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ELEMENTS
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.
ELEMENTS
OF
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.
BY
E. G. LATHAM, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Ac,
LATE FKLLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; ANU LATE PaOFESSOE OP ENGLISH
IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON.
Library,
LONDON:
WALTON AND MABERLY,
UPPER GOWER STREET, AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW;
LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, AND GREEN,
PATERNOSTER ROW.
1862.
Tlie, Right of Translation is Reserved.
P/O-/
HIS IMPERIAL HIGHNESS
THE PEINCE LOUIS LUCIEN BONAPAETE,
EMIFENT FOR THE ZEAL AND EFFICIENCY
WITH WHICH HE HAS CONTRIBUTED TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF
SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT BRANCHES OP
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY,
as well as in recognition op much special information, freely
imparted,
London,
June ith, 1862.
PREFACE.
Tbe object of the present work is to lay before the
reader the chief facts and the chief trains of reasoning
in Comparative Philology.
This last term is by no means unexceptionable. It has
the merit, however, of being in general use, and it con-
veys no notions which materially mislead even the most
uncritical. Neither is it, by any means, an easy matter
to supersede it by one which shall be exactly adequate
to the subject. Those which have suggested themselves
to the present writer or to others convey either too
much or too little.
That such a work is wanted is known to every
student. Since the publication of the Mithridates, no
work equally extensive and systematic has appeared :
nor has the Mithridates itself been re-edited with the
proper annotations or additions.
The main mass of facts lies in the details of the lan-
guages themselves. Of these details, the ones wdiich
best suit a general exposition are the actual enu-
meration of the existing forms of speech and the
phenomena connected with their distribution over the
earth's surface ; the phenomena of their distribution,
taken by themselves, being of great importance and
interest. In some respects they are ethnological rather
than philological in the strictest sense of the term. They
viii PREFACE.
must, however, be known before even the rudiments of
the subject can be studied ; and it is plain that they
must be known in their integrity. Any important
omission would damiage the systematic exhibition of
the whole. There is no language which does not illus-
trate some other ; and the least that is required of any
general investigator is that he should know the details
of his subject-matter — not some, but all.
I notice this, because the purely descriptive portion
of the work fills more than six-sevenths of the volume ;
and has the appearance of starving the remainder, A
larger work would have removed this disproportion.
Still, with languages and dialects as numerous as they
are, the preliminary exposition must be accommodated
to the multiplicity of its details. In some cases, no
doubt, space might have been saved. In languages,
however, which are either known from only a single
specimen or are on the verge of extinction I have given
more than I should have done otherwise.
The words which are selected as samples are not
chosen on a priori principles. This means that I have
not assumed that the names of certain parts of the
body, of the sun, moon, &;c., are the oldest and most
permanent parts of a language without an approach
to something like a preliminary trial. I have not
assumed beforehand that they are what is sometimes
called words of primary necessity. On the contrary,
I have actually tried by the comparison of allied
languages what words are the most permanent. It is
only, however, where the materials were sufficient that
I could thus pick and choose. In many cases, especially
with the languages of South America, I have been fain
to take what I could find.
I must also add, that the short lists of the present
work are not intended to represent the evidence upon
which the affinities between the languages which they
illustrate is founded. For this they are insufficient. They
PREFACE. ix
are rather meant as simple examples. Still, even as
evidence, they are valid so far as they show likeness.
A few words are enough for this. To predicate difference
a greater number i's required. It follows, however,
from the fact of their being the words which are con-
spicuous for their permanence, that, as a general rule,
languages, when taken altogether, are less alike than a
list of selected words makes them.
Failing to find a vocabulary, I have occasionally
given a Paternoster as an illustration ; and here the
converse is the case. Languages, as a general rule, are
Tnore alike than the comparison of their Paternosters
suggests.
As for the words themselves, I am, for an in-
ordinately large proportion of them, simply under the
guidance of my authorities : indeed, many forms of o^
speech are known only from a single specimen, often the
contribution of an imperfect investigator. Upon the
whole, however, I have found that they are sufficient
for the purpose. At any rate, inaccurate specimens
conceal, rather than exaggerate, affinities.
The several groups, or classes, as given in the classifi-
cation of the present volume, so far as they depart from
the ones in general currency, may be divided into three
classes.
1. The first contains those where the nuinivfium
amount of positive evidence is required. Here, the
criticism deals with the real presumptions in favour of
my own view as opposed to those against it. This
means little more than the expression of an opinion
that the current doctrine is, in itself, improbable ; that
the onus probandi lies with those -who assert, rather
than with those who decline to admit, it ; and that, on
the part of those with whom the onus lies, the case
has not been made. It is clear that this is a criticism
of the common grounds of assent rather than a matter
of philological fact.
X PREFACE.
2. The second contains those members which have
the probabilities on their side, but which, from want
of data, are susceptible of having their position im-
proved, if not absolutely altered, when our knowledge
increases. The South-American languages especially
belong to this division. There is some evidence in
favour of their being what they are here made ; but
that evidence is sufficient only because it coincides with
the a priori presumptions.
8. The third class (and this more especially applies
to the speculations on the original extent of. the Slavonic
and Lithuanian languages) is not only opposed to
common opinion but has no presumptions in its favour
— except, of course, such as show themselves when the
fact is known, and which are, really, no true presump-
tions at all. It is the intention of the author, if oppor-
tunities permit, to mend the evidence on these points.
The second part, or the part which treats of lan-
guage in general, is short. This arises (as aforesaid)
from the great amount of preliminary detail which
was absolutely necessary. The notice, however, short
as it is, goes at once, to the two main problems, the
origin of inflections and the origin of roots. Of the
ground covered by these questions it only gives a
general view, along with a few suggestions as to the
method by which it is to be explored.
What now follows is the qualification of an expres-
sion which will frequently occur, and one which, without
explanation, may seem to savour of arrogance. I often
allude to what I call the current opinion ; and I gene-
rally do so to condemn it.
The notice, however, does not mean that all the world
is wrong, and that it is the mission of the present in-
quirer to set it right. Current opinion merely means
the doctrine laid down in partial treatises, popular
works, and other productions, which either fail to give a
sufficiently general view of the subject, or are taken
PREFACE. XI
from second-band, or third-hand sources; the doctrine
of laymen, amateurs, and speculators, rather than pro-
fessed philologues, responsible authorities, and cautious
critics. With many of these latter, I unwillingly differ.
Still, wherever I consider myself right, I give every one
else the credit of being so, who, with a first-hand know-
ledge of the subject, has not committed himself to any
of the notions I have objected to.
The same principle is extended to what may be called
discoveries. -As a general rule, they belong so tho-
roughly to the domain of common-sense, that, with a
scientific method, they come of themselves, and, so
doing, carry with them but slight claims for bold origin-
ality and the like heroic qualities. Where I am right
in any view not generally received, I am, unless the con-
trary be expressly stated, an independent witness : and,
in claiming this for myself, I award the same merit
(such as it is) to others. Where the line of inquiry lies
in a right direction, any amount of similar results may
be obtained by independent investigatoi-s ; and that many
good results are actually thus obtained is certain. Philo-
logical papers are spread over such a vast variety of
periodicals, monographs, and difierent works in different
languages, that the mere search for them is a matter
of time and labour — to which favourable opportunities
must be added. If, then, I pass over many important
observations without special reference to the observer,
I do it without, at all, implying that my own are either
the only or the earliest ones. I often find them in
other writers ; but I have never encouraged the notion
that they were borrowed. A like liberal construction
is what I ask from others. The history of the opinions
connected with any department of knowledge is one
thing ; the investigation of the facts themselves is
another ; and, in proportion as any branch of know-
ledge advances, agreement independent of communica-
tion increases.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Dialects and Languages. — Stages of Languages. — General Distribution.
— Large, Small, and Medium Areas. — Insular and Continental Distri-
bution.— Obliteration of Intermediate Forms. — Classification by Type
and Definition. — General View of Seven Great Divisions. — The Class
Natural ........... 1
CHAPTER II.
Bhot and Burmese Group. — Bhot of Bultistan, Ladak, Tibet Proper, and
Butan. — Written and Spoken. — Local Dialects. — Changlo. — Serpa. —
Tak.— Maniak. — Gyarung. — Tochu. — Hor ..... 11
CHAPTER III.
Nepalese and Sikkim Languages. — Gurung and Murmi. — Magar and
BramM. — Chepang. — Hayti. — Kusunda. — Newar and Pahari. —
Kiranti and Limbu. — Lepcha. — Dhimal. — Bodo. — Garo. — Borro. —
Sunwar ........... 19
CHAPTER IV.
Languages of Assam. — Northern Frontier. — Aka, Dofla, and Abor. —
Miri. — Mishmi. — Soutbern Frontier. — Kasia. — Mikir. — Angami. —
Nagas. — Singpho 28
CHAPTER V.
Continuation of the Garo Line. — The Khumia, Old and New Kuki. — The
Continuation of the Naga Line. — Munipur Group. — Koreng, Luhuppa,
Tankhu, Khoibu, &c. — ^The Karens. — The Burmese Proper . . 36
CHAPTER VI.
The Thay, or Siamese, Group. — Its Extent and Direction. — The Siamese
Proper.— The Laos.— The Khamti.— The Ahom.— The Shans.— The
Palaong. — Cultivation of the Siamese Proper 50
XIV CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VII.
PAGE
The Mon Language of Pegu. — The Kho of Kambojia, — Their original
Continuity ........... 56
CHAPTER VIII.
The Andaman Islanders . . . . . . . . .58
CHAPTER IX.
Cochin-China, or Annam, and Tonkin ...... 61
CHAPTER X.
China. — Canton, Fokien, and Mandarin Dialects. — Stages. — Are there
any? — Gryami. — Tanguti . . . . . . . . 63
CHAPTER XL
Observations on the preceding Oroups. — Brown's Tables. — Affinity be-
tween the Burmese and Tibetan. — Direction of the Chinese. — Nearest
congeners to the Malay. — Indian Affinities of the Mon . . .68
CHAPTER XII.
The Tungtis Class. — Mantshfi and Orotshong. — Orthography of Castren's
Tungfis Grammar .......... 72
CHAPTER XIII.
The Mongol Class. — Mongolian Proper, — Buriat. — Olot. — Aimauk. —
Pelu.— Sok 83
CHAPTER XIV.
The Yeniseians. — Objections to the Name Ostiak. — Castren's Researches.
— Northern Branch. — Inbazk, Denka, and Pumpokolsk Vocabularies of
the Asia Polyglotta. — Southern Branch. — TheAssan. — Kot. — Castren's
Discovery of a Kot Village. — The Ara Legend." — Kanskoi and Kamas-
sintzi Vocabularies. — The Grlosses Kot and Kem. — Speculations as to
the original Extent of the Yeniseian Area ..... 88
CHAPTER XV.
The Turk Languages. — Import of the Term.— The Uighur. — Tshagatai.
— Uzbek. — Turcoman. — Khirghiz. — Barabinski. — Tshulim. — Teleut.
— Koibal. — Karagas. — Soyony . — Yakut. — Bashkir. — Kasan. — Nogay.
— Meshtsheriak. — Kumuk. — Kuzzilbash. — Cumanian . . .98
CHAPTER XVI.
The Yukahiri 117
CHAPTER XVII.
The Ugrian Class. — Its Importance and Peculiarities. — Castren's Re-
searches.— The Samoyed Division 125
CONTENTS. XV
CHAPTER XVIII.
PAGB
The Ugrian Class. — The Ostiak, the Vogul, and the Magyar . . .138
CHAPTER XIX.
The Volga Fins.— The Mordvin.— The Tsherimis 147
CHAPTER XX.
The Votiak, Permian, and Zirianian . . . . . . .150
CHAPTER XXI.
The Fin Proper. — Division into Tavastrian and Karelian. — The Tver
Dialect.— The Vod.— The Estonian 152
CHAPTER XXII.
The Lap of Norwegian, Swedish, and Russian Lapland . . . 161
CHAPTER XXIII.
The Peninsular Languages. — Korean. — Japanese and L6ch6. — Aino or
Kurilian.— Koriak and Kamskadal 165
CHAPTER XXIV.
General Observations on the preceding Languages. — Value of the Class.
— Original Turk, Mantshfi, Yeniseian, and Ugrian Areas . . .175
■ CHAPTER XXV.
The Darahi (Denwar) and Kuswar. — The Paksya and Tharu. — The
Kooch 179
CHAPTER XXVI.
The Kol Group.— Its Affinities with the Mon 183
CHAPTER XXVII.
The Khond Class. — Khond. — Gadaba and Yerikala. — Savara . . 185
CHAPTER XXVIII.
The Ghonds 188
CHAPTER XXIX.
Uraon and Rajamahali ......... 199
CHAPTER XXX.
The Tamul Class. — Telugu or Telinga. — Tamul Proper. — Malayalim. —
Canarese. — Tulu or Tulava. — Rude Tribes. — Tuda. — Budugur. —
Irular.— Kohatar . ' 202
CHAPTER XXXI.
TheBrahfii 210
XVI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXXII.
