (Liiitj)Ki(uht, l'rol ich) were at first considered
as intestinal worms, having the general appearance, hooks, and
habits of these animals. Some naturalists have classed them
with the Araehnida, M. Van Beneden' has shown good rea-
sons for associating them with the Crustacea. These extra-
ordinary animals may, in fact, be regarded as Crustacea which
have heen degraded to the form of a helmintha.

The Liny uti tut./: arc characterised by a flat, elongated, sub-
articulated body, winch is dilated in front, and attenuated pos-
teriorly ; an antero- inferior mouth, having two pairs of retractile
hooks; an anal orifice at the opposite extremity ; and no limbs.

These animals possess a complete intestinal canal, a kind of
dorsal vessel, a nervons system, consisting of a rudimentary
ring without cerebral gimslia, but with, a moderately developed
subsosopbageal ganglion, from whence two principal filaments
proceed in the length of the body. The sexes are separate ;
the male orifice is placed anteriorly, and the female posteriorly.

The LAiiguntuIw are oviparous. The young animals resemble
certain Crustacea which are parasitic upon fishes. (Van Bene-
den, Harley.)

The LinmuttuJte are at first asexual, and live encysted in the
body of different herbivorous mammalia. They pass from
thence into the bodies of the carnivora which feed upon these
animals, where they complete then; development, and become
sexual. • (Leuckart.) a

1. Lingttatcla nENTtcr/LATA. — This animal has been seen
in the lungs, the trachea, the larynx, the uasal sinuses, and the
liver of several of the mammalia ; it has been found hi the hare,
rabbit, guinea pig, goat, and more rarely in the wolf, dog, and
horse. It has trcohed dill'ereut names, derived from the
animals in which it has been found.

Description (tig. 103). — The animal is from two to three
lines in length, and about one line in width, oblong, tongue-

1 [Van Beneden, Rechenhes mr ^organization et le developpcment dei Lin-
guatidea—Meuuiirm, ik I'Aruil. /Ivy. de Bruretles, 1849.]

1 Linguatulu termta, frill., Tiiimi t-iijirimi, ,\ \hi£.,Tt:trtti/uia eotriir, Boa;.,
Pentaatoma terrutum tt ilmiirukiium. liii'lil,, J'vttiist'-iiuiin cvHstrictum, Sie-
buld, Liitgualula cORslrkla etjtrox, Gujuh.

i developed i> the bodies of a

dmimtk*. They hare also reeerred the nunes of J
raw and Erniecc* wnmer. The division of Zoology i

If the other divisions of natural history delight us by the
varieties of colouring, the beauty of form, the complexity of
structure, and the marvellous instincts of the creatures they
include, the study of the Kclmintha is equally interesting,
especially to the medical man, when it is carefully pursued.

For a long time little was known of any of the intestinal
worms excepting those wbieh reside in the body of man, or in
those of the domesticated animals; even of these only such as

™, Dies.

live in the intestinal canal had been noticed, and the facta
relating to their natural history were exceedingly vague. It
was towards the close of the "last century that men began
seriously to inquire into their structure and modes of life.

In the present work only those specioB of Helmintha will
be treated of which reside in and derive their nourishment
from the human body. I shall therefore pass over those speciea
which are found in the bodies of our domestic animals, as well
the Accessory worm, 1 that is to say, those of the Helmintha
which are peculiar to the mammalia, the fishes, or to other
animals, and only become introduced into our bodies acci-
dentally, or are placed there for the purpose of deceiving.

The Helmintha are invertebrata, unprovided with limbs or
organs of respiration. The character which they possess in
common is to lodge and nourish themselves in the human
body, during a considerable portion or the whole of their
existence.

These parasitic worms are sometimes solitary, and are some-
times collected together in variable numbers. They are met
with in different parts of the body, as in the alimentary canal,
or the ducts which open into it ; in the blood vessels ; in the
substance of the liver; in the parenchyma of the lung, and in
the structure of the brain. They have even been found. in the
osseous tissue, and in the midst of the fat. It is exceedingly
important, even for the zoologist, to be aware of what part of
the body they inhabit, since it facilitates the determination of
the species. It may be said generally that the Helmintha
almost always reside upon the mucous membranes or in the
cellular tissue.

The presence of these worms occasionally produces scarcely
any appreciable disorder. The animals live, as it were, in a
latent state. In some cases there is a slight irritation, or a
trifling amount of itching. At other times there is a feeling of
weight, or increased appetite, occasionally an undefined feeling
of illness, or sudden and violent pain ; the person gets thin ;
there are pains in the intestines, hasmorrhages, chronic inflam-
mation, and the formation of abscesses. These disorders are
followed by spasmodic convulsions, chorea, epilepsy, amaurosis,
apoplexy, ana a disease similar to what is commonly termed
the ''staggers" in sheep. In some cases, which are happily
very rare, these disorders terminate in death. The various dis-
eases attendant upon the presence of the entoaoa are fully

1 Vermes accemcrii. (Bremser.)

332 MEDICAL Z

described iii the excellent work of M. Davaine, entitled 1
de* Entozoairex et den i

[The English reader will find a full account of the disease! I
and their treatment in Dr. Laukester's valuable transit I
tion of Kiichenmeister's work on the Animal and Vegetable |
Parasites of the Human body, published by the Sydenl
Society.]

The injurious effects of these Entozoa must not, howevi
be exaggerated. M. Dujardin lias met with cases in which til
animals were developed by thousands, and yet the ]
appeared to be in good health.

The multiplication of the worms is most rapid in debilit*
persons, who are living in cold and damp sit nations, and n
are already in a bad state of health from other (
((irisolle.) Improper nourishment greatly favours the a rt
irace of the Relmintha. Damaged food, green fruita, i
vegetables, sweets, impure water, are all of them circumstance*
which have considerable influence on tlie development of theee
animals. Childbood is the period of life which most favours
their presence, possibly in consequence of the preponderance
of the lymphatic system in the early periods of life. (Bouchut.)
Some families seem to he more predisposed to verminous affec-
tions than others. It appears, also, that the nature of the con-
stitution (Jielminthoiu, Kei[ ) has great influence.

Some Entozoa are indigenous to several countries, as, for
example, the Ttenia to Germany and to Holland, and the Both-
riocepkalus to Switzerland and to Russia. (Boudin.)

The Hehnintka are worms having generally long cylindrical
bodies. Some are thread-like, others ribbon-shaped, and some
resemble small leaves. In some the body k elastic, and covered
by a strong integument ; whde others are soft, and have no
distinct integument. Their bodies aro either transversely
striated or distinctly articulated, and of a white, greyi *
yellow, or reddish colour. The contents of the alimentary ci
and the ova frequently modify the colour.

One division of the Entozoa have a

ilete intestine, 1

vided with a mouth and an anus. In a few the mouth i
Bents certain hard parts ; some have a ramified digestive
with only one orifice ; others have oral suckers, and have r
anal orifice or intestine.

A nervous system is only found in a small number, and n
always of a rudimentary k'ind. Some have suckers or hooks
by means of which they can fix themselves.

The ancients believed in the spontaneous reproduction of the
intestinal worms. Some were supposed to originate from
imperfectly digested food; others from decomposing excre-
ments; some from vitiated and fermented bile; and others,
again, from the crude, thickened, andpittrifying humours.'

" Worms," says Ambrose Pare, " are formed from a thick,
viscous, crude matter, which, becoming corrupted in the
stomach, then descends into the intestines."

The theory of spontaneous generation has teen maintained
in our own time by several physiologists of repute. 5 Bedi,
Audry, and Vallisneri strongly protested against this ancient
doctrine. Thanks to the labours of many eminent naturalists
of the present day, 3 this mode of reproduction is no longer
admissible. It is now generally admitted that the Entozoa
are produced by other Entozoa.

In these animal* the BUM may be separated or united. The
males are generally jhmvUi d with a verge or spiciilum, which
may be single or double. Their spermatozoa are sometimes
filiform, sometimes globular, diaphanous, and more or less
adhesive. There are oviparous Enlo/.tia and ovoviviparous En-
tozoa. The larva?, in a great number, differ materially from
the adult. Some can reproduce the in selves by gemraas or buds,
giving rise to the curious phenomena of the alternation of
generations. Lastly, it has been shown that at a certain
period of their lives some of these animals make extended
migrations, in order to reach the individual in whose body they
are ultimately to reside.

The Helmintha of man may be divided into two series : the
cylindrical, which tire jjrorided with a visceral canity, and the
noncylindrical, which are deprived ofu visceral cavity. Of the first
some live in the alimentary cuual : J these consist of the genera
Ascabib, OxYUfius, Tbichooephaltjs, and Ancyiostoma j —
others reside out of the alimentary canal ; these include the
genera Sthos&tltjs, Spieopteka, and Fiiabia. The second
are flat, and are found external to the alimentary canal ; these
constitute the genera Tuecoboma, Distoma, and Festucabia ;
or they may have a riband-like form, and live in the canal ; 3

■ SieWd, Van Bcncdcti, Kikkcnnicister, Lcuckart, Filippi, Claude Ber-

* This refers to the perfect state, for the lairas of a great number live out
of the alimentary canal, and even external to man.

* The larvse all lire external to man, and external to the digestive canal.

these are the genera Tenia and Bothp.iocepiialt/b ; in nil ,
twelve genera. The following ia a table of these genera, with
their principal characters :—

Genera of Helmintha living in Man.
I. — Cylindrical with a visceral cavity.
A. Living in the alimentary canal (unuexual).

1. Ascabideb. Body attenuated posteriorly, and still

more ao exteriorly. Mouth with three tubercles.
Tail of the male narrower than that of the female.

2. Oxyubus. Body attenuated anteriorly, and still

more so posteriorly. Mouth with rudimentary
tubercles, and a dilatation around it. The tail of
the male somewhat thickened.

3. Tbicuocephalus. Body capillary anteriorly. Mouth

without tubercles. Tail of the male like that of the
female.

4. An cyi.o stoma. Body slightly attenuated anteriorly.

Mouth with four hooka. Tail of the male cup-

B. Liviiii/ nut of the alimentary canal (unisexual),

5. Stronqylus. Body attenuated posteriorly. Month

with six lobee. Tail of the male cup-shaped.

6. Spiroptera. Body attenuated anteriorly. Mouth

armed witb papilla). Tail aliform.

7. Filahia. Body equal (filiform). Mouth with three

tubercleB. Tail simple.

II. N OK- CYLINDRICAL AND WITHOUT A VISCERAL CAVlTr.

A. Flat (living externally to the digestive canal). 1

8. Thecoboma. 5 Unisexual. The male carrying the

female in a groove on its abdomen.

9. Distoma. Androgynous. An abdominal aucker.

10. Festucaria. Androgynous. No abdominal Bucker.

B. Mband shaped (living in the alimentary canal, andro-

gynous).

11. T^nia. Four rounded suckers. Genital pores mar-

12. Boturiocephalub. Two longitudinal fossse. Geni-

tal pores mesial.

FABASITIC WOBMS. 835

CHAPTER I

A.8CABTDEB.

The genus Asearw was established by LinnieuB. The term 1
is especially applicable to the Oflyuru*,' which, unfortunately
for the etymology of the subject, is no longer associated with
the present group.

1. Ascabis Lumbeicoides. — A. giijas, Goeze, Mauria lum-
bricoiden, Zeder. This specieB is one of the commonest and best
known of the Helmintha. It is noticed by the moat ancient
writers. The first inquirers gave this animal the name of
Lumbricvs teres, and regarded it as identical with the Earth
worm, or Lumbricus terrentris. They supposed it was the same
worm, which, having been accidentally introduced into the
alimentary canal, had become modified by its change of resi-
dence. The Lumbricus terrestris is, however, an animal having
a far higher grade of organization.

The following are the characteristic differences of the two

Bnimnl s ; —

Asearui. Lumbriovs.

1. Body without sete. 1. Body with eight rows of

aete,

2. Movements very slight. 2. Movements active.

3. Mouth with three tuber- 3. Mouth with two unequal

cles. lips, one superior, one

inferior.

In addition to these characters, the Ascan'des have colour-
less blood, a rudimentary nervous system, the sexes separate,
a permanent genital constriction in the female, the eggs sepa-
rate and provided with a thin aemitransparent covering; while
the Lumbrici are provided with red blood, have a well-de-
veloped ganglionic nervous system (with an oesophageal ring
and an abdominal cord), u genital enlargement at the period of
reproduction in all the individuals, and ovigerous capsules, pro-
vided with a thick opaque covering.

The Ascaris of man was for a long time confounded with
those of the horse and of the hog. In the present day it is
well known, that although the latter parasites are closely
allied, they are nevertheless distinct species.

M. Jules Cloquet has published an excellent work on the
Asearis Iwnbricoides.

bodrw

b ■ km I ■ ■:

of «ba

ridges and four km-
dontl, one abdominal, and

ro lateral

This worm has a somewhat polished surface,

is of a whitish or Bulk-white colour, sometimes

doll red, or more rarely to a brown

k'ur. Tbe skin is thick, strong,

BBBj elastic, and almost perfectly transparrat.

I There is no distinct head, and consequently
H no neck. At tbe anterior extremity (fig. 104)
^fl tt a somewhat triangular mouth. Around its
^fl orifice are three small tubercles, of which one is
^M superior, and the others interior -, these are capa-
H ble of being alternately divaricated and approxi-
H mated. Budolphi terms them ru/rp*, Cuvier
^| fteihy papilla, Blaiiwille nodule*, and Dujardin
^| value*.* Some writers have unadvisedly desig-
H nated the whole as tbe head. These tubercles are
^L\ provided with a small cavity at the inner part
^M of their base.

I The mouth communicates with an cesophngus,

^M which may be seen through the skin ; it ib long,

^M somewhat triangular, and provided with thick

H muscular walls. Very narrow at its commence-

H ment, it gradually increases in size, and is then

^|^^B^| suddenly constricted. The stomach consists of

L^^S^H two globular dilatations ; its walls are thinner

H than those of the oesophagus. The intestine is

""""""""""^ straight, and presents some slight bendings ; it

Atcarii. becomes narrowed towards the vent. It consists

ot' two membranes, which can be separated from

each other; tbe external is thin, smooth, and transparent; the

internal thick, rugose, and slightly coloured. The canal appears

1 l.lnnuMia wiys : "Corpus teres ulraipif extnmttat* altmitatum."
* Trcul.ler observed amongst a Dumber of A..,;iri<Ir.< in I lie ^niall intestine
i in which tlic muath bad on]}' wo tubercles.

PAEAsnrc woums. 337

to be surrounded by while vesicles, suspended in the cavity of
the body, which arc regarded by M. J. Cloquet aa absorbent
vessels. It is supported bv two paira of bgaraents, one of which
is placed superiorly, and the other inferiorly.

The anus is situated near the posterior extremity of the
animal, and has the form of a transverse opening.

Each of the pairs of ligaments which have just been mentioned
form a triangular canal. M. Blauchard believes that in the in-
terior of these canals there are two vessels, one of which is deep-
seated, and the other placed superficially. The two deep-seated
vessels anastomose together opposite the anterior third of the
caaophagus. One of them is moreover provided with a small con-
tractile sac (heart?). The superficial vessels unite behind
the preceding and auastomose with them anteriorly. This
arrangement is very remarkable, and resembles that of aome of
the anellidte.

The At/twit luiiihriroiih's, sic cording to the observations of
MM. Jules Cloquet and Bi mi chard, is provided with a nervous
system, consisting of two white curds running along the sides
of the body. By following the track of these uerveB two
ganglionic masses are met with, united together by a double
cord, which surrounds the o?sopliagus.

Beneath the akin there are transverse fibres, placed at
regular intervals, and covering a thicker layer of longitudinal
flhres, from which filaments are given oil", having no particular
direction, aud of which the majority are free and iloating in the
interior of the body. Many of these liiaments attach them-
selves to the internal organs, and assist in retaining them in
their proper place ; they arc more numerous towards the extre-
mities than in the middle portion of the body.

The Ascaris lumbricoides is unisexual. M\ Jules Cloquet
lias calculated that the females are fuiir times as numerous as
the malea. The latter arc smaller than the females; this cir-
cumstance is remarkable, because, as a general rule, it is con-
trary to what occurs amongst aniimils which are polygamous.
Amongst the males, tiie caudal extremity (fig. 105, b) is some-
what slenderer than it is in the females ; it is also slightly
curved. The penis, or spiculuin, is double ; it is formed of two
slender horiij curved processes, rather less than a hue in length ;
they are placed close to the anus, anil emerer from this aper-
ture. The testiclea and the spermatic cords are filiform, and
surround the alimentary canal. At the anterior third of the
body in the female is a circular construction (fig. 105, c).
Linnmus did not notice this narrowing, but stated that at this

'"■'''"■
that I

MEDICAL

(inrt the ariimul lind no enlargement (elitellwm) Hke th»t
Earth-worm, and Gram this alone he con
Umbrivoide* >• retry different from the i

niniiiiil -,' l.jjjuaiuf would have found the dkriaae-

tion far greater if hi- had noticed, tint there is

log where in the Earth-w

[a mi in!:. r^ment; and that the <

fttmil, while the other '

hi thi* oonatrictioti that the vulva is p

the right side. This orifice is rerv a
nimiiiiiiiicrires with a narrow vagina (#1
Hlainville) from four to six linea in
which leads to a short uterus, provided*
two long flexible horns, arranged i]
of the abdomen, and formed of two (
membranes. These horns become conti
with the ovaries, which are eseessiviely 1
slender tubes, twisted upon themselves, a
ittrrounding the alimentary eanal. The o
rlc* closely resemble the testicles,
period Of reproduction, thehomaof then
are llllcd with an enormous quantity of e_
M, Ksehrirlit calculates that they amount t
■event] thousands iti each individual.

The eggs (li^. 106, d) are ovoid, and eovt

by a transparent envelope. Tyson and Wee

ncr, mill hli Imminently Brera and Rudolphi

described them as being villous. Goeze a

M. J it leu Uloquet maintain that they ;

smooth.

Ai'i'uriliiig In tin- recent, obs cr vat ions of if. Davaine, thee
iw urn expelled with the fiecea. M. Richter, *
l.li'!'l i li< in iii pure water, found that at the end of eleven
muni Iih lliey each contained a living embryo, but he did l
hit l.ln'tii hatch. (Kiiehenmeister.) M. Davaine has been moi
furl ii i m! it, iiikI n.n utile l.n l'u|]i>w mil their devt'liipmeut, whit

iiiiiinii il at. the end of sis months. The embryo is cylii

drieiil. The three lobes of the mouth are not present, and a
characteristic of the adult worm ; the caudal extremity tern
nates abruptly in a point.

1 "A Lttmhrim dittinttisiimtis." (Linn.)

• u, a cepliJtlui i-sln/iiiilv, wirli tin; ihr™ (.iiWrclos of tlie mouth ; 6, c
Jnl oxlromltj- uf llm male, wii.li the two Bpieula ; c, genital constriction, oi
iiw feiaiUi! with the aomal orifica; d, ogg.

PABABITIC WOBMS, B39

[The following is the account which Kuchenmeister gives of
Verloren's and ltichter's experiments upon the eggs of Axcaris
marpinata and of A. lumbricoideg.

In the early part of the month of August, 1853, Verioren
put a fragment of a mature female, Axcir/nt min-ginata, of the
dog into water, bo as to preserve the eggs in the water by the
prevention of evaporation. Of these he examined specimens
from time to time under the microscope. The segmentation
of the vitelli and the development of the young, immediately
commenced. In about fourteen days the process was com-
pleted, and perfectly developed young worms made their
appearance; these moved briskly within the egg shells, but
did not break through them, as Verioren expected, from similar
successful experiments by Schubart. With the decrease of
temperature towards autumn and winter, the mobility of the
embryos witlun the egg-shells also diminished, until at last it
entirely ceased in the winter, but recommenced in the follow-
ing spring, and again became very distinct in the summer
months. During the whole course of the experiment a spon-
taneous exclusion of the embryos from the eggs never took
place. In thf.se eggs, therefore, the following remarkable
peculiarities may be observed :— The eggs of other animals
may, indeed, he for a long time before the young make their
appearance; as, for example, in many insects; but this always
takes place within a year ;' the eggs of many animals may
also be delayed for a long time in their development, but
then the development of the young cannot have commenced
at all. But if this be once the case, and the young be
developed, it must either be excluded soon, or it dies in a
few days, whilst in the present instance, the ready-formed
embryo lives more than a year in the egg-shell, lite other
worms in an encysted state, which live enclosed in their
cyst. Both are, probably, enabled to live for a certain time
unchanged in the egg-shells or cysts, both, as is well known,
agreeing in being asexual, and therefore their species difficult
to determine; this condition is only changed by other favour-
able circumstances, and the animals thcrehv carried on towards
their development. Lastly, it is certain that the embryos of
the nematode worms may pass the winter in a sort of torpid
state hi the open waters.

When Verioren set free the embryos artificially by crushing
the eggs, they soon died, partly stifled by the tungoid struc-

1 [That is to say, naturally, for Roaurnur. by placing the eggs of the insect
in an ice-house, retarded their development beyond the year.]

340

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

tures growing about them, and partly from their becoming
the seat of fungoid growtliB. Independently of Verloreo'a
investigations, and at a period when the experiments of that
savant eould not have been known in Germany, 11. E. Eiehter
of Dresden, had also put the eggs of ;in Ascaris lumbricoide
into water (on the 15th of November, 1854). The eggi
which were all without living embryos, and which had no
even exhibited globules of segmentation, were i
by Eiehter for some time after their being placed i
but on the 15th October, 1S55 (consequently after the 1
of eleven months*), he found living embryos iu all the egL;s. i
which he aeut a considerable number to llaubuer, Leuckart,
and myself. These were employed in experiments, ~ '
unfortunately famished no result.

"When I examined dry e^s of the same worm, which Eiehter
had sent to me, I had only the opportunity of confirming
Kichter's statement, that on the loth of November, 1854, t 1 "
eggs had hardly commenci'd any development.

All this shows that a portion of the egjjs of the nematode
worms issues, in the first instance, passively from the body of
their previous host into the external world, and first of all
passes the stage of its development, up to the formation of
embryos, in the open water.] 1

2. Another species. — Mr. Bellingham has described* an-
other species otAtaaris peculiar to man, which he discovered in
Dublin, and for which he has proposed the name c "
alata. MM. Dujardin andDiesiug admit the species, although
it has only beeu observed once. The two individuals which
were found were females.

This animal was three and a half inches in length, half a line
in width anteriorly, and three-fourths of a line posteriorly.
At the anterior extremity it had two semi-transparent mem-
branous wiwt/x, exrcndoiu' fur about a hue and a quarter, and
rather straighter anteriorly than posteriorly. The body was
bent anteriorly. The tail was straight iin.l -polled with black.
It resembles the species of Ascaris which infestB the cat,
Ascaris inystax, Bud.

M. Diesing suspects that this worm might 1
Ascaris lumbricoides, whose skin had becomo inflated and
raised up around the mouth. If this species is to be retained,
the oral appendages approximate it to the genus Oxyuris, and
justify M. JJiesiug's union of these genera.
1 Opm at, vol. l,p. 310.
' [Amah of Nat. MUt., vol. liii. p. 173.]

PAHABITIC WOBMS. 341

[Kuchenmeister rejects the AacarU afata, observing that it
is probably only a young individual of one of the long-known
Nematoda, if, indeed, he adds, it be a worm at all.] 1

3. Action on mas. — The Aicaris lumbricoides inhabits
every country. It is frequently found in the intestines of
children, less frequently in those of adults, and hardly ever in
those of old people. It is found more particularly in young
persona of a lymphatic temperament, who live upon bad and
indigestible food, and who iniabit low, damp, and ill-venti-
lated localities, circumstances which in large towns are very
common to the children of the poorer classes.

M. Cruveilhier found more than a thousand in the body of
a young idiot girl.

According to Petit, of Lyons, the son of a veterinary sur-
geon at Eoanne discharged two thousand in the course of five
months.

The Aecariihs are genernllv met with in the small intestines.
They have, however, been found in other organs, but this was
an accidental occurrence. Thus M. Jules Cloquet has seen
them in the large intestines. Eudolphi thinks that they are
always expelled with the fasces, when they have passed into
the colon.

These Hehnintha may ascend to the stomach and from thence
to the pharynx. It has been stated that some have passed
into the larynx (Blandin, Tonnelle), and even into the bronchi
(Chassaignac), giving rise to very dangerous results. 1 M.
Jobert de Lamballe has mentioned the name of a person who
died suffocated by one of these worms, which had penetrated
into the trachea. MM. Lepelletier and Lebert have also men-
tioned a case of death from suffocation.

It is not extremely rare to find the Aicaris lumbricoidet
introducing itself into the nasal fossa!, and then passing out
by the nostrils. Achille Kichard met with a case of this kind
in an infant. Martin Slubber speaks of a man who discharged
one when in the act of sneezing. Bremser has described ft
similar instance, in which an old woman discharged one of
these worms when blowing her nose. M. Cruveilhier relates
the case of a patient, who, after excessive pain in one of his
nostrils, to his great astonishment, drew from it a very long
Ascaris.

