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THE
ELEMENTS OF BEITISH FORESTRY
THE
ELEMENTS OF BRITISH FORESTRY
A HANDBOOK FOR FOREST APPRENTICES
AND STUDENTS OF FORESTRY
BY
JOHN NISBET
PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY AT THE WEST OF SCOTLAND AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
AUTHOR OF
'THE FORESTER,' 'BRITISH FOREST TREES,' ' OUR FORESTS AND WOODLANDS,'
AND OTHER' WORKS
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
MCMXI
All Rights reserved
-A
Agric . - forestry M ain Lieraty
9 > 0 > •
•> ' > V • J '
PREFACE.
THIS contribution to the literature of Forestry, and towards
technical education as outlined in the " Afforestation Policy "
of the Development Commission, deals specially with British
conditions.
It is intended not only for Forest Apprentices, both during
their practical work in the woods and when they are receiving
theoretical instruction either on private estates or at a School
for Forest Apprentices, but also for Students of Forestry at
Agricultural Colleges and Universities.
During its passage through the press the Scottish Forestry
Committee has been appointed, to make recommendations re-
garding (1) the acquisition of a Forest Demonstration Area
in Scotland, (2) the uses to which such an area may be put
(including the establishment of a Forest School, as already
provisionally approved in advance by the Development Com-
missioners), and (3) any further steps which it is desirable
should be taken for promoting Sylviculture in Scotland. The
importance of this last reference may be understood from the
fact of the Koyal Commission on Afforestation having (in 1909)
reported that, of a total plantable area aggregating 9,000,000
344226
VI PREFACE.
acres throughout the United Kingdom, no less than two-thirds,
on which 6,000,000 acres of timber-plantations can be formed,
are to be found in Scotland.
Our present position with regard to Forestry, and to imports
of wood, timber, wood-pulp, &c., is indicated on pages 23 to 25,
and need not be recapitulated in this preface.
J. NISBET.
July 19, 1911.
CONTENTS.
PAET I.— SYLVICULTURE.
CHAP. PAGE
I. OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY AND THE SCIENTIFIC FOUNDA-
TIONS OF BRITISH FORESTRY ; OUR TIMBER-TREES, AND
THEIR SYLVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ; AND THE
DIFFERENT FORMS OF WOODLAND CROPS . . 3
II. THE FORMATION, TENDING, AND RENEWAL OF WOODLAND
CROPS ....... 47
PART II.— THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
I. THE MEASUREMENT OF LOGS, STANDING TREES, AND
WHOLE CROPS OF TIMBER, AND OF THEIR INCREMENT
OR RATE OF GROWTH . . . . .89
II. THE THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF WOODLAND MANAGEMENT 104
III. THE MAKING OF A WORKING-PLAN . . .130
IV. THE VALUATION OF TIMBER-CROPS AND OF WOODLANDS . 139
PART III.— THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
I. PROTECTION AGAINST HUMAN ACTS, FARM-STOCK, GAME,
RODENTS, AND BIRDS ..... 159
II. PROTECTION AGAINST INJURIOUS INSECTS . . 181
III. PROTECTION AGAINST WEEDS, EPIPHYTES, AND FUNGUS
DISEASES . . . . . .233
IV. PROTECTION AGAINST DAMAGE FROM INORGANIC CAUSES 253
Vlll CONTENTS.
PART IV.— THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND
PRODUCE.
I. TIMBER : ITS STRUCTURE, IDENTIFICATION, COMPOSITION,
TECHNICAL PROPERTIES, PRACTICAL USES, AND MARKET
VALUE . . . . . .263
II. THE HARVESTING OF WOODLAND PRODUCE, AND ITS PRE-
PARATION AND SALE ..... 280
III. TIMBER-TRANSPORT BY LAND AND WATER . . 291
IV. THE SEASONING AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER . . 299
V. WOODLAND INDUSTRIES : ESTATE SAWMILLS, PREPARA-
TION OF WOOD-PULP AND CELLULOSE, CHARCOAL-
MAKING, RESIN -TAPPING, ETC. . . . .310
INDEX 331
ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG. PAGE
1. Mound-planting . . . . . .51
2. Pruning-shears . . . . . 55
3. Cross-section of a drill-board to make drills 7 in. apart . 57
4. Cross-section of a seed-.distributor . . . .58
5. The Sowing-horn ...... 58
6. Acorn-dibbler ...... 58
7. Notched Seedling-pricker . . . . .59
8. British method of notching . . • fc 66
9. Cramping of roots after notching . . . .66
10. The iron-shod Dibble for vertical notching . .67
11. S-conical Spade ...... 68
12. Pitting with Cylindrical or Semicircular Spades, and plants
with balls of earth . . . . .69
13. Method of Mound-planting . . . .70
14. Ordinary Mound-planting with naked plants . . 70
15. Combination of Pitting and Mound-planting with naked
plants ....... 70
16. Combination of Pitting and Mound -planting with ball
plants ....... 70
17. Combination of Notching and Mound-planting with naked
plants . . . . . 70
18. Planting in lines, each planter, 2, 3, 4, taking his line
from the foreman, 1 . . . . .71
19. The Scribe ....... 77
20. Good and bad methods of cutting coppice . . .81
X ILLUSTRATIONS.
21. The Measuring-Board ..... 92
22. The Mirror-Hypsometer ..... 93
23. The Telescope-Hypsometer . . . . 94
24. Best form of Calliper ..... 95
25. Pressler's Borer ...... 100
26. Actual rate of growth of Pine woods on medium land . 110
27. (a) Regular Series of Annual Falls ; (b) Part of a Regular
Course of Annual Falls . . . . .111
28. 29. Subdivision of Woodlands into Compartments . 117, 118
30. A Scots Pine Conifer working- circle . . .122
31. Method of Severance . . . . .123
32. A 7-foot Straining-post at end of a six-wired fence, 4 feet
high 167
33. Cheap form of Fence . . . . .169
34. Damage caused by Game and Rodents . . .170
35. Clear-felling of a Spruce-wood, mixed with Scots Pine and
Beech (Saxony, 1900) . . . . .188
36. A sample-plot of Scots Pine ringed with bands of patent
tar to ascertain if the Nun-moth (Liparis monacha) is
present (Saxony, 1900) . . . . .189
37. Spud and smoothing-stick (about ^th real size) . . 191
38. Elm-bark Beetle, magnified five times . . .196
39. Hylesinus piniperda, magnified seven times . .197
40. Bark showing main and larval galleries and 2 air-holes —
natural size. The ^ keeps near the entrance-hole, while
the $ bores the gallery . . . . .197
41. Shoot of Scots Pine, showing entrance-hole, and (where
slice removed) boring of a beetle, f natural size . .197
42. Portion of young Ash-trunk with borings of H. fraxini,
| nat. size ...... 199
43. The large Pine-weevil (Hylobius abietis] . . . 202
44. Young Spruce gnawed by the large Pine-weevil (Hylobius
abietis}, natural size ..... 202
45. The small Pine- weevil (Pissodes notatus) . . . 204
46. Young Pine-stem barked to show the pupal-chambers and
exit-holes of Pissodes notatus (half natural size) . . 204
47. The Common Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris] . . 206
48. Large Poplar Longicorn ..... 208
49. Wire-worms . . . . . .210
50. Winter Moth (natural size) , , , .214
ILLUSTRATIONS. XI
51. Part of Pine branch, showing damage done by caterpillars
of the Pine Span-worm. Eggs can be seen here and
there on the leaves » » . . .215
52. Oak Leaf-roller Moth— natural size . . . 216
53. The Larch Mining-Moth (moth, larval covering, cater-
pillar, pupa — all magnified three times) . . 218
54. Goat-Moth— natural size . . . . 220
55. Pine Sawfly. Caterpillars at work ; on right a cocoon
(natural size). Damaged twig of Scots Pine . . 222
56. Cone-like gall of Spruce Aphis * . . . 226
57. The Larch Aphis sucking sap from the leaves, which get bent 226
58. Larch Canker ...... 240
59. Young Beech stem cankered by Nectria ditissima. Young
Spruce damaged by Nectria curcubitula . . . 242
60. Damage to crowns of young Pine by Cceoma pinitorquum,
the abnormal bends being caused by the fungus . 244
61. Damage caused to Scots Pine by Melampsora pinitorqua
in its C93oma-form, Cceoma pinitorquum . . . . 244
62. Willow Rust on Osier ..... 245
63. Pine-shoot with sporophores of Peridermium pini . . 246
64. Twig of Spruce attacked by Chrysomyxa abietis . . 247
65. Leaves infected by Chrysomyxa abietis . . . 247
66. Rot in Pine caused by Trametes pini . . . 248
67. Sporophore of Fomes annosus on Scots Pine root . . 249
68. Young Scots Pine killed by Agaricus melleus .. . 250
69. (a) Part of a Scots Pine root killed by Agaricus melleus,
and showing an external rhizomorph penetrating the root
at a. (b) Flattened internal rhizomorph from between
bark and dead wood . . . . .251
70. Teeth of Two-handed Saws . . . .281
71. Felling with Axe alone . . . . . 281
72. Felling with Axe and Saw . . . . . . 282
73. Universal Wedge . . . , . . 282
74. Throwing with Common Jack . . . . 283
75. The Chain-Lever or Wood-Demon . . . . 283
76. Method of mooring the Chain to posts . . . 283
77. Stump-extraction by hook-and-pole leverage . .* 284
78. Revolving Numbering-Hammer » 286
79. Seed-kiln for extracting Scots Pine seeds from the cones . 290
80. Forest Tramway ...... 292
Xll ILLUSTRATIONS.
81. Turning-Point and Buffer on a Roadway Timber-Slide . 295
82. A Brake or Check on a Wooden Timber-Slide . . 296
83. A Flume or Water-Shoot . ; . . .297
84. Brake on end-section of raft, dragging on bed of floating-
stream .... . . ' .298
85. Saw Bench for Staves and Pit- wood . . . 312
86. Long-saw Benches for long Logs . . . .312
87. View of small temporary Sawmill . . . .312
88. Teeth of Band-Saw . - .... . .314
89. Teeth of Circular Saws . ' . , . .314
90. Teeth of Frame-Saw . . . . .314
91. Conversion on the quarter . .. ^:> ->•=-•• . . 316
92. Dome-shaped (Paraboloid) Charcoal-Kiln . . . 325
PAKT I.
SYLVICULTURE
CHAP.
I. OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY AND THE SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS
OF BRITISH FORESTRY ; OUR TIMBER - TREES, AND THEIR
SYLVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ; AND THE DIFFERENT
FORMS OF WOODLAND CROPS.
II. THE FORMATION, TENDING}, AND RENEWAL OF WOODLAND CROPS.
CHAPTER I.
i " '*"•••
OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY AND THE SCIENTIFIC FOUNDATIONS
OF BRITISH FORESTRY; OUR TIMBER - TREES, AND THEIR
SYLVICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ; AND THE DIFFERENT
FORMS OF WOODLAND CROPS.
Sylviculture is that one of the four main branches of modern
Forestry which deals with the formation, tending, and renewal
of woodland crops, in order to grow timber in the manner most
profitable to the landowner. In this branch one has first to
consider the different kinds of trees and their special peculiar-
ities and general characteristics, and the different methods in
which they can be treated as woodland crops, before one can
give detailed consideration to the various stages in their growth
and development — (1) the sowing or planting of new woods, (2)
the weeding and thinning needed in tending young woods and
plantations and those of older age, and (3) the renewal of
mature wood -crops, either by reproduction through stool-shoots
and root-suckers, or by regeneration through seed shed naturally
or sown artificially.
Our Woodland Trees. — The timber-crops which can be grown
in the British Isles comprise, owing to our mild, equable, damp
climate, a very large number of different kinds of trees for so
comparatively small an area. The indigenous trees which can
be profitably grown as timber-crops are very limited in number,
and include Beech, Hornbeam, Alder, Ash, Oak, Scots Elm,
Aspen, Birch, White Willow, and among conifers only the
4 SYLVICULTURE.
Scots Pine, — not reckoning the minor indigenous trees and
shrubs found casually in highwoods or grown in coppices and
underwoods, such as Cherry, Rowan, Sallow, Field Maple,
Hazel, &c. Many valuable trees now thoroughly naturalised
were introduced by the Romans, including English Elm,
Chestnut, Lime, Black Poplar, White Poplar, and Horse-
Chestnut ; while subsequent introductions have been, in fifteenth
century, Crack Willow, Sycamore, and Spruce ; in sixteenth
century, the Maritime Pine; in seventeenth century, Silver
Fir, Norway Maple, and Robinia ; in eighteenth century, Larch,
Weymouth and Corsican Pines, and American Black Poplar ;
in nineteenth century, Austrian Pine, Nordmann's and Great
Silver Firs, Douglas Fir, Menzies Spruce, Lawson's and Large-
coned Cypresses, Red Cedar (Thuja gigantea), Japanese Larch ;
and in twentieth century, the American Larch. Though the
countries to which the above are indigenous exhibit marked
differences in climate, yet these trees can all thrive here as wood-
land crops worked purely on commercial principles for the
growing of marketable timber. For poor land the conifers are
on the whole the most valuable, being less exacting and more
accommodative as regards soil, and also usually attaining sale-
able size sooner than broad-leaved trees, and especially some of the
hardwoods (e.g., Oak). This means not only earlier returns, but
also less capital (land, plus growing timber-crops) being locked
up in an industry that even under the most favourable circum-
stances is tardy in giving any fair monetary returns.
From a botanical point of view the trees commonly grown as, or found
among, timber-crops may be classified as follows :—
A. BROAD-LEAVED TREES, all deciduous —
(a) Floiuers bisexual or hermaphrodite (both male and female organs in
same flower).
I. Fraxinece : (1) Ash (Fraxinus excelsior).
II. Ulmncece : ( 1 ) English or Small-leaved Elm ( Ulmus campestris] ;
(2) Scots or Wych Elm ( Ulmus montana).
TIMBER-TREES. 5
III. Accracece : (I) Sycamore or Scots Plane (Acer pseudo-platanus) ;
(2) Norway Maple (Acer platanoidcs).
IV. Tiliacece : (1) Lime (Tilia parvifolia and T. grandifolia).
V. Hippocastaneos : (1) Horse-Chestnut (^Esculus hippocastanum).
VI. Pomacece : (1) Rowan or Mountain- Ash (Sorbus aucuparia) ;
(2) Wild Service-tree (Sorbus torminalis) ; (3) Whitebeam
(Sorbus aria}.
VII. Amcntaccce (having flowers in catkins) —
a. Flowers unisexual, monoecious (both male and female on same
tree).
1. Cupuliferce (having fruits attached to a cup-shaped in-
volucre) : (1) English or Pedunculate Oak (Quercus
pedunculata) ; (2) Sessile or Durmast Oak (Quercus
sessiliflora) • (3) Beech (Fagus sylvatica) ; (4) Horn-
beam (Carpinus betulus) ; (5) Sweet- Chestnut (Casta-
nea vulgaris).
2. Betulacece or Birch tribe: (1) Birch (Betula alba);
(2) Common Alder (Alnus glutinosa) ; (3) White
Alder (Alnus incana).
b. Flowers unisexual., dioecious (male and female on different
trees).
3. Salicinea or Willow tribe : (1) White Willow (Salix alba) ;
(2) Crack Willow (Salix fragilis) ; (3) Bedford Willow
(Salix Russelliana, a hybrid of above) ; (4) Aspen
(Populus tremula) ; (5) Black Poplar (Populus nigra
and P. canadensis) ; White Poplar (Populus alba).
B. CONIFER TREES (Conifera), all evergreen except the Larch; and all
with unisexual, monoecious flowers) —
I. Abietinecs, Pine and Fir tribe —
1. PINES (Pinus): (1) Scots Pine (P. sylvestris) ; (2) Austrian
Pine (P. austriaca) ; (3) Corsican Pine (P. laricio) ; (4)
Maritime Pine (P. pinaster) ; (5) Weymouth Pine (P.
strobus).
2. SPRUCES (Picca) : (1) Common or Norway Spruce (P. excelsa) ;
(2) Meuzies or Sitka Spruce (P. sitchensis).
3. SILVER FIRS (Abies) : (1) Common Silver Fir (A. pectinata) ;
(2) Nordmann's or Crimean Silver Fir (A. Nordmanniana) ;
(3) Giant Silver Fir (A. grandis).
6 SYLVICULTURE.
4. DOUGLAS FIR (Pseudotsuga Douglasii) : (1) Pacific or Oregon
variety (var. pacificensis) ; (2) Inland or Colorado variety
(var. coloradcnsis).
5. LARCHES (Larix) : (1) Common or European Larch (L. europcva) ;
(2) Japanese Larch (L. leptolepis).
II. Cupressincce, Cypress tribe —
1. CYPRESSES (Cupressus) : (1) Monterey or Large-coned Cypress
(G. macrocarpa) ; (2) Lawson's Cypress (C. .Lawsoniana) ;
(3) Nootka Cypress (C. nootkaensis).
2. Arborvitce (Thuja) : (1) Red Cedar or Giant Arborvitse (Th.
gigantea, syn. Th. plicatd).
These trees may be identified from their (1) Buds, (2) Leaves,
(3) Flowers, and (4) Fruits by means of the following analytical
tables, which follow no natural system, but are purely artificial
and merely intended to simplify identification by those who
have not yet studied Forest Botany : —
L— IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON BROAD-LEAVED TREES
FROM THEIR BUDS.
A. — BUDS OPPOSITE, AND END-BUD MUCH LARGER THAN SIDE-BUDS.
/. Only 1 or 2 bud-scales visible ; bud scales black ; twigs smooth, greyish-
green 1. ASH.
//. Several bud-scales visible, arranged closely and compactly ; ttoigs thick
and stiff.
1. Bud-scales brown and resinous; leaf -scar large and triangular,
with vascular bundles well marked . 2. HORSE-CHESTNUT.
2. Bud-scales yellowish-green, with dark-brown tips and margins ;
leaf -scar well marked . . . . .3. SYCAMORE.
3. Bud-scales pinkish or reddish-brown, sometimes greenish at base ;
leaf-scar narrow . . . . .4. NORWAY MAPLE.
B. — BUDS ALTERNATE, IN TWO LONGITUDINAL ROWS, ON OPPOSITE SIDES OF
THE TWIG.
L Buds pointed, pale brown, and often about 3 or 4 times as long as
broad ; tivigs slender and smooth.
1. Buds circular in transverse section, jutting out from twig, and
usually over ^ an inch long . . . . 5. BEECH.
2. Buds slightly angular in transverse section, lying close to twig,
and less than £ an inch long . . . .6. HORNBEAM.
IDENTIFICATION FROM BUDS. 7
„ //. Suds roundish-oval, and about twice as long as broad.
1. Only 1 or 2 bud- scales visible.
(1) Young twigs with longitudinal ridges or angles, straight, deep
red, or reddish-green ; buds slightly on one side, and not
immediately above the distinct leaf-scar
7. SWEET-CHESTNUT.
(2) Young twigs cylindrical ; buds blood-red or orange-red, with 1
large and 1 small bud-scale to each bud . . 8. LIME.
(a) Twigs smooth . . SMALL-LEAVED LIME.
(b) Twigs slightly hairy . LARGE-LEAVED LIME.
2. Several bud-scales visible ; buds round and somewhat pointed ; bud-
scales dark-brown; young twigs more or less hairy, older twigs
with fine rich brown fissures in baric ... 9. ELM.
(a) Twigs thin and very regular ; buds small and numerous ;
leaf-scars small = ENGLISH ELM.
(b) Twigs thicker and less regular ; buds and leaf - scars
larger = SCOTS OR WYCH ELM.
Hazel twigs are very similar to those of Elm ;
but Hazel-buds are rounder and flattened on one
side, and have pale brownish-green or reddish-green
bud -scales.
C. — BUDS ARRANGED SPIRALLY ON THE TWIGS.
/. Buds stcdked, and apparently only 1 bud-scale visible, of a purple or
bluish colour 10. ALDER.
//. Suds sessile, with apparently only 1 large bud-scale (though really 2
united) .11. WILLOW.
(1) Buds hairy and very small; old twigs reddish - grey and
dull = WHITE WILLOW.
(2) Buds smooth and almost black; twigs brown and glossy —
CRACK OR REDWOOD WILLOW.
(3) Buds smooth, yellowish or reddish, short and plump ^SAUGH
OR GOAT WILLOW.
III. Buds sessile, with several bud-scales visible.
1. Bud - scales more or less brown in colour, and smooth, or hairy
only at tips and margins.
(1) Buds dark reddish-brown and glossy, small, thin, and sharp-
pointed, about thrice as long as broad, and often arranged
almost alternately ; twigs thin, elastic, and often warty (on
dry ground), or downy (on wet ground) . .12. BIRCH.
8 SYLVICULTURE.
(2) Several buds clustered at tips of long shoots . 13. OAK.
(a) Twigs greyish -brown, furrowed, and hairless ; buds standing
out from shoot, yellow-brown or chestnut-brown, smooth,
plump, and rounded at tips = PEDUNCULATE OAK.
(6) Twigs slightly hairy ; buds longer and more pointed than in
Pedunculate Oak, and bud-scales tipped and edged with
hairs = SESSILE OR DURMAST OAK.
(3) Buds oval, and dark-brown .... 14. CHERRY.
(4) Buds long, narrow-pointed, chestnut-brown, and resinous at
tip ; twigs furrowed . . , . . 15. POPLAR.
(a) Bud-tips lying close to shoot = ASPEN.
(6) Bud-tips straight or pointing outwards = BLACK POPLAR.
2. Bud-scales hairy all over, and buds plump and pointed ; young
twigs covered with loose white cottony film ; older twigs
smooth, yellowish -grey . 16. ABELE OR WHITE POPLAR.
3. Bud-scales dark-purple or black; buds long, pointed, and some-
what downy near tip -. 17. ROWAN OR MOUNTAIN-ASH.
4. Bud-scales yellowish ; buds long, pointed, and somewhat downy
near tip . . . . 18. WHITEBEAM OR BEAM- TREE.
5. Bud-scales green, with narrow brown edges, buds thick and round
at top . . , . . . .19. SERVICE-TREE.
IV. Buds hidden beloiv leaf -scar till near the time of opening in spring ;
2 small sharp thorns just above each leaf-scar ; shoots angular
20. ROBINIA OR LOCUST-TREE.
II.— IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON BROAD-LEAVED TREES
FROM THEIR LEAVES.
A. — LEAVES OPPOSITE.
1. Leaves unequally pinnate, with 7 to 11 ovate-lanceolate, toothed
and almost sessile leaflets . . . . . . 1. ASH.
2. Leaves long - stalked, palmately (digitately) divided, with 5 or 7
almost sessile leaflets (usually 7) . . 2. HORSE-CHESTNUT.
3. Leaves long-stalked, palmate, smooth, palmately veined and lobed,
the 5 or 7 main veins converging to top of the long leaf-stalk
(MAPLE) :—
(1) Leaves with 5 main veins, and 5 unequally toothed and pointed
lobes . ... 3. SYCAMORE OR SCOTS PLANE.
(2) Leaves with 5 or 7 main veins, and sharp-pointed lobes with a
few coarse acute teeth , 4. NORWAY MAPLE.
IDENTIFICATION FROM LEAVES. 9
(These are both easily distinguishable from the 5-lobed leaves of
the true Plane (Platanus), which are alternate, have the main nerve
of the lowest lobe on each side joining that of the larger lobe above,
and whose leaf-stalk is hollowed at the lower end, like a candle-
extinguisher, to enclose and protect the new bud.)
B —LEAVES ALTERNATE.
1. Leaves ovate, short-stalked (\ to £ inch long) and smooth : —
(1) Leaves entire or obscurely toothed and short-pointed, with parallel
veins wide apart from midrib to edge, silky and ciliated when
young 5. BEECH.
(2) Leaves doubly serrated and long-pointed, with close parallel veins
from midrib to edge, and usually downy in vein-axils on lower
side 6. HORNBEAM.
(Compare 8. English Elm; but Hornbeam can easily be distin-
guished from the English Elm in being smooth and not oblique at
base, by the teeth and serratures being smaller, and by the parallel
veins being closer to each other.)
2. Leaves on stalks ^ to 1 inch long, oblong-lanceolate, smooth, very
coarsely and regularly serrated, pointed tip, and parallel veins
from the midrib to the teeth . . 7. SWEET- CHESTNUT.
3. Leaves broadly ovate, almost sessile, doubly serrated, rough and very
unequal or oblique at base (ELM) : —
(1) Leaves usually small and short-pointed, doubly-toothed, but not
very rough . . 8. ENGLISH OR SMALL-LEAVED ELM.
(2) Leaves large and broad, long-pointed, doubly-toothed and deeply
serrate, usually rough above and somewhat downy below
9. SCOTS OR WYCH ELM.
(A smooth-leaved variety, U. glabra, in the East of England is
also called Wych Elm, and may possibly be indigenous.)
1. Leaves with stalks f to 1 inch long, broadly heart-shaped or nearly
round, but not equally divided by the midrib, and always pointed,
toothed on edge, smooth above and more or less downy below,
especially in the angles of the main veins, the four lowest of
which usually converge on the leaf-stalk (LiME) : —
(1) Leaves small, smooth, dark-green on upper surface and pale-green
beneath, with rusty-brown hairs in the vein angles
10. SMALL-LEAVED LIME.
(2) Leaves large, pale-green on both sides, with whitish hairs in vein-
angles . . . •. -. .11. LAKGE-LEAVED LIME.
10 SYLVICULTURE.
(The leaf of the HAZEL is often somewhat like that of the SMALL-
LEAVED LIME, being alternate, broadly obovate or roundish and
pointed ; but it is easily distinguishable by its velvety upper
surface, its short leaf-stalk (under ^ inch), and its not having the
four lowest main veins usually converging to the leaf -stalk. )
C.— LEAVES ARRANGED SPIRALLY ON THE TWIGS.
1 . Leaves more or less ovate or oblong, and sometimes lobed.
(1) Leaves usually obovate or oblong, irregularly sinuate or almost
pinnatifid, with lobes usually obtuse (OAK) : —
(a) Leaves sessile , or with short stalks, and broad, heart-shaped,
crinkled base, smooth . . 12. PEDUNCULATE OAK.
(6) Leaves with stalk \ to 1 inch long, and wedge-shaped base,
more or less downy in vein-angles beneath
13. SESSILE OR DURMAST OAK.
(2) Leaves ovate or oblong, wrinkled, smooth dark - green above,
greyish downy below, pointed and generally twisted at tip
14. SAUGH OR GOAT WILLOW.
(3) Leaves broadly ovate or nearly round, doubly serrated, smooth or
slightly downy in vein-angles beneath (ALDER) : —
(a) Leaves dark-green and sticky, somewhat indented at top, with
leaf-stalk 1 to 1| inch long (bark blackish-brown)
15. COMMON OR BLACK ALDER.
(6) Leaves long-pointed and paler in colour (bark light grey)
16. WHITE OR GREY ALDER.
(4) Leaves broadly ovate or obovate, and more or less downy when
young (SERVICE-TREE) : —
(a) Leaves loosely downy when young, but smooth when mature,
broad and divided to near the middle into 5 or 7 broad and
pointed lobes bordered with small teeth
17. WILD SERVICE-TREE.
(b) Leaves green and smooth above, but covered with soft white
cottony down below (as also the young shoots), doubly
serrated, sometimes undivided, sometimes more or less
primately lobed, and lobes rounded at top (not pointed)
18. WHITEBEAM OR BEAM-TREE.
(5) Leaves ovate, or ovate-lanceolate, 2 to 4 inches long, toothed,
smooth, with small free stipules often scarcely visible
(CHERRY): —
(a) Leaves with a long stalk, sharply serrate, downy in vein-angles
beneath, drooping, with long leaf-stalk bearing 2 prominent
red glands . . . 19. GEAN OR WILD CHERRY.
IDENTIFICATION FROM LEAVES. 11
(b) Leaves smaller and with short leaf -stalk, smooth below, finely
serrate, slightly heart - shaped at bud, and with less
prominent glands 20. WILD BLACK OR BIRD CHERRY.
(6) Leaves usually broadly ovate, taper - pointed and toothed, but
varying from triangular to rhomboidal or broadly heart-shaped,
entire at base, doubly -(and often trebly) serrated along the
upper edges, smooth and shining on older twigs, and often
with small glandular warty dots (especially on young leaves)
21. BIRCH.
(On dry soil the leaves and twigs are warty (COMMON BIRCH), but
• on wet soil they are pubescent (DOWNY BIRCH).)
'2. Leaves more or less triangidar or rhomboidal, and with long stalks
(see also 21. BIRCH above). .
(1) Leaves usually broadly triangular or rhomboidal or nearly round,
' on slender stalks (POPLAR) : —
(a) Leaves very broadly ovate, mostly wavy-edged or coarsely
toothed and sometimes lobed, more or less heart-shaped at
base, and lower surface of leaf (as also the young shoots)
covered with white cottony down (bark whitish)
22. ABELE OR WHITE POPLAR.
(b) Leaves smooth and green on both sides : —
(aa) Leaves often pale-green on lower surface, small *and nearly
round or rhomboidal (but large on stool - shoots and
suckers, and shaped like those of the Abele) with bluntly
notched or toothed edges, and long flattened leaf-stalk
(hence leaf trembling with slightest breeze) : (bark grey)
23. ASPEN OR TREMBLING POPLAR.
(bb) Leaves of same colour on both sides, with translucent edges,
broadly rhomboidal or ovate-triangular, but never lobed,
tapering at top, with lower angles rounded, and with
small regular teeth (bark blackish) 24. BLACK POPLAR.
(The CANADIAN BLACK POPLAR has usually] larger and darker
green leaves than the COMMON BLACK POPLAR.)
3. Leaves very much longer than broad, and more or less lanceolate, whole
and unlobed, with short leaf-stalk (WILLOW) : —
(1) Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, serrate, grey or white with
silky hairs on both sides (but especially on lower side), and the
lowest serratures glandular t'
25. WHITE OR HUNTINGDON WILLOW.
(2) Leaves lanceolate, pointed, coarsely serrate, green and smooth,
leaf -stalks glandular ; twigs brittle at junction with stem
. 26.. CRACK OR REDWOOD WILLOW.
12 SYLVICULTURE.
4. Leaves unequally pinnate : —
(1) Leaves with 11 to 19 leaflets, all narrow-oblong, toothed, and
from 1 to 2 inches long, smooth or nearly so above, and more
or less downy below . . 27. ROWAN OB MOUNTAIN-ASH.
(2) Leaves with 11 to 21 narrow, ovate, smooth, entire-edged, long-
stalked leaflets ... 28. ROBINIA OR LOCUST-TREE.
III. IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON BROAD -LEAVED TREES
FROM THEIR FLOWERS.
A. — FLOWERS BISEXUAL OR HERMAPHRODITE, i.e., CONTAINING BOTH THE
MALE ORGANS (stamens) AND THE FEMALE (pistil)' — *
/. STAMENS FREE AND SEPARATE —
(a) FLOWERS INCOMPLETE, i.e., without calyx or corolla, or with a
floral envelope (perianth) in place of calyx or corolla, and the
flowers appearing before the leaves.
1. Flowers each with 2 stamens and 1 pistil, clustered in short
lateral racemes, without calyx or corolla (or sometimes
monoecious, i.e., with only male or only female organs, but
both male and female flowers on same tree) . 1. ASH.
2. . Flowers reddish, in dense lateral clusters, surrounded by
brownish bracts forming a bell-shaped perianth with 4 to 6
short lobes or teeth, and as many stamens, and 2 pistils or
2 stigmas (ELM) : —
(1) Flowers and perianth almost sessile, 4-cleft, brownish (March
and April) . . 2. ENGLISH OR SMALL-LEAVED ELM.
(2) Flowers and perianth on longer stalks, loosely tufted, 5-
or 6-cleft, reddish (April, May) 3. SCOTS OR WYCH ELM.
(b) FLOWERS COMPLETE, i.e., with calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil
all present.
1. Flowers with bell-shaped 5-toothed calyx, and irregular 4- or
5 -leaved corolla with white petals spotted with red near
centre, and with 7 or 8 free stamens and 1 pistil with 2
stigrnas ; flowers in stiff erect racemes 4. HORSE-CHESTNUT.
2. Flowers with 4- or 5-leaved corolla and calyx, 8 free stamens
and 1 pistil with 2 stigmas (MAPLE) : —
(1) Flowers green, in loose, oblong, hanging racemes, and
appearing along with the leaves
5. SYCAMORE OR SCOTS PLANE.
(2) Flowers yellowish-green, in upright corymbs, and appearing
before the leaves . 6. NORWAY MAPLE.
IDENTIFICATION FROM FLOWERS. 13
3. Flowers with 5-leaved calyx and corolla, numerous free stamens,
and 1 pistil (CHERRY) :—
(1) Flowers in umbels, long-stalked, large and white, appearing
before the leaves . . 7. WILD CHERRY OR GEAN.
(2) Flowers in loose and often drooping racemes, short-stalked,
small and white, appearing with the leaves
8. WILD BLACK OR BIRD CHERRY.
4. Flowers in branching corymbs, white, with bell-shaped calyx,
united with the ovary and 5-cleft at edge, corolla 5-leaved
and attached, as also the numerous stamens, to the calyx,
ovary 5-celled, with 2 pistils (SERVICE-TREES) : —
(1) Flowers rather small, numerous 9. ROWAN OR MOUNTAIN- ASH.
(2) Flowers rather larger, but not nearly so numerous, usually
3 or 4 . . 10. WHITEBEAM OR BEAM-TREE.
(3) Flowers fewer and larger than in (1), but more numerous
and smaller than in (2) . . 11. WILD SERVICE-TREE.
5. Flowers pale-yellow, in simple corymbs attached to a long
lanceolate bract, with a 5-leaved calyx and 4- or 5-leaved
corolla, and 20 or more stamens free or very shortly adhering
in several clusters, and attached to the base of the calyx,
below the ovary, and 1 pistil (LiME) : —
(1) Corymbs with more than 3 flowers (5 to 13)
12. SMALL-LEAVED LIME.
(2) Corymbs usually with 2 or 3 flowers
13. LARGE-LEAVED LIME.
//. STAMENS NOT FREE, BUT UNITED INTO 2 BUNDLES ; flowers papilionaceous,
white, in loose, hanging racemes . 14. ROBINIA OR LOCUST-TREE.
B.— FLOWERS UNISEXUAL (i.e., containing either only the male organs or
only the female), ARRANGED IN CYLINDRICAL, OBLONG, OR ROUND
SPIKES (called catkins), AND MONCECIOUS, i.e., having both male and
female flowers on the same individual tree.
I. Catkins cylindrical or short, with closely packed scales ; the male flowers
with 2 stamens, and the females with naked ovules, cither inserted
within the catkin scales or solitary and quite exposed (CONIFERS —
see V., "Identification of Common Conifer Trees").
//. Catkins usually dense with closely packed scale-like bracts, rarely loose,
or with minute deciduous scales, which subsequently (in the female
flower) form an involucre for the fruit (Cupuliferce).
1. Male catkins in slender and interrupted pendulous racemes, without
scales, but with a 5- to 9-cleft perianth and 5 to 9 stamens ;
14 . SYLVICULTURE.
female catkins single or in small, sessile, short-stalked clusters,
each with 1 ovary, 1 style, and 3 stigmas, enclosed in a many-
scaled involucre (OAK) : —
(1) Female catkins arranged in 3 or 4 on a long stalk (peduncle)
15. PEDUNCULATE OAK.
(2) Female catkins solitary or clustered, and either closely sessile on
the twig, or borne on a short peduncle about an inch long
16. DURMAST OR SESSILE OAK.
2. Male catkins with flowers having a 5- or 6-cleft perianth, and 10
to 15 stamens —
(1) Male catkins round and pendulous ; female catkins round.
almost sessile, each flower having 1 ovary crowned by the six
small teeth of the perianth, and 3 styles, and with a 4-valved
hairy involucre enclosing two or three flowers sessile in centre
of catkin . . . .--... . . .17. BEECH.
(2) Male catkins vejy long and thin, with clusters of flowers
arranged spirally ; female catkins round, at base of the male
catkins, and enclosed by an involucre of bristly scales, with a
5- to 8-styled ovary, crowned by a 5- to 8-toothed perianth
18. SWEET-CHESTNUT.
3. Male catkins, slender, lateral, cylindrical, and pendulous, with broad
sessile scales, and flowers having 6 to 12 stamens attached to the
base of the bract ; female catkins terminal and loose, each flower
with 1 two-celled ovary and 2 styles, and 2 flowers within each
scale, each enclosed in a hairy unequally 3-lobed inner scale
(involucre) 19. HORNBEAM.
///. Male catkins cylindrical, usually pendulous, with broad imbricated
scales, and with anthers larger than their filaments (Betulaccce).
1. Flowers appearing before the leaves. Each scale of the male catkin
with 3 distinct flowers, each with 4 stamens ; female catkins
small and ovoid . . . . . . .20. ALDER.
2. Flowers appearing after the leaves. Male catkins with stalked
scales, and 6 to 12 stamens within each scale, but not in distinct
flowers; female catkins cylindrical . . .21. BIRCH.
G. — FLOWERS UNISEXUAL, ARRANGED IN ERECT OR PENDULOUS CYLINDRICAL
OR OVAL SILKY -HAIRED CATKINS, BUT DIOECIOUS, i.'e., having the
male flowers on one tree and the female flowers on another tree
(Salicinece) : —
7. Catkins mostly erect and usually silky-haired, with entire catkin-
scales ; male flower with 2 (rarely 3 to 5) stamens on long fila-
ments and 1 or 2 gland-like inner scales ; female flower solitary
IDENTIFICATION FROM FRUITS. 15
within each scale, naked, with 1 ovary (usually long-stalked) and
a forked style 22. WILLOW.*
II. Catkins pendulous, with jagged catkin - scales ; flowers having a
perianth of inner united scales forming a small, flat, oblique cup ;
male flower with 8 to<30 stamens, with short, slender filaments
and small anthers ; female flower with 1 sessile ovary and a 4-
forked style 23. POPLAR.*
(* The chief species of WILLOW and POPLAE can best be distinguished
by their leaves. )
IV.— IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON BROAD-LEAVED TREES
FROM THEIR FRUITS.
A. — FRUIT A 1- SEEDED INDERISCENT NUT (NOT OPENING SPONTANEOUSLY,
BUT FALLING OFF WITH THE RIPE SEED).
/. Nuts solitary, or in clusters, or in Ibose spikes, and wholly or partially
enclosed in a more or less cup-shaped involucre or husJc (Cupuliferce).
1. Each nut having its own involucre.
(1) Nuts (acorns) large and elliptical, and each surrounded at base
with a short, hard, cup-shaped husk (OAK) : —
(a) Acorns somewhat elongated and pointed, either clustered or
spiked, above the middle of a flower-stalk (peduncle) 1 to 6
inches long . . . .1. PEDUNCULATE OAK.
(&) Acorns somewhat short and less pointed, solitary or clustered,
either closely sessile on the branch or borne on a short
flower-stalk about 1 inch long
2. SESSILE OR DURMAST OAK.
(2) Fruiting catkin much elongated, the inner scales being enlarged
into long, leafy, unequally 3-lobed bracts, each having at-
tached to its base a small flat nut . . 3. HORNBEAM.
(The HAZEL has fruits usually clustered, each consisting of
a large hard -shelled nut, nearly enclosed in a leafy husk un-
equally lobed and jagged.)
2. Two or three nuts enclosed within one capsular involucre opening in
4 valves.
(1) Nuts three-cornered and sharp - pointed, and 2 or 3 being
enclosed within a hard cupule covered with coarse, short,
soft prickles ....... 4. BEECH.
(3) Nuts large and plano-convex, and 2 or three being enclosed
within a thick cupule covered with long, thin, interwoven
prickles 5. SWEET- CHESTNUT.
16 SYLVICULTURE.
II. Nuts smaU and flat, in compact catkins (Betulacece).
(1) Catkin-scales thin, and falling off along with the small seed
having lateral wings (ripens July-September) . 6. BIRCH.
(2) Catkin-scales hard, and remaining like a small oval cone after the
un winged seed is shed 7. ALDER.
B. — FRUIT AN INDEHISCENT SAMARA OR NUT WITH A WING AT ITS UPPER
END.
I. Samara dry, oblong, narrow, thin and flattened, about 1| inch long,
light-brown, and arranged in racemes ; each samara is two-celled,
and each cell 1-seeded 8. ASH.
II. Samara with 2 (sometimes 3 or 4) seeds, each with long flattened
wing above and 1 or 2 seeds in each carpel (MAPLE) : —
(1) Wings at an acute or right angle, and seeds roundish
9. SYCAMORE OR SCOTS PLANE.
(2) Wings between a right angle and horizontal, and seeds somewhat
flattened 10. NORWAY MAPLE.
(The small FIELD MAPLE has its wings horizontal or forming
an obtuse angle, and its seeds roundish. )
III. Samara 1-seeded, with flat, thin, smooth, leaf -like membraneous
wing extending laterally as well as at top, and cleft at top end,
ripening in May or June (ELM) :—
(1) Fruit yellowish and above the middle of the seed- wing, oblong,
so deeply cleft at top as almost to reach the seed-cavity, and
with the hook-like tips overlapping each other considerably
11. ENGLISH OR SMALL-LEAVED ELM.
(2) Fruit green and about the middle of the seed-wing, roundish,
less deeply cleft at top, and hook-like tips only slightly (if at
all) overlapping each other . .12. SCOTS OR WTCH ELM.
C. — FRUIT A SMALL, DOWNY, YELLOWISH-GREEN, CORIACEOUS, ROUND 1- OR
2 -SEEDED NUT, MORE OR LESS DISTINCTLY RIBBED, AND GROWING
IN CORYMBS ATTACHED TO A MEMBRANEOUS BRACT (LlME) : —
1. Corymbs with more than 3 small nuts faintly 5 -ribbed
13. SMALL-LEAVED LIME.
2. Corymbs with large bract and not more than 3 nuts of large size,
and prominently 5-ribbed . . .14. LARGE-LEAVED LIME.
D. — FRUIT A DEHISCENT (SPONTANEOUSLY OPENING) SHORT OR THICK AND
BROAD CAPSULE, SPLITTING LONGITUDINALLY INTO VALVES.
1. Capsule round and rough, with soft prickles, about 1| inch broad,
and opening in 3 valves to shed 2 to 4 large, glossy brown seeds
15. HORSE-CHESTNUT.
IDENTIFICATION OF CONIFERS. 1*7
F. — FRUIT A CATKIN FORMED OP DEHISCENT CAPSULES IN THE FORM OF
LONG, NARROW PODS, OPENING LONGITUDINALLY INTO 2 VALVES,
AND CONTAINING MINUTE SEEDS, EACH WITH A TUFT OF LONG
COTTONY HAIRS (Salicinece).
1. Scales of the catkin entire . 16. WILLOW.*
2. Scales of the catkin toothed, lobed, or jagged . . 17. POPLAR.*
(* The chief species of WILLOW and POPLAR can best be distin-
guished by their leaves.)
G. — FRUIT A 1 -SEEDED DRUPE, EACH SEED BEING ENCLOSED IN A HARD
STONE SURROUNDED BY A FLESHY COVERING (CHERRY) : —
1. Fruits in umbels, long-stalked, large, red or black, smooth, round,
and sweet, with a smooth stone 18. WILD CHERRY OR GEAN.
2. Fruits in racemes, short - stalked, small, black, smooth, nearly
round, and bitter-sweet, with a rough stone
19. WILD BLACK OR BIRD CHERRY.
H. — FRUIT A BERRY (SORB) OR SMALL POME (miniature Apple), growing
in corymbs at the ends of short leafy branches (SERVICE-TREES).
1. Berries numerous, small, round, and bright red
20. ROWAN OR MOUNTAIN-ASH.
2. Berries, usually 3 or 4, small, round or ovoid, brownish, with white
spots . . . . . .21. WILD SERVICE-TREE.
3. Berries large, round or ovoid, red or yellow, and covered with
cottony down . . . .22. WHITEBEAM OR BEAM-TREE.
7. FRUIT A LONG, MANY-SEEDED POD : — 23. ROBINIA OR LOCUST-TREE.
V.— IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON CONIFER TREES.
The Coniferce grown in British woodlands are characterised by having
linear or short and scale - like leaves ; monoecious flowers in short or
cylindrical catkins with closely-packed scales ; male flowers with stamens
inserted on the axis of the catkin within the scales, or the anther-cells
sessile on the inside of the scales, which then form part of the stamens ;
female flowers with naked ovules and seeds (without ovary, style, or
pericarp), either inserted within the catkin-scales or solitary and quite
exposed. The Conifers grown as timber-crops in Britain belong only to
the two following tribes, Abietinece and Cupressinece : —
I. Flowers monoecious, male ca'tkins small and cylindrical, with 2 anther-
cells to each scale ; fruit a dry woody cone, with cone-bracts arranged
spirally, 2 winged seeds within each scale (ABIETINECE) : —
A. — EVERGREEN TREES with leaves ranged spirally round the short
shoots, and from second year onwards divided into 2, 3, or 5
B
18 SYLVICULTURE.
needles encircled at base by a membraneous sheath ; cone-scales
narrow, and thickening near tip ; seed ripening in second year
after flowering (true PINES) 1. PINE.
1. Each leaf divided into two needles —
(1) Leaves about 1^ to 2| inches long, cone small (SCOTS PINE).
(2) Leaves from 3 to 4 inches long, stiff and prickly ; cone medium-
sized (AUSTRIAN PINE).
(3) Leaves from 4 to 5 inches long, cone large (CoRSiCAN PINE).
(4) Leaves from 5 to 6 inches long, cones large and in clusters
(MARITIME PINE).
2. Each leaf divided into 5 needles (WEYMOUTH PINE).
B. — CONE-SCALES BROAD, AND THIN AT TIP AND EDGES (true FIRS) : —
1. EVERGREEN TREES with single, sessile, 2- or 4-sided, persistent leaves
ranged spirally on twigs ; cones ripening in year of flowering : —
(1) Defoliated twigs rough, with prominent leaf-scars ; seed-bracts
short and not showing above the cone-scales ; cones pendul-
ous, and scales persisting after seed is shed . 2. SPRUCE.
(a) Leaves pointed but not prickly, persisting 3-4 years ; cones
large and long (COMMON SPRUCE).
(b) Leaves pointed, prickly and more silvery below, persisting
2 years ; cones smaller and less compact (MENZIES OR
SITKA SPRUCE).
(2) Leaves 2 . sided, with two white lines along lower surface ;
defoliated twigs smooth, leaf -scars not prominent; seed-
bracts long and pointed, and protruding above cone-scales.
(a) Leaves stalked, leaf -scars oval ; cones pendulous when ripe,
and scales persistent . -. . 3. DOUGLAS FIR.
(o«) buds glossy, and rich dark red-brown; leaves usually
dark -green ; cones larger, less evenly conical, and
bracts less exserted and reflexed : PACIFIC, OREGON, OR
COASTAL VARIETY.
(bb) buds dull, pale, light reddish-brown '; leaves usually light-
green ; cones smaller, more evenly [conical, and bracts
more exserted and reflexed : COLORADO OR INLAND
VARIETY.
(b) Leaves sessile, leaf -scar circular ; cones erect, and scales shed
with seed in October .... 4. SILVER FIR.
2. DECIDUOUS TREES, with leaves clustered in tufts on short shoots,
but single on long shoots ; cones ripening in year of flowering ;
seed-bracts short, and not showing above cone-scales ; cone-
scales persistent ...... 5, LARCH.
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 19
(1) Leaves darker, and turning pale -brown in autumn; shoots
yellowish and ashy-grey ; cones 1|-1^ in. long, with hard
stiff scales : COMMON LARCH.
(2) Leaves paler and longer, and turning pale-yellow in autumn ;
shoots light brownish-red ; cones f-1 in. long, with soft
scales bent outwards at tip : JAPANESE LARCH.
II.- EVERGREEN TREES, with small imbricated leaves and monoecious
flowers; male catkins with 4 anther -cells to each scale; fruit a
small woody globular or oblong cone, with scales arranged op-
positely and alternately (CUPRESSINE.S;) : —
A. — Twigs round or 4 -seeded ; cones globular; cone- scales with broad
hobnail-like tips, and edges not overlapping (Cupressus).
1. CYPRESS.
1. Cones dark -brown, ripening in second year, clustered 3 or 4
together, f to 1 inch in diameter, each with 10 scales :
LARGE-CONED CYPRESS.
2. Cones round, and covered with glaucous bloom while young, ripen-
ing in year of flowering, solitary, terminal, light-brown, about
size of a large pea, and usually with 3 seeds under each scale.
(1) Cones with short stalk, and usually 6 scales : LAWSON'S CYPRESS.
(2) Cones almost sessile, and usually with 6 or 8 scales ; twigs with
4 more or less pronounced ridges : NOOTKA CYPRESS.
B. — Twigs flattened, and leaves broader than in the Cypresses; cones
small, pale reddish-brown, oval, tapering to both ends, solitary
and terminal ; cone - scales with edges slightly overlapping
(Thuja) . . i' V •• 2* THUJA OR KED CEDAR.
Historical. — The British Isles were probably at one time
mainly covered with primeval woods, most of which were likely
destroyed by fire ; and wherever the Scots Pine, our only
indigenous conifer timber-tree, was the chief tree in mountainous
tracts, such fires left the hillsides bare and barren, as Pines
cannot reproduce themselves by stool-shoots or suckers, like
broad-leaved trees. In the history of Forestry in Britain three
main periods are easily distinguishable : (1) up to 1482, when
the Statute of Enclosure was passed ; (2) from 1482 to 1866,
when the import duty was taken off foreign timber ; and (3)
from 1866 up to the present time, when State Afforestation on
a large scale is receiving attention.
20 SYLVICULTURE.
(1) In early times, throughout England, and to a less extent
also in Scotland and Ireland, the chief use of the woodlands was
for hunting and for the pannage or feeding of large , herds of
swine. In 1066 William the Conqueror found great tracts of
woodlands and agricultural lands and villages reserved as royal
hunting-grounds for the Saxon kings, and he extended the
boundaries of these and called them Forests, two of the largest
being the New Forest in Hants and the Forest of Dean in
Gloucestershire, which were both formed before 1086. All lands
thus set apart for the king's red deer were said to be " afforested " ;
and new Forest Laws were applied to the administration of these
royal forests, of a far more stringent and cruel kind than had
previously obtained under Saxon and Danish rule. The cruel
oppression of the people whose lands were afforested increased
under William II., Henry L, and Stephen. Henry II. made
extensive new afforestations, but was forced to relax the severity
of the Forest Laws by the passing of a statute known as the
Assize of Woodstock, 1184. This placed the Forest Law upon
a definite footing and made it independent of the Common Law.
Special Forest Courts were ordered to be held regularly for each
forest, the Woodmote every forty days, the Swainmote thrice a-
year, and the Justice Seat or Eyre of the Forest, the highest
court, once every third year, though in course of time irregulari-
ties and abuses crept in. In 1215 Magna Charta modified the
Forest Laws, and in the time of Henry III. (1216-72) new
charters were obtained, as also during the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, when those owning or holding land in or
near a royal forest were subject to vexatious oppression. This
state of affairs went on, with modifications, till 1640, when the
Act of Limitation of Forests was passed, which virtually
abolished the Forest Courts, although the office of Chief Justice
in Eyre was only terminated by Act of Parliament in 1817,
when his duties were vested in the first Commissioner of Woods
and Forests. What still remains of these ancient royal forests
STATUTE OF WOODS. 21
are now administered by the Commissioners under an Act of
1852.
In Scotland there were also Forest Laws which seem to have
been introduced at a comparatively late date, and to have been
formed somewhat on the English model, though far less cruel
and oppressive.
(2) The Statute of Enclosure, 1482, applied only to the royal
forests, chases, and purlieus or disafforested lands in England,
and permitted landowners having woodlands therein to fence
their coppices against deer and, cattle for 7 years after each fall.
But even at that early time the fear of a serious want of timber
began to be felt ; and this gradually grew to such an extent
that a Statute of Woods was passed in 1543, by which it was
decreed that all woods throughout England should be enclosed
for 4, 6, or 7 years after eacli fall of the coppice at under 14,
14 to 24, and over 24 years' rotation, and that at least 12
standards per acre should be "stored" or left to grow into
timber. These stores or standards were to be of Oak if possible,
but otherwise of Elm, Ash, Aspen, or Beech, the kinds of timber
then prized most highly ; and they were not to be cut until they
reached a given age or a given girth. The operation of this and
of similar but modifying subsequent Acts of Parliament was the
enforcement of a definite national system of Arboriculture, in the
shape of coppice with standards, for growing timber-trees of
Oak, Ash, &c., over an underwood of Oak, Ash, Hazel, Chest-
nut, Birch, Willow, Dogwood, &c., the chief object being the
production of timber for the navy and the merchant fleet. This
national system of Arboriculture tended to produce great branches
and big crooks and curved timber suitable for ship-building.
One result of this old practice has been that every one concerned
in growing timber became convinced of the necessity for giving
each individual tree a more or less free and isolated position ;
and iii more recent times this principle was also applied to a
greater or less extent to .timber-crops grown as high woods, and
22 SYLVICULTURE.
therefore really needing to be kept in fairly close canopy. It
thus led to habitual overthinning tending to stimulate excessive
branch formation at the expense of a long and clean stem. And
as the market for oak-bark and small coppice-wood is now very
poor compared with what it used to be, many of the old coppices,
with or without standards, have been or are in course of being
converted into highwoods. But it is important to note at the
outset that the tendency to overthin greatly, which is now
usually admitted to be one of the great faults in British Arbori-
culture, had its origin in 1543, when the Statute of Woods
ordained for England the coppice-with-standards system of
growing timber-trees, arid that this system was continuously
developed and enforced by subsequent Acts of Parliament.
During the most of this second period, from 1482 right up
to about 100 years ago, there was always a dearth of timber, and
especially of oak, owing to the constantly growing demands for
ship-building and other constructive purposes. But when
timber-importation began on a large scale early in the nineteenth
century, after Britain had obtained the command of the seas, less
attention than hitherto was paid to home forestry, which began
to decline rapidly as improved steam communications developed
by land and water. The growing neglect became greater when
the import duty was taken off colonial timber in 1846 ; and
when the import duty was also removed from all foreign timber
in 1866, thereby cheapening the price of the fine clean-grown
stems and excellent sawn wood arriving in apparently inexhaust-
ible abundance, the value of home-grown wood fell so low that
timber - growing, for centuries an important rural industry,
became unprofitable, and many of the existing woodlands came
to be practically treated mainly as game coverts and ornamental
parts of the large landed estates. The removal of the foreign
import duty in 1866 virtually gave the death-blow to the old
national system of Arboriculture that sprang up in England from
1543 onwards, and then extended to Scotland, and which had
OUR WOODLANDS. 23
also been introduced into Ireland from and after an Act of
1634. But the growing demand for timber throughout the
world's greatest industrial countries, and the simultaneous rapid
exhaustion of the hitherto cheap and easily obtainable supplies,
have again recently revived the interest in timber-growing in
Britain ; and the modern system of Forestry upon sylviculture^,
rather than arboricultural lines, that has of recent years been
gaining ground in the United Kingdom, is mainly the adaptation
of such Continental and especially German methods as seem
suited to our very different economic conditions.
(3) The third period, from 1866 onwards. — After the Civil
War ended in 1867 the population and the commerce of the
United States of America began to increase rapidly; and
shortly afterwards similar developments commenced in Germany,
after the formation of the German Empire in 1871. Up till
then Britain was by far the greatest industrial country in the
world, and could easily get all the timber it wanted from
America, Norway and Sweden, Russia, &c. But now the
United States and Germany need far larger quantities of wood
and timber than they produce, and are our competitors for
the surplus supplies of the great wood-providing countries, such
as Canada and Russia. But even in these still well-wooded
countries less timber is available than formerly, and the cost
of extraction is greater, so that prices have risen greatly and
have constantly an upward tendency. Hence it now seems
very important that Britain should endeavour to adapt some
well-considered national scheme of timber-planting, in order to
secure the steady supply of at least a part of her annual
requirements in timber and other wood in years to come. The
United Kingdom only contains about 3,030,000 acres of wood-
lands ; and for the most part these are ornamental or mainly
for shelter and sport, and have not, of recent years at any rate,
been worked upon commercial lines. Then, too, the market has
changed with regard to what was habitually grown for the home
24 SYLVICULTURE.
demand. Curved oak is not much needed for ship-building,
nor is oak -bark much used for tanning ; small coppice-wood,
formerly required for hop-poles, hurdles, &c., is now hardly
saleable at all ; and birch and alder, once greatly in demand
for gunpowder charcoal, is no longer used in large quantities.
Several Committees have during the last 25 years been
appointed to deal with Forestry ; but, so far as planting is
concerned, only little practical result has come of these inquiries.
In 1887 a Parliamentary Committee made recommendations
which were -not acted on; and in 1902-3 a Departmental
Committee of the Board of Agriculture reported on the subject.
It refrained from recommending any great national scheme of
planting, but advocated more and better instruction in Forestry ;
and lecturers have since then been appointed at Newcastle,
Bangor, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and other collegiate centres, whereas
previously the only collegiate course of lectures had been given
at Edinburgh University (since 1889).
In 1904 a school for Forest Apprentices was opened in the
Forest of Dean (Gloucestershire) by the Commissioners of
Woods and Forests, and in 1905 a similar Forest School was
organised at Avondale (Co. Wicklow) by the Department of
Agriculture in Ireland ; but as yet no such school has been
founded for Scotland, although it contains far more plantable
land than England, Wales, and Ireland all taken together. In
1908 a Committee appointed by the Department of Agriculture
in Ireland recommended an extensive scheme of planting
700,000 acres in Ireland; and in 1909 the Koyal Commission
on Coast Erosion and Afforestation issued a report recommending
a vast scheme for the planting of 9,000,000 acres by the State,
of which 6,000,000 were to be in Scotland, and the remaining
3,000,000 in England, Wales, and Ireland. Of our existing
3,030,000 acres of woods and plantations, 97*7 per cent belong
to private owners, and 2 '3 per cent to the Crown, being mostly
remnants of the ancient royal forests ; but except as regards
some recent purchases made by the Department in Ireland, the
OUR WOODLANDS.
25
State owns no woodlands whatever ; there is not a single acre
of State woodland in Great Britain. Experimental planting is
likely to be done soon under the Development Act, 1909 ; but
before any very extensive national scheme of planting can be
successfully begun in Scotland, where most of the plantable land
is admitted to be, a well-equipped School for Forest Apprentices
is just as necessary as the large funds that will be needed for
such a large permanent investment. The importance of trying
to do something to provide for our future requirements in
timber and wood-produce can easily be judged of from the fact
that both in 1906 and in 1907 our gross imports of wood and
timber, wood-pulp and manufactured wood-pulp, amounted in
value for each year to over .£37,378,000, while the total for
wood and timber alone totalled over £29,013,000 in. each year.
As comparatively little of this is re-exported, these figures show
the vast field open to timber-growing — whether mainly by
private landowners with State encouragement and assistance, or
directly by the State, or by some such combination of State and
private efforts as obtains in France and Germany. Over nine-
tenths of our wood imports are of coniferous timber, which is
just the class of trees that can be grown most conveniently and
successfully on our poor and waste lands, aggregating over
16 -J million acres. Britain is, in fact, one of the most poorly
wooded countries in the world, the land statistics being as
follows (in acres in round numbers) : —
Land Area.
Woodlands.
Mountain
and
Heath.
Percentage.
Woodland.
Wasteland.
England .
Scotland.
Ireland .
Wales .
32,381,051
19,069,010
19,322,798
4,748,109
1,666,000
879,000
303,000
182,000
2,306,000
9,375,000
3,780,000
1,251,000
51
4'5
1-5
3-8
7-1
48-1
18-5
26-2
Total .
75,520,968
3,030,000
16,712,000
3-9
21-6
26 SYLVICULTURE.
The Climatic and Physical Effects of large compact blocks of
woodland consist in tending (1) to equalise the temperature
both of the soil and of the atmosphere, and to diminish extreme
differences in each of these during summer and winter ; (2) to
increase the relative humidity of the air, and also perhaps
slightly increase the total amount of dew, mist, and rainfall ;
(3) to absorb and retain moisture in the soil, and especially in
the upper layer of humus, thus helping to prevent floods, to
maintain the perennial flow of springs and brooks, and to act as
purifying filters in water- catchment areas ; (4) to protect the
surface-soil from erosion during heavy rainfall; and (5) to help
to purify the air from excess of carbon-dioxide.
Their Economic Uses are (1) to provide work for part of the
rural population, and especially during winter, when other work
is scarce ; (2) to provide part of the timber now imported in
vast quantities for industrial purposes, and thus increase the
sum total of wages payable to workmen in our own country ;
(3) to give shelter to fields and farm live-stock ; and (4) to add
to the attractions of country life by increasing facilities for sport.
On the average every 100 to 150 acres of woodland provide
permanent work for one woodman ; but this gives no indication
of the total amount of employment of various kinds that large
woodlands worked on business principles would ensure to the
rural population in planting, tending, and felling timber-crops,
in preparing, extracting, transporting, and converting the timber,
and in distributing the converted timber and other woodland
produce. Under a great national scheme of afforestation many
million pounds sterling would in course of time be circulated
among our own rural population, in place of being paid to
foreign workmen as at present. Even 3,000,000 acres of well-
managed coniferous timber-crops worked with a rotation of 60
years would give an annual mature fall of 50,000 acres, besides
thinnings from younger woods, and would probably yield on the
average a total crop of about 100 tons weight of timber per acre,
TRUE-GROWTH. 27
or about 5,000,000 tons of raw material having to be cut,
dressed, transported, converted, and distributed ; and this all
means wages that might be earned and circulated here, instead
of the money being sent abroad in payment for foreign labour.
The Growth of a Tree. — A tree is a living organism, con-
structed mainly of cells and vessels, whose vitality and growth
are primarily maintained by the absorption of mineral food
through its root-system, and by the ascension of sap to the
leaves and its elaboration there, after assimilation of atmospheric
carbon -dioxide through the foliage, under the action of sun-
light and warmth.
A tree consists of an overground bole or stem, with large and
small branches, twigs, and shoots, bearing the crown of foliage,
and an underground root-system consisting of a tap-root or
central axis, side-roots, fibrous-roots, and suction-rootlets with
one-celled root-hairs for imbibing water and soluble plant-food
from the soil. Even in trees with a pronounced tap-root (Oak,
Larch, Pine) there is no underground stem before the root-
system begins to branch; but the development of the root-
system always depends greatly on the physical condition of the
soil and on the leaf-area of the crown of foliage.
A young tree is produced naturally by seed from a parent
tree germinating under the influence of warmth, moisture, light,
and air. By absorbing moisture its tissue softens and stretches,
while the water is partly decomposed and partly used in trans-
forming the starch-reserves stored up in it and converting them
into grape-sugar (when starch, C6H1005, + water , H90, becomes-
grape-sugar, C6H1206), by means of which the embryo begins to
grow when the weather gets warm enough.
The embryo grows downwards into the earth by a young root,
and upwards into the air by the seed-leaves. The young root
lengthens, and through its root -hairs absorbs mineral food,
dissolved in the soil-moisture, which is conveyed upwards by
the cellular tissue and exposed in the seed-leaves to the action
28 SYLVICULTURE.
of light and air. Here water is transpired and nourishment
prepared for further growth by the assimilation of atmospheric
carbon and the formation of carbo-hydrates. As the current of
sap keeps rising from the roots to the growing-point, a small shoot
forms, which aerates the sap and sends it downwards ; and as
the elaborated sap descends, woody matter is formed in the
centre of the radicle, thus enabling it to ramify, while woody
matter is also gradually formed within the vessels of the young
plant by the deposition of elaborated matter. The growing-
point then acquires the rudimentary form of a leaf, and develops
until the first leaves are completely formed to carry on more
easily the functions previously performed by the seed-leaves.
Assimilation then becomes more vigorous, and the sap is
elaborated in larger quantity, conveyed downwards through
the cambium, and deposited as cellulose, part being incorporated
with the bark, and part forming sapwood. And as the cellular
tissue of the stem is also expanding to make room for the matter
passing into it, perpendicular and horizontal development go. on
simultaneously. Young roots are also formed, which increase
and branch by constant gradual increment ; and thus a natural
balance is maintained between the root-system and the leaf-area
for which water and mineral food have to be provided, and on
whose assimilative power increment depends.
Other leaves appear, all formed like the first, and performing
similar functions ; and at last the growing-point or axis ceases
to lengthen for the season, and the old leaves wither and fall off.
Meanwhile a new set of leaves, instead of expanding after their
formation, remain in their rudimentary state, harden, and fold
over one another to protect a new growing-point and become the
scales of a leaf-bud.
With the return of warm weather in the second spring the
flow of the sap takes place and active vegetation recommences.
The buds gradually unfold when the water containing mineral
food ascends, and the sap utilised is instantly replaced by
TREE-GROWTH. 29
continuous supplies from below ; the root -system extends by
new suction-roots being formed ; fresh food-supplies are absorbed
and sent upwards through the soft sapwood; and active vegeta-
tion continues till autumn, the food-supplies transmitted to the
leaves being there subjected to the chemical action of light and
transformed under the processes of assimilation of atmospheric
carbon and preparation of carbo-hydrates, and the elaborated
food returned down through the cambium to form a new layer
of sapwood on the woody fibrous tissue and of bark on the
outer protective cuticle. By the end of the year the phenomena
of the previous season have been repeated ; ligneous matter has
been gradually produced during the period of active vegetation ;
and, as the zone deposited in summer is denser than that formed
in spring, this gives rise to the appearance of annual rings or
concentric zones of woody tissue ; new shoots and leaf-buds are
formed before the winter period of rest from active vegetation;
and the stem has grown in diameter.
During the third year similar processes are repeated on a
more extensive scale. More roots and rootlets are formed ;
food- supplies are absorbed and elaborated in larger quantities ;
new cambial layers are formed on the wood and the bark, and
the horizontal and the perpendicular developments of tissue are
continued; and another annual ring is added to those of the
two previous years. And thus year after year the tree continues
to grow till it is felled, or till its active functions cease through
old age and death, or disease, or accident.
The Nutrition and the Growth of Trees depend partly on
physical and climatic, and partly on chemical conditions. The
essential physical factors are Warmth and Light, and the
chemical factors Oxygen, Carbon-dioxide, Nitrogen, and Water,
together with mineral substances absorbed from the soil in the
form of soluble nutrient salts. Where all these factors are
combined favourably for the requirements of any individual
kind of plant, it can thrive well; but where any one factor
30 SYLVICULTURE.
is unfavourable, it will either show poor growth or be unable
to grow at all. Hence timber-crops, like field-crops, are subject
to what is known as the Law of tlw Minimum, according to
which " the total extent of production depends upon whatever
essential factor is present in the lowest degree " — no matter
how favourable may be the combination of any or all of the
other factors. The mineral food of trees includes potash, lime,
magnesia, iron, sulphur, phosphorus, and nitrogen ; while silica,
soda, chlorine, manganese, and occasionally alumina, are also
found in the ash of timber, after carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen have been eliminated by burning. But the dif-
ferent physiological uses of these mineral substances are not
yet clearly understood.
Experience shows that timber-crops of one kind or another
can be profitably grown on any kind of land that is neither too
dry nor too wet. Most kinds of soil contain sufficient mineral
food to enable tree-crops of any kind to grow ; but there is not
always sufficient soil-moisture to hold it in solution so as to
make it available for absorption by the root-system, and when
the land is too wet there is a deficiency in oxygen. Thus
depth and porosity are of more importance than chemical
composition. On the other hand, a rich soil furnishing copious
food-supplies will produce large crops of timber, but it will be
soft, spongy, and not so durable as timber with denser and
more compact annual rings, ,« t.,r
Soil cannot always be classified according to its geological
origin ; because the same kind of rock does not always decom-
pose into similar soils, and its productivity depends on the
extent of its decomposition, while some of the lighter particles
of clay are more easily washed away than the heavier sand,
For .practical purposes the best classification is into —
Sandy Soil, containing 75 per cent or more of disintegrated sand (silica).
This includes sand-drifts, sand, and loamy sand.
Loamy Soil, containing 60 to 70 per cent of fine sand, the rest being
SOIL. 31
chiefly clay and less than 5 per cent of lime, with about 5 per cent of
ferric oxide as colouring matter. This includes loam and sandy loam.
Clayey Soil, containing 50 per cent or more of clay. This includes clay
and loamy clay.
Limy Soil, with 10 per cent or more of carbonate of lime. This in-
cludes lime, clayey lime, loamy lime, and marl.
Sandy soil feels gritty when slightly moistened, is easily heated or
cooled, does not well retain moisture and soluble plant - food, and is
therefore an inferior soil, on which trees need a large growing-space, do
not maintain close canopy, soon fall off in rate of growth, and produce
little seed. Easily warmed by day, it encourages early germination of
seed, early movement of sap, and early flushing of foliage in spring ; but
as it cools rapidly at night, the young tissues are exposed to damage by
late frost.
Clayey soil sticks to the tongue, smells of ammonia if breathed upon,
feels fatty if rubbed between thumb and forefinger, and takes a polish
if rubbed with the thumb-nail. It is usually, tinged with iron, and of
a grey, yellow, or brownish-red colour. It is cold, stiff, impermeable to
moisture, and apt to get water-logged and marshy. Admixture of sand
tends to modify these characteristics. As soluble salts are not easily
washed out, clay soil contains large food-supplies, and tree-crops have a
better leaf-canopy than on sandy soil. Owing to low conductivity of heat
the active vegetation is late of beginning in spring.
Limy soil effervesces if nitric acid be dropped on it, and is apt to be
shallow ; but woods in close canopy often show fine growth. When limy
soil has deteriorated through insufficient leaf -canopy or clear-felling, the
soil-moisture soon evaporates, the finer earthy particles are washed away,
and the soil becomes shallow, dry, hot, and unproductive.
Loamy soil resembles clay more than sand, but neither feels fatty
when rubbed between finger and thumb, nor takes any definite polish
when burnished with the finger-nail. It is a mild soil, in which the
absorption and retention of soil-moisture depend greatly on the nature of
the subsoil ; and it is suited for growing almost every kind of tree.
Any of the above soils may also be gravelly or stony.
The Physical Properties of Soil, which are far more im-
portant than its chemical or mineral composition, and all of
which, with their innumerable variations, act and react on
each other in determining the quality of any given land,
include (1) Depth, (2) Stiffness, (3) Soil-moisture, and (4) Soil-
temperature.
32 SYLVICULTURE.
(1) Depth is the extent to which soil is decomposed before a practically
unaffected subsoil is reached, which may, or may not, be of a different
kind from the soil above it. As regards depth, a soil may be classed as
deep, medium, and shallow.
Depth of soil is very important for trees like Oak, Sweet -Chestnut,
Larch, and Pines, which form a deep-going tap-root, because the growth
in height soon falls off if the root-system cannot develop normally. Trees
with fairly deep root-systems, like Beech, Ash, Elm, Maple, and Sycamore,
Silver Fir and Douglas Fir, and even shallow-rooting kinds like Birch,
Aspen, and Spruce, all thrive better on deep than on shallow soil. The
disadvantages of a shallow soil are all the greater when the subsoil is a
stiff clay or impermeable, and tending to make the soil-water stagnate.
Deep soil produces a long, clean bole, shallow soil a short stem with a big,
branching crown.
(2) Stiffness, the resistance offered to separation or disintegration of
the soil particles, is important in relation to air, moisture, and warmth,
and on it also depends the resistance to be overcome by roots in penetrat-
ing and ramifying throughout the soil.
Clay soil is the stiffest, sand the loosest or lightest ; lime is more like
clay, and loam more like sand. An admixture of humus or leaf -mould
makes clay and lime less tenacious, and stiffens loam and sand, besides
yielding ammonia-compounds and assisting in the beneficial processes of
nitrification and deuitrification. The liability of soil to expand after
rainfall and to shrink during drought is practically proportional to its
stiffness. Soil may be distinguished as heavy or stiff (clay and clayey
loam, lime, and marl) ; mild (loam, sandy loam, and loamy lime) ; light
(loamy sand and sandy marl) ; loose (the poorer sandy soil) ; shifting
(sand-drifts and dunes). A light and fairly moist soil produces most
rootlets and foliage, and consequently most timber.
(3) Soil -moisture is essential for tree -growth, because only soluble
salts can be imbibed by the suction-roots, and neither transpiration nor
assimilation could possibly take place without it. It helps to regulate
soil- temperature, and to prevent sandy soils heating or cooling too rapidly.
But too much soil-moisture leads to the formation of injurious acids and
of marshes, interferes with aeration of the soil, and both retards vegeta-
tion and increases danger from frost. A soil may be wet, moist, fresh,
dry, .or arid.
Most trees thrive best on a fresh soil, though Willow, Poplar, Ash, Elm,
and Hornbeam prefer a moist, and the Alder even a wet, soil ; but stag-
nating moisture is never favourable to tree-growth. A dry soil is not
demanded by any of our trees ; but Birch, Rowan, Aspen, Black Pines,
Scots Pine in general, and Beech and White Alder on limy soil, can there
best accommodate themselves.
CLIMATE. 33
(4) Soil- temperature depends greatly on the quantity of moisture and
the colour of the soil. Clay soil is cold and inactive ; but once heated, it
cools gradually. Sand or gravel is easily warmed, but cools rapidly, and
in damp localities this increases the danger from frost.
Climate or the Influence of Situation affects tree -growth
in a very marked degree, though the several factors — (1)
temperature and humidity in atmosphere and in soil, (2) amount
and intensity of sunlight, (3) aspect or exposure towards N., E.,
S., or W., (4) slope or gradient of hillsides, and (5) shelter from
strong winds, due to the local configuration of the land and the
surrounding country — all act and react on each other, and also
in conjunction with the physical properties of the soil, in such
a way as often to obscure the causes why any particular kind of
tree may perhaps not thrive in any given situation.
The Sylvicultural Characteristics of Trees are (I.) their
special peculiarities regarding climate, soil, and situation ; light
and shade ; shape of root- system, stem, and crown ; rate of
growth ; reproductive and regenerative power ; and maturity
and longevity ; and (II.) their general characteristics as wood-
land crops, in consequence of these special peculiarities.
(1) As regards climate or temperature and rainfall, each kind
of tree has a northern and a southern limit determined by
winter cold and summer heat or drought, and also a limit of
altitude in mountain-tracts determined by cold. But owing to
geographical conditions and local configuration, there are no
hard-and-fast lines of demarcation throughout Western Europe
in either of these respects. Our mild equable climate is well
suited for all the Central European trees, and many North
American trees also thrive well here. Nor are there any well-
marked zones of elevation, as shelter from strong winds is a
very important factor in this respect. But of our common
woodland trees, experience shows that Birch, Scots Elm, and
Scots Pine grow better in Scotland than in the South of
England ; that Beech, English Elm. Pedunculate Oak, Chestnut,
c
34 SYLVICULTURE.
Willows, Poplars, and Weymouth and Maritime Pines do best
in the warmer parts of England ; that Alder, Ash, Pedunculate
Oak, English Elm, Maple, Willows, and Poplars thrive best on
low-lying land; and that Scots Elm, Sessile Oak, Sycamore,
Scots Pine, Spruces, Silver and Douglas Firs, and Larch do
best in the north of Britain and on hilly land. A damp
climate suits Spruce, Red Cedar, Pacific Douglas Eir, Beech,
Wych Elm, and Sycamore ; while Larch, Scots and Black
Pines, Colorado Douglas Fir, Oak, and Common Elm prefer a
dry climate. Beech, Ash, Chestnut, Robinia, Menzies Spruce,
and Silver and Pacific Douglas Firs are most liable to damage
by frost ; while Aspen, Birch, Elm, Hornbeam, Lime, Sallow,
Larch, Spruce, Colorado Douglas Fir, and Red Cedar are the
hardiest against winter cold and late frosts ; though all kinds
are more likely to be nipped by late frost when growing on
land exposed to the early morning sunshine. Common Spruce
and Common Larch are hardier than Menzies Spruce and
Japanese Larch.
(2) As regards soil and situation, with increasing altitude
the temperature falls and the air becomes moister, but this is
not very marked in our generally damp climate. Conifers
generally are less exacting and have a greater accommodative
power than broad-leaved trees as to moisture and mineral food,
the most accommodative being Aspen, Birch, Sallow, and Scots
Pine, and the least accommodative Ash and English Elm.
Depth, permeability, and a moderate amount of moisture are
of more importance than any particular kind of soil ; for it is
of greater physiological advantage that the root-system of any
tree should develop freely and normally, and that the situation
should (as regards climate, natural drainage, aspect, &c.) be
suitable, than that the soil itself should be sandy, loamy,
clayey, or limy. With favourable physical properties any soil
will furnish sufficient plant-food for good tree -growth; but
Oak, Ash, Elm, Chestnut, Maple, Sycamore, Larch, Douglas
RELATION TO LIGHT. 35
Fir, Silver Fir, and Scots Pine have the deepest roots, and
therefore need a deep soil for healthy growth ; while Aspen,
Birch, Willow, Poplar, and Spruce have only a shallow root-
system, but also grow better in a deep than in a shallow soil.
Beech, Ash, Elm, Maple, Sycamore, Hornbeam, White Alder,
Oak, Austrian Pine, and Larch thrive on limy soil ; but much
lime acts injuriously on Sweet- Chestnut, Douglas Fir, and
Maritime Pine. Humus or leaf-mould improves all kinds of
soil; hence replantation on true "woodland soil" is usually
more successful than the first planting of waste lands and poor
pastures, in which there is probably a deficiency of nitrogen in
an easily available form.
(3) As regards light and shade, trees are classifiable as light-
demanding and shade-enduring, according to the amount and
the intensity of sunlight needed for the assimilation of carbon
and the elaboration of the sap — the demand being apparent
from the amount of foliage borne by the tree-crown (which,
of course, varies with the situation and the quality of the
soil). The light-demanding trees most intolerant of shade are
Larch, Birch, and Robinia ; Pines, Poplars, and Willows ; Oak,
Ash, Elm, and Chestnut; less intolerant of shade are Alder,
Lime, Horse-Chestnut, Maple, and Sycamore ; while Beech and
Hornbeam, and most evergreen Firs and Cypresses (especially
Spruce, Douglas and Silver Firs, and Red Cedar) are shade-
enduring, as also the stool-shoots of the kinds of trees usually
grown as underwood in copses. All our woodland trees thrive
best with their crown of foliage freely exposed to sunlight ; but
Beech and Silver Fir seedlings need protection against scorching
and frost for the first two or three to four or five years, and are
therefore usually naturally regenerated under parent standard
trees. But the poorer the soil, the greater is the demand for
liirht, and the less the tolerance of shade. Young Sycamore
and Ash springing up self-sown can tolerate heavy shade at
first. In trees the capacity for tolerating shade is shown by
36 SYLVICULTURE.
the thickness of their foliage and by the length of time over-
shadowed twigs of evergreen Conifers retain their leaves.
(4) As regards root-system, stem, and crown, trees grown as
woodland crops have always a smaller growing-space than when
growing freely in the open ; but while the roots and the crown
are kept smaller, the growth in height (due to the struggle for
existence) is greater, and there is less tendency to spread side-
wards into branches. And, of course, it is only when deep-
rooting and light-demanding kinds of trees have their natural
requirements satisfied that good growth can be maintained, and
more especially as the trees approach maturity.
(5) As regards rate of growth as timber-crops, few of those
which grow rapidly in height at first furnish very large mature
crops, though the Pacific Douglas Fir and Menzics Spruce are
exceptions in this respect. Among European trees the largest
crops per acre are yielded by Silver Fir and Spruce, though
both are slow in establishing themselves and beginning to shoot
ahead. Increment or growth in cubic contents is the combina-
tion of growth in height and growth in girth. As the number
of stems per acre has to be sooner lessened (by thinning) to pro-
vide the necessary growing-space, light-demanding trees culminate
in increment and become less energetic sooner than shade-bearing
trees, though, of course, much depends on the soil and situation.
Hence shade-enduring trees (Douglas Fir, Spruces, Silver Fir,
and Red Cedar ; Beech) produce larger crops per acre than light-
demanding trees (Larch and Pines, most hardwoods and soft
woods), and larger crops are usually obtainable on a fresh than
on a dry soil, in which food-supplies are scarce.
(6) Reproductive power in throwing up stool-shoots and root-
suckers and Regenerative power in producing seed are different
forms of utilising reserve nutrients, in the one case for main-
taining individual life, and in the other for propagation of the
species. Reproduction is strongest in the younger stages of
SEED-PRODUCTION. 37
growth, and falls off when the seed-producing stage is entered.
Oak, Beech, Elm, Ash, Maple, Sycamore, Chestnut, Hornbeam,
Lime, Alder, and Birch mainly produce stool-shoots ; while
Aspen, Robinia, Rowan, non- indigenous Willows and Poplars,
and White Alder mainly produce root-suckers. But Chestnut,
English Elm, and Lime also throw up a good many suckers,
which can be severed and transplanted like seedlings ; and they
can easily be propagated by layering, while Willows and Poplars
can easily be raised from slips or cuttings.
In seed-production, trees bearing small fruits with small seeds
are much more prolific than those bearing large fruits with
heavy seeds. They seed more frequently, and the seeds are
carried farther by wind ; hence, even though the germinative
power of their seed be less, the average regenerative power of
Willows, Poplars, Alder, Birch, Scots Elm, Maple, Sycamore,
Pines, Spruces, Douglas Fir, and Cypresses is greater than in
Silver Fir, Beech, Oak, and Chestnut. Seed-production is most
prolific when trees have completed their main growth in height
and begun to expand their crown, as their vital energy is then
greatest. Good soil, warm situation, and a free growing-space
favour seed-production. Birch, Alder, Larch, and Scots Pine
begin to bear seed at about twenty years of age, but Oak and
Beech not until about the sixtieth year. The best quality of
seed is produced by middle-aged trees, which is preferable to
that gathered from trees just beginning to bear or from very old
trees. The seed of most trees germinates in the spring after
it has been shed ; but Birch, Elm, Aspen, and Willow seeds
sprout soon after they fall, while Ash, Hornbeam, Maple, and
Sycamore seeds may germinate freely only in the second spring.
Some idea of average regenerative power may be formed from the
following table, but both the size and the weight of the seed, and also its
germinative capacity, depend greatly upon the quality of the soil and
situation, and upon favourable climatic conditions : —
SYLVICULTURE.
Ordinary
lib.
Ordinary
No. of
Time 2
cleaned
Germin-
seedlings
usually
Kind of Tree.
seed
ative
from lib.
needed for
contains
capacity
of clean
germin-
about
about
seed,
ation.
about !
Seeds.
per cent.
Weeks.
Birch . . .
700,000
10
70,000
3-5
Alder .....
300,000
15
45,000
3-5
Elm
60,000
15
9,000
2-3
Hornbeam . . ' .
13,000
50
6,500
3-53
Ash . . .....
7 000
50
3,500
4-63
Maple and Sycamore . . .
6,000
50
3,000
4-63
Beech . .
2,000
60
1,200'
3-4
Oak, Sessile . . ...
150
60
90
4-6
Oak, Pedunculate
125
60
75
4-6
Chestnut .....
100
60
60
3-6
Red Cedar (Thuja gig antea)
300,000
20
60,000
2-4
Menzies Spruce . . .
180,000
20
36,000
3-5
Larch, Japanese . ...
100,000
15
15,000
3-5
Scots Pine . .
75,000
50
37,500
3-5
Larch .....
70,000
30
21,000
3-5
Spruce . . • • -..
64,000
50
32,000
4-6
Douglas Fir ....
40,000
30
12,000
3-43
Austrian and Corsican Pine
25,000
30
7,500
2-4
Silver Fir . , , . .
10,000
30
3,000
3-6
(7) Maturity and longevity vary greatly in our woodland
trees (up to more than 500 years for Oak and Chestnut) ; but
timber-crops reach their marketable or financial maturity at
a comparatively early age, and earlier on poor than on good soil,
varying from 35 to 50 years for softwoods, 40 to 70 for Conifers,
60 to 100 for most hardwoods, and 100 to 150 for Oak. Thus
two or three conifer crops may be taken for one of Oak ; and
1 Many of these die off, and only a much smaller number is fit to line
out as transplants.
2 Germination is hastened by soaking the seed in water-, but this makes
sowing more difficult and less even and regular.
3 Also partly not till second year, especially if sown deep.
HABITS OF GROWTH.
39
this is not the least of the advantages promised by growing
conifer crops suitable for any given soil and situation.
The following may serve as rough averages as to the rotation in which
timber-crops can usually be most profitably worked in Britain : —
On good soil,
On poor soil,
Kind of Timber-crop.
and in a
and in an un-
favourable
favourable
situation.
situation.
Years.
Years.
Birch, Willow, Poplar ....