PAGE
Languages akin to the Hindi, — Its Dialects. — The Punjabi, — The Hindos-
tani,— The Gujerathi.— The Marathi. —The Bengali, &c.— The Uriya .216
CHAPTER XXXIII.
The Singalese,— The Rodiya,— The Maldivian . . . . .232
CHAPTER XXXIV.
The Paropamisan Group. — The Dard Branch. — The Shina. — The Deer and
Tirhai, — The Arniya or Kashkari, — The Cohistani or Lughmani and
Pashai.— The Siaposh 236
CHAPTER XXXV.
The Languages pf certain migratory Populations of India . . . 245
CHAPTER XXXVI.
The Gipsy 248
CHAPTER XXXVII.
The Kajunah . .250
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
The Pushtu, Patau, or Afghan . _ 252
CHAPTER XXXIX.*
The Persian. — The Huzyaresh, — The Parsi. — The Modern Persian, — The
Biluch.— The Kurd, —The Buruki 254
CHAPTER XL,
The Iron 264
CHAPTER XLI,
The Armenian ..,.,.,.... 266
CHAPTER XLII.
The Dioscurian Group, — Meaning of the Term. — Georgian Division . 268
CHAPTER XLIII.
The Dioscurian Group. — Lesgian Division 271
CHAPTER XLIV.
The Dioscurian Group. — The Tshetsh Division. — Grammatical Structure
of the Tushi 274
CHAPTER XLV.
The Dioscurian Group, — The Tsherkess, or Circassian, Division . . 279
CONTENTS. xvii
CHAPTER XLVI.
PAGE
The Malay and its more immediate Congeners. — The Tshampa. — Samang.
— Nicobar, — Silong. — Malay of the Malayan Peninsula. — Of Sumatra.
— The Rejang and Lampong. — Of the Malagasi of Madagascar. — Of
the small Islands off Sumatra. — From Java to Timor . . . 283
CHAPTER XLVII.
Languages of Borneo, &c., to Ceram .,...,. 305
CHAPTER XLVIII.
The Languages of the Sulu Archipelago. — Phillipines. — Formosa . , 312
CHAPTER XLIX.
Micronesia. — Tobi, — The Pelew Islands.— The Caroline and Marianne (or
Ladrone) Archipelagoes. — The Polynesia 320
CHAPTER L.
The Papua Class. — Gruebe, &c, — New Guinea. — New Ireland, &c., to
New Caledonia 329
CHAPTER LI.
The Viti, or Fiji, Group. — Its Relations to the Polynesian and the
Papua ............ 345
CHAPTER LII.
The Australian Group ......... 350
CHAPTER LIII.
Van Dieman's Land, or Tasmania 362
CHAPTER LIV.
Review of the preceding Class. —Its Characteristics, Divisions, and Value.
— The so-called Negritos 372
CHAPTER LV.
Languages of America. — The Eskimo.— The Athabaskan Dialects. —The
Kitunaha. — The Atna. — The Haidah, Chemmesyan, Wakash, and Chi-
nuk ... ........ 384
CHAPTER LVI.
Languages of Oregon and California. — Cayds, &c. — Lutuami, &c. —
Ehnek. — Weitspek. — Kulanapo. — Copeh. — Pujuni, &c. — Costano, &c.
— Eslen.— Netela.— San Diego, &c 404
CHAPTER LVII.
Old California -. . 422
b
xviu CONTENTS.
CHAPTER LVIII.
PAGE
Languages of Sonora, — Mexico. — Guatimala. — Honduras. — Nicaragua,
* &c. . . . .427
CHAPTER LIX.
Sahaptin, Paduca, and Pueblo Languages ...... 439
CHAPTER LX.
Languages between the Athabaskan, tbe Rocky Mountains, and the At-
lantic.— The Algonkin. — The Sioux. — The Iroquois. — The Catawba,
Woccon, Uche, Natchez, Chetimacha, Adahi, and Attacapa Languages.
— The Pawni, Riccari, and Caddo. — The Languages of Texas . . 447
CHAPTER LXI.
Languages of South America. — New Grrenada. — The Quichua. — The Ay-
mara.— The Chileno.— The Fuegian 478
CHAPTER LXII.
Languages of the Orinoko, Rio Negro, and Northern Bank of Amazons.
— Yarura, &c. — Baniwa. — Juri. — Maipur. — Carib. — Salivi. —
Warow. — Taruma. — Iquito. — Mayoruna. — Peba. — Ticuna, &c. . . 485
CHAPTER LXIIL
The Moxos, Chiquitos, and Chaco Languages 499
CHAPTER LXIV.
Languages of Brazil. — Guarani. — Other than Guarani. — Botocudo, &c. —
Languages neither Guarani nor Botocudo. — The Timbiras. — The Sa-
buja, &c. ........... 507
CHAPTER LXV.
General Remarks on the American Languages ..... 517
CHAPTER LXVI.
The Semitic Languages. — The Phenician and Punic. — The Hebrew and
Samaritan. — The Assyrian and Chaldee. — The Syriac. — The iEthiopic
and Amharic. — Gafat. — Arabic. — Hururgi, the Amazig or Berber . 524
CHAPTER LXVII.
The Agau, Agaw, or Agow, and Falasha. — The Gonga Dialects. — The
Kekuafi 542
CHAPTER LXVIIL
The Coptic. — The Bishari. — The Nubian Languages. —The Shilluk,
Denka, &c.— The Mobba and Darrunga. — The Galla Group.— The
Dizzela, Dalla, Shankali or Shangalla 546
CONTENTS. XIX
CHAPTER LXIX.
PAGE
The KaflSr Class of Languages 558
CHAPTER LXX.
The Bonny, Brass Town, Ibo, and Benin Languages, — The Mandingo,
Accra, Krepi, Kru, &c. — Remarks on the Mandingo Class. — The Beg-
harmi. — Mandara, — Kanuri. — Hawssa. — Sungai. — Kouri. — Yoruba. —
Tapua or Nufi.— Batta— Fula, &c.— The SerawuUi.— Woloff, &c.—
Hottentot 567
CHAPTER LXXI.
The Hottentot 598
CHAPTER LXXII.
On the African Languages in General . 599
CHAPTER LXXIII.
The Indo-European Languages (so-called). — The Skipitar, Arnaut, or
Albanian ........... 605
CHAPTER LXXIV.
The Sanskrit. — Persepolitan. — Pracrit. — Pali. — Kawi.— Zend . . 608
CHAPTER LXXV.
The Lithuanic Division of the Sarmatian Class. — The Lett, Lithuanian,
and Prussian . 623
CHAPTER LXXVI.
The Slavonic Division of the Sarmatian Class. — The Russian, Servian,
and Illyrian. — The Slovak, Tshek, Lusatian, and Polish. — The Kassub
and Linonian 627
CHAPTER LXXVII.
The Latin and the Languages derived from it.— The Italian. — Spanish. —
Portuguese. — French. — Romance. — Romanyo ..... 632
CHAPTER LXXVIII.
The Greek 651
CHAPTER LXXIX.
The German Class.— The Mo3Sogothic. — The High and Low German. —
The Anglo-Saxon and English. — The Frisian. — The Norse, or Scan-
dinavian . 658
CHAPTER LXXX.
The Keltic Languages. — British Branch. — Gaelic Branch . . . 664
b 2
XX CONTENTS.
CHAPTER LXXXI.
PAGK
The Bask, Basque, or Biscayan . . . . . . . ,675
CHAPTER LXXXTI.
General Remarks upon the Indo-European Class . . . . . 689
PART 11.
CHAPTER I.
Language in Greneral. — Stages , . 697
CHAPTER II.
On Classes .706
CHAPTER III.
Analytic and Synthetic View of Methods. — Origin of Derivatives and of
Roots.— Of Derived Forms, Voice, &c 713
CHAPTER IV.
Roots 728
Addenda and Corrigenda .753
Index 758
TABULAE VIEW
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS,
FIRST PRIMARY GROUP.
Tibetan and Burmese.
Tibetan.
Bultistani of Little Tibet — Ladakhi, Tibetan — written (or older) ; spoken
(or newer) — Butani or Lhopa {divisions chiefly political) — Clianglo,
Bhot of Kunawer. Milchan — Theburskud — Sumchti.
Serpa [details doubtful). Tbaksya — Sunwar.
Eastern Bbot {transitional to Burmese). Takpa — Manyak — Thochu—
Gryami.
Northern Bhot. Hor,
Nepalese.
(a) Gurung — Murmi ; (6) Magar — Bramhd ; (c) Chepang— Vay6 — Kusunda
{Nepalese leading to Northern India) ; {d) Newar — Pahri {do.) ; (e) Kirata —
Limbu {do.) ; (/) Lepcha {leading to Asam) ; (g) Dhimal — Bodo — Borro —
Garo {leading to Singpho through Jili).
Asam, <Cr.
Dofla, Abor, and Aka. Miri {on the northern frontier) ; Angami {Naga, so-
called, on the southern),
Tayung and Mijhu Dialects {languages) of the Mishmi.
(?) Deoria Chutia,
Manipur, d;c,
Kasia. Mikir.
Jili {running westward through the Garo) — Singpho — Kakhyen.
Naga Dialects {so-called) minus the Angami {see above) and the Mithan
{Singpho or transitional) — numerous.
Koreng— Songpu— Luhuppa — North Tankhul — Khoibu — Maring — Kapwi
— Maram — Manipur.
Kuki and Luncta — Mru — Kami and Kumi — Sak — Shendu — Khyen.
Rukheng (Arakan) — Burmese Proper.
Sgau — Pwo — Thoting-lhu,
xxii TABULAR VIEW OF
Siamese.
Ahom — Khamti — Shan — Laos — Siamese Proper — Palaoung.
M6n.
Mon of Pegu— Kha — Khong of Kambojia.
Islands.
(?) Andaman.
(?) Carnicobar.
Chinese and Oochinchinese.
Anam of Cochinchina and Tonkin.
Chinese.
SECOND PEIMAKY GROUP (Tueanian).
Tungus — Mongol — Turk.
(?) Yeniseian. 1. Northern Branch of the Sim and the Pit, &c. 2. South-
ern Branch — Assan — (extinct) Arini — [extinct) Kot.
(?) Tshuvash.
(?) Yukahiri.
t/grian.
Samoyed. South-eastern; Motorian (extinct) — Koibal (do.) — Kamass.
South-western (Ostiak, improperly so-called) — Northern; Yeniseian — Tawgi
— Yurak.
Ostiak — ^Vogul — Hungarian (Magyar).
Mord vin — Tsherimis — Votiak .
Permian and Zirianian — Karelian — Tavastrian and Quain — Fin — Vod — Es-
tonian— Lief.
Lap.
Peninsular.
Korean.
Japanese — Lfichu.
Aino of Sagalin — of Kuriles — Kamtshatka.
Gilyak (?) Koriak — Kamtshatkan (leading through the Aleutian to the
Eskimo).
THIED PRIMARY GROUP.
Indian.
(1.)
Languages with the Sanskrit element not sufficiently large to make their oingin
Den war and Darahi — Tharu — Kuswar — Pakhya — Kooch.
Ho (Kol) of Singbhum— Suntal, &c.
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS. xxiii
Khond — Gadaba — Yerakali — Savara (more Kol than the others though
further South) &c. — leading to Telugu.
Ghond.
Uraon — Rajmahal.
Telinga or Telugu — Tamul — Malayalim — Canarese — Tuda — Budugar —
Irular — Kohatar — Kodagu or Curgi — Tulava.
Brahui.
Cant languages, and languages of migratory Indian Tribes.
Thug — Bagwan — Taremuki — Korawi — Ramus! — Mang — Nut — Katodi —
Bowri — Guhuri — Gypsy. Khurbat and Duman of Persia ; Ghager, Helebi,
and Nawer of Egypt, &c.
(2.)
With a proportion of Sanskrit sufficiently large to make their origin disputed.
Cashmirian — Hindi — Punjabi, &c., and Bengali of Asam — as spoken in
Arakan — Uriya (Udiya) — Gujerati — Catch {leading to Sind) — Sindhi =
Siraiki — Lar — Marathi (Mahratta)— Konkani.
Singalese — Rodiya — Maldive.
*******
Swauti — Shina — Dir — Tirhai.
Kashkari (Dard) — Arniya — Kashkari — Chitrali.
Kaferistani — Siaposh.
Cohistani — Lughman — Pushai .
( ?) Kajunah,
Persian.
Pushtu Patan, or AlFghan ; eastern and western — Biluch — Persian (general
language) — dialects of Tajiks out of Persia, Baraki, &c. — Kurd.
(?) Iron.
Dioscurian.
Armenian.
Georgian, Kartulinian — Mingrelian and Imeretian — Suanetian — Lazistani.
Tushi— Ingtish— Tshetsh.
Kabardinian — Tserkess Proper.
Adige, Abchazi — Tepanta.
Avar — Anzukh — Tsari— Andi, &c. — Dido and Unso — Akush — Kasikumuk
— Kurali.
FOUETH PRIMARY GROUP (Oceanic).
Malay, <&c.
Samang of Juru of Kedah.
Silong — Nicobar.
