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STRUCTURAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, SYSTEMATICAL,
AND MEDICAL ;
X,
BEING A FOURTH EDITION OF
THE OUTLINE OF THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF BOTANY.
BY JOHN LINDLEY, PH.D. F.R.S.
VICE-SECRETARY OP THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OP LONDON;
PROFESSOR OP BOTANY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON,
THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OP GREAT BRITAIN, AND TO THE SOCIETY OP APOTHECARIES.
LONDON:
'PRINTED FOR TAYLOR AND WALTON,
BOOKSELLERS AND PUBLISHERS TO UNIVERSITY COLLEGE,
UPPER GOWER STREET.
1841.
<
LONDON :
PRINTED BY SAMUEL BENTLEY,
Bangor House, Shoe Lane.
PREFACE.
THE work now laid before the public is a fourth edition of
the Author's " Outline of the First Principles of Botany,"
much extended and, it is hoped, improved. That work was
written for the use of students, and entirely for the purpose
of enabling them to fix correctly in their minds the more
important points which the teacher brings before them in an
academical course. When facts are mixed up with extended
discussions, and rapidly adverted to, either in a lecture-room
or in a written dissertation, the beginner is apt to lose sight of
the exact nature of an argument, and is unable to distinguish
with certainty the points upon which it is most material for
him to fix his attention. That there existed a want of such
a work has been sufficiently proved by the many editions the
original Outline has passed through, in various European lan-
guages : indeed, while the present new edition is in the press,
advice has been received of the translation of the work into
Hungarian. The propositions which it contained were such
as it is of the most indispensable importance for a student to
understand ; and were all, apparently, deducible from the
evidence which had at that time been collected by Botanists.
— The wish of the Author was to sketch a slight but accurate
outline, the details of which were to be filled up by the
reader himself, who, for this purpose, was referred to the
Author's more extended Introductions to Botany.
The original " Outline " contained nothing more than the
fundamental propositions upon which the principles of Organic
and Physiological Botany depend ; but, when two editions
had been exhausted, the Author was induced, by the favour
with which the book had been received, and by its recognized
utility, notwithstanding its many defects, to combine with it a
2091 \ 27
IV PKEFACE.
sketch of Systematical Botany, treated in the same manner.
He undertook the far more difficult task of reducing to their
simplest expression the characters that distinguish the various
groups in which plants are classified by modern systemati-
cal writers ; the object being to diminish, by a very careful
and extensive analysis, the difficulties which present them-
selves to the student of this branch of the subject. The
attempt was made in the form of a series of tables, called
the " Alliances of Plants ;" and it has been satisfactory to
the Author to find that this too has been advantageous to
students, notwithstanding its extreme conciseness. The work
thus altered appeared in 1835, under the title of " Key to
Structural, Physiological, and Systematical Botany."
In the edition now offered to students many important
improvements have been introduced, without deviating from
the original plan of the work. The skill of the wood-engraver
has enabled the Author to fill his pages with illustrations, ex-
planatory not only of the technical terms employed in Botany,
but also of the Natural Orders of plants. An analysis of the
latter, upon the plan of Lamarck, an account of De Candolle's
celebrated system of arrangement, into which a large number
of wood-cuts are introduced, and some new views relating to
natural classification, are added to the matter to be found in
previous editions : besides which, the whole of the Structural
and Physiological part has been corrected with great care,
and made to include all the most important views of modern
physiologists, so as to present the reader with a view of the
state of Botanical knowledge in these departments in the
spring of 1841.
It is hoped that these improvements will render the work
what it was originally intended for, — a complete Botanical
Note-book, — wherein all the principal topics which the teachers
of Botany introduce into their lectures are arranged methodi-
cally. The student will naturally look to his instructor or to
more extensive works for explanations of those points which
in his Note-book are merely adverted to.
University College, London,
April 1841.
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY;
STRUCTURAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, SYSTEMATICAL,
AND MEDICAL.
I.— STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
BOTANY.
1. PLANTS are not separable from animals by any absolute
character; the simplest individuals of either kingdom not
being distinguishable by our senses.
2. Animals are for the most part incapable of multiplying
by mechanical or spontaneous division of their trunk, and are
supported by nutritious matter, carried into their system from
an internal bag or stomach.
3. Plants are for the most part congeries of individuals,
multiplying by spontaneous or artificial division of their trunk
or axis, and are supported by nutritious matter conveyed into
their system by the absorption of their lower extremities
or roots, or by their surface.
4. Generally speaking, the latter are fixed to some sub-
stance from which they grow, are destitute of locomotion, and
are enabled to digest their food by the action of light upon
their epidermis.
5. Plants consist of a hygrometrical membranous trans-
parent tissue, chemically composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and
carbon, to which nitrogen is always superadded. They are
also found to contain many mineral substances, which they
are supposed to separate from their proper food during the
process of digestion, and to deposit in their tissue.
B
2 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
6. Their component parts are held together by an organic
mucus, out of which the tissue itself is generated.
7. Tissue is found in the form of the cellular, the woody, the
vascular, the pitted, and the laticiferous, each of which has
certain modifications, constituting the Elementary organs.
I.— ELEMENTARY ORGANS.
8. Of these, CELLULAR TISSUE (Tela cellulosa, Lat. ; Tissu
cellulaire, Fr. ; Pulp and Parenchyma, of old writers ; Zellen-
gewebe, Germ.) is the only form universally found in plants ;
the other forms are often either partially or entirely wanting.
9. Cellular tissue is composed of vesicles, the sides of which
are not originally perforated by visible pores (22).
10. Each vesicle is a distinct individual, cohering with the
vesicle with which it is in contact ; and originating from a
primitive point or cytollast1, which either remains visible on its
sides or is absorbed.
11. Therefore the apparently simple membrane which di-
vides two contiguous cells is in fact double.
12. If the adhesion of the contiguous cells be imperfect,
spaces will exist between them. Such spaces are called inter-
cellular passages.
13. The sides of cellular tissue are often thickened by the
deposit, on their inner surface, of matter of lignification or
sclerogenz, which is stratified, and often pierced with passages
leading to the circumference.
14. The cells contain fluid; grains of colouring matter
(cJiromule., chromogen, or chlorophyll) ; starch in granules (pe-
renchyma) ; and crystals, which, when acicular, are named
raphides.
15. The vesicles of cellular tissue, when separate, are
round or oblong ; when slightly and equally pressed together,
they acquire a dodecahedral appearance4, with an hexagonal
section ; stretched lengthwise they become prismatical, cylin-
drical, fusiform, &c.
16. When cellular tissue is composed of vesicles fitting
together by their plane faces, it is called in general terms
parenchyma ; and prosencJiyma if the vesicles are fusiform.
Both these are sometimes branched, and their divisions inos-
culate.
ELEMENTARY ORGANS.
Spheroidal cellular tissue is merenchyma4, or spharendtyma ; conical, conenchy-
ma5 ; oval, ovenchynui6 ; fusiform, atractenchyma ; cylindrical, cylindrenchyma8 ;
sinuous, colpenckyma9 ; branched, cladenchymaw ; prismatical, prismenchyma,
which, when compressed, becomes muriform7; stellate, actinenchyma1*; entan-
gled, branched and tubular, d(edalencliyman.
=»-.<#4
17. Parenchyma constitutes all the pulpy parts; the me-
dulla or pith (98), the medullary rays (132), a portion of the
bark (120), and all that intervenes between the veins of leaves
and other appendages of the axis. Consequently it occurs in
every part of a plant, and especially in those which are succu-
lent. It, however, sometimes acquires, by the deposit of scle-
rogen (13), excessive hardness, as in the stone of fruits3, and
the bony skin of some seeds.
destines are large cells of Parenchyma, in which raphides (60 a) are often de-
posited.
18. Prosenchyma is confined to the bark and wood, in
which it only occasionally occurs.
19. Besides these a spiral line is often found in the inside of
a cell, when fibro-cellular tissue 13, or inenchyma, is produced ;
and it sometimes happens that the membrane connecting such
fibres is absorbed, leaving the fibres only to constitute the
cell.
20. The function of the cellular tissue is to transmit fluids
in all directions ; the membrane of which it is composed is
therefore permeable, although not in general furnished with
B 2
4 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
visible pores (9). When it is thickened by the deposition of
sclerogen, passages are left in the latter communicating with
the sides of the tissue, and giving it the appearance of being
dotted or pitted.
21. Cellular tissue is self-productive, one cell generating
others upon its surface. In Chara, Marchantia, &c. young
cells are said to be formed at the points of and in the spaces
between older cells ; in Confervse and in anthers new cells are
formed by the internal divisions of an older cell; while,
according to Schleiden, the most general mode of production is
from cytoblasts (10), generated in the mucus of vegetation (6).
22. PITTED TISSUE (Boihrenchyma) is a modification of the
cellular, either consisting of ordinary cylindrical cells placed
end to end, opening into each other, and forming continuous
tubes ; or originally tubular15. Its sides are marked by pits,
resembling dots, produced in consequence of the sclerogen (13)
being unequally deposited over the inside of the cells. It is
common in wood, of which it forms what is vulgarly called
the porosity. Its office is to convey fluids with rapidity in
the direction of the woody tissue that surrounds it. Formerly
it was considered a form of vascular tissue, and called dotted
ducts, or msiform tissue.
Pitted Tissue is articulated, when composed of short cylinders placed end to
end, or continuous when it was originally tubular.
23. WOODY TISSUE (Pleurenchyma) consists of elongated
tubes tapering to each end, and, like the vesicles of cellular
tissue, imperforate to the eye. It may be considered a form of
the cellular tissue itself, to which it is frequently referred ; but
it is practically distinguished by its cylindrical form, great
length, extreme fineness, and toughness; the latter of which
properties is produced by the thickness of its sides.
24. It is found in the wood, among the parenchyma of the
liber (124), and in the veins of the leaves, or other appendages
of the axis.
25. Its functions are to give strength to the vegetable fabric,
and to serve as a medium for the passage of fluid from the
lower to the upper extremities.
Common Pleurenchyma has its sides destitute of markings ; the glandular14 is a
variety in which the sides of the tubes are furnished with circular disks ; the
latter occur chiefly in coniferous plants and such as have aromatic secretions.
ELEMENTARY ORGANS. 5
26. VASCULAR TISSUE (Trachmchyma) consists of very thin-
sided cylinders tapering to each end, and having a spiral fibre
generated in their inside.
27. Of this kind of tissue spiral vessels1516 are the type.
Their fibre is of a highly elastic nature, and is capable of un-
rolling when stretched.
28. Spiral vessels are found in the medullary sheath, and in
all parts that emanate from it, especially the veins of the
leaves, and everything that is a modification of them.
29. They are usually absent from the wood and bark.
They, however, occur in these and other unusual parts in a
few extremely rare cases ; as in the wood, and bark, and pith
of Nepenthes.
30. The spiral vessels appear intended for the conveyance
of air, which has been found to contain 7 or 8 per cent, more
oxygen than the atmosphere.
31. Ducts are transparent tubes, the sides of which are
marked with rings, bars, or transverse streaks.
32. They are slight modifications of the spiral vessel, differ-
ing principally in being incapable of unrolling ; and, in some
cases, in the turns of the spiral fibre being distant or broken,
or even, in appearance, branched.
33. In those cases where the turns of the spire actually
touch each other, the ducts, which are then called closed, can
only be distinguished from spiral vessels by their inability to
unrol ; while at rest they appear to be absolutely the same.
6 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
Ducts are closed50 when the spires touch each other ; annular, when they seern
to consist of separate rings17 ; reticulated, when the spires cross each other19 ;
scalariform, when the lines upon their sides are horizontal and equidistant ;
septate, when the interior is divided by pierced disks, as in Echinocactus.
34. Ducts occur among the woody tissue of herbaceous
plants ; are abundant in the wood of the higher tribes of cel-
lular plants, such as Ferns and Lycopodiacese ; and their ends
are often in immediate connection with the loose cellular tissue
occupying the extremities of the roots.
35. Their functions have not been accurately determined.
It is probable that they act as. spiral vessels when young ; but
it is certain that they become filled with fluid as soon as
their spires are separated.
36. LATICIFEROUS TissuE18 (Cinenchyma) consists of uninter-
rupted anastomozing tubes, whose final divisions are so deli-
cate, that the eye only discovers them when aided by the
most powerful microscopes. It forms the proper vessels of
old writers.
37. It principally occurs in the liber of Exogens (124),
whence the ramifications proceed to the surface of all the
organs, and penetrate the hairs, where they form a most
delicate network.
38. Laticiferous tissue conveys latex, a peculiar fluid, usually
turbid, and coloured red, white, or yellow ; often however
colourless.
39. The use of this tissue is to carry the latex to all the
newly formed organs, which are supposed to be nourished by it.
The large trunks of Cinenchyma are vasa expansa, or opopkora ; the small are
rasa cm: tract a.
40. There are no other elementary forms of tissue. Air-
vessels, Reservoirs of oil, Lenticular glands, are all either dis-
tended intercellular passages, or cavities built up with cellular
tissue, or large cells filled with peculiar secretions.
41. When such cavities are essential to the existence of a
species, they are formed by a regular -arrangement of cellular
tissue in a definite and unvarying figure ; Ex. Water-plants.
When they are not essential to the existence of a species,
they are mere irregular distensions or lacerations of the tissue :
Ex. Pith of the Walnut-tree.
42 All these forms of tissue are enclosed within a skin
lied the epidermis, which is one or more external layers of
ELEMENTARY ORGANS. 7
parenchyma, the vesicles of which are compressed, and in a
firm state of cohesion.
43. The spaces seen upon the epidermis, when examined by
a microscope, represent these vesicles.
44. It is, therefore, not a peculiar membrane, but a form of
cellular tissue.
45. It is spread over all the parts of plants which are ex-
posed to air, except the stigma (397).
46. It is not found upon parts habitually living under
water.
47. It is itself protected by an extremely thin pellicle,
which is apparently inorganic and homogeneous, and which
covers every part, except the openings through the stomates
(49). This membrane is the cuticle.
48. The epidermis is furnished with stomates.
49. STOMATES are oval spaces lying between the sides of the
cells, opening into intercellular cavities in the subjacent tissue,
and appearing to be bordered by a limb when they are viewed
from above22 23 25.
50. This appearance. of a limb is owing to the juxtaposition
of two or more elastic vesicles, closing up or opening the
aperture which they form, according to circumstances, as is
manifest when the stomate is divided perpendicularly to the
plane of the epidermis 21 24 26.
51. Stomates are found abundantly upon leaves, particularly ^
on the lower surface of those organs; occasionally upon all
8 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
parts that are modifications of leaves, especially such as are of
a leafy texture ; and on the stem.
52. Stomates have not been found upon the roots, nor on
colourless parasitical plants, nor the submersed parts of plants,
nor on Fungi, Algse, and Lichens ; they are, moreover, rare,
or altogether absent, in succulent parts and in seeds.
53. It frequently happens, that they are so incompletely
formed, as to be either altogether incapable of action, or to
act in a very imperfect manner ; as in succulent plants.
54. The function of stomates is to regulate evaporation
and respiration. It has been thought, that the former func-
tion, in particular, is that for which they are destined ; and,
that the cause of certain parts becoming succulent, is the
absence of stomates in sufficient numbers to carry off the
watery part of the sap. But some succulent plants have
more stomates than ordinary plants, so that this opinion
requires reconsideration.
55. HAIRS are minute expansions of transparent cellular
tissue proceeding from the surface of plants. They are of
two kinds, lymphatic and secreting.
56. Lymphatic hairs are formed by vesicles of cellular tis-
sue placed end to end, and not varying much in dimensions.
57. Glandular hairs are formed by vesicles of cellular tis-
sue placed end to end, and sensibly distended at the apex or
base into receptacles of fluid.
COMPOUND ORGANS.
58. Lymphatic hairs are for the absorption of moisture, for
the protection of the surface on which they are placed, and
for the control of evaporation through the stomates (49).
They always proceed from the veins, while the stomates oc-
cupy the interjacent parenchyma.
59. Glandular hairs are receptacles of the fluid peculiar to
certain species of plants, such as the fragrant volatile oil of the
sweet brier, and the acrid colourless fluid of the nettle, and
may be regarded as organs of excretion.
Hairs are simple35 ; setaceous28 ; capitate37 ; strangulated29 ; moniliform x ; ar-
ticulated31 3a ; septate27 ; compound38 ; knotted33 ; clavate34 ; scabrous39 ; ci-
liated50 ; glochidiate40 41 ; branched42 ; stellate45 40 ; scutate43 ; araneose36 ;
rumentaceous 48 49.
60. Hairs are usually planted, more or less perpendicularly,
upon the surface on which they grow. In some cases, how-
ever, they are attached by their middle (peltate), as in Mal-
pighiaceous and Brassicaceous plants51.
60 a. RAPHIDES are crystals of any kind, usually acicular,
found in the interior of cells of parenchyma.
61. PRICKLES are conical hairs of large size, sharp-pointed,
and having thin tissue very hard.
II. COMPOUND ORGANS.
62. From peculiar combinations of the elementary organs
are formed the compound organs.
63. The compound organs are the axis (64) and its ap-
pendages (189).
64. The Axis may be compared to the vertebral column of
animals.
65. It is formed from an embryo or leaf-bud, by the de-
velopement of a root in one direction, and of a stem in the
opposite direction.
10 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
66. An embryo is a young plant, produced by the agency of
sexes, and developed within a seed.
67. A leaf-bud is a young plant, produced without the agency
of sexes, enclosed within rudimentary leaves called scales, and
developed on a stem.
68. An embryo propagates the species.
69. Leaf-buds propagate the individual.
70. When the vital action of an embryo or bud is excited,
the tissue developes in three directions, upwards, downwards,
and horizontally.
71. That part which developes downwards is called the
descending axis or root ; that upwards, the ascending axis or
stem ; that horizontally, the medullary system ; and the part
from which these two axes start is called the crown or collar.
72. This elongation in three directions takes place simul-
taneously ; hence it follows that all plants must necessarily
have an ascending and descending axis, or a stem and root,
and a medullary system.
73. The only apparent exceptions to this are the lower
tribes of plants, in which the developement seems to be either
spherical, filamentous, or horizontal.
III. ROOT.
74. The root is formed by the descending and dividing
fibres of the stem.
75. Anatomically it differs from the stem in the absence of
normal buds, and of stomates (49), and in Exogens of pith.
76. Although the root has no distinct pith in Exogens, yet
it possesses a distinct medullary system.
77. The functions of the root are to fix plants in the earth,
and to absorb nutriment from it. As it has to force its way
through substances which offer resistance to its passage, it
lengthens exclusively by successive additions to the points
of its divisions.
78. This absorption takes place almost exclusively by the
extremities called spongelets, or spongioles, which consist of a
lax coating of cellular tissue lying upon a concentric layer of
woody tissue, in the midst of which is often placed a bundle
of ducts (31). Spongioles are not, however, a distinct organ,
but are merely the young extremities of roots.
ROOT.
11
Roots are nodose52; placentiform53 ; conical54; moniliform55 ; testiculate, or
tubercular56 ; coralline58 ; tuberous59 ; and fasciculate, when in clusters as in
the Asphodel.
79. Occasionally the epidermis separates from the end of
the roots in the form of a cup or cap57, as in Pandanus and
Lycopodium.
80. The power of affording nutriment to the stem and other
parts, is not possessed by the root exclusively in consequence
of its absorption from the soil. The root is often a reservoir
of nutritious matter ready formed, and consisting of starch,
as in the Dahlia ; mucilage, as in the Orchis ; alkaline matter,
as in Rhubarb ; upon which the young stem feeds, even al-
though the root itself is cut off from communication with any
source of supply. Moniliform, tuberous, testiculate, placenti-
form, conical roots, — in short, all which are unusually thick-
ened,— are intended by nature as reservoirs of food. They
must not be confounded with tubers (152), rootstocks (152),
or corms (153), all which are forms of stem.
IV. STEM.
81. The stem is produced by the successive developement
of leaf-buds (164), which lengthen in opposite directions.
82. If an annular incision be made below a branch of an
Exogenous plant (95), the upper lip of the wound heals
rapidly, the lower lip not : the part above the incision in-
creases sensibly in diameter, the part below does not.
12 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
83. If a ligature be made round the bark, below a branch,
the part above the ligature swells, that below it does not
swell.
84. Therefore the matter which causes the increase of
Exogenous plants in diameter descends.
85. If a growing branch is cut through below a leaf-bud,
that branch never increases in diameter between the section
and the first bud below it.
86. The diameter of all Exogenous stems increases in each
species in proportion to the number of leaf-buds developed.
87. The greater number of leaf-buds above a given part,
the greater the diameter of that part ; and vice versa.
88. In the spring the newly forming wood is to be traced
in the form of organic fibres descending from the leaf-buds ;
that which is most newly formed lying on the outside, and
proceeding from the most newly developed buds.
89. Therefore the descending matter, by successive addi-
tions of which Exogenous plants increase in diameter, pro-
ceeds from the leaf-buds.
90. Their elongation upwards gives rise to new axes, with
their appendages ; their elongation downwards increases the
diameter of that part of the axis which pre-existed, and pro-
duces roots.
91. Roots, therefore, in all cases, should consist of exten-
sions of woody tissue ; and this is conformable to observation.
92. Hence, while the stem is formed by the successive
evolution of leaf-buds, the root, which is the effect of that
evolution, has no leaf-buds.
93. The leaf-buds thus successively developed are firmly
held together by the medullary system of the stem, which
proceeds from the bark inwards, connecting the circumference
with the centre.
94. The stem varies in structure in four principal ways.
95. It is either formed by successive additions to the out-
side of the wood, when it is called Exogenous^0 ; or by suc-
cessive additions to its centre, when it is called Endogenous^ ;
or by the union of the bases of leaves, and by addition to the
point of the axis, or by simple elongation or dilatation where
no leaves or buds exist ; this is called Acrogenous.
96. In what are" called Dictyogens^, the stem has the
STEM.
structure of Endogens, the root that of the stem of Exogens
nearly ; Ex. Smilax.
97. The stem of EXOGENS may be distinguished into the
Pith, the Medullary Sheath, the Wood, the Bark, and the
Medullary Rays.
98. The PITH consists of cellular tissue, occupying the cen-
tre of the stem.
99. It occasionally contains scattered spiral vessels, which
appear to originate in the medullary sheath (104), or scat-
tered bundles of vascular and woody tissue, as in Ferula.
100. It is produced by the elongation of the axis upwards.
101. It serves to nourish the young buds until they have
acquired the power of procuring nourishment for themselves.
For this purpose it is filled with starch, which, in the process
of vegetation, becomes converted into mucilage ; and the latter
passes out of the pith into the nascent organs.
102. It is always solid when first organized ; but in some
cases it separates into regular cavities, as in the Walnut,
when it is called disciform ; or it tears into irregular spaces,
as in Umbelliferous plants.
103. Its office of nourishing the young parts being ac-
complished, it is of no further importance, and dies.
104. The MEDULLARY SHEATH consists of spiral vessels63".
105. It immediately surrounds the pith, projections of
which pass through it into the medullary rays (132)63*.
106. It is in direct communication with the leaf-buds and
the veins of the leaves.
14 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
107. It carries upwards the oxygen liberated by the de-
composition of carbonic acid and water, and conducts it into
the leaves.
108. The WOOD lies upon the medullary sheath, and con-
sists of concentric layers.
109. It is formed by the successive deposit of organized
matter descending from the buds, and by the interposition
of the medullary system, here called medullary rays, con-
necting the pith and the bark63 b b .
110. The first concentric layer lies immediately upon the
medullary sheath and pith, and consists of woody and vasi-
form tissue63 *.
111. Each succeeding concentric layer consists <tf woody
and vasiform tissue, which either form themselves intoMistinct
strata, in which case the latter is innermost, or are con-
founded together.
112. When there is any material difference between the
compactness of the tissue of the two sides of a concentric
layer, zones are formed in which the woody tissue is outer-
most ; but when the vasiform and woody tissues are equally
intermingled, no apparent zones exist.
113. A concentric layer, once formed, never alters in di-
mensions.
114. Each concentric layer, which is distinctly limited, is
usually the produce of one year's growth.
115. Therefore, the age of an Exogenous tree should be
STEM.
15
known by the number of concentric circles of the wood. But
this rule is of uncertain application, owing to numerous dis-
turbing causes, especially in countries in which the period
of rest is less distinctly marked than in the winter of northern
latitudes.
116. The secretions of plants are deposited most abundantly
in the oldest concentric layers ; while those layers which are
most recently formed contain but a slight deposit.
117. When the tissue of the concentric layers is filled with
secretions, it ceases to perform any vital functions.
118. The dead and fully formed central layers are called
the heart-wood.
119. The living and incompletely formed external layers
are called the alburnum.
120. Upon the outside of the wood lies the BAKK, which,
like the wood, consists of concentric layers.
121. It consists of four distinct parts : 1. the Epidermis66";
2. the EpipJilceum 65 ^ 3. the Mesophlceum 65 66c; and 4,
the Endophlmum or Liber 65 ^ d.
122. Each of these parts increases by successive additions
to its own inside, except the epidermis, which is never re-
newed.
123. The Epiphloeum and Mesophlosum are both formed of
cellular tissue only ; but their cells are placed in different di-
rections with respect to each other. The former is often
large and soft, and may separate spontaneously from the young
16 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
layers forming beneath it, as in Cork, which is the epiphlceum
of Quercus Suber.
124. The Endophloeum or Liber consists of cellular tissue
resting on the alburnum, of laticiferous tissue (36), and of
pleurenchyma (23). The tubes of the latter are often thick-
ened rapidly by a deposit of sedimentary matter ; in which
case, sections of the tubes present the appearance of concentric
circles ^ 65 66. Hence arises the toughness of the tubes of
pleurenchyma which occur in the liber, and are manufactured
into cordage, as in the Lace-bark tree, the Lime-tree, &c.
125. Occasionally the liber is only formed during the first
year's growth; after which it is enclosed in wood, and is
eventually found near the pith. This has as yet been observed
only in the Menispermaceous order.
126. The power of renewing themselves by the production
of new matter upon their inner surface, is apparently given to
the layers of bark in order to compensate for the gradual and
incessant distension of the wood beneath them.
127. As the older parts die, from becoming too small to
bear the strain upon them, new parts form, each in its allotted
place, and take the station of that which went before it.
128. The secretions of a plant are often deposited in the
bark in preference to any other part.
129. Hence chemical or medicinal principles are often to be
sought in the bark rather than in the wood.
130. The immediate functions of the bark are to protect the
young wood from injury, and to serve as a filter through which
the descending elaborated juices of a plant may pass horizon-
tally into the stem, or downwards into the root.
131. It also contains the laticiferous vessels (36), by which
the latex is conveyed to all parts of the surface of a plant.
132. The MEDULLARY RAYS or PLATES consist of compressed
parallelograms of cellular tissue (muriform cellular tissue), be-
longing to the medullary system.
133. They connect together the tissue of the trunk, main-
taining a communication between the centre and the circum-
ference.
134. They act as braces to the woody and vasiform tissue
of the wood. They convey secreted matter horizontally from
the bark to the heart-wood, and they generate adventitious
leaf-buds.
STEM. 17
135. Cambium is a viscid secretion, which, in the spring,
separates the alhurnum of an Exogenous plant from the liber.
It is free vegetable mucilage, out of which the new elementary
organs (8) are constructed, whether in the form of vessels, or
wroody tissue, or of the cellular tissue of the medullary system,
whose office is to extend the medullary plates, and maintain the
communication between the bark and central part of a stem.
136. As Exogenous plants increase by annual addition of
new matter to their outside, and as their protecting integu-
ment or bark is capable of distension in any degree, commen-
surate with the increase of the wood that forms below it, it
follows, taking all circumstances into consideration, that there
are no assignable limits to the life of an Exogenous tree.
137. The stem of ENDOGENOUS plants offers no absolute dis-
tinction of Pith, Medullary Bays, Wood, and Bark.
138. It is formed by the intermixture of bundles of vascular
tissue among a mass of cellular tissue, the whole of which is
surrounded by a zone of cellular and woody tissue, inseparable
from the stem itself, and therefore not bark.
139. It increases by the successive descent of new bundles ^
of fibro- vascular tissue down into the central cellular tissue,
curving outwards as they descend.
140. The vascular bundles of the centre gradually force out-
wards those which were first formed, the cellular mass augments
simultaneously, and in this way the diameter of a stem increases.
141. What appears to be bark in these plants is an external
layer of cellular tissue, into which the lower extremities of the
arcs of fibro-vascular tissue descend obliquely, losing their vas-
cularity as soon as they reach the cortical integument, or false-
bark.
142. It is in consequence of this continuity in an oblique
direction of the fibro-vascular bundles and the external cortical
integument, that the latter can never, in Endogens, be sepa-
rated from the wood beneath it.
143. The diameter of the stem of an Endogenous plant is
determined by the power its tissue possesses of distending, and
by its hardness.
144. When the external tissue has once become indurated,
the stem can increase no further in diameter.
145. When the tissue is soft and capable of continual dis-
18
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
tension, there is no more certain limit to the life of an
Endogenous than of an Exogenous tree.
146. Generally, the terminal bud only of Endogenous plants
is developed ; but very often a considerable number develope ;
Ex. Asparagus.
147. When a terminal bud only of an Endogenous plant
developes, the stem is cylindrical ; Ex. Palms : when several
develope, it becomes conical ; Ex. Bamboo.
148. In Acrogens no other stem is formed than what arises
from the simple union between the bases of the leaves and the
original axis of the bud from which they spring, and which
they carry up along with them.
149. In the order of Ferns the section of a stem indicates
the same structure as that of the numerous petioles (197) out
of which it is constituted.
150. When Acrogens have no proper leaves, they are mere
expansions of cellular matter, sometimes in all directions ; Ex.
Fungi : sometimes in particular directions ; Ex. Lichens,
Algse, &c.
151. The stem of a plant assumes numerous and very differ-
ent appearances in different plants.
If above ground it is rootshaped, or knotted67 ; ascending68 ; creeping72 ; arti-
culated73 ; leafless, succulent, and deformed69 ; or leafy71.
If it bears the fmcers, proceeding immediately from the soil or near it, it is a
scape70.
10
STEM.
19
152. It often burrows beneath the earth, when it is vulgarly
called a creeping root'*. Sometimes the internodes become
much thickened, when what are called tubers11 78 are formed ;
or the stem lies prostrate upon the earth, emitting roots from
its under side, when it is called a rhizoma, or rootstock67.
153. If it distend underground, without creeping or root-
ing, but always retaining a round or oval figure, it is called a
75.
154. All these forms of stem are vulgarly called roots.
155. No root can have either scales, which are the rudi-
ments of leaves, or nodes, which are the rudiments of buds.
A scaly root is, therefore, a contradiction in terms.
156. The ascending axis, or stem, has nodes and internodes.
157. Nodes are the places where the leaves are expanded
and the buds formed.
158. Internodes are the spaces between the nodes.
159. Whatever is produced by the evolution of a leaf-bud
(164) is a branch.
160. A spine is the imperfect evolution of a leaf-bud, and
is, therefore, a branch.
161. All processes of the stem which are not the evolutions
of leaf-buds, are mere dilatations of the cellular integument of
the bark. Such are prickles (61).
162. In solid form the stem is extremely variable; the fol-
lowing are common terms relating to it : —
c 2
20
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
Terete74 ; half-terete75 ; compressed76 ; piano-compressed76 ; two-edged77 ; acute-
angled78 ; obtuse-angled81 ; triangular83; quadrangular81 ; quinquangular82 ;
octangular "> ; multangular80 ; triquetrous78 ; quadriquetrous79 ; obscurely
triquetrous85; trilateral86 ; quadrilateral87 ; quinquelateral 88.
V. LEAF-BUDS.
163. Buds are of two kinds, Leaf-buds and Flower-buds.
164. LEAF-BUDS (Bourgeon, Fr.) consist of rudimentary
leaves surrounding a growing vital point, the tissue of which
is capable of elongation, upwards in the form of stem, and
downwards in the form of root.
165. FLOWER-BUDS (Bouton, Fr.) consist of rudi-
mentary leaves surrounding a fixed vital point, and
assuming, when fully developed, the form of floral
envelopes or sexual apparatus.
166. Notwithstanding this difference, a leaf-bud
sometimes indicates a tendency to become a flower-
bud ; and flower-buds frequently assume the cha-
racters of leaf-buds ; Ex. Monstrous Pears.
167. In appearance a leaf-bud seems89 to be a
collection of scales arranged symmetrically one
above the other. These scales are the rudiment-
ary leaves. The centre upon which they are placed
is cellular substance coated with a thin stratum
of spiral vessels, and these two parts answer to
the pith (98) and the medullary sheath (104) in
Exogens.
168. By the growth of a leaf-bud a branch is formed ; and
the scales gradually change into true leaves as vegetation ad-
vances92.
169. Sometimes they separate spontaneously from the stem
LEAF-BUDS.
21
(are deciduous), and are then called bulbills or bulblets9*.
Ex. Lilium bulbiferum.
170. Often they are of large size, and are formed under-
ground ; they are then called bulbs or scaly bulbs 9° 91.
171. Although the corm (153) is regarded as a kind of
underground stem, it may also be considered as a sort of leaf-
bud, the centre of which is very large and the scales very thin.
172. In bulbs, young buds or bulbs then called cloves
(nuclei), are often formed in the axils of the scales, as in
Garlic ; and then gradually destroy the old bulb by feeding
upon it. In like manner corms produce other corms at the
axils of their scales, and are destroyed by their offspring.
173. Thus in some Gladioli93 94, an old corm produces the
new one always at its point ; the latter is then seated on the
remains of its parent, and, being in like manner devoured by
its own offspring, becomes the base of the third generation94 :
this process enables such plants by degrees to raise themselves
.out of the earth in which they were born.
174. In like manner the Crocus75 produces two or more
corms near the apex, and gradually dies as they develope ;
and the Colchicum bears its mother in the form of a shrivelled
spungy lump on one side of its base96", while on the opposite
side a new bud966 is prepared by which the now vigorous
parent will hereafter perish.
22 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
175. Both corms and bulbs are reservoirs of nutriment in
either a starchy or mucilaginous condition, or both.
176. Leaf-buds are of two kinds, the regular and the adven-
titious.
177. Regular or normal Leaf-buds are only found in the
axils of leaves.
178. They exist in a developed or undeveloped state in the
axils of all leaves, and of all modifications of leaves.
179. Therefore they may be expected to appear at the
axils of scales of the bud, of stipules (223), of bracts (274), of
sepals (335), of petals (336), of stamens (348), and of carpels
(406) ; in all of which situations they are generally undeveloped,
for these different organs are all modifications of leaves.
180. They are frequently not called into action, even in the
axils of leaves.
181. As regular buds are only found in the axils of leaves, .
or of their modifications, and as branches are always the de-
velopement of buds, it follows, that, whatever may be the
arrangement of the leaves, the same will be the disposition of
the branches ; and vice versa.
182. This corresponding symmetry is, however, continually
destroyed by the unequal developement of the buds.
183. Leaf-buds which are formed among the tissue of plants
LEAF-BUDS. 23
subsequently to the developement of the stem and leaves, and
without reference to the latter, are called latent, adventitious,
or abnormal.
184. Adventitious Leaf-buds may be produced from any
part of the horizontal medullary system, or wherever cellular
tissue is present. It has been distinctly proved, that, while
roots are prolongations of the vertical or woody system, leaf-
buds universally originate in the horizontal or cellular system.
185. They are formed'in the root, among the wood, and at
the margin or on the surface of leaves.
186. They are constructed anatomically exactly as regular
buds, having pith in their centre, surrounded by a medullary
sheath of spiral vessels, and coated over by woody tissue and
cellular integument.
187. Hence, as adventitious buds, containing spiral vessels,
can be produced from parts such as the root or the wood, in
which no spiral vessels previously existed, it follows that this
form of tissue is either generated spontaneously, or is produced
by some other tissue, in a manner unknown to us. It is most
probable, that spiral vessels are spontaneous modifications of
vesicles of cellular tissue.
188. Embryo buds are woody nodules found in the bark of
trees, and apparently rudimentary branches formed without
leaves, within a space in which they are forcibly pressed upon
by the surrounding tissue.
VI. LEAVES.
189. A leaf is an expansion of the bark immediately below
the origin of a regular leaf-bud, and is an appendage of the
axis (64).
190. Whenever a regular leaf-bud is formed, a leaf, either
perfect or rudimentary, is developed also ; and vice versa.
191. Leaves are developed alternately97, one above and op-
posite the other, around their common axis ; but sometimes,
in consequence of the internodes being unequally developed,
leaves become opposite98 or verticillate103. They are never
produced side by side, except by irregular developement.
192. In Exogenous plants, the primordial or seed-leaves
(cotyledons) are opposite ; hence, in .such plants the supposed
24 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
non-developement of the axis takes place during the original
formation of the embryo.
193. There is a constant tendency in opposite or verticillate
leaves to become alternate.
194. This law applies equally to the arrangement of all
parts that are modifications of leaves.
195. In leaves the developement takes place at their point
of junction with the stem ; and consequently the tissue at the
point of a leaf is the oldest.
196. A leaf consists of a petiole or stalk, a lamina or blade,
and a pair of stipules.
197. The PETIOLE is the channel through which the vessels
of the leaf are connected with those of the stem ; it is formed
of one or more bundles of spiral vessels and woody tissue,
enclosed in a cellular integument.
198. The spiral vessels of the leaf of Exogenous plants de-
rive their origin from the medullary sheath ; those of En-
dogenous plants from the bundles of fibro-vascular tissue.
199. The cellular integument of the petiole is a continuation
of that of the bark.
200. When the petiole is leafy and the lamina is abortive,
it is called a phyttodium".
201 . When the petiole becomes dilated and hollowed out at
its upper end, the lamina being articulated with and closing
LEAVES.
25
up its orifice, as in Sarracenia100 and Nepenthes104, it is called
a pitcher or ascidium ; if it is unclosed, and is a mere sac, as
in Utricularia, it is called ampulla101.
202. Sometimes the petiole has no lamina, or is lengthened
beyond the lamina, and retains its usual cylindrical or taper
figure, but becomes long, and twists spirally ; such a petiole
is called a fewrfriJ (Vrille, Fr.)™.
The petiole is usually either taper, or channelled ; and it has often a struma"1,
(coussinet, Fr.) at either its base or apex, especially in those leaves which
are sensitive. In other cases it is inflated106, sheathing103, ainplexicaul107,
winged108, auriculate, leafless, jointed108, spinescent ' 10, &c.
203. The petiole is sometimes articulated transversely as in
the Orange.
204. The LAMIXA of a leaf is an expansion of the- paren-
chyma of the petiole, and is traversed by veins which are rami-
fications or extensions of the bundles of vascular tissue of the
petiole, or, when there is no petiole, of the stem.
205. Sometimes one, sometimes both the surfaces of a
leaf are furnished with stomates.
206. The veins either branch in various directions among
the parenchyma, anastomosing and forming a kind of net-
work, or they run parallel to each other, being connected by
single transverse uubranched veins.
207. The former is characteristic of Exogenous, the latter
of Endogenous plants.
26 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
208. The principal vein of a leaf is a continuation of the
petiole, and runs in a direct line from the base to the apex of
the lamina; this vein is called the midrib. It usually pro-
duces other veins from its base or sides, or from both : such
veins are called ribs, if very strong, and proceeding from the
base to the apex; under other circumstances, they are fre-
quently named nervures.
209. There are two strata of veins, the one belonging to the
upper, and the other to the under surface.
210. The upper stratum conveys the juices from the stem
into the lamina, for the purpose of being aerated and elabo-
rated ; the under returns them into the bark.
211. The veins are interposed among cellular substance,
called diackyma, diploe^ or mesophyllum ; which is often strati-
fied differently below the two surfaces of the leaf; the upper
stratum being more compact than the lower, and having its
cells perpendicular to the plane of the leaf : in such cases, the
cells of the lower stratum are commonly more or less parallel
with the under surface.
212. The lamina is variously divided and formed; it is
usually thin and membranous, with a distinct upper and under
surface ; but sometimes becomes succulent, when the surfaces
are often not distinguishable.
213. The upper surface is presented to the sky, the lower
to the earth ; this position is rarely departed from in nature,
and cannot be altered artificially, except by violence.
214. A leaf is simple when its lamina is undivided, or when,
if it is separated into several divisions, those divisions do not
reach the midrib ; Ex. Lime-tree, Oak.
215. The form of the simple leaf is extremely variable, and
the terms employed to denote the variations are numerous in
proportion.
216. Some leaves have the margin so continuous, that the
outline is scarcely interrupted, except by small toothings.
Of such leaves the following are among the more common
forms :
Orbicular120 ; ovate121 ; lanceolate122 ; oval118 ; oblong117 ; roundish oblong113 ;
peltate124; cordate"9; cordate ovate114 ; cordate acuminate119; renifonn123;
oblique"0 ; auriculate139.
121 12:2
21 7. In other leaves the margin is produced here and there
into manifest angles ; in which cases the following terms are
commonly in use :
Sagittate or arrow-headed126; cuneate or wedge-shaped127 ; hastate130; angu-
lar131 ; triangular128.
218. In other cases the margin is repeatedly interrupted in
a definite manner along its whole course ; and then such terms
as the following are employed :
28 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
Palmate138; seven-lobed134 ; pinnatifid133 ; sinuated132; panduriform1
219. A leaf is compound when the divisions pass down to
the midrib so as to subdivide the leaf into smaller and distinct
leaves, or leaflets (foliola).
220. When leaves are compound, their mode of division
is expressed by such terms as the following :
Ternate144 ; biternate146 or triternate ; digitate140 ; pedate142 ; pinnate145 ; in-
terruptedly pinnate147 ; lyrate143 ; bipinnate150 ; decompound or tripinnate141 ;
bijugate148 ; conjugate-pinnate149.
221. In speaking of the margin, we say that it is
LEAVES. 29
Entire126; serrate114; biserrate137 ; dentate139; duplicato-dentate137 ; tri-den-
tate125 ; crisp or curled129 ; crenate120.
222. The point of the leaves gives rise to other terms, such
as the following :
Acute118; obtuse139; retuse113; emarginate113 ; acuminate119 ; mucronate132 ;
truncate129.
223. STIPULES are attached to each side of the base of the
petiole. They have, if leafy, veins, the anatomical structure
of which is the same as that of the veins of the leaves.
224. Sometimes only one stipule is formed, the other being
constantly abortive, as in Azara.
225. Stipules are sometimes transformed into leaves : they
sometimes have buds in their axils ; and may be, therefore,
considered rudimentary leaves.
226. Whatever arises from the base of a petiole, or of a
leaf, if sessile, occupying the same place, and attached to each
side, is considered a stipule. The appearance of this organ is
so extremely variable, some being large and leaflike, others
being mere rudiments of scales, that botanists are obliged to
define it by its position, and not by its organization.
227. The stipules must not be confounded with cellular
marginal appendages of the petiole, as in Apocynacese.
228. Stipules, the margins of which cohere in such a way
that they form a membranous tube sheathing the stem, are
called ochreee ; Ex. Rhubarb.
229. All leaves are originally continuous with the stem^
as they grow, an interruption of their tissue at their junction
with the stem takes place, by which a more or less complete
articulation is formed sooner or later.
230. The articulation between a leaf and stem being com-
pleted, the tissue of the former becomes gradually incrusted
by the foreign matter deposited by the sap in the process of
secretion and digestion, and at last is incapable of further
action, when -it dies. When the stem continues to increase
in diameter, as a dead leaf will not increase with it, the latter
is eventually thrown off; this is the fall of the leaf. But in
some Endogens the articulation is so slight, and the stem
increases so little in diameter, that the leaf is never thrown off,
but simply withers and decays.
30 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
231. All leaves ultimately fall off; evergreen leaves later
than others.
232. The mode in which leaves are arranged within their
bud is called vernation, or gemmation.
233. Leaves have, under particular circumstances, the
power of producing leaf-buds from their margin (185) ; Ex.
Bryophyllum, Malaxis paludosa, and proliferous Ferns.
VII. FOOD AND SECRETIONS.
234. Plants are nourished by the absorption of food from
the air and earth, in consequence of which they grow, and
produce their peculiar secretions.
235. The growth of plants is very rapid ; that of the leaves
is such that they often acquire six or seven times their original
weight per hour.
236. The food of plants always consists of carbonic acid,
nitrogen, and water, and also of various mineral matters,
chiefly alkaline, the nature of which varies according to
species.
237. Boots have the power of absorbing most substances in
a fluid or gaseous form, even although their extremities are
unbroken.
It appears probable that when plants are incapable of imbibing certain sub-
stances, such as strontian, there is no isomorphism between their ordinary
mineral constituents and those they reject. Thus, lime and magnesia, which
plants will indifferently absorb, are isomorphous ; but between them and
strontian, which they will not absorb, no isomorphism exists. — Daubeny.
238. Carbon is obtained by plants in the form of carbonic
acid, derived from the atmosphere, or generated in soil by the
decay of vegetable matter.
239. Hydrogen is obtained principally by the decomposition
of water, and is assimilated along with carbonic acid, while
the oxygen of the water is liberated.
240. Nitrogen can only be obtained by plants in the form
of ammonia. The nitrogen of the atmosphere cannot be the
source of supply, because it cannot be made to enter into com-
bination with any element except oxygen, even by the em-
ployment of the most powerful chemical means.
241. Ammonia exists in every part of plants, in the roots, in
the stem, and in all blossoms and fruits in an unripe condition.
FOOD AND SECRETIONS. SI
It is supplied by rain-water, which carries it down from the
air, in which it is suspended, in consequence of the putrefac-
tion of animal and vegetable matters. This ammonia affords
all vegetables, without exception, the nitrogen which enters
into the composition of their constituent substances.
242. A certain portion of the ammonia which falls with
rain evaporates again with the water ; but another portion is
taken up by the roots of plants, and, entering into new com-
binations, produces albumen, gluten, and a number of other
compounds, containing nitrogen.
243. But it is not so much the quantity of ammonia that is
important to plants, as the form in which it is presented to
them. When in a volatile state, it is in great measure lost
before it can be imbibed. When fixed, in the state of salts,
its volatility is overcome, and not the smallest portion of the
ammonia is lost to the plants, for it is all dissolved by water
and imbibed by the roots.
244. But carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, are not the
only elements necessary for the support of vegetables. Cer-
tain inorganic constituents are also essential.
245. Phosphate of magnesia in combination with ammonia
is an invariable constituent of the seeds of all kinds of grasses.
The acids found in the different families of plants are of vari-
ous kinds. It cannot be supposed that their presence and
peculiarity are the result of accident. If these acids are con-
stantly present and necessary to life, it is equally certain that
some alkaline base is also indispensable, in order to enter into
combination with the acids, which are always found in the
state of salts.
246. If a plant does not produce more of its peculiar acids
than it requires for its own existence, a plant must contain an
invariable quantity of alkaline bases, wherewith the vegetable
acids may form salts.
247. The proportion of alkaline bases in a plant is indi-
cated by the quantity of ashes they yield. The quantity of
ashes obtained from the same quantity of vegetable matter
varies constantly in different species. Therefore the propor-
tion of alkaline bases varies in different species, and conse-
quently different species demand a different amount of alkaline
food in the soil.
32 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
248. The perfect developement of a plant is therefore de-
pendent on the presence of alkalies or alkaline matter ; for
when these substances are totally wanting, growth will be
arrested ; and when they are deficient, it must be impeded in
proportion.
249. But other substances besides alkalies are required to
sustain the life of plants. Phosphoric acid has been found in
the ashes of all plants hitherto examined ; and common salt,
sulphate of potash, nitre, salts of iron and copper, chloride of
potassium, and other matters, may be regarded as necessary
constituents of several plants.
250. Therefore it is indispensable that every plant should
find in the soil it is cultivated in those inorganic constituents
which nature has rendered necessary to it, just as it is neces-
sary for animals that they should find in their food the phos-
phates of lime and magnesia, which harden their bones.
251. As soon as food is absorbed, it begins to ascend into
the stem, or to diffuse itself through the system, and receives
the name of sap.
252. In the course of the sap upwards, the water and car-
bonic acid are partially decomposed and their elements are
deposited along with nitrogen in the interior of the tissue,
forming a layer over the interior of every cell and vessel,
which thus become in part solidified.
253. As soon as the sap reaches the leaves or the surface of
the bark, green matter, or occasionally some other colour, is
formed, provided the part is exposed to light.
254. This appears to arise chiefly from the decomposition of
carbonic acid, ammonia, and water, when the carbon, nitro-
gen, and hydrogen are fixed by the plant, and the oxygen
restored to the atmosphere. Such action is called the assimi-
lating power of plants.
Plants are, therefore, the great purifiers of the atmosphere, consuming the pro-
ducts of animal respiration and of all organic putrefaction, and converting them
again into matter suited to the wants of man.
255. In the absence of light, plants re-absorb oxygen from
the atmosphere, and re-combine it with the matter they con-
tain, to be again liberated at the return of light.
256. They also, at all times, especially at night, part with
carbonic acid in small quantities.
FOOD AND SECRETIONS. 33
It has, however, been proved experimentally that they purify the air much more
by their assimilating (254) action, than they vitiate it by their respiration.
257. No plants can long exist in which this alternate action
is prevented, unless, perhaps, Fungi and brown parasites.
258. The amount of assimilation is determined by the de-
gree of light to which a plant is exposed. It is light alone
that causes, in conjunction with vital forces, the decomposition
of the matters contained in living plants.
259. Hence, if a plant is compelled to grow in darkness, no
assimilation takes place of the food that the roots receive ;
oxygen accumulates ; its natural proportion to other elements
is disarranged ; and a destruction of the tissue takes place.
260. In order to avoid this, plants will always lengthen
themselves in the direction in which the smallest ray of light
approaches them, as is the case of seed which shoot from dark-
ness into light. If this is impossible, they become blanched or
etiolated, and then die.
261. From the continued assimilation of the elementary
constituents of plants, new products result, and serve for the
formation of woody fibre, and all solid matters of a similar
composition. The leaves produce sugar, starch, and acids,
which were preyiously formed by roots, when necessary for the
developement of the stem, buds, leaves, and branches.
Some phyto-chemists believe that during the chemical transformations that result
in plants from the separation and re-combination of their elements, two com-
pounds are necessarily formed, one of which remains as a component part,
while the other is separated by the roots, in the form of excrementitious mat-
ter. But the experiments upon which this supposition is founded are not con-
sidered conclusive ; and great doubt is entertained whether plants have really
the power of rejecting excrementitious matter by their roots. It appears more
probable that the necessary separation of effete matter takes place by the
hairs and glands that clothe the surface of plants, or by a fluid secretion from
their whole surface.
262. Sap (251) is put in motion by the newly developing
leaf-buds, which, by constantly consuming the sap that is near
them, attract it upwards from the roots as it is required.
Therefore, the movement of the sap is the effect, and not the
cause, of the growth of plants. It depends upon vital irritabi-
lity, and is independent of mechanical causes.
263. This irritability is indicated not only by the motion
of the sap, but by several other phenomena of vegetation ;
such as,
The elasticity with which the stamens sometimes spring up when touched, and
the sudden collapse of many leaves when stimulated ; the apparently spon-
D
34 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
taneous oscillation of the labellum of some Orchidaceous plants ; the expansion
of flowers and leaves under the stimulus of light, and the collapse of them
when light is withdrawn (this phenomenon in leaves is called the sleep of
plants) ; and by the effects of mineral and vegetable poisons being the same
upon plants as upon animals. Mineral poisons kill by inflammation and cor-
rosion ; vegetable poisons by the destruction of irritability.
264. After the sap has been distributed through the veins
of the leaves, it becomes exposed to the influence of air and
light, and undergoes peculiar chemical changes. In this state
it is called the proper juice.
265. When the proper juice has been once formed, it flows
back, and descends towards the roots, passing off horizontally
into the centre of the stem.
266. Hence the great importance of leaves to plants, and
the necessity of exposing them to the full influence of light and
air, for the purpose of securing a due execution of their natu-
ral functions. Hence also the impropriety of mutilating
plants by the destruction of their leaves.
267- In Exogenous plants (95), the upward course of the
fluids is through the young wood ; their downward passage
through the bark, towards, or into the root ; and their horizon-
tal diffusion takes place by the medullary rays.
268. Hence the peculiar principles of such plants are, in
trees and shrubs, to be sought either in the bark or the heart-
wood (118), not in the alburnum (119). But in plants whose
stems are annually destroyed while the roots are peren-
nial, the latter are the chief reservoir of secretions ; and in
annuals, whose root and stem both perish, the secretions are
dispersed equally through the stem and root.
269. As they are the result of the growth of a plant, they
will be found more abundantly in annual plants at the end
than at the commencement of their growth.
270. In Endogenous plants (95) it is probable that the up-
ward course of the fluids is through the bundles of vascular
and woody tissue, and that the downward and horizontal pas-
sage takes place through the cellular tissue.
271. The precise direction of the sap in Acrogens (95) is
unknown.
VIII. FLOWER-BUD.
272. The FLOWER-BUD consists of a fixed point, surround-
ed by imbricated, rudimentary, or metamorphosed leaves,
FLOWER-BUD. 35
the external or inferior of which are usually alternate, and the
internal or superior always verticillate, or opposite ; the latter
are called floral envelopes and sexes.
273. As every flower-bud proceeds from the axil of a leaf,
either fully developed or rudimentary, it therefore occupies
exactly the same position with respect to the leaf as a leaf-
bud.
274. The leaf from the axil of which a flower-bud arises, is
called bract or flower-leaf ; and all rudimentary leaves, of
what size or colour soever, which appear on the peduncle (284)
between the floral leaf and the calyx (325), are called Iracteola
or bractlets.
275. But, in common language, botanists constantly con-
found these two kinds, which are, nevertheless, essentially
distinct.
276. Although the buds in the axils of bracts are often not
developed, yet they have the same power of developement as
those in the axils of leaves ; they are generally flower-buds,
very rarely leaf-buds.
277. When a single bract is rolled together, highly deve-
loped, and coloured, and is placed at the base of that form of
inflorescence called a spadix (304), it is named spathe ; Ex.
Arum.
278. When several bracts are verticillate or densely imbri-
cated around the base of the forms of inflorescence, called the
umbel or capitulum (306), they receive the name of involucre ;
Ex. Carrot, Daisy.
279. When the bracts of an involucre form a single whorl,
and cohere by their margins, it is impossible to distinguish
them from the calyx by any other mark than by their position,
and by their usually surrounding more flowers than one.
280. The minute or colourless bracts at the base of the
florets of a capitulum (306) are called pale*.
281. Small imbricated bracts are often called scales.
282. Bracts, when placed immediately below the sexes,
as in apetalous flowers, are only distinguished from the
calyx by being alternate with each other, and not verticil-
late ; hence the glumes and paleee of grasses are bracts and
not calyx.
283. The axis of the flower-bud in its natural state does
D2
36 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
not lengthen beyond those upper series of metamorphosed
leaves which constitute the sexes.
284. The lengthened part of the axis, from the point of its
connection with the stem, as far as the floral envelopes, is
called the peduncle.
285. When several peduncles spring from the axis at short
distances from each other, the axis receives the name of racMs,
and the peduncles themselves are called pedicels.
286. There is never more than one flower to each peduncle,
strictly speaking ; therefore, when we speak of a two-flowered
peduncle, we only mean that two flowers, each having its
peculiar pedicel, terminate the axis, which is then considered a
peduncle common to each pedicel.
287. Every flower, with its peduncle and bractlets, being
the developement of a flower-bud, and flower-buds being
altogether analogous to leaf-buds, it follows, as a corollary,
that every flower, with its peduncle and bractlets, is a meta-
morphosed branch.
288. And further, the flowers being abortive branches,
whatever are the laws of the arrangement of branches with
respect to each other, the same will be the laws of the arrange-
ment of flowers with respect to each other.
289. Flower-buds, however, being much less subject to
abortion than leaf-buds, flowers are more symmetrically dis-
posed than branches, and appear to possess their own peculiar
order of developement.
290. As flower-buds can only develope from the axil of a
bract, it follows, that while a pedicel without bracts can
never accidentally produce other flowers, any one-flowered
pedicel, on which bracts are present, can, and frequently does,
bear several flowers.
291. In consequence of a flower and its peduncle being a
branch in a particular state, the rudimentary or metamor-
phosed leaves which constitute bracts, floral envelopes, and
sexes, are subject to exactly the same laws of arrangement as
regularly formed leaves.
292. The manner in which the floral organs, especially the
calyx and corolla, are arranged before expansion takes place,
is called the Aestivation or pra-flomtion.
FLOWER-BUD.
37
The following are the principal kinds of aestivation: — valvate151 ; valvate and
involute156; imbricate157; alternate159 16° ; convolute152; induplicate155 ;
plicative153 ; quincuncial 157 l58 ; supervolutive l54 ; vexillary lei.
293. The modes in which the flower-buds are arranged are
called forms of inflorescence ; and the order in which they un-
fold is called the order of expansion.
IX. INFLORESCENCE.
294. Inflorescence is the ramification of that part of the
plant intended for reproduction by seed.
295. The greater developement of some forms of inflores-
cence than of others, is owing to the greater power one plant
possesses than another of developing buds, latent in the axils
of the bracts.
29 6. In consequence of flower-buds obeying the laws whieh
regulate leaf-buds, all forms of inflorescence must, of necessity,
be axillary to a leaf of some kind.
297. Those forms which are called opposite the leaves, extra-
axillary^ petiolar or epiphyllous, and even the terminal itself,
are mere modifications of the axillary.
298. The kinds of inflorescence which botanists more parti-
cularly distinguish are the following :
299. When no elongation of the general axis of a plant takes
place beyond the developement of a flower-bud, the flower be-
comes what is called terminal and solitary ; Ex. Pseony.
38
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
300. When a single flower-bud unfolds in the axil of a leaf,
and the general axis continues to lengthen, and the leaf under-
goes no sensible diminution of size, the flower which is deve-
loped is said to be solitary and axillary.
301. If all the buds of a newly formed elongated branch
develope as flower-buds, and at the same time produce pe-
duncles, a raceme is formed163.
302. If buds, under the same circumstances, develope with-
out forming peduncles, a spike is produced1 .
303. Hence the only difference between a spike and raceme
is, that in the former the flowers are sessile, and in the latter
stalked.
304. A spadix differs from a spike in nothing more than in
the flowers being packed close together upon a succulent axis,
which is enveloped in aspathe (277).
305. An amentum is a spike the bracts of which are all of
equal size, and closely imbricated, and which is articulated
with the stem.
306. When a bud produces flower-buds, with little elonga-
tion of its own axis, either a capitulum170 172, or an umbel16® ', is
produced.
307. The capitulum bears the same relation to the umbel
as the spike to the raceme ; that is to say, these two forms
differ in the flower-buds of the capitulum being sessile, and of
the umbel having pedicels.
INFLORESCENCE.
39
308. The dilated depressed axis of the capitulum is called
the receptacle.
309. A raceme, or panicle, the lowest flowers of which
have long pedicels, and the uppermost short ones, is a
corymb l65 ier.
310. A panicle is a raceme, the flower-buds of which have,
in elongating, developed other flower-buds 173.
311. A panicle, the middle branches of which are longer
than those of the base or apex, is called a thyrsus.