The Asearit lumhricoides may enter the biliary ducts (Ton-
nelle, Bstevenet) and may even lodge itself in the gall-bladder.
1 Oput cil, vol. 2, p. 100.
* These perforations often take place *fter death. (CrovollMor.)

342

Loennec met with it in the dead body of an infant whieh had
vomited 9 bm quantity of these worms, the biliary ducts wen?
distended, and the substance of the liver looked as if it had
been eaten away. 51. Bouisson has recorded an instance in
which a fragment of an Aicari* had become the nucleus of a
biliary calculus.

Gmelin discovered an AscarU three inches in length a
pancreatic duct.

Several of these creatures have been expelled thi
opening in the umbilicus (Poussin), and others, in
strangulated hernia which was gangrenous, issued from an ab-
scess in the abdominal walls. Dr. Brizet, of Chalabre, found a
live Aicaru nearly eight inches long in a tumour in the groin,
which appeared like an inflammation of the inguinal glands.

Authors have recorded cases in which the patients have had
one of these worms in the maxillary sinus (Deseiiamps), in
the frontal sinuses, in the kidneys, in the bladder (Dumeril),
or in the uterus. It is, however, necessary to remark that
many of these eases are incorrect, and that what has been
mistaken for Axcarides has been cither worms belonging to
other genera, the larv* of other animals, or even foreign bodies
of an entirely different nature.

The instances in which the Atcarides have been found in t!
neighbourhood of the alimentary canal after it has been j
forated, are extremely rare, in spite of M. Easpail 'b i
to the contrary, who considers these Helmintha as i
leeches. MM. Beequerel andBailly have mentioned an instai
of perforation of the eajcum. A very curious specimen of tl

kind has been preserved in the Dupuytren Museum. In 18

M.Cloquetfoundinthebodyof an infant three large Ascaride*
on the anterior surface of the sacrum, in the folds of the rocso-
rectum. These eotozoft had emerged^ through an ulcerated
opening in the intestine, but they had not caused any inrlani-

The abscesses caused by these worms have been divided into
two series ; the non-xtcrcoraccous, in which the perforation ii
small that the ftecal matter cannot pass out, and the stercori
out, whieh allow the excrements to filter out. (G-uersant.)

The Ascuris alaia was found in the small intestines.

FAHA3ITIC WORMS.

CHAPTER II.

The Oxyvrh vermicularis. Dialling., Ascitis vermicularis,
Linn., was regarded by Linnaus m a species ufAscaris. 1

Jt was I)i'rili]ii^c]i:iin|js vim established the genua Oxyuria.
The meaning of the word ia pointed tail? a character which
per fret] j applies d.j the females, but not to the malea.

The Oxyuridcs are distinguished from the Ascurides by the
rudimentary condition of their throe oral tubercles, and by the
aliform enlargements at the mouth, which are wanting in the
Ascarides. In reality, these characters are insufficient, and it
ia this which has induced M. Diesiug to regard the Oxyurides
as a section of the Ascarides.

1. The OxruEis Vebmiculabis ia the only species be-
longing to the genus which is found in man. The animal hears
a strong resemblance to the Vibrio of paste made from flour.

Description (fig. 106). — The O.rt/uridcs are very small Sel-
minlha, measuring from three to lour lines in length. Linnasus
has undoubtedly confounded them with another worm, when
he says they may attain the length of an inch. Their width
varies from the y^ 5 to the -^ of an inch. The body is filiform,
attenuated at the two extremities,
and provided with indistinct trans-
verse markings ; it consists of a
strong, elastic, semi-transparent
tissue of a snow-white colour.

Anteriorly these animals have a
slightly enlarged portion, which is
known as the head, and is sup-
ported by a very imperfectly de-
nned neck. Several writers have
imagined that this part is provided
with two appendages or membra-
nous contractile vesicles in the
form of wings. According to
MM. Dujardin and Easpail, there
exists at this part a uniform ves- Fig. I Ob.— Orbits. 3

1 See preceding chapter.

9 Ofin sharp, alijib \iil.

* a, male ; b, female; c, cephalic extremity, showing the three tubercle
and the aliform dilatation ; d, caudal extranttj ul iW matt; e, caudal ex-
tremity of the female ; f, egg

MIUICU. JMKJMCT.

I iml*-r»l
n II euuuined bi uiaffc tie
Motive njijA-aruK'e of two
i n^mn-i ui opaque canal
■ m HwHw4 I'V intlMrem* »tri«", which a**e l

■ II : !■■..:. ) Thi mtmtk m hollowed
tuna m ft ■Qclur, unci i* i-oosequentlT

'Mi which haa jurtbdauay

I'KI, f), 11 lug QUM -light projecting tuberde*.

villi ft thoft triangular u^jphagua, which"

■1 wftUft, nini i» dilated into »"

< »>ili Urn stomach; the latter i

i in •■ it icemen t of the intestine ia

■ i luM I '" ftl Iiiry

,l,l.,l.,l,.,

which

I hw the appearance

unwed ouch other— the crop, the

dilatation. These pooches:

II.. , '1

i ih n 'Iv itraight, runs in the lenrti rf

1 1 '

m ii uniform diameter up to the rtctua.

It IIM VMtl

i ii brown, yellow, or greyish, gramaar

mailer U 1.. ii i

1 < bint) >i Ih.i

'I'linul e 1 Nun arrived at the posterior

win'" fiilarged, iiml forms a short rer-

i .i..

iiLiiiU tln< whole width of the visceral

\\ i

rrinmiil inn llicciuiiil ^railuallv narrowa.
1 lulu Llw i'omo. At this part it appears
lnil not iptml, us is stated by Bremeer.

in- ll wliloli

Mi In ■liHlilli

ll!

mptvi

.'P inn.', the rime*, which is possibly of •
Mull ii' Hi* (rrmnulea which have beat

1 it i |iw

■ im>iiHniiHl

U m placed towarda the middle part of

III! ll 1 M, l„l

il" margin* tiif everted, and form a, pair

llf«lt| -T- 1

iim

II |l [| I I,,,,, ba

, |ii.mie.l md ii !.nii;ihidinnl central vessel

imitniHH W il in

ii,. i ..

1 titinl hands or fibres, whieb

■ '"'I il

ii .1 ly \l H.i>n'ml Td*m are plneed at

'i luti >>»l» i H\f\

- i ■ lei n.ii. mid more opaque

limit ll 'il ill On' liaam«MU< evieud tVimi the head tot

... i. nl th« 1*11 l%i ■■■ Hlwwi Ktt* tin animal that k

. . .i . . i,-, .,!... ii ■! i - ,!hi.i, i.ii ..-.I Lonndiag to I

lliv .I.H. ii In. I, ml ... ■ . | ,wv» the bauds is

iiimeil ill' eli».i|.i m-tm^vd BValvi Mw»Mlfti fUrM&njj * longitudi
li\.'i .'ii Hi.' Mil Pi WA * tWwlttWwJ IftJW uii the inte

EMS. 345

According to M. Baspail, the akin, when seen beneath the
microscope, appenrB to be composed of flattened cells having
the form of transverse parallelograms separated by fibres or
bands, more distinct in the transverse than in the longitudinal
direction.

If the worm is divided, the pieces contract, or become coiled
up. Duges has skilfully availed himself of these contractions
in the study of the different organs. On wounding or cutting
a living annual, the viscera sometimes form a kind of hernial
sac and become more distinct.

During life the Oxyurideg move in an undulating and
tolerably active manner. They twist themselves about in vari-
ous ways in the midst of the thickened mucus by which they
are surrounded. They can advance or retreat with equal
facility. It is said they can even leap, and in that manner
clear spaces Bix or eight times the length of their bodies ; the
vivacity of their movements is increased when they are irritated.
They move out of the way of any impediment which they may
meet with. They appear to avoid the light ; their abode 18
no better lighted than that of the majority of the intestinal

When they are wounded, the extremity of the body, which
is nearest to the injured part, seems to turn towards the wound,
to examine it, and to endeavour to remove this as the source of
ita suffering. (Duges.) Every section, to whatever part of the
body it may belong, continues to bve for aome time if it is of
a auitable length. Duges observed that the part to which the
head was attached lived lunger than that belonging to the tail,
and this longer than a Bection from the middle of the body.

The Qxyurides prefer living in society, and are seldom found
solitary. They gather together in clusters, intertwine, roll
themselves up mto halls, and often form masses of considerable

These entozoa are unisexual. The males (fig. 106, a, rf)
seem to be scarcer and smaller than the females. They are
not more than from one to two lines in length. Their bodiea
are thread-like, with the caudal portion aomewhat thickened,
and bent into a spiral form. They have two spiculae. The
females (fig. 106, b, c) are fusiform, very attenuated posteriorly,
with the caudal portion awl-sbaped and straight. The sexual
orifice is placed a little in front of the anterior fourth of the
body ; it is a transverse opening with projecting lips, which oc-
casionally gives egress ti> tbeeggs during certain contractions of
the animal. The oviduct may be compared to a straight bag, very

846

long, and with great power of contraction, although formed by
an extremely delieate membrane. It is no doubt bound down
by the general covering, for when it pauses out of wounds it
becomes elongated and much increased in size ; it occupies the
whole length of the worm with the exception of the cephalic
extremity and the tail ; there seems to be no opening excepting
that opposite the vulva. Anteriorly it becomes narrower and
more twisted ; posteriorly it terminates in a pointed cul de *k.
Towards l.he ant trior third il pivM-nts ;t nmr-lrii-tinn. M. Kaj-
pail shows that the anterior portion is more especially the ovary,
and that the remainder corresponds to the uterus. This canal
seems to consist of two folds, I'm* iln-ji's has re marked that where
there are wounds in the middle of the body there usually
emerges a large gut and a small gut.

The Oxt/tiridw are sometimes found twined round each
other. Some of these animals arc probably in the act of copu-
lation. The observations of Dunes on the Uhiiditis give soma
support to this notion. As the males and the females are not
always met with at the same time, Bremser haB suggested that
the generation of the 0.i\r/irri<!/\i is analogous to that of the
Aphides, which only produce females during the summer, while
food is plentiful, but dining the autumn they lay eggs, which,
in the following spring produce both females and males. The
latter fecundate their own females, and also those of the follow-
ing generation. It iB difficult to decide the question. It may,
however, be remarked, that the nutriment furnished by the
rectum to the Qxyuridt's is always equally abundant, and if
there are circumstances under which it varies it does so with
great irregularity.

Duges has on several occasions surprised the Oxyvrides in
the act of laving their eggs. The eggs are very numerous.
M. Raspail haw culci'laled that each worm may contain 3,024.
The eggs (fig. 106,/) are elliptical or oval, flattened, provided
with two coverings, and filled with a gelatinous transparent
material. Then- long diameter is live or six times the size of
the globules of tho human blood. The surface is granulated.
"While they ore still in the animal they are constantly chang-
ing their place ; some pass from before backwards, and others
in the opposite direction. It is this movement which has caused
several observers to mistake them for embryos, and to con-
clude that the Oj-j/tiriJcs were viviparous parasites. Goeze
is amongst the number. But, as it is mentioned above, Duges
has seen the eggs issuing from the vulva. At the same time
it is not impossible that these entozoa may be oviparous at

one season, and viviparous at another, just in the same manner
as the Aphides and the Planaria, although the locality in which
they reside cannot be much influenced by external agents.

2. Action on man. — The Oxyurides are found in infanta.
They are also met with in adults, but not so frequently. M.
Taudon knew a tolerably robust man, fifty yoarB of age, who
had been tormented with them [for ten years. M. Cruveil-
hier found them in a person of seventy. These worms are very
common. Their presence seldom produces any serious dis-
turbance of the health.

Notwithstanding what has been said, they are not met with
in very young infants. M. Tandon's colleague, M. Natalia
Guillot, physician In the Hojiititl Neiker, in the course of twelve
yearB never met with the Oxynris vermicularix in children
before they were weaned.

These entozoa reside in large intestines, particularly in the
lower part of the rectum, near the anus. Their presence
causes a peculiar and disagreeable itching, especially at night
when the person is going to bed.

The fa;ees usually contain some of the worms, which twist
and move themselves about on the surface of the expelled mat-
ter, and die as soon as this becomes cold. They are never
found either dead or alive in the centre of the excrements, and
they soon perish when placed in any saline liquid. (Raspail.)

when the tfayuride* increase to an alarming extent, they
ascend the intestines and pass into the ea?eum. (Bremser.)
Wolf, Bloch, and M. Andral state that they have found some
of these animals in a cyst formed in the walls of the stomach.
Brera says that he has observed them in the oesophagus of a
woman. Fernel has stated that they sometimes pass into the
mouth, and that during slivp they even get into the nose.

In young girls the Oxyurides may introduce themselves
into the vagina. Sauvages gives the name of pudendagra ab
Ascaridibm to a disease caused by the irritation of these
Helminths in the vulva. Becker, Scharf, and Bremser speak
of aged females in whom the presence of the Oxyurides had
produced a kind of nymphomania. Benedetti found these
worms between the placenta and the walla of the uterus in a
woman who was in the eighth month of her pregnancy.

Tra soinftl was robeed by J „
dworma, it was fortrjClexL Donne; the winter of 1
» Undent of Gottinern. who was diiftftrtiag the i»1tc i
colon is the body of a young girl fire yean old, ft

f to ft species not preriansly knows,
Cn.f6.Wagler, mamtained that they were Oxy*
large size. Other persona mtatooktbem for Terj ■
rid**.* From this ft sctio m iliannsirm, or rather quarrel, a.
which might hare been eaailr settled if the newly disco*
worm had only been carefully compared either with an J
or an OxgurU. fitederer, having beard of the dispute, b
animal in question brought to him, and having examined ii
Buttner, t nev both came to the conclusion that it was ~
specie*. Buttner gave it the name of Trichiuru (bair-fc

About the same time an epidemic was raging in the d
of the French army stationed at Gottingen. Boeder)
Wsgler five it the name of morbus macaw* ; and as the
Trickiurr.* were frequently found in the bodies of the Boldiera
who died from it, Btederer entertained the notion that these
parasites were the cause of the disease. But all the soldiers
did not have Trichiuret, and on the other hand many persons
had them, who bad died from other diseases besides the morbut
mucosas. Linnanis regarded the TrichiurU as a species of
Ancarut. It was, however, soon discovered that the anterior
part of the animal had been mistaken for the posterior, and
it was therefore considered necessary to change the name of
Trichiurit to that of Trickocephalus*

1. The Tkichocepiia.i.113 of mas. — Trichoccphalog hominis,
Goeze, AxcarU Trichina, Linn., Trichoccphalu* aispar, Hudolp.
As the name implies, this is the only species which is found
in man.

Dencription (fig. 107). — The worm is from one and a half to
two inches in length, and from -j-g^ to -j-Jf-j of an inch in width.
The body is cylindrical, slender, slightly annulatod, of a white
or whitish, sometimes yellow, colour, and at other times o

1 See preceding chapter.

' Seo page 31!,

■ tt(ilv£ rpix&i » hair, and Ki<pa\li tho h

Jofti.

PARASITIC WORMS. 349

same colour as its food. The body looks as if it was formed
of two portions ; one anterior and filiform, the other posterior
and somewhat thicker.
The slender portion oc- H

t cupieB two-thirds of the H

< r 1 ^HflH
writers describe it as 1

J the neck. It does not, 1
however, support any 1

cephalic enlargement, 1 ^^F^^l
but gradually narrows 1 ^^^jj^fl
to a point. ^t^^^ri^^^^siw^^l
The month (fig. 107. ^■^j^

1 c) is a small round ter- |

minal opening, which it Fig _ i 07 .-Trickocepluitus.'
is difficult to detect.

Wrisberg believed he had seen a small tube at thia part, but
neither Muller, Rudolphi, nor Bremser.was able to discover it.
The anus is placed quite at the posterior extremity of the
body.

The digestive canal forms almost a straight line from the
mouth to the anus. The cesophagus occupies the capillary
portion. It must necessarily be of extreme tenuity. The
remainder of the canal appears to be somewhat thicker, and as
if it were muscular. According to Meyer there is no distinct
gastric enlargement.

The Trichoeephali are unisexual. The males (fig. 107, a) are
shorter than the females ; the thick portion of their body is
proportionately long, and is bent into a spiral form. The
spermatic vessels SM situated posteriorly, and after pursuing
a very tortuous course terminate at the anal aperture. At
that part there is a small, uiibeyliiidriejil. elongated sheath,
which forms a cup at its termination, is semi-transparent, and
forms a case for the spicnlum. The latter is single, filiform,
pointed, and capable ui' being retracted. The females (107, S)
are always straight ; never spiriibnn like the males. This cir-
cumstance at first led Rtcderer, Wagler, and Wrisberg to look
upon the two sexes as two distinct species. Pallas discovered
the male in the Trichoeephalus of a lizard, and described it
under a specific name {Tcenia spiralis) ; he also thinking that
the spiral form indicated a distinct species. The oviduct is

1 a, male; b, female; c, cephalic extremity with the terminal mouth;

d, caudal eitruiuiiy of the male with generative sheath and ita spiculmn ;

e, an egg.

850 MEDICil ZOOLOGY.

placed around tbe alimentary canal, and opens at the junction I
of the capillary with the thicker portion oi the body.

The eggs (fig. 107, c) are large in proportion to the size of I
the animal ; ttiey are elliptical, and terminated at each extern)- I
ity by a small rounded nodule ; the shell ia strong. According I
to the receut observations of M. Davaine, the eggs are not
hatched in the intestine of man ; they are always expelled in I
the same condition as when they were laid.

M. Davaine has succeeded in developing the eggs in water.
At the end of six months the segmentation of the yelk com-
mences, and the embryo makes its appearance two monthi
later. To a certain extent it possesses the form of the adult;
it is about the yJ,^ of an inch in length.

Trichina.— MM. Kuclienmeistcr and Wedond think that
the larva of tbe Trichoce|>halus is probably the small encysted
entozoa discovered in 1835' by Prof. Owen in the dead body
of an Italian, who died in St. Bartholomew's Hospital, and to
whieh he gave the name of Trichina spiralis. All the volun-
tary muscles of the body were observed to be covered with
minute white spots. Upon examining these granulations,
Prof. Owen found that they were oval, and eaeh containing a
small worm. He considered the worm to be a new species,
which was not referable to any known genera. Several in-
stances of its occurrence have since been recorded by different
observers. [It has been found in England, Germany, and
Denmark.]

The cyBts are of an elliptical fif^ure, with the extremities more
or less attenuated; they are always more opaque than the in-
termediate part of the cyst, which is in general sufficiently
transparent to show that it contains a minute worm coiled up.
The usual size of the cyst ia -^ of an inch in the long diameter,
and y^i of an inch across their middle part. (Owen.) Each
cyst consists of two layers ; the external is produced by the
diseased tissue, and is surrounded by a vascular net work,
while the interior is formed by the worm itself. (Luscha.) The
worm has no orgiiiiiu connection with the cyst; sometimes two
Trichina, rarely three, occur in tbe same cyst. By cutting off
the extremity of the cyst, which may be done with a cataract
needle or a hue knife, and gently pressing on the opposite ex-
tremity, the Trichina and the grunuhir secretion with which it
is surrounded will escape ; and it frequently starts out as soon
as the cyst is opened. When first extracted, the Trichina ii

* Tiedcmau noticed similar vesicles as for back as 1822.

soon
la U

Pig. 107.— Trk/tucephalus'

' extremity t

PABASTTIC WOBMS. 349

Hame colour as itH food. The body looks as if it was formed
of two portions ; one anterior and filiform, the other posterior

and somewhat thicker.

The slender portion oc-
cupies two-thirds of the
entire length. Some
writers describe it as
the neck. It does not,
however, support any
cephalic enlarj
but gradually r
to a point.

The mouth (fig. 107,
e) is a small round ter-
minal opening, which it
is difficult to detect.
Wrisberg believed be had &
neither Muller, Kudolphi, ni

The anus is placed quite at the poster!

The digestive canal forms almost a straight line from the
mouth to the anus. The cesophagus occupies the capillary
portion. It muBt necessarily be of extreme tenuity. The
remainder of the canal appears to be somewhat thicker, and as
if it were muscular. According to Meyer there is no distinct
gastric enlargement.

The Trichoctphali an 1 unisexual. The males (lig. 107, a) are
shorter than the females ; the thick portion of their body is
proportionately long, and is bent into a spiral form. The
spermatic vessels are situated posteriorly, and after pursuing
a very tortuous course terminate at the anal aperture. At
that part there is a small, subeylindrical, elongated sheath,
which forms a cup at its termination, is semi-transparent, and
forms a case for the spiculum. The latter is single, filiform,
pointed, and capable of being retracted. The females (107, b)
are always straight ; never spirit'orm like the males. This cir-
cumstance at first led Kiederer, Wsigler, and Wrisberg to look
upon the two Bexes as two distinct species. Pallas discovered
the male in the Trichocrpkirfus of a lizard, aud described it
under a specific name (Tcenia spiralis) ; he also thinking that
the spiral form indicated a distinct species. The oviduct is

1 a, mile; b, female ;
if, caudal extremil ■* tl
e, an egg.

- :■

■, owing to "the ■i( j U of the 7Wr"4i»*.

; P i 'ra ia w ia iwiDond, the entozoa
at innraraT Oavoe in which thev are
lodged in the ttanack, and frora thence ro»ie their way into
the rmII mtectmea. On the third or fourth day sperm eeBs
and egga are found, and the mm hare heroine distinct. Soon
afterwards the eggs are fecundated, and are developed in the
body of the female*. The young are expelled from the vaginal
aperture situated on the anterior half of the worm. Virehow
baa found them under the form of minute fSlaria in the
mesenteric gland* and in the serous cavities, parricularir
those of the jteritoneum and the pericardium ; they appear to
traverse the intestinal walla, in all probability by penetrating,
like the Peoroepenma, the epithelial cells of the intestine.
Vin.-h.ijw baa been unable to detect them in the blood or in the
course of the circulation.

Ab they continue their migrations they are found in the
primitive muscular fasiculi, where they are met with in con-
siderable numbers three weeks alter the food has been taken,
and have attained nearly the same size as those which had been
enclosed in the flesh eaten by the animal.

In order to be certain that the animal was not already ij
fested by the Trichin/e, Virehow, on several occasions befor
feeding the animal, excised and examined a portion of 1
muscles of the back, and was unable to find a trace c "
entozoa, where they were afterwards so plentiful.

The Trichina: penetrate the primitive muscular fasiculi i
succession. Behind them the muscle becomes atrophied whil
an irritation is excited around them, and on the fifth week they
commence to he encysted, the saivok-imiiii becomes thickened
and a cyst is formed around them.

Virehow prosecuted Ids experiments by means of the musclea
of a woman who had died m the same manner as has been

T.UIASITTC W0BM9. S53

mentioned with regard to the rabbits, and whose body pre-
sented no other lesion than the presence of innumerable Tri-
cAitue. What ia most important, is the fact that these entozoa
may exist even in fatal numbers, and yet not be visible to the
naked eye. This was the case with the body of the female
mentioned above ; it is only when the cyst is in a very ad-
vanced state of cretification that they are visible to the naked
eye, and this may not take place for months after the animals
are first encysted.

The patient had been under the care of Professor Zeucher,
of Dresden, and bad been brought from the country. On
making inquiries in the locality from whence the woman had
come, Professor Zeucher found that ft. pig had been killed con-
taining Trichinm, and that the hams and sausages which had
been made from it contained a large number of these entozoa.
The butcher who had killed the animal and Beveral other
persons had had rheumatic and typhoid symptoms of greater
or less severity, but no other person besides Professor Zeueher's
patient had d'ed in consequence.]

TUB ANCTLOSTOMUM.

The genua Ancylostomum 1 is allied to that of Sfcrongylus,
which will be noticed hi the next chapter ; it ia characterized
by having its mouth provided with a corneous armature. This
genua includes only a single species.

1. The Ancylostomum nnoDEiTALE, Kuch., Ancyhatoma
duodenale, Dub., was discovered, in 1838, by Dr. Angelo Dubini,
in the body of a young peasant in the hospital at Milan.

Description (fig. 108). — The body of these entozoa varies from
about two and a half to rather more than four and a half linea
in length; it is nearly straight. <>r slightly ourveil, cylindrical, and
transparent at the anterior part, yellow, reddish, or brown pos-
teriorly, and marked in the central portion with a small dark
Hpot, which corresponds to the commencement of the intestine.

Tbe mouth ia circular, and consists of a large horny capsule,
which is obliquely truncated, and is furnished at its upper part
with four strong teeth in the form of hooks, which curve towards
its centre ; on the inferior portion aro four small conical pro-

1 *A-fita\ot curved, and otiSuh mouth.