Malay (general language) — Tshamba — Jakun — Atshin — Singkal— Pakpak
Toba and Banjak Batta — Korinchi — Rejang — Lampong (with Javanese ele-
XXIV TABULAR VIEW OF
ments) — Ulu — Lubu (unlettered) — Nias — Maruwi — Poggi, or Mantawa,
Islands — Enganho (outlying) — Sunda — Madura — Sumenap — Javanese — Bali
— Sasak — Bima — Sumbawa — Timbora — Ende — Mangarei (one of the first
languages of the series in which Australian icords were observed) — Ombay
(see Mangarei) — Solor — Savu — Roth — Timur — Manatoto — Timorlant — Kissi
— Baba (Bebber) — Key Doulan — Wokan, &c.
Borneo — Parts about Labuan — Banjermassin — Kayan of Centre — Nortbern
districts.
Celebes. Bugis — Mandhar — Macassar — Menadu (dialects numerous) — Gu-
nong-Tellu— Buton — Amboyna — Saparua — Temati — Tidor — Ceram— Halma-
hera or Grilolo.
Sulu — Bissay an — Iloco — Cayagan — Tagala — Umiray — D umagat, &c . —
Bashi.
Formosan = Sideia and Favorlaug.
Micronesia.
Tobi — Pelews — Gruaham — Chamor — Ulea — Yap — Satawal.
Mille — Tarawan — Fakaafo and Vaitupu.
Polynesia.
Samoan (Navigators" Isle) — Marquesas — Kanaka (Sandwich Isles) — Tonga
— Tahitian — Paumotu — Maori — Easter Island— Wabitao — Mayorga— Ticopia
— Cocos Island — E-otuma.
Papuan.
Guebe — Waigiu — Parts about Port Dorey — Lobo — Utanata — Mairassis —
Triton Bay— Onin-^Miriam — Eedscar Bay and Dufaure Islands — New Ire-
land and Port Praslin — Bauro and Guadalcanar — Vanikoro — Tanema and
Taneama — 'MallicoUo— Tanna — Annatom — Erromango — Lifu and Mare —
Baladea — Dauru.
Fiji.
Australian.
Cape York — Massied — Kowrarega and Gudang — Moreton Bay— Sidney
— Muruya— Peel — Batburst — Mudji — Kamilaroi (Wellington) — Wiradurei —
Lake Macquarie — Witouro — Woddowrong — Koligon — Jhongwborong — Gnu-
rellean — Corio — Coliak — Lake Hindmarsh — Pinegorine — Dautgart — Lake
Mundy — Molonglo — Boraiper — Yakkumban — Aiawong — Pai-nkalla — Head of
Bight — ^W. Australia — Port Philip — King George's Sound, &c.
Tasmanian — Eastern, Western, Northern and Southern dialects.
FIFTH PRIMARY GROUP (American).
Aleutian.
Kadiak — Kuskutshewak — Tstu-gatsi —Labrador, Greenlandic — Namollo.
Athcibaskan.
Kenay — Kutshiu (Loucheux) — Dog-rib, Slave, Beaver, Chepewyan Proper,
Takulli — Tsikanni— Sussi.
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS. xxv
Atna — Koltshani — Ugalents.
Tlatskanai — Umkwa— Kwaliokwa.
Navaho — HUpa — Apatsh — Pinalero — Jecorilla.
Oregon.
Kitunaha.
Kolush — Sitkan — Skittegats — Chemmesyan — Haidah — Hailtsa and Hailt-
zuk — Wakash — Chinuk — Watlala.
Shusliwap. Selish — Okanagan — Spokan — Piskwaus — Billecliula — Skitsuish
— Skwali— Kowelitsk — Tsihaili — Nsietshawus.
Jakon.
Kalapuya — Willamet {ahin to) Molele — Cayus and Wailatpu {leading to
Sahaptin and Wihinast).
Lutuami.
Shasti — (ahin to Copeh) Palaik (aJcin to Wihinart) — Bonak.
California,
Ehnek.
Talewah.
Weitspek — Wishosk and Weiyot.
Copeh— Mag Readings— Upper Sacramento — Cushna — PujunI— Secumne —
Tsamak — Talatui — San Raphael — Tshokoyem ( Jukiousme) — Sacramento —
Choweshak — Batemdakai — Yukai — Kulanapo— Khwaklamayu.
Coconoons — Tulare.
Costano —Santa Clara — Eslen — Ruslen — Mutsun — Carmel — Soledad -^ San
Antonio — San Miguel — San Luis Obispo — Santa Inez — Los Pueblos — Santa
Barbara — San Fernando — Los Angeles.
San Gabriel (Netela). San Juan Capistrano (Kij).
San Luis Rey.
San Diego, or Dieguno — Cocomaricopas — Yuma — Mohave.
Old California.
Cochimi of San Xavier — San Borgia — Loretto — Waikur — Ushita? —
Pericu.
Sonora, d-c.
Pima — Opata — Eudeve — Seres — Hiaqui — Cahita — Tubar — Tarahumara —
Cora.
Otomi — Mahazui.
Mexican.
Huasteca. Maya — Katchiquel — Quiche or Utlateca — Zutugil or Zacapula —
Atiteca — Chorti — Mam — Manche — Popoluca — Tzendal — Lacondona — Ache — ■
Zapoteca ?
Pirinda — Tarasca.
Totonaca — Mixteca — Mixe ?
Lenca. Guajequiro — Opatoro— Intibuca.
Nagranda. Chorotega — Wulwa— Waikna.
XXVI TABULAR VIEW OF
Savaneric. Bayano.
Cunacuna.
Cholo.
Paduca class,
Wallawalla — Kliketat — Sahaptin — Wihinasht — Shoshoni — TJta — Pa-uta
— Cheniuhuevi — Cahuillo — Cumanch.
Algonkin class.
Blackfoot. Arapaho.
Shyenne — Cree — Ojibwa — Nipissing — Old Algonkin — Messisaugi — Ot-
tawa— Knistinaux — Potowattami — Sheshatapush — Skoffi — Montagnards.
Bettuck.
Menomeni — Sack and Fox — Kikkapu — Ilinois — Miami — Wea — Piankeshaw
— Shawni — Micmac — St. Jolin's— Etshemin — Abnaki— Passamaquoddy.
Matik — Massachusetts — Narraganset.
Minsi — Delaware — Lennilenape — Nanticokes — Susquehannok — Mohicans
— Manahok— Powhattan — Pampticough.
Sioux growp.
Upsoroka or Crow — Mandan— Assineboin — Yankton — Winehago — Dakota
—Osage— Quappa— Teton— loway—Omahaw — Minetari.
Iroquois group.
Wyandot — Huron.
Iroquois. Mohawk — Cayuga — Onondago — Seneca — Oneida — Tuscarora —
Nottoway — Hochalaga.
Woccon — Catawba— Cherokee — Chikkasah — Muskogulge— Choctah — Semi-
nole — Uche — Natchez — Chetimacha — Adahi — Attacapa.
Caddo — Witshita — Kichai — Hueco — Pawni — Riccaree.
South American.
Muysca or Chibcha — Correguage — Andaqui.
Quichua = Quiteno — Chinchasuya — Cauki — Lamano — Cuzcucano — Calcha-
qui.
Puquina — Yunga — Mochika.
Yamea — Mainas.
Aymara = Lupaca — Pacase — Canchi — Cana — Colla — CoUagua — Caranca —
Charca,
Araucanian — Puelche — Fuegian. Alikhdlip — Tekinica-
On the Orinoco^
Yarura— Betoi — Otoiaaka.
LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS. xxvii
On Rio Negro.
Baniwa of Isanna — Barree — Baniwa of the Javita — Baniwa of the Tomo
and Maroa — TJaenambeu or Mauhe — Juri— Coretu of Wallace — Coretu of
Balbi.
Maipur.
Maipur — Achagua — Pareni .
Carib.
Wapisiana — Gruinau — Maionk ong — Woyawai — "Wayamera — Macusi — Are -
cuna — Soerikong — Mawakwa — Accaway — Caribisi — Pianoghotto — Tiveri-
ghotto — AtOBia and Daurai — Tamanak — Carib — Jaoi — Arawak.
(?)
SaHvi — Macoa and Piaroa.
Warow.
Taruma.
Juripixnna — Iquito — Xumano ?
Mayoruna — tJrarina.
Peba — Yagua — Orejones.
Ticunas — Zapara — Yamea ?
On the Ucayale.
Fanos.
Head-waters of Beni.
Yuracares.
Between Andes and the Moxos area.
Sapiboconi. Antes.
Moxos.
Movima — Cayuvava — Itonama — Moxos — Canichana— Chapacura — Paca*
guara— (iV^or^A) Itenes {East).
Chiquitos.
Paioconeca (West) — Chiquitos {Central) — Otuke (Bast) — Zamucu {in direc*
tion of the Chaco).
Chaco.
Mataguaya {in direction of Chiquitos) — Vilela and Lule {in direction of
Aymara) — Mocobi and Toba — Mbaya or Guaycuru — Abiponian.
Brazilian not Guarani.
BoroTO. Guachi— Guato — Quskna, {in Matagrosso) . ? — Payagua (m Para-
guay).
On Tocantins.
Caraja — Apinages — Chuntaquiro, or Piro — Cherente and Chavante — Ca-
raho — Tocantins {in Goyaz) — Timbiras— Ge or Geiko — {in Para and Ma-
ranham).
Kiriri — Sabuja.
Botocudo — Jupuroca — Mucury — Naknanuk — Maconi — Mongoyos — Malali —
Machakali — Patacho — Camacan— Purus — Coroados— Coropos.
xxviii TABULAR VIEW OJF LANGUAGES, ETC.
SIXTH PRIMARY GROUP (African).
Phenician of Phenicia, of Carthage — Samaritan — Hebrew — Aramaic,
Syriac and Chaldee. Gheez — Tigrg — Amharic — Gafat. Arabic — Hururgi, &c.
Amazig or Berber — Si wall — Tunis — Tripoli — Algiers — Morocco — The Sa-
hara— The Canary Isles (extinct).
Agaw and Falasha.
Gonga — Kaifa — Woraita — Wolaitsa — Yangaro — Ukuafi.
Memphitic, Sahitic and Bashmuric dialects of the Coptic.
Bishari — Kenzy, Nlib and Dongolawy dialects of the Nubian — Koldagi of
Kordovan. Shabun — Fertit — Shilluk — Denka — Fazoglo or Qamamyl — Tu-
mali and Takeli — Dor — Nyamnam.
Mobba — Darrunga.
Danakil (Afer), Somauli and Galla.
Dizzela — Dalla — Shankali, or Shangalla, of Agaumidr,
Kaffir.
Wanika — Pacomo — Wakambo — Msambara — Msequa — Sohili — Suwael,
or Suwaheli — Makua — Meto — Maravi — Matalan — Kerimane, or Quilimane —
Inhambane dialects — Zulu — Kaffir Proper — Bechuana, Bayeiye {of great Lahe)
— Heriro {on Atlantic ahout Walwish Bay) — Benguela — Angola and Congo
dialects— Gabfin dialects — Otam {of Old Calabar) and allied dialects.
Bonny — Brass — Ibo — Benin and of Delta of Niger.
Dahomey dialects — Anfue — Widah — Mahi — Acra, or Gha, and Adampi
— Krepee or Kerrapay — Otshi dialects ; Akkim — Akwapim — Akwambu —
Fanti (Fetu) Borom — Amina — Avekvom of Ivory Coast — Kru — Grebo —
Bassa — Dewoi — Sokko — Kissi — Mendi — Vey — Mandingo — Bambarra — Jal -
lunka.
Ligurian. Venetian — Carnic.
SEVENTH PRIMARY GROUP (European).
L (?)Bask.
II. Indo-European (so-called).
A. Keltic.
B. — 1. Albanian or Skipitar.
2. German.
3. — A. Samiatian — Sanskrit — Lithuanic — Slavonic.
B. Latin and Greek, &c.
CHIEF AUTHORITIES
WORKS ALLUDED TO
Adelung — Mithridates .
Ahrens — De Grsecse Linguae Dialectis.
Arago (Jacques Etienne Victor) — Voyage autour du Monde,
Baer — Beitrage, &c. , Russian America.
Balbi — Introduction a 1' Atlas Ethnologique.
Balfour — Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Languages of
Wandering Tribes of India.
Barth — Travels in Africa.
Beitrage zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung auf dem Gebrete der Arischen,
Celtiscben, iind Slawischen Sprachen herausgegeben von A. Kuhn und A.
Schleicher, Berlin.
Beke — Transactions of the Philological Society of London. Abyssinian
Belcher (Sir Edward) — Voyage of the Samarang. Appendix.
Bille (Steen) — Reise um Jorden i Korvetten Galathee.
Biondelli — Saggio sui Dialetti Gallo-Italiani.
Bleek — De Nominum Generibus Linguarum Africse Australis, Copticse,
Semiticarum aliarumque sexualium. Bonnae, 1851.
Papers in Transactions of the Philological Society of London.
Bonaparte (Prince L. L). — Specimen Lexici Comparativi omnium Lin-
guarum. Europsearum Parabola de Seminatore ex Evangelio Sancti Mathsei in
Ixxii Europagas Linguas versa. Canticum Trium Puerorum in eleven Basque
Dialects. Gallician, Sardinian, and other translations of the Gospel, &c.