312. A panicle, the elongation of all the ramifications of
which is arrested, so that it assumes the appearance of an
umbel, is called a cyme m.
313. In all modes of inflorescence which proceed from the
buds of a single branch, the axis of which is either elongated
or not, the flowers expand first at the base of the inflorescence,
and last at the summit. This kind of expansion is called
centripetal.
314. When the uppermost or central flowers open first,
and those at the base or the circumference last, the expansion
is called centrifugal.
315. The centripetal order of expansion always indicates
that the inflorescence proceeds from the developement of the
buds of a single branch.
316. When inflorescence is the result of the developement
of several branches, each particular branch follows the centri-
40 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
petal law of expansion, but the whole mass of inflorescence
the centrifugal.
317. This arises from the partial centripetal developement
commencing among the upper extremities of the inflorescence,
instead of among the lower.
318. Consequently, this difference of expansion will indicate
whether a particular form of inflorescence proceeds from the
developement of the buds of a single branch, when it is called
simple, or not, when it is called compound.
319. Whenever the order of expansion is centripetal, the
inflorescence is to be understood as simple ; when it is centri-
fugal, it is compound, although in appearance simple. This
difference is often of great importance.
320. When the order of expansion is irregular, it indicates
that the mode of developement of the flowers is irregular also,
either on account of abortion or other causes.
321. Sometimes all the flowers of the inflorescence are
abortive, and the ramifications, or the axis itself, assume a
twisted or spiral direction ; when this happens, a tendril is
formed; Ex. the Vine.
X. FLORAL ENVELOPES.
322. The Floral Envelopes are the parts which immediately
surround the sexual organs.
323. They are formed of one or more whorls of bracts, and
are therefore modified leaves (274).
324. In anatomical structure they do not essentially differ
from the leaves, farther than is necessarily consequent upon
the peculiar modifications of size or developement to which
they are subject.
325. When the floral envelopes consist of but one whorl of
leaves, they are called calyx.
326. When two or more whorls are developed, the outer is
called calyx, the inner corolla.
FLORAL ENVELOPES. 41
327. There is no other essential difference between the
calyx and corolla. Therefore, when a plant has but one floral
envelope, that one is calyx, whatever may be its colour or
degree of developement.
328. It is necessary, however, to be aware, that sometimes
the calyx is reduced to a mere rim, either in consequence
of lateral compression, as in the pappus (aigrette, Fr.) of many
Composite, or from other unknown causes, as in some
Acanthacese.
329. If the floral envelopes are of such a nature that it
is not obvious whether they consist of both calyx and corolla,
or of calyx only, they receive the name of periantMum or
perigonium.
330. Plants have frequently no floral envelopes ; in that
case flowers are said to be naked or achlamydeous.
331. When the floral envelopes are deciduous, they fall from
the peduncle, as leaves from a branch, by means of an arti-
culation ; if they are persistent, it is because no articulation
exists.
332. When the margins of floral envelopes are united, the
part where the union has taken place is called the tube, and
that where they are separate is named the limb. It fre-
quently happens that in the calyx an articulation forms be-
tween the limb and the tube.
333. Botanists generally consider that the tube of the calyx
is invariably formed by the union of the margins of the sepals.
It is, however, probable that it is in some cases a mere dila-
tation and expansion of the pedicel itself, as in Eschscholtzia.
334. When the calyx and corolla are readily distinguish-
able from each other, they exhibit the following peculia-
rities :
335. The calyx consists of two or more divisions, usually
green, called sepals, which are either distinct, when a calyx is
said to be polysepalous ; or which unite by their margins in a
greater or less degree, when it is called monosepalous, gamose-
palous, or monophyttous.
42 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
The calyx may be superior178, or inferior177; galeate176; calyptrate181; double182;
calcarate186; coroniform187; vesicate188; dilated179; spiny183; oblique175 18S; rin-
gent184.
336. The corolla consists of two or more divisions, called
petals, usually of some bright colour, different from that of the
sepals, than which they are frequently more developed. When
the petals are distinct, a corolla is said to he polypetalous ;
when they are united hy their margins, it is called gamo-
petah>iis or monopetalous.
D
The corolla may be labiate189; calceolate193; ringent196; papilionaceous134; cam-
panulate195; funnel-shaped190; crisp197.
FLORAL ENVELOPES. 43
337. If the union of the petals or sepals takes place in one
or two parcels, the corolla or calyx are said to be one or two-
lipped. These lips are always anterior and posterior with
respect to the axis of inflorescence, and never right and left.
338. If the sepals or petals are of unequal size, or unite in
unequal degrees, the calyx or corolla is said to be irregular1".
339. If the sepals and petals are unequal in number, or
no multiple of each other, or if the stamens are neither equal
to them in number, nor any power of them, a flower is said to
be unsymmetrical.
340. When the petals are so arranged, that of five the
uppermost is dilated, the two lateral ones contracted and
parallel with each other, and the two lower also contracted,
parallel with each other, and coherent by their anterior mar-
gins, a flower is said to be papilionaceous19*.
341. When a petal tapers conspicuously towards the base,
it is said to be unguiculate1^ ; its lower part is called the
unguis, its upper the limb. The former is analogous to the
petiole, the latter to the lamina of a leaf.
342. The petals always alternate with the sepals, a neces-
sary consequence of their following the laws of developement
of leaves.
343. If at any time the petals arise from before the -sepals,
such a circumstance is due to the abortion of one whorl of
petals between the sepals and those petals which are actually
developed.
344. As petals always alternate with sepals, the number of
each row of either will always be exactly the same. All
deviations from this law are either apparent only, in conse-
quence of partial cohesions, or, if real, are due to partial
abortions.
345. Whatever intervenes between the bracts and the
stamens belongs to the floral envelopes, and is either calyx or
corolla ; of which nature are many of the organs vulgarly
called nectaries.
Of this nature are the horn-like bodies found beneath the upper galeate sepal of
Aconitum192, the cup of Narcissus300, a part of the coronal appendages or coro-
net of Stapelia '" ™.
44 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
346. But it is to be observed, that as there are no exact
limits between the corolla and the stamens (348), such bodies
as have been just described are often of an indifferent nature,
and may be referred with equal justice to petals passing into
stamens, and to stamens passing into petals.
This is particularly the case with the fringes of Parnassia198, some parts of the
coronet of Stapelia203, the long rays of the Passion-flower.
347. If, however, anomalous bodies at this part of the
vegetable system can be shown to belong to any whorl or
series of which a part is certainly petals or stamens, such ano-
malous bodies are to be regarded as belonging to the organ in
whose series they are placed.
Thus in Aconitum192, the horn-like pro-
cesses belong to the series of the corolla,
and are therefore petals ; in the Ma-
hogany202, and in the Canna205, they
evidently appertain to the Andro3ceum
(348), and are therefore stamens. This
settles the true nature of what has been
called the nectary206, in Orchidaceous
plants, now termed the lip, or labellum,
which, forming a part of the second
series of floral envelopes, is therefore uni-
versally recognised as a petal, notwith-
standing its singular form.
MALE ORGANS. 45
XI. MALE ORGANS.
348. The whorl of organs immediately within the petals, is
composed of bodies called stamens, which are considered the
male apparatus of plants, and constitute the Andrceceum.
349. They consist of a bundle of spiral vessels surrounded
by cellular tissue, called t\i& filament, terminated by a peculiar
arrangement of the cellular tissue, in a case, finally opening
and discharging its contents, called the anther.
350. There are many instances in which no limits can be
traced between the petals and stamens ; Ex. Nymphsea.
351. In such cases it is found that the limb (341) of the
petal contracts, and becomes an anther, while the unguis
assumes the state of a filament.
352. Now as there are no limits between the petals and
sepals (327), nor between the sepals and bracts (323), nor
between the bracts and leaves (274), it follows that the sta-
mens are also a modification of leaves.
353. And as the limb of a petal is analogous to the lamina,
and the unguis (341) to the petiole of a leaf, it also follows
that the anther is a modification of the lamina, and the fila-
ment of the petiole.
354. The stamens follow the same laws of successive de-
velopement as leaves ; and, consequently, if their arrangement
be normal, they will be either equal in number to the petals,
and alternate with them, or, if more numerous, some regular
multiple of the petals.
355. If they are twice the number of petals, two whorls are
considered to be developed ; and so on.
356. If they are equal in number to the petals, and oppo-
site them, it is to be understood that the innermost only of
two whorls is developed, the outermost being abortive.
357. All deviations from these laws are owing to the abor-
tion of some part of the stamens ; Ex. Lamium, Hippuris.
358. When the stamens do not contract any union with
the sides of the calyx, they are hypogynous"™ ; Ex. Ranun-
culus.
359. When they contract adhesion with the sides of the
calyx, they become perigynous ; Ex. Rose177.
46
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
360. If they are united both with the surface of the calyx
and of the ovary, they are epigynous ; Ex. Umbelliferse.
361. When two are long and two are short217, they are
called didynamous ; and if out of six two opposite ones are
shorter than the other four, they are tetradynamous.
362. The filaments (349) are either distinct or united by
their margins. If they are united in one tube, they are called
monadelphous216 ; Ex. Malva : if in two parcels, diadelphous"19 ;
Ex. Pea : if in several, polyadelphous"13 ; Ex. Hypericum.
363. When they are united in a solid body, along with the
style, they form what is called a column, and are said to be
gynandrous"06.
Filaments are sometimes apparently forked209, in consequence of the separation
of the connective (366), into two arms ; strumose, when a tubercle forms upon
their face220 ; stupose, if covered with long hairs212 ; and toothed214, if their
margin is lengthened on either side beyond the attachment of the anther 214.
364. The filament is not essential to a stamen, and is often
absent.
365. The anther~io is the limb of the stamen, forming within
its substance, and finally emitting a matter called pollen.
366. The two sides of the anther are called its lobes ; and
the solid substance which connects them, and which is in fact
a continuation of the filament, as the midrib of a leaf is of the
petiole, is named the connective.
367. The connective is usually simple and uninterrupted ;
but it is sometimes lengthened into two arms209, or is articu-
MALE ORGANS. 47
lated with the filament, across which it is placed, and on
which it swings. In the latter case it either bears an anther-
lobe on both arms210, or only on one213; Ex, Salvia.
368. The cavities of the anther containing the pollen are
the cells, and the place by which the pollen is emitted is the
point or line of dehiscence ; the membranous sides of the
anther are named the valves.
369. Dehiscence usually takes place along a line, which
may be considered to indicate the margin of the limb out of
which the anther is formed ; Ex. Rose.
370. Sometimes a portion only of this line opens, and then
the anther is said to dehisce by pores ; Ex. Azalea.
371. If the line of dehiscence occupies both margins of the
connective, and not the centre of the lobes, the anther opens
by one valve instead of two, which is then hinged by its upper
edge ; Ex. Berberry.
372. The cells of the anther are usually two in number :
sometimes they are four239 ; Ex. Tetratheca : rarely one ; Ex.
Epacris : and still more rarely several ; Ex. Viscum 223.
373. The number of cells appears to be determined by no
certain rule.
374. Sometimes the cells are folded down upon themselves
and become sinuous237 ; in other cases they are prolonged into
bristles227 24°, or tubes224, or even into a spur211 ; Ex. Mela-
stomacese.
375. Although in most cases the line of dehiscence is
parallel with the anther-lobes, it is occasionally transverse238.
In Laurus the transverse and hinged (371) dehiscence being
combined226, the face of the anther breaks up into four hinged
lobes.
376. It may be conjectured that the transverse dehiscence of
an anther is analogous to the transverse articulation of
petioles (203).
377. The anthers frequently grow together by their mar-
gin ; Ex. Composite. Such anthers are called syngenesious.
378. The Pollen is formed by a peculiar modification of the
cellules of the parenchyma of the anther.
379. It consists of hojlow cases, of extreme smallness, con-
taining a fluid in which float grains of starch and drops of oil.
380. It is furnished with apertures229, through which its
48 STRUCTURAL AXD PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
222 223
224 225
226 227
lining is protruded in the form of a delicate tube, where the
pollen comes in contact with the stigma.
381. The shape of pollen grains is very variable ; the
spherical231, the triangular228, the polygonal"22, the oblong230,
are common forms.
382. Its surface is either smooth or studded with little
points231.
383. The pollen grains are usually distinct from each other,
but in some cases they cohere in definite numbers ; Ex.
Acacia232 : or in irregular masses ; Ex. Orchidacese23* : or are
enclosed within a bag, which seems to be the lining of the
anther (Endothecium) ; Ex. Asclepiadacese233 23fi.
384. In cases where the pollen grains cohere in masses, or
are enclosed within bags, they are connected with a cartilagi-
nous or elastic process, called the caudicle"3*, which adheres
to a gland234 belonging to the stigma.
385. The function of the pollen is to vivify the ovules
(396).
XII. DISK.
386. Whatever intervenes between the stamens and the
pistil receives the general name of disk.
387. It usually consists of an annular elevation, encom-
passing the base of the ovary, when it is sometimes called the
cup ,• Ex. Pseony.
388. Or it appears in the form of a glandular lining of the
MALE ORGANS. 49
tube of the calyx ; Ex. Rose : or of tooth-like, hypogynous
(358) processes ; Ex. Gesnera, Cruciferse.
389. When a fleshy substance occupies the centre of a
flower, and bears a single row of carpels, it is called the
gynobase ; Ex. Lamium, Ochna, Geranium, &c. If this sub-
stance bears a greater number of carpels than can be arranged
in one row, it is called the torus or receptacle; Ex. Straw-
berry, Nelumbium.
390. It is certain that the disk is a non-developement of an
inner row or rows of stamens, as is proved by the Moutan
Paeony.
391. The receptacle or torus is the growing point (164)
of the flower-bud in a state of enlargement.
392. The disk is one of the parts which Linnsean botanists
call nectary.
XIII. FEMALE ORGANS.
393. The organ which occupies the centre of a flower,
within the stamens and disk, if the latter be present, is called
the pistil.
394. It is the female apparatus of flowering plants, or the
gynoeceum 241.
395. It is distinguished into three parts ; viz. the ovary, the
style, and the stigma. 241
396. The OVARY is a hollow case, enclosing ovules
(445). It contains one or more cavities, called
cells.
397. The STIGMA is the upper extremity of the
pistil.
398. The STYLE is the part that connects the ovary
and stigma.
399. The style is frequently absent, and is no
more essential to a pistil than a petiole to a leaf,
or a filament to an anther.
400. Sometimes the style is thin, flat, and membranous,
and assumes the form of a petal, as in Iris.
401. The style is either articulated with the ovary, or con-
tinuous with it. It usually proceeds directly from the apex
of the ovary ; but in some cases arises from the side, or even
the base of that organ ; Ex. Alchemilla, Chrysobalanacese.
E
50 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
402. Nothing is, properly speaking, stigma, except the
secreting surface of the style. Nevertheless, the name is
often inaccurately applied to mere divisions of the style, as in
Labiatse ; or to the hairy surface of undivided styles, as in
Lathyrus.
403. Sometimes the stigmas grow to the face of the anthers,
which form themselves into a solid mass; Ex. Asclepias204.
In this case the styles remain separate.
404. The pistil is either the modification of a single leaf, or
of one or more whorls of modified leaves,
405. Such modified leaves are called carpels.
406. A CARPEL is formed by a folded leaf, the upper sur-
face of which is turned inwards, the lower outwards; and
within which are developed one or a greater number of buds,
which are the ovules.
407. When the carpels are stalked, they are said to be
seated upon a thecaphore, or gynophore ; Ex. Cleome, Passi-
flora. Their stalk is analogous to the petiole of a leaf.
408. When the carpels are all distinct, or are separable
with facility, they are apocarpous ; when they all grow into
a solid body, which cannot be separated into its constituent
parts, they are syncarpom.
409. The ovary is the lamina of the leaf.
410. The style is an elongation of the midrib (208).
411. The stigma is the denuded, secreting, humid apex of
the midrib.
412. Where the margins of a folded leaf, out of which the
carpel is formed, meet and unite, a developement of cellular
tissue sometimes takes place, forming what is called the mar-
ginal placenta.
413. Every such placenta is therefore composed of two
parts, one of which belongs to one margin of the carpel, and
one to the other.
414. But although the placenta of many plants appears to
derive its origin from the margin of the carpels, it is certain
that in many other instances the placenta is a mere deve-
lopement of the centre of the flower-bud, and in reality the
end of the medullary system. Such a placenta is called
central.
It is not impossible that even marginal placentae may be so in appearance only,
and be m reality central.
FEMALE ORGANS. 51
415. This law will explain the structure of some anomalous
pistils, in which the carpels are united into a confused mass ;
Ex. the Pomegranate271.
416. As the carpels are modified leaves, they necessarily
obey the laws of arrangement of leaves, and are therefore de-
veloped round a common axis.
417. And as they are leaves folded inwards, their margins
are necessarily turned towards the axis. A placenta, there-
fore, formed by the union of those margins, will be invariably
next the axis.
418. So that if a whorl of several carpels with a marginal
placentation unite and constitute a pistil, the placentae of that
pistil will be all in the axis.
419. The normal position of the carpels is alternate with
the innermost row of stamens, to which they are also equal
in number ; but this symmetry of arrangement is constantly
destroyed by the abortion or non-developement of part of the
carpels.
420. The carpels often occupy several whorls, in which case
they are usually distinct from each other ; Ex. Eanunculus,
Fragaria, Rubus272.
421. Sometimes, notwithstanding their occupying more
than one whorl, they all unite in a single pistil ; Ex. Nico-
tiana multivalvis, Monstrous Citrons. In these cases the pla-
centse of the innermost whorl of carpels occupy the axis,
while those of the exterior carpels are united with the backs
of the inner ones, as must necessarily happen in consequence
of the invariable direction of the placentae towards the axis.
422. When the carpels are arranged round a convex re-
ceptacle (389), the exterior ones will be lowest ; Ex. Ru-
bus272.
423. But if they occupy the surface of a tube, or are placed
upon a concave receptacle, the exterior ones will be upper-
most ; Ex. Rosa177.
424. Whenever two carpels are developed, they are in-
variably opposite each other, and never side by side. This
happens in consequence of the law of alternate opposition of
leaves (191).
425. When carpels unite, those parts of their sides which
are contiguous gTow together, and form partitions between the
cavities of the carpels. E 2
52
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
426. These partitions are called dissepiments.
427. Each dissepiment is therefore formed of two layers.
But these often grow together so intimately as to form but one
layer.
428. Such being the origin of the -dissepiments, it follows
that,
429. All dissepiments are vertical, and never horizontal.
430. They are uniformly equal in number to the carpels out
of which the pistil is formed.
431. A single carpel can have no dissepiment whatever.
432. It will also be apparent, that as the stigma must bear
the same relation to the dissepiments as the point of the leaf
to the sides of the lamina, the stigma will always be alternate
with (between) the dissepiments.
433. When the dissepiments of a many-celled pistil are
contracted so as not to separate the cavity into a number of
distinct cells, but merely project into a cavity, the placentae,
which occupy the edges of these dissepiments, become what is
called parietal ; Ex. Poppy? r. Occasionally the placentae are
diffused over the whole face of the dissepiments, as in Bu-
tomus.
434. A one-celled ovary may also be formed out of several
carpels, in consequence of the obliteration of dissepiments ;
Ex. Nut.
FEMALE ORGANS.
53
Some of the foregoing diagrams explain these laws : a is a leaf ; b, a leaf rolled
up preparatory to its conversion into a carpel ; c and k, a carpel ; d and I,
three carpels approximated, but not united ; e and m, the same united at the
ovaries, but disunited at the styles ; f and », these completely united into
one ovary, one style, and one stigma.
435. All dissepiments whose position is at variance with
the foregoing laws are spurious.
436. Spurious dissepiments derive their origin from various
causes, and may have either a vertical or horizontal position.
437. When they are horizontal they are called phmgmata,
and are formed by the distension of the lining of the ovary ;
Ex. Cathartocarpus, Fistula.
438. If vertical, they either are projections from the back
of the carpel, as in Amelanchier and Thespesia* ; or they are
caused by modifications of the placentae, as in Martynia, Didy-
mocarpus, and Cruciferae ; or they are produced by the turn-
ing inwards of the margins of the carpels*.
The singular fruit of Diplophractum244, consisting of five cavities in the axis, sur-
rounded by five two-celled cavities at the circumference, must be composed of
carpels constructed as just described, and arranged in several series (420).
This is explained by the following cut, where244 is a section of the fruit of
Diplophractum ; 242 shows an ideal arrangement of fifteen carpels in three
rows, five being external and perfect, with the margins of the carpels turned
inwards (406) ; five being altogether imperfect, and the five in the centre
being less imperfect. 243 shows the transverse section of this ideal figure.
In the ripe fruit we must suppose the intermediate carpels to be obliterated,
and the spurious dissepiments of the external carpels to be pressed up against
their back, so as to bisect the cavity of each carpel.
54 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
439. Sometimes the central placenta extends beyond the
base of the carpels, rising up between them, and either form-
ing an adhesion with the styles, as in Geranium, or a central
distinct axis, as in Euphorbia.
440. This elongation of the placenta is more apparent in
the fruit than in the pistil. It is analogous to the cellular
apex of the spadix (304) of Arum.
441. The styles of different carpels frequently grow to-
gether into a solid cylinder'; Ex. Lilium. There are various
degrees of union between the styles.
442. The style is incorrectly said to be divided in different
ways, in consequence of this adhesion.
443. If the ovary adheres to the sides of the calyx it is
called inferior, and the calyx is said to be superior ; Ex.
Apple.
444. If it contracts no adhesion with the sides of the calyx
it is called superior, and the calyx inferior.
XIV. OVULE.
445. The OVULE is a body borne by the placenta (412),
and destined to become a seed (531).
446. It is to the carpel (406) what the marginal buds are
to leaves (185), and to the central placenta what buds are to
branches.
447. It does not, however, appear to bear any other
analogy to a bud than what is indicated by its position.
448. The ovule is usually enclosed within an ovary (396) ;
but in Coniferse and Cycadaceae it is destitute of any covering,
and is exposed, naked, to the influence of the pollen.
449. It is either sessile, or attached by a little stalk called
the funiculus, or podosperm. The point of union of the funi-
culus and ovule is the base of the latter, and the opposite ex-
tremity is its apex.
450. It consists of two sacs, one enclosed within the other,
and of a nucleus within the sacs.
451. These sacs are called the primine and secundine.
452. The primine, secundine, and nucleus, are all connected
with each other by a perfect continuity of tissue, at some
point of their surface.
453. When the parts of the ovule undergo no alteration of
OVULE. 55
position during their growth, thfe two sacs and the nucleus are
all connected at the base (449) of the ovule, which is orthotro-
pous or atropous.
454. And then the base of the nucleus and that of the
ovule are in immediate connection with each other.
455. But the relative position of the sacs and the base of
the ovule are often entirely altered during the growth of the
latter, so that it frequently happens that the point of union of
the sacs and the nucleus is at the apex (449) of the ovule.
456. And then the base of the nucleus is at the apex of the
ovule.
457. In such cases, a vascular connection is maintained be-
tween the base of the ovule and the base of the nucleus, by
means of a bundle of vessels called a raphe.
458. The normal position of this raphe is on the side of the
ovule, next the placenta.
459. The expansion of the raphe, where it communicates
with the base of the nucleus, gives rise to the part of the seed
called the chalaza (548).
460. When the ovule is curved downwards so as to ap-
proach the placenta, it is campylotropous ; when curved down-
wards and grown to the lower half, anatropous ; when at-
tached by its middle so that the foramen is at one end and the
base at the other, it is amphitropous.
461. The mouths of the primine and secundine usually con-
tract into a small aperture called the foramen of the ovule, or
the exostome.
462. The apex of the nucleus is always applied to this
foramen.
463. In consequence of the relation the base of the nucleus
bears to the base of the ovule, the foramen will be at the
apex of the ovule when the two bases correspond, and at the
base of the ovule when the two bases are diametrically
opposite.
464. The foramen indicates the future position of the radi-
cle of the embryo (555) ; the radicle being always next the
foramen. This is a fact of great importance in practical
Botany.
465. Within the nucleus is a cavity or bag, called the sac
56 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
of tke amnios, containing a fluid named the liquor amnios,
among which the emhryo is developed.
XV. IMPREGNATION.
466. Impregnation is effected by contact between the
pollen (378) and the stigma (397).
467. The pollen ci emits a tube" of extreme delicacy,
which pierces the stigma6 and style51, and, passing downwards
into the ovary/A, enters the foramen (461) of the ovule" l.
468. Having reached the foramen, it comes into contact
with the nucleus (450).
469. This accomplished, the act of impregnation is over;
a new body gradually appears in the sac of the amnios (465),
and eventually becomes an embryo.
470. Great numbers of modifications of this phenomenon
have been observed, but they^ all resolve themselves into these
facts.
471. In plants, the ovules of which have no pericarpial
covering, such as Cycadaceae and Coniferse, (gymnosperms,)
the pollen falls in the foramen, and there acts as" if it had
struck the stigma.
472. If only one pollen tube enters an ovule, there is but
one embryo in the seed. But if several pollen tubes pass into
the same ovule, there may be several embryos in the same
seed ; Ex. Onion, Miseltoe.
FRUIT. 57
XVI. FRUIT.
473. The FRUIT, in the strictest sense of the word, is the
pistil arrived at maturity. But the term is also applied to
the pistil and floral envelopes taken together, whenever they
are all united in one uniform mass.
474. Hence, whatever is the structure of the pistil, the
same should be the structure of the fruit.
475. But in the course of the advance of the pistil towards
maturity, many alterations take place, in consequence of
abortion, non-developement, obliteration, and union of parts.
476. Whenever the fruit contains anything at variance
with the laws that govern the structure of the pistil, the latter
should be examined for the purpose of elucidation.
477. Sometimes a pistil with several cells produces a fruit
with but one ; Ex. the Hazel-nut and Cocoa-nut. This arises
from the obliteration of part of the cells.
478. Or a pistil, consisting of one or two cells, changes to
a fruit having several: the cause of this is a division and
doubling of the placentary divisions ; Ex. Martynia : or the
expansion of portions of the interior ; Ex. Cathartocarpus,
Fistula.
479. As the fruit is the maturation of the pistil, it ought to
indicate upon its surface some traces of a style ; and this is
true in all cases, except Cycadacese and Coniferse, which have
no ovary.
480. Hence the grains of corn, and many other bodies that
resemble seeds, having traces of the remains of a style, cannot
be seeds, but are minute fruits.
481. That part which was the ovary in the pistil, becomes
the pericarp in the fruit.
482. The PERICARP consists of three parts ; the outer coat-
ing called the epicarp, the inner lining called the endocarp, or
putamen, and the intermediate substance named the sarcocarp.
483. Sometimes these three parts are all readily distin-
guished ; Ex. the Peach : frequently they form one uniform
substance ; Ex. a Nut.
484. The base of the fruit is the part where it is joined to
the peduncle. The apex is where the remains of the style are
found.
58 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
485. The axis of the fruit is often called the columella ;
the space where two carpels unite is named the commissure.
486. All fruits which are mere modifications of a single
carpellary leaf (406) have always a suture corresponding with
the junction of the margins, or with the placenta?, and often
another corresponding with the midrib of the carpellary leaf :
the former is called the ventral, the latter the dorsal suture.
487. If the pericarp neither splits nor opens when ripe, it
is said to be indehiscent ,• if it does split or open, it is said to
dehisce, or to be dehiscent ; and the pieces into which it splits
are called the valves.
488. The dehiscence of the pericarp takes place in differ-
ent ways.
489. If it takes place longitudinally, or vertically, so that
the line of dehiscence corresponds with the junction of the
carpels, the dissepiments are divided, the cells remain closed
at the back, and the dehiscence is called septicidal ; Ex. Rho-
dodendron264.
490. Formerly, botanists said that in this kind of dehis-
cence the valves were alternate with the dissepiment ; or, that
the valves had their margins turned inwards.
491. If it takes place vertically, so that the line of dehis-
cence corresponds- with the dorsal suture (486), the dissepi-
ments remain united, the cells are opened at their back, and
the dehiscence is called loculicidal ; Ex. Lilac, Lily.
492. Formerly, it was said that in this kind of dehiscence
the dissepiments were opposite the valves.
493. When a separation in the pericarp takes place across
the cells horizontally, the dehiscence is transverse ; Ex. Ana-
gallis.
494. If the dehiscence is effected by partial openings of
the pericarp, it is said to take place by pores ; Ex. Poppy.
495. Sometimes the cells remain closed, separating from
the axis formed by the extension of the peduncle (284) ; Ex.
Umbelliferae, Euphorbia255.
496. Or the cells open and separate from the axis, which
is formed by a cohesion of the placentse which separate from
the dissepiments ; Ex. Rhododendron264.
497. Sometimes the dissepiments cohere at the axis, and
separate from the valves (487) or back of the carpels; Ex.
Convolvulus.
FRUIT.
59
498. All fruits are either simple or multiple.
499. Simple fruits proceed from a single flower ; Ex.
Poeony, Apple, Nut, Strawberry.
500. Multiple fruits are formed out of several flowers D F ;
Ex. Fir, Pine-apple, Fig. They are masses of inflorescence
in a state of adhesion, and are also called anthocarpous.
501. Simple fruits are either the maturation of a single
carpel (406), or of a pistil formed by the union of several
carpels (408).
502. Of fruits formed of a single carpel, the most import-
ant are the Follicle (503), Legume (504), Drupe (507),
Achenium (508), Caryopsis (511), and Utricle (512).
503. The Follicle is a carpel dehiscing by the ventral
suture, and having no dorsal suture260.
504. The Legume is a carpel having both a ventral and
dorsal suture, and dehiscing by both, either, or neither263 E 258.
505. The two sutures of a legume sometimes form what is
called a replum ; Ex. Carmichselia.
506. When articulations take place across the legume, and
it falls into several pieces, it is said to be lomentaceous"51 262.
507. The Drupe differs from the follicle in being indehis-
cent, and in its pericarp having a distinct separation of epicarp
(482), sarcocarp, and endocarp'59.
508. The Achenium is an indehiscent, bony, one-seeded
60
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
pericarp, which does not contract any degree of adhesion with
the integument of the seed251 249.
509. It is a drupe, the pericarp of which does not sepa-
rate into three layers.
The Achenium is pappose when it bears the remains of a calyx at its apex ; Ex.
Compositae : and is truncate245, or rostrate*46, while the pappus is setaceous245,
double245, plumose246, or paleaceous251. If the style remains and becomes
feathery, forming a kind of tail, the achenium is caudate249.
510. Occasionally the achenium is elevated on a large
fleshy receptacle, as in Anacardium250.
511. The Caryopsis is an indehiscent, membranous, one-
seeded pericarp, which adheres firmly to the integument of
the seed ; Ex. Corn.
512. The Utricle is a caryopsis, the pericarp of which has
no adhesion with the integuments of the seed ; Ex. Eleusine,
Ohenopodium.
513. Of fruit formed of several carpels, the principal are
the Capsule (514), Pyxis (520), Samara (517), Cremocarp
(518), Nuculanium (519), Siliqua (515), Nut or Gland (517),
Berry (522), Orange (523), Pome (524), Pepo (525), and
Balausta (526).
514. The Capsule is a many-celled, dry, dehiscent peri-
carp253 256 264 269
It i* stellate256, toothed at the apex265, or spiral"* ; if its cells remain close
alter separation268, they are named cocci.
FRUIT.
61
515. The Siliqua consists of two carpels fastened together,
the placentae of which are parietal, and separate from the
valves, remaining in the form of a replum (505), and con-
nected by a membranous expansion266.
516. When the siliqua is very short, or broader than it is
long, it is called a Silicula.
517. The Nut or Gland is a dry, bony, indehiscent, one-
celled fruit, proceeding from a pistil of three cells, and en-
closed in an involucre called a Cupule ; Ex. the Hazel, Acorn.
It is a sort of compound achenium.
In some Palms, Ex. Sagus, it is covered by scales turned downwards273. It is
often bordered by expansions or wings which surround it longitudinally, as
in the Elm247 ; or transversely, as in Paliurus261 ; or proceed from the apex or
back only, as in Sycamore252, in which case it receives the name of Samara.
518. The Cremocarp is a pair of Achenia, then called
mericarps, placed face to face, and separating from a central
axis ; Ex. Umbelliferar55. Their planes of union constitute
the commissure.
519. The Nuculanium is a capsule, which, being fleshy,
does not dehisce ; Ex. Grape, Arbutus570.
520. The Pyxis is a capsule whose dehiscence takes place
transversely253 254 ; Ex. Hyoscyamus, Anagallis.
521. The Efario is a collection of distinct, indehiscent
carpels, fleshy or dry, within a calyx ; Ex. Rubus272.
522. The Berry is a succulent fruit, the seeds of which lose
their adhesion when ripe, and lie loose in pulp ; Ex. a Goose-
berry.
62 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
523. The Orange is a berry having a pericarp separable
into an epicarp, an endocarp, and a sarcocarp, and the cells
filled with pulpy bags, which are cellular extensions of the
sides of the cavity.
524. The Pome is a union of two or more inferior carpels,
the pericarp being fleshy, and formed of the floral envelope
and ovary firmly united274.
525. The Pepo is composed of about three carpels, forming
a three-celled, fleshy, indehiscent fruit, with parietal placentae ;
Ex. Cucumber.
526. The Balausta is a many-celled fruit, with the seeds
FRUIT. 63
arranged in an irregular manner on the backs of the cells, and
is formed by more whorls of carpels than one, enclosed within
a tough rind ; Ex. Pomegranate271.
527. The most remarkable modifications of multiple or
anthocarpous fruits are, the Cone (528), Pine-apple (529),
and Fig (530).
528. The Cone A B is an indurated amentum (305) ; Ex.
Pinus. When it is much reduced in size, and its scales firmly
cohere, it is called a Galbulus ; Ex. Thuja.
529. The Pine-apple is a spike of inferior flowers, which
all grow together into a fleshy mass.
530. The Fig is the fleshy, hollow, dilated apex of a
peduncle, within which a number of flowers are arranged,
each of which contains an achenium ; Ex. Ficus, Dorstenia275.
Of the terms above explained only a few are in common use, and it seenis to
be found by systematic botanists more convenient to describe a given fruit by
exact words than to use any particular term. The names most employed are
the Achenium, Nut, Caryopsis, Drupe, Capsule, Siliqua, Legume, and Cone.
XVII. SEED.
531. The SEED is the ovule (406) arrived at maturity.
532. It consists of integuments (540), albumen (551), and
embryo (555) ; and is the result of the reciprocal action of
the sexual apparatus.
533. In general, seeds are, like ovules, enclosed within a
covering arising from a carpellary leaf (406) ; but all Gym-
nosperms are an exception to this. Moreover, some ovules
rupture the ovary soon after they begin to advance towards
the state of seed, and thus become naked seeds ; Ex. Leontice.
Others are imperfectly protected by the ovary, the carpels
not being perfectly closed up ; Ex. Reseda.
534. The seed proceeds from the placenta (412), to which
it is attached by the funiculus280, which is sometimes very
long, but is more frequently not distinguishable from the
placenta.
535. Sometimes the funiculus, or the placenta, expands
about the seed into a fleshy body ; Ex. the Mace of a nut-
meg, Euonymus. This expansion is named aril*76 281 283.
536. It is never developed until after the vivification of the
ovule, and must not be confounded with tumours or dilata-
tions of the integument of the seed.
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
537. Sometimes there are tumours of the testa near the
hilum or at the opposite end ; such are called StropMolte or
Caruncula™ .
538. The precise nature of these is unknown ; sometimes
they are dilatations of the chalaza ; Ex. Crocus : or they are
caused by a fungous state of the lips of the foramen ; Ex.
Eicinus : or they arise from unknown causes.
539. The scar, which indicates the union of the seed with
the placenta, is called the hilum or umbilicus™3.
540. The integuments are called collectively testa, and
consist of membranes resulting from the sacs of the ovule
(451).
541. Sometimes the testa is covered by hair-like expan-
sions of its whole surface ; as in the Cotton : or these hairs
occupy one or both ends, when they constitute what is called
the coma'287. This must not be confounded with pappus (328),
which is calyx.
542. The integuments are often expanded into wings,
which are either single284 or several277, and appear intended
to render seeds buoyant. Very often they are corky or
spongy282, and not unfrequently consist of spiral cells (19).
543. In the seed these membranes are called by various
names, of whiph the most frequently used are spermoderm or
testa for the primine ; mesosperm, for the secundine ; and endo-
pleura for the coat of the nucleus (450).
SEED. 65
544. The mouth of the foramen (461) is often distinctly
visible, and is named the micropyle ; Ex. Pea.
545. The raphe279 285 occupies one side of the seed in all
cases in which it pre-existed in the primine ; but it frequently
becomes much ramified.
546. The raphe is in no way connected with impregnation ;
its functions being apparently confined to maintaining a
vascular connection between the placenta and the base of the
nucleus, for the purpose of nourishing the latter.
547. Spiral vessels are found in the raphe and its ramifica-
tions.
548. Where vessels of the raphe expand into the mesosperm
(543), the chalaza (459) appears as a discoloured thickening
of the integuments285.
549. The micropyle always indicates the point in the cir-
cumference of a seed towards which the radicle (561) points.
550. And the chalaza is as constant an indication, when it
is present, of the situation of the cotyledons (559) ; it being
always at that part of the circumference organically opposed
to the radicle.
551. Between the integuments and the embryo of some
plants lies a substance called the albumen or perisperm""1* 293
299,
552. It consists of a peculiar matter deposited during the
growth of the ovule among the celullar tissue of the nucleus
(450).
553. When the cellular tissue of the nucleus combines with
the deposited matter so completely as to form together but
one substance, the albumen is called solid ; Ex. Wheat,
Euphorbia. When a portion of the tissue remains uncon-
verted, the albumen is ruminated ; Ex. Anona, Nutmeg.
554. Albumen is usually wholesome, and may be fre-
quently eaten with impunity in the most dangerous tribes ;
Ex. Omphalococca, a genus of Euphorbiacese.
555. The organised body that lies within the seed, and for
the purpose of protecting and nourishing which the seed was
created, is the Embryo"*8.
556. The embryo was originally included within the sac of
the amnios (465).
557. The latter is usually absorbed or obliterated during
66 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
the advance of the embryo to maturity ; but it sometimes
remains surrounding the ripe embryo, in the form of Vitellus ;
Ex. Saururus, Piper297.-
558. The embryo consists of the cotyledons (559), the
radicle (561), the plumule (560), and the collar (562).
559. The cotyledons represent undeveloped leaves295".
560. The plumule, or gemmule, is the nascent ascending
axis (64) 2956.
561. The radicle is the rudiment of the descending axis
(7l)295c.
562. The collar is the line of separation between the radicle
and the cotyledons.
563. The space that intervenes between the collar and the
base of the cotyledons is called the cauliculus. (Tigelle, Fr.)
564. In some seeds the embryo is furnished with a
suspensor from the point of the radicle300.
565. The embryo is usually solitary in the seed, but occa-
sionally there are two or several (472).
566. When several embryos are produced within a single
seed, it sometimes happens that two of these embryos grow
together, in' which case a production analogous to animal
dicephalous monsters is formed.
In form, position, and direction, the embryo varies in different species. In
general it is straight ; in some it is spiral291 ; in others heliacal294 ; in others
vermicular290; in others arcuate301. It usually occupies the axis of the
albumen or seed278 293 : but it is also excentrical292 ; and unilateral299. In
direction, it is either erect with respect to the seed, or inverted or transverse.
SEED. 67
567. The number of cotyledons varies from one to several.
The most common number is either one or two. In the latter
case, they are always directly opposite each other.
The cotyledons are semiterete895" ; foliaceous278 ; flat, convolute288; parallel
with each other, or divergent300. When there is but one cotyledon, it often
assumes peculiar forms: it is, for instance, fungous289 ; spheroidal 2980 ; lenti-
cular299 a.
568. The direction of the embryo, with respect to the seed,
will depend upon the relation that the integuments, the raphe,
chalaza, hilum, and micropyle, bear to each other.
569. If the nucleus be inverted, the embryo will be erect,
or orthotropous ; Ex. Apple.
570. If the nucleus be erect, the embryo will be inverted,
or antitropous ; Ex. Nettle.
571. If the micropyle is at neither end of the seed, the em-
bryo will be neither erect nor inverted, but will be in a more
or less oblique direction with respect to the seed ; Ex. Prim-
rose ; and is said to be heterotropous.
572. Plants that have but one cotyledon, or, if two, with
the cotyledons alternate with each other, are called MONO-
COTYLEDONOUS293 «» ^ 2".
573. Plants that have two opposite each other, or a greater
number placed in a whorl, are called DICOTYLEDONOUS 288 29° C92
297 300 301
574. Endogenous plants are monocotyledonous.
575. Exogenous plants are dicotyledonous.
576. Plants that have no cotyledons are said to be ACOTYLE-
DONOUS294.
577. But this term is usually applied only to cellular
plants which, having no sexual apparatus, can have no seeds
(587).
578. Acrogenous plants are acotyledonous.
579. Those seeds of flowering plants, which appear to have
no cotyledons, owe their appearance to the cotyledons being
consolidated ; Ex. Lecythis, Olynthia : or abortive ; Ex. Cus-
cuta.
580. The plumule is very often latent, until it is called into
action by the germination of the seed. Sometimes it is un-
distinguishable from the cotyledons; sometimes it is highly
developed, and lies in a furrow of the cotyledon ; Ex. Maize
F2
68 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
2". In the monocotyledonous embryo it frequently happens
that the plumule is rolled up in the cotyledon, the margins of
which grow together, so that the whole embryo forms one
uniform mass293 ; but as soon as germination commences the
margins separate.
581. The radicle elongates downwards, either directly from
the base of the embryo, or after previously rupturing the in-
tegument of the base. Plants with the first character are
called ExoRHiz^s295 ; with the second, ENDORHiz^;298 2".
582. The endorhizal embryo is very common in monocoty-
ledons ; the exorhizal, in dicotyledons.
583. When the' seed is called into action, germination takes
place. The juices of the plant, which before were insipid,
immediately afterwards abound with sugar ; Ex. Barley ; and
growth commences.
584. This growth is in the first instance caused by the
absorption and decomposition of water, whose oxygen com-
bines with the superfluous carbon of the seed, and is expelled
in the form of carbonic acid gas.
585. As this phenomenon does not take place in full-grown
plants, except in the dark (258), so neither can it occur in
seeds, except under the same condition. Hence an embryo,
exposed to constant light, would not germinate at all ; and
hence the care taken by nature to provide a covering to all
embryos in the form of the integuments of the seed or of a
pericarp.
586. As soon as the necessary proportion of carbon is re-
moved from a seed by the expulsion of carbonic acid, the
young plant begins to absorb food, and to grow by the pro-
cesses of assimilation and respiration already described (254).
ACROGENS, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.
587. Many plants not being increased by seeds, the result
of the mutual action of sexual apparatus (531), are flowerless,
and destitute of organs of fructification.
588. Such are propagated by what are called organs of re-
production, which have no other analogy with the organs of
fructification than that both perpetuate the species.
ACROGENS, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.
69
589. The reproductive organs of flowerless plants vary ac-
cording to the tribes of that division of the vegetable kingdom ;
and have so little relation to each other, that each principal
tribe may be said to have its own peculiar method of propaga-
tion.
590. They all agree in their reproductive parts or spores,
which are analogous to seeds, not germinating from any fixed
point, but producing root or stem indifferently from any point
of their surface. This germination is therefore vague.
591. The principal tribes are Ferns (592), Mosses (598),
Lichens (605), Algacea (607), and Fungacea (610).
592. FERNS are increased by, little bodies, called spores,
enclosed within cases named tliectz or sporangia302 303, which
often grow in clusters or sori3M, from the veins of the under
sides of the leaves, or from beneath the epidermis. The latter,
when it encloses the thec<e, is termed the indusium308.
593. The indusium separates from the leaf in various ways,
in consequence of the growth of the thecse beneath it.
594. The thecse have frequently a stalk which passes up
one side, and finally, curving with their curvature, disappears
on the opposite side307.
595. The part where the stalk of the theca is united with
its side, is called the annulus.
70
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
596. These thecse may be considered minute leaves, having
the same gyrate mode of developement as the ordinary leaves
of the tribe ; their stalk the petiole, the annulus the midrib,
and the theca; itself the lamina, the edges of which are united.
597. They would, therefore, be analogous to carpels, if it
appeared that they were influenced by the action of any vivi-
fying matter.
598. MOSSES are increased by spores (590), contained
within an urn, or theca, or sporangium31*316, placed at the
apex of a stalk or seta, bearing on its summit a kind of loose
hood, called a calyptra31*, and closed by a lid or operculum.
599. The inside of the theca has a central axis or columella,
and the orifice beneath the operculum is closed by teeth- like
processes, or a membrane called the peristome313 318.
600. At the base of the theca is sometimes found a tumour
or struma31*, or an equal expansion named apophysis319.
601. The number of the teeth of the peristome is always
some multiple of four.
602. The calyptra originally grew from the base of the
stalk; but when the stalk lengthened, the calyptra was torn
away from its base and carried up, surrounding the theca.
603. The calyptra may be understood to be a convolute
at; the operculum, another; the peristome, one or more
ACROGENS, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.
71
whorls of minute flat leaves ; and the theca itself to be the
excavated distended apex of the stalk, the cellular substance
of which separates in the form of sporules.
604. There are also in mosses certain organs, called anthers
by some, which do not appear analogous to the male appa-
ratus of flowering plants, and the nature of which has not
been demonstrated. They are jointed filaments, staminidia or
antheridia, containing vibrios lodged in mucous cells, and sur-
round the rudiment of the future theca.
At figure 315 the flask-like figure is a young sporangium, or in this state pis-
tillidium ; and the club-shaped body on its left, a staminidium. The articu-
lated threads may be abortive staminidia.
605. LICHENS are cellular expansions, usually horizontal,
but occasionally perpendicular, consisting of a tkallus331, or
combination of stem and leaves, upon which shields, apotliecia,
or reproductive organs, appear331.
606. The shields consist of a margin, enclosing a kernel,
nucleus, in which tubes containing sporules, and called asci,
are imbedded.
They vary a little in nature, whence they have received the following other names :
scutellum337 ; orbilla, which is the same thing ;pelta339 ; tuberadum335 ; tricaor
gyroma ; if covered with sinuous concentric furrows, lirella333 ; patellula334. Be-
sides the foregoing, some other peculiar terms are used by writers on Lichens.
Asci are tubes of the nucleus, containing sporules ; the latter are sometimes
named gongyli : periikedum is the part in which asci care immersed ; hypothe-
cium is a substance overlying the pcrilluvinin. J'oi/ctiu are stalk-like elonga-
tions of the thallus339 ; scypha or oplarium is a cup-like expansion of a
72 STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
podetium, having shields on the margin338. Soredia, or powdery masses3^ ;
they are also called globuli and glomtruli. Lacuna, are pits of the thallus .
Excipulm is that part of the thallus which forms the rim and base of shields.
Tftallodes signifies formed of the thallus.
607. ALGACEJS are submersed plants, equally destitute of any
kind of tissue, except the cellular, and propagated by spores
(590) lodged in various parts of the system.
608. The sporules either lie freely in the whole substance of
such plants, or are collected in particular cells3", or occupy
jointed filaments324, or are placed in spheres321, occupying the
circumferences of expansions of the thallus (605).
609. There are also other modes of multiplication.
Among the special terms employed by writers on this order, the following may
be enumerated as the principal. Among their reproductive organs are gongyli,
or hard round deciduous bodies ; granula, or large spores ; sporidia, or bodies
resembling spores, but not such ; sporangia or coniocysta, or spore-cases321 325.
Hypha is a filamentous thallus ; phycomatcr is the gelatine in which the
spores of some begin to vegetate ; peridiolum is a membrane immediately
covering the spores ; vesicula are air-bladders that enable some species to
float.
610. FUNGACE.E, which are the lowest form of vegetation,
are also cellular, some of their cells however containing
spiral threads, and are propagated by spores.
611. In the highest forms, two kinds of organs are de-
tected : one, cystidia545, are conical naked elevations ; the
other, basidia3*5, are also conical elevations, but they bear
spores in definite number on their apex.
ACROGENS, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.
73
612. The highest forms of the fungaceous order consist
of a stipes™6, an annulus or collar346, a pileus346 or cap, and
an hymenium.
613. Lower forms are reduced to a mere peridium or in-
tegument, containing the reproductive system342.
614. Some have the sporules enclosed in asci (606).
615. The lowest consist of nothing but cells, placed end
to end, and enclosing spores in the terminal cells344.
Of the special terms employed by Mycologists (writers on Fungaceous plants),
the principal are the following. The volva is the wrapper which covers over
many of them, as Agarics, in their youngest state. Thattus is the spawn
usually generated under ground, or amongst decaying matter. Velum is a
membrane that connects the pileus and collar. Cortina is that part of a velum
which adheres to the margin of the pileus. Flocci are wool-like threads found
t mixed with sporules ; and stroma is the body on which flocci grow. Orbiculi
are little disks contained within the peridia of certain genera. Sporangium
is the external coating of such genera as Lycoperdon343. Peritkecium is the
bag of fructification in Sphaeria348. Ostiolum is the mouth of the bag.
Capillitium is a kind of purse or net containing spores34*. Mycelia are
nascent fungi, or fragments of their spawn.
II.— SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY.
616. SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY is the science of arranging plants
in such a manner that their names may be ascertained, their
affinities determined, their true place in a natural system
fixed, their sensible properties judged of, and their whole his-
tory elucidated with certainty and accuracy.
617. Anything short of this is not a system, but an artificial
scheme.
618. The latter is intended to enable a person to ascertain
the name of a plant, and goes no further.
619. But as the name of a plant conveys no information
by itself, the power thus acquired by artificial schemes is of
but little real value, and cannot be considered as anything
beyond a very imperfect and elementary mode of investi-
gation.
620. What knowledge is gained by the use of an artificial
scheme is a mere collection of isolated facts, without mutual
dependence, or any distinct bearing upon general views.
621 . In a natural arrangement, on the other hand, the name
of a plant is the least object that is gained. Any investigation
upon its principles, when completed, is, of necessity, attended
with the discovery of the relationship a given plant bears to
others ; and as plants which are most closely akin in struc-
ture are also most similar in their sensible properties, it often
enables us to judge of the use of an unknown plant whose
place is determined in the system, by the ascertained uses of
those species in whose vicinity it takes its place by virtue of
its natural affinities.
622. The only artificial schemes in general use are, 1, that
of Linnseus (623), called the SEXUAL System, in consequence
of its characters being dependent upon variations in the sta-
mens and pistil, or sexes, of plants ; and 2, the Analytical
method.
76 SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY.
I. LINN^AN SEXUAL SYSTEM.
623. 'This is now disused by men of science ; but, as many
books still employed have been arranged upon its plan, it is
necessary for a student to understand it.
624. Its divisions, called classes and orders, depend upon
modifications of the stamens and pistils, and have Greek
names expressive of their distinctive characters.
Class 1. Monandria. Stam. 1.
2. Diandria. Stam. 2.
3. Triandria. Stam. 3.
4. Tetrandria. Stam. 4.
5. Pentandria. Stam. 5.
6. Hexandria. Stam. 6.
7. Heptandria. Stam. 7.
8. Octandria. Stam. 8.
9. Enneandria. Stam. 9.
10. Decandria. Stam. 10.
11. Dodecandria. Stam. 12 — 19.
12. Icosandria. Stam. 20 or more, perigynous (359).
13. Polyandria. Stam. 20 or more, hypogynous (358).
Orders. Each of these classes is divided into orders charac-
terized by the number of styles or sessile stigmas. Monogy-
nia signifies 1 style ; Digynia, 2 ; Trigynia, 3 ; Tetragy-
nia, 4 ; Pentagynia, 5 ; Hexagynia, 6 ; Heptagynia, 7 ;
Octogynia, 8 ; Enneagynia, 9 ; Decagynia, 10 ; Dodecagy-
nia, &c. about 12 ; Polygynia, many.
Class 14. Didynamia : Stamens 4, two long and two short.
Orders: 1. Gymnospermia, seeds apparently naked ;
2. Angiospermia, seeds evidently in a seed-vessel.
Class 15. Tetradynamia : Stamens 6, four long and two short.
Orders: 1. Siliquosa, with a long pod; 2. Sili-
culosa, with a short pod or pouch.
Class 16. Monadelphia: Filaments united into a cup or co-
lumn. Orders: 1. Pentandria; 2. Decandria, &c.
as before.
Class 17. Diadelphia: Filaments united into two parcels or
fraternities. Orders : 1 . Hexandria, Sic. as before.
LINN-ffiAN SEXUAL SYSTEM. 77
Class 18. Polyadelpliia : Filaments united into more parcels
than two. Orders: 1. Dodecandria; 2. Icosan-
dria, SEC. as before.
Class 19. Syngenesia: Anthers united into a tube. Orders:
1. Monogamia, flowers solitary; 2. Polygamia,
flowers in heads. Sub-orders of the latter: 1.
u3£qualis, florets all equal ; 2. Superflua, florets
of the disk complete, of the ray female ; 3. Frus-
tranea, florets of the disk perfect, of the ray
neuter ; 4. Necessaria, florets of the disk male, of
the ray female ; 5. Segregata, florets each with its
own proper involucre.
Class 20. Gynandria : Stamens and styles consolidated. Or-
ders: 1. Monandria, &c. as before.
Class 21. Monoecia: Stamens in one flower, pistils in another,
on the same plant. Orders: 1. Monandria, &c. as
before.
Class 22. Dicecia : Stamens in one flower, pistils in another,
on different plants. Orders: 1. Monandria, &c.
as before.
Class 23. Polygamia: Stamens and pistils separate in some
flowers, united in others, either on the same plant
or on two or three different ones. Orders: 1. Mon-
cecia, &c. as before.
Class 24. Cryptogamia : no apparent flowers. Orders : Fi-
lices, Musci, Hepaticse, Algae, Fungi (592).
78
SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY.
II. ANALYTICAL METHOD.
625. THIS is founded upon the common process of analysis
that is unconsciously employed by the human mind. In all
cases the mental operation by which one thing is distinguished
from another, consists in a continual contrast of characters.
For instance, in a mass of individuals we distinguish one set
which is coloured, and another which is colourless ; of those
that are coloured we distinguish red, black, blue, and green ;
of the red, some are square, others are round ; of the round,
some are sculptured on their surface, others are even : — and so
we proceed, analysing the subject by a constant series of con-
trasts, until we have arrived at a point beyond which no
analysis can go.
626. The following pages contain such an analysis of the
principal natural orders of plants. The method may be
equally applied to genera and species, and is an instructive
process if employed by way of exercise to the mind, and for
the purpose of rendering distinctions definite :
1. Plants with visible flowers and
seeds . . . .2
Plants with visible flowers and
spores . . . RHEANTHS.
Plants without flowers . .261
2. Leaves netted. Wood in con-
centric layers .- . .3
Leaves straight-veined. Wood
confused .... 239
Leaves straight-veined. Wood
in concentric layers . . 237
3. Flowers having both calyx and
corolla . ...' . .4
Flowers having a calyx only, or
none . .
4. Petals distinct .
Petals united
5. Stamens more than 20 .
Stamens fewer than 20
6. Ovary inferior, or partially so
Ovary superior .
7. Leaves furnished with stipules . 8
Leaves without stipules . .10
8. Carpels more or less disunited POME.E.
Carpels consolidated . 9
119
5
186
6
36
7
15
9. Placenta central LECYTHIDACEJE.
Placenta parietal . HOMALIACEJE.
10. Carpels distinct . ANONACE^.
Carpels consolidated . .11
11. Placenta spread over the septa
Placenta parietal • .12
Placenta in the axis . .13
12. Petals definite in number LOASACE.E.
Petals indefinite . CACTACE^E.
13. Leaves with transparent dots
MYRTACE^.
Leaves dotless . . .14
14. Petals indefinite . MESEMBRYACE^;.
Petals definite . PHILADELPHACE.*;.
15. Leaves with stipules . .16
Leaves without stipules . . 24
16. Carpels disunited . .17
Carpels consolidated . .18
17. Stamens hypogynous MAGNOLIACE^E.
Stamens perigynous . ROSACES.
18. Placenta parietal . BIXACE^J.
Placenta in the axis . .19
19. Estivation of calyx imbricated . 20
Estivation valvate . 22
ANALYTICAL METHOD.
79
20. Flowers unisexual EUPHORBIACE,E.
Flowers hermaphrodite . .21
21. Ovary one-celled . PORTULACACE^:.
Ovary wit<h more cells than one
ClSTACBLE.
22. Calyx enlarged and irregular
DlPTERACE^E.
Calyx not enlarged . .23
23. Stamens monadelphous MALVACEAE.
Stamens distinct . TILLAGES.
24. Carpels disunited or solitary . 25
Carpels consolidated . . 30
25. Carpels plunged in a tabular disk
NELUMBIACE^E.
Carpels clear of the disk . 26
26. Stamens perigynous . ROSACES.
Stamens hypogynous . . 27
27. Carpel solitary . ANACARDIACE.E.
Carpels several . . .28
28. Stamens polyadelphous HYPERICACE^E.
Stamens free . . .29
29. Herbs . . RANUNCULACE^E.
Trees or Shrubs . ANONACE.E.
30. Placentas in the axis . .31
Placentas parietal . . 34
Placentas dissepimental
NYMPH-EACE.E.
31. Stigma large, umbrella-shaped
SARRACENIACE^E.
Stigma simple . ... .32
32. Sepals 2 . PORTULACACE.S.
Sepals more than 2 v . . 33
Sepals united into a tube LYTHRACEJE.
33. Petals flat, seeds few, leaves
leathery . . . CLUSIACE-E.
Petals crumpled, seeds numerous,
leaves membranous . CISTACE..E.
Petals flat, stamens monadel-
phous . . . HUMIRIACE.33.
34. Placentas spread over the lining
of the fruit . . FLACOURTIACE.E.
Placentas in lines . . 35
35. Ovary stalked . CAPPARIDACE.E.
Ovary sessile . PAPAVERACE.E.
36. Ovary more or less inferior . 37
Ovary quite superior . . 55
37. Leaves with stipules . . 38
Leaves without stipules . .41
38. Flowers unisexual . BEGONIACE^E.
Flowers hermaphrodite . . 39
39. Placentas parietal . HOMALIACE.E.
Placentas in the axis . . 40
40. Calyx valvate, stamens opposite
the petals . . RHAMNACE.E.
Calyx imbricate, stamens alternate
with petals . HAMAMELACE.S.
41. Placentas parietal . . 42
Placentas axile . . .43
42. Flowers unisexual CUCURBITACEJE.
Flowers hermaphr. or polyg.
GROSSULACE.E.
43. Disk double . . APIACE.E.
Disk simple . . .44
44. Seeds few , . .45
Seeds numerous . .51
45. Carpels solitary . . .46
Carpels several . . .48
46. Parasites on trees . LORANTHACEJE.
Root plants . . .47
47. Leaves balsamic, acrid
ANACARDIACE^E.
Leaves insipid . COMBRETACE^E.
48. Calyx valvate . . .49
Calyx imbricated . . 50
49. Stamens opp. petals . RHAMNACE^E.
Stamens altern. petals . CORNACE^E.
50. Anthers curved downwards
MEMECYLACE^E.