■

» MV i- . i ■ ■■ - .1 mthoi

murium- N' ,v ' •**» ** W

■ •■ I

■

,.|Vll IVvvh .

MKUtClL C00L06T.

|ir<iW>ly organ* of UkL 1
lobular, and of a daari

about four lines in length, i
ad with the and
nm ill. At this part there i* i *acsi
ii membrwotM cup-like ■
tided wilh i'Ii.tc-q radiatlu
of which are placed on c

one in the centre; all tin in in ■■■

simple, except the centra], which i* kifn
■ Mini Tin 1 Hpiculiim ia loo,, _
Tlio female ia hi jimp what larger than tic
male, measuring from three to four sal
'i half linei in length. One male ■
(bund bo three female*

M I 'ill. mi onoe i'mmd a pair m eaitm;
the mole was linnly attached by means at
hiit ciiinliil membrane around' the ndn

Df M« leimile.

\i now on man. — Since hia first
iliBi-oi.'i'i of tho J'liylostoinum, Dr. Dn-
linii li:i? imi uilli it twenty times in one
hundred bodies. MM. Primer, Bflhan,
and Grioatnwr, found it at Cairo, in
ftp iW and M Bachricht met with it in

Tin' fajWoafoMum inhabits the duo
fauun sml the commencement of the
Jejunum, The Dumber of individuals ia
mmetimM rorj considerable.

n li Rnnlj attached to the

niUeiXM membrane bj means of its hooks.

'■ ■ ■ live itself there is a slight

lentil, in the centre of which is a

.hlle li is saiii that these entozoa

,1i»*l ni»mrwThat}Wi M. Dubini

■ i . itroj the patient.

be nc. doubt. Grie-

i.iiiti fiirnW h\ the worms blood

tea, »n.l thai ntcfa a piece of in-

■
hM«M« iVgwOat mW »t\ •.-** in »)w (M*ri« ,-J body.

PARASITIC WORMS.

testine may be entirely filled with blood, which has flowed out
of the punctured places. One consequence of thiB disorder is
anasmia, and the name writer concludes that the chlorosis, so
generally diffused in Egypt, which he had previously described
aa the Egyptian chlorosis, and which in a greater or leas
degree attacks at least one fourth of the population, is pro-
duced by this worm.

In the milder form of the disorder, there is paleness of the
general integument and mucous membrane, palpitation of the
heart, quick piilse, slight bodily lassitude without emaciation,
and occasionally slight disturbances of the digestion (Gastro
enteritis) occur. If this condition remains uncured for a, long
time it passes through many intermediate steps to the higher
degree of the disorder, whii-.h rloscs as i 'hi orotic marasmus.
The disease often lasts for years, but in many cases its progresB
is very acute. Even with great care the individuals remain
pallid, sickly, and miserable ; slight acute diseases, which make
their appearance, are very serious, and at last dysentery carries
off the patient. Only occasionally a patient recovers by a
change of climate and all other conditions of life. Fatiguing
labour and debilitating antiphlogistic treatment hasten the
end. Or the patients die from diarHi;<.-a genera) dropsy with-
out albumen in the urine, &c, in spite of all the iron and
wine.] '

CHAPTER V.

STBONGYLUS.

The genus Slrongyhts a was founded in 1788 by Otto
Frederick Miillcr in his Zoologia Danica.

The characters of the Stronggli are as follows: The body
elongated, cylindrical, and attenuated posteriorly ; the mouth
has six tubercles; the tail is simple in the female, but in the
male it terminates in a cup, in the centre of which is the
double penis.

Lamark considers these animals as the most highly organized
of the entozoa.

The tvpe of the genus was the species which is found in the
horse, the Strongglus equinus of Muller, or Strongylu* armatus
of Budolphi.

1 [KUchenmeisler, Ofnu at, vol. i. pp. 386-387.]
1 Srpoyyitoi, cylindrical.

856 MEDICAL ZOOLOOT.

1. The Strokotlcs of the kidket, Stronoj/lma rmaVa.
Strongi/lu* ff'ff"'. Hud., Eutlrontfi/liia gigot, Diea., baa been long
known. Gmelin regarded it as an Ascarti, and made tn
species of it. Rudolphi recognized that tin 1
parasite belonged to the genua
Of Muller.

Description.— Strovgyhi* renalia (fig. 109)
varies in length from six to thirty-tan
inches ; it is said that it may even attain to
j the length of six feet ; its thickness m equal
, to that of a large quill, occasionally it is
equal to the diameter of the little finder.
Cuvier considered it was the moat volumi-
nous of all the intestinal worms. It is. ia
fact, the giant of the cylindrical entozos.
Bremser speaks of a Stron</i/lua from the
martin which was thirty-two inches in
length this was probably a different
species. But if the Kidneys of this (mall
mammal could sustain a worm of Buch a size,
there would be nothing surprising in finding
ne three feet long in the human subject.
[A worm one foot eight inches in length,
occupying the entire capsule of the left
kidney, whose parenchyma was entirely de-
stroyed by it, M in the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons (No. 177a).]

The body of the Strtmgyfut renali* is
cylindrical, and only very slightly attenuated
at the two extremities: the surface is smooth,
and obscurely annulated. Bremser was not
able to perceive the rings. When alive
" a reddish hue, either of a rose tint
more or less intense brick red
colour. Some are of a blood red colour,
but this tint is soon lost when the animal ia
placed in spirits of wine.

The Strongylus renalis has no cephalic
enlargement. The anterior extremity (fig.
110, a) is obtuse, and, as it were, truncated.
The mouth is placed in its centre ; it ia
eular, and surrounded by six tubercles.
1 " i straight, and more or less strii

Numerous filaments connect it to the sul

is cir-

PARASITIC 1

neous muscular layer. The anus is
situated at the extremity of the tail.
The uervous system consists of
a single nerve, of a dead white
colour, passing along tbe ventral
surface from the anterior to the
posterior extremity; it is provided
with a series of ganglions, from
which a number of i

ments are distributed to the neighb our ing parts.

The Strongylut renalu is unisexual. The males (fig. 109)
are smaller than the females. The dilated portions of their
caudal extremity (fig. 110, b) has the form of a sucker, with a
smooth even margin ; in the centre is a projecting vesicle,
from which a long double filiform penis emerges in the shape
of two rigid ami [jointed threads.

The female has no caudal dilatation ; the tail is simply
obtu.se and slightly curved ; the genital orifice is placed in
front of the centre of the body ; the ovary is single, and has
the form of a tube of considerable length ; it is estimated to be
three or four times as long as the body.

[It commences by an obtuse blind extremity close to the
anal extremity of the body, and is firmly attached to the
termination ot the intestine ; it passes first in a straight bne
to the anterior extremity of the body, and when arrived within
a short distance from tbe vulva is again attached to the parietes
of the body, and makes a sudden turn backwards; it then
forms two long Iooub about the middle of the body and returns
again forwards, suddenly dilating into a uterus, which is three
inches in length, and from the anterior extremity of which a
slender cylindrical tube or vagina, about an inch in length, is
continued, which, after forming a small convolution, terminates
in the vulva at the distance of two inches from the anterior
extremity of the body.]'

This species has not been seen in coitu, but in a neigh-
bouring species the sucker of the male was firmly applied
against the female, and the two animals adhered strongly
together.

Second species. — IVI, Diesing has described another species,
under the name of Strungylus louf/evaginatits.

1 a, cephalic extremity, showing the sis tubercles; b, caudal extremity
of the mile with its pouch and the principal spiculum or penia.
■ Richard Owen, apuMcit, p. IDS; and Art. Entozoa, Cyclopedia of Anatomy
d Physiology, voL U. 1837.

■

This in Gtxmd in 1&45, ia Traa r than k. hy Dr. J«

t eephafic ejtre n uly is c
e n. ■-.-'; : - - - ~l led nth ■ j [ ajattsa
TWuUek&cnn^to^ F ofuiiachmleneth.aiwl^ t efanim
in breadth; it i* shghtlr attenuated antericrlT : the tail is bra
sal ia provided with a aabeampanukted bilobi

■»

it :-:e ;f

alensV I

trmsrerae atrix, and is of an orange colon-.

Tbe ft nude ia two inches in length, and -fe of an inch in thick-
ness ; it is attenuated anteriorly and posteriorly. The genital
Orifice is placed beneath tbe end of the tail.

Tbe tiirongylu* lo*getagi*at*t ia OTOTmpsroos.

The distinction between this species and tbe Stmmyfku
renalu is very marked, so that 51. Dieting has no hesitation in
making these worms tbe types of two distinct genera. The
lint, Eattrongglut, contains the Stro-ngylu* renali* ; the Si
Strongglu*, applies to the Strongylu* longevaginatu*. The t
genera are principally distinguished by the evenness of the m;

nuch and its having a double penis in tbe first, while h ii
obed and has only a single penis contained in a dro "
sheath in the second.

3. A enow Of MAS. — The fitrongyhi* renalig, as its I
implies, is found in the kidney. It is also found in the cellular
tissue surrounding the kidney, and possibly in the midst of the
neighbouring muscles.

It is sometimes discharged with the urine, hut that only
happenswiththeyoungworm. Bremser has figured some small
filiform worms, $ of an inch in length, whieh had been expelled
with the urine. He supposes, with reason, that they were
imperfectly developed Stronm/li.

Dr. nrtaud had a female under bis care who discharged
eleven of these worms through the urethra, and yet she con-
tinued to live.

The Strongylwt of which he speaks often shows itself only i]
one kidney, tbe other remaining uninjured. It enlarg
becomes folded upon itself, causes the organ to swell and
become inflamed; it gradually destroys its substance a
paralyses its functions, giving rise to the most frightf
snmnjnga.

Strmii/gltit longcvaginatut was met with in the lung of ■
child sis years old, in whom there were several, some f
others adherent to the substance of the lung.

TAHA3ITIC WOBM3. 359

CHAPTER VI.

BP1B.OFTEHA.

The genus Spiroptera established by Rudolphi is principally
characterised by toe tail of the male twins twisted into a spiral
form, and furnished with marginal appendages, between which
thepenia emerges.

This genus comprises a large number of species which live in
the bodies of the mammalia and of birds, and some few iii
those of fishes. M. Diesing enumerates fifty-eight species;
only one of these has been found in man.

1. Spirdpteoa Hominis. — Thia worm was discovered by
Dr. Barnett, of London. Rudolphi gave it the name of Spirop-
tero, Komini*, which has been adopted by MM. Dujardiu and
Diesing.

Description. — The Spiroptero, is from eight to ten lines in
length ; the body is narrow, cylindrical, and attenuated at both
extremities. The head is truncated, and pmviiled witb one or
two papilla*. The tail in the male is provided on either side
with a delicate membranous aliform expansion, between which
ia the spiculum, in tbe form of a. pointed appendage ; the tail
of the female is thicker, and has a short obtuse apex.

The two sexes differ in length, the male being the Btnalleat ; it
is about eight lines in length, while the female is as much aaten.

This entozoon ia still imperfectly known. Dr. Brighton dis-
covered a similar but larger animal in South America. M,
Diesing regards it as a variety of Dr. Barnett'a entozoon.

Action on man.— The Spiroptero was discharged from the
bladder of a female twenty-four years of age, who had been
troubled for some time with retention of urine. Dr. Lanza
and Luearelli have since found this worm in the urine of
another female.

The larger variety from South America was discovered in
the bladder of a female aged thirty-five.

CHAPTER VII.

FI1ABIA.
1. HlSTOBY. — The Filaritt MediiiensU has been known from
the earliest times. The first person who appears to have
mentioned it is Agart hare hides, an historian and philosopher,
born at Cnidus, and who ' ed between 140 and 150 years,
B.C., at Alexander.

800 ittdicai zoologt.

Plutarch speaks of this entotoon in his Table Talk, i
*n\», " The people who lire near the Bed Sea are %i
an extraordinary and hitherto unheard-of i
worms issue from their bodies in the form of serpent*. ^
gnaw their arms and leg« ; when these creatures are t
tliey withdraw themselves, and insinuating themselves I
the muscles give rise to horrible sufferings."

Many merlicai men, who have not had the opportunity u
examining the Filaria medinensi* for themselves, and are on"
ncm minted with it through the imperfect descriptions of t
oliler writers, have put forward the most extravagant si
concerning this worm. 8oranus maintains that it i
IWIWm plexus; Pollux says it is a corrupted nerve; Ambi
Pari regards it as a tumour produced by an ebullition of the bio.
Gui de Chauliac sees in it a thickening of a vein ,- Frsganti
a portion of black bile ; Bicherand, a fibrous concretion ;
Lnrrey, a ip/nntity of atrophied cellular tissue.

In 1752, Hcnn Uallandat gave some correct ideas concerning
this worm; in 1830, Dr. Bruktour; in 1844, Dr. Maisson-
nenve; in 1868, Dr. Cezilly ; and recently, Dr. Thibaut and
Dr. Bonoit published minute details on the same subject. I,in-
nieus placed this Helmintha in his genus Gordius.

Miiller having proposed the genus Filaria' for the receptioi
of certain cntozoa, the present worm haB since been arranged n
that group.

'I'll*- FiUir'm M'dincmig, or Dracunculus? occurs i
Petra, Senegal, Congo, on the coasts of Angola, in India, i
America. It is exceedingly rare in Europe, and when it <h
occur it has been imported from one of the countries of wh:
it is a native.

2, Debchii'TION, — The Filaria medinensis has a veiy a
organization. The uiiimul varies much in length; some
been mentioned which were not. more than 4j iuehes loi
while Dr. Giutrac, oi'Bordcaux, received one from the Havai
which measured 19| inches. Heath states that out of seve
four cases the smallest had this length, while the Ion;

' Filun, u thread, or filarial*, a ball of thread.

i Filtiria Mtilinennis, Gnicl . ( Gordius Medwensit, Linn., Filaria L
culat, fircnie. ^commonly Worm of Medina, Guinea Worm, Worm of Si
Cutaneous Worm, It waa the ApunnTioi' of the Greeks, a name which "l
Romans translated by the word Dracmeulut, and the French b.
muu. Amutiw Luaitanufl named it Vest milena; Sloane, Venn
and Kampfer, Dracuncului Pen/arum. It is called in Senega], Somgoyfs
in Arabia, Farentil; in Persia, Pejunch ,- in India, Nora mbo and Nat

measured 8 feet. Some writers have recorded the existence of
Filaria which had attained the length of from 9? to 16 and even
30 feet. The latter measurements are evidently exaggerated.

The body of this entozoon is slender, cylindrical, and some-
whatcampreBBed ; it resembleB the string ot a violin. It is of the
same thickness throughout its whole length, except at the pos-
terior extremity, where it ia somewhat attenuated. It iB ot an
opaque milk-white colour, but becomes yeUow when placed hi
alcohol. (Budolphi.) On eaeh side there ia a longitudinal,
greyish, semi-transparent line the ^ of an inch in diameter.
(Maisonneuve.)

When examined by the microacope, the body of the animal
is seen to be marked by numerous transverse lines.

The anterior or cephalic extremity terminates in a bluntish
point having the form of a sucker. Kampfer describes this
pucker as a proboscis ; he says that the Persians call it the beard,
and that when it is examined by the microscope it appears to
be formed of hairs. According to Fermin, llemersand, and
Lachmund, the oral extremity supports two filaments which
these writers regard as hairs or antennas. Bremaer observes
that theBe pretended filaments probably arise from some injury
to the animal. May they not have mistaken the tail for the
head, and the double penis for two antenn* ? Adanson states
that the mouth of the Filaria is provided with two obtuse
points. M. Diesing describes thia orifice as circular, and
furnished with four spinules arranged crosswise. M. Maison-
neuve declares that there are neither beard, points, or hooks.
In the young animals (fig. Ill, a) which M. Tandon examined
while alive with M. Ch. Kobin, the mouth did not offer any
kind of appendage, but was provided with three small rounded
nodules.

The tail is short, obtuse, and always curved. The transverse
markings aie very distinct^ wpeenlly on the concave side.

According to Dr. Maisonneuve the body may be compared to
a tube with thickish walls (about T j ff of an inch), consisting of
two membranes, the external hard and coriaceous, the internal
thin, and readily separating into very delicate longitudinal
filaments, but not easily torn in tho transverse direction,

In the interior of the body there is no canal or any distinct
tube, but a whitish pulpy substance, which will be spoken of
presently.

Analogy would lead to the notion that this creature is
organised with respect to its digest] he same

manner as all the internal worms, 6S] hich are

■

allied to it. On examining with M. Ch. Robin, young indivi-
duals taken from the body of the parent while they were still
alive, M. Tandon satisfied himself of the correctness of tl '
sup [limit ion. He distinctly saw tlic alimentary canal com met
ing at the mouth, and passing without any convolutions to t
anal orifice placed at the commencement of the tail. T"
canal consists of a narrow (esophagus, occupying half the len;_,
of the body. The (esophagus terminates in n canal of doubl
its size, representing the Btomach and intestines ; this i
slightly contracted posteriorly, and terminates in a pointe
conical cul de sac, which opens at the base of the taiL "Whe
the Filaria contracts itself, the alimentary canal in seen to b
unadherent to the cutaueous envelope ; its walls are thinne
than those of the cesophagus ; the anus ia transverse, and buj
rounded by a projecting contractile lip.

Dr. Dariste and Doumeing have witnessed very diati
vermicular movements in the Filaria.

Patients are said to feel the movements of the animal, which
cause them considerable pain. M. Malgaigne has noticed that
if the animal is drawn out and becomes broken off, that it
suddenly retracts itself within the limb, lie therefore observes
that in order to extract the animal without difliculty it must
be killed by means of some application.

The Filaria medinengis is ovovivi parous and very prolific.
(Jacobson, Eobin.)

When the body of an adult specimen is opened it is seen to
contain the pulpy matter which has already Deen referred to;
this substance, when examined by the microscope, presents,
according to M. Guitrar, a multitude of transparent elongated
depressed bodies, partly folded upon themselves, and which
this gentleman regards as Kmall itnbrcmched vessels. M. Jncob-
son has seen these transparent bodies moving rapidly about,
and has recognised in them a prodigious number of small aelivc
worms. MM. Mac Clelland, Ch. Eobin, and Benoit, have
confirmed this view of them. It appears that after the Filaria
has been fecundated, that the excessive development of the
generative organs, the exclusion of the eggs, and the growth of
young, ultimately obliterate the alimentary canal, already
singularly contracted in so slender an animal, and that the
individual henceforth becomes converted into a thread-like sac
filled with diminutive worms.

When examined in the interior of the mother, the young
(fig. Ill, A) are rolled up sometimes with the tail projecting,
and at other times coiled up. The body (fig. Ill, B) ia not

PARASITIC WOBMS.

cylindrical, but flattened. Just before the period of birth the
body is the 3^ of an inch in length, andthe-roW in diameter.
Its anterior extremity is somewhat nar-
rowed, and terminates in a mouth provided
with three tubercles (fig. Ill, a). The
anus (fig. Ill, B and b) is situated about
the posterior fourth of the body, where
there is a slight enlargement. From this
part the body suddenly contracts, and forms
a very Blender and very pointed tail. The
toil is -n^nj of an inch in length, not curved,
somewhat rigid, hut capable of being bent
in every direction ; there is a marked dif-
ference between it and that of the adult
animal ; it bends abruptly opposite the
anus after death. The surface of the body
is finely ridged over the whole of its surface.
These traces of segmentation are Bituated
at regular distances from each other.

The young worms will live for Borne
days in water at the ordinary temperature.
(Jacobson, Maissonneuve.) They move
about in it with great rapidity. They
may be left in a drop of water until it dries
up bo as to deprive them of motion, and they
will subsequently recover their activity upon the addition of
fresh water, six or twelve hours after their di'sic-cntion, (Deville,
Eobin.) In order that the experiment should succeed, it is
necessary that the desiccation should be incomplete : when
they have been rendered absolutely dry, they do not recover
their vitality.

3. Otheb species. — Some writere have described three
other species of Filaria living in man. These arc : —

1st. Mlaria oeuli (F. lachn/malis of some writers), w
not uncommon in the negroes on the Angola coast, wb

called Loa; it is also met with at (i I • - 1 . i i ;

seen by Mongin at Cayenne, and by Blot at Martiniqi

This entoEOon is from 1 inch and -^ to 1 inch and T ° 5 ii
filiform, slender, pointed at one end, and obtuse
it is tolerably firm, and of a white or yellowish a

1 Youne Filaria Mcdmentii. — A, individual coiled Dp,
body of its parent; B, the same uncoiled in n drop of watol .
wiili its three nodules and the mouth; b, "'
and the anus.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGT.

M. Guyon approximates this animal to the Stronyr/litt
others consider it is a young Filaria riu-iii/iensi*.

2. The Filaria lends, l>ies. (F. oculi kumani, Nordm.), notice
by M. Nordmann, in 1831.

This species is from -A to ■& of an inch in length, and the
j-Ju in width. The body is filiform, thickened posteriorly,
and provided with a pointed tail ; it is transparent and partly
coiled up iu a spiral form.

The alimentary canal may be seen through the integument,
and is surrounded by the folds of the oviduct.

This animal is very imperfectly known ; only the female has

Is this species to he considered as really distinct from the
preceding ?

3. Filaria lymphntica (Hawularia Ipnphatica, Treutl., Ten-
tacularia stibmmprcena. Zeder, TricliOMina stibco-oipreasfi.. Ifiid.,
Filaria hronchialh. Dies.). This species was discovered in 1700,
by Treutler, who formed a new genus for its reception, under
the name of Hamularia, characterized by the presence of two
filamentary tentaeula or oral hooks. Further observations have

shown that in this case the tail was mistaken for the head, and
the double male organ for appendages belonging to the mouth ;
the new genus was therefore suppressed and the worm trans-
ferred to the Filaria.

This worm is from £$ to ^ of an inch in length ; it is cylin-
drical, filiform, slightly narrowed anteriorly, somewhat com-
fressed at the sides, semi -trans pa rent posteriorly, and of a
hickish-brown colour with white spots. After it ia dead the
extremities are somewhat curved.

The male possesses a double penis, which resembles a pair of
slightly curved pointed booklets.

According to M. Weinland this species does not diner from
the Slruiii/ylus longesaginatus.

4. Action on man,— The negroes are often tormented with
the Filaria Medinenti* ; and Europeans who visit India are
equally liable to its attacks. M'Gregor relates that an English
regiment arrived at Bombay in the month of September, 1789 ;
at that time not one of these men was attacked by the worms,
but at the period of the monsoons 300 soldiers were ill with it.
It has already been stated, that where the worm has been met
with in Europe, the individuals had always come from the
countries inhabited by the worm. Dr. Brulator met with two
cases at Bordeaux ; both the patients had come from Bombay :
the same was the case with a patient of Dr. Thibaut;

PAHAS1TJC WOEMS.

365

Maisonneuve noticed it in an old soldier who had resided at
Senegal ; Professor Malgaigne in a Bailor under similar circum-
stances. Kiempfer has recorded the case of a man who was
attacked with the worm long after he had returned from the
coast of Africa, and who, up to that time, had never had the
slightest symptom of the complaint.

The Filaria Xe&nmu&s lodges beneath the skin in the cellular
tissue, and sometimes between the muscles. It most frequently
selects some part of the lower extremities, such as the foot or
leg, and works its way upwards towards the thigh. Kaampfer
extracted two of these worms from the scrotum. Baillie has
seen it in the testicle. The worm is also found, but more
rarely, in the arm, elbow, neck, or even the head. Carter
noticed it in the chin of a woman. M. Clot-bey met with it
in the frenum of the tongue. In one of the plates belonging
to the Voyage awe I/ides orientates of Jean Hugens (Theodore
do Bry's edition) is the representation of an Indian having a
Filaria extracted from the leg by winding it round a stick, and
another in whom it is being removed from the eye 1 by the
same means. According to Dr. Cezilly, in Senegal, the Filaria
is frequently developed in the parietes of the chest, principally
upon the ribs. He once saw it in the mammary gland.

•Are we to admit, with Nysander, that the Guinea worm can
introduce itself into the bones P

Out of 181 cases published by M'Gregor, the worm oc-
curred 134 times in the feet, 33 times in the legs, 11 times in
the thighs, 2 in the scrotum, and once in the hand.

The worm has never beeu found in the visceral cavities.

The Filaria Medinensis sometimes occurs singly, while at
other times there are several of them. Heath noticed that
out of 74 patients several had as many as two, three, four,
or even five. Bosmaim says they may amount to as many as
nine or ten. Arthus mentions a case in which there were
twelve. Chapotin treated a patient who had thirteen. Andry
cites a case of twenty-three. Hemersand saw thirty in the
cook of a vessel. Pouppee-Desportea mentions a case in
which he counted fifty.