Brooke (Sir James) — Languages of Borneo.
Brown — Transactions of Asiatic Society of Bengal. Languages of Assam,
&c.
Transactions of American Oriental Society. Naga Languages.
XXX CHIEF AUTHORITIES AND
Buchanan — Asiatic Transactions. Languages of Burmese Empire.
Bulletin de la Glasse Historico-Philologico de I'Academie Imperial des
Sciences de St. Petersburg.
Burchardt — Travels in Nubia.
Buscbman — In Berlin Transactions. Athabaskan, Mexican, Califomian,
and Sonora languages.
Caldwell — Grammar of the Dravirian Languages.
Castelnau — Expedition dans les Parties Centrales de I'Amerique du Sud,
&c.
Castren — Buriat, Tongus, Samoyed, Yeniseian, Zirianian, Koibal and
Karagas grammars.
Clarke (John) — Specimens of Dialects, short vocabularies, &c., in Africa,
1849.
Crawford — Embassy to Ava ; to Siam ; Malay Dictionary ; Indian Archi-
pelago.
C rowther — Yoruba grammar and vocabulary. Edited by Bishop Vidal.
Cunningham — Ladak.
Denham — Narrative of Travels in North Africa. Begharmi and Mandara.
D'Orbigny — L' Homme Americain.
Eyre — Travels in Australia.
Fitzroy (Admiral)— Voyage of the Beagle and Adventure. Appendix by
Darwin,
Forest — Voyage to New Guinea.
Gabelentz — Die Melanesischen Sprachen. Ueber de Formasanische Sprache,
&c.
Gallatin — In Archaeologia Americana, and Transactions of the American
Ethnological Society.
Gerard — see Lloyd.
Gily — Saggio di Storia Americana, Otomaka, &c.
Guimaraes (J. J. da Silva) — Diccionario da Lingua Geral dos Indies de
Brasil, com di versos vocabularies, Bahia, 1854.
Hahn — Albanesche Studien.
Hale — Philology in the Exploring Expedition of the United States under
Captain Wilkes.
Hodgson (Brian) — Papers in Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Howse — Transactions of Philological Society of London. Kutani, and other
vocabularies.
Jukes — Voyage of the Fly.
Jiilg — Litteratur de Granmatiken, Lexica und Worterversamlungen aUers
Spracken der Erde, 1847.
King (Dr. Richard) — Bethuck Vocabulary — MS.
Klaproth — Asia Polyglotta.
Kolle — Bornu Grammar.
Larramendi Diccionario Trilingue del Castellano, Vascuence, y Latina.
1745.
Leach — Vocabularies of the Deer, Tirhai, &c., in the Transactions of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal.
WORKS ALLUDED TO. xxxi
Leake— Travels in the Morea.
Leyden— Asiatic Researches, Indo-Chinese Languages.
Lisiansky — Voyage round the World.
Logan — Papers in Journal of the Indian Archipelago.
Ludwig — The Literature of the American Aboriginal Languages.
Macgillivray — Voyage of the Rattlesnake.
Marsden — History of Sumatra — Miscellaneous Works.
Michel Franscique — Le Pays Basque, Paris.
Molina — Luis de Neve, Grammatica, Ragionata della Lingua Otomi con un
Vocabulario Spagnuolo, Italiano, Otomi.
Mosbleck — Vocabulaire Oceanien Fran^ais et Fran^ais Oceanien des dia-
lectes partes aux Isles Marquises, Sandwich, Gambler, &c.
Miiller, Max — Lectures on the Science of Language. Paper in Transactions
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
Newbold — Settlements in the Malayan Peninsula.
Osculati — Explorazione, &c., Zapara.
Petherick — Egypt, Soudan, &c. Nyamnam and Dor.
Pottinger — Travels in Beluchistan.
Raffles (Sir Stamford) — History of Java, Appendix.
Richardson (Dr.) — Expedition in Search of Sir J. Franklin.
Ridley — Transactions of the Philological Society of London. Kamilaroi
Language.
Riis — Elemente des Akwapim Dialects der Odschi Sprache.
Rosen — On the Iron, Lazic, Circassian, and Georgian.
Riippell — Reisen in Kordovan.
Salt — Travels in Abyssinia.
Scherzer (Dr. Karl) — Sprachen der Indianer Central Americas, Wien,
1855.
Schleicher — Handbuch der Lithauischen Sprache.
Schoolcraft — Indian Tribes.
Scouler — Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society. Oregon and
Hudson's Bay Country Vocabularies, collected by Mr. Tolmie.
Smith (Buckingham) —Grammar of the Heve (Eudeve) language translated
from a Spanish MS.
Spiegel — Grammatik der Huzvareschen Sprache. Grammatik der Parsi
Sprache.
Squier — Transactions of American Ethnological Society. On Central
America (Spanish Translation, in which alone the vocabularies for the Lenca
dialects are to be found). Monograph of Authors who have written on the
Languages of Central America, &c.
Stewart — Transactions of Asiatic Society of Bengal. Naga and other lan-
Tasmanian Journal of Natural History.
Tattam Egyptian Grammar — Lexicon iEgyptiaco-Latinum.
Tolmie — See Scouler.
Turner (Professor) — Report, &c.
xxxii CHIEF AUTHORITIES, ETC.
Tutschek, Lawrence, M.D, — A Grrammar of the Gralla Language, Munich,
1845.
Wallace — Narrative of Travels on the Amazon.
Williams (Monier) — Sanskrit Grammar.
Wilson (H. H.) — Ariana Antiqua. Papers in Transactions of Asiatic
Society.
Zeitschrift flir vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiete Deutschen,
Griechischen und Lateinischen — Herausgegeben von D. A. Knhn, Berlin.
COMPAKATIVE PHILOLOGY.
CHAPTER I.
Dialects and Languages.— Stages of Languages. — General Distribution.—
Large, Small, and Medium Areas. — Insular and Continental Distri-
bution.— Obliteration of Intermediate Forms. — Classification by Type
and Definition. — General View of Seven Great Divisions. — The Class
Natural.
There are slight differences of speecli between members
of the same family. Between different villages and
towns they increase, and they become greater still, when
there is a difference of tribe, clan, or nationality. What
this difference consists in varies with the circum-
stance of the case. It may be a difference of words, or
it may be a difference of pronunciation. Let a Scotch-
man, an Irishman, and an Englishman, utter a series of
sentences, consisting of exactly the same words, and a
difference of some kind or other will be the result — a
difference which some may call a difference of tone,
others, one of accent ; a difference for which the name
may be doubtful ; but, at the same time, a difference
which would make the speeches, if heard at a distance
too great to allow the exact words to be heard, look
like speeches in three different languages.
When differences of this kind reach a certain point,
they constitute dialects ; and when two forms of speech
differ so much as to be mutually unintelligible the result
is two different languages. Such, at least, is the rule in a
B
2 DIALECTS AND LANGUAGES.
rough form. I say in a rougJi, form, because both dialect
and language are vernacular, rather than technical,
terms ; terms, which, in some cases, mean less than in
others ; terms of which no exact definition has been given.
Nor is it recommended. On the contrary, latitude must
be allowed. So much depends upon the nature of the
subject spoken about, and so much on the aptitude of
the individuals speaking, that it is difficult to say when
mutual unintelligibility begins. Two dull men from
different parts of the same country may be puzzled over
an out-of-the-way proposition, where a quick wit, with
a simple question, would make easy work of things.
"When we talk of two dialects being either mutually
unintelligible, or the contrary, we should think of this.
The dialect itself is but one point. The speaker gives
us another : the subject under speech the third.
Sooner or later, however, the line of mutual intelligi-
bility is passed, whether for quick ears or slow, whether
for simple questions or complex ones ; and then we have,
under all conditions, a change of language. Many a
language, however, is little more than a dialect, with its
dignity augmented through certain extreme circumstances.
Its alphabet (for instance) may be peculiar. It may
represent a different nationahty. Its culture may be
independent. A Dane and a Swede can understand each
other ; but the Danish_can no more be called a dialect
of the Swedish, than the Swedish can be called a dialect
of the Danish.
It is safe, however, to consider such forms of speech
as are, in all cases, mutually unintelligible as different
languages ; and it would be scientific to treat each such
language as a philological unit, of which the dialects
and subdialects are the fractions. I say that this would
be scientific ; but I do not say tbat it would be conve-
nient, or, in all cases, practicable. We cannot, as has
just been stated, call such forms of speech as the Danish
and Swedish dialects : nor yet the Spanish and Portu-
STAGES OF LANGUAGE. 3
guese, nor yet many others. The philological relations
allow, the political relations forbid, us to do so.
The limitation at the other extremity is somewhat
more practicable ; though it is, by no means, without its
complications. That certain forms of speech, which, in
common parlance, are called dialects rather than lan-
guages, are mutually unintelligible, I believe ; though, at
the same time, I am sure that they are rarer than is
supposed. Are these to be called languages ? If so, it
is very possible that there may be more than one lan-
guage in both Italy and Germany ; in both Spain and
France ; possibly in both England and Scotland. How
far this is actually the case is another matter. The
question now under notice is the application of certain
terms to certain cases. It must not be too strict where
the form of speech is new, and the class to which it
belongs has been but little studied. We may say that
every mutually unintelligible form of speech supplies us
with a fresh language ; and, in languages of this kind,
Aft'ica and the New World abound. They are con-
veniently called languages, because we have never been
in the habit of talking about them as dialects ; in fact,
we have hardly talked about them at all.
If the phenomena of transition create difficulties in
our classification when we look to the geography of our
languages and dialects, still more do they do so when
we take cognizance of them in time. Changes of some
sort are always going on ; and, as long as any language
lasts, such changes afiect it — in the course of a single
generation but little, in the course of many genera-
tions, much. The result of this is, that extreme forms
differ notably ; intermediate ones notably or slightly, as
the case may be, i. e, as they approach each other. At
the point of contact, the difference is imperceptible.
The Latin of Ennius, and the Italian of Leopardi, are
the extremes of a long chain. So is the English of
the present writer and the Anglo-Saxon of ^Ifric.
B 2
4 DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGES.
That eacli gives us a different language is beyond doubt,
but it is also beyond doubt that there lias been no
period in the history of either the Italian or the English
when the speech of the grandson was unintelligible to
the grandfather, and vice versa.
Next to the difference between dialects, languages, and
groups, comes the notice of the general phenomena con-
nected with their distribution over the earth's surface.
They m.ay be studied in any one of the great continents.
They may be studied in the islands of the Indian Ocean
and the Pacific. They repeat themselves. Sometimes
there is a vast area with only a single language cover-
ing it. Sometimes there is a multiplicity of mutually
unintelligible forms of speech within the limits of a
narrow area. We find the illustration of this in poli-
tics. There are large homogeneous kingdoms, like
France. There is a concatenation of petty principalities,
like the German states. Hence, there are areas charac-
terized by uniformity of language spread over a large
surface ; and areas characterized by a multiplicity of
mutually unintelligible forms of speech spread over a
small one. Besides which, there are languages of a
moderate, or medium, area.
Some of these areas are continental, i. e. extend over
vast tracts of continuous land. Sometimes they are
oceanic, or spread over islands, archipelagoes, and chains
of archipelagoes. Between these two there is one im-
portant difference. Languages of a continent touch
each other at their circumferences and may or may not
graduate into each other. Languages of an archipelago
are definitely bounded. We always know where their
circumference is limited. The limit is the sea, and the
sea is mute.
The continental areas lead to another matter for con-
sideration. Why are the small, small? and the great,
great ?
Whatever may be the extent of the following fact, it
GROUPS. 5
is for certain great districts, an undeniable one. The
present writer may extend it further than others.
Every one, however, recognizes it as a fact of some ex-
tent, greater or less. Particular languages spread and
obliterate intermediate forms, and when these interme-
diate forms are obliterated, languages, originally different,
come in contact. The lines of demarcation then be-
come clear and clean.
At the present moment there are three languages
connected with each other indirectly, and that not very
remotely ; but, still, when compared with the inter-
mediate forms, separate, substantive languages — lan-
guages which no one can confound with each other. They
are the French of Paris, the Italian of Florence, the
Castilian of Madrid — three lettered and literary lan-
guages. The provincial forms of all these are both
numerous and well-marked, and at the circumferences of
their several areas they stand in strong contrast to the
central forms. In still stronger contrast do the northern
and southern, the eastern and the western patois stand to
each other, e.g. the Bearnais to. the Walloon, the Cala-
brian to the Sardinian, the Murcian to the Gallician —
the Gallician being, though a dialect of Spain, almost as
much Portuguese as Spanish. With differences like
these, it is probable that on the French and Spanish,
and the French and Italian frontiers there may be
dialects of which the philological position is ambigu-
ous ; dialects which, whilst they graduate towards the
French of Paris in one direction, are intelligible to the
speakers of dialects which graduate in the Castilian and
tlie Florentine on the other. Such is actually the case.
There is more than one patois of French Savoy which
may pass for a form of the Northern Italian ; but, on
the other hand, there are many dialects of Northern
Italy which may be called French. Again, there are
forms of the Proven9al which are quite as Spanish as
French.