40-50
35-45
Larch, Pines, Spruce and Red Cedar \
Ash, Elm, Maple, and Sycamore /
60-70
45-60
Douglas and Silver Firs . \ ' i
70-80
50-60
Beech . . .....
100-120
90-100
Oak . . . .
120-150
90-120
But a wood that has been heavily thinned will mature (financially)
sooner than one kept in close cover ; and if not then cleared, both the
crop and the soil will deteriorate.
General Characteristics or Habits of Growth as Woodlands
Crops arise from the combined influence of the above special
characteristics when large masses of trees are collected together,
for each kind of tree then assumes a definite relation towards
itself and towards other trees, and becomes either gregarious
or sporadic in habit. Gregarious trees tend to predominate
throughout the whole woodlands, and to form pure woods un-
mixed with other trees ; while sporadic trees are more or less
scattered and subordinate in number, and thrive best when
scattered throughout mixed woods, either as single stems or
in small patches (e.g., the Larch, in the Alps), and are de-
pendent on the gregarious trees for maintaining the productivity
of the soil. Other things being equal, shade-enduring trees
would gradually, in course of time, oust light-demanding trees,
and become ruling species over large areas, as where the Silver
Fir, the Beech, and the Spruce form large and more or less
40 SYLVICULTURE.
pure forests in Central Europe. But other things are never
equal in nature; and trees having light and winged seeds,
especially hardy kinds that grow quickly at first (e.g., Birch
and Aspen), often establish themselves securely before the
kinds previously on the ground have been able to regenerate
themselves, so that a mixture of trees varying according to
soil, climate, and situation is characteristic of all natural wood-
lands, and is the safest method to adopt in forestry.
Pure Woods can be formed by all kinds of shade-enduring
trees, because their dense overshadowing and large fall of dead
leaves both preserve and usually increase the soil-productivity.
This is also the case with Pines, under which thick moss
springs up when the trees begin to thin themselves ; but this
mossy protection disappears as the crop ages and the leaf-
canopy becomes more and more broken. But much less soil-
protection is afforded in the case of light-demanding deciduous
trees, which should therefore (theoretically) only be grown in
pure woods (1) when they are either to be felled at a com-
paratwely early age, or underplanted ; (2) when ihe soil-
productivity is not likely to be much impaired by imperfect
cover (e.g., mixed Oak, Ash, and Elm on deep, good, fresh
alluvial land; Alder, Birch, Willow, and Poplar on low moist
tracts, where sun and wind help to evaporate the excess of
moisture) ; or (3) where either the soil, the situation, or the
local market point to one species as being far more suitable
than any other (e.g., Pine on poor, dry sand; Austrian Pine
on deteriorated lime ; Ash-groves and Alder-beds on wet land).
Practically, however, it often happens that only one sort of
wood is saleable at a fair profit, and then, if he plant at all,
the landowner may prefer to plant that (e.g., pure Larch,
despite the risk there always is of canker). The most suitable
trees for pure woods are Beech and the shade-enduring ever-
green Conifers (Spruces, Silver and Douglas Firs, and Cypresses).
Mixed Highwoods are on the whole preferable to pure woods,
MIXED WOODS. 41
and usually produce timber of the largest size and best quality,
except where the soil and the situation distinctly indicate one
kind of tree as preferable to any other and most likely to thrive
in large masses. Nature's method in great virgin forests is
that the different kinds of trees usually occur either scattered
more or less sporadically, or else in large or small family groups,
except where some chance circumstance connected with the
production and distribution of seed, reproductive power, endur-
ance of shade, hardiness, or peculiarity in soil (especially as
regards moisture) and situation has enabled one kind to become
more or less dominant over large areas, to the suppression of
other kinds of trees less able to assert their position and main-
tain themselves under the given conditions. Where Beech is
dominant, nearly all other kinds of trees grow better when
mixed with it than they do in pure crops or mixed among each
other only. The British custom of mixing Larch and Scots
Pine along with Spruce and Douglas Fir in alternate rows is
not advisable ; for although the former usually shoot ahead at
first, they are generally caught up at about 15 to 20 years of
age, and then suppressed. Mixture of Larch and Spruce also
tends to increase the aphis (Chermes, see p. 226).
The Different Forms of Woodland Crops. — In the Statutes
relating to land valuation, rating, and succession duty, and in
the Hoard of Agriculture returns, woodlands are classed either
as "Coppices" or "Woods and Plantations" This is merely
a continuation of ancient law and custom, for both under the
old English forest law and under the common law applying to
lands not included within any forest boundary, the woodlands
were either coppices (sylva ccedua), whether simple or stored
with standard trees, or woods (saltus) ; and important legal
differences have always existed, and still exist, in England
between these two classes of woodland crops on settled
estates. Woods or timber come under the ancient English
common law, that "whatever is planted on the land, goes
42 SYLVICULTURE.
with the Lind," and forms part of the estate ; and when timber
is sold on any settled estate the proceeds from the sale of such
timber are treated as capital moneys arising under the Settled
Lands Act, 1882 (sect. 35), the heir-in-possession only receiving
one-fourth thereof; while in Scotland an heir-in-possession
of an entailed estate can cut the timber without restriction.
But from a sylvicultural point of view, woodlands may be
treated according to one or other of the following different
methods : —
I. — COPPICE or COPSE, reproduced chiefly from stool -shoots, and which
may be either
1. SIMPLE COPPICE, pure or mixed ; or
2. STORED COPPICE or COPPICE with STANDARDS, preferably raised
from seed or from suckers.
II. — HIGHWOODS, which may be renewed either by
1. CLEAR - FELLING, with artificial regeneration by sowing or plant-
ing ; or
2. SUCCESSIVE FALLS or PARTIAL CLEARANCES, which may be either
(1) OCCASIONAL OR MORE OR LESS REGULAR FALLS THROUGHOUT
THE WHOLE WOOD, with natural or artificial regenera-
tion ; or
(2) NATURAL REGENERATION IN GROUPS, by felling in patches ; or
(3) UNIFORM NATURAL REGENERATION, by means of regular partial
clearances made to stimulate seed-production, utilise good
seed-years, and gradually remove the mature parent trees
when the young crop has established itself, is no longer
in need of protection against frost or scorching, and needs
more light and air.
1. Simple Coppices can be formed of any kind of broad-
leaved tree, but no Conifer has sufficient reproductive power
to be grown in this way. Sweet-Chestnut, Oak, Lime, Maple,
Sycamore, Hornbeam, Ash, Mountain-Ash, Alder, and shrubs
like Hazel, Holly, Buckthorn, and Dogwood reproduce them-
selves better than Beech, Birch, Sallow, and Aspen, though
softwoods often become dominant on moist land. The best
coppice crop to grow on any given land and the best period
of rotation depend mainly on the market available.
OSIER-HOLTS. 43
Grown chiefly for Oak-bark and charcoal (Birch and Alder)
in Scotland and Ireland, they used to be largely cultivated in
parts of England where fuel was scarce and hop-poles always
in good demand ; but since about 1870 the value of coppices
has in most cases shrunk so much that they are now unprofitable.
Osier-holts of the smaller Willows, the most valuable and
profitable coppices, are largely grown in the fen districts
(Lincoln and Cambridge). The chief kinds cultivated are
the True Osier (S. vimi?iaUs), with thin, tough, flexible withes
growing in thick clusters ; the Laurel Osier ($. triandra), with
long flexible twigs ; and the Purple Osier (S. purpurea, from
the colour of its male flowers), with very thin and tough withes.
Periodical inundations stimulate the growth of Osiers. Floods
in winter do no harm, even if lasting for weeks, but lengthened
submersion during summer is injurious. Mounds must be
thrown up on soil that is too low - lying and wet, whilst
stagnant water must be brought into circulation by digging
trenches or ditches.
The cost of preparing and planting Osier-holts is from ,£14
to £23 an acre, and the crop maturing in four or five years yields
about £15 an acre, taking 150 bunches of green rods as the
average crop (although heavy crops yield 250 bunches, worth
£25 per acre). But from the amount of attention it requires,
Osier-growing is far more of the nature of Gardening than of
Forestry. Coppices of Oak, Ash, Alder, and Osier should be
kept pure, and care should be taken to prevent the intrusion of
softwood seedlings, which should be weeded out ; but in all other
coppices a mixture of different kinds is of advantage, enabling
variations in the local market demand and in the quality of the
soil to be better utilised.
Osier-holts are generally coppiced annually, but otherwise
the rotation usually varies from seven to twelve years for mixed
coppice, from twelve to sixteen for Oak-bark, and from twenty
to twenty-five or thirty years for Alder, the form of coppice
44 SYLVICULTURE.
most closely resembling a highwood in appearance. The
Pollarding or Lopping of Willows and Poplars growing near
streams is mainly an agricultural measure.
2. Stored Coppice or Coppice with Standards grows best
when the overwood consists of light-demanding trees, and the
underwood of shade-enduring kinds. The Statute of Woods
commanded that "12 standils or storers of Oak " were to be left
per acre, or, failing Oak, of " Elm, Ash, Asp, or Beech," which
were then the most valuable kinds of timber-trees. On good,
fresh loam Oak and Ash are still the most valuable standards,
while, as in simple coppice, Hazel, Ash, Chestnut, and Sycamore
usually form the most profitable part of the underwood. The
number of standards that can be left per acre depends on the
quality of the soil, but absolute regularity in the different age-
classes is never attainable in practice. (See also pages 80, 112).
3. Highwoods, usually raised from seed either by natural
regeneration or by artificial sowing or planting, are not cleared
as a crop until they have either reached their full maturity or
are old enough to yield a crop of marketable timber ; and it is
the only crop-form in which Conifers can be grown. It is also
the only form in which long straight clean stems can be produced.
Highwoods may be worked with a rotation of from about 40
years (for pitwood) up to 120 years or more (for Oak). Until
highwoods are mature the only fellings made in them are
thinnings to remove dead, badly-grown, suppressed or diseased
trees interfering with the growth of others more likely to prove
profitable.
Highwoods are usually the most profitable timber-crop, then
Copse or Coppice with Standards, and simple Coppice the least
profitable nowadays. But Osier-holts or Alder- coppices for
clog- wood prove, under favourable conditions, much more profit-
able than copse or most kinds of highwood. And copses are
attractive to small landowners, both because they lock up far
less capital, and also because they form good game-coverts and
MIXED WOODS. 45
fox-preserves. When once simple or stored coppice has been
formed, each rotation of 10 or 12 to 20 or 25 years involves
only a small outlay in filling blanks, whereas the capital sunk
in highwood crops grows at compound interest and increases
rapidly, unless there be good thinnings.
Throughout the forests of Continental Europe during the last
hundred years or more the artificial growth of pure woods of
several kinds of trees (especially Conifers, the most profitable
timber-crops) has been greatly encouraged. But in place of
this leading to the profit expected, it has only too often led to
greatly increased damage and loss of money through insect
attacks, fungus diseases, windfall, snowbreak, &c. This has
especially been the case with Spruce in Germany, where pure
Spruce woods grown at sixty years' rotation on a fresh soil and
in a damp climate were reckoned to be the most profitable form
of timber -crop. So now the formation of mixed woods is
far more in favour than thirty or forty years ago, and endeavours
are being made to provide for good mixed woods in the future.
But the production of Oak, Ash, Elm, Maple, and Sycamore,
and also Larch, has always been most satisfactory in mixed
woods of broad-leaved trees, and especially when the chief
species is Beech, whose thick fall of dead foliage rich in potash
forms the best leaf-mould. The advantages of mixed woods
are (1) a thick crop protecting the soil; (2) the production of
larger and finer timber; (3) diminished danger of windfall,
snowbreak, insects, and diseases ; (4) easier natural regeneration ;
(5) easier introduction of changes affected by market demand,
and (6) greater picturesqueness and diversity in foliage tints ;
while the only objection is that they need more careful tending.
The main points to be observed in forming mixed woods are
that the soil and situation should (1) be such as will suit the
kinds of trees intended to be mixed ; (2) that the mixed crops
should be such as can adequately protect the productivity by
guarding the soil against loss of moisture through sunshine and
46 SYLVICULTURE.
exhausting winds, and against becoming overgrown with weeds
through too open a leaf - canopy overhead ; (3) that light-
demanding trees should be of quicker growth in height than
any shade - enduring kinds surrounding them, or should be
specially favoured during thinnings ; and (4) that during all
stages of growth each of the different trees intermixed should
have sufficient individual growing- space to provide for the
proper expansion of its crown of foliage and its root- system, and
more especially when the several trees are approaching their
maturity. The old British system of forming mixed woods
geometrically according to a stencil-like " planter's diagram," or
in alternate rows, &c., is not a sound system to go on, as it
gives no consideration to changes occurring in the soil and the
situation. These can only be properly taken into account when
variations in the composition, depth, moisture, and other
physical properties of the soil are noticed and provided for by
judicious admixture of the various kinds of trees individually,
or in small patches or groups of varying size, according to the
circumstances of each case and the local market for timber of
different kinds. A regular survey of the land to be planted
should be made three or four years before planting begins, so
as to estimate the number of plants of each kind wanted and
provide them from the nursery. Such groups may vary from
a small size up to many acres in extent.
47
CHAPTEE II.
THE FORMATION, TENDING, AND RENEWAL OF WOODLAND
CROPS.
In forming Woodlands on waste lands, turf -bogs, poor hill-
pastures, or arable land thrown out of cultivation, one must
either sow seed or plant young live plants ; and owing to the
strong growth of weeds that takes place in our damp climate
whenever such land is enclosed and the sheep and cattle are
removed, planting is the rule, though acorns used to be dibbled
in England long before planting began in the seventeenth
century.
Plantations intended for timber -crops to be worked on
business principles should be formed and managed upon some
regular plan laying down the objects desired by the proprietor
and the general scheme he has in view with regard to formation,
tending, management, and ultimate harvesting ; because timber-
growing on any large scale can only, like other commercial
enterprises, be conducted properly if prudent business methods
be adopted. This does not mean that forecasts in any working-
plan for forty or sixty years hence should, or could, be carried
out just as intended by the present landowner; but later on it
will always be useful to know the original intentions in forming
and the measures taken in tending the plantations. With
regard to the choice of trees for planting, the timber-crops most
likely to prove profitable on land of poor quality are Conifers
48 SYLVICULTURE.
(Scots Pine on dry sandy places, Austrian Pine on lime, Larch
on fresh soil with good natural drainage, Silver and Douglas
Firs on fresher land, and Spruces, Cypresses, and Eed Cedar on
moist soil). Broad -leaved trees require land of better quality
(Oak on clay ; Beech on lime or chalk ; Oak, Ash, Elm, and
other hardwoods on loams and mild fresh or moist soil ; and
Poplars, Willows, Alders, and Birch where the land is wet, but
not water-logged). The local market and demand for one or
another kind of wood must influence the choice to a great
extent ; but as a rule it is wisest to try to grow the kind of
timber for the production of which the given soil and situation
seem most suitable. And this, of course, means that wherever
the soil and situation show marked differences, different kinds
of trees should be planted, with the result that the plantations
will become mixed woods formed of larger or smaller groups of
trees suited to the given local conditions. These same considera-
tions also mainly determine the amount of draining, clearing of
surface-growth, soil-preparation, the best method of planting,
and the number of plants per acre, and thereby practically fix
the total cost of planting per acre.
But woodland planting of any sort can only be successful
when there is a favourable combination of the following factors :
(1) a suitable soil and situation, with such drainage and other
soil - preparation as may be necessary ; (2) suitable kinds of
trees for the given local conditions, and of a suitable size and
quality ; (3) a suitable method of planting, and a sufficient
number of plants per acre; (4) adequate protection against
human acts, live-stock, game, and vermin for some years, till
the young plants have thoroughly established themselves ; and
(5) immunity from serious damage by late frosts, drought, fire,
insects, fungus disease, &c.
Drainage and Soil-preparation are in most cases necessary to
a greater or less extent, both when planting new lands and when
old woods are being regenerated either naturally or artificially ;
DRAINAGE. 49
and this preparatory work may, according to circumstances,
extend to the soil, the subsoil, and the surf ace -growth of weeds.
Sour, wet, marshy, or water-logged lands, peats or clays, must
first of all be drained to carry off the injurious excess of soil-
moisture, and to allow of a freer circulation of oxygen within
the soil ; for wet, undrained land remains cold and inert. Bog-
myrtle patches are always sour and acid, and need very thorough
drainage and aeration before becoming plantable with profit ;
and where plenty of more suitable land is available, such
patches should be excluded in the meantime.
In a wet climate like the West of Scotland a considerable
amount of surface - draining will usually have to be done,
merely to carry off the heavy rain-water falling during about
nine months in every year. Throughout most of the extensive
waste-lands in Scotland and Ireland there are large tracts with
deep peaty and mossy soil resting on stiff clay or hard gravelly
pan, preventing water percolating downwards ; and to be effective
drains should pierce through this, though the width, depth, and
distance apart of the drains will depend on the wetness of the
soil and the stiffness and depth of the impervious layer or sub-
soil. Another effect of drainage is practically to increase the
depth to which tree -roots can descend for their food -supply.
The deeper the drainage, the greater will be the permeability of
the soil, and its capacity for being warmed by the sun and thus
stimulated to provide plant-food.
When any extensive drainage system is necessary, as in
preparing big peat-mosses for planting, a system of main drains,
side-drains, and feeders should be dug, beginning at the lowest
point. The main drains are usually about 3 to 4 ft. wide and
2 J to 3 ft. deep, though often much wider and deeper on
peat-bogs, and the small feeders are usually about a foot broad
or more, and 10 to 12 inches deep, and the sides of all drains
should be cut with sloping edges to prevent the sides falling in
from top-pressure or scouring. The bottom of the drain should
D
5 0 SYLVICULTURE.
even in the smallest feeders be at least 8 or 9 inches broad, so
as to allow of their being easily cleaned out with a spade.
According to the nature of the soil and the degree of wetness,
drains may have to be dug from about 10 yards apart in stiff
clay to 20 in light soil. They should, if possible, be dug a
year or more in advance of planting, as peat-bogs and mossy
lands subside considerably ; and they should be frequently
inspected to see that they are not getting choked in any way.
On deep moors it is better to drain them first of all to a depth
of about 3 ft. to let the moor settle gradually and gain in
density, than to sink trenches to their full depth at once. But
even then it is necessary to open them for about one-third
deeper than finally intended to be, in order to allow for
subsidence. To drain at any time after planting is always
risky, as even old woods may die through the subsequent
diminution of soil-moisture and lowering of the water-level.
The cost of digging drains varies greatly with their size
and the kind of soil ; but small drains usually come to about
£d. to Jd. a running yard, large side-drains f d. to 1 Jd., and main
drains 1 Jd. to 2d. a yard for ditches 36 by 30 by 9 in., and more,
according to size. Where there are wet patches on hill-sides,
the drains should run more or less horizontally along the foot
of the slope down which the water comes, so as to intercept it
at about a right angle and lead it off from the more or less
level stretch ; and the more nearly horizontal each such
catchment drain is, the greater is its effect as regards the land
between it and the next drain lower down. On flat bogs or
marshy land a rectangular network of drains is best. Where
the land is practically flat and it is difficult to carry off the
drainage water, or where moorpan or any stiff layer has to be
broken through, and also when more or less parallel drains are
being cut, the spoil earth should be thrown up in mounds well
back from the trench or drain, and these can be used for
mound-planting (say at 5 ft. by 3 ft. or 5 ft. by 4 ft, = 2904
SOIL-PREPARATION. 5 1
or 2178 per acre) especially favourable when the land is
wet (Fig. 1).
The Superficial Soil-preparation required will vary accord-
ing to the soil-covering and the stiffness of the soil. So far as
the soil-covering of weeds is concerned, the amount of clearing
and preparation desirable before planting varies greatly, accord-
ing to the amount of protection needed against late frosts and
drought. Where these dangers do not exist a soil- covering
like furze, broom, or bracken (all indicating a naturally well-
drained soil) can be cut and burned ; but otherwise it is best
only to clear them sufficiently to give the young plants room to
grow. Where the growth of bracken is very strong, it should
Fig.
A
5' 5' 5'
Drains io//. apart ; planting mound- lines $ft. apart.
be cut over twice or sometimes even thrice in the year before
planting, the first switching being in June just as the fronds
are uncurling. This exhausts the vigour of growth, and
during the year of planting it may only be necessary to beat
back the fronds in late summer, to prevent them overlying the
young plants. Heather, whortleberry, and the like, which
do not spread, whip, or choke the plants, are in most cases
beneficial by sheltering the young plants against late frost,
drying spring winds, early summer drought and scorching, and
even against rabbits (if not numerous) and black-cock. Sporadic
Birch or Aspen, too, ought then to be left standing for pro-
tection against frost and drought till the young plants have
established themselves, when they can be cut and removed
without doing much damage, and when the seedlings and stool-
52 SYLVICULTURE.
shoots then springing up can be more easily kept in check
than would be possible if they were cleared before planting.
If the land be stiff, the soil itself also needs preparation
by being loosened to improve its physical condition and
promote aeration. On the score of expense, this special soil-
preparation is usually confined to opening up pits, either with
C- or S-conical spades (as is cheapest), or with pick, pick-shaped
hoe, or mattock (see page 68). When sand-dunes and shifting
sands have to be planted, the preliminary preparation consists
in fixing the sand by means of hurdles, turf, or tree-branches,
before sowing or planting sand - grasses, everlasting pea
(Lafhyrus), Pines, &c.
Number of Plants needed, and their Supply. — It is best to
examine the planting - ground about 3 or 4 years before
planting to forecast the number of different kinds of plants
that may be needed, and the amount of drainage and soil-
preparation that may seem necessary. As it is best to form
mixed plantations by planting in groups according to soil and
situation, -the land should be examined with a soil-testing
boring-stick to ascertain its nature and depth ; and with the
information thus obtained one can forecast the number of plants
actually needed when the planting-time arrives.
Say that 20 acres are to be planted, and that three acres seem most
suitable for Larch, 3 for Douglas Fir, 4 for Red Cedar, 7 for Spruce, and
3 for Scots Pine, that planting is to be at 4 by 4 ft. (2722 per acre), and
that 10 per cent extra may be needed for filling blanks, or 3000 per acre
in all ; then one knows that the supply of plants that must be raised in
the home nursery, or else purchased, will be : —
Larch ... . . 3000x3= 9,000
Douglas Fir ... 3000 x 3 '= 9,000
Red Cedar. . . .3000x4 = 12,000
Spruce 3000x7 = 21,000
Scots Pine .... 3000 x 3 = 9,000
Total plants for 20 acres = 60,000
NURSERY WORK. 53
Nurseries. — If large numbers of plants are annually needed
for regular planting, a permanent home nursery is profitable,
besides providing thoroughly acclimatised plants. Otherwise
plants have to be purchased from nurserymen, in which case it
is best to buy them as 2-year seedlings and acclimatise them in
a temporary nursery on part of or near the planting-ground.
Set here at 1 foot apart (43,560 per acre), only TV of the land
needs at first to be enclosed and planted ; and when they are
of the size desired, i|- of them can be lifed and planted out,
leaving the remainder at 4 by 4 ft., the pitting being done very
cheaply with a C- or S-conical spade. This method acclimatises
the plants ; means the least possible cost in transport ; enables
planting to take place with fresh plants supplied every half-
hour or hour, and to be interrupted whenever necessary
(weather) or convenient (if men otherwise employed) without
entailing loss of plants; and is cheapest, as even fencing is
reduced to a minimum.
Nursery Work is of great importance, because the success of
planting depends, as much on well-developed and healthy plants
as upon a rational method of planting and a proper choice of
the kinds of trees suitable for the soil and situation. The
following are the main points to be kept in view in making and
working a nursery : —
1. A nursery should be on an open and airy but not exposed situation,
avoiding hollows and damp frosty spots, where insects and fungi are also
apt to abound. A northerly aspect is preferable to a hot southern ex-
posure, or to the east, where damage from late and early frosts and
drying spring winds is greatest — for least damage is done, after a frosty
night, when the air is gradually warmed before direct sunshine falls on
the plants. It should be well fenced against rabbits, &c., and should have
a good water-supply in case of drought.
2. A well-drained, good sandy loam is the best soil; and it should not
be in rich cultivation, else the plants grow lanky and not bushy and
robust for planting on rough hillsides with poor soil.
3. A square or rectangular nursery can be most conveniently divided
into rectangular plots and beds, and its size depends on the number, age,
54 SYLVICULTURE.
and kinds of plants to be grown for annual output. One acre of nursery
will provide seed-beds and transplant lines for an annual output of about
66,000 2-year-2 plants, or enough to plant 22 acres at 4 x 4 feet (2722 per
acre) and give 10 per cent for filling blanks. If 2 -year Conifer seedlings only
are required, then from \ to 1 per cent of the area to be planted annually
will suffice ; while if 2-year-l and 2-year-2 transplants are needed, then
from 4 to 5 per cent of the annual area may be wanted for the nursery
(to allow of fallowing and green -manuring about one-fourth annually).
4. For a new nursery, after any draining and levelling needed, the
ground should be trenched for 18 inches or more in depth, and the soil
well broken up and pulverised ; and by putting the surface-soil at the
bottom of the trench, expensive weeding is reduced to a minimum.
Where the soil is only 6 or 8 inches deep, it should be ploughed as deep
as possible, with a skim-coulter on the plough to skim off the surface
layer about two inches deep and turn it over into the bottom of the pre-
vious furrow. This makes the turf easier dealt with when the plants are
being laid, though it neither obviates trouble when digging with spades
nor prevents growth of weeds.
5. Towards the end of April or early in May is soon enough to sow
most kinds of seed upon seed-beds whose soil has been thoroughly pul-
verised at least down to one spade's depth by repeated digging and raking ;
and the seed should be sown when the soil is quite friable and neither wet
nor dry. But seed of low germinative power should be sown as soon as
it ripens (Elm in June, and Birch in July or August).
6. It is important to get good seed from healthy, middle-aged trees, and
its germinating power should be tested (with wet flannel or other test)
experimentally in advance, to know whether to sow thickly or thinly on
the seed-beds.
7. The seed-beds should be about 3 ft. 9 in., or not over 4 ft. broad
— though 3 ft. 9 in. is preferable, to permit of easy weeding without
tramping and injuring the plants. Seeds are sown in drills or broadcast
if very small (Birch, Alder, Elm, &c. ), while large seeds like acorns and
chestnuts are dibbled or sown singly. In sowing broadcast, after the
seed-beds have been lined off to a suitable length (25 ft.) and breadth,
part of the surf ace- soil is drawn with a fine iron rake to each side of the
bed, and a light roller is used to smooth the surface ; then the seed, pre-
viously moistened and rolled in red-lead powder to protect it against birds,
mice, and insects, is broadcast evenly over the bed, lightly covered with
the drawn soil by quickly raking over the bed, and pressed in by the
roller being again lightly passed over the surface. The soil-covering need
only be from ^ to ^ inch deep, a light, dry soil needing the thicker
covering to prevent the seedlings getting scorched during hot, dry weather
or being lifted by frost.
NURSERY WORK.
55
Fig. 2.
8. The quantity of seed required may vary (according to the ascer-
tained gertmnative percentage) from f to 1 Ib. for Scots Pine and Spruce,
about or over 1| Ib. for Larch, and about 2 Ib. for Silver Fir per 100 sq.
ft. of seed-bed for broadcast sowing ; but this will of course vary accord-
ing to the quality of the seed. This usually gives per 100 sq. ft. of
seed-bed from 5-6000 2-year seedlings of Larch and 8-10,000 of Scots Pine
fit to line out. Drill-sowing by hand takes longer than broadcast sowing,
but weeding is easier and cheaper, less seed is needed per 100 sq. ft. of
seed-bed, and the seedlings are less likely to be lifted by frost.
9. If drill-sown thickly, Conifer 1-year seedlings have to be transplanted,
but if thinly drilled or sown broadcast, they can stand 2 years before
being put in the nursery lines at distances suited to the plants and the
time they have to stand there (lines usually 12 in. apart).
But Douglas Fir and Menzies Spruce often do best when
planted out after the 1- or 2-year-old seedlings have
stood for only one year in the lines. Transplanting
for 1 or 2 years develops strong, sturdy, well-rooted
plants, suitable for establishing themselves on rough
ground with poor soil. In transplanting, it is best to
range seedlings in beds according to their size, so that
all on one bed may develop about equally and be ready
for planting out at the same time. And when trans-
planting, long straggling roots should be pruned back
(fig. 2), as likely to get doubled and deformed in the
trench. Thus the bigger class of seedlings may perhaps
be ready for putting out as 2-year-l transplants, while
the smaller may only be ready as 2-year-2 (or else
2-year-2 and 2-year-3 in Scotland). These weaklings
are very useful for filling blanks in young plantations.
10. Where extra strong plants are specially wanted,
they can best be obtained by transplanting annually for 2 or 3 times, to
stimulate growth of rootlets near the stem (this being a natural effort to
speedily overcome the physiological disturbance caused by loss of rootlets
and root-hairs at the extremities when transplanting).
11. The work of transplanting seedlings into nursery lines costs from
3d. to 5d. per 1000, but weeding costs a good deal from time to time, and
so transplants usually cost from 6s. to 8s. per 1000, according to the^price
of the seed and its quality, and the amount of weeding needed.
12. In every permanent nursery a spare plot should be kept in hand
for a year to rest and improve it. This can either be manured and put
under a crop of potatoes, turnips, vegetables (or mustard, if there is an^
danger from wire- worms), or else lucerne may be grown and dug in during
autumn to decompose into a mild green-manure. On a sandy soil lupin
Pruning shears^
56
, SYLVICULTURE.
is specially useful (owing to the fixed nitrogen in the root-nodules).
About i to £ of the nursery area should be treated thus each year ; and
if direct manuring be applied at all, it is best given in the shape of good
leaf-mould (beech best, if available) or well-rotted turf, &c. These mild
natural manures are generally preferable to stronger artificial manures,
which usually tend to produce lanky plants unsuitable for planting out on
rough, poor land.
13. Drill-sown beds need less seed, are easier and cheaper to weed, and
less liable to have the young plants lifted by frost (a danger greatest on
stiff soil) ; and weeding is facilitated if the drills are made across the bed,
and not longways. Acorns can be dibbled 2 in. apart in drills about 9 in.
apart and covered with about 1| in. of soil ; but beech-nuts and similar
seeds can be put much closer in 6-in. drills ; and small seeds like those of
many Conifers are sown in 6-in. drills more thickly, and are far more
lightly covered with earth. Sowing should take place in dry weather, if
possible ; and after the earthing-over of the drills, the beds should be
lightly rolled. Scots Pine, Spruce, and Larch seed sown broadcast should
be raked over and rolled ; but very small seeds (Alder, Birch, Red Cedar,
Cypresses, &c.) need only be firmed in with very little soil-covering. For
dibbled seed the quantity required for each bed can easily be calculated ;
but for drill-sowing of smaller seeds the following are rough general
averages of the quantity needed per 100 sq. ft. of seed-bed : Scots Pine,
Spruce, Elm, and Hornbeam, about 4 oz. ; Austrian Pine, Ash, Maple, and
Sycamore, about 6 oz. ; Larch, Douglas Fir, Birch, and Alder, about 8 oz. ;
Silver Fir, about 1 Ib. ; and for broadcast sowing from 2 to 3 times these
quantities are needed. The period of germination varies from 2-3 up to
4-6 weeks for the different kinds of tree-seeds. (See also page 38.)
The following are data for 1909-10 from an Argyllshire nursery on a
stiff soil apt to lift with frost, the seed-beds being made 25 ft. x 4 f t. =
100 sq. ft., and 10 drills sown thickly 4£ in. apart : —
Seed used per
100 sq. ft.
Ib.
Kind of Tree.
1-year
Seedlings.
1-year Seedlings
per 1 Ib. of Seed.
H
Scots Pine (Strathspey)
55,000
37,000
2|
Corsican Pine
19,000
8,400
H
Spruce
130,000
29,000
2|
Douglas Fir
22,500
10,000
NURSERY WORK. 5*7
The 2| Ib. of Douglas Fir cost 30s., and past experience shows that the
22,500 1-year seedlings will give fully 15,000 (and probably 18,000) plants
fit for planting out, at the following actual cost : —
s. d.
1st year: preparing, sowing, and 3 hand -weed ings for 22,500
plants . . . . . . .28
2nd year: transplanting, 15s. ; and 4 weedings, 6s. 8d. . 21 8
3rd year : 3 weedings . . . . . • 50
Total cost for 22,500, less 30 per cent for casualties
= 15,000 l-year-2 transplants . . . " 29 4
or say . 30 0
Add cost of seed . . . . . . 30 0
Total cost of the 15, 000 plants .... 60 0
This, excluding rent, &c., of ground and general share of supervision,
is equal to 4s. per 1000, although the cost of seed was high.
On the Continent two or more short cross-drills are usually made at once
with a drttlmaker, consisting of a thick board as long as the bed is broad
(3| or 4 ft.), with projecting battens (of the size and depth the drill is
to be) screwed on to it at one-
fourth the width of the board Fl£- 3-
from each side. Say the breadth ^ /£" .>
of the beds is 4 ft., and the drills
are to be 7 in. apart, the board
would be 14 in. broad (fig. 3), and «........>* »><•— -vi
the projecting pieces of wood
rn „ . . ,, Cross-section of a drill-board to make
(say \ in. deep and f in. broad) drills
would be fixed at 3| in. from
each edge, leaving a space of 7 in. between. Each time the board is
moved forward on the bed, the 3^ in. left at one side where the board
has already been pressed down, and the 3^ in. on the other side when it
is placed in the next position, make up the 7 in. from drill to drill. As
the drill formed has the shape "L^xJ*? ^he see^ poured in falls to right
and left, and thus gets better distributed. Or three or four drill-battens
can be ranged in parallel lines at the desired distance, and held in position
by being screwed firmly on to three to five crossbars on the top. This
makes the frame lighter and easier to handle than if the whole top-piece
were -a f or 1 in. board. Various mechanical contrivances .are used to
ensure a more equal distribution of seed in the drills than by hand-sowing.
58
SYLVICULTURE.
One of the simplest is a seed- distributor (fig. 4), made the same length
as the drillmaker, and used along with it. This consists of a piece of
wood (a) as long as the seed-bed is wide (3f or 4 feet), with a longitudinal
groove (c) wide and deep enough to hold the quantity of seed to sow.
The seed is kept in place by a sliding top- piece (&), and the whole is
turned round and placed exactly over the drill ; and on the top-piece (now
resting on the ground) being withdrawn, the seed falls into the drill.
Another simple contrivance is the souring - horn, made of tin (fig. 5),
Fig. 4.
I
Fig. 5-
Cross - section of a
seed-distributor.
a. The grooved piece
of wood ; b. The
sliding top-piece ;
c. The groove for
holding the seed.
The Sowing-horn.
chiefly used for small Conifer seeds. On its spout are four movable
nozzles to regulate the issue of seed. An acorn dibbler can also be used for
dibbling large seeds (fig. 6).
In Britain, seedlings are usually set in the transplant lines by being
placed in position against the perpendicular side of the trench cut to
receive them ; and after the loose earth is replaced, it is trodden in.
This tends to deform the roots. A better method is to use a seedling-
pricker (fig. 7), notched so that the seedlings can be put at the re-
quired distance. When charged with plants, it is laid along the edge of
.NURSERY WORK.
59
the trench, and the earth filled in and gently firmed before removing b
and withdrawing backwards the main piece a, c, d.
Plants can also be raised by layering a branch of a tree and partially
burying it in the soil till it roots itself and can be severed (as is some-
times done with Lime and English
Elm), or by planting cuts or slips ^'g- 7-
taken from a branch (as is often
done with Willows and Poplars).
But these methods are mostly em-
ployed to propagate varieties for
ornamental purposes.
Nursery Pests. — The best
general protection against birds,
insects, and mice, is to moisten
the seed and roll it in red-lead
powder before sowing. But if
numerous, mice can only be
got rid of by laying poisoned
wheat in drain-tiles. Squirrels
have to be shot. Rabbits have
to be kept out by 1-inch mesh
wire-netting 4 ft. wide bent
outwards for 6 in. below the
ground, and for 6 in. at top, to
prevent burrowing and climb-
ing over. For roe-deer an extra
strand of wire is needed, to raise
the fence to about 5 ft. high.
Notched Seedling-pricker.
a. The main piece of wood notched to
contain the seedlings.
I. The movable piece of wood to bold the
seedlings in position.
c e d is placed on the ground-level, the
point e being at the lip of the perpen-
die "
iicular side of the trench.
Insects are best kept down
by hanging up cheap wooden
nesting-boxes for starlings and
other insectivorous birds ; but emit chafer-grubs and mole-criclcets
have to be dug up. If wire-Worms are bad, sowing mustard on
infested parts is the best means of exterminating them. For
slugs, grease traps should be laid down and visited every
60 SYLVICULTURE.
morning. Fungus diseases can usually be checked by spraying
with paraffin emulsion or Bordeaux mixture ; but if this seems
ineffective, the diseased plants should be pulled up and burned.
Both frost and scorching can best be prevented by placing light
movable screens over the beds needing protection. Such screens
may be of coarse canvas or sacking running with rings along
wires raised on wooden pegs, or wooden lattice-work frames,
or tree-branches; but if Conifer tree-branches be used over
Conifer-beds fungus disease is likely to break out, through
saprophytic fungi on the dead foliage becoming parasitic on
the seed-beds or in the transplant lines.
Package, Transport, and Storage of Plants. — Seedlings can
easily be moved to the nursery-lines in hand-baskets ; but when
either seedlings or transplants have to be -sent to some distance,
they should be properly protected against heat and wind, to
prevent the drying-up of their rootlets. On being carefully
lifted from the beds, they should be tied in bunches of fifty,
and packed with damp moss in bundles of convenient size. To
prevent heating, evergreen Conifers should be packed with the
leaves of one bunch touching the roots of another, and in dry
weather the moss should be moistened from time to time. If
the plants have to be taken by cart, a covered cart best protects
the plants from sun and wind. From a home-nursery only so
many plants will be sent daily as can be planted. But if
received in bulk from a distance they should at once be un-
packed, moistened if necessary, and sheuglied or heeled in by
being bedded in shallow trenches in some cool, shady, sheltered
place till wanted for planting.
Best Season for Planting. — Whether spring or autumn
planting is best, often mainly depends on the extent to be
planted annually and on the amount of labour obtainable
locally, although, other things being equal, it is usually best
'to plant broad-leaved trees in autumn and Conifers in spring.
Under any circumstances the moving of plants from one place
PLANTING. 61
to another creates a physiological disturbance, the power of
overcoming which varies in different kinds of trees. Healthy
plants may with care be transplanted at any time of the year ;
but physiological disturbance in the organism is reduced to its
minimum if the removal take place either just after active
vegetation has ceased in autumn, or just before it recommences
in spring. But as root-growth goes on to a slight extent in
broad-leaved plants during the winter period of rest, autumn
planting is (other things being equal) best for broad-leaved
kinds, and spring planting for the evergreen Conifers to save
them from being shaken by wind in winter. Wherever the
supply of suitable labour is limited, however, planting work
over any extensive area practically goes on right through from
autumn till spring whenever the weather is open and favourable.
In spring -planting it is best to plant the warmer exposures
before the colder hollows and northern aspects, and to plant
first of all the kinds which flush their foliage earliest (Birch,
Elm, Chestnut, Larch), then to set out the other deciduous
trees, and to plant the evergreen Conifers last of all, as they
mostly stand transplanting well even after their new foliage
begins to flush (not Austrian Pine, however, which generally
transplants badly, though sometimes best in July if that be a
wet month). Douglas Fir seems to do best when planted late
in April. If possible, planting should be done in mild open
weather, and not during heavy rain or frost ; and great atten-
tion should be paid to keeping the plants well protected, in a
planter's tray filled with wet moss and having two flannel flaps
covering the top, to prevent drying up of the rootlets and
root-hairs.
The Best Distance in Planting. — The poorer the land,, the
closer should the plants be set; and the better the land, the
sooner the plantations will establish themselves and grow up
to form a thicket from which thinnings may be profitable. But
the best distance for planting, or the number of plants needed
62 SYLVICULTURE.
per acre, depends both on the soil and the kind of tree, and
also on the prospect there is of being able to dispose profitably
of young thinnings. Wide planting usually means expensive
cleaning and weeding in young plantations ; but there is no
use in incurring the heavier expense of close planting if a
somewhat wider distance will practically answer equally well,
unless a good local market for early thinnings promises a fair
return. The best distance, therefore, depends to a great extent
upon the size of the plants used ; and this again depends on
the nature of the soil and the situation. As a rule, it is best
to use 2-year-2 plants and to set them about 4x4 ft. apart
(2722 per acre). This may be taken as the average distance for
"pitting" or "holing," as it allows the plantations to grow up
to from fifteen to twenty years without a first thinning being
needed. But where two-year seedlings can be dibbled or
notched on light soil, the cheapest form of planting, they can
be put in at about 3J x 3J ft. (3556 per acre), or on a very poor
soil and an exposed situation at 3 x 3 ft. (4840). Unnecessarily
close planting, besides being dearer, also tends to draw up the
young stems in a too crowded condition and makes early thinning
imperative, perhaps before there is any market for small mate-
rial ; while wide planting tends to make the young poles
branching and rough until they form close canopy. Hence the
probability of successful growth, the cost of planting, and the
probable profit from early thinnings are all important points to
be considered in fixing the planting distance. Shade-enduring
trees can be planted closest ; but among these the Douglas Fir,
owing to its rapid growth at first, need not be planted closer
than 4J x 4J ft. (2151 per acre) or even 5x5 ft. (1742 per
acre), unless there is a good market for young thinnings. For
a very light or sandy soil, dibbling and notching at 3 or 3J ft.
are certainly the quickest and cheapest methods of planting ;
but on stiffish land, " hole-and-plug " planting with a C-conical
spade, or pit-planting at about 4 ft., either with ball-plants
PLANTING.
63
raised from the nursery with C-conical spades or with naked
plants, is more likely to prove successful, though costing more.
The Number of Plants needed per Acre can easily be
calculated for planting at equal distances in lines (in squares
or rectangles), by multiplying the distances into each, other to
give the average growing-space and dividing the 43,560 sq. ft.
in an acre by this. But if planting be done in equilateral
triangles as sometimes happens (especially in windy places and
shelter-belts), then the number of plants needed for squares or
rectangular lines has to be multiplied by 1'155 — i.e., about
one-sixth more has to be added.
Distance from
Plant to Plant.
Feet.
Number of Plants needed per Acre for Planting.
In Squares.
In Equilateral Triangles.
3
34
?
4840
3556
2722
2151
1742
5590
4107
3143
2484
2012
But in practice mathematical regularity is neither possible nor
desirable, and on broken or stony ground the plants have just
to be put in where there are suitable pockets of soil. Planting
in squares or lines (e.g., at 4 x 4 ft., or 5 x 4 ft.) is easier,
though triangular planting best utilises the growing-spaces.
The Different Methods of Planting. — One of the great
advantages of planting over sowing is that wherever any special
soil- preparation has to take place, as is always the case except
in dibbling or notching, it confines this to the lowest limit.
Thus if large pits of 12 in. square have to be opened 4 ft. apart
from centre to centre, this only means specially preparing 2722
sq. ft., or one-sixteenth of each acre, whereas strips prepared for
sowing, even if made wide apart, represent a much larger
64 SYLVICULTURE.
proportion. Planting may take place either with naked seed-
lings, usually taken from the seed-beds at two years of age, or
with older transplants, usually 2-year-2, taken from the
nursery lines either naked or with balls of earth attached to
their roots. In planting with two-year seedlings the plants are
generally notched or slit-planted, while plants with balls of
earth are usually pitted or mound-planted. The rougher the
ground and the greater the danger from weeds, the stronger
and more robust should be the plants used ; but good 2-year-
2 transplants are on the whole the best to use. It is best to
plant the young plants singly, as wisps of three or four seedlings
or young transplants seldom grow well. When planted, neither
seedlings nor transplants should stand deeper in the soil than
they have stood in the nursery, unless taken from a nursery
with stimsh soil and planted on very light friable soil, when
slightly deeper planting diminishes danger from drought. Deep
planting is bad for all kinds of plants, but especially for Conifers,
and among Conifers especially for the shallow-rooting Spruce,
which then endeavours to throw out a new lateral root-system
nearer the surface. If planted too deep on a friable sandy soil,
the plants may in a short time be able to adjust themselves to
their new environment ; but if the soil be so stiff as to prevent
free aeration, then the root-system gradually gets suffocated from
want of oxygen. And if in lifting the plants from the nursery
lines many of the rootlets get damaged, then it is desirable to
trim the foliage slightly with the pruning -shears, to* try and
restore something like the previously existing normal balance
between imbibition and transpiration. Such trimming should,
however, be avoided so far as possible ; hence the use of small
plants and simple planting methods is preferable to larger plants
and costlier methods of planting, if the latter are not rendered
necessary owing to strong growth of weeds or other reason.
Wherever obtainable, the shelter of woods and plantations
should be taken advantage of when drawing up a scheme of
PLANTING. 65
planting extensively, as young plantations always thrive best
when screened from strong winds. On old arable land the
planting of Scots Pine is apt to induce root-disease ; and on
poor soil, especially if limy, an admixture of White Alder is
often beneficial through the supplies of humus obtained from
its cast foliage, and through its power of throwing up root-
suckers plentifully. Quick-growing or hardy kinds of trees, like
Larch, Pine, Rowan, and Birch, are sometimes planted as nurses
to protect less hardy but more valuable kinds from frost; but
the nurses should be cut out as soon as they have served their
purpose, otherwise they suppress the trees they were intended
to assist, and grow up into a poor, thin, unprofitable wood,
perhaps not bearing half the crop it might have yielded.
The usual methods of planting are —
1. NOTCHING OR SLIT-PLANTING, usually at 3 or 3£ ft. apart (4840 or
3556 per acre) —
(1) CUSTOM AEY BRITISH NOTCHING, with the ditching-spade or
similar tool.
(2) VERTICAL NOTCHING, with a flat -faced, iron-shod dibble,
ditching - spade, or similar tool (e.g., Mansfield spade, a
ditching-spade with horizontal treads at top).
2. PITTING, usually at 4 ft. apart (2722 per acre) —
(1) CUSTOMARY BRITISH PITTING, with pick, pick - hoe, or
mattock.
(2) PITTING WITH A C- OR S - CONICAL OB A CYLINDRICAL
SPADE.
3. MOUND-PLANTING, in rows upon mounds thrown up from ditches
or heaps of earth on wet soil.
Naked plants are generally used in Britain, but plants with
conical or cylindrical balls of earth round their roots can be
lifted from any not too light soil by using the C-conical or the
cylindrical spade, and transplanted into pits made on the plant-
ing ground by similar tools of the same size (Fig. 12, p. 69).
1. Notching or slit-planting of any description is only suit-
able for a very light sandy or friable soil, in which the roots
E
66 SYLVICULTURE.
can spread easily after being jammed in ; and even then vertical
notching with a broad -faced dibble is by far the preferable
method, for though the roots are pancaked, they can hang
down in their natural position and are less likely to be bent
and become badly malformed than in the customary method
of notching. For a stiff clayey or peaty soil, notching of any
sort is a most unreasonable way
j 2 of. trying to raise really good and
/ 2 32 \S healthy plantations.
| z IT7 3 The customary British method
. Place wl.e.e plant is inserted. of notching (Fig. 8) 13 to make
'SS^X^Wn?5ltift1cS»0»*»ix e^er two deep rectangular cuts
into the soil (L or T) or else
three cuts (double-notching, H- or X) ; and as the last cut is
made, the handle of the ditching-spade, or similar tool used,
is bent down to near the ground while a plant is slipped in
where the opening is largest ; then the handle is raised again,
the spade withdrawn, and the sod firmed by tramping. Its
only attraction is its cheapness; and any
other method (e.g. dibbling) suitable for a
light soil with sufficient depth seems to be
preferable even if it may perhaps cost
slightly more.
Such a method can only succeed on a very
light sandy soil, and even then the roots are
cramped into an unnatural position, differing
greatly (Fig. 9) from the more vertical position
they should occupy in nursery-lines producing good plants. Even
in light, sandy soil the roots show distinct traces of deformity
for many years, and on stiff loams and clays it is hardly
rational to expect healthy and profitable plantations, because
the roots often look as if they had been dipped into a glue-pot
before being planted. From a scientific point of view, notching
is a bad system of planting on any except a very light soil ; yet
DIBBLING. ;67
it is only fair to say that many of the old Larch plantations
on hillsides grew well and were profitable. But root-deformity
is very prevalent among notched plantations; and this must
lead to physiological disturbance, making the young plants less
hardy against frost, and increasing danger from insects .and
fungi. That fungus disease is often seen in young notched
Conifer plantations is probably partly due to bark-wounds made
by the planter when treading the sods to firm the young plant.
If sods be turned and notched through, this checks the growth
of weeds for the next two years (practised at Inverary about
fifty years ago).
Vertical notching, whether done with a flat-faced dibble, or
with a ditching-spade or any other similar tool, is carried out
upon similar lines. The flat-faced
dibble (Fig. 10) is simply a bit of
wood with a short curved handle
and an iron-shod tip, about .3 to
4 in. broad at the top, arid taper-
ing to a point. The first insertion
(a) into the soil is vertical, into
which the plant is inserted deeply,
shaken lightly, and then pulled
up to its proper position, to pre- Thc
vent the roots getting bent; the
next, about 2 in. away from the .first, is slanting, (b\ and
pressed forward from b to a to fix the plant already brought
into place. A small third insertion (c) is made and pressed for-
ward to close up the slit at b. The whole work can be easily
done by one man, woman, or child. An extremely cheap
method, it has the great advantage over notching of ensuring
the roots having a natural and more or less vertical position.
But even in light soil the roots are pancaked, arid have to
overcome a good deal of physiological disturbance before the
plant establishes itself .and regains a normal root-system.
SYLVICULTURE*
Another cheap method, which may possibly answer well on
a somewhat stiffer or a peaty soil, is the hole-and-plug planting
with a C-conical spade, a man making the holes and lifting the
conical plug entire, and a boy inserting the plant at its proper
level with his left hand and replacing the plug with his right,
then carefully treading the plug down.
But this will also pancake the root-system,
though to a somewhat less extent than in
dibbling.
2. Pitting consists in opening out square
or round holes at 4 ft. apart, or other
planting distance, the pit being opened
either with a pick and spade, or hoe-pick,
or mattock in very stiff, stony, or gravelly
ground, or with a C- or S-conical or a
cylindrical spade on any kind of land
(loam, peat, &c.) permitting of its use.
The pits are generally dug about 9 to 12
in. broad and deep, their cost, of course,
increasing with the size. But on suitable
soil the use of conical or cylindrical spades
is much quicker and cheaper, though not
making the soil so friable. And especial
advantage is gained by using a strong,
heavy (10 to 11 Ib.) steel S-conical spade
. 11), which breaks up the soil instead
as the C-conical and
cylindrical spades do, though these can be
used both for opening pits and lifting ball plants (Fig. 12), as
might often be done from temporary nurseries near the planting-
ground. The best size for conical spades is 6 in. in diameter
and 10 in. long, and they should be heavy (10 to 11 Ib.)
for a stiffish soil. In a dry climate it is best to open the
pits in autumn and plant in spring, as the soil gets improved
S-conical Spade.
ab. Long wooden handle.
c. Iron shaft.
d. S-shaped conical blade.
e. The hole prepared on
spade being forced into
fromantot6Urned """^ °f liftinS a solid Plu
PLANTING.
69
by the action of frost ; but where the winter rainfall is heavy
and more or less continuous, it is better to open them at time
of planting. And when wet hillsides have to be planted, a
shallow surface-drainage can be obtained by lifting in autumn
thick sods of turf of about 18 in. square in continuous lines
from below upwards, inverting the sods at the planting spots
(clearing away heather at these spots) to let the grassy surfaces
Fig. 12.
Pitting with Cylindrical or Semicircular Spades, and plants with
balls of earth.
a, Plant as lifted from nursery-bed ; Z>, Pit made for it on planting ground.
bite into each other, and tramping them well down ; then in
spring pits can be opened through these upturned sods with
a heavy 6 in. diameter S-conical spade and the plants put in.
This combination of pitting and mound-planting both helps to
drain the land and raises the plant above the water-level, with
a double depth of the top layer of soil (see footnote, p. 73).
On stiff or peaty soil an addition of sand or small gravel is very
useful in the pit.
In planting in such pits it is best to take a good handful of
soil, squeeze it well and stick it on the lip of the pit, then put
the plant against this in proper position, when both hands will
be free to fill the soil into the pit and firm it properly about
the roots. Or a small mound of soil is formed by hand at the
bottom of the pit, so as to bring the plant into proper position,
SYLVICULTURE.
Fig. 13-
and the roots are spread carefully over this mound and the rest
of the soil filled in and firmed (Fig. 13).
For the heavy spade-work men are of
course needed ; but the actual planting is
both cheaper and also far better done by
women, boys, and girls, than by men,
On very rocky ground planting in
the pockets of soil with a strong hand-
trowel might often be a good way of
pit-planting.
3. Mound-planting in wet places con-
sists in raising small mounds of earth and
planting on the top of these, in whatever
way (dibbling, pitting, &c.) seems advisable (Figs. 14 to 17).
Fig. 14.
Ordinary Mound-planting with naked
plants.
Combination of Pitting and Monnd-planting
with naked plants.
Fig. 17-
Combination of Pitting and Mound-planting Combination of Notching and Monnd-planting
with ball-plants. with naked plants.
PLANTING. 71
On wet land that has to be drained before planting, it is best
to throw the spoil-earth well back from the ditches and use it
for mound-planting.
Thus, if the ditches '.
are 10 ft. apart, and /^^
the spoil -earth be \( *f
thrown out to 2 J ft.
on each side of the
ditch, this will give .m . . , ^ 9 9 0 [.
mounds 5 ft. apart,
upon which the • • • • • • • •
plants can be set at
3, or 3J, or 4 ft. • • @
apart (2904, 2489, ^ f ^
or 2178 per acre). ^
Eegularity in /y\ . '., . t sg\ ; •/: ..
planting is not pos-
sible on very stony 0 (%\ . . Q . • ( V'. r <•• '
ground, or wherever
pockets of earth • • @ •?.-/•* * ;: *-. : '*
have to be used ;
but it is best to have *£*
a gang of planters
headed by an ex-
perienced foreman, 0 ^ 0 0 . ,1'i^ •;..; >t • • ;^ i
(1), who either
plants along a line & © o • • ....-.;'
marked out with a
tagged rope or has « •
a 4 ft. Stick t() Planting in lines, each planter, 2, 3, 4, taking his
line from the foreman, i.
measure off the dis-
tance with, and who starts first, while the others, (2) to (4),
take their respective lines from him, at 4 ft. apart, or whatever
the planting-distance may be (Fig. 18).
The Rate and the Cost of Planting vary greatly according to
72 SYLVICULTUHE.
local conditions as to soil, situation, labour, the size of the plants
used, the planting-distance, and the method of planting. And,
of course, draining and other soil-preparation may greatly in-
crease the first cost, while the filling of blanks in the first two
or three years after planting may add considerably to the total
cost before any plantation thoroughly establishes itself. But
notching and dibbling are certainly the cheapest methods,
though only suitable for a very light soil, while pitting with
pick or hoe is the most expensive, and especially on stiff and
stony ground. Pitting with conical spades stands midway
between these two extremes, though extensive data are not
yet available, as this method is only now coming into use-
in Britain.
In the mild, open, wet climate of western Argyllshire a good
planter can usually notch from 80 to 130 plants an hour, accord-
ing to the nature of the soil, or on the average about 100 plants
an hour, and gets 4d. an hour (3s. 4d. per day of 10 hours, or
<£! a week) ; and a man and a boy (2jd. an hour, 2s. a day) can
generally average about 180 plants an hour. This means that
during a ten-hour day a man can notch about 1000 plants, or
will take about 3J ten-hour days, costing 11s. 8d. per acre at
3J ft. (3556 plants), or very nearly 5 days, and costing about
16s. per acre at 3 ft. (4840 plants); while a man and a boy
notching 1800 plants in a 10-hour day, costing 5s. 4d., will do
an acre at 3J ft. in 2 days, costing 10s. 8d., and at 3 ft. in 2J
days, costing 14s. 4d. per acre. And taking 8s. per 1000 as
the cost of good l-year-2 or 2-year-2 transplants raised in a
home-nursery — though from 6s. to 7s. will generally more than
cover the actual cost per 1000, even when the seed is dear —
this means respectively 28s. 6d. and 38s. 9d. for the plants,
making the total first cost only about 40s. per acre at 3J ft., and
from about 40s. to 50s. at 3 ft. — though if 2-year seedlings.
can be used the cost of home-plants will be greatly reduced. As
a general average 35s. to 45s. an acre is about the first cost, and
PLANTING. 73
subsequent beating up of blanks during the next two years
usually brings the total cost up to 45s. to 55s. an acre.
The rate and the cost of pitting vary also considerably. The
cheapest pitting with pick and spade known to me is that done
on an Argyllshire estate in 1908-09, when pits 4 ft. apart and
9 inches broad and deep were opened in autumn at the rate of
800 a-day by a man at 3s. 4d., equal to 4s. 2d. per 1000, or about
11s. 4d. per acre. The cost of planting was found to be about
the double of that, or 22s. 8d. per acre ; and taking the cost
of plants at about 7s. 6d. a 1000 from the home-nursery, this
adds 20s. 6d. for plants, and makes the total first cost about
55s. an acre, exclusive of beating up blanks subsequently. This
is, however, an exceptionally low cost with exceptionally small
pits, and in general pitting usually costs from £3 to £4 an acre,
though this may, on suitable soil, be reduced by using the
C- or the S-conical spade.1
Thus soil-preparation, planting, beating up and weeding during
the first two or three years after planting may be roughly estim-
ated as now costing about £3 to £4 an acre for notching, and from
£4 to £6 for pitting, according to the amount of drainage and
preliminary bracken-cutting, &c., needed, the size of plants and
1 Two very interesting and instructive accounts, well illustrated, of Sir
John Stirling-Maxwell's moorland pit-planting (with the Belgian form of
the C-conical spade) through inverted turves at Corrour (Inverness-shire)
will be found in the Roy. Scot. Arbor. Socy. Trans, for 1907 and 1910 (vol.
xx., p. 4, and vol. xxiii., p. 153). — Shallow surf ace- drains 12 ft. apart were
cut 24 in. wide at top, 15 in. at bottom, and 10 in. deep ; and the peat-turf
thus loosened was cut into 20-in. lengths, and the 24-in. by 20-in. sods
removed, inverted, and laid regularly over the area at 3 ft. apart (4840
per acre). This soil-preparation — cutting turf-drains, and lifting and
placing the turves in autumn, and boring pits through them with a 6-in.
C-conical spade in spring— cost 46s. 8d. per acre, while planting (with
sand and compost added in the pit) cost 16s. 8d., making 63s. 4d. per
acre, excluding the cost of the plants, "which were for the most part 2-
year seedlings from the home nursery, and their cost, though it cannot
be exactly estimated, is very small."
74 SYLVICULTURE.
number per acre, the local climate, and the ability and training
of the local labour supply. But the Report of the Royal Com-
mission on Afforestation (1909) estimated the total cost of
planting at about <£6 an acre on the average.
Sea -Coast Planting invariably needs shelter -belts, as the
wind and the spray damage badly the windward side of planta-
tions. Beech, Sycamore, Elm, Ash, White Willow, Alder, and
shrubs like Elder and Sea-buckthorn, stand sea-breezes well
where the soil is loamy ; but on sandy soil, Corsican, Austrian,
Scots, Maritime, and Banks' Pines, and White Spruce, arc
among the best kinds for giving shelter. To be effective, shelter-
belts must be at least 20 to 30 yards broad ; and triangular
planting is better than planting in squares. On the Holkham
Hills, in "Norfolk, an old rabbit warren on the sea-coast, the
sand, after being fixed with bentfe and sand-grasses (Arundo,
Elymus, Garex\ was enclosed and planted with J Corsican
Pine, \ Austrian Pine, \ Scots Pme> and ^V Maritime Pine;
and' these plantations have succeeded well. On the Continent
large plantations on sand-dunes have, been made, 'after fixing the
outer sand by means of hurdles, by planting or sowing Banks'
and Scots Pines. The success of the plantations is greatly
assisted by sowing perennial lupin (Lupinus polypliijlluz) or
Everlasting Pea (Latliyrus.sylvestris), owing to their nitrogen-
fixing root-nodules and the good humus they yield.
The Tending of Woodlands consists in (1) the weeding of
young plantations, and of thickets naturally regenerated, in
order to enable them to establish themselves in the form
desired ; (2) the thinning of pole- woods and middle- aged
crops ; and (3) the' partial deafance of maturinfj woods, in
order to stimulate increment on the stems.
Plantations seldom succeed in establishing themselves without
needing a certain amount of beating up to fill blanks caused by
late frosts, &c. ; and when old rough pasture land on hillsides
has been enclosed and planted after the sheep are taken off,
TENDING. 75
there is usually (and especially in the damp climate of the
western Scottish Highlands) a very strong and rank growth
of coarse grasses and other weeds, which necessitate several
weedings during the first two or three years, till the young
plants get their leading-shoot up well above the danger of
being smothered and overlaid by the grass ; and besides freeing
the tops of the plants from strong growth of grasses and other
weeds threatening to overlay and suffocate them, softwoods like
Aspen, Birch, or Willow, or any other kind of tree not desired
in the crop, should be cut out.
When once these dangers are over, careful inspection of all
young plantations should be made to see that fungus disease
has not obtained a foothold from which it may spread, and
that insects are not attacking the young plants.
Osier-holts should be weeded and cleaned by frequent holing
and forking between the lines in spring and early summer, or
only a light crop of rods will be harvested. For the first two
years this costs about 30s. an acre, but after that much less; as
the osiers, if kept clean in spring, grow quickly, and soon
suppress weeds.
When the young woods or plantations grow up and form
thickets, thinnings become necessary, usually between 15 and
20 years of age, according to the kind and quality of crop, the
number of stems per acre, &c. And long before this time any
nurses that were interplanted should have been cut out. The
given local conditions as to crop, soil, situation, and the inten-
tions of the proprietor determine, in fact, when and to what ex-
tent the first and all the subsequent thinnings have to be carried
out ; and to attempt to lay down general average figures as to
the amount to be cut outfits net local value, and the number
of stems that can best be left standing per acre, would only be
misleading, as they vary so greatly for different localities and
for each kind of tree crop, pure or mixed.
After tho struggle for existence has commenced in earnest,
76 SYLVICULTURE.
poles or young trees may be roughly classified as (1) dominant,
(2) dominated, and (3) suppressed. Suppressed stems that are
dead or dying should always be thinned out as soon as con-
venient, and the thinning must go further than this to be of
any use in stimulating the rate of growth of the crop.
As the object of thinning is to try and produce the best
ultimate crop, the thinnings should from time to time (about
once every five years, if practicable) eliminate one or more of
the following : —
(1) All dead, dying, and badly diseased or insect-infested poles.
(2) Badly-grown poles (e.g., of crooked or forked growth), and poles
of inferior kinds of trees interfering with the growth of more
valuable kinds.
(3) Poles of the better kinds of trees interfering with the growth of
more valuable poles, whether of their own species or of other
valuable kinds.
Even the lightest thinning should remove all poles of class
(1) ; but how far, if at all, those of classes (2) and (3) can with
advantage be cut out, depends upon the existing condition of
the plantation or wood as to density and demand for light and
growing-space — e.g., Larch, Scots Pine, and other light-demand-
ing Conifers need somewhat freer and heavier thinning than
Douglas Fir, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Eed Cedar ; and Oak and
Ash more than Beech or Sycamore. The best general rule is,
thin early, lightly, and often ; but what this may mean in any
given case depends greatly on the kind of crop and its condition.
The time when thinning should be heaviest and repeated most
often is when pole-woods are getting past their most active
rate of growth in height, for their crown-expansion sidewards
becomes more necessary than before ; and, of course, this need
for expansion of crown- and root-system is greatest in light-
demanding trees.
Thinning out of standards in copse only takes place at each
fall of the underwood, and is then part of the regular clearance
THINNING.
Fig. 19.
of a proportionate number of the stores and trees in the different
age-classes corresponding with the rotation of the underwood.
If broad-leaved trees cannot be thinned out at once (e.g.,
Beech interfering with Oak, Ash, &c.) they can be ringed or
girdled by cutting through the sapwood into the heartwood
and left to season on the stump till the next convenient time
for removing them. But this cannot be risked with Conifers,
on account of the danger from insects.
Poles and trees to be thinned can best be marked with the
scribe (Fig. 19) while in full leaf. It is best to fell and extract
the thinnings during winter ; but it
can be done in summer, if more con-
venient.
Under our old national system of
arboriculture, young plantations, as well
as middle-aged and maturing woods,
were habitually overthinned, and the
trees therefore grew up much rougher
and more branching than is now de-
sirable; but if a rational amount of
thinning be not done, the crops get
too thick, and the crowns of foliage too
small for healthy growth. The per-
centage of the crop that may advantageously be removed at
each thinning will vary greatly according to the kind of tree
and the age of the crop, the quality of the soil, and the eleva-
tion, exposure, and slope of the land ; and it may vary from
about 5 to 10 per cent of the standing crop at different ages.
Thinnings generally begin when the price obtained for what
is cut out more than pays the cost of cutting and extraction ;
and, of course, the larger this income or partial return from the
capital sunk in the plantation is, the less the net cost of a young
crop just after a thinning. This tends to induce somewhat heavy
thinning ; but, if the woods are to be managed on purely busi-
78 SYLVICULTURE.
ness principles, it is in the end more profitable to thin moder-
ately, and at regular intervals of about 5 years, according to the
given conditions, than to make heavy thinnings before the crop
is nearing its maturity — when heavy thinnings removing about
15 per cent of the crop amount to partial clearances, which
generally give good increment on the stems, hasten maturity,
and promote seed-production, though increasing the risk of
windfall. In Conifer woods intended to be worked solely for
providing pit- wood timber, heavy thinnings by cutting out the
largest poles may, however, prove the most profitable treatment.
Both in the early and in all later thinnings or partial clear-
ances with or without underplanting, the principle should be
carefully observed, that thinnings in young woods should not
be heavy enough to induce an unnecessary amount of branch-
formation interfering with the growth in height and depreciat-
ing the quality and value of the bole as timber, and that
thinnings in older woods should not break up the leaf-canopy
so far as to risk any soil - deterioration through unnecessary
exposure to sunlight. Where heavy thinnings and partial
clearances are made among light-demanding tree-crops, soil-
deterioration can only be prevented by underplanting (e.<j., Oak
with Beech or Hornbeam ; Larch and Pine with Spruce, Douglas
Fir, or Red Cedar), though such measures are not usually prac-
tised in Britain, and may perhaps seldom prove directly profit-
able. But soil - deterioration means a loss in capital, for it
diminishes the market value of the land for timber-growing.
Pruning is not needed in highwoods grown in close canopy,
but may sometimes be useful on standards in copse ; but even
then it is seldom profitable, as it tends to produce a strong flush
: of shoots along the bole, and may cause the trees to die off in
the top (staylieadedness). Hardwoods stand pruning best, and
softwoods worst ; but in any case the wound-surfaces need to be
made smooth and to be well tarred to prevent fungi causing rot.
When hardwood branches over 4 inches in diameter are pruned,
RENEWAL. 79
it is best to prune about 3 ft. from the stem ; otherwise pruning
should be done close to the stem, and first of all the lower
side of the branch should be cut or sawn into, to prevent
tearing of the bark when the pruned branch is falling off.
Pruning should be done as early in autumn or winter as may
be convenient (October best). Pruning-tools consist of tree-
saws, tree-chisels, and knives with special lever appliances
(parrot's-beak, &c.).
The Renewal of Woodlands. —In Britain the opinion has
often been expressed that there should be a change of tree when
mature timber-crops are harvested. In natural woods crop
succeeds crop ; and when changes take place, they can easily be
accounted for by the relation of the different species towards
light and shade, frost, &c., or by the power of the seeds of
certain light- winged species to lie dormant (like Birch) for many
years, and at length germinate whenever they have favourable
supplies of light. The researches of sylvicultural chemists
prove that there is no danger of any highwood crop, grown in
close canopy, exhausting or failing to protect the soil against
sun and wind, so long as the dead foliage is left to form humus.
Properly managed evergreen Conifer crops leave the land richer
in plant-food than when originally planted with trees ; and soil
temporarily exhausted by badly managed broad-leaved crops may
be recuperated by a c^tch-crop of evergreen Conifers, and. again
become suitable for deciduous trees. Mismanagement or disease
may sometimes necessitate a change of crop ; but this has
nothing to do with the demand of trees for one particular kind
of food in greater quantity than a properly protected soil cab
yield. In Strathspey pine-woods, crop has succeeded crop from
time immemorial, yet they produce good, sound timber.
Methods of renewal vary according to the form of the crop.
Simple coppices are cut back to the stool with a ^clean slanting
stroke as close to the ground as possible, and reproduce them-
selves by throwing out stool-shoots or root-suckers. In stored
80 SYLVICULTURE.
coppice, along with the underwood the standard trees grown for
timber are also removed in a more or less fixed proportion, all
the trees of the oldest class (say of four or five rotations of the
coppice) being felled together with an equal number of the next
age-class, and the other younger age-classes cut in larger number,
the object being at each rotation to remove those that are not
well grown, and only to leave those that seem likely to continue
growing well. As solving is generably unsuitable in our damp
climate, owing to thick and rapid growth of weeds, the renewal
of highwoods takes place in Britain by planting, when clear-
felling is adopted, as is usually the case ; and here the planting
area is cleared and burned to destroy the rubbish, and then
replanted. Natural regeneration from self-sown seed is here
only usual in the case of Beech woods on the chalk hills of
southern England, and of Scots Pine woods in the Strathspey
district of Scotland ; but it might be advantageously carried out
to a much larger extent than at present in most of our woodlands
formed with deep-rooting kinds of trees (but not in Spruce
woods), as Ash, Sycamore, Larch, Oak, Silver and Douglas Firs,
Cypresses and Red Cedar, and most kinds of forest-trees come
up fairly thickly wherever the soil is in good condition and not
overrun with a rank growth of weeds — provided always that
rabbits are kept down.
1. Simple and Stored Coppice. — Coppicing or cutting back is
the simplest way of reproduction ; and the more clay there is
in the soil, the greater the reproductive power usually is. By
cutting close to the ground a better flush is got of stool-shoots
from most kinds of broad-leaved trees, and of root-suckers from
Chestnut, English Elm, Lime, Eobinia, Aspen, White Alder,
and non-indigenous Willows and Poplars ; and the stools last
much longer than when high stumps are left. Coppice should
be cut with a heavy well-balanced bill for small poles, and an
axe for larger poles, as a saw leaves a rough surface holding
rain-water and inducing stool-rot. The cut should be clean,
COPPICING. 81
slanting, and low down (Fig. 20). Where the stools are
worn out or stand too thin, the best and cheapest way of
improving the crop is to layer or plash when felling the coppice
by leaving as many small shoots as are needed, from about 1 to
2 in. in diameter. These are cut only half through close to
the ground, then bent down into a prepared groove, pegged
into position with a branch-crook, and covered with the turf
and earth taken up. It succeeds best with strongly reproductive
trees like Chestnut, Ash, Elm, and Lime. The shooting is
stimulated by making longitudinal cuts here and there through
the bark, or by giving the shoot a sharp twist. Plashing must
be done immediately after the fall of the coppice, and before
Fig. 20.
gooil. bad
the stools have flushed new shoots, else the sap naturally gets
drawn to these as soon as their leaves are formed.
To supply the youngest class of stores in coppice with
standards, poles grown from seed or from root-suckers are
preferable to stool-shoots; and it is best to leave a larger
number in autumn than are needed, because many bend over
during the winter, and then in spring they can be thinned out,
leaving only those wanted. To provide young seedling stores
for the next rotation of the coppice, stout transplants can be
interplanted among the stools as soon as the fall takes place.
The usual rotation for mixed coppices is about 14 or 16 years,
and that for stored coppice 20 to 25 years, but simple coppice
of Alder is generally cut at 30 to 40 years old, when it much
resembles a young highwood.
The best time for coppicing is usually the autumn, but Alders
on marshy ground can best be cut and removed during hard
winter frost, Osier-holts from January onwards, and Oak-bark
F
82 SYLVICULTURE.
coppices can only be cut in May when the bark strips. Standards
in copse-woods should be cut immediately after the underwood.
Conversion of Coppice into Highwood is often desirable.
Good saplings from seed or suckers, and the best-grown stool-
shoots, should be selected at about 18 or 20 ft. apart and left
standing, only the inferior ones being thinned out during any
subsequent fall of the coppice. As the standards spread their
crowns, the underwood will diminish ; but this cannot be
avoided. Stout transplants of Oak, Ash, &c., may also be
introduced on suitable land, as seedlings are always best.
Another good method is to interplant Larch about 20 ft. apart.
They may need some little protection during the first two or
three years, but they outgrow the reach of the coppice-shoots,
find a favourable environment, and grow up into fine stems.
2. Highwoods may be renewed by —
(1) Clear- felling, the regeneration being either artificial (by sowing or
planting), or else to a greater or less extent natural, by. seed blown over
from contiguous woods lying to the windward, or by a few trees being left
on the ground as seed-bearers (Scots Pine).
(2) Successive Partial Clearances, usually confined to definite periodic
blocks, with natural regeneration from seed shed by the mature trees before
all are finally removed from the area. The various successive falls or
partial clearances made for this purpose may be —
(a) Occasional Falls made more or less regularly or irregularly, as to both
periodicity of rotation and extent of fall, by removing mature or for
any cause undesirable trees here and there throughout a whole wood.
(6) Natural Regeneration in Groups, consisting in the simultaneous
clearance of small patches throughout a whole crop of woodland to
form numerous small family groups of seedlings, which are
gradually enlarged till the whole area is regenerated.
(c) Simultaneous or Uniform Natural Regeneration, consisting in making
partial clearances uniformly over a whole block of woodland, good
seed-years being utilised to produce, simultaneously, a more or less
homogeneous young crop of seedlings over the whole block of
woodland.
Occasional falls are most suitable for ornamental woods and
broad shelter - belts ; regeneration in groups or patches for
RENEWAL. 83
any woods of broad - leaved trees and for Silver Fir ; and
uniform natural regeneration by successive partial clearances
before, during, and after the good seed-years, for Beech, Scots
Pine, and probably also Douglas Fir, Cypresses, and Eed
Cedar. Where blank spaces remain by any of these three
different methods, they can be -filled by planting the kinds
of trees best suited to the soil and situation.
(1) Clear-felling is usual in Britain, except in Beech, Oak,
and some Scots Pine woods, the whole of the mature crop being
clear-felled, and the area prepared for planting as soon as
possible. But where the Pine-weevil is to be feared, Conifer
stumps must be grubbed or replanting delayed for 3 to 4 years,
till the dry stumps no longer attract the beetle.
(2) In Successive Partial Clearances the young crop is
raised from seed shed by parent trees forming the mature crop,
which both furnish the seed and protect the young seedlings
against heat, drought, frost, weeds, &c., until the young plants
can thrive without further protection, or may even require more
light, dew, &c.
(a) Occasional Falls made annually or at intervals of five
or ten years, are the best way of dealing with woods of a more
or less ornamental character ; because this method changes their
general appearance least, gives the best protection against wind,
and offers good opportunity for making picturesque mixtures of
trees by planting. In extensive woods worked thus, consider-
able regularity may be attained by dividing the woods into five
or ten blocks and going over one each year, to remove as many
of the mature, badly grown, unhealthy or otherwise undesirable
trees as seems necessary.
(b) Natural Regeneration in Groups consists in clearing
small patches here and there all over the area to be regenerated,
and then gradually extending these clearances as seedlings
establish themselves. The conditions requisite for success are
that the trees must be firm against wind and the seedlings shade-
84 SYLVICULTURE.
enduring, e.g., Beech, Sycamore, Ash, Douglas and Silver Firs,
Cypresses, Red Cedar, and Spruce in sheltered places.
(c) Simultaneous or Uniform Natural Regeneration through-
out a whole mature crop is the usual way of regenerating Oak
and Beech woods in France and Germany, and is also extensively
applied to Scots Pine ; and it is more or less (though not quite
so systematically) the system applied to Oak, Beech, and Pine
in Britain, where it might easily be greatly extended with much
advantage. On the Continent there are three different stages of
partial clearance in the mature crop — (1) A preparatory fall, to
hasten humification of dead foliage, if the woods are in close
canopy ; (2) a seeding fall, to stimulate seed-production by giving
the tree-crowns more light and warmth ; (3) gradual clearance of
the parent trees, as the young crop requires more light, warmth,
and air. But these different partial clearances of the mature
crop are not made with fixed regularity, as they vary greatly
according to the crop, the soil, and the situation.
Natural Regeneration of Oak in Britain was originally solely
by means of enclosure, with prohibition of grazing ; and this
simple method, easy through acorns being usually plentiful
every 3 or 4 years, still gives good results in both Oak and
Beech woods in the forest of Dean.
Natural Regeneration of Beech on the Chiltern Hills is
generally carried out, with little or no soil - preparation, by
gradual clearances extending over about 10 to 20 years, during
which regeneration is usually left entirely to chance, as seed-
years (which can be foretold in the previous autumn by the
thick flower-buds) recur every 7 to 10 years, and the soil is
generally favourable to the growth of seedlings. But the
Continental methods of assisting nature by herding cattle and
swine in the woods, or breaking up the surface-soil to a depth
of 4 or 5 ins. with a heavy iron Danish roller-harrow (drawn
by 2 horses, and easily riding over tree-stumps and big stones),
or hoeing strips of about 1 J to 2 ft. broad at distances of from
NATURAL REGENERATION. 85
3J to 5 ft. apart, would prove profitable in establishing a better
and thicker crop of seedlings. The removal of the parent
standard trees takes place gradually, as the young crop outgrows
danger from frost and scorching, and begins to suffer from the
heavy overshadowing.
Natural Regeneration of Ash, Maple, and Sycamore is easy,
as they produce seed abundantly every year or two. On wood-
land soil already carrying a mature crop natural regeneration
of Ash, Sycamore, etc., often springs up freely without any
special soil-preparation ; and all the attention that the seedlings
need for the first few years is protection against rabbits. The
English Elm reproduces itself freely on suitable soil by throwing
up root-suckers, which also require protection against ground
game, while the Scots or Wych Elm produces good seed freely.
Birch regenerates itself very freely, and where seed-producing
trees are to windward, self-sown crops can easily be obtained
by merely enclosing the land and keeping off cattle, sheep, and
ground game.
Natural Regeneration of Scots Pine is usually easy unless
there be a strong growth of weeds ; but the parent trees have
to be soon removed to give the seedlings light. Where heather
covers the ground, the seedlings come up in larger numbers and
more regularly than where bracken, grass, etc., cover the soil.
In Scotland, regeneration-falls are usually made at intervals of
2 to 3 years, by leaving only about 20 to 30 seed-bearing trees
standing per acre. Where there is a very strong growth of
heather, regeneration can be greatly assisted by grazing sheep
to keep down the weeds ; but as soon as the seed is ready to
fall with the dry east winds in spring, the tract must be
protected against cattle, sheep, and deer.
PART II.
THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS
CHAP.
I. THE MEASUREMENT OF LOGS, STANDING TREES, AND WHOLE
CROPS OF TIMBER, AND OF THEIR INCREMENT OR RATE OF
GROWTH.
II. THE THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF WOODLAND MANAGEMENT.
III. THE MAKING OF A WORKING-PLAN.
IV. THE VALUATION OF TIMBER-CROPS AND OF WOODLANDS.
CHAPTER I.
THE MEASUREMENT OP LOGS, STANDING TREES, AND WHOLE CROPS
OP TIMBER, AND OP THEIR INCREMENT OR RATE OF
GROWTH.
I. Measurement of the Cubic Contents of Logs, Trees, and
Timber-crops.
1. Logs. — The British method is square - of - quarter - girth
measurement, the mean girth of the log being measured half-
way between the two ends, then divided by 4, and squared,
and multiplied by the length of the log in feet. And if
the girth be taken in inches, the product of the quarter-girth
squared multiplied by the length in feet has to be divided
by 144 to obtain the result in cubic feet. In practice, tables
of cubic contents are used for ready reckoning, varying by
inches in mean girth, and by feet in length (see Tables in
Appendix I., pp. 147 to 150). But the true cubic contents of
any log is equal to length x superficies of middle section — length
x (TT diameter 2 -f- 4) - length x (diameter** x 0*785), which gives
a result just 21 J per cent more than that obtained from the
square-of-quarter-girth measurement, length x (mean girth -^ 4)2.
This shortage of 21 J per cent, was originally intended to cover
wastage in sawing and conversion.
For example, say a log measures 20 ft. long and 8 ft. in mean girth.
Its true contend? are 20 x(82-f 4 IT) = (1280 -M2 '566) = 101 '8 cubic ft.; while
its square-of-quarter-girth contents are 20 x (8-f 4)2=80 cubic ft. — or, if
90 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
the girth be measured in inches, 20 x (96 -f I)2 -f 144 = 80 cubic ft.; and
the proportion of shortage is 101'8 : 80 ::100 :78'5, or = 21| per cent of
the true cubic contents.
Quarter-girth measurement is also customary in British India ; but
in Canada, Australia, and New Zealand the American B.M. system of
board-measurement is used', where the cubic contents are estimated on
the number of superficial feet they will yield as boards 12 in. broad and
1 in. thick.
In all estimates and transactions concerning lumber, felled or standing,
the method adopted in the United States is board measurement, or B.M.,
the board foot unit being generally defined as a board 1 ft. long, 1 ft. wide,
and 1 in. thick ; but in actual trade practice it is 144 cubic in. (or ^ of a
cubic foot) of manufactured lumber in any form. In buying logs by this
B.M. measure, one must first estimate what each log will yield in 1-in.
boards. For this purpose timber-tables are used, which give in board-
feet the contents of logs of various lengths and diameters. Under this
system the buyer pays only for the saleable timber in each log when
converted, while the inevitable wastage in slabs and sawdust is not
included. This is merely a different way of arriving at the object aimed
at in the customary British "square-of- quarter-girth " measurement, which
estimates the contents of a log to be 21^ per cent below its true cubic
contents ; for 1000 board feet of wood (which are equal to 83| cubic ft.)
are produced from a log containing about 110 cubic ft. in actual contents,
thus allowing for a wastage of nearly 24 per cent.
But besides the reduction thus everywhere made in Britain
by square- of-quarter-girth measurement, a bark-allowance is also
customary, varying according to local usage up to T^ of the mean
girth, or 1 inch per foot ; and this is equal to a further reduction
of 16 per cent on the contents of the log as shown by square-
of-quarter-girth measurement, and to 20 per cent of the true
cubic contents. But for thin-barked trees, like Spruce, Silver
Fir, and Beech, this would often be an excessive allowance.
In the above example of a log 20 ft. long by 8 ft. mean girth, the full
bark-allowance would be 8 in., and the cubic contents below baric would
be 20 x (88 -~ 4)2-f 144 = 67-22 cubic ft., or a further proportionate reduction
on the customary measurement of 80 : 67-22 :: 100 :84, or = 16 per cent
of the square-of -quarter-girth contents ; and 78^ : 100 = 16 : 20, or 20 per
cent of the true cubic contents. Thus the British landowner selling
100 cubic ft. of standing .timber may only get paid for 100 -(21^ + 20)
MEASUREMENT OF TREES. 91
= 58| cubic ft., and has also to throw in the " lop and top" to the buyer,
to take or leave as he likes. This is not so on the Continent, and this
should be borne in mind when comparing prices of timber per cubic foot.
When long trunks are being measured, if not already logged
at parts where there is a stop or strong falling-off in girth on
account of a big branch having been removed, each such section
is measured as if it were a separate log. For girth measurement
a string, tape-line, and steel-tape are all used, but the last is
the best, as stretching less than tape-line, while string lends
itself to cheating.
2. Standing Trees. — In Britain it is customary to estimate
only the quantity of timber contained in standing trees, and the
definition of timber varies locally ; but everywhere it includes,
besides the stem, all branches down to 6 in. in diameter free
of bark, and sometimes even down to 3 in. in diameter (as for
pitwood), while a division is often made into 1st class timber
of 12 in. and above in quarter-girth, and 2nd class of under
12 in. quarter-girth. Small branchwood below timber-size is
classed as lop and top, which the buyer can take or leave as he
pleases, without payment ; and this is supposed to be a set-off
against the charge of felling and logging. In Britain standing
trees are usually girthed about 4 to 5 ft. up (preferably at
breast-height, 4J ft.), then the height of the bole or the length
of each section of 1st and 2nd class timber roughly measured
with rods or estimated by eye, and the mean girth of the whole
or of each section also estimated by eye. Another method is
to measure the girth at breast-height, estimate the height of
the tree up to where it has a diameter of 6 in. free of bark
( = 20 in. girth), and then estimate the cubic contents. But
these ocular estimates, customary in measuring field and hedge-
row trees, may be very inaccurate ; and it would be far better
if, in selling timber, it could be arranged for exact measurement
in the log after felling.