The Guinea worm having gained an entrance into the body,
takes a long time to become developed. This period varies
from two months to a year or more. M. Maisonneuve men-
tions an incubation of sii months ; M. Fieipio one of eight ;
M. Thibaut another of eight and a half; MM. Lubat and

1 Is this the same, or is it not rather the Filaria oculi* or F. lentil f

here
tber

.cew
3 or

B6 itEBlCAL ZOOLOGY.

Bernier mention a case in which thia period extended over fifteen
months ; and M. Cezilly has recorded eases in which two, nine,
ten, fifteen, and sixteen months elapsed. Kaanpfer speaks of
a case in which two years had passed by.

The presence of the Filaria is announced by a sensation of
itching in the part ; at first this is slight, but it gradually in-
creases until it becomes quite unbearable. The part affected
resembles a varicose vein, and can be moved under the akin.
Thia kind of subcutaneous knot gradually extends, and the pain
becomes excruciating. For the greater part of the time there
is no derangement of the general health, but sometimes there
are shiverings alternating with attacks of heat. At otl
times there is fever and a feeling of anxiety. A small abt
forma, which is often pointed, and terminated by a vesicle
by a black point surrounded by a brownish areola. When it
opens a kind of serous liquid, or sometimes a small quantity
of pus, comes out, and occasionally a white slender thread.
The tumour may be transformed into a diituse inflammation,
but this seldom happens.

Is the presence of the Filaria ever fatal p The
have been mentioned are rare, and, at the same time, inconi
sive. Gallandat mentions the case of a negro who was attacl
in the scrotum, and Clarke of a child who had Filaria in
right thigh and foot. Both these cases are imperfect, ani
does not appear that death was caused by the worms. (Cezilb
The Filaria oeulis resides in the lachrymal gland and in {
globe of the eye. In 1768, Bajon extracted one of thi
worms from the eye of a young negress about six or si
years of age. Dr. Guyon extracted another from the ej
a negresB in Guinea.

The worm is seen winding about and moving around
globe of the eye, in the cellular tissue which unites the i
junctiva with the sclerotic. Sometimes its presence does
occasion any disagreeable sensation (Bajon) ; while at other
times it causes very acute pain (Mongin). Occasionally it ia
accompanied by a constant watering of the eye.

The Filaria of Hie crystalline lens, as its name impb'es, is
found in that part of the eye. It was found for the first
time by M. Griefe, after an operation for cataract in the
liquor of Morgagni. M. N ornmnn detected two Filaria coiled
up together, by means of the microscope, half an hour .
the operation. The following year the same observer
with another Filaria in a crystalline lens which had bei
opaque, and had been extracted by professor Jiingken. La

PABASITIO W0BM9. 367

M. Geacheidt, of Dresden, obtained it from the crystalline
lens of a man sixty-one years of age, who had been operated
on by Professor Amnion ; there were three specimens of the
worm, of which one was coiled up in a spiral form.

The Filaria lymphatica oOBOXa in the bronchial glands. It
was found in the body of a man aged twenty-eight, who died
from phthisis, brought on by onanism, venereal excesses, and
mercurial medicines.

5. G-esebal bemahkb.— How do the Filariw introduce
themselves into the human body ?

Valmont de Bomare pretends that the Guinea worm is pro-
duced by an iuBect which iiitroJiiw* its eggs beneath the skin.
Dr. Chisalm also supposes that this Filaria is introduced in
the form of an egg. It has been shown that thia animal is
ovo viviparous.

MM. Maisonneuve and Deville, when examining a furuncu-
lous tumour produced by a Filaria, found in some a whitish
looking fluid which came from thousands of small living worms,
precisely resembling those which have been previously de-
scribed. The young Filarite are therefore deposited in the part
inhabited by their parents ; there they become developed, and
thus render the disease more dangerous and more prolonged.

But from whence do these worms come, and how do they
gain access to the individual in whom they appear for the first
timeP

The resemblance of the Guinea worm to the Gordlus aquaticits
or hair worm of our ponds and rivers led Meyer to suppose
that the entozoon was the latter animal which had penetrated
the cellular tissue. This opinion has been recently revived by
Dr. Cezilly. Linnaeus had, however, already distinctly defined
the two species, although lie placed them in the same genus.

This illustrious naturalist nevertheless supposed that the
Filaria normally lived out ofmarfs lodg in the morning dew,
and that it introduced itself parasitical ly into the naked legs of
the slaves. 1 This explanation is rendered extremely probable
from what we know of the habits of the Oordlut aquaticvs,
of several other species, and of the Mermis, which constitutes
a closely allied genus. It is well known that these animals
are erratic worms which reside in water or moist earth, that
they afterwards introduce themselves into the body of an in-
sect, where they undergo a certain amount of development, that
they then emerge from the body of their victim, copulate, and

i This is also the opinion of Joerdsos, Ciiapotin, Loath, Heat, Glcon. So.

MEDICAL ZOOLOOT.

■

return into the water or into moist earth [where they deposit
their eggs].

Dr. Carter believes that the Guinea tvorm is an inhabitant
marshes, and that it enters the body by penetrating the
akin. He relates the case of a school at Bombay, of which the
pupils went to bathe in a pond in the neighbourhood : out of
fifty children twenty-ona were attacked by the Guinea worm ;
some of them had as many as four or fire. In confirmation of
this view may be adduced the caBe of the negroes, who, being in
the habit of entering the water more frequently than the whites,
and generally having their feet naked, are far more subject to
the attacks of the worm than Europeans.

It is difficult to explain how the young worms can penetrate
the skin, since they nave neither jaws, mandibles, or osseous
pieces attached to the mouth. Some have supposed that the
Guinea worm is taken into the body with the drink. 1 The
larva* are swallowed when the brackish waters of certain rivers
are drank. Dr. CeziUy rejects this explanation on account of
the absence of the worm in the vi?ctT;il e.'ivi ties, and became
of their being constantly found in the subcutaneous cellular
tissue ; there are, however, other worms which enter the body
by means of the digestive organs, but which do not reside in
them.

CHAPTER VIIL

THE CO BO MA.

The existence of entozoa in the blood was long doubted,
but in the present day it can no longer be questioned. These
worms are even somewhat numerous, when considered in rela-
tion to the entire animal aerieB. They are found both in the
warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals, 8 and belong to genera
which differ essentially from each other. These parasites axe
collectively termed the Htematozoa, or Sanguicola. 3

Amongst these parasites, the genus which forms the subject
of the present chapter is one of the most curious. The animal
which is the type of it was found in Egypt in 1851, by Dr.
Bilharz, who regarded it as a species of Distoma. M. AVeinland
has formed a special genus of it, founded principally upon its:
unisexual character, and on the extraordinary dift'ereuce which

1 Burckhardt, Bilharz.

* They have been seen in the dog, rat, field mouse, horse, dolphin, seal,

off, rook, heron, lizard, frog, pike, tench, gudgeon, fcc

' Under this term are included the Helinintha and Infusoria.

PARASITIC WORMS. 369

exists between the male and the female. He gave the new
genus the name of Sckwtozoma, a term which had been pre-
viously applied by Geof. St.-Hilaire to a particular form of
monster. M. Taudon therefore proposed for it the name of
T/iecosoma. 1

1. Tiiecosoma h^matobium, Distoma hamiatohiwm, Bilh. —
Dr. Bilharz first discovered the male of this curious Bpecies,
and three mouths afterwards the female. The two sexes are bo
dissimilar, botli as regards size and form, that they may easily
be regarded as two distinct animalB. The male carries the
female in a kind of canal under its belly.

Description. — The male Theco&oma is from -^ to ^ of an
inch in length. It is soft, smooth, and of a white colour; the
anterior part (trunk) is depressed. :md hi met -shaped; it is
somewhat convex above, and plane or concave below ; the pos-
terior part (tail) is round and eight or nine times longer
than the trunk. In front of the cephalic portion is a kind of
cup, placed somewhat interiorly, and of a triangular form.
Beneath the body iB another cup, of the same size aa the pre-
ceding, but of a circular form. These two cups are covered
with fine granules. The alimentary canal appears to be divided
into two portions.

Commencing from the vicinity of the cup, on the under sur-
face of the abdomen, is a I niinit udinal groove, iu which the female
is lodged, like a sword in its sheath ; the cephalic portion is
placed anteriorly, and the tail posteriorly, the latter being free.

The genital pore of the male is situated between the groove
and the tail.

The female is much smaller than the male, especially with
regard to its thickness, it being very slender, and somewhat
transparent. The body is tlriuvik-il, and does not consist of two
distinct portions, like that of the male ; its tail has no groove.

M. Tandon believes that the sexes have been mistaken, and
that it is the female which is the largest, and carries the male
on the under surface of her abdomen. The presence of the
two cups, or dep re salons, indicates its alliance with the genus
Di stoma.

2. Action os man. — The Tliecosoma inhabits the vena
portte, and the mesenteric, hepatic, and intestinal veins. The
worm is by no means uncommon, since out of 3tS3 autopsies,
Dr. Griesinger met with it 117 times. It occurs moBt fre-
quently from June to August, and is scarcest from September
to January.

fctpcfi a case, and ai>m a body.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

CHAPTER IX.

Eyebt medical man is familiar with the name of the liver
Flute, but few have had the opportunity of seeing it.

Litmoms at first regarded the Fluke as a &7uy, while Goeze
considered it to be a Planaria. In the Sysfema Nafuree the great
Swedish naturalist created the genua Ftweioht 1 for the recep-
tion of this entozoon and two other parasitea, which are found
in fish and in the eulamary. lie, however, confounded the human
Fluke will) that of auimals Clericus and Daevereu Bhowed
tlmt the human Fluke waa different to that of the mammalia.
G-melin adopted this separation. Subsequently Betz (17S6)
and Zeder (1800) needlessly changed the name of Pasciola for
that of Distoma.*

1. Liter Fll'KK [Vintoma hepatiettm], Fnseiola hepatica,
Linn., 3 — is found in France. According to Moulin it is not un-
" a Holland, Sweden, Norway, and even in Greenland.
Beicription (fig. 112).— The liver Fluke
is from -ft to -^ of an inch in length,
rarely exceeding the latter measurement ; its
breadth varies from -^ to ^ of an inch. The
body is flat, oval, and somewhat oblong,
more contracted anteriorly than posteriorly,
and obtuse at its terminations ; the margins
of the body are exceedingly narrow. Lin-
naeus compares the aiiimal to a pumpkin
seed, Bremser to the blade of a lancet, and
Cuvier to a small leaf. It is of a soft con-
sistence, and ui'a greyish livid brown colour.
The body is capable of contracting and ex-
tending itself either partially or in its entire
length, much after the manner of a leech,
but with greater energy and regularity.
The anterior part of the Fluke is contracted, and forms a
kind of cylindrical neck, which is paler than the rest of its body,

1 Faiciula, a band.

1 This denomination is, moreover, incorrect, fur these wonne hive not A
mouths, F. Mullcr (17S71 very properly n-lmvil the l.inmesn nsm

1 Faicinln htnnink, fhiitl . Distmati lii-fKitiva, Keiz., 1.1, hepaticum,

[It is the I)i.ilt'ina Itr/iaHei/ia df EnjrlUli authors, a uiime which h

been retained by Kuchenincister in hia Manual of Animal and Vtgtta
Parasites].

Fig. 112.— Fluke.

FABlStTIC WOBMS. 371

q of a yellowish white colour. At the anterior extre-
mity is a eup-like depression {acetabulum), directed obliquely
downwards, and having a somewhat triangular form. Within
this depression is the oral aperture. Towards the anterior
third of the ventral surface, is another depression (fig. 112, o),
whose position varies somewhat ; several writers have supposed
that this was also perforated. According to some it was a second
sucker, while others considered it was either the anus, or the
aperture of the female organs. Liunieus described the two cups
as pores ; this opinion has been adopted by those helmintholo-
gists who either proposed or accepted the inappropriate term of
Dhtoma. Observation, has shown that the second depression
is not furnished with any opening, but is a shallow sub-triangular
Bucker, by means of which the animal attaches itself.

Somewhat further back are some white opaque spots, and a
fasciculus of vessels or tubes of a brown colour.

The body of the Distoma has no visceral cavity ; it is a small
parenchymatous mass, without any apparent muscular fibres,
and is covered with a line chisel v adherent skin.

Prom the oral sucker an oasophagus passes off, which soon
divides into two slender brandies, which descend on either
side of the abdominal cup. These branches approach each
other, and communicate by a system of transverse vessels, and
are then continued U: the posterior extremity of the body. In
their course the canals give off a number of branches from their
exterior, which subdivide and terminate near the margins of
the animal ; these branches are placed at an equal distance from
the two surfaces of the body, and, what is remarkable, the ter-
minal divisions are of nearly the same diameter as those which
are first given off. Deslongchamps regarded the whole of this
apparatus as a ramified intestine; it is rather a brandling
stomach, analogous to that of the small leeches, which are para-
sitic upon the molluscs. There are as many branches as there
are subdivisions, and an extremely delicate network of minute
vessels are sent off, which ramify principally over the dorsal
surface of the animal. These minute vessels communicate in
the manner of veins, and give rise to a number of transverse
branches, which communicate with a longitudinal vessel situated
in the median line. The latter, which is of a large skc, is
regarded as an urinary apparatus ; it commences opposite the
abdominal sucker, passes beneath the skin, and enlarges in its
course to the posterior extremity of the body, where it termi-
nates hi an open orifice.

The bile forms the exclusive nourishment of the Dietona.

372 MEDICAL Z00I.OGT.

Thie entozoon is androgynous ; MM. Mentis and Blanchar
have well described its double genital apparatus. A little ij
front of the abdominal sucker in a small elongated appendae
(fig. 112, a), twisted once or onee and a half times upon itself,
and capable of beiug retracted ; this is tlie penis, which has
been mistaken by some naturalists for a tentacle or eiirhus.
Its base communicates with a pouch, which serves it as a case
when it is retracted (receptacle of the cirrhus, Rudolphi).
Passing backwards from the pouch is a straight eanal, placed
near the middle of the animal, which terminates in an oval
seminal vesicle, filled with a white semifluid humour. A semi-
nal duet, which is eommon to all the branches, secreting the
white fluid, terminates at the posterior part of the vesicle. To
the right and left of the vesicle there are also some after
branches belonging to the teBticle. More externally are two
long canals communicating with the Bheath of the penis ; these
are probably deferent canals or accessory duets of the testicles.
Except at the period of reproduction, only a small opening i
seen at the part which is occupied by the penis.

The opening of the female organs is close to, and behind tl
base of, the male organ. According to Pes long eh amps, it is
difficult to perceive the opening, especially in the adult. Th"
vulva communicates with an oviduct, which is at first situate
in the median line, is slender and tortuous, but afterwai
increases in thickness, becomes twisted, and forms severs
enlargements, which pass from right to left; it then j u
becomes slender, and placed in the median line, and reachei
an oval cavity, which is possibly the uterus ; from behind thj
there passes off to the right and to the left two Blende
horizontal canals ; these sixm divide into two portions, one o
which passes forwards, and the other backwards, parallel to th<
margin of the animal. These canals give off a great number o
branches externally, and represent the ovarie

The Distoma is oviparous ; its c^gs (tig, 112, h) are extremel
small, elliptical, and semitransparent. At one end there is i
kind of oblique lid.

The Distoma undergo a very curious series of transformatioi
but these have only been traced in those species which do n
infest the human body. At birth these worms have a ciliate
body, resembling that of the infusoria ; in its interior anoth
animal becomes developed, which has the form of a locomotive
sac. These young sacciform larva? (nurses) continue to live ft
a certain time. They are sexless individuals, but can nev
theless reproduce themselves by the process of gemmation ;

give rise to another series of beings of an oblong form, and pro-
vided with a tail (Ccrcaria). The latter introduce themselves
into the bodies of other animals, where they become transformed
into the fully developed Flake, capable of reproducing itself hy
a true act of generation.*

2. Otheb species. — Four other species of Fluke have been
detected in the human body ; these ore the DUtoinn hnaeolatum,
DidomUM ophthalmobium, Distoma heteroph/es, and the DUtoina
Baskii. The following are their characters, compared with
those of the Distoma kepatieum :

i-.„.- (ramified 1. Drstoma htputicum.

lattst™ | lImpK ,,„„„,„ s DMomlJ :„,,,!„:.„.

A lido mi mil sucker ) t scarcely larger than

( snbceutral, ) the K£*L h DUlona D P AiA °' Blu6 '"'"»
' * j much larger than

( the mouth. 4. Distoma lieterophi/et.
Cudescribed species 5. Distoma BaskU.

Distoma lanceolatum? — Tliis species was first described by
MM. Bucholz and Mehlis. It is rarer than the first, with
which it baa been often confounded. Chabert met with it in
France, in a voting girl twelve years of age, from whom he
eipelled a large number of the worms by the use of his einpy-
reumatic oil.

The siae of this Flake is smaller than that of the Distoma
hepatieum. Its body is from the f s to the -^ of an inch in
length, and from ^L to the -^ of an inch in breadth ; its form
is lancet-shaped, it is very flat, tolerably transparent, and
of a whitish colour. The oral sucker is proportionally larger
than iu the preceding species, and about the same size as the
ventral sucker ; they are both circular.

The intestines are straight and unbranched.

The penis has not a spiral form.

The eggs may be seen through the integuments, and ore of a
brown or black colour, according to their stage of development.

Distoma ophthalmobium. — M. &escheidt, of Dresden, met
with this species of Flake onee in Germany.

This worm is from "009 in. to "196 in. in length, and "006 in.
in breadth. The body is of a lanceolate oval form. The two
suckers are circular; the posterior is farther from the cephalic
extremity than in the other species, being nearly in the centre
of the body.

' Steeaatrup, Van Bciicdcn. de Fillippi, Wagener.
* Fasciula laut\t'uhita, Hoq. Tmid.

MEDICAL ZOOL0OT.

Dwtomn. heferopit/es. 1 — We are indebted to Dr. Bilharz for a
knowledge of this curious species. He met with it twice in
Egypt, in 1851.

This Fluke ia about '039 in. in length, and "019 in. in breadth.
The body ia oval, somewhat more dilated at its posterior than
at its anterior part, depressed, and of a, reddish eolour. It has
a small funnel-shaped oral sucker, which opens more inferiorly
than anteriorly. The ventral sucker is twelve limes the size of
the former.

In consequence of the transparency of the animal the dilate
a?sophagua is seen anteriorly, and m the median line the u~
nary canals.

The sac of the penis may he also seen, hearing a strong n
semblance to one of the suckers, surrounded by Beyenty-t
horny filaments. The testicles are placed posteriorly.

The eggs are of a red colour.

Dutoma Buskii. — [In the winter of 1843, fourteen flufo
were found by M. Busk in the duodenum of a Lascar who diec
in the Seaman's Hospital. There were none in the gall,
bladder, or gall duets. These flukes were much thicker and
larger than those of the sheep, bring from an inch and a half to
near three inches in length. They resembled the Distoma
hepaticum in shape, but were like the Distoma Jitnceolalum in
structure ; the double alimentary canal, as in the latter variety
being not branched, and the entire space between it towai
the latter part of the body being occupied by a branched ute
tube. Two specimens of this fluke are in the Museum of If"

. Action on man. — The Liver fluke is found in the g
bladder, the hepatic duets, and perhaps also in the subst
of the liver. The presence of these animals produces £
dilatation of the biliary ducts ; their internal surface becom
covered with a thick dark coloured mucous secretion. £
times this niiicosity hardens and becomes converted into a
of osseous matter. Fortassiu mentions the case of a woman u
whose liver there wore more than two hundred Flukes.
Bilharz has described a curious disease which occurs at Cai
produced by the presence of these entozoa, consisting
fungus-like excrescences of the mucous membrane of tl
bladder. According to M. Siebold, a Fluke has been seen ii
tumour on the foot by Dr. Giesker. M. Dujardin says, tbj

paha8it:o wobms.

375

by M. Duval i

this species v
vena porta}.'

The Distoma lanctohtum slao inhabits the liver.

The Distontum opJithalmohium lives between the crystalline
lens and. its capsule. Geeobeult once found four of these para-
sites in the eye of a child five years old.

The DtfUmtt fotenphj/et wn found on two occasions in large
quantities in the intestines of a boy.

The Distoma Duskii was found in the duodenum.

JfESTCCABIA.

The genus Fentumria^ was first established by Selirank
(1788). In 1800 Zeder gave it the name of Monostoma? which
Eudolphi and other writers have adopted, although it is a more
recent and less appropriate name.

The genus Ffslucaria ditl'ers from that of Distoma in the
absence of the ventral sucker. In the previous chapter it was
seen that this sucker had been mistaken for a mouth. Hence
the reason of the name Distoma being applied to the Flukes,
and that of monostoma to those parasites which were supposed
to have only one mouth. In reality, both genera have but a
single mouth.

1. Festucakta Lentis, Monostomum lentis, Nord. — This
small worm, which is very imperfectly known, is the only species
which has been found in man.

Description. — The Festmaria lentis is - 003 of an inch long.
It might be mistaken for the Fasciola oculis. Its body is
depressed, it has a single sucker, the mouth is anterior
and terminal in its position, and there is a small anal pore
towards the caudal extremity. Below and behind the oral
sucker is the opening of the male genital organ, which consists
of a protractile penis. Close to thiB is the opening of the female
organs, which it is difficult to deteet.

Action on man. —All that is known about this worm is
vas discovered in Germany, by Professor Jiingken, in the
rystalline lens of an old woman who had cataract. He obtained
t specimens.

1 This example probably referred to tbo Thecosoma hamalobium ; see

CHAPTER XI.

T.INTA.

Two kinds of flat worms are met with in the human body,
belonging to two different genera ; these are the Twnia and tfie
Hothriocefhahix. These animals have been known to medical
men from the earliest times, but they have not always been
distinguished from one another, in most
works they have been confounded toge-
ther under the name of Solitary worm or
Tosttia. Tho name of solitary worm was
given to it from the belief, which was
long entertained, that these parasites
bved singly. The word Ttenia 1 signifies
a ribbon or band, and is derived from the
general form of their body.

1. Common t.enia, Taenia Solium.
Linn. — This species, which is familiarly
known as the Solitary or Tape worm, is a
very common entozoon. It is found in
Prance, Italy, Holland, Germany, and
England. It has also been observed
in Egypt, and is so common in Abys-
sinia that it is only absent as it were
by chance. Whenever a slave is sold ha
is always provided with a plentiful t

'Description (fig. 113).— The body i
the animal is flat and narrow, resem
bling a piece of tape, and is composed o
segments, which are joined tog "
their extremities. The body is very k
but it is very difficult to deteniiini- i
actual dimensions. "I believe," s
Bremser, " that no one has ever yet s
an entire Tape worm, that is to say, r
vided with both its head and the whi
of its tail ; for it often happens thi
last segments, which are usually

e anterior segments nean
e completely developed.

r*.nAaiTTC worms. 377

son it ia impossible to determine what is the precise length
which this worm can attain if all its segments remained attached
together." The Tte-nios which are found iu dead bodieB ore not
any the more entire. Writers have varied exceedingly aa to
the dimensions which they have assigned to this entonoon.
Some state that they measure from 9 to 12 feet. Bremser says
that specimens 25 feet in length are not uncommon. Eobin
found in the body of a man who, shortly before his death, had
evacuated a part of a Ticnia measuring more than three-and-
twenty feet, one of these worms folded up immediately below
the pylorus, one portion of it extending the whole length of
the intestine to the vieinity of the anus. The animal, when it
was unfolded and the portion added which had been previously
discharged, measured thirty-two feet. The average length of
the Common Twnia may he estimated at from 12 to 15 feet.
M. A. Foster says its dimensions vary from 14 inches to 32 feet.

The body of the I\enia gradually narrows from behind for-
wards, until it becomes a mere thread. Thus the width of the
animal varies considerably. At the anterior part it is scarcely
'025 inch in width, while towards the posterior part it is often
as much as '2 to *4 inch. Bremser observes that when a Ttenia
is measured it is necessary to notice whether it is in a state of
contraction or not, for without that precaution the measure-
ments will not be correct. The thickness of the animal is also
very variable. Some are thin, and in consequence they are
almost transparent, while others are tolerably thick.

The parenchyma of this entozoon
is soft, and almost white ; it contains
a number of microscopic calcareous
granules disseminated through nearly
every part of it.

According to Linnseus, the Taenia
has no head. Its anterior estreiuitv
presents, however, a Binall enlargement,
which usually receives that name (fig.
114). This enlargement is generally
very small, and is difficult to distinguish
with the naked eye. Bremser only
met with one individual which had a
large and very apparent head. But
even what Bremser terms Large, did not
e than '078 of an inch ; in

1 A, head ; a, anterior part, somewhat attenuated ; 6 b, oscula ; e, double
crown of tusks ; d, proboscis ; c, torn men cam cut of neck; /, first articu-
lations ; B, hooks ; a, baft ; b, guard ; c, claw.