6 CLASSIFICATION.
The line, then, of demarcation is in some cases ob-
scure or faint. Yet the forms of speech are grouped.
This is done by arranging them round some centre, and
calling them French, Italian, or Spanish, as the case
may be. To do this, is to classify according to type.
In this way the dialects of the French, and many other
languages may be classified : indeed, it is to dialects, or
languages that approach them, that the classification by
type best applies. The main languages, however, are
classified by definition, i. e. by such clear and un-
doubted lines of demarcation as separate the English
from the German, the Swedish fi:om the Dutch. Between
these there is no doubtful frontier.
Though it cannot be denied that a classification of
languages, according to the extent to which they simply
bear a likeness to each other, is practicable, it may
safely be said that, for all the ordinary classifications, they
go upon likeness, and something more. They go upon
either a real or supposed affinity . Nor is this difier-
ence unimportant. There is, between most languages, a
certain amount of liken,ess independent of any historical
connection. This means that a certain number of words
in different languages will be, more or less, like each
other, not because two or more tongues have borrowed
and lent, nor yet because one mother-tongue is at the
bottom of the whole, but because the human organism
(by which is meant the mind and the organs of speech
taken together), under certain conditions, acts with a
certain amount of regularity.
Again — languages, between which the relationship or
historical connection may be of the slightest, may re-
semble each other in points of great importance, simply
because they are both in the same stage of growth or
development.
The historical philologue looks upon languages and
dialects, as a genealogist looks upon sons and nephews,
uncles and cousins. If the family likeness coincide
CLASSIFICATION. 7
with any nearness of kinmanslnp, well and good ; but
it is not necessary that it do so. The grandson may
resemble the grandfather, rather than the father, and first
cousins may be liker each other than brothers and sisters.
If so, he takes the likeness as he finds it. He takes it
as he finds it ; inasmuch as it is a family tree, rather
than a family picture, with which he deals.
In one important point, however, this comparison
foils. The philologue who looks upon languages from the
historical point of view has, in most cases, to infer the
relationship from the likeness : in this respect resem-
bling the genealogist who is taken into a picture-gallery
and required to ascertain the degrees of relationship from
the similarity of feature or expression ; assisted in some
respect by the style of painting, the dress of the indivi-
dual, and other adjuncts.
For historical purposes the important parts of a lan-
guage are the details ; the details in the way of its
words, glosses, roots, or vocables ; its nouns and verbs ;
its adverbs and pronouns. Where these are common to
two languages, the chances are that the actual relationship
is in proportion to the extent of the community. This
means that 50 jper cent, implies a closer affinity than 40,
40 than 30; and so on. I give these figures chiefly for
the sake of illustration. Of the application of the nu-
merical system in general, I have no great experience —
except (of course) in a rough way. No percentage, how-
ever, is conclusive. To say this, is merely to say that
there are different rates, at which languages alter. If
so — the one which either drops or changes the meaning
of three words per annwni will lose its likeness to the
common mother-tongue, sooner than its congener which
drops or changes the same number in a decennium. Per-
centages, then, give presumptions only. When these
coincide with the geographical relations they improve.
With these preliminaries, we may lay the map of the
world before us, and mark out seven great areas ; — seven
8 CLASSIFICATIOJS".
great areas coinciding with seven long and broad lines of
definite and decided demarcation. Two of these, beinp*
effected by the ocean, rather than by displacement and
obliteration, command less importance than the rest.
They cut-ofi' the New World in the west ; and the islands
of the Indian Ocean and the Pacific in the south. For the
present, then, little need be said about either A merica or
Oceanica. Neither does Africa require any immediate
notice. Its Peninsular character simplifies its philology.
The other four areas lie in the great central nucleus
of Europe and Asia combined — Europe and Asia — Asia
and Europe. For the purposes of ethnology they form
but a single continent.
The Western division is the one with which we are
most familiar. It is bounded on the south and west by
the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and the German Ocean ;
on the north, by the line which divides Norway and
Sweden from Lapland and Finland. The Gulf of
Bothnia then follows, dividing Sweden and Finland.
Finland, though deeply indented by both Russia and
Germany, is not left behind us before we reach the
frontier of the Government of Yitepsk, whence our line
is continued along those of Smolensk, Moscow, Vladimir,
Riazan, Orlov, Voronezh, and Don Kosaks (in none
of which any language other than Russian is spoken),
until we reach the sea of Azov ; after which the Black
Sea, the Sea of Marmora, and the Greek Archipelago,
lead us to the Mediterranean, with which we started.
This includes Great Britain, France, Spain, Italy, Ger-
many, the valley of the Danube, and Greece — allowance
being made for the Turk and Hungarian, which are
intrusive. AU this really means Europe minus Lap-
land, Finland, and those Governments of Russia, in
which Ugrian languages in fragments still continue to
be spoken. The displacements that break up any pos-
sible transitions, which may originally have existed, are
nearly all effected by the encroachment of one language
CLASSIFICATION. 9
— the Russian ; tbe nearest approach to the original
status being in Yilna ; where the Lithuanic come almost
in contact with the Fin.
The great Northern area is, in Russia, conterminous
with the western ; Ugrian being spoken (in fragments,
and on spots like islands in a Russian Sea) in Curland,
Livonia, Estonia, St. Petersburg, Novogorod, Tver, Vo-
logda, Viatka, Nizhni Novogorod, Kazan, Penza, Tam-
bov, Saratov, and Astrakhan. Its southern boundary
is the northern ridge of Caucasus. Then comes the
Caspian Sea ; then the frontier between the Turks and
the Persians ; then the western and northern boundary
of Tibet ; then the western and northern ones of China.
This gives us the eastern part of European Russia, the
Governments of Caucasus and Orenburg ; Siberia, Mon-
golia, and Mantshuria. The boundary then becomes the
Sea of Okhotsk, and the northern parts of the Pacific up
to Behring's Straits. This means — roughly speaking —
northern Asia, with a large part of Europe.
The chief displacements here have been effected by
the spread of the Turk language ; which on the East has
done, in the way of the obliteration of possible tran-
sitions, aU that has been done by the Russian — all ;
if not more.
The South-eastern area (we unconsciously, but not
inconveniently, adopt the phraseology of the railway
engineer) begins with the northern frontier of China ;
and, as far as China and Tibet are concerned, is conter-
minous with the Northern, until we reach the extremity
of Tibet. It there, (or thereabouts,) crosses the Hima-
layas, so as to include Nepaul, and the Sub-himalayan
turais, and, at the head of the Bay of Bengal, takes the
sea as its boundary. After this, the coast (with the ex-
ception of the Malayan Peninsula) leads us round Ava,
Siam, and Cochin-China, to the original starting-point
near Pekin. The displacements here have been effected
by the Chinese and the Tibetan. The area included
1 0 CLASSIFICATION.
gives Tibet, Nepaul, the Trangangetic Peninsula, Asam,
Siam, Pegu, Cambogia, Cochin-China, and Cliina.
The South'ivestern area contains India, Persia, and
Caucasus ; and the displacing languages here are the
Indian, the Persian, and the Arabian ; the latter being
treated as African. Whether African or Asiatic, it
covers an enormous area, and has effected corresponding
displacements. The fact of its having done this is all
that is now under notice.
1. The languages of the Western group are all in an
advanced stage of development.
2. The languages of the Northern group are all in a
Tnedium state of development.
3. The languages of the South-eastern group are all
in an early stage of development.
With a view to their stage, the first are called Inflec-
tional, the second Agglutinate, the third Monosyllabic.
There are a few exceptions to this statement. As a
rule, however, it holds good.
To enlarge upon this would be to anticipate. A
notice, however, is by no means superfluous. It helps
to show that the groups are natural. So does the fact
that most of the languages of the first class are what
is called Indo-European ; most of the languages of the
second what is called Turanian.
TIBETAN, BHOT, AND BURMESE LANGUAGES. 11
CHAPTER II.
Bhot and Burmese Group,— Bhot of Bultistan, Ladak, Tibet Proper, and
Butan. — Written and Spoken. — Local Dialect?, — Changlo, — Serpa. —
Tak . — Maniak . — Gyarung. — Tochu. — Hor.
NowHEKE is it more necessary to remember the difference
between classification by the way of type and classifica-
tion by the way of definition than it is in the field
upon which we are now entering ; the field upon which
we break gi^ound in regard to the details of our subject.
Roughly speaking, this is that part of Asia which con-
tains Tibet and the Burmese Empire — a large and
irregular tract of country exhibiting great extremes
both in its political and its physical character. What
it is that connects them in the way of Philology we
shall see as we proceed.
If we look on to the predominant languages of this
vast region, and compare only the literary language of
Tibet with the literary language of Ava, nothing is
much easier than to draw clear and definite lines of de-
marcation between them. They are, at least, as diffe-
rent from each other as the Italian of Florence and the
French of Paris. But this is only because the forms
which we compare are extreme ones. The details of
the local dialects give us a very different result. They
give us, instead of neat and clean masses of separable
languages, transitions of various kinds and in numerous
directions ; in other words, they preclude the classifica-
tion by definition, and force us upon classification by
type.
The philological boundaries of Tibet are better
known than the geographical ; in other words, we
know, with the exception of the details of the extreme
12 TIBETAN, BHOT, AND BURMESE LANGUAGES.
east, all the languages with which the Bhot is conter-
minous. At its western extremity it is bounded by the
Cashmirian and the Dard, on the north-west by the
Turk of Chinese Turkestan, on the north-east by the
Mongolian, on the south by the Hindi, the Nepaul forms
of speech, the Dhimal, the Bodo, and the Garo. The
mountains that bound the valley of Asam to the north
are, more or less, Bhot. But of these, more will be said
in the sequel.
The word Bhot, or Bhotiya, meaning a Tibetan, is
the root of the words Butan and Bultistan ; Bultistan
being the Persian for the land of the Bultis, i. e. Little
Tibet.
In Bultistan, the creed is Mahometan, the frontier
Turk and Indian, the blood (apparently) more Paropar-
misan than the language. Of the literature and the
dialects I can say nothing, having seen no written com-
positions from Little Tibet. Neither can I say whetlier
the alphabet is exclusively Arabic. The dialect, how-
ever, for which we have any specimens, is that of Ladak ;
that of Ladak being that of Tibet in general.
In Ladak, both the creed and literature are Buddhist,
and the blood seems to be as purely Bhot as the lan-
guage. The political relations, however, are with Britisli
India and Cashmir, rather than with China ; and it is
only when we reach the Chinese parts of Tibet that
we find the Bhot characteristics at the maximum.
Here are preserved, in innumerable monasteries, heaps
upon heaps of Buddhist literature, in which translations
from the Sanskrit take an inordinate degree of promi-
nence. The alphabet in which they are written may
date from the second centur}^. It is of Indian origin ;
though, in its present state, a well-marked variety.
Between the Tibetan as it is written, and the Tibetan
as it is spoken, it is usual to draw a broad distinction,
inasmuch as the former either actually preserves, or
appears to preserve, a number of letters with which
tlie latter dispenses.
These are exhibitec
type.
English.
Wxitten Tibetan.
Spoken Tibetan.
Man
mi
mi
Head
mgo
go
Hair
skra
kra
Eye
mig
mik
Ear
sa
amch
Tooth
so
so
Blood
khrag
thak
Bone
ruspa
ruko
Hand
lagpa
lango
Foot
r kangpa
kango
Sun
nyima
nyima
Moon
2 lava
dawa
Star
s karma
karma
Fire
me
me
Water
chhu
chhu
Stone
rdo
do
Tree
I jonshing
shingdong
Oae
5'cliig
chik
Two
grnyis
nyi
Three
grsum
sum
Fowr
bzhi
zhyi
Five
hna
gna
Six
druk
thu
Seven
J dun
dun
Eight
h rgyud
gye
Nine
dgn
guk
Ten
bchxL
chu
—
thamba
—
13
Btitan differs from Tibet Proper, cliiefly in being
more open to influences from India. The Butanis call
themselves Lhopa.
Another, and a more extreme form of the Eastern
Bhot, is the language of Takyul, or the land of the
Tak, or Takpa, which is the country marked Tovvang
and Towang Raj in the ordinary maps.
English.
Lhopa.
Takpa.
Man
mi
men
Head
gutoh
gokti
Hair
kya
pu
Eye
mido
melong
Ear
navo
neblap
14
TAKPA, ETC.
English.
Llicpa.
Takpa.
Tooth
soh
wah
Blood
tliyak
khra
Bone ■
rutok
rospa
Hand
lappa
la
Foot
kanglep
leme
Sun
nyim
plang
Moon
dau
leh
Star
kam
karma
Fire
mi
meh
Water
chhu
chhi
Stone
doh
gorr
Tree
shiiig
shendong
One
che
' the
Two
nye
nai
Three
snm
sum
Four
zlii
pli
Five
gna
liagni
Six
dhu
kro
Seven
dun
nis
Eight
gye
gyet
Nine
gu
dugu
Ten
Chatham
paki
Further to the South, in contact with the language of
Nepaul, is spoken the Serpa which seems to be all but
actual Bhot.
English.
Serpa.
English.
Serpa.