Anthers erect . BRUNIACE.E.
51. Leaves dotted . MYRTACE.E.
Leaves not dotted . . 52
52. Anthers curved downwards
MELASTOMACE^E.
Anthers erect . . .53
53. Flowers tetramerous . ONAGRACE^E.
Flowers not tetramerous . 54
54. Petals always distinct
SAXIFRAGACE^:.
Petals at first united into a tube
ESCALLONIACRS.
55. Leaves with stipules . . 56
Leaves without stipules . 81
56. Carpels disunited . .57
Carpels consolidated . . 59
57. Anther valves recurved
BERBERACE.E.
Anther valves straight . .58
58. Fruit leguminous . FABACE^E.
Fruit drupaceous or capsular
ROSACES.
80
SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY.
59. Placentas parietal ' .
Placentas in the axis . . 62
60. Flowers with a coronet
PASSIFLORACE^.
Flowers without a coronet . 61
61. Leaves circulate when young
DROSERACE-E.
Leaves straight when young
VIOLACE.E.
62. Flowers unisexual EUPHORBIACE.E.
Flowers hermaphrodite or polyg. 63
63. Sepals 2 . . PORTULACACE.E.
Sepals more than 2 .64
64. Fruit with a long beak
GERANIACE^.
Fruit without a beak . . 65
65. Styles distinct to the base . 66
Styles more or less united . 72
66. Petals minute . . .68
Petals conspicuous . . 69
68. Stigmas capitate . ELATINACE.E.
Stigmas simple . ILLECEBRACE^E.
69. Calyx valvate . EL.SOCARPACEJE.
Calyx imbricated . .70
70. Stamens hypogynous
MALPIGHIACE^;.
Stamens perigynous . .71
71. Leaves opposite . CUNONIACE^;.
Leaves alternate . SAXIFRAGACE.E.
72. Calyx imbricated . . 73
Calyx valvate or open . .77
73. Stamens monadelphous OXALIDACEJJ.
Stamens distinct . .74
74. Calyx surrounded with double
glands .i ., . MALPIGHIACELE.
Calyx simple . . .75
75. Leaves simple ZYGOPHYLLACKE.
Leaves compound . . 76
76. Flowers unsymmetrical SAPINDACE^E.
Flowers symmetrical
STAPHYLEACE.E.
77. Stamens opposite the petals . 78
Stamens alternate with petals . 79
78. Stamens perigynous . RHAMNACE^E.
Stamens hypbgynous . VITACE^E.
79. Anthers opening by pores
EL^EOCARPACE^E.
Anthers opening by slits . 80
80. Petals split . CHAILLETIACE.E.
Petals undivided . BURSERACE.E.
81. Carpels disunited . . 82
Carpels consolidated . .93
82. Anthers with recurved valves
BERBERACEJ3.
Anthers with straight valves . 83
83. Fruit leguminous . . 84
Fruit not leguminous . . 85
84. Radicle next hilum . FABACE^.
Radicle remote from hilum
CoNNARACEiE.
85. Leaves dotted . AMYRIDACE.E.
Leaves not dotted . .86
86. Carpels solitary . ANACARDIACE^S.
Carpels several . . .87
87. Carpels with hypog. scales . 88
Carpels without ditto . . 89
88. Hypogynous scales simple
CRASSULACE^.
Hypogynous scales double
FRAXCOACE.E.
89. Herbaceous plants RANUNCULACE^E.
Trees or shrubs . . .90
90. Flowers unisexual MENISPERMACEJE.
Flowers hermaphrodite . 91
91. Stamens perigynous
CALYCANTHACE.S.
Stamens hypogynous . . 92
92. Stamens indefinite . ANONACE.E.
Stamens definite . CORIARIACE^E.
93. Placenta dissepimental
NYMPH.EACE.E.
Placenta parietal . .94
Placenta axile . . .99
94. Stamens tetradynamous
BRASSICACE^E.
Stamens not tetradynamous . 95
95. Hypogynous disk large . 96
Hypogynous disk small or 0 . 97
96. Stamens indefinite CAPPARIDACE^E.
Stamens definite . RESEDACILE.
97. Sepals tubular . FRANKENIACE.E.
Sepals distinct ' . . 98
98. Sepals 2-3 . PAPAVERACEJE.
Sepals 5 . . TURNERACEJE.
99. Brown parasites MONOTROPACEJE.
Green rooting plants . .100
100. Styles distinct . . .101
Styles consolidated . .105
101. Stain, polyadelphous HYPERICACE.E.
Stamens free . .102
ANALYTICAL METHOD.
81
102. Carpels with an hypogynous
scale . . CRASSULACE-E.
Carpels without do. . . 103
103. Carpels two divaricating
SAXIFRAGACE.E.
Carpels parallel . . 104
104. Stigmas capitate . LINAGES.
Stigmas simple CARYOPHYLLACE<E.
J05. Stamens monadelphous . 106
Stamens free . . .107
106. Seeds wingless . MELIACE^E.
Seeds winged . CEDRELACE.E.
107. Sepals 2 . . PORTULACACE.E.
Sepals more than 2 . .108
108. Anthers opening by pores
ERICACEAE.
Anthers opening by slits . 109
109. Leaves dotted . . .110
Leaves not dotted . .112
110. Fruit succulent . AURANTIACE.E.
Fruit capsular . . .111
111. Flowers hermaphrodite RUTACE.E.
Flowers polygamous
XANTHOXYLACE^E.
112. Flowers irregular BALSAMINACE^E.
Flowers regular . .113
113. Stamens arising from scales
SIMARUBACE.E.
Stamens not do. . .114
114. Calyx valvate . » .115
Calyx imbricated . .116
115. Stam. opposite petals RHAMNACE.E.
Stamens more numerous than
petals . . LYTHRACE.E.
116. Flowers unisexual EMPETRACE.S.
Flowers hermaphrodite . 117
117. Stamens hypogynous . .118
Stamens perigynous CELASTRACE/E.
118. Seeds comose . TAMARICACE^E.
Seeds naked . PITTOSPORACE^E.
119. Calyx none .' - . . 120
Calyx present . » .128
120. Leaves with stipules . . 121
Leaves without stipules . 126
121. Ovules numerous . SALICACE^E.
Ovules few . . .122
122. Flowers hermaphrodite . 123
Flowers unisexual . .124
123. Stam. unilateral CHLORANTHACE^E.
Stamens whorled . SAURURACE^E.
124. Carpels triple . EUPHORBIACE.E.
Carpels single . . .125
125. Ovule erect . . MYRICACE^E.
Ovule pendulous . PLATANACE^E.
126. Flowers hermaphrodite
PIP BRACED.
Flowers unisexual . .127
127. Carpels single . MYRICACE.E.
Carpels double . CALLITRICHACE.E.
128. Ovary inferior . . .129
Ovary superior . .143
129. Leaves with stipules . .130
Leaves without stipules . 132
130. Flowers hermaphrodite
ARISTOLOCHIACE^E.
Flowers unisexual . .131
131. Flowers amentaceous CORYLACEA;.
Flowers not do. . BEGONIACE.E.
1 32. Flowers unisexual . .133
Flowers herm. or polyg. . 1 36
133. Climbing tendrilled herbs
CUCURBITACE.E.
Trees or shrubs . .134
134. Leaves compound . JUGLANDACE^E.
Leaves simple . . .135
135. Leaves opposite . GARRYACE.E.
Leaves alternate . MYRICACE,E.
136. Leaves dotted . MYRTACE,E.
Leaves not dotted . . 1 37
137. Ovary 1-celled . . .138
Ovary 2-6-celled . . .142
1 38. Parasites on branches
LORANTHACE<E.
Terrestrial . . .139
139. Flowers^/ . . ONAGRACEJE.
Flowers not^/ . .140
140. Calyx valvate . SANTALACE^E.
Calyx not valvate . .141
141. Embryo straight COMBRETACE^E.
Embryo curved CHENOPODIACE^.
142. Flowers^/ . . ONAGRACE^E.
Flowers^/ . ARISTOLOCHIACKE.
143. Leaves with stipules . .144
Leaves without stipules . 160
144. Flowers hermaphrodite . 145
Flowers unisexual . . 1 47
145. Sepals 2 . PORTULACACE.S.
Sepals more than 2 . . 1 46
146. Carpels more than 1 consolidated 147
Carpels solitary . .153
82
SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY.
147. Stamens hypogyno us . .148
Stamens perigynous . .150
148. Fruit beaked . GERANIACELE.
Fruit not beaked . . 1 49
149. Calyx biglandular imbricated
MALPIGHIACE.E.
Calyx eglandular valvate TILIACEX.
150. Placenta parietal PASSIFLORACE.E.
Placenta axile . . .151
151. Leaves opposite . CUNONIACE^E.
Leaves alternate . .152
152. Calyx valvate . RHAMNACE.E.
Calyx imbricate . ULMACE^;.
153. Calyx membranous ILLECEBRACE.E.
Calyx firm and herbaceous . 154
154. Styles from the base of ovary
CHRYSOBALANACE^J.
Styles terminal . .155
155. Fruit leguminous . FABACE^E.
Fruit not leguminous . .156
156. Stipules ochreate POLYGONACE^E.
Stipules simple or 0 . .157
157. Styles simple . . ROSACES
Styles triple . PETIVERIACE^E.
158. Carpels solitary . URTICACE^E.
Carpels more than one . .159
159. Flowers amentaceous BETULACE^.
Flowers not amentaceous
EtJPHORBIACEjE.
160. Flowers hermaphrodite . 161
Flowers unisexual . .183
161. Sepals 2 . . PORTULACACE.E.
Sepals more than 2 . . 1 62
162. Carpels more than 2, consolidated 163
Carpels solitary or disjoined . 172
163. Placenta parietal PAPAVERACEJE.
Placenta axile . . .164
1S4. Ovules few . . . 165
Ovules many . , .168
165. Leaves dotted . . RUTACE^E.
Leaves not dotted , .166
166. Leaves compound . OLEACE.E.
Leaves simple . . .167
167. Carpels numerous, separable
PHYTOLACCACE^;.
Carpels few, inseparable
CELASTRACE.E.
168. Carpels 2, divaricating
SAXIFKAGACE.E.
Carpels not divaricating . 170
170. Stamens hypogynous
CARYOPHYLLACE^-:.
Stamens perigynous . .171
171. Fruit one-celled . PRIMULACE^:.
Fruit many-celled . LYTHRACE^E.
172. Carpels several RANUNCULACE^E.
Carpels solitary . .173
173. Anther valves recurved LAURACE.E.
Anther valves straight . .174
174. Fruit a legume . . FABACE^;.
Fruit not do. . .175
175. Leaves dotted . AMYRIDACE.E.
Leaves not dotted . .176
176. Stamens within the points of
sepals . . . PROTEACE^E.
Stamens not do. . .177
177. Calyx hardened . .178
Calyx tube membranous . 179
1 78. Cal. all hardened SCLERANTHACE.*.
Base only of cal. hardened
NYCTAGINACE.E.
179. Fruit triangular POLYGONACE.E.
Fruit rounded . .180
180. Leaves lepidote EI^AGNACEJE.
Leaves not lepidote . .181
181. Calyx tubular . THYMELACE^E.
Calyx tubeless . . .182
182. Calyx dry and coloured
AMARANTACE^.
Calyx herbaceous CHENOPODIACE^E.
183. Carpels solitary or distinct . 184
Carpels consolidated . .185
184. Calyx tubular, carpel solitary
MYRISTICACE/E.
Calyx open, carpels several
MENISPERMACEJE.
185. Leaves dotted . XANTHOXYLACEJE.
Leaves not dotted EUPHORBIACE.E.
186. Ovary superior . .187
Ovary inferior . . 226
187. Flowers regular . .188
Flowers irregular ., .218
188. Ovary deeply split , . „ .189
Ovary not split . .192
189. Leaves dotted . . RUTACE.E.
Leaves not dotted ,• .190
190. Inflorescence gyrate BORAGINACE.E.
Inflorescence straight . .191
191. Estivation plaited . NOLANACE*:.
Estivation flat. STACKHOUSIACE^E.
ANALYTICAL METHOD.
83
192. Carpels 4, 5, or more . .193
214.
Carpels three . •„ _ . 204
Carpels two . . . 206
215.
Carpels single . . .216
193. Stamens opposite petals . 194
216.
Stamens alternate with petals . 195
1 94. Shrubs or trees . MYRSINACE.E.
Herbs . . PRIMULACE^E.
217.
195. Anthers opening by pores . 196
Anthers opening by slits . 198
218.
196. Anthers one-celled EPACRIDACE.E.
Anthers two-celled . .197
219.
197. Shrubs. Seeds wingless
ERICACEAE.
220.
Herbs. Seeds winged PYROLACE^E.
198. Brown parasites MOXOTROPACE^E.
221.
Rooting plants . .199
199. Seeds numerous . CRASSULACE^E.
Seeds few or solitary . . 200
200. Carpels distinct . ANONACE.E.
222.
Carpels consolidated . .201
201. Ovules erect . . .202
223.
Ovules pendulous . .203
202. ./Estivation imbricated SAPOTACE.E.
224.
./Estivation plaited CONVOLVULACE*.
203. Stamens twice as many as petals
225.
EBENACE.E.
Stamens equal to petals
AQUIFOLIACE.'E.
204. Inflorescence gyrate HYDROLEACE^E.
226.
Inflorescence straight . . 205
205. Calyx imbricated CONVOLVULACE^E.
227.
Calyx tubular . POLEMONIACELE.
206. Stamens 2 . . .207
228.
Stamens more than 2 . .208
207. Corolla valvate . OLEACE.S.
229.
Corolla imbricate . JASMINACE^E.
208. Inflorescence gyrate . . 209
230.
Inflorescence straight . .210
209. Fruit two-celled . CORDIACE^S.
Fruit one-celled HYDROPHYLLACE/E.
231.
210. Corolla valvate . CESTRACE^E.
Corolla imbricate . .211
211. Anthers united to stigma
232.
ASCLEPIADACEJE.
Anthers free . . . 212
212. Corolla contorted . APOCYNACE^E.
233.
Corolla imbricated or plaited . 213
213. Calyx broken-whorled . . 214
234.
Calyx imbricate^ . .215
Leafless twiners
Leafy plants
Placentae parietal
Placentae axile
. CUSCUTACE^;.
CONVOLVULACE^E.
. GENTIANACEJE.
. SOLANACE^E.
Stigma with an indusium
BRUNONIACE^;.
Stigma without an indusium . 217
Style single . PLANTAGINACE^E.
Styles 5 . PLUMBAGINACE^E.
Ovary 4-lobed . LAMIACE^E.
Ovary undivided . .219
Carpel solitary . GLOBULARIACE.E.
Carpels two . . . 220
Fruit nut-like . VERBENACE^E.
Fruit capsular or succulent . 221
Placenta parietal OROBANCHACE^E.
Placenta free, central
LENTIBULACE/E.
Placenta axile
Seeds winged
Seeds wingless
Placentae double
Placentas simple
. . 222
BIGNONIACE.E.
. . 223
CYRTANDRACEJE.
. . 224
Ovary partly inferior GESNERACE^E.
Ovary quite superior . . 225
Calyx broken-whorled
ACANTHACEJE.
Calyx tubular or imbricated
SCROPH UL ARIACE^E.
Carpel solitary . . 227
Carpels more than one . . 229
Anthers syngenesious ASTERACE^E.
Anthers free . . . 228
Flowers in heads . DIPSACR*.
Flowers loose . VALERIANACKE.
Anthers syngenesious LOBELIACE^E.
Anthers free . . . 230
Anthers opening by pores
VACCINACE^.
Anthers opening by slits . 231
Stipules between the leaves
ClNCHONACEJE.
Stipules none . . 232
Stigma with an indusium
Stigma naked . . .233
233. Seeds indefinite . . 234
Seeds few in number . . 235
Stamens free . CAMPANULACBJE.
Stamens consolidated STYLIDIACEJE.
G 2
SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY.
235.
236.
237.
238.
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248.
249.
250.
251.
252.
253.
Leaves alternate . EBENACE.E.
Leaves opposite . • 236
Fruit didymous . GALIACKS.
Fruit not didymous CAPRIFOLIACKS:.
Stem cylindrical, unbranched
CYCADACILE.
Stem conical, branched . . 238
Fruit solitary . . TAXACE.E.
Fruit in cones . . PINACE^E.
Ovary inferior . . . 240
Ovary superior . . 246
Flowers gynandrous ORCHIDACKE.
Flowers not gynandrous . 241
Anther 1 ... 242
Anthers more than one . 243
Anther one-celled . MARANTACELE.
Anther two-celled ZINGIBERACKS.
Veins of leaves diverging MUSACEJE.
Veins of leaves straight . 244
Veins of leaves netted DIOSCOREACILE.
Stamens 3 . . IRIDACE^E.
Stamens 6 . . 245
Stamens more than 6
HYDROCHARACE.E.
Sepals petaloid . AMARYLLIDACE^E.
Sepals herbaceous BROMELIACE.S:.
Flowers glumaceous . . 247
Flowers regular . . 248
Sheaths of leaves slit GRAMINACE^.
Sheaths of leaves closed
CYPERACE.E.
Leaves netted . . SMILACE^.
Leaves straight-veined . 249
Carpels disunited . . 250
Carpels consolidated . . 259
Placentae dhsepimental BUTOMACBL&.
Placentae axile .
Flowers imperfect
Flowers perfect
Flowers on a spadix
Flowers scattered
Fruit drupaceous .
Fruit berried
Fruit dry ,
. 251
. 252
. 257
. 253
. 255
PANDANACEJE.
. ARACE.S.
. 254
254. Stamens very short . ACORACEJE.
Stamens long, weak . TYPHACE.E.
255. Floating . . .256
Terrestrial . JUNCAGINACE.E.
256. Ovules pendulous . NAIADACE/E.
Ovules erect . . PISTIACE-E.
257. Anthers turned outwards
MELAXTHACE^E.
Anthers turned inwards . 258
258. Stems herbaceous . ALISMACE^E.
Stems woody . PALMACE^E.
259. Flowers seinipetaloid
COMMELINACE.E.
Flowers hexapetaloid . . 260
260. Flowers coloured . . LILIACEJE.
Flowers scarious . JUNCACE^E.
261. Axis distinct, leafy . . 262
Axis distinct, leafless CHARACE^E.
Axis confused . . .268
262. Sporangia upon leaves FILJCALES.
Sporangia arising from the stem 263
263. Sporangia involucrate . . 264
Sporangia naked . .265
264. Involucres uniform
MARSILEACEJE.
Involucres 2-formed SALVINIACE^E.
265. Sporangia axillary, sessile, 2-
valved . . LYCOPODIACEJE.
Sporangia stalked . .266
266. Sporangia valveless . BRYACE^:.
Sporangia valvate . . 267
267. An operculum . ANDR.EACE.S.
No operculum JUNGERMANNIACELE.
268. Stomates . . . 269
No stoniates . . . 270
269. Sporangia valvate, operculate
JUNGERMANNIACE.E.
Sporangia valveless, without an
operculum . MARCHANTIACE^E.
270. Submersed . . ALGACK^E.
Aerial • . . .271
271. Thallus superficial LICHENACKS.
Thallus buried
THE NATURAL SYSTEM. 85
III.— THE NATURAL SYSTEM.
627. THE true Natural System, whenever it shall be dis-
covered, will represent the species, genera, orders, alliances,
groups, subclasses, and classes of plants, or whatever other
divisions may be admitted into it, so arranged that each plant
shall stand next those to which it is more nearly allied in
structure than to any others.
628. But the skill of man has not yet attained this end ; no
system answering to this description has been devised, nor
does there appear any probability that it will be discovered till
our knowledge of plants is much more advanced.
629. All so-called natural systems are, to the present day,
partly artificial and partly natural. The lower and higher
divisions in them are natural, the intermediate divisions are
artificial. In other words, the stones of the edifice are hewed
and squared, and the general plan is drawn out, but no
builder has yet been found with skill to put them together, so
as to form a consistent whole.
630. But although in theory no system that can properly be
called natural has yet been devised, yet for practical pur-
poses many answer to the name, and fulfil the principal con-
ditions required of them.
631. The genera and natural orders can alone be considered
as agreed upon by botanists, the other divisions are unsettled ;
and this is the reason why the natural orders seldom follow in
the same manner in the arrangements of two different bota-
nists.
632. There is no such thing as an arrangement which
shall express the natural relations of plants in a consecutive
series.
633. It seems to be generally admitted by those who have
turned their attention to the consideration of the manner in
which organized beings are related to each other, that each
species is allied to many others in different degrees, and that
such relationship is best expressed by rays (the affinities)
86 SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY.
proceeding from a common centre (the species). In like
manner, in studying the mutual relationship of the several
parts of the vegetable kingdom, the same form of distribution
constantly forces itself upon the mind; genera and orders
being found to be apparently the centre of spheres, whose
surface is only defined by the points where the last traces of
affinity disappear.
634. But although the mind may conceive such a distribu-
tion of organized beings, it is impossible that it should be so
presented to the eye, and all attempts at effecting that object
have failed. If in describing the surface of a sphere we are
compelled to travel in various directions, continually return-
ing back to the point from which we started, and if in pre-
senting it to the eye at one glance we are compelled to
project it upon a plane, the effect of which is to separate
to the greatest distance some objects which naturally touch
each other, how much more impossible must it be to follow
the juxtaposition of matter in treating of the solid contents of
a sphere.
635. The fundamental principle of systematic botany is, that
those plants should be stationed in company with each other
which have the greatest degree of affinity, and that those
should be placed most remotely which have the smallest
degree of affinity.
636. Affinity is an accordance in all essential characters.
637. From this is distinguished analogy, which is a con-
formity in one or two characters only.
638. What we call the characters of plants are merely the
signs by which we judge of affinity, and all the groups into
which plants are thrown are in one sense artificial, inasmuch
as nature recognises no such groups.
639. Nevertheless, consisting in all cases of species very
closely allied in nature, they are in another sense natural.
640. But as the classes, subclasses, groups, alliances, natural
orders, and genera of botanists have no real existence in
nature, it follows that they have no fixed limits, and conse-
quently that it is impossible to define them.
641. They are to be considered as nothing more than the
expression of particular tendencies (nixus), on the part of the
THE NATURAL SYSTEM. 87
plants they comprehend, to assume a particular mode of deve-
lopement.
642. Their characters are therefore nothing more than a
declaration of their prevailing tendencies, and are liable to
numerous exceptions.
This liability, it must be remarked, exists as much in all artificial schemes as in
the natural system itself.
643. If a system is ever to be devised which shall by com-
mon consent be admitted to be natural in all its parts, as 'far
as human means can make it so, this will be brought about
by settling the relative value of the characters by which
plants are limited, and by introducing uniformity and con-
sistency into the distinctions of the groups, whether inferior,
superior, or intermediate.
Up to the present time, no attempt at settling these points has been successful,
and consequently the characters employed in denning the limits of groups,
of all denominations except the highest, are arbitrary and inconsistent.
644. The following propositions seem incontrovertible :—
1. Nothing that is constant can be regarded as unimportant.
2. Every thing constant must be dependent upon or con-
nected with some essential function. Therefore all constant
characters, of whatever nature, require to be taken into
account in classifying plants according to their natural affi-
nities.
Of this nature are the internal structure of stems and leaves, the anatomical con-
dition of tissue, the organization of the anther, pollen, and female apparatus,
and the interior of the seed.
645. On the other hand, whatever points of structure are
variable in the same species, or in species nearly allied to each
other, or in neighbouring genera, are unessential to the vital
functions, and should be set aside, or be regarded as of compa-
rative unimportance.
Hence the badness of the Monopetalous, Polypetalous, and Apetalous divisions
of Jussieu, depending upon the presence or absence, and union or disunion, of
petals. The genus Fuchsia, for example, has petals highly developed ; but in
F. excorticata they are absent, and yet the plant differs no otherwise from the
rest of the genus : the same is true of species of Rhammis. Again, the Rue
has the petals separate ; and Correa, very nearly allied to it, has them com-
bined.
88 SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY.
646. Those peculiarities of structure which are connected
with the manner in which a plant is developed are physio-
logical.
647. Those peculiarities of structure which are connected
with the manner in which parts are arranged are structural.
648. Physiological characters are of two kinds; 1, those
which are connected with the mode of growth (or organs of
vegetation), and, 2, those which regulate reproduction (or
organs of fructification).
649. Physiological characters are of greater importance in
regulating the natural classification of plants than structural.
650. All modifications of either are respectively import-
ant, in proportion to their connection with the phenomena of
life.
651. If we allow ourselves to be steadily guided by these
considerations, we shall find that the internal or anatomical
structure of the axis, and of the foliage, is of more importance
than any other character.
Because these are the circumstances which essentially regulate the functions of
growth, and the very existence of an individual.
652. That next in order is the internal structure of the
seed, by which the species must be multiplied.
Thus the presence of an embryo, or its absence, the first indicating a true
seed (531), the latter a spore (590), are most essential circumstances to con-
sider. And so also the existence of albumen in abundance round the embryo,
or its absence, must be regarded as a physiological character of the highest
value : because, in the former case, the embryo demands a special external
provision for its early nutriment, as in oviparous animals ; while, in the latter
case, the embryo is capable of developing by means of the powers resident in
itself, and unassisted, as in viviparous animals.
653. Next to this must be taken the structure of the organs
of fructification, by whose united action the seed is engen-
dered ; for without some certain, uniform, and invari-
able action on their part, the race of a plant must become
extinct.
Thus we find that the structure of the anthers, placenta?, and ovules, are more
uniform than that of the parts surrounding them ; while their numbers are
variable ; and the condition of the filament, which appears of so little import-
ance in a physiological point of view, is also inconstant. So also the texture
and surface and form of the pericarp, which acts as a mere covering to the seeds,
is not to be regarded in these inquiries, and, in fact, differs from genus to genus ;
as, for instance, between Pyrus and Stranvaesia, or Rubus and Spiraea, in the
truly natural Rosaceous order.
THE NATURAL SYSTEM. 89
654. On the other hand, of the floral envelopes (322), the
number, form, and condition, the" presence or absence, the
regularity or irregularity, seem to be unconnected with func-
tions of a high order, and to be designed rather for the deco-
ration of plants, or for the purpose of giving variety to the
aspect of the vegetable world ; they are consequently of low
and doubtful value, except for specific distinctions.
There seems, indeed, reason to expect that every natural order will, sooner or
later, be found to contain within itself all the variations above alluded to.
Even in the cases of regularity and irregularity we already know this to be so ;
witness Veronica and Scoparia in Scrophul.iriaceae, and Hyoscyamus in
Solanaceae, Delphinium in Ranunculaceae, and Pelargonium in Geraniaceae.
655. The consolidation of the parts of fructification is a cir-
cumstance but little attended to in a general point of view,
except in respect to the corolla ; but as it seems to indicate
either the greatest change that the parts can undergo, or,
where it occurs between important and unimportant organs,
that in such cases the latter are essential to the former, it pro-
bably deserves to be regarded with great attention.
For instance, the presence or absence of the corolla is often a point of little
moment, and is, we know, a very fluctuating circumstance. This is especially
true of those natural orders in which the stamens and petals are separated ; as
in Rosaceae, Rhamnaceae, Onagraceae, &c. On the other hand, when the
stamens, which are indispensable organs, adhere to the petals, the latter are
more constantly present, as in Scrophulariaceae, Acanthaceae, Solanaceae, &c.
656. If consolidation is, on the one hand, to be regarded as
a character of high importance, so must disunion also be so
considered on the other.
This is indicated by those natural orders of plants, which, like the Rosaceous,
the Ranunculaceous, and the Magnoliaceous, are called apocarpous.
657. If we descend lower than those points, we find it ex-
tremely difficult, when we enter into details, to comprehend
what gives some of the subordinate peculiarities of plants the
value we assign to them. No fixed rule has yet been dis-
covered for judging of this ; and the employment of secondary
characters is in a great degree arbitrary.
SYSTEMATICAL BOTANY.
IV.— THE NATURAL SYSTEM OF DE CANDOLLE.
MANY natural systems have been proposed by different
botanists. Ray, Linnaeus, Jussieu, De Candolle, Bartling,
Reichenbach, Schultz, Endlicher, myself, and many others,
have each had their own system ; and, perhaps, the best cha-
racter that can be given of them is, that while they are all far
from the truth, each has some merits which the others want.
The system of De Candolle, however, having been taken
as the basis of the most perfect enumeration of plants that has
ever been made, has so great a reputation, that for the con-
venience of students it most requires explanation. And it
seems the more deserving of illustration, because the Univer-
sity of London have declared that their examinations shall be
conducted with reference to it.
It will not be necessary to introduce into an illustration of
this system every natural order ; for many are imperfectly
known, and only interest the botanist when he extends his
inquiries into the minutiae of the science. All, however, of
importance, will be found in the succeeding pages.
Plants are either furnished with visible flowers, or they
are multiplied in some other way. Hence the two great divi-
sions, of FLOWERING (Phanogamous or Phanerogamous), and
FLOWERLESS (Cryptogamous) .
Flowering plants are either EXOGENS (95) or ENDOGENS
(95), with which Dicotyledons (573) and Monocotyledons
(572) respectively correspond. 4.
Flowerless plants are either TETHEOGAMOUS (Semivascular),
that is, furnished with stomates and vascular tissue ; or they
are AMPHIGAMOUS (Cellular), that is, destitute of stomates and
entirely cellular.
Hence arise four CLASSES.
I. FLOWERING PLANTS.
Class 1 . Exogens or Dicotyledons.
Class 2. Endogens or Monocotyledons.
EXOGEN^l THALAMIFLOR^:. 91
II. FLOWERLESS PLANTS.
Class 3. ^Etheogamous or Semivascular.
Class 4. Amphigamous or Cellular.
CLASS I. EXOGEN.E.
This is the largest class in the vegetable kingdom, com-
prehending more species than all the others put together. The
subclasses are the following :
1 . Thalamiflora. A calyx and corolla. Petals distinct ;
Stamens hypogynous.
2.* Calycifloree. A calyx and corolla. Petals distinct ;
Stamens perigynous.
3. Corottiflorte. A calyx and corolla. Petals united,
bearing the stamens.
4. Monochlamydea. A calyx only, or none.
SUBCLASS J. THALAMIFLOIU3.
I- Order 1. — Ranunculaceee. Herbs or shrubs, occasionally
climbing. Leaves with the petiole generally dilated, and the
blade very often palmate or digitate. Sepals 3-6, usually
deciduous. Petals 3-15, or none. Stamens indefinite ; an-
thers adnate. Carpels numerous, or united into a single pistil.
Seeds either erect or pendulous.
USES. — Generally acrid, bitter, narcotic plants, with vesi-
cating leaves, as Aconite, Stavesacre, Crowfoot. Some however
have the bitter principle predominant and the acridity slight,
as Hydrastis canadensis, Coptis, Xanthorhiza, which are
tonics.
* These are not exactly the characters given by De Candolle, who includes all
monopetalous orders with an inferior ovary in Calyciflorae, and limits Corolliflorae to
the hypogynous monopetalous orders. But it seems to me more easy in practice to
regard Corolliflorae as equivalent to the Monopetalae of Jussieu, while Thalamiflorse
and Calyciflorae correspond to the Polypetalso of that author, and MonochlamydejB to
his Apefcihe ; and in a series so very artificial as this, we may be pennitted, I think,
to consult convenience.
92
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
This order divides into two principal sections.
/. Flowers regular. TYPICAL GENERA.— Ranunculus, Cle-
matis, Adonis.
Ceratocephalus orthoceras. 1. Flower. 2. Ripe fruit. 3. Ovaries of Ranunculus
Krapfia. 4. Section of carpel and seed of the same.
//. Flowers irregular. TYPICAL GENERA.— Delphinium,
Aconitum.
Delphinium tricorne. 1 . Petals and stamens. 2. Carpels. 3. A branch of ripe fruit.
®
2. — Anonacea. Trees or shrubs generally tropical. Leaves
without stipules. Flowers axillary, large, and dull-coloured.
EXOGEN^E THALAMIFLORJE.
93
Sepals 8-4. Petals 6, coriaceous, with a valvular aestivation.
Stamens indefinite ; anthers adnate ; filaments angular.
Ovaries numerous. Fruit succulent or dry, with the car-
pels 1 or many-seeded, separate or consolidated. Embryo
minute. Albumen ruminate.
USES. — Aromatic and fragrant in most cases. The fruits
of some are succulent and eatable, as the Custard Apple,
Anona squamosa, and the Cherimoyer, Anona Cherimolia;
those of others are hard, dry, and often jointed, as Habzelia
aromatica, the Piper ^Ethiopicum of the shops, and are used as
peppers. Some species are employed as febrifuges.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Anona, Uvaria.
Anona furfuracea. 1. An expanded flower. 2. A vertical section oftheandroe-
ceum and gynoaceum, which latter forms a central and terminal tuft. 3. A vertical
section of a carpel. 4. A vertical section of a ripe seed, showing the embryo and
ruminated albumen.
3. — Menispermacea. Shrubs with a sarmentaceous habit.
Leaves alternate. Flowers small. Flowers unisexual, usually
very small. Sepals in one or several rows. Stamens mon-
adelphous or distinct. Anthers turned outwards. Ovaries
numerous, each with one style, sometimes soldered together
into a many-celled body, which is occasionally, in conse-
quence of abortion, 1-celled. Drupes berried, 1-seeded
embryo curved, lying in albumen ; radicle superior.
.94
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
USES.— Roots of many bitter and tonic, as Cocculus palma-
tus, which yields the Calumba root ; of others also diuretic,
as Cissampelos Pareira, and Cocculus Balds, the latter a
remedy used by the negroes of Senegal against intermittents.
In the seeds a poison is formed, which in Anamirta Cocculus,
the Cocculus Indicus of the shops, becomes extremely dan-
gerous.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Menispermum, Cocculus.
Cissampelos Pareira. 1. A male flower. 2. A female flower. 3. The vertical
section of an ovary, which gradually curves the apex downwards, till, when it becomes
the drape 4, it acquires a horseshoe form. 5. A vertical section of a drupe, show-
ing the embryo and albumen ; a. is the true apex of the fruit, brought to the base
as just described.
4. — Berberacea. Shrubs or herbaceous perennial plants.
Leaves alternate, compound, usually without stipules. Se-
pals 3-4-6, in a double row. Petals sometimes with an
appendage at the base. Stamens equal in number to the
petals, and opposite to them ; anthers opening elastically with
a valve from the bottom to the top. Ovary solitary, 1-
celled. Seeds attached to the bottom of the cell, 1, 2, or
3 ; albumen between fleshy and corneous.
USES. — Bark astringent, and in Berberis yielding a yellow
die. Fruit of Berberis acid ; tubers of Bongardia eatable.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Berberis, Epimedium.
5. — Nympli<eacea. Herbs with peltate or cordate fleshy
leaves, growing in quiet water. Sepals and petals imbricated,
EXOGENJE THALAMIFLOR^E. 95
passing gradually into each other. Stamens numerous, in-
serted ahove the petals into the disk ; filaments petaloid ;
disk large, fleshy. Fruit many-celled. Seeds very numerous,
attached to spongy dissepiments. Embryo on the outside of
the base of the albumen, in a bag.
USES. — Of little moment. Euryale seeds are eaten. Rhi-
zomata slightly astringent and sedative.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Nymphsea, Nuphar.
6. — Nelumbiacea. Herbs with peltate, floating leaves.
Sepals 4 or 5. Petals numerous. Stamens numerous. Disk
fleshy, enclosing in hollows of its substance the monospermous
ovaries. Nuts numerous, half buried in the disk.
USES. — Nuts and creeping rhizomata eatable.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Nelumbium.
"2. • 7. — Dilleniaceae. Trees, shrubs, or under-shrubs, rarely
herbaceous, leaves without stipules. Flowers often yellow.
Sepals 5 ; 2 exterior, 3 interior. Petals 5. Stamens indefi-
nite. Ovaries definite. Carpels baccate or 2-valved. Seeds
surrounded by a pulpy aril. Embryo in solid albumen.
USES. — Generally astringent. The leaves of many species
are covered with asperities, which render them useful mecha-
nically as polishing substances. Nothing deleterious known
among them. Flowers occasionally intolerably fetid.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Dillenia, Tetracera, Hibbertia.
[^ 8. — Magnoliacete. Trees or shrubs with convolute sti-
pules. Flowers large, solitary. Sepals 3-6. Petals 3-27,
imbricated. Stamens indefinite. Carpels numerous, dis-
tinct or consolidated.
USES. — Bark tonic and febrifugal ; that of the root of Mag-
nolia glauca and Liriodendron in great repute in North
America. Flowers often very fragrant.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Magnolia, Liriodendron.
9. — Winteraceee. Shrubs or small trees. Woody tissue
glandular. Leaves alternate, dotted, with convolute deciduous
stipules. Flowers often brown. Sepals 2-6. Petals 2-30,
imbricated. Stamens hypogynous. Ovaries 1-celled with
suspended or erect ovules. Fruit consisting of a single row
of carpels. Seeds with or without aril.
96 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
USES.— Aromatic stimulants. An Illicium yields the Star
Anise, and Drimys Winteri, the Winters Bark, of the shops.
TYPICAL GENEKA.— Illicium, Tasmannia.
10.— Fumariea. Herbaceous plants with brittle stems
and a watery juice. Sepals 2. Petals 4 ; parallel ; the
outer one, or both saccate at the base. Stamens 6, in 2
parcels.
USES.— Unimportant. Species slightly diaphoretic.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Fumaria, Corydalis.
Fumaria officinahs. 1. A flower seen from below. 2. The same from the side.
3. The pistil, stamens, and a portion of the bagged upper sepal. 4. A parcel of
anthers. 5. The fruit.
11. — Sarraceniacea. Herbaceous perennial plants, living
in bogs. Leaves with a hollow urn-shaped petiole. Scapes
bearing one large flower. Sepals 5, imbricate. Petals 5,
TITALAMIFLORJE.
97
unguiculate, concave. Stamens indefinite, hypogynous. Ovary
5-celled ; stigma very large, umbrella-shaped, peltate. Cap-
sule crowned by the stigma. Seeds very numerous, minute.
USES. — Unknown. Petiole-like leaves remarkable.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Sarracenia.
12. — Brassicaceee or Crucifera. Herbaceous plants ; rarely
under-shrubs. Leaves alternate. Flowers without bracts.
Sepals 4, deciduous, cruciate. Petals 4, cruciate. Stamens
6, of which two are shorter (tetradynamous). Ovary supe-
rior, with parietal placentae, meeting in the middle, and form-
ing a spurious dissepiment. Fruit a silique or silicule.
Seeds attached by a funiculus, generally pendulous. Embryo
with the radicle folded upon the cotyledons.
A very large and difficult natural order, the subdivisions in
which are now made to
depend upon the structure
of the embryo. They
are the following :
1. Pleurorhizea, when
the embryo has the ra-
dicle applied to the edge
of the cotyledons ; fig. 17.
2. NotorMzeez, when
the embryo has the radi-
cle applied to the back of
the cotyledons ; Jig. 14.
3. Orthoplocea, when
the embryo has the ra-
dicle applied to the back
of cotyledons which are
hollowed out; fig. 12.
4. Diplecolobea;, when
the cotyledons are three
times folded, and the ra-
dicle applied to their
|)*1OK " H.fl 1 fi
' •' "* • Erucastrum Canariense. 1. A flower. 2.
USES. — All the Species The stamens. 3. The siliqua, with the valves
! , . separating from the replum. 4. A transverse
harmless; Some ailtlSCOr- S» of a seed. 5. A perfect seed.
I!
98
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
butic, all more or less pungent. Radishes, Turnips, Mustard,
Cress, Cabbage and all its varieties, Rape, Charlock, are well-
known plants of the order.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Brassica, Sinapis, Draba.
Fruits of various genera. 6. Siliqua of Mathiola livida. 7. Silicula of Thlaspi
latifolium. 8. Silicula of Alyssum spatlmlatum. 9. Silicula of Schiverukia podolica.
10. Silicula of Farsetia. 12. Seed of Didesmus -/EgjT>tius cut across. 13. Silicula
of Menonvillea linearis. 14. Seed of Lepidium Africanum. 15. Silicula of jEthio-
nema cristatum. 16. Seed of Heliophila crithmifolia. 17. Seed of Mathiola oxy-
ceras. 18. Siliqua of Mathiola oxyceras. 19. Silicula of Didesmus -(Egyptius. 20.
Silicula of Senebiera serrata.
13. — Papaver ace fE. Herbaceous plants or shrubs with a
milky juice. Leaves alternate, without stipules. Sepals 2.
Petals either 3 or 4, or some multiple of that number.
Stamens hypogynous, generally numerous. Fruit 1-celled,
with parietal placentae. Seeds numerous.
USES. — A narcotic milk pervades the species ; that of
Papaver somniferum becomes opium when inspissated. The
roots of Meconopsis Nepalensis are a deadly poison. San-
guinaria Canadensis is emetic and purgative in large doses,
stimulant and diaphoretic in smaller.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Papaver, Glaucium.
14. — Capparidacece. Herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees,
without true stipules. Leaves alternate. Sepals 4. Petals 4,
cruciate. Stamens definite or indefinite. Disk hemispherical,
EXOGENJE THALAMIFLORJE.
99
or elongated. Ovary stalked. Fruit 1-celled, most fre-
quently with two polyspermous placentae ; embryo incurved.
USES. — A pungent principle exists in some, as the flower-
buds of Capparis spinosa, which are the Capers of shops, and
several Cleomes used as substitutes for mustard. This
acridity is sometimes so much concentrated as to render the
species dangerous. The root of Cratseva gynandra is said to
blister like Cantharides, and that of Cleome dodecandra is
used as a vermifuge.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Cleome, Capparis.
Physostemon lanceolatum. 1. A flower of the natural size. 2. The calyx, sta-
mens, and ovary. 3. The ripe fruit, with one valve separating. 4. A seed. 5.
The same cut vertically, to show the incurved embryo.
15. — Resedacea. Herbaceous plants with alternate leaves,
small colourless flowers, and gland-like stipules. Calyx
many-parted. Petals lacerated, unequal. Disk large, 1-sided.
Stamens definite, inserted into the disk. Ovary sessile,
H 2
100 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
3-lobed, 1 -celled, many-seeded, with 3 parietal placentae.
Fruit opening at the apex. Embryo incurved.
USES. — Mignionette, so well known for its fragrance, is
Reseda odorata. R. luteola yields a yellow dye.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Reseda, Ochradenus.
16. — Flacourtiacea. Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate,
without stipules. Sepals from 4-7. Petals equal to them
in number. Stamens occasionally changed into nectariferous
scales. Ovary roundish ; stigmas several, more or less dis-
tinct. Fruit 1-celled, capsular or fleshy, the centre filled
with a thin pulp. Seeds few, attached to the lining of the
fruit in a branched manner. Embryo in albumen.
USES. — The fruit of some eatable and pleasant in India.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Flacourtia, Roumea.
17. — Bixacete. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with
deciduous stipules and pellucid dots. Sepals 4-7, imbricated.
Petals of a like number. Stamens indefinite, distinct. Ovary
sessile ; placentae 4-7, parietal ; styles 1-2-4. Fruit 1-celled,
fleshy or capsular, many-seeded. Seeds enveloped in pulp.
Albumen hardly present.
USES. — The seeds of Bixa Orellana are covered with a
pulp, which, when dry, is the Arnotta of shops, used for
colouring cheese. Otherwise the properties uncertain.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Bixa, Prockia, Azara.
18. — Cistacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants. Leaves
usually entire, stipulate or exstipulate. Sepals 3 or 5, per-
sistent, unequal, in a broken whorl, the three inner twisted.
Petals 5, often crumpled, twisted in a direction contrary
to that of the sepals. Stamens indefinite. Ovary 1- or many-
celled ; ovules with their foramen at their apex ; style single ;
stigma simple. Fruit either 1-celled with parietal placentae,
or imperfectly 5- or 10-celled. Seeds indefinite. Embryo
inverted, either spiral or curved, in the midst of mealy al-
bumen. Radicle remote from the hilum.
USES.— Unimportant. The balsamic Gum Ladanum is a
spontaneous secretion from Cistus Creticus and others. Many
are beautiful garden plants, with large delicate flowers.
TYPICAL GENERA.— Cistus, Helianthemum.
EXOGEN.E THALAMIFLOR.E.
101
Cistus Berthelotianus. 1. A calyx and pistil, the petals and stamens having fallen
off. 2. A cross section of the ovary. 3. A vertical section of ovary and calyx.
4. A seed cut through ; the pointed end being the true apex.
19. — Droseraceae. Herbaceous plants, often covered with
glands. Leaves with stipulary fringes and a circinate verna-
tion. Peduncles circinate. Sepals imbricate. Petals 5, hy-
pogynous. Stamens distinct, either equal in number to the
petals, or 2, 3, or 4 times as many. Styles 3-5. Capsule of
3-5 valves. Embryo in fleshy or cartilaginous albumen.
USES. — The herbage of some Droseras is acrid. The bulbs
of others abound in a rich purple dye, and are filled with
starch, which renders them eatable. It is probable that
many species would prove of value to dyers.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Drosera, Dionsea.
20. — Tamaricacea. Shrubs or herbs, with rod-like branches.
Leaves alternate, resembling scales. Calyx 4- or 5-parted,
persistent. Petals withering. Stamens definite, distinct, or
monadelphous. Stigmas 3. Capsule 3-valved, 1-celled, many-
seeded. Seeds ascending, comose ; embryo straight.
USES. — Ornamental bushes or trees. A sweet substance
resembling Manna oozes out of the stem of Tamarix Gallica, in
hot, dry countries. The bark is bitter, astringent, and tonic.
A very astringent gall, employed in medicine and dyeing, in
India, i.s yielded by some oriental species.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Tamarix, Myricaria.
102
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
21. — Violaceee. Herbaceous plants, or shrubs, or trees.
Leaves stipulate, with an involute vernation. Sepals 5, per-
sistent, imbricate, Petals 5, regular or irregular, one some-
times spurred. Stamens definite in number ; filaments di-
lated ; connective elongated beyond the anthers. Ovary
1-celled, with 3 parietal placentae ; style with a hooded stigma.
Capsule of 3 valves, bearing the placentae in their axis.
Embryo large, straight, in fleshy albumen.
USES. — Roots emetic. Those of the common Sweet Violet
and other species have been employed medicinally. loni-
dium Poaya yields one sort of Brazilian Ipecacuanha.
Viola canina and some others have the power of removing
some cutaneous affections, and have been employed as cos-
metics.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Viola, Alsodeia.
Corynostyhs Hybanthus. 1. A set of stamens, each having the connective lemrth-
I beyond the anther in the form of a scale. 2. A spurred petal. 3. A trans-
™ °Tary' WiDg ^ thlee Parietal Placen^ 4' A rie frrit- 5' An
22.—Polygalacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants. Leaves
alternate, destitute of stipules. Pedicels with three bracts.
lowers unsymmetrical. Sepals 5, very irregular, often glu-
laceous. Petals consolidated, hypogynous, usually 3, of
which 1 is anterior and larger than the rest. Stamens usually
tube; anthers innate, 1-celled, and opening at their apex.
EXOGEKLffi THALAMIFLOR^l.
103
Ovary with 2 or 3 cells ; ovules solitary, pendulous. Seeds
pendulous, with a caruncula next the hilum ; albumen abun-
dant.
USES. — Leaves bitter, root milky. Polygala Senega, the
Rattlesnake root, is stimulant, diaphoretic, emetic, and em-
menagogue ; it has been employed successfully in croup. Many
other species have similar properties. Polygala Poaya is one
of the Brazilian emetics. The bark of Monnina polystachya,
a Peruvian plant, is detersive, and used as a substitute for
soap.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Polygala, Mural tia, Mundia.
Polygala erioptera. 1. An entire flower seen from the side. 2. The same cut
open to exhibit the stamens. 3. The pistil. 4. A section of a ripe seed ; in the
middle is the embryo ; at the apex, which represents the real base, is seen a carun-
cula.
23. — FranJceniacea. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs.
Stems much branched. Leaves small, opposite, exstipulate,
with a membranous sheathing base. Sepals 4-5, in a furrowed
tube. Petals hypogynous, unguiculate, with appendages at
the base of the limb. Stamens definite. Style 2- or 3-fid.
Capsule 1 -celled, enclosed in the calyx, 2- 3- or 4~valved, many-
seeded. Seeds attached to the margins of the valves, very
minute ; embryo in the midst of albumen.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Frankenia.
104
DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM.
24. — Elatinaceee. Lijttle weedy annuals. Leaves oppo-
site, with stipules. Flowers minute. Sepals 3-5. Petals
hypogynous. Stamens definite. Ovary 3-5-celled; styles
3-5; stigmas capitate. Fruit capsular. Seeds numerous,
embryo straight, with but little albumen.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Elatine, Bergia.
25. — CaryopTiyllaceae. Herbaceous plants with opposite
undivided exstipulate leaves, and tumid nodes. Sepals 4-5.
Petals often slit. Stamens definite. Ovary usually many-
seeded, with a free central placenta. Stigmas sessile, 2-5.
Capsule 2-5-valved. Seeds usually with the embryo curved
round mealy albumen.
USES. — Unimportant. Some species bear gay flowers;
more are weeds; a few are fragrant, as the Pink. Silene
Virginica is said to have an anthelmintic root.
There are two sections of this order :
§1. Alsinea. Sepals disjoined.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Stellaria, Cerastium.
§2. Silenete. Sepals united into a tube.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Lychnis, Silene, Dianthus.
1iun\a; § f *?**' 2- A flower of Stellaria mcdi<% §
vrtv o PWJL \ US Placenta loaded with seeds- 5' A «»*
rtically, to show the embryo curved round mealy albumen'
*<*- 3.
through
EXOGEN.K THALAMIFLOR.E.
105
26. — Malvacea. Herbaceous plants, trees, or shrubs.
Leaves alternate, stipulate, very often covered with stellate
hairs. Flowers generally showy. Calyx with a valvate
aestivation. Petals twisted. Stamens indefinite, monadelph-
ous ; anthers 1-celled, reniform. Ovary formed by the union
of several carpels ; styles the same number as the carpels.
Fruit either capsular or baccate ; albumen in small but vari-
able quantity; embryo curved, with twisted and doubled
cotyledons.
USES. — Mucilaginous ; as Marsh Mallow and common Mal-
low. The unripe fruit of Hibiscus esculentus is used as an
ingredient in soups. The liber of several affords a tenacious
fibre ; the hemp-like substance called Sun in India is obtained
from Hibiscus cannabinus. Many are beautiful objects.
The hairy seeds of Gossypium furnish cotton.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Malva, Lavatera, Hibiscus.
Abutilon macropodum. 1. An unexpanded flower. 2. The stamens and styles.
3. A ripe fruit, consisting of many carpels, whose upper extremities are free and ra-
diant. 4. A section of a seed.
27. — Tiliaceae. Trees or shrubs, very seldom herbaceous
plants. Leaves stipulate, alternate. Flowers often small.
Calyx valvate. Petals 4 or 5, usually with a little pit at their
base. Stamens distinct; anthers 2-celled. Ovary single,
composed of from 4 to 10 carpels; style one; stigmas as
many as the carpels. Seeds several ; embryo erect in the
axis of fleshy albumen, with flat foliaceous cotyledons.
106 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
USES. — Mucilaginous plants with tough fibres. The leaves
of Corchorus olitorius are eaten as spinach. Corchorus cap-
sularis furnishes a kind of coarse hemp in India. From the
inner hark of Tilia Europsea Russia mats are made; its
flowers, separated from the hracts, are said to be antispasmodic.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Tilia, Triumfetta, Grewia.
28. — Dipteracea. Trees. Leaves alternate, with involute
vernation; stipules deciduous. Calyx 5-lobed, unequal, be-
coming enlarged, imbricated. Petals contorted. Stamens
indefinite, distinct ; anthers subulate, opening longitudinally
towards the apex. Ovary without a disk, few-celled ; ovules
in pairs, pendulous; style single. Fruit surrounded by a
calyx, having tough, leafy, enlarged, permanent divisions.
Seed single, without albumen. Cotyledons crumpled.
USES. — Tropical trees often yielding valuable timber ; that
called Sal, or Saul, belongs to Shorea robusta. The juice is
balsamic; Dryobalanops Camphora yields Sumatra Camphor.'
Vateria Indica furnishes Copal. ' Dammer pitch is obtained
from species of Shorea.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Shorea, Dipterocarpus, Vateria.
29. — Aumntiacea. Trees or shrubs, almost always smooth
and filled with transparent receptacles of oil. Leaves alter-
nate, often compound, always articulated with the petiole.
Flowers usually white or green, and fragrant. Calyx urceo-
late or campanulate, short. Petals 3-5, inserted upon the
outside of an hypogynous disk. Stamens inserted upon an
hypogynous disk; filaments sometimes combined in one or
several parcels. Ovary many-celled ; style 1 ; stigma thick-
ish. Fruit many-celled, filled with pulp. Seeds usually pen-
dulous ; raphe and chalaza distinctly marked.
USES. — The Orange, Lemon, Lime, and Citron are species
of Citrus, and are well known for the aromatic rind and pulpy
flesh of their fruit. The wood is generally hard and durable.
The unripe fruit of ^gle marmelos, an Indian tree, is pre-
scribed in diarrhrea and dysentery. The leaves of the order
generally are regarded as stomachic and tonic.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Citrus, Triphasia, Limonia.
SQ—Ternstromiacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate,
EXOGENJE THALAMIFLOR^l.
107
without stipules, now and then with pellucid dots. Flowers
often large and showy. Sepals 5 or 7, coriaceous, in a broken
whorl, deciduous. Petals not equal in number to the sepals.
Stamens numerous ; monadelphous or polyadelphous. Ovary
with several cells ; styles filiform. Capsule 2-7-celled ;
usually with a central column. Seeds large, attached to the
axis, very few ; albumen none ; cotyledons occasionally plaited.
USES. — The Tea of Commerce consists of the leaves of Thea
viridis and Bohea. Camellia oleifera yields excellent oil.
The species of Camellia, common in gardens, are objects of
beauty. Leaves of Kielmeyera speciosa are mucilaginous.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Camellia, Gordonia, Thea.
Kielmeyera rosea. 1. The pistil. 2. A transverse section of it. 3. A ripe fruit.
4. An embryo.
31. — Hypericacea. Herbaceous plants, shrubs or trees.
Leaves opposite, entire, sometimes dotted. Flowers gene-
rally yellow. Sepals 4-5, persistent, imbricated, unequal,
with glandular dots. Petals 4-5, hypogynous, twisted, oblique,
often having black dots. Stamens indefinite, often polya-
delphous. Styles several. Fruit a capsule or berry, of many
valves and many cells. Seeds minute, indefinite ; embryo
straight, with no albumen.
USES. — The juice is resinous, purgative, febrifugal or as-
tringent in different species, according as an essential oil or a
108 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
yellow juice most abound. The latter, when concrete, resem-
bles gamboge, of which it has the properties. Hypencum
Androsjemum and perforatum are old-fashioned vulneranes.
In Brazil a species of Hypericum is employed for a gargle
in cases of sore throat.
TYPICAL GENERA.— Hypericum, Vismia.
Hypericum floribundum. 1. An entire flower. 2. A bundle of stamens. 3. A
pistil with 3 carpels. 4. A seed laid horizontally and cut through, to show the em-
bryo and netted testa. 5. A piece of a leaf with transparent dots.
32. — Clusiacea or Guttifera. Trees or shrubs. Leaves
without stipules, opposite, coriaceous. Flowers sometimes
polygamous. Sepals 2 to 6, persistent. Petals hypogynous,
4 to 10. Stamens numerous, hypogynous. Disk fleshy, occa-
sionally 5-lobed. Ovary 1- or many-celled ; ovules solitary,
erect, or ascending, or numerous and attached to central pla-
centae ; style very short ; stigma peltate or radiate. Seeds
frequently nestling in pulp, often with an aril ; albumen none.
USES. — Gamboge is the juice of Hebradendron cambogioides.
The delicious Malacca fruit called Mangosteen is the produce
of Garcinia mangostana. The resinous oil Tacamahaca flows
from the root of Calophyllum Calaba. The general properties
of the species are acrid and purgative. They are often objects
of great beauty on account of their large flowers and hand-
some thick leaves.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Clusia, Garcinia.
EXOGEN^E THALAMIFLORJE.
109
Hebradendron cambogioides. 1 . A female flower, with the sterile stamens sur-
rounding the pistil. 2. A male flower. 3. An anther, which opens by throwing off
a cap, in consequence of transverse dehiscence. 4. A transverse section of the ovary.
33. — Aceracea. Trees. Leaves opposite, without stipules.
Flowers small, green, often polygamous. Flowers unsym-
metrical. Calyx imbricated. Petals inserted round an hy-
pogynous disk. Stamens inserted upon an hypogynous disk,
generally 8. Ovary 2-lobed; style 1. Fruit of 2 parts,
which are samaroid ; each 1 -celled ; with one or two seeds ;
albumen none.
USES. — The saccharine sap of Acer saccharinum yields a
kind of sugar in North America. The timber of most species
is light, clean, and useful, where strength is not required.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Acer.
34. — ^Escnlaceee. Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, with-
out stipules, quinate or septenate. Racemes terminal. Flow-
ers large, showy. Flowers unsymmetrical. Calyx cam-
panulate, 5-lobed. Petals 4 or 5, unequal, hypogynous.
Stamens 7-8, unequal. Ovary 3-celled ; ovules 2 in each cell.
Fruit 1- 2- or 3-valved. Seeds large, with a broad hilum ;
albumen none ; embryo curved, germinating under ground.
USES. — Handsome trees or bushes. Seeds filled with starch,
which renders them nutritious ; but it is said that they are
also dangerous.
TYPICAL GENUS. — ^Esculus.
110
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
35. — MalpigUacea. Small trees or shrubs, sometimes
climbing. Leaves opposite, with stipules. Sepals generally
with 5 pairs of large oblong conspicuous glands on the out-
side. Petals 5, unguiculate. Stamens seldom fewer. Ovary
1, of S carpels, more or less combined ; ovules suspended.
Fruit dry or berried. Seeds without albumen.
USES.— Of no moment. The fruit of some Malpighias is
eaten in the West Indies under the name of Barbadoes
cherries. The bark appears to be astringent.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Fruit succulent, Malpighia. Fruit dry
and samaroid, Banisteria.
Diplopteris paralias. 1. A flower-bud, showing the double glands of the calyx.
2. An expanded flower. 3. The carpels. 4. Ripe fruit of Ryssopteris timorensis.
36. — Sapindacete. Trees, or shrubs which often climb and
have tendrils. Leaves generally compound. Flowers un-
symmetrical, polygamous. Calyx imbricated. Petals hypo-
gynous, sometimes naked, sometimes with a doubled append-
age in the inside, imbricated. Disk fleshy. Stamens 8-10,
rarely 5-6-7. Ovary 3-celled, the cells containing 1, 2, 3,
very seldom more, ovules. Fruit sometimes capsular, some-
times samaroid, sometimes fleshy and indehiscent. Seeds
usually with an aril. Albumen 0.
USES. — Leaves and branches of some species of Magonia
and Paullinia poisonous. The fruit of some Euphorias or
Nepheliums, Pierardias and Hedycarya, eatable and agree-
able ; the former is the Longan and Litchi, which occasionally
EXOGEN^E THALAMIFLOR.E.