378 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

general the head is not more than *039 or '058 of an inch in dia-
meter The form of the head varies, but it is always more or less
globular ; occasionally it is ovoid ; it is provided with four cir-
cular projections, placed at equal distances from one another,
and arranged in a crucial form. In the living animal each pro-
jection has a circular disk (oscula) in its centre, surrounded bv
a rim of denser material than the rest of the tissue, and which
appears to be of a muscular nature. These mouths have been
compared to small suckers. While it is alive, the Tcenia con-
tinually elongates and retracts, the mouth bearing papilla;
Bremser remarks that the animal always extends the opposite
projections, and at the same time retracts the other two.

Between and in front of the mouth is a convex protuberance
forming a kind of rudimental proboscis, which, however, ie not
perforated, but is surrounded by a double row of hooks. These
bodies are of a horny nature, and vary in number from 12 to
15 in each row. Each hook consists of a stem or handle, which
is almost straight, of moderate thickness, and forms nearly
half its length ; of a curved pointed claw ; and of a guard
or tubercular projection placed at the junction of the stem
with the claw. This projection serves as a point of resistance
during the backward and forward movements of the hook ; it
is generally surrounded by a sheath. The hooks alternate
with obtuse appendages, which are nothing more than the dis-
articulated sterna. According to Bremser a Timia loses its
hooks as it becomes old. Some writers have supposed that the

Eroboscis had an opening in the centre of the double crown of
ooks which represented the mouth. According to this view
the openings in the disks would be accessory mouths ; it was
in accordance with this idea that Virey gave the animal the
name of Pentastoma, or ftve-mouthed. It has been previously
mentioned that the projection is not perforated.

The head is supported upon a short slender neck, which has
no visible articulations. This neck, as well as the head, ap-
pears to be composed of a gelatinous looking material.

Beyond the neck is the body, composed of segments or
Zoonites,' (fig. 115). These segments are very numerous. M.
EBchricht possesses a Tama in which there are more than 1000.
Adanson asserts that the worm may have as many as 1240.
The segments are united together in a single linear series. 1
The first segments arc always shorter than they are wide ; as
they grow in size their length increases proportionally much

i See page 59.

* These zoonitea are generally from 'ill in. to - 787 in. in length, and
from '276 in. to -472 in. in breadth.

more than their width. They soon become of a square form,
and afterwards oblong, and ultimately their length is equal to
twice their width. 1 Individuals are occasionally met with in
which some of the segments are
wider than they are long, followed
by others in which these propor-
tions are reversed; a circumstance
which proves the irregular con-
traction of the Twnia. In some
cases these unequal contractions
arise from the sudden destruction
of the animal hy placing it in
spirits of wine. At other times
the contractions are still more
marked, and produce actual mon-
strosities. (Bayer, Follin.) In
general, however, the segments
which arc miiai'iU'velopt'd arc longer
than they are wide. The last seg- Fig. US.— Separate leginenti*
ments are only slightly united to-
gether and readily separate.

Each segment has tour borders and two surfaces. The an-
terior border unites with the previous segment ; it is always
thinner than the posterior and generally narrower. The pos-
terior border is thickened, and appears to project ; it is either
undulating or indented. The lateral margins are seldom straight
or parallel, but incline slightly towards each other. One of
them is provided with an opening, which will he described
presently. TheBe borders form with the posterior a projecting
angle, which gives the animal the appearance of being notched
at its sides. The two surfaces are Hat, but sometimes they pro-
ject slightly towards the centre.

The ento7.oon is covered with a very thin skin, which is in-
timately united to the subjacent tissue, so that it can only be
taken oif in strips, and then only on the largest segments.

The digestive system of the Tmtia consista of four slei
canals, which pass from the mouths. These canals, which look
like so many white lines, soon unite to form two, which pass
along the whole length of the two sides of the animal. They
take a parallel course at a short distance from each lateral
margin. At the posterior part of the segments they com-

' " Animalia cempotisa litaplici catena." Linn.

■ a, genital openings ; d, deferent canal and testicle ; /, oviduct ; g h,

880

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

munieate by means of transverse branches which run aloiw
the posterior margin. The lateral canals are provided with
valves, which prevent the nutrient fluid moving in a retrograde
direction. Carlisle emleav.mri'd to inject one of these canals
from behind forward, but the fluid would not pass ; in order
to succeed it must be injected from one of the mouths.

M. Blancbard has described a circulatory system in tha
Tcmiitt, consisting of four slender vessels, two corresponding to
each surface, and communicating together by means of very
delicate branches. Some recent observation! tend to show that
these canals are urinary vessels. (Van Breneden.)

Nervous centres are said to have been discovered in the hesd
of this entozoon. These consist of two cerebral ganglions united
together by a slender commissure, and of two long cords which
are given oil' from the ganglions and can be traced along the
margins of the different segment*. A small ganglion is also
stated to exist beneath each mouth, which is connected by <
delicate filament with the cerebral ganglion. M. Dumeril,
who has dissected a large number of Tania, and has noticed
these lateral cords, does not regard them as nerves, but as
ligaments.

Beneath the !_'i'1kt;i1 integuments some longitudinal muscular
fibres are said to be present, which are not intercepted at the
articulations.

When the Tenice are examined in the living state, and when
they are surrounded by the mucous secretion of the intestines,
they are seen to move about with an undulating motion. 1 Dee-
longehamps having placed some of the young Taenia! in tepid
water, states that they swam about in the Bame manner as
leeches. A. Richard relates, that, having immersed a living
Tenia in tepid milk, it executed very distinct movements,
which were renewed when the liquid was changed.

The Tenim are androgynous, each adult segment containing
both male and female organs (fig. 116). An opening situated
at the side constitutes the sexual aperture ; the orifice is very
distinct, and pierces a prominent papilla. It is in the middle
segments that this opening is Been must clearly, and is stated
to be surrounded by a small projecting margin. For a long
time these apertures were regarded as mouths or suckers which
were intended to fix the animal to the intestine and to suck
up its food. 2 The great length of the entozoon,
tenuity of the alimentary canals, the size of the li
' Gomes, Dealaades.
* " Sinyuto articulo proprium <x. Liu]

and the prominence of the genital pore, which is able to apply
itself with a certain force i
some show of proba-
bility to this opinion.
The pores are placed
sometimes on one aide,
sometimes on the
other, but without any
regular alternation.
Sometimes there are
two, three, or even
four, arranged conse-
cutively on the same
aide, while there will be

only one or two on the Fig. 116.- Sexual organ*.'

opposite side. When

examined with a magnifying glass, the genital pore resembles a
cup-shaped depression. In the centre is a minute aperture
from which a short small spieutum is occasionally seen to pro-
ject ; this opening leads to a horizontal tortuous (deferent) canal;
the latter 1b of an opaque white colour, and terminates in
the testicle, which is placed towards the middle of the segment.
Behind the male orifice, and frequently confounded with it, is
the opening of the female organs. This opening communicates
with a canal (cn'/iiui) which passes parallel to t.lic deferent canal,
but which islimnor ami bcciiiik'sccjiniivti'd with a granular, irre-
gularly lobed organ, having a grape-like form. This organ, which
some authors have described as n. ramified intestine, is the ovary.

"When a Tamia has attained a certain stage of develop-
ment, its ovaries enlarge and become very apparent. At
this period individuals have been found folded up so to place
some of the genital pores opposite to each other ; a circum-
stance which has led some writers to think that the animals were
in the act of copulating. The invertebrata, however, which
can procreate of themselves, do not copulate. In these
animals there is an internal communication between the
ova and spermatozoa. Copulation takes place in all thoBe
androgynous animals which are deprived of this communica-
tion, but then it occurs between two or more individuals.

The Tenia are oviparous. They deposit their eggs (fig. 116,
_B) in incalculable numbers, each segment containing hundreds.

' A, double sexual apparatus; a, genital depression; b, Epieulum ; c,
female orifiue ; ft testicle ; (, deferent canal; /, oviduct; g, axis of ovary;
h, grape-lite ovaries ; B, egg.

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

The egg has a rounded form, and is of a white colour. It i»
provided with three coverings ; an exterior one which ia of i
kind of albuminous layer, a middle one which ia hard and re-
sisting, and an internal one which iB very thin and easily torn.
The embryo may be seen in the interior, having its head' armed
with three pairs of spines which resemble those of the adult;
only they are proportionally larger. The eggs are liberated in
three ways : 1, The impregnated segments sepnrate from each
other' (ng. 114). These zoonites have been mistaken for a dis-
tinct species of worm, and received the name of Omurhifm
(Vrrmrx cttntrhititii, encumrrini). from having been compared
to the seeds of the pumpkin, (Lamarck.) Andry regards them
ns the eggs of the animal. In reality they are ovigroua cap-
sules, but at the same time they retain their vitality and pos-
sess a very distinct motion. (Siebold, Mignot.) The vitality
of the segments is speedily extinguished, they become decom-
posed, and the eggs are set at liberty. 2. The eggs are
discharged through the genital pore in the usual manner; the
latter process does not occur so frequently as the former.
Goeze only noticed it once. Lamarck states that by lightly
pressing some of the segments the eggs can be discharged.
8. Under certain circumstances the ovary and the segment
buret at the sides, and the zoonite becomes perforated.
Masars de Cazeles mistook a Tama perforated in this manner
for a new Bpccies, to which he gave the name of Taniii fenestrate.

M. Weinland has described, under the name of abietina, a
variety of the Common Tcetiia, which was sent from North
America to Professor Agassix, and in which the ovaries were
ramified in a peculiar manner.

2. Other specles. The other species of Tani ue which have
been noticed in the human body are : — the Ta-nia nana, the
T&nia Jt-avopuncttita, the T<eitia Eehinococcvn, and the TwiM
inermis. The following are their characters: —

alternate ... 1. Tania ioIbm

unilateral J colour. 2. Tttnia nam.

(Spotted. 3. Tienia Jtaiv

punctata.

Seiual orifices

\ without hooks 5. Tasini*

PARASITIC WORMS. 383

The Ttenia nana} was found in considerable numbers in
Egvpt in 1851 by Dr. Bilharn, in the small intestines of a joung
mail who had died from meningitis.

This entonoon is very small, not being more than half an
inch in length, and not thicker than a needle. The segments
are proportionally somewhat large. The head is large, obtuse
anteriorly, and supported upon a long neek. Its proboscis is
pyriform, and the mouths projecting.

The eggs are globular and furnished with a thick, smooth,
yellow shell, through which the three pairs of hooks with
which the embryo in provided nin be readily seen.

The Tama jhvpinictala was discovered in Massacbusets in
1842, by Dr. Erm Palmer, and described, unfortunately, from
portions without the head by professor Weinland. It came
from an infant nine months old, who was however in good
health, had been weaned at six months, and fed in the usual

It was mistaken at first for a Bothriocephalus.

The worm ia from 8 to 12 inches in length, and from -078 to
•118 of an inch in width. It is of a whitish colour, with a dis-
tinct yellow spot in the centre of each segment. The segments
are very regular, excepting towards the posterior extremity,
where they are so much contracted anteriorly that they are
almost of a triangular form.

The most remarkable character of Ibis species is the situa-
tion of the sexual orifices, which are all situated on one side,
as ia the case in the Tamice of several of the mammalia. The
ovary does not consist of a central stem with lateral branches,
but of a mass of germs in the centre of each segment.

The eggs are spherical and transparent, and have a yellow
spot in the centre. They are provided with three coverings,
of which the innermost is resisting, and breaks under pressure
at acute angles ; the second is thicker and wrinkled.

The Ta-itia JSchinocoecus is a species which is still imper-
fectly known ; it ia often met with in Iceland, where it is found
in large numbers in the intestines of the dog ; it is believed
that it is also found in the human subject. M. Tandon con-
siders that the latter statement is extremely doubtful.

This Tama is extremely small, being almost of microscopic
dimensions. Its length is hardly more than 118 of an inch;
it has only three or four segments, of which the lam is already
fully developed, being impregnated and filled witl
has from 28 to 30 hooks.

1 Taaia Eijypliaca. Billl.

iddle of the Kg-

381 KEDICAi ZOOLOOY.

The penia is seen at the side, behind the middle (
nn'iit . Its ovary is large and winding.

The eggs are spherical.

The segments after their separation become as large as the
entire Tamia.

The Teenia inermi* ' was discovered, in 1855. by M. Kuchen-
meister. It is an inhabitant of Europe, and appears to be not
uncommon in Germany. It is found in the small intestines.
An individual of this species was recently obtained from a pork
butcher of Lou vain, and another from a young girl of Liege,
(Van Beneden.)

This Tamia closely resembles the Common Taenia, with which
it has been confounded. It is, however, clearly distinguished
by the absence of the hooks and the simplicity of its ovaries.
Those who first noticed it probably mistook it for an individual
of the common species in which the hooks had become lost
either through accident or age.

The head of the Ttenin inermis is somewhat larger than that
of the Taenia communis, and iB very obtuBe, and as it were
truncated. It has neither books nor proboBciB ; the suckers are
very large ; and the segments separate very readily. Its

ovaries consist of a longitudinal canal, which gives off »

thing like siity lateral parallel branches, which are (
simple or bifurcated, but never dendritic.

The eggs are oval and smooth.

Some writers have mentioned the following species as para-
sitic upon man ; further information is still required concerning
them.

1. The Teenia of the Cope, Tamia Capemii, is mentioned by
Kuchenmeister as having been obtained from a Hottentot.
M. Weinland considers it is a variety or monstrosity of the
Tamia communis or the Teenia inermis. M. Leuehart thinks it
is the same as the latter. [Kuchenmeister has founded this
species upon the characters of the separated segments, not
having Been either the bead or the neck of the worm. He
himself expresses a doubt as to whether it is really a distinct
species.]

2. The Teenia tropica is common in the Indies, one half of
the negroes being affected with it. It is seldom met with in
Europeans. It has, however, been noticed in thoBe who have
resided on the coasts of Guinea, and who were at the same time

y. its

V mow.

FAUASITIC WOBMS. 385

affected with the Mlaria Mediimutis? It has never been Been
in the Malay race. It is said not to have hooka ?

M. Van Beneden approximates this species to the Ttznia
inennis.

3. The Taenia serrata, which is very common in the dog, is it
ever found in man as some medical men have stated p

4. M. Eschricht says he received a Taenia canina? Linn.,
which had been passed by a negro slave. Is this fact correct ?

8. Action on Man. — The TiEitiw usually inhabit the small
intestines. When they are numerous or greatly developed
they descend into the large intestines. It is very rarely
that they ascend into the stomach. Aubert, of Geneva, lias
described a tumour in a testicle, caused by the presence of a
Taenia ( ! )

This cntozoon is sometimes solitary, while at other times
there are several of them together. Two or three are often met
with in the same patient, lludolphi mentions a ease in which
there were four. M. Barth had charge of a patient who had
six ; M. Monod succeeded in expelling fourteen at the same
time, and De Haen cured a woman aged thirty who had
eighteen. The name of Solitary Worm by which this creature
is generally known is, therefore, very ill chosen.

These worms gain access to the intestinal canal in the larval
state.' The cephalic hookB axe at this time directed forwards
and can easily penetrate the mucous tissues. They are then
moved from before backwards, the claw penetrating at the
Bame time, and, by this means, the head of the worm is buried
in the thickness of the mucous membrane. (Van Beneden.)

M. Sappey found a Taenia serrata in the intestines of a dog
where the head had penetrated the epidermis, and was resting
in contact with the subjacent layer of the mucous membrane.
He succeeded in dissecting out the worm with a portion of the
epidermal layer remaining around its neck like a collar.

The presence of the Tnmim gives vise to a feeling of uneasi-
ness, to a sensation of weight, to flatulency, and to pains in
the abdomen; the latter are usually slight, especially at the
commencement of the disease. The patient is subject to
shiverings ; he has a feeling of anxiety, and has an inordinate
desire for food, while at the same time lie gets thin.

M. Van Beneden suspects that it was the larvffi of the
Taenia Eehinocoacus which produced the terrible epidemic,

1 Seep. 360.

' T. cucumerina, Bloeh.

' See chapter xiii. on the cystic heluiUitlm.

188 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

which destroyed one sixth of the inhabitants of Iceland.
(Schleianer.) 1

When the person has expelled a large number of the frag-
ments of a Ta-nia the parasite ultimately perishes. During
the treatment of a patient the anterior portion of the worm,
and more especially the head, is anxiously sought for. The
patient is often supposed to have discharged only a number of
segments, while, in reality, he has got rid of the most active
and important portion of the worm. By a careful examination
of the fajcal matter the head can sometimes he detected. Out
of a hundred persons affected with Twnia, who were treated by
Bremser, only one of them detected the expulsion of the head
of the worm, and yet ninety-nine out of the hundred, were
cured.

Some writers haTe asserted that a Ttsnia will live for ten
years, a statement which appears to be very doubtful. Patients,
however, have been known to discharge portions of Twnvs
during that space of time, but in all probability they came
from different individuals.

CHAPTER XIL

B OTHKI O CEFH ALU S .

The genus Bothriocrphi'Ins was established by Bremser. It
differs essentially from that of Tama. The head has two fossa
or pita instead of the four mouths, and has no circlet of hooks.

1, Botiiriocephalus Latos. 4 — This entozoon inhabits the
north of Europe, where it is more common than the Tamia
toliwn ; it is found more particularly in Russia, Poland, and
Sweden. M. Kiichenmeister says he has met with it in Ham-
burg, but only in Jews. It has also been observed in France.
Two years ago Professor Grisolle succeeded in expelling a
very long one from one of his patients. Mr. Jackson has twice
met with this worm in England. In general the Bothriocepha-
lus is common where the Taenia is rare, and vice versa.

[Mr. Jackson's cases occurred in America, one of the patients
being an Englishman. In the College uf Surgeons, No. 204 of
the Natural History series, is a specimen of the Bothriocephalic
latm, which was procured by the late Sir Anthony Carlisle from a

y the Tamia urrata.

FAH1S1TIC WOBMS.

femalewhowas a native of Switzerland.
IVili'-wnrQuekctt has kindly informed
me that five other specimens have since
been added to the collection. Three
of these -were purchased at the sale of
the late Mr. Gardener's collection.
One of them was said to have come
from a person belonging to the Rus-
sian embassy, another from a person
who had been travelling in Switzer-
land, and the history of the third was
unknown. The fourth specimen oc-
curred in the practice of Dr. Gull: the
patient was a little girl live years old,
who resided at Woolwich, where there
is always a number of foreign sailors.
The fifth came into the possession of
Mr. Camplin, and was passed by a
lady who was a native of Eussia, and
who, after a residence of Borne years
in England, paid a temporary visit to
her native country. In all the cases,
there lore, in which the history of the
disease can be traced, with the ex-
ception of that which came under the
notice of Dr. Gull, the Geographical
distribution of the worm ia most
rigidly maintained. In the case of
the child residing by the water-side,
the presence of foreigners readily ex-
plains the mode in which the worm
might have been conveyed to this
country, and impure drinking water
would suggest itself as the means of
transmission from one individual to
another.]

Description.— The Bothriocqihnhis
lirti.ta (tig. 117) is also one of the flat,
arfii-ulated entozoa. Its usual length
is from 6 to 20 feet. Bremser men-
tions the case of a young Swiss who
expelled three pieces, of which the longest measured twenty-
five Vienna feet. Other writers mention 60 feet. Goeze
s that he received a specimen from Bloeh which measured
o c 2

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

more than 230 feet, Boerhave declares tbat he expelled a
Bothriocephalus from a Russian which was not Ibbs than 1200
feet in length ? The greatest width of this worm is from the
■898 of an inch to the 1-220 of an inch. Budolphi, however,
asserts that he saw one which was 3296 inches in width. It
is difficult to admit the correctness of this measurement.

The Bothriocephalus is generally of a greyish white or yel-
lowish colour ; it never has the milky whiteness of a Ttenia
The middle of the last segments are more or less of a brown
colour arising from the presence of the eggs. When this worm

»r ■■"

is put into alcohol it assumes a grey colour. From this cir^
cumstance it received the name ot Tcenia grUea, which was
given to it by Pallas.

The head of the Bothriocephalus (fig. 118) is
very small (about *093 inch), oblong, somewhat
depressed, and obtuse; there are two oblong,
lateral depressions or pits placed opposite to
each other, which Budolphi justly regards as the
oral apertures.

[Kuehennieister examined five heads of the
Bothrioeephalj, only one of which was, however,
tolerably treah. The two lateral pits (the ana-
logues of the sucking discs of the Taenia) are
tinsiirii'orm ; they appear, like the sucking discs
on the feet of flies and mites, on leeches, &e.,
rather to a-ifect I he adhesion in accordance with
the well-known laws of partial or total vacua,
than to have anything to do with the nourish-
ment, which is probably introduced through the
entire akin. An actual opening on the head of
the Bothriocepkalue could not be detected any
Fig. 118. more than in the other Cestoidea?]
Bead. The neck is sometimes very apparent and

distinctly developed, while at other times it can
be scarcely discerned. Bremser has figured two heads with
well- developed necks, and a third in which it is almost absent.
The neck appears to possess no articulations, but by means of
the microscope a number of closely arranged ridges can be per-
ceived.

The segments or zoonites are at first nearly square, but they
soon become wider than they are long. At the posterior part
of the body the transverse greatly exceeds the longitudinal

1 Kikheameister, opus cil. vol. i. p. 97.

PiHASITIC WORMS.

diameter (fig. 119). M. Esehrieht calculated that a Bingle
Sothriocephtthm contains 10,000 segments.

At the posterior extremity of the animal there is sometimes
observed ft kind of incision or longitudinal rent, which divides
the worm into two portions, and may give to thia extremity the
appearance of a head. BremBer has figured a portion of a
Bothrioeephulu* vAkh a fissure of this kind. At other times the
rent is longer, and the worm appears to be furnished with two
tails. M. Kayer lias «n several examples of this.

As in the Tenia, filiform alimentary canals may be noticed at
the anterior part, which pass in the
length of the body. These canals can I
sometimes be seen through the skin.

According to M. Blanchard, the Both-
riocephalus has a nervous system re-
sembling that of the Ttenia, but not so
distinct.

The animal contracts and dilates it-
self in a very irregular manner, but its
movements an 1 generally sluggish. The
head ia said, however, to be distinctly
movable.

About the centre of the under surface
of the segments (fig. 119) is an oval I
or conical papilla, provided with an
aperture through which there emerges
a small slender somewhat pointed body,
which is regarded as the penis. Behind this body is another
smaller pore without a papilla. This does not always exist ; it is
supposed to be the vulva, and, like the penis, is not present in
every segment ; the hermaphroditism of the animal is not there-
fore uniform; it possesses some segments which are androgynous,
while others arc male and female.

According to M. Eschricht, the penis is furnished with a
small sheath and communicates with a tolerably long deferent
canal ; this is folded several times upon itself, gradually increases
in thickness, and terminates in a vesicula seminalis, having the
form of an oval pouch. The testicle consists of white granules,
and is furnished with three slender ducts, which terminate in
the before-mentioned vesicle. The female organs are some-
what more complicated; the ovaries are oblong and very
distinct, the oviduct presents itself under the form of a tortuous

1 a, male orifice with the ji

cai
uti

tej

390 MKDICAL ZOOLOGY.

canal, especially at the period when the ova are mature. The
uterus has two pouches or diverging horns, which communicate
together.

" the Bothriocrphnhis (fig. 120) are exceedingly
numerous. According to M. Escbrichr,
each individual has as many as ten millions.
The egga are of an elliptical form; when
highly mugnified they appear to be filled
with ;rniu tiles.

The larva of the Bolhriocepiaha is un-
known, as well as the circumstances under
which it passes the first period of its exist-
ence. The propagation of this entoaoon
is supposed to occur in the same manner as
that of the Bothriocrphali of other animals.
The egg produces an asexual larva, pro-
Fig. 120.' vided with a pouch-like body; this larva
Sexual Ornaru. lives for a time in the body of some animal,
and subsequently introduces itself into the
human body, and is there transformed into the perfect animal.*
M. Van Beneden observes that the herbivorous mammalia
have tape-worms which are not furnished with books, and that
these animals cannot swallow the lame of these worms with
the flesh of other animals, as is the caBe with the caraivora.
It is therefore possible that the human Bothriocephalus is
produced from a larva which does not become encysted. 5

2. Anotheh. species. — Mayor, of Geneva, has recognised
two species of the Botkriocephalus latus, one with short the
other with long segments. The first attains a length of sixty-
five feet, and is about half an inch in width ; the segments are
about '078 of an inch (two millimetres) in length. The second
is not more than twenty-six feet long and about - 354 of an
inch in width; its segments are '157 of an inch in length.
According to this gentleman, I lit: oil of the male fern invariably
expels the Bof.hrwcephalus with the long segments, while that
with the short segments usually resists it, and requires to
effect its expulsion that the powdered root of this plant,
or a decoction of the bark of the root of the pomegranate
tree, should be employed. Zoologists consider that these sup-
posed species are mere varieties of the large Bothriocephalic.