The Continental Method of measuring Standing Trees is
92
THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
to ascertain the height, the girth or diameter at breast-height
(4J ft.), and the form-factor or proportion which the true cubic
contents of the tree bears to a cylinder of similar height and
basal area [form - factor = actual contents of tree -j- (height x
basal area)]. This method gives the true cubic contents
and makes no allowance for wastage or bark ; but it is only
applicable to tree- crops growing in much closer canopy than
is customary in Britain.
The height of the tree is measured with instruments called
Hypsometers, of various kinds, which are all based upon the
Fig. 21.
The Measuring-Board.
geometrical fact that in similar right-angled triangles the
respective sides are proportionate. The best and handiest of
these instruments are the Measuring - Board, the Mirror-
Hypsometer, and the Telescope - Hypsometer ; this last being
perhaps the most convenient and reliable.
The Measuring - Board (Fig. 21), about 8 inches square and an inch
thick, is divided into squares numbered off in units, fives, or tens, and
has a deep notch along the line of sight to the top of the tree. It may
either be held in the hand or fixed sideways, by a screw in the centre,
to an upright staff shod with iron, which can be inserted into the'ground
MEASUREMENT OF HEIGHT.
93
while a reading is being made. The board being adjusted so that the
top line Aa meets the top of the tree C (or the " timber-height " of the
stem, if this is being measured), then, in the similar right-angled triangles
ABC and a b c, B C : b c = A B : a 6. As AB has been measured and
a b corresponds with this distance, the reading b c will at once give B C,
to which, if the observation be made on level ground, must be added the
height from the ground to the eye of the observer. On hillsides a double
reading may be added to or
Fig- 22. subtracted from the original
observation, according to the
observer's position.
For example, if A B,
measured, is 70 ft. ; then,
when Aa has been adjusted
in line with C, the reading
be (b being point 70 on the
side scale) will correspond
with B C, and can be read
off as d e on the scale along
the base of the board. If d e ( = b c) is 45 ft. ,
then B C is 45 ft., and the total height of the
tree (B C and B D) will be 45 ft. plus the dis-
tance of the observer's eye above the ground.
•f Faustmann's Mirror- Hypsometer (Fig. 22)
is on the same principle. The distance of the
observer from the tree having been measured, the movable upright arm
is set accordingly. When short (0-15 yards, or multiples of 0-15 ft.), the
end of this marked II. is adjusted on the right-hand scale, to form the
similar triangle ; while for longer distances (15-30 yards, or multiples of
15-30 ft.), the end marked I. is set against the scale on the left-hand
side representing the number of yards (or multiples of feet) between
the observer and the stem. The observation is made through an aperture
94
THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
Section oF Perpendicular
rod
in a small metal disc at one end, and by a hair-line stretched across a
metal frame at the other end. In Fig. 22 it is set at 26 yards, and the
reading on the mirror gives the result as 8 yards or 24 ft., to which, if
the observer be on a level with the tree, must be added the 5 or 54 ft.
from the ground to the eye, or a supplementary observation has to be
made from the horizontal to the foot of the tree, and added to or sub-
tracted from the original reading.
Weise's Telescope-Hypsometer (Fig. 23) also rests on the same prin-
ciple, but is made of brass, with a heavier weight to steady the free
perpendicular, and a toothed base to help to bring the perpendicular
soon to rest and
Fig. 23. simplify the read-
ing of the height.
The distance from
the tree having
been measured and
the movable up-
right arm set ac-
cordingly, the ob-
servation to the
top of the tree (or
to the "timber-
height ") is made
through the tele-
scopic tube, which
is turned gently
round to the side
from time to time
The end near the eye-hole takes off, so that the upright and to assist the loaded
the weighted rod (which is triangular, to catch more easily perpendicular to
on the toothed scale) can be placed inside the tube when , ^MAV »nA
not in use. teaay ai
let the perpendic-
ular fall into the toothed scale along the base. The perpendicular rod
being finally brought to rest, the number it registers gives the height
of the tree above the observer, to which the usual addition or subtraction
must be made if the horizontal base-line be above or below the tree-base.
In place of measuring the girth as is usual in Britain, Continental
foresters measure the diameter at breast-height by means of callipers
graded so as to give either the girth or the diameter {or both). In using
callipers it is best to measure the stems alternately N. and S., or
E. and W., so as to eliminate errors arising from eccentricity in growth ;
but the most exact way is to measure two diameters at right angles to
each other and take the mean of the two. The best form of calliper
EYE
CD
The Telescope-Hypsometer.
MEASUREMENT OF GIRTH.
95
is that shown in Fig. 24. The movable leg b is enclosed in a case D
in such a way that the fixed scale A has a narrow free space both before
and behind, to reduce friction. The base A rests on a metal wedge c,
which can be tightened or loosened as necessary by keying it up with
the screw d e.
For scientific investigations extending over several years automatic
girth-measurement at breast-height can be secured by placing thin ribbon-
Fig. 24.
Best form of Calliper.
like lead bands round the stem, and tacking them on with small staples,
then marking where the outer one's edge overlaps the inner ; and the
readings can be made as often as desired (annually or monthly).
In measuring sample-plots with callipers, two or three men can do the
measuring while the forester registers the girth or diameter each calls
out, the register varying by 3 in. for girth, or inch by inch for diameter
(134 to 14| being graded on calliper as 14 in., and so on). A convenient
form of register is —
Girth.
Diameter.
At breast-height.
inches
inches.
42
14
wj wi.
45 .
15
mi PHI
48
16
rtumj
and so on .
Lireh.
LWJ n
Total.
17
23
1!)
96
THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
3. Whole crops of Timber are best measured by selecting one
or more sample plots representing a fair average of the whole
crop, and carefully ascertaining their cubic contents, and then
multiplying the result by the proportion which the whole crop
bears to the sample plot or to the mean of the several sample
plots measured.
The diameter (or girth) of all the trees in each sample plot
having been measured and registered in a field-book showing
the different kinds of trees and different diameters, varying by
1 in. (or girths varying by 3 in.), the diameter or girth of the
true average sample stem can be found by the simple rule that
if four-tenths of the total number of stems in a measurement of
the whole crop or of a sample plot of average quality be taken,
and a count back made to this extent from the largest stem down-
wards, the result will invariably indicate the diameter - class
containing the mean average stem for the crop or the sample plot.
Diameter.
Girth.
Larch.
Inches.
Inches.
Total.
6
18
43
7
21
131
8
24
190
9
27
412
10
30
700
11
33
547*
12
36
356
13
39
181
14
42
99
15
45
45
2704
For example, say a 3-acre plot of
Larch contains 2, 704 trees as here re-
gistered, then the true mean average
stem will be found by taking four-
tenths of 2704, i.e., 1081, and count-
ing back for this number from the
largest diameter - class downwards,
which leads one to the 11 -in. class.*
By selecting and carefully measuring
the cubic contents of one or more
average specimens of this class,
taking their mean, and multiplying
the result by 2704, the cubic con-
tents of the whole 3-acre plot will
be found.
Having ascertained the true average diameter- class, one then
seeks out stems of this true mean diameter, measures 2 or more
such mean stems accurately (felling them for this purpose, if
SAMPLE PLOTS. 97
permissible), takes the mean cubic contents of these true
average stems and multiplies this by the total number of
stems in the crop or the sample plot to find total cubic con-
tents. And of course in the case of a sample plot the result
is multiplied in due proportion to give the cubic contents for
the whole crop.
This measurement by sample plots presumes that each crop is
sufficiently regular to permit of sample plots being taken so as
to give a correct average for the whole crop or wood. In
Britain it is usually extremely difficult to select true average
sample plots, owing to woods having generally been over-
thinned and often also damaged by wind ; for a true result
can only be obtained when the sample plots represent a true
average of the crop. But wherever the crops are growing
regularly and in fairly close cover, this is the best method of
estimating the cubic contents of mature or maturing crops for
the purpose of making a working -plan. In pole-crops 1-in.
diameter-classes are most convenient, and for large tree-crops
2 in. diameter- classes, — the poles in each 1-in. class including
all those, say, from 4J in. to 5J in. as 5 in., 5J in. to 6J in.
as 6 in., and so on; and here also, to eliminate errors of
eccentricity, the stems should be measured alternately 1ST. and S.
and E. and W., if callipers be used ; while if an oiled linen or
a steel tape be used for girthing, it should be pulled from, side
to side to get it as near truly horizontal as possible.
On the Continent the cubic contents of woods of different
ages can also be estimated fairly accurately from Average
Yield Tables, giving the average cubic contents of similar crops
that have been carefully measured after felling. These tables
are framed for different kinds of timber and different qualities
of land ; but except as indicating what can be grown on the
Continent under good management, they are of little or no
practical use for Britain, and therefore need not here be
referred to in detail.
$8 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
II. Estimating the Age of Logs, Trees, and Timber Crops.
1. Logs. — The age of logs can be estimated by counting the
annual rings at the butt-end of the lowest log or on the stump,
and allowing three or four years for growth up to that height.
And similarly the diameter or girth at any particular age, as
also the rate of growth from time to time, can be ascertained
by counting the annual rings and measuring the results for
comparison.
2. The Age of Standing Trees can be told with fair accuracy
in the case of Conifers forming regular branch-whorls—such as
Pines, on which the whorls can often be counted back for 30
to 40 years. Otherwise one can only estimate the apparent age
from the height and the girth, and taking into account the
quality of the soil, unless there are records as to date of
planting or regenerating. By felling an average tree, however,
the age can easily be determined by counting the annual rings
at the stump.
3. For Whole Crops of Wood the mean age can also be easily
ascertained in fairly even-aged woods by felling a stem here and
there, counting the annual rings on each stump, and taking the
average of these. But when patches of wood of different ages
are comprised within a compartment, the average age for the
whole compartment can be ascertained by taking the mean
arithmetical average, stems being felled to fix the age of each
patch, if necessary.
For example, suppose that, in a compartment of 12 acres, there are 5
acres of 50 years old, 4 acres 60 years old, and 3 acres 70 years old, then
the true average age for the whole compartment would be =[ (5 x 50) +
(4x60) + (3x70)]-rl2 = 58£ years.
III. Measurement of the Increment or Rate of Growth on
Logs, Trees, and Timber Crops must be made in order to have
the necessary data for making a working-plan.
The Annual Increment in any timber -crop consists iri
growth in height and growth in girth.
INCREMENT, 99
Growth in Height is most energetic during the pole-wood
stage of development, but begins to fall off when trees require an
increased individual growing-space enabling them to expand their
crowns. Hence, although light -demanding trees are usually
more rapid in early growth than shade - enduring trees, yet
the latter generally continue longer in active growth in height.
Conifers generally — and in particular Larch, Spruce, and Firs,
less so Pines — have a more continuous tendency to upward
growth than broad-leaved trees. But light- demanding trees
require thinning earlier and oftener than shade-enduring kinds,
and this necessity for. lateral expansion of course exerts an
unfavourable influence on the continuation of good growth in
height. For any one kind of tree, however, the growth in
height depends to a great extent on the quality and especially
on the depth of the soil, and on the amount of thinning that
has taken place ; because thinning, by encouraging growth
laterally, tends to limit the height-growth.
Growth in Girth is more or less proportional to the height
and the breadth of the crown, the quantity of foliage, and
the intensity of the sunlight ; and it attains its maximum when
the crown of foliage is largest in proportion to the girth of the
stem. Thus there is always a very noticeable increase in the
width of the annual rings formed just after a thinning has
taken place, this increase being due to the larger production of
foliage ; and the total increment in wood for any given soil and
situation depends mainly upon the amount of foliage and the
intensity of the sunlight operating upon it.
As growth in height is — at first, at any rate — stimulated by
keeping the woods close, and as growth in girth is stimulated
by free thinning, the largest increment can only be obtained by
trying to strike a suitable mean between not thinning sufficiently
and overthinning. Hence, for every kind of tree-crop and for
every stage of its development, there is, for any given quality
of land, a normal density of crop tending to combine a good
100 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
growth in height with a fair growth in girth, so as to give the
best obtainable increment or largest growth in cubic contents.
It is therefore only reasonable to expect that neither crowded
plantations, which produce long and slender poles, nor over-
thinned woods, which produce stems thick at the base, but
short and tapering, will give the largest annual increment
obtainable from the given soil.
1. The Measurement of Past Increment on Felled Trees
can easily be made by counting the annual rings on cross
Fig. 25.
Spill of wood extracted.
Pressler's Borer.
sections, and thus ascertaining the increase from year to year,
or in periods of five or ten years.
2. The Measurement of Past Increment on Standing Trees
can easily be made at breast - height with Pressler's borer
(Fig. 25), consisting of a hollow handle a, into which fits a hol-
low gimlet, 6, for boring into the stem, and a long, flat pin c,
toothed inwards towards its head and marked in inches and
lines on the convex side ; and both the pin and the gimlet
can be packed in the hollow handle, one end-knob of which
INCREMENT.
101
unscrews for this purpose. The borer is placed against the
stem at breast-height and firmly screwed in at right angles to
the surface, and as far as desired. Then the toothed pin c is
pressed home, the gimlet reversed for a few turns, and the spill
d extracted.
A spill having been taken by means of this borer, the
number of annual rings in the last inch of radius of wood
formed can be counted, not including bark or outer cambium,
and this gives the number of years taken for the stem to
increase by the last 2 inches in diameter, or 6f in. in girth ;
and from this one gets a very good indication as to whether
the tree is making fair increment or not. The most correct
results are got with two borings at right angles to each other,
and taking the mean of the two (as also in case of measuring
the diameter of a tree). And as, except when a thinning takes
place, the rate of growth for the next 5 or 10 years will prob-
ably be much the same as during the last 5 or 10, one can esti-
mate the mean percentage of increment approximately by either
D2-d* 200 D-d 400
of the formulae - „ x — or - x — , where D is the
2
n D + d n
present diameter (below bark) and d the diameter n years
previously (Pressler's formula, and Schneider's).
For example, in a stem of 20 in. diameter (free of bark) two spills taken
at right angles at breast-height show 11 and 9 annual rings for last inch of
radius, then the mean is 10 years for the girth- increase of 6f in. ; and the
first formula will indicate a mean percentage of increment = 1520-^724 =
2-099, while the second indicates =; 80 + 38 = 2 '105.
3. Estimate of the Increment in whole crops of timber
can be made by the examination of sample plots or by means of
Average Yield Tables, although the latter method is only ap-
plicable when the woods are fairly regular and in normal
density. In general, the height of the crop and its appearance
give a fair indication as to whether the wood is still growing
well or not. But if one wishes to ascertain whether it is more
102 H& MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
profitable to fell a mature crop now or n years hence, one can
easily find this out by means of a simple formula giving p the
percentage of increment obtaining throughout any given period
of n years and expressed in terms of the capital (in timber or in
money) at the middle of such period : —
future yield - present yield 200
p — - . - x -
future yield + present yield n years
This is simply an expansion of the formula for the percentage
of increment now accruing annually on the present cubic con-
tents, from the simple proportion that the present cubic contents
are to the present annual increment as 100 to the percentage of
annual increment
increment (p) ; therefore p =. — — — - - x 100 for any
cubic contents
one year; but if a period of 5 or 10 years or more is being
dealt with, then the average for such period is
mean annual increment
» = - -- x 100. Thus, if C« be
cubic contents at middle of period
the present capital in wood (or in its equivalent, money or net
income) and Ca+6 what it will have grown to n years hence,
then (Co + Ca+b) + 2 will be the mean capital or cubic contents
aver n years, and (Ca+b- Ca) + n the mean annual increment;
Ca + Ca+b Ca+b — Ca
therefore — - - : 100 :: -- : p; and;?, the indicating
2 n
percentage of growth or increment over n years,
_Ca+b-Ca 200
~ Ca+b + Ca n
For example, suppose a timber-crop is worth <£100 per acre
to-day, and is likely to be worth £140 ten years hence, what is
40 200
its mean percentage 6f increment 1 Here p = — — x — - =
If, therefore, the owner thinks timber-growing an unprofitable
business unless he can get a return of 3£ per cent on the
INDICATING PERCENTAGE. 103
capital, he will cut this crop now; while, if he be content
with 3 per cent, he will consider the rate of growth quite
satisfactory. In the above example money or net income has
been dealt with ; but the reckoning is similar, and the result
identical, if C be expressed in cubic contents per acre.
•
104
CHAPTEE II.
THE THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF WOODLAND MANAGEMENT.
The Management of Woodlands treats of the best way of
carrying out an owner's intention regarding his woodlands, so
as to get continuously the largest annual income obtainable
from the given capital represented by the land and the timber-
crops suited to the soil, climate, elevation, exposure, &c. And
in State forests and large private woodlands the management
also deals with the organisation of the administrative and
executive staff.
The capital required in forestry consists partly in land and
partly in the growing timber-crops. In highwoods worked with
a long rotation the capital in wood forms by far the greater
part, whereas in copse-woods with a much lower rotation there
is less difference in the proportion between the two forms of
capital. But as regards woodlands it should be noted that
the commodities they produce — timber, fuel, bark, &c. — are
exactly of the same description as part, and generally the greater
part, of the capital which produces it. Hence the annual falls
must be carefully regulated so as neither to decrease seriously
the capital in wood nor yet fail to harvest the greatest possible
annual increment. One must therefore distinguish carefully
between capital and increment, and must every few years take
stock of the capital in wood, to see that only a proper quantity
is being cut. The amount of the produce harvested can be
WOODLAND PRODUCE. 105
expressed either in cubic contents of timber or in their money
value— the former being most convenient for the practical oper-
ations and the latter the better for fixing the best rotation for
working, after comparing one method with another as to prob-
able profit. The capital required is much smaller for coppices
worked with, say, 12 to 15 years' rotation than for highwoods
worked with 60 to 100 years' rotation. But as coppices, with
or without standards, are now not nearly so profitable as they
used to be, they are in many cases gradually being converted
into highwoods, with or without interplanting.
Woodland Products may be classed as major produce, in-
cluding timber and fuel, and minor produce, including bark,
tree-seeds, resin, grazing, &c. The major produce includes both
the mature fall or final yield of timber, and the thinnings or
intermediate returns which may be obtained from time to
time.
In forestry on a large scale one great object must be to make
woods yield given kinds of timber in about equal quantities
from year to year. If supplies are irregular in quantity or in
quality, the consumer will prefer to get foreign wood from a
merchant who can ensure him a steady supply. But the small
woods so common in Britain must needs be worked intermit-
tently • though, even then, measures may be taken to secure a
proper amount of thinning, cutting at the best age, and efficient
planting or natural regeneration. But these woods produce
only a comparatively small amount of timber, and have very
little effect upon the normal conditions of supply, demand,
and price.
In extensive woodlands the case is different, for the main
aim is to have regular supplies of timber and wood of various
sizes in about equal quantities annually. To ensure this, the
woodlands must consist of a regular series of crops varying
in age from each other either by one year only (as in the
clear-felling of annual falls of Pine, Larch, &c.), or else by such
106 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
a number of years as may be included. in periodic falls (and
usually of 20 annual falls) for natural regeneration (e.g., Beech
.and Silver Fir). The' series .of i falls need not succeed one
another consecutively like one; long arithmetical progression ;
but they must be all represented within the area under man-
agement (working circle), otherwise a regularly sustained annual
fall is impossible. Some sort of Working Plan or definite
Scheme of Management is therefore necessary in order to get
:woods into such a condition that they will yield the largest
profit consistent with due security for future maintenance—
unless the woods are intended for ornament or game coverts,
,as is often the case in Britain, or when business principles
are not applied.
A Working Plan aims at bringing all the woods into a
sort of ideal state or normal condition, which would consist in
— (1) a normal succession of crops or regular series of woods of
all ages from seedling up to mature tree, each age-class occupy-
ing an equal or equally productive area • (2) a normal density
or full stock throughout the whole of each such area ; (3) a
normal increment or rate of growth of all the various crops, so
that the annual increment throughout each age-class is fully
proportionate to the quality of the soil and the situation ; and
(4) a normal distribution of the Annual falls, the crops of
various ages being so arranged that falls can take place regu-
larly within suitable areas, although not necessarily in close
succession year by year. Given these four conditions, the
result would be (l)-fl normal grovring-stock or capital in wood,
with a regular series of annual or periodic falls distributed
over the working-circle, and (2) a normal increment proportion-
ate'to the quality of the land, and producing equal returns , in
timber year by year. I .;.;,.
As regards (1) normal age-classes, say 2000. acres : of wood are
worked with a rotation of 1QQ years, then; (if all the land were
of equal quality) there should be 20 acres each of crops from ;1
NORMAL CONDITION.
107
to 100 years old, which could be more conveniently classed in
5 periods or age-classes respectively, I. 81-100, II. 61-80, 111.
41-60, IV. 21-40, and V. 0-20 years old ; and the area of each
such periodic age-class should be 400 acres.
(2) Normal density is a relative term depending on the kind
of tree (according to its demand for light) and the climate, soil,
aspect, &c. The better the soil and the situation, the quicker
and the better is the growth, and the earlier and the more
frequently is thinning needed ; but though the number of trees
per acre be less, each is larger, and the total crop is bigger than
on poor land. The normal density in central German forests
varies as follows for the following kinds of trees on land of
good quality for each given kind of tree-crop : —
No. of Trees per acre.
Age of Crop.
Years.
Scots Pine.
Spruce.
Silver Fir.
40
720
1050
1370
60
370
500
520
80
240
310
310
100
170
240
220
(3) Normal increment also varies greatly according to kind of
tree, soil, aspect, elevation, climate, &c., and differs at various
ages, the most rapid period of growth being usually from
20 to 50 years of age.
(4) A normal distribution of the annual falls,, such as would
enable the timber to be most easily conveyed to the place of
sale or consumption, and would really provide security against
damage from wind, insects, fungi, &c., is hardly obtainable, and
in practice one has to arrange the falls as seems best in the
oldest and least satisfactory woods.
108 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
The normal growing-stock refers to the sum-total of the crops
in all the age-classes. If a 100-year-old tree be cut, then the
timber obtained comprises all the annual increments made by it
each year up to 100 ; and if all the woods were in a normal
condition the annual fall, including thinnings, would be equal
to the total increment accruing each year throughout all the
crops, so that the mature annual fall, plus the thinnings, would
be equal to the normal increment.
A Normal Condition is, however, only a theoretical ideal to
be aimed at ; it cannot be attained, and it could not long be
maintained. But the nearer one approximates to it, the more
one gains its ADVANTAGES, viz. : (1) it enables regular annual
supplies to be offered for sale, and thus helps to secure, utilise,
and maintain any local demand for timber, &c. ; (2) it affords
more regular employment to labour, which may thus become
cheaper and more efficient; (3) it ensures a regular annual
income from the woodlands ; and (4) it provides the best
security against damage from wind, fire, insects, fungus diseases,
&c. ; while its only DISADVANTAGES are that (1) in trying to
attain this ideal condition, some crops may have to be cut
before they are fully mature, and others may have to be left
standing though already mature, and (2) advantage cannot be
taken of any temporary rise in price for any given kind or size
of timber during any one season.
The Normal Capital in Wood may be roughly estimated as
being equal to the Mature Annual Fall x the No. of years in
the Rotation -r- 2. Here the Mature Annual Fall is the number
of acres felled x the yield per acre in timber or its net market
value. But this is only true theoretically and as a rough
general approximation, because both the normal and the actual
capital in wood or growing crops vary according to the rotation,
kind of tree, soil, situation, climate, &c. ; and this normal
capital is annually diminished by the normal yield forming one
year's fall, which is equal to the total growth for one year on
ROTATION. 109
all the annual falls comprised within the working-circle. But
this loss is annually made good by the normal increment, so
that the normal capital remains theoretically the same from
year to year, reckoned at midsummer. The normal capital in
wood thus depends upon the length of the rotation and the
normal increment proportionate to the kind of tree, soil,
climate, aspect, elevation, &c. ; and there must he a regular
series of falls forming a simple arithmetical progression,
although such a felling series need not necessarily be distributed
in contiguous successive areas. Indeed, consecutive contig-
uous distribution is not desirable in practice, on account of
danger from wind, insects, fungus diseases, fire, &c. And, of
course, the area under each annual or periodic age-class must
depend upon the kind of crop, soil, aspect, &c.
Rotation in forestry means merely the number of years
elapsing between the formation of any woodland crop and its
clearance or renewal when mature. Woodland soil does not
deteriorate under proper management, but gradually acquires
increased fertility or productivity, and especially in the case
of Beech and other close-canopied trees whose dead foliage
annually adds fresh humus to the soil. Sometimes a change
may have to be made from hardwoods to Conifers owing to soil-
deterioration, usually resulting from bad management; but
under good management a change back to hardwoods may in
course of time become possible, if then desired. The rotation
varies according to the kind of tree, method of treatment, soil,
aspect, elevation, climate, &c. Thus simple coppices may be
worked with a rotation of 10 to 20 years, or stored coppice with
20 to 30 years, or Larch, Pine, Spruce, and other Conifers with,
say, 50 or 60 years, Beech with 100 or 120, Oak with 140 or
150, &c., according to the given circumstances. And, of course,
for any given total woodland area, the longer the rotation is,
the smaller the annual fall will bej so that a private land-
owner will naturally prefer to work his woods with a low
110
THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
rather than with a high rotation. But besides reducing the
area and the amount of the annual fall, a long rotation also
adds considerably to the total amount of capital invested in and
represented by the whole series of growing wood-crops ; and the
only advantage to be gained is that, with a high rotation,
timber is obtainable of larger dimensions and worth more per
cubic foot, and the thinnings in the maturing woods are also
likely to be larger and more valuable
The formula, Normal Wood Capital = Annual Fall x No. of
years in Rotation + 2, assumes that each unit of area in the series
Fig. 26.
ACEO 10 20 30
i
40
. * .6' d I
50 60 70
1
80 YEARS
of annual falls is stocked with a crop equal in amount to its
age (number of years) multiplied by the average annual rate of
growth of the mature fall of timber ; but this is not in reality
the case, as the rate of growth varies considerably according to
the age of the crop, being most vigorous during the polewood
stage of growth, although this variation does not affect the
total volume of the mature crop when harvested at the most
profitable age.
, In .Fig. 26, for example, it will be seen that, presuming the actual
rate of growth of Pine woods on medium land is as shown by the curved
line, a rotation of 55 years would need only a somewhat smaller normal
PROTECTION AGAINST WIND.
Ill
wood-capital than the formula indicates, while a rotation of 65 years
would need a somewhat larger amount than indicated. But by calcu-
lating as if the increment or rate of growth continued equal from year to
year, it will easily be seen from Fig. 27 (a) that the formula gives a correct
result — say, for a coppice worked with a 10 years' rotation, though it would
apply equally to highwoods worked with a rotation of 50, 60, 100 or more
Fig. 27.
I DIRECTION OF MOST DANGEROUS WN05
COURSE Of THE ANNUAL FALLS
(W WINDS')
(E TO W)
(b) Part of a Regular Course of Annual Falls distributed
according to subordinate series of small partial falls re-
curring near same area only after intervals of 5 years.
(a) Regular Series of Annua-l
Falls in close succession.
8 9
& SO OH TO MATURIT
a
/ 6 ii 16 zi ^ 7 u n ^^ j a /^ /a ^3 <
9 14 fS 24 5 iQ i5 20 ^5 YfAffS
& SO OH TO MATURITY
years. The series of growing crops over the whole woodland area for a
10 years' coppice rotation would be —
(1) In Autumn, before, the fall— I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 years old.
(2) In Spring, after the fall— 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 years old.
(3) At Midsummer, the mean of these — £, 1|, 2|, 3£, 4J, 5|, 6£, 7|, 8J,
9 1 years old.
The true mean at midsummer forms a simple arithmetical progression,
whose sum is == J (10 x [| + 9|]) ; and 1 0 is the number of years in the rota-
112 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
tion, while J-t-9J = 10 is the mature yield or annual fall harvested every
tenth year. Say, therefore, the area of the coppice working-circle were
80 acres, with a 10 year rotation, and the annual fall produced a net in-
come of £5 per acre ; then the total annual fall would be 8 acres, and its
net value £40 ; and according to the formula the normal wood-capital
invested to produce this result continuously would practically be = |
(£40 x 10 years), or £200 in all. And it is precisely the same with high-
wood crops, even when they are subdivided into periodic age-classes and
regenerated naturally — as, for example, in Beech- woods worked with 100
years' rotation and divided into five periods of I., 80-100; II., 60-80;
III., 40-60; IV., 20-40; and V., 0-20 years, when each periodic class is
regarded as having the mean average age of 90, 70, 50, 30, and 10 years
respectively.
As regards choice of Sylvicultural Method, it is self-evident
that Simple Coppices, worked with a low rotation, lock up the
smallest amount of capital in wood, and permit a relatively
large area to be felled annually ; but they furnish only small-
sized wood now of little value, such as hop-poles, pea- and bean-
;sticks, hurdle- and crate-wood, thatching-rods, faggots, &c.
Stored Coppice furnishes the same class of small produce
:from the underwood, but also gives a small proportion of larger
poles, and of timber from the various age-classes of standard
trees forming the overwood ; and, owing to the standard trees,
this method locks up more capital than simple coppice, although
the proportionate area annually filled is just the same, being
regulated by the rotation adopted for the coppice underwood.
Highwoods, worked with a longer rotation, give a relatively
imuch smaller annual fall as regards area, though a much larger
out-turn in timber ; but they lock up far more capital in the
growing-stock required.
Thus, for example : —
Annual Fall.
(1) 600 acres with 15 years' rotation as Coppice = 40 acres.
(2) ,, „ ,, „ as Stored Coppice = 40 acres +
standards of 30, 45, 60, and 75
years old.
(3) ,, 60 years' rotation as Highwood = 10 acres.
CHOICE OF CROP-FORM. 113
For ordinary classes of highwood timber-crops on ordinary
classes of woodland soil, profit is likely to be greater from quick-
growing Conifers easily saleable at fifty or sixty years of age
than from hardwoods such as Beech and Oak, which require
ninety to one hundred and twenty years or more before reaching
maturity or even fair marketable size. Hence, if any great
scheme of national afforestation be undertaken, Conifers are
certain to form the bulk of the crops planted. On the Continent
Spruce with sixty years' rotation is found to be generally the
most profitable kind of crop. But State Forests are often
worked with longer rotations than private landowners care to
adopt, in order to provide hardwoods of large dimensions, a supply
of which may be very desirable from a national point of view,
but which it would not be profitable for the private landowner
to attempt to grow, especially under the existing estate and
succession duty enactments.
Coppice used to be very profitable for small woodland areas,
so long as there was a good demand for Oak-bark and small
wood, the crops grown being chiefly Oak, Ash, Chestnut, Hazel,
Maple, and Sycamore, with Alder, Willow, Poplar, Aspen,
Birch, and Hornbeam on moister lands. And much attention
was then given to see that stools were replaced whenever they
began to lose their reproductive power. The best rotation to
adopt for Coppice depends on the kind of crop grown. Oak-
coppice is seldom now profitable ; Hazel is often wanted only
at about eight to ten years old, and Ash only at twelve to
fourteen ; and this makes it very difficult to now arrange for
a good rotation for a mixed crop.
Stored Coppice or Coppice with Standards really needs a
good fresh soil, otherwise the underwood does poorly under
the shade of the standards, am} the stools soon lose their
reproductive power. Where such copses have become greatly
deteriorated, the best plan often is to interplant with quick-
growing Conifers, or transform the whole into a Conifer crop
H
114 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
when a fall is made, or else to " grove " the whole and allow
it to grow up into a highwood (usually of poor quality) by
simply thinning out the poorest and smallest poles. Returns
from copses are usually smaller than those from highwoods oh
similar soil and under similar circumstances ; but the capital
required is also less, and for woodlands of only about 200 to
300 acres it is often the most suitable method of treatment,
because the English Settled Estates Act, 1882, makes an impor-
tant distinction between coppice, simple or stored (Sijlva ccedua),
and timber or highwood (Saltus), the life-tenant in possession
of a settled estate being entitled to all the income derived from
the former, but only one-fourth part of the latter, while the
rest has to be paid over as capital to the trustees for the estate.
Under Scots law, however, an heir in possession of an en-
tailed estate can cut timber and put the money to his own
uses without being impeachable for waste.
Stored coppice has the further advantages of being best suited
for game coverts, and being on the whole the most ornamental
kind of woodland, while it also allows of small quantities of
valuable timber being grown for estate purposes, selected stand-
ards being left to mature as required.
Highwoods give the largest returns in valuable timber, and
are best able to protect the soil from deterioration through sun,
wind, and weeds, unless overthinned or otherwise damaged.
As a rule, the fall should only take place after the average
increment has culminated and the trees are of good marketable
size ; and where grazing is combined with wood-growing, that
can in highwoods be carried on continuously with much less
likelihood of damage than would be possible in simple or stored
coppice. 1
It is difficult to draw any fair comparisons between these
three different forms of crop so far as actual profits over a
number of years are concerned. Where the soil is poor, the
area large, and the capital of fair amount, then highwoods are
CHOICE OF TREES. 115
probably on the whole the most profitable, and especially when
there is a good market for early thinnings. And highwoods
are the only form of crop in which Pine, Larch, Firs, and other
Conifers can be grown, which usually in Britain will prove the
most profitable trees to grow.
The simplest form of highwood is where the whole area is
regularly divided into annual falls, the oldest being cleared
year by year, and a new crop formed by planting — as is usual
with Larch, Pine, and Firs ; but with Beech and Silver Fir it
is common to comprise several annual falls within a periodic
fall, and to clear the mature seed-bearing trees gradually from
the area whilst a young crop is being naturally regenerated from
the seed they shed. In some cases a few of the best trees are
retained till greater size is reached, but this practice has several
disadvantages.
Woods intended mainly for ornament, shelter, or game-
preserving, are cut casually or sporadically, when the various
age-classes are scattered irregularly over the whole area; but
in such cases the mature trees are usually more branching and
of less commercial value than when the woods are maintained
in fairly close canopy.
As regards the Selection of Trees likely to form the most
suitable and profitable crops in any given locality, consideration
must be given (1) to the Soil, according to its nature, depth,
and other physical properties, natural drainage, &c. ; (2) to
the Situation as regards aspect, elevation, configuration of its
surroundings, shelter from gales, &c. ; and (3) to Facilities for
Extraction and the Local Market probably obtainable, both for
thinnings and for mature timber. These and similar considera-
tions will also mainly determine what seems likely to be the
most profitable rotation ; and when once the special kinds of
crops and their rotations have been fixed on, this practically
roughly indicates the general scheme of management that will
have to be adopted ; but the most profitable rotation is that
116 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
which exact calculations indicate as yielding the largest sustained
net annual income from the total capital invested in land and
crops, the calculations being made at compound interest, and
being based upon the cost of formation, the time and net value
of thinnings obtainable, and the final net income derivable from
the mature crop (p. 143). In making calculations for future thin-
nings and mature falls, only probable returns can be dealt with ;
and even as regards income from past thinnings and fellings,
cost of planting, &c., very few estates can furnish accurate
statistics, while future changes in the market cannot be accu-
rately forecast. The tendency of timber prices is upwards, and
they are likely to continue to rise ; but the market for small
coppice material is gone, and seems never likely to revive.
Subdivision of Woodlands into Compartments. — At present
British woodlands are usually scattered in small blocks over
large estates, and are often not worked upon any definite
principles at all; but to be able to introduce methodical
management, all the woodlands on an estate should be sub-
divided into convenient Compartments, the boundaries of which
may be roads, streams, hill-ridges, shooting-rides, inspection-
paths, &c. ; and they should be carefully chosen, because the
compartments form permanent subdivisions of the woodlands,
and are the framework upon which any well-considered scheme
of management must rest both now and in the future. The
size and the shape of compartments may vary according to local
conditions; but rectangular boundaries are usually preferred,
with the long side at right angles to the direction from which
the prevailing most dangerous wind comes. The larger the
compartment, the less is the acreage taken up by roads and
rides, &c. ; but compartments of about 25 to 30 acres are
generally the most convenient, though where battue-shooting
has to be kept well in view, smaller compartments of only
10 to 15 acres may be preferred. In making the compartments,
the network of roads required for extracting the mature timber
COMPARTMENTS.
117
and thinnings should first of all be laid out, though the roads
need not be finished or metalled till required for heavy trans-
port. The boundaries should be demarcated with numbered
posts or stones, and each compartment should be given a serial
number. Compartments in squares cause least waste of ground
for roads and rides, while rectangular compartments enable the
timber to be extracted with least haulage to rides or roads.
The advantages of having numbered and demarcated compart-
ments are — (1) any part of the woods can easily and accurately
be described or located on the map (e.g., for timber sales, out-
breaks of fire, &c.) ; (2) they simplify the location, measure-
ment, and revision of annual or periodic falls, as the boundaries
are formed by roads, green lanes, or ridges ; (3) they open up
the woods and make extraction of thinnings and timber easier
and cheaper ; (4) trees next the boundaries become very firmly
rooted, and thus minimise danger of windfall ; (5) such breaks
assist in putting out fires, when they occur; (.6) they are useful
for shooting purposes ; and (7) they also help to reduce the
danger from insects, fungus diseases, &c. ^
Each compartment should be formed of land of as- uniform
a quality as possible, so that it may consist of the same class of
118
THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
wood In hilly tracts the boundaries will usually follow ridges,
valleys, and roads (Fig. 28) ; but on level land they may be set
out in proportion of 2 to 1, or preferably 3 to 2, with the long
side at right angles to the prevailing most dangerous wind
(Fig. 29).
Fig. 29.
\. A. Most dangerous wind, W.; next dangerous wind, N.W.
^. Periods I., II., III., &c. Compartments 1, 2, 3, &c.
"^v"
W.
5
4
3
2
1
III.
I.
• IV,
II.
V.
6
7
8
9
10
II.
V.
III.
I.
IV.
15
14
13
12
11
I.
IV.
II.
V.
III.
16
17
18
19
20
V.
III.
I.
IV.
II.
I
25
24
23
22
21
IV.
II.
V.
III.
I.
Felling
Direction.
The Size of Compartments depends not only upon the total
area of the woodlands, the manner in which the woods are
scattered in blocks over an estate, the configuration of the
land, the nature of the crops, and the specific form of treat-
ment, but also upon the size of the working- circle (see below)
to which they belong. They are larger in compact woods
naturally regenerated than in small woods clear-felled and
replanted, and larger on level tracts than on hillsides where
WORKING-CIRCLES. 1 1 9
the quality of the soil is variable. They may be larger in
broad-leaved than in Conifer woods, where danger from wind,
insects, and fire is greatest. On the Continent the smallest
compartments for highwoods are for Spruce. Boundaries may
be 6 to 8 ft. wide in copses, and about 10 or 12 ft. in high-
woods ; but if intended for use as roads for extracting timber,
they should be from 18 to 30 ft. wide. Main roads are
broadest in Conifer woods, and should run in the same direc-
tion as the prevailing most dangerous wind (see Fig. 29).
When the whole woodland area has been broken up into a
continuous series of convenient compartments, it should then
be divided into Working- Circles, each comprising within itself
the whole of the regular series of annual or periodic falls of the
woods subject to same treatment, and forming a complete self-
contained series of crops in more or less regular age -classes.
Thus, while the compartments are the units of area in the
woodlands, upon which any methodical scheme of management
must be based, each working-circle (if there be more than one)
includes as many compartments as form a complete series of
crops of all age-classes up to maturity. It is not necessary to
have a separate working- circle for each kind of wood grown,
the, custom being to form separate working - circles only for
broad-leaved trees, for Conifers, and for woods under different
kinds of treatment. Thus, on a large estate, one might have a
working- circle for simple coppice, a second for stored coppice,
a third for broad-leaved highwoods of Beech, Oak,. Ash, Syca-
more, Elm, &c., and a fourth for Conifers (Pine, Larch, Spruce,
Silver Fir, Douglas Fir, &c.). Where ornamental woods in the
vicinity of a house occur to any extent, they can be excluded
to form a separate working- circle, and can be treated by means
of occasional falls (p. 82, often called selection fellings).
Such principles are not as yet much acted on in this country,
but they will have to be adopted if a national scheme of afforesta-
tion is begun, the first things necessary being to lay off a satis-
120 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
factory network of roads, and then to form compartments of
convenient form and size according to the configuration, slope,
and aspect of the land to be planted.
To be of normal condition each working-circle should have,
for the given rotation with which it is worked, a regular series of
age-classes on equal (i.e., equally productive) areas, with a normal
density of crop and a normal increment ; while the annual (or
periodic) falls should be so distributed as to lie in the proper
direction of the fall against wind. It is neither necessary nor
desirable that the annual or periodic falls should all lie con-
tiguous ; but the various groups formed of compartments be-
longing to the same working - circle should be as near each
other as is practicable, though this ideal condition can seldom
be attained in practice.
The Size of a Working - Circle may vary greatly. The
higher the rotation, the larger must be the area to give con-
tinuously any fixed annual falls.
, For example, say an owner wishes to cut 30 acres a-year, with a rota-
tion of 50 years, such a Conifer working-circle would need an area of 1500
acres ; but for a 60 years' rotation it would require 1800 acres.
The Allocation of Annual Falls, and the Formation of
Felling Series. — The total woodland area, having been divided
into compartments and the different kinds of crops grouped into
working - circles, and the crop measurements and estimates
having been made and tabulated (pp. 96-102, 126-132) and the
rotation fixed for each working-circle (thereby also fixing the
Annual Fall), one must then consider where the Annual Falls
should be located. All timber- crops, and especially Conifers,
are more or less exposed to damage from wind, frost, drought,
fire, vermin, game, insects, and fungus diseases. Hence it is
desirable to allocate the Annual Falls so as to give the best
security against what seems the greatest of these dangers ; and
as in all except young crops this is usually Wind, it is gener-
ANNUAL FALLS. 121
ally desirable that the series of Annual Falls should succeed
each other in the direction opposite to that of the most
dangerous prevailing winds. Usually in Britain, and especi-
ally along the west coast, the S.W., W., and N.W. winds are
by far the most dangerous; and the best protection can in
these cases be given by making the Annual Falls succeed each
other in the direction from KE. to S.W., E. to W., and S.E. to
N.W. respectively (see Fig. 30) ; but the trend of the winds
often becomes much altered by the run of the valleys and the
configuration of the country, and it often happens that very
destructive gales come from a different direction to that of the
prevailing strong winds. Making the Annual Falls run against
wind also protects the soil. This measure is especially necessary
with evergreen Conifers, and most of all for the heavily-foliaged,
shallow-rooting Spruce ; but it is also best for broad-leaved trees,
as it favours natural regeneration, though not in the case of
Conifers, whose cones open and shed their seed chiefly during
dry E. winds in spring. But it is not necessary that the annual
falls should form a contiguous series ; in fact, keeping each two
successive falls apart is desirable, especially in Conifer crops, on
account of insects, fire, &c., the chief point to be kept in view
being that the various annual falls, taken as a series, should be
made in the direction against the most dangerous wind. And
where large annual falls Ijiave to be made, it is best in Conifer
woods to make several small falls in different parts of the woods,
instead of one large fall, and to arrange that any two successive
falls within the same compartment should take place, if practic-
able, only at intervals of 4 or 5 years, in order to prevent
damage by Pine weevils. Supposing the compartments are
each 40 acres, and the annual fall 20 acres, then it would Be
better, with a rotation 'of 80 years, to have 4 age-classes in
each compartment, and to spread the annual fall over 2 com-
partments, than to have only 2 age-classes and cut one-half of
a compartment at each annual fall.
122
THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
It should' also be noted that as the W. wind is supposed in this case
to be the most dangerous, and then the N.W., each compartment in which
falls are being made will have, for the young crops planted there, the
protection of maturing woods for the next 40 years on the W. side, and
of older woods for the next 20 years on the N. W. side.
In Fig. 30, a Scots Pine Conifer working-circle on a level sandy tract is
shown, divided into 25 compartments, and worked with a rotation of 100
years divided into V. 20 -year periods, the 20 Annual Falls throughout
period I. being so distributed that there an interval of 5 years occurs
between any two consecutive falls in any; compartment* thus, giving the
greatest possible protection against wind.) insects, and, other dangers.
' Fig. 30. • Vi t-:> '.f!j }:. |K:I*J ;; ....
Most dangerous wind, W. ; next dangerous wind) N.W.; > . ;
Periods I., II., III., &c. Compartments or annual falls, 1, 2,. 3, &c.. .
A, B, C,, D are the drives, or broad green lanes, or else roadways.
a, b, c, d are the narrow rides.
b c d
^
III.
IV.
II. r
• v..
1914
9
4
Vlil .:
A
.
II.
V.
m.
1712
7
2
IV.
T>
W.
201510
5
IV.
ii.
V.
I-
III.
B Felling
I
Direct I on.
• c
V.
III.
IV.
II.
C »
1813
8
:->
,{••
f\
IV.
II.
V.
III.
16
11
6
1
i
'"
•:
• ;
:
:..!•;,.
Severances are protective falls made when it can be seen
long beforehand that a felling-series may have to begin at some
place where the first clearance will leave the growing crop on
the- leeward side unduly exposed to danger from wind. To
Strengthen this windward edge that will then be exposed, a
severance is made; by clearing a strip of about 22 yards broad
j(l chain) along fehe, edge of the crop that will come to the fall,
and replanting this strip, so that, when clearance and exposure
SEVERANCES.
123
take place 20 to 30 or more years hence, the then exposed
windward edge of the compartment to be protected will be
better able to resist the wind, and will also have the additional
protection of the younger strip planted along the severance.' j.;
For example, a crop of 40 years old (Fig. 31) lies in the lee of a crop
60 years old, which will probably have to be felled about 20 years hence,
before the former is mature. For the protection of the 40 -year-old crop,
when the annual fall cuts into the mature crop (then 80 years old) 20
years hence, the former should immediately be strengthened by a severance
(a b) being made to a breadth of about a chain in the latter ; and this
cleared strip should be at once planted up.
• ' • ' J v .
Most dangerous wind,
W.
Fig. 31.
b
1,
Crop
Crop
60 years old.
40 years old.
Direction of annual
falls,
<- E: to W.
Severances should be made early enough to allow of the tryes
along the windward edge of the compartment needing protection
to strengthen themselves against wind by extending their root-
system outwards. If the trees are already so old that they
cannot do this to any extent, then making the severance is of
little or no use. Hence the. success of this measure depends
upon the kind and age of the crop, the soil and situation, &c.
But it is far more necessary for Conifer crops (and especially
Spruce) than for broad-leaved woods.
Different methods of Fixing the Annual Fall. — Where
only simple coppice or coppice with standards is concerned,
worked with a rotation of, say, 15 or 20 years, then the equal,
i.e., equally productive, areas forming the 15 or 20 annual falls
naturally range themselves into a simple felling-series from 1 to
15 or 20. And the same applies to the periodic block method
of regenerating beechwoods on the chalk -hills of Southern
124 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
England, though practically here a number of annual falls is
grouped together to form a periodic fall according to the interval
occurring between any two successive good mast years. But
with regard to Conifers and other high woods formed without
any definite scheme of management having been kept in view,
as,, has often been customary in Britain, one must fix the
rotation, estimate the growing-stock required, and then de-
termine the area to be felled annually in order to maintain a
continuous and regular income from the woods. The annual
fall can be determined by one or other of the methods based
upon (1) the woodland area alone; (2) the yield or cubic contents
of the crops; and (3) by a combination of the area and the
yield. For easy supervision in each of these three methods, the
annual falls can be conveniently grouped into periods or periodic
falls, each comprising the annual falls of 20 years ; and more
particular attention is devoted to falls in the first half of the
oldest or I. period than to those in the second half, or in the
II. or subsequent periods. With a rotation of 100 years there
will be 5 periods, I. including the oldest woods, 81 to 100 years,
II. those of 61 to 80, III. 41 to 60, IV. 21 to 40, and V. those
up to 20 years old. And the I. period would be divided into
the two sub-periods, I1, and I2., respectively denoting woods
of 91 to 100 years and 81 to 90 years ; while the remaining
periods need not be so subdivided.
• (1) Fixing the Annual Fall from the Woodland area alone
is the oldest 'and simplest method, the whole area being divided
equally into the number of annual falls needed for the rotation,
and the area in each case being therefore equal to the total
woodland area divided by the number of years in the rotation.
The great drawback .to this very simple method is that it does
not allow for differences in soil-productivity or as to .the
distribution of the growing-stock in the properly proportionate
:age- classes ; hence, in order to ultimately equalise the areas
felled in each period it might be necessary to cut some crops
THE ANNUAL FALL. 125
before and some after maturity, with the result that a normal
series of age-classes would be produced in the course of one
rotation during which the annual falls might vary greatly in
extent. Differences in soil-productivity can be counterbalanced
by making the annual falls inversely proportionate to the quality
of the land, as a smaller area of fall on productive land will
give as large a yield as a proportionately larger area of less
productive land. Hence, to get a sustained annual yield of
about equal quantity and value, one must make larger falls
on poorer land, and smaller falls on better land, so as to equalise
the income year by year. This improved method of fixing the
annual fall by equally productive area only is the most practical
for simple and for stored coppice ; but it is unsuitable for
high woods, unless worked with a low rotation, e.g., for pit- wood.
For all ordinary highwoods the periodic arrangement is pre-
ferable.
(2) Fixing the Annual Fall from the Yield or Cubic Contents
of the Crops. — Under this method, after the rotation has been
fixed and the whole working-circle divided into 20-year periodic
blocks, a tabular working -plan is drawn up in such a way as
to "give about an equal yield for each period, and the annual
fall for each whole periodic section equals the total periodic
yield divided by 20 years. This tends to equalise the fall,
but does not necessarily lead to a normal distribution of age-
classes, a normal growing-stock, and a normal increment. It
is therefore not a good method. Although it may look all right
on paper, it has no real practical value, because it is quite
impossible to forecast exactly what the annual fall will be.
(3) Fixing the Annual Fall by a combination of Area and
Yield is by far the best and most practical method. It was
introduced on the Continent about 100 years ago, and is now
everywhere in force there, though the precise method of its
application differs in details, not only in different countries,
but also in different districts, throughout each country, *v;/.:
126 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
As the woodland area is the only factor that remains fixed
and unalterable, this serves as the main basis for any good
.scheme of management. But as the condition and the dis-
tribution of the various timber-crops (as to age-classes, density,
rate of growth, &c.) may vary considerably from a normal
condition, the subdivision of the woodlands into approximately
equal annual or periodic falls cannot of itself secure a more
or less equal annual yield ; and so the condition of the growing
timber- crops must also be considered, and especially the con-
dition of those coming to the fall within the next 20 years
(I. Period).
The total woodland area having been divided into compart-
ments and working-circles, and the method of treatment of the
latter having been determined, the area needed for each working-
circle is divided into as many periodic sections (usually of 20 years
each) as are contained in the rotation ; and such proportionate
area of the working-circle is allotted to each of these periods
as seems to consist of the most suitable crops, and to lead towards
attaining a normal succession of annual falls in the direction
against wind. This periodic division by area enables one to
estimate, as nearly as is practicable, the yield of the falls during
the first two periods, and to equalise the fall annually throughout
each of these two periods, while considering the actual con-
ditions of the crops coming to the fall within each.
As the proportion of different age-classes is important, a
register of crops has to be drawn up showing the distribution of
the different age-classes in each working-circle. These details
having been registered in a tabular form which shows also the
full crop-description, area, quality of land, age of crop, and
present? cubic contents and annual increment per acre, a felling-
plan is made, allotting the various areas to the age-classes or
periods to which they properly belong ; but special consideration
is given to the maturing crops in the first period, and for this
purpose the first period, I., of 20 years is divided into two
THE ANNUAL FALL. 127
decennial sub-periods, I1, and I2., and particular attention is
given to the distribution of the falls during sub-period 71.,
towards the end of which a revision should take place for
fixing the falls of the next 10 years; and so on continuously
thereafter. The average fall for the I. period having been fixed,
and the period subdivided into the two decennial sub-periods, a
detailed examination of the cubic contents and the present rate
of growth of the crops in each of these sub-periods is made, and
the yield is then calculated (including the accruing increment) to
the middle of each sub-period, and entered into the Felling-plan.
The total fall for each of these decennial sub-periods being then
divided by 10, gives the average annual fall in cubic feet per
annum for each of the first 10 years, and also from the llth to
[the 20th year. On the Continent, the exact locality in which
each separate year's fall is to be made is not prescribed, it being
left to the discretion of the head forester to fell where he may
consider most expedient.
The falls for the II. period, 20 to 40 years hence, are also
entered in the plan as regards acreage and yield, the yield being
only roughly estimated, while for the subsequent periods only
the area is entered, as it is still too early to estimate what the
future yield will be of woods only maturing 60 to 100 years
hence ; nor would there be any practical use in doing so.
Under this method, Beech and other broad-leaved woods in
general are worked usually with a rotation of 1 20 years, divided
into 6 periods, and Conifers with a rotation of 100 years
divided into 5 periods; and every 10 years a revision takes
place to fix the details for the fellings during the next 10 years.
So far as fixing the falls for the subsequent 4 or 5 periods is
concerned, the method is purely by area, but giving due con-
sideration to soil-productivity.
The form in which such a felling-plan could be drawn up for
Conifer high woods worked with an 80-years rotation might be
somewhat as follows : — <«J
128
THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
Woodland Area.
Growing Stock in 1910.
•o •*>
-6
Age Classes, in years.
,s
1
ifi
aj-w J3
3
o
II
Si
Ifl
o
Q
1
11
"3 01
Over 60.
41-60 ,
21-40
Up to
reas Fel
Replan
ank's an
fi>, for
O
o-
j>Hfa
•4
PQ
.
t
d
0
d
d
d
^
d
0.
d
6
43
0
CJ
>3
o
rt
6
0
L"
cSt
.^ .
0
6
1. Briarwood
16
II.
Pine, Larch,
and Spruce.
^
8,200
+85
^
131,200
+1,360
2. Boreland .
12
in.
Do.
"I1
6,800
+80
«{'
81,600
+960
3. Greenwood
(4nd so onfoi
15
em
I.
A cm
Pine.
npciTtment.)
5
4,000
+125
s
60,000
+ 1875
As should be noted, particular attention is paid to the falls in
Period I., less to those in Period 1 1., and little at all to Periods
III. and IV., at present. The aim is to try and attain a normal
condition — i.e., equal areas for felling in each period (age-class),
and equal annual or at least periodic falls. In Period L, the
sub-period I1, includes all crops which should normally be felled
in this period as being 80 years old or more, together with any
which may be brought in from sub-pefiod I2, in order to equalise
the two sub-periodic falls ; and it might even be the case that
less than the total acreage mature would be felled. The cubic
contents and the current increment per acre in 1910 are noted,
and in estimating- .tlieiyteld per acre throughout the 10. years of
sub-period I1, there must be added to the original growing-stock
ascertained in ,19 10, 5 times the current annual increment, so as
to give the mean for the ten years in the sub-period ; and the
total yield is of course found by multiplying this result by the
number .of acres in the crop. And the same method is applied
to sub-period I2., the object being to estimate the normal
FELLING-PLAN.
129
I. Period (1911-1930).
II. Period (1931-50).
III.
Period.
IV.
Period.
Remarks
as to
Treatment.
11. Sub-period
(1911-20)
P. Sub-period
(1921-30).
5
R
c.
6
Yield.
1
Yield.
1
Yield.
Per ac.
Total.
Per ac.
Total.
Per ac.
Total.
c. ft.
8,625
c. ft.
138,000
ac.
c. ft.
c. ft.
ac.
c. ft.
c. ft.
ac.
ac.
12
8,000
96,000
15
7,750
116,250
increment for this period also as nearly as possible. As the end
of sub-period I1, approaches, a revision is made of the estimates
of yield in the various remaining compartments, so as to be then
able to determine more accurately what should be felled in sub-
period I2. And of course adjustments have often to be made
between Periods I. and II., and between sub-periods I1, and I2,
of Period I., in order to try and equalise the Annual Falls.
130
CHAPTEK III.
THE MAKING OF A WORKING-PLAN.
LARGE woodland estates cannot be worked economically unless
under some definite Working-plan or Scheme of Management
showing the present condition of the woodlands and forecasting
as simply as possible the annual operations during the next ten
or twenty years (felling, thinning, planting, &c.). The data
required for such a working-plan are, in the first place, accurate
estimates of area, growing-stock, and increment or rate of growth ;
for it is only when these are known that the best method of
treatment and the most suitable rotation can be fixed. The
6-inch Ordnance Survey Maps are well suited to form the basis
for a working-plan ; but if there be no proper network of roads
and paths, and no sub-division into compartments, all of these
ought to be arranged for, in order to form the permanent frame-
work upon which the scheme of management must rest. The
most convenient size for compartments must vary according
to circumstances, but is usually about 20 to 30 acres in large
woodlands. A register has to be made out of all the crops,
arranged according to method of treatment, and giving age and
area (Age-Classes), and allotting them to working- circles accord-
ing to the method of treatment required, each working- circle
comprising one complete series of age- classes of all the woods
or crops subject to similar treatment — e.g., Ornamental Woods,
Coppices, Highwoods ; and, of course, for highwoods worked by
WORKING-PLAN. 131
different methods and rotations, there may have to be separate
working-circles (broad-leaved and coniferous woods). It is also
useful to note in the column for remarks how a felling-series
should run (E. to W., &c.) so as to give the best protection
against wind, &c. The Quality of land should also be noted
for each crop, and the most useful way is to class it as I., II., or
III., good, medium, or poor, noting also its slope (gentle,
moderate, steep), its aspect or exposure, its elevation, and its
configuration. A Field-book has to be opened in which to
note these details, and also record the more particular descrip-
tion of each crop forming part of the growing-stock — the kind
of wood, method of treatment, age, density and canopy, general
condition, cubic contents and rate of growth, being all duly
noted. The nearer the woods are to their maturity the more
important does it become to know their cubic contents and
their increment ; because it is preferable to make a fall in a
mature wood now growing slowly, than to cut down one that
is still in good growth. Where a really scientific working-plan
is desired, the estimate of the cubic contents and the current
increment of all maturing crops (as indicated on page 128) is
of particular importance, and more so than similar estimates
regarding younger and immature crops. Notes should also be
made concerning the best time of felling, and best method of
regenerating the mature crop and of tending the younger crops.
Where available, statistics should also be jotted down referring
to past yield, income from and price of timber, cost of planting,
&c. When this field - book has been completed for all the
crops, the working -plan or scheme of management can be
prepared.
Having ascertained that the whole woodland area is con-
veniently subdivided into compartments, and having made the
necessary investigations into the various crops forming the
growing- stock, and into their rate of growth, the next thing
to be done is to ascertain the distribution of the relative Age-
132 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
Classes in the various working-circles, and to prepare a sketch
Felling-plan according to area (see pp. 129, 135), then to fix
the extent and allocate the position of the Annual Falls, and
finally, to elaborate the Working-plan and prepare the Explan-
atory Note and the Stock Map which should accompany it.
To find the distribution of the different age-classes the crops
in each working-circle are registered according to age in 20-year
periods, when it can easily be seen how far each age-class varies
from the normal proportionate area it should have ; and it will
be found useful to prepare at this same time a Stock Map
showing the woodland area, its division into compartments,
and the different kinds of crops and their respective periodic
age-classes in each working - circle, giving to the youngest
period (under 20 years) a light wash of any chosen colour, to
the 21- to 40-year-old class a darker wash of the same colour,
and so on for the older periodic age-classes. And if there are
different working-circles (e.g., for broad-leaved trees and for
Conifers), different colours must be used for each working-circle.
Woods under natural regeneration (e.g., Beech, Silver Fir, Scots
Pine) can be indicated by being given the palest wash and then
having lines of darkest wash drawn across the ground colouring,
thus indicating a combination of the youngest and the oldest
age-classes until the mature seed-bearing trees are removed.
The Felling-plan according to area is first of all roughly
sketched by allotting areas to the various periods according to
their age, as shown in the register, so as to see how a convenient
felling-series can be made, and also, with the assistance of the
Stock Map, to note where severances may require to be made
now, if necessary at all, in order to protect woods that may
have to be exposed to winds later on. An important matter
is to try and arrange the felling-series (of which there may be
one or more, according to circumstances) in the direction likely
to afford the greatest protection from wind ; and it is also
desirable to make intermittent felling-series in place of any
WORKING-PLAN. 133
continuous series occurring on adjacent areas year after year,
because it is only thus that attacks of pine weevils in Conifer
woods can be prevented. In broad - leaved woods, however,
there is no necessity for this, and the main object here is to
try and arrange the falls against the most dangerous wind. In
drawing up the rough sketch for the felling-plan, areas are
transferred from period to period, and particularly during the
I. and II. Periods, comprising the mature and the maturing
woods, so as to get about an equal fall of mature timber from
year to year, and gradually in course of time to attain a nor-
mally proportionate distribution of the various age - classes
throughout each working -circle. A fair idea of the way of
doing the above may perhaps be got from the example on
pp. 134, 135.
In elaborating the felling-plan so as to estimate scientifically
the annual fall to be made during the first 10 years and the
second 10 of the first period (I1, and I2.), the total yield and
increment must be worked out, the increment being calculated
up to the middle of each sub-period — i.e., for the next 5 years
in I1., and for 15 years in I2., in the manner indicated on
pages 128, 129.
But this necessarily means much more time and expense in
preparing the Working - plan, so that the tabular statement
on pp. 134, 135 will usually suit the conditions at present pre-
vailing in British woodlands. Or something even simpler may
perhaps sometimes be considered quite sufficient, on some such
lines as the Working-Plan on pp. 136, 137.
The Explanatory Note gives first of all a brief description
of the woodlands, and their soil, situation, condition, rate of
growth, &c., then describes the object aimed at in the Working-
plan, and states the reasons for the recommendations made as
to kinds of crops, methods of treatment, rotation, and fixing
the felling-series and the annual falls, and concludes by making
any recommendations that may seem desirable regarding felling,
134
THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
CROP-STATISTICS AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF AGE-CLASSES.
Working-Circle for Conifers, on the
Woodland Area.
Growing-stock in 1900 : Age-Classes, in Acres.
Compartment.
Area.
Acres.
Qual-
ity of
land.
Age.
Years.
I.
(over
fcO
years).
II.
(41-60)
III.
(21-40)
IV.
(1-20)
Falls
for re-
plant-
ing.
Blanks
and land
for new
planta-
tions.
1. Briar Hill
=37 acres.
a
b
e
16
12
9
II.
III.
II.
85
74
62
16
12
9
2. Greenwood
=36 acres.
a
b
21
15
II.
I.
59
55
21
15
3. Bound Hill
=47 acres.
a
b
c
d
18
16
5
8
III.
III.
II.
II.
33
30
20
17
18
16
5
8
4. Gorse Cover
= 24 acres.
24
I.
78
24
5. Oakwood
= 33 acres.
a
b
e
10
16
7
111.
III.
III.
54
45
31
10
16
7
6. Rushton Brake
=31 acres.
a
b
13
18
II.
II.
19
18
13
18
7. Frampton Hill
=32 acres.
a
b
27
5
II.
II.
12
just
felled.
27
5
Total . . j
240
11.
61
63
41
71
^
7
6
5
v '
B
0
Actual distribution of periodic age-classes
Normal do. do.
61
60
62
60
41
60
Variation from the normal dis- )
tribution J
excess
deficit
•+1
+ 2
-19
+ 16
FELLING-PLAN.
135
PRELIMINARY SKETCH FOR THE FELLING-PLAN, ACCORDING TO AREA.
Frampton Estate (Rotation, 80 years).
Felling-Plan: Fall, in Acres.
I. Period (1901-1920).
1. Sub-period
(1901-1910)
16
Thin
do.
Thin
do.
do.
do.
2. Sub-period
(1911-1920).
12
Thin
do.
Thin
do.
do.
do.
Thin
do.
do.
do.
T3 <— v
£3
18
16
Thin
do.
Remarks as to Treatment.
1st Felling - Series ; compart-
ments la, b, c ; 2a, b ; 3a, 5, c, d.
The falls in this series should
precede those in the 2nd series.
The annual falls being only 1^
acres, there will be little
danger from weevils if re-
planted after one year's fallow,
and burning before planting.
15
Thin
do.
do.
Thin
do.
do.
10
11
Thin
Thin
do.i
Thin
do.
Thin
do.
13
Thin
18
Thin
(5)
Thin
do.
Thin
do.
Thin
do.
2nd Felling - Series ; compart-
ments 4 ; 5a, b, c ; 6a, b ; 7a, b.
1 The sporadic softwoods should
be cut out where interfering
with the Conifers.
2 Areas to be planted during the
next 10 years are underlined
(16, 15, 5, 31).
30
57 59 63
Normal
6pacre$
The distribution of the age-classes may also be
shown graphically, thus : —
1-20, ZI-40, 41-60, over 60y ea
136
THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
1 §1 ®
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ig out of old dr!
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rling-pond shou!
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52 oT'S PH
ll
: Clear-Felling and Ri
43
1
80-90-year mixed Coi
hardwoods, chiefly
Oak.
80 - 90 - year mixed
mostly Scots Pine.
Mostly old Beech (140-
and other hardwood
part, with Pine (100-
and mixed Conifers i
70 years).
Chiefly Scots Pine (80-
mixed with Spruce !
Larch.
Mixture of old Beech
90-year-old hardw<
Conifers, mostly in ]
Much the same as comi
' 3 and 6.
||
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WORKING-PLAN.
137
0
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d
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^ His ^ J -2 §
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o "> *"^ ^ S "S
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be
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AMrd.S £^-- ^§ ID'^^
•S
0^0) . <J
P ^ S . Q Q Q CQ "t^ ^_^ 52
f Do. do.
( Parts of 17 may require dra
IDo. do.
50-year-old Spruce and Pine
from wind, and should be
crop. Plant Pine pure on tl
the S. side of hill. Smal
should be filled up to 4 x 4 fl
dry parts, and Sycamore and
6
irsed with Conifers.
• ^
|||S{l|I||ll
6
CO
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£
^tf CD 1
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138 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
planting, tending, &c., including the keeping of a control book
to show the results of the working year by year, and thus
facilitate the revision which is necessary every ten years or so,
and which is much easier than drawing up a Working-plan for
the first time on any woodland estate.
Book-keeping is necessary for the proper management of
woodlands, but it is desirable to limit the number to as few
books as possible. Several are needed, however, in addition
to the Control Book showing the results of working under any
scheme of management — viz., (1) Cash Book, (2) Monthly
Abstract of Daily Labour and Piece Work, (3) Sales Book of
Timber, $c., (4) Ledger, (5) Stock-Book of Timber, and (6) A
Nursery Stock Book; and if there is a saw-mill, regular mill
accounts are also necessary (Cash-book, Ledger, Register of
Receipts and Issues of Timber, Sales Book, and Stock-Register).
In all of these books entries should be made as concisely as
possible. And an annual estimate of the anticipated income
and expenditure should be made before the end of each year
for the following twelve months, and showing the details upon
which it is based.
139
CHAPTER IV.
THE VALUATION OF TIMBER- CROPS AND OF WOODLANDS.
Valuation of woodlands, whether as separate crops of timber
or as a whole, is made by means of formulae based upon the
general formula for summarising a geometrical progression —
1— rn
S = a-
1 — r
There are various specific formulae which may be applied in
problems affecting the valuation of woodlands, but in practice
all calculations are made by means of compound interest tables,
as shown on page 151 (Appendix II.). Some of these summarise
or calculate the future value of a capital, while others discount
or calculate its present value ; and others again permute or
convert a periodic return into an annual rental.
In forestry valuations, the summarising, discounting, and
permutation must all be done by compound interest ; and it is
best to take 3 per cent as the usual rate of interest. Calcula-
tions on this basis usually prove forestry under good manage-
ment to be profitable ; and the larger the area, the greater is
generally the profit. By arbitrarily raising or lowering the
rate of interest used in calculations very divergent results are
obtained (e.g., a plantation costing £5 an acre would at 20
years of age have cost £9 -03 at 3 per cent, and £10-95 at 5
per cent), and the difference is, of course, all the greater when
long periods of years are being dealt with.
140 THE MANAGEMENT • OF WOODLANDS.
The capital in forestry, consisting of the land + the growing-
stock^ which combined form the woodlands, may be valued by
one or other of four methods : —
1. Actual cost of production, so far as concerns the timber-
crops ;
2. Market value, if sold or compared with similar ad-
joining properties ;
3. Its prospective value as to future net income ; and
4. Its capitalised value estimated on the average annual net
income (where C = 100 x net annual income -=- rate %).
When it is desired to compare the present and the prospective
net yield of any two mature or maturing timber-crops, the indi-
cating percentage (see p. 102) is a simple formula for practical use.
In all calculations net income has to be taken — i.e., gross
income less all charges for felling, logging, extracting, &c. ; and
it is only by thus applying strictly actuarial methods of
calculation that approximately correct estimates can be made.
And to be quite correct, all marketable minor produce, shooting,
fishing, &c., should be taken into account as well as timber,
and due allowance made for the annual outlay on management,
planting, upkeep of roads, rates and taxes, &c.
In the Valuation of the Land for Rating, &c., the land,
and not the timber-crop, is assessed. In Scotland the estimated
annual rental value of high woods or coppices is taken as the
rent the land in its natural unimproved condition might reason-
ably be expected to fetch if let for pasture or grazing. Under
English law, the standard prescribed is practically much the
same, being based on the agricultural value of land in its
" natural and unimproved " state ; and in the Rating of Planta-
tions, Woods, &c., it is the land, and not the timber, under-
wood, or other produce of the land, which is made the subject
of assessment ; and if the land used as a plantation or a wood,
or for the growth of saleable underwood, is subject to common
rights, it is exempt from the poor rate and other local rates.
VALUATION. 141
The method of estimating the gross estimated rental and rate-
able value of such woodlands is prescribed as follows : —
"(a) If the land is used only for a plantation or a wood, the value
shall be estimated as if the land instead of being a plantation or a wood
were let and occupied in its natural and unimproved state ; (b) if the land
is used for the growth of saleable underwood, the value shall be estimated
as if the land were let for that purpose ; (c) if the land is used both for a
plantation or a wood and for the growth of saleable underwood, the value
shall be estimated either as if the land were used only for a plantation or
a wood, or as if the land were used only for the growth of the saleable
underwood growing thereon as the assessment committee may determine."
In Valuing Woodlands for Succession Duty the custom has
generally been to value all the timber and other wood, and to
take 3 per cent of this as a fair annual return from their
capital value under good management. This income is then
treated as an annuity, and succession duty has to be paid upon
it on a scale laid down in tables annexed to the Act. Thus, if
the life-tenant were 40 years of age on entering into succession,
and the annual income from the woods were estimated at £500
a-year, this annuity would be considered as having a capital
value of £7437 J assessable to duty (and not as £500^003 =
£16,666).
The Valuation of a Growing Timber-Crop. — If of market-
able size, the present market value of single trees and of the
whole crop in any compartment may easily be determined by
measurement — or in the case of ornamental trees or groups of
trees, by making a fair allowance for their special ornamental
value. If only comparatively young immature crops of wood,,
it will usually be best to estimate their value for sale or transfer
according to their total cost up to the present. But deductions
must be made for the rental value of the land and general
annual charges, in order to arrive at the true value of the
timber-crop alone.
The Valuation of the Normal Capital in Wood throughout
a Working-Circle. — If the woods forming a working-circle are
142 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
in a normal condition, capable of yielding a regular annual fall
of equal amount, then there will be a regular gradation of age-
classes normally distributed throughout the woodlands and
varying from 1 to n years (just before the annual fall) or from
0 to n — 1 years of age (just after the fall), n being the rotation
with which the woods are worked. It is therefore of advantage
to estimate the money value of the normal capital in wood so
as to know the rate of interest actually yielded by the working-
circle.
For example, say the normal annual returns from a working-circle of 800
acres in normal condition, worked with a rotation of 80 years, consist of
£2400 for the mature fall of timber, and £300 from thinnings in woods of
different ages, that each year the cost of planting the area cleared is £40,
and that the gross general charges amount annually to £160 ; what is the
present value of the Normal Capital in Wood, if the annual rental value
of the land is 10s. an acre, and the rate of interest be 3 per cent ? Here
the net receipts are 2700 -200 = £2500, and their capitalised value is
^jj|j = £83,333 £. The rental value of the land being £400 a-year, its
capital value is ^-^ = £13,333^. Hence the capital value of the Normal
Capital in Wood is 83,333J- 13,333£ = £70,000.
The " normal condition " being always a mere ideal, when a valuation of
woodlands is made it must necessarily be that of the actual growing-stock
or capital in wood. It is only by making such a valuation that the actual
rate of interest obtained on the capital invested in the woodlands can be
ascertained.
The Net Income obtained from Woodlands may be calculated
. . . . . . Tq-(c+fv)
by the formula - - - — • - -, where
F=the value of the yield of timber obtained at the final clearance.
T(a, &,...<?) = the value of thinnings carried out in the years a, b,
. . . q, calculated at compound interest up to the date of the final
clearance.
c = the outlay for cultural costs, calculated at compound interest.
v=the various annual outlays, e.g., protection, rates, &c., calculated
at compound interest.
/=the number of years included in the fall or period of rotation of
the crop.
VALUATION. 143
But it is simpler to deduct from the gross income all charges
incurred, and to take the mean for several years.
With a regularly sustained annual yield under good manage-
ment, the woods forming a working-circle of x acres give an
annual return in the mature fall plus all the thinnings at
various ages, as also in minor produce, less cost of reproduction
and of general charges, so that the net annual income per acre
will be found by dividing the total net income by x.
As this includes the net income from the capital in growing-
stock plus land, the result obtained cannot be used in comparing
the profit of forestry with that of agriculture. It merely shows
the net income, but gives no indication as to this being as
profitable as it ought to be for the given land.
But the most profitable Rotation — i.e., the rotation which
will probably yield the highest percentage on the capital value
of the woodland as estimated by the net monetary value of its
produce — is found by making various calculations, each as if for
a single crop, in accordance with the following formula (the
same rate of interest being used in each case, of course), and
ascertaining the rotation showing the greatest profit by indi-
cating the maximum productivity or largest capital value for
land and growing stock (Faustmann's formula) : —
The productivity of the woodlands (as estimated by the net value of
the -timber crop, &c.) is =
g
l'Qpn-l Q
Where—
• Fn = the net income, free from cost of harvesting, yielded by the
mature fall at the year n.
Ta, T&...T2 = the net income, free from cost of harvesting, yielded by
the thinnings at the years a, b ...... q.
p = the percentage or rate of interest which the woodlands are supposed
to yield annually on the investment represented by their capital value.
c = the cost of forming the crop originally, or of regenerating or
replanting the area on the fall of the mature crop.
<7 = the annual outlay for general charges (supervision, protection,
rates and taxes).
144 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
If misused, however, this formula leads to absurd results, for the laud
and the growing-stock can be shown as having less than no value, if the
rotations for which the calculations are made are so low that the produce
is unmarketable and fails to counterbalance the cost of planting and
upkeep, &c. And the same happens if the rate of interest be high.
For example, if a landowner has land suited for planting mixed Conifer
crops, and he wishes to estimate whether a rotation of 80 or 100 years
may be most profitable, he could reckon somewhat as follows with
whatever data he may think most reliable : —
1. Immediate Returns (Thinnings). — Thinnings at 40 years worth £4,
at 50 years £5, at 60 years £6, at 70 years £7, at 80 years £8, and at
90 years £9.
2. Final Yield (Mature Fall).— Clear-felling at 80 years of age, £183 ;
or at 100 years, £266.
The cost of planting being £5 an acre, the general charges for super-
vision, protection, and rates and taxes annually amounting to 5s. an
acre, and the rate of interest [being taken as 3 per cent, which would
prove the more profitable rotation ?
(1) For the 80-years' rotation, the present value of the ultimate income
from all these future returns is —
183 + (4 x 1 -0340) + (5xl -0330) + (6xl -Q320) + (7xl -Q310) -(5x1 -Q380) 0 -25
1-0380-! 0-03
(183 + 13 -0480 + 12-1365 + 10 '8366 + 9 "4073) - 53 -2045T
9-64 — _T'
~ 8-33 = 18-17 -8-33 = 9-84 = £9, 16s. 9d. per acre.
[
(2) For the 100 years' rotation it would be —
\ +(9xl-0310)-(5xl-03100) /_°_^- '
r03loo-l 0-03
f(266 + 23-5664 + 21-9195 + 19*5720 + 16-9911 + 14'4488 + 12-0951) - 96 -Q93Q~| _ ,
1~ 18-22 ~J '
:— — 8 '33 = 15 '28 -8-33 = 6'95 = £6, 19s. per acre.
18*22
The 80-years' rotation would therefore be the more profitable — quite
apart from its involving less capital and giving an earlier return from the
mature crop.
Another example of this method of calculation may also be given, to
show its use for practical purposes. Suppose a Conifer working-circle of
VALUATION. 145
Larch and Scots Pine is worked for pit wood with the following
results : —
First thinning at 15 years of age yields about 580 trees = 20 tons per acre.
Second „ 20 „ „ 500 „ = 25 ' „
Third „ 27 „ „ 380 „ = 20
Fourth „ 30 „ „ 360 „ = 30
Final clearance at 35 „ „ 240 „ = 20 ,,
Total .... 2060 „ =115
The prices obtainable for the timber, sold standing and measured down
to 3 in. top diameter (over bark; 2^ in. free of bark), is 10s. to 12s.
per ton for Larch and 5s. to 5s. 6d. for Scots Pine. The cost of
replanting at 4 by 4 ft. averages from £4, 10s. to £4, 15s. per acre,
while wire-fencing against rabbits is fortunately not necessary.
The apparent profit is here —
At 3 At 4
per cent per cent
nvmr interest. interest.
DEBIT' & a. d. £ s. d.
Planting, at £4, 15s. per acre, amounting in 35 years to . . . 1373 18 14 10
Rent of land, at 5s. per acre per annum, ,, ,, ... 15 2 3 18 8 3
28 9 6 37 3 1
CREDIT.
Thinnings —
(1) At 15 years, 10 tons Larch at 10s. . 5 0 0
10 ,, Pine „ 5s. . 2 10 0
7 10 0 accruing in 20 years to 13 10 10 16 8 8
(2) At 20 years, 12J tons Larch at 10s. .650
12J „ Pine ,, 5s. . 3 2 6
7 6 15 ,, 14 12 1 16 17
(3) At 27 years, 10 tons Larch at 11s. . 5 10 0
10 ,, Pine „ 5s. . 2 10 0
00 ,, 8 ,, 10 2 8 10 18 11
(4) At 30 years, 15 tons Larch at 12s. .900
15 ,, Pine ,, 5s. 6d. 426
13 2 6 „ 5 „ 15 4 3 15 19 4
Final clearance —
At 35 years, 10 tons Larch at 12s. .
10 ,, Pine ,, 5s. 6d.
8 15 0 8 15 0 8 15 0
62 4 10 68 19 5
Apparent profit . . . . 33 15 4 31 16 4
K
146 THE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLANDS.
This apparent profit represents a gain of 11s. 2d. per acre per annum
at 3 per cent, and 8s. 7|d. per acre per annum on a 4 per cent basis, in
addition to the annual rent of 5s. per acre — or a total net annual rent of
16s. 2d. and 13s. 7|d. respectively. But it presumes that no outlay is
needed in beating up blanks, that the income from all the thinnings and
the final clearance are net returns, that the replanting of the land can take
place immediately after the mature crop is cleared, that no weeding is
needed before the first thinning, and that the annual shooting value
covers the rates and taxes, &c. ; and it does not include the cost of
supervision, tending, repair and upkeep of fences, or contingent expenses
of any sort. It is, therefore, *K>t a trustworthy calculation, though as
fair as can be made with the data available.
APPENDIX I.— CUBIC CONTENTS OF ROUND LOGS = Length x ( Mean Glrth \Z,
in Cubic Feet and Decimals of 1 Cubic Foot.
ngth
feet.
MEAN GIRTH IN FEET AND INCHES.
3'
3'.l"
3'. 2"
3'. 3"
3'.4"
3'. 5"
3'. 6"
3'. 7"
3'. 8"
3'. 9"
3'. 10"
3'. 11"
10
11
12
13
14
15
5-6
6-2
6-8
7'3
7-9
8-4
5'9
6-5
7-1
7-7
8-3
8-9
6-3
6-9
7-5
8-1
8-8
9-4
6-6
7'3
7-9
8-6
9-2
9-9
6-9
7-6
8-3
9-0
9-7
10-4
7-3
8-0
8-8
9-5
10-2
10-9
77
8-4
9-2
10-0
10-7
11-5
8-0
8-8
9-6
10-4
11-2
12-0
8-4
9-2
10-1
10-9
11-8
12-6
8-8
97
10-5
11-4
12-3
13-2
9-2
10-1
11-0
11-9
12-9
13-8
9-6
10-5
11-5
12-5
13-4
14-4
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
9-0
9-6
10-1
10-7
11-3
9-5
10-1
10-7
11-3
11-9
10-0
107
11-3
11-9
12-5
10-6
11-2
11-9
12-5
13-2
111
11-8
12-5
13-2
13-9
117
12-4
13-1
13-9
14-6
12-2
13-0
13-8
14-5
15-3
12-8
13-6
14-4
15-2
16-1
13-4
14-3
15-1
16-0
16-8
14-1
14-9
15-8
16-7
17-6
14-7
15-6
16-5
17-4
18-4
15-3
16-3
17-3
18-2
19-2
11-8
12-4
12-9
13-5
14-1
12-5
13-1
13-7
14-3
14-9
13-2
13-8
14-4
15-0
15-7
13-8
14-5
15-2
15-8
16-5
14-6
15-3
16-0
167
17-4
15-3
16-1
16-8
17-5
18-2
161
16-8
17-6
18-4
19-1
16-9
177
18-5
19-3
20-1
17-6
18-5
19-3
20-2
21-0
18-5
19-3
20-2
21-1
22-0
19-3
20-2
21-1
22-0
23-0
20-1
21-1
22-1
23-0
24-0
26
27
28
29
30
14-6
15-2
15-8
16-3
16-9
15-4
16-0
16-6
17-2
17-8
16-3
16-9
17-5
18-2
18-8
17-2
17-8
18-5
19-1
19-8
18-1
187
19-4
20.1
20-8
19-1
19-7
20-4
21-2
21-9
19-9
20-7
21-4
22-2
23-0
20-9
21-7
22-5
23-3
24-1
21-8
22-7
23-5
24-4
25-2
22-9
23-7
24-6
25-5
26-4
23-9
24-8
25-7
26-6
27-6
24-9
25-9
26-8
27-8
28-8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
4'
4'. 1"
4'. 2"
4'. 3"
11-3
12-4
13-5
14-7
15-8
16-9
4'. 4"
4'. 5"
4'. 6"
4'. 1"
4'.8"
4'.9"
4'. 10"
4'. 11"
10-0
11-0
12-0
13 '0
14-0
15-0
10-4
11-5
12-5
13-5
14-6
15-6
10-9
11-9
13-0
14-1
15-2
16-3
11-7
12-9
14-1
15-3
16-4
17-6
122
13-4
14-6
15-8
17'1
18-3
12-7
13-9
15-2
16-5
177
19-0
131
14-4
15-8
171
18-4
19-7
13-6
15-0
16-3
17-7
19-1
20-4
21-8
23-1
24-5
25-9
27-2
14-1
15-5
16-9
183
19-7
10-2
14-6
16-1
17-5
19-0
20-4
21-9
15-1
16-6
18-1
19-6
21-2
22-7
16-0
17-0
18-0
19-0
20-0
16-7
17-7
18-8
19-8
20-8
17-4
18-4
19-5
20-6
21-7
18-1
19-2
20-3
21-4
22-6
18-8
20-0
21-1
22-3
23-5
19-5
20-7
21-9
23-2
24-4
20-2
21-5
22-8
24-0
25-3
21-0
22-3
23-6
24-9
26-3
22-6
24-0
25-4
26-8
28-2
23-4
24-8
26-3
27-7
29-2
24-2
25-7
27-2
28-7
30-2
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
21-0
22-0
23-0
24-0
25-9
22-9
22-9
24-0
25-0
26-1
22-8
23-9
25-0
26-0
27-1
23-7
24-8
26-0
27-1
28-2
24-6
25-8
27-0
28-2
29-3
25-6
26-8
28-0
29-3
30-5
26-6
27-8
29-1
30-4
31-6
27-6
28-9
30-2
31-5
32-8
28-6
29-9
31-3
32-7
34-0
29-6
31-0
32-4
33-8
35-3
30-7
32-1
33-6
35-0
36-5
31-7
33-2
34-7
36-3
37-8
26-0
27-0
28-0
29-0
30-0
27-1
281
29-2
30-2
31-3
28-2
29-3
30-4
31-5
326
29-4
30-5
31-6
32-7
33-9
30-5
31-7
32-9
34-0
35-2
31-7
32-9
34-1
35-4
36-6
32-9
34-2
35-4
36-7
38-0
34-1
35-4
368
38-1
39-4
35-4
36-7
38-1
39-5
40-8
36-7
38-1
39-5
40-9
42-3
38-0
39-4
40-9
42-3
43-8
39-3
40-8
42-3
43-8
45-3
147
APPENDIX I. (continued)— CUBIC CONTENTS OF ROUND LOGS = Length x
in Cubic Feet and Decimals of 1 Cubic Foot.