Ill
arrive in this country from China. The fruit of Sapindus
saponaria and others employed instead of soap.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Sapindus, Paullinia, Serjania.
Sapindus Senegalensis. 1. An expanded flower. 2. A petal. 3. The ovaries
after fertilization. 4. A vertical section of a ripe drupe, showing the embryo.
37. — Cedrelaceee. Trees with timber which is usually com-
pact, scented, and beautifully veined. Leaves alternate, with-
out stipules. Calyx 4-5-cleft. Petals 4-5. Stamens 8-10,
either united or distinct. Style and stigma simple. Seeds
flat-winged.
USES. — Mahogany is the timber of Swietenia Mahagoni ; the
bark of that tree, of Cedrela Toona, and Soymida febrifuga, is
valuable as a tonic, in careful hands ; it can only be exhibited
in small doses. East India Satin-wood is produced by Chlor-
oxylon Swietenia.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Cedrela, Swietenia.
112
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
38. — Humiriacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate,
without stipules. Calyx 5-parted. Stamens numerous,
monadelphous ; anthers with a fleshy connective extended
beyond the lobes. Ovary 5-celled; ovules 1-2, suspended;
styles simple. Fruit drupaceous. Embryo in fleshy albumen.
USES. — The liquid yellow fragrant Balsam of Umiri flows
from the wounded trunk of Humirium floribundum. In pro-
perties it resembles Copaiva.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Humirium.
39. — Meliacete. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with-
out stipules. Sepals 3, 4, or 5. Petals hypogynous, usually
valvate. Stamens twice as many as the petals; filaments
cohering in a long tube ; anthers sessile within the orifice
of the tube. Ovary with 3, 10, 12 cells; ovules suspended,
1-2 in each cell. Fruit often 1-celled. Seeds without albu-
men, not winged.
USES. — The bark of Guarea Aubletia, Trichilia cathartica,
and others, purgative and emetic. Eoot of Melia Azedarach
anthelmintic. Some of the tropical genera have a wholesome
pleasant fruit. Febrifugal qualities have been recognized in
the Neemtree, Melia Azedarachta, and some others.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Melia, Quivisia.
Ekebergia Senegalensis. 1. A flower. 2. The calyx and staminal tube. 3. A
averse section of the ovary. 4. A ripe fruit. 5. A vertical section of the latter.
EXOGEN-E THALAMIFLOR^:.
113
40. — Vitacece. Scrambling, climbing shrubs, with tumid
separable joints. Leaves with stipules. Flowers small,
green. Calyx small, nearly entire. Petals in aestivation val-
vate, and often inflected at the point ; stamens opposite
them, inserted upon the disk. Ovary 2-celled ; ovules erect,
definite. Berry pulpy ; albumen hard. Embryo small.
USES. — The common Vine, Vitis vinifera, is well known ;
besides which there are other species, in which reside similar
qualities, although very inferior. The leaves of some kinds of
Cissus, being acrid, are used in bringing indolent tumours
to suppuration.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Vitis, Cissus, Ampelopsis.
41. — Geraniacea. Strong-scented herbs or shrubs with sti-
pulate leaves. Stems tumid, and separable at the joints.
Sepals 5, ribbed. Petals 5, unguiculate. Stamens definite,
often monadelphous. Fruit of 5 elastic cocci, rolling back
from a long-beaked gynobase, to which the hardened styles
adhere. Seeds solitary, pendulous, without albumen. Coty-
ledons convolute and plaited.
USES. — The root of Geranium maculatum is a powerful
astringent. Otherwise the order is of no importance, except
Geranium sylvaticum. 1. The stamens and style. 2. The unripe fruit surrounded
by a calyx. 3. The rostrate gynobase, from which the cocci are rolling back with
elasticity ; one has dropped off. 4. A transverse section of a seed.
114 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
for the beautiful flowers of numerous species, especially be-
longing to the genus Pelargonium.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Geranium, Erodium, Pelargonium.
42. — Balsaminaceae. Succulent herbaceous plants. Leaves
without stipules. Flowers usually unsymmetrical. Sepals 5,
irregular; the odd sepal spurred. Petals 4, irregular. ~ Sta-
mens 5. Carpels consolidated into a 5-celled ovary. Fruit
capsular, with 5 elastic valves. Seeds solitary, or numerous,
suspended ; albumen none.
USES. — Unimportant. They have generally gay flowers.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Balsamina, Impatiens.
43. — Linacea. Herbaceous plants or small shrubs. Leaves
without stipules, usually alternate. Petals fugitive. Flowers
symmetrical. Sepals 3-4-5, imbricated, persistent. Petals
hypogynous, unguiculate, twisted. Stamens united in a ring.
Ovary with about as many cells as sepals. Styles equal in
number to the cells ; stigmas capitate. Capsule many-celled.
Seeds in each cell single, inverted ; albumen present.
USES. — The mucilaginous seeds of Linum usitatissimum
are linseed. The leaves of L. catharticum are purgative. The
tough fibre of the first is the Flax of manufacturers.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Linum, Radiola.
44. — Oxalidacea:, Herbaceous plants, under-shrubs, or trees.
Leaves alternate, compound, often sensitive. Sepals 5, equal.
Petals equal, unguiculate. Stamens 10, more or less mon-
adelphous. Styles 5 ; stigmas capitate. Fruit capsular, mem-
branous, with 5 cells. Seeds few, within a fleshy integument,
which expels the seeds with elasticity. Embryo long, taper.
Albumen between cartilaginous and fleshy.
USES. — They are generally acid in a high degree. The
Blimbing and Carambola, acid fruits of the Indian Archipe-
lago, are the produce of the genus Averrho.a. The roots of
Oxalis Deppei form an agreeable esculent.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Oxalis, Averrhoa.
45- — Pittosporaceee. Leaves simple, alternate, without sti-
pules. Shrubs, trees, or half herbaceous plants, sometimes
twining. Sepals deciduous, imbricated. Petals hypogynous,
EXOGENJE THALAMIFLORJE.
115
imbricated. Stamens 5. Ovary single, many-seeded. Fruit
capsular or berried, with many-seeded cells which are some-
times incomplete. Albumen fleshy.
USES. — Unimportant. The species are resinous.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Pittosporum, Sollya, Billardiera.
46. — Rutacea. Trees or shrubs (or herbs). Leaves ex-
stipulate, dotted. Flowers often very gay. Flowers herm-
aphrodite, sometimes irregular. Sepals 4-5. Petals some-
times combined. Stamens definite, on the outside of a cup-
like disk. Ovary few-celled ; ovules 2-4 ; style single, occa-
sionally divided near the base, always separable into its
component parts as the fruit approaches maturity. Fruit
capsular, separating into carpels when ripe. Embryo with
or without albumen ; radicle superior.
Eriostemon myoporoides. 1. A complete flower. 2. The ovary, seated in a cup-
shaped disk, surrounded by a calyx. 3. The ripe fruit, separated spontaneously into
its component carpels. 4. A vertical section of a seed, showing the embryo lying in
the midst of albumen.
i2
116 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
USES. — The powerfully scented oil possesses active proper-
ties. Ruta graveolens, common Rue, is anthelmintic, sudo-
rific, and emmenagogue. Various species of Barosma, called
at the Cape of Good Hope Bucku, are powerful antispasmo-
dics. The bark of Cusparia febrifuga, called Angostura bark,
is a valuable febrifuge ; and that of many other American
trees of the order seems to possess the same quality.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Ruta, Boronia, Dictamnus, — Correa is
remarkable for having a monopetalous corolla.
47. — Xanihoxylacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves without
stipules, with pellucid dots. Flowers unisexual. Calyx in 3,
4, or 5 divisions. Petals usually longer than the calyx, convo-
lute. Stamens equal to the petals in number, or twice as
many. Ovary of the same number of carpels as there are
petals, or a smaller number ; ovules 2 ; styles more or less
combined. Fruit berried or membranous, sometimes consist-
ing of several drupes or 2-valved capsules. Seeds solitary or
twin, pendulous, usually smooth and shining; embryo lying
within fleshy albumen ; radicle superior.
USES. — Aromatic, pungent, and stimulant. Xanthoxylum
Clava Herculis is a powerful sudorific and aperient. The
bark of Brucea, of Xanthoxylum caribeeum, and others, is
febrifugal. The capsules of some Fagaras are used as pepper.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Xanthoxylum, Ptelea.
48. — Zygophyllacea. Herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees ;
branches often articulated at the joints. Leaves opposite, with
stipules, not dotted. Flowers hermaphrodite. Calyx con-
volute. Petals unguiculate. Stamens dilated at the base,
sometimes placed on the back of a small scale. Ovary with a
disk, and 4 or 5 cells ; ovules pendulous or erect ; style
simple. Fruit capsular, rarely fleshy, with angles or wings.
Seeds few ; radicle superior ; albumen whitish.
USES. — Zygophyllum Fabago is- an anthelmintic. Guaia-
cum yields the wood called Lignum Vit», known in turnery
for its hardness, and in medicine for its sudorific qualities.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Zygophyllum, Guaiacum.
49. — Simamlacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves without
EXOGEN.E THALAMIFLORJE. 117
stipules, alternate, without dots. Flowers hermaphrodite, or
unisexual. Calyx in 4 or 5 divisions. Petals longer ; aesti-
vation twisted. Stamens arising from the back of an hypo-
gynous scale. Ovary 4- or 5-lobed, upon a stalk, each cell
with 1 suspended ovule ; style simple. Fruit indehiscent ;
embryo without albumen.
USES. — The wood intensely bitter. The root of Simaruba
amara, used as a tonic, is bitter, purgative, and emetic. The
wood of Picraena excelsa furnishes the Quassia chips of the shops.
TYPICAL GENEKA. — Quassia, Simaruba.
50. — Coriariacea. Shrubs with square branches. Leaves
opposite, simple, entire, ribbed. Flowers herbaceous, herm-
aphrodite, monoecious or direcious. Calyx 5-parted. Pe-
tals 5, fleshy, with an elevated keel. Stamens 10. Ovary
5-celled, 5-angled ; style none ; stigmas 5, subulate. Ovules
solitary. Carpels 5, drupaceous, indehiscent, 1-seeded, some-
times surrounded by the enlarged petals. Albumen none.
USES. — The fruit of Coriaria myrtifolia is poisonous ; the
leaves are used for dyeing black, and for adulterating Alexan-
drian Senna.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Coriaria.
SUBCLASS II. CALYCIFLOR*:.
51. — Celastraceee. Shrubs or trees. Leaves simple. Flow-
ers in axillary cymes, minute. Sepals 4 or 5, imbricated, in-
serted into the margin of an expanded torus. Petals imbri-
cate. Stamens alternate with the petals, inserted into the
disk. Disk large, expanded, flat, closely surrounding the
ovary. Ovary with 3 or 4 cells ; ovules ascending ; fruit cap-
sular or drupaceous ; seeds often with an aril ; albumen fleshy.
USES. — Sub-acrid, but apparently unimportant plants in a
medicinal point of view. A yellow die is obtained from the
bark of Euonymus tingens in India.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Celastrus, Euonymus.
52. — Staphyleaceae. Shrubs. Leaves opposite, pinnate,
with both common and partial stipules. Sepals 5, coloured,
imbricated. Petals 5, imbricated. Stamens alternate with
the petals, perigynous. Disk large, urceolate. Ovary 2- or
118
DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM.
3-celled, superior; ovules erect; styles 2 or 3, cohering.
Fruit membranous or fleshy. Seeds with a bony testa and no
aril ; hilum large ; albumen none.
USES. — Staphylea pinnata and trifolia are cultivated as orna-
mental shrubs under the name of Bladder-nuts, because their
nut-like seeds are enclosed in a bladdery seed-vessel.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Staphylea.
53. — Rhamwacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with
minute stipules. Flowers axillary or terminal, minute. Calyx
4-5-cleft, valvate. Petals distinct, inserted into the orifice of
the calyx. Stamens definite, opposite the petals, to which
they are equal in number. Ovary superior, or half-superior, 2-
3- or 4-celled ; ovules solitary, erect ; fruit a capsule, or more
frequently a berry ; albumen fleshy, in very small quantity ;
embryo with large flat cotyledons, and a short inferior radicle.
USES. — The berries of Rhamnus Frangula, catharticus, and
others, are active purgatives. When ripe, those of some species,
especially R. catharticus and infectorius, yield a yellow dye.
The fruit of Zizyphus communis is the Jujube of the shops,
and that of the Z. Lotus gave their name to the Lotophagous
nation of antiquity ; all the fruit of that genus seems harm-
less ; Z. Chinensis, indeed, is cultivated in China as the apple
is with us. The bark of Ceanothus americanus and some
others is astringent, and has been employed in diarrhoea.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Rhamnus, Paliurus, Ceanothus.
A ., 8een from above'
4. A seed dmded vertically.
A frait- 3. The same cut
EXOGEN/E CALYCIFLORJE.
119
54. — Anacardiaceee. Trees or shrubs, with a resinous caus-
tic juice, becoming black in drying. Leaves alternate, with-
out pellucid dots. Flowers small, green, unisexual. Calyx
small. Petals perigynous, imbricated. Stamens usually defi-
nite. Disk fleshy, hypogynous. Carpel simple ; styles 1 or
3, occasionally 4 ; ovule solitary, attached by a cord to the
bottom of the cell. Fruit indehiscent. Seed without albumen.
USES. — A hard, black, acrid varnish is obtained from Seme-
carpus Anacardium and Melanorhoea usitatissima. The Cashew
nut, whose eatable kernel is surrounded by a rind full of
resinous acrid oil, is produced by Anacardium occidentale.
Rhus toxicodendron and radicans are dangerous acrid poisons.
Rhus Coriaria, Cotinus, and some others, are astringents.
Rhus Typhinum, and some others, are cultivated as plants of
ornament. Pistacia Atlantica and Lentiscus yield mastich ;
and P. Terebinthus, Scio turpentine.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Rhus, Pistacia.
Pistacia Atlantica. 1. Female flowers. 2. An ovary. 3. The same cut open to
show the ovule. 4. A ripe fruit opened to show the seed.
55. — Fdbaceee (or Leguminosa). Herbaceous plants,
shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate ; petiole tumid at the base.
Stipules 2. Flowers usually showy. Calyx inferior, the
segments often unequal, and variously combined. Petals
either papilionaceous or regularly spreading. Stamens de-
finite or indefinite, perigynous, or hypogynous. Ovary sim-
ple, superior. Fruit a legume. Seeds destitute of albumen.
120
BE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
A very large natural order, of which there are 3 principal
divisions: — /O<A\
Division l.—Papilionace*. Flowers papilionaceous (340).
USES— The Locust-tree, Laburnum, and Sissoo, a species
of Dalbergia, yield valuable wood. The roots of Glycyrluza
glabra are liquorice. Peas, Beans, Kidney Beans, Vetches,
and other sorts of pulse, are articles of food. Clover, Suck-
ling, Melilot, Lucerne, Medick, Saintfoin, and others, are f
der plants. Indigo is
furnished by various
plants, especially Indi-
gofera tinctoria. A
kind of manna oozes
from Alhagi Mauro-
runi. Cowhage con-
sists of the stinging
hairs on the pods of
Mucuna pruriens. Cer-
tain Astragali yield
gum Tragacanth. The
seeds of Laburnum and
several others are nar-
cotic ; as also is the
root of Piscidia Eryth-
rina, the tincture of
which is said to be
more powerful than
laudanum.
TYPICAL GENERA. —
Cytisus, Lathyrus, Co-
lutea.
Adenocarpus frankenioides. 1. The standard,
wings, and keel split open. 2. The stamens. 3. A
cross section of a seed. 4. A legume, with a por-
tion of one of the valves turned back.
Division 2. — Ccesalpiniea. Petals regularly spreading, im-
bricated. Stamens perigynous.
USES. — Senna is the foliage of different species of Cassia.
The Tamarind fruit comes from Tamarindus Indica. The
pods of the Carob-tree (Ceratonia Siliqua) are highly nu-
tritious. Hsematoxylon Campeachianum yields logwood ;
Csesalpinia Brasiliensis, Brazil wood.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Cassia, Bauhinia.
EXOGEN;E CALYCIFLOR^:.
121
Cassia acutifolia. 1. A flower somewhat magnified.
Division 3. — MimoseeE. Sepals and petals valvate. Sta-
mens hypogynous.
USES. — Gum Arabic oozes from various species of Acacia,
especially A. Verek and arabica. Catechu is obtained by
boiling the bark of A. Catechu ; and many kinds are employed
for tanning purposes. Several are fine timber trees. Finally,
the leaves and branches of some kinds are poisonous. The
spongy stems of Desmanthus natans supply a coarse kind of
rice paper. Most are objects of great beauty.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Acacia, Mimosa, Inga.
Acacia Verek. J. A flower magnified. 2. The pistil. 3. A section of the
same. 4. Half a seed.
122
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
56. — Rosaceee. Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants. Leaves
alternate, usually with conspicuous stipules, more frequently
compound than simple. Flowers large, showy, arranged
variously, but in most cases terminal. Calyx lined with a
disk. Petals equal. Stamens usually indefinite. Carpels
solitary or several, disunited or consolidated. Styles distinct,
and more or less obliquely placed upon the ovary. Fruit
various. Seeds without albumen. Embryo straight.
Division 1. — Rosea. Tube of calyx fleshy, and covering
over the achsenia with a false pericarp.
USES. — Fruit astringent. Petals fragrant and astringent.
Flowers in all cases beautiful.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Rosa.
Division 2. — Potentillete. Carpels numerous, superior, inde-
hiscent.
USES. — Usually gay flowers. The fruit of Fragaria is the
Strawberry, of Rubus the Bramble and the Raspberry. The
roots of Tormentils and some Geums and Potentillas are
astringent, and have been used as febrifuges.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Rubus, Fragaria.
t>
1. Spiraea Arancus, flower cut open. 2. A section of an ovary. 3. Part of flower
tragamlndica 4. A vertical section of the half-ripe receptacle, covered with
carpels. 5. A single carpel. 6. A section of a ripe carpel, with the seed inside
Division 3.— Spiraea. Carpels few, 2-valved.
USES.— Roots of Gillenia emetic, of Spirsea ulmaria tonic.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Spiraea.
EXOGEN^l CALYCIFLOR.E.
123
Division 4. — Amygdaleee. Carpel single, a drupe.
USES. — The fruit of the Peach, Nectarine, Almond, Plum,
Cherry, and Apricot, are produced by various species. Many
are of great beauty on account of their gay flowers. Hydro-
cyanic acid is yielded by the leaves of all, especially of the
Prunus Laurocerasus, or common Laurel. The bark of Pru-
nus Coccomilia and some others is febrifugal.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Prunus, Amygdalus.
Division 5. — Pome<z. Carpels adhering to the calyx.
USES. — Beautiful trees or bushes, bearing a fruit which is,
in the majority of species, eatable. Apples, Pears, Quinces,
Medlars, Services, are the produce of different species. The
wood is usually very hard. The Hawthorn is a valuable ma-
terial for fences.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Pyrus, Cratsegus.
Division 6. — Sanguisorlea. Flowers often unisexual. Petals
none. Tube of the calyx hardened.
USES. — Astringents of little importance. Common Burnet
used for sheep pasture is Sanguisorba officinalis.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Alchemilla, Sanguisorba, Poterium.
Sanguisorba officinalis. 1 . A flower with a pair of bracts. 2. The same with
half the calyx cut away. 3. A ripe fruit, from which the calyx has been removed.
4. A vertical section of fruit and calyx. 5. Transverse section of a fruit.
124 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
57. — Amyridacete. Resinous trees or shrubs. Leaves
compound, with pellucid dots. Flowers axillary and ter-
minal, panicled. Calyx minute. Petals 4-5, imbricated. Sta-
mens definite. Ovary superior, 1-celled; stigma capitate;
ovules pendulous. Fruit indehiscent, glandular. Seed with-
out albumen ; radicle superior.
UsES. — Fragrant resinous shrubs. Myrospermum tolui-
ferum yields Balsam of Tolu ; and Gum Elemi comes from
some species of Amyris. Balsam of Copaiva is furnished by
different species of Copaifera.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Amyris, Copaifera.
58. — Chrysobalanacete. Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple,
alternate, stipulate, with veins that run parallel with each
other from the midrib to the margin. Calyx 5-lobed. Petals
more or less irregular, either 5 or none. Stamens definite or
indefinite, usually irregular. Ovary superior, solitary, co-
hering more or less on one side with the calyx ; ovules erect.
Fruit, a drupe with 1 or 2 cells. Seed solitary, erect. Em-
bryo with no albumen.
USES. — The fruit of Chrysobalanus Icaco is the Cocoa Plum
of the West Indies. The general properties appear to be in-
nocuous.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Hirtella, Chrysobalanus.
59. — Calycanthacea. Shrubs with square stems. Leaves
opposite, simple, without stipules. Sepals and petals con-
founded, indefinite, combined in a fleshy tube. Stamens in-
serted in a fleshy rim. Anthers adnate, turned outwards.
Ovaries several, simple; ovules solitary. Nuts enclosed in
the fleshy tube of the calyx, 1-seeded. Albumen none ; coty-
ledons convolute.
USES. — The flowers are fragrant, but of no known use.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Calycanthus, Chimonanthus.
60. — Lythraceee. Herbs, rarely shrubs. Branches fre-
quently 4-cornered. Leaves without stipules. Flowers in
many cases showy. Calyx tubular. Petals inserted between
the lobes of the calyx, very deciduous. Stamens inserted
into the tube of the calyx below the petals. Ovary 2- or
4-celled ; style filiform ; capsule membranous, covered by the
calyx, usually 1-celled. Seeds numerous, without albumen.
EXOGENJE CALYCIFLORJE. 125
USES. — The Lngerstromias and Lythrums, as well as some
others, are species of great beauty. Lythrum Salicaria has
been employed in diarrhoea on account of its astringency.
Lawsonia inermis furnishes the Henn6 with which oriental
women stain their nails. A few are acrid.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Ly thrum, Ammannia.
61. — Combretaceee, Trees or shrubs. Leaves without sti-
pules. Flowers generally showy. Calyx 4- or 5-lobed, de-
ciduous. Stamens twice as many as the segments of the
calyx, or three times as many. Ovary 1 -celled, with from 2
to 4 ovules, hanging from the apex of the cavity. Seed with-
out albumen ; cotyledons usually convolute.
USES. — Many species are astringent, and are used by the
tanners in the countries where they occur. Myrobalan nuts,
also tonics, are produced by Terminalia bellerica. The kernels
of T. Catappa are eaten like almonds.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Combretum, Conocarpus.
62. — Melastomacea. Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants.
Leaves opposite, with several ribs. Flowers generally purple
and very handsome. Calyx cohering with the angles of the
ovary. Petals twisted in aestivation ; filaments curved down-
wards in aestivation ; anthers 2-celled, elongated beyond the
insertion of the filament (see fig. 211, p. 46). Ovary with
several cells, and indefinite ovules. Pericarp with placentae
attached to a central column. Seeds innumerable.
USES. — Of no importance. The species appear harmless ;
their fruit, when succulent, is eatable.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Ehexia, Melastoma, Lasiandra.
63. — PMladelphacea. Shrubs. Leaves deciduous, oppo-
site, without dots or stipules. Flowers usually white. Calyx
persistent, having from 4 to 10 divisions. Petals convolute,
imbricate. Stamens definite. Styles indistinct, or consoli-
dated; stigmas several. Capsule with 4 to 10 cells, many-
seeded. Seeds scobiform ; aril loose, membranous. Albumen
fleshy.
USES. — Merely known as plants of ornament, and some-
times of fragrance. The rough leaves of Deutzia are said to
be used by the Japanese as a polishing material.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Philadelphus, Deutzia.
126
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
64. — Myrtaceee. Trees or shrubs. Leaves with trans-
parent dots, and often with a vein running parallel with their
margin. Calyx 4- or 5-cleft, sometimes like a cap. Petals
quincuncial or wanting. Stamens indefinite ; anthers ovate,
small. Ovary l-2-4-5-6-celled. Fruit either dry or fleshy.
Seeds definite or indefinite ; embryo without albumen.
The principal divisions are the following : —
Division 1. — Myrteee. Fruit 2- or more celled, fleshy.
Division 2. — Leptospermea. Fruit 2- or more celled, cap-
sular.
Division 3. — Chamadaucieez. Fruit 1-celled.
USES. — The spices called Cloves and Pimento are the dried
flowers of Caryophyllus aromaticus and the dried fruit of
Eugenia Pimenta. The New Holland Eucalypti contain a
great quantity of tannin in their bark. Cajeputi oil is obtained
from Melaleuca Cajeputi. The bark of the Pomegranate
root is an anthelmintic. Almost all the species are beautiful
either in foliage or flower.
Eugenia tuberculata. 1. A flower. 2. The same divided vertically. 3. A sta-
men. 4. A ripe fruit. 5. A leaf with the dots upon it.
65. — Onagracea. Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves
alternate or opposite. Flowers generally showy. Calyx tubu-
lar, 4-lobed, valvate. Petals regular, with a twisted sestiva-
tion. Stamens 2, 4, or 8, inserted into the calyx. Styles
EXOGEN.7E CALYCIFLOR.E.
127
consolidated. Stigma 4-lobed. Fruit many-seeded, with four
cells. Seeds without albumen.
Division 1. — CEnotherea. Petals 4. Fruit a capsule. Seeds
numerous.
USES. — These are gay flowered plants, of no known use.
TYPICAL GENERA. — (Enothera, Epilobium.
Ludwigia Jussiaeoides. 1. A flower with two sepals and all the petals cut off.
2. A calyx and inferior ovary. 3, A transverse section of the ovary. 4. A seed
with the distinct raphe. 5. An embryo extracted.
Division 2. — Fuchsiea, Petals 4. Fruit a succulent berry.
USES. — Unknown. Beautiful bushes.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Fuchsia.
Division 3. — Circteea. Petals 2, 4, or none. Stamens 1
or 2. Fruit a capsule.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Circaea, Lopezia.
66. — Cercodiaceae. Small shrubs, or obscure herbaceous
plants. Calyx minute. Petals small or none. Stamens 1-8.
Ovary 1-4-celled. Styles distinct. Ovules pendulous, ana-
tropous (460). Fruit nut-like, usually crowned by the rim
of the calyx. Seed pendulous, with a small quantity of fleshy
albumen.
Division 1. — Hippuridete. Calyx obsolete. Petals none.
Stamen 1.
USES. — Unknown. Obscure weeds.
'TYPICAL GENUS. — Hippuris.
128
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
Hippuris vulgaris. 1. A complete flower. 2. A section of the pistil, showing the
position of the ovule. 3. A section of the ripe fruit and seed.
Division 2. — Haloragea. Calyx toothed. Petals present.
Stamens more than one.
EXOGEN^l CALYCIFLOR.E. 129
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Myriophylluin, Loudonia.
67. — Loasacea. Herbaceous plants, hispid, with pungent
hairs. Leaves without stipules. Flowers generally showy,
white or yellow. Calyx 5-parted. Petals 5 or 10, hooded, with
an inflexed aestivation ; the interior often much smaller. Sta-
mens indefinite. Ovary with several parietal placentae, or with
a free central lobed one. Fruit capsular or succulent. Seeds
numerous, without aril ; embryo in axis of fleshy albumen.
USES. — Unknown. Usually handsome plants.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Loasa, Bartonia.
68. — Cucurbitacea. Annual or perennial herbs. Stem
climbing by tendrils. Leaves palmated, or with palmate ribs,
covered with asperities. Flowers white, yellow, or brownish
red, unisexual. Calyx 5-toothed. Corolla o-parted, scarcely
distinguishable from the calyx, with strongly reticulated veins.
Stamens 5, either distinct, or cohering in three parcels ; an-
thers sinuous. Ovary with 3 parietal placentas ; stigmas very
thick, velvety or fringed. Fruit more or less succulent.
Seeds flat, in an aril ; embryo flat, with no albumen.
USES. — The Gourd, Melon, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Vegetable
Marrow, and Squash, are the fruits of various species, in all
which an acrid purgative - principle is diffused ; which, when
concentrated, as in the Bottle Gourd, the Colocynth, and the
Bryony, becomes dangerous, unless administered with skill,
when it is a useful medicine. Elaterine, or Elatine, an ex-
tremely poisonous principle, is found in the Spirting Cucumber,
Momordica Elaterium. The seeds are nutty and harmless.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Cucumis, Bryonia, Momordica.
69. — Passifloracea. Usually climbing by means of ten-
drils. Leaves alternate, with leafy stipules. Flowers often
enclosed in an involucre. Sepals 5, their tube lined with fila-
mentous processes. Petals 5. Stamens monadelphous. Ovary
stalked, 1-celled ; styles 3 ; stigmas simple, clavate. Fruit
with 3 polyspermous placentae. Seeds with a brittle sculp-
tured testa. Embryo in fleshy albumen.
USES. — The fruit of Passiflora quadrangularis, the Grana-
dilla, of P. edulis, and several others, contains a pleasant sub-
130 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
acid pulp, on account of which they are served up at dessert.
The root of the first species is emetic and narcotic ; and simi-
lar properties are ascribed to that of P. rubra, which is called
in Jamaica Dutchman's laudanum. P. foetida has some
reputation as an emmenagogue.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Passiflora, Tacsonia.
70. — Turnemcea. Herbaceous plants. Leaves alternate,
without stipules, with occasionally two glands at the apex
of the petiole. Calyx often cploured, with 5 lobes, imbri-
cated. Petals 5, equal, twisted. Stamens distinct. Ovary
with 3 placentae; ovules indefinite; styles 3 or 6, cohering
more or less. Capsule 3-valved, the valves bearing the pla-
centas in the middle. Seeds with a thin aril on one side ;
embryo in the middle of fleshy albumen.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Turnera.
71. — Portwlacacea. Succulent shrubs or herbs. Leaves
without stipules, or sometimes with membranous ones. Flow-
ers usually ephemeral. Sepals 2. Petals generally 5. Sta-
mens inserted irregularly into the calyx, or hypogynous,
variable in number. Ovary 1 -celled ; style single, stigmas
several. Capsule 1-celled. Seeds attached to a central pla-
centa. Embryo curved round the albumen.
USES. — Insipid plants, occasionally employed as esculents,
as in the case of Portulaca oleracea, the common Purslane.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Calandrinia, Montia.
72. — Illvcebracea. Herbaceous or half shrubby plants, with
scarious stipules. Flowers minute, with scarious bracts. Se-
pals 3, 4, or 5. Petals minute. Stamens definite. Ovary
superior; styles 2-5. Fruit dry, 1-3-celled. Seeds upon a
central placenta ; embryo on one side of the albumen.
USES. — Unimportant weeds ; said to be slightly astringent.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Herniaria, Illecebrum.
73. — Scleranthacea. Small herbs. Leaves opposite, with-
out stipules. Flowers axillary, sessile, minute, hermaphro-
dite. Calyx 4- or 5-toothed. Stamens from 1 to 10. Ovary
simple, superior, 1-seeded. Fruit a utricle enclosed within the
EXOGENJE CALYCIFLOR-ffi. 131
hardened calyx. Seed pendulous from a funiculus ; embryo
cylindrical, curved round farinaceous albumen.
USES. — Unknown. Mere weeds.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Scleranthus.
74. — Crassulaceee. Succulent herbs or shrubs. Stipules
none. Flowers usually in cymes, showy. Sepals from 3 to
20. Petals either distinct or cohering. Stamens inserted
with the petals. Hypogynous scales usually several, 1 at the
base of each carpel. Ovaries of the same number as the
petals, opposite to which they are placed. Fruit of several
follicles, opening on their face. Seeds variable in number.
USES. — Sempervivum tectorum, and many others, are refri-
gerants and somewhat acrid. Some are plants of considerable
beauty, and capable of growing in the most exposed and sun-
burnt places. Sempervivum glutinosum is used to impreg-
nate the water in which the fishermen of Madeira steep their
nets, in order to render them durable.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Sempervivum, Sedum.
75. — Mesembryacea or Ficoidea. Succulent shrubs or
herbs. Flowers showy, opening only under bright sunshine.
Sepals definite, succulent. Petals indefinite, linear. Sta-
mens indefinite. Ovary many-celled. Stigmas numerous.
Capsule many-celled, with a starry dehiscence. Embryo
curved or spiral, on the outside of mealy albumen.
USES. — Mesembryanthemum emarcidum, the Hottentot's
fig, when bruised and fermented, becomes narcotic, and is
used like tobacco. M. crystallinum and nodiflorum are col-
lected in the countries where they grow wild, for the sake of
the alkali they contain.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Mesembryanthemum.
76. — Cactacea. Succulent shrubs, usually destitute of leaves,
and with spinous buds. Flowers usually very handsome. Se-
pals indefinite, confounded with the petals. Stamens indefi-
nite ; filaments long, filiform. Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with
numerous parietal placentae ; stigmas numerous. Fruit succu-
lent. Seeds without albumen.
USES. — The fruit is eaten under the name of Indian figs.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Cereus, Mammillaria.
K 2
132
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
77. — Grossulacea. Bushes with alternate leaves, mem
branous stipules, and a plaited vernation, often spiny. Flow-
ers in axillary racemes. Calyx superior, 4- or 5-parted, regu-
lar. Petals 5, minute. Stamens 5. Ovary inferior, 1 -celled,
with 2 parietal placentae. Berry 1 -celled, many-seeded; em-
bryo minute, in horny albumen.
USES. — Bibes rubrum is the common garden Currant, B.
nigrum the Black Currant, and B. Grossularia the Goose-
berry, all well-known fruits. Many have beautiful flowers. •
TYPICAL GENUS. — Bibes.
78. — Saxifmgacea. Herbaceous plants. Leaves simple,
with or without stipules. Calyx superior or inferior. Petals
5, or none. Stamens 5-10, perigynous or hypogynous ; an-
thers bursting longitudinally. Disk hypogynous or perigy-
nous, rarely consisting of 5 scales. Ovary 1-celled, with two
parietal placentae. Styles 2, formed from extended points of
the ovary. Fruit membranous, with two divaricating lobes.
Seeds numerous, very minute. Embryo taper, in the axis of
fleshy albumen.
USES. — Heuchera Americana, and some others, have astrin-
gent roots. Many are pretty flowers.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Saxifraga, Heuchera.
EXOGEN^E CALYCIFLOR.3E. 133
79. — Escattoniacea. Shrubs with alternate, toothed,
glandular, exstipulate leaves. Flowers showy. Calyx 5-
toothed. Petals forming a tube, but finally separating ; aesti-
vation imbricated. Stamens definite. Disk conical, epi-
gynous. Ovary 2-celled, with two large polyspermous pla-
centse in the axis ; style simple ; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit
capsular, splitting by the separation of the cells at their
base. Seeds minute ; embryo in oily albumen.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Escallonia.
80. — Hamamelacea. Shrubs. Leaves alternate, with de-
ciduous stipules. Flowers sometimes unisexual. Calyx in
4 pieces. Petals 4, linear. Stamens 8 ; 4 being sterile.
Ovary 2-celled ; styles 2 ; ovules solitary, pendulous. Fruit
capsular. Embryo in the middle of horny albumen.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Hamamelis, Fothergilla.
81. — Araliacea. Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants, with
the habit of Apiacese. Calyx entire or toothed. Petals
5-10. Stamens equal to the petals or twice as many, arising
from without an epigynous disk. Ovary with more cells than
two. Fruit succulent or dry, consisting of several 1-seeded
cells. Seeds pendulous. Embryo minute, in copious albumen.
USES. — Panax quinquifolium forms the root Ginseng, re-
garded by the Chinese as a powerful stimulant. A sort of
Sarsaparilla is prepared in North America from Aralia nu-
dicaulis. Common Ivy, Hedera Helix, has irritating leaves.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Hedera, Aralia.
82. — Cornaceee. Trees or shrubs, seldom herbs. Leaves
(except in one species) opposite, entire or toothed. Flowers
occasionally dioecious. Sepals 4. Petals 4, oblong, broad,
valvate. Stamens 4, alternate with the petals. Drupe
crowned by the calyx, 2-celled. Seeds pendulous, solitary.
Albumen fleshy.
USES. — Cornus mascula, the Cornelian Cherry, and some
others, produce a succulent eatable fruit of bad quality. C.
florida and sericea have a powerfully tonic bark.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Cornus, Aucuba.
134
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
83. — Apiacea or Umbellifera. Herbaceous plants with
fistular stems. Flowers in umbels. Calyx entire or 5-
toothed. Petals 5, usually inflexed at the point. Stamens
5, alternate with the petals. Ovary 2-celled. Styles 2, di-
verging ; disk double, epigynous. Fruit consisting of 2 car-
pels, or mericarps, separable from a common axis. Seed
solitary, pendulous. Embryo minute, at the base of horny
albumen.
USES. — The Carrot, Parsnip, Parsley, Fennel, Skirret, and
others, are eatable. Celery is poisonous when wild, bland if
cultivated. Many species are dangerous poisons, as (Enanthe
crocata, Cicuta virosa, Conium maculatum, .ZEthusa Cyna-
pium ; others have aromatic carminative fruits, as Caraway,
Dill, Coriander, Anise. Assaftetida, Ammoniacum, Opopa-
nax, foetid gum resins, exude from certain Oriental species.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Pastinaca, Carum, Petroselinum,
Daucus.
Athamanta cervarisefolia. 1. A separate flower, with hairy petals. 2. A petal
by itself. 3. A ripe fruit with the two carpels or mericarps separating from the
double carpopod or axis. 4. A seed deprived of its integuments, and divided ver-
tically, so as to show the position of the embryo.
The genera of this large and difficult order being charac-
terized very much by peculiarities in their fruit, the following
cut is intended to explain the principal terms employed in
speaking of them.
EXOGEN.E CALYCIFLORJE.
135
1. Is an ideal plan of a fruit divided transversely ; a a is the commissure, or
plane of contact of the mericarps ; b b primary ridges ; c c secondary ridges. 2. Is a
view of the back and section of the fruit of Laserpitium Siler ; each mericarp has the
secondary ridges winged, the primary obsolete ; there are two vittae on the commis-
sure, and one under each secondary ridge ; these vittae, which are cavities containing
oil, are represented by dots ; the albumen is solid. 3. Sclerosciadium humile ; the
primary ridges are corky ; there are no secondary ridges ; the vittae alternate with
the primary ridges, and there is one at each edge of the commissure ; the albumen is
solid. 4. Discopleura capillacea ; there are 5 very small primary juga, the two
lateral of which are in contact with a thickened accessory margin ; there are 2 vittae
on each face of the commissure, and one between each primary ridge ; the albumen is
solid. 5. Echinophora spinosa ; albumen involute ; vittae alternate with the primary
ridges. 6. Compressed fruit of Diposis saniculaefolia ; the commissure is very nar-
row ; there are 5 minute primary ridges ; one along the back, one along each edge,
and two on the indexed side ; the albumen is solid.
SUBCLASS III. COROLLIFLOR^E.
84>. — LorantJiacea. Parasitical half-shrubby plants.
Leaves opposite, without stipules. Flowers either very long
and tubular, or small and green. Calyx with 2 bracts at
the base. Corolla with 3, 4 or 8 petals, more or less united
at the base, valvate ; stamens opposite to them. Ovary
1-celled ; ovule erect. Fruit succulent. Seed solitary ; em-
bryo cylindrical, longer than the fleshy albumen.
USES. — Bark astringent ; that of Loranthus tetrandrus is em-
ployed in Chili for a black dye. Miseltoe is Viscum album.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Viscum, Loranthus.
136 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
85. — Caprifoliacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants, with
opposite leaves, destitute of stipules. Flowers usually showy
and fragrant. Calyx 4-5-cleft, with bracts at its base. Co-
rolla monopetalous or polypetalous, rotate or tubular, regular
or irregular. Stamens epipetalous. Ovary with from 1 to 5
cells. Fruit indehiscent, 1 or more celled. Embryo straight
in fleshy albumen.
USES. — Honeysuckles, species of Caprifolium, are beautiful,
fragrant, twining shrubs. The Elder has sudorific flowers,
and drastic foetid leaves. The roots of Triosteum perfoliatum
are emetic and cathartic. The fruit of Symphoria racemosa,
the Snowberry, is a favourite food of pheasants ; that of differ-
ent species of Viburnum is eatable, but unpleasant.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Sambucus, Caprifolium, Viburnum.
86. — Cinchonaceee. Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves
simple, opposite or verticillate, with interpetiolary stipules,
Avhich are simple, bifid, or multifid, and form one of the prin-
cipal characteristics of the order. Inflorescence extremely
varied. Calyx simple. Corolla tubular, regular, valvate, or
imbricated. Stamens all on the same line, alternate with the
lobes of the corolla. Ovary surmounted by a disk ; ovules
numerous or few. Fruit either splitting, or indehiscent and
dry, or succulent. Seeds definite or indefinite ; embryo small,
surrounded by horny albumen.
USES. — Foremost among the useful species of this large
order stand the species of Cinchona, whose bark is so valuable
on account of its tonic febrifugal qualities ; in this respect a
large number of other genera correspond, among which are
Buena, Remija, Portlandia, and Exostema. Others are power-
ful emetics ; as Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, whose roots form the
best Ipecacuanha of the shops ; Richardsonia scabra, and
several species of Manettia, Chiococca, and Spermacoce. A
few have the emetic principle so concentrated as to be dan-
gerous poisons, as Randia dumetorum. Coffee is the horny
albumen of Coffea Arabica.
EXOGEN^E COROLLIFLOR;E.
137
Coffea Arabica. 1. A flower magnified. 2. A section across a ripe fruit. 3. A
portion of a seed, stowing the small embryo laid bare in the end of convolute albumen.
Richardsonia scabra. 1. An ovary with its calyx. 2. A corolla. 3. .A vertical
section of a seed, with an erect embryo in copious albumen.
87. — Dipsacete. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs.
Leaves opposite or whorled. Flowers capitate, surrounded
by a many-leaved involucre. Calyx superior, membranous ;
surrounded by an involucel. Corolla oblique, imbricated.
Stamens 4 ; anthers distinct. Ovary 1-celled, with a pendu-
lous ovule ; stigma simple. Fruit crowned by the pappus-
like calyx, embryo in fleshy albumen.
138
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
USES. — The ripe heads of Dipsacus fullonum, dried, are
formed of hard stiff spines, and are employed by fullers, in
dressing cloth, under the name of teasels.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Scabiosa, Dipsacus, Knautia.
88. — Valerianacete. Herbs. Leaves opposite, without
stipules. Flowers corymbose, panicled, or in heads. Calyx
superior, membranous, or resembling pappus. Corolla tubular,
regular or irregular, sometimes calcarate. Stamens 1 to 5.
Ovary with 1 perfect cell, and 2 other abortive ones ; ovule
pendulous ; stigmas 1 to 3. Fruit dry. Embryo destitute
of albumen.
USES. — Common Valerian, and several others, have power-
fully aromatic, antispasmodic, febrifugal roots. The genus Va-
lerianella consists of annual herbs, whose leaves are used as
salad, under the name of Lamb's lettuce. The Spikenard of
the ancients was Nardostachys Jatamansi.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Valerianella, Centranthus, Valeriana.
Valeriana Celtica. 1 An entire flower magnified. 2. The ovary and young
calyx. 3. The fruit, with the pappose full-grown calyx. 4. A vertical section of a
npe fruit and seed.
89. — Asteracea or Composite. Shrubs, or herbs, ex-
tremely variable in appearance. Flowers in heads, surround-
ed by an involucrum, and seated on a receptacle, from which
palese often spring. Calyx obsolete ; a pappus (328). Co-
EXOGEN/E COROLLIFLOR2E. 139
rolla regular or irregular. Anthers united into a tube.
Ovary inferior, one-celled, with an erect ovule. Embryo with-
out albumen.
Division 1. — Cichoracea. Florets all ligulate. Milky.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Hieracium, Taraxacum.
Division 2. — Corymbifera. Florets in part or wholly tubu-
lar. Corolla funnel-shaped. Involucrum hemispherical, leafy
or scaly, soft, seldom spiny.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Chrysanthemum, Tussilago.
Division 3. — Cynaracea. Florets wholly tubular. Corolla
with a ventricose throat. Involucrum hard, conical, and gene-
rally spiny.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Carduus, Cynara, Onopordum.
Division 4. — Labiatiflvra. Florets bilabiate.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Mutisia, Triptilion.
USES. — Among the Cichoraceous division a narcotic prin-
ciple is commonly found, which in the garden Lettuce is so
diffused as to be bland, and in Lactuca virosa is so concen-
trated as to render the extract similar to opium in effect.
Succory, Endive, Salsafy, Scorzonera, well-known esculents,
belong here. Of the Corymbiferous division, Chamomile is
characteristic, with its bitter tonic qualities. Many others,
such as Coltsfoot, Elecampane, Feverfew, correspond in pro-
perties with Chamomile. Wormwood, Southernwood, species
of Artemisia, are aromatic and extremely bitter ; Tarragon, a
pungent herb, used for pickling, is Artemisia Dracunculus.
Pellitory of Spain, which is acrid, and excites the salivary
organs powerfully, is Anacyclus Pyrethrum ; and similar
effects are produced by Spilanthus oleracea, Bidens tripartita,
and others. The Sunflower, Guizotia oleifera, Madia sativa,
and others, yield a bland oil when their seeds are pressed.
Jerusalem artichokes, a well-known article of food, are the
tubers of Helianthus tuberosus. The Cynaraceous division con-
sists principally of bitter plants. Centaurea calcitrapa, Sily-
bum (or Carduus) Marianum, Cnicus Benedictus, and the
common Burdock, are all stomachics of some importance.
The flowers of Carthamus tinctorius are dried for the use of
the dyers, and resemble Saffron. The fleshy receptacles of
Cynara Scolymus are the artichoke bottoms of our kitchens.
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
Argyranthemum Jacoteifolium. 1. A tubular floret of the disk. 2. A ligulate
florel^Tthe ray. 3. Style and stigmas. 4. An anther. 5. An involucrum and
Intl receptade, from which the lorets have fallen. 6. Rlpe ach^mum cut
through vertically, with toothed coronetted pappus.
The old divisions of this large order are adhered to be-
cause they appear more likely to be permanent than the more
recent suborders, &c. proposed by De Candolle and others,
in which peculiarities in the stigma are chiefly employed.
The student who desires to become acquainted with the de-
tails of this enormous order, numbering more than 7000
species, will consult De Candclle'(s Prodromus, Vols. V. VI.
EXOGEN^ COROLLIFLORJE. 141
and VII. The preceding wood -cut will assist him in under-
standing the distinctions of that author.
1. Tubular floret of Webbia aristata, with double pappus (Vernoniacea, D.C.) 2.
Tubular floret and stigma of Anisochaeta mikanioides, with pappus of 4 setae (Eupa-
toriacetB, D.C.) 3. Tubular floret of Berthelotia lanceolata, with silky pappus (Aste-
roidea, D.C.) 4. Stigma of Blumea senecioides (Asteroidete, D.C.) 5. Ligulate floret
and stigma of Lipochaeta umbellata ; pappus of two unequal winged paleae (Senecio-
nulece, D.C.) 6. Stigma of Dunantia achyranthes (Senecionidcce, D.C.) 7. Tubular
floret with ventricose throat and the stigma of Aplotaxis Nepalensis (Ci/narete, D.C.)
8. Ligulate bilabiate floret of Oreoseris lanuginosa (Mutisiacetz, D.C.) 9. Ligulate
floret of Brachyramphus obtusus (Cictioracete, D.C.)
90. — Galiac&e, or Stellate. Herbaceous plants, with
whorled leaves, destitute of stipules. Stems usually angular.
Calyx 4-5- or 6-lobed. Corolla valvate, rotate or tubular,
regular. Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the corolla,
and alternate with them. Ovary 2-celled ; ovules solitary,
erect. Fruit a didymous, indehiscent pericarp. Embryo
minute, straight, in horny albumen.
USES. — The roots of Bubia tinctorum yield madder, a
quality in which others participate, though in a less degree.
The yellow flowers of Galium verum are used to curdle milk.
The fragrant Woodruff has the reputation of being diuretic ;
Asperula cynanchica is said to be astringent. Except the
species used for dyeing, none are of any real importance.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Asperula, Galium, Rubia.
91. — Goodeniacea. Herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs, with-
out milk. Leaves scattered, without stipules. Flowers
showy. Calyx superior, equal or unequal. Corolla more or
less irregular, split at the back ; the segments folded inwards
in aestivation. Stamens 5, distinct. Ovary with indefinite
ovules; stigma surrounded by a membranous cup. Fruit
a capsule ; albumen fleshy.
USES. — Unknown. TYPICAL GENERA. — Goodenia, Euthales.
92. — Scawlacea. Herbaceous plants with the flowers
axillary or terminal, and never in heads. Calyx superior,
sometimes obsolete. Corolla irregular, split at the back,
the edges of the divisions folded inwards in aestivation. Sta-
mens 5, distinct ; anthers distinct or united. Ovary few-
celled, with solitary erect ovules ; stigma surrounded by a
cup. Fruit drupaceous or nucamentaceous.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Sceevola, Dampiera.
142 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
93. — Stylidiacea. Glandular herbs. Calyx superior,
2-6-parted, permanent. Corolla irregular, imbricated. Sta-
mens 2, connate into an elastic slender column, with which
the style is consolidated. Ovary 2-celled. Capsule 2-valved,
many-seeded. Seeds albuminous.
USES.— Unknown. Eemarkable for the irritable elastic
column of stamens.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Stylidium, Leuwenhoekia.
94. — Lobeliacea. Herbaceous milky plants or shrubs.
Leaves alternate, without stipules. Flowers usually showy.
Calyx superior, 5-lobed, or entire. Corolla irregular, 5-lobed,
or 5-cleft. Stamens 5; anthers cohering. Stigma fringed.
Fruit capsular, 1 or more celled, many-seeded ; embryo in
the axis of albumen.
USES. — The species abound in a milky juice of extreme
acridity. Lobelia inflata is an emetic, but dangerous from
its violence. Hippobroma (or Isotoma) longiflora is fatally
hypercathartic. Many are plants of great beauty.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Lobelia, Clintonia, Siphocampylus.
95. — Gesneraceee. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs.
Leaves opposite, rugose, fleshy, without stipules. Flowers
generally showy. Calyx half superior, valvate. Corolla tu-
bular, with an imbricate sestivation. Anthers cohering, with
a thick connective. Ovary 1 -celled, surrounded by glands,
with 2-lobed polyspermous placentae ; stigma capitate. Em-
bryo in the axis of albumen.
USES. — The succulent fruit is eatable. Some species yield
a dyeing substance. The species are, however, of no real
importance ; but they are generally gay flowers.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Gloxinia, Gesnera, Columnea.
96. — Campanulacea. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs,
yielding a white milk. Leaves alternate, without stipules.
Flowers usually showy. Calyx superior, permanent. Co-
rolla usually 5-lobed, withering, regular, valvate. Stamens
alternate with the lobes of the corolla. Anthers distinct.
Style covered by collecting retractile hairs ; stigma naked.
Fruit dehiscing by apertures, or valves. Seeds numerous ;
embryo in the axis of albumen.
EXOGENJE COROLLIFLORJE.
143
USES. — Slightly acrid, but not dangerous. Rampion, a root
used like Radishes, is Campanula Rapunculus.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Campanula, Phyteuma, Roella.
Wahlenbergia procumbens. 1. An entire flower. 2. Stamens. 3. A stigma.
4. Transverse section of the ovary. 5. A vertical section of a seed, showing the
embryo.
97. — Vaccinacea. Are the same as Ericacese, only the
ovary is inferior.
USES. — The bark is slightly astringent, and fruit succulent.
Cranberries are the fruit of species of Oxycoccus, Bilberries
and Whortleberries of species of Vaccinium.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Vaccinium, Thibaudia.
98. — Ericaceae. Shrubs or under-shrubs. Leaves ever-
green, rigid, without stipules. Calyx 4- or 5-cleft, inferior.
Corolla hypogynous, 4- or 5-cleft, imbricated. Stamens de-
finite, hypogynous; anthers 2-celled, dehiscing by a pore.
Ovary many-celled, many-seeded ; style 1. Fruit capsular.
Seeds indefinite, minute ; embryo in the axis of albumen.
USES. — Loiseleuria procumbens, Rhododendron ferrugi-
neum, and others, are astringents. Arctostaphylus Uva Ursi
is diuretic. Rhododendron Chrysanthum is a powerful nar-
cotic, and this seems to be a general character of the order,
some of which, as Rhododendron maximum, Kalmia latifolia,
and Azalea Pontica, are dangerous poisons. Most of the
species are plants of great beauty.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Rhododendron, Kalmia, Erica.
144
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
Rhododendron albiflorum. 1. A corolla and pistil, with all the stamens removed
save one. 2. An anther. 3. A ripe capsule burst. 4. A vertical section of a
seed.
99 m — Ebenacea. Trees or shrubs without milk. Leaves
alternate, coriaceous. Calyx inferior, in 3 or 6 divisions.
Corolla hypogynous, usually pubescent, imbricated. Stamens
definite ; twice as many as the segments of the corolla, four
times as many, or the same number. Ovary several-celled,
the cells having 1 or 2 pendulous ovules; style divided.
Fruit fleshy, few-seeded. Albumen cartilaginous ; embryo in
the axis ; radicle turned towards the hilum.
Subdivision. — Styraceae. Ovary inferior. Stamens perigy-
nous. Style simple.
USES. — The fruit of Diospyros Lotus, Kaki, and others, is
extremely astringent when* green, but becomes bletted and
sweet after a time, when it is eaten. Diospyros Virginiana and
others have a febrifugal bark. Ebony is the wood of Dios-
pyros Ebenus and several other species of that genus. The
fragrant gum resins, Storax and Benzoin, are produced by
species of Styrax.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Diospyros, Maba, Styrax.
100. — Aquifoliacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves coriaceous.
Flowers small. Sepals inferior, 4 to 6, imbricated. Corolla
hypogynous. Stamens alternate with its segments. Disk
none. Ovary with from 2 to 6 cells; ovules solitary, pen-
EXOGEN^E COROLLIFLORJE. 145
dulous. Fruit indehiscent, with from 2 to 6 stones. Seed
suspended ; albumen large ; embryo small, 2-lobed.
USES. — Ilex Aquifolium, the common Holly, has leaves
emetic, and berries purgative ; its leaves are powerfully febri-
fugal. The fruit and bark of Prinos verticillatus and others
have similar qualities. Paraguay tea is Ilex Paraguensis.
Some are diuretic.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Ilex, Prinos, Cassine.
101. — Sapotaceee. Trees or shrubs with milky juice.
Leaves alternate, without stipules, coriaceous. Calyx in-
ferior, regular, permanent. Corolla hypogynous; its segments
usually equal in number to those of the calyx, seldom twice
or thrice as many. Stamens arising from the corolla, definite.
Anthers usually turned outward; sterile stamens usually
present. Ovary with several cells, and one erect ovule in
each cell. Style 1 . Fruit baccate. Seeds nut-like. Testa
bony, shining. Embryo large, usually in fleshy albumen.
USES. — The species are generally astringent and febrifugal.
Achras Sapota and others are the Sapodilla plums, whose
fruit is much esteemed in the West Indies. The Star-apple
(another West Indian fruit) is Chrysophyllum Cainito. A
vegetable butter is yielded by some species of Bassia.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Achras, Chrysophyllum, Mimusops.
102. — Myrsinacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate,
serrated, coriaceous; stipules wanting. Calyx 4- or 5-cleft.
Corolla hypogynous. Stamens opposite the segments of the
corolla; sometimes 5 sterile, petaloid, additional filaments.
Ovary 1, with a free central placenta ; style 1. Fruit fleshy,
mostly 1-seeded. Seeds peltate, albumen horny ; embryo
lying across the hilum.
USES. — Embelia robusta is said to have purgative berries.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Ardisia, Myrsine.
103. — OleaceaE. Trees or shrubs. Branches usually dicho-
tomous. Leaves opposite. Calyx monophyllous, permanent.
Corolla hypogynous, 4-cleft, valvate. Stamens 2. Ovary
without any disk, 2-celled ; ovules pendulous ; stigma bifid
or undivided. Fruit often 1-seeded. Seeds with dense
albumen.
USES. — Olive oil is obtained from the fruit of Olea eu-
146 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
ropsea. Manna exudes from the trunk of Ornus europsea
and others. The bark of the Olive is a powerful febrifuge.
Phyllireas are handsome evergreen shrubs.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Olea, Phyllirea, Syringa.
104. — Jasminacea. Shrubs. Leaves opposite or alternate,
mostly compound. Calyx divided or toothed, permanent.
Corolla regular, with from 5 to 8 divisions, imbricated and
twisted. Stamens 2. Ovary destitute of a disk, 2-celled ;
ovules erect ; stigma 2-lobed. Seeds with no albumen.
USES. — The flowers of most species are fragrant. The
leaves and bark are bitter, but of little moment.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Jasminum, Nyctanthes.
105. — Apocynacea. Trees or shrubs, usually milky. Leaves
opposite, quite entire, often having glands upon the petioles,
with no stipules. Calyx inferior, permanent. Corolla regu-
lar, 5-lobed, contorted. Stamens 5. Filaments distinct.
Pollen granular. Ovaries 2, or 1 which is 2-celled, poly-
spermous. Stigma 1. Seeds with fleshy albumen.
USES. — Often dangerous poisons, but in some cases simply
purgatives. The root of Nerium, the kernel of Tanghinia
venenata, the seeds of various kinds of Strychnos, called
Nux vomica, belong to the first class ; the leaves of Cerbera
Manghas, Allamanda cathartica, to the second. Vahea,
Urceola elastica, and others, abound in Caoutchouc.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Vinca, Echites, Nerium.
106. — Asclepiadacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants, milky,
and often twining. Leaves entire, opposite, having cilise be-
tween their petioles. Calyx inferior, permanent. Corolla 5-
lobed, regular, imbricated, very seldom valvular. Stamens 5 ;
filaments connate ; anthers 2-celled ; pollen cohering in masses,
and sticking by 5 glands to as many processes of the stigma.
Ovaries 2. Styles 2. Stigma common to both styles, 5-
cornered. Follicles 2. Seeds comose ; albumen thin.
USES. — The roots of many are emetic, sudorific, acrid, and
purgative. Indian Sarsaparilla is the root of Hemidesmus
indicus. Asclepias tuberosa and Curassavica are employed
as cathartics in the United States and West Indies. The
leaves of Cynanchum Argel are used in Egypt to adulterate
Senna ; they are acrid. The extract of Calotropis gigantea,
EXOGEN^l COROLLIFLORJE. 147
the Mudar plant, is powerfully alterative and purgative.
Many species have a tough fibre, which renders them fit for
cordage ; others yield abundance of Caoutchouc.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Periploca, Stapelia, Physianthus.
Schubertia multiflora. 1. The anthers united to the stigma. 2. The ovary and
stigma, from the latter of which the pollen masses have been removed. 3. A pair of
pendulous pollen masses, with their gland. 4. The ripe follicles.