1 A, bisexual apparatus; a, male orifice with the penis; 6, testicle; e,
vulva; d, uterua with horns; e, tortuous oviduct; f, ovary; B, egg.
9 See p. 396.
* See p. 399.

PAEA9ITIC W0KM9.

3. Obseevations. — On comparing the Bothriocephalus la tut
with the Taenia communis, their distinctive characters may be
arranged as follows :—

The Bothriocephalic- — 1, is of a grey colour ; 2, it has an
elongated head, without any terminal enlargement or circlet
of hooks ; 3, it is furnished with two elongated fossa? ; 4, the
segments are wider than they are long ; 5, the sexual orifices
are central.

The Taenia — 1, is white; 2, the head is globular, with a
terminal enlargement and two circles of hooks ; 3, it has four
rounded oscula; 4, the segments are longer than they are
wide ; 5, the sexual orifices are marginal.

Action on man.— Like the Taenia, the Bothriocephalus
inhabits the small intestines.

The disorders which these worms produce, and the symptoms
which indicate their presence, are the same in both species.

The Tape worms without hooka belong to the herbivora, and
those with hooks to the carnivora. In man, who is omnivorous,
both species are met with. As a vegetable feeder he is tor-
mented with the Bofhriocephalus latus, aud also with the Taenia
inermis, and as a flesh feeder with the Taenia communis and
the Taenia nana.

CHAPTER XIII.

; HE I. MINT HA.

TTndee the name of Vesicular or Cystic Helmintlia, 1 are
included those entozoa which terminate in a vesicle, are con-
tained in a cyst, or are composed of the latter only. The old
writers gave them the name ot&gdotidi, w ttvdatid IVorms. All
these TLelminlka are agamic, that is, are deprived of sexual
organs. The reason of this wilt be seen hereafter.

Zoologists have distinguished three genera of the Cystic Hel-
mintha— 1, the Gysticerci; 2, the Echinococci; 3, the Acepha-
locusts.

§ I. Cysticerci.

The Cystioeeci' are helraintha which are furnished with a
caudal vesicle.

They become developed in the cellular tissue of the muscles, 1

1 Cystica, Rud.; Vermel veiiculares, Lion.; Bltuttnv&rnitT of the Germans.
' KArru ii bladder, and Kfp 1 "" a tail-
' Werner, Himley, Demarqoaj.

M MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

they have also been noticed in the liver, 1 the heart, 3 the el
pleius," the brain,* between the sclerotic and the conjuni
and in the anterior chamber of the eye, 6

These animals are very minute, and are contained in a
circular or oval cyst of a somewhat iibroua structure, which ia
developed at the expense of the organ which nourishes the
parasite. This cyst contains a second, furnished with an open-
ing, around which a third sac is adherent, and encloses the
worm which is attached to it. (Follin, Robin.) This sac ib of
a globular, oval, pyriform shape; its parieties are thin, smooth,
or granulated, semi transparent, of a whitish eolour, and tolerably
strong.

The head and the neck ore always contained in the vesicle, but
they can be partly or entirely withdrawn at the will of the animal.

The head iB provided with four suckers placed on a similar
number of projections, and with a terminal proboscis sur-
rounded by a. double circle of spines, just in the same manner
as in the head of a Tasnia. Tbe neck varies in length, and
formed of a number of closely arraoged segments.

When the head is retracted the opening has the appearani
of a small navel, which appears to be surrounded with a kin
of whitish coloured sphincter; beneath this spot is the re-
tracted head and neck.

There are three principal Bpecies of the Ch/sticerd: — 1, Cesfi-
oermts cellulosw; 2, Oyriicercu* (enuicollis; 3, Cr/sticerctf
Acanthotrias.

1. The Cysficereua CcUulosw (fig. 121)' is not commonly met
with in man ; it is supposed to be the Bame as the worm which
is so frequently developed in tbe pig, and produces the peculiar
affection which is known aa measly port ; it has also been
noticed in the ox.

The cysts measure from the '590 to the -787 of an inch in the
large diameter, and from the '198 to the 236 in the small. The
head has 32 hooks." Some writers consider that the species which
is met with in animals, and is furnished with from 26 to 28
hooks,9 is a different species from that which is found in man.

1 Lcucksrt.

' Morgagni, RudolpM, Bonilland, Andrei, Leudet.

3 Treutler, Fischer.

4 Rujeth, Chomel, Dnbreuil, Leudet, Calmeit, Bonchnt.
Eatlia, Htermg, Siebold, Cunier.

* Soemmering, Lngan.

* Tenia cdkdota, Gmel. ; Hydatigera celtvlosa, Lamk,
■ Himley, RervaiB, Ch. Eobin.

5 Davaine, Follin.

id ia
-ance

PAltiSITTC WOBMS,

There is a variety (albopunctatus) which has a well-marked
white spot at the
opening of the vesi-
cle. 1

The Cysticercus
dicystus of Laennec
which was found
in the brain of a
man who had died
of apoplexy, and in
which the body ter-
minated in a double
vesicle, must be re-
garded as a mon-

Fig, 121.— Cyatiterci.''

roarty.
2. Thi

The Gysticercwt Acanfhotrias ("Weinl.) or three-armed
cyslicercus, was found in 1845, at Richmond, in Virginia, by
Professor Wyman, in the muscles of a woman fifty years of
age, who had died of phthisis.

It is nearly the '393 of an inch long without the vesicle, which
resembles that of the OysUcercus cellulosa.

It is characterised by having three kinds of hooks arranged
in three rows, fourteen in each row ; its suckers are visible to
the naked eye, and its neck is distinctly articulated.

M. "Weinland proposes to found a separate genus on this
species under the name of Acanthotrias.

3. The Ck/gticercus tenuicoUis (Rud.) has been seen occasion-
ally in the liver and in the mesentery, but only very rarely.
Bosc and H. Cloquet have had the opportunity of examining
it. It ia also found in monkeys, horses, pigs, and oxen.

The neck is long, round, and rugose. Its vesicle appears to
be small in man, but in other animals it becomes very large.'

The following species must be regarded as doubtful, the
characters which have been assigned to them not being suffici-
ently marked.

1. The Cyxticercu* hepaticus, Delle Chiaje, which resides
in the liver, and has an oval elongated body.

2. The Oytticercus vUceralU, Rud., which resides in the
abdomen and the thorax, and has a globular body.

1 Ttenia alba punctata, Treutl.

* A, animal 'withdrawn into its vesicle ; B, animal extended ; C, head
and neck ; Ti, one of the hooks.

■ The Ttenia, which produces this species ia very common in the animals
which are slaughtered for food. It U also found in the butcher's dog and
i i the shepherd's dog.

394 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

3. The Cyaticercvs ffitcheriatau, Laenn., which has a very
slender body and a pyriform vesicle.

4. The Cystictrcus aortlcvs, Notar., which haa an oval body
and filiform hooks.

5. The Cysticercus vetitxs, Crepl., in which the body i»
rudimental.

In March, 1859, M. Ka?berlc communicated to the Society
of Natural History of Strasbourg, a description of what he
considers to he two new species of Cysticerri — the O. turbinate*
and the O. melanocephalus. The first is characterised by the
manner in which it is coiled up and by the possession of 32
hooltB ; the second by a cephalic spot, and by haying 24 hooka.
Both animals were found in the brain.

§ U. Echi no cocci.

The Echtnooocci' are worms which are enclosed in vi
variable numbers in a memhranous cyst (sporocyst) .

The Ecliinococcus hominis (fig. 122), Bud., has been descril
in several special memoirs.

This worm is found in several organs, but more especially
the kidneys and lungs. Zeder met with it in the brain
young girl. Itudolphi, Eschricht, and Lebert have seen
the liver. Morgagni once found it in tho heart. Luderaen
mentions the ease of a man aged 40, who had died of
dropsy, and whose spleen was transformed into a large
dilated sac, containing an enormous number of Echinococei.
Collet haa recorded the case of a woman, aged 47, who, in
about four months, discharged 135 Echinococei in coughing.
Albers and Boch have both seen a case of goitre which was
occasioned by an Echtnococcus. (Foster.) M. Gescheidt found
it between the choroid and the crystalline lens.

The cyst or capsule of the Echinococci varies generally in
size. Some are not larger than a mustard seed, while others
are of the size of a chicken's egg. This cyst causes the paren-
chyma of the diseased organ to recede, and induces around it
the formation of a new tissue, so that the hydatid is completely
embedded in an adventitious cyst. These cysts are not always
solitary.

The shape of the cyst is globular, oval, or pyriform. It is
composed of two membranes, the one enclosed in the other.
The external (Hydatid of authors) consists of a structure wbu
has the appearance of coagulated white of egg, without
fibres or cells, and is arranged in layers. (Davaine.) 1
' ExT>ut a hedgehog, and k6kkvs a grain.

ibed

t in

PARASITIC WOKMS. 395

tenial cyst, corresponding to the _?<Tmii<rtJ memhrane of Goodsir,
is formed of a fibrous,
tissue, with a number
of elementary granules
dispersed through it. In
the interior is a clear
limpid fluid, sometimes
colourless, and at other
times with a slight yel-
low or reddish tinge.
Small corpuscles, like
Fig. 122.— £cAinoeoceiu.» grains of sand, float free

in the fluid ; these are
at first attached to the internal surface of the cyst by means
of a very slender pedicle, which tears with great facility.
(Davaiue.) When examined beneath the mieroscope, these
corpuscles are seen to be elongated, more or less ovoid, globu-
lar, or pyriform in shape, and depressed. Each of these is a
small intestinal worm. Its anterior extremity is furnished,
like that of the Cysticerci, or the Tienia, with four suckers and
a double row of hooks. Germs arc also developed on the exter-
nal surface of the first membrane, and sometimes in its sub-
stance. They usually become detached, like the first-mentioned
bodies, when they have attained the size of a hemp seed. At
the end of a certain time the y form in their interior the second
membrane, and it is from this that the young Echinococci are
produced. (Davaine.)

Some writers consider that the EcMnococcus of the monkey,
the dog, the ox, and the sheep, is a distinct species from that of
man, and have given it the name of the Echinococcus veterino-
rum, Kud.

Others go even further, and admit that each of the animala
which have been named is infested with a distinct species.

§ HI. Acephalocysts.

The Acephaloctsts, Acephalocr/stis (fig. 123), 2 described by

Laennec, are growths in the form of membranous cysts, but

which are without head, mouth, or alimentary canal, even in

the embryonal condition.

1 A, animal attached to the internal wall of the sporocyst, the head and
neck retracted within its body; a, the head; b, the mouths ; e, the circlets
of hooks ; d, the proboscis ; e, the body ; f, the pedicle ; B, the animal de-
veloped ; a, the head; 4, the osaula ; c, the circle of hooks ; d, the proboscis;
e, the neck ; /, the body ; C, one of tho hooks ; a, the claw ; b, tie guard ;
e, the handle.

* a priv, «(^axij the head, nfitmj a bladder.

396 MEDICAL ZOOLOGt.

The Acephilocysts are found in the liver, spleen, and kidneyB.

Bdelard met with them in the bladder, Cullener in the substance

of the bones, and M. Rostan in the arachnoid membrane. Dr.

CajTere found one which weighed over three ounces and a half

(119 grammes), in the brain of a young man.
Many naturalists have considered these cysts as true Hel-
mintha, but an or-
ganization of such
extreme simplicity
lu'liinjjs to the class
Monadaria (Blain-
ville), and is allied
to the Volvoeida>.
(Leuckart.)

[The last state-
ment in the preced-
ing paragraph will
senreely be admit-
ted, since there
are few naturalists
to the vegetable

Fig. 123.— Acephatocysls.

i any doubts

in the present day who 1
nature of the Volvocida;.]

Goeze and Eudolphi do not admit their animal nature ; and
Cuvier and Meckel held the same opinion. These vesicles
have, however, separate and independent life, which may be
traced through its several stages. (Dujardin.)

The membranous, tremulous, semi-transparent vesicles which
are found encysted in various parts of the body, are therefore
to be regarded aa hydatid ITelmintha.

The true Aceph'alocysU are simple spherical non-adherent
bodies, often containing other vesicles, enclosed the one within
the other.

In the present state of the science, the Acephalocysts must
not be regarded as a special genus of Helmintha, but as
Ck/sticerci and Echinacocvi, which are incompletely developed,
that is to say, whose evolution has been arrested. It is not
uncommon to find some of these cysts contain both unarmed
vesicles and larva; furnished with hooks, and which consequently
possess the characters both of an Acefkalocyst and of an Echv-
nocoecua. (Van Beneden.)

j IV. Transformations of the Cystic Helmintha.
The Cystic or hydatid Helmintha, that is tost

and the Echinococci \

(' Vys'if

transformed into the Hut i

PAHAamo wobms. 897

mintli a. The first are incompletely developed or larval stages
of the second.

A knowledge of these transformations has afforded a ready
explanation of the origin of verminous diseases.

The history of this discovery possesses the greatest possible
interest for the medical practitioner as well as for the naturalist.
Mora than a century ago, Abilgaard noticed that a particular
species of parasite, known as the Sokutoeopiahit dimorphus,
which infests certain fishes belonging to the family of the Qas-
teroetei or Stickle-bachs, is sometimes found in the water-fowl,
which feed upon the latter, but that the parasite has then passed
into a further stage of development. M. Creplin, in 1829, by
carefully comparing the intestinal worm of the Gasterostei,
which annually ascend the tributary rivers of the Baltic, with
those of the piscivorous birds which frequent these streams,
clearly proved that the Behistocepkalus dimorphux only acquires
its sexual organs (that is to say, becomes a perfect animal) when
it has been developed in the interior of the bird.

The changes which this worm undergoes consist only in its
attaining a larger size, and in the appearance of the sexual
organs. Other changes of a more complicated and curious
character, amounting to a true metamorphosis, have been
noticed by M. Van Beneden in other worms, auch aa the
Bothrioeephali of fishes. Many fishes are inhabited by small
entozoa, known under the name of Scoliaes. These worms have
neither hooks nor suckers, and arc entirely deprived of sexual
organs. At a later period the Scolices are furnished with four
cephalic Buekere, armed with a series of hooks, and are con-
verted into TetrarhyneL These remain in their cyst until the
fish in whose intestines they are lodged are eaten by some
larger species. The worm then emerges from its cyst, makes
its way through the intestine of the devourer, and fixes itself
to its mesentery. At a subsequent period, if, in its turn, this
fiah is devoured by another, as, for instance, by a shark, the
worm becomes elongated, its body flattened, segments are
formed, the sexual organs are developed, and the entozoon
is transformed into a Botknocephalus.

These remarkable facts serve to explain the great resem-
blance which M. Siebold has pointed out between the head of
the Cysticercux fitmtarit, which lives in the mouse, and the
head of the Tmnia enmiootiu, which inhabits the cat. One is
led to the conclusion that the two parasites are identical.
In fact, they only diner from each other in the presence of a
small cavitary vesicle in the first, and in the greater length of

398 MEDICAL /OH 1,011V.

the second. M. Siebold introduced several species of Q/xficerci
into the stomachs of dogs and rabbits ; he found that after a
time the worm lost the caudal vesicle, elongated, became flat
tened, divided into segments, and was transformed into a Tcenia.

Siebold gave encysted Kchinocorci- to dogs mixed with their
food, lie showed tiisit in some of these cases the last segment
became dilated into the vesicle, and the entozoon was developed
into a Gysticereus; but, in a large number the worm became
elongated, flattened, articulated) and was converted into a
Tamia.

Kiichenmeister, in 1835, by some experiments which he per-
formed upon a woman condemned to dentil for assassination,
showed that when the Gysliccrcus eellulotw passed into the
human intestines, it became developed into the common Tcenia.
He administered to the woman a number of Vysticerci obtained
from a pig : twelve were given in some blood puddings, and
eighteen in rice, eighty-four hours before death ; fifteen in ver-
micelli soup, thirty-Bix hours before; twelve mixed with
sausage-meat, twenty-four hours before ; and eighteen ha soup,
twelve hours before. The woman had, therefore, swallowed
seventy-five Cystwt-rci. The examination of the body was
made forty -eight hours after execution. Four small individuals
of the Tamia communis were found attached to the mucous
membrane of the abdomen. In the water with which the in-
testines had been washed six other young Tama were found,
but they were not furnished with hooks.

It appears, therefore, that the Ct/xticercus cellulosce becomes
converted into the common Tama in the alimentary canal of
man.

Similar experiments were made by Leuckart, who adminis-
tered a number of the Cyxlicerci from the pig to a young man
thirty years of age. At the end of two months this man had
Tmtam.

M. A. Humbert, of Geneva, even went 80 far as to experi-
ment upon himself. On December the 11th, 1854, he swal-
lowed fourteen fresh Gysticerci in the presence of MM. Vogt
and Mouliuie, Early in the month of March, 1855, he felt the
presence of Tmniw, and discharged large fragments of them. 1
(Bertholus.)

On the other hand, it has been proved that the mature eggs
of the Tanim give rise to the development of Cy&tkerci in the

n dogs fully confirm

TABASITIO WOBMS. 399

tissues of animals. 1 Pigs have been fed with the eggs of the
Tarda communis when the animals have hecome measly.

The Oynticerci found in the butchers' shops, and at the pork
butchers,* are the principal source of the common Tape worm.
These hydatids are consumed with the flesh of the pig (an ani-
mal which is so often infested by them) especially when this is
eaten raw, or merely salted and smoked, or when it is only
half-cooked. More rarely they are found in the flesh of the ox
and some other animals.

According to the report of the medical men of Vienna per-
sons who are employed in butchers' shops and in kitchens are
those who are most frequently affected with Tape irornts. 3 In
Abyssinia, where the people are in the habit of eating raw
meat, this parasite is very common. (Auher, Siehold.) The
Carthusian monks of the same country, who neither eat meat
nor drink milk, are entirely free from the worm. (Buppell, Rein-
lein.) At Stettin Twniis were found in seven children, for
whom raw meat had been prescribed. (Scharlau.)

The following are then the successive transformations which
the Twnia communis undergoes before arriving at its perfect
State.

The egg encloses a short unarticulated embryo, which, when
it is hatched, is furnished with three pairs of hooks (hexa-
canthi), of which the two central are for the purpose of fixing it
to the tissues of the ;miiu:il .selrctnl by the parasite for its abode.
Once it is attached to an animal, as for instance a pig,
this kind of rudimental larva becomes, or more correctly speak-
ing engenders by an agamic process, a new individual enclosed
within its parent ; tbt» latter becomes encysted in the infected
animals, like n caterpillar in its eoccoon, where it becomes trans-
formed into a chrysalis. (Van Beneden.)

This second larva has a head with four suckers, a double cir-
cle of hooks, and a moderately long neck, which terminate! in
a membranous enlargement or vesicle with delicate walls, and
filled with serum ; within this the young animal can withdraw
itself, or entirely close itself up. This kind of minute worm
resides in large numbers in the cellular tissues, on the fat,
beneath the skin, in the midst of the muscles, and in the peri-
toneum.

' Kiichenmeiater, Van Beneden, Gurlt, Eschricht, Lcuckart, 4e.

' A piece of pork weighing lour drachms and a half, which Kiichonmel*
ler obtained from a pork butcher in Saxony contained 133 Cr/atirerci.

' Pork butchers and butchorB are very subject to the common Tape worm.
(Dealandos.)

400 MEDIOAL ZOOLOGY.

The animal lives in ita cyst like a Cynips in a gall-nut,

Inthifl second state the larva forms the Cysticerous cellulose* ;
it is the hydatid stage.

The larva is capable of producing other individuals Bimilarto
itself by the process of gemmation, but not by a true act of
generation. "When the pig becomes measly it contains mil-
lions of individuals.

If this larva and its progeny cannot escape from the tissues
in which they have become encysted, their development does not
pass beyond the condition of the Cytticercut.

"When the Cystict-rcus enters the alimentary canal of man, it
attaches itself by means of its hooks and its suckers to the sur-
face of the mucous membrane. It soon loses its vesicle,
which becomes degenerated by eiosmosis, and assumes the ap-
pearance of a flattened appendage. The animal becomes more
transparent, lengthens, assumes a flattened form, and produces
a number of segments, which constitute special organisms
placed end to end, and enjoying a community of life, but each of
which, at the same time, is provided with ail the elements
essential to its individuality. 1 This long chain of zoonites may
be regarded as another form of agamic: reproduction.

This third stage corresponds to the perfect animal, and con-
stitutes the Ttsnia.

It has been seen that the lame, when they emerge from the
egg, are neither flat nor vesicular, and that the Cysticerci are
flat worms furnished with an Hydatid termination. The
Acephalocysts may be described as large Hydatids without
the flat anterior body, while the Tceniae, on the contrary, have
long flat bodies without the terminal Hydatid,

In the course of two or three months a Ttsnia may attain
the length of several yards.

Each segment is both male and female. At the period
of procreation the ovaries are enlarged and become distended
with an enormous number of eggs. After this the articula-
tions separate from each other, and each of these becomes an
indi' , pi:nt.U , nt organism.

The fourth stage is that of the Cueurbitins,' 1 or separated
segments.

These are passed out with the excrements ; they continue
to live for some days; they then decompose, and the eggs
which they contain are dispersed abroad.

1 " Tcenia natos tutu nepotes concatenate scrie lunyituJinuliter prodvcuxl,"
(Linn.)
» See page 382.

PAEA3ITIC WOBMS. 401

The eggs retain for a long time the power of germinating ;
they resist the effecta both of high and low temperatures, of
dryness and humidity, and also of water and of alcohol. At
length they pass either with the food or the drink into the
interior of some animal or of man : they then become hatched,
and give rise to a new generation of Cgsticerci, which in their
turn are developed into Tcenue.'

These four states of the Hcfaiintha— the rudimentary, the
vesicular, the. fiat, ond the disjointed^— have been named by M.
Van Beneden the protoscolcx, the totitoteolex, the strobila, and
the proglottis. 1 These names had previously been used in a
generic sense, when each of the forms to which they refer was
regarded as a distinct species of animal. M. Van Beneden
would now make use of them as general terms, a useless inno-
vation, since we have already the terms larva, Cysticercus,
Tosnia, and cucurbitin.*

The first larva or protoscolex, and the Cysticercus or deutosco-
lex, live in the substance of the different tissues. The Taenia
or strobilis resides in the alimentary canal. The cucurbitins or
proglottis emerge from this cavity. The first larvcs and the
Cysticerd developed witliin them are compelled to become
encysted. The Tanux and the cucuruUins, meeting with no
obstacle or hindrance, do not form a cyst. The first become
elongated, develop themselves, but remain adherent ; the
second separate, move away, and become locomotive.

The first larvce and the Gysticerci are very short, and fur-
nished with an imperfectly articulated neck, and have no sex-
ual organs; they propagate themselves by gemmation. The
Trnniw are very long, form distinct zoonites, and are androgyn-
ous ; they reproduce by a true act of generation. Lastly, the
cucurbitins are disarticulated zoonites, that is to say, single
individuals, formed at the espense of a multiple individual; these
disseminate the mature eggs.

These remarkable transformations occur therefore in one and
the same species ; germs which emigrate, larvm which repro-

' M. Siobold ia of the opinion that the Cysticercus cellulose give rise to
different kinds of Ttaiite, according to ttie animal into which it is tmn»-
portcd. Thus it becomes Tirnia serrate in tha dog, Tttnia crassipes in the
fox, T<mia marc-atata in the wolf, and Ttenia crussicoUU in the martin.
M. Van Beneden justly considers that the Cysticercus cillvlosa can only
.' ■.'. '.:■■■.■:

* Scokx, 0. F. Miiller ; strobila. Snare ; proglottis, Dujardin. The name
strobila ia applied in botany to that form of fruit which ia commonly known

* We have also those of hydatid and zoonite.

■

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

duce themselves, parts which are repeated, organisms which
become individualized, and zoonites which become isolated.

What takes place in the development of the Twnia communis
also occurs in other Tunics. Just at) the Cysiicercus cellules®
is transformed into the Teenia communis, so the Echinococcv*
veterinorum is metamorphosed into the Twnia echinococcus}
Unfortunately our present knowledge does not enable ua to
trace these transformations in all the species. There are
T/cniw whose larvw are not known, and there are larvae whose
Ttsniie are not ascertained ; which, for example, are the
Oysticerci that produce the Taenia nana, the Teenia ftavopunctata,
and the Taenia inermis ? And, again, which is the Taenia that
gives rise to the Oystieereus Acanthotrias ?

The following conclusions may be drawn from the preceding
facts : —

1. The vesicular Helmintha or hydatids are the larvee {sec-lex)
of the flat Helminths.

2. The Acephalocysts are vesicular Helmintha, whose de-
velopment is incomplete or arrested.

3. The larvfe assume the forms of JSchinococci or of Cyt-
ticerci.

4. The larvae attain the perfect or flat state (strobilis) by
passing from one animal of a lower grade to another which is
more elevated.