Man
mi
Hand
lango
Head
go
Foot
kango
Hair
ta
Shy
nam
Eye
mik
Sun
nimo
Ear
amchuk
Moon
oula
Tooth
so
Star
karma
Blood
thak
Water
chhu
Bone
ruba
Stone
doh.
Beside the Bultistani, Ladaki, Thibetan, and Butani
varieties, there are several local dialects, of which, as may
be supposed, we know but little. In Lower Kunawer
the language is Indian rather than Bhot ; but in Upper
Kunawer there are the Kanet dialects and sub-dialects.
In Kampur, Milchan* is the word for the language in
general of the parts around, so that the Milcban is the
* Probably the Hindu Mlech.
MILCHAN.
15
language of the district ; of which the Lubrung (or
Kanam) and the Lidung (or Lippa) are varieties. Mean-
while ThehuTskud denotes a provincial dialect, such as
that of SugQum, and others.
EngUsh.
Milchan.
Tlieburskud
Sumchu.
Man
mi
mi
me
Women
chismi
eshrt
esplung
Head
bul
pisha
pisha
Tongue
le
le
le
Eye
mlk
me
ml
Ear
kanung
rupung
repung
Foot
bung
bunk
bunkun
Sun
yune
ne
nimok
Moon
gulsung
gulsung
gulsung
Star
skara
karma
karma
One
It
te
It
Two
nish
nishi
nlsh
Three
stiin
sum
hum
Fmir
pu
Pl
pu
Five
gna
gnai
gna
Ten
sal
chui
sa
The Infinitives run as follows : —
In Milchan .
. lonJimih or
lonhmig
— Lippa .
. lodenh' or
lodent
— Kanam
. . . logma
— Sugnum .
. . lopang
— Sumchu .
. . lomma or
loma.
The following language, though Bhot, belongs geo-
graphically and politically to Nepaul.
English.
Tiiaksya.
English.
Thaksya.
Man
makai
Fire
hme
Head
ta
Water
kya
Hair
chham
Tree
ghyung
Hand
yayathin
One
di
Eye
mi
Two
gni
Foot
malethin male
Three
som
Blood.
ka
Four
bla
Bone
nati
Five
gna
Ear
hna
Six
tu
Tooth
gyo
Seven
gnes
Day
sar
Eight
bhre
Sun
ghaw-gni
Nine
ku
Moon
latigna
Ten
chyu
Star
sar
16
GYARUNG, ETC.
One of the Butan dialects is known under the name
Changlo. It is spoken in the North-east, apparently
in contact with some of the languages of the Asam
mountaineers.
The Chinese call certain rude tribes in the south-east
of Tibet, and (consequently) to the north-west of their
own frontier, Sifan, a term said to mean Western Bar-
barian.
The area to which this name applies is anything
but well marked. A line drawn from the Koko Nor to
the frontier of Yunnan will pass through it. But the
frontier of Yunnan is a long one. The Thochu, Man-
yak, and Gyarung vocabularies belong to this district ;
all being, inter alia, collected through the exertions of
Mr. Hodgson.
Of these, the Manyak lies to the south, the Gyarung
in the centre, and the Thochu to the north. I have
little hesitation in saying that, though Chinese in
respect to their political relations, and Tibetan in re-
spect to their geography, these three forms of speech
are as much Burmese as Bhot.
English.
Changlo.
Gyarung.
Manyak.
Thochu.
Man
songo
tir-mi
ohhoh
nah
Head
sliarang
ta-ko
wulli
kapat
Hair
cham
tarni
mui
hompa
Eye
ming
tai-mek
mne
kan
Ear
na
time
napi
nukh
Tooth
sliia
ti-swe
phwih
sweh
Blood
yi
ta-shi
shah
sah
Bone
khang
syarhu
rukhu
ripat
Hand
gadang
tayak
lapcheh
jipab
Foot
bi
tami
lipchheh
jako
STcy
ngam
tu-mon
mah
mahto
Sun
lani
kini
nyima
mun
Moon
murgeng
tsi-le
leh
chhap
Star
mi
tsine
krah
ghada
Fire
ri
ti-mi
sameh
meh
Water
lung
ti-chi
dyah
chah
Stone
shing
rugu
wobi
gholopi
One
tliur
kate
tabi
ari
Two
nyik-ching
kanes
nabi
gnari
THE HOR.
English.
Changlo.
Gyarung.
Manjak.
Thocliu.
Three
sam
kasam
sibi
ksiri
Four
hM
kadi
rebi
gzari
Five
nga
kunggno
gnabi
wari
Six
khung
kutok
trubi
kbatari
Seven
zum
kushnes
skwibi
stari
Eight
yen
oryet
zibi
kbrari
Nine
gu
kunggu
gubi
rguni
Ten
shong, se
sih
cbechibi
paduri.
17
The Hor, or Horpa, occupy the western part of
Northern Tibet and parts of Chinese Tartary, or Little
Bokhara, and Dzungaria. They decidedly touch both
the Turk and Mongol areas ; and, as they are nomads
rather than agriculturalists, they are more Tartar in
habit than Tibetan. At the same time, their language
is Bhot ; and so, to a great extent, is their creed. The
major part is Buddhist : though there are some Maho-
metans amongst them — a few within the frontier of
Tibet ; more beyond it. To some of these the Tibetans
apply the name Khachhe ; which is, word for word, the
Chinese Kao-tse. They call themselves, however, Igur ;
and from this, along with a few other facts of less im-
portance, I look upon them as Turks in blood, though
Bhot in language.
English.
Hor.
Tibetan.
Uigur.
Man
vzih
mi
er, kishi
Head
gho
go
bash
Hair
spu
kra
satsh
Eye
mo
mik
kusi
Ear
nyo
amcho
kulak
Tooth
syo
so
tish
Blood
sye
thak
khan
Bone
rera
ruko
sungguki
Hand
Iha
lango
iHk
Foot
ko
kango
adakhi
Sky
koh
Tiamkhah
tengri
Sun
gna
nyima
kim
Moon
slikno
dawa
ai
Star
sgre
karma
yuldus
Fire
umat
me
cot
Water
hrah
chhu
snw
Stone
rgame
do
tash
18
THE HOR.
English.
Hor.
Tibetan.
Uigur.
Tree
nah
shindong
yikhatsli
One
ra
chik
bir
Two
gre
nyi
iki
Three
su
sum
utsh
Four
pla
zhyi
tort
Five
gwe
gna
bish
Six
diha
tliu
alty
Seven
zne
dun
yidi
Eight
rMee
gye
sekis
Nine
go
guh
tochus
Tm
m>
chuh
on.
The details of the Tibetan, where it comes in contact
with the languages of the Paropamisus, are obscure.
They will be noticed in the sequel.
NEPAUL AND SIKKIM. 19
CHAPTER III,
Nepalese and Sikkim Languages. — Gurung andMurmi. — Magar and Bramhu.
— Cliepang. — Hayu. — Kusunda. — Newar and Pahari. — Kiranti and
Limhu. — Lepcha. — Dliimal. — Bodo. — Garo. — Borro. — Sunwar.
It is convenient to speak of the languages of Nepaul and
Sikkim as if they constituted a definite group. It is
convenient to do this, because these countries, with their
peculiar political relations, though Indian in their geo-
graphy, and Tibetan in their ethnology, are neither
exactly Tibetan, nor exactly Indian as a whole ; but
rather a district per se.
The dialects and sub-dialects of this class are refer-
able to the following groups: — (1), the Gurung; (2),
Magar; (3), Chepang ; (4), the Hayu; (5), the Ku-
sunda ; (6), the Newar ; (7), the Kiranti ; (8), the
Lepcha.
(1). The Magar occupy the lower, the Gurung the
higher levels of the Himalaya ; the Gurung being, like
the Magars, a military caste ; but (unlike the Magars),
being Buddhist rather than Brahminic ; and, as such,
more Bhot, in respect to their civilization, than Indian.
Some of them are, perhaps, more pagan than Bhot.
They are a rude set ; shepherds rather than agricultu-
ralists ; but little being known of their language. The
Murmi is one of its dialects.
English.
Gurung.
Murmi.
Man
mM
mi
Head
ki-a
thobo
Hair
moi
kra
Hand
lapta
ya
Foot
bhale
bale
c 2
20
NEPAUL AND SIKKIM.
Englisli.
Gurung.
Murmi.
Eye
mi
mi
Ear
nabe
nape
Bone
nugri
nakhu
Blood
koh
ka
Tooth
sak
swa
Bay
dini
dini
Sun
dhini
dini
Moon
—
ladima
Star
pira
karehin
Fire
mi
me
Water
kyu
kwi
Tree
sindu
dhong
Stone
yuma
yumba
One
kri
grik
Two
ni
gni
Three
song
som
Four
pli
bli
Five
gna
gna
Six
tu
dhu
Seven
nis
nis
Eight
pre
pre
Nine
kuh
kuh
Ten
chuk
cbiwai.
(2). Occupants of the lower levels, and the western
districts, the Magars have been in more than ordinary
contact with the Hindus of the Oude and Kumaon
frontiers. No wonder, then, that the blood and lan-
guage but imperfectly coincide. Many Hindus are said
to speak Magar, whilst numerous Magars have either
unlearnt their own tongue or speak the Magar along
with it. The creed is imperfectly Brahminic ; the
alphabet Indian ; the tendencies and civilization Indian.
The Bramhti dialect, spoken by a degraded population
of the parts about, is more Magar than aught else.
English.
Magar.
Bramhu.
Man
bharmi
bal, bar
Head
mitalu
kapa
Hair
cbham
syam
Hand
hutpiak
bhit
Foot
mibil
imzik
Eye
mik
mik
Ear
nakyeh
kana
NEPAUL AND SIKKBL
21
English.
Magar.
Bramhti.
Bone
miryaros
wot
Blood
hyu
cbiwi
Tooth
siak
swa
Day
namsin
dina
Sun
namkhan
uni
Star
bhuga
—
Fire
mlie
mai
Water
di
awa
Tree
sing
simma
Stone
thung
kungba
One
kat
de
Two
nis
ni
Three
song
sworn
Four
bull
bi
Five
banga
banga.
(3, 4). The Chepang and Vayu, or Hayu, is a broken
and depressed tribe of this district. The Vayti con-
sider themselves a distinct people, falling into few or no
subdivisions. Their language is said to be unintelligible
to any one else ; and so it seems to be from the speci-
men. They believe that at some remote period they
were a powerful people, though now reduced.
(5). The Kusunda are even more broken up than
the Vayu, with whom they are conterminous.
English.
Chepang.
Vayu.
Kusunda.
Man
pursi
sing-tong
mihyak
—
—
lon-cho
—
Head
tolong
pfi-chhi
chipi
Hair
men
song
gyai-i
Hand
kutt
got
gipan
Foot
la
16
chan
Eye
mik
m6k
cliining
Ear
ne
nak-chu
chyau
Bone
rhus
ru
gou
Blood
wi
vi
uyu
Tooth
srek
lu
toho
Day
nyi
numa
dina
Sun
nyam
nomo
ing
Moon
lahe
cho-lo
jun
Fire
me
me
ja
Water
ti
ti
tang
Tree
sing, singtak
sing-phung
i
22
THE
NEWAR.
Englisli.
Chepang,
Vayu.
Kusuiida.
One
yazho
kolu
goisang
Two
nhizho
nayung
ghigna
Three
sumzho
cLuyung
daha
Four
ploizho
bining
pinjang
Five
pumazho
—
pagnangj^ng.
(6). The Newar belongs to the central valley, or
Nepaul Proper, the most favoured tract of the king-
dom, and the tract where the rudeness of the original
paganism is at its minimum ; the creed being partly
Brahminic partly Buddhist. The Pahri, or Palii, one of
the broken tribes, is Newar ; in other words, the Pahri
is to the Newar as the Bramhu was to the Magar.
Englisli.
Newar.
Pahrf.
Man
mijang
manclie
Head
chhong
chhe
Hair
song
son
Hand
pakha
la
Foot
pali
li
Eye
mikha
mighi
Ear
nhaipong
nhuapuru
Bone
kwe
kusa
Blood
hi
hi
Tooth
wa
wa
Day
aM
nhinako
Sun
suja
suje
Star
nagu
nung-gni
Fire
mi
mi
Water
lau
lukhu
Tree
sinia
sima
Stone
lohong
longgho
One
chhi
Chi
Two
ni
ni
Three
son
sung
Four
pi
pi
Five
gna
gno
Six
kha
ku
Seven
nhe
nhe
Eight
chya
chya
Nine
gunh
gun
Ten,
sanho
gi.
(7). Occupants of the valley of the Arun, and the
district which takes its name from them, the Kirant,
THE KIRATA.
23
Kiranti, or Kiratas, are the most eastern of the tribes
of Nepaul, being conterminous with the Lepchas of
Sikkim. The name is Indian ; so that little is to be
inferred from either its antiquity or the extent of its
application. Whenever there was a population in a
certain relation to the Hindu, the term would apply.
The Kirata under notice, fall into two primary divi-
sions, the Limbu and the Kwombu. The Limbu have
an alphabet : the Kwombu dialects are unwritten.
English.
Kirata.
Limbu.