107. — Bignoniacea. Trees or shrubs, often twining or
climbing. Leaves opposite, usually compound, without sti-
pules. Flowers large and showy. Calyx inferior, sometimes
spathaceous. Corolla irregular. Stamens 5, of which 1 al-
ways and sometimes 3 are sterile. Ovary in a disk, 2-celled,
polyspermous ; style 1 ; stigma of 2 plates. Fruit berried or
capsular ; if the latter, 2-valved, 2-celled, long and com-
pressed. Seeds often winged ; albumen 0.
USES. — Usually beautiful plants. Some have hard timber,
and a red fecula is obtained from the leaves of Bignonia Che-
rere and others. The genera with berried fruit form a pecu-
liar division, and include Crescentia Cujete, the Calabash-tree,
and Parmentiera edulis, both of which have eatable fruit.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Bignonia, Tecoma.
108. — Cyrtandraceee. Herbs. Leaves opposite, often radi-
cal. Flowers showy. Calyx inferior, campanulate, equal.
Corolla irregular, imbricated. Stamens didynamous. Disk
i 2
148
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
annular. Ovary 1 -celled, with 2 double placentae ; stigma
2-lobed. Fruit capsular and siliquose, or succulent, many-
seeded. Seeds minute, often with tails ; albumen absent.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — ^Eschynanthus, Streptocarpus.
109. — Gentianaceee. Herbaceous plants. Leaves opposite,
entire, without stipules, usually 3-5-ribbed. Flowers showy.
Calyx inferior, permanent. Corolla regular, with an imbri-
cated, twisted, or plaited aestivation. Stamens inserted upon
the corolla, some of them occasionally abortive. Ovary 1-
celled ; stigmas 1 or 2. Capsule or berry many-seeded ; the
margins of the valves turned inwards. Embryo in the axis of
soft albumen.
USES. — All the species are more or less bitter ; many in-
tensely so. The Gentian root of the shops is obtained from
Gentiana lutea chiefly ; the leaves and stems of Agathotes
Chirayta furnish the Gentian of India. Menyanthes trifoliata
is the Buck-bean, employed advantageously as a tonic.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Erythrsea, Gentiana, Chironia.
Gentiana amarella. 1. Section of the ovary of Chironia baccifera. 2. Section of
the ripe fruit. 3. A seed. 4. A vertical section of it.
. — Polemoniacea. Herbaceous plants. Leaves oppo-
site. Calyx inferior, 5-parted. Corolla regular, 5-lobed.
EXOGEN.E COROLLIFLOR^!.
Stamens 5, unequal, on the tube of the corolla. Ovary 3-
celled ; stigma 3-lobed. Capsule 3-celled ; 3-valved, the
valves separating from the axis. Embryo in horny albumen.
USES. — Unknown .
TYPICAL GENERA. — Polemonium, Phlox, Gilia.
Ill . — GonvolvulacetK, Herbaceous plants, or shrubs, usually
twining and milky. Leaves alternate. Calyx permanent, in-
ferior, in 5 divisions, remarkably imbricated, often unequal.
Corolla hypogynous, plaited. Stamens 5, inserted towards
the base of the corolla. Ovary with 2 to 4 cells, few seeded ;
ovules erect ; style 1. Disk annular. Capsule with the
valves fitting at their edges to the angles of a loose dissepi-
ment. Seeds with mucilaginous albumen ; embryo curved ;
cotyledons shrivelled.
USES. — The roots of Convolvulus Scammonia yield Scam-
mony ; of Exogonium Purga, true Jalap ; of Ipomoea Bata-
toides, a kind of false Jalap, called Purga Macho ; and a great
many more possess similar properties. The Batatas, or Sweet
Potatoe, has the purgative quality so much diffused as to be a
valuable article of food ; the great roots of others have also
been found eatable.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Ipomoea, Convolvulus, Calystegia.
Ipomoea Batatoides. 1. The pistil and annular disk. 2. A transverse section of
the ovary. 3. A capsule of Convolvulus tricolor. 4. A vertical section of the
seed of that species.
150
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
112. — Cmcutacea. Leafless parasites. Calyx permanent,
inferior, 4-5-parted, imbricated. Corolla permanent, imbri-
cated. Scales alternating with segments of corolla. Stamens
opposite the last. Ovary 2-celled ; ovules in pairs, erect ;
styles 2. Capsule. Embryo spiral, in fleshy albumen.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Cuscuta.
113. — Cordiacete. Trees. Leaves scabrous, without sti-
pules. Calyx inferior, 5-toothed. Corolla regular. Stamens
alternate with the segments of the corolla. Ovary 4-celled,
with 1 pendulous ovule in each cell ; stigma 4-cleft. Fruit
drupaceous, 4-celled. Seed pendulous by a funiculus ; cotyle-
dons plaited ; albumen 0.
USES. — Unimportant. Sebesten plums, an emollient muci-
laginous fruit, are produced by Cordia Myxa, and Sebestena.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Cordia.
114. — Boraginaceee. Herbaceous plants, or shrubs. Stems
round. Leaves alternate, covered with asperities. Flowers in
gyrate racemes (scorpioid). Calyx inferior, permanent. Co-
rolla hypogynous, regular. Stamens 5, inserted upon the
corolla. Ovary 4-parted, 4-seeded ; style simple ; stigma
simple or bifid. Nuts 4, distinct. Seed without albumen.
USES. — The dye called Alkanet is obtained from the roots
of Anchusa tinctoria and several other species. The foliage is
insipid and harmless.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Myosotis, Anchusa, Lithospermum.
COROLLIFLORJE.
151
Myosotis. 1. Throat cut open. 2. A pistil. 3. Ripe fruit with two of the nuts
remaining, and the scars of two that have dropped off. 4. A perpendicular section
of a nut.
115. — Solanacete. Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves
alternate, sometimes collateral. Inflorescence often out of the
axil ; pedicels without bracts. Calyx permanent, inferior.
Corolla regular, or somewhat unequal, plaited. Stamens in-
serted upon the corolla. Ovary 2-celled ; stigma simple.
Pericarp with 2 or 4 cells. Seeds numerous ; embryo usually
curved in fleshy albumen.
USES. — Many are narcotic, as Tobacco, Henbane, Stramo-
nium, Bitter-sweet, and Deadly Nightshade, or Belladonna.
The fruit of others is almost free from deleterious qualities,
and eatable ; as the Aubergine, Solanum esculentum, Tomatoes,
or Solanum Lycopersicon, Physalis edulis, and many others.
In some species starch is collected in great quantity, and
renders them fit for food, as in the tubers of the Potatoe, So-
lanum tuberosum.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Solanum, Datura, Physalis.
Petunia violacea. 1. A cross section of the ovary. 2. Ripe fruit of Solanum
Dulcamara. 3. A section of one of its seeds.
116. — Hydrophyllacea. Herbaceous plants. Leaves
usually lobed. Inflorescence often gyrate. Calyx inferior,
5-cleft, with reflexed appendages. Corolla regular. Stamens
5, epipetalous. Ovary simple, 1-celled ; placentae 2. Fruit
2-valved. Seeds reticulated ; embryo cartilaginous.
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Nemophila, Phacelia.
117. — Orobanchaceee. Parasitical brown leafless herbs.
Calyx permanent. Corolla irregular. Stamens didynamous.
Ovary 1 -celled, in a fleshy disk, with 2 or more parietal pla-
centse ; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit capsular, many-seeded, en-
closed within the withered permanent corolla ; seeds very
minute ; embryo extremely small, in the apex of albumen.
USES. — Scarcely known ; they are astringent plants.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Orobanche, Lathraa.
118. — Scrophulariacea. Herbs or shrubs with opposite or
alternate exstipulate leaves. Calyx tubular, permanent. Co-
rolla irregular. Stamens didynamous, or 2. Ovary 2-celled;
ovules numerous ; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit 2-celled ; seeds in-
definite or definite, albuminous.
USES. — Foxglove, whose action upon the pulse is so lower-
ing, is Digitalis purpurea. Gratiola officinalis, some Calceo-
larias, and others, are purgative and emetic. Euphrasia
officinalis is bitter and sub-aromatic. Vandellia diffusa is a
powerful antibilious emetic and febrifuge.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Scrophularia, Antirrhinum, Pentstemon.
Digitalis purpurea. I. A corolla split open. 2. A pistil. 3. A transverse sec-
tion ot it. 4. A ripe capsule. 5. A vertical section of a seed.
COROLLIFLORJE,
153
119. — Lamiacete or Labiate. Herbaceous plants or under-
shrubs. Stem 4-cornered. Leaves opposite, often replete
with aromatic oil. Flowers in axillary cymes; sometimes
solitary. Calyx tubular, permanent. Corolla bilabiate. Sta-
mens didynamous, the 2 upper sometimes wanting. Ovary
4-lobed ; style 1 ; stigma bifid. Fruit 1 to 4 small nuts.
Seeds with little or no albumen.
USES. — The species are always harmless, and in many cases
useful for their tonic aromatic qualities. Lavender is Lavan-
dula vera ; Horehound, used for coughs, is Marrubium vul-
gare. Savory, Mint, Marjoram, Thyme, Sage, are all pot-
herbs used in cookery. Teucrium Marum is a powerful and
singular stimulant of cats. The cordial Peppermint is pre-
pared from Mentha piperita. A kind of stearoptene resem-
bling Camphor, is found in many species.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Lanaium, Salvia, Scutellaria.
Marrubium vulgare. 1. An entire flower seen in profile. 2. A corolla slit open.
3. The pistil. 4. A nut. 5. A vertical section of the latter, showing the embryo.
120. — Verbenaceee. Trees or shrubs, sometimes herbaceous
plants. Leaves opposite, without stipules. Flowers in op-
posite corymbs, or spiked alternately ; sometimes in dense
heads. Calyx tubular. Corolla irregular. Stamens didy-
namous, occasionally 2. Ovary 2- or 4-celled ; ovules erect
154 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
or pendulous ; style 1 ; stigma bifid. Fruit composed of 2
or 4 nucules in a state of adhesion ; albumen none.
USES. — A few are slightly aromatic and bitter.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Verbena, Aloysia, Callicarpa.
121. — AcantJiaceee. Herbaceous plants or shrubs. Leaves
opposite, without stipules. Inflorescence in spikes, racemes,
fascicles, or even solitary. Flowers usually opposite, placed
within bracts. Calyx very much imbricated, permanent, in-
ferior. Corolla irregular, 2-lipped. Stamens mostly 2, some-
times didynamous. Ovary in a disk, 2-celled, 2- or many-
seeded ; stigma 2-lobed. Capsule 2-celled, bursting elasti-
cally. Seeds hanging by hard, usually hooked processes of
the placentae ; albumen none.
USES. — Acanthus spinosus is accounted emollient. The
leaves and roots of Adhatoda Vasica are supposed to be
antispasmodic. Justicia paniculata is bitter and stomachic.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Ruellia, Justicia, Eranthemum.
122. — Lentibulacea. Herbaceous plants. Leaves undi-
vided, or resembling roots, and bearing vesicles. Flowers
single, or in spikes. Calyx permanent, inferior. Corolla
irregular, bilabiate, with a spur. Stamens 2 ; anthers sim-
ple. Ovary 1-celled, with a free central placenta; stigma
bilabiate. Capsule 1-celled. Seeds without albumen.
USES. — Of no importance.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Pinguicula, Utricularia.
123. — Plumbaginacea. Herbaceous plants or shrubs.
Leaves alternate, undivided, somewhat sheathing. Calyx
inferior, tubular, plaited. Corolla regular. Stamens definite.
Ovary superior, 1-seeded ; ovule pendulous from an umbilical
cord ; styles 5. Fruit a utricle. Seed inverted.
USES. — Statice Limonium, and others, have extremely
astringent roots. The bark of Plumbago is acrid and vesi-
cant.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Armeria, Plumbago.
l24.—Globulariace<e. Shrubs or herbs. Leaves alternate.
Flowers in heads. Calyx inferior, permanent, 5-cleft, some-
times 2-lipped. Corolla hypogynous, bilabiate, made up of
EXOGENJE COROLLIFLORJE.
155
5 parts. Stamens 4, from the tube of the corolla. Ovary
superior, 1-celled, with a pendulous ovule. Albumen fleshy.
USES. — The species are said to be bitter, tonic, and pur-
gative ; they appear to be of little importance.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Globularia.
125. — Primulaceee. Herbaceous plants. Calyx 4-5-cleft,
permanent, inferior. Corolla regular. Stamens inserted upon
the corolla opposite its segments. Ovary 1-celled, with a
free central placenta ; style 1 ; stigma capitate. Capsule
with a central placenta. Embryo lying across the hilum in
fleshy albumen.
USES. — The root of Cyclamen is acrid ; the flowers of
Cowslips sedative. Anagallis arvensis is powerfully acrid.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Primula, Anagallis, Lysimachia.
1. Aretia Vitaliana. 2. A flower cut open. 3. The pistil. 4. A vertical section
of the latter, showing the free central placenta. 5. A section of a seed.
126. — Plantaginacea. Herbaceous plants, with spiked
inconspicuous flowers, and ribbed leaves. Calyx inferior,
4-leaved, imbricated. Corolla membranous, hypogynous, 4-
parted. Stamens 4 ; filaments flaccid ; anthers versatile.
Ovary without a disk ; ovules peltate or erect, solitary, twin,
or indefinite ; stigma hispid, simple. Capsule membranous.
Embryo in fleshy albumen.
USES. — The species are of little importance. The seeds of
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
Plantago Psyllium and others are mucilaginous; the foliage
of PI angustifolia is slightly astringent ; this plant, which
is commonly called Plantain or Ribgrass, is of some value
for sheep-feed in dry exposed places.
TYPICAL GENEBA. — Plantago, Littorella.
SUBCLASS IV. MONOCHLAMYDE^:.
127.— Phytolaccacea. Under-shrubs or herbaceous plants.
Leaves alternate, without stipules, often with pellucid dots.
Calyx inferior, of 4 or 5 petaloid leaves. Stamens indefinite,
or, if equal to the number of the divisions of the calyx, alter-
nate with them. Ovary of from 1 to several cells, each
containing 1 ascending ovule. Fruit baccate or dry, 1- or
many-celled. Seeds solitary, with a cylindrical embryo curved
round mealy albumen.
USES.— The succulent fruit of Phytolacca decandra is said
to be useful in chronic and siphylitic rheumatism ; its juice
is acrid, emetic, and dangerously purgative.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Phytolacca, Eivina.
128. — Petiveriacea. Under-shrubs or herbaceous plants,
with an alliaceous odour. Leaves alternate, with distinct
stipules, often with minute pellucid dots. Calyx of several
distinct leaves. Stamens perigynous, indefinite, or, if equal
to the segments of the calyx, alternate. Ovary superior,
1-celled ; ovule erect. Fruit 1-celled, indehiscent, dry. Seed
without albumen ; radicle inferior.
USES. — Petiveria alliacea is acrid, sudorific, and emmena-
gogue.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Petiveria, Seguiera.
129. — Chenopodiacea. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs.
Leaves alternate without stipules. Flowers small. Calyx
sometimes tubular at the base, persistent. Stamens inserted
into the base of the calyx, opposite its segments. Ovary
superior, with a single ovule attached to the base of the
cavity. Fruit membranous. Embryo curved round farina-
ceous albumen, or spiral, or doubled up without albumen.
USES. — Spinach, Garden Orach (Atriplex hortensis), Chard
Beet, and Sea Beet, are delicate esculents whose leaves are
eaten boiled. The roots of common Beet and Mangel Wurzel
EXOGEN;E MONOCHLAMYDEJE.
157
are succulent, sweet, and valuable for food. The seeds of
Chenopodium Quinoa are extensively consumed for food in
Peru. On the other hand, Chenopodium olidum and bary-
osmon are foetid emmenagogues ; Ch. anthelminticum fur-
nishes the anthelmintic oil of wormseed ; Ch. ambrosioides is
a fragrant expectorant. Several species of Atriplex are re-
ported to have emetic seeds. Various kinds of Salsola and
Salicornia supply the sodas of the shops.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Chenopodium, Atriplex, Blitum.
1. A portion of the spike of Salicornia herbacea, with the flowers lodged in the
notches of the axis. 2. A flower separate. 3. A flower of Salsola Kali. 4. Its
ripe fruit. 5. The same magnified, with a portion of the leafy dilated calyx torn
away. 6. Its embryo. 7. A flower of Chenopodium album. 8. A section of the
same, showing the superior ovary. 9. Its seed cut through to show the embryo.
130. — Nyctaginaceee. Stem either herbaceous, shrubby, or
arborescent. Leaves opposite, and almost always unequal ;
sometimes alternate. Flowers having either a common or
proper involucre. Calyx tubular, sometimes coloured ; be-
coming indurated at the base. Stamens definite, hypogynous.
Ovary superior, with a single erect ovule. Fruit a utricle,
enclosed within the base of the calyx. Embryo with foli-
aceous cotyledons, wrapping round floury albumen.
USES. — The fleshy roots of the species of Mirabilis are
slightly purgative.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Mirabilis, Oxybaphus.
158 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
131. — Amarantacea. Herbs or shrubs. Leaves simple,
without stipules. Flowers in heads or spikes, usually coloured.
Calyx scarious, persistent, immersed in dry coloured bracts.
Stamens hypogynous. Ovary superior, 1- or few-seeded ;
ovules hanging from a free central funiculus. Fruit a utricle.
Seeds lentiform ; albumen farinaceous ; embryo curved round
the circumference ; radicle next the hilum.
USES. — Unimportant. The species are insipid, on which
account some species of Amaranthus have been employed as
spinach. Their dry richly coloured flowers render some of
the species beautiful objects of cultivation.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Amaranthus, Celosia, Trichinium.
132. — Begoniaceae. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs.
Leaves alternate, oblique. Stipules scarious. Flowers uni-
sexual. Sepals in the males 4 ; in the females 5. Stamens
indefinite ; anthers collected in a head, the connective very
thick. Ovary winged, 3-celled, with 3 double polyspermous
placentae in the axis ; stigmas 3, somewhat spiral. Fruit 3-
celled, with an indefinite number of minute seeds; embryo
without albumen.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Begonia.
133. — Lauracea. Trees. Leaves without stipules, alter-
nate. Calyx 4-6-cleft, imbricated. Stamens definite, peri-
gynous; anthers 2-4-celled, bursting by recurved valves.
Glands at the base of the inner filaments. Ovary superior,
with one or two pendulous ovules. Fruit fleshy. Seed with-
out albumen ; embryo amygdaloid, with peltate cotyledons.
USES. — All appear to be aromatics, although some, as Oreo-
daphne foetens and others, have the aromatic principle so con-
centrated as to be acrid. The seeds of Nectandra Puchury
and Aydendron Cujumary are the Pichurim beans or Sassafras
nuts, used as a substitute for nutmegs. Cimiainomum zey-
lanicum yields cinnamon, and a bark of like nature is supplied
by many other plants of this order. Camphor is obtained
from Camphora officinarum ; and the aromatic Sassafras bark,
used by the people of the United States as a powerful sudo-
rific, is taken from the root of Sassafras officinale. The
EXOGEN.E MONOCHLAMYDE.E.
159
Avocado pear, an eatable West Indian fruit, is borne by
Persea gratissima.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Laurus, Cinnamomum.
Litssea Baueri. 1. A male flower. 2. A female. 3. A stamen, with a gland at
the base. 4. An anther, with the recurved valves. 5. A cluster of fruit. 6. A
cotyledon seen from within, with the plumula adhering to the inner face.
134. — Polygonacea. Herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs.
Leaves alternate, their stipules usually cohering in the form of
an ochrea. Calyx inferior, imbricated. Stamens definite.
Ovary superior, with a single erect ovule. Nut triangular.
Seed with farinaceous albumen ; embryo inverted ; radicle
remote from the hilum.
USES. — Rumex scutatus, Acetosa, and others, are the Sorrel
plants used in cookery. Rhubarb is the root of several species
of Rheum ; similar properties, only more feeble, are found in
Rumex alpinus. In addition to acid and purgative qualities,
a great degree of astringency manifests itself, as in the roots
of Rumex, and the bark of Coccoloba uvifera, which is said
to yield a kind of Kino. It is reported that the seeds of Poly-
gonum aviculare are emetic, notwithstanding that those of
P. Fagopyrum and tataricum are employed as food in some
places ; the leaves of Polygonum hydropiper and others are
acrid.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Rumex, Polygonum, Rheum.
160
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
Polygonum lapathifolium. 1. A flower cut open. 2. A vertical section of the
seed. 3. A flower of Polyg. Convolvuli. 4. The same cut open. 5. A transverse
section of a seed.
135. — -Myristicacea. Tropical trees, often yielding a red
juice. Flowers unisexual. Calyx trifid. Ovary superior, with
a single erect ovule. Fruit 2-valved. Seed enveloped in a
many-parted aril ; embryo very minute ; albumen ruminate.
USES. — Myristica moschata yields the well-known spices
mace and nutmeg. Similar aromatic qualities pervade the
order.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Myristica.
136. — Proteacea. Shrubs or small trees. Leaves hard,
dry, without stipules. Calyx valvular. Stamens 4, opposite
the segments of the calyx, and usually imbedded in their
points. Ovary superior, simple ; style simple. Fruit dehis-
cent or indehiscent. Seed without albumen.
USES. — These are often handsome bushes with densely
capitate flowers, and in Australia are regarded as indications
of bad land ; but they are of little use. The seeds of Gue-
vina are large, almond-like, and sold as nuts in the markets
of Chili.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Protea, Banksia, Grevillea.
137. — Elaagnaceee. Trees or shrubs with a scurfy surface.
Leaves entire, without stipules. Flowers axillary, often fra-
grant. Males: calyx 4-parted; stamens 3 to 8, sessile.
EXOGEN^E MONOCHLAMYDEJE.
161
Female : calyx inferior, tubular, persistent. Ovary 1-celled ;
ovule ascending ; stigma subulate. Fruit enclosed within the
calyx ; embryo surrounded by fleshy albumen.
USES. — The succulent fruit of Elseagnus hortensis and orien-
talis forms a part of an oriental dessert. That of Hippophae
rhamnoides, the Sea Buckthorn of England, may be eaten.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Elaeagnus, Shepherdia.
138. — Thymelacetz. Stem shrubby. Leaves without sti-
pules. Calyx inferior, tubular, often coloured. Stamens defi-
nite, in the orifice of its tube. Ovary with one pendulous
ovule. Fruit nut-like or drupaceous. Albumen none, or
thin ; embryo straight ; radicle superior.
USES. — The bark of the species is generally caustic ; that
of Daphne Laureola, the Spurge Laurel, acts as a vesicant ;
the succulent black fruits are dangerous. Lace Bark, the
liber of Lagetto lintearia, derives its name from the delicate
white fibres, which are tough, and easily separated by a little
violence. The same toughness of the fibre is found in many
species ; Daphne cannabina derives its name from being as
tough as Cannabis (Hemp).
TYPICAL GENERA. — Daphne, Gnidia, Struthiola.
Daphne Mezereum. 1. A flower cut open. 2. A vertical section of an ovarv.
3. The fruit.
139. — Santalacea. Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants.
Leaves alternate, without stipules. Flowers small. Calyx
M
162 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
half-coloured, valvate. Stamens 4-5, inserted in the base of
the calyx. Ovary 1-celled. Ovules 1-4, attached to a cen-
tral placenta. Style single. Fruit 1-seeded, indehiscent.
Embryo in the axis of albumen.
USES. — The wood is sometimes fragrant ; Sandal wood is
obtained from several species of Santalum.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Thesium, Nyssa, Santalum.
140. — AristolocMacea. Herbaceous plants or shrubs.
Leaves alternate, often with leafy stipules. Wood without
concentric zones. Flowers brown, or some dull colour, herm-
aphrodite. Calyx superior, valvate. Stamens epigynous.
Ovary inferior, 3- or 6-celled ; style simple ; stigmas radiat-
ing. Fruit 3- or 6-celled, many-seeded. Seeds with a minute
embryo in the base of fleshy albumen.
USES. — Many are tonic and stimulating. Aristolochia ser-
pentaria and fragrantissima are employed as powerful aro-
matics; others, as A. Clematitis, indica, &c. are emmena-
gogues. The Asarums seem to have similar qualities, but
more feeble; A. Canadense is called Wild Ginger in North
America. In consequence of their stimulating properties some
are employed as alexipharmics ; the Guaco of the Oronoko,
said to be a specific against the bite of snakes, is a species of
Aristolochia.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Aristolochia, Asarum.
141. — Empetracea. Small acrid shrubs with heath-like
evergreen leaves and minute flowers, which are unisexual.
Sepals : hypogynous imbricated scales. Stamens equal in num-
ber to the inner sepals, and alternate with them. Ovary 3-
6- or 9-celled ; ovules solitary, ascending ; stigma radiating.
Fruit fleshy, 3- 6- or 9-celled ; the coating of the cells bony ;
embryo in the axis of fleshy watery albumen.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Empetrum, Ceratiola.
l4>2.—Euphor1)iacea:. Trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants,
often abounding in acrid milk. Leaves opposite or alternate,
usually with stipules. Flowers sometimes enclosed within
EXOGENJE MONOCHLAMYDEJE.
163
an involucre, monoecious or dioecious. Calyx lobed, some-
times wanting. Corolla consisting of petals, or scales, or
absent. Stamens definite or indefinite. Ovary superior,
2- or 3-celled ; ovules solitary or twin; suspended ; styles
equal in number to the cells; stigma compound or single.
Fruit generally consisting of 3 dehiscent cells, separating
with elasticity from their common axis; embryo in fleshy
albumen.
USES. — Castor-oil is obtained from the seeds of Ricinus
communis ; Tiglium-oil from that of Croton Tiglium ; and
a similar purgative quality seems to be general in the seeds
of the order. Cascarilla is the bark of Croton Eleutheria ;
and the same aromatic principle occurs in many species.
Many are deadly poisons, as Manchineel, Hysenanche, Sapium
aucuparium, Sec. The drastic drug Euphorbium flows from
the stem of some succulent Euphorbias in North Africa.
Boxwood, so useful to wood engravers, is the timber of
Buxus sempervirens. Cassava, or Mandioc, or Tapioca, a
nutritious substance consisting of starch, is obtained from
the stem of Jatropha Manihot, a poisonous plant ; but it is
purified by washing and torrefaction.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Buxus, Andrachne, Cluytia.
1. The involucre of a Euphorbia, containing monandrous male florets, surrounding
a long-stalked female. 2. 3. 4. Male florets of different species, with the articulation
that separates the filament from the pedicel. 5. A carpel separate. 6. A vertical
section of an ovary. 7. A vertical section of a ripe seed, showing the central column
and an embryo in the midst of albumen.
M 2
164
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
Andrachne telephioides. 1. A male flower. 2. A female flower. 3. A pistil with
the scales at its base. 4. A transverse section of an ovary. 5. A ripe seed. 6. A
vertical section of it.
143. — Chlomntkacete. Herbaceous plants. Stems jointed.
Leaves opposite with intervening stipules. Flowers herm-
aphrodite or unisexual. Stamens lateral; anthers 1-celled,
with a fleshy connective. Ovary 1-celled. Ovule pendu-
lous. Fruit drupaceous. Embryo minute at the apex of
fleshy albumen.
USES. — Chloranthus officinalis and others are powerful aro-
matics, especially the roots, which have been used with suc-
cess in dangerous typhus.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Chloranthus.
144. — Piperacea. Shrubs or herbaceous plants. Leaves
without stipules. Flowers usually sessile in spikes, herm-
aphrodite. Stamens definite or indefinite. Ovary superior,
1-celled, containing a single erect ovule ; stigma sessile, sim-
ple. Fruit somewhat fleshy, indehiscent. Seed erect, with
the embryo lying in a fleshy sac or vitellus placed at that
end of the seed which is opposite the hilum, on the outside
of the albumen.
USES. — The pungent aromatic peppers of the shops are
obtained from different species; Piper nigrum yields black
and white pepper; P. longum the long pepper. Cubebs is
the pepper of P. caninum and others. P. Betel and me-
thysticum are both intoxicating.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Piper, Peperomia.
EXOGEN^E MONOCHLAMYDE.E.
165
Serronia Jaborandi. 1. A cluster of flowers magnified. 2. A ripe fruit,
vertical section of the same, showing the seed and the position of the embryo.
3. A
145. — Saururaceae. Herbaceous marsh or water plants.
Leaves alternate, with stipules. Flowers hermaphrodite. Sta-
mens 6, clavate, persistent. Ovaries 4, distinct, with solitary
ascending ovules ; or a 3- 4-celled pistil. Nuts 4, inde-
hiscent ; or a 3- 4-celled capsule. Embryo minute in a fleshy
sac or vitellus, on the outside of hard mealy albumen.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Saururus, Aponogeton.
146. — Salicaceee. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, sim-
ple, with stipules. Flowers unisexual, amentaceous. Ovary
superior, 1-celled ; ovules numerous, erect. Fruit coriaceous,
1-celled, 2-valved, many-seeded. Seeds comose ; albumen 0.
USES. — Various species of Salix are the Willows from
whose flexible shoots wicker-work is made. S. alba is a
very large fast-growing tree, and its bark abounds in tannin ;
S. Russelliana and purpurea yield a good febrifugal bark.
The same property resides in Populus tremula, and other
species of that genus ; the young buds of Populus candicans
and balsamifera exude a fragrant resin used in medicine ;
finally, the timber of Poplars is light, clean, and very useful
for purposes in which hardness and strength are not required.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Populus, Salix.
166
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
Populus. 1. Nigra. 2. Tremula. 3. A male flower. 4. A female flower. 5.
A ripe capsule. 6. A seed.
147. — Platanacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate,
with scarious sheathing stipules. Flowers amentaceous, in
round unisexual catkins. Stamens single. Ovaries termi-
nated by a thick style, having the stigmatic surface on one
side ; ovules solitary, or two, suspended. Nuts clavate.
Seeds solitary ; embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen.
USES. — The large species yield a beautiful but brittle and
perishable timber.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Platanus.
148. — Urticacea. Trees, shrubs or herbs, sometimes lac-
tescent. Leaves alternate, usually covered with asperities
or stinging hairs; with stipules. Flowers small, monoecious
or dioecious. Calyx membranous. Stamens definite, often
turned back with elasticity. Ovary superior, simple; ovule
EXOGEN^E MONOCHLAMYDEJE.
167
solitary, erect or suspended ; stigma simple. Fruit, a nut.
Embryo with or without albumen ; radicle always superior.
Division 1. — Urticea. Flowers loose. Juice watery.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Urtica, Parietaria.
I. Branch of Procris splendens. 2. Cluster of male and female flowers. 3. A
male flower about to expand. 4. The same expanded. 5. A nut of hemp. 6. A
vertical section of it. 7. A vertical section of the ovary of Dorstenia. 8. An acci-
dental double pistil of the same.
Division 2. — Artocarpea. Flowers consolidated. Juice
milky.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Morus, Artocarpus.
USES. — The leaves of Hemp are narcotic ; and the Upas,
(Antiaris toxicaria,) certain kinds of Fig, and many Nettles,
are dangerous narcotico-acrid poisons. The deleterious prin-
ciple is, however, so little developed in some that they be-
come harmless, and are used for food, as the fruit of the
common Fig, the Mulberry, the Bread-fruit, (Artocarpus,) and
several others. Even the milky juice, which is generally
very acrid, is bland in some cases, especially that of the
Cow-tree of Equinoctial America, on which the natives feed ;
it always abounds in Caoutchouc, which is obtained in large
quantities from many kinds of Fig. The Banyan-tree of India
is Ficus indica. The toughness of fibre found in Hemp
is also common in other species, especially some nettles and
168
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
Broussonetia papyrifera. Hops, so valuable for their bitter-
ness, consist of the bracts and ripe fruit of Humulus Lupulus.
Morus alba. 1. A male flower. 2. Clusters of females. 3. A female flower
separate. 4. The same with a part of the calyx cut away. 5. A vertical section of
a ripe achEenium. 6. A cluster of fruit consisting of baccate calyxes.
149. — Betulacea. Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, with
stipules. Flowers unisexual, amentaceous, monoecious ; males
sometimes having a calyx. Stamens definite, usually distinct.
Ovary superior, 2-celled ; ovules pendulous. Fruit mem-
branous, indehiscent, 1-celled. Seeds pendulous; albumen
none.
USES. — Timber trees, furnishing a light kind of wood.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Betula, Alnus.
150. — Myricacea. Leafy shrubs, with resinous glands and
dots, leaves alternate. Flowers unisexual, amentaceous,
achlamydeous. Stamens 6 or 8. Ovary 1-celled, surrounded
by several hypogynous scales ; ovule solitary, erect ; stigmas
2. Fruit drupaceous, or dry and dehiscent. Seed solitary,
erect ; radicle superior.
USES. — Aromatic shrubs. Sweet Gale, Myrica Gale, is
used in Sweden as a substitute for hops. The berries of the
M. cerifera, the Candleberry Myrtle, secrete a natural wax
from their surface ; its roots are astringent. Comptonia as-
plenifolia is used in North American medicine in diarrho?a.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Myrica, Comptonia.
MONOCHLAMYDE^l.
169
151. — Corylacea or Cupuliferee. Trees or shrubs. Leaves
with stipules, alternate. Flowers unisexual, amentaceous.
Stamens 5 to 20. Ovary crowned by the rudiments of a
calyx, within a coriaceous involucre, with several cells and
several ovules ; ovules pendulous. Fruit a 1 -celled nut, en-
closed in the involucre. Seed solitary.
USES. — The Beech, valuable for its timber, and its nuts
called mast, is Fagus sylvatica. Hazel-nuts are the fruit
of Corylus Avellana. Sweet Chesnuts are borne by Castanea
vesca. Oaks, the most valuable of European trees, are va
rious species of Quercus.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Fagus, Quercus.
Fagus sylvatica. 1. Male catkins. 2. Female do. 3. The latter, with the
scales of the involucre stripped off to show the ovaries at the apex. 4. A male
flower. 5. A half-grown female, with the involucre, now consisting of consolidated
sculps, forced back. fi. A ripe involucre opening .and exposing the nuts. 7. A
transverse section of a ripe nut. 8. The same of a young ovary.
170 DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
152. — Juglandacea. Trees. Leaves alternate, pinnated,
without pellucid dots or stipules. Flowers unisexual, amen-
taceous. Calyx in the males membranous ; in the females
superior. Petals in the males 0 ; in the females occasionally
present. Stamens indefinite. Ovary inferior, incompletely
2- 4-celled ; ovule solitary, erect. Fruit drupaceous, 1-celled,
with 4 imperfect partitions. Seed 4-lobed ; radicle superior.
USES. — Trees furnishing excellent timber ; that of Juglans
regia and nigra is used for gunstocks ; of Carya alba for pur-
poses of elasticity and strength : the former are Walnuts, the
latter Hickory. The fruit is purgative ; that of the common
Walnut when young, made into a preserve with the husk, is
a domestic medicine ; and Juglans cathartica derives its name
from its quality.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Juglans.
1 53. — Cycadacea. Trees, with a cylindrical trunk, increasing
by a single terminal bud. Leaves pinnated, gyrate. Flowers
dioBcious. Males monandrous, in cones. Females either in
cones, or in the form of contracted leaves. Ovules solitary,
naked. Embryo in the midst of albumen, hanging by a
spiral suspensor.
USES. — A bitter gum of unknown use exudes from the
trunk when wounded ; the latter contains a great quantity of
starch, which forms a kind of arrow-root extracted from
Zamias in the West Indies, and a sort of Sago from the
species of Cycas.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Zamia, Cycas.
154. — Taxace/e. Trees with continuous branches. Ligne-
ous tissue marked with circular disks. Leaves usually en-
tire ; sometimes dilated and lobed, and in those cases having
forked veins. Flowers mono3cious or direcious, solitary. Fi-
laments monadelphous. Females ; ovules naked, their outer
skin becoming hard. Seed hard, either naked or surrounded
by a succulent cup. Albumen fleshy. Embryo dicotyledon-
ous.
USES.— The Yew and several others are valuable timber-
trees. The leaves of Yew are foetid and deleterious ; they
are said to act medicinally like Digitalis without accumulating
EXOGEN-ffi MONOCHLAMYDE^;.
171
in the system ; the succulent fruit seems harmless ; but the
seeds are said to be dangerous.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Taxus, Dacrydium.
Taxus baccata loaded with male flowers. 1. A male flower. 2. An anther.
3. A female flower. 4. A vertical section of an ovule. 5. Of a ripe fruit. 6. Of a
ripe seed, showing the embryo. — N.B. 4. and 6. are the same part in youth and age.
5. Is the ripe ovule, with an accessory cup.
155. — Pinacete, or Conifers. Trees or shrubs, with a
branched trunk abounding in resin. Ligneous tissue marked
with circular disks. Leaves entire. Flowers moncecious or
dioecious. Males monandrous or monadelphous, collected in
a deciduous catkin. Females in cones. Ovary a flat scale.
Ovules naked. Fruit a cone. Seed with a hard integument.
Embryo in oily albumen, with 2 or many opposite coty-
ledons.
USES. — The timber is of great value ; Deal, Fir, Pine,
Cedar, Larch wood are produced by various species. Tur-
pentine, resin, pitch, and similar substances are obtained from
others ; the resin Sandarach exudes from Thuja articulata.
Juniper-berries are the galbuli of Juniperus communis, and
are diuretic. Savin, a dangerous emmenagogue, is the Juni-
perus Sabina. Larch bark is equal to that of Oak for tan-
ning power.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Thuja, Abies, Cupressus.
>t.(«
172
DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM.
Thuja orientalis. 1. A magnified fragment of a branch bearing a cone of male
flowers. 2. A portion of a female branch. 3. 4. Scales with naked ovules. 5. A
vertical section of a ripe seed.
3
Abies Larix 1. An anther. 2. A female scale with ovules. 3. A ripe cone
4. A scale of the latter with a naked seed. 5. Vertical section of seed and embrm
EXOGE1O3 MONOCHLAMYDE^E.
173
Cupressus sempervirens. 1. A scale of a male cone with pollen. 2. A scale of a
female cone with naked ovules. 3. A ripe cone. 4. The same with one of the
scales removed.
CLASS II. ENDOGEN^E.
This class is much smaller than the last, and much more
easy to arrange systematically. For general purposes the fol-
lowing subdivisions may be used :
1. Rhizanthee. Fungoid parasitical plants.
2. Florida. Leafy plants with the floral envelopes ver-
ticillate.
3. Glwmaceee. Leafy plants with the floral envelopes im-
bricated.
SUBCLASS I. RHIZANTH^;.
Order 156. — Rafflesiacea. Flowers by abortion dioecious.
Perianth superior, 5-parted, imbricated ; the throat surround-
ed by calli. Column adhering to the tube of the perianth ;
anthers numerous, 2-celled, opening by a vertical aperture.
Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with many-seeded parietal placentae ;
styles conical.
USES. — Astringents ; scarcely known.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Rafflesia, Pilostyles.
174
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
157. — Cytinaceae. Flowers monoecious, at the top of a stalk
covered with scales. Perianth tubular, with a spreading
limb. Column fleshy, thickened at the point, covered by
anthers. Anthers 8, 2-celled. Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with
8 parietal placentae. Style simple, joined to the tube of the
perianth by septiform processes ; stigma capitate, thick.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Cytinus, Aphyteia.
158. — Balanoplioraceec. Flowers monoecious, in dense heads.
Calyx deeply 3-parted, equal, spreading, sometimes imperfect.
Stamens 1-3, epigynous. Ovary inferior, 1-2-celled, 1-2-
seeded ; ovule pendulous. Style 1 ; stigma simple, rather
convex. Fruit 1-celled, containing spores collected in a bag
resembling a seed.
USES. — Cynomorium coccineum was formerly used as an
astringent, under the name of Fungus Melitensis.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Balanophora, Cynomorium.
},K fu"giforme; _}• A, male Plant- 2. A female. 3. Male flowers with
hairs between them 4. Females. 5. A vertical section of a female, with the two
pendulous ovules. 6. A section across a ripe fruit. 7. Seeds.
SUBCLASS II. FLORIDA.
I59.—ffydrocharacex. Floating or water-plants. Sepals 3,
herbaceous. Petals 3, coloured. Stamens definite or indefi-
Ovaryl- or many-celled; stigmas 3-6; ovules often
ENDOGENJE FLORIDA.
175
parietal. Seeds without albumen; embryo undivided, anti-
tropous.
USES. — Unknown .
TYPICAL GENERA. — Hydrocharis, Stratiotes.
160. — Zingiberacea or Scitaminea. Aromatic, tropical,
herbaceous plants. Leaves with divergent veins. Calyx
superior, tubular. Corolla irregular, with 6 segments in 2
whorls. Stamens 3, of which the 2 lateral are abortive.
Filament not petaloid. Anther 2-celled. Stigma dilated,
hollow. Fruit usually capsular, occasionally berried. Seeds
with or without an aril ; albumen floury ; embryo enclosed
within a vitellus.
USES. — Aromatic stimulants. Ginger is the rhizoma of
Zingiber officinale ; Cardamoms are the fruit of Elettaria
Cardamomum and others. Grains of Paradise, or Meleguetta
pepper, are furnished by Amomums. Turmeric, Galangale,
and Zedoary are other products of the order.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Alpinia, Hedychium.
1. Flowers of Kaempferia pandurata. 2. The inner row of the corolla seen in pro-
file. 3. The anther, enclosing the apex of the style between its lobes. 4. The
style and stigma, with two abortive stamens at the base. 5. A transverse section of
the ovary. 6. Ripe fruit of Ceylon Cardamoms, Elettaria Cardamomum Zeylanicum
of Pereira. 7. A seed. 8. The same cut through to show the embryo seated in
vitellus.
161. — Orchidacea. Herbaceous plants, in tropical countries
often growing on trees and rocks. Leaves often articu-
176
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
latecl with the stem. Sepals 3. Petals 3, of which 2 are
uppermost, and 1, the lip, undermost. Stamens 3, united in
a column, the 2 lateral abortive, the central perfect, or the
central abortive, and the 2 lateral perfect ; pollen powdery,
or cohering in masses. Ovary 1-celled, with 3 parietal pla-
centae ; style a part of the column of the stamens ; stigma
a viscid space in front of the column. Seeds very numerous,
minute.
USES. — The roots of Orchis mascula and others contain a
large quantity of hard mucilage, and form a nutritious sub-
stance called Salep. The fragrant Vanilla is the succulent
fruit of Vanilla planifolia. The corm of Bletia verecunda is
bitter; the expressed juice of Epidendrum bifidum is said to
be purgative.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Orchis, Epidendrum, Spiranthes, Onci-
dium.
AA fl°Wer Seen in Profile' 2" The
skinA P°Uen m
en from
" A SCpd
ENDOGENJE FLORID JE. 377
162. — Marantacea. Herbaceous tropical plants destitute
of aroma. Leaves with divergent veins. Calyx superior, of
3 sepals. Corolla irregular, with the segments in 2 w~horls.
Stamens 3, petaloid, of which one of the laterals and the
intermediate are barren or abortive. Filament petaloid;
anther 1-celled. Stigma cucullate, and incurved. Seeds
without aril ; albumen hard ; embryo naked.
USES. — Maranta arundinacea and some others form a large
quantity of pure starch in their tubers, and this, when ex-
tracted, forms arrow-root ; the leaves of both this and the
Zingiberaceous order are plaited into baskets by the Indians.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Maranta, Canna.
163. — Musaceee. Leaves with divergent veins, sheathing at
the base, and forming a kind of spurious stem ; often very
large. Flowers spathaceous. Perianth 6-parted, petaloid,
in 2 rows. Stamens 6, some abortive ; anthers 2-celled.
Stigma usually 3-lobed. Fruit either a 3-celled capsule, or
succulent. Embryo in the axis of mealy albumen.
USES. — The large fleshy fruits filled with starch in Musa
are the Plantains and Bananas of tropical countries, where
they furnish the inhabitants with an abundance of most nu-
tritious food.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Musa, Strelitzia.
1 64. — Amaryttidacea. Generally bulbous, sometimes fibrous-
rooted, occasionally with a lofty stem. Leaves ensiform.
Calyx and corolla equally coloured, superior. Stamens 6 ;
anthers bursting inwardly. Stigma 3-lobed. Albumen fleshy
or corneous.
USES. — Hsemanthus toxicarius, and many others, have
poisonous bulbs. The deleterious principle in a diffused state
renders them simply emetic, as in Narcissus, several species of
which possess this quality ; or purgative, as Oporanthus luteus.
In some Alstromerias with fleshy roots a large quantity of
starch exists, which, when freed from impurities, forms a sort
of arrow-root. Agave Americana, the American Aloe, as it is
miscalled by gardeners, abounds, when flowering, in a sweet
sap, which, being fermented, becomes an intoxicating liquid,
called Pulque.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Amaryllis, Oporanthus, Narcissus.
178
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
Pancratium maritimum. 1. A flower cut open, and showing that there is a bifid
tooth, forming a coronet or cup, between each stamen. 2. A transverse section of the
ovary. 3. A section of the seed, showing the embryo.
165. — Dioscoreacea. Twining shrubs. Leaves alternate,
netted, with a distinct petiole. Flowers minute, dioecious.
Calyx and corolla superior. Stamens 6. Ovary 3-celled,
with 1- or 2-seeded cells ; style deeply trifid. Fruit leafy,
compressed, occasionally succulent. Embryo small, near the
hilum, in a large cavity of cartilaginous albumen.
USES. — The roots of many species of Dioscorea abound in
starch, and are the Yams used for food in tropical countries
instead of Potatoes. Nevertheless there is present a highly
deleterious principle, that, when concentrated, renders these
plants dangerous. The root of Tamus communis is very acrid ;
and even some Yams are too nauseous to be used for food,
even after careful cooking.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Tamus, Dioscorea.
ENDOGEN/E FLORIDA.
179
166. — Iridacea. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs. Stem
often a rhizoma or cormus. Leaves usually equitant. Calyx
and corolla confounded, sometimes irregular. Stamens 3, from
the base of the sepals ; anthers bursting externally. Stigmas
3, often petaloid. Albumen corneous, or densely fleshy.
USES. — Crocus sativus has long orange-coloured stigmas,
which, when dried, form saffron. Orris-root is the slightly
stimulating aromatic rhizoma of Iris florentina and others ;
that of I. pseudacorus is acrid, purgative, and emetic.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Iris, Crocus, Tigridia.
Crocus vernus. 1. A flower split open. 2. The stigmata. 3. A transverse sec-
tion of the ovary. 4. A section of the seed to show the embryo.
167. — Bromeliacea. Stemless or short-stemmed plants, with
rigid channelled leaves often covered with cuticular scurf.
Calyx 3-parted, superior, usually herbaceous. Petals coloured.
Stamens 6, or more. Stigma 3-lobed, or entire, often twisted.
N 2
180
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
Seeds numerous; embryo taper, or minute, in the base of
mealy albumen.
USES. — The sub-acid fragrant fruit of Ananassa sativa is the
well-known Pine-apple. The dry filamentous stems of Til-
landsia usneoides are used in tropical countries for stuffing-
mattresses.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Bromelia, Tillandsia.
168. — Smilacex. Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs, with
a tendency to climb. Stems woody. Flowers hermaphrodite
or dioecious. Calyx and corolla inferior, 6-parted. Stamens 6.
Ovary 3-celled ; stigmas 3. Fruit a roundish berry. Albu-
men between fleshy and cartilaginous.
USES. — The diuretic demulcent called Sarsaparilla is the
root of several species ; others have a large fleshy root possess-
ing similar properties, and called Chinee radix : it appears to
be nutritious. The leaves of Smilax glycyphylla are bitter-
sweet, and are used for tea in New Holland.
Smilax glycyphylla. 1. A male flower seen from above. 2. A female flower.
3. A transverse section of an ovary. 4. A seed. 5. A section of a seed, showing
the embryo.
169. — Liliacetz. Boots fibrous or fasciculate. Stem none ;
a bulb; or tuberous, or creeping, or arborescent. Calyx and
corolla inferior, coloured, regular. Stamens 6. Anthers open-
ENDOGEN^l FLORIDA.
181
ing inwards. Ovary 3-celled; stigma simple, or 3-lobed.
Fruit 3-celled. Embryo in the axis of fleshy albumen.
USES. — Asparagus is the young shoots of Asparagus offici-
nalis. Squills, so well known for their expectorant, emetic,
and diuretic qualities, are the roots of Squilla maritima.
What are called Alliaceous plants are found here in the form
of Garlic, Onions, Chives, Leeks, and Rocambole, all species of
Alliuin. The purgative drug Aloes is an extract from Aloe
socotrina and other species. The Dragon-tree of Teneriffe
is an arborescent form of the order, and yields an astringent
substance called Gum Dragon.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Tulipa, Fritillaria, Hyacinthus.
Arthropodium paniculatum. 1. A flower magnified. 2. A ripe capsule. 3. A
transverse section of it. 4. A vertical section of a seed.
170. — MelantliacetK. Roots fibrous, sometimes fascicled.
Rhizoma sometimes a fleshy corm. Leaves sheathing at the
182
DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM.
base. Perianth inferior, in 6 pieces, or tubular. Stamens
6 ; anthers opening outwards. Ovary 3-celled, many-seeded ;
style trifid or 3-parted. Capsule divisible into 3 pieces. Al-
bumen dense, fleshy.
USES. — Poisonous plants. Meadow Saffron (Colchicum au-
tumnale) is an acrid narcotic and cathartic. White Helle-
bore the root of Veratrum album, Cebadilla produced by
Asagrsea officinalis, and the roots of various kinds of Trillium
and Helonias, possess similar properties.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Veratrum, Colchicum.
coa^s tZr ,T ' L V^ in flower' 2" The «""« striPP«d of its outer
ctfon of trmg t.heovaxnesvafter the floral envelopes are cut away 3. A transverse
SonenLl T6S; ' A "F *****. 5. A section of a seed. 6. The flower
t open to show the stamens and the 3-parted style.
l?l'~£uncacea;' Herbaceous plants, with fascicled or fibrous
Mowers generally brown or green, hermaphrodite
r unisexual. Calyx and corolla more or less glumaceous.
ENDOGENJE FLORIDA. 183
Stamens 6, sometimes 3. Ovary 1- or 3-celled. Stigmas
generally 3. Fruit capsular, with 3 valves. Seeds neither
black nor crustaceous ; albumen firm ; embryo within it.
USES. — Unimportant. Used for making mats and similar
objects.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Juncus, Luzula.
172. — Commelynacete. Herbaceous plants. Leaves usually
sheathing. Sepals 3, inferior, herbaceous. Petals coloured,
sometimes cohering at the base. Stamens hypogynous, some
deformed. Ovary 3-celled; stigma 1. Capsule 2- or 3-celled.
Seeds often twin ; embryo pulley-shaped, in a cavity remote
from the hilum ; albumen fleshy.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Commelyna, Tradescantia.
1 73. — Butomacete. Aquatic plants. Leaves very cellular,
often milky. Sepals 3, inferior, herbaceous. Petals 3, coloured.
Stamens definite or indefinite. Ovaries 3, 6, or more. Fol-
licles many-seeded. Seeds minute, attached to the whole of
the inner surface of the fruit.
USES. — Unimportant.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Limnocharis, Butomus.
174. — Palmaceee. Stem simple, rarely forked. Leaves
terminal, very large, pinnate, or flabelliform, plaited in ver-
nation. Spadix enclosed in a valved spatha. Flowers small,
hermaphrodite, or polygamous. Perianth 6-parted, persistent.
Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, definite or
indefinite. Ovary 3-celled, or deeply 3-lobed, with an erect
ovule. Fruit baccate or drupaceous. Albumen cartilaginous
or fleshy ; embryo in a cavity at a distance from the hilum.
USES. — The Cocoa-nut, whose whole structure appears use-
ful, independently of its agreeable fruit, is the produce of Cocos
nucifera ; the tough coarse fibre of this plant is manufactured
into the elastic cables called Coir-rope. The Date-tree is
the Phoenix dactylifera. Sago, a nutritious starchy substance,
is secreted in the trunks of several species, especially of Sagus
Isevis and Caryota urens. The sugary nature of their sap, and
its great abundance, enables the natives of Palm countries to
obtain an intoxicating beverage called Palm wine from others.
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
The Palms of Scripture were the leaves of the Date-tree. The
foliage of the order generally, being large and hard, is well
suited to such purposes as thatching. The Canes, whose
flexible stems when split are woven into chair-bottoms, are
different species of Calamus.
TYPICAL GENERA.— Phoenix, Chamaerops.
Jft
I. Inflorescence of Chamaerops humilis, in its spathe. 2. A portion of the same
with the fruit ripening. 3. A male flower. 4. A female flower. 5. A ripe fruit.
6. A section of another variety, showing the seed. 7. A seed with a portion of the
surface cut away, to display the embryo.
175. — Juncaginacea. Herbaceous bog-plants. Leaves en-
siform. Flowers inconspicuous. Sepals and petals both
herbaceous, inferior, rarely absent. Stamens 6. Ovaries 3 or
6, cohering firmly ; ovules 1 or 2, erect. Fruit dry ; albumen
wanting ; embryo orthotropous, with a lateral cleft.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Triglochin, Scheuchzeria.
ENDOGEN^E FLORIDA.
185
176. — Alismacete. Floating or swamp plants. Sepals 3,
herbaceous, inferior. Petals 3, petaloid. Stamens definite or
indefinite. Ovaries several, 1-celled. Ovules ascending. Fruit
not opening, 1- or 2-seeded. Embryo doubled upon itself.
USES. — The leaves are acrid. The rhizoma of the Arrow-
head, Sagittaria, is eatable.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Alisma, Sagittaria.
1. Leaf of Ouvirandra fenestralis. 2. A flower cut open. 3. Section of a ripe
carpel of O. Bernieriana. 4, 5. Embryo in different positions : the thicker part is
the cotyledon, the smaller the plnmula.
177. — Acoracea. Rhizoma jointed. Leaves ensiform. Flow-
ers hermaphrodite, surrounded with inferior scales. Spathe
leaf-like. Stamens with 2-celled anthers, turned inwards.
Ovaries distinct. Fruit finally juiceless. Seeds albuminous.
Embryo with a cleft on one side.
USES. — Acorus Calamus was the sweet rush with which the
rooms of the higher orders were strewed before the intro-
duction of carpets, &c. It has a fragrant rhizoma, whose
aromatic qualities have rendered it useful in medicine : it is,
however, chiefly employed as an ingredient in hair-powders.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Acorus.
178. — Naiadaceee or Flumales. Water-plants. Leaves
very cellular. Flowers inconspicuous, hermaphrodite or uni-
sexual. Perianth of 2 or 4 pieces, rarely wanting. Stamens
definite. Ovaries 1 or more, superior ; ovule pendulous.
Fruit not opening, 1-celled, 1-seeded. Albumen none ; em-
bryo antitropous, with a lateral cleft.
186
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA.— Potamogeton, Zanuichellia.
Zannichellia palustris. 1. A flower. 2. A cluster of ripe ovaries. 3. An
ovary opened to exhibit the ovule. 4. A vertical section of a seed, showing the
folded up embryo.
179. — Araceee. ' Herbaceous or shrubby, stemless or arbo-
rescent plants. Leaves with parallel or branching veins ;
sometimes compound. Spadix generally enclosed in a spathe.
Flowers unisexual. Perianth wanting. Stamens definite or
indefinite, very short. Ovary 1-celled, very seldom 3-celled ;
ovules erect, or pendulous, or parietal. Fruit succulent. Em-
bryo in the axis of albumen, with a cleft in one side.
USES. — Acrid plants which are sometimes dangerous, as
the Dumb cane, Dieffenbachia Seguina, which paralyses the
muscles of the mouth if bitten. Nevertheless, by cooking, this
acridity is so much diminished, that the leaves of Colocasia
esculenta and others are used in tropical countries instead of
ENDOGENJE FLORIDA.
187
Cabbages. Some, too, secrete large quantities of starch,
which, when separated from the acrid matter, becomes fit for
food, as in Arum maculatum.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Arum, Dracontium, Caladium.
1. Spathe of Arum maculatum. 2. Its spadix loaded with flowers. 3. An anther.
4. A transverse section of an ovary. 5. A cluster of ripe fruits. 6. A seed. 7. A
section of the same, showing the embryo.
180. — Typhaceae. Herbaceous plants, growing in marshes
or ditches. Leaves rigid, ensiform. Flowers unisexual, upon
a naked spadix. Sepals 3, inferior, sometimes a bundle of
hairs. Petals wanting. Stamens 3 or 6 ; anthers wedge-
shaped. Ovary single, 1-celled ; ovule pendulous ; stigmas 1
or 2, linear. Fruit not opening. Embryo in the centre of
albumen, with a cleft in one side.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Typha, Sparganium.
188
DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM.
181. — Pistiacea. Floating plants, with very cellular, lenti-
cular, or lobed stems and leaves. Flowers from the margin
of the stems, inconspicuous, naked. Stamens definite. Ovary
superior, 1 -celled, with erect ovules. Fruit membranous or
capsular, 1- or more seeded. Embryo either in the axis of
fleshy albumen, and having a lateral cleft, or at the apex of
the nucleus.
USES. — Acrid plants of no importance.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Lemna, Pistia.
SUBCLASS III. GLUMACE.E.
182. — Cyperacete. Leaves with their sheaths entire. Stem
solid. Flowers consisting of imbricated solitary bracts. Pe-
rianth none. Stamens definite, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12 ;
anthers fixed by their base. Ovary often surrounded by
bristles ; ovule erect ; style single, trifid or bifid. Nut crus-
taceous or bony. Embryo lenticular, within the base of the
albumen.
hyp08yi""" bris""- 2' A
ENDOGENJE GLUMACE^. 189
USES. — Of no other importance than as covering many
situations with a coarse herbage containing but little nu-
tritive matter. A quantity of starch secreted in the tubers
of some species renders them eatable, as Cyperus esculentus
and others. The Papyrus of the ancients was made from the
stems of the Papyrus antiquorum. A few species are slightly
aromatic.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Scirpus, Schosnus, Carex.
183. — Graminacea. Stems cylindrical, usually fistular.
Leaves alternate, with a split sheath. Flowers in little
locustse, consisting of imbricated bracts, with distinct glumes
or palese, or both. Hypogynous scales 2 or 3, sometimes
wanting. Stamens hypogynous, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or more ; an-
thers versatile. Ovary simple ; styles 2, very rarely 1 or 3 ;
stigmas feathery. Pericarp membranous. Albumen farina-
ceous ; embryo on one side of the albumen, lenticular.
USES. — The most important of all orders, because the floury
albumen of certain species furnishes man with bread, and
the nutritious herbage of others is the sustenance of herbi-
vorous animals. To the class of Corn belong Wheat, Barley,
Rye, Oats, Maize, Rice, and many other species cultivated in
warmer countries ; to that of fodder, Crested Dogstail, various
kinds of Fescue, Foxtail, Rye Grass, and a number of others
cultivated by farmers. Sugar is obtained from the juice of
the Saccharum officinarum, whose stem is solid, contrary to
the custom of the order. Bamboos, whose hard stems are
so valuable in hot countries, are arborescent grasses growing
60 to 100 feet high and more. A fragrant principle is found
in Anthoxanthum odoratum and others, especially Andro-
pogon Schoenanthus, called Lemon-grass in the gardens,
which is used as a stomachic in India ; where also an oil,
valued as an external application in rheumatism, is obtained
from the Andropogon Calamus aromaticus, believed to have
been the ancient drug of that name. The diseased grain
of Rye is Ergot, valuable for its powerful action upon the
uterus. Finally, a narcotic quality has been remarked in a
few species, especially Lolium temulentum.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Agrostis, Bromus, Aira, Lolium.