6. The same thing occurs between animals and man.

6. A difference in the locality influences their development
A residence in the alimentary canal is necessary for their
complete development.

7. Certain vesicular Helmintha which become diverted from
their proper migrations never arrive at the perfect state ; they
live as larva? and perish sexless.

8. The vesicular Helmintha are of no sex, because the lame
have none.

9. The vesicular Helmintha multiply themselves by gemma?
or buds.

10. The flat Helmintha reproduce themselves by sexual
generation ; they are androgynous and form eggs.

11. The cucurbitins or zoonilcs (proglottis) are segments

1 Transformations which are equally curious occur in animals. Tha
Cyiiicarui Jastiolaris of the mouse produces the Tumia crassicoUis of tha
oat; the Cysticercia pissifvrmit of the rabbit, the Ttinia serrata of the
dag; the Cysticercvi tongicutiis of the held mouse, the Ta-nia Craetipt*
of the fox ; the Camurus eerebrtdii of the sheep, the Tania croitirv* of the
wolf, &e.

PABASITIC WOHMS.

of the fiat Helmintha, which become separated and isolated
when the eggs are mature.

12. The gemma, eggs, or larvai of the^ai Helmintha pass from
an anima! into man's body, or from one animal to another, by
means of the food or the drink.

CHAPTER XIV.

BOO LOGICAL VIEWS.

The division of the Helmintha into those which reside in the
alimentary canal, and into those which live out of it, although
a convenient classification for the medical practitioner, is quite
insufficient for the zoologist. Moreover, it is not altogether
correct. It has been seen that the Ascaris lumbricoides, although
it is a true intestinal worm, yet that it is occasionally found
in the bladder, the nasal cavities, and in the meso-rectum, &c.
The Flukes are also met with external to the intestine as well
as in its interior.

The twelve genera that have been described, when considered
in relation to their structure, present three distinct types of
organization ; these are represented by the Ascaris, the Fluke,
and the Ttenia.

In the first type the animal is vermiform, possesses a visceral
cavity, and haB a more or less complete alimentary canal, which ia
provided with a mouth and an anus. The sexes are always
separate.

In the second type the body is short and fiat, it has no
visceral cavity, the digestive organs are incomplete, there is a
minute pore which takes place of a mouth, and the anus is
either rudimentary or absent ; the animal is almost always
androgynous.

In the third type, the body is flat, and composed of seg-
ments placed end to end, the visceral cavity is absent, the
digestive organs are incomplete, the mouth is represented by
absorbing pores, the anus is wanting; the animal is andro-
gynous.

The cucwrbitins, or separated zoouites of this third type,
possess many of the cliai-u-tcr* which belong to the second, for
a series of F,':'h^ y\:m-<\ nul to cm! wonlil resemble a Tmnia.

The Helmintha which form the first section belong to the
genera. Ascarides, 0.r>/i/rix. 'frirorcphtilax. Ancylaxtoma, Slrong-
ylus, Spiroptera, and Filaria. The Helmintha which form the
id 2

■

401 MEDICAL ZOOLOGY,

second belong to the genera Tkeeotoma, Dhioma, and Festuearia.
Lagtly, the third includes the genera Taenia and Botkrioeepkalut.

Zoologists have placed these three types of animals in dif-
ferent orders or in different classes. Linnreus arranged the
two first amongst tho Intestina, and the third amongst the
Zoopkyta. Zeder, Budolphi, and Bremser term the Entozoa
belonging to the first type Nematoidea, those of the second
Trematoda, and those of the third Cestoidea. Cuvier divides
these animals into two orders : the Cavitary, which includes
and corresponds, therefore, to the Nematoidea, and into the
Parenchymals, which includes the others; he subdivides the
latter into the Trematoda and Tamioidea. M. Milne Edwards
considers them all as Eittamazaairia or Annelida, but he divides
them into three separate classes, each of which corresponds to
one of the types that have been spoken of. These are the
ffelmintha, the Turbcllaria, and the Cestoidea, M. Tandon
accords with these views of the learned professor of the
Museum of Natural History. He admits of these three groups
which constitute his sixth, seventh, and eighth classes of
worms, Annelida or Entonwzoaria, belonging to the sub-
kingdom Zoonites. He considers, however, that it is desirable
to retain the older titles by which they have been distin-
guished. For this reason he has given the name of Nematoidea
to the first group, Trematoda to the second, and Cestoidea to
the third. There is a less amount of relationship between the
Nematoidea and the Trematoda than there is between the latter
and the Cestoidea.

The most perfectly organized of the intestinal worms are
unquestionably the Nematoidea, and amongst these the Ascarides
and the Strongyli.

The following table contains all the Bpecies which
with in man. The number of these species amounts to tweni
nine ; amongst them there are ten species which are either
imperfectly known, or their presence in man has not been
clearly established. These are distinguished by an asterisk.

[In the original table, M. Tandon has included five other
species under the title of doubtful H.elmintha ; these have been
omitted ; while the Trichina is not included amongst the perfect
worms, but is inserted with a query as to its being the young
of Tricocephalus dispar. Tho grounds upon which the Trichina
is raised to the rank of a distinct species are given at page
352. M. Tandon has also placed an asterisk before Disto
Buskii ; the distinctive characters of this species having bi
given at page 374, this has been removed.]

met

nty-
ther

PAHA8ITIC TVOEMS.

Species of Helmintha living in Man.

I, — 3TEMATOIDEA. III. — CEBTOIDEA.

. Ascaria lumbricoides.
. Ascaris alata.

3. Osyurua venuicularis.

4. Tricocephalus diapar.
6. Trichina spiralis.

6. AneyloBtomum duode-
nalis.

7. Strongylua renal is.

8. Strongylua longevagina-
tus.

9. Spiroptera hominiB.
10. Filaria medinensiB.

•11. Filaria oculi.
*12. Filaria lentia.
•13. Filaria lymphatica.

II. — TEE MATO DA.

L4. Thecosoma sanguieola.

15. Diatoma hepaticum.

16. Diatoma lanceolatum.
*17. Distoina ojithalmobium.

18. Distoma heterophyes.

19. Diatoma Buakii.

20. Featucaria leatia.

21. Ttenia communiB.

Larva, Gygticereus cel-
liilosa.

22. Taenia nana.

Larva, ....

23. Taenia flavopunctata.

Larva

*24. Taenia echinococcuB.

Larva, JScMnococcits
veterinorwm.
*25. Tenia inernuB.

*26. Taenia acanthotrias. 1

Larva, Ct/ttieercusAcan-
thotrioug.
•27. T»uia tenuicolliB. 1

Larva, Cyslicercus tenuu
collie.
*28. Tsenia dentalis.'

Larva, Eckinococcux

*29. Bothriuceplmlu
Larva, . .

lata.-

The infuaorial animalcule, which are the moat diminutive
of living beings, are developed in all climates, in every possible
locality, and at every period of the year. They are found in the
bodies of living beings, and in the midst of inorganic substances.

SECTION IV.

INFTJSOBIAL ENTOZOA.

1 Perfect state not known.

* Perfect Btatc not been observed in man.

* Perfect state doubtful in man.

* The Tienia Capenais and the Taenia tropica
Cysticercia hepaticus, ttowh, Fischeriania, aorncui
imperfectly characterised to be included in the table.

not well defined. The

406

MEDICAL ZOOLOGY.

ParaBitio infusoria, whose presence is either the cause or the
reHult of certain disorders, are met with in the human body,
sometimes when it is in a healthy state, and at other times
when it is in a state of disease.

Lebert has juBtly remarked that these animalcules are
principally found in wounds where the discharge has been
retained or has decomposed. They are found in the mucus of
the intestinal canal (Lee uwenhoek, Pouch et) ; in stale or infected
secretion of the vagina (Donne, Dujardin) ; in the tartar of the
teeth (Mandl.) ; and in the milk (Puchs).

The species which are most deserving of notice belong to the
genera — 1, Paramecium; 2, Gcrcomonas ; 3, Trichomonas; Yir-
gulina; 5, Vibrio. The following is a summary of the
characters of these genera :

j with a mouth. 1. Paramecium.

Infusoria ) ( One largo vibratile t A tail . 2. Cercommai.

(—■it i_ii.l cilium. . . . (No tail. 3. Trichomona*.
(wuhouta mouth. A tail . 4. F^Wma.

( NoTitaiileolram. ] SotiliL5 . VibL.

1. Paramecium. — This genus consists of flattened oblong
infusoria, provided with a longitudinal fold which leads to the
mouth. The body is covered with fine cilia.

On examining with the microscope some pua obtained from
a small ulceration of the rectum, and the mucous secretion of
this part of the intestines, in a sailor who had survived an
attack of cholera, but who had subsequent derangement of the
digestive organs, Dr. Malmstein, of Stockholm, found in
these secretions, besides pus cells and blood globules, a large
number of infusoria, which he has described and figured under
the name of Paramecium coll.

He afterwards observed the same infusoria in a woman who
had chronic inflammation of the large intestines. The patient
having died, M. Malmstein found the infusoria were more
abundant on those parts of the mucous membrane which had
undergone the least amount of change than where the disease
was further advanced, or in the pus which it had given rise to.

These animalculm are very active ; they present themselves
in large numbers, as many as from twenty to twenty-five were
found in a single drop of mucus. They die very quickly
when removed from the intestine.

2. CebcomoNAS, Cercamonas Davainei, M. Tandon.- — M.
Davaine, in 1853, discovered in the warm dejections of cholera
patients a species of Cercomonas, which occurred in large
numbers.

PABA8ITIC TORUS.

Subsequently the same gentleman met with this animalcule
on two occasions in the evacuations of patienta attacked with
simple diarrhcea. The cholera was still prevalent.

The animalcules are ^ of an inch in length. The body is ovoid
op pyriform, but somewhat variable in shape, and very pointed
at the two extremities. The integument is soft, and of a white
colour. One or two very small corpuscles, or nucleolar bodies,
may sometimes be seen in the interior. Anteriorly is a very
Blender, long, flexible vihratile filament, which commences
abruptly from the anterior margin ; this is detected by the
motion it produces in the water, but it can only be seen at
intervals, and hy prolonged examination. At the opposite ex-
tremity is another filament, which is thicker at its commence-
ment where it becomes blended with the posterior part ; it is
about the same length or a little longer than the body ; it is
rigid, nearly straight, and sometimes attaches itself to sur-
rounding objects ; when thia is the case the Cercomonas vibrates
to and fro like the pendulum of a clock.

The Cereomouads are extremely active, a circumstance which
renders it very difficult to determine their characters.

These animalcutcB die as soon as the fluids in which they are
contained become cold ; this proves that their formation does
not depend upon the decomposition of the fluids. They are
true parasites, which live in the intestines of man when certain
conditions are present that are requisite for their existence.
(Damne.)

Another aperies of Cercomonas was found on one occasion in
a young man in a well-marked case of typhoid fever, and with-
out any symptoms of cholera, This waa also discovered by M.
Davaine.

This second species differs somewhat from the first ; it is
Smaller and more oval ; its anterior cilium is of the same length
and equally flexible ; it commences less abruptly. The caudal
filament arises somewhat from the side ; it is proportionally
smaller, and is not blended with the posterior part of the body.
This Cercomonas has an undulatory motion in the length of its
body, which sometimes appears to be slightly wavy. This
species might be termed the Cercomonas ohliqua.

3. Trichomonas, Trichomonas vaginalis, Duj. — This species
was discovered by M. Dunne in the mucus of the vagina
(fig; 124). _

The Trickomonads aasemble together and form irregular
masses with the particles of thickened mucus.

Some writers do not admit the animal nature of these minute

40*

MEDIC4L ZOOLOOT.

objects. 1 They regard them
detached epetlielial cells. Others
hare adopted the views of MM.
Donne and Dujardin. 3 Some
have even looked upon these
animalcules aa Acari.'
Fig. 121.— TrKhomouai vayinalii. The Trichomonas vaginalis is
^ O ' o0 inch in its long diameter.
The body is globular, oval, or pyriform, unequal, slightly
granular, gelatinous, transparent, and colourless, or of a milky
appearance. They often adhere to other bodies. They have
an anterior flahcl] iform filament (sometimes two, rarely three),
thick at its base, flexible, and about 10 ' oo of an inch in length ;
there are also four or five abort cilia placed on one side of it at
its commencement.

Some have assigned to this animalcule a small, oblique, ter-
minal mouth. MM. Scannoni and Kolliker have not observed
it, but they believed they had seen a shallow, oblique groove
the anterior part, near the cilia.

The Trichomonas vaginalis ia not found in recently
mucus, but only in that which is beginning to decompi
Whenever this animalcule is met with the vaginal mu
encloses bubbles of airj which give it a frothy appearance.
(Donne.)

[The Trichomonas vaginalis only occurs in women with
gonorrhieal discharge, or with an abundant vaginal secretion
mixed with mucus and pus corpuscles ; never in a normal and
healthy vaginal secretion, but only in pathological conditions.
The mucus, however, need not be frothy, as Donne supposes,
so long as it is not quite normal. 4 ]

4. Vibgtlina, Virgulina tenax. — This animalcule is found
in the tartar of the teeth. A small portion must be mixed
with a drop of distilled water, which haa been previously
warmed, and examined with a magnifying power of from
to 500 diameters.

These animalcules vary in size from the t sVq of an
upwards, and move about rapidly. (Mandl.)

They are found in large quantities in patients who have been
put upon a low diet for some months. They also form the
greatest portion of thickened mucus of the tongue in persons
who are troubled with indigestion.

' MM.Labert, Valentin, J. Vogel, Siebold, L. Wagner.

' MM. R:iS[.:lil, !"V:i 1 1 /i jr.!. Kulljker.

* MM. Froriep, Ehrenberg.

* Kiichenmeiiter, oput eil, vol. i. p. 7.

e at
icus

iusly
400

inch

PARASITIC WORMS. 409

The Virgulina tenax has an elongated, membranouB, trans-
parent body, somewhat thickened, and truncated at its anterior
part ; it is furnished with a tail one third or one fourth shorter
than the body.

M. Mandl. is of opinion that these animalcules contain & cal-
careous element in their tissues, which assists in hardening the

5. Vibkio, Vibrio rugula, Miill. — Leeuwenhoek first noticed
this animalcule in his own digestions during a Blight illness.

Miiller, who has described and figured it, saw it by thousands
in an infusion of flies.

Dujardin found it in an infusion of crushed hemp seed, of
Neufchatel cheese, of stale gelatine, and of the liver of the
sheep.

M. Pouchet detected it in the dejections of cholera patients,
where it was present in myriads. It was not found in the
Tomited matters.

Dr. Hassall also found the Vibrios in the dejections of cholera,
and in the intestinal secretions some time after death.

These animalcules are hardly visible. They are from y^^^
to tb,4o5 of an inch in length, and from -nnrW to \bt\bt> oS
an inch in width. (Dujardin.) The body is cylindrical, at-
tenuated at each extremity, sometimes straight, sometimes with
from five to eight inflexions, and semitransparent. Its vacuoles
are distinct, globular, and hyaline.

This animalcule moves about with great activity in an undu-
lating or serpentine manner. Leeuwenhoek compared these
movements to those of an eel.

Some naturalists question the animal nature of these minute
bodies.

In all persons, whether ill or well, two other species of Vi-
brios are met with in the mucus of the mouth, mixed with the
scales of epithelium and large granular molecules. These are
the Vibrio Bacillus and the Vibrio lineola of Miiller. The first
is yp^g of an inch in length, very flexible, and very slender,
and contains a number of well-defined oval vacuoles. The
second, which measures about -rs.Vrrfr °f an ^h m length, is
thick, somewhat bent, and the vacuoles are globular, but in-
distinct.

The blue and the yellow colours which, under some circum-
stances, are found in milk, are caused by the Vibrio cyanogeiw*
and the Vibrio xanthotjenm of Fuehs.

INDEX.

Allantoidians, 62.

Allocotylcdons, 58.

A bd -el-Ka Jet. 28.

Alimentary canal, 43.

Acanthia ciliata. 222.

Ambergris, 110, 125, 125,

lectularis.

Am bra cinereo, 126.

rotundata, 222.

Ambrcine, 127.

Acaridaj, 307.

American, 26, 31, 33.

AcsropBia, 307, SIS.

Ammodytea, 219.

Mcricourtii, 319.

Amphibia, 54.
Anallantoidians, 62.

pectinate, 319.

AcanthrotriaB, 393.

Anatomy of Man, 3.

Ac&ros, 309.

Ancyclontoma, 333, 334.

Americanus, 303.

duodenalc, 353.

autumnalis, 305.

Aneylostomuni duodenale, 353, 405.

■ domestiens, 130.

Angle, facial, 5.

■ folliculorum, 319, 320 321.

Andromeda Mariana, 205.

■ nigua, 303.

Animal, definition of, 37.

reduTius, 302.

organization of, 37.

ricinus, 302.

Animal charcoal, 161.

acabei, 309.

kingdom, 35.

Siro, 309.

Annelida, 60, 137, 404.

Acephals, 61, 62, 88.

Anoliua bullaris, 69.

AcijphalocjBts, 391, 395, 400, 402.

Ant, 65, 213.

Acetum cant hari dip, 133,

fire, 213.

Achatina carina ta, 86.

flaming, 213.

Aripenser, 181.

red, 213.

Hnso, 182.

Antelope Dorcas, 185.

Kuthenus, 182.

rupicapra, 184.

. — BteUatus, 182.

Anthremis musjeonim, 130.

. Sturio, 182.

Anthropomorpha, 35.

Aconitum Napollos, 208.

Aphides, 154,190.

Actinias, 235.

Aphis, 155.

Actinizoaria, 60, 62.

Cbinensis, 155.

Adipose tissue, 41.

Piataciee, 156.

African, 34.

Apis Mellifica, 196, 275.

Aglossa farinalia, 243.

unicolor, 204.

pingualis, 243.

Arachnida, 62, 98, 260, 286.

Aleyoninm Lyncuriom, 91.

Aranea, 98.

Album Griccum, 06.

diadems, 261 .

nigrum, 66.

Florentioa, 260.

Albumen, 179.

guttata, 260.

Alcyonia, 91.

maetani, 261,

Alcyonium Lyneurium, 91.

Araneidse, 93.

412

IBDII.

Argadea, 304.

Blood globules, 37, 40.

Argas, 291.

Blamenbach— characteristics of '

of Persia, 304.

man, 1 ; races of men, 26.

Persieas, 304.

Boat-fly, 224.

Chinche, 304.

Bombycidte, 234.

marginatus, 305.

Bombua lapidarua, 279.

Armadillo officinalis, 70.

muscoram, 279.

Aromia Moscbata, 110.

Wrrestria, 279.

Articulata, 67, BO, 81

Bombax globosum, 100.

Arteries, 4S.

Bombyx Pityoeampa, 234.

Artificial teetn, 8L

Bone of cuttle fish, 82, S3.

Aecarides, 331, 335, 403, 404.
Ascaris, 333, 335.

Bones, 159, 160.

alata, 340, 406.

Bono black, 160.

gigas, 335.

Boschesman, 15.

marginala, 839.

Bothriocephali, 397.

in yalai, 340.

Bothriocephalua, 332, 334, 3SC, 404. 1

■ lumbricoides, 335, 406.

latua, 386, 405.

vermicularis, 334.

Bothropa, 255, 257.

Asp, 248, 253, 282.

Jararaca, 258.

Asa, 65, 68, 67.

lanceolatus, 258.

Astacus flsviatilis, 98, 176.

Bory de Saiut Vincent — races of 1

Australian, 26, 31.

Autumn fly, 234.

Bracbinidss, 214.

Azalea Pontics, 205.

Brain, human, 5.

average weight of, 5, 6, 7, 9,

Branahue, -ih.

Breeze-fly, 234.

Brosmius vulgaris, 102.

Badger, 65, 66, 67, 110.

Bryoioa, 62.

Baiauia Australia, 93.

BufFon — characteristics of man, 1.

Mystics tus, 93,

Bufo calami ta, 288.

Balistes, 245.

vulgaris, 287.

Barbel, 67, 245.

Bug, 65.

Bat, 64, 65.

ciliated, 222.

Batrachia, 62.

common, 219.

Bear, 66.

ofmiama, 304.

Bearer, 65, 118, 118.

Bedeguar, 149, 153.

Burbot, 102.

Bee, 275.

Bull, 66, 67.

eater, 66.

Bustard, 67.

humble, 275, 379.

Butea frondosa, 78.

■ moss or carder, 278.

Butbus Occitanus, 272.

red-tatted, 279.

palmatua, 272.

Beef, 163.

Butter, 190.

Bazoara, 67, 68.

Byron, brain of, 6.

Bigajc, 283.

Bile, 95.

Biline, 95.

Bizigaye, 233.

Blapa mortisagn, 242.

Cacblot, 82,94, 126.

Blattida;, 214.

Cactus Bonplandii, 71.

Blood, 160.

eoehinellifera, 71.

transfusion of, 181.

opuntia, 71.

INDEX. 413

Calculi cancrornm, 97.

Cervns, Capreolus, 166.

Calli chroma muacata, 131.

Dama, 181.

Calliphora Yomitoria, 237.

Tarandua, 181.

Calloehalia escnlenta, 185.

Cestoidea, 404.

fncifaga, 186.

Cetaces, 92, 126.

nidific*,185.

Cetonia aurata, 131, 136.

Calmar, 56.

Chamois, 184.

Calves, 164, 165.

Chevrotain, 114.

Camel, 86, 66, 87, 68.

Chigoe, 291, 300.

Camcleon, 65.

Chincho, 804.

Ciintharidin, 131.

Chinese gall, 154, 156,

CantharideB, 127, 128, 243.

musk, 113.

collecting of, 130.

Chrvsomela, 131.

Cantharis dubia, 132.

Cicadso, 214.

vesieatoria, 128.

Cimex leetularins, 219.

Capalan, 102.

Civet, 110.

Caranx, 2 IS.

scent of, 116.

Carabidie, 214.

Classification of animals, 52 ; Aris-

Carbo animalis, 181.

totle, 53 ; LinnieUB, 53; Lamarck,

Carcinas mamas, 178.

55 ; Cuvier, 56 ; Monuin-Tandon,

Cardinal edule, 173.

62.

Carmine, 76.

Clubione medicinalis, 263,

Carp, 65, 66.

Clubiones, 261.

Corjophyllia, 89.

Cobra de Capello, 259.

Cases, 154.

Coccus eacti, 71.

Casowary, 65.

illicis, 77.

Castoreum, 110, 118.

lacca, 76, 78.

glands of, 120.

■ Polonicns, 76, 78.

American, 121.

Cochineal, 68, 71, 83.

Canadian, 121.

Cochinolla, 76.

. Hudson's Bay, 121.

Cockle, edihle, 173.

Russian, 121.

Cockroach, 65.

Castor Fiber, 118.

Cod, 67, 101,102.

Cat, 66.

• oil, 103; varietieBof, 103, 1W.

Caucasian race, 28, 30, 61, 82.

Coelognathns morsitans, 300, 324.

Cavia Capensis, 122.

Ctenarus cerebralis, 402.

Cavitaria, 404.

Coluber Ammodjtes, 250.

Cellular tissue, 41.

Bonis, 250.

Calto-Scjtb Arabs, 26.

Conger eel, 102.

Cephalopoda, 110, 125.

Conops cakitmna, 234.

Centum cetacei, 94.

Common gull, 148.

Cerates, 255.

Coral, 87.

-EgjptiaeuB, 255.

composition of, 88.

Persieus, 255.

Cerate, 210.

Corallium nobile, 87.

Ceratum, 210.

Cercaria, 873.

Comu ustum, 181.

Cercomouas, 406, 407.

Cow, 66.

Davainei, 406.

Crab, 97.

Curiae, 210.

land, 245.

Cerocoma, 128, 135.

river, 88.

Schwfferi, 135.

Crabs' eyes, 07.

Ceroleine,

stones, 87.

Cervua Aloes, 181.

Crane, 66, 67.

414 tBSEX.

Cray 6sb, 96, 102.

Delphinns marginatns, 188.

Creamometer, 191.

Demode*, 307. 320.

Creeping gnat, 233.

folliculoram, 320, 321.

Cricket, 186.

Dentalium, 63.

Cromwell, brain of, 5.

Derm any saus, 296.

Crotalus durissua, 256.

■ avium, 323.

horridus, 256.

miliaria, 256.

— ■ ■ of Buak, 323.

Croton lacciferum, 78.

Dermatophiliis penetrans, 300.

Crow, 66.

Dermestes lardarius, 130, 242.

Crowned gall, 151.

Desman, 110.

Crustacea, 62, 83, 213, 244.

of Muscory, 40.

Cnckoo, 67.

Deutoscolex, 401.

Cucumerini, 382,

Diodon, 246.

Cucurbitini, 382.

figrinus, 246.

CacurbitiQB, 400, 401, 402.