Man
mana
yapme
—
—
yemboch:-.,
Head
tang
thagek
Hair
moa
thagi
Hand
chukuphem^i
huktapbe
Foot
iilfhuro
langdappbe
Eye
mak
mik
Ear
naba
nekho
Bone
saiba
sayet
Blood
bau
makbi
Tooth
kang
hebo
Bay
len
lendik
Sun
nam
nam
Moon
lava
lavo
Star
sangyen
kesva
Fire
mi
me
Water
chawa
chua
Tree
sangtang
sing
Stone
lungta
lung
One
ektai
thit
Two
hasat
nyetsh
Three
sumya
syumsh
Four
laya
lish
Five
gnaya
gnash
Six
tukya
tuksh
Seven
bhagya
nuksh
Eight
reya
yetsh
Nine
pbangya
phangsh
Ten
kip
thibong.
Until a few months back, the Kiranti lanofuacre was
in the same predicament with those that have just been
noticed. Perhaps, it was less known. At any rate, it
took no remarkable prominence in the philology of
24
THE KIRATA DIALECTS — LEPCHA
Nepaul. It miglit consist of a single dialect, or of
many. It was akin to tlie Limbu and the Limbu
akin to it. Of its other varieties we knew nothing.
A recent paper of Mr. Hodgson now supplies vo-
cabularies for its dialects and sub-dialects ; for
which the following is the suggested classification : —
1. Waling; 2. Yakha ; 8. Cliourasya ; 4. Kulung ;
5. Thulung; 6. Bahing ; 7. Lohorong ; 8. Lambich-
hong. These constitute the Waling branch of the
Bontawa group, of which 9. Rungchlienbung ; 10.
Chhingtang, are also members. Then come, 1 1 . Cham-
ling, or Bodong ; 12. Nachhereng ; 13. Balati ; 14.
Sangpang ; 15. Dumi ; 16. Khaling ; 17. Dungmalu.
(8). The Lepcha spoken in Sikkim, is, like the Limbu
dialect of the Kiranti, a written language ; though its
literature is of the scantiest.
English.
Lepclia.
English.
Lepcha.
Man
maro
Fire
mi
—
tagri
Water
ong
Head
atliiak
Tree
kung
Hair
achom
Stone
long
Hand
kaliok
One
kat
Foot
dianghok
Two
nyet
Eye
amik
Three
sam
Ear
anyor
Four
phali
Bone
arhet
Five
phagnon
Blood
vi
Six
tarok
Tooth
apho
Seven
kakyok
Day
sakne
Eight
kaken
Sun
sakhak
Nine
kakyot
Moon
dau
Ten
kati.
Star
sahor
Now, all these languages are not only members of
the same great class with the Bhot, but the fact of their
being so is clear and patent upon the most cursory
inspection. No language, however, of a Brahminic or a
Buddhist population, especially if it be on the frontier of
Hindostan, can escape the certain results of contact with
India ; and this shows itself in the vocabulary. The
proportion which these Indian elements bear to the rest.
DHIMAL AND BODO. 25
varies with the language. It may be but small. It
may be moderate. It may be so great as to destroy
the original character of the tongue altogether. In
the following languages, the numerals are Hindu ; and,
though this is an artificial characteristic, it is a convenient
one. It gives a Hindu aspect to the vocabulary ; and,
as a general rule, where the numerals are Hindu, a very
great proportion of the other words is Hindu also — so
much so, indeed, as to make the position of the lan-
guage, on the first view, equivocal. In some cases it
may really be so. The first language of our list is, in
the eyes of many, a dialect of the Hindu, containing a
few Bhot fragments, rather than a Bhot dialect in what
may be called a metamorphic form.
1. The Kooch of Kooch Behar, as spoken by the
Mahometan and Brahminic sections of the name. The
Pani Kooch, or unconverted Koocli, are believed to use
a more decidedly Bhot form of speech.
2. The Darahe (or Dahi) and Den war.
3. The Kuswar.
4. The Tharu.
5. The Pakhya.
The populations which 'speak them are called, by Mr.
Hodgson, to whom all the details are due, the Broken
Tribes. His list contains, besides the preceding, the Che-
pang, the Bhramo, and the Pahri. These, however, are not
only clearly Nepalese, but have been referred to a given
Nepalese language, and subordinated to it as a dialect.
It is the equivocal character of the foregoing languages
that places them in a group by themselves ; a group
which is merely provisional, as further researches will
show.
The Bhimal, avoiding both the open plains and the
mountain heights, occupy the turai between the Konka
and Dhorla, where they are conterminous with the Bodo.
Nor is this all. The two populations are not only
conterminous but intermixed, each inhabiting separate
26
DHIMAL AND BOBO.
villages. For all this, there is a notable — I might say
a wide — difference between their languages. It is with
the Hayti, and Kusunda group, or, at least with the
languages to the west, that the Dhiinal appears to have
its closest affinities. The Bodo, on the contrary, is all
but one with the Borro of Cachar, besides being closely
allied to the Garo of the Garo Hills, in the north-east of
Cll^Cll.
English.
Pliimal.
Bodo.
Garo.
Borro.
Man
waval
hiwa
mande
man.se
—
diang
manshi
—
—
Head
purling
khoro
skho
khoro
Ear
nhatong
khoma
nachil
khama
Eye
mi
mogon
mikran
nigan
Blood
hiki
th.oi
anchi
thoi
Bone
hara
begeng
greng
begeng
Tooth
sitong
hatha!
jak
nakhai
Hand
khur
akhai
jatheng
atheng
Foot
khokoi
yapha
sal
san
Sun
bela
shan
jashki
hatolthi
Star
pliuro
hathotkhi
wal
wat
Fire
men
wat
Chi
doi
Water
clii
doi
—
—
The Bodo are called by the Hindus, Mekh, or Mlech ;
and they are so called because they pass for impure in-
fidels.
The Borro of Cachar take us into Asam ; and (of
Asam) towards the southern, rather than the northern,
boundary. But the northern boundary is the one that
we must first examine ; remembering that the moun-
tain-range which forms it runs due east fi'om that part
of Butan which gave us the Changlo and the Takpa
vocabularies.
Of the Sun war vocabulary of Hodgson I am unable
to give the exact locality.
English.
Suuwar.
English.
Sunwar.
Man
mura
Foot
kweli
Head
piya
Eye
michi
Hair
chang
Ear
nopha
Hand
table
Bone
nishe
THE SUNWAR.
27
English.
Siinwar.
English.
Sunwar,
Blood
usi
Thine
ike
Tooth
kryu
His
hareake, mereke
Day
nathi
Our's
go-ainke
Sun
na
Tour's
gai-ainke, inke
Star
soru
Their's
hari-ainke
Fire
mi
One
ka
Water
paakliu
Tico
nishi
Tree
rawa
Three
sang
Stone
phunglu
Four
le
I
go
Five
gno
Thwi
gai^
Six
ruk
He, she, it
hari
Seven
chani
We
govki
Eight
yoh
Ye
gaivki
Nine
guh
They
harevki
Ten
■sashi.
Mine
ake
Of the preceding forms of speech, the Gurung, Magar,
and Kiranti, seem to be the most Bhot ; whilst the
Newar and Kusunda point the most decidedly towards
India ; the Garo to the Singpho ; and the Lepcha to
the North Asam, class.
LANGUAGES
CHAPTER lY.
Languages of Assam. — Northern Frontier. — Aka, Dofla, and Abor, — Miri. —
Mishmi. — Southern Frontier. — Kasia. — Mikir. — Angami. — Nagas. —
Singpho.
Collectively, the Aka, Dofla, Abor, Miri, and Mishmi,
may be called the hill-tribes of the northern boundary
of Asam. They all, with the exception of a few of the
Miris, lie to the north of the Burhamputer, along the banks
of which the displacement and obliteration of transitional
forms of speech have been great. The chief language
of Lower Asam — the valley — is Indian ; the Asamese,
properly so-called, being even more Indian than the
dialects of the broken tribes. It is limited, however,
to the level country ; the mountains of the southern
and the northern boundary being held by aborigines.
But these are separated from each other ; or if con-
tinuous, are only traced in their continuity round the
valley, not across it.
The hills that form the northern boundary of Asam
are occupied by numerous rude tribes known as Aka,
Dofla, and Abor ; all three using dialects of the same
language. That of the Miri is closely allied. Those of
the Taying and Mijhu dialects of the Mishmi are further
removed.
Beginning with the eastern boundary of Tibet, the
order of the numerous hill-tribes of the northern boun-
dary of Asam, of which the languages are known to us
through vocabularies, is as has been given — Aka, Dofla,
Abor, Miri, and Mishmi. The Miri stretch farthest
across the valley, or southwards, while the Mishmi
occupy its eastern extremity ; where there has been a
OF ASAM.
29
partial displacement — a displacement effected by the
Ahom and Khamti of the Thay stock, of whom more
will be said as we proceed.
English.
Dofla.
Abor.
Miri.
Mail
bangni
amie
ami
Hair
dumuk
dumid
dumid
Head
dompo
dumpong
tiipko
Ear
niorung
nanmg
ieruug
Eye
nyuk
aming
amida
Blood
ui
yi
yie
Bone
solo
along
along
Foot
laga
ale
leppa
Hand
lak
elag
elag
Sun
dani
arung
dainya
Moon
polo
polo
polo
Star
takar
tekar
takar
Fire
ami
emme
umma
Water
esi
asi
achye
One
aken
ako
ako
Two
ani
ani
aniko
Three
aam
angom
auniko
Four
apli
api
apiko
Five
ango
pilango
angoko
Six
akple
akye
nkengko
Seven
kanag
konange
kinitko
Eight
plagnag
pini
piniko
Nine
kayo
kinide
konangk
Ten
rang
iinge
uyingko.
The Mijhu and Tayung forms of speech are called
dialects of the Mishmi. Perhaps they are so. At the
same time they differ from one another more than the
Aka and Abor, which have been quoted as separate sub-
stantive languages :-
English.
Tayung.
Mijhu.
Man
nme
ktchong
Head
mkau
kau
Eye
mollom
mik
Ear
nkruna
ing
Blood
rhwei
vi
Bone
lubunglubra
zak
Hand
ptoya
yop
Foot
mgrung
mpla
Smi
ring-ngiiig
lemik
30
MISHMI— KASIA-
-MIKIR.
English.
Tayung.
Mijliu.
Moon
hho
lai
Fire
naming
niai
Water
macM
ti
One
eking
kmo
Two
kaying
kaning
Three
kachong
kacham
Four
kaprei
ka.mbum
Five
inangu
kalei
Six
tharo
katham
Seven
uwe
nun
Eight
elyeni
ngun
Nine
konyong
nyet
Ten
halong
kyep.
The southern range now claims notice. We touched
it when the Garo and Bodo were under notice.
Due east of the Garo country come the Kasia dis-
tricts ; the language of which is less like its immediate
neighbour, than its locality suggests.
The MiJcir believe that their ancestors came from
the Jaintia Hills ; but no specimen of the Jaintia
dialects, eo nomine, being known, the value of the belief
is uncertain. Their present occupancies are in North
Cachar, Lower and Central Asam. The "sounds of
their language/' writes Robinson, " are pure and liquid,"
and the gutturals and strong aspirates are but few.
There is a "slight nasal inflection and an abrupt
cadence." Some of the Mikir are imperfect converts to
Brahminism.
English.
Easia.
Mikir.
Man
uman
arleng
—
—
penso
Woman
ka kantei
arioso
Head
kakli
iphu
Eye
ka kamat
mek
Ear
ka skor
ino
Nose
ka kamut
inokan
Mouth
ka shintur
ingho
Tooth
ka baniat
isso
Tongue
ade
Hand
ka tkallid
ripa
Foot
ka kajat
kengpa"
THE ANGAML
English.
Kasia.
Mikir.
Sim
ka sngi
arni
Moon
ubanai
cheklo
Star
uMur
cteklo longsho
Fire
kading
me
Water
kaum
lang
Stone
man
arlong
Wood
kading
theng
One
nisi
Two
hini
Three
kithom
Fov/r
phili
Five
phanga
Six
therok
Seven
tlieroski
Eight
nerkep
Nine
serkep
Ten
kep.
31
The Angami succeed the Mikir ; rude hill-men, pagan,
and unlettered. Their language seems to fall into
dialects and sub-dialects ; its affinities being such as its
locality suggests. They are more especially, Mikir,
Aka, Dofla, and Abor.
Eiigliali.
Angami.
English.
Angami.
Man
ma
Fire
mi
Woman
tkenuma
Water
zu
Head
uchu
Stone
kecke
Eye
lunhi
Wood
si
Ear
uneu
One
po
Nose
unheu
Two
kana
Mouth
ume
Three
se
Tooth,
uhu
Four
da
Hand
ubiju
Five
pengu
Foot
uphi-ju
Six
shuru
Shy
keruke
Seven
thena
Day
ia
Eight
thata
Sun
naki
Nine
tkeku
Moon
thirr
Ten
kerr.
Star
themu
And now begins a district where classification by
means of definition is impracticable. The Angami, and
Little moons.