190
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
1. Locusta of Agrostis alba. 2. Palese and stamens, &c. of the same. 3. Paleae of
Leersia oryzoides. 4. Pistil, stamens, and hypogynous scales of the same. 5. Lo-
custa of Polypogon monspeliensis. 6. Paleae, &c. of the same. 7. Locusta of Stipa
pennata. 8. Rachis, bracteae, and florets of Cynosurus cristatus. 9. Locusta of Cy-
nodon Dactylon. 10. Paleae, and abortive floret of the same.
1. Locusta of Corynephorus canescens. 2. Paleae, &c. of the same. 3. Locusta
of Phalaris aquatica. 4. Locusta of Alopecurus pratensis. 5. Locusta of Aira
caryophyllea. 6. Floret of the same. 7. Locusta of Festuca duriuscula. 8.
Locusta of Glyceria fluitans. 9. Floret of the same. 10. Locusta of Eragrostis
poseformis.
ACROGENS. 191
CLASS III. ACROGENS.
Substance of the plant composed of cellular tissue chiefly ;
spiral vessels or ducts only present in the highest orders.
Stem either increasing by an extension of its point, or by
a developement in all directions from one common point ;
not increasing in thickness when once formed. Sexual organs
absent. Reproduction taking place by spores, or by a mere
dissolution of the utricles of tissue.
184. — Lycopodiacea. Plants, with creeping stems, the
axis abounding in annular ducts. Organs of reproduction
axillary sessile thecse, containing either minute powdery mat-
ter, or.sporules, marked at the apex with three minute ridges.
USES. — Some are powerful emetics and cathartics, especially
L. Selago and rubrum.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Lycopodium, Bernhardia.
185. — Filicales or Filices. Leafy plants producing a rhi-
zoma. Leaves usually coiled up in vernation, with dichoto-
mous veins of equal thickness. Thecse or sporangia arising
from the veins upon the leaves, pedicellate with an elastic
ring, or sessile and destitute of a ring.
Division 1. — Polypodiacea. Thecse with a vertical, usually
incomplete ring ; bursting irregularly and transversely.
Division 2. — Gleicheniacea. Thecse with a transverse, oc-
casionally oblique ring, nearly sessile, and bursting lengthwise
internally.
Division 3. — Osmundacea. Thecse with an operculiform
ring, or without any ; reticulated, striated with rays at the
apex ; bursting lengthwise, and usually externally.
Division 4. — DaneEacea. Thecse sessile, without any ring,
concrete into multilocular sub-immersed masses, opening at
the apex.
Division 5. — Ophioglossaceee. Thecse single, roundish, coria-
ceous, opaque, without ring or cellular reticulation, half
2-valved. Vernation straight.
USES. — The rhizomata of some are astringent ; that of Ne-
phrodium Filix mas has been used as an anthelmintic. In
some countries the pith of the stem is used as food by the
natives, especially in the islands of the South Seas.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Polypodium, Pteris, Adiantum.
192
DE CANDOLLE'S SYSTEM.
•JOS 307
302. Theca of Trichopteris excelsa (GleicJteniaceai). 303. The same of Schizaca
pectinata (Osmundacece). 304. Part of the frond of Aspidium Lonchitis (Polypo-
diacece). 305. Bernhardia dichotoma (Lycopodiaceai). 306. Part of frond of Daval-
lia pyxidata (Polypodiacea). 307. Theca of the same. 308. Part of frond of As-
pidium exaltatum. 309. Theca of Bernhardia dichotoma (Lycopodiacea). 310.
Lycopodium annotinum. 311. A scale and theca of the same.
1 86. — Equisetacea. Leafless branched plants with a striated
fistular stem ; the articulations separable, and surrounded
by a toothed sheath. Spiral vessels very few. Inflorescence
consisting of peltate scales. Reproductive bodies in the inside
of the lobes of the scales. Four clavate bodies, wrapped
round a naked spore.
USES. — The hard, flinty skin renders them fit for polishing
purposes, for which some are used under the name of Dutch
rushes.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Equisetum.
1 87. — Characea. An axis, consisting of parallel tubes. Or-
gans of reproduction : succulent globules, containing filaments
and fluid, and axillary nucules, formed of short tubes, twisted
spirally.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Chara, Nitella.
188. — Bryaceee, or Mmci. Cellular plants, having a distinct
axis, covered with minute leaves. Reproductive organs of
two kinds : viz. axillary, cylindrical stalked sacs, contain-
ACROGENS.
193
ing a multitude of particles emitted upon the application of
water ; and thecoo or hollow urn-like cases, covered by a
calyptra, closed by a lid, within which are rows of processes,
called the peristome ; the centre of the theca occupied by a
columella. Sporules, when germinating, protruding confervoid
filaments, which afterwards ramify, and form an axis.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Hypnum, Bryum.
312. Jungermannia bicuspidata (Jungermanniacece). 313. Peristome of Tortula
mralis (Muscaceae). 314. Theca of Ceratodon purpureus (Muse.) 315. Supposed
representatives of sexual organs in Meesia longiseta (Muse.) 316. Bryum roseum
(Muse.) 318. Peristome of Octoblepharum albidum (Muse.) 319. Apophysis and
theca of Splachnum luteum.
189. — Andraacea. Branching moss-like plants, with im-
bricated leaves. Thecse with a calyptra, splitting longi-
tudinally into four valves. Peristome 0. Spores attached
to a central columella.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Andrsea.
190. — Jungermanniaceee. Creeping moss-like plants, either
with imbricated leaves, or with the leaves and axis all fused
into one. Thecse without an operculum, 4-parted, or 2-4-
valved. Spores mixed with elaters.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENUS. — Jungermannia.
194
DE CANDOLLE S SYSTEM.
191. — Marclantiacea or Hepatica. Plants composed en-
tirely of cellular tissue, emitting roots from their under side,
and consisting of an axis, bordered by a membranous expan-
sion, which sometimes forms a broad lobed thallus. Repro-
ductive organs consisting of a peltate stalked receptacle, bear-
ing theca3 on its under surface ; or of sessile naked thecse, im-
mersed, or superficial.
USES. — Unknown.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Marchantia, Riccia.
192. — Lichenacea. or Lichenes. Perennial plants spreading
in the form of a lobed thallus. Reproductive matter of two
kinds : 1, sporules lying in membranous tubes, immersed in
shields ; 2, separated cellules of the medullary layer of the
thallus.
USES. — Several are bitter, and some have been used as
tonics ; as Variolaria faginea, and Parmelia parietina. Others
are nutritious, as Iceland Moss, Cetraria islandica. Roccella
tinctoria is Orchal, and Lecanora Perellus, Cudbear, used ex-
tensively by dyers.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Parmelia, Lecidea, Peltidea.
328. Shields of Variolaria amara. 329. A portion of the thallus of the same plant.
330. A piece of the thallus of Sticta pulmonacea with lacunae and soredia. 331.
Thallus of the same, bearing shields. 332. Shield of Opegrapha scripta. 333. Thal-
lus of the same. 334. Shields young and old of Lecanora Perellus. 335. Shields of
Bseomyces rufus. 336. Part of thallus of Peltidea canina. 337. Section of a shield
oi hticta pulmonacea. 338. Podetia of Cenomyce coccinea. 339. Section of shield
ol Baeomyces rufus. 340. Shields of Endocarpon miniatum. 341. Thallus of the
same. Chiefly from Greville's Flora Edinensis.
ACROGENS.
195
193. — Algacea or Alga. Leafless plants, with no distinct
axis ; growing in water, consisting either of simple vesicles,
or of articulated filaments, or of lobed fronds. Reproductive
matter either wanting or in the joints of the filaments, or
in thecse of various forms. Spores in germination elongating
in two opposite directions.
USES. — A nutritious gelatinous matter is obtained from
certain Gracilarias, and Chondrus crispus, sometimes called
Irish Moss. Gigartina Helminthochorton has been em-
ployed as an anthelmintic. They are generally collected
under the name of Wrack for burning for Kelp, formerly the
source of Carbonate of Soda. The substance sold in the
shops under the name of Laver is the Porphyra laciniata,
and vulgaris, and the Ulva latissima.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Fucus, Conferva.
Reproductive organs of 320. Lawrencia pinnatifida. 321. Vaucheria geminata,
322. Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus. 323. Bonnemaisonia asparagoides. 324. Aspe-
rococcus echinatus. 325. Odonthalia dentata. 326. Lichina confinis. 327. Fucus
vesiculosus. All from Greville's Algae Britannic*.
194. — Fungacea or Fungi. Plants consisting of cellules,
among which filaments are occasionally intermixed, increas-
ing in size by addition to their inside ; their outside under-
going no change after its first formation, frequently ephemeral.
Spores lying either loose among the tissue, or enclosed in
sporidia.
o2
196
DE CANDOLLES SYSTEM.
USES. — Agaricus campestris, the common Mushroom, and
some other species of the same gemis, Tuher cibarium, the
Truffle, and many others, are eatable and nutritious. Others
are dangerous poisons. Amadou is made from Boletus
igiiiarius. Great numbers are mischievous parasites, infesting
both live and dead organized matter, and even attacking
living insects. Vast damage is committed by them under
the name of Mildew, Ilust, Brand, Smut, and Dry-rot.
TYPICAL GENERA. — Agaricus, Geastrum, Mucor, Hypoxy-
lon.
342. Arcyria flava. 343. Geastrum multifidum. 344. Mucor caninus. 345.
Basidia and cystidia of an Agaric. 346. Agaricus cepjcstipcs. 347. Vcrmicularia
tnchella. 348. Vertical section of Hypoxylon punctatum. 349. Angioridium sinu-
osum. From Greville's Cryptogamic Flora.
197
V. THE ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
THE following pages explain the author's own views of arrange-
ment in 1836, and serve as a key to the Natural System of
Botany (Edition 2, London 1836). Although his opinion is much
modified by subsequent consideration, yet he knows from expe-
rience that these short characters are of considerable value to
students.
CLASSES.
The whole vegetable kingdom is divisible into five principal classes,
which may be characterised as follows :
/^Exogens with their seeds
\ in an ovary . I. EXOGEIXLE.
'having spiral/ Exogens with naked
vessels J seeds . . II. GYMNOSPERMJE.
VEndogens . . III. ENDOGEN^l.
without spiral vessels, or with scarcely
any ..... IV. RHIZANTH^.
Propagated without sexes .... V. ACROGEN^E.
They are further known by a separate consideration of the nature of
all their principal organs, thus :
Propagated
by sexes
Wood,
Veins of
Leaves.
Floral
Envelopes.
Sexes.
Embryo.
I. EXOGENS
Exogens
Netted
Quinary
Perfect
Dicotyledonous
II. GYMNOSPERM^E
Exogens
Parallel or
None
Imperfect
Dicotyledonous
forked
III. ENDOGENS
Endogens
Parallel
Ternary
Perfect
Monocotyledonous
IV. RHIZANTHJE
None
None
Variable
Imperfect
Acotyledonous
V. ACROGEN^E
Acrogens
Forked,
None
None
Acotyledonous
or 0
The five classes form a circle, the centre of whose circumference is occupied by Exogens
and Endogens, the common point by Acrogens, and the intermediate spaces by Gymno-
spermse and Rhizanthae, which are transition classes. This may be expressed thus :
Exogens, Endogens,
Gymnospennae, Rhizanthae,
Acrogens.
This proposition is to be demonstrated in the course of the following explanation of the
characters and affinities of the various Classes, Subclasses, Groups, Alliances, and Natural
Orders, of which the vegetable kingdom consists.
198 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
CLASS I. EXOGEN^E.
The Subclasses are
COMPLETE PLANTS ; with both their calyx and corolla perfect ; or at
least with the calyx highly developed, if the petals are absent :
these divide into
1. POLYPETAL.E, with the petals distinct.
3. MONOPETALJE, with the petals united into a tube.
2. INCOMPLETE PLANTS; in which there is no corolla; their calyx is
generally either but little developed or altogether absent.
No division of Exogens has been discovered more in accordance with natural affinities,
than that which depends upon the different degree of developement of the flower ; it is
true, indeed, that its characters are not always constant, and that practical difficulties
arise from the circumstance of some genera belonging to polypetalous orders having no
petals, while a portion of some monopetalous orders are actually polypetalous, and so on.
Nevertheless the arrangement founded upon the distinctions above recorded appears to be
natural, if the latter are rightly considered.
As understood by me, all those orders in which the floral envelopes are herbaceous, and
imperfectly developed, belong to Incompletae, whether there are two rows or not, as Me-
nispermaceae : nor ought others, as Euphorbiaceae, to be removed from Polypetalae ; be-
cause, although the mass of such orders is polypetalous, certain European genera, with
which we are best acquainted, have no petals. With regard to those polypetalous orders,
in some genera of which the petals cohere by their edges, so as to resemble a monopeta-
lous corolla, the only means of recognising them is by observing that their petals are
scarcely joined at the base ; there is this, however, which assists in removing the diffi-
culty : in true monopetalous orders the style is scarcely ever divided, except just at the
point, and their fruit is therefore, in all cases, syncarpous ; while, in those polypetalous
genera, which take on a monopetalous appearance, the fruit is in reality apocarpous, as is
the case with Anonaceae, Crassulaceae, Leguminosse, Meliaceae, Rutacese, &c. The two
latter, although syncarpous when young, yet become truly apocarpous as their fniit ripens.
SUBCLASS I. POLYPETAL.E.
These comprehend the following groups :
1. Albuminosa:. Embryo very considerably shorter and smaller than the
albumen.
2. EpigynoscB. Ovary inferior, usually having an epigynous
disk.
3. ParietostB. Placentae parietal.
4. Calycosa. Calyx incompletely whorled; two of the sepals
being exterior.
5. SyncarposcB. None of the characters of the other groups,
l-^J*J-t_J_l 1 T ••• OJ."7
II
C gn
and with the carpels compactly united.
6. GynobaseoscB. Carpels not exceeding five, diverging at the
base, arranged in a single row around an elevated axis, or
gynobase. Stamens usually separate from the calyx.
7. Apocarposa. None of the characters of the other groups,
but with the carpels distinct ; or separable by their faces ;
or solitary.
-In the succeeding pages the first column contains a brief character of the
der; the second the name of the Order; the third its sensible properties,
with some officinal example in italics within brackets, when any is to be found. When
J third column is blank, nothing is known of the sensible property.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
199
GROUP i.
Alliance 1. — Ranales. Herbaceous plants, either apocarpous,
or with parietal placentae.
Floral envelopes in threes 1. Ranunculacese
or fives. Sap transparent.
§ Podophylleae
Floral envelopes in twos or 2. Papaveraceac
fours. Sap usually milky § Fumariese
Embryo enclosed in a vitel- 3. Nymphseaceas
lus. Floaters. § Hydropeltideae.
Ovaries concealed in a 4. Nelumbiaceae
fleshy receptacle. Float-
ers.
Stamens perigynous . 5. Cephalotaceae.
Acrid, poisonous
(Black Hellebore,
Aconite).
Cathartic.
Narcotic (JPoppy).
Diaphoretic and
aperient.
Slightly astringent.
Wholesome.
Alliance 2. — Anonales. Apocarpous woody plants.
Flowers unisexual, three- 6. Myristicaceae
lobed. Stamens colum-
nar.
Leaves with stipules, with- 7. Magnoliaceae
out dots.
Leaves with stipules and 8. Winteraceae
transparent dots.
Flowers hermaphrodite, 9. Anonacese
three-parted. Stamens
usually distinct.
Leaves without stipules. 10. Dilleniaceae
Flowers pentapetalous.
Acrid, aromatic
(Nutmeg}.
Bitter, tonic.
Aromatic, stimu-
lant ( Winter's
Bark).
Aromatic (Piper
(Ethiopicum).
Astringent.
Alliance 3. — Umbettales. Flowers epigynous, arranged in um-
bels. Stems usually hollow.
Carpels two
11. Umbelliferae or Herb poisonous
Apiaceae.
Carpels more than two . 12. Araliaceae
(Hemlock) ; some-
times stimulant
and eatable (Pars-
ley, Parsnip) ;
fruit aromatic
(Anise).
Slightly stimulant
( Ginseny).
200
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
Alliance 4.— Grossales. Flowers epigynous, arranged in ra-
cemes. Stems solid.
Placentae parietal
13. Grossulacese
Placentae central, many- 14. Escalloniaceae.
seeded.
Placentae central , few-seeded 1 5 . Br uniaceae.
Tonic, or harmless
(BlackCurrants).
Alliance 5. — Berberales. Apocarpous, with the valves of the
anthers curved backwards.
16. Berberacese
§ Nandinese.
Acid, astringent
(Berberry'). Dye
yellow.
Alliance 6. — Pittosporales. Syncarpous, with hypogynous
stamens, and the placentae in the centre of the
fruit.
Fruit two-celled. Seeds 17. Vitaceae .
few.
Fruit with more than two 18. Pittosporaceae.
cells. Seeds numerous.
Stamens all perfect.
Petals split. Flowers un- 19. Olacaceae.
symmetrical.
Fruit with more than two 20. Francoaceae.
cells. Seeds numerous.
Stamens half sterile.
Stigma leafy, peltate
Acidity and sugar
( Vine),
21. Sarraceniaceae.
A group in appearance natural, and agreeing with its technical character in all respects,
with the exception of Nelumbium, which has no albumen ; and the genus Berberis, in
which the embryo is much larger in proportion to the albumen than in any other instance.
Some connecting links are obviously wanting in this group ; and, until it is well
considered, it will appear less natural than it really is, especially if we compare such
plants as the Vine with the Crowfoot, or either with Sarracenia. Nevertheless, it is to
be observed, that it very nearly agrees with De Candolle's Thalamiflorous subclass, and
that the mutual affinities of the alliances may be demonstrated. Take Anonales and
Ranales for the centre of the ciisumference of a circle composed of the six foregoing
alliances : —
Then Anonales pass into Pittosporales through Cheiranthera ;
Pittosporales — Grossales
Grossales — Berberales
Berberales — Umbellales
Umbellales
Ranales
Ranales
Anonales
and the relative position of the alliances will be thus: —
Anonales .... Ranales
Pittosporales Umbellales
Grossales .... Berberales.
Ribes ;
Berberis ;
Nandinea? ;
Thalictrum ;
Magnolia ;
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
201
There is no difficulty in pointing out the various gradations that connect the genera
belonging to the orders comprehended in the Albuminous group. The most paradoxical
part of the combination is the union of baccate-fruited with dry-fruited plants : but even
Vitacese pass into Umbelliferae through Leea ; and the petals of the genus Vitis itself are
inflected at the points, in the way of Umbelliferae.
GROUP II. EPIGYNOSvE.
Alliance 1. — Onagrales. .Estivation of corolla not valvate.
Placenta} central. Every part of the flower
some regular multiple of two.
22. Onagraceae
§ Circaeeae.
§ Halorageae
None. Harmless.
None.
Alliance 2. — Myrtales. ^Estivation of corolla not valvate.
Placenta} central. Number of parts of the
flower uncertain.
Carpels single. Petals broad 23. Combretacese
Carpels single. Petals very 24. Alangiacese
narrow.
Stipules between the leaves 25. Rhizophoraceae
Stamens bent downwards. 26. Memecylaceae.
Leaves one-ribbed.
Stamens bent downwards. 27. Melastomaceae
Leaves three- or more-
ribbed.
Leaves dotted, with an in- 28. Myrtaceae
trarnarginal vein.
Leaves alternate. Flow- 29. Lecythidaceae
ers irregular.
Leaves not dotted. Sta- 30. Philadelphaceae.
mens straight.
Astringent (Myro-
balan).
Hydragogues.
Astringent (Man-
grove).
Slightly astringent.
Aromatic stimulant
( Cajeputi, Cloves) ;
bark astringent.
Fruit eatable (Bra-
zil nut).
Alliance 3. — Cornales. ^Estivation of corolla valvate.
Leaves with stipules . SI. Hamamelaceae.
Leaves without stipules . 32. Cornaceae .
Parasitical plants, bearing 33. Loranthaceae
their stamens on their
petals.
Tonic.
Astringent.
202
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
Alliance 4. — GucurUtales. Placentae parietal.
Flowers unisexual . . 34. Cucurbitaceae
Flowers with a ring of 35. Loasaceae .
abortive stamens.
Petals extremely nume- 36. Cactaceae .
rous.
Sepals and petals alike. 37. Homaliaceae.
Glands between the sta-
mens.
Purgative (Colo-
cyntK); or eatable
(Melon, Gourd).
Stinging.
Subacid; whole-
some.
Alliance 5. — Ficoidales. Petals extremely narrow and nume-
rous.
38. Mesembryaceae . Wholesome.
Alliance 6. — Begoniales. Flowers unisexual. Placentse cen-
tral.
39. Begoniacese
Slightly astringent.
These plants seem to be all connected by a general natural relationship ; and yet it is
extremely difficult to fix the limits of their alliances. They appear to be connected with
the Syncarpous group through Melastoma and Lythraceae, and with the Albuminous group
by the genus Eupomatia, and even by Caetacese, which evidently touch upon Gros-
sulaceae. They also pass into Monopetalae by Melastomacese, which join them with Gen-
tianaceae. I entertain no doubt about this being nearly the true position of Begoniaceae.
GROUP III. PAKIETOSJE.
Alliance 1. — Cruciales. Embryo curved. Albumen absent.
Stamens tetradynamous
Stamens indefinite .
40. Cruciferae or
Brassicaceae.
41. Capparidaceae
Pungent, stimulant
(Mustard).
Stimulant, some-
times poisonous.
Fruit composed of three 42. Resedaceae . None.
carpels.
Alliance 2. — Violales. Stamens few, with no coronet to the
flower.
Leaves with stipules
43. Violaceae
Leaves dotted -\ . . 44. Samydacese.
Fruit siliquose . . 45. Moringaceae
Lea vescircinate when young 46. Droseraceae
Calyx ribbed . . .47. Frankeniaceae.
Roots emetic ( White
Ipecacuanha).
Pungent, aromatic.
Subacrid.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
203
Alliance 3. — Passionales, Flowers with a ring or coronet of
sterile stamens. Petioles generally glandular.
Leaves with stipules
Flowers unisexual .
Placentae spread over all
the lining of the fruit.
Stipules absent. Ovary
stalked.
Stipules absent. Ovary
sessile (Coronet 0).
48. Passifloraceae
49. Papayacese
50. Flacourtiaceae
52. Malesherbiaceae.
53. Turneraceae.
Subacid.
Vermifugal.
Suspicious.
Alliance 4. — Bixales. Polyandrous. Leaves dotted.
54. Bixaceae . . Purgative and sto-
machic (Arnotlo).
This is connected with the Epigynous group by Passiflora, and with the Calycose by
Turnera, which passes into Cistaceae. Otherwise its external relationships are not well
marked. The orders themselves are intimately related.
GROUP IV. CALYCOSE.
Alliance 1. — Guttales. Polyandrous. Albumen absent. Petals
equal in number to the sepals.
Leaves simple. Seeds few. 55. Guttiferae or Clu- Fruit sometimes
siaceae. eatable (Mangos-
tan) ; purgative,
acrid (Gamboge).
Seeds eatable (Sa-
pocaya nuts).
Leaves compound. Seeds 56. Rhizobolaceae
few.
Leaves alternate. Flow- 57. Marcgraaviaceae.
ersunsymmetrical. Seeds
numerous.
Styles several. Seeds nu- 58. Hypericaceae
merous.
Slightly purgative
and febrifugal.
Alliance 2. — Theales. Polyandrous. Albumen absent. Petals
unequal to the sepals in number.
59. Ternstrbmiaceae . Subnarcotic and as-
tringent ( Tea).
Alliance 3. — Acerales. Stamens definite. Flowers unsymme-
trical.
Petals without appendages. 60. Aceraceae
Fruit indehiscent, wing-
ed, consisting of two car-
pels.
Saccharine {Sugar
maple').
204
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
Petals having scales in
front. Fruit indehiscent,
consisting of three car-
pels. A disk.
Petals without appendages.
Fruit dehiscent.
Flowers papilionaceous
Flowers spurred
61. Sapindaceac
62. ^Esculaceae
63. Polygalaceas
64. Vochyaceae
Leaves and branch-
es poisonous,
fruit eatable
(Litchi).
Bark astringent,
febrifugal (Horse-
chestnut).
Bitter, emetic, &c.
Astringent (Ratan-
hia root}.
Alliance 4. — Cistales. Flowers regular. Albumen present.
65. Elatinaceae.
Stamens equal to the num-
ber of sepals.
Decandrous, without sti-
pules.
Decandrous, with stipules
Polyandrous, with an in-
volucre.
Polyandrous. Style simple.
Radicle remote from the
hilum.
Polyandrous. Styles many.
Seeds hairy.
The characters of this group require careful consideration. Many gynobaseous plants
have a calyx imbricated in a similar way, but they are removed by their gynobasic
structure. The imbricated character of the calyx depends upon this ; that the whorl of
floral leaves is broken, so that about two of the sepals are out of the place of the others,
and are, consequently, altogether external.
The Calycose passes into the Parietose group by Turnera, and into the Syncarpous by
Hugoniaceae.
66. Linaceae
67. Hugoniacese.
68. Chlenaceae.
69. Cistaceae
70. Reaumuriaceae
Mucilaginous, tough
(Flax).
Balsamic (Labda-
nurri).
Saline.
GROUP V. SYNCARPOS^E.
Alliance 1. — Malvales. .^Estivation of calyx valvate ; carpels
four or more.
Stamens monadelphous. 71. Sterculiaceae
Anthers two-celled.
Stamens monadelphous. 72. Malvaceae .
Anthers one-celled.
Anthers bursting by pores. 73. Elaeocarpaceae.
Petals lacerated.
Stamens monadelphous. 74. Dipteraceae
Calyx irregular and en-
larged in the fruit.
Stamens distinct, separate 75. Tiliaceaj .
from calyx.
Stamens distinct, growing 76. Lythraceae
on a tubular calyx.
Mucilaginous.
Mucilaginous
(Marsh mallow).
Resinous (Cam-
phor).
Mucilaginous.
Astringent, acrid.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
205
Alliance 2. — Meliales. ^Estivation of calyx imbricated ; car-
pels four or more.
Stamens combined into a 77.
tube. Seeds wingless.
Stamens somewhat mona- 78.
delphous. Seeds winged.
Stamens monadelphous, 79.
with a dilated connective.
Leaves dotted. Fruit sue- 80.
culent.
Stamens growing to the 81.
calyx. Disk very large.
Meliaceae .
Tonic and stimu-
Cedrelaceae
lant (Canetta).
. Ditto.
Humiriaceae
. Balsamic.
Aurantiaceae
Spondiacese
Subacid, fragrant
(Orange).
Harmless.
Alliance 3. — Rhamnales. ^Estivation of calyx valvate ; car-
pels fewer than four.
Stamens opposite the petals 82. Rhamnaceae
Stamens alternate with the 83. Chailletiaceae
petals.
Anthers opening by pores. 84. Tremandracese.
Seeds carunculate (537).
Somewhat polyandrous. 85. Nitrariaceae
Leaves succulent.
Secreting balsam . . 86. Burseraceae
Dye (French ber-
ries) ; purgative
(Buckthorn).
Poisonous.
Saline.
Balsamic (Balm of
Gilead).
Alliance 4. — Euphorbiales. ./Estivation of calyx imbricated ;
carpels fewer than four.
Flowers unisexual. Fruit 87. Euphorbiaceae
tricoccous.
Flowers hermaphrodite. 88. Stackhousiaceae.
Petals united.
Seeds indefinite. Petals 89. Fouquieracese.
united.
Flowers hermaphrodite. 90. Celastraceae
Petals distinct.
Leaves compound, with 91. Staphyleaceae.
common and partial sti-
pules.
Petals unguiculate. Fruit 92. Malpighiaceae
winged.
Stimulant, purga-
tive, poisonous
( Castor oil, Cas-
carilla, c$r.)
Fruit sometimes
eatable.
Fruit sometimes
eatable.
206
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
Alliance 5. — Silenales.
men ;
joints.
Sepals two
Sepals four or five, united
into a tube.
Sepals four or five, distinct
Dehiscence of fruit loculici-
dal. Seeds hairy.
Leaves with stipules
Embryo rolled round mealy albu-
or herbs with leaves having tumid
93. Portulacacceae
94. Silenacea? .
95. Alsinaceae .
9G. Tamaricaceae
97. Illecebracese
Insipid, eatable
(Purslane).
Inert.
Inert.
Slightly astringent.
Ditto.
All these orders correspond in so intimate a manner as to leave little doubt of their
being correctly associated. Malvales and Meliales are the highest form of the group, Si-
lenalcs the lowest ; while Rhamnales on the one hand, and Euphorbiales on the other,
form the connection. The Syncarpous group passes into Epigynosse by Lythracese, and
into Gynobaseosae by Aurantiaceae.
GROUP VI. GYNOBASEOS.E.
Alliance 1. — Rutales. Style single (or at least the leaves
dotted).
Gynobase fleshy. Carpels 98. Ochnaceae
distinct.
Leaves alternate. Stamens 99. Simarubaceae
arising from scales.
Stipules 0. Fruit capsular. 100. Kutaceae .
Stipules present, leaves op- 101. Zygophyllaceae
posite.
Flowers unisexual . .102. Xanthoxylacese
. Tonic, stomachic.
. Bitter (Quassia).
. Bitter, anthelmintic
(Rue); antispasmodic
(Bucku) ; febrifugal
(Angostura Bark).
. Sudorific, alterative
(Guaiacum).
. Aromatic, pungent.
Alliance Z.—Geraniales. Styles distinct ; at least near the
point. Carpels combined.
Fruit beaked, separating 103. Geraniaceae
into five cocci.
Fruit not beaked. Flow- 104. Balsaminacese
ers irregular. § Tropaeoleae
Fruit not beaked. Flow-
ers regular.
105. Oxalidaceae
Astringent.
Diuretic.
Pungent (Nastur-
tium).
Acid.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
207
Alliance 3. — Coriales.
tinct.
Styles several, and carpels quite dis-
Ovules pendulous.
bryo straight.
Ovules ascending.
bryo bent double.
Em- 106. Coriariaceae
Em- 107. Surianaceae.
Fruit poisonous.
Dyes black.
Alliance 4. — FlorJceales. Style simple. Fruit divided into
deep lobes.
108. Limnanthaceae . Pungent.
This is apparently a natural group ; but the student will be likely to confound it with
other groups, unless he pays great attention to its distinctions. In addition to the re-
ceptacle rising up more or less between the carpels, so as to make them diverge from each
other at the base, it is to be remembered that they fonn only one single whorl, and do
not exceed five in number. If this is neglected, they may be confused with some Ro-
saceae, Malvaceae, &c. The group is very incomplete, and may be expected to be much
altered and increased before its orders are finally settled.
Rutales connect this with the Syncarpous group through Luvunga, a genus belonging
to Aurantiacese. Flb'rkeales distinctly pass into Resales through the genus Florkwi.
Geraniales join this to the Parietous group through Violales, and it is probable that Ru-
tales also lead to the Calycose group.
GROUP VII. APOCARPOS.E.
Alliance 1 . — Rosales. Albumen wholly absent.
Flowers quite regular
Legume-bearing, with the
radicle next the hilum.
Legume-bearing, with the
radicle remote from the
hilum.
Style from the base of the
carpels.
Petals very numerous
109. Rosaceee .
§ Pomese
§ Amygdaleae
§ Sanguisorbese
110. Leguminosse or
Fabacese.
§ Csesalpinieae
§ Mimosese
111. Connaracese.
Astringent.
Fruit eatable {Ap-
ples).
Bark tonic; Prus-
sic acid (Lau-
rel) ; fruit eatable
(Peach).
Astringent (Bur-
net).
Leaves and fruit
eatable (Pulse).
Purgative (Senna).
Astringent (Cate-
chu) ; gummy
(Gum Arabic).
1 1 2. Chrysobalanaceae Fruit eatable.
113. Calycanthaceae Fragrant.
208 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
Alliance l.—Saxales. Carpels two, diverging. Seeds very
numerous with albumen.
Anthers opening by pores. 1 1 4. Baueraceae.
Polyandrous.
Leaves opposite. Stipules 115. Cunoniaceae . Astringent.
between the petioles.
Leaves alternate . . 116. Saxifragaceae . Astringent.
Alliance 3. — Crassales. Carpels several. Seeds very numer-
ous with albumen.
Succulent plants . . 117. Crassulaceae . Refrigerant, abster-
gent (Houseleek).
Alliance 4. — Balsamales. Abounding in balsamic juice.
Leaves dotted. Carpels so- 1 1 8. Amyridaceae . Fragrant, resinous
litary. (Gum Elemi}.
Leaves not dotted . . 119. Anacardiacese . Resinous, poisonous
( Cashew}.
This group passes into Albuminosae by Rosacese and Ranunculaceae, and also by Caly-
canthaceae and Magnoliaceae ; and into Gynobaseosse by Florkea. It is probable that
the divisions into alliances require much re-examination ; but there can be no doubt about
the close relationship of all the orders comprehended in the group. An unpublished
genus of Cunoniaceae connects this group with Cinchonaceae in Epigynous Monopetalae.
It is obvious from the notes appended to each of the foregoing groups, that their
mutual relations may be expressed as follows : —
1. Albuminosae pass into Epigynosae through Eupomatia.
2. Epigynosae Parietosae Passiflora.
3. Parietosae Calycosae Turnera.
4. Calycosae — Syncarposae - Hugoniaceae.
5. Syncarposae — Gynobaseosae — Luvunga.
6. Gynobaseosse — Apocarposae — • Florkea. [thaww.
7. Apocarposae Albuminosae — Ranunculaceae and Calycan-
Their true relations will therefore be better expressed as follows : —
Albuminosae .... Apocarposae.
Epigynosae Gynobaseosrc
Parietosae . . . Calycosae . . . Syncarposae.
This subclass is otherwise allied as follows : —
With Incompletae through Rhamnales to Daphnales.
Euphorbiaceag — Empetracse.
Loranthaceae — ProteaceaB.
? Myristicaceae — Lauraceae.
With Monopetalae through Guttiferae — Ebenaceae.
Umbelliferae — Galiaceae and Caprifoliaceje,
Rhamnaceae — Myrsinaceae.
Rutaceae — Ericaceae.
Cunoniaceae — Cinchonaceae.
Melastomaceae — Gentianacea?
>V ith Endogenae through Ranunculacea; — Alismaceae.
Nymphaeaceae — Hydrocharacece.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
209
SUBCLASS II. INCOMPLETE.
These comprehend the following groups : —
1 . Rectembryosce. Calyx very imperfect. Embryo straight.
2. Acklamydosce. Calyx and corolla altogether absent.
3. TMferoscB. Calyx tubular, often resembling a corolla (and with
none of the characters of the other groups).
4. ColumnosfB. Stamens monadelphous, and ovary many-(six-)celled ;
or, at all events, the latter character combined with an epigynous
flower.
5. Curvembryosce. Embryo curved round albumen ; or having the form
of a horseshoe ; or spiral (calyx rarely tubular).
GROUP I. RECTEMBRYOSyE.
Alliance 1. — Amentales. Flowers in catkins. Carpels several.
Female flowers surrounded 1 20. Corylaceae or Cu- Bark astringent
by a cupule. puliferae. (Oak).
Female flowers arranged in 121. Betulacese . Ditto,
scaly catkins.
Alliance 2. — Urticales. Carpel solitary, or several. Stems
continuous, without sheaths.
Leaves opposite. Calyx su- 122. Garryaceae.
perior.
Leaves opposite. Calyx in- 123. Hensloviaceae.
ferior.
Leaves rough. Anthers
bursting longitudinally.
124. Urticaceae
§ Morese
§ Artocarpeae
§ Ceratophylleae.
Anthers bursting trans- 125. Stilaginaceae.
versely.
Insipid plants with hypo- 126. Empetracese
gynous flowers.
Aromatic plants with hypo- 127. Myricaceae
gynous flowers.
Balsamic plants with epi- 128. Juglandaceae
gynous flowers.
Narcotic, tough
(Hemp).
Fruit eatable (Mul-
berry).
Milky, juice poison-
ous ( Upas) ; fruit
eatable (Fig).
Slightly acrid.
Aromatic, tonic.
Fruit eatable, laxa-
tive (Walnut).
N.B. The stigma of Empetrum and its hypogynous scales seem, among other things,
show that the true affinity of that plant is with Myrica. It is a sort of transition to
to
Euphorbiaceae.
210 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
Alliance 3. — Casuarales. Carpels solitary. Stems jointed
and furnished with sheaths.
129. Casuaracese.
Alliance 4. — Ulmales. Carpels two. Leaves rough.
130. Ulmaceae . Bitter, astringent
(Elm).
Alliance 5. — Datiscales. Seeds numerous. Leaves alternate.
Flowers epigynous . . 131. Datiscaceae . Bitter.
Flowers hypogynous . 132. Lacistemacese.
Of the orders in this natural group, Garryacese point to Gnetacese through Chloran-
thaceae, and so establish a connection with Gymnospermous Exogens. Their approxima-
tion to Curvemhryosas by Urticaceae is pointed out under that group. Their relation to
Achlamydosse is demonstrated by Ceratophyllese, Lacistemacese, Podostemaceae, and
Callitrichaceae.
GROUP II. ACHLAMYDOSJ3.
Alliance 1. — Piperales. Flowers in spikes. Apocarpous.
Leaves opposite, with inter- 133. Chloranthaceae . Aromatic, stimu-
petiolar stipules. lant.
Leaves alternate. Carpels 134. Saururaceae.
several.
Leaves alternate. Carpels 135. Piperaceae . Stimulant, pungent,
solitary, aromatic (Pep-
per).
Alliance 2.—Salicales. Flowers in catkins. Apocarpous.
Polyspermous, with comose 136. Salicaceae . Bark febrifugal
*eeds- (Willow).
Monospermous . . 137. Platanaceae.
Polyspermous, with naked 138. Balsamaceae.
seeds.
Alliance 3.—Monimiales. Flowers in an involucre.
Anthers bursting lengthwise .139. Monimiaceae Aromatic.
Anthers bursting by re- 140. Atherospermaceaa Ditto,
curved valves.
Alliance 4,—Podostemales. Carpels two, united. Seeds in-
definite.
141. Podostemaceae.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
211
Alliance 5. — Cattitrichales. Carpels several.
142. Callitrichaceae.
Probably the two last alliances ought to be combined. But it is evident that the
whole group is so incomplete, that no distribution of the orders is likely to be worth
m"f o Y? • ,e Present- Achlamydosae join Rectembryosse by Garryaceae, Podostemese,
and Callitrichaceae ; and Tubiferosfe by Monimiales. '
GROUP III. TUBIFEROS.E.
Alliance 1. — Santalales. Flowers epigynous.
143. Santalaceae . Sedative (Sandal
Wood).
Alliance 2. — Daphnales. Calyx with an imbricated aestiva-
tion. Carpels solitary.
Stamens distinct. Leaves 144. Elaeagnaceae
scurfy.
Stamens distinct. Leaves 145. Thymelacese
smooth.
Flowers unisexual. Coty- 146. Hernandiaceae
ledons lobed.
Stamens monadelphous . 147. Aquilariaceae
Harmless.
Caustic bark.
Purgative.
Fragrant, resinous.
Alliance 3. — Proteales. ^Estivation of calyx valvate.
Alliance 4. — Laureates.
ward.
148. Proteaceae . None.
Valves of the anthers curved back-
Aromatic, stomachic
(Cinnamon).
Leafy, arborescent, aroma- 149. Lauraceae
tic plants, with fleshy
cotyledons.
Leafy arborescent plants, 150. Illigeraceae.
with leafy crumpled co-
tyledons.
Leafless, herbaceous, insipid 151. Gassy thaceae.
plants.
Alliance 5. — Penaales. Carpels several.
152. Penaeaceae . Sweetish, nauseous,
gummy, resinous
(Sarcocol).
Their tubular calyxes distinguish them at once from all the other groups, except
Columnosae ; and the latter are in general clearly characterised by their stamens united
into a column. Tubiferosae touch Achlamydosae by Lauraceae, and Columnosae by Aris-
tolochiaceae. They are also strongly related to Curvembryosae by Elasagnaceai.
p-2
212 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
GROUP IV. COLUMNOSJ2.
Alliance 1. — Nepenthales. Flowers hypogy nous.
153. Nepenthaceae.
Alliance 2. — AristolocMales. Flowers epigynous.
154. Aristolochiaceae . Tonic, stimulating.
GROUP V. CURVEMBRYOSJE.
Alliance 1. — Chenopodales. Albumen present. Radicle next
the hilum.
Flowers dry, with nume- 155. Amarantaceaj . Wholesome, insipid.
rous bracts.
Flowers herbaceous. Car- 156. Chenopodiacese . Ditto (Spinach).
pels solitary.
Flowers coloured. Carpels 157. Phytolaccaceae . Emetic.
several.
Alliance 2. — Polygonales. Albumen present. Eadicle away
from the hilum.
158. Polygonaceae . Acid (Sorrel) ; pur-
gative and tonic
(Rhubarb).
Alliance 3. — Petivales. Albumen absent. Cotyledons spiral.
159. Petiveriaceae.
Alliance 4. — Sclerales. Tube of the calyx hardened.
Border of the calyx herba- 160. Scleranthaceae.
ceous.
Border of the calyx peta- 161. Nyctaginaceae . Roots purgative.
loid.
Alliance 5. — Cocculales. Albumen present. Flowers formed
upon a ternary plan, dichlamydeous.
162. Menispermaceae Root bitter, tonic
(Calumbd) ; seeds
narcotic (Coccu-
lus).
vemn - ; they have not, how-
ver, much relation to them, and the resemblance in their calyx is overcome by the struc-
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
213
ture of the seed. Nyctaginaceae require a much more careful examination than they yet
have received. Menispermaceae have, strictly speaking, both calyx and corolla ; but
their organs are so small and so much alike, that I place the order here ; it has but b'ttle
apparent relation even to Schizandreae among Anonales, beyond the circumstance of the
parts of its flower being ternary, while it seems closely allied to Aristolochiaceae. Me-
nispermaceae must be considered one of the natural orders among Exogens which tend
towards Endogens. The passage of Curvembryosae into Rectembryosae through Cheno-
podiaceae on the one hand, and Urticaceae on the other, is obvious.
The mutual relations of these groups may be expressed as follows :
1. Rectembryosae pass into Achlamydosae through Garrvaceae
2. Achlamydosae — Tubiferosae
3. Tubiferosae — Columnosae —
4. Columnosae — Curvembryosse —
5. Curvembryosae — Rectembryosae —
Their true relations will therefore be thus :
Rectembryosae, Curvembryosae,
Achlamydosae, Columnosae,
Tubiferosae.
The subclass of Incompletae may be considered allied with other parts of the system in
the following manner, viz.
&c.
Monimiaceae.
Aristolochiaceae.
Menispermaceae.
Chenopodiacese.
With Polypetalae through
With Monopetalae
With Gymnospermae
With Endogenae
Daphnalea
Proteaceae
Lauraceae
Empetraceae
? Nyctaginaceae
Chloranthaceae
Menispermaceae
Aristolochiaceae
to
Rhamnales.
Loranthaceae.
Myristicaceae.
Euphorbiaceae.
Solanaceae.
Gnetaceae.
Smilaceae.
Araceae.
SUBCLASS III. MONOPETAL^:.
These comprehend the following groups :
1. Polycarposa. Flowers hypogynous (rarely epigynous). Ovary com-
posed of many carpels.
2. Epigynosce. Flowers epigynous. Ovary composed of two or many
carpels.
3. Aggregoste. Ovary consisting of but one perfect carpel.
4. Nucamentosa. Ovary composed of two carpels, which are separate,
nut-like, and often divided into two parts.
5. Dicarposce. Ovary composed of two carpels. Fruit capsular.
GROUP I. POLYCARPOSJS.
Alliance 1. — Brexiales. Albumen absent. Carpels five.
163. Brexiaceae.
Alliance 2. — Ericales. Anthers opening by pores. Carpels
from four to five, or more.
Seeds winged. Herbs . 164. Pyrolaceae . Diuretic, tonic.
Brown, leafless, parasites . 165. Monotropaceae.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
Anthers two-celled. Seeds 1 6 C. Ericaceae .
AnThersTwo-celled. Ovary 167. Vacciniaceae . Ditto, ditto.
inferior.
Anthers one-celled . . 168. Epacridaceae.
Alliance S.—P-rimulales. Anthers bursting longitudinally.
Carpels four — five.
Herbaceous plants. Sta- 169. Primulacea. . Slightly narcotic
mens opposite petals.
Woody plants. Stamens 170. Myrsmacese.
opposite petals.
Milky plants. Calyx and 171. Sapotaceae
corolla double.
~o j
(Cowslip).
Watery plants, with twice 172. Ebenacese
as many stamens as pe-
tals.
§ Styraceae
Watery plants, with the 173. Aquifoliacese
same number of stamens
as sepals.
Fruit sweet, eat-
able; bark febri-
fugal.
Astringent. Fruit
eatable.
Resinous, astrin-
gent, aromatic
(Storax, Ben-
zoin).
Astringent, tonic
(Holly).
Alliance 4. — Nolanales. Fruit divided into deep lobes. Car-
pels five, or more.
174. Nolanaceae.
Alliance 5. — Volvales. Carpels from two to four.
Leafless plants. Embryo 175. Cuscutaceac, m.
spiral.
Twining plants, with a
plaited corolla.
176. Convolvulaceae . Roots purgative
(Jalap, Scam-
many).
177. Polemoniaceae.
Erect plants, with an im-
bricated corolla and three
carpels.
Styles numerous. Seeds 178. Hydroleaceee . Bitter,
indefinite.
Nolanaceae adjust these to Dicarposae, and Primulaceae to Epigynosse. Ebenaceae
touch upon Guttiferae, and Myrsinaceae upon Rhamnaceae through the genus Choripetalum.
Ericaceae moreover have an evident affinity with Rutaceae, first through Ledum, which
may be compared with Phebalium, and secondly through Andromeda, which simulates
Corraea.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 215
GROUP II. EPIGYNOSJE.
Alliance 1. — Campanales. Stipules absent. Seeds indefinite.
Anthers united . . 179. Lobeliaceae . Acrid, poisonous.
Anthers distinct . . 180. Campanulacese . Inert.
Polyandrous . . . 181. ? Belvisiacese.
Diandrous . . .182. Columelliacess.
Alliance 2. — Goodeniales. Stigma with an indusium.
Flowers gynandrous . 183. Stylidiaceae.
Stamens distinct. Seeds 184. Goodeniaceae.
indefinite.
Stamens distinct. Seeds 185. Scaevolaceae.
definite.
Alliance 3. — Cinchonales, Stipules between the leaves.
186. Cinchonaceae . Bark febrifugal (Je-
suits' bark} ;
root emetic
(Ipecacuanha).
Alliance 4. — Caprioles, Stipules none. Seeds definite in
number.
188. Caprifoliaceae . Bark astringent.
Alliance 5. — Stellales. Fruit double. Leaves whorled, with
no stipules.
189. Stellatae or Ga- Astringent, dying
liaceae. (Madder).
It is evident that, in this group, Galiacese have a close relationship with Apiaceae ; and
that this approximation is participated in by Caprifoliaceae, through the genera Viburnum
and Sambucus. Some Primulacese seem to approach Cinchonaceae ; and the Goodenial
alliance, by means of Scaevolaceae, passes directly into Brunoniaceae among Aggregosae.
GROUP III. AGGREGOS^:.
Alliance 1. — Asterales. Anthers syngenesious.
Albumen present in the 190. Calyceraceae.
seeds.
Corolla bilabiate . . 191. Mutisiaceae. \
Corollas all ligulate. Milky. 192. Cichoracese
Involucre hemispherical. 193. Asteraceae
Florets of ray ligulate.
Involucre rigid or spiny, co- 194. Cynaraceac
nical. Florets of ray
tubular and inflated.
Narcotic (Lettuce).
Bitter, tonic (Clta-
momile), diuretic.
Bitter (Thistle).
216 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
Alliance 2.—Dipsales. Anthers distinct. Flowers epigynous.
Carpel solitary . .195. Dipsacess . None.
Carpels triple; two of them 196. Valerianaceae . Bitter, antispasmo-
abortive. die, vermifugal
( Valerian).
Alliance 3. — Brunoniahs. Style single. Stigma with an in-
dusium.
197. Brunoniaceae.
Alliance 4. — Plantales. Style single. Stigma naked.
Fruit spuriously double- 198. Plantaginacese . Bitter, astringent
celled. (Plantain}.
Flowers unsymmetrical . 199. Globulariaceae . Bitter, tonic, pur-
gative.
N.B. — The situation of the dissepiment in Plantaginaceae sufficiently shows that
part to be spurious, and that the fruit is in reality quite simple.
Alliance 5. — Plwmbales. Styles five. Flowers formed upon
a quinary plan.
200. Plumbaginaceae. Some tonic, astrin-
gent ; others
acrid, caustic.
GROUP IV. NUCAMENTOS.E.
Alliance 1. — Phaceliales. Fruit capsular. Inflorescence gy-
rate.
201. Hydrophyllaceae.
Alliance 2. — EcMales. Fruit nucamentaceous. Inflorescence
gyrate. Flowers symmetrical.
Fruit deeply lobed . . 202. Boraginaceee . Mucilaginous (Bo-
rage) ; roots dye-
ing (Alkanef).
byncarpous, style bifid . 203. Ehretiacese.
Syncarpous, style dichoto- 204. Cordiacese . Emollient (Selesten
mous- Plum).
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
217
Alliance 3. — Labiates. Fruit nucamentaceous. Inflorescence
gyrate. Flowers unsymmetrical.
Fruit divided into four 205. Lamiaceae or
lobes." Labiatae.
Fruit consisting of about 4 206. Verbenacese
cells. Radicle inferior.
Fruit consisting of about 207. Myoporaceae
four cells. Radicle supe-
rior.
Fruit two-celled. Ovules 208. Selaginaceae.
pendulous. Anthers one-
celled.
Fruit two-celled. Ovules 209. Stilbaceae.
erect. Antherstwo-celled.
Tonic, stomachic
(Thyme, Mint,
&c.)
Slightly bitter.
Tanning.
GROUP V. DICARPOS.E.
Alliance 1. — Bignoniales. Neither albumen nor hooks to the
seeds.
Seeds winged . . .210. Bignoniaceae.
Fruit hard and like a nut . 211. Pedaliaceae
Placentae 4. Seeds wingless 212. Cyrtandraceae.
Emollient.
Alliance 2. — ScropJiulales. Seeds numerous, with albumen.
Leafy plants with a superior 213. Scrophulariaceae. Suspicious (Digi-
ovary. talis).
Leafless plants with a mi- 214. Orobanchaceae.
nute embryo.
Leafless plants with a one- 215. Gesneraceae . Harmless,
celled ovary, partly in-
ferior.
Alliance 3. — AcantJiales. Seeds without albumen, with hooks
to the seeds. Calyx remarkably imbricated.
216. Acanthaceae.
Alliance 4. — Lentibales. A free central placenta.
217. Lentibulaceae.
218 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
Alliance 5.—Gentianales. Flowers symmetrical. Carpels
standing right and left of the axis of inflo-
rescence. ( )
Corolla withering on the 218. Gentianaceae . Bitter (Gentian).
fruit ; in aestivation im-
bricated. . .
Estivation of corolla val- 219. Spigeliacese . Anthelmmtic.
vate. . .
Estivation contorted. Sta- 220. Apocynacese . Milk and fruit
mens distinct. poisonous (Nux
vomica) ; bark
febrifugal some-
times.
Anthers grown to the stig- 221. Asclepiadaceae . Acrid. Emetic,
ma.
Alliance 6. — Oleales. Diandrous.
Estivation of corolla val- 222. Oleaceae . . Oil eatable (Olive).
vate.
Estivation of corolla im- 223. Jasminaceae.
bricate.
Alliance 7. — Loganiales. Flowers unsymmetrical, with seve-
ral stamens.
Leaves furnished with sti- 224. Loganiacese.
pules.
Flowers somewhat pentan- 225. Potaliacese . Acrid. Emetic.
drous.
Alliance 8. — Solanales. Flowers symmetrical. Carpels
standing fore and aft of the axis of inflo-
rescence. ^
Embryo curved. Cotyle- 226. Solanaceae . Poisonous. Nar-
dons cylindrical. cotic (Belladon-
na, Stramonium,
Tobacco).
Embryo straight. Cotyle- 227. Cestraceae.
dons leafy.
It appears that the connection between the foregoing groups is of a most decisive
nature ; for,
1. Polycarposae pass into Epigynosae through Primulales.
2- Epigynosae Aggregosse — Scaevolacese.
3. Aggregosae Nucamentosoc — Dipsaceae.
4. Nucamentosce — Dicarposae — Scrophulariacese.
5. Dicarposae Polycarpos;c — Boraginaceae.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
219
The relations of the groups may therefore be expressed thus :
Polycarposae, Dicarposae,
Epigynosae, Nucamentosae,
Aggregosae.
With regard to the connection of Monopetalous Exogens with other parts of the
system, they appear to have only the following strongly-marked affinities :
With Polypetalae through
With Incompletae —
Gentianaceae
Ebenaceae
Galiaceae
Caprifoliacese
Myrsinaceae
Ericaceae
Cinchonaceae
? Solanaceae
to
Melastomaceaj.
Clusiaceae.
Apiaceae.
Rhamnaceae.
Rutaceae.
Cunoniaceae.
Nyctaginaceae.
It also results from the previous investigations, that true Exogens are only connected
immediately with other classes by the following points :
With Endogens through
With Gymnospermae —
Ranunculaceae
Nymphaeaceae
Menispermaceae
Aristolochiaceae
Chloranthaceae
Alismaceae.
Hydrocharaceae.
Smilaceae.
Araceae.
Gnetaceae.
CLASS II. GYMNOSPERMAE.
Stem with articulations.
Fruit in spikes.
Stem bearing many buds.
Fruit single.
Stem terminated by a sin-
gle bud. Leaves gyrate
before developement.
Stem bearing many buds.
Fruit in cones.
228. Gnetacese.
229. Taxaceae .
230. Cycadacese
231. Pinaceae or Co-
niferse.
These plants are connected by close affinity ; but some links
They are in alliance with other parts of the system, thus :
With Exogens through Gnetaceae to
With Endogens Cycadaceae —
With Acrogens Pinaceae
Cycadaceae —
Leaves deleterious
(Yew).
Wood contains
starch.
Terebintaceous
( Turpentine,
Pitch, &c.)
in the chain are wanting
Chloranthaceae.
Palmaceae.
Lycopodiaceae.
Filicales.
CLASS III. ENDOGENS.
These comprehend the following groups :
1. Epigynosce. Anthers distinct. Flowers complete. Ovaiy inferior.
2. Gynandrosce. Stamens united with the styles. Flowers complete.
Ovary inferior.
3. Hypogynosce. Flowers coloured, with its parts in threes. Ovary
superior.
4. Retosce. Leaves netted, with a taper footstalk articulated with the
stem. Floral envelopes complete.
5. Spadicosce. Flowers herbaceous, or imperfect. Perianth often absent.
Embryo with a lateral slit.
6. Glumosce, Bracts scalelike in the room of a perianth.
220 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
GROUP I. EPIGYNOS^E.
Alliance 1 .— Amomales. Leaves with the veins diverging from
the midrib to the margin.
Monandrous. Anther two- 232. Zingiberaceae . Aromatic, stimu-
celled. latin§ (Ginger}.
Monandrous. Anther one- 233. Marantaceee . Amylaceous, insi-
celled. pid (Arrowroot).
Several anthers . .234. Musaceae . Fruit nutritious
(Banana).
Alliance 2. — Narcissales. Hexapetaloideous hexandrous
plants.
Flowers large. Texture 235. Amaryllidaceee Acrid. Poisonous.
smooth.
Leaves equitant. Plant 236. Heemodoraceae.
woolly.
Leaves equitant. Fruit 237. Burmanniaceae.
winged.
Fruit 1 -celled. Placentae 238. Taccaceae.
parietal.
Alliance 3. — Ixiales. Triandrous.
239. Iridacese . Purgative.
Alliance 4. — Bromeliales. Tripetaloideous scurfy plants (with
albumen).
240. Bromeliacese . Sap sugary (Pine-
apple).
Alliance 5. — Hydrates. Tripetaloideous smooth plants. Sta-
mens more than six. (Albumen absent.)
241. Hydrocharacese.
Both Hydrocharaceae and Bromeliaceae pass into Spadicosae by Pandanaceae. Iridaceae,
particularly the genus Gladiolus, offer a very near approach in structure to Gynandrosae.
GROUP II. GYNANDROS.E.
Ovary one-celled . . 242. Orchidaceae . Aromatic, viscid,
nutritious (Sa-
lep, Vanilla).
The flowers of a Gladiolus would become those of an Orchis in calyx and corolla and
stamens, if the latter were consolidated with the style ; here there is a transition to Epi-
gynosse. Apostasiaceae have the nearly regular flowers of Liliacete, and through them
connect this group with Hypogynosae.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
221
GROUP III. HYPOGYNOS^E.
Alliance 1. — Palmales. Hexapetaloideous plants, with a
Vague embryo.
243. Palmacese . Amylaceous. Sac-
charine (Cocoa-
nut, Sago).
Alliance 2. — Liliales. Hexapetaloideous plants, with an em-
bryo in the axis of the albumen.
Petals rolled inwards after
flowering.
Hexandrous. Anthers turn-
ed outwards. Styles dis-
tinct.
Flowers irregular, with ap-
pendages on the outside.
Hexandrous. Anthers turn-
ed inwards. Styles con-
solidated.
244. Pontederaceae.
245. Melanthacese
246. Gilliesiaceee.
247. Liliaceae .
§ Asphodelese
Cathartic ; nar-
cotic ; diuretic
( White Helle-
bore, Colchicum).
Unimportant.
Bitter, stimulant
(Squill, Onion, &c.)
Alliance 3. — Commelynales. Tripetaloideous plants, with the
carpels three and consolidated.
248. Commelynacese.
Alliance 4. — Alismales. Tripetaloideous plants, with the car-
pels more or less distinct.
Placentae spread over the 249. Butomacese . Acrid,
dissepiments.
Placentas occupying the 250. Alismaceae . Acrid,
margin only of the dis-
sepiments, or their equi-
valent.
Alliance 5. — Juncales. Flowers somewhat glumaceous.
Flowers regular . . 251. Juncaceae . Unimportant.
Flowers irregular, with a 252. Philydraceae.
two-leaved calyx.
Here we have a marked transition to Exogens on the part of Alisma, which is hardly
distinguishable from Ranunculaceae, except by its embryo. Liliaceae connect the group
with GynandrosEe through Apostasiaccne, Juncaceae with Glumosae through Restiaceae.
222 ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
GROUP IV. RETOS^E.
Flowers unisexual. Ovary 253. Dioscoreaceae . Nauseous ; some-
inferior times eatable
(Yam).
Flowers hermaphrodite. 254. Smilaceae . Diuretic; demul-
Ovary superior. cent (Sarsapa-
rilla).