Mean Girth>
Length
in ieet
MEAN GIRTH IN FEET AND INCHES.
5'
5'.1"
5'. 2"
5'. 3"
5'.4"
5'. 5"
5'. 6"
5'. 7"
5'. 8"
5'.9"
5'. 10"
5.11,.
10
11
12
13
14
15
15-6
17-2
18-8
20-3
21-9
23-4
16-2
17-8
19-4
21-0
22-6
24-2
167
18-4
20-0
217
23-4
25-0
17-2
18-9
207
22-4
24-1
25-8
17-8
19-6
21-3
23-1
24-9
267
18-3
20-2
22-0
23-8
257
27-5
18-9
20-8
227
24-6
26-5
28-4
19-5
21-4
23-4
25-3
27-3
29-2
20-1
22-1
24-1
26-1
28-1
30-1
207
227
24-8
26-9
28-9
31-0
21-3
23-4
25-5
27-6
29-8
31-9
11]
26-
28-
30j
32-
16
17
18
19
20
25-0
26-6
28-1
297
31-3
23-8
27-5
29-1
307
32-3
267
28-4
30-0
317
33-4
27-6
29-3
31-0
327
34-5
28-4
30-2
32-0
33-8
35-6
29-3
31-2
33-0
34-8
367
30-2
32-1
34-0
35-9
37-8
31-2
33-1
35-1
37-0
39-0
32-1
34-1
36-1
38-1
401
33-1
35-1
37-2
39-3
41-3
34 '0
36-2
38-3
40-4
42-5
351
37-
39-
41 i
43
21
22
23
24
25
32-8
34-4
35-9
37-5
39-1
33-9
35-5
371
38-8
40-4
35-0
367
38-4
40-0
417
36-2
37-9
39-6
41-3
43-1
37-3
39-1
40-9
427
44-4
38-5
40-3
42-2
44-0
45-8
397
41-6
43-5
45-4
47-3
40-9
42-9
44-8
46-8
487
42-1
44-2
46-2
48-2
50-2
43-4
45-5
47-5
49-6
517
447
46-8
48-9
51-0
532
5
48
50
52
54
26
27
28
29
30
40-6
42-2
43-8
45-3
46-9
42-0
43-6
45-2
46-8
48-5
43-4
45-0
467
48-4
501
44-8
46-5
48-2
50-0
517
46-2
48-9
49-8
51-6
53-3
477
49-5
51-3
53-2
55-0
49-2
51-0
52-9
54-8
567
507
52-6
54-6
56-5
58-5
52-2
54-2
56-2
58-2
60-2
537
55-8
57-9
59-9
62-0
55-3
57-4
59-5
617
63-8
56
59
61
II
&
6'.l"
6'. 2"
6'. 3"
6'A"
6'. 5"
6'. 6"
6'. 1"
C'.S"
6'. 9"
6'. 10"
G'.l
10
11
12
13
14
15
22-5
24-8
27-0
29-3
31-5
33-8
23-1
25-4
27-8
30-1
32-4
347
37-0
39-3
41-6
43-9
46-3
23-8
26-1
28-5
30-9
33-3
357
24-4
26-9
29-3
317
342
36-6
25-1
27-6
30-1
32-6
35-1
37-6
257
28-3
30-9
33-5
36-0
38-6
264
29-0
317
34-3
37-0
39-6
27-1
29-8
32-5
35-2
37-9
40-6
27-8
30-6
33-3
36-1
38-9
417
28-5
31-3
34-2
37-0
39-9
427
29-2
32-1
350
37-9
40-9
43-8
2,
I!
38
41
44
16
17
18
19
20
36-0
38-3
40-5
42-8
45-0
38-0
40-4
42-8
45-2
47-5
39-1
41-5
43-9
46-4
48-8
40-1
42-6
45-1
47-6
50-1
41-2
437
46-3
48-9
51-5
42-2
44-9
47-5
50 -1
52-8
43-3
46-0
48-8
51-5
54-2
44-4
47'2
50-0
52-8
55-6
45-6
48-4
51-3
54-1
57-0
467
49-6
52-5
55-4
58-4
47
of,
58
56
1S
21
22
23
24
25
47-3
49-5
51-8
54-0
56-3
48-6
50-9
53-2
55-5
57-8
49-9
52-3
547
57-0
59-4
51-3
537
56-2
58-6
61-0
52-6
55-2
577
60-2
627
54-0
56-6
59-2
61-8
64-3
555
58-1
607
63-4
660
56-9
59-6
62-3
650
677
58-3
61 rl
63-9
667
69-4
59-8
62-6
65-5
68-3
71-2
61-3
64-2
67-1
70-0
73-0
65
Gf
68
71
74
26
27
28
29
30
58-5
60-8
63-0
65-3
67-5
601
62-4
64-8
67-1
69-4
61-8
64-2
66-5
68-9
71-3
63-5
65-9
68-4
70-8
73-2
65-2
677
70-2
727
75-2
66-9
69-5
72-1
74-6
77-2
687
71-3
73-9
76-6
79-2
70-4
73-1
75-8
78-6
81-3
722
75-0
77-8
80-6
83-3
74-0
76-9
797
82-6
85-4
75-9
78-8
817
84-6
87-6
77
8(
8?
«
«
148
JPPENDIX I. (cont
3 CONTENTS OF ROUND LOGS
t and Decimals of 1 Cubic
thx(]
Vfeau Girth \2
in Cubic Fee
Foot.
4 ;'
jength
Q feet.
MEAN GIRTH IN FKET AND INCHES.
V
T.I"
7'.2" 7'.3"
r. 4"
7'. 5"
7'. 6"
7'.7"
7'. 8"
7'. 9"
7'. 10"
7'. 11"
10
11
12
13
14
15
30-6
33-7
36-8
39-8
42-9
45-9
31-4
34-5
37-6
40-8
43-9
47-0
32-1
35-3
38-5
41-7
44-9
48-2
32-9
36-1
39-4
42-7
46-0
49-3
33-6
37-0
40-3
43-7
47-1
50-4
34-4
37-8
41-3
44-7
48-1
51-6
35-2
38-7
42-2
45-7
49-2
52-7.
35-9
39-5
43-1
46-7
50-3
53-9
36-7
40-4
44-1
47-8
51-4
55-1
37-5
41-3
45-0
48-8
62-6
56-3
38-4
42-2
46-0
49-9
53-7
57-5
39:2
43-1
47-0
50-9
54-8
58-8
16
17
18
19
20
49-0
52-1
55-1
58-2
61-3
50-2
53-3
56-4
59-6
62-7
51-4
54-6
57'8
61-0
64-2
52-6
55-8
59-1
62-4
65-7
53-8
57-1
60-5
63-9
67-2
55-0
58-4
61-9
65-3
68-8
56-2
59-8
63-3
66-8
70-3
57-5
61-1
647
68-3
71-9
58-8
62-5
66-1
69-8
73-5
60-1
63-8
67-6
71-3
75-1
61-4
65-2
69-0
72-9
76-7
62-7
66-6
70-5
74-4
78-3
21
22
23
24
25
64-3
67-4
70-4
73-5
76-6
65-9
69-0
72-1
75-3
78-4
67-4
70-6
73-8
77-0
80-3
69-0
72-3
75-6
78-8
82-1
70-6
73-9
77-3
80-7
83-0
72-2
75-6
79-1
82-5
85-9
73-8
77-3
80-9
84-4
87-9
75-5
79-1
82-7
86-3
89-9
77-1
80-8
84-5
88-2
91-8
78-8
82-6
86-3
90-1
93-8
80-5
84-4
88-2
92-0
95-9
82-3
86-2
90-1
94-0
97-9
101-8
105-8
109-7
1136
117-5
26
27
28
29
30
79-6
82-7
85-8
88-8
91-9
81-5
84-7
87-8
90-9
94-1
83-5
867
89.9
93-1
96-3
85-5
88-7
92-0
95-3
98-6
87-4
90-7
94-1
97-5
100-8
89-4
92-8
96-3
99-7
103-1
91-4
94-9
98-4
102-0
105-5
93-4
97-0
100-6
104-2
107-8
95-5
99-2
102-9
106-5
110-2
97-6
101-4
105-1
108-9
112-6
997
103-5
107-4
111-2
115-1
8'
8M"
8'. 2"
&'.3"
8'. 4"
8'.5"
8'.6"
8'. 7"
8'.8"
8'. 9"
8'. 10"
8'. 11"
10
11
12
13
14
15
40-0
44-0
48-0
52-0
56-0
60-0
40-8
44-9
49-0
53-1
57-2
60-3
417
45-9
50-0
54-2
58-4
62-5
42-5
46-8
51-0
55-3
59-6
63-8
43-4
477
52-1
56-4
608
65-1
44-3
48-7
53-1
57-6
62-0
66-4
45-2
49-7
54-2
58-7
63-2
677
46-0
50-7
55-3
59-9
64-5
69-1
46-9
51-6
56 C
60-0
65-7
70-4
47-9
52-6
57-4
62-2
67-0
71-8
48-8
53-6
58-5
63-4
68-3
73-2
49-7
54-7
59-6
64-6
69-6
74-5
: 16
i IT
5
20
V~
22
23
24
25
26
|27
J'28
29
!°
64-0
68-0
72-0
76-0
80-0
65-3
69-4
73-5
77-6
81-7
66-7
70-9
75-0
79-2
83-4
68-1
72-3
76-6
80-8
85-1
69-4
73-8
78-1
82-5
86-8
70-8
75-3
797
84-1
88-6
72-2
76-8
81-3
85-8
90-3
73-7
78-3
82-9
87-5
92-1
75-1
79-8
84-5
89-2
93-9
76 -6J
81-3
861
90-9
95-7
78-0
82-9
87-8
92-6
97-5
79-5
84-5
89-4
94-4
99-4
84-0
88-0
92-0
96-0
100-0
85-8
89-8
93-9
98-0
1021
87-5
91-7
95-9
100-0
104-2
89-3
93-6
97-8
102-1
106-3
91-1
95-5
99-8
104-2
108-5
93-0
97-4
101-8
106-3
110-7
94-8
99-3
103-9
108-4
112-9
967
101-3
1059
110-5
115-1
98-6
103-3
108-0
112-7
117-4
100-5
105-3
110-1
114-8
119-6
102-4
107-3
112-2
117-0
121-9
104-4
109-3
114-3
119-3
124-2
104-0
108-0
112-0
116-0
120-0
106-2
110-3
114-3
117-4
122-5
108-4
1125
1167
120-9
125-1
110-6
114-9
119-1
123-4
127-6
1128
117-2
121-5
125-9
130-2
115-1
119-5
124-0
128-4
132-8
117-4
121-9
126-4
131-0
135-5
119-7
124-3
128-9
133-5
138-1
122-1
126-7
131-4
136-1
140-8
124-4
129-2
134-0
138-8
143-6
126-8
131-7
136-5
141-4
146-3
129-2
134-2
139-1
144-1
149-1
149
/Mean Girth\2
APPENDIX I. (continued)— CUBIC CONTENTS OF ROUND LOGS = Length x ^ ~
in Cubic Feet and Decimals of 1 Cubic Foot.
Length
in feet.
MEAN GIRTH IN FEET AND INCHES.
9'
9M"
9'. 2"
9'. 3"
9'. 4"
9'. 5"
9'. 6"
9'. 7"
9'. 8"
9'. 9"
9'. 10"
&'.ii"
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
50-6
55-7
60-8
65-8
70-9
75-9
51-6
56-7
61-9
67-0
72-2
77-4
52-5
57-8
63-0
68-3
73-5
78-8
53-5
58-8
64-2
69-5
74-9
80-2
54-4
59-9
65-3
70-8
76-2
81-7
55-4
61-0
66-5
72-0
77-6
83-1
56-4
62-0
67-7
73-3
79-0
84-6
57-4
63-1
68-9
74-6
80-4
86-1
58-4
64-2
70-1
75-9
81-8
87-6
59-4
65-4
71-3
77-2
83-2
89-1
60-4
66-5
72-5
78-6
84-6
90-7
615
67-6
73-8
79-9
86-0
92-2
81-0
86-1
91-1
96-2
101-3
82-5
877
92-8
98-0
103-1
84-0
89-3
94-5
99-8
105-0
85-6
90-9
96-3
101-6
107-0
871
92-6
98-0
103-4
108-9
88-7
94-2
99-8
105-3
110-8
90-2
95-9
1015
107-2
112-8
91-8
97-6
103-3
109-1
114-8
93-4
99-3
105-1
111-0
116-8
95-1
101-0
106-9
112-9
118-8
96-7
1027
108-8
114-8
120-9
98-3
104-5
110-6
116-8
122-9
21
22
23
24
25
106-3
111-4
116-4
121-5
126-6
108-3
113-4
118-6
123-8
128-9
110-3
115-5
120-8
126-0
131-3
1123
117-6
123-0
128-3
133-7
114-3
119-8
125-2
130-7
136-1
116-4
121-9
127-5
133-0
138-6
118-5
124-1
129-7
135-4
141-0
120-5
126-3
132-0
137-8
143-5
122-6
128-5
134-3
140-2
146-0
124-8
130-7
136-7
142-6
148-5
126-9
133-0
139-0
145-0
1511
129-1
135-2
141-4
147-5
153-7
26
27
28
29
30
131-6
136-7
141-8
146-8
151-9
134-1
139-2
144-4
149-5
154-7
136-5
141-8
147-0
152-3
157-6
139-0
144-4
149-7
155-1
160-4
141-6
147-0
152-4
157-9
163-3
144-1
149-6
155-2
160-7
166-3
146-7
152-3
157-9
163-6
169-2
149-2
155-0
160-7
166-5
172-2
151-8
157-7
163-5
169-4
175-2
154-5
160-4
166-4
172-3
178-2
157-1
163-2
169-2
175-3
181-3
159-8
165-9
172-1
178-2
184-4
10'
IV. I"
10'. 2"
10'. 3"
10'.4"
10'. 5"
10'.6"
10'. 1"
10'. 8"
10'. 9"
10'. 10"
10'. 11"
10
11
12
13
14
15
62-5
68-8
75-0
81-3
87-5
93-8
63-5
69-9
76-3
82-6
89-0
• 95-3
64-6
71-1
77-5
84-0
90-4
96-9
65-7
72-2
78-8
85-4
91-9
98-5
667
734
80-1
86-8
93-4
100-1
67-8
74-6
81-4
88-2
94-9
101-7
68-9
75-8
82-7
89-6
96-5
103-4
70-0
77-0
84-0
91-0
98-0
105-0
71-1
78-2
85-3
92-4
99-6
106-7
72-2
79-4
86-7
93-9
101-1
108-3
73-4
80-7
88-0
95-4
102-7
110-0
74-6
81-9
89-4
96-8
104-3
111-7
16
17
18
19
20
100-0
106-3
112-5
118-8
125-0
101-7
108-0
113-4
120-7
127-1
103-4
109-8
116-3
122-7
129-2
105-1
111-6
118-2
124-8
131-3
106-8
113.5
120-1
126-8
133-5
108-5
115-3
122-1
128-9
135-6
110-2
1171
124-0
130-9
137-8
112-0
119-0
126-0
133-0
140-0
113-8
120-9
128-0
135-1
142-2
115-6
122-8
130-0
137-2
144-5
117-4
124-7
132-0
139-4
146-7
119-2
126-6
134-1
141-5
149-0
21
22
23
24
25
131-3
137-5
143-8
150-0
156-3
133-4
139-8
146-2
152-5
158-9
135-7
142-1
148-6
155-0
161-5
137-9
144-5
151-0
157-6
164-2
140-1
146-8
153-5
160-2
166-8
142-4
149-2
156-0
162-8
169-5
144-7
151-6
158-5
165-4
172-3
147-0
154-0
161-0
168-0
175-0
149-3
156-4
163-6
170-7
177-8
151-7
158-9
166-1
173-3
180-6
154-0
161-4
168-7
176-0
183-4
156-4
163-9
171-3
178-8
186-2
26
27
28
29
30
162-5
168-8
175-0
181-3
187-5
165-2
171-6
177-9
184-3
190-6
168-8
174-4
180-9
187-3
193-8
170-7
177-3
183-9
190-4
197-0
173-5
180-2
186-9
193-5
200-2
176-3
183-1
189-9
196-7
203-5
179-2
186-0
192-9
199-8
206-7
182-0
189-0
196-0
203-0
210-0
184-9
192-0
199-1
206-2
213-3
187-8
195-0
202-2
209-5
216-7
190-7
198-0
205-4
212-7
220-1
1937
201-1
208-6
216-0
223-5
150
APPENDIX II. — TABLES OF COMPOUND INTEREST
AND DISCOUNT.
Examples of the Use of the Tables :—
Table I. — A capital of 1 at 3 per cent in twenty years becomes 1*8061 ;
therefore £100 would become 100 x 1'8061 = 180'61 = £180,
12s. 2d.
,, II. — A capital of 1 obtainable in 40 years has, at 3 per cent, a
present value of only 0'3066 ; therefore £100 would only
have a present value of 100 x 0 '3066 = 30 '66 = £30, 13s. 2d.
„ III. — A return of 1 due 10 years hence, and every 10 years after
that, has at 4 per cent a present value of 2 '0823 ; therefore
a similar return of £20 (as, for example, the net income from
a piece of coppice cut every 10 years) would have a present
value of 20x2-0823 = 41 -646 = £41, 12s. lid.
,, IV. — A return of 1 obtainable for the next 20 years represents, at 3
per cent interest, 26'8704 at the end of that time ; therefore
a hunt leasing a piece of woodland as a fox -co vert for 20
years at a rental of £20 a-year, will by the end of that time
have paid a sum equal -to 20 x 26'8704 = 537'408 = £537.
8s. 2cl.
And conversel}7, this table can be used to ascertain the
annual payment necessary to establish a Fund which will
amount to a certain sum in n years, through dividing
the capital by the final value
For example, if £5000 are payable 20 years hence, what
sum must be invested annually at 3 per cent to form a fund
that will clear the debt then? Here r = 5000 -J- 26 "8704
= 186 -07 = £186, is. 5d.
V. — An annual return of 1 obtainable for the next 20 years has,
at 3 per cent interest, a present value of 14 '8775 ; therefore
a rental of £20 a-year payable by a hunt leasing a wood for
20 years as a fox-covert would, at 3 per cent, be equal to
a present total payment of 20 x 14 '8775 = 297 '55 = £297, 11s.
And conversely, the annual sum required to liquidate
within the course of n years a debt now incurred, is ascer-
tained through dividing this sum by the present value
as shown in this table
l-0jp»x0-0i»\
"1-0^-1 )•
For example, if a debt of £5000 be now incurred, it
can, reckoning 3 per cent interest, be gradually liquidated
(along with the interest due on it) in. 20 years by an annual'
payment of r=5000-M4'8775 = 336-077 = £336, Is. 6d.
151
TABLE I. — THE SUMMARISED FUTURE VALUE OF A CAPITAL ((7) of 1,
accumulating at Compound Interest for n years, the rate of Interest
being p. [Cn = Cxl'0 pn].
Years.
n.
Rate of interest (p) per cent.
24
3
3i
4
4i
1
2
3
4
5
1-0250
1-0506
1-0769
1-1038
1-1314
1-0300
1-0609
1-0927
1-1255
1-1593
1-0350
1-0712
1-1087
1-1475
1-1877
1-0400
1-0816
1-1249
1-1699
1-2167
1-0450
1-0920
1-1412
1-1925
1-2462
6
7
8
9
10
1-1597
1-1887
1-2184
1-2489
1-2801
1-1941
1-2299
1-2668
1-3048
1-3439
1-2293
1-2723
1-3168
1-3629
1-4106
1-2653
1-3159
1-3686
1-4233
1-4802
1-3023
1-3609
1-4221
1-4861
1-5530
11
12
13
14
15
1-3121
1-3449
1-3785
1-4130
1-4483
1-3842
1-4258
1-4685
1-5126
1-5580
1-4600
1-5111
1-5640
1-6187
1-6753
1-5395
1-6010
1-6651
1-7317
1-8009
1-6229
1-6959
1-7722
1-8519
1-9353
16
17
18
19
20
1-4845
1-5216
1-5597
1-5986
1-6386
1-6047
1-6528
1-7024
1-7535
1-8061
1-7340
1-7947
1-8575
1-9225
1-9898
1-8730
1-9479
2-0258
2-1068
2-1911
2-0224
2-1134
2-2085
2-3079
2-4117
21
22
23
24
25
1-6796
1-7216
1-7646
1*8087
1-8539
1-8603
1-9161
1-9736
2-0328
2-0938
2-0594
2-1315
2-2061
2-2833
2-3632
2-2788
2-3699
2-4647
2-5633
2-6658
2-5202
2-6337
27522
2-8760
3-0054
26
27
28
29
30
1-9003
1-9478
1-9965
2-0464
2-0976
2-1566
2-2213
2-2879
2-3566
2-4273
2-4460
2-5316
2-6202
27119
2-8068
2-7725
2-8834
2-9987
3-1187
3-2434
3-1407
3-2820
3-4297
3-5840
3-7453
35
40
45
50
55
60
2-3732
2-6851
3-0379
3-4371
3-8888
4-3998
2-8139
3-2620
3-7816
4-3839
5-0821
5-8916
3-3336
3-9593
4-7024
5-5849
6-6331
7-8781
3-9461
4-8010
5-8412
7-1067
8-6464
10-5196
4-6673
5-8164
7-2482
9-0326
11-2563
14-0274
65
70
75
80
90
100
4-9780
5-6321
6-3722
7-2096
9-2289
11-8137
6-8300
7-9178
9-1789
10-6409
14-3005
19-2186
9-3567
11-1128
13-1986
15-6757
22-1122
31-1914
12-7987
15-5716
18-9453
23-0498
34-1193
50-5049
17-4807
21-7841
26-1470
33-8301
52-5371
81-5885
152
TABLE II. — THE DISCOUNTED PEESENT VALUE OF A CAPITAL (Cn) of 1,
C ~~i
realisable n years hence, the rate of Interest being p. [(7= n n I.
Years.
n.
Rate of interest (p) per cent.
a*
3
*i
4
4
1
2
3
4
5
0-9756
0-9518
0-9286
0-9060
0-8839
0-9709
0-9426
0-9151
0-8885
0-8626
0-9662
0-9335
0-9019
0-8714
0-8420
0-9615
0-9246
0-8890
0-8548
0-8219
0-9569
0-9157
0-8763
0-8386
0-8025
6
7
8
9
10
0-8623
0-8413
0-8207
0-8007
07812
0-8375
0-8131
0-7894
0-7664
0-7441
0-8135
0-7860
0-7594
0-7337
0-7089
0-7903
0-7599
0-7307
0-7026
0-6756
0-7679
0-7348
0-7032
0-6729
0-6439
11
12
13
14
15
0-7621
0-7436
0-7254
0-7077
0-6905
0-7224
0-7014
0-6810
0-6611
0-6419
0-6849
0-6618
0-6394
0-6178
0-5969
0-6496
0-6246
0-6006
0-5775
0-5553
0-6162
0-5897
0-5643
0-5400
0-5167
16
17
18
19
20
0-6736
0-6572
0-6412
0-6255
0-6103
0-6232
0-6050
0-5874
0-5703
0-5537
0-5767
0-5572
0-5384
0-5202
0-5026
0-5339
0-5134
0-4936
0-4746
0-4564
0-4945
0-4732
0-4528
0-4333
0-4146
21
22
23
24
25
0-5954
0-5809
0-5667
0-5529
0-5394
0-5375
0-5219
0-5067
0-4919
0-4776
0-4856
0-4692
0-4533
0-4380
0-4231
0-4388
0-4220
0-4057
0-3901
0-3751
0-3968
0-3797
0-3633
0-3477
0-3327
26
27
28
29
30
0-5262
0-5134
0-5009
0-4887
0-4767
0-4637
0-4502
0-4371
0-4243
0-4120
0-4088
0-3950
0-3817
0-3687
0-3563
0-3607
0-3468
0-3335
0-3207
0-3083
0-3184
0-3047
0-2916
0-2790
0-2670
35
40
45
50
55
60
0-4214
0-3724
0-3292
0-2909
0-2572
0-2273
0-3554
0-3066
0-2644
0-2281
0-1968
0-1697
0-3000
0-2526
0-2127
0-1791
0-1508
0-1269
0-2534
0-2083
0-1712
0-1407
0-1157
0-0951
0-2143
0-1719
0-1380
0-1107
0-0888
0-0713
65
70
75
80
90
100
0-2009
0-1776
0-1569
0-1387
0-1084
0-0847
0-1464
0-1263
0-1089
0-0940
0-0699
0-0520
0-1069
0-0900
0-0758
0-0638
0-0452
0-0321
0-0781
0-0642
0-0528
0-0434
0-0293
0-0198
0-0572
0-0459
0-0368
0-0296
0-0190
0-0123
153
TABLE III. — THE DISCOUNTED PRESENT VALUE OF A PERPETUAL PERI-
ODIC RENTAL OR RETURN (E) of 1, obtainable every n years, the
D
rate of Interest being p. [(7= — — - —
Years.
n.
Rate of interest (p) per cent
H
3
•I
4
4*
I
2
3
4
5
40-0000
197531
13-0055
9-6327
7-6099
33-3333
16-4204
10-7843
7-9676
6-2785
28-5714
14-0400
9-1981
6-7786
5-3280
25-0000
12-2549
8-0087
5-8873
4-6157
22-2222
10-8666
7-0839
5-1943
4-0620
6
7
8
9
10
6-2620
5-2998
4-5787
4-0183
3-5703
5-1533
4-3502
3-7485
3-2811
2-9077
4-3620
3-6727
3-1565
2-7556
2-4355
3-7690
3-1652
2-7132
2-3623
2-0823
3-3084
2-7711
2-3691
2-0572
1-8084
11
12
13
14
15
3-2042
2-8995
2-6419
2-4215
2-2307
2-6026
2-3487
2-1343
1-9509
1-7922
2-1741
1-9567
1-7732
1-6163
1 -4807
1-8537
1-6638
1-5036
1 -3667
1-2485
1 -6055
1-4370
1-2950
1-1738
1-0692
16
17
18
19
20
2-0640
1-9171
1-7868
1-6704
1-5659
1-6537
1-5317
1-4236
1-3271
1-2405
1-3624
1 -2584
1-1662
1-0840
1-0103
1-1455
1-0550
0-9748
0-9035
0-8395
0-9781
0-8982
0-8275
0-7646
0-7084
21
22
23
24
25
1-4715
1-3859
1-3079
1-2365
1-1710
1-1624
1-0916
1-0271
0-9682
0-9143
0-9439
0-8838
0-8291
0-7792
0-7335
0-7820
0-7300
0-6827
0-6397
0-6003
0-6578
0-6121
0-5707
0-5330
0-4986
26
27
28
29
30
1-1107
1-0551
1-0035
0-9556
0-9111
0-8646
0-8188
07764
0-7372
0-7006
0-6916
0-6529
0-6172
0-5842
0-5535
0-5642
0-5310
0-5003
0-4720
0-4458
0-4671
0-4382
0-4116
0-3870
0-3643
35
40
45
50
55
60
0-7282
0-5934
0-4907
0-4103
0-3462
0-2941
0-5513
0-4421
0-3595
0-2955
0-2450
0-2044
0-4285
0-3379
0-2701
0-2181
0-1775
0-1454
0-3394
0-2631
0-2066
0-1638
0-1308
0-1050
0-2727
0-2076
0-1600
0-1245
0-0975
0-0768
65
70
75
80
90
100
0-2514
0-2159
0-1861
0-1610
0-1215
0-0925
0-1715
0-1446
0-1223
0-1037
0-0752
0-0549
0-1197
0-0989
0-0820
0-0681
0-0474
0-0331
0-0848
0-0686
0-0557
0-0454
0-0302
0-0202
0-0607
0-0481
0-0382
0-0305
0-0194
0-0124
154
TABLE IV.— THE SUMMARISED FUTURE VALUE OP AN ANNUAL RENTAL
OR KETURN (r) of 1, obtainable for n years in all, the rate of In-
r(l-0 j?"-in
_r
terest being p. [On-
Years.
n.
Bate of interest (p) per cent.
2*
3
3*
4
4*
1
2
3
4
5
1-0000
2-0250
3-0756
4-1525
5-2563
1-0000
2-0300
3-0909
4-1836
5-3091
1-0000
2-0350
3-1062
4-2149
5-3625
1-0000
2-0400
3-1216
4-2465
5-4163
1-0000
2-0450
3:1370
4-2782
5-4707
6
7
8
9
10
6-3877
7-5474
8-7361
8-9545
11-2034
6-4684
7-6625
8-8923
10-1591
11-4639
6-5502
77794
9-0517
10-3685
11-7314
6-6330
7-8983
9-2142
10-5828
12-0061
6-7169
8-0192
9-3800
10-8021
12-2882
11
12
13
14
15
12-4835
12-7956
151404
16-5190
17-9319
12-8078
14-1920
15-6178
17-0863
18-5989
13-1420
14-6020
16-1130
17-6770
19-2957
13-4864
15-0258
16-6268
18-2919
20-0236
13-8412
15-4640
17-1599
18-9321
20-7841
16
17
18
19
20
19-3802
20-8647
22-3863
23-9460
25-5447
20-1569
21-7616
23-4144
25-1169
26-8704
20-9710
22-7050
24-4997
26-3572
28-2797
21-8245
23-6975
25-6454
27-6712
29-7781
22-7193
24-7417
26-8551
29-0636
31-3714
21
22
23
24
25
27-1833
28-8629
30-5844
32-3490
34-1578
23-6765
30-5368
32-4529
34-4265
36-4593
30-2695
32-3289
34-4604
36-6665
38-9499
31-9692
34-2480
36-6179
39-0826
41-6459
33-7831
36-3034
38-9370
41-6892
44-5652
26
27
28
29
30
3o-0117
37-9120
39-8598
41-8563
43-9027
38-5530
40-7096
42-9309
45-2189
47-5754
41-3131
437591
46-2906
48-9108
51-6-.'27
44-3117
47-0842
49-9676
52-9663
56-0849
47-5706
50-7113
53-9933
57-4230
61-0071
35
40
45
50
55
60
54-9282
67-4026
81-5161
97-4843
115.551
135-992
60-4621
75-4013
92-7199
112-797
136-072
163-053
66-6740
84-5503
105-782
130-998
160-947
196-517
73-6522
95-0255
121-029
152-667
191-159
237-991
81-4966
107.030
138-850
178-503
227-918
289-498
65
70
75
80
90
100
159-118
185-284
214-888
248-383 •
329-154
432-549
194-333
230-594
272-631
321 -363 •
443349
607-288
238-763
288-938
348-530
419-307
603-205
862-612
294-968
364-290
448-631
551-245
827-903
1237-62
366-238
461 -870
581-044
729-558
1145-27
1790-86
155
TABLE V. — THE DISCOUNTED PRESENT VALUE OF AN ANNUAL RENTAL
OR RETURN (r) of 1. obtainable for n years in all, the rate of
Interest being ,. lO=~
Years.
n.
Rate of interest (p) per cent.
24
3
H
4
44
I
2
3
4
5
0-9756
1-9274
2-8560
3-7620
4-6458
0-9709
1-9135
2-8286
3-7171
4-5797
0-9662
1-8997
2-8016
3-6731
4-5151
0-9615
1-8861
2-7751
3-6299
4-4518
0-9569
1-8727
2-7490
3-5875
4-3900
6
7
8
9
10
5-5081
6-3494
7-1701
7-9709
8-7521
5-4172
6-2303
7-0197
7-7861
8-5302
5-3286
6-1145
6-8740
7-6077
8-3166
5-2421
6-0021
6-7327
7-4353
8-1109
5-1579
5-8927
6-5959
7-2688
7-9127
11
12
13
14
15
9-5142
10-2578
10-9832
11-6909
12'3814
9-2526
9-9540
10-6350
11-2961
11-9379
9-0016
9-6633
10-3027
10-9205
11-5174
8-7605
9-3851
9-9857
10-5631
11-1184
8-5289
9-1186
9-6829
10-2228
10-7395
16
17
18
19
20
13-0550
13-7122
14-3534
14-9789
15-5892
12-5611
13-1661
13-7535
14-3238
14-8775
12-0941
12-6513
13-1897
13-7098
14-2124
11-6523
12-1657
12-6593
13-1339
13-5903
11-2340
11-7072
12-1600
12-5933
13-0079
21
22
23
24
25
16-1845
16-7654
17-3321
17-8850
18-4244
15-4150
15-9369
16-4436
16-9355
17-4131
14-6980
15-1671
15-6204
16-0584
16-4815
14-0292
14-4511
14-8568
15-2470
15-6221
13-4047
137844
14-1478
14-4955
14-8282
26
27
28
29
30
18-9506
19-4640
19-9649
20-4535
20-9303
17-8768
18-3270
18-7641
19-1885
19-6004
16-8904
17-2854
17-6670
18-0358
18-3920
15-9828
16-3296
16-6631
16-9837
17-2920
15-1466
15-4513
15-7429
16-0219
16-2889
35
40
45
50
55
60
23-1452
25-1028
26-8330
28-3623
29-7140
30-9087
21-4872
23-1148
24-5187
25-7298
26-7744
27-6756
20-0007
21-3551
22-4955
23-4556
24-2641
24-9447
18-6646
19-7928
20-7200
21-4822
22-1086
22-6235
17-4610
18-4016
19-1563
19-7620
20-2480
20-6380
65
70
75
80
90
100
31 -9646
32-8979
33-7227
34-4518
35-6658
36 6141
28-4529
291234
29-7018
30-2008
31-0024
31-5989
25-5178
26-0004
26-4067
26-7488
27-2793
27-6554
23-0467
23-3945
23-6804
23-9154
24-2673
24 5050
20-9510
21-2021
21-4036
21-5653
21 -7992
21-9499
156
PART III.
THE PKOTECTION OF WOODLANDS
CHAP.
I. PROTECTION AGAINST HUMAN ACTS, FARM-STOCK, GAME, RODENTS,
AND BIRDS.
II. PROTECTION AGAINST INJURIOUS INSECTS.
III. PROTECTION AGAINST WEEDS, EPIPHYTES, AND FUNGUS DIS-
EASES.
IV. PROTECTION AGAINST DAMAGE FROM INORGANIC CAUSES.
CHAPTER I.
PROTECTION AGAINST HUMAN ACTS, FARM-STOCK, GAME,
RODENTS, AND BIRDS.
Legislative Protection is afforded by Forest Ads, and Rules
made thereunder, in all countries having large forest areas
under more or less systematic management. But in Britain
there is, as yet, no need for these, and the only legal pro-
tection given is that, in 1861, the statutes dealing with damage
to woodlands, trees, and shrubs were consolidated in the
Larceny and other similar Offences Act (sect. 16, referring to
"any Forest, Chase, or Purlieu," and sects. 31 to 33, and 35,
referring to " trees and woods "), protection being at the same
time also given to ornamental trees and shrubs under the
Malicious Injuries to Property Act (sects. 20 to 22, and 53).
Under these it is felony to steal any tree, shrub, or under-
wood, or to destroy or maliciously injure the same with intent
to steal, if the value be <£! in parks, avenues, or pleasure-
grounds, or £5 elsewhere ; and even if the value be only over
Is., on a third offence the larceny becomes a felony, and the
malicious injury is punishable with two years' imprisonment
with hard labour.
In Britain woodlands are generally enclosed with walls,
fences, or hedgerows, although boundary marks are only
necessary along march - lines between two different estates
under separate ownership. In England an owner or occupier
160 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
of land need not put up or maintain any fence between his
own and his neighbour's land ; but he must abide by the con-
sequences of not doing so, and must bear the loss caused by
cattle straying from a highway ; and he must take care that
his cattle do not stray and trespass over the adjoining property.
In Scotland a proprietor can force a conterminous proprietor
to join him in mutually enclosing their property and to pay the
half -share of the expense of making a march-dyke or. proper
fence, and of keeping it in repair and reconstructing it when
no longer repairable.
A proprietor may plant as near to the edge of his land as he
likes, but the adjoining proprietor can cut branches overhanging
his land.
Commonage and Rights of User are in British woodlands
practically confined to the Crown forests, which are not the
absolute property of the Crown, but are more or less burdened
with rights that are of the nature of real property in so far
as concerns the compulsory doing of certain acts, or the not
doing of other acts. In England rights of user and of common-
age were at one time very extensive, but matters were simplified
by legislation about the end of the eighteenth century.
Trespass may disturb game, but does no harm to woodlands.
Notices that " Trespassers will be prosecuted according to law "
are ridiculous, as trespass is not a criminal act, and the only
remedy is a civil action claiming damages for such actual
damage as can be proved. Any trespasser can be ordered off
the property ; and if he refuse to go, just sufficient force may
be used as is necessary to eject him.
Fires are almost always caused by incendiarism, negligence, or
sparks from railivay engines. Incendiary fires are usually lighted
from malice or to hide other offences. Accidental fires due to
imprudence or negligence are chiefly caused by woodmen failing
to extinguish fires they have lighted when burning heather or
rubbish on cleared areas, or by passers-by throwing away
FIRES. 161
matches while still burning. The most dangerous months for
fire are April, when the dead grass and weeds are dried by the
east winds, and August, when the soil-covering is parched by
the summer drought ; and high wind increases the risk of
damage. Fires may seriously damage young plantations and
polewoods, and even necessitate the premature felling of older
crops, or make them sickly and liable to attacks by insects
and fungi. And owing to their resin, Conifers are far more
liable to damage than broad-leaved trees. By far the most
common form is a ground-fire beginning among dry -grass or
dead leaves, and spreading quickly along the surface of the
ground. In young crops the plants are usually killed; in
polewoods the bark is often scorched so badly that the poles
sicken and die; but in old crops of trees with thick bark the
damage is seldom serious, except in Beechwoods. Sometimes,
however, if there is much dead herbage or foliage on the ground,
the fire becomes so strong as to get hold of the crowns of coni-
ferous poles or trees, and then becomes a crown- fire or confla-
gration of the most destructive nature.
With regard to fires caused by sparks or cinders from railway
engines, under the Railway Fires Act, 1905, which came into
force on January 1, 1908, a claim for damage may in each case
be made up to <£100, but only if written notice of the claim
has been sent to the railway company within seven days of the
damage occurring, and written particulars of the damage within
fourteen days. Light railways and steam-tramways come within
scope of the Act. Under sect. 2 a railway company may enter
on any land and do all things reasonably necessary for extin-
guishing or arresting the spread of any such fire, and may, for
preventing or diminishing risk of fire in a wood or plantation,
enter upon any part of it, or on any adjoining land, and cut
down and clear away any undergrowth, and take any other
reasonably necessary precautions ; but they must not, without
consent of the owner, cut down or injure any trees, bushes, or
L
162 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
shrubs. And a railway company exercising such powers must
pay full compensation to any person injuriously affected by their
exercise, including compensation for loss of amenity.
Fire-Prevention. — All workmen employed in burning heath,
turf, or bark should be warned to exercise great caution in using
fire, and should be well supervised to see that proper care is
taken. Green lanes should be kept free of long dry grass,
and woodland paths clear of inflammable matter ; and smoking
should not be allowed in the woods (especially in April and
August).
Where railways run through woodlands, naked strips of
ground parallel to them on each side should be planted with
wide belts of broad-leaved trees (e.g., Birch or Robinia in Scots
Pine tracts), whose foliage would intercept sparks, while below
the trees the ground should be swept with stable -brooms or
scrub-besoms and kept free of dead foliage, &c., for a breadth
of about 20 yards ; or the Birch and Robinia should be under-
planted with Sweet-Chestnut, or whatever else will grow as
underwood, and kept as thick as possible, and such coppice
separated from the woods behind by a good broad road kept
free of inflammable material. In Conifer woods, where danger
from fire is always greatest, the whole area should be divided
into compartments by narrow rides kept free of inflammable
matter. Such rides will usually stop a ground-fire ; and in case
of a crown-fire they are convenient bases for beginning opera-
tions to check the spread of the fire into other compartments.
These rides should run at right angles to the prevailing winds,
or generally from K to S., X.E. to S.W., or N.W. to S.E.,
and should be planted with a belt or fringe of some broad-
leaved tree, Birch being the most suitable tree on poor sandy
soil.
Fire-Extinction. — A ground-fire is often easily extinguished,
if seen in time ; but once it spreads, extinction is more difficult.
Hence no time should be lost in trying to put out any fire dis-
FIRES. 163
covered in or near the woods. On being told that fire has
broken out in large woodlands, any forester or woodman should
at once collect as many men as possible, with axes, hoes, spades,
and besoms, and go to the spot ; and mounted messengers should,
if possible, be sent to the nearest villages for assistance. On
arriving at the fire, the head man should do what he thinks
most likely to prevent it spreading. If still only a small
ground-fire, it can often be put out by beating the burning
line with green boughs cut from trees, or with flat shovels, or
by sweeping it back to where it has already passed. If the
wind be strong, one must, on account of the smoke and heat,
begin at the flanks of the line of fire and work along these
towards the centre ; but when the air is still, or there is merely
a slight breeze, work may be begun simultaneously at different
points along the running edge of flame.
If a strong breeze has enabled the fire to make considerable
headway, it is best to go ahead of the line of flame for some
distance and clear all inflammable material from a strip several
yards wide, in order to check its progress, although this entails
sacrificing part of the crop to save the rest. This measure is all
the more effective if a counter-fire can be started along the
inside of the cleared line, so as to eat its way along the ground
and meet the approaching fire, thus decreasing the danger of
sparks being carried across the cleared line. Compartment
boundaries, cart-tracks, and old paths form good base-lines,
easily found and cleared; and while this is being done, the
work of extinguishing along the edges of the line of fire should
also be vigorously carried on.
If the ground-fire be likely to send sparks over the cleared
line, counter-firing is necessary — i.e., setting fire to the inner
edge of the cleared line, and burning against wind, to meet the
advancing fire. This new line of fire should be cautiously
guarded to prevent it burning down wind and starting a new
fire. When once well started such a line of counter-fire eats its
164 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
way forwards, as the heated air from the main line of fire tends
to attract the new line towards it.
Wide belts planted with broad-leaved trees are the best
means of checking crown-fires, and should always be provided
in extensive Conifer woods exposed to risk from fire. The path
or line used as a base can be broadened, if necessary, by rapidly
clearing away the trees along the outside edge. But the success
of this and of clearance of the ground to work against a ground-
fire depends on starting far enough ahead to complete operations
before the fire can reach the newly cleared line. Poles and trees
felled should be lopped, and the branches removed to the far
side of the woods, to obviate risk of their catching fire from
sparks.
Fires inside of hollow stems may be put out by filling the
hollow with sods of turf and earth ; or if this cannot be done,
the tree should be felled and the fire put out with earth.
When a fire has been put out, watchmen should be left,
especially when there is any strong breeze, to see that it does
not break out again ; and in August watch should be kept all
night long, and earth should be thrown on all smouldering
stems glowing in the dark.
Remedying Fire-Damage. — Badly damaged young Conifer
plantations usually need to be cleared and replanted ; but
young broad-leaved trees often reproduce themselves well if
coppiced. Owing to its smooth thin bark, Beech is the least
hardy against fire ; even a slight ground-fire injures it. The
crops least liable to damage are old woods, especially of thick-
barked Oak or Pine. When the foliage in old woods looks
unhealthy after a ground-fire, or trees die off here and there,
it is often necessary to clear the crop, especially in conifer
woods, where the forester and his woodmen should pay special
attention to injurious insects, and in particular to kinds which
breed in the roots and the lower parts of the stems of poles and
trees.
FARM-STOCK. 165
Farm - Stock cause damage by nibbling buds, leaves, and
shoots ; gnawing and stripping bark ; injuring roots with their
hard hoofs and horny feet ; bending back young growth and
saplings ; dislodging soil on slopes ; stamping down damp,
heavy clay soil, and loosening light sandy soil ; and breaking
down the sides of drains. Horses usually prefer the short
grass along roadsides to the ranker grass growing inside the
woods ; but they are fond of young foliage and shoots, which
they can strip to a considerable height, and young horses are
fond of gnawing the bark. Their great weight and their iron
shoes cause a good deal of damage to young seedlings, and to
superficial roots. Sheep, besides feeding on grass, are fond of
nibbling young leaves and shoots, and often do considerable
damage when frequently grazed in any one wood, their tread
tending to break up loose sandy soil only thinly overgrown with
grass or weeds. But Cattle only browse on leaves and twigs
when grass and other herbage are scanty ; and then they bend
down strong saplings under their chests to reach the foliage,
loosen and dislodge soil on hill-slopes, and damage young growth
with their hard horny feet. But the grazing of cattle may be
of use where there is a strong growth of grass in young pole-
woods. Young cattle, horses, or sheep do more damage than
old beasts. Even where grass and herbage are plentiful, they
nibble young timber-crops from wantonness and when changing
their teeth. If cattle in thin condition are grazed in woods after
being poorly fed in winter, they do much damage to the young
plantations, as they greedily devour all they can.
The extent of damage varies mainly according to the kind
of animal grazed, but also depends on the nature and age of the
timber-crop, the soil and situation, the number of the animals
grazed, and the time and manner of their being herded in the
woods. Different kinds of trees suffer to a different extent, as
grazing animals usually prefer the foliage of broad-leaved trees
to that of Conifers, and only browse on the latter in the absence
166 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
of the former. But the damage done to Conifers is generally
more serious, because they have not such recuperative power in
repairing damage. If badly bitten, Scots Pine usually remains
more or less stunted, while Silver Fir soon recovers. The
shallow roots of Spruce are more damaged by hoofs than deep-
rooting Pine and Larch. In all Conifers, however, injuries to
bark or shoots enable parasitic fungi to effect an entrance.
Grazing animals prefer the leaves and shoots of hardwoods to
those of softwoods, but seldom touch Lime, Birch, or Alder.
Among Conifers they prefer the shoots of Firs to those of Pines.
Horses and sheep usually prefer young Oak foliage, though
sheep graze readily on Pine and Birch as a change of diet on
poor heathery tracts. The younger the crop, the greater is
generally the damage. When there is rank growth of grass,
damage by cattle and sheep is usually very slight, and grazing
may do good in checking the growth of grass and treading it
down.
In Britain, protection against farm-stock, as also against dem-
and ground-game, is by Fencing, the cheapest and best form of
fence now being wires strained on wooden posts. The wires
are strained on posts (7 to 7J ft. x 6 to 8 in.) about 80 to 100
yards apart or more, and supported by staples driven into stobs
or smaller intermediate posts (5 to 6 ft. x 3 to 4 in.) at 9 to
12 ft. apart, and further kept in position by staples fixed in
two or three droppers or short upright pieces of wood put at
3 or 4 ft. apart between the stobs. The straining-posts of Oak,
Larch, or creosoted timber are set about 3 to 3J ft. in the
ground, and project about 3 ft. 9 in. to 4 ft. above it ; and at
angles where a very great strain has to be borne, additional
strength is given by fitting the foot of the posts into a sole and
supporting it with a strut (Fig 32). Pits have to be dug for
the posts, either with a pick on hard ground or with post-hole
boring implements on soft ground ; but the stobs, sharp-pointed
FENCING.
167
at lower end, are usually malleted in to about one-third of their
length, so as to stand at the height needed. All the stobs
between two straining-posts having been put in proper posi-
tion in a straight line, the wires are strained and stapled on
the stobs at their proper distances apart ; then the droppers
are also fixed with staples to help to keep the wires in
place.
A post-and-wire fence to resist horses, cattle, and sheep
should be about 3 ft. 9 in. to 4 ft. high, and should have six
strands of wire ; and it is more
effective if the top strand
consist of barb -wire. Such
a fence (with well creosoted
posts) lasts for about twenty
years, and costs little to main-
tain. If the fence is only
against sheep, a 3 to 3J ft.
fence, with four to five wires,
is sufficient ; and it is more
effective if the third and the
top wires are barbed.
A good creosoted fence of the
above description, 3 ft. 9 in.
to 4 ft. high, with six wires
(five smooth, and top barbed),
base of sole
A 7-foot Straining-pout at end of a
six -wired fence, ^feet high.
usually costs lOd. to Is. per
running yard ; while a lighter
fence against sheep only can be put up for 6d. to 8d. But the
cost varies with the height of the fence, and the size and
number of wires used ; and the larger the area, the smaller is
the cost per acre for fencing. If plantations were made in
squares, the cost would only increase twofold while the enclosed
area extended fourfold ; so that, if only light fencing were
168
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
needed at an average cost of 6d. a running yard, the cost
per acre would vary as follows :—
Area in acres .
1
4
16
64
256
1024
4096
Yards of fence
280
560
1120
2240
4480
8960
17,920
Total cos-t . .
£7
£14
£28
£56
£112
£224
£448
Cost per acre .
140s.
70s.
35s.
17s. 6d.
8s. 9d.
4s. 4|d.
2s. 2Jd.
As plantations are seldom made with straight-line boundaries,
the acreage enclosed gives no idea of the number of yards of
fencing needed, which can only be known by measuring on a
map, or on the ground. The difference in cost is often great,
as 1 square mile of plantation (640) acres in a square needs
4 miles or 7040 yards of fencing, and at 6d. a-yard costs £176,
or 5s. 6d. an acre ; while the same area as a rectangle twice as
long as it is broad, needs 5 miles or 8800 yards of fencing,
amounting to £220, or 6s. 10|d. per acre ; but if thrice as
long as broad, it needs 6| miles or 11,733 yards of fencing,
costing £293, or 9s. IJd. per acre. It is therefore economical
to make plantations as large and square or compact as possible.
The cheapest form of fence against Highland cattle and sheep known to
me is one erected in 1908, in the Lome district of Argyllshire, with un-
creosoted Larch thinnings, and intended to last for about twelve years.
Formed of five strands of No. 8 galvanised wire (with 5 J, 5 J, 6^, and 7 5 in.
between the wires), and a top-strand of 4-barbed wire (8^ in. above), it
stands 39 in. high, has a total length of 2850 yards, encloses 97| acres, and
cost in all £53, 7s. 2d., or 4£d. per running yard, and 11s. per acre en-
closed. The straining- posts and stobs were of young undressed and
uncreosoted Larch thinnings, and the droppers (2x1 in.) were cut from
Larch slabs. No special outlay was incurred for carting, done at odd
times when the cart and horse were not otherwise employed. The details
of cost were as follows : —
FENCING. 169
1. Timber —
36 straining-posts (7 ft. x 6^ in.), at 80
yards apart on average, at 2s. each . £3 12 0
36 stobs used as stays, &c., at 3^d. each . 0 10 6
439 stobs (5 ft. x 3£ in. ), at 18 ft. apart,
at 3£d. each . . . . .680
475 long droppers, 40 x 2 x 1^ in., at 9 ft.
between stobs ; 1900 short droppers,
23x2x1^ in., at 3 ft. apart; 2375
droppers = 109 cubic ft. of 2 x 1| in.,
at Is. per cubic ft. ( = over |d. each) 590
£15 19 6
2. Wire — 19 cwt. No. 8 galvanised wire, 7 cwt. 4-barbed
wire, and 3 cwt. galvanised staples . . . . 17 10 4
3. Labour in Construction —
1 man for 12 weeks, at 22s. . . . £13 4 0
1 man for 5 weeks and 2| days, at 20s. [5 8 4
18 12 4
4. Carriage of Material ; estimated, but not paid for . 150
Total . . . £53 7 2
Fig. 33 gives some idea of this cheap fence.
Damage by Game (Fig. 34) often causes great loss in wood-
lands, because in most parts of Britain more attention is paid to
game-preservation than to growing timber for profit ; and game-
preservation means disturbing the balance of nature, and thus
(by destroying their enemies) favouring many kinds of animals
that damage young plantations and polewoods. Yet in some
parts of the country shooting rents are often higher than the
ordinary profit hitherto derived from woodlands. But if
170
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
rabbits were kept down plantations would cost less, and be
much more profitable than at present.
As regards the damage done, game may be classed as (1) big
Fig. 34-
Damage caused by Game and Rodents.
a. Hornbeam gnawed by Field-mice.
b. Beech frayed by Deer.
c. Asli and Beech gnawed by Rabbits.
d. Spruce gnawed by Squirrels.
game, including red, fallow, and roe-deer ; (2) ground (/awe,
hares and rabbits ; and (3) feathered game.
Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) eat acorns and beech-nuts,
bite off buds and young shoots, gnaw the bark of poles in
RED DEER. 17 1
winter, and strip the bark in spring and summer, and use
saplings or poles as " fraying-stocks," when rubbing the velvet
from their antlers in July and August, or when rutting in
September and October. The nibbling of buds and shoots kills
young plants at once, and when often repeated cripples and
stunts older plants. Oak, Ash, Maple, Sycamore, and Beech
are the trees deer prefer to gnaw, while young softwoods are
naturally preferred as fraying-stocks. The gnawing takes place
horizontally, the deer turning their heads sideways and nibbling
the whole of one side of the bark on poles up to a good size, so
long as the rind is soft and sappy. In winter they both gnaw
and peel the bark at about the height of their head, or higher
if much snow is on the ground, and the gnawed stems show
horizontal teeth-marks with narrow lines of bark and cambium
between. But far more injurious is bark-stripping (of Spruce
chiefly) in spring and summer while the sap is in flow. The
bark is usually bitten through low down, and the deer moves
back, holding on firmly with its teeth, until a strip from 2 or
3 to 6 ft. long tears off. Sometimes the lower end bitten
through is 4 to 6 in. broad, but the strip gradually becomes
narrower till it comes away from the stem, often high up, and
is eaten. Spruce-woods from 20 to 40 years old are specially
liable to injury, then 15- to 20-year-old Beech, Silver Fir, and
Oak so long as the bark is smooth. Larch, Ash, Elm, Maple,
and Sycamore are less liable to attack, and Scots Pine, Birch,
and Alder least of all. Among Conifers, Silver Fir recovers
best, while Scots Pine usually remains stunted after being
nibbled. Young poles with smooth rind are always attacked
first, and peeling stops when thick rough bark is formed. The
danger is greatest after the first thinning of a plantation, and
clean, well-grown poles are more likely to be damaged than
those still rough with twigs. Damaged poles often rot far up
into the stem, and break from wind or snow ; or the lower end
of the stem is useless for timber up to 15 or 20 ft. high. As
172 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
British deer-forests are mostly heathery wastes, the damage
done is seldom extensive ; but where woods are open to the
deer the trees can easily be very badly injured (e.g., as at Inver-
cauld). Prevention of damage can only be ensured by enclosure
and fencing to a height of at least 5J ft.
Fallow -Deer (Dama vulgaris) eat acorns and beech -nuts,
nibble buds and shoots, and use young poles as fray ing-stocks
in August and September, but rarely strip the bark even in
deer-parks, and not at all in open woods.
Roe-Deer (Cervus capreolus) can do a great deal of damage in
young woods and nurseries, and in some parts of Scotland
(especially in the Highlands) are almost as destructive as rabbits,
through biting off the buds and shoots of young trees during
the winter and the early spring, and using young saplings as
fraying-stocks from April to June, and in their rutting time in
July and August. Both for browsing and for fraying they
prefer the more valuable trees interspersed throughout planta-
tions, such as Larch, Silver Fir, Acacia, Oak, and Ash, and
other soft-barked kinds. Where only a comparatively small
number of such young trees have to be protected, this can be
done by smearing in late autumn the buds of their leading-
shoots with some ill-smelling substance (the use of tar being
avoided, as it prevents the buds from opening in spring), or by
tying small square pieces of newspaper round the cluster of top
buds of Conifers, or by fixing a small, thin, and very cheap tin
crown with sharp points specially made for this purpose, and
so soft as not to hinder the sprouting of the buds in spring.
Otherwise young plantations and nurseries have to be pro-
tected by wire-fencing about 5 to 5J ft. high. Seed-beds and
nursery-lines can be protected by laying poles over them, or
hanging feathers, pieces of broken looking-glass hung on strings,
&c. ; but a high fence is by far the best protection.
Ground Game. — Both hares and rabbits are very destructive
in nurseries and young plantations by biting through young
GROUND GAME. 173
shoots and gnawing the bark of poles and trees. But they are
seldom found together, as hares shun rabbit -infested places.
And being far fewer in number than the prolific burrowing
rabbit, hares are more easily kept down, though individually
the hare, being larger, does more damage than a rabbit, and
often apparently bites off leading-shoots in young plantations
from mere wantonness, leaving them lying on the ground.
It is easy to distinguish between the teeth-marks of hares and
rabbits, the marks left by hares being longer, broader, and fewer
than those of rabbits, which are shorter, narrower, and usually
in two to six more or less parallel grooves, but are larger,
broader, and less numerous than the finely-chiselled teeth-marks
of mice and moles. Hares (Lepus timidus) chiefly gnaw Ash,
Maple, and Sycamore, Beech, Elm, Hazel, and Robinia (also
orchard-trees), but the damage is less concentrated than that o
rabbits. In the Scottish Highlands the blue hare (L. variabilis]
may during winter commit serious damage in young plantations
not protected by wire-netting. Rabbits (Lepus cuniculus) often
ruin Hazel- and Ash-coppice near where they burrow, sometimes
making an almost entire clearance while snow lies on the
ground. They do great damage in young plantations up to
seven years of age ; and in most places it is mere waste of time,
land, and money to try and grow young timber-crops without
careful and expensive wire-netting of each plantation. But
wire-netting is worse than useless unless the area enclosed is
absolutely cleared of rabbits, and netting of 1-inch mesh is used
to keep out very young rabbits. If once these get inside, an
enclosed plantation, it becomes a warren, and they very soon
do great damage. The only kinds of trees they do not attack
are old thick-barked Oak and Corsican Pine, the latter being
usually damaged to a far less extent than Larch, Douglas Fir,
Spruce, or Scots Pine.
Protection against (j round-game can only be secured by wire-
netting^nurseries and young plantations. Broad-leaved saplings
174 THE PROTECTION OP WOODLANDS.
gnawed can be cut back to the stool ; but young Conifers are
usually damaged beyond recovery. Young park - trees, and
exotics scattered experimentally in the woods, can be protected
by binding thorns or rough brushwood round the stems.
Rabbits may be trapped, ferreted, or shot, but it is often
difficult to exterminate them. Smearing the shoots with ill-
smelling substances cannot be relied upon to protect young
plants. Wherever there are even only a few rabbits, young
plantations need to be protected for at least seven years by
being carefully fenced with 1-inch-mesh wire-netting, which
adds considerably to the initial cost, though this extra charge
should , really be debitable to the game account. Wire-netted
plantations should be carefully examined from time to time to
see that no rabbits have got in ; because, if once inside, unless
they are all killed the plantation becomes a warren, and the
rabbits may do serious damage. To be rabbit - proof, wire-
fencing must now have a 1-inch mesh for the first 18 inches
(besides 6 inches being bent outwards underground), and a 1]-
inch or IJ-inch mesh for 2 ft. above that; and, in addition to
being bent outwards underground for 6 inches at lower end, it
must either be bent outwards at the top, or else the posts should
lean slightly outwards to prevent climbing. If set upright, and
the wire be not bent outwards, rabbits can jump up, climb over,
and get into the plantation, as they have now in many localities
developed climbing-power since close-meshed wire-fencing was
introduced. The additional cost of providing and fixing strong
small-mesh rabbit-proof wire-netting of 4 ft. breadth, bending
it outwards underground for 6 in. at lower side to pre-
vent burrowing, and making it also bend over somewhat at
the top to prevent rabbits climbing over, comes to about 6d.
to 7d. a running yard, which brings up the total cost to about
Is. 6d. a-yard for cattle-and-rablit fencing, and Is. IJd. to
Is. 3d. a-yard for sheep-and-rabbit fencing.
Squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) may also do serious damage
MICE AND VOLES. 175
(Fig. 34), especially in Conifer woods. They feed on most
kinds of tree-seeds, but chiefly on acorns, and beech and hazel
nuts ; they eat the flowering buds of Oak, Beech, Maple,
Sycamore, and Conifers in late winter; and in summer and
autumn pick cones to pieces, even before ripe, to suck the juice
and eat the seeds. Hence seed-production is poor wherever
squirrels are numerous. But the greatest damage they do is
when, during spring and summer, they seat themselves on the
branch-whorls of Conifer poles or trees and gnaw the soft bark,
often completely girdling the top, which then dries, rots, and
ultimately falls off. In the North of Scotland so much damage
of this sort has been done, especially in Scots Pine and Larch
woods, that the landowners in Ross, Cromarty, and neighbour-
hood had to form squirrel clubs for shooting and trying to
exterminate this pretty but excessively destructive pest; and
over 15,000 were shot within five or six years. They are very
destructive in some parts of Ireland, where they are said to
have been introduced about fifty years ago by two boys letting
loose a pair given to them as pets. Trapping is less effective
than shooting during the nesting time in May, when a charge
of small shot will kill both mother and brood. Where squirrel
raids are not permitted during the nesting season, the best time for
shooting them is in February, before the game birds begin to lay.
Mice and Voles do damage by eating seed and gnawing
plants in nurseries and plantations (Fig. 34). Their attacks
are often hard to combat, and sometimes this can only be
effected when nature restores the proper balance by increase of
natural enemies, or by epidemic disease. Mice and voles are
always found in woods adjoining fields. The wood-mouse lives
in the woods, but the voles infest the fields in summer, and live
in the woodlands in winter. Both are very prolific, and increase
enormously during a mild winter followed by a dry spring and
summer. But hard frost without snow, heavy rain followed by
frost, and cold damp weather often kill them off in a short time.
176 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
They abound most in young plantations with a strong growth of
grass, giving them shelter and food. They devour acorns,
beech-mast, and hazel-nuts, Chestnuts, Lime and Hornbeam
seed, but care little for the seed of other broad-leaved trees or
Conifers. They gnaw the young bark of Beech, Oak, Ash,
Hornbeam, Larch, and most other trees ; but the various kinds
of mice and voles differ in this matter, some beginning to gnaw
close to the ground, others only a little way up, and others only
after climbing a good height up the tree. In nurseries, whole
rows of one- and two-year-old Spruce are sometimes eaten
through in seed-beds ; and in plantations plants may either be
bitten through, or gnawed partly or entirely round the stem,
according to age and size, young Beech and Larch of an inch and
more in diameter often being cut right through. As the young
trees grow and the bark thickens, there is less danger of their
being gnawed.
The Mouse genus (Mus) has a pointed muzzle, large ears, and a naked
tail as long as its body. The Wood -mouse or long -tailed Field -mouse
(M, sylvaticus) mostly devours seeds, and only occasionally gnaws the bark.
The Vole (Arvicola) has a broad head with small ears hidden in fur, short
legs, and a short hairy tail. Several species do damage in woodlands.
The Field-vole or true Field-mouse (A. arvalis), which migrates from the
fields to the woods in autumn, devours seed and gnaws the bark of
saplings and poles near the ground. It is not a good climber. The
Common Field-vole (A. agrcstis) does similar damage, but often higher up,
as it is a better climber. The Red or Bank-vole (A. glarcolus), whicli
does damage chiefly by gnawing, often climbs up 10 or 12 ft. to reach the
soft bark. The Water-rat (A. amphibius), the largest vole, always lives
below ground and gnaws roots, but never occurs in large numbers.
best pi'eventive and exterminative measure against mice
and voles is to protect their natural enemies (owls, buzzards,
crows, ravens, sea-gulls, kestrels, rooks, hedgehogs, weasels,
stoats, porcupines, martens, badgers, and foxes), so far as sport
permits of this ; but cats are of little use. Nurseries are best
formed away from where fields march with woods. But when
once the balance of nature has been disturbed by measures for
BIRDS.
177
game-preservation, mice and voles rapidly increase in enormous
numbers, especially in dry mild seasons, and may inflict serious
damage on plantations. When small plantations are attacked
a surrounding trench about 18 inches deep can be dug, wider
below than above, into which the voles fall and cannot climb
out again. But during plagues (as in 1864-67 and 1891-92),
large numbers can be killed by laying oatmeal poisoned with
barium carbonate or phosphorus paste in drain-tiles throughout
the plantations, although the attacks generally continue till the
balance of nature is restored by increase of the birds and other
animals which prey on mice and voles.
Birds are on the whole far more beneficial in preying on mice,
voles, and insects, and on snails and slugs in nurseries, than
injurious in eating seed and damaging plants, although % in
nurseries the seed-beds may often need protection by moistening
the seed and rolling it in red-lead powder, or by covering the
seed-beds with a wire-net framework. As regards their general
importance to the forester, birds may be classified as follows : —
I. Decidedly useful.
II. Rather useful.
III. Rather
injurious.
IV. Decidedly
injurious.
Cuckoo.
Robin.
Bullfinch.
Common
Shrikes.
Capercailzie.!
Holler.
Whitethroat.
Goldfinch.
Crow.*
Magpie.
Blackcock, t
Hoopoe.
Stonecliat.
Linnet.
Hooded
Raven.
Pigeons.
Starling.
Oriole.
Greenfinch.
Crow.*
Eagle Owl
Doves.
Tits.
Wagtails.
Siskin.
Cornish
(B. max.).
Jay.
Creepers.
Titlark.
Larks.
Chough.
Sparrow-
Nut-crack er
Swallows, Mar-
Owls * (except
Woodpeckers.
Buzzard.*
hawk.
Crow.
tins, and Swifts.
B. max.).
Thrushes.
Kestrel.*
Goshawk.
Chaffinch.
Warblers.
Flycatchers.
Blackbirds.
Lapwing.
Merlin.
Mountain
Nightingales.
Nuthatch.
Jackdaw.*
Plover.
Red Grouse t
Finch.
Wrens.
Black-headed
Rook.*
Snipe, t
(occasionally).
Hawfinch.
Accentor (Hedge-
Gull.
Honey Buz-
Crossbills.
Sparrow).
zard.
Redstarts.
Woodcock, t
Itnlics.— Birds benefited by a close time (from 2nd March to 31st July) under the Wild
Birds' Protection Acts.
* Those also keep down mice and voles, as well as insects.
t Protected under the Game Laws ; Grouse, Capercailzie, and Blackcock have also a
close time, but not Snipe or Woodcock.
178 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Among the decidedly useful class, the Owls for mice and voles,
the Cuckoo for hairy caterpillars, and the Starling and the Hedge-
Sparrow for other insects generally, are the forester's best friends.
The Cuckoo usually lays its eggs in the nests of Starlings or
Hedge-Sparrows ; but to protect the Starling's eggs and young
against Cuckoos, wild cats, and other enemies, nesting -boxes,
which cost little and last many years, can be hung up in the
branches of trees.
The rather useful class includes birds subsisting chiefly on grain,
but also preying to some extent on insects ; while the rather in-
jurious class do more harm by destroying eggs and killing small
birds, than good by feeding partly on insects, mice, and voles.
The decidedly injurious class includes game-birds of the
Grouse family, Pigeons, Jays, and Finches.
Destructive birds of the Grouse family (Tetraonidce) are the
Capercailzie or Cock-of-the-wood (Tetrao urogallus) and the
Blackcock (T. tetrix), and also, but very rarely, the common
Red Grouse (Lagopus scoticus).
The Capercailzie is only found occasionally among Conifers in moun-
tain tracts. During the winter and the spring it lives near nurseries or
young plantations, and feeds on the buds and foliage of young shoots ;
and as the birds keep very much to one feeding-ground, their destructive-
ness is more apparent than if spread over a larger area. When snow covers
the ground, and only the tips of leading-shoots appear above it, they bite
them off. Spruce and Silver Fir are more attacked than Scots Pine.
But its spring diet includes insects.
The Blackcock of heathery moors and hill-slopes feeds mostly on the buds
of Birch, Alder, Saugh, and Rowan, and on Rowan-berries. But when
these are destroyed by exceptionally severe frosts (as in November 1909)
or become exhausted, the birds attack plantations or nurseries near their
haunts. They feed mostly on the ground ; and when forced to feed on buds,
they attack Larch, Spruce, Silver Fir, and Pines almost indiscriminate!}7,
wherever within easy reach. They are fond of the male catkins of Birch,
Alder, and Hazel in the early spring. The common Grouse has recently
done much damage by picking the buds from young Larch plantations
near Loch Lomond (Buchanan Castle estate), and has also beep seen feeding
pn Larph in Perthshire (Taymouth estate).
BIRDS. 1*79
The Pigeons (Columbidce) include the Wood-pigeon, Cushat
or Ring-dove (Columua palumlus), the Wood-dove or Stock-
dove (C. osnas), and the Turtle-dove (Turtur auritus). The two
former remain all the year in England, but the last-named is
merely a summer visitor from Mny to September.
The Wood-pigeon is chiefly found in Conifer woods, where it consumes
a large quantity of ripe seed, buds, and catkins of different trees at
flowering-time. Where numerous, they often break the brittle leading-
shoots of Douglas Fir, Silver Fir, and Spruce, by settling on them. The
Stock-dove mostly frequents mixed broad-leaved woods, and feeds on buds,
flowers, and fruits. The Turtle-dove is usually found in small woods
among fields and meadows, and feeds principally among the latter. During
the spring-time all three species assemble in flocks, and do great damage
to sowings in fields and nursuries ; and in autumn, when acorns and
beech-nuts are ripe, the two larger kinds feed on the mast, but without
doing much damage. Coating the seed with red-lead powder is the best
protection in nurseries.
Among Jays, the Common Jay (Garrulus glandarius) and the
Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactcs) are mainly destructive.
Although they scratch up acorns and beech-nuts, and devour the
cotyledons of young seedlings, the chief damage they do is in destroying
the eggs and young of insectivorous singing-birds. Seed-beds can be
protected with a framework, but shooting is better.
Though some kinds of Finches (Frivgillidce) arc more bene-
ficial than harmful, others do much damage. The more injurious
kinds are the Chaffinch or Pie-finch (Frinyilla ccelels), the
Brambling or Mountain Finch (F. montifringilla), and the
Hawfinch (Coccothraustes vulgaris) ; while the Common Crossbill
(Loxia curvirostra), the only Loxia common in Britain, must
also be classed along with them.
The Chaffinch and the Mountain Finch collect in large flights in autumn
near nurseries, and in spring they feed on the cotyledons of the young
seedlings. The Hawfinch is a more varied feeder, and does more damage
in gardens and orchards than in nurseries or woods. Where Finches are
troublesome, seed-beds may need the protection of a framework. Other-
180 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
wise coating the seeds with red-lead is cheap and effective. Tying threads
or twine across the beds, with white feathers, &c., knotted into them,
is also serviceable, but scarecrows are merely of temporary use. The
Crossbill feeds mostly on tree-seeds and berries. After biting off Spruce
or Pine cones,' it uses its mandibles to displace the bracts and lay bare
the seed, or else it splits open the scales of the cone from above downwards
until it gets the seed lying at the base. The damage done is often great,
as the birds frequently come in large flocks. Sometimes it also (like
Blackcock) picks the buds from young Scots Pine plants.
181
CHAPTER II.
••; : PROTECTION AGAINST INJURIOUS INSECTS.
Life-History of Insects. —Insects belong to the Hexapoda ("six-footed")
class of animals having jointed feet (Arthropoda). Their bodies .consist of
three main sections — (1) head, containing organs of sense ; (2) thorax, to
which six legs (three pairs), and generally also two pairs or one pair of
wings, are attached ; and (3) abdomen, containing organs of reproduction ;
and they pass through one or more of various stages of development
(Metamorphoses], each distinguishable from the preceding and the suc-
ceeding stages, namely — (1) Ovum or egg, (2) Larva or grub, (3) Pupa or
chrysalis, and (4) Imago or mature adult insect. When all these four
stages are well defined, an insect is said to have a complete metamorphosis ;
but with many insects there is merely an incomplete metamorphosis with
no distinct pupal stage, because the larva gradually becomes transformed
into the imago, the pseudo-pupa being then known as a nymph, and the
transformation of a nym/>A-pupa into the perfect insect taking plac« by
the already formed wings being liberated at the last moult or change of
skin ; while some wingless primitive insects (Aptera) undergo no 'meta-
morphosis at all. The Ova or eggs vary greatly in size, shape, and colour.
Eggs are laid singly or in clusters on different parts of trees, and some-
times lie naked and unprotected, or are protected within the bark or
by some special covering. The Larva usually hatches out in the course of
a few weeks, but often hibernates within the shell, and only emerges in the
following spring. The larva} of most beetles are called grubs ; the 1 6-footed
larvic of butterflies and moths (those of spanners have only 10, and a few
mining-moths have none) are called caterpillars ; the 18 - to 22 - footed
larvte of sawflies have tail-like extremities and are called tailed-cater-
pillars ; while the larvie of flies, which have neither feet nor any complex
structure of the head, are called maggots. The larva) of many beetles
have 3 pairs of legs on the first three (thoracic) segments after the head ;
the caterpillars of moths and butterflies have these also, and in additiou
182 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
from 2 to 5 pairs of prolcgs or clasping feet attached to the abdominal
segments, the last pair of which (claspers or anal prolcgs) are on the
terminal segment. As it gradually grows in size, the larva moults its
skin several times before pupation. The pupa sometimes lies unprotected
on the ground under moss and dead foliage, or in fissures or under bark-
scales, and at other times it is enclosed within a woven cocoon (often of
large size for some spinning-moths), while with flies the last larval skin
forms a protective covering. The longest stage of development is that
in which the insect hibernates ; and this is very often the larval stage,
although many beetles hibernate as adults. The egg and the pupal stages
usually last only from two to four weeks, except with insects which
hibernate thus.
As soon as the adults appear, they usually pair at once and reproduce
themselves, the male generally dying soon after pairing, — except in the
case of beetles, which often hibernate, and of bees which live for four or
five years.
The Generation of any insect, or the complete cycle from egg to egg,
varies greatly, being multiple in plant-lice and ichneumon-flies, which
produce several generations in a year ; double in some bark-beetles and
sawflies, which produce two generations in each year ; single, simple, or
annual with most butterflies and moths, which yearly produce one
generation ; biennial or two - yearly in wood-wasps, the Pine resin-gall
tortrix, and many longicorn beetles ; and plurennial in the cockchafer,
which takes at least three and usually four years to complete its generation.
Occasionally there are two generations in three years (as in Bostriclms
bidens), but this is unusual.
Insects with complete metamorphosis feed only as larvoo and adults,
though only in exceptional cases (e.g., Pine-weevil) doing damage as
adults ; but among insects with incomplete metamorphosis the nymph
also feeds. In both groups the larva) are often very destructive.
Any attempt to group injurious insects either with regard to the trees
they attack or to the age of the crops generally attacked (seedlings and
young plants, thickets, pole- woods, and high woods) is unsatisfactory, as
many insects are dangerous at all stages of tree-growth, and feed more
or less indiscriminately on different kinds of trees when once they increase
in unusual numbers. But it may be remarked that most weevils, some
leaf-rollers, and cockchafer-grubs usually attack seedling growth and
young thickets, and that pole-woods and older crops are mostly attacked
by moths, and then by bark- and cambial-beetles when the trees grow
sickly. The caterpillars of the Pine owlet-moth and the Pine span-
worm always attack pole-woods before migrating to older crops on their
numbers increasing largely. With regard) to the parts of the tree chiefly
INSECTS. 183
attacked, one can distinguish between Root-destroyers, such as the mole-
cricket and the cockchafer grub ; Wood-borers, comprising the larvae of
wood-wasps, cervicorn beetles, some bark-beetles, and goat-moth cater-
pillars ; Bark-beetles, and some weevils, which often, both as beetle and
larva, either destroy the cambium and the sapwood, or else hollow out
the pith in young shoots (e.g., some Hylesinini and Tortricidce) ; Bud-
and Leaf-destroyers, including other weevils, most moth- and sawfly-
caterpillars, leaf-beetles, cockchafers, and some plant-lice (e.g., Larch
aptera) ; Producers of Deformities and Malformations on foliage, shoots,
and fruits, as gall-wasps, gall-midges, and plant-lice (e.g., Spruce aphis).
But the now generally accepted scientific classification into
orders is as follows : —
A. With complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, adult).
I. Coleoptera ("shield- wings") or Beetles, having 2 pairs of wings,
the front pair being hard and horny (elytra], and forming
shields for protecting the soft membraneous hind-pair used
in flying ; mouth for biting.
II. Lepidoptera ("scale- wings") or Butterflies and Moths,1 having 2
pairs of flat membraneous wings more or less completely
covered with flat scales ; mouth biting for larva, and sucking
for adult.
III. Hymenoptera (" skin-wings ") or Sawflies, Wasps, Bees, and
Ants, having 2 pairs of wings, all membraneous, with few
wing-cells, and a distinct dark area along the upper border ;
mouth for biting, or for both sucking and biting.
IV. Diptera ("two- wings") or Flies, having only 1 pair of mem-
braneous wings attached to mesothorax, the hind pair being
only rudimentary and aborted into two small stalked knobs
(haltcres) used as poisers or balancers ; mouth biting for larva,
and sucking or piercing for adult.
1 Butterflies have feelers always ending in a club-like knob, are mostly
diurnal in habit, and are of little or no importance to the forester ;
whereas moths with feelers variable in form, but never ending in a
knob, are usually more or less nocturnal in habit, and are often very
destructive.
184 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
B. Witk incomplete metamorphosis.
V. Hemiptera ("half-wings") or Bugs, Plant-lice, and Scale-
insects, &c., having 2 pairs of wings, either all membraneous
(sub-order Homoptera, with fore and hind wings similar,
or Plant-lice and Scale-insects, &c.) or else the front pair
leathery at base and opaque (sub-order Heteroptera, with
fore and hind wings different, or Bugs) ; mouth formed into
a snout (proboscis) for sucking and piercing.
VI. Orthoptera (" straight -wings") or Grasshoppers and Crickets,
having 2 pairs of wings, the front pair narrow, leathery, and
with straight veins, the hind pair fan-shaped ; mouth for
biting.
VII. Neuroptera ("nerve-wings") or Dragon - Flies and Lace-wing
Flies, having 2 pairs of wings with a network of veins ; mouth
for biting.
VIII. Thysanoptera ("fringe- wings") or Thrips, small insects having 2
pairs of very narrow wings fringed all round with fine hairs ;
mouth for biting, but weak.
C. Without metamorphosis.
IX. Aptera ("without wings") or Springtails, &c., small insects
having no wings, but either a locomotive apparatus like a
spring beneath, or a process like a tail ; mouth for biting, but
weak.
In our woodlands beetles and moths are by far the most
destructive insects, then sawflies and plant-lice. In beetles
the structure and the different segments of the adult are
distinguishable in the pupa, but in moths they are still
indistinguishable. No insects of the orders Orthoptera,
Neuroptera, Thysanoptera, or Aptera damage trees, while many
of the Neuroptera are useful by preying on the injurious
kinds of insects.
Damage by Insects.— Conifers, and especially Pine, Larch, and
Spruce, are usually much more attacked than broad -leaved trees ; and the
attacks are generally far more destructive, owing to their much smaller
reserves of starchy and nitrogenous substances as compared with broad -
leaved trees. Oak, Beech, Poplar, and Willow are more attacked than
INSECTS. 185
Ash, Elm, Maple, Sycamore, Birch, or Alder. When Oaks have been
defoliated in spring by leaf-roller caterpillars, they can utilise their
nutrient reserves and flush into leaf again in July ; but when caterpillars
have devoured most of the foliage of Scots Pine and Spruce, the recovery
of the Pine is doubtful, and the Spruce dies. In Britain, the Larch often
suffers severely from mining-moths and leaf-lice. Damage to young crops
is more serious than to older poles and trees ; and attacks in spring are
worse than those in summer or autumn, after buds are formed for next
year's growth. And if foliage alone be attacked, the damage may only
be temporary; but when roots and cambium are badly injured, the
sapling, pole, or tree usually dies. Injurious insects are, fortunately, not
the most prolific kinds. Hard winters are not fatal to most insects, and
may favour the increase of beetles (protected by their horny casing) by
causing the death of many insectivorous birds. Naked larvse without any
protective covering are sensitive to damp cold weather, and are killed in
large numbers when moulting their skins. Warm and dry weather,
stumps remaining after heavy timber falls, sickly crops of all ages, and
dominated or unhealthy trees, all form breeding -places for injurious
insects, which then increase with rapidity. Bark- and cambial-beetles
lay eggs in stems thrown or broken by wind, or in winter-felled trees left
till late spring or summer, or in those already sickly from attacks of other
insects on the foliage. Pine-weevils breed in the stumps of recently
felled trees, and feed on neighbouring young plantations. Moths usually
lay their eggs on backward crops growing on inferior soil, and unable to
recover from the injuries of the caterpillars ; and such favourable
breeding- and feeding-places form centres from which noxious insects
spread to other woodlands. Hence the need for careful tending ; neglect
of any one part of a wood is a danger to all of the timber-crops.
Natural Checks upon Injurious Insects. — Wet, cold weather while
caterpillars are moulting their skins, and when beetles and moths are
pairing, keeps down injurious injects. Before any appear in unusual
numbers, the balance of nature must somehow have been disturbed ;
and when left to nature the balance is usually restored in 3 to 4 years, by
predatory and parasitic insects increasing greatly, and bacterial and
fungous diseases breaking out epidemically and almost exterminating the
insect. But to await this natural readjustment may mean entire loss of
the timber-crops. In mixed woods there are more insectivorous birds
than in pure woods (of Conifers especially), and this tends to check
excessive increase of noxious insects. So far as considerations of sport
permit, all natural enemies of injurious insects should be preserved, the
chief among which are the following : —
1. Mammals. — Bats devour cockchafers and moths ; moles destroy
186 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
grubs and mole - crickets ; shrew, hedgehog, weasel, pole - cat, stoat,
badger, and fox devour beetles and pupa?.
2. Birds. — The most generally useful are the cuckoo (the only bird
devouring hairy caterpillars), the starling, flycatchers, titmice, tree-
creepers, swallows, owls, and most song-birds ; then thrushes, blackbirds,
rooks, gulls, plovers, the kestrel, buzzards, woodpeckers, sparrows and
finches, crows, ravens, jackdaws and larks, which are of less use.
3. Insects. — Predaceous and parasitic insects on the whole do far more
than either mammals or birds to keep injurious kinds in check. The
predaceous kinds prey, often both as larva and imago, on the eggs, larvse,
pupae, and adults of noxious insects ; while the parasitic kinds generally
lay their eggs on the eggs and in larvse (less frequently in the pupa) or
adults) of the injurious kinds, on which the maggots feed when they
hatch out. The useful insects generally exist in woodlands in large
numbers ; and when noxious kinds increase abnormally, so also do the
useful kinds that feed on them. The useful insects belong chiefly to the
orders Coleoptera and Hymenoptera ; then to the Diptera, Ncuroptera.
Hemiptera, and Orthoptera; while the Lepidoptera contains no useful
genus, just as the Neuroptera contains no injurious genus, so far as
concerns the forester.
(1) Predaceous Insects. — Among Coleoptera, predaceous kinds include
tiger- or sand-beetles (Cicindclidce), predaceous ground-beetles (Carabidcv),
dung-beetles (Staphylinidce], carrion -beetles (Silphidce), nitid or shining-
beetles (Nitidulidce), thread-beetles (Colydiidce), soft-beetles (Malacoder-
mata, including gold-beetles, Cleridce), and lady -birds (Coccinellidw).
Clerus formicarius and Rhizophagns dcpressus are two very useful beetles
in Conifer woods, as they prey on the Pine-beetle. Clerus formicarius is
easily recognisable by its large black head, black antenna) with red-brown
tips, red-and-black thorax, and abdomen red at base and black behind,
with two well-marked transverse white bands across the wing-cases. The
dark-headed larva is rose-red, and consists of twelve segments, the first
three of which have legs. The first segment has a horny plate above, and
the second and third have each two small horny spots ; the last joint is
covered with a horny shield, and ends in two small knobs. Both beetle
and larva feed on larvae, pupse, and adults of destructive tree-beetles ;
and the larva) bore into the bark to hunt for prey. The beetle always
seizes its prey behind the head. It is also the most useful of insects in
keeping down bark-beetles (Scolytidce). Rhizophayus depressus is only
about | of an inch long, bright rusty red, with finely-punctured lines on
the wing-cases. The larva is about | of an inch long ; the head and
prothorax are reddish, and all the other segments whitish above and
reddish below. The last segment of the body is red-brown, with two
knobs above and a small motor-appendage below. Both beetle and larva
INSECTS. 187
live below the bark of Pine and Spruce, crawling along the tunnels bored
by injurious insects, and feeding on their larvae and pupa). The beetle
also preys on the larvae of longicorn beetles.