Diplolepis rosffi, 153.

Culei aunulatus, 233.

Dippel's animal oil, 189.

pipiena, 230.

Diptera, 227, 230, 237.

Cnterebra noxialis, 325,

Distoma, 333, 334, 404.

Cattle- bone, 82, 83.

ttuskii, S73, 374, 405.

Cuttle-fish, 87, 81, 82.

hfematobium, 369.

Cuvier— races of men, 28.

hepaticum, 370, 405.

Cynanchum excelsum, 136.

heterophyes,373, 374, 405.

Cjnipe, 148, 149.

laneeolatum, 373, 406.

gallie tinetoriie, 148.

— ■- opthalmobium, 373, 406.

— quercua folii, 150.

l.ii.jtylium raeemoanm, 155.

quercua tojea, 150.

Dog, 65, 68.

rosra, 153.

Dog-fish, 108.

Cysticerci, 391, 396, 398.

Dormouse, 65.

CjBtieercua, 401.

Dorse, 102.

Acanthrotias, 393.

Dracuneulus, 360.

tortious, 384.

Persarura, 360.

oelluloBfB, 392,398,400,

Dsaanja, 110.

402, 405.

Dschija, 110.

dicyatuB, 393.

Duck, 65, 66.

. faaeiolariB, 397, 402.

Dugong, 189.

Ilium/Hi — rates of man, 28.

hepatieus 393.

Dupuvtreu, brain of, 5.

longicollis, 402.

Dyticus marginatua, 242.

melanocephalus, 394.

pisifonnia, 402.

tenuicollis, 393.

turbinatua, 394.

vesicas, 394.

Eagle, 65, 66, 67.

vise oralis, 394.

ray, 106, 107-

Ear, 50.

Earth worm, 65.

Echinococci, 391, 394, 396. 398, 402.

Daman of the Cape, 122, 123.

Eoliinococcua hominis, 394, 405.

vet-ermorum, 395.

Dafljeapis, 123.

E.:l!,|.ar;Lhitca,291.

Deeatoma, 128.

Ectoioa, 291.

Decoctum gallie, 155.

Eel, 65, 66.

Delphinns globiceps, 189.

Eel-pout, 65, 66.

IBDBX. 115

Eggs, 193, 194, IBS, 198.

yiesh of game, 163, 106.

Eider duck, 211.

of mollnaca, 163, 168.

Elementary bodies in animals, 33.

of poultry, 163, 166.

Elephant, 65, 66, 67, 80.

of radiata, 163, 178.

■ tuaka of, 81.

Flamingo, 66.

Elepbas Africanus, 80.

Flea, 291, 297.

Indicus,80.

Fliea, 213, 237.
Fly, flesh, 237.
bluebottle, 237-

Euccphalon, 6, 7, 8.

Entomozoaria, 404.

golden, 237.

Entozoa, 324, 330.

hominivorous, 237.

Epeira, 2S1.

Fluke, 370, 403.

Epicaula adsper&a, 132.

Forficula auricularia, 242.

cavernosa, 182.

Epizoa, 291.

Fox, 65, 68.

Eructe, 234.

shark, 102.

Ethiopian race, 29.

Frigate bird, 65.

Euatrongylue gigas, 356.

Frog, 67.

Eutarsus cancrifonnin, 323.

Eutoma, 234.

Eye, fiO.

Gaduine,105.

Gadun, 102.

JlgleSnus, 102.

Facial angle, 5.

Brosme, 102,

in Chinese, 5.

. Callarias, 102.

European, 6.

CarboaariuB, 103.

Lota, 102.

Merlangus, 102,

Falcon, 65.

Fallow deer, 65, 68.

Mcrlucius, 102.

Fasciola, 370.

minutus, 102.

hepatica, 370.

Molva, 102.

Fat, 186.

Morrhua, 102.

Feathers, 211.

Galls, 100, 148, I4S.

Fel bovinum, 95.

Gall of Aleppo, 153.

— lauri, 96.

artichoke, 152.

Festicularia, 333, 334.

crowned, 152.

Feslucaria, 375, 404.

gooseberry seed, 151.

homed, 152.

lentis, 378, 404, 40S.

Fieus religiosa, 78.

Hungarian, 152.

Indies, 78.

Piedmont, 152.

Filaria, 333, 334, 359, 403.

smooth, 152.

bronehialis, 364.

squamous, 152.

dracuneulus, 360.

Gamaaus, 297.

lachrymalis, 363.

Gasteropoda, 62, 83.

lentis, 364, 405.

Gasteroetei, 397.

lymphatics, 364, 40B.

Gastric glands, 44.

Medinensis, 360, 466.

Gazelle, 185.

oculi, 363, 406.

Gecarciu.ua ruricola, 267.

Fishes, 244.

Gelatine, 179, 180.

Flesh, 162.

Genette, 110.

ofarticnIata,163,17fl.

Geophilus electriens, 242.

offish, 163, 167.

Gcotrupes vernalia, 242.

416

max.

Glandular [issue, 41.

Helix hortenaia, 175.

Glossina morsitans, 228.

lineata, 175.

Gnats, 230.

melanostoma, 176.

Goat, ringed, 233.

nemoralia, 85.

Gneion, 246".

Pisana, 176.

Goat, 65, 66. 87.

Pomatia, 84, 85.

Goatsucker, 61.

stagnalia, 86.

Goose, 211.

sylvatica, 174.

Goldfinch, 65.

variabilis, 175.

Gordius, aijualicua, 367.

venniculata, SB.

Medincnsia, 360.

Helminths, 330, 332, 334, 401, 4(4,

Gorgonia autipathea, 89.
nobilis, 87.

404.

cyetic, 391, 306.

Grasshopper, 85.
Great cache! ot, 91.

hydatid, 896.

Hippobosca equina, 227.

Grebe, 211.

Hippoboacidee, 227.

Greenland whale. S3, 188.

Hippoeolla, 184.

Green or officinal leech, 14a

Hippopotamus, 81.

Grouse, 66.

■ ampbibiua, 81.

Guinea worm, 360.

Gryllufl ^gyptiuH, 163.

Hirudo, 137.

migratoriua, 183.

mcdicinalis, 140.

Tartaricus, 163.

officinalis, 140.

sanguiauga, 215,

troctintt, 141.

Hirundo eseulenta, 185.

Haddock, 102.

: fueifsga, 185.

Hiementeria, 141, 144.

Hirundiniculture, 147.

Ghiliaoi, 141.

Holothuria edulia, 177.

Mexicans, 111.

- tubulosa, 177.

officinalis, 1*1.

Homarua vulgaris, 176.

Hasmopis, 215, 218.

Homo, 2.

sanguiauga, 215.

Hair, 310.

Lar, 26.

Hairy galls, 149.

1 sapiens, 2, 26.

Hajo serpent, 259.

Troglodytes, 26.

Hake, 102.

Honey, 196, 202.

Hare, 65, 66, 67.

adulteration of, 206.

Harvest bug, 291, 805.

bee, 196, 187.

Hawk, 65, 66, 67.

Heart, 45.

Horned gall, 157.

Hedgehog, 64, 65, 63.

Homet, 279.

Helieidse, 83, 84.

Horse, 64, 65, 66, 67,68.

1 Helicinea, 85.

fly, 227.

Hen, 211.

leech, 215, 216, 217, 218.

Hermit crab, 247.

Human kingdom, 35.

Heron, 66.

Hnmantis, 109.

Helix, 83.

Huso, 182.

. Algira, 175.

Hycleus, IBB.

apcrta, 175.

Hydatids, 391,400.

— — arhustomm, 175.

Hymeuoptera, 148, 153, 196, 26«,

asperea, 85.

275, 266.

ceapitum, 175.

Hyraceum, 110, 122, 123, 124.

ericetorunj, 175.

Hyrax Capenais, 122.

INDEX*

417

Ibex, 68.

Iguana cserulea, 163.

■ cornuta, 163.

delicatissima, 163.

fasciata, 163.

tuberculata, 3.63.

Indian elephant, 80.

hog, 67.

ink, 82.

Insects, 296.
Intestines, 43.

divisions of, 44.

Isinglass, varieties of, 183.
Isis nobilis, 87.

Itch insect, 309.
lulus, 268.

terrestris, 268.

Ivory, 80, 81.

black, 81.

Ixodes, 302.

hominis, 303.

Nigua, 303.

Ricinus, 302.

Jararaca, 258.
Javelin bat, 212.

snakes, 257.

Jaws, 42.
Jigger, 300.
Juvenis bovinus, 21.

lupinus, 21.

ovinus, 21.

ursinus, 21.

Eabardin, 113.
Eermes, 76, 77-
Kingfisher, 65, 66.
Kite, 65, 66.
Kranchil, 114.

Lactodensimetre, 191.
Lactoscope, 192.
Lamb, 163.
Lamprey, 65.
Lapis porci Ceylonici, 67.

Malaccensis, 67.

porcinus, 67.

Lard, 186, 187, 188.
Larinus odontalgics, 159.

subrugosus, 157.

Lark, 65, 66.

Latham — on the races of men, 31,

82.
Leblanc (Mademoiselle), 21.
Leech, 100, 139, 142, 143, 144, 146.

dragon, 140, 141.

green, 100.

grey, 139, 140, 141, 142.

Leptus autumnalis, 305.
Liebig's soup, 177.

Life, average duration of, 17.

table of, for England, 18.

Ling, 102.
Linnaeus—characters of man, 2.

on the races of men, 27.

Lion, 65, 66.

Linguatula, 329.

denticulata, 329.

Liparis auriflua, 234.

canifolia, 234.

Liver, 44.

Lizard, 60, 65, 66, 67.
Lota vulgaris, 102.
Louse, 291.

body, 292, 294.

head, 292.

pubic, 292, 296.

of sick persons, 292, 295.

Lucilia hominivora, 238.
Lungs, 45.
Lydus, 128.
LymnsBUS stagnalis, 86.
Lytta adspersa, 132.

dubia, 132.

segetum, 132.

Syriaca, 132.

vidua, 132.

Lac, 79.

Lacerta agilis, 69.
Scincus, 68.

Macaque, 326.
Magpie, 65.
Male organs, 47.

E E

418

PUT.

Malmignatt*, 261.

!" ■ ■.-■ 1: ■[.

Mao, 1.

Kranchil, 114.

erect position, 1L

— moschiferus, 110.

height of, 14.

Mouse, 65, 66.

original state of, 20.

Mucilage of snails, 86.

species of, 25, 26.

Mule, 60.

■ weight of, IB.

Muaaraigne, 110, 213.

Mandibles, 42.

Musca Csesar, 238.

Marabout, 211.

caroaria, 237.

Marmot, 65.

vomitoria, 237.

Martin, 66.

Muscles, 51.

Maxilla), 42.

Muscular tissue, 41.

Medicinal leech, 140.

Musk, 100,110.

Medusa;, 235.

deer, 111,113.

Meletta, 240.

oi. 110.

Meloe, 137, 12J, 13G, 243.

rat, 110.

Algeria, 137.

Musi[uitoeB, 233.

autumnalis, 137.

Musael, 66, 246.

bimaculala, 136.

common, 172.

eichorii, 134.

Mutton, 163.

. Gallicua, 137.

Mygale, 260, 262, 263.

mailis, 137.

Muscovita, 110.

Proscarabasiis, 137.

Mylabrie, 128, 134,243.

punctatus, 137.

bimaculata, 136.

rugosus, 137.

Schieffuri, 135.

cichorii, 134.

cvanescens, 135.

variegatns, 137.

Indica, 135.

Merlangus carbonarius, 102.

oleas, 135.

vulgaris, 102.

punctum, 135.

Merlucius vulgaris, 102.

pustulata, 135.

Sidne, 135.

Mermie, 367.

Milk, 189.

variabilis, 136.

preservation of, 193.

Mvricine, 210.

. of ass, 190, 191.

Mytilus cdubs, 172.

of cow, 190.

of goat, 190, 191.

of sheep, 190, 191.

of mare, 100, 191.

Naia, 255, 299.

of woman, 190, 191.

Naja Haje, 25.

Millipedes, 265.

tripudians, 259.

Mistura sphitus Vini Gallici,

196. Napu, 114.

Mole, 64, 65, 66.

Navicella clliptica, 179.

Molva vulgaris, 102.

Negro, 5.

Mollusea, 244, 246.

Nematoidea, 62, 604, 605.

Mongolian raeo, 29, 31, 32.

NematiOideum iiominis viscerum.

Mont-fish, 109.

330.

Monkey, 65, 66,67.

Nepa, 226.

Monostomum lentis, 375.

Montpellier drops, 100.

Nervous system, 34.

Morbus mucosus, 348.

Morrhua JEglefiuus, 102.

Nightingale, 66.

Catlarius, 102.

Noctonecta glauca, 22*.

minuta, 102.

Noxious animals, 212.

Moschus Altaicus, 114.

Nutgails, 153.

INDEX.

419

Oculina, 89.

virginea, 89.

CEnas, 128.
CEstridea, 325.
CEstrus bovis, 326.

Guildingei, 326.

hominis, 326.

ovis, 326.

Oil, 188.

of dugong, 189.

of porpoise, 189.

of whale, 188.

Oniscus asellus, 70.

Ophidia, 283.

Opuntia cochenillifera, 71.

Tuna, 71.

vulgaris, 71.

Orang-outang, 10.

Organic world, divisions of, 36.

tissues, 41.

Organs of motion, 51.

of nutrition, 42.

of relation, 49.

Ornithorynchus, 268.
Ostracion, 244.
Ostrea cristata, 168.

edulis, 168.

hippopus, 168.

lacteola, 168.

lameliosa, 168.

Mediterranea, 168.

plicata, 168.

rosacea, 168.

Ostreaculture, 169.

Ostrich, 65, 66, 67, 187, 211.

Otter, 66, 67.

Ovis Aries, 185.

Ox, 66, 67, 68, 164, 165.

- gall, uses of, 95.
Oxyporus subterraneus, 242.
Oxyuris, 333, 334, 403.

vermicularis, 343, 405.

Oyster, 86, 168, 169, 246.

Pachydermata, 80.
Psederus elongatus, 242.
Pagurus Bcrnhardus, 247.
Palinurus vulgaris, 176.
Pallulinia Australia, 205.

Pancreas, 44.
Papilio brassier, 243.
Paramecium, 406.

coli, 406.

Parenchyma, 404.
Partridge, 66, 67.
Peacock, 67.
Pearl oyster, 66.
Pediculus, 291.

capitis, 292.

— cervicalis, 292.

corporis, 294.

humanu8, 292.

■ inguinalis, 296.

morphio, 296.

^— — pubescens, 294.
pubis, 296.

■ subcutaneus, 295.

tabescentium, 295.

Pee-wit, 66, 67.

Pelias Berus, 240.
Pelican, 65.
Penguin, 211.
Pentastoma, 376.
Perdix cinerea, 166.

petrosa, 166.

rubra, 166.

saxatilis, 166.

Phalangioides, 261.
Phalsena processionea, 234*

quercus, 234.

Phasianus Colchicus, 166.

Gallus, 193.

Pheasant, 65, 66.
Pholci, 261.
Phthiriasis, 295.
Phyllostoma haustatum, 212.
Physalia pelagica, 236.
Physeter macrocephalus, 92.
Pig, 66, 164, 265.

stone, 67.

Pigeon, 64, 65, 66, 67.
Pithecus Lar, 21.
Pike, 66, 67.
Platessa flesus, 167.

vulgaris, 167.

Plover, 64.

Polistes Lecheguana, 205.

Porcupine, 65.

Pork, 163, 165.

Potentilla alba, 77.

reptans, 77.

Portuguese man of war, 286.
Poulp, 56, 126.

421

Proeeasionary moths, 28*.
Protoglottia, 401.
Protoacolcx, 401.
Ptinea, 130.
Pulex, 297.
hominis, 297.

Pal
Pu,

Got
Qut

fiat

420

- penetrans, 300.

— vulgaris, 297.
Pulmoaes prepaiati, 66.
Pupipara, 227.
Pupivora, 118.
Pvgoccntrua, 214.

eoccifcra, 77.

Pyrenaica, 150.

sesaiflora, 150.
Quail, 65, 67.
Quetclet — weight of man, 16.

Rabliit, 65.

Radiata, 57, 58, 61,62.

flesh of, 176.

Raia Aquila, 107.

batis, 107.

clavala, 106.

Pastinaca, 107.

Rana esculenta, 178.

tempore ria, 178.

Rat, 65, 213.
fiajfl, 106,213.
Red coral, 83.
lli.'diivikla, 222,
Reduvina, 222.
Reduvius peraonatus, 222.

senatus, 221.

" s of, 48.

Reptilia, 62.
I iteration, 4a.
RhamnuB Jujuba, 78.
Rhinoceros, 65, 66, 67.
Rkizostoma Aldrovandi, 236.
Cuvlerii, 236.

Rodentia, 118.
Roebuck, 66.
Rorqual, 183.

S.il.nr.riiiiir.i uiaculata, 2-
Sular Ausonii, 167.
Salivary glands, 44.

SliIuiu Ittrio, 167.

S.ili::.ni-il'.v:t inl ■ ITlipt.t, [-11.

officinalis, 1*0.

Sareophaga carnaria, 237.
Sun-ups vl la- penetrans, 300.
Sarcoptus, 307, 318.

Ecabei, 309.

Saunders (Mr.) — eruption of molar

teeth, 13.
Scarab&us, 65.

vernalis, 242.

Scarus, 246.

capitaneus, 246.

■ ; ihaloB dijnorphua, 397.
Scink, 68.
Seolices, 397.
SclerantkuB perennis, 77.
Scolopcudra, 265.
cingulata, 265.

Seolopendridie, 260.
Scomber Scombrus, 167.

capitaneus, 246.

Scorpio Europaiua, 271.

Occitanua, 272.

palmatuB, 272.

Scorpion, 64, 65, 268, 270.

African, 271 .

— — common, 271.

■ palmated, 271.

red, 271.

Seed lac, 79.
.SiJire-ilriiiccHarifi, 260.
Sepia, 82.
— — — officinalis, 81.

HTDEX.

£21

Sepium, 82, 83.
Serpent, 68, 248, 255.
Serrasalmes, 214.
Sewruga, 182.
Shad, 65.
Shark, 102.

oil of, J 08, 109.

Sheep, 67, 68, 164, 165.

skin of, 185.

Shell lac, 79.
. Sight, 49.
Silkworm, 67.
Simulium reptans, 23a
Silphidse, 214.
Size of foetus, 12, 14.
Skate, 106, 107.

oil of, 105, 106, 107.

Skeleton, 52.

Skin, 184.
Slug, 65.
- Smell, 49.
Smooth gall, 150.
Snail, 66, 83, 174, 246.
Snipe, 66.
Solea vulgaris, 167.
Solitary worm, 376.
Soulouque, 30.
Spermaceti, 91,94.
Sphserodus leucothalmus, 242.
Sphyraena Becuna, 246.

Caracauda, 246.

Spider, 64, 67, 98, 99, 262.

cave, 260.

web of; 91,98.

Spiroptera, 333, 334, 359, 403.

hominis, 359, 405.

Spodium GrsBCum, 66.
Sponge, 89.

composition of, 90.

nature of, 90.

■ brown, 91.

common, 90.

fine Archipelago, 91.

hard, 91.

■ ■ Syrian, 91.

gelatine, 91.

■ Grecian, 91.

« Marseilles, 91.

■ Salonica, 91.

white of Syria, 91.

Spongia officinalis, 89.

spiculae of, 90.

Sporocyst, 394.

Squalus, 108.

Squalus Acanthias, 108.

Catulus, 108.

r- Centrina, 109.

Mustelus, 109.

Squatina, 109.

Vulpes, 109.

Stag, 65, 66, 67.

horn of, 180. •

Staphiiinus fuscipes, 242.

politus, 242.

punctatus, 242.

Sterlet, 182.

Stick lac, 79.

Stickle back, 897.

Stigmata, 46.

Stomach, 43.

Strobila, 401.

Strongylus, 333, 334, 355, 403.

gigas, 356, 405.

— longivaginatus, 357,

405.

renaiis, 356, 405.

Struthio camelus, 187.
Sturgeon, 181.
Sturio, 182.

stellatus, 182.

Suet, 186, 187.
Sus scropha, 81.
Swallow, 65, 66.

esculent, 185; nests of,

185.
Swan, 65, 66.
Syrupus cocci, 76.

Tabanus bovinus, 234.

Table of the animal kingdom, 62.

Taenia, 332, 334, 376, 404.

Acanthotrias, 405.

iEgyptiaca, 383.

canina, 385.

Capensis, 384.

communis, 399.

crassipes, 402.

— crassicollis, 397, 402.

cucumerina, 385.

dentalis, 405.

Echinococcus, 382, 383, 405.

■ faenestrata, 382.

flavopunctata, 382, 383, 405.

inermis, 382, 384, 405.

mediocanellata, 384.

422 I1TDEX.

Taenia nana, 382, 888, 405.

serrata, 885, 402.

Solium, 376, 882, 405.

tenuicollis, 405.

tropica, 403.

Taenioidea, 404.
Tannin, 153.
Tapeworm, 376:
Tapir, 67.
Tarantula, 263.
Taste, 49.
Teeth, 13.

eruption of, 13.

Tegenaria medicinalis, 182.
Tench, 65.

Tenebrio molitor, 242.
Testudo Europea, 178.

Graeca, 178.

marginata, 178.

Mauritanica, 178.

Tetrao lagopus, 166.

tetrix, 166.

urogalius, 166.

Tetraonix, 128.
Tetrarhynci, 397.
ThecoBoma, 338, 884, 868, 404.

haematobium, 869.

sanguicola, 405.

Theridian mactans, 261.
Thornback, 106.
Thread lac, 79.
Ticks, 291, 302.
Tick of wolf, 302.

reticulated, 302.

Ticdman on the human brain, 6.
Tinctura cantharides, 133.

castorei,122.

Gallae, 153.

Tincture of cantharides, 133.

of galls, 153.

Titmouse, 64.
Toad, 64, 65 t 66, 287.

common, 288.

Natter Jack, 288.

Tooth powder of French codex, 83.
Torpedo, 213.
Tortoise, 65, 66, 67.

sea, 67.

Touch, 49.

Tracheae, 45.

Transfusion, 161.

Trahala, 100, 156, 157, 158, 189.

Trahalose, 158.

Tree-frog, 64, 65.

Trematoda, 405.
Trepang, 177.
Trichina, 350.

spiralis, 850, 405.

Trichomonas, 406.

vaginalis, 407.

Tricocephalus,333,334, 348,351,403.

dispar, 405.

Tricula, 156.
Triton, 289.

custatus, 288.

Trombediidae, 305.

Trout, 66.

Trunk-fish, 244.

Tsetse, 228.

Tunny, 245.

Turbellaria, 404.

Turbot, 167.

Turpentine gall, 156.

Tyroglyphus Mericourtii, 269.

Unguentum cantharidis, 138.

— : Gallae compositum, 153.

Vampire, 212.
Vampyrus spectrum, 212.
Vegetable wax, 206.
Vena Medini, 334.

mitena, 334.

Veins, 45.
Veneridae, 172.
Vermes accessorii, 331.

cucumerini, 382.

cucurbitini, 382.

Vesicating insects, 100.
Vespa Crabro, 280.

vulgaris, 280.

Vespertilio vampyrus, 212.
Vibrio, 406.

Bacillus, 409.

cyanogenus, 409.

lineola, 409.

regula, 409.

xanthogenus, 409.

Victor, 23.

Viper, 68, 248, 283.

common, 248.

Vipera ammodytes, 249.

INDEX.

423

Vipera aspis, 248.

Berus, 248.

' lanceolata, 258.

Meegera, 258.

Virgulina, 406.

tenax, 408.

Viverra civetta, 115.

Zibetha,117.

Volvocid®, 396.
Volvox, 60, 62.

Whalebone, 211.

whale, 93.

Whiting, 65, 67, 102.
Wolf, 65, 66.
Woodcock, 66.
Woodlouse, 68, 69, 70.
Wren, 64.

Water scorpion, 226.

wagtail, 64.

Wax, 206, 209, 210.

organs, 207.

Weasel, 65, 66.
Weight of brain, 7.

of child at birth, 14.

Wild boar, 81.

boy of Aveyron, 23.

cat, 64, 65.

Whale, 64.

Yeh, 29.

Zebra. 184.
Zebud, 228.
Zebeth, 117.

scent of, 117.

Zimb, 228.

Zoonites, 59, 60, 62, 376, 402.
Zoophyte, 60, 404.
Zoophytes, 61, 62, 245.

Printed by W, H. COX, 5, Great Queen Street, W. C.

LANE MEDKAL LIBRARY

l ■■ avofd fine, this 1 k si Id be returned on

1 ilie date last stamped below.

■JH

D799 Moquin-Tandon.A. 44320
MBZh Elements of medical

V C.c>£jL~, APftF

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