Flowers binary, highly de- 255. Roxburghiaceae.
veloped.
GROUP V. SPADICOS^E.
Alliance 1. — Pandales. Flowers on a spadix. Fruit drupa-
ceous.
Flowers spiral. Spires al- 256. Cyclanthaceee.
ternately male and fe-
male.
Flowers achlamydeous and 257. Pandanacese . Fruit eatable,
apocarpous.
Alliance 2. — Arales. Flowers on a spadix. Fruit either
berried or capsular.
Flowers unisexual . .258. Araceae . . Acrid. Poisonous.
Flowers hermaphrodite . 259. Acoracese . Aromatic.
Alliance 3. — Typhales. Flowers on a spadix. Sepals three.
Anthers clavate.
260. Typhaceae . Of no importance.
Alliance 4. — Flumales. Flowers in spikes, or solitary.
Floaters. Ovules pendu- 261. Naiadacese . Unimportant.
lous.
Terrestrial. Ovules erect 262. Juncaginaceae.
Floaters, with none, or 263. Pistiacese . Acrid (Duck-weed).
scarcely any, axis of
growth.
It is here that we find a transition to Rhizanthae in the case of the genus Lemna,
which is destitute of vascular system, and is the lowest known form of Endows. Ty-
phaceae connect this group with Glumosae, and Pandales with Epigynosse.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
223
Stems solid. Carpels single
Carpels
GROUP VI. GLUMOS^E.
Stems fistular . . . 264. Graminaceae . Fruit floury (Corn).
Herbage sweet
(Sugar-cane,
Grass, &c.)
Diaphoretic. Un-
important.
Flowers naked.
several.
Flowers with a calyx. Seeds
few.
Flowers with a corolla.
Seeds numerous.
United to Spadicosae by- Cyperaceae, and to Hypogynosae by Restiaceae.
The relation of Endogens with other parts of the system seems to be, —
With Gymnospermas through Palmaceae to Cycadacese.
With Exogens — Alismaceae
Hydrocharaceae —
Retosae
Araceae
With Rhizanthae through Araceae
With Acrogens — Pistiaceae ?
265. Cyperaceae
266. Desvauxiacese.
267. Restiacese.
268. Xyridaceae.
Ranunculaceae.
Nymphaeaceae.
Menispermaceas.
Aristolochiaceae.
Cynomoriaceae.
Marsileaceae ?
Sepals several,
parietal.
Sepals four. Placentae pa-
rietal.
Placentas central . .
CLASS IV. RHIZANTH^E.
Placentae 269. Rafflesiaceae
270. Cytinaceae
271. Cynomoriaceae
Astringent.
Astringent.
Astringent (F^m-
gus melitensis).
These singular fungoid plants are neither Exogens nor Endogens, because they have no
vascular system, and their sexual apparatus is imperfect ; they are not Acrogens, because
they have flowers and sexes. They are connected
With Endogens through Araceae.
With Acrogens — Fungaceae.
CLASS V. ACROGEN^E.
Alliance 1. — Filicales. Stems fistular, vascular. Reproduc-
tive organs borne upon the leaves.
Ring of the thecae vertical . 272. Polypodiaceae . v
Ring of the thecae transverse 273. Gleicheniaceae .
Ring wanting. Thecae one- 274. Osmundaceae
celled, ribbed.
Ring wanting. Thecae as 275. Danaeaceae
if many-celled.
Ring wanting. Thecae one- 276. Ophioglossaceae
celled, veinless.
Thecae in cones . . 277. Equisetaceae
Astringent. Pecto-
ral. Some eatable.
Epidermis siliceous.
224
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS.
Alliance 2. — Lycopodales. Stems solid, vascular. Reproduc-
tive organs growing on the stem.
278. Lycopodiacese
279. Marsileaceae
Thecae naked .
Thecae enclosed in involu-
cres of the same form.
Thecae enclosed in. involu- 280. Salviniaceae
cres of two different forms.
Emetic.
None.
None.
Alliance 3. — M&scales. Without a vascular system. Ger-
minating processes uniting into a heterogeneous
body. Sporules in distinct thecse.
281. Bryaceae . . Slightly astringent.
Thecae valveless, with an
operculum.
Thecae opening into valves,
with an operculum.
Thecae opening into valves,
without an operculum.
Thecae valveless, without
an operculum.
282. Andraeaceae.
283. Jungermanniaceae.
284. Hepaticaceae.
Alliance 4. — Charales. Without a vascular system. Germi-
nating processes uniting into a heterogeneous
body. Reproductive organs axillary globules.
285. Characeae . Fo3tid.
Alliance 5. — Fungales. Without a vascular system. Ger-
minating processes either wholly distinct or
confluent in a homogeneous body.
Born from a matrix which
veils them when young.
Born without a matrix.
Living in air. Cellular,
rarely filamentous, with
a reproductive nucleus
bursting through their
surface.
Born without a matrix.
Living in water. Fila-
mentous ; the filaments
either solitary or several
glued together, having
sporidia and viviparous.
286. Fungaceae
287. Lichenaceae
288. Algaceae
Stimulant ; nutri-
tive. Often poi-
sonous (Ergot,
Mushroom,
Truffle}.
Dye ( Orchal) ; nu-
tritive (Iceland
Moss).
Nutritive.
ALLIANCES OF PLANTS. 225
This group touches Rhizanthese through Fungaceae.
Gymnospermae — Lycopodales.
— Filicales.
— Characeae.
If the affinities that have thus been explained are correctly stated, a mutual connection
of the five great classes in the vegetable kingdom may be expressed by a circle, in the
middle of whose circumference stand Exogens and Endogens, side by side ; the common
point of all the classes is formed by Acrogens ; which are connected on the one hand with
Exogens by Gymnosperms, and on the other with Endogens by Rhizanths.
The following scheme will place this idea in a more distinct point of view : —
Aracets to Cynomoriaoea.
w
C'/Jvrant/taceee to Gnetacete.
226
VI.— SKETCH OF A NEW DISTRIBUTION OF THE
VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
1. — SOME remarks have already been made upon what ap-
pear to be the true principles of classification (635) ; and, how-
ever imperfect the attempt may be, this seems a proper place
to sketch out the way in which it may possibly be executed.
2. — In Exogens there are two totally different modes in
which the influence of the pollen is communicated to the seed.
The larger part of this primary group consists of plants pro-
vided with the apparatus called style and stigma, through
which the pollen-tubes are introduced into the ovary in the
act of fertilization. But others are so constructed that the
pollen falls immediately upon the ovules, without the intro-
duction of any intermediate apparatus ; a peculiarity analogous
to what occurs among reptiles in the Animal Kingdom : and,
as was to have been anticipated, the plants in which this sin-
gular habit occurs prove, upon being collected together, to
form a group having no direct affinity with those among which
they had been previously associated. Hence Exogens have
been broken up into 1. Exogens proper, or those having an
ovary, style, and stigma ; and 2. Gymnogens, which have neither.
3. — Among Endogens, in like manner, two modes of pro-
pagation have been discovered, essentially different from each
other. In the major part of them the result of the fertiliza-
tion of their seed is the production of an embryo, having one
point upon its surface predestined to become a stem, and an-
other to become a root ; besides which their elementary orga-
nization includes vascular tissue in abundance. But others,
although in a high state of developement, are wholly or nearly
destitute of vascular tissue; and when their seed is fertilized,
instead of an embryo being formed, the issue is a mass of
NEW DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 227
sporules, or reproductive bodies, analogous to those which Aero-
gens have instead of seeds. The old class of Endogens re-
quired therefore to be replaced by 3. Endogens proper, whose
organs of propagation are seeds, and 4. Sporogens, commonly
called Rhizanths, whose reproductive bodies are spores.
4. — Among Acrogens also two modes of growth occur, so
essentially different from each other that they evidently repre-
sent different kinds of vegetation. In some of them there is
a distinct axis of growth, or stem and root, symmetrically
clothed with leaves ; in others they are irregular cellular ex-
pansions, destitute of true leaves ; in the former we find a
trace of something equivalent to the sexes of Exogens and
Endogens, in the latter all indications of the kind disappear.
Thus are formed two groups, which may be called 5. Cormogens,
where there is a stem and leaves, and 6. Thallogens, where
there is no separation of those parts.
5. — To what extent dismemberments of the three classes of
Jussieu may be further carried, there is no evidence to show :
it is not, however, probable that they are capable of much
further increase ; for, with a few exceptions, the affinities of
the six primary groups now indicated are too continuous and
complete to allow us to suppose that any great physiological
or fundamental differences of organization exist among them.
Some exceptions, however, do exist.
6. — Among Angiospermous Exogens the Natural orders
AristolocMacea, Nepenthacea, Lardizabalacea, Menispermacea,
Piperaceae, and some others allied to the latter, stand isolated,
as it were, in whatever part of the group they are stationed,
having no obvious affinity with any other orders; for we can
only regard the approximation of Menispermaceae to Anonacea,
&c. as the result of altogether artificial considerations. Now
these orders appear to agree in one remarkable circumstance.
Instead of their wood being formed by zone deposited over
zone, season after season, as is the case in the great mass of
Exogens, they never have more than one zone of woody mat-
ter, to whatever age they may have arrived. Whether their
wood itself is formed exactly in the same way as that of other
Exogens, namely, by a gradual external addition of stratum
upon stratum, is doubtful ; it is probable that they have a
mode of growth of their own, analogous to that of Aristolo-
228 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF
chia, in which the wood when young is augmented by the suc-
cessive introduction of wedge upon wedge of wood between
wedges originally placed concentrically around a medullary
axis. Such plants as these agree with Exogens in their Di-
cotyledonous embryo, and in general appearance, but their
mode of growth is an approach to that of some Endogens to
be presently noticed, and it therefore appears they ought to be
regarded as a fundamental group, which from the homoge-
neity of the wood may be called Homogens, for the sake of
contrasting their structure with the concentrically zoned growth
of other Exogens, to which the collective name of Cyclogens
might be applied. In this manner Exogens are composed of
three classes, 1. Exogens proper, 2. Gymnogens, and 3. Homo-
7. — Among Endogens we find a group of exactly the same
nature as the last, and differing from the mass of the order in
nearly the same manner. The peculiar habit of Smilax and
some other Endogens, which no one would suppose from their
general appearance to belong to that class, led me formerly to
propose the separation of them into a group which was called
the Retose. But as no better character could be found for it
than the reticulated leaves, nobody adopted it, and it has been
regarded as an unnecessary separation of plants essentially the
same ; an opinion to which, in the absence of evidence, there
has been nothing to oppose beyond the conviction that the
Retose group is in nature well founded, although its true cha-
racters may have been undiscovered. It now, however, ap-
pears that Smilax and its allies have the wood of their axis
arranged upon a plan wholly or in part similar to that of Homo-
gens ; and consequently they will constitute, not a subdivision of
Endogens as was formerly supposed, but a new class or pri-
mary group. If the annual branches of a Smilax are exa-
mined, there is nothing in their internal structure at variance
with that of a stem of Asparagus ; they are exactly Endoge-
nous ; but in the rhizoma of the whole genus (take the Sarsa-
parilla of the shops for instance) the wood is disposed in a
compact circle, below a cortical integument, and surrounding
a true pith ; so that the rhizoma or permanent part of the stem
is that of a Homogen. In Dioscorea alata the stem is formed
of eight fibrovascular wedges placed in pairs, with their backs
THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 229
touching the bark, surrounding a central pith and having
wide medullary plates between them ; in fact, when the stems
of this plant are in a state of decay, the eight fibrovascular
wedges may be pulled asunder, like those of a Menisperma-
ceous plant. In Testudinaria elephantipes the structure of the
stem is of nearly the same kind ; several bundles of fibro-
vascular tissue form a circle surrounding a pith, and pierced
with broad medullary processes. Lapageria and Philesia have
each a zone of wood below their bark, and a central pith
in which the common fibrovascular bundles of Endogens are
disposed ; a tendency to which is also observable in Smilax.
8. — It seems therefore clear that what I have elsewhere
called the Retose group is composed of plants whose mode of
growth is essentially different from that of Endogens in general ;
and that the species composing it stand in the same relation to
the mass of Endogens, as Homogens to the mass of Exogens.
For these reasons it appears that Endogens contain three dis-
tinct types of organization, namely, Spermogens and Sporogens,
or Rhizanths, the former of which consists 1 . of true Endogens
with striated inarticulated leaves, and 2. of false Endogens with
reticulated disarticulating leaves, or Dictyogens.
9. — From these considerations we learn that of the three
primary divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom, recognized by
Jussieu, two require to be broken up into three each, and the
other into two ; making eight in all ; the mutual relations
of which with each other and the Animal Kingdom may be
expressed thus :
Exogens.
Homogens. Dictyogens.
Gymnogens. Endogens.
Cormogens. Sporogens.
Thallogens.
•
(Animal Acrita Kingdom.)
The following analytical arrangement will bring these dis-
tinctions more plainly into view.
230
NEW DISTRIBUTION OF
STATE I. SEXUAL OR FLOWERING PLANTS.
J Cyclogens.
Division 1. Exogens.
Division 2. Endogens. <^
j Class I. Exogens.
1 Class II. Gymnogens.
Class III. Homogens.
( Class IV. Dictyogens.
\ Class V. Endogens.
Class VI. Sporogens
{Rhizanths).
STATE II. ESEXUAL OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.
( Class VII. Cormogens.
\ Class VIII. Thallogens.
The following is a tabular view of the orders that have to be
arranged in the classes thus limited.
It is assumed that each class divides into two series ; the
one having albumen as a necessary part of the structure, the
other either wholly or almost destitute of that substance (see
652).
I have also adopted the principles before spoken of as ap-
pearing well suited to the construction of subordinate series
(see 655) ; and, with reference to this, the following terms
are employed in the sense now assigned to them.
1 . Consolidated ; when the floral envelopes are united both
with each other and the stamens, and with the ovary.
2. Separated; when the floral envelopes and stamens are
united with each other, but the ovary is consolidated and free.
3. Adherent ; when the petals and sepals adhere to each other
and the stamens and ovary, but have their parts disunited.
4. Disunited ; when the sepals and petals adhere to each
other and the stamens ; but have their parts disunited, and do
not adhere to the consolidated ovary.
5. Dissolved; when the sepals and petals are distinct from
the stamens, and also from the ovary, whose carpels are dis-
united either wholly or by the styles.
These five gradations seem to comprehend all the material
degrees of union, from complete consolidation, as in Composite,
to complete separation, as in Rammculacese.
THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
231
CLASS I. EXOGENS.
SERIES I. CONSOLIDATED.
Exalbuminous.
1. Asteraceae.
Valerianaceae.
Albuminous.
1. Calyceraceae.
Dipsaceae.
2. Campanulaceae.
Lobeliaceae.
Stylidiaceae.
Goodeniaceae.
Scaevoleae.
3. Cinchonaceae.
Galiaceae.
Caprifoliaceae.
Columelliaceae.
SERIES II. SEPARATED.
Exalbuminous.
Brunoniacese.
Convolvulacese.
Nolanaceae.
Salvadoraceae.
Boraginaceae.
Lamiaceaa.
Verbenaceae.
Lentibulaceae.
Cyrtandraceae.
Bignoniaceae.
Pedaliacese.
Acanthacese.
Myoporacese.
Jasminaceae.
Albuminous.
1. Globulariacese.
Plantaginaceae.
Plumbaginaceaj.
2. Hydrophyllaceae.
Primnlaceae.
Myrsinaceae.
Ebenaceae.
Sapotaceae.
Papayaceae.
232 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF
3. Ehretiaceffi. 3. Cestraceae.
Cordiacea;. Solanacese.
Scrophulariaceae.
Gesneraceae.
Stilbaceae.
Selaginaceae.
Oleacese.
4. Retziaceae.
Loganiaceae.
Apocynaceae.
Aselepiadaceae.
Spigeliaceae.
Gentianaceaa.
Orobanchaceae.
5. Polemoniaceee.
Diapensiaceae.
Hydroleacese.
SERIES III. ADHERENT.
Excdbuminous. Albuminous.
1. Combretaceae. 1. Aquifoliaceae.
Corylaceas. Cornaceae.
Garryaceaa.
Araliaceae.
Apiaceae.
Alangiaceee.
Hamamelacea;.
Helvingiaceae.
2. Chailletiaceae. 2. Santalaceaa.
Penaaaceae. Loranthacese.
Lauracese.
Hernandiaceae.
Proteaceaa.
Thymelaceae.
Elseagnaceas.
THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
233
3. Rosaceae.
Calycanthaceae.
Chrysobalanaceae.
Fabacese.
Connaraceae.
Amyridaceae.
Anacardiaceae.
4. Onagraceae.
Lythraceae.
Melastomaceae.
Begoniaceae.
Memecylaceae.
Lecythidaceae.
Myrtaceae.
5. Cactaceae.
Passifloraceae.
Cucurbitaceae.
Datiscaceae.
3. Grossulaceae.
Homaliaceae.
Malesherbiacese.
Turneraceae.
Loasacese.
4. Ficoidaceae.
Scleranthaceee.
Nyctaginaceaa.
5. Rhamnaceae.
Celastraceee.
Bruniaceae.
6. Philadelphaceae.
Hydrangeaceaa.
Saxifragaceae.
Cunoniaceae.
Baueraceae.
Escalloniaceae.
Vaccinaceae.
SERIES IV. DISUNITED.
Exalbuminous. Albuminous.
\. Resedaceae.
Capparidacese.
Brassicaceae.
Moringaceae.
2. Spondiaceae.
Brexiaceae.
Aurantiaceae.
1. Ericaceae.
Epacridaceae.
Empetraceae.
2, Pittosporaceae.
Fouquieraceas ?
Vitaceae.
234 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF
Meliacese. Humiriaceae.
Cedrelaceee. Tremandraceae.
Burseraceae.
3. Clusiaceae. 3. Tiliaceae.
Marcgraaviaceee. Elseocarpaceae.
Rhizobolacese. Trigoniaceae.
Dipteracese. Chlenacese.
Ternstromiaceae.
4. Vochyaceae. 4. Papaveracese.
Krameriaceae. Nymphaeaceae .
Sapindacese. Sarracenniacese.
5. Flacourtiaceee.
Bixacese.
Olacaceee.
Lacistemacese.
Samydacese.
Violacese.
Cistaceee.
SERIES V. DISSOLVED.
Exalbuminous. Albuminous.
}. Rutacese. 1. Frankeniaceae.
Zygophyllaceae. Portulacaceae.
Simarubacese. Droseraceae.
Staphyleaceae. Caryophyllaceae.
Aceraceae. Illecebraceae.
Malpighiaceae. Amarantaceae.
Petiveriaceae. Chenopodiaceae.
Coriariaceae. Phytolaccaceae.
2. Myricaceae. 2. Urticaceae.
Platanaceee. Stilaginaceae.
. Casuaraceae. Monimiaceae.
Betulaceae . Atherospermaceae .
Ulmaceae. Myristicaceae.
Salicaceae.
Tamaricaceae.
THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
235
3. Malvaceae.
Nitrariaceae.
Reaumuriacese.
Hypericaceae.
Elatinaceaa.
4. Balsaminaceee.
Geraniaceae.
Surianaceae.
Nelumbiaceae.
3. Anonaceae.
Schizandreaa.
Berberaceaa.
Magnoliaceaa (Wintereee).
Dilleniacese.
Ranunculacese.
Podophylleae.
Hydropeltideaa.
Cephalotaceae.
Crassulaceee.
4. Ledocarpeae.
Vivianiaceaa.
Oxalidaceaa.
Linaceas.
5. Stackhousiaceaa.
Erythroxylaceaa.
Hugoniaceae.
Sterculiaceae.
Euphorbiaceae.
Scepaceae.
Putrangiveae.
CLASS II. GYMNOGENS.
Cupressaceae.
Pinaceae.
Taxaceae.
Gnetaceae.
Cycadaceae.
CLASS III. HOMOGENS.
SERIES I. ADHERENT.
Exalbuminous. Albuminous.
Aristolochiacese.
236 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF
SERIES II. DISUNITED.
Exalbuminous. Albuminous.
Nepenthacese.
SERIES III. DISSOLVED.
Exalbuminous. Albuminous.
1. Podostemaceae. 1. Callitrichaceee.
Ceratophyllacese. Saururacese.
Chloranthaceee.
Piperaceae.
2. Lardizabalaceae.
Menispermacese.
CLASS IV. DICTYOGENS.
Dioscoreaceae.
Smilacese.
Roxburgh] aceee.
CLASS V. ENDOGENS.
SERIES I. CONSOLIDATED.
Exalbuminous. Albuminous.
1. Apostasiacese. 1. Musaceae.
Orchidaceae. Marantaceae.
Hydrocharaceae. Zingiberaceae.
2. Iridacesa.
Bromeliaceae.
Burmanniaceae.
Vellozieaa.
Ha!modoracea3.
Amaryllidacese.
Taccaceae.
THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 237
SERIES II. DISUNITED.
Exalbuminous. Albuminous.
1. Aspidistreae.
Liliaceae.
Pontederaceae.
Xiphidiaceae.
Gilliesiaceae.
Philydraceae.
Juncaceae.
2. Acoraceee.
Araceae.
3. Commelynaceae.
Xyridaceae.
Eriocaulacese.
Desvauxiacea3.
SERIES III. DISSOLVED.
Excdbuminous. Albuminous.
Naiadaceae. 1. Melanthaceae.
Juncaginaceaa. Flagellariaceaa ?
Alismaceae. Palmae.
Butomaceaa. 2. Pandanaceae.
Cyclanthaceaa.
Typhacese.
Pistiaceae.
3. Restiaceae.
Cyperaceae.
Graminacea?.
CLASS VI. SPOROGENS. (RHEANTHS.)
Rafflesiaceae.
Cytinaceae.
Balanophoraceae.
CLASS VII. CORMOGENS.
Filicales.
Lycopodiaceae.
Isoetaceae.
238 NEW DISTRIBUTION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
Salviniaceae.
Marsileaceae.
Equisetaceae.
Characese.
Bryaceae.
Andraeaceae.
Jungermanniaceae.
Marchantiaceae.
CLASS VIII. TIIALLOGENS.
Lichen aceae.
Algaceae.
Fungaceae.
239
III. MEDICAL BOTANY.
THE following is a list of the principal medicinal plants
which are known in a living state in Europe. The numbers
refer to the Author's Flora Medica, (London, 1838, Longman
and Co.) an 8vo. of 656 pages, in which full descriptions of
the plants will be met with. It will be useful for London
students to know that the plants in the Apothecaries1 Garden,
Chelsea, marked with red figures on a black ground, are num-
bered to correspond with this list.
RANUNCULACE.E.
CLEMATIS.
1 . Erecta. — Acrid. Used in cachectic diseases. Powdered leaves
escharotic.
2. Flammula. — Leaves used as vesicatories.
3. Vitalba. — Fruit and leaves acrid and vesicant. Leaves employed
as rubefacients in rheumatism.
ANEMONE.
6. Pulsatilla. — Powder of the root causes itching of the eyes, colic,
and vomiting. Extract used in ttcnia.
9. Hortensis. — Acrid in a high degree.
1 0. Coronaria. — Acrid in a high degree.
11. Nemorosa. — Acrid in a less degree.
12. Hepatica. — Bland.
HYDBASTIS.
14. Canadensis. — Rhizoma narcotic, bitter, tonic. Gives a yellow
dye.
KNOWLTONIA.
15. Vesicatoria. — Acrid. Leaves used as vesicants.
ADONIS.
1 G. Vernalis. — Emmenagogue.
240 MEDICAL BOTANY.
RANUNCULUS.
1 7. Bulbosus. — Very acrid, causing blisters and inflammation.
18. Thora. — Root very acrid. The juice used for envenoming
weapons.
19. Sceleratus. — Acrid. Leaves used by beggars to produce ulcers.
20. Acris. — Very acrid. By carrying it in the hand it has produced
inflammation.
22. Flammula. — Vesicant. Distilled water an excellent emetic.
HELLEBORUS.
23. Niger. — Narcotic acrid. Drastic. The fibres of the rhizoma are
employed as an emmenagogue and hydragogue. Produces
Black Hellebore.
25. Viridis. — Narcotic acrid. Drastic.
26. Foetidus. — Narcotic acrid. Leaves emetic and purgative. Re-
commended as a vermifuge against the worm, Ascaris lumbri-
coides.
COPTIS.
27. Trifolia. — Its rhizomata afford a tonic bitter, without astrin-
gency.
NIGELLA.
28. Sativa. — Seeds aromatic, sub-acrid ; formerly employed instead of
pepper, and also as carminatives.
DELPHINIUM.
29. Consolida. — Acrid. Seeds emetic, the leaves and stalks compose
cosmetics, which are injurious to the skin.
30. Staphisagria. — Seeds extremely poisonous, emetic, drastic, and
inflammatory ; useful in scabies and fungous ulcerations ; also
for pediculi in the head.
ACONITUM.
31. Anthora. — The root highly acrid.
32. Lycoctonum — Root highly acrid ; used to destroy wild beasts.
33. Paniculatum — Leaves bitter, acrid, narcotic, diaphoretic, and
diuretic. The roots are more dangerous.
34s Napellus — Narcotico-acrid ; a spirituous infusion of the root has
proved fatal to human life. Leaves sudorific and diuretic.
A.CTJEA.
36. Spicata — Fruit poisonous. Roots antispasmodic, expectorant,
astringent ; reported to have afforded relief in cases of catarrh.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 241
XANTHORHIZA.
37. Apiifolia. — Wood and bark a pure tonic, intensely bitter, said to
be superior to Calumba.
P/EONIA.
38. Officinalis. — Seeds emetic and cathartic. Root antispasmOdic.
39. Corallina. — Seeds emetic and cathartic.
PODOPHYLLE^E.
PODOPHYLLUM.
40. Peltatum. — Narcotico-acrid. The rhizoma is an active cathartic.
PAPAVERACE^E.
PAPAVER.
4 1 . Rhoeas. — Slightly narcotic. Syrupus Rhoeados is prepared froTii
the petals.
42. Somniferum. — Narcotic (Opium).
ARGEMONE.
43. Mexicana. — Seeds narcotic, anodyne, and purgative. The juice
is employed in chronic ophthalmia and siphilitic sores.
SANGUINARIA.
44. Canadensis. — Narcotico-acrid, tonic. Rhizoma emetic, escharotic,
used in cases of polypi.
CHELIDONIUM.
45. Majus. — Juice acrid. Stimulating, aperient, diuretic, and sudo-
rific ; also a deobstruent.
FUMARIEJS.
FUMARIA.
46. Officinalis. — Herbage bitter, diaphoretic and aperient.
CORYDALIS.
47. Tuberosa. — Root bitter and acrid.
48. Fabacea. — Root bitter and acrid.
NYMPH^EACE^E.
NUPHAR.
49. Lutea. — Rhizoma sedative and anti-aphrodisiac.
NYMPH^EA.
50. Alba. — Rhizoma astringent, styptic, and sub-narcotic.
5 1 . Odorata. — Stems very astringent, used in poultices.
R
242 MEDICAL BOTANY.
MYRISTICACE^.
MYRISTICA.
53. Officinalis. — Seeds aromatic, act as narcotics in over doses.
MAGNOLIACE^E.
MAGNOLIA.
54. Glauca. — Bark bitter and aromatic, resembling cinchona. Use-
ful in chronic rheumatism.
LlRIODENDRON.
55. Tulipifera. — Bark bitter, aromatic, tonic, and diaphoretic. Used
as a warm sudorific in chronic rheumatism.
WINTERACE^E.
ILLICIUM.
56. Floridanum. — Bark and leaves aromatic and spicy.
APIACE^ OR UMBELLIFERE^.
ASTRANTIA.
67. Major. — Roots acrid and purgative.
ERYNGIUM.
68. Campestre. — The root is sweet, aromatic, and tonic ; diuretic ;
also a reputed aphrodisiac.
69. Maritirnum. — Root sweet, aromatic, and tonic, but of inferior
quality.
CICUTA.
70. Maculata. — The roots are a very dangerous poison.
71. Virosa. — Roots a dangerous poison, causing true tetanic con-
vulsions.
APIUM.
72. Graveolens. — Acrid. Rendered bland by culture.
PETROSELINUM.
73. Sativum. — The leaves are a stimulating diuretic.
SlSON.
78. Amomum — Fruit pungent and aromatic.
CARUM.
79. Carui. — Fruit carminative.
PlMPINELLA.
81. Saxifraga. — Root astringent, used to relieve tooth-ache.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 24-3
PlMPINELLA.
82. Dissecta. — Root astringent. Used as a masticatory to relieve
tooth-ache.
83. Magna. — Root astringent. Used as a masticatory to relieve
tooth-ache.
84. Anisum. Effects stimulant and carminative. Produces Anise.
(ENANTHE.
85. Crocata. — A very dangerous poison. It has been considered the
most energetic of the narcotico-acrid Apiacese.
86. Phellandrium. — A dangerous poison, but rather less energetic.
87. Cynapium. — Leaves poisonous ; also of a nauseous smell.
FOENICULUM.
88. Vulgare. — Fruit carminative. Leaves fragrant and stimulant.
Produces Fennel.
89. Dulce — Fruit carminative. Leaves fragrant and stimulant. Pro-
duces Sweet-Fennel.
ATHAMANTA.
91. Cretensis. — Fruit aromatic.
MEUM.
92. Athamanticum. — Roots aromatic and sweet, forming an ingre-
dient in Venice treacle.
93. Mutellina. — Roots aromatic and sweet, forming an ingredient in
Venice treacle.
ANGELICA.
94. Nemorosa. — Root acrid. Employed in cases of itch.
ARCHANGELICA.
95. Officinalis. — Root fragrant, bitterish, pungent. Stalks employ-
ed in pectoral disorders. Leaves, seeds, and roots aromatic
tonics.
OPOPANAX.
96. Chironum. — The root produces Opopanax, a foetid gum-resin,
similar to Asafcetida.
FERULA.
97. Asafcetida. — A foetid gum-resin is procured by slicing the roots,
which are acrid, bitter, and antispasmodic. Produces Asa-
fcetida.
93. Persica. — Like the last.
R2
244 MEDICAL BOTANY.
FERULA.
101. Ferulago. — Yields a gum-resinous secretion.
102. Tingitana. — Yields a gum-resinous secretion. Foetid, stimulant.
DOREMA.
103. Ammoniacum. — The stem and fruit yielding a fcetid gum-resin,
which is Ammoniacum.
PEUCEDANUM.
104. Officinale. — The juice of the root is antispasmodic and diuretic.
105. Oreoselinum. — Leaves and stems are bitter and aromatic.
106. Montanum. — The juice of the root bitter, foetid, hardening into
an acrid resin. A remedy in epilepsy.
IMPERATORIA.
107. Ostruthium — Root acrid and bitter, used as a masticatory in
tooth-ache.
ANETHUM.
109. Graveolens — Fruit carminative and stimulant. Produces Dill.
HERACLEUM.
110. Sphondylium. — Rind and root acrid.
CUMINUM,
112. Cyminum. — Fruit carminative. Used in veterinary surgery.
Produces Cummin.
LASERPITIUM.
115. Glabrum. — The juice of the root is gum-resinous, acrid, bitter,
and caustic. Violent purgative.
DAUCUS.
116. Gummifer — Roots bitter and balsamic, yielding Bdellium sicu-
lum.
117. Gingidium. — Roots bitter and balsamic.
1 1 8. Carota.— Fruit carminative and diuretic. Root used as a cure
for ulcers.
ANTHRISCUS.
1 1 9. Sylvestris. — Narcotic.
120. Vulgaris.— Deleterious. The whole plant highly poisonous.
121. Cfcrefolium. — Roots eatable. Produces Chervil.
CONIUM.
124. Maculatum.— Powerfully narcotico-acrid. Is Hemlock.
SMYRNIUM.
125. Olusatrum.— Leaves slightly aromatic. Fruit carminative.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 245
CORIANDRUM.
126. Sativum — Fruit carminative and aromatic.
ARALIACE^E.
PANAX.
127. Quinquefolium. — Roots aromatic, pungent, restorative, and sti-
mulant.
ABALIA.
128. Nudicaulis. — Alterative and tonic.
130. Spinosa.— Tincture of the wood used against colic.
HEDERA.
131. Helix. — Leaves and berries bitter, aperient, emetic, sudorific.
Is the Ivy.
GROSSULACE^;.
RISES.
1 33. Rubrum. — The juice of the fruit refrigerant.
134. Nigrum. — Fruit, leaves, and wood tonic and stimulant. The
juice is used against catarrhs.
BERBERACE^E.
BERBERIS.
135. Vulgaris. — Bark astringent. A drink is prepared from the
fruit.
136. Lycium. — Extract useful in cases of ophthalmia.
VITACE^.
VlTIS.
137. Vinifera. — Fruit cooling and antiseptic; diuretic and laxative
in large quantities.
COMBRETACE.E.
TERMINALIA.
146. Benzoin. — Juice concrete, used as incense.
147. Belerica. — The kernels of the fruit intoxicating ; also astringent,
tonic, and attenuant. Produces Myrobalans.
MYRTACE^E.
MELALEUCA.
150. Cajeputi. — Essential oil irritating and stimulating. Produces
Cajeputi oil.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
PUNICA.
152. Granatum. — Bark of the root a powerful anthelmintic. Flow-
ers and bark of the fruit tonic and astringent. Produces
Pomegranates.
MYRTUS.
153. Communis.— Aromatic and astringent.
CARYOPHYLLUS.
154. Aromaticus. — Stimulant and carminative. Produces Cloves.
EUGENIA.
155. Acris. — The unripe fruit is oily, irritable, and is used to allay
tooth-ache.
156. Pimenta. — The unripe fruit is oily, irritable, and is used to allay
the tooth-ache. Is the Allspice of the shops.
EUCALYPTUS.
158. Resinifera. — Bark astringent, yielding a juice resembling Kino.'
159. Robusta. — Bark astringent.
CORNACE.E.
CORNUS.
1 63. Florida. — Bark bitter, with an astringent aromatic taste ; tonic
and antiseptic, giving a scarlet dye.
1 64. Sericea. — Said to be amongst the best of tonics. Useful in in-
termittent fevers.
165. Circinata. — Astringent. Useful in diarrhoea.
166. Suecica Berries tonic.
CUCURBITACE^E.
LAGENAHIA.
169. Vulgaris — Fruit poisonous.
CUCUMIS.
171. Colocynthis. — Fruit acrid. Poisonous to human beings. Pro-
duces Colocynth.
BRYONIA.
177. Alba.— Root acrid and purgative. Used as a discutient for
removing bruises. Cathartic.
178. Dioica — Root acrid and purgative. Used as a discutient for
removing bruises. Cathartic.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 247
MOMOBDICA.
179. Elaterium. — Juice poisonous. It is a violent cathartic and
hydragogue.
180. Balsamina — Fruit a dangerous poison, acting as a powerful
hydragogue.
BRASSICACE^E OR CRUCIFER^E.
COCHLEABIA.
189. Officinalis. — Antiscorbutic, stimulant, and diuretic, eaten fresh;
but inert when dried. Produces Scurvy-grass.
1 90. Armoracia. — Root stimulant, diaphoretic, and diuretic, and ex-
ternally rubefacient. Produces Horseradish.
CARDAMINE.
191. Pratensis. — Stimulant, diaphoretic, and diuretic. The dried
flowers a remedy for epilepsy.
SINAPSIS.
192. Nigra. — Seeds acrid, stimulating, and bitter. Oil purgative,
rubefacient in paralysis. Vesicant. Produces Mustard.
194. Alba. — Seeds acrid and pungent. Used as stimulating ca-
thartics. Produces Mustard.
ERUCA.
1 95. Sativa. — Seeds acrid and bitter.
RAPHANUS.
196. Sativus. — Seeds emetic. Roots diuretic and laxative. Produces
Radishes.
CAPPARIDACE^:.
CAPPARIS.
197. Spinosa. — Flower-buds antiscorbutic, stimulant, and aperient.
Produces Capers.
198. Pulcherrima. — Fruit poisonous.
199. Cynophallophora. — Root acrid. An infusion recommended in
dropsy.
VIOLACE^:.
VIOLA.
203. Odorata. — Petals used as a laxative. Roots emetic and purga-
tive. Flowers anodyne, producing faintness and apoplexy.
204. Canina. — Leaves depurative. Roots emetic.
205. Tricolor. — Bruised leaves used in the cure of cutaneous dis-
orders.
248 MEDICAL BOTANY.
IONIDIUM.
206. Ipecacuanha. — Roots emetic. Used as a .substitute for true
Ipecacuanha.
MORINGACE^E.
MOBINGA.
216. Aptera. — Seeds acrid. Employed in fevers and as rubefacients.
PASSIFLORACE^.
PASSIFLORA.
218. Quadrangularis. — Root emetic. Powerfully narcotic.
220. Fcetida. — Emmenagogue, serviceable in hysteria.
PAPAYACE^E.
CAEICA.
221. Papaya. — The milky juice, and powder of the seeds, are power-
ful vermifuges.
BIXACE.E.
BlXA.
224. Orellana. — Demulcent. Produces Arnotto.
CANELLE^.
CANELLA.
231. Alba. — All parts of the tree are aromatic, hot, and pungent,
when fresh. Distilled bark aromatic, carminative, and
stomachic ; used in scurvy.
HYPERICACE^E.
HYPERICUM.
232. Perforatum — Leaves astringent. An infusion used in gargle
and lotions.
ANDROS^MUM.
233. Officinale. — Leaves esteemed as vulnerary.
TERNSTROMIACE.E.
THEA.
237. Viridis. — A stimulant narcotic.
238. Bohea.— Stimulant.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 249
SAPINDACE^E.
CABDIOSPERMUM.
239. Halicacabum. — Root aperient.
SAPINDUS.
240. Saponaria. — Fruit detersive and acrid. Tincture of the berries
employed in chlorosis. Produces Soapberries.
^SCULUS.
246. Hippocastanum. — Bark a febrifuge in fevers. A decoction used
in gangrene ; and its powder an errhine.
POLYGALACE^E.
POLYGALA.
247. Senega. — Root acid and acrid; sudorific and expectorant in
small doses, but emetic and cathartic in large.
254. Chamaebuxus. — Root acid and acrid; sudorific and expectorant
in small doses, but emetic and cathartic in large.
LINAGES.
LlNUM.
261. Usitatissimum. — Seeds used for cataplasms. The infusion is
demulcent and emollient. Produces Linseed.
262. Catharticum. — Bitter, cathartic, and purgative.
CISTACE^:.
ClSTUS.
264. Creticus. — Resin stimulant and emmenagogue. Recommended
in chronic catarrh. Produces Ladanum.
265. Ladaniferus. — Resin stimulant and emmenagogue. Used in
chronic catarrh.
266. Ledon. — Resin stimulant and emmenagogue. Used in chronic
catarrh.
267. Laurifolius. — Resin stimulant and emmenagogue. Uved in
chronic catarrh.
STERCULIACE.E.
KYDIA.
274. Calycina. — Bark sudorific.
THEOBROMA.
275. Cacao.— Seeds nutritive, restorative. Produces Chocolate.
250 MEDICAL BOTANY.
ADANSONIA.
278. Digitata. — Mucilaginous. Dried leaves useful in fevers. Fruit
sub-acid.
MALVACEAE.
ABUTILON.
281. Indicum. — Used as an emollient.
MALVA.
284. Sylvestris. — Mucilaginous and emollient. Is the Mallow.
ALTHAEA.
285. Officinalis. — Mucilaginous and emollient. Is the Marsh
Mallow.
ABELMOSCHUS.
287. Esculentus. — Mucilaginous, emollient, and demulcent. Leaves
used to form poultices.
288. Moschatus. — Seeds cordial and stomachic.
TILIACE^.
TILIA.
293. Europeea — Flowers antispasmodic. The Lime-tree.
LYTHRACE^.
HEIMIA.
295. Salicifolia. — Sudorific and diuretic. Used in venereal dis-
orders.
LYTHRUM.
296. Salicaria. — Astringent. Recommended in cases of diarrhoea.
MELIACE^E.
MELIA.
297. Azedarach. — Root bitter and nauseous. Used as an anthel-
mintic.
GUAREA.
301. Aubletii. — Bark emetic and purgative.
CEDRELACEvE.
SwiETENIA.
305. Mahagoni.— Bark febrifugal. Produces Mahogany.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 251
AURANTIACE^E.
CITRUS.
316. Aurantium. — Peel of the fruit tonic and aromatic. Produces
Seville Oranges.
317. Bigaradia. — Peel of the fruit bitter and tonic.
318. Limetta. — Fruit fragrant. Produces Limes.
319. Limonum. — Juice of the fruit yields citric acid. The peel
aromatic and stomachic. Produces Lemons.
SPONDIACE^.
SPONDIAS.
320. Mangifera. — Emollient.
RHAMNACE^E.
ZlZIPHUS.
322. Jujuba. — Fruit pectoral. Bark used for diarrhoea. Produces
Jujubes.
323. Vulgaris. — Fruit pectoral. Bark used for diarrhoea.
BERCHEMIA.
324. Volubilis. — Roots used in cachectic disorders ; said to be anti-
siphilitic.
CEANOTHUS.
325. Americanus. — Astringent and antisiphilitic.
RHAMNUS.
326. Catharticus. — Fruit purgative ; produces colic. An hydra-
gogue. The Buckthorn.
327. Frangula. — Fruit emetic.
328. Infectorius. — Fruit emetic.
329. Saxatilis. — Fruit emetic.
331. Oleoides. — Fruit emetic.
332. Buxifolius. — Fruit emetic.
EUPHORBIACE^E.
Buxus.
350. Sempervirens. — Leaves and wood bitter and nauseous ; sudorific
and purgative. Produces Box -wood.
CICCA.
351. Disticha. — Leaves sudorific. Seeds cathartic. Fruit sub-acid.
CROZOPHORA.
359. Tinctoria. — Plants with emetic, drastic, and corrosive proper-
ties. Seeds cathartic.
252 MEDICAL BOTANY.
CROTON.
360. Cascarilla.— Bark aromatic and fragrant.
361. Eleuteria. — Bark bitter, aromatic, tonic, stimulant. Produces
Cascarilla.
363. Tiglium. — Seeds drastic.
369. Aromaticum. — Bark of the root aromatic and purgative.
RICINUS.
374. Communis. — Seeds cathartic. Produces Castor-oil.
JATROPHA.
375. Curcas. — Seeds emetic and drastic. Leaves rubefacient and
discutient.
377 a. Multifida — The seeds are excellent emetics and purgatives.
JANIPHA.
378. Manihot. — Expressed juice poisonous. Fecula nutritive. Pro-
duces Cassava and Tapioca.
MERCURIALIS.
384. Perennis. — Very poisonous, producing vomiting and diarrhoea.
385. Annua. — Poisonous.
HIPPOMANE.
389. Mancinella. — Juice caustic and venomous. Acrid. Manchineel.
HURA.
390. Crepitans. — Milk very venomous, producing blindness. Seeds
a drastic purgative. An emetic.
EUPHORBIA.
393. Tirucalli. — Milk a remedy for siphilis; cathartic and emetic.
395. Antiquorum. — Bark of the root purgative. Produces Euphor-
bium.
396. Canariensis. — Milk purgative. Produces Euphorbium.
397. Heptagona. — The milk is a mortal poison.
398. Officinarum. — Milk purgative. Produces Euphorbium.
400. Nereifolia. — Juice of the leaves purgative, deobstruent, and
diuretic.
401. Gerardiana. — Bark of the root cathartic and emetic.
402. Lathyris. — Seeds drastic. Bark of the root and stems cathartic
and emetic.
403. Esula. — A dangerous poison.
404. Cyparissias. — A virulent poison.
405. Thymifolia. — Violent purgative. Vulnerary, anthelmintic.
406. Ipecacuanha. — Root powerfully emetic and cathartic.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 253
EUPHORBIA.
407. Peplis — All the parts purgative.
408. Peplus. — All the parts purgative.
409. Falcata. — All the parts purgative.
410. Corollata. — Emetic, expectorant, and cathartic. The bruised
root excites inflammation.
411. Linearis — Juice employed for siphilitic ulcers.
PEDILANTHUS.
412. Tithymaloides. — Antivenereal, emetic.
• CELASTRACE^E.
MAYTENUS.
415. Chilensis. — Leaves stimulant.
SILENACE^E.
SlLENE.
418. Virginica. — Root anthelmintic.
SAPONARIA.
420. Officinalis. — Saponaceous.
GYPSOPHILA.
42 1 . Struthium. — Saponaceous.
TAMARICACE^E.
TAMARIX.
422. Gallica. — Bark bitter and astringent. Branches yield a kind of
Manna.
SIMARUBACEJG.
QUASSIA.
424. Amara. — Wood bitter and tonic. Infused flowers stomachic.
PlCRjENA.
427. Excelsa. — Wood bitter, tonic, and stomachic. Produces Quassia
chips.
RUTACEJE.
RUTA.
429. Graveolens. — Used as an emmenagogue, antispasmodic and
anthelmintic.
BAROSMA.
436. Crenulata. — Leaves an excellent aromatic, stomachic, and effica-
cious diuretic. Produces Diosma leaves.
254 MEDICAL BOTANY.
BABOSMA.
'437. Serratifolia. — Leaves an excellent aromatic, stomachic, and effi-
cacious diuretic. Produces Diosma leaves.
438. Crenata. — Leaves an excellent aromatic, stomachic, and effica-
cious diuretic. Produces Diosma leaves.
ZYGOPHYLLACE^E.
ZYGOPHYLLUM.
439. Fabago. — Esteemed as a vermifuge.
GUAIACUM.
440. Officinale. — Wood yielding a bitter, acrid, stimulant gum-resin,
employed as a diaphoretic and alterative.
XANTHOXYLACE.E.
PTELEA.
442. Trifoliata. — Young shoots anthelmintic. Fruit aromatic and
bitter. A substitute for hops.
XANTHOXYLON.
444. Fraxineum. — Bark aromatic and pungent. Used as a remedy
in chronic rheumatism.
445. Clava Herculis. — Infusion antispasmodic. Tincture febrifugal.
Decoction antisiphilitic.
BRUCEA.
450. Antidysenterica. — Tonic, astringent.
GERANIACE.E.
GERANIUM.
451. Maculatum — Root astringent, containing Tannin.
452. Robertianum. — A remedy in nephritic complaints.
OXALIDACEvE.
OxALIS.
453. Acetosella. — Plant refrigerant, antiscorbutic.
CORIARIACE.E.
CORIARIA.
454. Myrtifolia. — Fruit a dangerous poison.
ROSACES.
POTENTILLA.
455. Reptans. — Root very astringent.
456. Tormentilla. — Root very astringent.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 255
GEUM.
457. Rivale. — Stomachic. Useful in diarrhoea.
458. Urbanum. — Stomachic. Useful in diarrhoea.
459. Canadense. — Root and leaves a mild tonic. Bitter. Useful in
diarrhoea.
AGRIMONIA.
460. Eupatoria. — Astringent, anthelmintic.
RUBUS.
461. Villosus. — Bark of the root astringent. Useful in cholera,
diarrhoea, &c.
ROSA.
462. Canina. — Laxative.
463. Centifolia. — Laxative.
464. Gallica. — Petals astringent and tonic.
GILLENIA.
465. Trifoliata. — Roots emetic.
SPIRAEA.
467. Ulmaria. — Aromatic, tonic.
468. Filipendula. — Aromatic, tonic.
AMYGDALE^E.
AMYGDALUS.
470. Communis. — Oil of the seeds extremely poisonous. Produces
bitter almonds.
471. Persica. — Oil, flowers, and seeds extremely poisonous.
CERASUS.
472. Laurocerasus. — Leaves, bark, and seeds poisonous. Produces
hydrocyanic acid.
473. Virginiana. — Leaves poisonous. Bark febrifugal.
474. Padus. — Abounds in the oil of bitter almonds, and is therefore
poisonous.
475. Capollim. — Bark febrifugal.
PRUNUS.
477. Cocumilia. — The bark is a remedy for the fevers of Calabria.
478. Spinosa. — Fruit acid, astringent, and austere.
POMEJE.
PYRUS. •
479. Aucuparia. — Leaves poisonous.
2o6 MEDICAL BOTANY.
CYDONIA.
480. Vulgaris. — Seeds demulcent.
SANGUISORBE^E.
ALCHEMILLA.
481. Vulgaris. — Decoction slightly tonic.
FABACE^E OR LEGUMINOS^E.
TRIBE I. PAPILIONACEJE.
ANAGYRIS.
482. Fcetida.— Seeds poisonous.
BAPTISIA.
483. Tinctoria. — Roots and herbage antiseptic, sub-astringent, ca-
thartic, and emetic.
GENISTA.
484. Tinctoria — Bitter. Produces a yellow dye.
CYTISUS.
485. Laburnum. — Seeds poisonous, narcotico-acrid.
486. Alpinus. — Seeds poisonous, narcotico-acrid.
487. Scoparius. — Decoction of the shoots diuretic and cathartic.
Seeds emetic. Produces broom-tops.
ANTHYLLIS.
488. Hermannia. — Root diuretic.
489. Vulneraria. — One of the best styptics.
TRIGONELLA.
490. Foenum Graecum. — Decoction of the seeds an emollient. Used
in veterinary medicine.
MELILOTUS.
491. Officinalis. — Decoction emollient. Used in lotions and enemas.
TRIFOLIUM.
492. Alpinum. — Roots sweet and demulcent.
INDIGOFERA.
494. Tinctoria. — The dye is a dangerous vegetable poison.
495. Anil — The dye is a dangerous vegetable poison. Powdered
leaf used in hepatitis.
496. Argentea. — The dye is a dangerous vegetable poison.
CLITORIA.
498. Tematea. — Roots emetic.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 257
GLYCYRRHIZA.
500. Glabra. — Roots sweet, tonic, demulcent. Produces Liquorice.
501. Echinata. — Roots less sweet, tonic, demulcent. Produces an
inferior sort of Liquorice.
AGATI.
507. Grandiflora. — Bark bitter and tonic.
PISCIDIA.
508. Erythrina. — Tincture of the bark narcotic and diaphoretic.
Bark astringent and irritating.
COLUTEA.
509. Arborescens. — Leaves purgative.
ASTRAGALUS.
512. Tragacantha. — Emollient. Produces a kind of Tragacanth.
CORONILLA.
514. Emerus. — Leaves cathartic.
515. Varia. — Leaves diuretic and cathartic. Juice poisonous.
ARTHROLOBIUM.
516. Scorpioides. — Leaves vesicant.
ALHAGI.
518. Maurorum. — From the branches exudes a substance of the
nature of Manna.
ERVUM.
519. Ervilia. — Seeds poisonous.
LATHYRUS.
520. Aphaca. — Seeds narcotic, producing head-ache if eaten in a ripe
state.
521. Cicera. — Seeds narcotic.
ABRUS.
522. Precatorius — Root and leaves employed as a substitute for
Liquorice.
MUCUNA.
526. Pruriens. — Hairs irritating. Produces Cowitch.
TRIBE II. CjESALPINIEjE.
ANDIRA.
533. Inermis. — Bark anthelmintic, mucilaginous, drastic, emetic, pur-
gative, and narcotic ; poisonous in large doses.
8
258 MEDICAL BOTANY.
CASSIA.
536. Acutifolia. — An excellent purgative. Produces Alexandrian
Senna.
539. Obovata. — An excellent purgative. Produces Black-leaved Senna.
540. Tora. — Leaves purgative.
544. Marilandica. — Leaves purgative.
CATH ARTOCA RPUS.
545. Fistula. — Extract of the pulp laxative. Seeds purgative. Roots
an excellent febrifuge.
POINCIANA.
548. Pulcherrima. — Root acrid and poisonous. Leaves a powerful
emmenagogue ; also purgative.
H^EMATOXYLON.
549. Campeachianum. — A powerful astringent. Decoction used in
diarrhoea and dysentery. Produces Logwood.
BAUHINIA.
55 1 . Toraentosa. — Astringent.
TAMARINDUS.
552. Indica. — The pulp of the fruit is cooling and laxative. Leaves
sub-acid ; employed as an anthelmintic. Produces Tamarinds.
HYMEN JEA.
553. Courbaril. — Fruit purgative. Bark anthelmintic.
TRIBE III. MIMOSEjE.
ACACIA.
557. Catechu. — Astringent.
558. Vera. — The bark yields Gum arable.
566 a. Mollissima. — Astringent.
566 b. Melanoxylon. — Astringent.
VACHELLIA.
567. Famesiana. — Bark yields a gum like Gum arable.
SAXIFRAGACE.E.
HEUCHERA.
572. Americana. — Root a powerful astringent.
CRASSULACE^E.
SEMPERVIVUM.
573. Tectorum. — Leaves astringent ; refrigerant.
MEDICAL BOTAXY. 259
SEDUM.
574. Telephium. — Refrigerant and astringent. Leaves useful in
diarrhoea.
575. Acre. — Leaves acrid. Recommended in cancerous cases and
epilepsy.
ANACARDIACE^E.
MANGIFERA.
584. Indica. — Gum-resin slightly bitter and pungent.
ANACARDIUM.
586. Occidentale. — Gum astringent. Juice acrid. The coats of the
nuts abound in a caustic thick oil. Produces Cashew.
RHUS.
589. Toxicodendron. — Yields a narcotic, acrid, milky juice, extremely
poisonous.
590. Glabrum. — Yields a narcotic, acrid, milky juice, extremely
poisonous.
SCHINUS.
595. Molle.— Acrid.
PlSTACIA.
596. Vera. — Fruit emollient. Produces Pistacia nuts.
597. Terebinthus. — Yields Cyprus turpentine.
598. Lentiscus. — Produces a sweet, fragrant, stimulant resin, called
Mastich, used to preserve the teeth.
CORYLACE^:.
QUERCUS.
599. Pedunculata. — Bark astringent ; the powder employed in passive
haemorrhage and diarrhoea.
600. Sessiliflora. — Bark astringent. From this the oak-galls are ob-
tained.
602. Coccifera. — Feeds the Kermes insect.
603. Falcata. — Bark and leaves astringent. Employed in cases of
gangrene.
BETULACE^E.
BETULA.
604. Alba. — Bark tonic. Employed as a febrifuge.
ALNUS.
605. Glutinosa. — Bark tonic. A decoction employed as a gargle.
s 2
260 MEDICAL BOTANY.
URTICACE^:.
URTICA.
607. Dioica. — The whole plant is astringent and diuretic. Is the
Nettle.
HUMULUS.
609. Lupulus. — Ripe catkins narcotic and bitter. Infusion and
tincture aromatic, tonic. Produces Hops.
Ficus.
611. Indica Bark tonic. Juice applied to the teeth and gums to
relieve tooth-ache. Is the Banyan-tree.
612. Elastica. — Yields Caoutchouc.
616. Religiosa. — Seeds cooling and alterative.
617. Carica. — Fruit pectoral, demulcent, and laxative. Produces
Figs.
CANNABIS.
618. Sativa — A very powerful, stimulating narcotic, used as an
intoxicating drug. Produces Hemp.
MOBUS.
619. Nigra. — Fruit cooling and laxative. Bark cathartic and anthel-
mintic. Produces Mulberries.
620. Alba. — Root said to be an excellent vermifuge.
DORSTENIA.
621. Contrayerva. — Root stimulant, sudorific, and tonic; used in
eruptive and other diseases.
622. Brasiliensis. — Root stimulant, sudorific, and tonic.
624. Drakena. — Root stimulant, sudorific, and tonic.
ULMACE^E.
ULMUS.
626. Effusa. — The inner bark demulcent and diuretic ; slightly as-
tringent and a feeble tonic.
627. Campestris. — The inner bark demulcent and diuretic ; slightly
astringent and a feeble tonic.
MYRICACE^E,
MYRICA.
628. Gale. — Infusion used as a vermifuge ; leaves as a substitute for
Hops in brewing.
629. Cerifera. — Bark of the root acrid and astringent. Powder sti-
mulating and very acrid.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 261
COMPTONIA.
630. Asplenifolia. — Tonic and astringent. Used in diarrhoea.
JUGLANDACE^;.
JUGLANS.
631. Cinerea. — Inner bark of the root a mild and efficacious laxative;
of the stem, rubefacient.
632. Regia. — The young fruit purgative. Produces Walnuts.
CHLORANTHACE^:.
CHLOBANTHUS.
633. Officinalis. — All the parts powerfully aromatic. Root an active
stimulant.
633 a. Brachystachys. — All the parts powerfully aromatic. Roots
active stimulants.
PIPERACE^:.
PIPER.
634. Nigrum. — Pungent and stimulant. Produces Round Pepper.
636. Longum. — Pungent and stimulant. Produces Long Pepper.
639. Amalago. — Leaves and shoots discutient. Root sudorific, dia-
phoretic. Fruit pungent.
642. Betel. — By chewing the leaf intoxicating effects are produced.
Stimulant.
SALICACE^E.
SALIX.
648. Russelliana. — Bark febrifugal.
649. Fragilis. — Bark slightly febrifugal.
650. Purpurea. — Bark febrifugal.
651. Alba.— Bark febrifugal.
652. Pentandra. — Bark aromatic and febrifugal.
653. Caprea. — Bark febrifugal.
POPULUS.
654. Nigra. — Leaf-buds bitter, aromatic.
655. Dilatata. — Leaf-buds bitter, aromatic.
656. Balsamifera. — Buds diuretic and antiscorbutic.
657. Candicans. — Buds diuretic and antiscorbutic.
659. Tremuloides. — Bark esteemed as a febrifuge.
262 MEDICAL BOTANY.
BALSAMACE^E.
LlQUIDAMBAE.
661. Orientate.— Bark pungent, bitter, expectorant. Produces Storax.
662. Styraciflua. — Almost inert.
THYMELACE.E.
DAPHNE.
666. Mezereum — All the parts excessively acrid, acting as an irri-
tant poison.
667. Laureola. — All the parts excessively acrid, acting as an irritant
poison.
668. Gnidium — All the parts excessively acrid, acting as an irritant
poison.
DIRCA.
670. Palustris. — Bark acrid, cathartic, vesicant. Fruit narcotic.
HERNANDIACE^E.
HEENANDIA.
671. Sonora. — Bark, seed, and leaves purgative. Juice of leaves a
powerful depilatory.
LAURACE^E.
ClNNAMOMUM.
674. Zeylanicum. — Aromatic, stimulant. Produces Cinnamon.
CAMPHORA.
685. Omcinarum. — Yields Camphor.
PERSEA.
686. Gratissima. — Leaves balsamic, pectoral, and vulnerary. Seeds
astringent. Yields the Avocado Pear.
SASSAFRAS.
697. Officinale. — Dried leaves mucilaginous. Plant employed as a
diuretic and sudorific. Produces Sassafras.
BENZOIN.
699. Odoriferum. — Bark aromatic, stimulant, and tonic. Infusion of
the twigs a vermifuge. Fruit aromatic, oil a stimulant.
LAURUS.
701. Nobilis. — Leaves and fruit aromatic. Fixed oil a stimulant.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 263
ARISTOLOCHIACE^E.
ARISTOLOCHIA.
704 a. Cymbifera. — The root has a disagreeable smell, and a strong
bitter aromatic taste.
706. Trilobata. — A sudden and powerful sudorific.
708. Serpentaria. — The root has a penetrating smell and bitter taste,
acting as a stimulant, tonic, diaphoretic. In some cases an
antispasmodic and anodyne.