Among the Hymenoptera, the digging or fossorial wasps (Sphegidce)
are both predatory and parasitic. They kill or deaden caterpillars,
beetles, plant-lice, &c., with their stings, drag them to their holes, and
lay eggs inside them. Wasps in general (Vespidce), and especially the
hornet ( Vespa crabro, itself injurious to Ash), prey on moths and flies ;
while ants (Formicidce), which live in large colonies within their breeding-
mounds, devour all sorts of injurious larvae. Among the Diptera, the
predatory flies (Asilidce) breed mostly in sandy localities, and attack and
suck many other kinds of insects ; while the leech-shaped larvae of the
humming- or hover-flies (Syrphidce) kill plant-lice by sucking. Among
the Neuroptera the scorpion - fly (Panorpa), the camel - necked flies
(Rhaphidia), the gold -eyed fly (Hemerobia perla], and the ant-lion
(Myrmdeoii) all prey on noxious insects (though the last also on useful
ants) ; and several dragon-flies (Libellulidce) as larvae, nymphae, and
especially as adults, kill many noxious insects, including moths. Among
the Hemiptera, scaly and other bugs (Pentastomidce, Reduviidce) prey on
plant-lice. But the predatory kinds in these last two orders are not so
numerous or useful as those in the first-named three orders.
(2) Parasitic Insects are the chief enemies of noxious kinds ; and the
most important are the ichneumon-, braconid-, and chalcid-flies of the
Hymenoptera, and the parasitic-flies (Tachinincv) belonging to the
Diptera. — The Jchneumonidce vary in size, but are usually long and thin.
The abdomen is often stalked, and the female has a long egg-layer
consisting of a thin borer enclosed within two lateral sheaths. The wing-
veins are few in number, and only form distinctly-closed cells when there
is a submarginal vein. The antennas are many- jointed, and usually thin,
seldom clubbed. The feet have usually five joints. Larvce footless,
smooth, generally white, soft, and tapering towards both ends. Pupa
soft and white, with free limbs. Adults usually fly from May till August,
and generally lay their eggs in the larger species of larvae of noxious
insects. Egg-laying sometimes also takes place in pupae, and occasionally
in adults ; while minute species even lay eggs within eggs of injurious
insects. Generation partly single, but often double, and sometimes
manifold ; and they increase enormously when hosts are numerous.
The Tachininaj, distinguishable from other flies by rough brush -like
hairs on the abdomen, are chiefly parasitic as larvae on the larvae
and pupae of moths and saw-flies. The principal species is Tachina
/era, which destroys large numbers of insects, and generally pupates
outside the host, in or on the ground, the pupa being round or oval,
and brown or black.
188
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Preventive Measures against Insect Attacks consist in —
1. Only growing tree-crops suited for the given soil, situation, and
climate.
2. Forming mixed woods in groups suited to soil, &c., rather than
large pure woods.
3. Careful weeding of young plantations and thinning of all older
woods.
4. Speedy removal of all thinnings and timber felled, and clearance or
burning of the branches and brushwood left on felled areas.
Clear-felling of a Spruce-wood, mixed with Scots Fine and Beech (Sc
1900),
Conifers barked for protection against beetles, the bark being stacked and the brush -
wo "1 piled in heaps for sale. Nairow rings of bark are left at ends and middle of
. each log, to prevent excessive cracking during seasoning.
5. Barking of all Conifer logs left lying in the woods after the end of
April (Fig. 35).
6. Grubbing up Conifer stumps, if saleable for fuel ; otherwise barking
and burning them along with the brushwood, to make them un-
suitable as breeding-places for Pine-weevils.
7. Encouraging the increase of insectivorous birds by hanging up nesting-
boxes, and preserving, so far as practicable, all the different kinds
of the natural enemies of injurious insects.
8. Rectifying as soon as possible any damage done in the woodlands (by
wind, snow, fire, &c.).
INSECTS.
189
9. Careful examination of the woods to see if injurious insects are
present (Fig. 36), and instructing the woodmen how to examine
decoy-stems left as traps for bark-beetles.
Fig. 36.
A sample-plot of Scots Pine ringed witli bands oj patent tar to ascertain if
the Nun -moth (Liparis monacha) is present (Saxony, 1900).
Exterminative measures are needed when noxious insects are found to
be increasing, by such indications as bore-holes in the bark, bore-dust or
drops of resin, gnawed leaves, excrement, gradual thinning of the foliage
in tree-crowns, or the presence of insectivorous birds in larger numbers
than usual ; but these measures differ for beetles and for moths.
(a) Extermination of Beetles. — Many bark-beetles and weevils can be
destroyed by felling and barking Conifer trees attacked, and burning the
190 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
bark containing the eggs, larva?, pupsc, and often the adults also. Decoy -
stems should be felled and placed before bark-beetles pair, because they
go to sickly and recently felled trees before attacking healthy stems whose
strong resinous outflow might kill their brood. Stems laid down in winter
or early spring should be barked and removed in May and June, and fresh
decoy-sterns placed to catch any second brood in August. Dominated or
suppressed, but still healthy poles or trees should be used in preference
to half -dry moribund stems, not so likely to attract the egg-laying females.
It is best to raise the decoy-stems off the ground on rests, so as to let the
beetles breed on the lower side, which remains sappy when the upper half
is dry. The branches should be lopped to check evaporation through the
foliage, but can also be set as traps. Timber from any winter fall is
always more or less infested with beetles, and should be removed and
larked by May. Removal alone is not enough, because in the sawyard or
elsewhere the broods hatch out and increase the number of beetles.
Decoy-stems should be examined occasionally to see if they are acting
well as traps for eggs. Small drops of resin or heaps of bore-dust near
the punctures and bore-holes may show this, while pieces of bark cut off
and inspected will show how far the young brood has developed. When
the biggest larva) are about half-grown the bark should be stripped and
burned, because egg-laying is then completed. Cockchafer-grubs can be
collected in nurseries, and the adult beetles of large kinds like cockchafers
and longicorns can be shaken or tapped down from the crowns of young
trees and hand-collected. The large Pine-weevil can be caught in sappy
bark-traps put soft side downwards, and killed by treading on them or
pouring boiling water over them ; and smaller beetles may be trapped in
bundles of brushwood or bark, which should then be burned.
(6) Extermination of Moths.— When caterpillars attack on any large
scale, decoy-trees are of no use ; nor is spraying with preparations of lime-
water, sulphur, tobacco- juice, quassia, paraffin, carbolic acid, Paris green,
London purple, &c., practicable in extensive woodlands, although easy
and efficacious in nurseries by means of knapsack - sprayers. Hence it
is mainly during the caterpillar stage that exterminative efforts are
successful.
Hand-picking can be adopted for some hairy caterpillars (by workmen
wearing old gloves to protect their hands), and for such as hibernate on
the ground under moss, &c. , or can be brought down by shaking the poles
or tapping on tree-branches with padded mallets or axe-heads, or are
found in any trenches dug. By shaking and tapping the Pine Span-worm
caterpillars may be brought to the ground and collected — especially early
in the morning and during cool weather, when they have a looser foothold
on the foliage than during warm sunshine. The clusters of Lackey-moth
caterpillars are also easily crushed or burned. Swine will devour pupa? on
INSECTS.
191
the ground, e.g., Pine Beauty and Pine Span-worm, but not hairy cater-
pillars, which only cuckoos eat. When severe attacks are confined to
small areas, the migration of caterpillars may be prevented by digging
narrow trenches (about 1 foot deep and with perpendicular walls) round
the infested portions, and interrupting the leaf-canopy overhead. In
these trenches holes, also with clean-cut upright sides, should be made
here and there along the sole to catch the caterpillars and lessen their
chance of escape ; and similar ditches should be cut within the area
isolated. But grease-banding with patent viscous tar is most efficacious
for moth-caterpillars that spin down to the ground to
moult, or that hibernate under moss, &c. , as the tarry
rings prevent them from reascending the stems to
feed. Patent tar is only effective while soft and
sticky, although its efficacy is dependent on the fact
that at least one of the ingredients has a smell so
repulsive to caterpillars that they will not cross the
ring till it becomes hard and dry. It is therefore
essential that the grease-bands should remain sticky
throughout the whole of the caterpillar stage of the
life of the moth — i.e., for at least six to eight weeks —
without the surface hardening. Before grease-banding
the stem needs to be cleared of loose bark, to economise
grease and make it adhere closely, a girdle of about
4 inches being cleared on the stems with iron scrapers
at about breast-height, and care being taken not to
damage the soft inner bark. This should be done in
winter and early spring throughout areas known to
be infested by moth -caterpillars hibernating under the
moss or eggs laid on the stems. About the end of
March or early in April the rings of patent tar should
be applied before mild weather makes the eggs hatch
out or the caterpillars resume feeding. The tar can best be laid on with
wooden spuds about 1 to 1£ inch broad, and smoothed off with other
spuds of equal breadth hollowed to a depth of about ith of an inch
(Fig. 37), the crop being first thinned to remove superfluous poles or
stems likely to attract the breeding moths, and to reduce the cost of
grease-banding.
Eggs can only be collected and destroyed when laid near the ground,
and even then many get overlooked. But a daub of patent tar kills egg-
clusters of the Gipsy and the Pale Tussock moths.
The insects chiefly injurious in British woods and nurseries
are the following, those that are sometimes very destructive
Spud and smooth-
ing-stick (about
\th real size).
192
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
being marked thus *, and afterwards described in detail
(pp. 195 to 232) :—
Classification, and Common and Scientific Names.
I. Beetles (Coleoptera).
A. BARK-BEETLES, Scolytidce.
a. Scolytini group.
1.* Large Elm-bark beetle, Scolytus}
destructor (
2. Small <lo. S. -multi- (
strintus
Destructive
as
larva
Trees and Parts
of Tree chiefly
attacked.
Elm : stem.'
b. Hylesinini yroup
1.* Large Pine-shoot beetle, Hylcsinus\
piniperda I
2.* Crutch Pine-beetle, H. palliatus (
3.* Small Pine-shoot beetle, H. minor )
4. Black Pme-cambial beetle, H. ater .
5.* Ash -bark beetles, //. fraxini, H.
crenatus
beetle, larva
beetle
larva
Scots Pine : shoots,
stem.
Pines : young bark
near ground.
Ash : stem.
c. Bostrichini group.
1.* The 2-toothed Pine -bark beetle,
Bostrichus bidens
2. * Acuminate Pine - bark beetle, B.
acuminatus
3. Large 6-toothed Pine-bark beetle, B.
sexdentatus
4. Larch -bark beetle, B. laricis
5. 3-striped Wood-boring beetle, B.
lineatus
6. Oak bark- and wood-boring beetle,
B. dispar
B. WEEVILS OR LONG-SNOUTED BEETLES, Cur-
culionidce.
1.* Large Pine- weevil, Hylobius abielis
2.* Small banded Pine -weevil, Pissodes
notatus
3. Pine -pole weevils, P. piniphilus, P.
pini
4.* Beech leaf-mining weevil, Orchestes fagi
5. Oak leaf-mining weevil, 0. querci
6. Willow, Poplar, and Alder weevil,
Cryptorhynchiis lapathi
7.* Crawling Hazel-weevil, Strophosomits
coryli
larva
Pines : stem,
branches.
Scots Pine: crown,
branches.
Pines : logs.
Pines : stem, logs.
Conifers: logs.
Oak, Beech : stem,
logs-
larva, beetle
larva
ti
larva, beetl
Conifers: bark of
young plants.
Conifers : bark of
young plants.
Scots Pine : stem.
Beech : leaves.
Oak : leaves.
Softwoods : shoots,
bark.
Most trees : buds,
shoots.
DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.
193
Classification, and Common and Scientific Names.
Destructive
as
Trees and Parts
of Tree chiefly
attacked.
c. LAMKLLICORN BEETLES, Scardbctidce.
1.* Cockchafer or May-beetle, Melolontha\
mdgaris
2.* Summer-chafer, Rhizotrogus solstitialis !
3. * Garden-chafer or Bracken- clock, Phyllo- I
pertha horticola }
larva
beetle
Roots of young
plants.
Leaves of trees.
p. LONGHORN BEETLES, Cerambycidce.
].* Musk - scented Willow Longhorn,
Aromia moschata
2. Large Poplar Longhorn, Saperda
carcharias
3. Small Poplar Longhorn, S. popvlnea .
larva
Willow, Lime:
stem.
Poplars, Willows :
stem.
Poplars : branches.
E. SAWHORN BEETLES, Buprestidce.
1. Green Sawhorn beetle, Agrilus viridis .
larva
Beech, Oak : young
stems.
Y. LEAF-BEETLES, Chrysomelidce.
1. Red Poplar-leaf beetle, Lina populi
2. Aspen-leaf beetle, L. tremulce
3. Willow and Osier beetle, Phratora
vitellince
larva, beetle
Poplars, Willows :
leaves.
Poplars, Willows :
leaves, shoots.
Willows, Poplars :
leaves.
G. CLICK-BEETLES OR SKIP- JACKS, Elateridce.
1* Striped or wire - worm click - beetle,
Agrioteslineatus
larva
Roots in nurseries.
1 1. Moths ( Lepidoptera).
A. SPINNERS, Bombycidce
1.* Puss-moth, Cerura vinula .
2.* Hop-Dog or Pale Tussock moth, Dasy-
chira pudibunda
3. Brown-tail moth, Porthesia chrysorrhcea )
4. Lackey moth, Gastropacha neustria )
5. Black Arches or Nun moth, Liparis
monacha
6. Satin moth, L. salicis . . " .
7. Vapourer moth, Orgyia antiqua .
caterpillar
Softwoods : leaves.
Beech : leaves.
Oak : leaves.
Spruce, Pine :
leaves.
Poplars, Willows :
leaves.
Willow, Spruce,
Pine : buds, leaves.
B. OWLET- OR NIGHT-MOTHS, Noctuidce.
1.* Pine Beauty or Owlet -moth, Trachea
piniperda
caterpillar
Pines : leaves.
194
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Classification, and Common and Scientific Names.
Destructive
as
Trees and P«irts
of Tree chiefly
attacked.
c. SPAN-WORM MOTHS, Geometridw.
1.* Winter moth, Cheimatobia brumata .
2.* Pine Span-worm or Bordered White
moth, Fidonia piniaria
3. Mottled Umber moth, Hybernia
defoliaria
caterpillar
ii
Oak, Elm : leaves.
Pines, Spruce :
leaves
Oak and hard-
woods : leaves.
D. LEAF-ROLLER MOTHS, Tortricidce.
1.* Green Oak Leaf-roller, Tortrix viri-
dana
2.* Pine shoot-twister, Retinia buoliana .
3. Pine-bud moth, R. turionana
4. Pine Resin-gall moth, R. resinetta
caterpillar
Oak : leaves.
Pines : leading
shoots,
ti buds,
ti shoots.
E. LKAF-MINING MOTHS, Tineidce.
1.* Larch Leaf-mining moth, Coleophora
laricella
2.* Larch Shoot-boring moth, Argyresthia
Iccvigatella
3. Ash-bud moth, Prays curtlsella .
caterpillar
it
Larch : leaves.
Larch : leading-
shoot.
Ash : leading-bud.
F. WOOD-BORING MOTHS, Cossidce.
1.* Goat-moth or Augur-worm, Cossus\
ligniperda
2. * Leopard- moth, Zeuzera cesculi
caterpillar
Broad-leaved
trees : stern.
G. CLEARWING MOTHS, Sesiidce .
1. Hornet clearwing-moth, Sesia apiformis
caterpillar
Poplars : stem.
I [I. Skin-winged Insects (Hymenoptera).
A. SAWFLIES, Tenthredinidce.
1.* Pine Sawfly, Lophyrus pini \
2.* Red Sawfly, L. rufus ]
3.* Large Larch Sawfly, Nematus Erich- \
soni \
4. Small Larch Sawfly, AT. laricis }
caterpillar
Pines : leaves.
Larch : leaves.
B. WOOD -WASPS, Siricidce.
1. Large Yellow Wood-wasp, Sirex gigas )
2. Steel-blue Wood- wasp, S. juvencus )
larva
Conifers : stem.
c. GALL- WASPS, Cynipidce.
1. Oak-apple Gall-wasp, Gynips querci \
2. Oak Marble-gall wasp, C. Kollari j
larva
Oak : leaves and
twigs
DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.
195
Classification, and Common and Scientific Names.
Destructive
as
Trees and Parts
of Tree chiefly
attacked.
IV. Two -winged Insects (Dlptera).
A. GALL-GNATS (Cecidomyidce).
1. Large Willow-twig midge, Cecidomyia
salicis
2. Small Willow-stem midge, C. salici-
perda
3. Osier shoot-tip gall-midge, C. heterobia
4. Beech-leaf gall-midge, C.fagi
5. Larch-bud gall-midge, C. Kellneri
larva
it
ii
ii
Osiers : young
twigs.
Willows : young
stems.
Osiers : shoot-tips.
Beech : leaves.
Larch : buds.
V. Half- winged Insects ( llemiptera).
(1) With similar fore- and hind - wings
(Homoptera)
A. PLANT-LICE (Aphidce).
1.* Big Spruce-gall and Larch aphis,
Chermes abietis-laricis
2. Small Spruce-gall aphis, Ch. coccineus,
Oh. strobilobius
3. Silver Fir aphis, Ch. picece . , i '
4. Pine aphis, Ch. pini . ... .
5. Elm woolly gall - aphis, Schizoneura
ulmi
all stages
n
( Spruces : base of
< twigs.
(. Larch : leaves.
Spruces : twig-tips
and buds.
Silver Firs : stem,
leaves.
Pines : twigs,
branches.
Elm : shoot, leaf.
B. SCALE-INSECTS (Coccidcc).
1.* Felted Beech - scale, Cryptococcus
fagi
2. Felted Ash-scale, Apterococcus fraxini
3. Felted Willow-scale, Chionaspis salicis
all stages
it
Beech : bark.
Ash : bark.
Willow, Ash :
bark.
(2) With different wings (Heteroptera) : Bugs
are not injurious in woodlands, and some
predaceous kinds are useful
DESCRIPTIVE NOTES OF INSECTS SOMETIMES VERY
DESTRUCTIVE IN BRITAIN.
( Those marked thus * in the above Table.)
I. BEETLES (Coleoptera)
A. BARK-BEETLES (Scolytidce).
*The large Elm -bark beetle, Scolytus destructor (Fig. 38), often
does great damage to Elm and Ash. Beetle & to £ in. long, black with
chestnut-brown shield-wings, and reddish-brown feelers and legs. The 9
196
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Fig. 38.
\
Elm-bark Beetle, magnified
five times.
bores through the bark in June, forming a vertical tunnel 3 or 4 in.
long in which eggs are laid. Larvse hatch out in autumn and feed on the
inner bark (forming secondary -galleries) till the following spring or early
summer, when they pupate and emerge
through the bark as adults either in August
or the following spring. After pairing, the
2 again bores into the bark and lays her
eggs, and so on till the stem is girdled, and
the tree becomes diseased or killed. Trees
from which beetles have emerged look as if
riddled with shot ; and fine sawdust will be
found on the bark or at the foot of the tree.
They generally attack healthy and vigorous
stems, as well as unhealthy trees. In Britain
usually only a few beetles emerge in August.
Extermination. — Moribund trees attacked are
best felled and barked late in July or early in
August, and the bark burned. The rough
outer bark of trees showing bore-holes can
be spoke-shaved to kill the larvae by exposure, and by the flow of sap ; and
insecticide washes can then also be applied.
*The large Pine-shoot beetle, Hylesinus piniperda (Fig. 39-41), is very
destructive in Pine-woods, attacking plantations of nearly all ages. Far
less damage is done by the larvae than by the beetle. Owing to strong resin-
flow from healthy stems, it chiefly attacks felled timber or sickly planta-
tions, healthy trees being only attacked after excessive increase. Attacks
are usually worst along green lanes and in pole-woods near timber-depots
or saw-mills. The beetle is ^ to £ in. long, almost cylindrical, at first
reddish-brown, then glossy black or dark-brown, thorax black, feelers and
legs reddish-brown. The shield-wings have longitudinal rows of fine
punctures, with the spaces between wrinkled with punctures and small
knobs, and having a row of little knobs with brush-like tufts of thick hair.
Beetles emerge from their pupal-chamber or their winter quarters late in
March (in dry warm years) or in April, pair and lay eggs in newly-felled
stems or stacked fuel, sickly trees, or fresh stumps of Pine, Spruce, and
Larch. After pairing, the $ bores under some bark -fissure, and lays eggs
along a vertical main-gallery about 4 in. long. Boring and egg-laying
continue for 3 to 5 weeks, up to 100-120 eggs being laid closely in niches
to right and left along the edges of the main-gallery, the bore-hole being
sometimes marked by resin-outflow. In 2 to 3 weeks the larva) hatch
out and eat sinuous galleries on each side of 'the main-gallery, and about
8 weeks later pupate for about 14 days in pupal-chambers formed in the
bark ; and the beetle usually issues in June, about 11 to 12 weeks after the
LARGE PINE-SHOOT BEETLE.
197
egg-laying (or later if spring cold and backward), the exit-holes making
stems sometimes look as if riddled with snipe-shot. The beetles either
pair at once and produce a second generation within the year, or else
bore into young Pine-shoots and breed during the warmer months or
in the following spring, the beetle hibernating in bark-fissures or under
moss, or boring into the thick bark near the ground. Warm weather
favours a double generation. Beetles of the second generation and any
Fig. 40.
Fig. 41.
Bark showing main and larval
galleries and 2 air-holes — nat-
ural size. The £ keeps near
the entrance-hole, -while the 9
bores the gallery.
Hylesinus piniperda,
magnified seven
times.
Shoot of Scots Pine, showing en-
trance-hole, and (where slice
removed] boring of a beetle, \
natural size.
of the first generation late in developing bore into the tops of the youngest
Pine-shoots just below the buds (entrance-hole generally noticeable by a
shell of resin round it), feed on the pith, and either turn and leave again
by the same hole, or else make a special exit-hole. Shoots thus hollowed
break and fall during storms, and the trees attacked look as if pruned.
With frequent attacks, the crowns assume a pointed pyramidal shape, from
continuous loss of side-shoots, and often become stag-headed.
198 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Prevention and Extermination. — The best measures are keeping the
woods clean, removing all windfall and sickly trees, or stems having bore-
dust lying round them, or on which white resin-shells or entrance-holes
in thick bark indicate that they are already infested. From decoy -stems
placed here and there in spring and summer, the bark should be peeled
and burned at the proper time. Winter-felled timber may thus be used ;
but if not removed from the woods by the end of May, it ought then to
be barked. Collecting and burning hollowed shoots lying scattered on
the ground is of little use, as the beetles emerge before the twigs
break.
*The Crutch Pine -beetle, Hylesinus palliatus (so called from the
main-galleries beginning with a boot-shaped or crutch-like bend), often
attacks along with H. piniperda in Scotland. Only about ^ in. long, it
is often overlooked, as it can breed in stems not freshly felled.
* The Small Pine - shoot beetle, Hylesinus minor, f to J in. long,
having uninterrupted knob-like tubercles with brush-like tufts at the ends
of the shield-wings, and more red-brown than deep brown or black, is
also found with H. piniperda and H. palliatus in Scots Pine and Spruce
pole-woods and middle-aged crops. It breeds in sickly trees.
* The black Pine - cambial beetle, Hylesinus ater, about £ to £ in.
long, and black with red-brown feelers and feet, only does damage as a
beetle, attacking 2- to 6-year-old Pine plantations. Common in Britain,
it is not very injurious.
* The Ash-bark beetle, Hylesinus fraxini (Fig. 42), is destructive all
over Britain, and often bores into healthy Ash-poles and trees, which
soon sicken, then become much infested, and are quickly killed.
About £ in. long, light to dark-brown, wing cases with five longitudinal
punctured lines. Beetles emerge from their winter quarters in late April or
early May, and lay eggs in the stem and branches of Ash-trees or in Ash-logs
lying in woods or parks, which are probably their chief breeding-places.
From 20 to 60 eggs are laid along each arm of the 2-armed mother-gallery,
and in a few days the larvae hatch out, reddish or purplish at first, with brown
head and jaws, legless, transversely furrowed, and tapering to the tail.
After feeding for about ten weeks, they pupate either in the bark or the
sapwood. The young beetles emerge in August (their exit-holes making
the trees look as if riddled with shot), and at once attack neighbouring Ash-
trees or freshly-felled logs, where they form galleries and feed during the
autumn, then remain dormant in winter, and feed again in March and
April, before emerging to pair. Prevention consists mainly in planting
Ash only on really suitable soil, and Extermination in removing logs be-
fore August, in cutting out sickly Ash-poles and trees by February and
March, in leaving decoy-logs in parks, and in barking all infested stems in
June and July and burning the bark.
ASH-BARK BEETLE.
199
attacks
The black Ash -bark beetle, H. crenatus, $ to 4 in. long,
trees injured by H. fraxini, and breeds there till the tree dies.
*The 2 -toothed Pine -bark beetle, Bostrichus bidens, is the com-
monest Bostrichus in our woodlands. It chiefly attacks Scots Pine, but
also other Pines, Spruce, and Larch, its attacks being mainly confined to
10- or 12-year-old plantations, or to the thin-barked crowns and branches
Fig. 42.
Portion of youn& Ash-trunk with borings of H. fraxini, 2f nat. size,
of poles and trees. It sometimes does extensive damage in plantations,
and even interrupts the canopy of old Pine-woods.
Beetle about -XV in. long, black, glossy, and covered with fine hairs.
The shield- wings are usually dark-brown, with rows of fine punctures.
In the £ both shield-wings have broad, flat indentations, on the upper
edge of each of which there is a large, hooked, tooth-like process (hence
bidens} ; but the ^ has not these indentations and tooth-like processes.
Beetles appear in May and June, and lay eggs on the thin bark of young
200 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
plantations, pole-woods, and living or dead branches of Pine-trees. The
larvse hatch out in June and July, feed about 4 weeks, pupate in July and
August, and emerge as beetles in August and September. The main-
galleries radiate in star-shape, but differ from those of B. chalcographus
by greater irregularity, by both the main- and the larval-galleries entering
more or less into the sapwood, and by the pupal-chamber being mainly in
the sapwood. The first generation usually emerges in July and proceeds
to pair and produce a second generation, appearing in September. This
second generation of beetles usually hibernates till the following May or
June ; but in warm dry seasons it can produce a third generation, which
hibernates as larvse.
Prevention and Extermination consist in keeping the woods clean, thin-
ning and removing sickly poles, and laying down traps of small thin-
barked branches and twigs (such as may be cut from decoy-stems set for
larger bark-beetles), and then burning them after egg-laying is finished
in June. Seedlings or saplings attacked should be pulled up and burned,
and infested poles felled and barked, and the bark burned.
* The Acuminate Pine-bark beetle, Bostrichus acuminatus, is some-
times destructive in the crowns of middle-aged and maturing Scots Pine
woods. The beetle is about g to J in. long, and brown with yellowish-grey
down. The shield-wings have regular rows of punctures, and are sharp
pointed where they meet near their upper end (hence acuminatus) ;
and each shield-wing has there 3 tooth-like processes, the third being the
largest. Beetles fly in April and May, when the ? lays eggs high up in the
crown of old Scots Pine. The brood-galleries are stellate, with 3 to 5 arms
radiating from a large pairing-chamber, and biting deep into the sapwood.
The larval-galleries are mostly in the cambium, confused, irregular, often
crossing each other. The beetles emerge in July and August, pair, and
produce another brood, which emerge as beetles in autumn, hibernate
under the bark (along with stragglers of the summer brood), and pair
in the following spring. Prevention and extermination. — Fell and remove
mature timber before spring is far advanced, and thin out sickly trees
in old woods. As the eggs are laid high up in the crowns of old trees,
it is difficult to trap this beetle in decoy-trees.
The large 6 -toothed Pine-bark beetle, Bostrichus sexdentatus, largest
of the bark-beetles, \ to | in. long, glossy black or dark -brown with
yellow hairs, but not very destructive or common, generally lays its eggs
in freshly -felled timber, windfalls, and fuel-stacks, and mostly attacks old
thick-barked Scots Pine when felled, but also woods from 20 to 30 years
of age upwards.
The Larch Bark-beetle, Bostrichus laricis, f to J in. long, and usually dark-
brown, is often found in Conifer-woods, but chiefly (despite its name) on
LARGE PINE- WEEVIL. 201
Pines or Spruce, and sometimes Larch and Silver Fir. It chiefly attacks
poles, tree-tops, and stacked fuel.
The Wood -boring Bark -beetle, Bostrichus lineatus, is cylindrical,
blackish, § to ^ in. long, with dull yellow-brown elytra, antennee, and
legs, and three dark longitudinal stripes along each shield-wing (hence
lineatus), but has no tooth-like processes at their ends. In Scotland this
beetle chiefly attacks recently-felled Scots Pine, Spruce, and Larch, and
only exceptionally poor standing crops, and often riddles the wood
with holes ; but as the borings are mostly confined to the sapwood, the
damage is not great, though it spoils poles for cellulose-making.
The Oak bark- and wood-boring beetle, Bostrichus dispar, black, with
reddish feelers and legs, ? £ in., £ TV in. long, elytra well rounded at ends,
and with rows of deep punctures, mostly attacks Oak and Beech, but also
attacks other hardwoods, Birch, and Alder. The larvae often kill off Oak
saplings and transplants, and the beetle sometimes bores into and breeds
in the stems of sickly old Oak, Beech, or timber lying on the ground, and
spoils the timber. Trees or saplings infested show bore - dust on the
ground.
B. SNOUTED WEEVILS (Curculionidce). '
* The large Pine- weevil. Hylobius abietis (Figs. 43, 44), is the most
destructive insect in our woodlands, though the damage is only done
during the adult stage. It attacks young plantations of Pines, Spruce,
Larch, Douglas Fir, and Silver Fir up to about 5 or 6 years old, and gnaws
the bark, thus causing an outflow of resin in scab-like patches. Whole
plantations are sometimes ruined, especially in warm, dry seasons. When
the bark thickens and hardens there is less risk of damage, and planta-
tions of 8 to 10 years are fairly safe. It sometimes attacks older trees,
but the wounds soon get coated with resin and heal up. As it breeds
in fresh sappy stumps, it is only found where Conifers have been recently
felled. Weevil about ^ to ^ in. long, stoutly built, convex in shape, deep-
red to dark-brown or black, and having a long thick snout, with feelers
springing from near its tip. It is marked with clusters of yellow scales
or hairs between the eyes, on the sides of the thorax and abdomen,
and on the elytra. These yellow patches look like cross-bands on the
elytra, and are very distinct when the beetle emerges, but gradually
become fainter. The beetles live two years or more, so that those recently
emerged (distinctly marked) and older beetles (faintly marked) that have
been out for some considerable time, as well as larva) in every stage of
development, may all be found simultaneously. Beetles appear from
April till June, and crawl or fly to fresh Conifer falls, and lay eggs in
the sappy stumps and roots. Pairing and reproduction continue in
summer and autumn, as long as fresh stumps are available for breeding-
202
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
places, the eggs being laid singly on roots of ^ in. diameter upwards,
or sometimes in sawdust heaps near sawmills in the woods. In about
4 weeks they hatch out and bore in the dead cambium, but later enter
the sapwood and form long winding galleries, trending downwards and
sometimes 3 ft. long, at the end of which the pupal-chamber is formed.
The yellowish-white larva? have a large brown head, are curved or bent
Fig. 44.
Fig- 43
The large Pine-
weevit(l-iy\obms
abietis).
a. Beetle (slightly
magnified).
b. Larva (natural
size).
c. Pupa (natural
size).
Voting Spruce gnawed by the large Pine-weevil (Hylobius
abietis), natural size.
a. Tarts gnawed.
?>. Parts undamaged.
by ventral contraction, and are about £ to £ in. long. When full grown,
in autumn they hollow out their pupal-chamber in the sapwood, seal it
up with bore - dust and wood - chips, and hibernate as larvae till the
following June, when they pupate and emerge as beetles about three
weeks later, the development from egg to beetle thus occupying about
15 months. Beetles emerging in July and only partially reproducing
themselves are very destructive in the following spring. They begin to
hibernate from about the end of August till autumn, in thick grass or
SMALL PINE-WEEVIL. 203
weeds, stumps, logs, or dead branches. Early in autumn, females laying
eggs often gather in large numbers in such places, and reappear in spring
to pair again. Prevention and Extermination. — Extensive clear- fell ing of
mature Conifer-crops and heavy windfalls, especially near young planta-
tions, always increases this destructive weevil. Though seldom practic-
able, the best way of preventing attacks is to grub up all the stumps
and roots as fuel ; and where this can be done, there is little danger.
Felling the timber by cutting through the main roots with an axe and
pulling over the tree is not sufficient, as many thick roots remain in
the ground.
When weevils are numerous the stumps can be used to trap the eggs,
and then grubbed in late summer, after the eggs have been laid, or in
the early spring. Where young plantations are to be made, it is best to
peel the bark from stumps and roots so far as practicable, burn the area,
heaping all the rubbish over the stools to dry them as much as possible,
and let the land lie fallow for one or two years after a clear fall of timber.
If the fall be at once replanted without thorough burning or removing
the stumps and big roots, then breeding-places and feeding-grounds are
both provided for the beetle.
In plantations where the weevils appear, bark-traps should be laid with
pieces of fresh Spruce or Pine bark, put with the soft inner side next the
ground, and weighed down with stones ; or freshly cut Pine or Spruce
poles may be cut into faggots about 3 ft. long, and a strip of bark about
2 in. broad peeled off lengthways, before laying them down with the barked
part on the ground. The beetles, attracted by the fresh resinous odour,
attack the cambial layer of these decoys, and can be collected daily.
They will also feed on bundles of fresh Pine branches, and can be collected
by being shaken out on sheets spread on the ground to catch them as they
fall. Handpicking by boys and girls is also useful. When collected, they
can be killed by pouring boiling water over them.
* The small banded Pine-weevil, Pissodes notatus (Fig. 45), J to | in.
long, and with feelers springing from near the middle of the snout, is often
found along with the large Pine-weevil, and is very destructive to Pines,
Spruce, and Larch. It attacks both as larva and beetle, the larva being
very destructive, in boring in the bark, and between bark and sapwood,
and gnawing away parts where the bark is thin. The weevil does not
gnaw, but pushes its snout through the bark into the sapwood near the
foot of young plants 3 to 6 years old, and sucks the sap, a badly attacked
stem looking as if it had been there pricked all over with a needle and
beads of resin had oozed out.
Beetle { to £ in. long, dark red-brown, irregularly covered with small
scale-like greyish-white hairs ; on thorax 6 to 8 plainly marked small white
or yellowish dots ; elytra with two broad rusty - red transverse bands
204
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
bearing white and yellow scales, the upper band being interrupted at the
junction of the wings ; snout long and thin, with feelers springing from
near the middle. Beetles swarm in April and May, and from April to
September lay eggs (often in small clusters), mostly under the whorls
of 3- to 8-year-old Pines, and in Pine-cones and the bark of sickly poles.
The yellowish-white brown-headed larva) on hatching out tunnel down-
Fig. 46.
Fig- 45-
The small Pine-weevil (Pissodcs
notatus).
a. Beetle (magnified four times).
b. Beetle (natural size).
c. Larva (magnified twice).
iL Pupa (magnified twice).
Young Pine-stem barked to show the pupal-
chambers and exit-holes of Pissodes
notatus (half natural size}.
wards, eating sinuous star -shaped galleries in the cambium, which
terminate in a pupal-chamber formed in the sapwood. On entering this
to pupate, the vacant space is filled up with bore-dust and wood-chips
(Fig. 46), and several pupsc may often be found embedded just below
a branch-whorl. The beetle emerges by a circular hole in August or
later, pairs and reproduces itself, then hibernates from November under
moss or in bark-fissures, and reappears for pairing again in April and May.
BEECH-WEEVIL. 205
The generation is usually annual, though there may be three in two years.
Extermination. — When young shoots of plants infested by the larvae droop
and look sickly about July, they should be pulled up and burned ; and
if persevered in for several years in succession, this almost completely
exterminates the beetle. Poles attacked should also be felled and barked ;
but it is much easier to recognise attacks on young plants than on poles.
* The Beech leaf-mining weevil, Orchestes fagi, often swarms in Beech-
woods, sometimes does great damage to the leaves and flower-buds, and
is very destructive in defoliating Beech-trees. Weevil only T^ to ^ in.
long, black, and covered with fine grey hairs ; elytra with rows of coarse
punctures ; antenna} and legs are light-brown ; snout, when not in use,
bent back under the thorax ; thighs of hind-legs thick, for springing. The
? bites small holes on the lower surface of young leaves in spring, and
lays one egg in each hole near the midrib. The larva) hatch out in 2 to 3
weeks, and mine in the leaf-substance, forming whitish galleries (which
soon turn brown), increasing in breadth as the grub grows in size, and
damaged leaves turn brown, as if nipped by frost. The pupal stage is
passed in the leaf. The beetles emerge in June, feed on the leaves and
nut-cupules till autumn, then descend and hibernate under dead leaves
on the ground. Prevention is hardly possible in woodlands ; but the
attacks are least in mixed woods, where insectivorous birds are always
most plentiful. Ornamental trees may be sprayed with arsenic solution
formed by stirring ^ Ib. Paris - green paste in 100 gallons water, and
adding 1 Ib. lime. If this is not successful, infested leaves should be
picked in May and burned, and beetles shaken down and killed in June.
The Oak leaf -mining weevil (Orchestes querci) does somewhat similar
damage to Oak foliage.
5. The Willow, Poplar, and Alder - weevil, Cryptorhynchus lapathi,
about g in. long, and strongly marked by having its elytra dark-brown for
their first two-thirds, and white-scaled for the last third, gnaws the bark
of young shoots of old Willow and Poplars and young Alder-trees ; but
its larva} do far more damage by burrowing into the wood and forming
galleries from which the bore-dust is cast out at the entrance. Beetles
can be shaken down from trees in May, and badly infested branches or
trees cut in July and burned.
* The Crawling Hazel - weevil, Strophosomus coryli. — The larva is
chiefly found on Hazel, Oak, Beech, and Birch, but also attacks other
broad-leaved trees and Conifers, and hollows out the buds before gnawing
the young shoots. The crawling weevil also feeds in spring on the edges
of needles and the bark of young Pine and Spruce, especially 2-year-old
seedlings, and does much damage when occurring in large numbers.
Beetles £ to £ in. long, almost spherical, brownish-grey with greyish
metallic sheen ; basal junction of elytra black, without hairs or scales ;
206
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
antenna) and legs rusty-red ; rostrum with fine groove along middle. It
has no flying wings, but crawls up stems, pairing and egg-laying about
June. Prevention and Extermination. — In nurseries beetles may be
shaken down and collected. They drop to the ground with slight shak-
ing, and crawl quickly away ; but grease-banding stems with patent tar
prevents their reascending.
C. LAMELLICORN BEETLES (Scarabceidce).
* The Cockchafer, May -Beetle, or White -grub, Mdolontha vulgaris
(Fig. 47), as a beetle feeds on the leaves and flowers of Oak chiefly, and
Fig. 47.
The Common Cockchafer (Melolomha vulgaris).
«. Beetle (male — natural size).
6. Feeler of male (7 lamellae —
magnified four times).
c. Feeler of female (6 lamellae — magnified four times).
d. Grub (natural size).
e. Pupa (seen from below— natural size).
other broad - leaved trees, sometimes almost defoliating them, while
among Conifers it mainly eats soft tufts of Larch-needles and male
flowers of Pine. But it is most destructive as a voracious grub in
loose soil, from the second year onwards gnawing the roots of young
plants, and especially of perennial grasses, weeds, and Conifer seedlings, so
that the last soon die off, while older plants sicken when attacked.
In seed-beds the well-prepared soil attracts the ? when laying eggs, and
on falls of Scots Pine on sandy soil grubs are often very destructive.
Beetle, 1 to 1£ in. long; thorax black or reddish-brown; elytra and
legs ruddy -brown ; the elytra with 5 longitudinal ridges, the 4 hollows
between which are covered with fine hairs ; abdomen black, with 5
COCKCHAFER. 207
triangular white spots on each side, and gradually terminating in a broad,
elongated, pointed tail ; antennas with 10 joints, the laminae 7 -jointed and
feathery on <$ , but 6-jointed, smaller, and narrower on ? . The full-
grown larva or grub is 1| to 2 in. long, thick, fleshy, dirty-white, the
tail - end swollen, darker in colour, and generally bluish from the
excrement showing through. It has a thick, yellow-brown head, strong
biting jaws, and 6 long feet attached to the thorax. The pupa is
brownish-yellow, with two horny processes on the last abdominal segment.
The bettle flies in May and June. After pairing the 9 seeks open
spaces with loose soil, and lays in some 70 creamy- white eggs about the
size of hemp-seed, in clusters of 10 to 30 at a depth of 2 in. or more below
the surface, then reascends and soon dies. The grubs hatch out nearly
4 weeks later, and during the first year feed on grass-roots, decomposing
foliage, &c. In autumn they burrow deeper, but reascend nearer the
surface in spring and feed on the roots of plants until autumn, when they
again hibernate, and reascend in the third spring to once more feed as
grubs on the roots of young plants ; and the nearly full-grown grubs then
do most damage. Again (for the third time) they hibernate as grubs
after burrowing deep into the soil, and in spring reascend and feed for a
short time. In June, three years after hatching out, they burrow deep
into the soil and pupate in an oval hole with smooth hard walls, and after
4 to 8 weeks of pupal rest the beetle comes out soft and white, but
gradually hardens and deepens in colour. Without coming to the surface
it hibernates below ground, and only emerges in the following May from
a hole such as is made with the point of a walking-stick. In Britain four
years are needed for normal generation (though in warm countries
generation takes three years only), and swarms therefore reappear every
four years, only stragglers being seen in the intervening years. Ex-
termination. — So far as practicable, the 9 should be given no favour-
able opportunity of laying eggs on blank spaces with loose soil when
chafer-years are expected ; and dibbling is then preferable to pit-planting
on sandy soil. Where chafers abound, nurseries should not be formed
near pastures from which beetles may fly to lay eggs. But the best pro-
tection is to hang up nesting-boxes for starlings all round the nursery.
Natural remedies fail, however, to check the periodic chafer-years, when
the beetles should in the early morning be shaken down from young poles
and collected and killed by pouring boiling water over them, or by
dipping the sacks full of them into hot water, such collections being
made before the beetles begin egg-laying, and simultaneously over the
whole area infested. Grubs can only be exterminated in nurseries
where noticed by the withering of seedlings attacked, when each grub can
be dug up. They can also be trapped with turf-sods about 10 in. broad
and 6 or 8 in. thick being laid, grassy side downwards, on the ground ; or
208
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Fig. 48.
heaps of turf-humus, dung, &c., may also be employed; and grubs
collecting under these can be gathered and destroyed. Or potatoes may
be placed below ground and examined daily. — Equally destructive are
the two smaller species, the * Summer- Chafer, Rhizotrogus solstitialis,
and the * Garden-Chafer or Bracken-clock, Phyllopertha horticola, and
all three have increased during the last ten years. They are easily
distinguished from the Cockchafer, as the Summer-Chafer is about f in.
long, reddish-brown, and slightly hairy, and the Garden-Chafer about £
to £ in. long, the front part of the body greenish with metallic sheen,
and the elytra reddish-brown ; and they both appear in June and July,
about a month later than the Cockchafer ; but the grubs are very similar
when young, and difficult to identify,
though they are smaller when full-grown.
The habits of the grubs are very similar
to those of the Cockchafer.
D. LONGHORN BEETLES (Cerambycidai).
* The Musk- scented Willow Longhorn,
Aromia moschata, is a thin beetle about
1 in. long, with glossy metallic sheen
varying from rich blue and green to
coppery red, with a strong spine on each
side of thorax, the feelers of 9 shorter,
and those of <5 much longer than the
body. The larva is very destructive by
boring into old pollarded Willows, and
also into Lime-trees.
The large Poplar Longhorn, Sapcrda
carcharias (Fig. 48), the larva) of which
chiefly infest Poplars and Willows up to
about 20 years old, is about 1 to 1£ in.
long (with antenna) of about same length), clay-grey to yellowish-brown,
and with thorax and wing-cases covered with shining black spots.
The small Poplar Longhorn, Saperda populnea, about 3 in. long, and
black, with yellow or yellowish-grey hairs, often infests the branches of
young Poplars without doing them much harm.
E. SAWHORN BEETLES, JBuprestidce.
The Green Saw -horn beetle, Agrilus viridis, about £ in. long, and
usually blackish with a lustrous metallic blue, green, or olive sheen,
appears in June and July, when the 9 lays eggs singly or in clusters of
2 or 3 on the bark near the base of young Beech or Oak. The larva)
hatch out 4 to 6 weeks later, feed on the cambium and kill saplings
or make them sickly and cankered-like, hibernate inside the stems for
two winters, then pupate in the cambium or the sapwood in the follow-
Large Poplar Longicorn.
a. Beetle (natural size).
b. Larva (natural size).
c. Head of larva (magnified).
LEAF-BEETLES. 209
ing April or May, and emerge from a half - moon hole (^ ) with flat
side above during June and July (generation biennial). Plants attacked
should be pulled up and burned before the beetles emerge in June.
F. LEAF- BEETLES (Chrysomelidce).
The Red Poplar-leaf beetle, Lina populi, feeds both as beetle and
larva on Poplar, Aspen, and Willow foliage, and sometimes seriously
retards the growth of Osier-beds. The beetle is J in. long, with blackish-
blue body, and brick-red elytra tipped with black at upper end ; antennae
short, compressed, and thickening towards ends; larvae, 6-footed, dirty-
white, with numerous black spots, and two white lateral processes on the
second and third segments ; pupa, yellowish-brown, with regular black
spots and bands, and is somewhat pear-shaped, hangs head-downwards,
and attached to leaves by a sharp-pointed tail-end. The beetles fly in
May and June, and the ? lays 100 to 150 eggs in clusters of 10 to 12 on
the foliage of young saplings, stool-shoots, and suckers. The larvae hatch
out in 4 weeks, feed for 4 weeks, then pupate on leaves, and emerge as
beetles about the end of August. In October they libernate under moss
or dead leaves, and reappear and pair in the following May (generation
simple, annual). Beetles may be shaken down from trees while pairing
in May or June, or else from August till October before hibernating.
Spraying Osier-shoots and the soil beneath them with insecticides is often
effective.— The Aspen-leaf beetle, Lina tremulce, is very similar but only
^ in. long, and has no black tips to the elytra. It is somewhat more
destructive, as it attacks the shoots while still young and soft. — The
Willow and Osier beetle, Phratora vitellince, % to i of an in. long, bronze
green or coppery, oblongly - oval, and having elytra with rows of fine
punctures, appears from late April to June, and lays large oblong eggs in
clusters of about 10 or 12 on the lower side of Osier, Willow, and Poplar
leaves. The larvae hatch out in 4 weeks, and skeletonise both the spring
and the summer flush of leaves before pupating in the ground. The
beetles emerge in August, feed for some time, then hibernate in the
ground, bark- fissures, or any other hiding-place. The generation is
usually single, though sometimes early-comers in August pair and produce
a second brood before hibernating.
G. CLICK-BEETLES or SKIP-JACKS (Elateridce).
*The Striped Click-beetle, Agriotes lineatus, is the commonest and
the most destructive species (Fig. 49).
Beetle f in. long, with a wing-expanse of fully | in. ; thorax tawny ;
elytra brown, with yellowish-brown lines ; antenna) reddish-yellow ; legs
brown. The " wire- worm," or larva, is f in. long, very shiny, and yellow
(chestnut when dead), with a few hairs on its body, 3 pairs of 4-jointed
legs on the first three segments, and a swelling on the lower surface of the
terminal segment. It has strong jaws for biting through roots. Beetles,
210 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
found under stones, in grass - roots, on grasses, flowers, and trees, in
hedges, &c., fly in July and August, and (like the cockchafer) lay eggs
in nurseries and wherever the soil has been loosened. Some beetles
hibernate in sheltered places, and pair in the following May and June ; and
the wire-worms hatching out live in the earth, near the plant-roots on
which they feed. After feeding for 3 to 4 years, according to circum-
stances, the larva goes deep down and pupates in July in a small oval
earthy cocoon, from which the beetle emerges in 2 or 3 weeks. Preven-
tion and Extermination. — Plovers, rooks, starlings, and jackdaws help to
keep them in check, and nitrate of soda, dressings will prevent egg-laying
on nursery-beds ; but once part of a nursery is infested, it is best to sow
mustard, which wire-worms loathe,
and therefore they starve to death.
In nurseries the beetles may be
trapped in small heaps of lucerne,
clover, or sainfoin laid on the
ground and covered with tiles or
pieces of board during May and
June, as long as beetles are notice-
able. They fly to these heaps,
shelter beneath the green material
(particularly if the ground is clean),
an<^ ^av e££s there. These traps
must be examined as often as pos-
>sible' to collecfc the beetles> while
the green stuff should be destroyed
every ten days, aud the ground be-
3. Wire-worm, larva of Agriotes lineatus neath well beaten down to squash
4. Pupf (nTturaTsize). any eggs left there. Boards or tiles
placed beneath the bait prevent eggs
from reaching the ground. The larvae can also be trapped in beetroot
or potatoes. Leaf-mould and manure-heaps should be dressed with gas-
lime to prevent egg-laying.
II. MOTHS (Lcpidoptera).
A. SPINNERS (Bombycidce).
*The Puss moth, Cerura vinula, is often very destructive to young
softwoods, especially Poplars. Moth about 1 in. long, greyish, soft, and
fluffy (hence "puss"), fore-wings grey-white, with black markings, and
partly transparent near edges ; flies from April to June, and lays brownish
eggs singly or in 2 or 3 on leaves of young Poplar aud Willow chiefly.
Caterpillar over 2 in. long, smooth, brownish above, with white strip
along each side, and greenish-yellow at sides, has a black head, a hump
PALE TUSSOCK MOTH. 211
on the fourth segment, and a long forked tail. Pupa enclosed in a hard
shell-like cocoon spun along the stem or on twigs, &c.
* The Hop-Dog or Pale Tussock moth, DasycJiira pudibunda, is found
on most broad-leaved trees, but mainly attacks old Beech-woods on poor
soil (also destructive in hop-gardens, hence " hop-dog "), and usually only
migrates to younger woods after the old woods have been defoliated. The
caterpillars feed mostly in late summer, after the young buds for next
year's foliage are formed ; and though generation is simple and annual,
attacks seldom extend beyond two consecutive years.
The wing-span of the ? 2 to 2^ in. , the 6 somewhat smaller and dis-
tinguished by yellowish -brown feathery antenna) ; fore-wings and front
part of body reddish- or greyish- white, with two or three dark, waved,
transverse stripes ; hind-wings and lower part lighter, with a faint, broad,
greyish, transverse band. Caterpillar 16-legged, about 1^ in. long when
full grown ; at first greenish -yellow, then brown-red, and easily known by
4 thick, yellow- or brown-grey tufts of bristles on segments 4, 5, 6, and 7,
with velvety black bands between, and by a long rose-red or ruddy-brown
hair- tuft on the second last segment.
Pupa hairy, dark-brown to greyish -yellow, in a cocoon spun with the
larval hairs. Moths fly late in May and early in June, and the $ lays
about 100 eggs (at first grey-green, brown- or blue-grey) on the smooth
bark of poles or trees, usually from 3 to 10 feet above ground. About
three weeks later, in June or July, the young caterpillars hatch out, eat
their egg-shells, and cluster in colonies for a few days before scattering
and ascending to feed on the foliage. They only gnaw leaves slightly at
first, but with growing strength often gnaw them completely through near
the petiole, so that the ground is frequently strewn with bits of foliage.
At end of September or early in October they descend and hibernate as
pupse in cocoons spun in moss or under dead leaves, herbage, &c. Pre-
vention and Extermination. — Insectivorous birds and predatory and par-
asitic insects (Carabidce and Ichneumonidw chiefly) prey on the caterpillars ;
but the sudden cessation of attacks is mainly due to a fungus disease
(Isaria farinosa) infecting the caterpillars, which are also very sensitive
to sudden cold wet weather, although hardy as regards winter cold. It
is not of much practical use to try and collect the pupae or kill the cater-
pillars when descending to pupate on the ground, though egg-clusters laid
on Beech-stems near the ground can easily be crushed or destroyed with a
daub of tar. Grease-banding stems about 12 feet up with narrow rings of
patent tar will prevent most of the caterpillars from getting up to the
crown to eat the foliage, and will also hinder those hatched out of eggs
laid above that from being able to descend to pupate on the ground.
The Brown-tail moth, Porthesia chrysorrhcea, is a shining white moth
with a wing-span of 1£ in. In the ? the abdomen is mostly brown, with
212 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
a thick red-brown woolly tuft near the end, while the cJ is blackish -brown
with a red-brown woolly tuft at the end. The 16-footed caterpillar is 1J
in. long, dark grey-brown above, with two irregular red stripes along the
sides, and covered with tufts of yellowish-brown hairs, and grey beneath,
with yellow marbling. The hairy pupa is dark-brown, and has a pointed
tail. The moths fly late in June and early in July, the 9 laying 200 to
300 brownish-yellow eggs, on the lower surface of the leaves of Oak chiefly,
but also other broad-leaved trees, and covering them with spongy wool
from her thick tail. The caterpillars hatch out in August, and form
"tents" or colony -nests round the young shoots and leaves, and in
autumn they strengthen these and form tough nests about fist -size,
where they hibernate. In spring they again feed on the foliage, returning
to their "tents" at night and during bad weather ; but about the middle
of May they abandon these and wander about freely to feed. Early in
June they pupate for 3 to 4 weeks in a greyish-brown transparent nest
made between the leaves. (Generation simple, annual). — The Lackey
moth, Cfastropacha neustria, has a wing-span of 1£ in.; body and fore-
wings yellow- or reddish - brown, with a broad, light -edged transverse
band ; hind-wings are somewhat lighter, and crossed in the middle by a
faint darker band. Caterpillar is slightly haired, If in. when full-grown,
and marked with alternate stripes of light blue, reddish-brown, and white
(hence "lackey"), head pale-blue with two black spots. The moths fly
in July and August, towards evening, and lay 300 to 400 brownish-grey
eggs in a close spiral band round twigs and small branches, chiefly on Oak,
also Elm, Hornbeam, Poplars, and Willows. The caterpillars hatch out
late in April or early in May, at once feed on buds and leaves, and live in
communities inside " tents " or nests until full-grown. About end of June
they break up their colonies, and pupate singly between leaves or in bark-
fissures, by attaching themselves to these with a few loosely spun threads.
The Black Arches or Nun moth, Liparis monacha, one of the most
destructive pests in Continental Spruce and Pine woods, has never yet
done much damage in Britain, though often found on broad-leaved trees
(especially Oak) in the south of England.
The ? has a wing-span of about 2 in. ; the smaller <$ is distinguishable
by double-combed antennae. In both the outer wings and the upper part
of the body the ground-colour is white, marked with numerous deeply-
arched, zigzag, brownish-black or black stripes (hence Nun) ; the lower
wings are brown-grey, edged with black spots. The abdomen, though
sometimes blackish, is mostly rose-colour, with black transverse bands.
Caterpillar about 1^ in. when full-grown, whitish- to reddish-grey above
and dirty-green below, with broad grey dorsal stripe, commencing from a
black heart-shaped patch on the second segment. The densely-haired
pupa, at first greenish, then bronzy-brown, lies in a flimsy cocoon, formed
PINE OWLET-MOTH. 213
of a few dirty yellow threads spun between bark-fissures on the lower part
of the stem, among foliage on branches and twigs, or on underwood and
brushwood. The moths fly late in July or early in August, and the 9
lays about 150 bronzy mother-of-pearl eggs in one or more clusters under
bark-scales, lichen, &c. Though fully formed in 4 weeks, the larva hiber-
nates within the shell, and hatches out in April or May, the young cater-
pillars remaining for several days in clusters, then scattering and ascend-
ing to feed on the foliage. Spruce foliage they devour entirely, but on Pine
they bite through the needle about half-way up, and eat only the remain-
ing lower part. The caterpillars moult 4 times, and until half -grown spin
gossamer threads to let themselves down to the ground. They feed till
late June or early July, when they descend in masses from the stems
to pupate under bark - scales, or on the undergrowth, &c. The most
efficient exterminative measure is therefore grease - banding stems with
patent tar (Fig. 36, p. 189).
The Satin moth, Liparis salicis, has a wing-span of 2£ in., white lustrous
wings, and legs ringed black and white. Caterpillar If in., grey, with
yellow- white dorsal spots, small red warts, and light-brown hairs. The 9
lays about 150 eggs in June and July on bark or leaves of Poplar and
Willow, and covers them with a white skin. Some caterpillars hatch out
in autumn, others in spring ; and they pupate in May or June loosely at-
tached to twigs or leaves. — Vapourer moth, Orgyia antiqua, wing-span
1 to 1| in.; <J rusty -brown, with 2 dark transverse bands and a white
moon-spot on each fore-wing ; 9 yellowish-grey, with wings aborted into
white stumps. Caterpillar ashy-grey with yellowish hairs, velvety-black
head and carmine warts, with 2 long black hair-tufts behind its head,
and other 2 on fifth segment projecting at right angles from sides, and
1 erect on eleventh segment. Moth flies in August and September, and
lays about 200 eggs on the nest from which it has emerged. Some larvse
hatch out in autumn, but most in spring, when they feed on the buds and
foliage of Willow, Spruce, and Pine before pupating in June or July for
about 6 weeks.
B. OWLET- or NIGHT-MOTHS (Noctuidce).
* The Pine Beauty or Owlet-moth, Trachea piniperda, lives mostly in
Pine-woods 20 to 40 years old, and in warm dry weather may become a
very serious pest.
The <J and 9 moths are about same size (wing-span If in.) and similarly
marked ; but antennae of <$ more feathered, and abdomen of 9 rather
thicker ; fore-wings and upper part of body brown-red spotted with white
or marbled with grey, and the large lower spot on each wing forms a
crescent pointing downwards when moth is at rest ; the hind-wings and
abdomen dark-grey brown, wings with lighter edge. Caterpillar 16-legged,
1^ in. long, with a brown head, has very few hairs, and is yellowish-green,
214
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Fig. 50.
with 3 to 5 whitish longitudinal stripes, and a yellow or orange stripe on
each side just above the spiracles and the legs. The two first abdominal
legs being malformed, it moves somewhat like a span-worm, and spins
gossamer threads freely while young. Pupa J to § in. long, first greenish,
then dark-brown, with two hooked processes at tail-end. Life-history. —
The moth flies in April, pairing at night, and laying, high up in the trees,
about 50 round green eggs, mostly singly, on the needles of Pine and
Spruce in pole-woods 20 to 40 years old. Caterpillars hatch out in May,
and gnaw the sides of needles, but as they grow stronger, they eat them
right down to the sheath. About the end of July they descend to pupate
under moss, dead foliage, &c., or on the ground, throughout the whole
area attacked, though they are not migratory.
They hibernate as pupse and emerge as moths
in spring, the long pupal rest extending over
about eight months. Prevention and Exter-
mination.— In young pole-woods infested, cater-
pillars can easily be shaken down ; and they can
also often be collected and killed when they
come down to pupate, as they frequently
cluster together at the foot of the tree before
hibernating as pupse.
0. SPAN-WORM MOTHS (Geometridce).
* The Winter moth, Cheimatobia brumata
(Fig. 50), attacks most broad-leaved trees, but
especially Oak, Elm, Hornbeam, and Lime.
The cJ has a wing-span of 1 to 1£ in., reddish-
or yellowish -grey or grey-brown fore-wings with
dark wavy transverse lines, and lighter hind-
wings marked with a faint dark stripe ; ? about
^ in. long, grey-brown with white scales, long
antennae and legs, and only abortive rudimentary wings, so that it cannot
fly. The 10-footed caterpillar feeds on foliage till full-grown. Grey at
first, after first moult yellowish-green with green head and pale dorsal
stripe, and when full-grown (1 in. long) is green with dark dorsal stripe,
three narrow white lines along each side, and brown head. Pupa light-
brown, with two hook-like processes at tail-end in a very loose flimsy
cocoon.
From October till December (hence " winter - moth ") 6 flits about
towards dusk in search of ? , crawling up and down the trunks of trees,
and the ? lays about 250 eggs (greenish at first, then reddish), singly or
in small clusters, on buds, leaf-scars, and twig-points in the crowns of
broad-leaved trees. Caterpillars hatch out in April and May, and feed on
leaf- and flowering-buds before attacking the foliage, which they twist
Winter Moth (natural
size).
A. Male. B. Female.
c. Caterpillar,
PINE SPAN-WORM.
215
(like leaf-roller moths). Early in June they spin gossamer threads down
to the ground, and pupate in sheltered places or in smooth holes formed
about 2J in. below the ground. The moths mostly emerge in autumn
(simple annual genei-ation), though stragglers hibernate as pupae and
appear in spring. Extermination consists in spraying with insecticides in
nurseries, and grease-
banding stems with Fig. CT.
patent tar to prevent
the ? from crawling
up to the tree-crowns.
* The Pine Span-
worm or Bordered
White moth, Fidonia
piniaria, usually at-
tacks 25- to 40 -year-
old Pine, Spruce, and
Silver Fir woods, and
would be very destruc-
tive were it not that
its attacks only take
place after the buds for
next year's foliage have
been formed (Fig. 51).
The (J and 9 are
about same size, wing-
span 1 to 1^ in., but
vary in colour. The 9
has rusty-brown wings
(both pairs), with
paler edging, 2 faint
dark-brown transverse
stripes across lower,
and 1 across the upper
wings, and the lower
edges of both wing-
pairs have a row of
alternate light and dark spots. Ground-colour of wings of <$ white
(Scotland) or yellowish - white (England), with large triangular dark-
brown patch at apex of fore-wings, and broad dark-brown edging and
transverse stripes, and fringes of both wing-pairs tipped with alternate
brown and yellow spots.
The yellowish-green 10-footed caterpillar, 1 or 1£ in. when full-grown,
has a white line along the middle of back, two parallel dark -green line?
Part of Pine branch, showing damage done by cater-
pillars of the Pine Span-worm. Eggs can be seen
here and there on the leaves.
216
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Fig- 52-
V
farther down on either side, and a pale-yellow line close below the brown
spiracles ; and all these lines extend to the green head, where the dorsal
middle line forms a V mark. Of the 10
feet, 3 pairs are thoracic, and 2 pairs pro-
legs (one pair forming the anal claspers).
The pupa, about f in., resembling but
smaller than that of the Pine Beauty, is
at first greenish, then dark-brown. The
moths live for about a fortnight in May
and June, when the <$ flits about in the
daytime, and the ? lays about 60 bright-
green eggs on Pine-needles near the top
of poles and at tips of side-shoots. Cater-
pillars hatch out in 2 to 3 weeks, and
gnaw the needles slightly, then bite them
through about the middle so that the
upper half falls to the ground, and feed
on the remaining half. Before pupating
in October under moss, leaves, &c., they
spin down to the ground. Pupation lasts
till April, the pupae lying unprotected by
a cocoon, and scattered over all the area
infested. Extermination is by spraying
with insecticides, shaking and tapping
poles, and collecting caterpillars in sum-
mer, and by raking and burning the dead
foliage in autumn ; swine and hens also
useful.
The Mottled Umber moth, Hylernia
defoliaria, appears in October ; ? wing-
less, black-mottled ; 3 wing-span 1^
in., fore- wings light-brown, paler near
middle, and with a broad, dark-brown,
pale-edged, irregular transverse band,
hind-wings paler and with dark central
spot or black-mottled. Caterpillar red-
dish-brown above, sulphury -yellow at
sides, with dark or black strip between.
Habits much like those of Cheimatobia
brumata, but chiefly attacking Oak, Sycamore, and Hornbeam.
D. LEAF-ROLLER AND TWIG-TWISTER MOTHS (Tortricidce).
* The Green Oak Leaf-roller, Tortrix viridana (Fig. 52), often defoli-
ates middle-aged and old Oaks entirely (and particularly the pedunculate
Oak Leaf-roller Moth — natural
size.
a. Moth.
b. Caterpillar spinning down.
c. Oak-leaf rolled up for pupation.
d. Pupa.
PINE SHOOT-TWISTER. 217
Oak, the Sessile Oak being comparatively immune), then attacks other
broad-leaved trees. Every few years it swarms in great numbers over
extensive areas, entirely devouring the pedunculate Oak foliage, checking
the growth of the tree, and preventing the ripening of acorns. The eggs
being laid on buds and young twigs, caterpillars always begin to feed near
the top and move downwards, totally defoliating the tree ; but the foliage
is to some extent replaced by the summer flush.
Wing-span under 1 in., fore-wings pale bright-green, with a whitish or
yellowish fringe round lower edges, hind-wings light-grey edged with
white-grey. Caterpillar about ^ in. long, 16-legged (10 prolegs), at first
grey-green, then dark yellowish-green, with black head and small black
tubercular warts with a few fine hairs on the back. Pupa blackish-brown,
slender, under ^ in. long. Moths fly in June, and ? lays eggs singly or in
small clusters on buds then being formed in the crowns of Oak-trees. The
caterpillars hatch out when the Oak-leaves flush in the following May, eat
the leaves, and then spin down to the lower foliage, and in June pupate
in remnants of leaves rolled together (hence "leaf-roller"), bark-fissures,
&c. About three weeks later the moths emerge, pair, and lay their eggs
(generation simple and annual). As this insect spends all its life on the
tree, and the 9 can fly to lay eggs far and wide, birds form the best check,
and should be encouraged to breed in nesting-boxes. When late frosts
nip the young Oak foliage during years when the caterpillars abound,
these are starved to death.
* The Pine Shoot- twister, Retinia buoliana, mainly attacks Pines of
from 5 to 12 years old growing on poor soil with a warm exposure.
Wing-span under 1 in.; fore-wings narrow, reddish-yellow, with six or
seven broad, wavy, silvery -white, transverse bands, tinged bluish about
middle, and with grey-white edging, hind-wings glossy dark-grey, and
both pairs with light-grey fringe. Caterpillar 16-legged (10 prolegs), ^ in.
long, light-brown, with glossy black head and thorax. Pupa, dirty
yellowish-brown, £ in. long, with a row of fine dorsal prickles. The moth
flies in the evening during July, and in daytime rests among needles and
shoots of young Pines. The ? lays eggs singly on terminal buds of young
Pine shoots of 5- to 12-year-old plantations. Caterpillars hatch out in
August and begin to bore, but the damage is hardly noticeable. In
September they hibernate in the buds, and in spring the caterpillar,
now larger, does greater damage ; but the bud develops partially before
the shoot, hollowed out, dies. The terminal bud is hollowed out first,
and then the side-buds ; but if one of these escape it becomes the leading-
shoot, the bend at the damaged place being still recognisable when the
tree is mature. Pupation takes place in June at the base of the hollow
tunnelled in the shoot, and moths emerge about four weeks later.
Prevention and Extermination. — To destroy the caterpillars and pupse,
218
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
break off and burn from May till the middle of June all shoots infested.
Shoots attacked are easily seen, but the insect must be looked for below
where the twig breaks.
The Pine-bud Tortrix, Retinia turionana, attacks Pine plantations of 5
•>g- 53.
The Larch Mining-Moth
(all magnified three times).
a. Moth.
5. Larval covering formed of
leaf- case.
c. Caterpillar.
d. Pupa.
a. Larvie in leaf-cases.
&. Naked larva?-.
c. Needles hollowed out.
to 15 years old, but seldom occurs in large numbers, and as not often all the
side-buds forming the whorl are injured, one of these generally becomes
a leading - shoot. It is smaller than Tortrix buoliana ; as also is
the Pine Resin-gall Tortrix, Retinia resinella, common in Scotland,
which bores into shoots below the whorl of buds, and lives inside a gall
formed by resin outflow. Branches become twisted, and break off easily.
LARCH MINING-MOTH. 219
E. LEAP-MINING MOTHS (Tineidce).
* The Larch Mining-moth, Coleophora lariccUa (Fig. 53), besides doing
great damage by defoliating young Larch woods, opens entrance-holes for the
canker-fungus. Moth wing-span under J in., wings ashy -grey or grey-
black, with long silky fringes on lower edges. Caterpillar with 16 feet
(10 prolegs), dark ruddy-brown, i in. long. Pupa ^ in. long, dark-brown,
narrow, covered with fine bristly hairs. Moths fly in May and June, and
lay round yellow eggs (soon turning grey) singly on Larch .leaves in
plantations 10 to 40 years old, and mostly on lower branches of 10- to 15-
year-old poles. The caterpillars hatch out in 3 to 4 weeks, bore into the
leaf, eat its contents, and use the empty leaf -case as a protective covering.
When full-grown in September it hibernates in this empty leaf-case (now
a little yellow-brown sack) attached to twigs, bark-fissures, &c. Next
spring it feeds on the new leaves, carrying its sack, and finally pupates in it.
Leaves attacked at once wither as if frost-bitten, whole plantations some-
times looking as if badly nipped by late frost. Extermination. — Small
birds, ichneumonidgo, &c., prey on caterpillars, and late frosts and heavy
rainfall kill many moths ; but the only practicable measures are to thin
Larch-woods in winter or early spring, and remove the thinnings before
moths appear in May.
* Larch Shoot-boring moth, Argyresthia lavigatetta, has recently done
serious damage to young Larch plantations up to 20 years old. Wing-
span under J in. ; fore-wings glossy silvery grey, with grey or brown-
grey fringes, hind - wings dark - grey, not so glossy, abdomen dark - grey.
Caterpillar pale-yellow at first, then pale-grey with reddish tinge, and
dark-striped near end of back, about | in. long, head and 3 front leg-pairs
black. Pupa dark-brown, head black, pointed towards end. Moths appear
in May and June, lay eggs on lower part of new shoot, that hatch out and
bore into the shoot, where they feed till hibernating in autumn. Early
in spring they resume feeding till about end of April, then pupate in
the now half -dead shoot, and emerge as moths about four weeks later.
Extermination by cutting off and burning damaged shoots containing the
caterpillar or pupa.
F. WOOD-BORING MOTHS (Cossidce).
* The Goat-moth or "Augur- worm." Cossus ligniperda (Fig. 54), does
great damage to broad-leaved trees by the caterpillars boring through the
bark into the timber, and often killing old Oak, Elm, Willow, and Poplar.
Badly-bored trees are often thrown during storms ; and unless exter-
minative measures are adopted, trees attacked become breeding-places.
Wing-span 2^ to 3 in. for ? and 3 to 3J for <$ ; fore- wings grey-brown,
mottled with ashy-grey, and with numerous irregular dark-brown streaks
and marks ; hind-wings ashy-grey to grey-brown ; thorax densely haired,
with blackish band across it behind, and brown and grey in front. Ab-
220
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
domen large and blunt, with dusky-brown and grey bands. Caterpillar 16-
footed, 3 to 3| in. when full grown, at first reddish -yellow, then brownish-
Fig. 54-
«. The female moth.
Goat-Moth — natural size,
b. Caterpillar, c. Pupa. d. Cocoon, after moth has emerged.
red^with |;brown head and shield, darker above than below, naked, and
having goat-like smell (hence " goat-moth "). Pupa thick, ruddy-brown
with rings of prickles on the abdominal segments.
Moths appear in June and July, when the 9 lays about 25 eggs, in bark-
WOOD LEOPARD-MOTH. 221
crevices of tree-stems. Caterpillars hatch out in July, and at first feed
under the bark, but soon bore into the wood, forming long tunnels in
which they live for from 2 to 4 years, sometimes leaving the trees and
crawling about on the ground. When mature they usually pupate just
inside the entrance to their borings (or sometimes in the ground), the
large reddish-brown pupa lying in a cocoon of rough wood-chips. Previous
to the moth emerging in June or July, the pupa pushes its way partly
out of the tree (life-cycle 2 to 4 years).
Little can be done to prevent attacks, but pouring in carbon bisulphide
and then plugging up the holes should kill the caterpillars. Badly infested
trees should be felled, and the caterpillars destroyed ; and the lower parts
of tree-trunks attacked may be smeared early in June with a thick dressing
of niud and paraffin to prevent egg-laying.
* The Wood Leopard-moth, Zeuzera cesculi, does damage like the Goat-
moth, and attacks young Maple, Sycamore, Ash, and Lime far more than
Horse-chestnut (though named after it).
Only about f of the size of the Goat-moth ; wings white, with numerous
irregular round black or steel-blue spots and six similar spots in two rows
on upper part of body ; abdomen dull white or grey, striped alternately
with blue-black and white bands ; caterpillar yellowish, with little black
warts, nearly 2 in. long when full-grown ; pupa bright brown, about 1 in.,
with rows of sharp spikes along its back. Moths fly in June and July,
and lay oval orange eggs on stems and branches of trees ; and in a few-
days caterpillars hatch out, bore into the bark, feed in the sapwood till
winter, then bore deeper, tunnelling upwards, and feed continuously till
May or June of the second year, when they return to near the bark,
pupate in the sapwood, and emerge as moths in June or July, the empty
cocoon being left sticking out from the exit hole (generation biennial).
Extermination as for Goat-moth.
Cf. CLEARWING-MOTHS (Sesiidce).
The Hornet Gleaming-moth, Scsia apiformis, damages the butts of
young Poplar up to about 20 years old in much the same way as the
Poplar Longhorn and the Goat-moth.
Wing-span 1^ to If in., wings transparent, with rust-red edges and
veins. Caterpillar with 16 feet (3 pairs true legs, and 5 pairs suckers or
prolegs), rather flat, dirty yellow- white, with large ruddy-brown head, and
dark dorsal line ; its head and legs distinguish it from the Poplar Long-
horn larva, along with which it often attacks. Pupa brown, with prickly
dorsal spines on abdomen and at tail-end. Moths fly in June and July, and
lay brown eggs in bark-fissures near foot of Poplar stems. Caterpillars
hatch out in July and August, bore into stem, live there for two winters,
then come out and pupate near the mouth of the bore-hole or on or near
the ground in cocoons formed of bore-dust (generation two years). Ex-
termination by killing the moths on the Poplar stems (June, July) ; cutting
222
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
and removing infested poles ; smearing butts of young Poplars with
patent tar or cart-grease where the pest is known to be.
Fig. 55-
Pine Sawfly.
a. Mcile (twice magnified). 6. Female (twice magnified).
Caterpillars at work ; on right a cocoon
(natural size).
Damaged twig of Scots Pine.
III. MEMBRANE-WINGED INSECTS (Hymcnoptera).
A. SAWFLIES (Tcnthredinidce).
* The Pine Sawfly, Lophyrus pini (Fig. 55), chiefly attacks Scots and
Austrian Pine, the caterpillars devouring the leaves till the tree is de-
PINE SAWFLY. 223
foliated, and attacks lasting from May to September (second brood).
Their power of reproduction is wonderful ; and but for useful insects
and fungus diseases checking them, they would soon destroy extensive
woods. They mostly attack young plantations, and often confine them-
selves to one spot at a time.
Wing-span of ? about £ in., antennae short and bristly, with 18 to 30
joints, head black, body yellowish with black spots on thorax and abdomen,
and three black rings on abdomen ; wing-span of (J £ in., body black,
legs yellowish, antennae combed or double-feathered. The light yellowish-
green tailed caterpillars, 1 in. long, have 22 legs, a light-brown head, and
2 black dots at every proleg, and when touched, raise their heads.
Pupa is enclosed in a tough, oval, brown cocoon in bark fissures, on twigs
and needles, or under moss and dead foliage on the ground. Cocoon
opens by a circular lid, unless attacked by ichneumon-flies, when its top
is marked thus 0.
In dry warm seasons there may be two broods. The sawflies appear
mostly in May, and lay about 120 eggs on the edges of Pine-needles, after
scratching them with a saw-like egg-layer (hence "sawfly"), about 15
being laid in one needle and each wound sealed up with frothy slime.
Caterpillars hatch out in about a fortnight, collect in clusters on the
whorls of young Pine in sunny places or on suppressed stems, and at first
usually feed in pairs on each needle, eating the edges and leaving the
midrib standing ; but when nearly full-grown they eat all the needle. For-
tunately they only feed on old, and not on new leaves. They moult several
times, leaving the cast skins sticking to twigs. In July they pupate in
their peculiar leathery cocoons, and in 2 to 3 weeks the sawflies emerge,
pair, and lay eggs for a second brood. This second brood hatches out in
August, and feeds till autumn, then descends to hibernate (as larvae)
under moss or dead leaves, and only pupates in the following spring, about
three weeks before emerging as sawflies. But even single broods may
pupate for a year or longer before emerging as sawflies.
Extermination — Insectivorous birds should be provided with nesting-
boxes. The caterpillars, when collected in. clusters, maybe crushed by
pulling the gloved hand firmly along the twigs from below upwards, or
using a C-spring double brush ; or they may be shaken down if poles large
enough ; or if noticed early, spraying with insecticide is effective (such
as hellebore- wash, 2£ Ibs. to 10 gallons water, or arsenate of lead or Paris-
green, 1 Ib. to 150 gallons water) ; but these poisons require careful
handling.
* The Red Sawfly, Lophyrus rufus, often attacks along with L. pini,
and mostly Scots Pine 2 to 6 ft. high.
Flies in August and September : 9 ruddy brown or yellow, with black
spots on thorax ; <J smaller, glossy black, with first abdominal ring and
224 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
feet (except claws) red or red-brown. Caterpillars dusky greenish-grey
with black head, pale longitudinal stripe along back, and dusky line with
a pale one on each side of it above and below, the spiracles being placed
in the lower pale line ; sucker, feet, and under side of body pale-green.
When full-grown over \ in. long ; has also habit of raising its head when
disturbed. Larvae hatch out about end of May, and feed for 3 to 4 weeks
before pupating in an oval, pale yellow-brown parchment-like cocoon
(paler, and not so tough as that of L. pini) among needles and heather or
in the earth. It also collects in colonies, and two usually attack each
needle. The sawflies emerge, pair, and lay eggs in August and September
in the needles (in the same way as L. pini}, which remain there all winter,
and hatch out in May. Extermination as for Pine Sawfly.
* The large Larch Sawfly, Nematus Erichsoni, feeds on Larch foliage,
and has since 1905 been spreading so quickly and doing so much damage
that it is scheduled under the Destructive Insects Act, 1907, and must be
reported to Board of Agriculture (penalty up to £10 if not reported).
Larch of all ages are attacked, from plantations of 3 or 4 years old up to
70-year-old woods. Flies appear from middle of May till end of June.
Wing-span nearly 1 in. ; ground colour, head, and thorax black ; abdo-
men black, red, and black ; thorax thickly and prominently punctured ;
antennse 9-jointed, thick, tapering at end. Caterpillar, with 20 legs, f to
nearly 1 in. .when full-grown, black head, grey -green on back, pea-green
on sides, with brown spiracles. It feeds till end of August chiefly on the
tufts of leaves on old shoots, and then hibernates in a dark-brown leathery
cylindrical cocoon f to \ in. long, with rounded ends, and pupates there.
In May and June the sawflies issue and lay their white longish-oval eggs
in one or two rows on the youngest shoots and in slits sawn in the bark.
The caterpillars hatch out in June and July, and attack the foliage till
they descend to hibernate in cocoons formed below moss litter, &c.,
before turning to pupae in spring (generation annual, so far as yet observed).
Extermination as for L. pini.
* The small Larch Sawfly, N. laricis, is smaller and quite black, and
thorax smooth or not prominently punctured. Caterpillar, hatching out
from eggs laid on buds, f in. long, head brown, body grass-green or green-
ish-brown, full grown in July, and mostly eating the single leaves on the
new shoots.
B. WOOD-WASPS (Siricidce), the largest of our Hymenoptera, bore deeply
into Conifers and softwoods with a long, strong egg-layer, and (though
only living for a week) lay about 120 eggs singly in sound stems. The
roundish white grub, about 1 in. long when full-grown, has 3 pairs of
small thoracic feet, strong jaws, and a characteristic spine on last seg-
ment. It bores first in the sapwood, then goes deeper and hibernates ; in
second year it bores still deeper, and again hibernates ; and in following
GALL- WASPS. 225
spring it ascends and pupates in the sapwood, and between July and
September emerges from a straight round hole (generation 2 years or
more).
The Large Yellow Wood-wasp, Sirex gigas, mostly attacking Spruce,
Stiver Fir, and Larch, is blackish, with a yellow patch behind each eye ;
and in the ?, l^ in. long, the first 2 and the last 3 segments of the
abdomen are yellow ; while in the smaller <5 all are reddish-yellow, except
the first and the last, which are black.— The Steel-blue Wood -wasp,
Sirex juvencus, bores chiefly in Pine and Larch. The ? , 1^ in. long, has
a steel-blue body with reddish legs, while the 6 is smaller and has
yellowish-red rings from the fourth to the seventh abdominal segments.
Extermination consists merely in cutting out sickly or damaged stems
and thinning the woods properly.
C. GALL- WASPS (Cynipidce) have fore-wings with 6 or 8 bays, 1 long at
apex and 2 or 3 rhomboidal at edge, but sometimes only aborted wings,
or none at all ; <$ usually much smaller than 9 . Larvce generally thick,
fleshy, smooth, whitish, and incurved. Pupce thick, smooth, and
whitish. Many species have an intermediate sexless form, also laying eggs,
which hatch out insects differing in appearance and habits from those
issuing from sexually fertilised eggs. The commonest kinds are the
Oak-apple Gall-wasp, Cynips querci, forming red and green galls about
cherry-size on the lower side of oak-leaves, and the Marble Gall-wasp,
C. Kolla,ri, on young oaks in nurseries.
IV. TWO-WINGED INSECTS (Diptera).
The injurious insects of this order are the gall-gnats (Cecidomyidce), the
chief being the Large Osier gall-midge Cecidomyia salicis, f in. long,
blackish, long-legged, with red-ringed, whitish-haired abdomen, which
lays eggs on osier-shoots in May and July, hatching out into reddish-
yellow maggots that spoil the rods by causing spindle-shaped nodes, in
which pupation takes place ; the Small Osier gall-midge, C. saliciperda,
TV in. long, with black-brown body and white wings, appearing in May,
and doing similar damage ; and the Osier shoot-tip gall-midge, C. hetcr-
obia, forming galls on the terminal shoots. Extermination, cutting off
and burning infested twigs.
V. HALF-WINGED INSECTS (ffemiptera).
The class Homoptera, having fore- and hind-wings alike, includes the
often very destructive Plant-lice and Scale-insects, which rapidly multiply
enormously without any distinctly marked metamorphosis, the larvse
moulting several times and the wings being freed at the last moult.
Among the Plant-lice (Aphidce}, by far the most injurious is * the
P
226
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Spruce-gall and Larch aphis, Chermes abietis-laricis (Figs. 56, 57), a
small louse pricking into or just below the side-buds of Spruce and form-
ing small green cone-like galls at the foot of the twig developing from
such bud, in which colonies of the lice live, and which turn brown and dry
when the lice (all ? ) make their exit, some remaining on the Spruce and
forming similar galls in the second year, and others flying to and becom-
ing white woolly lice on Larch (as Ch. laricis) and probably also those
Fig. 56-
Fig. 57-
Cone-like gall of Spruce Aphis.
a. The Larch Aphis sucking sap
from the leaves, which get bent.
found on Pine (as Ch. pini) and Silver Fir (as Ch. picece). On this inter-
mediate host wingless ? lice are in the following year produced, which lay
eggs hatching out winged adults that fly back to the Spruce and there
produce a sexual brood ( 6 and ? ), laying eggs upon side-buds and pro-
ducing the cone-like galls again. Thus, while wingless ? lice remain
always on the Spruce forming galls, there is every year a migration to
and from the Larch, bringing the sexual form ( 6 and ? ) back to the
Spruce. Hence exterminative measures such as spraying must continue
SPRUCE- AND LARCH-APHIS. 227
for at least 2 or 3 years to have the slightest chance of success. Besides
the direct damage done, an entrance is opened for spores of the canker-
fungus on Larch and of Septoria parasitica on Spruce.