709. Pallida. — A slight aromatic stimulant tonic. Sudorific ; em-
ployed as an emmenagogue in amenorrhoea.
712. Sempervirens. — A slight aromatic stimulant tonic. Sudorific;
employed as an emmenagogue in amenorrhoea.
713. Rotunda. — A slight aromatic stimulant tonic. Sudorific; em-
ployed as an emmenagogue in amenorrhcea.
714. Clematitis. — Roots powerfully stimulating.
ASARUM.
716. Europaeum, — Roots purgative, emetic, and diuretic. Powdered
leaves used to provoke sneezing.
717. Canadense.- — Rhizoma aromatic. A warm stimulant diapho-
retic.
CHENOPODIACE^E.
CHENOPODIUM.
719. Olidum. — Employed as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue.
721. Botrys. — Expectorant, employed in catarrh and humoral asthma.
722. Anthelminticum. — The seeds yield an oil which is powerfully
anthelmintic.
723. Ambrosioides. — Stimulant, corroborant.
ATBIPLEX.
724. Angustifolia. — Seeds emetic.
725. Hortensis. — Seeds emetic.
SALSOLA.
726. Kali.— Yields Soda.
727. Sativa.— Yields Soda.
728. Soda.— Yields Soda.
729. Tragus.— Yields Soda.
PHYTOLACCACE^E.
PHYTOLACCA.
730. Decandra. — Root emetic. Said to cure psora and tsenia capitis.
264 MEDICAL BOTANY.
POLYGONACE^E.
COCCOLOBA.
731. Uvifera. — Leaves, wood, and bark are astringent; the decoc-
tion forms Jamaica Kino.
RHEUM.
732. Emodi.— Roots tonic, astringent, and purgative. Furnishes
Indian Rhubarb.
737. Rhaponticum. — Root bitter, astringent, and aromatic ; when
chewed, mucilaginous. Rhubarb inferior.
738. Undulatum. — Roots purgative and tonic.
739. Caspicum. — Roots purgative and tonic.
740. Compactum. — Roots purgative and tonic.
741. Palmatum. — Roots purgative and tonic.
742. Crassinervium. — Roots purgative and tonic.
All produce
Rhubarb ;
Nos. 741 and 735
the best.
RUMEX.
743. Crispus. — Root astringent ; used in the form of ointment as a
cure for the itch.
744. Obtusifolius. — Root astringent ; employed as a dentifrice.
745. Acetosa. — Plant agreeably acid. Acting as a refrigerant and
diuretic. Produces Sorrel.
746. Alpinus. — Root purgative.
POLYGONUM.
747. Hydropiper. — Leaves so acrid as to act as vesicants. A power-
ful diuretic. Dyes wool yellow.
748. Bistorta. — A powerful astringent. Decoction employed in gleet
and leucorrhoea ; also in passive haemorrhages and diarrhoea.
749. Aviculare. — Fruit emetic and cathartic.
751. Amphibium. — Yields a false Sarsaparilla.
PETIVERIACE^].
PETIVERIA.
752. Alliacea. — All the parts acrid, sudorific, emmenagogue. The
roots used as a remedy for tooth-ache.
NYCTAGINACE^E.
MlRABILIS.
754. Jalapa — Root purgative.
755. Longiflora. — Root exceedingly purgative.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 265
PYROLACE^E.
CHIMAPHILA.
775. Corymbosa. — Leaves, stalks, and roots bitter-sweet, pungent.
Diuretic. Fresh leaves acrid, acting as vesicants and rube-
facients. Stomachic and tonic.
ERICACEAE.
RHODODENDRON.
776. Maximum. — Astringent, narcotic. Acting as a poison.
777. Ponticum. — Astringent, narcotic. Reported to be deleterious.
778. Chrysanthum. — Leaves narcotic in a high degree ; useful in
chronic rheumatism and venereal complaints.
AZALEA.
779. Pontica. — Qualities of the plant deleterious.
LEDUM.
780. Latifolium. — The leaves infused in beer produce head-ache and
delirium ; although they have been used with advantage
in agues, dysentery, and diarrhoea.
781. Palustre.— Ditto.
KALMIA.
782. Latifolia. — Leaves poisonous to animals ; narcotic. Young
shoots poisonous to man. A brown powder which adheres
to them acts as a sternutatory.
GAULTHEBIA.
783. Procumbens. — Fruit contains an aromatic, sweet, pungent, vo-
latile oil, which is antispasmodic and diuretic. A tincture
useful in diarrhoea.
ARBUTUS.
784. Unedo. — A wine is made from the fruit, reported to be narcotic.
ARCTOSTAPHYLOS.
785. Uva ursi. — Leaves astringent and bitter. Used in nephritic
and calculous cases. Diuretic.
LOISELEURIA.
786. Procumbens. — Useful as an astringent medicine.
266 MEDICAL BOTANY.
VACCINACE^E.
VACCINIUM.
787. Uliginosum.— Fruit narcotic. The berries yield an intoxicating
liquor.
PRIMULACE^E.
CYCLAMEN.
788. Hedersefolium.— Root acrid ; acting as a drastic purgative, em-
menagogue.
PRIMULA.
789. Veris. — Flowers sedative. Produces Cowslips.
ANAGALLIS.
790. Arvensis. — Acrid. Prescribed in epilepsy and dropsy.
SAPOTACE^;.
ACHKAS.
795. Sapota. — Bark a powerful astringent. Seeds diuretic.
EBENACE^E.
DlOSPYRUS.
798. Virginiana. — Bark a powerful astringent and febrifuge.
STYRACE^E.
STYRAX.
799. Officinale. — A stimulating expectorant. Produces Storax.
AQUIFOLIACE^].
ILEX.
801. Aquifolium. — Root and bark emollient, expectorant, and diu-
retic. Leaves febrifugal.
PRINOS.
804-. Verticillatus. — Bark a valuable tonic. Berries emetic, tonic,
corroborant.
CONVOLVULACE^;.
IPOM^A.
807. Macrorhiza. — Roots consisting of saccharine and farinaceous
matter. Laxative.
809. Purga. — Roots purgative. Produces jalap.
BATATAS.
815. Paniculata. — Roots cathartic.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 267
PHARBITIS.
816. Nil. — Seeds purgative. Said to be a quick cathartic.
CONVOLVULUS.
817. Scammonia. — Roots cathartic. Produces Scammony.
818. Althseoides. — Roots purgative.
CALYSTEGIA.
819. Sepium. — Roots purgative.
820. Soldanella. — Roots purgative.
LOBELIACE.E.
LOBELIA.
823. Inflata. — An acrid narcotic, and powerful emetic. Used in
asthma. In small doses expectorant and diaphoretic.
824. Siphilitica. — Root acrid and emetic. Used as a remedy for
siphilis.
HlPPOBROMA. (ISOTOMA.)
825. Longiflorum. — Acrid, venomous.
TUPA.
826. Feuillsei. — Acrid, venomous. The smell of the flowers said
to produce vomiting.
CINCHONACE.E.
HYMENODICTYON.
856. Excelsum. — Bark bitter and astringent.
EXOSTEMA.
857. Caribaeum. — Juice of the capsules produces a burning itching in
the nostrils and lips. Bark febrifugal and emetic.
858. Floribundum. — Bark febrifugal and emetic ; rather drastic.
MANETTIA.
862. Cordifolia. — Bark of the root a valuable remedy in dropsy and
dysentery, acting as an emetic.
RANDIA.
864. Dumetorum. — Fruit narcotic, emetic.
GARDENIA.
865. Campanulata. — Fruit employed as a cathartic and anthelrnintic.
COFFEA.
876. Arabica. — Stimulating, aromatic. Produces Coffee.
268 MEDICAL BOTANY.
CAPRIFOLIACE^E.
TRIOSTEUM.
896. Perfoliatum.— Bark of the root emetic and cathartic. Leaves
diaphoretic.
SAMBUCUS.
897. Ebulus. — Roots cathartic.
898. Nigra. — Juice of the fruit cooling, laxative, and diuretic. Bark
purgative ; emetic. Flowers diaphoretic ; employed as ex-
pectorants. Produces Elder- berries.
GALIACE^E, OR STELLATE.
RUBIA.
899. Tinctorum. — Root used for dyeing. Said to be tonic, diuretic,
and emmenagogue. Produces Madder.
ASPERULA.
900. Odorata. — Diuretic.
ASTERACE^.
LlATRIS.
904. Squarrosa — Roots have a terebinthinous odour, and are diuretic
and antisiphilitic.
905. Scariosa. — Diuretic, antisiphilitic.
EUPATORIUM.
907- Perfoliatum. — All the parts bitter. A valuable tonic stimulant.
In warm infusion or decoction emetic, sudorific, and aperient.
TUSSILAGO.
913. Farfara. — The leaves, smoked like tobacco, have been employed
against dyspnoea. It is demulcent, bitter, and a slight tonic.
ERIGERON.
914. Philadelphicum — Used as a diuretic.
STENACTIS.
915. Annua. — Employed as a diuretic.
SOLIDAGO.
9 1 6. Odora. — Leaves yielding a volatile oil, which is aromatic, sti-
mulant, diaphoretic, and carminative.
INULA.
919. Helenium — Tonic, diuretic, diaphoretic. Used in dyspepsia,
and other diseases. Produces Elecampane.
MEDICAL BOTANY.
PULICARIA.
920. Dysenterica — Astringent, diuretic.
BIDENS.
921. Tripartita. — The whole plant acrid. When chewed, it excites
salivation.
SPILANTHES.
923. Oleracea. — The whole plant acts as a powerful stimulant of the
salivary organs.
ANTHEMIS.
925. Nobilis. — Tonic, stimulant, emetic. Produces Chamomile heads.
MARUTA.
926. Cotula. — Every part is foetid and acrid. Its decoction is an
active bitter, producing vomiting and sweating.
ANACYCLUS.
927. Pyrethrum. — Root hot, acrid, and permanent, depending on an
acrid oil in the bark, which renders it a rubefacient and sti-
mulant.
PTARMICA.
928. Vulgaris. — The whole plant is pungent, stimulant. Dried
leaves produce sneezing.
PYRETHRUM.
930. Parthenium. The whole plant is bitter ; considered tonic, sti-
mulating, and anti-hysteric.
ARTEMISIA.
932. Maritima. — Bitter, tonic, aromatic.
936. Glacialis. — Bitter, tonic, aromatic.
941. Dracunculus. — Leaves pungent and stimulating. Is Tarra-
gon.
943. Abrotanum. — A powerful anthelmintic. Is Southern-wood.
944. Moxa. — Furnishes a kind of Moxa.
945. Absinthium. — A powerful bitter, tonic; extolled as a stomachic.
Is Wormwood.
TANACETUM.
946. Vulgare. — Every part bitter. The qualities are of a tonic and
cordial nature. Is Tansy.
ARNICA.
948. Montana. — A virulent plant, acting as a narcotico-acrid agent.
270 MEDICAL BOTANY.
DORONICUM.
919. Pardalianches. — Narcotico-acrid.
CALENDULA.
950. Officinalis. — Employed as a carminative.
CYNARACE^E.
CENTAUREA.
951. Calcitrapa. — Bitter, febrifugal.
952. Centaurium. — Bitter, febrifugal.
954. Jacea. — Bitter, febrifugal.
SlLYBUM.
956. Marianum. — Leaves sudorific and aperient.
LAPPA.
957. Minor. — Root tonic, aperient, sudorific, and diuretic. Fruit bit-
ter and acrid ; also used as a diuretic.
CNICUS.
958. Benedictus. — Febrifugal.
CICHORACE^l.
LACTUCA.
959. Virosa. — Narcotic.
960. Sativa.— Sedative. Produces Thridax.
TARAXACUM.
961. Dens leonis. — The infusion, decoction, and extract of the root
are tonic and aperient. Diuretic.
CICHORIUM.
962. Intybus. — Root tonic and aperient. Used in decoction in chro-
nic visceral and cutaneous diseases.
VALERIANACEJE.
VALERIANA.
964. Officinalis. — Roots foetid, stimulant, and narcotic. Employed
as an anthelmintic. Produces Valerian-root.
PLANTAGINACE^.
PLANTAGO.
968. Psy Ilium. — Seeds mucilaginous, demulcent.
970. Cynops. — Seeds mucilaginous, demulcent.
971. Lanceolata. — Leaves and roots bitter, astringent. Used as an
expectorant and vulnerary.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 27 1
GLOBULARIACE7E.
GLOBULARIA.
972. Alypum. — A bitter, drastic purgative.
973. Vulgaris. — A bitter, drastic purgative, employed as a resolvent
and vulnerary.
PLUMBAGINACEJE.
STATICE.
976. Caroliniana. — Root intensely astringent.
ABMERIA.
977. Vulgaris. — Flowers an active diuretic.
PLUMBAGO.
978. Europaea — Very acrid; used to remove tooth-ache. An effec-
tual emetic.
979. Rosea. — Acrid, vesicant.
981. Zeylanica. — Acrid, vesicant.
BORAGINACE^:.
BORAGO.
984. Officinalis. — Root mucilaginous. Pectoral, emollient. Is Bo-
rage.
SYMPHYTUM.
986. Officinale — Reputed vulnerary, esculent.
CYNOGLOSSUM.
987. Officinale — Fffitid, narcotic, antispasmodic. ? ?
LAMIACE^ OR LABIATE.
LAVANDULA.
995. Vera. — Flowers carminative, stimulant, and tonic ; used with
the leaves as sternutatories. Produces Lavender.
996. Spica. — Yields oil of spike.
997. Stoechas. — Considered expectorant and antispasmodic.
MENTHA.
999. Viridis. — Aromatic and carminative. Produces Spearmint.
272 MEDICAL BOTANY.
MENTHA.
1000. Piperita. — An aromatic stimulant. Volatile oil antispasmo-
dic. Produces Peppermint.
1001. Pulegium. — Aromatic, antispasmodic.
1002. Citrata. — Furnishes a fragrant oil.
1003. Rotundifolia. — Stomachic and emmenagogue.
1004-. Aquatica. — Stomachic and emmenagogue.
1005. Arvensis. — Stomachic and emmenagogue.
LYCOPUS.
1006 a. Europseus. — A febrifuge, commended as an astringent.
SALVIA.
1008. Officinalis. — Qualities aromatic, bitter, and stomachic.
1009. Grandiflora. — Qualities aromatic, bitter, and stomachic.
ROSMARINUS.
1010. Officinalis. — Employed as a cephalic medicine.
MONAEDA.
1011. Fistulosa — Bitter, aromatic, febrifugal.
AMABACUS.
1013. Dictamnus. — Aromatic and tonic.
ORIGANUM.
1014. Vulgare. — Pungent, stimulant, and fragrant. Produces Mar-
joram.
THYMUS.
1015. Vulgaris. — Pungent, stimulant, and fragrant.
1016. Serpyllum. — Pungent, stimulant, and fragrant.
HYSSOPUS.
1017. Officinalis. — Stimulating, stomachic, carminative.
MELISSA.
1020. Calamintha. — Aromatic, bitter, febrifugal.
SCUTELLABIA.
1021. Lateriflora — Reputed to be a remedy for hydrophobia.
NEPETA.
1022. Cataria — It acts as a real aphrodisiac on cats. Used also in
amenorrhoea.
1023. Glechoma — Expectorant, anti-hysterical. Produces Ground
Ivy.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 273
LEONURUS.
1024. Cardiaca. — Stimulant. Formerly used against canine madness.
STACHYS.
1026. Betonica. — Stimulating. Root emetic and purgative.
MABBUBIUM.
1027. Vulgare. — Herb, bitter, aromatic. Recommended as stimu-
lating and tonic. Expectorant. Is Horehound.
VERBENACE.E.
VlTEX.
1030. Trifolia. — Leaves powerfully discutient. Fruit acrid.
1031. Agnus castus. Fruit acrid, stimulant.
STACHYTABPHA.
1036. Jamaicensis. — The expressed juice purgative; employed for
clysters, and as an anthelmintic.
BIGNONIACE^E.
CATALPA.
1037. Syringifolia. Leaves and bark bitter, expectorant.
BIGNONIA.
1038. Antisiphilitica. — Discutient, anti- venereal.
ACANTHACE^;.
RHINACANTHUS.
1039. Communis. — Milk boiled on the roots is considered aphrodi-
siacal ; also alexipharmic.
ACANTHUS.
1043. Mollis. — Leaves emollient.
ADHATODA.
1045. Vasica. — Flowers, leaves, and roots anti spasmodic, bitter, and
sub-aromatic.
ANDOGBAPHIS.
1046. Paniculata. — Stomachic, used as a remedy for cholera and
dysentery. Said to be alexipharmic.
SCROPHULARIACE^E.
DIGITALIS.
1047. Purpurea — Diuretic, narcotic. Is Foxglove.
T
27-i MEDICAL BOTANY.
SCROPHULARIA.
1048. Nodosa. — Leaves and roots purgative and emetic, with a bitter
taste.
1049. Aquatica.— Leaves and roots purgative and emetic, but less
so than the last.
HEBPESTES.
1 050. Monniera. — Antirheumatic.
CALCEOLARIA.
1053. Pinnata. — Leaves purgative and emetic.
LINARIA.
1054. Vulgaris. — Bitter, purgative, and diuretic. Flowers used as
a wash for chronic diseases of the skin.
1055. Cymbalaria. — Recommended as an antiscorbutic. Diuretic.
EUPHRASIA.
1059. Officinalis. — Slightly bitter and aromatic, ophthalmic.
GRATIOLA.
1060. Officinalis. — Bitter, acting as a purgative and emetic. Useful
in cases of hypochondriasis.
SCOPARIA.
1061. Dulcis.— -Febrifugal ? Expressed juice mucilaginous, and used
as a cooling laxative.
VERSA SCUM.
1062. Nigrum. — Sub-narcotic.
SOLANACE^l.
HYOSCYAMUS.
1065. Niger. — A powerful narcotic. Is Henbane.
ATROPA.
1066. Belladonna. — A dangerous narcotic. Every part of the plant
poisonous. In medicine it is narcotic, diaphoretic, and
diuretic. Is Deadly Nightshade.
CAPSICUM.
1067. Annuum.— Fruit and seeds stimulant, pungent.
1067 a. Frutescens.— Fruit and seeds stimulant, more pungent.
1067 b. Baccatum. — Fruit and seeds stimulant, very pungent.
DATURA.
1068. Tatula — A violent narcotic poison. Employed externally as
an anodyne and sedative.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 275
DATURA.
1069. Stramonium. — A violent narcotic poison. Employed exter-
nally as an anodyne and sedative.
PHYSALIS.
1072. Alkekengi. — Diuretic, employed in veterinary practice.
NICANDBA.
1073. Physaloides. — Diuretic.
SOLANUM.
1074. Nigrum. — Stimulating, narcotic.
1076. Dulcamara. — Berries bitter and poisonous. Plant narcotic and
diaphoretic.
NICOTIAN A.
1081. Tabacum. — A stimulant narcotic, employed as an errhine ; in
infusion as an expectorant and sedative ; in vapour as an
antispasmodic. Produces Virginian Tobacco.
1082. Rustica. — A stimulant narcotic, much more mild in its opera-
tion. Produces Syrian Tobacco.
1083. Persica — A stimulating narcotic, less mild in its operation.
Produces Persian Tobacco.
CESTRACE^E.
OESTRUM.
1087. Laurifolium. — Febrifugal, used externally as an astringent.
GENTIANACE^:.
GENTIANA.
1088. Catesbsei. — Bitter, tonic, febrifugal.
1089. Amarella. — Bitter, tonic, febrifugal.
1090. Campestris. — Bitter, tonic, febrifugal.
1091. Purpurea. — Bitter, tonic, febrifugal.
1095. Lutea. — Bitter, tonic, febrifugal. Root anthelmintic. Pro-
duces the Gentian-root of the shops.
FRAZERA.
1097. Carolinensis. — Root bitter, emetic, cathartic.
ERYTHR^A.
1099. Centaurium. — Bitter, tonic, febrifugal. Used in rustic phar-
macy.
T 2
276 MEDICAL BOTANY.
MENYANTHES.
1105. Trifoliata. — All the plant bitter. A valuable tonic, emetic,
diaphoretic.
VILLARSIA.
1106. Nymphseoides. — Stems bitter, tonic, and febrifugal.
SPIGELIA.
1 1 07. Marilandica. — Root and leaves are active anthelmintics ; also
purgative and narcotic. Produces Wormseed.
APOCYNACE^E.
CERBERA.
1111. Manghas — Kernels emetic and poisonous; the milky sap
employed as a purgative.
1113. Thevetia. — Bark bitter, cathartic, and a powerful febrifuge.
ALLAMANDA.
1125. Cathartica. — An infusion of the leaves a valuable cathartic.
In over-doses emetic and purgative.
NERIUM.
1128. Oleander. — Acrid, stimulating, poisonous.
APOCYNUM.
1130. Androssemifolium. — Every part lactescent. Root bitter, tonic,
acting as an emetic.
1131. Cannabinum. — Emetic ; in decoction diuretic and diaphoretic.
PLUMIERA.
1137. Rubra. — Milk corrosive.
ASCLEPIADACE^:.
ASCLEPIAS.
1141. Tuberosa. — Root expectorant and diaphoretic; employed in
catarrh, pneumony, and pleurisy. Useful as a tonic and
stimulant.
1143. Curassavica.— Roots purgative and emetic.
CALOTROPIS.
1144. Gigantea.—The juices of the root and bark are used as altera-
tives and purgatives. Produces Mudar.
1145. Procera— Juice acrid; also a powerful depilatory.
CYNANCHUM.
1148. Vincetoxicum.— Emetic and purgative, celebrated as an an-
tidote to poisons.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 277
OLEACE.E.
OLEA.
1157. Europsea. — The fruit yields an oil, which is demulcent,
emollient, and laxative. Bark bitter and astringent. Pro-
duces Olive oil.
OBNUS.
1158. Europaea. — The branches yield true Manna. A gentle laxative.
1159. Rotundifolia. — The branches yield Manna of a better quality.
FBAXINUS.
1 160. Excelsior. — Leaves cathartic. Bark tonic and febrifugal.
SYRINGA.
1161. Vulgaris. — Bark tonic, bitter, and febrifugal.
CYCADACE^E.
CYCAS.
1 1 62. Revoluta. — Farinaceous.
ZAMIA.
1 169. Furfuracea. — Yields a kind of Arrow-root.
:, OR CONIFERS.
PIN us.
1170. Sylvestris. — Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Turpentine,
Pitch.
1171. Pumilio -- Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Hungarian
balsam.
1 1 72. Pinaster. — Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Bordeaux tur-
pentine.
1173. Cembra. — Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Carpathian
balsam.
ABIES.
1174. Picea. — Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Strasburgh tur-
pentine.
1175. Balsamea. — Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Canada bal-
sam.
1176. Larix. — Terebinthinous, resinous. Produces Venice turpentine.
CALLITRIS.
1177. Quadrivalvis. — Resinous. Produces Sandarach.
278 MEDICAL BOTANY.
JUNIPERUS.
1 1 78. Communis. — Fruit sudorific, carminative ; the oil a very pow-
erful diuretic. Produces Juniper-berries.
1179. Virginiana. — The oil is a powerful stimulant, acting as a
rubefacient and vesicant. In amenorrhoea it acts as an
emmenagogue. Diuretic. Is Savin.
1180. Sabina. — Oil a powerful stimulant, acting as a rubefacient and
vesicant. In amenorrhoea it acts as an emmenagogue.
Diuretic. Is Savin.
TAXACE^E.
TAXUS.
1181. Baccata. — Leaves fetid, very poisonous, acting like Digitalis.
Berries harmless. Is the Yew.
ZINGIBERACE.E.
ZlNGIBEB.
1 1 82. Officinale. — A valuable aromatic, carminative, stimulant, sia-
lagogue. Produces Ginger.
CURCUMA.
1186. Zedoaria. — Root aromatic, stomachic, carminative. Produces
Zedoary.
1189. Longa. — Bitter, aromatic, stimulant, tonic. Used in dyeing.
Produces Turmeric.
K^EMPFEHIA.
1 1 92. Galanga. — The roots have an agreeable smell, and warm bitter
aromatic taste.
1193. Rotunda. — The roots have an agreeable smell, and warm bitter
aromatic taste.
MARANTACEjE.
MARANTA.
1204. Arundinacea. — Amylaceous. Reckoned a powerful alexiphar-
mic. Produces Arrow-root.
CANNA.
1 205. Edulis. — Amylaceous.
1206. Coccinea. — Amylaceous. Produces Tous les mois.
AMARYLLIDACE.E.
CRINUM.
1207. Asiaticum. — Bulbs powerfully emetic, poisonous.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 279
OPORANTHUS.
1208. Luteus — Bulbs purgative.
BRUNSVIGIA.
1209. Toxicaria. — Juice of the bulbs a dangerous poison. Used to
envenom arrows.
NARCISSUS.
1210. Poeticus. — Bulbs emetic, poisonous.
1211. Pseudo-narcissus. — Bulbs and flowers emetic, poisonous.
1212. Tazzetta. — Emetic and poisonous.
PANCRATIUM.
1213. Maritimum. — Emetic.
ALSTR(EMERIA.
1214. Salsilla. — Diuretic and diaphoretic.
IRIDACE^E.
IRIS.
1216. Versicolor. — Rhizoma nauseous and acrid ; an active cathartic.
Useful as a diuretic.
1217. Pseud-acorus. — Rhizoma acrid; possessing purgative and
emetic properties.
1218. Florentina — Rhizoma a sub-acrid, aromatic, bitter substance.
Produces Orris-root.
CROCUS.
1219. Sativus. — Stimulant. Used as carminative, antispasmodic.
and emmenagogue. Produces Saffron.
ORCHIDACE^E.
ORCHIS.
1221. Mascula. — Amylaceous, demulcent. Produces Salep.
BLETIA.
1225. Verecunda. — Bitter, stimulant, stomachic.
PALMACE^E.
CARYOTA.
1232. Urens. — Amylaceous. Produces Sago.
CALAMUS.
1233. Draco. — Astringent.
280 MEDICAL BOTANY.
ELAIS.
1234. Guineensis. — Oleaginous, astringent. Produces Palm oil.
MELANTHACE^E.
VERATRUM.
1236. Viride. — Roots an acrid emetic, stimulant, sedative. Produces
White Hellebore.
1237. Album. — A small dose acts as an emetic; a large causes
vomiting and purging. Produces White Hellebore.
1238. Sabadilla. — Seeds acrid; used as anthelmintics. A dangerous
stimulant.
HELONIAS.
1241. Erythrosperma. — Plant a narcotic poison. Used for destroying
flies.
1 242. Dioica. — Root in infusion anthelmintic ; in tincture bitter and
tonic.
GYKOMIA.
1243. Virginica. — Root diuretic, hydragogue.
TRILLIUM.
1244. Erectum. — Rhizoma violently emetic ; fruit suspicious.
COLCHICUM.
1246. Autumnale. — Sudorific, emetic, purgative. Used as an an-
thelmintic. A narcotico-acrid poison. Is the Meadow
Saffron.
LILIACE.E.
ERYTHRONIUM.
1247. Americanum. — Root and leaves emetic.
ALETRIS.
1249. Farinosa. — Very bitter. Used in infusion as a tonic and sto-
machic. Emetic.
SQUILL A.
1250. Maritima — Bulbs acrid, vesicant, emetic, diuretic, expectorant.
Produces Squills.
ALLIUM.
1255. Sativum. — Bulbs stimulant, expectorant, and diuretic. Used
as anthelmintics. Produces Garlic.
1256. Cepa.— Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, and rubefacient. Pro-
duces Onions.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 281
DRACAENA.
1258. Draco. — Tonic, astringent, resinous, employed in diarrhoea.
Produces Dragon's blood.
1259. Terminalis. — Roots astringent, useful in dysentery.
1260. Ferrea. — Roots astringent, useful in dysentery.
ALOE.
1261. Vulgaris. — Purgative. Produces Barbadoes Aloes.
1262. Socotrina. — Purgative, bitter, aromatic. Produces Socotrine
and Mocha Aloes.
1263. Purpurascens. — Purgative, bitter, aromatic. Produces Soco-
trine Aloes.
1264. Spicata. — Purgative. Produces Cape Aloes and Horse Aloes.
1265. Arborescens. — Purgative. Produces Cape Aloes and Horse
Aloes.
1266. Commelyni. — Purgative. Produces Cape Aloes and Horse
Aloes.
1267. Mitriformis. — Purgative. Produces Cape Aloes and Horse
Aloes.
SMILACE^E.
SMILAX.
1269. Aspera. — Emetic, diaphoretic, narcotic. Produces Italian Sar-
saparilla.
1270. Sarsaparilla. — Emetic, diaphoretic, narcotic.
1272. Siphilitica. — Emetic, diaphoretic, narcotic. Produces Lisbon
Sarsaparilla.
ARACE.E.
ARUM.
1280. Maculatum. — Tubers amylaceous, stimulant, diaphoretic, and
expectorant; juice acrid, poisonous. Produces Portland
Sago.
COLOCASIA.
1282. Esculenta. — Acrid, sialagogue, amylaceous.
SYMPLOCARPUS.
1285. Foetidus. — Tubers acrid, antispasmodic, hydragogue.
DlEFFENBACHIA.
1289. Seguina. — An exceedingly venomous plant. The juice im-
parts an indelible stain to linen.
282 MEDICAL BOTANY.
ACORACE^E.
ACORUS.
1290. Calamus.— Rhizoma aromatic, bitter, stomachic. Adapted to
cases of dyspepsia. Produces Calamus aromaticus.
GRAMINACE^E.
LOLIUM.
1292. Temulentum. — A narcotico-acrid poison. Used as a sedative
poultice. Produces Darnel.
TBITICUM.
1293. Vulgare. — Amylaceous. Produces Wheat.
HORDEUM.
1294. Vulgare. — Nutritive. Produces Barley.
SECALE.
1295. Cereale. — Origin of Ergot.
BROMUS.
1296. Mollis. — Narcotic.
1297. Purgans. — Emetic.
AVENA.
1300. Sativa. — Nutritive. Produces Groats.
ANDROPOGON.
1302. Schoenanthus. — Leaves stomachic, aromatic, bitter.
SACCHARUM.
1305. Officinarum. — Nutritive. An antidote to arsenic. Produces
Sugar.
CYPERACE^:.
CYPERUS.
1 306. Longus. — Stomachic.
1 307. Rotundus. — Stomachic. Tubers useful in cholera.
CAREX.
1308. Arenaria. — Creeping stems diaphoretic, demulcent, and altera-
tive. Produces German Sarsaparilla.
1309. Hirta. — Creeping stems diaphoretic, demulcent, and alterative.
Produces German Sarsaparilla.
1310. Intermedia. — Creeping stems diaphoretic, demulcent, and al-
terative. Produces German Sarsaparilla.
MEDICAL BOTANY. 283
XYRIDACE^E.
XYRIS.
1311. Indica. — Used against ringworm.
FILICALES.
ADIANTUM.
1315. Capillus Veneris. — Rhizoma astringent and aromatic, pectoral ;
the decoction emetic.
1316. Pedatum. — Rhizoma astringent and aromatic, pectoral ; the
decoction emetic.
PTEBIS.
1317. Aquilina. — Rhizoma astringent and anthelmintic. Used as a
substitute for Hops.
NEPHKODIUM.
1318. Filix mas. — Rhizoma anthelmintic.
OSMUNDA.
1319. Regalis. — Rhizoma tonic and styptic, useful in cases of
rachitis.
INDEX.
ACANTHACE.E, 154, 273.
Acanthales, 217.
Aceraceae, 109.
Acerales, 203.
Achenium, 5.9, 63.
Achlamydeous, 41.
Aclilamydosse, 209.
Acoraceae, 185, 282.
Acotyledonous, 67.
Acrogenous, 12.
Acrogens, 18, 68, 191.
Actinenchyma, 3.
Acuminate, 29.
Acute, 29.
Acute-angled, 20.
Adherent, 230.
Adventitious leaf-buds, 23.
-ffisculaceae, 109, 249.
-(Estivation, 36.
jEtheogamous plants, 91.
Age of Exogenous trees, 1 4.
Aggregosae, 213.
Aigrette, 41.-
Air-vessels, 6.
Albumen, 65.
Alburnum, 15.
Algaceae, 69, 195.
Algae, 195.
Alismaceae, 185.
Alismales, 221.
Alliances of plants, 197.
Alsineae, 104.
Alternate, 37.
Amarantaceae, 158.
Amaryllidaceae, 177, 278.
Amentales, 209.
Amentum, 38.
Amomales, 220.
Amphigamous plants, 91.
Amphitropous, 55.
Amplexicaul, 25.
Ampulla, 25.
Amygdalae, 123, 255.
Amyridaceae, 124.
Anacardiaceae, 119, 259.
Analytical method, 78.
Anatropous, 55.
Andraeaceae, 193.
Andrceceum, 45.
Angular, 27.
Aiuiular, 6.
Annulus, 69, 73.
Anonaceae, 92. .
Anonales, 199.
Anther, 45, 46.
Antheridia, 71.
Anthocarpous, 59.
Antitropous, 67.
Apex, 54, 57.
Apiaceae, 134, 242.
Apocarpous, 50.
Apocynaceae, 146, 276.
Apophysis, 69.
Apothecia, 71.
Appendages of the axis, 9.
Aquifoliaceae, 144, 266.
Araceae, 186, 281.
Arales, 222.
Araliaceae, 133, 245.
Araneose, 9.
Arcuate, 66.
Aril, 63.
Aristolochiaceae, 162, 263.
Aristolochiales, 212.
Arrow-headed, 27.
Articulated, 18.
pitted tissue, 4.
Artocarpeae, 167.
Ascending, 18.
Asci, 71.
Ascidium, 25.
Asclepiadacese, 1 46, 276.
Assimilating power, 32.
Asteraceae, 138, 268.
Asterales, 215.
Atractenchyma, 3.
Atropous, 55.
Aurantiaceae, 106, 251.
Auriculate, 25, 26.
Axis, 9.
Balanophoracege, 174.
Balausta, 62.
Balsamaceae, 262.
Balsamales, 208.
Balsaminaceae, 114.
Bark, 15.
Base, 57.
Basidia, 72.
Begoniaceae, 158.
Begoniales, 202.
Berberaceae, 94, 245.
INDEX.
285
Berberales, 200.
Berry, 61.
Betulaceae, 168,259.
Bignoniaceae, 147, 273.
Bignoniales, 217.
Bijugute, 28.
Bipinnate, 28.
Biserrate, 29.
Biternate, 28.
BixaceJE, 100, 248.
Bixales, 203.
Boraginaceae, 150, 271.
Bothrenchyma, 4.
Bourgeon, 20.
Bouton, 20.
Bract, 35.
Bractlets, 35.
Bracteolae, 35.
Branched cellular tissue, 3.
Brassicaceae, 97, 247.
Brexiales, 213.
Bromeliaceae, 179.
Bromeliales, 220.
Brunoniales, 216.
Bryaceae, 192.
Bud, embryo, 9.
Buds, 20.
Bulbills, 21.
Bulblets, 21.
Bulbs, 21, 22.
Butomaceae, 183.
Cactaceae, 131.
Caesalpinieae, 120.
Calcarate, 42.
Calceolate, 42.
Callitrichales,211.
Calycanthaceae, 124.
Calyciflone, 91, 117.
Calyptra, 70.
Calyptrate, 42.
Calyx, 40, 41, 54.
Cambium, 17.
Campanales, 2 1 5.
Campanulaceae, 142.
Campanulate, 42.
Campylotropous, 55.
Canellese, 248.
Capillitium, 73.
Capitulum, 38.
Capparidaceae, 98, 247.
Capriales, 215.
Caprifoliaceae, 136, 268.
Capsule, 60, 63.
Carpel, 50.
Carunculae, 64.
Caryophyllaceae, 104.
Caryopsis, 60, 63.
Casuarales, 210.
Caudate, 60.
Caudicle, 48.
Cauliculus, 66.
Cedrelaceae, 111,250.
Celastraceae, 117, 253.
Cellular, 2.
Cellular plants, 91.
Cells, 47.
Central, 50.
Centrifugal, 39.
Centripetal, 39.
Cercodiaceae, 127.
Cestraceae, 275.
Chalaza, 55, 65.
Chamaelaucieae, 126.
Channelled, 25.
Characeae, 192.
Charales, 224.
Chenopodales, 212.
Chenopodiaceae, 156, 263.
Chloranthaceae, 164, 261.
Chlorophyll, 2.
Chromogen, 2.
Chromule, 2.
Chrysobalanaceae, 124.
Cichoraceae, 1 39, 270.
Cinchonaceae, 136, 267.
Cinchonales, 215.
Cinenchyma, 6.
Circaeeae, 127.
Cistaceae, 100, 249.
Cistales, 204.
Cladenchyma, 3.
destines, 3.
Closed, 6.
Cloves, 21.
Clusiaceae, 108.
Cocci, 60.
Cocculales, 212.
Collar, 66, 73.
Colpenchyma, 3.
Columella, 58, 69.
Column, 46.
Columnosae, 209.
Coma, 64.
Combretaceae, 124, 245.
Commelynaceae, 183.
Commelynales, 221.
Commissure, 58, 61.
Compositae, 138.
Compound, 40.
organs, 9.
Compressed, 20.
cellular tissue, 3.
Cone, 63.
Conenchyma, 3.
Conical, 11.
cellular tissue, 3.
Coniferce, 171, 277.
Coniocysta, 72.
Conjugato-pinnate, 28.
Connective, 46.
Consolidated, 230.
Continuous pitted (tissue), 4.
Convolvulaceae, 1 49, 266.
286
INDEX.
Convolute, 37, 67.
Coralline, 11.
Cordate, 26.
Cordate-acuminate, 26.
Cordate-ovate, 26.
Cordiaceae, 150.
Coriariaceae, 117, 254.
Coriales, 207.
Corm, 19, 21.
Cormogens, 230.
Cornaceae, 133, 246.
Cornales, 201.
Corolla, 40, 42.
Coroniform, 42.
Cortina, 73.
Corylaceae, 169,259.
Corymb, 39.
Corymbiferae, 139.
Cotyledons, 66.
Coussinet, 25.
Crassales, 208.
Crassulaceae, 131,258.
Creeping, 18.
Cremocarp, 61.
Crenate, 29.
Crisp, 29.
Cruciales, 202.
Cruciferae, 97, 247.
Cryptogamous plants, 90.
Cucurbitaceee, 129, 246.
Cucurbitales, 202.
Cuneate, 27.
Cup, 48.
Cupule, 61.
Cupuliferae, 169.
Curled, 29.
Curvembryosae, 209.
Cuticle, 7.
Cycadaceae, 170, 277.
Cylindrenchyma, 3.
Cylindrical tissue, 3.
Cyme, 39.
Cynaraceae, 139, 270.
Cyperaceae, 188,282.
Cyrtandraceae, 147.
Cystidia, 72.
Cytinaceae, 174.
Cytoblast, 2, 4.
Dasdalenchyma, 3.
Danaeaceae, 191.
Daphnales, 211.
Datiscales, 210.
Decompound, 28.
Deformed, 18.
Dehisce, 58.
Dehiscence, 47, 58.
Dehiscent, 58.
Dentate, 29.
Diplecolobeae, 97.
Diachyma, 26.
Diadelphous, 46.
Dicarposae, 213.
Dicotyledonous, 67.
Dictyogens, 12, 230.
Didynamous, 46.
Digitate, 28.
Dilated, 42.
Dilleniacese, 95.
Dioscoreaceae, 178.
Diploe, 26.
Dipsaceoe, 137.
Dipsales, 216.
Dipteraceae, 106.
Disciform, 13.
Disk, 48.
Dissepiments, 52.
Dissolved, 230.
Disunited, 230.
Divergent, 67.
Dorsal suture, 58.
Dotted ducts, 4.
Double, 42.
Droseraceae, 101.
Drupe, 59, 63.
Ducts, 4, 5.
Duplicato-dentate, 29.
Ebenaceae, 144, 266.
Echiales, 216.
Elaeagnacese, 160.
Elatinaceae, 104.
Elementary organs, 2.
Emarginate, 29.
Embryo, 10, 65, 66.
buds, 23.
Empetraceae, 162.
Endocarp, 57.
Endogenae, 173.
Endogenous, 12.
Endogens, 17.
Endophkeum, 15.
Endopleura, 64.
Endorhizae, 68.
Endothecium, 48.
Entangled cellular tissue, 3.
Entire, 29.
Epicarp, 57.
Epidermis, 15.
Epigynosae, 213, 219.
Epigynous, 46.
Epiphkeum, 15.
Epiphyllous, 37.
Equisetaceae, 192.
Erect, 66.
Ericaceae, 143, 265.
Ericales, 213.
Escalloniaceae, 133.
Etaerio, 61.
Etiolated, 33.
Euphorbiaceae, 162, 251.
Euphorbiales, 205.
Excentrical, 66.
Excipulus, 72.
INDEX.
287
Exogenae, 91.
Exogens, 13.
Exogenous, 12.
Exorhizae, 68.
Exostome, 55.
Expansion, order of, 37.
Extra-axillary, 37.
Fabaceae, 119,256.
False-bark, 17.
Fasciculate, 11.
Female organs, 49.
Ferns, 69.
Ferula, 13.
Funiculus, 54.
Fibro-cellular tissue, 3.
Ficoidales, 202.
Ficoideae, 131.
Fig, 63.
Filaments, 45, 46.
Filicales, 191,223,283.
Filices, 191.
Flacourtiaceae, 100.
Flat, 67.
Flocci, 73.
Florkeales, 207.
Floral envelopes, 35, 40.
Floridae, 174.
Flower-bearing stems, 1 8.
Flower-buds, 20, 34.
Flower-leaf, 35.
Flowering plants, 90.
Flowerless plants, 68, 90.
Fluviales, 185,222.
Foliaceous, 67.
Foliola, 28.
Follicle, 59.
Food of plants, 30.
Foramen, 55.
Forked, 46.
Frankeniaceae, 103.
Fruit, 57.
Fuchsieae, 127.
Fumarieae, 96, 241.
Fungaceae, 69, 72, 195.
Fungales, 224.
Fungi, 195.
Fungous, 67.
Funnel-shaped, 42.
Fusiform cellular tissue, 3.
Galbulus, 63.
Galeate, 42.
Galiaceae, 141,268.
Gamopetalous, 42.
Gamosepalous, 41.
Gemmation, 30.
Gemmule, 66.
Gentianaceae, 148, 275.
Gentianales, 218.
Geraniaceae, 113, 254.
Geraniales, 206.
Gesneraceae, 142.
Gland, 61.
Glandular hairs, 8, 9.
Gleicheniaceae, 191.
Globulariaceae, 154, 271.
Globuli, 72.
Glochidiate, 9.
Glomeruli, 72.
Glumaceae, 188.
Glumes, 35.
Glumosae, 219.
Gongyli, 71, 72.
Goodeniaceae, 141.
Goodeniales, 215.
Graminaceae, 189, 282.
Granada, 72.
Grossales, 200.
Grossulaceae, 132, 245.
Guttales, 203.
Guttiferae, 108.
Gymnogens, 230.
Gynandrosae, 219.
Gynandrous, 46.
Gynobase, 49.
Gynoeceum, 49.
Gynophore, 50.
Gyroma, 71.
Hairs, 8.
Half-terete, 20.
Halorageae, 128.
Hamamelaceae, 133.
Hastate, 27.
Heart- wood, 15.
Heliacal, 66.
Hepaticae, 194.
Hernandiaceae, 262.
Heterotropous, 67.
Hilum, 64.
Hippurideae, 127.
Homogens, 230.
Humiriaceae, 112.
Hydrales, 220.
Hydrocharaceae, 174.
Hydrophyllaceae, 151.
Hymenium, 73.
Hypericaceae, 107, 248.
Hypha, 72.
Hypogynosae, 219.
Hypogynous, 45.
Hypothecium, 71.
Illecebraceae, 130.
Imbricate, 37.
Impregnation, 56.
Indehiscent, 58.
Indifferent, 44.
Induplicate, 37.
Indusium, 69.
Inenchyma, 3.
Inferior, 42, 54.
Inflated, 25.
288
INDEX.
Inflorescence, 37.
Intercellular passages, 2.
Internodes, 19.
Interruptedly pinnate, 28.
Inverted, 66.
Involucre, 35.
Iridaceae, 179, 279.
Irregular, 43.
Irritability, 33.
Ixiales, 220.
Jasminacese, 146.
Jointed, 25.
Juglandacese, 170, 261.
Juncaceae, 182.
Juncaginaceae, 184.
Juncales, 221.
Jungermanniaceae, 193.
knotted, 18.
Labiales, 217.
Labiatae, 271.
Labiate, 42.
Labiatiflorae, 139.
Lacunae, 72.
Lamiaceae, 153, 271.
Lamina, 24, 25.
Lanceolate, 26.
Latex, 6, 16.
Laticiferous, 6.
Lauraceae, 158, 262.
Laureales, 211.
Leaf, simple, 26.
Leaf-buds, 10, 20, 22.
• adventitious, 23
deciduous, 21.
normal, 22.
Leafless, 18, 25.
Leaflets, 28.
Leafy, stem, 18.
Leaves, 23.
compound, 28.
Legume, 59, 63.
Leguminosse, 119, 256.
Lentibales, 217.
Lentibulaceae, 154.
Lenticular, 67.
glands, 6.
Leptospermeae, 126.
Liber, 4, 15.
Lichenaceae, 194.
Lichenes, 194.
Lichens, 69.
Lignification, matter of, 2.
Liliaceae, 180, 280.
Liliales, 221.
Limb, 41, 43.
Linacese, 114, 249.
Linnean Sexual System, 76.
Lirella, 71.
Loasaceae, 129.
Lobeliaceae, 142, 267.
Lobes, 46.
Loculicidal, 58.
Loganiales, 218.
Lomentaceous, 59.
Loranthaceae, 135.
Lycopodales, 224.
Lycopodiaceae, 191.
Lymphatic hairs, 8, 9.
Lyrate, 28.
Lythracea:, 124, 250.
Mace, 63.
Magnoliaceae, 95, 242.
Male organs, 45.
Malpighiaceae, 110.
Malvaceae, 105, 250.
Malvales, 204.
Marantaceae, 177, 278.
Marchantiacese, 194.
Marginal placenta, 50.
Medical Botany, 239.
Medulla, 3.
Medullary plates, 16.
rays, 16.
sheath, 13.
Melanthaceaa, 181, 280.
Melastomaceae, 124.
Meliaceae, 112,250.
Meliales, 205.
Menispermaceae, 93.
Merenchyma, 3.
Mericarps, 61.
Mesembryaceae, 131.
Mesophkeum, 15.
Mesophyllum, 26.
Mesosperm, 64.
Micropyle, 65.
Midrib, 26.
Mimoseae, 121.
Monadelphous, 46.
Moniliform, 11.
Monimiales, 210.
Monochlamydeae, 91.
Monocotyledonous, 67.
Monopetalous, 42.
Monophyllous, 41.
Monosepalous, 41.
Moringaceae, 248.
Mosses, 69, 70.
Mucronate, 29.
Mucus, organic, 2, 4.
Multangular, 20.
Multiple, 59.
Muriform cellular tissue, 1 6.
Musaceae, 177.
Muscales, 224.
Musci, 192.
Mycelia, 73.
Myricaceae, 168, 260.
Myristicaceae, 160, 242.
Myrsinaceae, 145.
Myrtaceae, 126, 24 >.
INDEX.
289
Myrtales, 201.
Myrteze, 126.
Naiadaceae, 185.
Naked, 41.
Narcissales, 220.
Natural System of De Candolle, 90.
Nectary, 43, 49.
Nelumbiaceae, 95.
Nepenthales, 212.
Nervures, 26.
Nodes, 19.
Nodose, 11.
Nolanales, 214.
Normal leaf-buds, 22.
Notorhizeae, 97.
Nucamentosae, 213.
Nuclei, 21.
Nucleus, 54, 71.
Nuculanium, 61.
Nut, 61, 63.
Nyctaginacese, 157, 264.
Nymphaeaceae, 94, 241.
Oblique, 26, 42.
Oblong, 26.
Obscurely triquetrous, 20.
Obtuse, 29.
angled, 20.
Ochreae, 29.
Octangular, 20.
CEnothereae, 127.
Oleacese, 145, 277.
Oleales,218.
Onagraceae, 126.
Onagrales, 201.
One-lipped, 43.
Operculum, 70.
Ophioglossaceae, 191.
Oplarium, 71.
Opophora, 6.
Opposite, 23.
• the leaves (inflorescence), 37.
Orange, 62.
Orbicular, 26.
Orbiculi, 73.
Orbilla, 71.
Orchidaceae, 279.
Organs, compound, 9.
elementary, 2.
Orobanchaceae, 152.
Orthoploceae, 97.
Orthotropous, 55, 67.
Osmundaceae, 191.
Ostiolum, 73.
Oval, 26.
cellular tissue, 3.
Ovary, 49, 54.
Ovate, 26.
Ovenchyma, 3.
Ovule, 48, 50, 54.
Oxalidaceae, 114, 254.
Paleae, 35.
Paleaceous, 60.
Palmaceae, 183, 279.
Palmales, 221.
Palmate, 28.
Pandales, 222.
Panduriform, 28.
Panicle, 39.
Papaveraceae, 98, 241.
Papayaceae, 248.
Papilionaceae, 120.
Papilionaceous, 42, 43.
Pappose, 60.
Pappus, 41.
Parenchyma, 8.
Parietal, 52.
Passifloraceae, 129, 248.
Passionales, 203.
Patellula, 71.
Pedate, 28.
Pedicels, 36.
Peduncle, 36.
Pelta, 71.
Peltate, 9, 26.
Penaeales, 211.
Pepo, 62.
Perianthium, 41.
Pericarp, 57.
Peridiolum, 72.
Perigonium, 41.
Perigynous, 45.
Perisperm, 65.
Peristome, 69.
Perithecium, 71, 73.
Petals, 42.
Petiole, 24.
Petiolar, 37.
Petivales, 212.
Petiveriaceae, 156, 264.
Pha?nogamous plants, 90.
Phaceliales, 216.
Phanerogamous plants, 90.
Philadelphaceae, 125.
Phragmata, 53.
Phycomater, 72.
Phyllodium, 24.
Physiological Botany, 1.
Phytolaccaceae, 156, 263.
Pileus, 73.
Pinaceaa, 171,277.
Pine-apple, 63.
Pinnate, 28.
Pinnatitid, 28.
Piperaceae, 164, 261.
Piperales, 210.
Pistil, 49.
Pistillidium, 71.
Pitcher, 25.
Pith, 13.
Pitted tissue, 4.
Pittosporaceae, 114.
Pittosporales, 200.
U
290
INDEX.
Placentiform, 11.
Piano-compressed, 20.
Plantaginaceae, 155, 270.
Plantales, 216.
Platanaceae, 166.
Pleurenchyma, 4.
Pleurorhizese, 97.
Plicative, 37.
Plumbaginaceae, 154, 271.
Plumbales, 216.
Plumose, 60.
Plumule, 66.
Podetia, 71.
Podophylleae, 241.
Podospenn, 54.
Podostemales, 210.
Polemoniaceae, 148.
Pollen, 46.
Polyadelphous, 46.
Polycarposae, 213.
Polygakceae, 102, 249.
Polygonaceae, 159, 264.
Polygonales,212.
Polypetalous, 42.
Polypodiaceae, 191.
Polysepalous, 41.
Pome, 62.
Pomeae, 123, 255.
Pores, 47.
Portulacaceae, 130.
Potentilleae, 122.
Praefloration, 36.
Prickles, 9, 19.
Primine, 54.
Primulaceae, 155, 266.
Primulales, 214.
Prismatical cellular tissue, 3.
Prismenchyma, 3.
Proper juice, 34.
vessels, 6,
Prosenchyma, 2, 3.
Proteaceae, 160.
Proteales, 211.
Pulp, 2.
Putamen, 57.
Pyrolaceae, 265.
Pyxis, 61.
* Quadrangular, 20.
Quadrilateral, 20.
Quadriquetrous, 20.
Quincuncial, 37.
Quinquangular, 20.
Quinquelateral, 20.
Raceme, 38.
Racliis, 36.
Radicle, 66.
Rafflesiaceae, 173.
Ramentaceous, 9.
Ranales, 199.
Ranunculaceee, 91, 239.
Raphe, 55, 65.
Raphides, 3, 9.
Receptacle, 39, 49.
Rectembryosae, 209.
Regular leaf-buds, 22.
Reniform, 26.
Replum, 59.
Resedaceae, 99.
Reservoirs of oil, 6.
Reticulated, 6.
Retosae, 219.
Retuse, 29.
Rhamnaceae, 118, 251.
Rhamnales, 205.
Rhizanthae, 173.
Rhizanths, 230.
Rhizoma, 19.
Ribs, 26.
Ringent, 42.
Root, 10.
Rootshaped, 18.
Rootstock, 19.
Rosacese, 122, 254.
Resales, 207.
Roseae, 122.
Rostrate, 60.
Roundish oblong, 26.
Ruminated, 65.
Rutaceae, 115, 253.
Rutales, 206.
Sac of the amnios, 55.
Sagittale, 27.
Salicaceae, 165, 261.
Salicales, 210.
Samara, 61.
Sanguisorbeae, 123, 256.
Santalaceae, 161.
Santalales, 211.
Sap, 33.
Sapindaceae, 110, 249.
Sapotaceae, 145, 266.
Sarcocarp, 57.
Sarraceniaceae, 96.
Saururaceae, 165.
Saxales, 208.
Saxifragaceae, 132, 258.
Scaevolaceae, 141.
Scalariform, 6.
Scales, 35.
Scaly bulbs, 21.
root, 19.
Scape, 18.
Scitamineae, 175.
Scleranthaceae, 130.
Sclerales, 212.
Sclerogen, 2, 3, 4.
Scrophulales, 217.
Scrophulariaceae, 152, 273.
Scutate, 9.
Scutellum, 71.
Scypha, 71.
INDEX.
201
Secretions of plants, 30.
Secundine, 54.
Seed, 63.
Semiterete, 67.
Semivascular plants, 9 1 .
Sepals, 41.
Separated, 230.
Septate, 6.
Septicidal, 58.
Serrate, 29.
Seta, 70.
Setaceous, 60.
Seven-lobed, 28.
Sexes, 35.
Sheathing, 25.
Shields, 71.
Silenacese, 253.
Silenales, 206.
Silenese, 104.
Siliqua, 61.
Silicula, 61, 63.
Simarubaceae, 116, 253.
Simple, 40, 59.
Sinuated, 28.
Sinuous cellular, 3.
Ske*tch of a new distribution of the
Vegetable Kingdom, 226.
Smilaceae, 180, 281.
Solanaceae, 151, 274.
Solanales, 218.
Solitary, 37.
and axillary, 38.
Soredia, 72.
Son, 69.
Spadicosae, 219.
Spadix, 38.
Spathe, 35.
Spermoderm, 64.
Sphaerenchyma, 3.
Spheroidal, 67.
cellular tissue, 3.
Spike, 38.
Spine, 19.
Spinescent, 25.
Spiny, 42.
Spirseeae, 122.
Spiral, 60.
vessels, 5.
Spondiaceae, 251.
Spongelets, 10.
Spongioles, 10.
Sporangia, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73.
Sporidia, 72.
Spofogens, 230.
Spojes, 69.
Spurious dissepiments, 53.
Stamens, 45.
Staminidia, 71.
Staphyleaceae, 117.
Stellales, 215.
Stellatae, 141, 268.
Stellate, 9, 60.
Stellate cellular tissue, 3.
Stem, 11.
acrogenous, 12.
endogenous, 12.
exogenous, 12, 13.
Sterculiaceae, 249.
Stigma, 49.
Stipes, 73.
Stipules, 24, 29.
Stomates, 7, 8.
Stroma, 73.
Strophiolae, 64.
Structural Botany, 1.
Struma, 25, 69.
Strumose, 46.
Stupose, 46.
Style, 49.
Stylidiaceae, 142.
Styraceas, 144, 266.
Succulent, 18.
Superior, 42, 54.
Supervolutive, 37.
Suspensor, 66.
Suture, 58.
Syncarpous, 50.
Syngenesious, 47.
System, Natural, 85.
natural, of De Candolle, 90.
Linnaean Sexual, 76.
Systematical Botany, 75.
Tamaricaceae, 101, 253.
Taper, 25.
Taxaceae, 170, 278.
Tela cellulosa, 2.
Tendril, 25, 40.
Terete, 20.
Terminal, 37.
Ternate, 28.
Ternstromiaceae, 106, 248.
Testa, 64.
Testiculate, 11.
Tetradynamous, 46.
Thalamiflorse, 91.
Thallodes, 72.
Thallogens, 230.
Thallus, 71, 73.
Theales, 203.
Theca, 69, 70.
Thecaphore, 50.
Thymelaceae, 161, 262.
Thyrsus, 39.
Tiliacese, 105, 250.
Tissu cellulaire, 2.
Tissue, 2.
cellular, 2.
laticiferous, 6.
muriform cellular, 16.
pitted, 4.
vascular, 5.
woody, 4, 1 3.
Toothed, 46. '
292
INDEX.
Toothed at the apex, GO.
Toms, 49.
Trachenchyma, 5.
Transverse, 58, 66.
Transversely articulate, 25.
Triangular, 20, 27.
Trica, 71.
Tridentate, 29.
Trilateral, 20.
Tripinnate, 28.
Triquetrous, 20.
Tritemate, 28.
Truncate, 29, 60.
Tube, 41.
Tubercular, 11.
Tuberculum, 71.
Tuberous, 11.
Tubers, 19.
Tubiferosae, 209.
Tubular, cellular tissue, 3.
Turneracese, 130.
Two-edged, 20.
Two-lipped, 43.
Typhacese, 187.
Typhales, 222.
Ulmacese, 260.
Ulmales, 210.
Umbel, 38.
Umbellales, 199.
Umbelliferse, 134, 242.
Umbilicus, 64.
Unilateral, 66.
Unguiculate, 43.
Unguis, 43.
Unsymmetrical, 43.
Urn, 70.
Urticaceae, 260.
Urticales, 209.
Urticeae, 167.
Utricle, 60.
Vaccinacese, 143, 266.
Vague, 69.
Valerianaceae, 138, 270.
Valvate, 37.
and involute, 37.
Valves, 47, 58.
Vasa contracta, 6.
expansa, 6.
Vascular, 2.
— tissue, 5.
Vasiform, 4.
Veins, 25.
Velum, 73.
Ventral suture, 58.
Verbenacese, 153, 273.
Vermicular, 66.
Vernation, 30.
Verticillate, 23.
Vesicate, 42.
Vesiculae, 72.
Vessels, proper, 6.
Vexillary, 37.
Vitaceee, 113,245.
Vitellus, 66.
Violacese, 102, 247.
Violales, 202.
Volva, 73.
Volvales, 214.
Vrille, 25.
Wedge-shaped, 27.
Winged, 25.
Winteracese, 95, 242.
Wood, 14.
Woody, 2.
tissue, 16.
Xanthoxylaceas, 116, 254.
Xyridacese, 283.
Zellengewebe, 2.
Zingiberaceae, 175, 278.
Zygophyllaceae, 116, 254,
THE END.
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