The form known as the * Spruce-gall aphis, Chermes abietis, is only
about TV in. long, yellowish-green or light-brown, and (when present)
white wings and whitish bloom. About 25 eggs laid on the edges of bud-
scales hatch out, suck the sap, and form the small rough cone-like gall,
green at first, then brown and dry when the wingless brood emerges in
July or August. The intermediate form, the * Larch aphis, Chermes
laricis, mostly attacks young trees in nurseries and plantations 10 to 20
years old, and from May onwards is noticeable from its fluffy white coat-
ing. Under ^ in. long, purplish- or blackish-brown, and covered with
white fluff, it inserts a long sucker into Larch-leaves and feeds on their sap,
then lays about 45 eggs on the twigs, which on hatching out scatter and
live on the leaf -sap, soon get covered with white woolly down, fly and lay
eggs from July to August. Extermination of Ch. abietis -laricis can only
be successful by simultaneous collection of the young green galls on
Spruce and spraying of infested Larch (and other intermediate hosts, such
as Pine or Silver Fir) with insecticide for at least 3 years continuously.
The best spray for Larch aphis is to dissolve 3 Ibs. soft soap in J gallon
boiling water, stirring well till soap all melted, then add 1 pint paraffin
to the still boiling mixture, and churn the whole till well mixed ; to this
add 5 gallons of soft water, and stir thoroughly when spraying.
The Bed Spruce aphis, Ch. coccineus, produces similar but smaller
false cones on Common and Menzies Spruce, at tip of twigs. The Elm-
blister aphis, Schizoneura ulmi, produces large, heavy, sticky galls on
the tips of Elm-shoots and leaves, and the Elm-gall aphis, Tetraneura
ulmi, small club-like galls on the upper side of Elm leaves.
Among the Scale-insects (Coccidce), * the Felted Beech-scale, Crypto-
coccus fagi, a wingless, legless, lemon-yellow louse only 53- in. long (of
which the £ form is not yet known), which punctures the bark, sucks
the sap, permits the entrance of the spores of the canker-fungus, Nectria
ditissima, and often kills the tree, unless exterminated by scrubbing with
caustic alkali washes, or by spraying with paraffin emulsion (as for Larch
aphis). The Felted Ash-scale, Apterococcus fraxini, on young Ash-trees
after a heavy thinning on light gravelly soil, and the Felted Willow- scale,
Chionaspis salicis, on Willow and Ash, are also similarly destructive,
unless exterminated.
[GERMINATION TABLES.
228
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
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.B. acuminatus,
the acuminate Pine
bark-beetle
Hylobius abietis,
the large Pine-weevil
Pissodes notatus,
the small banded Pine-
weevil
Orchestes fagi,
the Beech leaf-mining
weevil
Slrophosomus coryli,
the Hazel-weevil
Melolontha vulgaris,
the Cockchafer
Rhizotrogus solstitialis,
the Summer-chafer
Phyllopertha horticola,
the Garden-chafer
Bj
ii
230
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
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S. carcharias,
the large Poplar-
longhorn
/Iromm moschata,
the musk-scented
willow-longhorn
Phratora vitellince,
the Willow beetle
Agriotes lineatus,
the wire-worm beetle
II. MOTHS.
Dasychira pudibunda,
the Beech or Pale
Tussock moth
Orgyia antiqua,
the Vapourer moth
Cerura vinula,
the Puss moth
GENERATION TABLE.
231
"o o be
rt ci
o& brumat
'inter moth
defoli,
btled Umber
moth
l
r
111
<«.§
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ana,
roller
k lea
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i shoot-
moth
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a cesculi,
pard moth
232
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
P. ,
a |
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Lophyrus p
the Pine sa
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chizo
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ch-
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233
CHAPTER III.
PROTECTION AGAINST WEEDS, EPIPHYTES, AND FUNGUS DISEASES.
WEEDS include not only grasses, bracken, brambles, and many
other plants that spring up in large numbers wherever there is
sufficient light and moisture — and the more luxuriantly the
better the soil is, — but also Birch, Aspen, Willows, and other
trees not desired among, or interfering with, the growth of the
young timber-crops. The thicker the growth of weeds, the
more they are likely to harbour mice and voles ; and the
stronger their growth, the more they are likely to outgrow
and overshadow young plants, and to overlie and smother them
in autumn. Hence the necessity for weeding in young planta-
tions for the first two and often three years (see page 75),
and for afterwards cutting out quick-growing softwoods or
Conifers that have been planted as temporary nurses to protect
more valuable but less hardy kinds of young trees against frost
and drought. So long as the leading-shoots of the young trees
forming the crop are above the weeds, no damage can result,
and a soil-covering of heather, &c., may then be beneficial by
giving protection against frost, scorching, wind, blackcock, and
even rabbits if not numerous ; and this is gradually killed as
the young crop closes laterally and forms canopy. If the weeds
can be beaten back so as to clear the lines of plants, this is best,
especially in the case of brambles, which throw out strong
234 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
shoots and suckers when cut. But if young pole-woods are
thinned to any unnecessary extent, the soil gets overrun with
weeds, while the valuable humus and part of the plant-food in the
soil are to a great extent wasted in the unprofitable production
of weeds giving back only an inferior, and sometimes an in-
jurious, kind of humus to the soil. And the same is the case
when older woods are heavy thinned, or partially cleared and
underplanted, or naturally regenerated — for both the under-
planting and the natural regeneration are artificially arranged
for in order to utilise the soil profitably and prevent it deterio-
rating through useless growth of the weeds that would other-
wise at once spring up.
Sometimes it happens that old branching Oak, &c., should
be cut out to allow of proper growth of young poles, and if a
thinning cannot take place for some years, such trees can be
girdled, and seasoned on the stump meanwhile, by cutting a
deep ring round them into the heartwood. For softwoods
having no true heartwood, the girdle must be cut much
broader; but girdling is unsuitable for Conifers (on account
of insects).
Epiphytes like beard-mosses and lichens, which clog the air-
holes (lenticels) of the bark, should be scraped off, if practicable
(which is not the case in woodlands in damp, misty localities) ;
or ornamental trees can be washed with 1 Ib. sulphate of iron
dissolved in a gallon of water, or a mixture of 1 Ib. caustic
soda and 1 Ib. pearl ashes each dissolved in 5 gallons water,
and | Ib. soft soap added. Ivy should be cut near the ground
and as high up as one can reach ; while honeysuckle, wild
clematis, convolvulus^ and wild hops should be dug out by
the roots.
Parasitic Plants such as mistletoe on Poplar and other soft-
woods chiefly, seldom on Oak, and never on Beech, Alder,
Larch, or Spruce, can be exterminated by pruning off infected
branches; and osier-rods attacked by dodder can be cut and
FUNGI. 235
burned in June. But of far greater importance are the parasitic
diseases caused by Fungi, lowly plants without chlorophyll,
unable to assimilate carbon, and dependent for their nutriment
either on dead organic matter (saphrophytic fungi) or on living
animal or vegetable organisms (parasitic fungi). But many
saprophytic fungi in our woodlands become parasitic whenever
their spores happen to germinate on any wound-surface, how-
ever small.
Parasitic Fungi obtain nourishment through a mycelium with
branching filaments (Jiyphce) produced from spores borne by
the mycelium: This often assumes a complex form of bundles
of strands (rJiizomorpha) with branching root-like processes, or
the hyphce form tuber-like masses (sclerotia) whose spores may
long lie dormant before finding favourable conditions for ger-
minating. Spores are produced in sporangia on special branches
(sporophores) of the hyphce, and may be either gonidia (conidia)
formed at the points of hyphce growing erect, or sporidia on a
promycelium formed by the germination of resting-spores (ovi-
spores) produced sexually by the union of two cells or energids.
In parasitic Fungi the Jiyphce pierce the cells of their host
and generate ferments enabling them to dissolve the cellulose and
the cell-contents and use them for their own nourishment ; and
they may either be autoxenous and complete their generation
on one host, or metoxenous and spend part of their life on a
second host usually belonging to quite a different kind of plant
from the first, and during this intermediate stage the fungus
appears to belong to quite a different genus. Trees of all ages
are most liable to fungus attack if sickly from any cause what-
ever, e.g., unsuitable soil or situation, partial suppression, or
damage of any sort ; and many dangerous diseases (e.g., Peziza,
Nectria) can only effect an entrance when wounds caused by
insects, hail, &c., give their spores a chance of germinating,
while others (e.g., Fomes, Agaricus, Rosellinia) spread from root
to root by mycelial infection.
236
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
The following are the chief Fungus diseases in our wood-
lands, the more destructive kinds being marked thus * : —
Name of Fungus.
Trees.
Parts.
Chiefly attacked.
I. In Nurseries and Young Natural Re-
generations.
*Phytophthora omnivora, Beech-seedling
Beech, Ash,
stalks, leaves.
fungus
Maples
Cercospora acerina, . Maple - seedling
Maples
stalks, leaves.
fungus
*Rosellinia quercina, Oak - seedling
Oak
roots, 1-3-yr. -old
fungus
plants.
*Lophodermium pinastri, Leaf-shedding
Pine
leaves, 1-6-yr.-
disease
old plants.
*Botrytis cinerea (syn. Sclerotinia
Conifers
leaves, shoots.
Fuckeliana), Grape-mould
Rhizina undulata, young Conifer root-")
fungus
Rhizoctonia violacea, Heather root- f
Conifers
roots.
fungus )
II. In Plantations and Woods.
* Lophodermium pinastri ....
Conifers
(as above).
L. macrosporum, Spruce leaf-scurf .
Spruce
leaves.
L. nervisequium, Silver Fir leaf-scurf .
Silver Fir
branches, twigs.
Sphcerella laricina. Larch leaf-shedding
Larch
leaves.
fungus
*Peziza Willkommii (syn. Dasyscypha
Larch
stem, branches.
calycina), Larch canker
P. resinaria, Spruce canker . . .*
Phoma pithy a, Douglas Fir canker
Ph. abietina, Silver Fir twig-canker
Spruce, Larch
Douglas Fir, Pine
Silver Fir
it
branches, twigs.
Septoria parasitica, Spruce-shoot fungus
Trichosphceria parasitica, Silver Fir
Spruces
Silver Fir
leading-shoots,
leaves.
needle-blight
*Nectria ditissima, Canker of broad-
Beech, Ash, Oak
stem, branches.
leaved trees
N. cinnabarina, Coral-spot fungus
Horse-chestnut,
branches.
Maples
N. cwrcubitula> Spruce-bark canker
Conifers
bark, cambium.
Rhytisma acerinum, Sycamore leaf- blotch
Maples
leaves.
Melampsora genus —
M . pinitorqua + Cceoma pinitorquum, (
Pine shoot-twisting fungus 1
Aspens
Pines (1-10 yr.)
leaves,
shoots.
M. larici-tremulce + C. laricis, Larch
Aspens + Larch
leaves.
leaf-blister
M. larici -populina + C. laricis, Larch
Black Poplars +
„
leaf-blister
Larch
FUNGUS DISEASES.
23*7
Name of Fungus.
Trees.
Parts.
Chiefly attacked.
II. In Plantations and Woods — continued.
Melampsorella genus —
M . cerastii + jEcidium elatinum, Silver (
Cerastium, &c.
leaves.
Fir canker and twig-cluster fungus (
+ Silver Fir
stem, branches.-
M. betulina + ^Ec. laricis, Larch leaf-
Birch + Larch
leaves.
blister
(
Groundsel, Rag-
leaves.
Coleosporium genus (syn. Peridermium]
wort
pini acicola), Pine leaf-blister 1
+ Pine (3-10 yr.
i,
old)
*Cronarthim genus (syn. P.pinicorticola), (
Ribes, &c.
leaves.
Pine bark-blister \
+ Pines
bark and wood.
Chrysomyxa abietis, Spruce leaf-blister .
*Trametes pini, Pine stem-rot .
Spruce
Conifers
leaves,
stem.
*Fomes annosus (syn. Trametes radici-
„
root and stem.
perda), Conifer Red-rot root-fungus
F. igniarius, White-rot stem-fungus
F. fomentarius, M „
Oak, Willows /
Oak, Elm j
wound surfaces
on stem or
branches.
Polyporus sulphureus, Red-rot stem-
Oak, Birch
)
fungus
P. vaporarius, Red-rot stem-fungus
Spruce, Silver Fir
j Beech C
1
Saprophytic on
*Agaricus melleus, Beech stump-tuft or
common Agaric
1 Conifers \
stumps.
Parasitic on
roots.
I. Chief Fungus Diseases in Nurseries and young Natural Regenera-
tions.
* The Beech-seedling fungus, Phytophthora omnivora, chiefly attacks
Beech-seedlings, the stalks becoming brown, the roots black, and the
cotyledons and primary leaves spotted with brown before they wither,
die, and rot quickly during rainy weather. In about a week from the
first signs of the disease its full effect is noticeable if May and June are
wet, while in dry seasons it takes longer for seedlings to assume the
characteristic scorched, blackened appearance. During warm, damp,
spring weather it may do great damage in Beech natural regenerations, as
well as in nurseries. Besides being wind-borne, the spores are conveyed
on men's boots and clothing, and by animals of all kinds. Next to Beech,
it chiefly attacks Ash, Maple, and Sycamore, but also all other seedlings
when once epidemic, and whole Conifer seed-beds may be destroyed
before the seedlings even appear above ground. Resting-spores may lie
dormant for years till finding favourable conditions for germination, and
238 THE PROTECTION" OF WOODLANDS.
during wet weather spore-producers are formed in 3 or 4 days from first
signs of infection. Hence infected seedlings should be removed and
burned before the disease gets epidemic, and infected seed-beds should
be used as transplant lines for next 2 or 3 years, and preferably for some
other kind of tree than that already attacked.
Remedy. — To prevent the disease spreading the seed-beds should be
watered with a solution of 4| Ibs. blues tone (copper- vitriol) and 1 quart
ammonia in 50 gallons water. Men working on infected beds should be
told to wipe their boots before working in other parts of nursery.
Cercospora acerina causes a similar disease among Maple and Sycamore
seedlings in wet seasons, the cotyledons, primary leaves, and stalks
becoming spotted or blackened and withering, and conidia-bearers appear-
ing, while the mycelium assumes a thread-like dormant form and resumes
activity next spring.
* The Oak- seedling Fungus, Rosellinia quercina, attacks and kills the
roots of 1- to 3-year-old Oak in nurseries during damp warm weather ;
but plants are attacked up to about 10 years old, the terminal leaves of
infected plants gradually wilting and dying. Roots infected become
covered with finely-woven mycelium, the bark turns brown, and small,
round, black pustules appear, especially where the first side-roots branch
off. From these pustules fine thread-like rhizomorphs, whitish then
brown, spread from root to root (as in Agaricus melleus, see p. 251), while
the mycelium sometimes also grows above ground and produces conidia
which germinate. By means of these small black pustular fruits (sclerotia)
the fungus outlives periods of summer drought, and when the air becomes
damp again they develop a whitish-grey, mould-like mycelium producing
brown rhizomorphs which enter the unprotected tips of rootlets.
Remedy. — In nurseries diseased plants should be removed and burned,
and beds used for other plants : in young plantations or natural regener-
ations the infected area should be isolated by a trench about 1 ft. deep
to prevent rhizomorphs spreading.
* The Pine leaf -shedding disease, Lophodermium pinastri, is caused by
a saprophyte on dead Conifer foliage, that can become parasitic, and
chiefly on young 1- to 6-year-old Pine and other evergreen Conifers, to
which it is very destructive (damage on old plants being slight).
Seedlings and transplants in nurseries are thereby rendered useless.
During late summer and autumn the needles become speckled with
reddish - brown spots, containing the mycelium, and in the following
March or April the leaves wither, turn red or brown, and die off, the dead
1-3-year-old leaves usually adhering to the young shoots, while the older
needles generally fall off ("leaf-shedding"). If the winter has been
mild, open, and followed by a wet spring, black fruits (apothecia) appear
early, and burst and scatter their spores, but the disease is chiefly spread
GRAPE-MOULD. 239
by spores produced in black spore-cases during the second or third year.
The development of L. pinastri depends greatly on a damp condition of
the air ; and dry summers, cold winters, and dry spring weather check
its spread, while a moist summer, followed by an open tmild winter,
favour it.
Remedy. — Avoid use of Pine foliage in nurseries; pull up and burn
infected plants ; and spray annually in July and August or oftener with
Bordeaux mixture, 2 Ibs. sulphate of copper (bluestone, copper-vitriol)
dissolved in 10 gallons water, and 1 Ib. freshly-burned lime added, which
generally, though not always, checks the disease.
* The Grape - mould, Botrytis cinerea, saprophytic on dead Conifer
foliage, but also spreading as a destructive parasite on all Pines, Firs, and
Larch in nurseries and natural regenerations, is the conidia - form of
Sclerotinia Fuckeliana, and often does serious damage in wet springs and
summers, especially to Douglas Fir, Silver Fir, and Spruce. If Conifer
sprays or foliage be used in nurseries there is always great danger of this
disease appearing first as a saprophyte, then becoming parasitic, when
the shoots of young plants attacked become twisted or bent, and the
leaves die off as if frosted, though often held together by the ashy-grey
cob web -like mycelium. Spores alighting on young leaves or shoots in
damp weather soon germinate and enter the tissue, the mycelium
penetrating intercellularly and killing the tissues. Sporophores and
sclerotia are formed, the spores remaining dormant and germinating with
favourable conditions. On germinating, the spore-tubes cannot pierce the
bark of a 2-year-old seedling, except at a wound-surface caused by late
frost, insects, &c., when the fungus destroys the cambium and kills the
plant.
Remedy.— Spray frequently with Violet Mixture, 2 Ibs. sulphate of
copper, 3 Ibs. carbonate of copper, 3 oz. permanganate of potash, \ Ib.
soft soap, and 18 gallons of rain-water (the soap being dissolved in hot
water), all the infected ground, and beyond it, being thoroughly wetted.
More or less serious damage is also sometimes done by Rhizina undulata, a
saprophytic root-fungus, also parasitic on young Conifers on sandy soil, and
producing flesh-like, stalkless, velvety sporophores, chestnut brown above
and pale below, from 1 to 3 in. long on the roots, — and by Rhizoctonia
violacea, the heather-fungus, which surrounds young Conifer-roots with
a close violet mycelium and produces black warty sporophores on the
dead roots.
II. Chief Fungus Diseases in Plantations and Woods.
* Lophodermium pinastri (see above) also attacks young Conifer
plantations, while L. macrosporum attacks the leaves of 2-year-old shoots
in Spruce plantations from 10 to 30 years of age, turning them rusty-red
240
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Fig. 58.
and often making them fall off, and L. nervisequium the 2-year-old leaves
of Silver Fir branches, turning them brown and causing leaf-shedding.
Remedy. — Spraying or cutting and burning diseased shoots, but neither
practicable extensively.
The Larch leaf - shedding disease, Sphcerella laririna, attacks the
foliage of poles or trees.
In June or July infect-
ed leaves turn brown-
spotted and soon fall
off, and in wet years
most of the foliage is
shed by August. The
only way to stop the
disease spreading is to
cut and remove infected poles or trees,
and burn the diseased foliage, else the
small black conidia forming spread the
disease in wet weather.
The Larch canker- or blister-
fungus, Peziza Willkommii (syn.
Dasyscypha calycina) (Fig. 58),
the most destructive tree-disease
in Britain, is saprophytic on dead
Larch twigs, and as a parasite
chiefly attacks Larch (also Pines
and Firs) of 7 to 15 years old.
Japanese Larch is still much less
liable than common Larch to
attacks of insects and of this
fungus, though no longer im-
mune. Larch is never immune
from attacks, though after thick
bark forms attacks are confined to young branches. It is a
wound-parasite, and spores only germinate where punctures or
greater wounds have been made by insects, hail, gnawing, &c.
The earlier the attack, the more serious it is. Poles of 7 to 12
years are usually badly deformed or killed outright. On older
Larch Canker.
a. Dead wood with resin outflow.
b. Cup-shaped sporophores of fungus
LAKCH-CANKEJ:. 241
trees canker-spots may dry up and become partially cicatrised,
but the diseased part is spoiled as timber.
The first signs of disease are smooth shining spots or
swellings on the stem or branches ; then the bark splits, a slight
outflow of resin takes place, and bits of bark scale off, while
small cup-shaped sporophores with felty white or grey edges
and bright orange-red or pinkish-yellow centres appear. The
dead parts grow scurfy and black, while the wounds deepen as
the bark curls up at the edges, and gradually spread up and
down, or else round the stem, thus killing the pole or the
crown above the wound.
Remedy. — As infected stems or branches spread the disease,
diseased poles should (if practicable) be cut and removed from
the woods. The cleaner that plantations are kept, and the
more regularly they are thinned, the less favourable are the
conditions for the fungus. Pure Larch plantations are almost
certain to be more or less attacked, and the only way of
securing even partial immunity is to grow Larch in admixture
with broad-leaved trees (Beech, if possible). Mixing Spruce
and Larch is more likely to spread than to prevent the disease
(owing to Chermes abietis-laricis, see p. 226).
P. resinaria produces a similar disease on Spruce and Pinus excelsa in
southern England, and also on Larch, and is only distinguishable by its
cup-shaped sporophore being paler in colour, smaller, and more distinctly
stalked.
Phoma pithya attacks twigs and branches of Douglas Fir and Pine,
destroying the bark and producing constriction round the stem, which
dies above if the cambium is destroyed right round, but heals by
cicatrisation if the stem has not been completely ringed. Infection
usually takes place where branches join the stem. — Ph. abietina does
similar damage to Silver Fir twigs and branches. — Septoria parasitica
often kills the leaders of common and Menzies Spruces from seedlings up
to 30-year-old poles, young shoots infected at their base drooping in May
or June, then withering and dying within 7 to 14 days.
The Silver Fir needle-blight, Trichosphwria parasitica, often in damp
localities attacks young poles and lower branches of Silver Fir, Spruce,
and Douglas Fir, and makes the leaves turn brown, when they hang down,
Q
242
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Fig. 59.
§ natural size.
Young Beech stem can-
kered by Nectria
ditissima.
§ natural size.
Young Spruce damaged by
Nectria curcubitula.
a. Sporophores hibernating
on the dead bark.
held by the mycelium,
which perenniates so that
the disease goes on from
year to year, unless in-
fected twigs are cut and
burned (before spores
ripen, to prevent disease
spreading).
The Canker of broad-
leaved trees, Nectria
ditissima (Fig. 59), chiefly
attacks Beech and Ash,
making Ash black in the
heart and useless, and
soon becoming epidemic
in Ash-groves, especially
on wet land. It" can be
distinguished from other
diseased conditions by
small dark-red globular
pustules. Growing only
parasitically, its spores
germinate on wounds
made by insects, frost,
hail, &c. , on young shoots
and poles, especially at
forks ; and the mycelium
lives chiefly in the bark,
killing infected portions
and gradually extending,
and canker-spots forming
as the dead parts cica-
trise, and gradually in-
crease till the pole or tree
is killed. Remedy. — In-
fected saplings, poles, or
trees should be thinned
out without making
wound -surf aces by in-
a. Clusters of red sporo-
phores, as seen dur-
ing winter months. -juring the bark on the poles or trees left standing.
6> ^aea'd Tod8.' Sh°Wing The Coral-spot disease, Nectria cinnalarina, is
a common saprophyte on dead branches of broad-
leaved trees, and also parasitic on Horse-Chestnut, Lime, Maple, Syca-
more, and Elm, destroying the sapwood in rings and killing the parts
RUST-FUNGI. 243
above those infected. On parts attacked saprophytically small conidia-
cushions break out of the bark, upon which the vermilion and dark-red
spore-bearers appear in autumn and winter. But the mycelium can
extend parasitically from wound - surfaces into living branches, soon
spreads quickly in the woody tissue, kills the cambium, and prevents
the upward flow of sap. Remedy. — Infected parts should be cut off and
burned before the spores scatter in autumn and spring.
The Spruce-bark Canker, Nectria curcubitula (Fig. 59), occurs chiefly
as a wound-parasite on young Spruce poles, also Silver Fir, Pines, and Larch,
and is common in Britain, though generally only as a saprophyte. On
young trees in vigorous growth it remains saprophytic, but in weakly
young trees the canker extends, kills the cambium, and penetrates the
sapwood. The first signs of the disease are bleaching of the needles, and
drying and browning of the bark and cambium, especially near wounds
caused by insects, &c. The mycelium spreads quickly in the bark during
the winter. Infected parts should be cut and burned in autumn or early
winter, before the spores ripen and are shed.
The Maple and Sycamore leaf-blotch, Rhytisma acerinum, appears in
damp summer weather as small round yellow spots, about £ to \ in. broad
on the lower side of leaves, that gradually enlarge and turn jet-black in
autumn. The spores produced in these black sporophores are scattered
from the dead leaves in the following May or June, and are borne by
wind to the new foliage, which they attack in the same way as before.
It can only be checked by collecting and burning the infected dead leaves
in autumn in parks and gardens. It is not a serious disease in woods.
The Rust -fungi (Uredinece), so called from their sporophores often
assuming a reddish-yellow rusty colour, are all parasitic, and mostly have
a change of generation with some other kind of host-plant, upon which
they appear like entirely different diseases and have other quasi-generic and
specific names. Five different genera of metoxenous (heteroecious) rust-
fungi attack our trees, Melampsora, Melampsorella, Coleosporium, Cronar-
tium, and Chrysomyxa, one species of which is autoxenous (autoecious).
In the genus Melampsora the intermediate form is called Cceoma, and
the chief disease of this kind is the Poplar-rust and Pine shoot-twisting
fungus, Melampsora pinitorqua + Cceoma pinitorquum, of which the
Melampsora stage, that producing resting - spores, is passed as yellow
patches on the foliage of Aspens and White and Grey Poplars, while the
much more destructive intermediate stage is the Cceoma pinitorquum (Fig.
60, 61), that breaks out in spring after hibernating on the dead Poplar
foliage, and chiefly attacks Pine plantations up to 10 years old. The
yellow Cceoma pustules, about 1 in. long, burst lengthways, and generally
kill young shoots, while older twigs get C- or S-shaped when two pustules
break out on the same or on different sides of a twig. The mycelium
can perenniate, each year forming new pustules that shrivel up in dry
244
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
weather, but develop freely in a wet May or June. Young plantations are
thus often injured, until attacks cease at about 30 years old. Remedy. —
Dry warm weather retards and checks the disease ;
but the only way to prevent would be to collect
and burn all Poplar foliage infected with the
Melampsora-stage, and all Pine-shoots infected.
Other less important kinds of Poplar Melamp-
sora are the M. larici-tremulce, producing resting-
Fig. 60.
Damage to crowns of young Pine by Caeoma pinitor-
quum, the abnormal bends being caused by the
fungus.
Damage caused to Scots
Pine by Melampsora
pinitorqua in its
cceoma-form, Caeoma
pinitorquum.
y Bent infected spots, which
here happen to be both
qn same side of twig.
spores on Aspen and Poplars, and its Coeoma-
form on Larch (C. laricis), and M. larici-populina
on Black Poplars + (7. laricis on Larch, the
Cceoma being similar in both cases, and forming
small, bright, orange-yellow pustules on the Larch leaves. There are also
several kinds of willow-rust fungi, some of which may in their Melamp-
sora-stage greatly damage osiers by making their leaves black-spotted and
RUST-FUNGI.
245
soon shed (Fig. 62), while the Cseoma-stage is spent on Conifer leaves
(Pines, Firs, and Larch).
In the genus MelampsoreUa the intermediate form is called JEcidium,
and the chief disease is M. cerastii, producing round orange-yellow pustules
on the leaves of plants belonging to the Alsinece family (and especially
Cerastium, Stellaria, and Holostea] which
develop the resting - spores producing Fig. 62.
JEcidium elatinum on the Silver Fir, either
as spindle-shaped cankerous excrescences on
the stem, or twig-clusters with yellow-green
deformed foliage ("witches' brooms") on
branches. It perenniates and often kills
trees infected, especially in hot dry years
and on sandy soil.
Whether a canker-spot or a twig- deformity
will be produced depends on where the
spores enter and the mycelium develops,
but both are often found on a tree. If
infection takes place near a healthy bud, a
deformed twig-cluster results ; but if the
mycelium infects the bark of a shoot, canker
is produced, infection being only possible
through some wound-surface. The yellow
or brownish - orange
cecidiospores are pro-
duced in the diseased
leaves of the young-
est shoots in the
twig - clusters, and
appear from June till
August on the lower
side. The ^Ecidium
perenniates and in
course of time the
canker-swellings and
the twig-clusters at-
tain a large size.
The disease can only
Willow Rust on Osier.
a. Green leaf with yellow pustular sporophores.
&. Dead parts of leaf.
c. Sporophores on the osier-stem.
be eradicated by con-
tinuously cutting off and burning the twig-clusters in June and July
before their spores ripen by pruning infected branches, by thinning out
cankered poles or trees, and by removing and burning the host-plants
(Cerastium, Stellaria, Holostea) '^upon which the M. cerastii develops
resting-spores.— Anotner disease of the sam genus is M. betulina + ^Ec.
246
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Fig. 63.
laricis, the Birch-rust fungus producing resting-spores in orange-red, then
brown pustules, and forming reddish- orange cecidia on Larch leaves.
In the genus Coleosporium the resting-spores are produced in yellowish
pustules on coryinbiferous plants, and especially on Groundsel and Rag-
worts (Senecio), and the intermediate
stage is called Peridermium, from the
bladder-like spore-pustules produced on
the leaves of Pines attacked. The com-
monest kind is C. senecionis on groundsel
and ragwort leaves + P. oblongisporium
(formerly called P. pini acicola) on the
old foliage of 3- to 10-year-old Pines
(and up to 30 years), but never on new
leaves. In April and May small orange-
yellow blisters appear on the leaves of 1-
and 2-year-old shoots, which turn brown,
burst, and scatter their spores, while the
mycelium hibernates in the leaf and
again produces cecidia in the following
year, the leaves killed showing small,
blackish, warty spots with light edging.
The only means of prevention is to dig
up and burn all ragwort and similar
corymbiferous plants in the immediate
neighbourhood, and to cut and burn
infected Pine twigs.
* In the genus Cronartium the inter-
mediate stage is also called Peridermium,
as the spores are here again produced in
bladders ; and to it belongs the several
blisters or bladder-rusts on the stems of
Pines (formerly called P. pini corticola).
The chief disease of this genus is the
Pine bark-blister (Fig. 63), a Cronartium
species + Peridermium pini, the resting-
spores of which are produced in rusts on
foliage of peonies, Ribes, and Cynanchum,
and the peridermium-st&ge passed on the
stems of young Pines, and especially on poor soil with a S. or S.W. exposure,
where it may become epidemic and do serious damage. It is purely a wound-
parasite, and mainly attacks Pine-poles 15 to 20 years old, and thick-barked
parts over 25 years seem immune. It mostly appears first at whorls
near the top of the crown, and as the oval pustules filled with reddish-
yellow spores break out as blisters on the bark of stem and branches in
Pine-shoot with sporophores of
Peridermium pini.
a. Blisters that have not yet dis-
charged their spores.
b. Ruptured blisters from which
the spores have been partly
scattered.
SPRUCE LEAF-BLISTER.
247
June, they induce flow of resin, the growth of the tree is interfered with,
and often the whole tree above the infected part dies. The mycelium
hibernates, but increases year by year, as also the cankerous parts, and in
course of time the crown dies, though young poles are often killed during
Fig. 64.
Twig of Spruce attacked by Chrysomyxa abietis. 3 to 4 times natural size.
a, 6. First appearance of
pale yellow marks about
end of May or June.
c. Long spore-pustules
formed during autumn.
d. The bursting of a
spore-pustule in follow-
ing May.
the first year, and especially in warm dry years.
The only way to prevent the disease spreading is
to cut out and remove infected poles as soon as
possible. The commonest alternative host-plant is
not yet known.
Of the genus Chrysomyxa, the commonest species is the autoxenous
Spruce leaf-blister, Ch. abietis (Fig. 64, 65), on young Spruce foliage, and
mostly low down in 10- to 20-year-old plantations on wet soil and in damp
warm places, while 1-year-old or older leaves are immune, and the top of
the crown is little attacked. New leaves infected in any year become
speckled with pale yellow bands on 1 -year-old leaves in May or June of
248
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
Fig. 66.
the next year, and these bands develop into long brown spore-bearing
pustules, and gradually redden and swell, but only burst and scatter the
spores in the following April and May to infect the new foliage. The
only remedy is cutting and burning infected twigs, and careful thinning.
* The Pine Stem-rot fungus, Trametes pini (Fig. 66), a wound-surface
parasite, chiefly attacks Pines about 40 years old or more, also Spruce,
Larch, and Silver Fir, as wounds on younger trees usually close up by
resin-outflow before the fungus can obtain a firm foothold. The hyphce
destroy the cell - walls of the woody tissues and enter the heartwood ;
and the mycelium extends up and down the stem, forming long ring- or
heart-shakes, and soon producing rot, while the sapwood usually remains un-
infected. Tn Pine
and Larch only
the heartwood is
rotted, but in
Spruce and Silver
Fir all the stem
rots. The dis-
eased wood first
becomes reddish-
brown, then white
patches appear
here and there,
and the mycel-
ium issues from
branch - holes or
through the bark,
and forms a
brown, corky-
woody, bracket-
shaped sporophore, which lives for many years, showing concentric ridges,
and varying up to about 10 in. diameter. Infected trees should be
thinned out ; and any Conifers pruned should have the wound-surfaces
well tarred.
* The Red-rot Root-fungus, Forties annosus, syn. Trametes radiciperda
(Fig. 67), chiefly attacks the roots of Pines from about 5 years old upwards,
and also other Conifers, and spreads centrifugally from root to root. It is
sometimes found on roots of broad-leaved trees (especially Beech and
Birch), but is not then so destructive or so apt to become epidemic as in
Conifer plantations. Young plants, poles, and trees attacked soon show
pale needles and stunted shoots (as also in attacks of Agaricus melleus),
then rot near the roots and die suddenly, and the disease quickly spreads,
infection taking place wherever a diseased root comes in contact with
About i natural size.
Rot in Pine caused by Trametes pini.
a. Bracket-shaped sporophore.
PINE ROOT-FUNGUS. 249
the roots of a healthy tree. The roots then die, the diseased wood turns
violet and pale brown -yellow with black spots surrounded with a white
zone, then hollows become excavated, and the whole rots. But infection
can also be conveyed to wound-surfaces on the roots of healthy trees by
mice, insects, &c. The soft, transparent, or snow-white mycelium develops
beneath the bark and permeates the cambium and the woody tissue of
the roots and the butt of the tree, the cell-walls being destroyed by masses
of mycelial filaments. This rottenness soon spreads up into the stem by
the cambium and the medullary rays — except in the Scots Pine, in which
morbid resinification confines the rot to the butt. Destroying the living
cells as it spreads, the mycelium soon penetrates the wood of the roots
and extends more slowly into the bark, where it forms long thin tissue-
paper-like strands, with small yellowish- white pustules protruding between
Fig. 67.
Half natural size.
Sporophore of Fomes annosus on Scots Pine root.
bark-scales, these being a sign that the disease has complete hold of the
tree. The mycelium can now spread and carry infection to neighbouring
plants or trees. Small, glossy, yellowish-white, grape-like masses of
sporophores appear mainly on the roots or at base of stem between
the bark-scales, and form thin concave woody chocolate-brown cushions,
snow-white below, which unite with similar adjoining groups as flat in-
crustations or bracket-shaped excrescences up to a foot broad. But
mould-like masses of conidia are also produced where the mycelium comes
out into free air.
Remedy. — Direct spore-infection can hardly be prevented; but when
the disease has broken out, the diseased plants should be grubbed up and
the infected parts burned before the sporophores ripen, and broad-leaved
trees planted in place of the Conifers lifted. Infected patches isolated
by narrow trenches usually produce sporophores on the roots cut through,
250
THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
so that this measure is only advisable where they can be collected and
burned before they ripen and scatter their spores.
The White-rot fungus, Forties igniarius, is one of the commonest wound-
parasites on broad - leaved trees, and chiefly Oak and Willows. When
infected, wood turns brown, then yellowish-white, and the spongy sporo-
phores form a cap or bracket up to 10 or 12 in. broad. At first yellowish-
Fig. 68.
Young Scots Pine killed by Agaricus melleus.
a. Branching subterraneous rhizomorphs thrown out from the mycelium under the
living bark,
b. Abortive sporophores produced at extremity of a rhizomorph.
c. Normal sporophores produced at extremity of a rhizomorph.
d. Sporophores produced in a cluster from the bark at base of stem of the dead Pine.
brown and felty, they afterwards turn blackish-brown and smooth with
concentric ridges, the openings of the spore-tubes being cinnamon-brown.
Its spongy sporophore was formerly (as well as F. fomentarius) used as
tinder (hence igniarius) in the days of flint and steel. — Forties fomentarius
is a wound-parasite on Beech chiefly, also Oak and Elm, where its broad
leathery mycelium, penetrating the wood radially, also produces " white-
rot." It forms large, hoof-shaped, russet- brown or greyish sporophores,
COMMON AGARIC.
251
Fig. 69.
sometimes over 3 ft. long, with a hard upper crust and soft spongy inner
tissue. — Many other species attack broad-leaved trees.
Polyporus sulphureus is a " red-rot" wound-parasite on Oak, Willows,
Poplar, and Birch chiefly, also other broad -leaved trees, and Conifers. The
large, fleshy or cheese-like, bright sulphur-yellow or reddish-yellow sporo-
phores appear annually at old branch-holes or on the stem, assuming
different forms, and varying up to 2 ft. long. — Polyporus vaporarius is
another "red-rot" wound -parasite chiefly in Conifers, and also destructive
as a saprophyte in timber
lying in the woods (like
Merulius lacrymans, which
is seldom parasitic ; but the
mycelium of the latter soon
changes from white to grey,
while that of P. vaporarius
always keeps white). Its
sporophores form flat, thin,
white incrustations on the
bark of the trees infected.
* The Beech Stump-tuft
or common Agaric, Agaricus
mdleus (Figs. 68, 69), an
edible mushroom growing
saprophytically on dead
stools and roots of old trees
(especially Beech), is a
common and often very
destructive parasite in young
Conifer crops, especially
Scots Pine, and mostly
attacks plantations of 4 to
15 years old. As first signs
the leaves of the infected
plant, pole, or tree turn yellow, wither, and fall ; then the shoots wither
and the butt of the stem swells, the bark fissures, resin exudes and flows
to the ground, the cambium is killed, and finally the infected poles or
trees usually die either in spring or in autumn, while rhizomorphs pervade
the rotting wood and the soil round about, even when no tawny yellow
mushrooms appear.
This disease breaks out in patches and rapidly kills young plants in full
vigour. The honey - yellow or dirty yellow -brown mushrooms (pilei}
with dark-brown hairy scales and yellowish-white lamellae, which turn
flesh-coloured, or on which reddish-brown spots form later, appear in
Natural
a. Part of a Scots Pine root killed by Agaricus
melleus, and showing an external rhizo-
morph penetrating the root at a.
b. Flattened internal rhizomorphfrom between
bark and dead "wood.
252 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
October, and are most numerous in damp seasons, the pale flesh-coloured
stalk of the mushroom showing a yellowish-white ring of skin at the
point of rupture below the cap. The white spores produced in autumn
develop long branching purplish or brownish - black cord - like strands
(rhizomorpha) spreading singly like rootlets throughout the soil, as well
as below the bark of the dead stump saprophytically attacked, which
invade the tissues of the roots they come in contact with ; and (as in
Fames annosus) the rhizomorphs from diseased roots spread around and
attack the roots of healthy trees, so that the disease becomes centrifugal
and epidemic. The disease can only be prevented or checked by collecting
the mushrooms saprophytic on stumps, and pulling up and burning all
the roots of infected trees, and filling up the blanks with broad-leaved
trees. Infested patches can be isolated by trenches 1 to 1^ ft. deep, but
this will only be efficacious if the fructifications of the rhizomorphs can
be collected along the inside of the trench before they ripen. — Another
species of Agaric, the Beech branch-tuft, A. mucidus, appears chiefly at
branch-forks of Beeches.
253
CHAPTEE IV.
PROTECTION AGAINST DAMAGE FROM INORGANIC CAUSES.
Non - parasitic Diseases or serious physiological disturbance
predisposing trees to disease can be caused by injurious in-
fluences in soil or atmosphere.
The Soil may be unfavourable through being too shallow,
dry, or wet. A dry soil is naturally poor in the amount of
plant-food in an available soluble form, and consequently the
crops are usually backward, stunted, and likely to become
attacked by insects and fungus diseases. Stagheadedness or
partial or total death of the crown, often the first stage of decay
from old age, is frequently induced by want of water and nourish-
ment in the subsoil, though also common when Oaks and other
trees are heavily thinned after growing long in close canopy,
or when standards over coppice are pruned of lower branches ;
for shoots flush along the stem and intercept the sap on its
upward flow. Stagheadedness also often follows any sudden
lowering of the water-level in the soil, by drainage, railway-
cuttings, &c. ; and Willows and Poplars soon become stag-
headed on dry soil. Stagheaded broad-leaved trees often live
for many years, but Conifers soon die. Trenching round and
filling up with manure afford a temporary remedy for old
ornamental trees. A stiff soil and a wet soil that has not
been well drained before planting are both deficient in oxygen,
so that the roots get suffocated and rot away, especially in the
254 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
case of the tap-roots in young Scots Pine plantations. And
even when the land is not wet, if the natural drainage be not
good the butt becomes spongy and dosed, and pumped or
hollow, as is often found in 60- to 80-year-old Larch that have
grown well and rapidly up to about 50 or 60 years of age.
Such red-rot and dosed condition is common in most middle-
aged or old Conifer crops where a thin gravelly soil rests on
a clayey or impervious subsoil. On a wet soil there is also great
danger from frost, and from windfall if the roots cannot pene-
trate into the subsoil. The only remedy is to drain the land
before planting, or to plant only trees that do best on a moist
soil (Alder, Willow, Poplar, and Spruce on mounds); but
stagnating moisture is always injurious.
Other unhealthy conditions induced by unsuitable soil or
situation are premature seeding and bark-binding. Premature
seeding is a sure sign that the individual tree is not in a
healthy condition, yet nothing can be done to prevent this
natural effort of reproduction ; but bark-bound stems can often
be relieved by making a cut through the hard, dry, leathery-like
bark lengthways down the stem in early summer, unless the
disease is of long standing and the bark has lost its natural
elasticity.
Injurious atmospheric influences may cause damage in nur-
series, young plantations, and older woods by wind, frost, heat
and drought, heavy rainfall, snow, hail, ice and hoar-frost, and
poisonous gases.
Winds and gales are always most destructive when coming
after heavy rainfall, which loosens the soil and weights the
tree-crowns. Gales from S.W. are frequent about the equinoxes
(March and September), but the most destructive storms usually
come from the W., N.W., or IsT.E., according to the local
situation. The damage consists in breakage of branches and
stems, or in single trees, or clumps, or whole woods being blown
down (windfall) in the track of the cyclone, while neighbouring
WIND AND FROST. 255
woods may be comparatively little injured. The extent of the
damage done varies with the kind, age, and density of the crop ;
and heavily-thinned woods are more likely to be thrown than
those in close-canopy, when the tree-crowns afford each other a
slight support. The best means of preventing damage have
already been indicated in Part II. (see pp. 120 to 123). Wind-
fall and broken trees should be extracted as soon as possible, to
prevent insect attacks; and to shorten the time of the land
lying unproductive, roads and rides should be prepared for
immediate extraction of timber. In natural regenerations,
where the roots of standards have torn up great masses of
soil, the butts should be sawn through and the stumps tilted
back into their former position, if possible, to save the seed-
lings. Conifer windfall timber will get soon attacked by insects
unless barked ; and weevils will breed enormously, and hinder
replanting for 3 or 4 years, unless the stumps can be grubbed up.
Frost may do damage in spring (late frost), autumn (early
frost), or winter (winter frost). In any frost-bitten part of a
plant, water expands beyond the cells and into the intercellular
spaces, the cell-tissue loses its tension, and the affected parts
wither and die. Late frosts in spring are often very destruc-
tive in nurseries, seedlings being killed and transplants losing
their young shoots, and in young plantations many deaths are
caused, especially in damp, low-lying, sheltered spots (frost-holes),
where there is no current of air to carry away the cold layers.
Early frosts in autumn nip young shoots before they harden
properly, but seldom kill the plant outright, though often
causing leaf - shedding in young Conifers (like that in Pine
due to the fungus Lophodermium pinastri). Winter frosts
lift the soil and the plants in nurseries, especially when a
stiff soil is wet, and in young plantations, and make frost-
cracks in trees. Among broad - leaved trees Ash, Chestnut,
Beech, Eobinia, and Sessile Oak, and among Conifers, Silver
Fir, Pacific Douglas Fir, Menzies Spruce, and Maritime Pine
256 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
are the least hardy against frost; while the most hardy are
softwoods, Hornbeam, Pines, and Colorado Douglas Fir.
Alder, Birch, and Hornbeam flush their leaves earlier than
the less hardy Oak, &c. ; and Silver Fir side-shoots are often
killed, while the leading - shoot escapes, as the terminal bud
is the last to develop. Larch is sensitive just when the buds
are opening, but hardy after the leaves expand.
Damage from late frosts in nurseries can best be prevented
by selecting sites with a N. or N.W. aspect, or protected on
E. and S. by old woods, and preferably broad - leaved ; and
young seedlings and transplants are best protected by a hori-
zontal framework of thin laths about 1 in. broad set 1 in. apart.
In planting land exposed to frost, any existing protection, such
as heather, &c., should be made use of as long as required ; or
hardy quick-growing trees like Birch, Larch, Pine, and White
Alder can be planted as nurses to protect less hardy kinds —
and if practicable they should be planted a year or two in
advance ; but they should be cut out in the weedings and
early thinnings when they have served their purpose and are
no longer needed to protect the other kinds of trees intended
to form the timber-crop. When soil and seedlings are lifted
in nurseries by hard winter frost, only the soil sets when the
thaw comes, so that the roots are more or less exposed and have
to be banked up, and the young plants are sometimes lifted
so high that they fall over and soon die unless replanted, as is
often the case (except with deep-rooting seedlings like Oak,
Chestnut, and Pine). Drill-sown beds suffer less than broad-
sown, and the danger of lifting is decreased by putting sawdust,
moss, or loose earth between the drills. Broad-leaved saplings
badly frost-bitten can be cut back to shoot from the stool, and
blanks in Conifer plantations should be beaten up with hardy
quick-growing trees (Birch, Aspen, Pine).
Frost-shakes or Frost-cracks are longitudinal fissures on the
lower part of the stem, and especially of 50- to 70-year-old Oak,
HEAT AND DROUGHT. 257
caused by rapid shrinkage of the bark and sapwood during
intense frost, a sudden rupture of the woody -fibrous tissue
taking place along the line of least resistance, usually accom-
panied by a loud noise. The clefts or frost-shakes, often only
about a yard long, sometimes extend all along the bole and
go deep into the tree. When the thaw occurs, the woody-
fibrous tissue expands and almost closes up the wound, which
cicatrises by a ridge of callus tissue. This may be repeated
every winter, or the cleft may remain closed during mild
winters ; but the frost-shake remains visible as a long swollen
ridge, spoils the timber, and enables fungus-spores to enter :
rot is therefore frequent near frost-shaken parts.
Frost - cracks are mostly to be found on trees with large
medullary rays (Oak, Elm, Chestnut), but also occur on Beech,
Ash, Maple, Sycamore, Lime, Poplar, and Willow. Conifers
are seldom split by frost, though cracks are sometimes to be
seen on Spruce and Silver Fir.
Heat causes sun-burn or bark-scorching by direct insolation,
whereas Drought impoverishes a dry soil by exhausting the
soil-moisture through evaporation, though warmth stimulates
the activity of vegetation so long as there is a sufficiency of
soil-moisture obtainable from percolations, capillarity, or rain-
fall. But when transpiration from foliage is increased by
warmth and dry winds, without ample water - supply being
obtained from the soil, the natural balance between imbibation
and transpiration is disturbed, leaves droop and wither, and
even in the usually damp climate of the Western Highlands
many deaths are thus caused during a warm, dry, windy May
and June, especially when there is no growth of heather, &c.,
to protect the young plants in new plantations until they have
established themselves and got their roots down well into the
lower soil where the supply of soil-moisture is more constant
than nearer the surface. And, of course, in sandy districts
the danger of fire is always great when July and August
R
258 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
are dry months. The best protection against drought is to
retain the protection of existing trees, heather, &c. (so long
as required), or to plant nurses (as for protection against frost)
and remove them as soon as no longer needed. Sunburn or
bark-scorching by direct action of the sun makes patches of
bark on S. or S.W. sides of stems dry, crack, and fall off, and
the wood below that rot ; and this occurs oftenest when trees
are suddenly exposed to full sunshine. Smooth-barked trees
are most easily scorched, and rough-barked trees (Oak, Elm,
&c.) have the best natural protection. So far as practicable, the
S. and S.W. edges of maturing crops should not be suddenly
exposed; but sun-burnt stems along the edge should not be
cut, as the trees behind them will be just as likely to get
scorched.
Heavy rainfall erodes the soil and carries away the finer
particles of earth and much of the beneficial humus, though
the action of woods in close canopy is to reduce such damage
to its minimum. Snow only damages trees if falling in large
quantities, by causing the branches to be bent down or broken
off. Of our common Conifer trees the brittle Scots Pine is most
liable to damage from snowbreak ; while among broad-leaved
trees Beech, Alder, Crack Willow, and Eobinia have the brit-
tlest branches. In Central Europe, where snow falls heavily
and lies long, young Spruce, Oak, and Beech woods are some-
times laid by snow-pressure, but this is seldom likely to occur
in Britain. Damage from snowbreak may occur anywhere or
all over in Scots Pine woods ; but in other kinds of tree-crops
it is chiefly confined to the edges of compartments, or to small
patches here and there. Heavy snow can be taken off young
ornamental trees in parks, avenues, or small plantations, by
shaking the poles or tapping them with a padded mallet ; but
in woodlands this is impracticable, and the only way of pre-
venting damage is to tend the woods carefully, especially with
regard to moderate thinning.
HAIL AND ICE. 259
Hail-storms "beat down, injure, and often kill young plants
in nurseries, besides making surface-wounds on the young shoots
of older trees and thus enabling the spores of fungus diseases to
effect an entrance. Oak-bark will not strip at damaged spots,
and much damage is done to Osier-beds in the fen districts, as
the withes do not peel freely, and break at the injured parts.
The only remedy is to cut back badly-damaged broad-leaved
saplings, and to fill blanks in older crops with stout plants
of any suitable kind.
Ice and Hoar-frost do damage in mountain-tracts to brittle-
branched trees like Scots Pine and Alder, and greatly increase
the danger of serious damage should snow fall while the twigs
are frozen, and especially in evergreen Conifer crops. Mixed
woods suffer less than pure crops of Scots Pine.
Lightning does practically no damage in woodlands, though
here and there a tree may be struck and badly damaged or
killed ; but park-, field-, hedgerow-, and avenue-trees are more
often struck and blasted.
Among atmospheric impurities the particles of carbon in
city smoke choke the pores of the leaves, while poisonous
gases from factories and smelting-works, and even from railway
trains running frequently through wooded valleys, are always
more or less injurious to trees and woodlands, the cause of
damage being mainly the sulphurous acid contained in the
smoke, which changes the natural colour of the leaves and
kills off many poles and trees. But nitrous, hydrochloric, and
arsenious gases cause similar damage, though to a less extent ;
and the damage is always greatest in damp localities. When
dew or rain falls on a leaf-surface, in a smoky locality, the
sulphurous acid combines with the water, oxidises into sulphuric
acid (S02 + H20 + 0 = H2S04), and acts very injuriously on
the leaf -tissue, especially of evergreen Conifers. In broad-
leaved trees the leaves become mottled with damaged patches
(sulphuric acid) or discoloured at the edge (nitric and hydro-
260 THE PROTECTION OF WOODLANDS.
chloric acids), while Conifer-leaves turn yellow or red at the
tip before the whole needle is poisoned, discoloured, and killed.
And usually, too, in smoky localities Pine pole-woods are very
liable to attack by the leaf -shedding fungus, Lophodermium
pinastri. Under the Alkali Acts steps may be taken to pre-
vent hydrochloric acid issuing in injurious quantities from
works ; but the only practical remedies in woodlands exposed
to atmospheric impurities of any sort are to try and grow
broad-leaved crops, to maintain thick shelter-belts of hardy
trees on the side from which smoke comes, and to make oc-
casional falls, annually or periodically, rather than clear falls
and replantation. But where woods or plantations have been
destroyed by atmospheric impurities, the sowing or planting
of smoke- or gas-poisoned blanks is useless.
PART IV.
THE
UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE
CHAP.
I. TIMBER : ITS STRUCTURE, IDENTIFICATION, COMPOSITION, TECH-
NICAL PROPERTIES, PRACTICAL USES, AND MARKET VALUE.
II. THE HARVESTING OF WOODLAND PRODUCE, AND ITS PREPARA-
TION AND SALE.
III. TIMBER-TRANSPORT BY LAND AND WATER.
IV. THE SEASONING AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.
V. WOODLAND INDUSTRIES : ESTATE SAWMILLS, PREPARATION OF
WOOD-PULP AND CELLULOSE, CHARCOAL - MAKING, RESIN-
TAPPING, ETC.
CHAPTER I.
TIMBER : ITS STRUCTURE, IDENTIFICATION, COMPOSITION, TECHNICAL
PROPERTIES, PRACTICAL USES, AND MARKET VALUE.
Timber has no generally accepted definition. As distinguished
from fuel, it is wood used for any technical purpose. For rail-
way freight it includes " all descriptions of wood in an unmanu-
factured, or roughly hewn, or roughly sawn state ; but not any
wood shaped, or prepared, or partially prepared." As dis-
tinguished from coppice, with or without standards, it in
English law includes all woods and trees not cut in regular
rotation ; though Beechwoods in England, cleared and naturally
regenerated every ninety to one hundred years, can be used by
the heir-in-possession of a settled estate, through local habit and
custom, without impeachment for waste — a restriction not
applying to timber on Scottish entailed estates. Again, in
selling trees, local custom usually classes as timber only what
measures not less than 5 or 6 in. in quarter-girth (20 to 24 in.
in girth) under bark, or frequently in Scotland to 6 in. in
diameter free of bark ; while pitwood is measured down to
2J in. diameter under bark, or 3 in. over bark at the thin end.
Tops and branches below the local customary timber dimensions
are not paid for (see also Part II., pp. 89-91).
The technical properties of timber depend mainly on its
anatomical structure and its chemical composition, and are
evidenced in its outward appearance, its material condition,
and its relation towards external influences^
264 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
I. As regards Anatomical Structure, the woody tissue of
trees consists of (1) woody fibres, (2) wood-vessels, and (3) wood-
cells, with a framework of cellulose. (1) The woody fibres are
elongated, pointed at both ends, and thick- walled ; and they
are formed of hard tissue (scler-enchyma) with walls dotted with
small pits, and of tubes (tracheids) with large internal spaces
(lumina), whose walls are dotted with large bordered pits ; and
sometimes there is also a subordinate form of wood fibre shaped
like true hard tissue, but filled with protoplasm, starch, and
other substances. (2) The wood-vessels, seen as pores on making
a transverse section, are long narrow tubes closed at both ends,
with thin walls and large lumina. (3) The wood-cells forming
soft tissue (parenchyma) are thin-walled, more or less cubical,
and mostly with flattened ends ; and they are chiefly found
near the vessels, where they serve for storing reserve nutrients
(starch, &c.) for reproductive purposes (new foliage, flowers,
fruit, &c.), while the sap is conveyed through the woody fibres
and the vessels.
The wood of broad-leaved trees contains all the above kinds
of woody tissue, while that of Conifers differs from it in having
no large pores (wood-vessels). Hence, the larger the relative
proportion of hard tissue, the heavier, harder, and stronger is
the wood of any given kind of broad-leaved tree ; and the larger
the proportion of thick - walled tracheids with small lumina
produced during the warm summer weather, as compared with
the thin-walled tracheids with large lumina forming the softer
inner zone produced in spring, the heavier, harder, and stronger
is the wood of any given kind of Conifer. In Conifers, wood-
cells are found only around the resin-ducts in the AbietineaB,
and are sparsely scattered throughout the tracheids in the other
kinds. But both broad-leaved and Conifer trees have medullary
rays, formed of wood-cells, extending radially from the central
pith (or some annual ring near it) to the bark, which serve
partly for storing reserve nutrients in winter (for leaf-produc-
ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE. 265
tion, &c., in spring), and their number and size affect the
technical properties of timber. In Conifers they are narrow
and close, giving a sort of silky gloss to a thin transverse
section ; but in broad - leaved trees they are usually more
prominent, being largest of all in Oak, where they form the
" flowering " when planks are cut radially to show " the silver
side." The medullary rays are broadest in Oak and Beech,
and highest in Oak and Alder ; fairly broad in Ash, Elm,
Maple, Sycamore, Plane, and Hornbeam ; narrow in Alder, .
Birch, Cherry, Chestnut, Horse-Chestnut, Lime, and Eobinia;
and almost indistinguishable in Willows and Poplars. The
wood of Conifers differs further from that of broad-leaved trees
by usually having resin-ducts or tubular spaces surrounded by
resin - producing cells without definitely constructed walls.
These resin-ducts are not only found running longitudinally in
the stem and branches, usually in the summer zone of wood,
but also occur along the medullary rays. Both of these two
kinds of resin-ducts communicate with each other, and the total
quantity of resin stored up in the wood has a great influence on
its technical properties.
The width of each annual ring of wood varies with the soil
and situation, and with the amount and intensity of light
during the growing-period ; and the annual rings are usually
broader in young and middle-aged than in old trees, while they
are always broadest near the butt of the stem ; but the best
class of timber is that in which the breadth of the successive
annual rings is fairly equal, and where the annual rings have
a relatively broad dense zone of summer wood formed during
the warmest time of the year.
In Conifers the annual rings are usually very distinct, and
also in Oak, Ash, Elm, and Chestnut ; but in Beech, Horn-
beam, Maple and Sycamore, Lime, Willow, Poplar, and Birch,
there is little difference between the Spring and the Autumn
zone in each annual ring.
266 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
IDENTIFICATION OF THE COMMONEST KINDS OF BRITISH
TIMBER FROM ITS ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE, AS SHOWN
BY THE EXAMINATION OF A SMOOTH TRANSVERSE
SECTION :—
A. — BROAD -LEAVED TREES — MEDULLARY RAYS AND PORES USUALLY
EASILY VISIBLE.
I. Autumn zone denser than Spring zone, and vessels in Spring zone
forming a distinct circle of pores.
1. Medullary rays numerous and wide, forming light -coloured radial
bands ; pores in radial lines often branching obliquely ; wood
yellowish-brown to greyish-brown (darker than Sweet- Chestnut)
OAK.
2. Medullary rays narrow, and hardly or not at all visible to the
naked eye.
(1) Wood pale yellowish-brown (paler than Oak, and without wide
medullary rays) ; fine vessels in Autumn wood arranged in
radial lines SWEET- CHESTNUT.
(2) Wood dark reddish-brown (darker than Ash) ; the fine vessels
in Autumn zone forming wavy lines in more or less concentric
parallel bands ELM.
(3) Wood yellowish to light-brown (paler than Elm) ; seen through
a lens, the fine vessels in Autumn zone appear few and fairly
regularly distributed ; pores in short concentric arcs ASH.
II. Autumn zone hardly distinguishable from Spring zone, and vessels
scarcely visible to the naked eye.
1 . Some of the medullary rays broad and easily visible, the rest scarcely
distinguishable.
(1) Medullary rays with silky lustre; wood pale reddish - brown
(darker than Hornbeam) ..... BEECH.
(2) Medullary rays dull and indistinct ; wood yellowish-white (paler
than Beech) ...... HORNBEAM.
(3) Medullary rays broad, and annual rings incurving where crossing
these ; no heartwood ; wood white when fresh, pale-brown or
brownish-red when dry, and with numerous brown pith-flecks
ALDER.
2. Medullary rays all very narrow, but visible as very fine, distinct lines.
(1) Wood whitish or pale-yellow, with satin lustre, and hard ; annual
rings bounded by fine regular lines . . . SYCAMORE.
(2) Wood closely resembling Sycamore, but somewhat browner or
redder MAPLE.
IDENTIFICATION OF TIMBER. 267
(3) Wood whitish or reddish- white, soft and light, and of very even
texture ; boundary of annual rings indistinct (softer than
Horse- Chestnut) LIME.
3. Medullary rays invisible to naked eye.
(1) With distinct heartwood.
(a) Sap wood white or reddish- white ; heartwood pale-red to
dark-brown, light, soft, and lustrous . . WILLOW.
(b) Sapwood white ; heartwood yellowish or light-brown when
fresh, and brown when dry (see also ASPEN) . POPLAR.
(2) Without distinct heartwood.
(a) Wood dingy white, soft and light, often with pith-flecks
near centre of stem ASPEN.
(b) Wood yellowish or reddish-white, and fairly hard and heavy ;
pith -flecks numerous near centre of tree; annual rings
with fine clear boundary-line . . . BIRCH.
(c) Wood white, yellowish-white, or reddish-white, and not very
soft (not so soft as Lime) . . HORSE- CHESTNUT.
^.—CONIFEROUS TREES — NEITHER MEDULLARY RAYS NOR POROUS
RINGS OF VESSELS ARE VISIBLE WITH THE NAKED EYE, BUT THE
ANNUAL RINGS ARE VERY DISTINCT, THE HARDER AND RUDDIER OR
DARKER AUTUMN ZONE BEING PLAINLY DISTINGUISHABLE FROM THE
SOFTER AND PALER SPRING ZONE.
I. Wood with resin- ducts.
1. Heartwood about same colour as sapwood, pale yellowish or reddish-
white ("White deal") ; resin-ducts few and fine, appearing as light
spots in the Autumn zones ; only recognisable from Silver Fir by
the resin-ducts SPRUCE.
2. Heartwood reddish-brown when seasoned, sapwood pale yellow or
yellowish-white (" Red deals " or " Baltic redwood ").
(1) Sapwood broad, and branch-knots regularly disposed in whorls ;
Autumn zone of annual ring somewhat paler red than in Larch,
but resin-ducts larger and more numerous and distinct
SCOTS PINE.
(2) Sapwood narrow, and branch-knots scattered irregularly (owing
to absence of regular branch- whorls).
(a) Autumn zone of annual ring darker red than in Scots Pine,
but resin-ducts smaller and less numerous . LARCH.
(b) Heartwood and sapwood both resembling Larch, but more of
a pink-red or red-brown colour ; resin-ducts small
DOUGLAS FIR.
268 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
II. Wood without resin-ducts.
1. Heartwood about same colour as sap wood, pale-yellowish or reddish-
white ("White Pine"); only recognisable from Spruce by not
having resin-ducts ...... SILVER FIR.
2. Heartwood distinctly darker than sapwood ; annual rings very clearly
marked by a narrow line of compact Autumn wood (CYPRESSES).
(1) Sapwood yellowish- white and narrow ; heartwood pale brown
(Thuja gigantea) RED CEDAR.
(2) Sapwood whitish ; heartwood light pinkish-red or brownish-
red (C. macrocarpa) . . MONTEREY CYPRESS.
(3) Sapwood yellowish ; heartwood pale yellowish - brown (C.
Lawsoniana) LAWSON'S CYPRESS.
II. As regards Chemical Composition, green wood consists
usually of about 50 to 75 per cent of woody substance, and
25 to 50 per cent of sap or water containing organic and
mineral substances in solution and suspension ; and even after
being seasoned or air-dried, from 10 to 12 per cent of the
weight of wood consists of water. The framework of the
woody fibres, vessels, and cells is cellulose (C6H1005), with a
composition of about 44 carbon, 6 hydrogen, and 50 oxygen
per cent, which during a process called lignification loses
oxygen and absorbs more carbon along with nitrogen and
mineral substances. But the elementary composition of the
dry woody substance varies only slightly in different woods,
the rough average consisting of the following percentages :
50 carbon, 42 oxygen, 6 hydrogen, 1 nitrogen, and 1 ash or
incombustible mineral substances, consisting chiefly of lime,
potash, magnesia, and phosphoric acid, the amount and com-
position of which vary, of course, according to the kind of tree,
and the soil, situation, and climate. The organic and the
mineral substances in solution or in suspension in the sap are
either parts of the cell- wall or products of its transformation,
and include protein or nitrogenous matter, carbohydrates, and
glucosides ; oils, resins, and aromatic substances ; tannic, oxalic,
and other acids ; and dyestuffs ; and these combine to give the
HEARTWOOD AND SAPWOOD. 269
different parts of the tree, and especially the heartwood, their
own peculiar and distinctive colour, aroma, and technical
properties. Some trees form a harder and darker-coloured
heartwood (duramen) of inert tissue, which is heavier, more
thickly stored with organic and mineral substances, and more
durable than the younger zone of sapwood (alburnum).
It is through the sapwood that the sap ascends from the roots
to the crown of the tree for elaboration in the foliage ; and on
the descent of the elaborated sap through the cambium, part
of it is used in adding a new layer of sapwood to the already
existing sapwood, while part is also used in forming a new
layer of bark (liber) to the outer protective covering. If a
ring or girdle be cut through the sapwood into the heartwood,
the tree is at once killed, because the upward course of the
sap is completely arrested; but this operation is more or less
ineffective in trees where the sapwood shows little or no visible
change in the older and inner part of the stem (e.g., as in Birch,
Aspen, Lime, Alder, Maple, Sycamore, Plane, and Hornbeam).
The sapwood is usually softer and less durable than the heart-
wood ; and the smaller the proportion of sapwood in any log of
timber, the more valuable and durable the timber usually is.
With regard to the presence or absence of a more or less
distinct heartwood, our timber -trees may be classified as
follows : —
Heartwood trees : Oak, Elm, Chestnut, Robinia, Larch, Pine,
Douglas Fir, Cypresses.
Trees with Imperfect Heartwood : Ash, Beech, Willow, Poplar,
Horse-Chestnut, Spruce, Silver Fir.
Sapwood trees: Birch, Alder, Maple, Sycamore, Hornbeam,
Lime, Aspen.
Heartwood trees can easily be killed by ringing or girdling
them — i.e., cutting through the sapwood into the heartwood.
III. The Ornamental Properties of Timber are its colour,
lustre, grain, texture, and marking. When green or freshly
270 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
sawn, timber is lighter in colour than when seasoned and long
exposed to the air ; and steaming always darkens its natural
colour. Woods used for ornamental purposes, such as furniture,
wainscotting, &c., are chiefly selected on account of their colour,
texture, and marking ; and the coarser the grain of the wood,
the more the texture and the marking are displayed (as in Oak,
Elm, and Ash), while the greatest variety of marking is shown
on a radial section fully exposing the medullary rays (e.g., the
" flowering " of Oak). But the coarser the grain, the better a
wood takes a polish, as the material used settles easily in the
pores. Forked growth and abnormal "burr" excrescences in-
crease the value of timber for ornamental purposes, though
depreciating it for building and construction.
The usual colour of sound wood is as follows : —
Colour.
GREEN WOOD.
SEASONED WOOD.
Yellowish-white .
Whitish-yellow . .
Yellow ....
Greyish-yellow . .
Reddish-yellow . .
Brownish-yellow .
Yellowish-brown .
Brown
Birch, Spruce, Silver Fir.
Willow, Poplar.
Robinia.
Ash, Beech, Maple, Syca-
more, Hornbeam.
Larch, Douglas Fir, Scots
Pine.
Oak, Scots Elm, Chestnut.
Mountain Ash.
Birch, Silver Fir.
Willow, Maple, Syca-
more.
Beech, Hornbeam.
Spruce.
Chestnut, Poplar, Rob-
inia, Ash, Cherry.
Oak Elm Mountain A^li
Red-brown . . .
Dark -brown .
English Elm, Alder.
Walnut.
Larch, Douglas Fir, So -ts
Pine, Alder ; Apple,
Plum.
Walnut.
IV. The Physical Properties of Timber, upon which its
mechanical properties directly depend, and which are therefore
of far more importance than its outward appearance, are (1) its
density and weight, (2) the amount of water it contains, or the
extent to which it is seasoned, (3) its relation towards drought
and moisture, as to shrinking, cracking, splitting, warping and
DENSITY AND WEIGHT. 27 1
expanding, and (4) its freedom from defects and unsoundness.
All these physical properties continually act and react on each
other; for the dryness or moistness of the wood affects its
density or specific weight as well as its total volume, and also
the direction in which shrinkage and expansion occur under
dry and moist conditions of the atmosphere.
1. As KEGARDS DENSITY AND WEIGHT, the Specific Weight of
the pure woody substance (exclusive of lumina and other hollow
spaces) in our woodland trees averages about 1*5 both for heart-
wood and sapwoocl ; but the specific gravity per cubic foot of
wood varies greatly for different kinds of trees, and for any
given kind it also varies greatly in the green and the seasoned
conditions. For technical purposes it is only the seasoned
weight that is important, as green timber is not used. As to
average weight when seasoned, British timber may be classified
thus : —
Heavy * (sp. gr. 07 to 075 ; 1 cb. ft. =44 to 47 Ibs.) : Oak (47 Ibs.), Ash,
Beech, Hornbeam, Maple, Robinia, Elm (44 Ibs.).
Medium weight * (sp. gr. 0*6 to 07 ; 1 cb. ft. = 37 to 44 Ibs.) : Sycamore,
Chestnut, Birch, Larch, Colorado Douglas Fir, Red Cedar (Thuja).
Light* (sp. gr. 0'45 to 0'6 ; 1 cb. ft = 28 to 37 Ibs.): Horse-Chestnut,
Alder, Pacific Douglas Fir, Pine, Spruce, Silver Fir, Willow, Aspen,
Poplar, Lime, Cypress, and most other Conifers.
* While green and sappy, timber is usually more than one-third heavier
than it will afterwards be when saivn and seasoned.
2. As REGARDS MOISTNESS OR DRYNESS, on the average green
timber contains sap or water to about one-half of its total weight
(42 per cent in hardwoods, 52 in softwoods, and 57 in Conifers) ;
and it still retains water to about 10 per cent of its weight
when thoroughly seasoned (8 to 10 in broad-leaved, and 10 to 12
in Conifer wood, or more if very resinous). To save time and
money, the more valuable kinds of furniture woods are now
usually dried in hot-air chambers, as this does not affect their
strength ; otherwise seasoning takes two to four years for barked
272 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
logs, and splitting and warping are likely to occur if logs are
sawn into planks before seasoning.
3. As REGARDS RELATION TO WATER, upon which shrinking,
cracking, splitting, warping, and expansion depend, wood
shrinks more or less in seasoning, and thus tends to warp, —
the dense, slow -drying heartwood shrinking more unequally
than sapwood, and resinous Conifer wood more gradually than
that of broad-leaved trees. But the specific weight of wood
gives no indication of its liability to shrink or warp. Conifer
wood that is very resinous, and wood that has been steamed,
are least liable to warp. Lime, Beech, Hornbeam, Elm, Chest-
nut, Birch, and Alder shrink most, and pedunculate Oak and
Conifers least. Shrinkage is least longitudinally (being only
nominal), greater radially (about 6 per cent), and greatest
tangentially (about 10 per cent) ; and it is this want of uni-
formity in the rate of shrinkage in different directions that
occasions warping, cracking, and splitting. The more rapid the
shrinkage, the greater the tendency to warp, crack, and split;
hence summer-felled timber is more likely than winter-felled to
do so, and barked logs crack and split more than those left with
bark on (which in Conifers would lead to bark-beetles breeding
in large numbers). Practically, in proportion as wood shrinks
in seasoning, it swells or expands again by absorbing water in a
damp state of the air ; and this must be allowed for in construc-
tion with timber.
4. DEFECTS IN TIMBER are due to abnormal anatomic structure
and other conditions, and include branch-knots, twisted fibre,
wound-surfaces, and rind-galls completely covered, and shakes of
various kinds (simple or star-shaped heart-shakes, frost cracks,
cup- or ring-shakes), which all weaken its strength, and therefore
depreciate the value of timber for technical purposes. Frost-
ribs being mostly full of water, are called " water-shakes " by
timber -merchants. Branch-knots are commonest in shade-
enduring trees, which do not readily lose their side-branches.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER. 273
Knots in Conifers become saturated with resin, and then
(especially in Larch) are very hard to plane, though they
enhance the ornamental appearance of the wood. Twisted fibre
is commonest in Chestnut, Oak, Elm, Beech, Sycamore, and
Scots Pine, and makes wood more liable to warp.
5. UNSOUNDNESS is due to fungus disease. The chief kinds
of unsoundness are canker, red-rot, white-rot, white-piping (Oak),
and blueing of Conifers (especially Scots Pine) ; but root-rot,
branch-rot, and stem-rot are common in old trees growing on
unsuitable or imperfectly drained land. And even after it is
converted and used in construction, timber, especially if only
partially seasoned or in a damp place, is liable to be attacked
by dry-rot (due to Merulius lacrymans) and other saprophytic
fungi.
The chief fungi causing unsoundness are as follows (see also Part III.,
chap, iii.) : —
Canker : Peziza (Larch) ; Nectria (Ash and Beech mostly) ; JEcidium
elatinum (Silver Fir) ; Cronartium (Peridermium Pini : Scots Pine).
Red-rot, from decomposition of cellulose : Tramctcs Pini (Scots Pine),
Pomes annosus (Pine, Spruce, Silver Fir) ; Polyporus sulphureus (Oak and
Birch chiefly) ; P. betulinus (Birch).
White-rot, from decomposition of lignin : Agaricus melleus (all kinds of
trees); Fames igniarius (Oak and Willows mostly); F. fomentarius (Beech,
Oak, Elm) ; Polyporus dryadeus (Oak) ; Hydnum diversidens (Oak, Beech).
White -piping is caused by Stereum hirsutum (Oak).
Blueing of Conifer timber : Ceratostoma piliferum.
V. The Mechanical Properties of Timber are of the first
importance, as they govern its relation to external influences.
They include strength, elasticity, flexibility, toughness, fissibility,
hardness, and durability.
1. STRENGTH in timber is the resistance offered to any force
tending to separate its fibres, whether applied longitudinally as
if pulling the fibres apart (tension), or pressing them together
(crushing), or at right angles to the grain (transverse-pressure
or breaking-strain), or so as to twist the fibres (torsion), or more
s
274 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PKODUCE.
or less parallel to the grain so as to displace and separate the
fibres sideways (shearing). The breaking-strain is by far the
most important in timber used for construction, Of our British
woods, Oak, Ash, and Larch stand this pressure best ; then
other hardwoods ; and sapwoods and very resinous Conifer
timber least (though Spruce better than Silver Fir, and Silver
Fir better than Scots Pine) ; but any defect or unsoundness
weakens the strength. The coefficient of transverse strength
can be obtained from the formula —
WxL
~B7D*
where W is the weight in pounds placed on middle of the bar
which causes it to break, L the length of bar in feet, between
supports, B the breadth, and D the depth in inches.
2. ELASTICITY, FLEXIBILITY, AND TOUGHNESS. — Any sub-
stance changing shape under pressure is called pliable, and its
power -of completely resuming its original shape is its elasticity ;
if it breaks readily it is called brittle, and if it resists change
of form, tough. In timber, elasticity is proportionate to
the. strength; while flexibility and toughness usually increase
with the amount of water, and are greater in green than in
partly or wholly seasoned wood, and also much increased by
steaming. Hardwoods have generally the greatest elasticity,
and softwoods the greatest flexibility and toughness ; while in
Conifers a moderate amount of resin increases, and much resin
diminishes them ; but all these three properties depend on the
length and straightness of the woody fibres, and are diminished
by branch -knots and abnormal growth of any kind. The
modulus of elasticity is found from the formula —
L3 W
E = x — ,
B x D8 d
where L, B, and D are as above, and W is the weight in pounds
supported at the centre of the bar and causing a deflection of
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES. 275
d inches. The toughest and most flexible stool-shoots are those
of Osiers, Willows, Ash, Hazel, Birch, Chestnut, Lime, Aspen,
Oak, and Elm ; while the toughest and most flexible timber is
Ash, Birch, Willow, Poplar, Kohinia, Hornbeam, and Elm.
Beech becomes tough and flexible when steamed.
3. FISSIBILITY is the ease with which wood can be split by
driving in a wedge parallel to the run of its fibres, and is im-
portant in cooperage, match-making, splitting rails, &c. Eissi-
bility is greatest in long and straight-fibred woods, and least
where the fibres are short and strongly lignified ; and the drier
and more elastic the wood, the easier it is to split (except in
Willow and Poplar, in which a wedge holds better when the
wood is moist). The greater the fissibility, the more difficult
it is to obtain a fine smooth surface by planing. As regards
fissibility our woods are classifiable as follows : —
Easy to split : Chestnut, Eobinia, Alder, Lime, and Conifers
(unless very resinous).
Medium: Oak, Ash, Beech.
Difficult to split : Hornbeam, Elm, Maple and Sycamore,
Birch, Willow, Poplar.
4. HARDNESS is the resistance offered to the penetration of
another body, and is usually characteristic of heavy woods, the
hardness increasing with the strength and cohesiveness of
the woody fibres. The degree of hardness manifested varies
with the kind of tools used in wood-working (axe, knife,
plane, saw, rasp, nail, &c.), as some work parallel to the run
of the fibres and others at right angles ; but the following is a
rough general average : —
Hard: Robinia, Maple and Sycamore, Hornbeam, peduncu-
late Oak.
Moderately hard: Ash, sessile Oak, Chestnut, Elm, Beech,
and Birch ; also resinous narrow-ringed Larch and Pine.
Soft : Conifers ; Horse-Chestnut, Alder, Willow, Poplar,
Lime.
276 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PKODUCE.
Older wood is harder than younger wood in trees, and dry
wood generally harder than green wood, though heavy, hard
woods like Oak, Ash, Beech, Elm, Maple, and Sycamore are
easier to work when still moist than when dry. The tougher
the wood, the harder it is to saw, owing to the resistance offered
to the teeth of the saw in tearing the fibres apart. As regards
sawing, our woods may be classified thus : —
Hard to saw : Lime, Willow, Poplar.
Medium : Birch, Oak, Alder, and resinous Larch and Pine.
Easy to saw : Conifers.
As a rule, woods with a specific gravity below 0*65 when
seasoned are classed as Softwoods, these including Aspen and
other Poplars, Willows, Lime, Horse-Chestnut, Alder, and Birch
(seasoned sp. gr. 0'64, though hard to cut, and often classed
as a hardwood) ; while the others are called Hardwoods — Oak,
Ash, Elm, Sycamore, Beech, &c.
5. DURABILITY means the length of time timber continues
sound and serviceable ; and this, of course, varies greatly
according to how and where it is used. But it depends mainly
on the extent to which the wood is exposed to alternating
dampness and dryness, especially during the warmer months
of the year ; for it is then that timber-boring insects (Anobium,
Ptilinus, Lymexylon, &c.) and saprophytic fungi (Polyporus,
Agaricus, Merulius, &c.), which are chiefly instrumental in
decomposing the woody tissues and the ligneous substances,
find the most favourable conditions for feeding and breeding.
The mere weight of wood gives no true indication of its dura-
bility ; because the larger the quantity of albuminoid substances
contained in any kind of wood, the more likely it is to be
attacked by fungi and insects which feed on these ; but, for one
and the same kind of wood (whether Oak, Beech, Larch, Pine,
&c.), the heavier it is the more durable, owing to the higher
proportion of lignin and preservative substances per unit of
volume. Oak and other hardwoods (except Beech) are usually
much more durable than softwoods, and Larch lasts longer
CHIEF USES OF TIMBER. 277
than Pines or Firs ; but in Conifers durability increases with
resinousness. Seasoning increases it, and winter-felled timber
is more durable than summer-felled. The durability can be
greatly increased by artificial means. For use between wind
and water, Oak, Larch, and good Pine are best, while Alder,
Elm, and Beech last longest under water or as water-troughs.
As regards general durability, our woods may be classified
thus : —
Most durable : Oak, Chestnut, Robinia, and resinous Larch
and Pine.
Durable : Ash, Elm, steamed Beech, and Conifers with dis-
tinct heartwood (Larch, Pine, Douglas Fir, Cypresses).
Least durable •• Silver Fir, Spruce ; Beech, Hornbeam, Maple,
Sycamore ; softwoods : Birch, Alder, Lime, Horse-Chest-
nut, Poplars, and Willows.
The Chief Uses to which British timber is put are as
follows : —
I. Hardwoods —
Oak : ship-, house-, bridge-, and waggon -building, furniture, interior
decoration, railway sleepers, telegraph-post arms, cask-staves, estate
work, spokewood, and pitwood. British Oak is better in quality than
foreign Oak. Pedunculate Oak is harder, stronger, and more durable ;
but Sessile Oak grows straighter, and is softer and easier to work.
Ash : agricultural implements, coach-building, furniture, oars, shafts,
walking-sticks, hurdles, pea- and beau-sticks, &c.
Beech : chair-making, tool-handles, boot-lasts, mill-rollers.
Elm : coach- and waggon-building, furniture, boat-keels, coffins.
Sycamore : mill-rollers, furniture, bobbins, clog-soles, box-making,
pulley-blocks.
Maple : used similarly, but not for mill-rollers.
Hornbeam : cog-wheels, plane-boxes, tool-handles, and wherever great
toughness is required.
Chestnut : furniture, parquetry, posts and rails for fencing, split-
fencing.
II. Softwoods —
Birch : furniture, bobbins and turnery, barrel-staves and crates, clog-
soles, heads and handles of brooms, brooms for tempering steel-plates.
Birch and Alder were formerly much used for gunpowder charcoal.
278 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
Alder : clog - soles, barrel - staves ; is well suited for use underground
and in water.
Poplars : Packing-cases, framework for veneered furniture, cart-bottoms
and sides, railway brake-blocks, interior boarding, wood-pulp, match-
making, turnery and carving. Aspen best for matches, match-boxes,
and wood-pulp.
Willows : same as Poplars ; also bread - platters, knife - boards, and
cricket-bats (Red Willow).
Horse -Chestnut : carts, sides and bottoms of, cabinet-making, bobbins
and turnery.
Lime : turnery and carving, framework for veneered furniture, pack-
ing-cases.
Walnut : furniture, gun-stocks, turnery, carving.
III. Conifers-
Larch: railway sleepers, boat- and bridge-building, boarding, cart-
making, masts and posts of all sorts, estate-fencing, pitwood. Small
wood for hop poles, pea- and bean-sticks, &c. Like Ash, Larch can
be used of all sizes, and is durable and useful for estate work.
Cypresses, Douglas Fir, and Scots Pine or "red deal" : used for same
purposes as Larch, but not so durable ; Scots Pine also for ship masts-
and spars, telegraph-poles, scaffolding, herring-boxes, and packing-
cases.
Austrian and Corsican Pine : used for similar purposes as Scots Pine,
but wood coarser and less durable.
Weymouth or "Yellow Pine" is largely imported from America for
house-building and other constructive purposes.
Spruce or "white deal," and Silver Fir or "White Pine " : boarding,
planking, and scantling for interior work, rough furniture, masts and
spars of ships, scaffolding and ladders, packing-cases, boxes, toys,
cask-staves, sounding-boards for musical instruments, pitwood, wood-
pulp ; is less durable than Scots Pine.
Our Chief Wood-consuming Industries use mostly the follow-
ing kinds of timber : —
Ship-building. — Oak, for ribs, crooks, &c. ; Elm and Oak for keels ; Larch
and Pine for planking and lining ; Larch, Pine, Spruce, and Silver Fir for
masts.
House - building and Carpentry. — Most.ly imported from Baltic are
Scots Pine (red deal) and Spruce (white deal) ; from Rotterdam, Silver
Fir (white pine) ; from America and Canada, Weymouth Pine (yellow pine),
Swamp Pine (pitch pine), and others.
Pitwood. — Larch and small Oak best and most durable, but other Coni-
MARKET-VALUE OF TIMBER. 279
fers are all largely used, the most resinous being the best. Our pit-mines
are at present mainly dependent on foreign supplies, and large quantities
of Maritime Pine are imported from Bordeaux.
All the Conifers can be used for pit-props down to 2£ in. top-diameter,
and there is a great and constant demand for pitwood, as it lasts only
about 5 years on the average.
Railway Sleepers.— Oak and Larch are the most durable, but even these
are now generally impregnated ; in France impregnated Beech is very
largely used.
Telegraph and Telephone Posts. — Larch and Scots Pine mostly used, as
Scots Pine takes creosote well ; Spruce is less used as not taking creosote
well, though absorbing readily under the saccharine process (see p. 307).
Scaffolding, &c. — Larch, Pine, Spruce, and Silver Fir mostly used, but
chiefly imported wood.
Furniture and Cabinet- Making. — Most of our hardwoods of large size.
Beech (steamed), Oak, Ash, Elm, Sycamore, Birch.
Coach-building and Agricultural Implements, Waggons, <£c. — Ash, Oak,
and Elm chiefly, with softwoods for waggon-bottoms and sides.
Cask- and Barrel-makers use mostly Oak, Chestnut, Birch, Elm, and
Pine, with Hazel, Chestnut, Birch, and Willow as withes for cheap barrels.
Clog-makers use mostly Alder and Birch, also Willow and Poplar.
Estate Work. — Chiefly Larch, Oak, and Ash of a small size, though
softwoods are also very useful for fencing, &c., if creosoted or naphtha-
lined.
The Market -Value of British Timber varies greatly in
different localities, and its value in the woods depends on its
distance from the sawmill or from the place where it is to be
used. Its value in the woods may be estimated by deducting
from its market- value at the place of sale — (1) the cost of
transport, and (2) about 15 to 20 per cent for the timber-
merchants' profit \ and of course this shows the importance of
having easy lines of transport, and good roads or cheap tram-
ways for extracting large quantities of timber.
On a rough average present prices mostly vary within the following
limits per cubic foot, according to the quality and size of the timber :
Oak, Is. 3d. to 2s. 6d. ; Ash, Is. to 2s. ; Elm, Beech, Chestnut, Sycamore,
Maple, 9d. to Is. 6d. ; Willow, Lime, Birch, Poplar, Horse-Chestnut, lOd.
to Is. 3d. ; Larch, 9d. to Is. 2d. ; Scots Pine, 6d. to 9d. ; Spruce and
Silver Fir, 4d. to 6d. But please note remarks on pp. 90, 91.
280
CHAPTER II.
THE HARVESTING OP WOODLAND PRODUCE, AND ITS
PREPARATION AND SALE.
HIGHWOODS allow of thinnings about once every 4 or 5 to 8 or
10 years, according to the kind and the age of the crop, before
they mature and give their final yield in timber. But in
addition to timber they may also yield minor produce in shape
of tanning-bark, tree-seeds, resin, &c. The harvesting of coppice-
growth and of timber from high woods takes place by cutting
or felling. Osier-holts are cut either with sharp knives for
small rods, or with clean-cutting light billhooks. Coppices and
small thinnings are cut with handbills or billhooks, while axes
and saws are used for felling timber; and when stumps are
removed they have to be extracted by jacks and other machines
giving strong leverage.
The most effective bills for coppices and small thinnings are
those with a well-balanced handle and fairly heavy, and the
stroke is most effective when the pole can be slightly bent down
with the left hand while the stroke is being delivered by the
right. The cuts should be clean and slanting, and as near the
ground as possible ; for if the cut is ragged and splintered, rain-
water lodges and the stump soon rots ; while if high snags
are left, the stools do not shoot well, and soon get worn out.
Large poles and trees are cut either with axe or with axe and
saw. There are various kinds of axes, differing in the shape
TIMBER-FELLING.
281
and weight of the head, and in the length and shape of the
shaft ; but one of the most effective is the American KenebecJc
axe, weighing altogether 5J to 7 Ibs., with bulging cheeks to
Fig. 70.
./LA. MA
Fig. 71.
Teeth of Two-handed Saws.
prevent jamming. For sawing, %-lianded saws (Fig. 70) from
4 to 6 ft. long are generally used, and the ease of working them
depends greatly on the handles being conveniently placed and
shaped. Good saws should be made
of the best steel ; should have a
slightly convex cutting -edge, with
more or less triangular teeth ; should
provide free space for removing the
sawdust ; should have teeth well set
to different sides, the back of the
blade somewhat thinner than the
face, and a weight of 5 to 6 Ibs.
But to prevent jamming, wedges
have to be used.
Felling with axe alone (Fig. 71)
is only suitable for large poles or
small trees. The stem is first cut
into as low down as possible (a) on
the side at which it is desired to
fall, and the cuts should be made
wedge-shaped as far as, or a little beyond, the centre of the
stem. A second cleft (&) should then be opened out on the
opposite side of the stem slightly above the cut first laid in,
and this second cut is continued until the tree gradually falls
over towards the other side.
Felling with Axe alone.
282 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
Fig. 72.
Felling with axe and saw (Fig. 72 ) is a better way with
large timber, as there is less wastage. The tree is laid in as
before (a b) to about J of its
diameter ; then the saw is applied
at same level (c) on opposite side
of the tree. As the saw cuts in,
the opening it makes has to be
kept open by wedges, to prevent
jamming and help to throw the
tree over. To prevent the wedges
springing out, they should, especi-
ally in frosty weather, be sanded
or rubbed with earth or ashes ;
but the safest and most powerful
wedge to help in throwing over the
tree is the " Universal wedge" made
of steel (Fig. 73).
But most timber is obtained by
cutting through the main roots just
below the ground, and throwing the tree with lever appliances
like the common jack (Fig. 74), or hauling it over by the far
more powerful chain-lever or wood-demon (Fig. 75), consisting
of two strong iron chains,
mm, fixed to a stout iron-
ringed pole C, that is fast-
ened to some stable object
(like a boulder or large tree)
by a mooring chain, A, and
which acts in connection
with the main chain, B,
attached to some lofty branch of the stem to be pulled over.
By moving the pole-lever C alternately backwards and forwards,
the hooks mm can gradually be moved upwards link by link
along J3, so that the top of the tree is dragged over, as the
leverage is effective, though gradual. Or an arrangement of
Felling with Axe and Saw.
TIMBER-FELLING,
Fig. 74.
283
Throwing with Common Jack.
pulleys and tackle can be used with similar effect. On marshy
Fig- 75-
The Chain- Lever or Wood-Demon.
Fig. 76-
•ground additional stability can be given by mooring the chain
A to a series of posts, as shown in Fig. 76.
284 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
Stump extraction is usual only when converting woodland
into agricultural land, as it seldom pays to grub up the stumps
for fuel (though it is the best safeguard against the Pine-
weevil in Conifer woods). It can best be done by implements
or machines which all work upon the principle of gaining great
force by leverage. If the side-roots have been cut through all
round, the stump can often be raised by the leverage of a
long and stout pole passing through an iron ring attached to
a strong hook, that can be inserted below one of the main
side-roots (Fig. 77). Or a long pole can be fixed with one
end resting on
77- the ground and
the other on the
top of a jack,
with an iron
chain binding
this end of the
pole to one of
the stump-roots ;
and as the jack
is wound up, the
stump is parti-
ally tilted over. The Australian monkey-jack is another method
of applying strong leverage ; but one of the most powerful is
the American Hawkeye, worked by horse-power, the machine
itself being firmly moored to one or more stumps, and the
extracting force being provided by strong leverage. Large
stumps are also often blasted with gunpowder or dynamite,
but this is not always cheaper than the use of mechanical
appliances.
The best season for felling timber is during autumn just
before the fall of the leaf, or during winter as soon as possible
after the fall of the leaf, when the tree contains least sap and
when there will be least evaporation and shrinkage. But if
Oak or Larch is to be peeled for tanning-bark, or if oak-coppices-
Stump-extraction by hook-and-pole leverage.
TIMBER-FELLING. 285
are to be barked, then the fall must take place in spring when
the sap is beginning to flow; and for bentwood furniture
summer-felled Beech is preferred for steaming. Summer-felled
wood is also easier to cleave and split than winter-felled. If
Conifers are left in woods after felling, they are almost certain
to become infested with bark-beetles during spring, and should
if possible be removed at latest by the middle of June, or else
barked, leaving only narrow rings of bark at ends and middle
to try and prevent cracking. Osier-holts are cut from January
onwards, unless inundated, while thinnings in plantations can
best be done in spring. If felling be done by the proprietor's
own men, they are much more likely to be careful of his
interests as regards damage to fences, other trees, and under-
woods, and felling and logging to best advantage, &c., than if
the timber merchant's employees do the felling and logging.
In felling timber the main points to be kept in view are : —
1. All trees to be felled should be plainly blazed and hammer-marked both
on stem and root. 2. Trees should be felled so as to give the largest possible
out-turn in timber, all large trees being felled by axe and saw. 3. Trees
should be felled so as to do the least damage to other trees, underwood,
fences, or themselves. Lopping the branches is often desirable. On
hillsides it is usually best to let the tree fall slantingly uphill, because
the crash is then least, and the log can generally be removed easier.
4. Trees should be felled in the direction from which their removal is easiest,
unless unnecessary damage would thereby be done. 5. Timber felled
should be at once cross-cut by saw into the best size of logs, and removed to
the nearest road or ride, and more trees should not be at any time felled and
left on the ground than can be conveniently dragged out within the next two
or three days. 6. On reaching the road, the smaller classes of wood from
thinnings (poles) should be at once assorted according to their size and class
for sale or other disposal. 7. Trees to be barked should be stripped im-
mediately after felling, and before the logs are dragged out to the road.
8. Felling operations should be temporarily suspended during high wind,
to avoid accidents, and because of the uncertainty of making the tree
fall in the desired direction. 9. Large trees and poles over about 9 in.
diameter at base should, as a rule, be felled by axe and saw ; while small
poles and coppice-growth should be smoothly and slantingly cut by bill or
by axe, according to their size, to prevent water lodging and rotting the
stools, and to stimulate shoot-production.
286 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
The cost of cutting and sorting coppices of 12 to 16 years'
growth varies from about 10s. to 15s. per acre according to the
thickness of the crop; while the cost of felling, trimming,
and logging timber is about Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. per load of 50
cubic ft. for Conifers and softwoods ; 2s. to 3s. for most hard-
woods ; and 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. for Oak and Ash.
When felled and logged, the logs should be marked serially,
while poles and branch-wood should be assorted according to
length and size, the smaller stuff stacked in cords for fuel, and
the brushwood faggoted. The marking of trees and logs can
best be done with a revolving numbering-hammer (Fig. 78).
Fig. 78.
Revolving Number ing' Hammer.
Storage-depdts have to be -formed at convenient places when
felled timber cannot be at once removed from the woods.
Here the logs should, so far as practicable, be raised above
ground on poles or billets of wood, to assist seasoning and
prevent damp-rot, and due precautions being used (e.y., barking
Conifer logs) to prevent such depots becoming breeding-places
for noxious insects.
In Britain timber is sold by public auction, by tender, or by
private contract ; and it may be sold either standing or felled.
Where practicable, it is usually best to sell it standing, at fixed
rates per cubic ft. for 1st class and 2nd class dimensions (also
to be fixed), with a reasonable deduction in case of unsound-
ness, the cubic contents of the logs being measured by multi-
plying the length in feet by the square of mean quarter-girth
SALE OF WOODLAND PRODUCE. 28*7
(free of bark) in inches, and dividing by 144 (see also
page 89). If timber be felled before selling, the timber
merchant knows well that the landowner is practically forced to
sell, even if he does not get a fair market-price for it, unless he
can convert it at a saw-mill of his own. Theoretically, felling,
logging, and assorting by the landowner's own men, and sale by
public auction, would be the best means of disposal, unless in
districts where rings are formed by timber merchants to keep
down prices locally.
When sales are made by private contract or tender, the
conditions should stipulate the mode and time of payment, the
date by which timber should be removed (before 31st May if
possible), the route of extraction, the breadth of the cart-wheels
to be used (not less than 4 in. flange), and what payment is to
be made for damage done by the buyer's workmen, and also
making provisions in case of the buyer failing to satisfy all his
covenants. As a rule, such sale-contracts are usually drawn up
by the landowner's agent, and revised by his solicitor.
Coppices are usually sold standing, either privately or by
auction, at so much per rood or acre, to be cleared by a fixed
date, up to end of March for ordinary coppices, and up to
middle or end of May for oak-bark coppices, and poles to be
reserved as standards should be marked with a ring of white-
wash or paint about 5 ft. up. The poles cut are classed
according to size and sold as hop-poles, &c., according to local
demand and custom, by the dozen or 100. Smaller stuff is
used for hurdle-making, crate-wood, hurdle-hoops, bean- and
pea-sticks, stakes, thatching-rods, &c., and what is then left is
faggoted in bundles 3 ft. long and 24 in. girth for fuel. Alder
and Birch coppices are saleable for clog-making when yielding
stems 4 in. to 5 in. or more in diameter. Hurdlemaking with
Hazel, Ash, Chestnut, Birch, and Willow, is now almost a lost
art ; and the market for all kinds of coppice-material, including
Oak-bark, is so low that coppices hardly pay, and many of them
288 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
are being converted into highwoods. Osier-holts, cut over
from January onwards when the land is not inundated, yield
green rods, fresh and unpeeled, brown rods, drying in skins,
which later on are put with the cut ends in water and then
peeled to form white rods; but if brown rods are boiled for
peeling, then they become buff in colour. Oak-Barking is no
longer so usual or so profitable as formerly, although Oak and
Larch are still peeled, and the bark sold for tanning. The largest
amount of tannic acid is contained in smooth or silver bark of
14- to 16-year-old Oak-coppices (giving 15 to 20 per cent tannin
when seasoned), while seconds, or medium quality bark from
poles and branches beginning to fissure, give 10 to 15 per cent,
clean bark from older stems 8 to 10 per cent, and coarse rough
bark only 5 to 8 per cent. Sessile Oak has thicker bark and
more tannin than Pedunculate Oak ; but the amount of tannin
depends greatly on the quality of the soil and the situation,
warm exposures producing the most and the thickest and best
bark. Alder contains 16 to 20 per cent, but is not used, as it
blackens the leather. Larch-bark contains 10 to 15 per cent
tannin, Spruce-bark about 8 per cent, Silver Fir 5 to 6 per cent,
while Willows have 5 to 7 per cent (used for Russian leather),
and Osier-baric 8 to 13 per cent (used for glove leather).
The best time for bark - stripping is during warm, damp
weather, when the young leaves are just flushing ; and the bark
peels better in the morning or evening than in the daytime.
The later the stripping is delayed after the sap begins to flow,
the less is the amount of tannin contained in the bark.
In copse with standards the underwood is felled and the Oak-
bark stripped first, before the standard Oak-trees are felled and
barked. The coppice -rods are lightly beaten with a wooden
mallet against a smooth stone, when the bark can easily be
loosened ; but trees have to be felled, marked off in sections of
2J or 3 ft., and bark loosened with a barking-iron, the mallet
being used as little as possible, because malleting means injury
OAK-BARK. 289
and loss of tannin. Poles are barked across a pair of forked
stakes. The drying of bark takes place on stages formed of
small poles or rods laid upon cross-rods supported by Y-shaped
stakes, the bark being laid on the stage rough side uppermost
to protect it from rain. The stages are erected in a dry, open,
warm spot, and the bark should be turned every few days, putting
the sappiest pieces on top. In fine weather the bark seasons in
8 to 10 days ; but drying may take about a fortnight or more
in. dull damp weather, when it should be handled as little as
possible, as it then turns mouldy. The seasoning is complete
when the bark becomes so hard and dry as to snap when bent.
The quicker the seasoning, the better the quality of the bark.
The best quality is creamy light-brown ; if dark-brown, owing
to damp weather, the quality is not so good. Mouldy pieces
should be scraped clean, and the mouldy parts burned ; and
badly damaged pieces should be burned to prevent the mould-
fungus spreading. The seasoned bark has then to be chipped
into small pieces about 3 in. square, and put into large bags
for transport.
Park and hedgerow trees yield from 6 to 10 cwt. of seasoned
bark per 50 cubic ft. of timber. In drying the bark loses over
a third of its weight when green.
The barking of large Oaks, including curing, usually costs
from 30s. to 40s. per ton, and chipping and bundling 8s. to 9s.,
while the present selling price is only 50s. to 55s. per ton
(of 21 cwt.) delivered at the nearest railway station. There is
therefore very little profit now in barking large Oaks, while the
market for Coppice-Oak is also very poor ; so that in many
cases winter-felling of coppices, standards, and park and hedge-
row timber is preferable.
Larch, Spruce, and Birch can be stripped, chipped, and
bagged for about f of what Oak-bark costs, but the selling price
is only about \ that of Oak-bark.
Tree-Seeds should be collected soon after they ripen, mostly
T
290 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
79'
in autunn, though Elm-seed should be gathered (and sown)
when it ripens in June, Birch in July and August, and Silver
Fir cones before they fall to pieces in October. Oak, Beech,
and other hardwoods should be collected in autumn and stored
over winter ; and though most Conifers only open their cones
when dry east winds come in spring, yet it is best (especially
where there are squirrels)
to collect the cones of
Pine, Spruce, and Larch
in autumn. All tree-
seeds kept over winter
should be stored in a
dry, airy place, and
turned over from time
to time to prevent their
heating. Pine and Spruce
cones can be opened
when wanted in spring
by spreading them out
in the sun and turning
them over frequently ;
but where a consider-
able quantity is being
handled, it is usually
treated in a seed -kiln
(Fig. 79) by being
warmed to a temperature of about 100°-110°, the seed being
then allowed to fall down into a cooling-chamber. Larch cones,
however, being very resinous, have, after being warmed, to be
broken into pieces in revolving drums. All Conifer seeds
have to be cleaned by removing their wings before sowing,
which reduces their weight and bulk considerably (10 Ibs.
winged seeds of Scots Pine give 7 Ibs. clean seed, and of
Larch 8 Ibs.)
Seed-kiln for extracting Scots Pine seeds from
the cones.
a. Furnace.
6. Heating-pipes,
c. Shelves with trays
for cones.
d. Passage.
e. Cooling-chambers.
/. Outlets for hot air.
291
CHAPTEK III.
TIMBER-TRANSPORT BY LAND AND WATER.
1. Transport in Woodlands and on Roads. — • After logs are
dragged from the interior of woods to the rides or the roads by
horses, they have to be carted on 4-wheeled timber-waggons
or a 2-wheeled timber-lob or janker, or conveyed by a tramway
to some central depot, sawmill, railway-station, wharf, &c. ; and
sometimes a traction-engine is used for heavy road -traffic.
Dragging is mostly done by horses in Britain, but on the
Continent oxen are largely employed. The dragging of heavy
logs can be facilitated by the use of a dragging-shoe slipping
below the end of the log, or by raising the logs fore and aft
on little sledges.
The common timber-waggon has 4 broad-flanged wheels, the
hind pair being adjustable according to the length of the log,
which is fixed by chains to the long pole forming the beam
of the cart, and levered up high enough to swing clear of the
ground. The timber-bob or janker consists of two broad-flanged
wheels with a curved iron axle, upon the top of which rests a
strong iron-shod shaft ending in a strong iron hook. This is
brought into position over a log round which an iron chain has
been loosely put near its centre of gravity ; and on the tip of
the shaft being elevated and the hook at the other end slipped
under the chain, the log is raised to swing clear of the ground
by the tip of the shaft being pulled down again and the end of
292 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
log fastened to the shaft. It saves time and trouble, however,
if in place of putting a chain round the log a strong pair of iron
clips be used. The wheels of timber-carts should be at least
4 in., and preferably more, in the flange, otherwise heavy loads
cut up soft roads badly.
The cost of carting varies greatly according to kind of wood,
distance, gradient, general condition of road, and state of
weather, and may amount to from Jd. to IJd. per cubic ft. and
per mile up to 4 to 6 miles, and about ^d. to Jd. per cubic ft.
and per mile beyond that.
Tramways are only cheaper than carting when the land is
level or slightly downhill and the gradient slight ; and wher-
ever there is a good network of metalled roads, carting is gener-
ally the cheaper, unless the quantity of timber be large. The
use of a traction-engine and goods-waggons is economical where
long distances have to be covered along good roads, and especi-
ally if the timber can be converted at a sawmill in or near the
woods before transport. For forest tramways the best gauge
is 24 in. (Fig. 80), and the iron sleepers are usually 3 ft. from
centre to centre, the whole, including rails, being in 15 ft.
lengths, so as to be easily carried by two men when it needs
to be shifted. A forest tramway worked by horses operates
regularly in Beaumont Forest, Eoxburgh ; and in the Canonbie
TIMBER-SLEDGING. 293
and Langholm woods, Dumfriesshire, a light tramway worked
by men is found a good and economical way of extracting
timber from narrow, winding galleys down which there are
no roads.
Railway transport in Britain is regulated by the general
railway classification of goods, which prescribes the method
of measurement and classifies the rates payable for different
kinds of timber.
Sledging of poles and logs might in Britain be done far more
extensively than is yet the case. On the Continent sledges are
drawn by woodmen, horses, mules, or oxen. The sledging-
track is corduroyed with small poles cut into cross-pieces, and
poles are placed longways along the outer edge to keep the
sledge from slipping over any hillside or running off the track.
The cross-pieces must be close enough to allow the sledge always
to rest on two of them throughout its whole descent ; and where
woodmen drag the sleds, these cross-pieces should not be more
than 2 ft. apart to give the men a good foothold. Small hand-
sleds are used for fuel and large sledges for timber, all being
formed of two horizontal runners (often shod with iron), cross-
binders joined to the runners, and a strong hooked iron brake
or drag to regulate the speed. For hand-sledding the tracks are
made 4 to 6 ft. broad, with a constant gradient of from 1 in
14. up to even 1 in 4 (or 7 to 25 per cent). The large timber-
sledges drawn by horses, mules, or oxen consist of a front sled
and a hind sled, to raise the logs off the ground and diminish
friction. Both dragging and sledging are easiest on snow and
in wet weather.
Sliding and shooting of timber are simple methods of ex-
traction largely practised in the mountainous woodlands of
Central Europe, and especially where the timber-slide can be
made to end at some point favourable for further transport
(in log or after conversion) by river, rail, or road. Timber-
slides of various kinds can be constructed on roadways or else
294 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
entirely of woodwork ; but in either case the chief points are
(1) the preparation of a good led down which the timber can
glide with least friction, and (2) the provision of safeguards to
prevent the logs or fuel-billets springing out of the slide.
Roadway timber-slides are mostly used for extracting Conifer
logs in large quantities when the pathways and side-roads in moun-
tain tracts have been so projected as to provide large sweeping
curves, round which long logs can glide easily. The slides are
usually made from 5 to 8 ft. broad, with corduroy cross-pieces con-
sisting of round or split poles laid smooth-side uppermost, and
fenced in along the outer edge with poles laid lengthways to act
as flange-like side-guards. For winter-sliding when snow covers
the ground a gradient of from 1 in 12 J to 1 in 8 (or 8 to 12 J
per cent) is needed, and for summer-sliding from 1 in 8 to
1 in 5J (or 12 J to 17 per cent) ; but in either case the steepest
gradient should be at the top, for starting the logs in their
descent, and the lowest gradient at the bottom end, where
the slide terminates. Such roadways can also be used for
sledging, with cross-pieces close enough to allow the sledge
to rest always on two. And they are economical, as 100 to
120 logs can daily be shot down a slide over 1J mile long.
In laying out such a slide, sharp turns and sudden changes
of direction have to be avoided ; but where unavoidable, a
buffer is made with billets of pole-wood, and when a log in
coming down bumps against this, it rolls over into the track
below and slowly continues its way in the new direction —
with assistance, if necessary (Fig. 81). The logs are launched
into the slide thick end first, and to make them glide easily the
butts are rounded with an adze. To prevent accidents the
launching of each log is announced by bugle - call ; and no
other log is despatched till the arrival of the previous one is
similarly announced from below. When all the timber has
been slid down, the slide itself is broken up and extracted
in the same way.
TIMBER- SHOOTS.
295
Wooden timber-shoots are made with 6 or
4- to 12-inch diameter arranged more or les
two forming the base and two or three being
side to form a trough varying from about 2J to
The two bottom poles rest on the ground so
otherwise wooden trestles are built up for the
so as to maintain the necessary gradient. In
fuel-billets, short log sections, and long logs
tracted in mountain tracts ; and of course the
8 poles of from
3 semicircularly,
ranged on each
5 ft. in breadth,
far as possible ;
shoot to rest on,
central Europe,
are all thus ex-
solidity of con-
Turning-Point and Buffer on a Roadway Timber-Slide.
struction varies considerably in such cases. Where the gradient
is below 1 in 16 or 17 (6 per cent) long logs can only, without
snow on ground, be shot down during frosty weather, when men
are kept watering the shoot to make it an ice-slide. For ordi-
nary winter-sliding when snow is on the ground a gradient of
1 in 33 to 1 in 17 (3 to 6 per cent) carries long logs, while
1 in 16 to 1 in 8 \ (6 to 12 per cent) is needed for small
log-sections and fuel-billets. For dry-sliding of long logs in
summer the gradient has to be 1 in 5J or 5 (17 to 20 per cent),
while small logs and fuel-billets need from 1 in 5 to 1 in 2J
296 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PBODUCE.
(20 to 40 per cent). With too low a gradient such wooden
slides are useless ; and with too high a gradient the velocity of
the logs may cause them to spring out of the shoot. Hence,
wherever a dangerous velocity is likely to be acquired, a brake
can be formed by fixing two stout poles of equal length and
girth firmly at their thinner upper ends well above the slide
Fig. 82.
A Brake or Check on a Wooden Timber-Slide.
and letting their thicker lower ends hang loosely on the base
of the slide (Fig. 82), and as a log raises them, and passes
through between them, the strong friction reduces the speed.
Such wooden shoots cost far more to make and maintain than
roadway timber-slides, and do not last so long, their average
life being about 7 years ; and even then the logs used in making
them get so battered as only to be fit for fuel.
Flumes or Water-shoots (Fig. 83) are broad V-shaped water-
TRANSPORT BY WATER.
297
tight troughs, much used in California for rapid transport of
logs over long distances in mountain tracts. They have to be
carefully laid at a constant low gradient, and have to cross
gullies sometimes over 200 ft. deep ; and a speed of 2 to 3 miles
per hour is attained with a fall of only 1 in 200, while 1 in 100
increases it to from 6-9 miles an hour, and 1 in 20 to over 20
miles an hour. On some of the American flumes distances of
over 40 miles are covered in less than 4 hours. Such shoots can
only be made where a good and constant water-supply is assured.
The angle of the V has to be filled with a triangular piece
of wood to form a
flat base, else logs
may get jammed in
the trough.
2. Transport on
Inland Waters can
take place by loose
drifting or floating
in rafts. Timber-
floating is custom-
ary in Strathspey ;
but many of our inland waterways might be much more
utilised thus, as all of our Conifers and most of our broad-
leaved trees are floatable, and water - transport is cheapest.
The drifting of single logs, sleeper-pieces, &c., can be begun
anywhere, merely by launching them into the bed of a stream,
breaking up any obstruction that forms on the way down,
relaunching stranded logs, and collecting them at some depot
lower down ; but rafting can only begin at some convenient
depot, such as land at the junction of two streams, or where a
road or a timber-slide ends. Loose drifting is cheapest, but
there is more risk of jamming and waterlogging, the average
loss varying up to 5 per cent, and sometimes more. A fall of
1 to 2 per cent, a depth of 2 to 3 ft. of water, and a minimum
A Flume or Water- Shoot.
298 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
breadth of 2 to 3 ft. more than the length of the longest logs
drifted are necessary ; and the stream-banks have to be specially
prepared at unfavourable places, while water has to be stored
in reservoirs for flushing, unless spates can frequently be
utilised. The rafting of long, large conifer logs can also be
done with a depth of 2 to 3 ft. of water, while the breadth
of the clear waterway need only be sufficient to let the first
sections of the raft pass easily ; but the bed must be prepared
so as to be without sharp bends, and to be clear of boulders,
and any soft banks must be sloped off to prevent erosion.
In the Black
Fig. 84.
Brake on end-section of 'raft ', dragging on bed of
floating-strea m .
Forest, where
rafting has
reached its
greatest de-
velopment, the
first section of
a raft consists
of 4 light logs
lashed together
with twisted
withes and with
a movable guiding-prow in front, worked vertically by a pole-
lever ; and the following sections are each formed of from 5 to 10
logs according to the breadth of the stream, the top-ends being at
front and the outer logs being loose at their thick end to afford
free play in rounding corners, while the middle sections (which are
always the widest) sometimes actually exceed the breadth of the
stream. The tail of the raft consists of logs lashed together only in
front, and in the middle of the last firm section a pole-brake (Fig.
84) is arranged to drag along the bed of stream and prevent the
end of the raft from moving more rapidly than the front. Eaf ts
there consist of from 300 to 500 logs, in from 50 to 70 sections
averaging 7 logs per section. The loss in rafting is only nominal.
299
CHAPTEE IV.
THE SEASONING AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.
THE larger the proportion of nitrogenous or albuminoid
substances contained in any kind of wood, the more likely it
is to be attacked by insects and saprophytic fungi, which are
the chief causes of decay, and whose attacks are facilitated
when timber is exposed to rapid alternation of dampness and
dryness, especially if combined with warmth. If the albumen
can be sterilised or so altered as to be made unfit for the food
of insects and fungi, the woody fibres then become strongly
protected against both of these destructive agencies, and also
against the action, thus obviated, of dissolving ferments de-
veloping under their operation. Some kinds of timber, and
notably hardwoods as compared with softwoods, and very
resinous as compared with only slightly resinous Conifers, have
more or less of natural protection from substances contained in
their tissue (e.g., tannic acid in Oak, strong resinification in
Larch and Pine, &c.) ; but all timber is much more durable if
utilised in dry and airy places, or if entirely submerged in
water, or buried in the ground where atmospheric oxygen is cut
off and there are practically no alternating changes from wet to
dry. The weight of a piece of wood gives of itself no reliable
indication of its durability — e.g., Beech used, say, for fencing
decays much sooner than Larch ; but for any one particular
kind of wood (Oak, Ash, Beech, Larch, Pine, Spruce, &c.), the
300 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
higher the specific gravity, the more durable the timber, because
that means a larger proportion of woody fibres, and of lignin,
tannic acid, resin, and other substances preservative of the
woody tissue. Speaking generally, wood felled in autumn, just
about the fall of the leaf, when there is least sap in the tree, is
more durable than that cut at any other time of the year ; and
wood felled just before the flush of the foliage in spring, when
the tree is fullest of sap, is usually least durable.
The preservation of timber may take place — I. By seasoning
— 1, naturally, by gradual drying in the open air; or 2, artifici
ally, by evaporating the sap in hot-air chambers, or by steaming
it in hermetically closed boxes or cylinders (with or without
superpressure) ; and
II. By impregnation witli antiseptic substances — 1, through
simple immersion, or. 2, through injection '.under pressure. Mere
superficial coating with paint, &c., is of little use unless the wood
be thoroughly seasoned, and is to be used indoors. But by far the
most effective way of increasing durability is to impregnate the
woody tissue as thoroughly as possible with antiseptic fluids,
rendering the albuminoid substances unfit for the food of insects
and fungi.
1. Seasoning naturally. — The specific gravity of timber is
much greater when the wood is green than when most of the
sap has been evaporated, and the timber has become air-dried
or seasoned. And though hardwoods generally lose about 30,
Conifers about 40, and softwoods about 45 per cent of their
total weight during the long, slow process of seasoning in the
open air, yet they all still contain on the average from 8 to 12
per cent of moisture, which can only be got rid of by drying
artificially in closed chambers.
The best method of seasoning broad-leaved trees having a
distinct heartwood is to girdle or ring them by cutting clean
through the bark and sapwood and into the inert heartwood all
round the stem, just above the buttresses near the ground.
SEASONING. 301
This arrests the upward progress of sap from the roots ; and
when all the sap that was in the tree at time of girdling
becomes evaporated through the foliage, the leaves die, and
gradually (within about two years at most) the twigs, and the
small branches, and the bark are shed ; while the tree gradually
becomes seasoned and less likely to warp or shrink after con-
version, and also lighter in weight and rendered more floatable
and less heavy to transport. Conifers cannot, however, be
safely girdled, as they at once become infested with bark-
beetles, and the best way of seasoning them is to bark them as
soon as felled, leaving only narrow rings at both ends to
prevent them splitting arid getting long deep cracks. Wood in
the round usually takes from two to four years to season if
barked, and longer if unbarked ; while for hardwood planks
about a year is allowed for each inch of thickness before
seasoning is complete. But seasoning is much more rapid if the
wood has been previously floated or soaked in running water for
some time to remove some of the sap by dissolving it. Of
course, light porous wood seasons sooner than heavy dense wood,
and sawn or split wood seasons sooner than wood in the log.
Unless well raised off the ground, wood will not season
thoroughly. If boards fresh from the saw-bench be set on end,
this helps the seasoning of some kinds of wood (e.g., Beech).
2. Seasoning artificially may take place either by evaporating
the sap in properly ventilated hot-air chambers, or by steaming
it in closed cylinders.
In seasoning by hot air the converted wood is ranged so that
the air can circulate freely between the pieces ; and the dry super-
heated air, warmed either by steam-pipes or hot-air tubes, is
kept in circulation by large revolving fans, while ventilation is
provided by circulating vanes and cowls. Whatever the size of
the drying-chamber, about one-third is filled with wood and
two-thirds with the hot air. Drying should only take place at
a temperature not above 110° to 140° Fahr., though 95° to
302 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
105° is usually sufficient. The damper the wood, the slower
should the rate of seasoning be, as rapid heating makes the
planks warp and split. There should not be too much ventila-
tion; it is sufficient if the air be renewed once every five
minutes. But this depends mainly on the dampness of the air,
as in very dry air the evaporation of the sap proceeds so quickly
that the wood may easily become split and cracked. After
drying, the wood should still contain about 10 to 12 per cent of
water, for if thoroughly dried it is brittle, difficult to work,
absorbs moisture rapidly, and is then apt to warp. The time
taken to season wood depends on the kind, and on its shape,
size, and moistness. For thin boards and planks about 3 to 5
days suffice, while from 8 to 10 are needed for larger wood.
Another method is Haskin's Vulcanisation process of rapidly
seasoning converted timber by hermetically sealing it in power-
ful iron cylinders and exposing it under a pressure of about 13 J
atmospheres (200 Ibs. per square inch) to the influence of air
(dry?) superheated to between 200° to 300° Fahr., the precise
temperature being the secret of the process (probably a little
over boiling-point, 212°). The time taken depends on the size
of the timber ; for sleepers 8 hours suffice.
In steaming, the converted timber is usually put into a thick
wooden box 10 to 12 ft. long and 5 to 7 ft. broad and high,
bound with iron and hermetically closed, the box resting
slantingly on strong supports, so that the condensed water can
be run off at the lowest part by a turncock, while the mouth of
the steam-pipe enters at the opposite end. To economise steam,
the wood is packed closely into the box, but the boards are set
on edge so that their surfaces should come into contact as little
as possible. When steaming is begun, the condensed water
runs off fairly clear, but later on it gets much discoloured and
smells strongly of the extracts dissolved ; but the steaming is
continued until the condensed water again runs clear and
colourless, showing that the sap has been fully dissolved and
IMPREGNATION. 303
withdrawn. Steaming takes from about 40 to 80 hours, accord-
ing to the size of the wood, and generally makes the colour
darker than wood naturally seasoned. Oak turns dark-brown
and Maple reddish, while Beech turns brown to pinkish and is
then preferred for parquet-work. Steamed wood dries quicker,
is lighter, and is less liable to warp and split than unsteamed
wood of the same degree of dryness. While still warm and
moist as it comes from the steaming-box, it is very flexible ; and
in cooling and drying it retains the form given to it while still
warm and moist. This quality is made use of in bending wood
for ship's planking, carriage- and waggon -making, cooperage,
chair-making, &c.
II. Impregnation with Antiseptics. — The earliest methods
of preservation by antiseptic means were simple submersion of
converted wood in sea- water, or in a solution of common salt,
or in milk of lime (a l-in-40 solution of slaked lime in water),
or by charring and coal-tarring fence-posts and stobs at the
lower ends put near or below the surface of the ground. The
ideal preservative fluid would be one that preserves thoroughly,
penetrates easily and deeply into the wood, remains there per-
manently, is cheap and innocuous, and does not increase the
inflammability of the wood; but no such impregnating substance
has yet been discovered. For large timber the four oldest
antiseptic processes worked on any large scale are —
1. Kyaris method (1832), by simple immersion and imbibi-
tion of a 1-per-cent solution of corrosive sublimate (bichloride
of mercury), 1 Ib. dissolved in 10 gals, of water (100 Ibs.) being
sufficient to impregnate 50 cubic feet of well-seasoned timber ;
2. Burnett's method (1838), by injecting a 2- to 3-per-cent
chloride of zinc solution under pneumatic pressure of 105 Ibs.
per square inch (7| atmospheres) at 230° F., the wood operated
on (chiefly for railway sleepers) being thoroughly seasoned ;
3. BetheWs method (1838), by injecting creosote (crude heavy
oil of coal-tar) into thoroughly seasoned wood under a pressure
304 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
of 140 Ibs. per square inch and at a temperature of 120° F. ;
and
4. Boucherie's method (1840), by injecting a 1-per-cent solution
of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) under a pressure of 14 to 28
Ibs. per square inch by means of a guttapercha tube conveying
the solution from a tank 30 to 33 ft. overhead into a narrow
chamber formed by a cap fitting over one end of the log, so as
to force out the sap from the other free end as the solution
presses its way in — a process which is easier in the case of green
than of seasoned wood.
The corrosive sublimate method preserves well, but is dear and
poisonous, corroding iron and causing sores on workmen's
hands, and soon dissolving out in wet places. Chloride of zinc
is a weak antiseptic, and is easily soluble, but soon gets washed
out. Creosote is nearly as strong an antiseptic as corrosive sub-
limate, and is not poisonous ; but it is dear, pungent in odour,
and greatly increases the inflammability of wood treated ; it is
therefore only suitable for timber used in the open air, and not
for house-building timber and pitwood. Sulphate of copper is
a weak antiseptic and corrodes iron, but is the cheapest process.
Impregnating with creosote, originally introduced by Bethell in
1838, with pneumatic pressure, is now the chief British method.
The commercial creosote used is the crude heavy oil of tar
obtained by dry distillation of coal-tar (and not the true creosote
got by dry distillation of wood-tar), Its action is threefold, as
it (1) clogs up all pores in the wood, and so keeps out air ;
(2) coagulates the albumen ; and (3) acts as a poison to insects
and fungi. Barium salts are also good, cheap antiseptics.
Creosoting with heavy coal-tar oil (boiling-point 365° F.)may
either take place by simple immersion in open iron tanks, or by
injection under pressure in closed iron cylinders. The simplest
and cheapest way to treat small quantities of well-seasoned
wood (such as fence-posts, &c.) is by immersion, and to pack it
(after being warmed, if convenient) into the open tank, and fill
CREOSOTING. 305
this with creosote and heat it, to a little over 212° F. (to
evaporate the water still in the wood) ; then keep it at that heat
for about 24 hours (or more, according to size of wood), run off
the hot oil, and take out the creosoted wood when cool enough
to handle. For such purposes, an open oblong iron tank or
boiler and a furnace cost about .£60. Beech and Scots Pine
absorb the oil most readily, and Spruce and Larch least
readily ; while softwoods and Conifers generally absorb
more readily than hardwoods. Scots Pine and softwoods
take easily about 8 to 9 Ibs., and even up to 10 to 11 Ibs.
(1 gallon) of creosote per square foot ; but neither Oak
nor Larch, the most durable woods without treatment, absorb
the oil well. Creosoted Beech fence-stobs last twenty years,
while untreated Beech only lasts about three years. In the case
of Scots Pine stobs, long immersion is a waste of creosote, as it
runs o.ut again on the stobs being stacked after treatment. As
absorption is not uniform, the cost of creosoting varies both
with the kind and the quality of the wood ; but with creosote
at 2Jd. a gallon, creosoting on the average usually comes to
about 4d. per cubic foot, or Id. per fence-stob 4j ft. x 3 in. x
3 in., and 9d. per 100 lineal foot of paling rails 4 x 1 in. (though
ranging up to 6d. and Is. 3d. respectively).
When creosoting large quantities of wood, railway sleepers, &c.,
in closed iron cylinders with injection under pressure, the
timber is packed as closely as possible, the air extracted by an
air-pump, and creosote heated to 1 20° F. run in ; and when full,
a force-pump is used to gradually produce whatever pressure is
desired (usually 100 to 120 lb., but sometimes more), until a
gauge attached to the creosote tank shows that absorption has
ceased. Softwoods can thus be made to absorb 10 to 12 Ibs. of
oil per cubic foot. At Welbeck a pressure-cylinder 30 ft. long
by 4| ft. diameter with self-contained pumps, which cost about
£300 and is worked by a 2^ horse-power portable engine, takes
a charge of 450 cubic feet of small converted timber (gates,
u
306 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
fence-posts, &c.) that can be subjected to a pressure of 100 Ibs.
per square inch in about three hours. On absorption under
that pressure ceasing, the door is unscrewed and the superfluous
creosote run off, and the timber is taken out next day. When
creosoting is done thus on a large scale, the total cost comes to
about 3d. to 4d. a cubic foot, varying of course with the price
of creosote. On the average, 2| gallons or 27 J Ibs. of creosote are
considered enough for Scots Pine sleepers 9 ft. x 10 in. x 5 in. =
3 J cubic feet, or 8-f Ibs. per cubic foot ; while when Oak sleepers
are treated, the specification varies from 4 to 6 Ibs. per cubic
foot.
On the Continent one of Rueping's creosoting processes is to
first subject the wood to a pressure of 60 to 65 Ibs. in order to
compress the air into the interior cells ; and on warm creosote
being run into the cylinder, the pressure is increased to 105 to
225 Ibs. according to the size and the quality of the timber ;
and under this high pressure any creosote not adhering to the
cell-walls is forced out again and run off, thus effecting a sav-
ing in creosote, while giving a more thorough impregnation.
Another of Ruepincjs processes now much used for steri-
lising sleepers on the Continent, is impregnation with an
emulsion of creosote and resin soap, as it has been found to
penetrate the wood more easily and deeply than creosote alone.
The sleepers are first steamed for J an hour under a 21 Ibs.
pressure (1^ atmospheres), and the air evacuated before the
emulsion is run in and a pressure of 100 Ibs. per square inch
applied (7 atmospheres). By this method less creosote is
absorbed, yet it penetrates deeper into the wood. — Another
recent Continental process (BucJmer's) consists in first boiling
the wood under pressure to get rid of the resin and soluble
constituents, and then treating it with a solution of chromic
oxide salts, which hardens and tans the fibres, and renders
them immune from fungus attacks.
Naphthalining. — Immersion in an open tank containing
NAPHTHALINING. 307
heated naphthaline, a solid coal-tar product, a process originally
introduced in 1882, has recently come into extensive use for
estate purposes (fence-posts and stobs) under an improved
method, which makes wood like Birch, Beech, Scots Pine,
Spruce, &c., more durable than untreated Oak or Larch, and
thus giving fencing material that is both cheaper and lasts
longer (up to 15 to 20 years).
In naphthalining, the crude naphthaline is brought in bags
and put into an iron tank heated by steam from a boiler about
20 yards off, the stove for heating the boiler being carefully
isolated owing to the inflammability of the naphthaline. The
wood to be treated must be thoroughly seasoned ; and the drier
it is, the better the impregnation. The tank being packed with
fence-posts and stobs and then nearly filled with crude naph-
thaline (which melts at 176°, and boils at 422° Fahr.), steam is
applied to raise the heat to over the boiling-point of water
(212°). After being kept at this for from two to twelve hours,
it is allowed to cool down sufficiently for the wood to be taken
out ; then other wood and more naphthaline are put in, and the
process repeated till all the material has been treated. A tank
21 ft. long and 5 ft. diameter costs about .£120, and contains a
charge of about 2 tons of naphthaline along with the wood ;
and when the crude naphthaline costs 35s. a ton at a railway
station not far off, the impregnation of tank-loads of mixed
hardwoods and softwoods averages about 3d. per cubic foot.
The power of absorbing naphthaline is greatest in Scots Pine,
Beech, Birch, Alder, and Douglas Fir ; much less in Ash, Silver
Fir, and Oak ; and least of all in Spruce, Larch, and Elm. But
creosoting is the preferable method, as naphthalining gives the
workmen headaches, is apt to make them feel giddy, and is
altogether a more dangerous process.
Powell's saccharisation process is a recent British method
for impregnating the woody tissue with molasses, glucose, or
sugar. It darkens the colour of wood, and is said to increase
308 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PKODUCE.
its hardness and density without diminishing its tensile strength,
flexibility, and toughness, whilst also slightly decreasing its
inflammability. The timber is placed • on trollies and let down
into a large tank (20 x 9J x 5 ft.) filled with a solution of syrup
or sugar, which is rapidly raised to boiling-point (212° F.) by
means of steam circulating through pipes, and then allowed to
cool down to 70° by passing water through the pipes ; and as
the timber cools, the solution is absorbed. The timber is
then stored in drying chambers at a temperature of 250° to 300°,
and gradually allowed to cool. Conifers and Oak absorb 3 to 4,
Willow, Ash, Birch, Elm, and Sycamore 5 to 6, Beech 7J, and
Poplar 9 J Ibs. per cubic foot ; and Larch and Spruce, so difficult
to creosote, are as easily saccharised as Scots Pine. Thus treated,
Spruce should be well suited for telegraph and telephone posts,
&c. It is also claimed for this process that by the addition of
certain chemicals (of which alum is probably one) the timber is
rendered non-inflammable and fire-resisting.
Dry-rot in timber, due to the saprophytic fungus, Merulius lacrymans,
appears to be gradually increasing, owing to the use of immature and
imperfectly seasoned wood. Infection taking place when felled timber
remains stored in the forest is first indicated by red stripes in the sawn
wood ; and if such wood be thoroughly seasoned, the mycelium is killed,
but if seasoning be imperfect, the latent mycelium resumes active growth
when the wood is used in building and exposed to dampness — e.g. , as when
the ends of joists are built into a wall. But the fungus is also often found
in woody ards, and from such sources spores or portions of the spreading
mycelium are brought into buildings. Thorough ventilation is of import-
ance ; and the best preventive is painting with antinonnin, or with a
solution of corrosive sublimate in methylated spirit (6 oz. to 1 gallon). In
timber infected, the spread of the mycelium can be checked by applying
carbolic acid.
Fireproofing of wood is also carried out by means of im-
pregnation with borates, silicates, and ammoniacal and other
volatile salts ; but, though it can be made non-inflammable, no
process has yet been discovered for rendering wood incombust-
SENILISING. 309
ible. For superficial coating, oil-paint can be made non-
inflammable by adding phosphate of ammonia and borax in the
form of impalpable powders ; while asbestos paint and mortar
made of plaster and asbestos are also used, and give partial
security against fire. Of several methods of fireproofing wood
by impregnation under strong pressure (though unfortunately
always only to a limited depth), Payne's process is one of the
best, the wood being first impregnated in a vacuum with a strong
sulphate of iron solution, then under pressure injected with a
solution of sulphate of lime or some alkaline carbonate to make
the iron insoluble.
Electricity is also used in France, both to " senilise " wood
rapidly in order to make it more durable, and to fireproof it.
Senilising takes place by impregnating green wood with a 20-
per-cent solution of magnesium sulphate warmed to about 90° F.,
passed in for seven to fourteen hours by an electric current
varying from 4 to 6 amperes, and then drying it in the open air ;
while for fireproofing, ammoniacal salts are used in place of
magnesium sulphate. And in another French process of senilis-
ing, a solution of 10 per cent borax and 5 per cent resin-soap is
used in place of the 20-per-cent solution of magnesium sulphate.
But as yet it is too early to judge of the success of these
methods.
310
CHAPTEK V.
WOODLAND INDUSTRIES I ESTATE SAWMILLS, PREPARATION OF
WOOD-PULP AND CELLULOSE, CHARCOAL - MAKING, RESIN -
TAPPING, ETC.
As a rule, the forester is only called upon to work small
sawmills in order to convert timber grown on the estate into
posts, stobs, rails, gates, &c., required for fences, and boards,
beams, rafters, &c., needed for buildings. Such sawmills are
driven either (1) by water-power, with vertical mill-wheels,
usually overshot, or (2) by portable steam-engines, used also
for other estate work, or (3) by fixed steam- or oil-engines when
conversion is large and continuous. But it often happens that
the use of a portable engine, working portable saw-benches and
circular saws for cross-cutting logs and sawing them up, will
enable a great saving to be made in disposing of wood in places
distant from a good and ready market ; because by converting
on the spot there is a considerable saving 011 transport in
getting rid of the bark and the small sapwood-slabs, for which
there may be no sale ; and when such wood is needed for estate
purposes close by, the inclusion of a creosoting-plant is also
economical. When large sales of timber are made, the wood-
merchant usually stipulates for the right to erect portable
sawing-machinery either in or near the woods. But on most
large estates it is usual to have the sawmill, whether driven
by water-power or by steam, stationary at some convenient
SAWMILLS. 311
centre, from which the needs of the landowner and of his
tenants can be easily supplied. If the sawmill can con-
veniently be put up near the home-farm, it may get the use
of an oil-engine, or of a steam-engine which can also be used
for the extraction and delivering of timber ; but if the woods
are small a traction-engine and a portable saw-bench are generally
most economical, while in larger woods a stationary sawing-plant
will usually be most suitable.
Estate sawmills of small size are worked cheaper by water-
power than by steam, although the latter works quicker and can
turn out a much larger supply of converted timber (Figs. 85-87) ;
but it is only when steam is used that slabs, tops, and butts, &c.,
can be converted into railway-keys, small staves, and box-boards,
or sold as firewood, or used for preparing oxalate of lime (for
oxalic acid) and acetate of lime (for acetic acid), or for making
wood-wool, or using the sawdust for litter and manure, &c.
Where the timber has only to be conveyed for 2 to 3 miles
a stationary sawmill is the more economical, but for long
haulage, the use of a traction-engine and a portable saw-bench
usually pays best.
Sometimes the machinery of stationary sawmills is driven
by turbines or horizontal water-wheels, which utilise a small
water-supply very well, but require a high fall of water. The
simplest and oldest form of water-wheel was the over-shot
vertical wheel, worked by the force of a good volume of water
having a low fall. The impetus thus given was conveyed to
an inner wheel, at the end of the axle of which was a revolving
crank with a movable lever attached (pitman), fastened at its
upper end to the bottom of a framework (gate) to which a
single vertical saw was attached, running in grooves between
two stout posts. At each turn of the water-wheel the crank
revolved and alternately raised and lowered the frame-work
containing the saw, each downward stroke cutting into the
log, and the teeth of the saw being set slightly downwards
Fig. 85. — Saw Bench for Staves and Pit-wood.
Fig. 86. — Long-saw Benches for long Logs.
Fig. 87. — View of small temporary Sawmill.
SAWMILLS. 313
in order to make the stroke more effective. The log that
was being sawn rested on a bench, which was moved for-
ward by an automatic arrangment of levers, toothed wheel,
and ratchet, so as to bring the log up to the saw at the rate
required. Where there is good water-power circular saws can
also be driven by water-wheels, though their rate arid strength
of cutting is not so effective as steam-driven circular saws.
The first improvement was to arrange a gang of two or more
saws in the frame, these multiple-saws having shorter and
thinner blades which work more quickly, but with a shorter
stroke, and cause less waste in sawdust. But in any case the
stroke of vertical saws is twice the length of the crank, and
must be a little over twice the thickness of the thickest part
of the log that is to be sawn.
A further improvement was the muley saw, with its upper
end hung in side-slides attached to an overhead beam and
the lower ends of the saws attached to a bar directly joined
to a pitman, thus doing away with the heavy gate and side-posts
of the older saw-frame, and allowing the saws to be slightly
inclined forwards so as to give a more effective cutting-stroke
in each downward movement.
Circular saws vary from 2 to 4 ft. in diameter for water-
power and small steam-power estate-mills, and up to 6 ft. diameter
in large timber-mills. They vary considerably in thickness and
in quality, but must be strong to cut through knots, the ordinary
thickness being from 12 to 16 gauge (12 being thicker than 16).
In large sawmills vertical multiple-saws seldom exceed 14 gauge,
and are sometimes only 18 gauge, wasting only -J in. in sawdust.
In large mills there may be up to 30 vertical saws in the frame,
but single horizontal frame-saws and endless band-saws (horiz-
ontal or vertical) are used with a fine gauge (Figs. 88-90).
Cross-cutting circular saws, for sawing across the grain of
wood, are reciprocating and with almost upright teeth, while
slitting or ripping saws have their teeth set more at a forward
314 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
angle (Fig. 89) ; frame-saws have J-shaped teeth with cutting
points facing downwards (Fig. 90). The thickness or gauge, 12
to 16, varies according to kind of wood to be sawn, the smaller
gauge or thicker saws being needed for hardwoods and resinous
Conifers, and the thinner saws of higher gauge being used for
softwoods and non-resinous Conifers ; but the circular saws have,
for stability, to be thicker than the vertical frame-saws, and
therefore cause more waste in sawdust. For portable estate-
Fig. 89.
Fig. 88.
Teeth, of Frame-Saw.
Teeth of Circular Saws.
1. Wide-pitched, strong-hooked teeth of Ripping-saw for soft-woods.
2. Triangular arrow-shaped teeth of a Cross-cut saw.
3. Slightly-hooked and less wide-pitched teeth of Ripping-saw for
hardwoods.
mills a 10- to 12- horse-power engine with high-pressure boiler
and furnace suited for burning waste wood is the most con-
venient. It costs about <£300-<£350, whereas a traction-engine
of similar power would cost <£500-<£550.
A 12-H.P. engine can drive 4 circular saws (one cross-cutting
and 3 ripping-saws), or in all 4 ripping-saws when cross-cutting
is finished.
The speed of circular saws depends of course on the driving-
power, and varies greatly in water- and in steam-power mills.
SAWMILLS. 315
In vertical frame-saws the number of strokes in old mills varied
from about 70 to 120 per minute, while in new mills it may
average about 180 to 200 strokes per minute. Circular saws
of medium size can be made to travel with a comparatively
low motive-power at from 50 to 70 ft. per second for hardwoods
and from 50 to 100 ft. per second for softwoods, according to
the driving-power. Band-saws require less driving-power, and
waste less in sawdust. With circular saws, the greater the
speed the more is the waste in sawdust. The number of
revolutions per minute can be easily calculated from the speed
of the saw at its circumference, and usually is 400 to 500 for
a 48 in. saw. Saws of a smaller diameter and proportionately
thinner require less driving - power than larger and thicker
saws; and the greater the diameter, the less should be the
driving-speed. A good cross-cut saw should be 3J ft. in
diameter and number 1 2 gauge, while the ripping - saws can
be 36 in. diameter and 14 to 16 gauge. Saws should be of the
very best cast-steel, and varying in thickness according to the
work to be done ; but the thicker the saw, the greater the
waste in sawdust, which may amount to about 25 to 35 per cent
of the total volume of wood (and which was intended to be
covered by the square-of-quarter-girth measurement of logs).
There are no absolute standard sizes for converted timber,
for the dimensions most in demand vary locally.
Logs may be rough-hewn with axes, or sawn on all four sides
to form squares or balks. The strongest beam obtainable from
a log is when the sides are cut in the proportion of 1 : v'2, or
5:7, as this ratio gives the maximum product of Ireadth
x height. A log or balk halved lengthways forms two
half-balks, and if divided lengthways into four equal pieces is
quartered, and forms four quarter-balks; and when sawn to
smaller dimensions, but in the full length of the log or log-
section, timber is known by the trade terms of scantlings,
planks, deals, and battens, which are always obtainable of more
316 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PKODUCE.
or less standard sizes from timber-yards Scantlings are over
4 in. wide, and at least 4 in. thick ; planks are at least 10 in.
wide, and from 2 to 4 in. thick ; deals are 9 in. wide, and from
2 to 4 in. thick ; battens are 7 in. wide, and from 2 to 4 in.
thick. On the Clyde the customary sizes are : scantlings
and battens, 10 ft. and upwards x 4 in. to 6 in. x 1 J in. to 3 in. ;
deals and planks 12 ft. to 15 ft. and upwards (but averaging
18 ft. to 20 ft.) x 10 in. and upwards x 3 in. and upwards.
These are further reduced to boards of 6 to 12 in. wide and
J to 1 in. thick, and laths from 1 to 4 in. broad and J to 2 in.
thick.
By trade custom 120 deals = 100 ; 1 square of flooring = 100
superficial ft. ; 1 load of timber = 40 cubic ft. in the rough and
50 cubic ft. squared or converted ; 1 load of planks = 600
square ft. of 1 in., 400 of 1 J in., 300 of 2 in., 240 of 2J in.,
200 of 3 in., 170 of 3£ in., and 150 of 4 in. ; a ton is some-
times 40 cubic ft. (hardwoods), sometimes 50 cubic ft. (soft-
woods), for railway carriage, and sometimes deadweight avoir-
dupois (as timber is usually sold in Ireland) ; and a cord of
wood or stack of fuel is 2J tons (125 cubic ft.), or a cubic
fathom (216 cubic ft), or other size by local custom.
• When logs of 8 ft. or more in girth are being converted into
boards, they are often first quarter-balked and then sawn as
much as possible on the quarter —
i.e., in the direction of the medullary
rays — so as to display the best flower-
ing and grain. There are several
methods of converting on the quarter,
but two of the simplest are shown in.
Fig. 91, where the various alternate
and successive saw-cuts can be easily
Fig. 91.
Conversion on the quarter.
seen, as well as the final remnants that can be used as fence-posts,
&c. Cleft timber is the best for oars, cask-staves, wheel-spokes,
paling-wood, gate-rails, ladder-rungs, trenails or wooden pins-, &c.
SLEEPERS AND PIT WOOD. 317
For Sleepers the standard size is 9 ft. x 10 in. x 5 in. ( = 3j-
cubic ft.) For 1 sleeper the small end of the section of log
must be over 10 in. in top-diameter; over 14 in. diameter
gives 2; over 18 in., 3 full-sized sleepers (and can also give
other 2 of small size) ; and a log of 22 J in. top-diameter will
give 6 good sleepers (4 from the centre beam and one from
each of two big side-slabs). The output of sleepers varies from
64 to 77 per cent of the total cubic contents of a log, while
from 23 to 36 per cent goes into slabs and sawdust. Log-
sections of 22 J in. top -diameter give the largest out-turn
(77 per cent in sleepers).
Pitwood, whether sleepers or props, is of various local
dimensions, as different pits use different sizes. Sleepers vary
from 2J ft. x 5 in. x 2J in., up to 3 ft. to 5 ft. x 4 in. to 6 in.
x 2 in. to 4 in. ; props vary from 2J ft. to 6 ft. long by a
minimum diameter of 2J in. (3 in. over bark) at top-end ; and
bars vary from 6 ft. to 9 ft. with a top-diameter of 4 in. to
6 in. But, unless collieries are near at hand, pitwood is usually
sold in complete pole-lengths down to 3 in. top-diameter over
bark.
The cost of conversion varies greatly according to the
dimensions into which the wood is cut. Sleepers of standard
size (9 ft. x 10 in. x 5 in.) can be turned out of large mills at a
cost of about IJd. each. And whereas hand-sawing costs for
softwoods 2s. 6d. to 3s., and for hardwoods 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d.
per 100 superficial feet of boards, and 3s. 6d. to 5s. for soft-
woods, and 5s. to 7s. for hardwoods per hundred superficial
feet of planks, the mill-sawing and stacking can be done for
about 4s. per 1000 superficial feet of f in. boards, and up to
7s. 6d. per 1000 superficial feet of 1 in. boards. The sawing
of Scots Pine boarding costs per 1000 superficial feet about
4s. 6d. for J in., 5s. 6d. for -f in., 6s. 6d. for f in., and 7s. 6d.
for 1 in. boards. Sawing Larch stobs, 6 ft. x 6 in. x 3 in.
costs about 4s. 8d. per 100, and rails 3 in. x 1 in. to 1J in.
318 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
about 7s. 6d. per 1000 running ft. For working up small
material the payment to be made to saw-mill hands is best
arranged by piece-work according to the amount of handling
and the time required in conversion into mill-rollers, shuttle-
blocks, small boarding, railway-keys, &c. For felling and
cross-cutting into lengths of 6 ft. and upwards prices vary, for
Scots Fir and Larch Jd., Spruce fd. to Id., and hardwoods
Id. to 2d. per cubic ft., while the sawing and stacking comes
roughly to IJd. to IJd. per cubic ft.
Wherever possible, small waste-wood, slabs, and sawdust
should be utilised. If not saleable as fuel, small wood can be
worked up into wood-wool ("manilla shavings") for packing,
while the sawdust can be used as litter or for cleansing floors,
stuffing pin-cushions, &c. Where large quantities of sawdust
have to be disposed of, it may even pay to make briquettes ;
while the slabs and waste wood may be used for preparing
pyroligneous acid or wood vinegar, from which wood-naphtha
or wood-spirit is derived for methylated spirits, and also oxalate
of lime and grey acetate of lime for further chemical processes.
But these bye -products can only be profitably worked on a
large scale, and under specially trained operators.
The greatest loss in sawdust takes place in wood with tough fibres,
which are hardest to saw (e.g., Poplar, Willow, Lime, and Birch). But in
estate sawmills unnecessary loss is often caused by using thick saws, even
when of small diameter. For example, to cut 4000 superficial ft. of 1 in.
Larch boarding with a No. 16 B.W.G. circular saw needs 366 ft. of
rough timber, while 386| ft. will be needed if a No. 12 saw be used ; and
counting transport, wages, and milling time, the extra cost will in the
latter case be about 27s. 6d. , while over 20 ft. will have been unnecessarily
lost in the form of sawdust. And when conversion is being carried out
on an extensive scale, the loss may become very considerable. — Sawdust
is used extensively for stuffing pin- cushions and dolls, cleaning dirty
floors, making oxalic acid, pressing and moulding into briquettes (along
with more inflammable substances), and in the carbonating stage of
preparing soda-ash. It is also used as a litter for farm stock. The saw-
dust briquettes made in Sweden by Heidenstam's process are said to have
nearly double the average heating power of air-dried wood, and to equal
WOOD-PULP. 319
that of good coal. Additional uses for sawdust are constantly being
found. Flour made from it can be used as a component material in
manufacturing dynamite, linoleum, xyolite, &c. The wood-flour can be
ground in a cheap mill, similar to those for grinding corn and rye ; and
pine and spruce sawdust passed though the stones and packed ready for
shipment is worth about 50s. a ton. One important use for wood-flour is
in making dynamite, as it absorbs nitro-glycerine, the explosive ingredient.
But wood-flour dynamite is inferior to that made with infusorial earth,
though there are many purposes for which it serves and is cheaper. It is
also used for linoleum, mixed with linseed oil, to give body to floor
coverings. It is not equal to ground cork for this purpose, as it is less
elastic ; but it is cheaper, and suitable for medium grades. Wood-flour
is also used for xyolite, an artificial flooring resembling wood in weight
and stone in other respects, for kitchen floors, halls, corridors, &c. It is
impervious to water, and practically fireproof. It is even used for floor
material in German war-vessels, as it is not liable to take fire or splinter
if struck by shells.
The Preparation of Wood-pulp and Cellulose is, next to
saw-mills, now by far the largest and most important woodland
industry, which has assumed enormous dimensions during
recent years. The woods most suitable for pulping are those
that are soft — Lime, Aspen, Poplar, Willow, and among
Conifers Spruce especially, then Silver Fir. Scots Pine and
other very resinous Conifers are difficult to pulp owing to their
resin.
When the woody substance is prepared by mechanical means
only it is called Wood-pulp, and when it .is obtained chemically
it is called Cellulose, which is always worth over one-half more
than wood-pulp.
Lime, Aspen, and Poplar give the finest and whitest pulp ;
but Spruce, which gives a pale yellow pulp, becoming darker
and duller, is now chiefly used both for wood-pulp and for
cellulose, owing to its being the only wood obtainable in the
enormous quantities that are now needed throughout the world
for paper-making.
Wood-pulp is the disintegrated woody fibres separated
mechanically by grinding. It retains its original colour, and is
320 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
not bleached (hence the superiority of the white woods above
noted). The best size of wood for pulping or for cellulose
consists of poles of from 4 in. to 6 in. top-diameter and 6 in.
to 8 in. bottom diameter, cut into lengths of about 6J ft.
These sections have to be first cleaned and barked, then freed
from knots and unsound parts, and cut into convenient lengths
before being ground into pulp or chipped for cellulose-making.
In grinding the wood mechanically for pulp, the billets are
pressed lengthways against a hard fine-grained sandstone
grinding-stone, rotating quickly with a continuous stream of
water dropping between the wood and the stone, to make the
woody fibres separate more easily ; and the fibres are then
strained, dried, and pressed. The grinding-stones are from
3J ft. to 5 ft. in diameter and about 18 in. to 20 in. thick.
The pulp-wood is put, 5 or 6 billets at a time, into a box and
pressed steadily against the grindstone, and the pulped fibres
are carried off on to sieves for straining, these sieves being set
at a slight angle and shaken from side to side by means of a
crank, there being usually two or three sets of such strainers
set one above the other with different-sized meshes. The fine
fibres are then pumped up into a churn, reduced there still
further by friction, then again passed through strainers, and
led off to rollers or to a pressing-machine to get rid of the water
and to dry the pulp. Wood-pulp made thus is dull in colour,
unbleachable, and the short thick fibres can only be used for
coarse paper, pasteboard, or cardboard. It is known as white
pulp, but if the wood be steamed under pressure of about 60
Ibs. per square in. before being ground, the pulping is easier
and the pulp-fibres longer, softer, and more flexible and felty,
but darker in colour (brown pulp). The making of wood-
pulp is now confined to places having good water-power, but
far distant from a cellulose -mill, or where there is not a
sufficiently large and constant supply of wood to keep a
cellulose-mill always at work.
CELLULOSE. 32 1
Cellulose is the commercial product obtained from wood first
cut into thin slices and small chips by machinery, then ground
down between grooved rollers, and boiled under high pressure
in a solution either of soda (alkali process} or of calcium sulphite
(acid process, and usual method). The Alkali process is the
older, but the more expensive, and though it yields a finer
quality of cellulose, there is more loss of cellulose through the
wasteful action of the caustic soda (NaHO) in dissolving the
lignin ; and it has the further disadvantage of creating an
abominable stench. The Acid Process is therefore now gener-
ally used, in which the macerating agent is bisulphite of lime,
Ca(HS03)2, obtained by dissolving sulphate of lime, CaS03, in
hydrated sulphurous acid, H2SOg, the sulphurous acid, S02,
being the active agent in dissolving the ligneous matter encrust-
ing the cellular tissue of the woody substance, without wasting
the cellulose itself so much as in the alkali process ; while the
cellulose got thus is also easier to bleach than alkali-processed
cellulose, though it is less soft and pliable. All the wood used
has to be carefully cleaned, barked, and freed from branch-knots
and unsound parts, then chipped diagonally into small pieces
and ground up before being packed and boiled with bisulphite
of lime lye in large glazed barrel-shaped masonry vats. The
bisulphite of lime lye is obtained by burning sulphur or iron'
pyrites in furnaces and leading off the sulphurous acid evolved
into a lofty tower built up of wood and iron, and packed with
limestone down which water continually trickles from a per-
forated tank at the top, a weak solution of hydrated sulphurous
acid, H2S03, being thus obtained, and acting upon the carbonate
of lime in the limestone, CaC03, and forming bisulphite of lime,
Ca(HS03)2. The lye is led off into the large glazed masonry
vats packed with ground chips, which are then boiled under a
pressure of about 80 Ibs. per sq. in., the heating taking place
by hot steam at 260° or more for about 40-60 hours, when the
sulphurous acid is carried off again to the limestone-tower, and
x
322 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
the cellulose vat is then washed out by running water through
it before men can go down to shovel out the pulp. The raw
cellulose is next placed in water-troughs slightly inclined and
kept constantly shaken slightly from side to side, then led off
with flowing water over a long succession of troughs to free the
pulp from impurities ; but before being thus strained it is,
whenever necessary, bleached with chlorine to the extent
required, any unnecessary bleaching being avoided, as it lessens
the strength and elasticity of the felty fibre. In its passage
down the water-troughs, the fibres become finer and more
equally distributed in the water, until at last they are fairly equally
deposited in one broad sheet upon a roller of felt which leads
them off to revolving drums, where they are pressed to free
them from water, then carried between heated rollers which
further dry and compress the pulp now formed into paper, and
wind it into rolls. There is but little loss in weight by this
process ; but softwoods like Willow and Poplar and Conifers
like Spruce and Silver Fir are easiest and cheapest to treat, and
are therefore preferred. One ton of dry wood gives about 6
cwt. of cellulose (30 per cent) by the alkali process, and 10 cwt.
(50 per cent) by the acid process, and the value of the cellulose
is about £7, 10s. per ton.
To enable a small cellulose-mill to be worked profitably, at
least 80 cubic fathoms or about 12,000 cubic ft. of wood are
needed weekly, equal to 4000 fathoms or 600,000 cubic ft. per
annum. This equals the yield from about 120 to 150 acres of
40- to 50-year-old Spruce, yielding from 4000 to 5000 cubic ft.
per acre according to the quality of the soil and of the crop, so
that probably about 6000 acres of well-managed Spruce-woods
would be needed to supply even a small cellulose-factory. But
thinnings of 4 in. to 6 in. top diameter and 6 in. to 8 in. bottom
diameter are very suitable for pulping ; and wherever there are
very much larger woodlands, thinnings from them could well be
thus utilised.
CHARCOAL-BURNING. 323
Spoke- shaving by hand of poles to free them from bark
causes a loss of about 7-8 per cent, while bark -paring by
machinery wastes about 15-16 per cent.
Cellulose forms a raw material for several industries. Treated
with sulphuric acid it makes vegetable parchment, and with
nitric acid gun-cotton, which is again used in producing the
hard celluloid forming imitation ivory for combs, billiard-balls,
&c., when mixed with an equal weight of camphor.
Charcoal-burning, formerly an important rural industry in
Britain before coal was used for iron -smelting, is now only
practised extensively in the forest of Dean and in some parts
of the Midlands, though elsewhere lop, top, and waste wood not
needed for fuel is made into charcoal for estate and smithy
purposes. Charcoal can be made from any kind of wood, but
the best quality for making gunpowder is yielded by the alder-
buckthorn and dogwood shrubs, and by Alder, though Birch
and Oak were also largely used for this purpose. Charcoal-
burning is the dry distillation of wood by carbonising it under
partial exclusion of air in pits, kilns, or stacks. This causes a
certain loss of carbon through partial combustion, owing to
oxygen being only partially excluded, — because, after the watery
sap is evaporated at 212° Fahr., the decomposition of the woody
substance begins at about 300°.
The oldest British method of charcoal-burning was to dig pits
about 4 ft. deep in the ground, with sloping walls, then throw
in brushwood, set fire to it, and throw in wood till the pit was
full, then cover with turf and earth and allow it to carbonise
and cool down for a day or two before reopening and taking out
the charcoal. This wasteful process only gives about 30 bushels
of charcoal per cord or stack of 120 cubic ft.
The improved British method consists in burning in dome-
shaped kilns built up with billets of wood from 15 in. to 24 in.
long, so as to form stacks of 12-15 ft. in diameter on level
hearths. A large pointed billet split crossways at the top end
324 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
is fixed in the centre, and two bits of wood set at right angles
through the clefts ; and in each of the right angles thus forme4
a billet of wood is laid thick end down against the centre
post, while large straight billets are laid radially on the ground
like the spokes of a wheel to form a floor, the spaces between
being filled with small branches or brushwood. These flooring
billets are held in position 'by "pegs driven into the ground
round the circumference of the stack, and about a foot apart.
On this ground-floor, the first stage of the kiln is built up with
the largest billets set thin end up and inclining slightly inwards
towards the central stake ; then another storey of shorter
billets is laid similarly above this ; then an upper layer of
smaller stuff; and the top is rounded off with small wood to
form a paraboloid cone. The stack is then covered with turf
and surfaced with mixed earth and sand, and the kiln is lighted
by drawing out the central billet in the upper layer, and filling
and lighting pieces of dry wood. The burning usually takes 4
or 5 days, according to the size of the kiln and the state of the
weather; and great attention has to be paid, both day and night,
to regulate the course of the firing, by closing openings where
flames appear, showing unnecessary combustion ; but vents are
opened with a sharp stick to equalise the rate of carbonisation
all round the stack, being closed, when no longer required, with
earth and sand (as shown by colour of smoke). When the
firing is complete right down to the circumference, all vents are
stopped, more earth is ihrown on, and the kiln is allowed to
cool before being opened to remove the charcoal.
The contents of such a stack are known from the amount of
cordwood used, but can also be reckoned by multiplying the
square of the circumfeTence into the height and dividing by
OTT (28*25) ; because, the contents of a true cone being J (basal
area x height), and of a paraboloid cone being -£ (basal area
x height), the actual contents of such a stack will be about
i- (basal area x height).
CHARCOAL-BURNING.
325
The usual Continental method is very similar (Fig. 92) ; but the kiln
is built up with billets about 3 ft. long, and those over 6 in. diameter
are split ; and in building up the kiln the largest pieces are put halfway
between the centre and the circumference, where the heat is strongest,
while the lighting usually takes place from below by withdrawing a pole
originally laid on the ground when the kiln is being built up. The lowest
layer of billets rests directly upon the ground, and not on a staging, and
split billets are set face inward. The kiln is first covered with turf, moss,
bracken, conifer sprays, &c., and then top-covered with earth and charcoal
Fig. 92.
Dome-shaped (Parabaloid) Charcoal- Kiln.
a. Central section ; showing arrangement of wood in kiln (with largest billets about
half-way between centre and circumference).
6. Outer view ; showing smoke- vents, and lower and upper supports.
dross, this surface-coating varying from about 3 in. to 10 in. in thickness,
according to circumstances, and being supported by wooden rests. The
kilns are large, up to 2000-3000 cubic ft. on permanent hearths, but about
1000 cubic ft. on temporary hearths ; and the hearth is made to slope
slightly from centre to circumference, sheltered places being of course
chosen, and, if necessary, protecting screens erected against winds. Old
hearths are best, and the kilns are built up, so far as possible, of only
one kind of wood, to equalise the rate of carbonisation. For the first
hour or two the kiln "sweats ".and gives out pungent, acrid smoke, and
there is always a chance of an explosion through rapid conversion of the
moisture into steam. Carbonisation begins about an hour or two after
326 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
lighting, but sweating continues for most of the first day. At about
12 to 16 hours shrunken hollows are opened and quickly filled with wood ;
and when the sweating-stage is ended smoke-holes are opened with a
pointed stick to regulate combustion, as shown by the colour of the smoke
issuing, and the success of the charcoal- burn ing depends greatly on the
manipulation of these smoke - holes. When carbonisation is completed
down to the circumference of the kiln all the vents are closed, moist earth
is thrown over the kiln, and it is allowed to cool down for twenty-four
hours before being opened. Large kilns on permanent hearths take about
10 or 12 days to burn, while kilns of about 1000 cubic ft. take 5 or
6 days. The charcoal is drawn at night while still hot, and is sprinkled
with water to prevent its glowing again. Then it is assorted into foundry
and smithy charcoal, and smaller pieces are passed through wire-screens
and also assorted. But everywhere on the Continent charcoal-burning is
now a decadent industry owing to the new wood - pulp and cellulose
factories.
Good charcoal should be deep black in colour, with a steel-
blue metallic sheen, and lustrous across a transverse section,
and when two pieces are clinked together they should give a
metallic sound. Charcoal that is reddish-brown is incompletely
carbonised, while softness and dull colour indicate over-burning
or unsound wood. Its specific gravity averages about 0*20 ;
but hardwoods produce heavier and better charcoal than soft-
woods, well -seasoned wood more than greenwood, and large
billets more than small billets ; and the slower the process of
carbonisation, the heavier is the charcoal. Good kiln-burned
charcoal should give in volume from 50 to 60 per cent of the wood
used, and in weight about J of its original weight; and it
usually weighs about one stone per bushel. A ton-weight of
wood produces about 40 bushels of charcoal on the average,
but only about 36 if all hardwood, and about 43 if all soft-
wood— though these average figures may vary greatly according
to circumstances.
Charcoal-making costs about Id. per bushel, or 13s. 4d. per
ton, and it sells at about 60s. per ton ; and as 4 tons of cord wood
give about 1 ton of charcoal, this shows 46s. 8d. in all, or 11s. 8d.
RESIN-TAPPING. 3 27
per cord of 1 ton, as including the price of the wood and the
profit earned. But in practice the cord wood is sold to the
charcoal-burners at a price which often enables them, when
working in pairs, to earn about 35s. to 40s. per week each.
Charcoal is now also largely obtained as a bye-product in the
fractional distillation of the substances contained in wood by
treatment in masonry furnaces or iron retorts at a high tem-
perature. At 300° to 550° Fahr. crude pyroligneous acid or
wood vinegar is given off, and wood-tar ("Archangel tar") at
625° to 800° Fahr., while the charcoal remains as the residuum.
Resin-tapping for Turpentine and Rosin is not likely again
to be of importance in British forestry.
(1) In France, resin-tapping of the Maritime Pine takes place
around Bordeaux on trees over 3J ft. in girth, when small
incisions are made in the bark and gradually heightened during
the following five years, when they are about 12 ft. high and
4 in. broad.
(2) In Austria the Austrian Pine is tapped by making a
broad incision near the foot of the stem, and hollowing it out
into a deep cup -shape at the bottom, in which the resin
collects. Tapping is continued for about ten years, the wound
being gradually increased in height by about 15 in. a-year,
and the tapping-season continuing from April to middle of
October, i.e., during all the season of active growth. The trees
are only tapped in one place.
(3) The German method of tapping Spruce is by making two
incisions into the sapwood in May or June on opposite sides of
the stem, for about 4 ft. high by 2 in. broad, and ending in a
point at the lower end, and the resin of the first year is scraped
off in the following July ; then the edges of the incision are
freshened, and so on for about 10 to 12 years.
(4) The Alpine method of tapping Larch, the resin of which
is mainly obtained from the heartwood, consists in boring
a hole with an augur about 1J in. in diameter, and giving
328 THE UTILISATION OF WOODLAND PRODUCE.
the boring a slightly upward slant right into the centre of the
heart wood about a foot above the ground, and then plugging
up the hole with wood, In Autumn the resin which collects
there is scooped out, the hole is again plugged up, and the
fresh resin is collected annually for twenty years or more.
Crude resin is used for distilling oil of turpentine, and the
residuum left is rosin or colophony. Distillation takes place by
boiling the crude resin in a closed vessel over an open fire, and
adding water as the resin melts. As the oil of turpentine
evaporates it is carried off along with the steam through a glass
cooling- worm into a flask-shaped receiver, the condensed vapour
forming water and the oil floating on the top of it. When all
the oil has been evaporated the lid of the boiler is removed,
and what remains is further boiled until it becomes transparent,
when it is poured through wire-strainers to remove impurities,
and then run into boxes or casks for transport, where it on
cooling solidifies into the ordinary dark-brown rosin.
On the average, crude resin gives about 15 to 30 per cent
of oil of turpentine and 65 to 75 per cent of rosin, with 5 to 10
per cent of impurities and loss in distillation.
Silver Fir and Larch give most turpentine, Maritime and
Austrian Pine less, and Spruce least.
Potashes are now only made in places where wood has small
value. The process consists in burning wood to reduce it to
ashes, and then extracting the potash-lye from the crude ash
in five vats ranged one above the other, and filled for about
f with crude ash and J with water. After 3 to 4 hours' soaking
the liquor from the top vat is run off into next vat, and so on
for the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th vats. The concentrated lye from
the 5th vat is then run off into shallow iron pans and evaporated
over a furnace until only raw potash, a loose, friable, blackish-
brown substance, is left. When the contents of vat 1 have been
drenched five times the potash is thoroughly extracted ; then its
contents are thrown out, fresh ashes are put in, and it is made
GRAZING. 329
to take the place of the lowest vat — each vat being meanwhile
moved up one step.
The crude potash is calcined in a fire-proof furnace to drive
off the moisture thoroughly, when it becomes a white powder
ready for packing into barrels. In calcining, from 10 to 20
per cent of the raw potash is lost. Even on the Continent
potash -burning in the woods has now almost entirely given
place to preparation in chemical works.
Grazing in woodlands may often be profitable when woods
are about twenty years of age, and begin to show an under-
growth of grass, as is especially the case in Larch woods ; and
when a fall is left fallow for two or three years to obviate
attacks of the Pine-weevil, the grazing is sometimes well worth
having. Woodland grazing is reckoned to have from J to §
the feeding-value of good meadow grass.
The improvement in the grazing value of the land was
formerly estimated to be of itself sufficient to make Larch-
planting beneficial in the Highlands of Scotland, quite apart
from the profit obtainable from timber.
INDEX.
Abele (see " Poplar").
Abietinece, 5, 17.
Acacia, False (see " Robinia ").
Acid process for cellulose, 321.
Acorn- dibbler, 58.
Actuarial methods applied to For-
estry, 139.
sEcidium stage of fungi, 237, 245.
Afforestation, Royal Commission on
(1909), 24.
Agaricus, fungi of genus, 237, 251.
Age-classes in woods, 106, ]28, 134.
Age of trees and timber-crops, estimate
of, 98.
Agricultural implements, timber for,
279.
Agrilus viridis, 193, 208.
Agriotes lineatus, 193, 209, 230.
Air-drying of wood, 300.
Alburnum, 269.
Alder, 5, 7, 10, 14, 16.
„ -bark, 288.
,, weevil, 192, 205.
Alkali process for cellulose, 321.
Anatomical structure of wood, 264.
,, ,, ,, identi-
fication from, 266.
Annual fall, different methods of fixing
the, 123-129.
,, falls, allocation of, 120.
,, ,, normal distribution of,
106.
,, income, capitalised value of,
140.
,, increment, 98.
,, rings in trees, 29, 265.
Antiseptic preservation of timber, 299,
303-309.
Aphidce, 195, 225-227, 232.
Aphis of Spruce and Larch, 195, 226.
Appendices to Part II., Management
and Valuation, 147-156.
Apterococcus fraxini, 195, 227.
Arboriculture, British, 21, 22, 77.
Arborvitce (see " Red Cedar ").
Arqyresthia Icevigatella, 194, 219, 231.
Aridity, damage by, 253.
Aromia moschata, 193, 208, 230.
Artificial drying of wood, 301.
•Ash of wood, 268.
Ash, the Common, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16.
,, the Mountain (see "Rowan ").
,, natural regeneration of, 85.
„ -bark beetles, 192, 198, 199, 228.
„ -scale, 195, 227.
Aspen (see " Poplar").
„ -leaf beetle, 193, 209.
Assize of Woodstock (1184), 20.
Atmospheric humidity in woodlands,26.
,, impurities, damage by,
254,259.
,, temperature in wood-
lands, 26.
Auction-sales of timber, 286.
Augur- worm, 194, 219.
Austrian Pine resin-tapping, 327.
Automatic girth-measurement, 95.
Average prices of timber, 279.
„ Yield Tables, 97,101.
Avondale Forestry School, 24.
Axe, felling with, 280, 281.
„ and saw, felling with, 280, 282.
332
INDEX.
Balks, 315.
Balls of earth, planting with, 68.
Band-saws, 313, 314.
Barb-wire fences, 166-169.
Bark-allowance, 90.
-beetles, 192, 195-201, 228.
-binding, 254.
for tanning, different kinds of,
288.
harvesting and drying of, 288.
-mosses, 234.
-scorching, 60, 257, 258.
-stripping by deer, 171.
,, of Oak, 288.
Barrel-making timber, 279.
Barren sand-dunes, planting of, 74.
Basket-making, Osier preparation for,
288.
Battens, 316.
Bavarian drill-board, 57.
Beam -tree (see " Whitebeam ").
Beard-mosses, 234.
Beating up blanks, 74.
Beech, 5, 6, 9, 14, 15.
„ branch-tuft, 252.
leaf-mining weevil, 192, 205,
229.
,, natural regeneration of, 84.
„ -scale, 195, 227.
,, -seedling fungus, 236, 237.
,, -spinner moth, 211, 230.
„ stump-tuft, 237, 251.
Beetles, 183, 192, 195.
„ destructive, 192, 195-210, 228-
230. ^
,, extermination of, 189.
,, useful, 186.
Bethell's preservative process, 303, 304.
Bills or billhooks, felling with, 280.
Birch, 5, 7, 11, 14, 16.
„ -bark, 289.
„ -rust fungus, 237, 246.
Birds, useful and destructive, 177-180,
186.
Black Arches moth, 193, 212.
Blackcock, damage by, 177, 178.
Black Pine-cambial beetle, 192, 198.
Bladder- fungi, 246.
Blanks, filling of, 74.
Blight Insects, 195, 225-227, 232.
Blister-fungus, 246.
Blueing of conifer timber, 273.
Bluestone, impregnation with, 303, 304.
Board measurement, 90.
Bombycidw, 193, 210-213, 230.
Book-keeping for woodlands, 138.
Bordeaux mixture, 239.
Bordered White moth, 194, 215, 231.
Bostrichini, 192, 199.
Bostrichus. insects of genus, 192, 199-
201.
Botrytis cinerea, 236, 239.
Boucherie's preservative process, 303,
304.
Boundary-marks, 159.
Bracken, clearance of, 51.
„ -clock, 193, 208, 229.
Brakes on rafts, 298.
,, on timber-slides, 296.
Branch-knots, 272.
„ -rot, 273.
,, -tuft fungus, 252.
Breaking-strain, resistance to, 274.
British Forestry, national system of,
21, 22, 77.
,, timber, market value of, 279.
,, ,, technical uses of, 277-
279.
Broadcast sowing, 54.
Broad-leaved trees, 4, 6-17, 266.
Brown-tail moth, 193, 211.
Buchner's preservative process, 306.
Buprestidce,l93, 208.
Burnett's preservative process, 303,
304.
Butterflies, 183.
Cabinet-making timber, 279.
Oowia-stage of fungi, 236, 243.
Calcining of potashes, 328.
Calcium-sulphite process for cellulose,
321.
Calliper for measuring timber, 95.
Cambium, 29, 269.
Canker of broad-leaved trees, 236, 242.
„ Larch-, 236, 240.
,, Silver Fir-, 245.
,, Pine-, 248.
„ Spruce-, 243.
Canopy, normal density of, 106, 107.
Capercaillie, damage by, 177, 178.
Capital in wood, normal, 106, 108-112,
141, 142.
, , required in Forestry, 104.
,, value of woodlands, 141, 142.
Carpentry, timber for, 278.
Carbonisation of wood, 323-327.
Carting timber, cost of, 292.
Carts, timber-, 291.
Cask-making timber, 279.
Cattle, damage by, 165.
Causes of decay in timber, 276, 299.
INDEX.
333
Caustic soda process for cellulose, 321.
Cecidomyia, insects of genus. 195, 225.
232.
Cecidomyidce, 195, 225.
Cedar, Red (see "Red Cedar").
Celluloid, 323.
Cellulose, 268, 319, 321.
,, preparation of, 319, 321.
Cerambycidcp,, 193, 208.
Ceratostoma piliferum, 273.
Cercospora acenna, 236, 238.
Cerura vinula, 193, 210, 230.
Chafers or beetles, 183.
Chain-lever for timber-felling, 282.
Characteristics of trees, Sylvicultural,
33-39.
Charcoal-burning, 323-327.
Charring of timber, 303.
Cheimatobia brumata, 194, 214, 231.
Chemical composition of wood, 268.
Chermes, insects of genus, 195, 225-227,
232.
Cherry, 8, 10, 11, 13, 17.
Chestnut, Horse-, 5, 6, 7, 12, 16.
,, Sweet or Spanish, 5, 7, 9,
14, 15.
Chief uses of timber, 277.
Chlonaspis solids, 195, 227.
Chloride of mercury, impregnation with.
303, 304.
,, of zinc, impregnation with,
303, 304.
Chromic acid, impregnation with, 306.
Ckrysomdidce, 193, 209.
Chrysomyxa, fungi of genus, 237, 243,
247.
Circular saws, 313.
Classification of soil, 30.
Clay soil, 31.
Cleaning and weeding, 75, 233.
Clearance, partial, 78, 82, 83.
Clear-felling, 82, 83.
Clearwing moths, 194, 221.
Cleft timber, 316.
Clematis, damage by, 234.
Clerusformicarius, 186.
Click-beetles, 193, 209.
Climate, influence of, 33.
Climatic and physical effects of wood-
lands, 26.
Clog-making wood, 279, 287.
Coach-building timber, 279.
CoccidcB, 195, 227.
Cockchafers, 193, 206, 229.
Coleophora laricella, 194, 219, 231.
Coleoptera, 183, 188, 192.
Coleosporium, fungi of genus, 237, 243.
246. _
Collection of tree-seeds, 289.
Colophony, 328.
Colour of wood, 270.
Commission on Afforestation (1908),
Royal, 24.
,, Development (1910), Pre-
face, p. v.
Commissioners of Woods and Forests,
20.
Committee on Forestry, Irish (1907), 24.
„ Scottish (1911),
Preface, p. v.
Commonage, 160.
Compartments, subdivision of wood-
lands into, 116-119.
Composition of wood, chemical, 268.
Compound interest and discount, tables
of, 1 51-156.
Conflagrations, 161.
Conifer timber, chief uses of, 278.
„ trees (Conifers), 5, 17, 267.
Control-book, 138.
Conversion cost of, 317.
,, of Coppice, 82.
„ of timber, 315-319.
Convolvulus, damage by, 234.
Cooperage timber, 279, 316.
Copper vitriol, impregnation with,
303, 404.
Coppice, conversion of, 82.
,, regulation of annual fall in,
125.
,, renewal of, 79, 80.
„ simple, 42, 79, 80,112, 113,125.
, , with Standards, 42, 44, 79, 80,
112, 113, 125.
Coppices, cutting of, 80-82, 280, 284,
286.
Oak, 286, 288.
,, sale of, 287.
Copse-standards, felling of, 82.
,, selection of, 81.
,, thinning of, 76.
Coral-spot disease, 236, 242.
Cord of wood, 316.
Corrosive sublimate, impregnation
with, 303, 304.
Corsican Pine, 18.
Cossidce, 194, 219.
Cossus ligniperda, 194,219, 231.
Cost of cutting and sorting coppices,
286.
,, of felling, trimming, and logging
timber, 286.
334
INDEX.
Cost of carting timber, 292.
,, of converting timber, 317.
,, of planting, 71.
,, of wire-fencing, 167-169.
Cracking of wood, 272.
Creosote, impregnation with, 303. 301-
306.
Cronartium, fungi of genus, 237, 243,
246.
Crop-register, 126, 130.
Crops of wood, description of, 131.
,, ,, measurement of whole,
96.
Crossbills, damage by, 177, 180.
Cross-cutting saws, 313.
Crown-fires, 161.
Crushing, resistance to, 273.
Crutch Pine- beetle, 192, 198.
Cryptococcusfagi, 195, 227, 232.
Cryptorhynchus lapathi, 192, 205.
Cubic contents of logs, tables of, 147-
150.
,, ,, of timber, measurement
of, 89, 91, 286.
,, ,, per acre, estimate of,
96.
Cupressinete, 6, 19.
Cup-shakes, 272.
Gupuliferce, 5, 15.
Cnrculionidce, 192, 201-206.
Custom of trade in sawn timber, 316.
Customary measurement of timber, 89.
Cuts, planting with, 59.
Cutting of coppice, 80.
Cuttings, planting of, 59.
Cynipidce, 194, 225.
Cynips, insects of genus, 194, 225.
Cypress, 6, 19.
Damage from fungi, 235-252.
, , from inorganic causes, 253-260.
,, from insects, 181-'J32.
,, from railway sparks, 161.
Dasychira pudibunda, 193, 211, 230.
Dasyscypha calycina, 236, 240.
Dean Forest Forestry School, 24.
Decay in wounds and holes, 78, 250,
251, 273.
„ of timber, 276, 299.
Deer, damage by, 170-172.
Defects in timber, 272.
Density and weight of wood, 271.
,, of timber-crops, 106, 107.
Dependent kinds of trees, 39.
Depots, storage-, 286.
Depth of planting, 64.
Destructive insects, 192-232.
, , generation table of,
228.
,, ,, list of, 192.
Development Act (1909), 25.
,, Commission (1910), Pre-
face, p. v.
Diameter, measurement of, 94.
Dibbling, 65, 67.
,, of acorns, 58.
Different forms of woodland crops, 42.
Diptera, 183, 187, 195, 225.
Discount and interest, tables of,
151-156.
Diseases of trees, 236, 253.
Dissolving the sap of timber, 301.
Distance for planting, 61.
Dodder, damage by, 234.
Dominant kinds of trees, 39.
,, stems, 76.
Dominated stems, 76.
Double-notching, 66.
Douglas Fir, 6, 18.
Dragging of timber, 291.
Drainage, 48, 73.
Drifting of timber, 297.
Drill-board, 57.
,, -sowing, 55-57.
Drought, damage by, 257.
Dry distillation of wood, 323-327-
Drying of Oak-bark, 289.
,, winds, protection against, 257.
,, wood artificially, 300, £01.
Dry-rot, 251, 273, 276, 308.
Dunes, planting of, 74.
Durability of timber, 276, 299-309.
Duramen, 269.
Durmast Oak, 8.
Early frosts, damage by, 255.
Earthwork timber-slides, 294.
Economic uses of woodlands, 26.
Education in Forestry, 24.
Elasticity in timber, 274.
ISlateridce, 193, 209.
Electricity, impregnation by, 309.
Elm, 4, 7, 9, 12, 16.
,, natural regeneration of, 85.
„ -bark beetle, 192, 195, 228.
„ -blister Aphis, 227, 232.
„ -gall „ 227.
Enclosure, statute of (1482), 21.
Engines, portable and traction, 292,
310.
English law regarding timber, 41, 114,
Epiphytes, damage by, 234.
INDEX.
335
Estate sawmills, 311.
,, work, impregnating wood for,
305.
,, timber for, 279.
Estimate of age of trees and timber-
crops, 98.
of cubic contents per acre,
96.
Expansion of wood, 272.
Explanatory note to working - plan,
132, 133.
Extermination of beetles, 189.
„ of moths, 190.
Kxtraction of timber, 291-298.
,, of tree-stumps, 284.
Eyre of the Forest, 20.
Faggotting, 287.
Fallow-deer, damage by, 171.
Falls, protective, 122.
False Acacia (see "Robinia").
Farm-stock, damage by, 165.
Faustmann's formula, 143 .
Felling, best season for, 2S4.
cost of, 286.
direction, the general, 120.
of coppice, 81, 280, 284.
of timber, 280-285.
plan, 124, 126-129, 132.
series, formation of, 120.
with axe alone, 280, 281.
,, axe and saw, 280, 282.
,, bill or billhook, 280.
,, lever - appliances, 282,
283.
Fencing, 166-169.
Fidonia piniaria, 194, 215, 231.
Field-book, 131.
Filling of blanks, 74.
Finches, damage by, 177, 179.
Fir, Common or Scots (see "Scots
Pine ").
Fire, damage by, 164.
,, -extinction, 162.
,, -prevention, 162.
,, -proofing of wood, 308, 309.
Fires in woodlands, 160-164.
Fires Act, Railway (1905), 161.
Firewood, measurement of, 316.
Fissibility of wood, 275.
Fixation of shifting sand, 74.
Fixing the annual fall, 123-129.
Flexibility of timber, 274.
Floating of timber, 297.
Flooring, square of, 316.
Flow of sap in trees, 28, 264, 269.
Flumes, 296.
Pomes, fungi of genus, 237, 248-250.
Forest Acts and Rules, 159.
,, courts, 20.
,, demon, 282.
,, laws, 159.
,, offences, 159.
Forest of Dean Forestry School, 24.
Forestry, instruction in, 24.
,, Irish Committee on (1907), 24.
,, Royal Commission on (1908),
24.
,, Scottish Committee on (1911),
Preface, p. v.
Forests, 20.
Formation of woodlands, 47.
Form-factor, 92.
Forms of woodland crops, 41.
Formulae for calculating value of wood-
lands, 142, 143.
Frame-saws, 313, 314.
Frost, damage by, 34, 53, 60, 254-257.
„ -cracks or frost-shakes, 256, 272.
Fungi, 235-252.
,, chief disease -producing, 236-
252, 273.
„ life-History of, 235.
Fungus diseases in nurseries, 60, 236,
237-239.
,, „ in plantations and
woods, 23t>, 239-252.
Furniture, timber for, 279.
Furze, 51.
Future management, working-plan for,
130-138.
Gall-s
iruce, 195, 226, 232.
195, 225.
,, -wasps, 194, 225.
Game, damage by, 169, 177, 178.
,, -coverts, 114.
Garden-chafer, 193, 208, 229.
Gean(see "Cherry").
General characteristics of timber-crops,
39.
Generation table of destructive insects,
228-232.
Geometridce moths, 194, 214.
Germination of seed, 37, 38. 54-56.
Girdling of old trees, 77, 234, 269,
300.
Girth, measurement of, 91, 94.
,, rate of growth of , 99.
Gnats or Gall-midges, 195, 225.
Goat-moth, 194, 219, 231.
Gorse, 51.
336
INDEX.
Gradual clearance of parent trees, 82-
Grain of wood, 269.
Grape-mould fungus, 236, 239.
Gravel, 31, 254.
Grazing in woodlands, 329.
Grease-banding with patent tar. 189,
191, 213.
Green wood, weight, &c., of, 271, 300.
Gregarious trees, 39.
Ground-fire, 161.
,, -game, damage by, 172-174.
,, -vermin, damage by, 175-177.
Groups, natural regeneration in, 82, 83.
Grouse, damage by, 177, 178.
Growing-stock, description of, 130-132.
,, in a working - circle,
valuation of the,
141.
,, or wood - capital, 106,
108,110.
Growing wood-crops, measurement of,
96.
,, ,, valuation of,
139-146.
Growth in cubic contents, rate of,
98-103.
„ in girth, rate of, 95, 99.
, , in height, rate of, 92, 99.
„ of timber-crops, habits of, 39.
,, of a tree, 27, 29.
Habits of growth in tree-crops, 39.
Hail, damage by, 259.
Half-balks, 315.
,, -winged insects (Hemiptera), 184,
195, 225.
Handbills or billhooks, felling with,
280.
Hand-sawing, 281.
Hardness of wood, 275.
Hardwoods, 276, 277.
„ technical uses of, 277-279.
Hardy trees, 34, 256.
Hares, damage by, 173.
Harvesting of bark, 280, 287-289.
,, of timber and coppices, 280-
289.
„ of tree-seeds, 289.
Haskin's vulcanisation process, 302.
Hawkeye machine, 284.
Hazel-weevil, 192, 205, 229.
Heart-shakes, 248, 272.
Heartwood, 269.
,, -trees, 269.
Heat, damage by, 257.
Heather, clearance of, 51.
Heavy rainfall, 258.
Hedgerow-trees, bark from, 289.
Height, measurement of, 92.
„ rate of growth in, 99.
Hemiptera, 184, 195, 225.
Jfetcroptera, 195, 225.
Highwoods, 42, 44, 112, 114.
„ felling in, 282-236.
,, mixed, 40, 45.
pure, 40.
,, regulation of fall in, 120
129.
,, renewal of, 79, 80, 82.
History of British Forestry, 19-25.
Hoar-frost, damage by, 259.
Homoptera, 195, 225.
Honey-fungus, Agaricus melleus, 251.
Honeysuckle, damage by, 234.
Hop-dog moth, 193, 211, 230.
„ -poles, 287.
Hops, damage by wild, 234.
Hornbeam (Oarpinus), 5, 6, 9, 14, 15.
Hornet Clearwing-moth, 194, 221.
Horse-Chestnut, 5, 6, 7, 12, 16.
Horses, damage by, 165.
House-building, timber for, 278.
Human actions, protection against,
159.
Humus, 35, 234.
Hurdle-making, 287.
Hybernia defoliaria, 194, 217, 231.
Hydrochloric acid, damage by, 259.
Hydrostatic pressure, impregnation
under, 304.
Hylesinini, 192.
Hylesinus, insects of genus, 192, 196-
198, 228.
HyloUus abietis, 192, 201, 229.
Hymenoptera, 183, 187, 194.
Hypsometers, 92-94.
Hysterium (see " Lophodermium ").
Ice, damage by, 259.
Ichneumonidce. 187.
Identification of broad - leaved trees
from buds, 6.
,, of broad -leaved trees
from flowers, 12.
,, of broad - leaved trees
from fruits, 15.
,, of broad - leaved trees
from leaves, 8.
,, of Conifers, 17.
,, of timber, 266, 270.
Immersion, impregnation by, 300, 305,
INDEX.
337
Imports of timber, &c., 25.
Impregnation with antiseptics, 299,
303-309.
Increment, or growth in cubic contents,
36, 98-103.
„ gauge (Pressler's borer),
100.
,, measurement of, 98-103.
,, normal, 106, 107.
" Indicating percentage," 102, 140.
Industries, timber-consuming, 278.
Influence of situation on tree-growth,
33.
,, of woodlands, climatic and
physical, 26.
Injurious influences in soil and atmo-
sphere, 253-260.
insects, classification of, 183,
192.
,, „ damage by, 184.
,, extermination of,
189-191.
,, ,, generation table of,
228-232.
,, ,, natural checks upon,
185.
,, ,, protection against,
188.
,, „ table of chief, 192.
Inland sand, fixation of, 74.
Insects into orders, classification of,
183.
,, life-history of, 181.
,, useful (predacious and para-
sitic), 186.
Instruction in Forestry, 24.
Interest and discount, tables of, 151-
156.
„ rate of, 139, 144.
Intermediate yield from thinnings,
143-145, 280.
Irish Forestry Committee (1907), 24.
Ivy, damage by, 234.
Jack, common, 282.
Janker, 291.
Japanese Larch, 19.
Justice Seat, 20.
Kyan's preservative process, 303, 304.
Lackey moth, 193, 212.
Lamellicorn beetles, 193, 206.
Larceny as to trees and woods, 159.
Larch, 6, 18, 19.
,, -aphis, 195, 226, 227, 232.
Larch-bark, 288, 289.
bark-beetle, 192, 200.
-canker, 236, 240.
leaf-mining moth, 194, 219, 231.
leaf-shedding disease, 236, 240.
plantations, grazing in, 329.
resin-tapping, 327.
-sawfly, 194, 224, 232.
-seed, extraction of, 290.
,, shoot-mining moth, 194, 219,
231.
Late frosts, damage by, 255, 256.
Law of the minimum, 30.
Laws for the protection of trees and
woodlands, 159.
Layering, 59, 81.
Lead-banding for girth measurement,
95.
Leaf-beetles, 193, 209.
„ -blotch diseases, 236, 237, 243.
,, -canopy (see "Normal density").
„ -gall aphis, Elm, 195, 227, 232.
„ -mining moths, 194, 219, 231.
, „ weevils, 192, 205.
, -mould, 35, 234.
, -roller moths, 194, 216, 231.
, -scurf diseases, 236, 237, 243.
, -shedding diseases of Conifers,
236, 238, 239, 240, 260.
Leaves, function of, 28.
Legal protection of woodlands, 159.
Leopard-moth, 194, 221, 231.
Lepidoptera, 183, 193, 210.
Lever-appliances in felling timber, 282.
Liber, 269.
Lichens, damage by, 234.
Lifting of seedlings by frost, 256.
,, plants for transplanting, 60.
Light, influence of, 35.
,, -demanding trees, 35.
Lightning, damage by, 259.
Lignification, 268.
Lime-tree or Linden, 5, 7, 9, 13, 16.
Limitation of Forests Act (1640), 20.
Limy soil, 31.
Lina, insects of genus, 193, 209.
Liparis, moths of genus, 193, 212.
Load of timber, 316.
Loamy soil, 30, 31.
Locust-tree (see "Robinia").
Logging of timber, 91, 286.
Logs, measurement of, 89.
Longevity of trees, 38.
Longhorn beetles, 193, 208.
Looper-moths or spanworms, 194, 214,
231.
338
INDEX.
Lop and top, 91.
Lophodermium, fungi of genus, 236,
238, 239, 240, -260.
Lophyrus, insects of genus, 194, 222-
•224, 232.
Lustre in wood, 269.
Magna Charta, 20.
Main-roads for timber extraction, 119.
Major and minor produce, 105, 280.-
Malicious injury to trees and woods,
159.
Management of woodlands, 87-146.
,, scheme of (see " Work-
ing-plan ").
Manila shavings, 318.
Manuring in nurseries, 55, 56.
Map of stock, 130, 132.
Maple, natural regeneration of, 85.
, , Common or Norway, 5, 6, 8, 12,
16.
,, Great (see " Sycamore ").
„ = leaf-blotch, 236, 243.
Maps of woodlands, 130.
Maritime Pine, resin-tapping, 327.
Marking and texture of wood, 269.
„ -hammer, revolving, 286.
,, stems for thinning or felling,
Mature fall, 105, 280.
Maturity of timber crops. 38.
May-beetle, 193, 206.
Mean age of timber crops, 98.
Measurement of logs, 89.
of girth, 91, 94, 95.
of height, 92.
of increment, 98.
of sample plots, 95-97.
of standing trees, 91.
of timber-crops, 96.
of timber by railway
companies, 293.
Measuring-board, 92.
Mechanical properties of timber, 273-
277.
Medullary rays in wood, 264.
Atelampsora, fungi of genus, 236, 243.
Melampsorella. fungi of genus, 237,
243, 245.
Melolontha, insects of genus, 193, 206,
229.
Membrane-winged insects, 183, 194, 222.
Men and human actions, protection
against, 159.
Merulius lacrymans, 251, 273, 276,
308.
Method of treatment, choice of, 1 12.
Mice, damage by, 175.
Midges, 195, 225.
Mill-saws, different kinds of, 313-315.
Mineral food of trees, 30.
,, substances in soil, 30.
„ „ in wood, 268.
Minor produce, 105, 280.
Mirror-hypsometer, 93.
Mischief, protection against, 159.
Mistletoe, damage by, 234.
Mixed woods, 39, 40, 45.
Moisture, relation of wood towards,
271, 272.
Moths, destructive, 193, 210-222, 230.
- ,, extermination of, 190.
Mottled Umber moth, 194, 216, 231.
Mound-planting, 70.
Musk-scented Willow longhorn, 193,
208, 230.
Naked plants, planting with, 60, 64.
Naphthalining, 306.
National system of British Arbori-
culture, 21, 22, 77.
Natural regeneration, 80, 82, 83-85.
Nectria, fungi of genus, 236, 242, 243.
Nematus, insects of genus, 194, 224,
232.
Nesting-boxes for birds, 59, 178.
Net returns for woods, calculation of,
142, 143.
Night -moths (Noctuidce), 193, 213,
231.
Nitric acid, damage by, 259.
Noctua (Trachea) piniperda, 193, 213,
231.
Non-inflammable wood, 308.
Non-parasitic diseases, 253-260.
Normal capital in wood, 106, 108-112,
141, 142.
j, condition in woodlands, 106,
108, 142.
,, condition of working - circles,
108.
„ density, 106, 107.
,, distribution of annual falls,
106, 107.
,, increment, 106.
,, succession of age-classes, 106.
Notching, 65.
Number of plants per acre, 52, 63.
,, of trees per acre, estimating,
96.
Numbering-hammer, 286.
Nun-moth, 193, 212.
INDEX.
339
Nurseries, 53.
Nursery pests, 59.
„ work, 53-60, 256.
Nurses in plantations, 65, 75, 233, 256.
Nutrition of trees, 29.
Oak, 5, 8, 10, 14, 15.
„ bark-boring beetle, 192, 201.
„ -bark coppices, 81, 287, 288.
„ different qualities of, 288,
289.
,, harvesting and sale of, 288,
289.
barking of, 288.
leaf-mining weevil, 192, 205.
leaf-roller moth, 194, 216, 231.
natural regeneration of, 84.
-seedling fungus, 236, 238.
Occasional falls, 82, 119.
Old trees, stimulating the growth of,
253.
Oil of turpentine, 328.
Orchestes, insects of genus, 192, 205,
Oregon Pine (see " Douglas Fir ").
„ Red Cedar (see " Red Cedar.")
Orgyia antiqua, 193, 213, 230.
Ornamental properties of timber, 269.
,, woods and trees, valuation
of, 141.
,, woods and trees, renewal
of, 82, 83.
,, woods, stored coppice as,
114.
Osier bark, 288.
„ -beetle, 193, 209.
,, -fungus, 245.
,, Gall-midges, 195, 225.
,, -holts, 43, 75, 81.
„ cutting of, 280, 285, 288.
Outward appearance of timber, 269.
270.
Over-thinning, effects of, 77.
Overwood, 44.
Owlet-moth, 193, 213, 231.
Packing plants for transport, 60.
Painting of wood, 300, 309.
Pale Tussock moth, 193, 211, 230.
Parasitic diseases, 235-252.
,, plants, damage by, 234.
Park-trees, bark from, 289.
Partial clearances in immature crops,
74, 78.
,, ,, in mature crops, 82,
83.
Patent tar, grease-banding with, 189,
191, 213.
Percentage, Indicating, 102, 140.
,, of increment, 101.
Peridermium-stzge of fungi, 237, 246.
Periodic falls, 124, 126-29.
Peziza, fungi of genus, 236, 240.
Phoma, fungi of genus, 236, 241.
Phratora vitellince, 193, 209, 230.
Phyllopertha horticola, 193, 208, 229.
Physical effect of woodlands, 26.
,, properties of soil, 31.
Physiology of trees, 27-30.
Phytophthora omnivora, 236, 237.
Pigeons, damage by, 177, 179.
Pine, different kinds of, 5, 18.
,, natural regeneration of Scots, 85.
„ -bark beetles, 192, 199, 200, 228.
„ bark-blister, 237, 246.
,, Beauty moth, 193, 213, 231.
,, -beetles, 192, 196-205.
,, -bud Tortrix, 194, 218.
,, -cambial beetle, the black, 192,
198.
„ -canker fungus, 237, 248.
„ leaf-blister, 237, 246.
. leaf-shedding disease, 236, 238,
260.
,, resin-gall Tortrix, 194, 218.
„ root-fungus, 237, 248.
„ -sawfly, 194, 222, 232.
,, -seed, collection and cleaning of,
290.
,, -shoot beetles, 192, 196-198.
,, shoot-twisting fungus, 236, 243.
„ „ moth, 194 217,
231.
,, spanworm, 194, 215.
„ stem-rot, 237, 248.
„ -weevils, 192, 201-205, 229.
Pissodes, insects of genus, 192, 203,
229.
Pit-planting, 68.
Pitwood timber, 145, 278, 317.
Planks, 316.
Planting and plantations, 47-74.
and sowing, 47, 80.
best distance in, 61.
best season for, 60.
different methods of, 63-71.
factors for successful, 48.
for shelter, 74.
on moorland, 72, 73.
on sand-dunes, 74.
on sea- coast, 74.
rate and cost of, 71-74.
340
INDEX.
Planting, regularity in, 71.
„ soil-preparation for, 48, 51,
73. .
Plant-lice, 195, 225, 232.
Plants, package, transport, and storage
of, 60.
,, supply of, 52.
Plashing, 81.
Pneumatic pressure, impregnation
under, 303, 305, 306.
Polyporus, fungi of genus, 237, 251,
273.
Poplar, different kinds of, 5, 8, 11,
15, 17.
„ -leaf beetle, 193, 209.
,, -rust fungus, 236, 243.
„ Longhorn beetles, 193, 208, 229,
230.
„ weevil, 192, 205.
Portable sawmills and steam-engines,
310, 311.
Porthesia chrysorrhcea, 193, 211.
Potash burning, 328.
Powell's saccharine process, 307.
Predisposition to disease, 253.
Predominating kinds of trees, 39.
Premature seeding, 254.
Present capital value of a timber-crop,
140.
Preservation of timber, 299-309.
Preservatives, superficial application
of, 300, 309.
Pressler's borer, 100.
,, formula for percentage of
girth-increment, 101.
,, "indicating percentage," 102.
Private contract, sales by, 286.
Protection against destructive birds,
177-180.
,, against farm-stock, game,
and vermin, 165-177.
„ against injuries from in-
organic causes, 253-260.
,, against injurious insects,
181-232.
,, against men and human
actions, 159.
,, against weeds and paras-
itic plants, 233-252.
,, of woodlands, 157-260.
}, of young timber-crops, 166.
Protective falls, 122.
Pruning. 78.
,, of nursery-plants, 55.
,, -shears, 55.
„ -tools, 79.
Pure woods, 39, 40.
Puss moth, 193, 210, 230.
Pyroligneous acid, preparation of, 327.
Quality of land, 131.
,, of seed, testing the, 54.
Quantity of seed for sowing, 38, 55-57.
Quarter-balks, 315.
,, -girth measurement, 89.
Quartering of timber, 315.
Rabbits, damage by, 80, 173.
Rafting of timber, 297, 298.
Railway Fires Act (1905), 161.
,, -sleeper timber, 279, 317.
,, transport of timber, 293.
Rain, action of heavy, 258.
Rainfall, influence of, 33.
Rapid-ageing of timber 301, 309.
Rate of growth, measurement of, 36,
98-103.
,, of interest in Forestry, 139,
144.
,, of planting, 71.
Rating of woods and plantations,
140.
Red Cedar, 6, 19, 268.
, , -deer, damage by, 170.
,, -rot, 237,248,251,273.
,, „ root-fungus, 237, 248, 254.
„ Sawfly, 194, 223, 232.
Regeneration, natural, 80, 82-85.
Regenerative power, 36.
Register of crops, 126, 130.
Regularity in planting, 71.
Renewal of shelter-belts, 82.
,, of woodland crops, 79-85.
Rentals or returns, permutation of,
151.
Reproduction, artificial production anil,
47, 79-82.
Reproductive and regenerative power,
36.
Resin, distillation of, 328.
,, in timber, influence of, 277,
299.
,, products of crude, 328.
,, -ducts in wood of Conifers, 264,
265, 267.
,, -tapping, 327.
Retinia, insects of genus, 194, 217,
218, 231.
Revision of working-plan, 138.
Revolving marking-hammer, 286.
Jihizina undidata, 236, 239.
lihizoctonia violacea, 236, 239.
INDEX.
341
Rhizophagus depressus, 186.
Rhizotrogus solstitialis, 193, 208, 229.
Rhytisma acerinwn, 236, 243.
Rights of user, 160.
Rind-galls, 272.
Ringing of old trees, 77, 234, 269, 300.
Ring-shakes, 248, 272.
Ripping-saws, 313.
Road timber-slides, 294.
Roads in woodlands, 116, 279.
,, timber transport on, 291.
Robinia or False Acacia, 8, 12, 13, 17.
Rodents, damage by, 172-177.
Roe-deer, damage by, 172.
Root-rot, 237, 248-252, 273.
,, -system, shape of, 36.
Rosdlinia quercina, 236, 238.
Rosin, preparation of, 328.
Rot in timber, 273.
Rotation of woodland crops, 39, 109,
120.
„ the most profitable, 143.
Rowan or Mountain-Ash, 5, 8, 12, 13,
17.
Royal Commission on Afforestation
(1908), 24.
Rueping's creosoting processes, 306.
Ruling kinds of trees, 39.
Rust-fungi, 236, 243-248.
Saccharisation of timber, 307.
Sale of Coppices, 287.
,, of firewood, 287, 316.
,, of timber, 286.
Salix (see "Willow").
Saltus, 41, 114.
Sample-plots, measurement of, 95.
,, -stems, selection of, 96.
,, -trees, measurement of, 90-96.
Sand-dunes, planting on, 74.
Sandy soil, 30, 31.
Sap, dissolving of, 301.
,, in trees, movement of, 28, 264,
269.
,, in wood, 271, 300.
,, substances contained in, 268.
Saperda, insects of genus, 193, 208,
229, 230.
Sapwood, 269.
,, -trees, 269.
Satin moth, 193, 213.
Saugh (see " Willow ").
Sawdust, utilisation of, 318.
„ waste in, 315, 317.
Sawtties, 194, 222-224, 232.
Saw-horn beetles, 193, 208
Sawmills, 310-319.
,, cost of converting timber in,
317.
,, for estate purposes, 311.
,, movable, 310, 311.
Saws, hand-, 281.
,, mill-, 313-315.
Scaffolding, timber for, 279.
Scale insects, 195, 227, 232.
Scaptlings, dimensions of, 316.
Scarabceidce, 193, 206.
Scheme, of management (see " Work-
ing-plan ").
Schizoneura ulmi, 195, 227, 232. ,
Sderotinia Fuckeliana, 236, 239.
Scolytini, 192.
Scolytus destructor, 192, 195, 288.
,, multistriatus, 192.
Scorching, 60, 257, 258.
Scots law regarding timber, 42, 114,
263.
,, Pine (see "Pine").
,, ,, natural regeneration of, 85.
,, Plane (see " Sycamore ").
Scottish Forestry Committee, Preface.
Scribe, the, 77.
Sea-coast, planting near the, 74.
Season for felling, best, 284.
Seasoning of Oak-bark, 2S9.
of timber, 299-303.
Seed-bed, preparation of, 54.
,, sowing on, 55.
-collection, 54, 289.
-distributor, 58.
-extraction, 290.
for sowing, quantity of, 38, 55-57.
-kilns, 290.
-production, 37.
-tests, 54.
Seedling-pricker, 59.
Selection - fellings (see "Occasional
falls ").
Selection of sample-stems, 96.
,, of trees for planting, 115.
Senilising of timber, 309.
Septoria parasitica, 227, 236, 241.
Service-tree, 5, 8, 10, 13, 17.
Sesia aptformis (Sesiidte), 194, 221.
Settled Lands Act (1882), 42, 114, 263.
Severances, 122.
Shade-enduring trees, 35.
,, influence of light and, 35.
Shakes in timber, 248, 272.
Shearing, resistance to, 274.
Sheep, damage by, 1 65.
; Shelter-belts, 74, 82.
342
INDEX.
Shelter for planting, 74.
,, planting for, 74.
Shifting sand, planting on, 74.
Shipbuilding timber, 278.
Shoot-boring moth, the Larch, 194,
219, 231.
Shooting of timber, 293-296.
Shoot-twisting fungus, the Pine, 236,
243.
„ moth, 194, 217, 231.
Shrinkage in wood, 272.
Side-pressure, resistance to, 274.
Silver Fir, 5, 18.
bark, 288.
canker, 237, 245.
„ needle-blight, 236, 241.
„ resin, 328.
Simultaneous natural regeneration, 82,
84.
Sirex, insects of genus, 194, 225.
Siricidce, 194, 224.
Situation, influence of, 33, 34.
Skip-jacks, 193, 209.
Slabs, waste in, 317. '
Sledging, 293.
Sleepers, railway, 317.
Sliding or shooting of timber, 293-296.
Slips, planting of, 59.
Slit-planting, 65.
Slugs and snails in nurseries, 59.
Smoke, damage by, 259.
Snouted weevils, 192, 201-206.
Snow, damage by, 258.
Soda process for cellulose, 321.
Softwoods, 276, 277.
,, technical uses of, 277-279.
Soil, classification of, 30.
„ and situation, description of, 131.
,, ,, diseases due to un-
suitable, 253-260.
„ ,, influence of, 33, 34.
,, and subsoil, physical properties
of, 31.
,, -covering, removal of, 51.
,, -moisture, 32.
,, -preparation, 48, 51, 73, 74.
,, -temperature, 33.
,, ,, influence of wood-
lands on, 26.
Sowing and planting, 47, 80.
,, of tree-seeds, 54-58.
,, -horn, 58.
Spades for planting, conical, 52, 53, 65,
69, 73.
,, ,, cylindrical, 69.
Span-worm moths, 194, 214.
Spanish or Sweet Chestnut, 5, 7, 9, 14,
15.
Sparks, damage by railway, 160, 161.
Specific gravity of wood, 271.
Sphcerella laricina, 236, 240.
Spinners (Bombycidce), 193, 210, 230.
Splitting of wood, 272.
Spokewood, 277.
Sporadic trees, 39.
Spruce Aphis, 195, 227.
-bark, 288, 289.
-bark canker, 236, 243.
-gall Aphis, 195, 226, 227, 232.
leaf -blister, 237, 247.
moth, 193, 212.
-needle rust, 237, 247.
resin-tapping, 327.
Spruces, 5, 18.
Square of flooring, 316.
,, of quarter-girth measurement,
89.
Squares of timber, 315.
Squirrels, damage by, 174.
Stacked fuel, 316.
Stag-headedness, 253.
Standards in copse (see " Coppice with
Standards ").
,, ,, thinning of, 76.
Standing timber, sale of, 286.
,, trees, bark-stripping of, 288.
Statute of Enclosure (1482), 21.
,, of Woods (1543), 21, 44.
Steam-power sawmills, 310, 311, 313-
315.
Steaming of wood, 302.
Stem-rot, 248.
Stereum hirsutum, 273.
Stimulating the growth of old trees,
253.
Stock-map, 130, 132.
Stool-shoots, formation of, 37.
Storage-depots for timber, 286.
,, of plants, 60.
Stored coppice (see " Coppice with
Standards ").
,, coppice as game -coverts and
ornamental woods, 114.
Straight- winged insects, 184.
. Straining-posts in fences, 166, 169.
Strength in timber, 273.
Strophosomus coryli, 192, 205, 229.
Stump-extraction, 284.
Stunted growth, 253.
Subdivision of woodlands, 116.
Subordinate kinds of trees, 39.
Subsoil, 32.
INDEX.
343
Succession Duty, valuation for, 141.
Successive falls, natural regeneration
by, 82, 83-85.
Suckers, formation of, 37.
Sulphate of copper, impregnation with,
304.
Sulphurous acid, damage by, 259.
Summer chafer, 193, 208, 229.
Sun-burn or scorching, 60, 257, 258.
Superficial application of preservatives,
300, 309.
Supply of plants, 52.
Suppressed stems, 76.
Swainmote, 20.
Sweet or Spanish Chestnut, 5, 7, 9, 14,
15.
Sycamore, Great Maple, or Scots
Plane, 5, 6, 8, 12, 16.
leaf-blotch, 236, 243.
, , natural regeneration of, 85.
Sylva, the British, 1-19.
Sylva ccedua, 41, 114.
Sylvicultural characteristics of trees,
,, treatment, choice of, 42,
112.
Sylviculture, 1-85.
,, scientific foundations of,
27-33.
System of Forestry, national British,
21, 22, 77.
Tables of compound interest and dis-
count, 151-156.
,, of cubic contents of logs, 147-
150.
Tachinince, 187.
Tannic acid or tannin, 288.
Tanning- bark, harvesting of, 287-289.
Tarring of wood, 303.
Technical uses of British timber, 277-
279.
Teeth of saws, 281, 314.
Telegraph and telephone poles, timber
for, 279.
Telescope hypsometer, 94.
Temperature, influence of, 33.
Temporary nurseries, 53.
Tender, sales by, 286.
Tending of woodlands, 74-79.
Tension, resistance to, 273.
Tenthredinidce, 194, 222.
Tetraneura ulmi, 227.
Texture of wood, 269.
Theft, 159.
Thinning, 74, 75-78, 234, 280.
Thinning, best rule for, 76.
,, marking stems for, 77.
„ of standards in copses, 76.
Thinnings, yield from, 143, 280, 285.
Thuja gigantea (syn. plicata), 6, 19,
268.
Timber, anatomical structure of, 264,
average prices of, 279.
felling of, 280, 285, 286.
identification of, 266, 270.
legal definition of, 41, 263.
measurement of, 89-103.
mechanical properties of, 273-
277.
ornamental properties of, 269.
physical properties of, 270-273.
practical uses of, 277-279.
technical definition of, 263.
„ properties of, 263-277.
-Bob, 291.
-calliper, 95.
-carts and -waggons, 291.
-consuming industries, 278.
crops, estimate of age of, 98.
,, measurement of, 96.
„ rotation of, 39, 109, 120.
, , selection of trees for, 1 15.
-floating, 297.
-jack, 282.
-roads, 116, 282.
-sales, 286.
-sledges, 293.
-slides, 293-296.
-storage, 286.
-tramways, 292.
-transport, 291-298.
,, by railway, 293.
„ byroad, 291, 293-296.
,, by water, 297.
-trees, British, 4.
,, sylvicultural character-
istics of British, 33-40.
,, -valuation for succession duty,
141.
,, -waggons, 291.
Tineidcc, 194, 219.
Top and lop, 91.
Torsion, resistance to, 273.
Torlricidce, 194, 216.
Tortrix viridana, 194, 216, 231.
Toughness of timber, 274.
Trachea piniperda, 193, 213, 231.
Traction-engine, 291, 292, 310.
Trametes, fungi of genus, 287, 248.
Tramways for timber-transport, 292.
Transplanting of seedlings, 55, 57.
344
INDEX.
Transplants, cost of, 57, 72.
Transport of plants, 60.
,, of timber, 291-298.
Transverse pressure, resistance to, 273,
274.
Tree-seeds, collection and extraction of.
289.
,, -stumps, extraction of, 282.
Trees, estimating the age of, 98.
,, , our woodland, 1-19.
Trespass, 160.
Trichosphceria parasitica, 236, 241.
Trimming of coppice-stools, 81.
,, of plants, 55.
Turbines, 311.
Turpentine, preparation of oil of, 328.
Tussock moth, the Pale, 193, 211, 230.
Twig-clusters, 245.
,, -twister moths, 194, 216.
Twisted fibre, 272.
Umber moth, mottled, 194, 216, 230.
Underplanting, 78, 234.
Underwood, 44.
Uniform natural regeneration, 82, 84.
Universal wedge, 282.
Unsoundness in timber, 273.
Uredinece, 236, 267, 243-248.
User, rights of, 160.
Uses of British timber, 277-279.
Utilisation of woodland produce, 261-
329.
Valuation for rating, 140.
,, for succession duty, 141.
,, of timber-crops and wood-
lands, 139-146.
Value of mature timber-crops and of
thinnings, 139-146.
„ of timber, market, 279.
Vapourer moth, 193, 213, 230.
Vegetable mould, 35, 234.
,, parchment, 323.
Vermin, damage by, 174-177, 181-232.
Vertical notching, 65, 67.
„ water-wheels, 311.
Vigour of old trees, stimulating the,
253.
Violet mixture, 239.
Voles, damage by, 175-177.
Vulcanisation of timber, 302.
Waggon-timber, 279.
Waggons for timber- transport, 291.
Warping of wood, 272.
Wasteland, 25.
Waste wood, utilisation of, 218.
Water, relation of wood towards, 272.
Waterlogging of land, 253.
Water-power sawmills, 310, 311.
,, -shoots, 296.
,, -supplies, influence of woodlands
on, 26.
,, -wheels, vertical, 311.
Wedge, the Universal, 282.
Weeding in nurseries, 57.
„ of plantations, 75, 233.
Weevils, 192, 201-206.
Weight of wood, 271.
Wetness, damage by, 253.
Whitebeam, 5, 8, 10, 13, 17.
White-grub (see "Cockchafer").
,, -piping in Oak, 273.
,, -rot, 237, 250, 273.
„ -scale, the felted, 195, 227, 232.
Whortleberry, 51.
Willow, different kinds of, 5, 7, 11,
15, 17.
-bark, 288.
-beetle, 193, 209, 230.
-leaf fungus, 236, 237, 244.
-longhorn beetle, 193, 208,
230.
-rust fungi, 236, 237, 244.
-scale, 195, 227.
-weevil, 192, 205.
Wind, damage by, 254.
,, protection against, 120-123,
255.
,, -screens or shelter- belts, 74.
Windfall, 254.
Winter frosts, damage by, 255. ,
,, moth, 194, 214, 231.
Wire-fences, erection and cost of, 166-
169.
Wireworms, 210, 230.
Witches' brooms, 245.
Wood, anatomical structure of, 264.
-boring moths, 194, 219.
,, bark-beetle, 192, 201.
chemical composition of, 268.
-consuming industries, 278.
- demon, 282.
Leopard-moth, 194, 221, 231.
mechanical properties of, 273-
277.
physical properties of, 270 273.
-pulp, preparation of, 319.
-tar, 327.
technical properties of, 263-
279.
-vinegar, 327.
INDEX.
345
Wood-wasps, 194, 224.
,, -wool, 318.
Wooden timber-shoots, 295.
Woodland crops, different forms of, 41.
,, industries, 310-329.
,, management, theoretical
principles of, 104-129.
,, produce, utilisation of, 261-
329.
,, products, 105, 280.
,, sawmills, 310, 319.
,, trees, 1-19.
Woodlands and water-supplies, 26.
artificial formation of, 47-
74.
,, capital value or produc-
tivity of, 139-146.
,, climatic and physical
effects of, 26.
,, economic uses of, 26.
,, in United Kingdom, 23-25.
,, management of, 87-156.
,, planting of, 47-74.
,, protection of, 157-260.
,, rating of, 140.
Woodlands, renewal of, 79-85.
„ tending of, 74-79.
,, valuation of, 139-146.
Woodmote, 20.
Woods and plantations, 41.
„ Statute of (1543), 21.
Woodstock, Assize of (1184), 20.
Working-circle, valuation of woods in
a, 141.
,, -circles, subdivision of wood-
lands into, 119, 120.
„ -plan, 106, 130-138.
,, examples of a simple,
128, 134, 136.
,, ,, explanatory note to a,
132, 133.
,, ,, formation of a, 130-138.
Wound-rot and wound-surfaces, 272,
273.
Wounds, antiseptic treatment of, 78.
,, defects due to, 272.
Yield tables, average, 97, 101.
Zeuzera cesculi, 194, 221, 231.
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36 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
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Educational Works. 37
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School Anthology
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40 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
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BUCKWOODS' ENGLISH CLASSICS— continued.
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42 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
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Higher Latin Prose.
With an Introduction by H. W. AUDEN, M.A., Principal, Upper Canada
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Now issued at Is. 6d. net to meet the requirements of the
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TWELFTH EDITION.
ADITUS FACILIORES.
AN EASY LATIN CONSTRUING BOOK,
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A. W. POTTS, M.A., LL.D.,
Late Head-Master of the Fettes College, Edinburgh, and sometime
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge ;
AND THE
REV. 0. DARNELL, M.A.,
Late Head-Master of Cargilfield Preparatory School, Edinburgh,
and Scholar of Pembroke and Downing
Colleges, Cambridge.
Contents.
PART I.— Stories and Fables— The Wolf on his Death-Bed—Alex-
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44 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
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Educational Works. 45
Greek Accidence.
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Journal of Education.— " A manual of well-graduated exercises in Greek
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Higher Greek Unseens.
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BEING ONE HUNDRED PASSAGES FOB TRANSLATION AT SIGHT IN JUNIOR
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46 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
Greek Verse Unseens.
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Educational Works. 47
BLACKWOODS'
ILLUSTRATED
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GENERAL EDITOR— H. W. AUDEN, M.A.,
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48 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
BUCKWOODS' CLASSICAL TEXTS— continued.
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Educational Works. 49
BLACKWOODS' CLASSICAL TEXTS— continued.
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Tacitus — Agricola.
By H. F. MORLAND SIMPSON, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College,
Cambridge; Rector of Aberdeen Grammar School. [In preparation.
Xenophon — Anabasis, Books I., II.
By A. J AGGER, M.A., late Scholar of Pembroke College, Cambridge ; Head-
master, Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, Mansfield. Is. 6d.
Sallust — Jugurtha.
By I. F.^SMEDLET, M.A., Assistant-Master at Westminster ; late Fellow of
Pembroke College, Cambridge. Is. 6d.
Euripides — Hercules Furens.
By E. H. BLAKBNEY, M.A., Headmaster, King's School, Ely. 2s. 6d.
Livy— Book XXVIII.
By G. MIDDLETON, M.A., Classical Master in Aberdeen Grammar School;
and Professor A. SOUTER, D.Litt., Yates Professor of New Testament Greek,
Mansfield College, Oxford. Is. 6d.
Livy— Book IX.
By J. A. NICKLIN, B.A., late Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge ;
Assistant-Master at Liverpool College. [In preparation.
Nepos — Select Lives.
By Rev. E. J. W. HOUGHTON, D.D., Headmaster of Rossall School.
[In the press.
MODERN LANGUAGES.
FRENCH.
Historical Reader of Early French.
Containing Passages Illustrative of the Growth of the French Language
from the Earliest Times to the end of the 15th Century. By HERBERT A.
STRONG, LL.D., Officier de 1'Instruction Publique, Professor of Latin,
University College, Liverpool; and L. D. BARNETT, M.A., LittD. 3s.
Guardian. — "A most valuable companion to the modern handbooks on his-
torical French grammar."
50 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
The Tutorial Handbook of French Composition.
By ALFRED MERCIER, L.-es-L., Lecturer on French Language and Literature
in the University of St Andrews. 3s. 6d.
Educational Times. — "A very useful book, which admirably accomplishes
its object of helping students preparing for examinations It is on rather
novel lines, which commend themselves at once to any one who has had to teach
the subject."
French Historical Unseens.
For Army Classes. By N. E. TOKE, B.A. 2s. 6d.
Journal of Education. — "A distinctly good book Maybe unreservedly
commended."
A First Book of "Free Composition" in French.
By J. EDMOND MANSION, B.-es-L., Headmaster of Modern Languages in the
Eoyal Academical Institution, Belfast. Is.
School World.— "We recommend it warmly to all teachers of French, and
trust that it will have a wide circulation."
French Test Papers for Civil Service and University
Students.
Edited by EMILE B. LE FRANCOIS, French Tutor, Redcliff House, Win-
chester House, St Ives, &c., Clifton, Bristol. 2s.
Weekly Register. — "Deserves as much praise as can be heaped on it
Thoroughly good work throughout."
All French Verbs in Twelve Hours (except Defective
Verbs).
By ALFRED J. WYATT, M.A. Is.
Weekly Register. — "Altogether unique among French grammatical helps,
with a system, with a coup d'oeil, with avoidance of repetition, with a premium
on intellectual study, which constitute a new departure."
The Children's Guide to the French Language.
By ANNIE G. FERRIER, Teacher of French in the Ladies' College, Queen
Street, Edinburgh. Is.
Schoolmaster.—" The method is good, and the book will be found helpful
by those who have to teach French to small children."
GERMAN.
A History of German Literature.
By JOHN G ROBERTSON, Ph.D., Professor of German in the University
of London. 10s.6d.net.
Times. — "In such an enterprise even a tolerable approach to success is some-
thing of an achievement, and in regard to German literature Mr Robertson
appears to have made a nearer approach than any other English writer."
Outlines of the History of German Literature.
For the Use of Schools. By the SAME AUTHOR. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Educational Works. 51
DR LUBOVIUS' GERMAN SERIES.
A Practical German Grammar, Reader and Writer.
By Louis LUBOVIUS, Ph.D., German Master, Billhead High School, Glas-
gow; Lecturer on German, U.F.C. Training College; Examiner for Degrees
in Arts, University of Glasgow.
Part I.— Elementary. 2s.
Part II. 3s.
Lower German.
Reading, Supplementary Grammar with Exercises, and Material for Com-
position. With Notes and Vocabulary, and Ten Songs in Sol- Fa Notation.
By Louis LUBOVIUS, Ph.D. 2s. 6d.
Athenaeum. — "The volume is well designed."
Preparatory Schools Review.— "A capital reading-book for middle forms."
Progressive German Composition.
With copious Notes and Idioms, and FIRST INTRODUCTION TO GERMAN
PHILOLOGY. By Louis LUBOVIUS, Ph.D. 3s. 6d.
Also in Two Parts : —
Progressive German Composition. 2s. 6d.
*** A Key (for Teachers only), 5s. net.
First Introduction to German Philology. Is. 6d.
Journal of Education.— "The passages for translation are well selected,
and the notes to the passages, as well as the grammatical introduction, give
real assistance The part of the book dealing with German philology deserves
great praise."
A Compendious German Reader.
Consisting of Historical Extracts, Specimens of German Literature, Lives
of German Authors, an Outline of German History (1640-1890), Biographical and
Historical Notes. Especially adapted for the use of Army Classes. By G. B.
BEAK, M.A. 2s. 6d.
Guardian. — "This method of compilation is certainly an improvement on the
hotch-potch of miscellaneous passages to be found in many of the older books. "
Spartanerjunglinge. A Story of Life in a Cadet College.
By PAUL VON SZCZBPANSKI. Edited, with Vocabulary and Notes, by J. M.
MORRISON, M.A., Master in Modern Languages, Aberdeen Grammar
School. 2s.
Scotsman. — "An admirable reader for teaching German on the new method ,
and is sure to prove popular both with students and with teachers."
A German Reader for Technical Schools.
By EWALD F. SECKLER, Senior Language Master at the Birmingham Muni-
cipal Day School ; German Lecturer, Birmingham Evening School ; French
Lecturer, Stourbridge Technical School. 2s.
52 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
SPANISH.
A Spanish Grammar.
With Copious Exercises in Translation and Composition ; Easy reading
Lessons and Extracts from Spanish Authors ; a List of Idioms ; a Glossary
of Commercial Terms (English-Spanish) ; and a copious General Vocabulary
(Spanish-English). By WILLIAM A. KESSEN, Teacher of Spanish, Billhead
High School, Glasgow. 3s. 6d.
Investors' Review. — "To the student who wishes to master the Spanish
language for commercial or literary purposes this admirable little book will
prove invaluable."
Commerce. — "Contains practically all that is necessary for the acquirement
of a working knowledge of the language."
MATHEMATICS.
Arithmetic.
With numerous Examples, Kevision Tests, and Examination Papers. By
A. VEITCH LOTHIAN, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Mathematical and Science
Lecturer, E.G. Training College, Glasgow. With Answers. 3s. 6d.
Guardian.— "A work of first-rate importance We should find it hard
to suggest any improvement We venture to predict that when the book
becomes known, it will command a very wide circulation in our public schools
and elsewhere."
Practical Arithmetical Exercises.
FOB SENIOR PUPILS IN SCHOOLS. Containing upwards of 8000 Examples,
consisting in great part of Problems, and 750 Extracts from Examination
Papers. Second Edition, Revised. 364 pages, 3s. With Answers, 3s. 6d.
JAMES WELTON, Esq., Lecturer on Education, and Master of Method,
Yorkshire College. — " Your ' Practical Arithmetic ' seems to me the most complete
collection of exercises in existence. Both idea and execution are excellent."
Elementary Algebra.
The Complete Book, 288 pp., cloth, 2s. With Answers, 2s. 6d. Answers
sold separately, price 9d. Pt. I., 64 pp., 6d. Pt. II., 64 pp., 6d. Pt.
III., 70pp., 6d. Pt. IV., 96 pp., 9d. Answers to Pts. I., II., III., each
2d. Answers to Pt. IV., 3d.
Educational News.— "A short and compact introduction to algebra The
exercises are remarkably good, and the arrangement of the subject-matter is on
the soundest principles. The work is, on the whole, to bo commended as being
at once inexpensive and scholarly."
Handbook of Mental Arithmetic.
With 7200 Examples and Answers. 264 pp. 2s. 6d. Also in Six Parts,
limp cloth, price 6d. each.
Teachers' Monthly.— " The examples are mainly concrete, as tney should
be, are of all varieties, and, what is most important, of the right amount of
difficulty."
Educational News.—" This is, as a matter of fact, at once a handbook and a
handy book. It is an absolute storehouse of exercises in mental computations.
There are most valuable practical hints to teachers."
Educational Works. 53
Modern Geometry of the Point, Straight Line, and
Circle.
An Elementary Treatise. By J. A. THIRD, D.Sc., Headmaster of Spier's
School, Beith. 3s.
Schoolmaster. — ' ' Each branch of this wide subject is treated with brevity,
it is true, and yet with amazing completeness considering the size of the volume.
So earnest and reliable an effort deserves success."
Journal of Education. — " An exceedingly useful text -book, full enough
for nearly every educational purpose, and yet not repellent by overloading."
Educational News. — "A book which will easily take rank among the best of
its kind. The subject is treated with complete thoroughness and honesty."
Mensuration.
128 pp., cloth, Is. Also in Two Parts. Pt. I., Parallelograms and Tri-
angles. 64 pp. Paper, 4d.; cloth, 6d. Pt. II., Circles and Solids.
64 pp. Paper, 4d. ; cloth, 6d. Answers may be had separately, price 2d.
each Part.
Educational Times. — "The explanations are always clear and to the point,
while the exercises are so exceptionally numerous that a wide selection is offered .
to the students who make use of the book."
Higher Arithmetic.
For Ex-Standard and Continuation Classes. 128 pp. Paper, 6d. ; cloth, 8d.
With Answers, cloth, lid. Answers may be had separately, price 3d.
GEOGRAPHY.
Fifty -Fifth Thousand.
Elements of Modern Geography.
By the Rev. ALEXANDER MACKAY, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Revised to the
present time. Pp. 300. 3s.
Schoolmaster. — "For senior pupils or pupil-teachers the book contains all
that is desirable It is well got up, and bears the mark of much care in the
authorship and editing."
One Hundred and Ninety-Sixth Thousand.
Outlines of Modern Geography.
By tho SAME AUTHOR. Revised to the present time. Pp. 128. Is.
These ' Outlines ' — in many respects an epitome of the ' Elements ' — are care-
fully prepared to meet the wants of beginners. The arrangement is the same
as in the Author's larger works.
One Hundred and Fifth Thousand.
First Steps in Geography.
By the SAME AUTHOR. 18mo, pp. 56. Sewed, 4d. ; in cloth, 6d.
54 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
A Manual of Classical Geography.
By JOHN L. MYRES, M.A., Professor of Ancient History, Oxford.
[In preparation.
CHEMISTRY AND POPULAR
SCIENCE.
Forty Elementary Lessons in Chemistry.
By W. L. SARGANT, M.A., Headmaster, Oakham School. Illustrated.
Is. 6d.
Glasgow Herald. — "Remarkably well arranged for teaching purposes, and
shows the compiler to have a real grip of sound educational principles. The book
is clearly written and aptly illustrated."
Inorganic Tables, with Notes and Equations.
By H. M. TIMPANY, B.Sc., Science Master, Borough Technical School,
Shrewsbury. Crown 8vo, Is.
Things of Everyday.
A Popular Science Reader on Some Common Things. With Illus-
trations. 2s.
Guardian. — " Will be found useful by teachers in elementary and continuation
schools who have to conduct classes in the 'science of common things.' Well
and strongly bound, and illustrated by beautifully clear diagrams."
GEOLOGY.
An Intermediate Text- Book of Geology.
By Professor CHARLES LAPWORTH, LL.D., University, Birmingham.
Founded on Dr PAGE'S 'Introductory Text-Book of Geology.' With Illus-
trations. 5s.
Educational News. — "The work is lucid and attractive, and will take high
rank among the best text-books on the subject."
Publishers' Circular. — "The arrangement of the new book is in every way
excellent, and it need hardly be said that it is thoroughly up to date in all
details Simplicity and clearness in the book areas pronounced as its accuracy,
and students and teachers alike will find it of lasting benefit to them."
Education. — "The name of the Author is a guarantee that the subiect is
effectively treated, and the information and views up to date."
PALAEONTOLOGY.
A Manual of Palaeontology.
For the Use of Students. With a General Introduction on the Principles of
Palaeontology. By Professor H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, Aberdeen, and
RICHARD LYDBKKBR, B. A., F.G.S. &c. Third Edition. Entirely rewritten
*ni greatly enlarged. 2 vols. 8vo, with 1419 Engravings. 63s.
Educational Works. 55
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Fifteenth Edition , Revised.
Introductory Text- Book of Physical Geography.
With Sketch-Maps and Illustrations. By DAVID PAGE, LL.D., &c., Pro-
fessor of Geology in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle. Revised
by Professor CHARLES LAPWORTH. 2s. 6d.
Athenaeum. — "The divisions of the subject are so clearly denned, the explana-
tions are so lucid, the relations of one portion of the subject to another are so
satisfactorily shown, and, above all, the bearings of the allied sciences to Physical
Geography are brought out with so much precision, that every reader will feel
that difficulties have been removed, and the path of study smoothed before him."
PSYCHOLOGY AND LOGIC.
An Introductory Text- Book of Logic.
With Numerous Examples and Exercises. By SYDNEY HERBERT MELLONE,
M.A. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Edin.); Examiner in Philosophy in the University of
Edinburgh. Fifth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s.
Scotsman. — "This is a well -studied academic text -book, in which the
traditional doctrine that has been handed down from Aristotle to the univer-
sity professors of to-day is expounded with clearness, and upon an instructive
system which leads up naturally to the deeper and different speculations involved
in modern logic The book, in fine, is an excellent working text-book of its
subject, likely to prove useful both to students and to teachers.
Elements of Psychology.
By SYDNEY HERBERT MELLONE, M.A. (Lond.), D.Sc. (Edin.), and MARGARET
DRUMMOND, M.A. (Edin.) Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 5s.
Scotsman. — "Thoroughness is a feature of the work, and, treating psychology
as a living science, it will be found fresh, suggestive, and up-to-date."
Education. — " The authors of this volume have made satisfactory use of
accredited authorities ; in addition, they have pursued original investigations
and conducted experiments, with the result that great freshness of treatment
marks their contribution to the teaching of psychology rt
A Short History of Logic.
By ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D., Late Professor of Logic in the University of
Glasgow. Edited by W. R. SORLEY, Litt.D., LL.D., Fellow of the British
Academy, Professor of Moral Philosophy, University of Cambridge. Crown
8vo, 5s net.
"There is no other History of Logic — short or long — in English, and no similar
short work in any other language."
FORESTRY.
The Elements of British Forestry.
A Handbook for Forest Apprentices and Students of Forestry. By JOHN
NISBET, D.CE., Professor of Forestry at the West of Scotland Agricultural
College, Author of ' The Forester. ' Crown 8vo, 5s. 6d. net.
Forest Entomology.
By A. T. GILLANDERS, Wood Manager to His Grace the Duke of Northumber-
land, K.G. Second Edition, Revised. With 351 Illustrations. Demy 8vo,
15s. net.
56 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
ELEMENTARY SERIES.
BLACKWOODS'
LITERATURE READERS.
Edited by JOHN ADAMS, M.A., LL.D.,
Professor of Education in the University of London.
BOOK I Pp. 228. Price Is.
BQOK II Pp. 275. Price Is. 4d.
BOOK HI Pp.303. Price Is. 6d.
BOOK IV Pp. 381. Price Is. 6d.
NOTE.
This new Series would seek to do for Literature what has
already been done by many series of School Readers for
History, Geography, and Science. Many teachers feel that
their pupils should be introduced as soon as possible to the
works of the great writers, and that reading may be learnt
from these works at least as well as from compilations
specially written for the young. Because of recent changes
in Inspection, the present is a specially suitable time for
the Introduction of such a series into Elementary Schools.
In the Preparatory Departments of Secondary Schools the
need for such a series is clamant.
It is to be noted that the books are not manuals of
English literature, but merely Readers, the matter of which
is drawn entirely from authors of recognised standing. All
the usual aids given in Readers are supplied ; but illustra-
tions, as affording no help in dealing with Literature, are
excluded from the series.
" The volumes, -which are capitally printed, consist of selected
readings of increasing difficulty, to which notes and exercises are
added at the end. The selected pieces are admirably chosen, especially
in the later books, which will form a beginning for a really sound
and wide appreciation of the stores of good English verse and
prose."— A thenxum.
"The selected readings are interesting, and possessed of real
literary value. The books are well bound, the paper is excellent,
and the unusual boldness and clear spacing of the type go far to
compensate for the entire absence of pictorial illustrations. "—Guardian.
A very excellent gradus to the more accessible heights of the
English Parnassus The appendices on spelling, word-building,
and grammar are the work of a skilful, practical teacher."— Pall
Mall Gazette.
"If we had the making of the English Educational Code for
Elementary Schools, we should insert a regulation that all boys and
girls should spend two whole years on these four books, and on
nothing else."— Bradford Observer.
"The books are graded with remarkable skill."— Glasgow Herald.
Educational ;> Works.
57
" Absolutely the best set of all the history readers that have hitherto
been published."— The Guardian.
THE STORY OF THE WORLD.
FOR THE CHILDREN OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE.1 (In Five Books.)
ByM. B. SYNQE.
With Coloured Frontispieces and numerous Illustrations by
B. M. Synge, A.R.B., and Maps.
BOOK I. ON THE SHORES OF THE GREAT SEA. Is. 4d.
Colonial Edition, is. 6d.
THE Home of Abraham — Into Africa-
Joseph in Egypt— The Children of Israel—
The First Merchant Fleet— Hiram, King of
Tyre— King Solomon's Fleet—The Story of
Carthage— The Story of the Argonauts— The
Siege of Troy — The Adventures of Ulysses —
The Dawn of History— The Fall of Tyre—
The Rise of Carthage— Hanno's Adventures
— The Battle of Marathon — King Ahasuerus
— How Leonidas kept the Pass — Some
Greek Colonies — Athens — The Death of
Socrates — The Story of Romulus and Remus
— HowHoratius kept the Bridge — Coriolanus
—Alexander the Great— King of Macedonia
— The Conquest of India — Alexander's
City— The Roman Fleet— The Adventures of
Hannibal — The End of Carthage — The
Triumph of Rome — Julius Csesar — The
Flight of Pompey— The Death of Csesar.
BOOK II. THE DISCOVERY OF NEW WORLDS. Is. 6d.
THE Roman World— The Tragedy of Nero—
The Great Fire in Rome— The Destruction
of Pompeii — Marcus Aurelius — Christians to
the Lions— A New Rome— The Armies of
the North— King Arthur and his Knights —
How the Northmen conquered England —
The First Crusade— Frederick Barbarossa—
The Third Crusade— The Days of Chivalry
— Queen of the Adriatic — The Story of
Marco Polo — Dante's Great Poem — The
Maid of Orleans — Prince Henry, the Sailor —
The Invention of Printing— Vasco da Gama's
Great Voyage — Golden Goa — Christopher
Columbus— The Last of the Moors^Dis-
covery of the New World— Columbus in
Chains— Discovery of the Pacific— Magel-
lan's Straits— Montezuma— Siege and Fall of
Mexico — Conquest of Peru — A Great
Awakening.
BOOK III. THE AWAKENING OF EUROPE. Is. 6d.
Colonial Edition, Is. 9d.
STORY of the Netherlands — The Story of
Martin Luther— The Massacre of Sb Bar-
tholomew— The Siege of Leyden — William
the Silent — Drake's Voyage round the
World— The Great Armada— Virginia— Story
of the Revenge— Sir Walter Raleigh— The
' Fairy Queen '—First Voyage of the East
India Company — Henry Hudson— Captain
John Smith— The Founding of Quebec—
The Pilgrim Fathers— Thirty Years of War
—The Dutch at Sea— Van Riebeek's Colony
— Oliver Cromwell — Two Famous Admirals
-De Ruyter— The Founder of Pennsyl-
vania— The ' Pilgrim's Progress ' — William's
Invitation— The Struggle in Ireland— The
Siege of Vienna by the Turks— The Story of
the Huguenots— The Battle of Blenheim-
How Peter the Great learned Shipbuilding
--Charles XII. of Sweden— The Boyhood of
Frederick the Great — Anson's Voyage round
the World— Maria Theresa— The Story of
Scotland.
William Blackwood & Sons' List.
THE STORY OF THE WORLD— continued.
BOOK IV. THE STRUGGLE
THE Story of the Great Mogul — Kobert
Olive— The Black Hole of Calcutta— The
Struggle for North America— George Wash-
ington—How Pitt saved England— The Fall
of Quebec— "The Great Lord Hawke"—
The Declaration of Independence— Captain
Cook's Story— James Brace and the Nile—
The Trial of Warren Hastings — Maria
Antoinette — The Fall of the Bastile —
Napoleon Bonaparte— Horatio Nelson— The
Adventures of Mungo Park— The Travels of
Baron Humboldt— The Battle of the Nile—
FOR SEA POWER. Is. 9d.
Copenhagen — Napoleon — Trafalgar — The
Death of Nelson— The Rise of Wellington—
The First Australian Colony— Story of the
Slave Trade— The Defence of Saragoza— Sir
John Moore at Corunna— The Victory of
Talavera— The Peasant Hero of the Tyrol—
The "Shannon" and the "Chesapeake" —
Napoleon's Retreat from Moscow— Welling-
ton's Victories in Spain— The Fall of the
Empire— Story of the Steam Engine— Water-
loo—The Exile of St Helena.
BOOK V. GROWTH OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 2s.
How Spain lost South America— The Greek
War — Victoria, Queen of England — The
Great Boer Trek— The Story of Natal— The
Story of Canada— The Winning of the West
— A Great Arctic Expedition — Discoveries in
Australia— The Last King of France— Louis
Kossuth and Hungary— The Crimean War—
The Indian Mutiny— King of United Italy
—Civil War in America— The Mexican Re-
volution— Founding the German Empire —
The Franco-German War— The Dream of
Cecil Rhodes — The Dutch Republics in
South Africa — Livingstone's discoveries in
Central Africa — China's Long Sleep — Japan,
Britain's Ally — Russia — The Annexation of
Burma — The Story of Afghanistan — The
Empire of India — Gordon, the Hero of
Khartum— The Redemption of Egypt— The
Story of British West Africa— The Story of
Uganda — The Founding of Rhodesia —
British South Africa — The Dominion of
Canada — Australia — The New Nation —
Freedom for Cuba— Reign of Queen Victoria
—Welding the Empire— Citizenship.
Also in 2 volumes, at 3s. 6d. each net, suitable as prize books.
Uniform with this Series.
THE WORLD'S CHILDHOOD
With numerous Illustrations by Brlnsley Le Fanu.
STORIES
1. Lit-tle Red Ri-ding Hood.
2. The Three Bears.
3. The Snow-Child.
4. Tom Thumb.
5. The Ug-ly Duck-ling.
6. Puss in Boots.
7. The Lit-tle Girl and the Cats.
8. Jack and the Bean-Stalk.
9. Gol-dy.
10. Cin-der-el-la— Part I.
II. STORIES OP THE
1. A-bout the Gods.
2. The Names of the Gods.
3. Turn-ed in-to Stone.
4. The Shin-ing Char-i-ot.
5. The Laur-el Tree.
6. A Horse with Wings.
7. The Cy-press Tree.
8. The Fruits of the Earth.
9. Cu-pid's Gold-en Ar-rows.
10. Pan's Pipe.
11. A Long Sleep.
12. The Re-ward of Kind-ness.
OF THE FAIRIES. lod.
CONTENTS
11. Cin-der-el-la— Part II.
12. The Lost Bell.
13. Jack the Gi-ant Kill-er.
14. Star-bright and Bird-ie.
15. Beau-ty and the Beast.
16. Peach-Dar-ling.
17. In Search of a Night's Rest.
18. Dick Whit-ting-ton and his Cat.
19. The Sleep-ing Beau-ty.
lod.
GREEK GODS AND HEROES.
CONTENTS.
13. At-a-lan-ta's Race.
14. The Stor-y of Al-ces-tis.
15. The Snow- White Bull.
16. The Spi-der and his Web
17. I-o— the White Cow.
18. The Three Gold-en Ap-ples.
19. The 01-ive Tree.
20. A Boy Her-o of Old.
21. The Thread of Ar-i-ad-ne.
22. The Boy who tried to Fly.
23. The Gold-en Harp.
Teacher's Appendix.
Educational Works. 59
"If history can be given a form likely to make it palatable to young folks, "F"
has succeded in doing so in these ' Stories of the English.' It is no exaggeration to
say that the book represents not only a masterpiece in literature for children,
but a work of no slight value for the national good."— Scotsman
STORIES OF THE ENGLISH
FOR SCHOOLS,
By F.
FOR JUNIOR SCHOLARS.
VOL. I.— FROM THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ARMADA. — Is. 6d.
CONTENTS.— The coming of the White Horse— The coming of the Cross— The Fight
with the Raven— Alfred the Great— Edward the Confessor— William the Conquerer— The
Kings of the Golden Broom— Richard Lion-Heart—King John and Magna Charta— Earl
Simon the Rif hteous — Edward the Englishman — Bannockburn and Berkeley — The Lions
and the Lilies— A King dethroned— Prince Hal— King Harry— The Wars of the Roses-
Henry VIII. and the Revolt from Rome — Edward VI. and Mary — Elizabeth, the Great
Queen : (1) English Adventurers and the Cruise of the Pelican ; (2) Mary, Queen of Scots ;
(3) Papist Plots and the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew ; (4) The Armada.
ILLUSTRATIONS.— Dover Castle— The Pharos, Dover— Norsemen— Homes of our
Ancestors— Chateau Gaillard— Tomb of a Crusader (Gervase Alard), Winchelsea Church-
Carnarvon Castle — Coronation Chair, Westminster Abbey — Knights of the Fourteenth
Century— Edward the Third— The Battle of Cressy— Tomb of Edward the Third, West-
minster Abbey — Tomb of the Black Prince, Canterbury Cathedral — Richard II. on his
voyage to Ireland— Jerusalem Chamber, Westminster Abbey — Henry V. with Military
Attendants — Henry V. addressing his Army — Joan of Arc— The Crowning of Henry VII.
on Bosworth Field— Henry VIII.— Wolsey— Sir Thomas More taking leave of his Daughter
—Calais during the Sixteenth Century— Queen Elizabeth— The Armada— Drake— Mary,
Queen of Scots — Drake playing Bowls with his Captains — Sir Walter Raleigh.
FOR SENIOR SCHOLARS.
VOL. II.— THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER AND, GREATER ENGLAND.— Is. 6d.
CONTENTS.— The First of the Stuarts— The Struggle for Power— The Puritan Tyranny
—The Second Struggle for Power : Charles II.— The Revolution— The Fight with France :
The Dutch King — Queen Anne and Marlborough — Greater England — The Story of Anson —
The Story of Wolfe— The Story of Captain Cook— The Story of Olive— The War of American
Independence— The great French War — The Story of Nelson — The Story of the Great Duke
—The End of the Stories.
ILLUSTRATIONS.— James I.— Bacon— Charles I.— A Cavalier— Oliver Cromwell— The
Great Fire of London — The Seven Bishops going to the Tower — Landing of William of
Orange in England— Marlborough— Gibraltar— Chatham— Fight between the Centurion and
the Manila Ship— General Wolfe— The Death of Captain Cook— Washington— Pitt-
Napoleon Bonaparte— Nelson— H. M.S. Victory, Portsmouth Harbour— Duke of Wellington
— Napoleon on board the Bellerophon.
Moira O'Neill, Author of ' Songs of the Glen of Antrim,' writing to Mr Blackwood,
says : " F.'s ' Stories of the English ' was written for my little daughter Susan. The
child is quite fascinated by it, but equally so are all the grown-up friends to whom
I have shown it. I lent it once to a sailor uncle, and he sat up to all hours of that
night with it, and afterwards told me that he could hardly believe that such an
account of Nelson's great battles had been written by a woman, because it was
technically accurate. And a soldier friend and critic used almost the same words
about the account of Marlborough's campaigns. F. is the most patient and faithful
student of history that I know. She has such a strong literary sense that she simply
could not write anything except in a literary form, and combined with it she has
that rare thing, a judicial mind. This, I think, gives her work a quite peculiar
value."
60 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
Standard Readers.
Revised Edition. With Supplementary Pages, consisting of "Spelling
Lists," "Word -Building," "Prefixes and Suffixes," &c. Profusely Illus-
trated with Superior Engravings.
BOOK I. 40 Lessons . . . . 8d.
BOOK II. 40 Lessons 9d.
BOOK III. 60 Lessons . . . .Is. Od.
BOOK IV. 60 Lessons . . . .Is. 3d.
BOOK V. 60 Lessons . . . .Is. 4d.
BOOK VI. 60 Lessons . . . .Is. 6d.
Schoolmaster.— "We strongly recommend these books Children will be
sure to like them; the matter is extremely suitable and interesting, the print
very distinct, and the paper a pleasure to feel."
Infant Series. *
FIRST PICTURE PRIMER . . Sewed, 2d. ; cloth, 3d.
SECOND PICTURE PRIMER . . Sewed, 2d. ; cloth, 3d.
PICTURE READING SHEETS.
IST SERIES. | 2ND SERIES.
Each containing 16 sheets, unmounted, 3s. 6d. Mounted on 8 boards,
with cloth border, price 14s.; varnished, 3s. 6d. per set extra.
Or the 16 sheets laid on linen, varnished, and mounted on a roller,
17s. 6d.
THE INFANT PICTURE READER. With numerous Illustrations.
Cloth, limp, 6d.
Educational News.— " Teachers will find these Primers a useful introduction
to the art of reading. We consider them well adapted to their purpose."
Geographical Readers.
With numerous Maps, Diagrams, and Illustrations.
GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER. (For Stand. I.) 96 pp. 9d.
BOOK I. (For Stand. II.) 96pp. . . 9d.
BOOK II. (For Stand. III.) 156 pp. . . Is. Od.
BOOK III. (For Stand. IV.) 192 pp. . . Is. 3d.
BOOK IV. (For Stand. V.) 256 pp. . . Is. 6d.
BOOK V. (For Stand. VI.) 256 pp. . . Is. 6d.
BOOK VI. (For Stand. VII.) 256pp. . . Is. 9d.
Schoolmaster. — " This is a really excellent series of Geographical Readers.
The volumes have, in common, the attractiveness which good paper, clear type,
effective woodcuts, and durable binding can present ; whilst their contents, both
as to quality and quantity, are so graded as to be admirably adapted to the
several stages of the pupil's progress."
Educational Works. 61
Historical Readers.
With numerous Portraits, Maps, and other Illustrations.
SHORT STORIES FROM ENGLISH
HISTORY 160 pp. Is. Od.
FIRST HISTORICAL READER . . . 160pp. Is. Od.
SECOND HISTORICAL READER . . .224 pp. Is. 4d-
THIRD HISTORICAL READER . . .256 pp. Is. 6d.
Schoolmaster. — "These new Historical Readers have "been carefully compiled.
The facts are well selected ; the story is well told in language most likely to
impress itself in the memory of young children ; and the poetical pieces are
fitting accompaniments to the prose."
School Board Chronicle. — "The treatment is unconventional, but always
in good taste. The volumes will meet with much favour generally as lively,
useful, high-toned Historical Readers."
Standard Authors.
Adapted for Schools.
HAWTHORNE'S TANGLEWOOD TALES. With Notes and Illustra-
tions. 160 pp. Is. 2d.
Aytoun's Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers.
With Introduction, Notes, and Life of the Author, for Junior Classes.
EDINBURGH AFTER FLODDEN . 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 3Jd.
THE EXECUTION OF MONTROSE . 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 3£d.
THE BURIAL-MARCH OF DUNDEE 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 3^d.
THE ISLAND OF THE SCOTS . . 32 pages, 2d. ; cloth, 3Jd.
Teachers' Aid. — "Capital annotated editions Beautifully clear and
painstaking; we commend them heartily to our brother and sister teachers."
Educational News. — "Useful issues of well-known poems The notes
are exceedingly appropriate, and leave nothing in doubt. For class purposes
we cau specially recommend these little books."
School Recitation Books.
BOOK I. 32 pages . . . . 2d.
BOOK II. 32 pages . . . 2d.
BOOK III. 48 pages . . . .3d.
BOOK IV. 48 pages . . . .3d.
BOOK V. 64 pages . . 4d.
BOOK VI. 64 pages . . . . 4d.
Schoolmistress. — "These six books are a valuable contribution to school
literature. The poems for each standard are judiciously chosen, the explanatory
notes and questions at the end of every lesson are very suitable."
62 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
Grammar and Analysis.
BOOK II. 24 pages . . Paper, l£d. ; cloth, 2£d.
BOOK III. 24 pages . . Paper, l£d ; cloth, 2£d.
BOOK IV. 48 pages . . Paper, 2d. cloth, 3d.
i BOOK V. 64 pages . . Paper, 3d. cloth, 4d.
BOOK VI. 64 pages . . Paper, 3d. cloth, 4d.
BOOK VII. 64 pages . . Paper, 3d. cloth, 4d.
Schoolmaster.— "This is a series of good practical books whose merits ought
to ensure for them a wide sale. Among their leading merits are simplicity in
definitions, judicious recapitulation, and abundance of well-selected exercises
for practice."
Teachers' Aid.— "For thoroughness, method, style, and high -class work,
commend us to these little text-books A practical hand has impressed
every line with individuality We are determined to use them in our own
department."
Arithmetical Exercises.
BOOK I. ... Paper, l£d. ; cloth, 2£d.
BOOK II. . . Paper, l£d. ; cloth, 2£d.
BOOK III. . . . Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d.
BOOK IV. ... Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d.
BOOK V. ... Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d.
BOOK VI. ... Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d.
BOOK VII. . . . Paper, 3d. ; cloth, 4d.
HIGHER ARITHMETIC for Ex-Standard and Continua-
tion Classes. 128 pp. . . Paper, 6d. ; cloth, 8d.
%* ANSWERS may be had separately, and are supplied direct
to Teachers only.
Schoolmaster. — "We can speak in terms of high praise respecting this series
of Arithmetical Exercises. They have been carefully constructed. They are
well graduated, and contain a large and varied collection of examples We
can recommend the series to our readers."
Schoolmistress. — " Large quantity, excellent quality, great variety, and good
arrangement are the characteristics of this set of Arithmetical Exercises."
Elementary Grammar and Composition.
Based on the ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. With a Chapter on WORD- BUILDING
and DERIVATION, and containing numerous Exercises. New Edition. Is.
Schoolmaster. — "A very valuable book. It is constructive as well as analytic,
and well-planned exercises have been framed to teach the young student how to
use the elements of his mother-tongue A junior text-book that is calculated
to yield most satisfactory results."
Educational Times. — "The plan ought to work well A decided advance
from the old-fashioned practice of teaching."
Educational Works. 63
Grammar and Analysis.
Scotch Code.
STANDARD II. 24 pages. Paper, l£d. ; cloth, 2£d.
STANDARD III. 32 pages. Paper, l^d. ; cloth, 2£d.
STANDARD IV. 56 pages. Paper, 2£d. ; cloth, 3 |d.
STANDARD V. 56 pages. Paper, 2£d. ; cloth, 3£d.
STANDARD VI. 64 pages. Paper, 3d. ; cloth, 4d.
Teachers' Aid. — "These are thoughtfully written and very practically con
ceived little helps They are most exhaustive, and brimming with examples.
New Arithmetical Exercises.
Scotch Code.
STANDARD I. 32 pages . Paper, l£d. ; cloth, 2£d.
STANDARD II. 32 pages . Paper, l£d. ; cloth, 2|d.
STANDARD III. 56 pages . Paper, 2d. ; cloth, 3d.
STANDARD IV. 64 pages . Paper, 3d. ; cloth, 4d.
STANDARD V. 80 pages . Paper, 4d. ; cloth, 6d.
STANDARD VI. 80 pages . Paper, 4d. ; cloth, 6d.
HIGHER ARITHMETIC for Ex-Standard and Continua-
tion Classes 128 pages . Paper, 6d. ; cloth, 8d.
%* ANSWERS may be had separately, and are supplied direct
to Teachers only.
Educational News.— "The gradation of the exercises is perfect, and the
examples, which are very numerous, are of every conceivable variety. There is
ample choice for the teacher under every head. We recommend the series as
excellent School Arithmetics."
Merit Certificate Arithmetic.
96 pp. Paper cover, 6d. ; cloth; 8d.
Mensuration.
128 pp., cloth, Is. Also in Two Parts. Pt. I., Parallelograms and
Triangles. 64 pp. Paper, 4d. ; cloth, 6d. Pt. II., Circles and Solids.
64 pp. Paper, 4d. ; cloth, 6d. Answers may he had separately, price
2d. each Part.
Educational Times. — "The explanations are always clear and to the point,
while the exercises are so exceptionally numerous that a wide selection is
offered to the students who make use of the book."
A First Book on Physical Geography.
For Use in Schools. 64 pp. 4d.
Journal of Education.— " This is a capital little book, describing shortly
and clearly the geographical phenomena of nature."
64 William Blackwood & Sons' List.
Manual Instruction — Woodwork. DESIGNED TO MEET THE
REQUIREMENTS OF THE MINUTE OF THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT
ON MANUAL INSTRUCTION. By GEORGE ST JOHN, Undenominational
School, Handsworth, Birmingham. With 100 Illustrations. Is.
Blackwoods' Simplex Civil Service Copy Books.
By JOHN T. PEARCE, B.A., Leith Academy. Price 2d. each.
CONTENTS OF THE SERIES.
No. 1. Elements, Short Letters, Words,
it 2. Long Letters, Easy Words.
,i 3. Capitals, Half-line Words,
ii 4. Text, Double Ruling, Sentences.
„ 5. Half-Text, Sentences, Figures,
ii 6. Intermediate, Transcription, &c.
„ 7. Small Hand, Double Ruling.
„ 8. Small Hand, Single Ruling.
The Headlines are graduated, up-to-date, and attractive.
Blackwoods' Universal Writing Books.
Have been designed to accompany the above series, and teachers will find it
advantageous to use them as Dictation Copies, because by them the learner
is kept continually writing at the correct slope, &c. No 1. is adapted for
LOWBR CLASSES, No. 2 for HIGHER CLASSES. Price 2d. each.
Practical Teacher. — " Our readers would do well to write for a specimen of
this book, and of the blank exercise-books ruled on the same principle. They
are worth careful attention."
School World. — "Those teachers who are anxious to train their pupils to
write in the style associated with Civil Service Competitions should find the
copy-books designed by Mr Pearce very useful. The writing is certainly simple ;
it may, in fact, be reduced to four elements, in which the pupil is rigorously
exercised in the earlier books before proceeding in later numbers to continuous
writing."
Schoolmaster. — "Those of our readers in search of new books should see
Journal of Education. — "Aids the eye and guides the hand, and thus
checkmates any bias towards error in the slope."
UNIVERSITY CALENDARS.
St Andrews University Calendar.
Printed and Published for the Senatus Academicus. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. net.
St Andrews University L.L.A. Calendar.
Printed and Published for the Senatus Academicus. Crown 8vo, Is.
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS, EDINBURGH AND LONDON.
12/11.
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW
AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS
WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.
OOT 20 1939
AOT O1 HQ!:10
tJM &*• "^^
MAY 27 1948
LD 21-100m-7,'39(402s)
U.C. BERKELEY LIBRX
344226
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