32
NAGA DIALECTS.
the tribes to the east of them, are called Naga ; Naga
being a generic name for the wild tribes of mountains
that homidi . Asam to the south. It is not, however,
a name founded on their languages, and I doubt if it be
natural. I think that all the Naga dialects might be
grouped as Singpho without unduly raising the value of
the class so-called.
The earliest notice of the forms of the Naga (from
which I have separated the Angami) is by Brown, the
fullest is to be found in the second volume of Trans-
actions of the American Oriental Society, where there
are specimens of no less than ten of their dialects, or
sub-dialects.
English.
Nowgong.
Tengsa.
Kliari.
Hatigor.
Man
nyesung
mesung
ami
nyesung
Woman
—
anakti
anudi
tatsii
Head
takolak
tako
te-lim
takolak
Hair
ko
ko
kwa
ko
Eye
tenok
te nyik
te-nik
te-nok
Ear
tenaung
te-lanno
te-nbaun
te-naung
Tooth
tabu
ta-pbu
ta-pba
ta-bu
Hand
tekha
ta-khat
ta-kbet
ta-kha
Foot
tatsiing
ta-cbing
ta-cbang
ta-tsiing
Shy
• mabat
anung
aning
anyang
Sun
annu
tinglu
subih
annu
Moon
yita
luta
leta
yita
Star
pitinu
lutingting
peti
pitinu
Fire
mi
masi
matsii
mi
Water
tsu
tii
atsii
tsii
Stone
lungzuk
lungmango
along
lungzuk
Tree
santung
sangtung
sundong
santung
One
katang
kbatu
akbet
—
Two
anna
annat
anne
—
Three
asam
asam
asam
—
Four
pazr
pbale
phali
—
Five
pungu
pbungu
pbanga
—
Six
tank .
tbelok
tarok
—
Seven
tanet
tbanyet
tani
—
Eight
te
tbesep
sachet
—
Nine
taku
tbaku
taken
—
Ten
tarr
thelu
tarah
—
THE SINGPHO.
33
English.
Namsang, &c.
Joboka, &c.
Man
minyan
mi
Woman
dehiek
tnnaunu
Head
kho
khangra
Hair
kacho
kho
Eye
mit
Tnik
Ear
na
na
Tooth
pa
va
Hand
dak
cha,k
Foot
da
tsha
Sky
rangtung
rangphum
Sun
san
ranghan
Moon
da
letlu
Star
merik
letsi
Fire
van
van
Water
jo
ti
Stone
long
long
One
vanthe
tuta
Two
vanyi
anyi
Three
vanram
azam
Four
aU
Five
banga
aga
Six
irok
azok
Seven
ingit
annat
Eight
isat
achat
Nine
ikhu
aku
Ten
ichi
banban.
English. Mithan.
Tablun
?•
English.
Mithan. Tabluug.
Man mi
sauniak
Water
ti riang
Woman —
chikkho
Stone
ling yong
Head khang
sang
Tree
pan peh
Hair kho
min
One
atta cha
Eye mik
mik
Two
unyi ih
Ear na
na
Three
azum lem
Tooth va
pha
Four
ali peU
Hand chak
yak
Five
aga nga
Foot tchya
yahlan
Six
arok vok
Sun ranghon
wangh
i
Seven
anath niath, neth
Moon letna
]e
Eight
ainet thuth
Star lethi
chaha
Nine
aku ther, thu
Fire van
ah
Ten
ban pan.
The Jactung, JVIalung, and Sima dialects are closely
akin to this.
In a limited sense, Singpho is a convenient name for
a group of dialects, of which (1) the Singpho Proper, (2)
D
S4
THE SINGPHO.
the Jili, and (3) the Kakhyen, are known by specimens.
On the north-east it touches the Mishmi, and the intru-
sive Khamti. On the south-east it comes in contact with
certain dialects of the Siamese group ; being itself the
nearest congener not belonging to their class.
The Singpho Proper are Buddhists, with a Shan
alphabet. The Muttuk, Moran, or Moameria, are
Hindu in creed, though of suspicious orthodoxy. Of
their language, eo nomine (unless the Mithan of the
foregoing table be one), I have seen no specimen. I
find, however, statements to the following effect, viz.
that that of the Khaphok tribe is just intelligible to a
Singpho Proper ; that in the Khanung there is still a
resemblance to the Singpho, but that the language is
no longer mutually intelligible ; and thirdly, that the
Khalang and Nogmun forms of speech are truly
Singpho.
Of the Jili vocabulary (the only one we have) seventy
per cent, is Singpho, twenty-two per cent. Garo. This
gives an indirect connection with the Bhot ; a connection,
however, which is no closer than that with the Burmese.
In short, the Singpho group is eminently transitional,
its value being, in the present state of our knowledge,
uncertain.
English.
Singpho.
Jili.
Kakhyeu.
Man
singpho
nsang
masha
Hair
kara
kara
kala
Head
bong
nggum
paong
Ew
na
kana
na
Eye
mi
njn
mi
Blood
sai
tashai
tsan
Bone
nrang
khamrang
—
Foot
lagong
takkhyai
nego
Hand
letta
taphan
letla
Sun
jan
katsan
tsan
Moon
sita
sata
tsata
Star
sigan
sakan
shigan
Fire
wan
tavan
wan
Water
ncin
mchin
entsin
Stone
nlving
talong
long
Tree
phun
phtin
phoun
THE SINGPHO. — THE DEORIA CUUTIA.
35
English.
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
EigU
Nine
Ten
Singpha
dima
nkhong
masum
meli
manga
kru
sinit
macat
tseku
Jili.
Kakhyen.
nge
onkong
mesong
meli
menga
kaou
senit
matsat
tiekho
shi.
Of the Deoria Cliutia, I only know that the following
IS a specimen.
English.
Man
Hair
Head
Ear
Eye
Blood
Bone
Foot
Hand
Sun
Moon
Star
Fire
Chutia.
mosi
kin
gubong
yaku
mukuti
chui
pichon
yapasu
otun
sanh
yah
jiti
nye
English,
Chutia.
Water
ji
Stone
yatiri
Tree
popong
One
dugsha
Two
dukuni
Three
dugda
Four
duguchi
Five
dugumua
Six
duguchu
Seven
duguchi 1
Eight
duguche
Nine
duguchuba
Ten
dugucbuba and
It is, probably, Singpho.
1)2
36 THE BURMESE GROUP.
CHAPTER V.
Continuation of the Garo line. — The Khumia, Old and New Kuki. — The
Continuation of the Naga line. — -Munipur Group. — Koreng, Luhuppa,
Tankhu, Khoibu, &c. — The Karens. — The Burmese Proper.
Caucasus itself, with all its accumulation of mutually
unintelligible forms of speech, within a comparatively
small area, is less remarkable for the density of its lan-
guages than the parts now under notice. Whether we
look to the Garo, Kasia, and Mikir areas themselves, or
the parts which immediately underlie them, viz :
Cachar, Sylhet, Tipperah, and Chittagong ; whether
we look to the Naga districts of Asam and the parts
that lie due south of them, or the valley of the Upper
Irawadi and its feeders, we find an accumulation of
actual languages, or possible dialects, such as we rarely
find in the Old World elsewhere.
We may take up our line from either the Garo, Bodo,
Kasia, and Mikir, or from the Nagas. I begin with
the former.
The Khumia occupy the skirts, the Kuld the tops of
the hills. Except so far as the difierence of level may
develope difierences in their mode of life, a Kuki is a
Khumia, a Khumia a Kuki. The Kuki, however, are,
as may be expected, the ruder and more truly pagan
tribe ; the creed being, nevertheless, tinctured with
Indian elements.
The Kuki, who about sixty years ago came from the
jungles of Tipperah to settle in Cachar, were, at first,
in the same category with the Nagas, i. e. naked. In
the course of time they ceased to deserve the name.
They not only wear clothes now, but are skilful in the
, THE BURMESE GROUP. 37
cultivation and weaving of cotton. They are well
clothed and well fed ; on a level with the Angami
Nagas for physical strength and also with the Kasia.
In Cachar they are called the Old Kuki. They fall
into three divisions — the Ehangkul, the Khelma, and
the Betch, the first being the largest. The whole, how-
ever, are under 4000.
The Old Kuki of Cachar have a New Kuki to match.
Both came from the south — both from the ruder parts
of Tipperah and Chittagong. They came, however, as
the name implies, at different times, and, as their lan-
guage suggests, from different districts. The New
Kuki form of speech is not always intelligible to an
Old Kuki. Mr. Stewart saw one of the Khelma tribe
as much puzzled with what a New Kuki was saying to
him as he would have been with a perfect stranger.
On the other hand, the Manipur dialects and the New
Kuki are mutually intelligible. I do not think that
the vocabularies verify this doctrine, either in the way
of likeness or of difference. It may, nevertheless, be
accurate.
Mug is the name by which the native population
of the towns and villages of Arakan is designated.
The Mugs amount to about six-tenths of the whole
population ; one tenth being Burmese, and the remainder
Hindu. The only town of importance is the capital.
Some of the Mug villages lie but just above the level
of the sea ; others are on the sides, others on the tops,
of hills. The early history of Arakan, so far as it may
be dignified by that name, makes it an independent
State, sometimes with Chittagong and Tipperah in sub-
jection to it, sometimes with Chittagong and Tipperah
separate. The island of Eamri, Cheduba and Sando-
way are parts of Arakan ; Mug in language, British in
politics.
In the hill-country the type is changed, and instead
the comparatively civilized Mug we get tribes like
38 THE BURMESE GROUP. .
the Kuki and Naga. The best known of these
are —
The Tribes of the Koladyn River, which form a
convenient if not a strictly-natural group. The Ko-
ladyn being the chief river of Arakan, and Arakan
being a British possession, the opportunities for collecting
information have been favourable ; nor have they been
neglected. Of the names of tribes, and of specimens
of language, we have no want ; rather an emharras
de richesse. Buddhism, as a general rule, is partial
and imperfect ; partial as being found in some tribes
only, imperfect as being strongly tinctured with the
original Paganism. And of unmodified Paganism there
is, probably, not a little. The forms of speech fall into
strongly-marked dialects, in some, into separate lan-
guages ; by which I mean that, in some cases, they may
be mutually unintelligible. The government seems to
be patriarchal during a time of peace, ducal during a
time of war ; ducal meaning that a tribe, or a con-
federacy of tribes, may find themselves, for the time,
under the command of some general chief. The story
of almost every tribe is the same. It came upon its
present locality a few generations back, having originally
dwelt elsewhere ; somewhere northwards, somewhere to
the south, somewhere to the east. It dispossessed cer-
tain earlier occupants. But these earlier occupants may,
in their turn, be found in fragments, consisting of a
single village, or of a few families. The form that the
history, if so it may be called, of these marchings and
countermarchings, of these fusions and amalgamations,
of these encroachments and displacements, assumes, is
deserving of notice.
One of the forms of tribute to a certain con-
queror of one of the branches of the Khyens was
the payment of a certain number of beautiful women ?
To avoid this the beautiful women tattooed themselves,
so as to become ugly. This is why they are tattooed
THE BURMESE GROUP. 89
at the present time. So runs the tale. In reality,
they are tattooed because they are savages. The nar-
rative about the conqueror is their way of explaining
it. In Turner's account of Tibet, the same story
repeats itself, mutatis mutandis. The women of a
certain town were too handsome to be looked at with
impunity ; for, as their virtue was proportionately easy,
the morals of the people suffered. So a sort of sump-
tuary law against an excess of good looks was enacted ;
from the date o^ which to the present time the women,
whenever they go abroad, smear their faces with a
dingy dirty- coloured oil, and so conceal such natural
charms as they might otherwise exhibit.
There is another class of inferences ; for which, how-
ever, learned men in Calcutta and London are chiefly
answerable. Some of the tribes are darker-skinned
than others. The inference is that they have Indian
blood in their veins. They may have this. The fact,
however, should rest upon its proper evidence. I ven-
ture to guess that, in most cases where this darkness of
complexion occurs, the soil will have more to do with it
than any intercourse with the Hindus. There will be
the least of it on the hill-tops, less of it on the hill-sides,
most of it in the swampy bottoms and hot jungles.
At the same time, some Indian influences are actually
at work.
The tribe which, most probably, is in the closest geo-
graphical contact with the Kuki of Chittagong is the
Mru, or Tung Mru, the name being native. It is
also Rukheng. It means in Rukheng, or the language
of Arakan, over and above the particular tribes under
notice, all the hill-men of the surrounding district ; this
being the high country between Arakan and Chittagong.
That the Mru are the same as the Mrting, who deduce
their origin from Tipperah, I have no doubt ; though I
doubt the origin. They were all parts of one and the
same division. At the present moment, the Mrii are in
40 THE KAMI, ETC.
low condition ; fallen from their ancient high estate ;
for at one time, a Mrti chief was chosen king of
Arakan ; and when the Rukheng conqueror invaded the
country, the country was Mrti. However, at present,
the Mru are despised. Their number in Arakan
amounts to about 2800. Their present occupancy is
somewhat west of their older one. This was on the
Upper Koladyn ; whence they were expelled by —
The Kami or Kumi, — The Kami or Kumi are them-
selves suflfering from encroachments ; gradually being
driven westwards and southwards. They state that
they once dwelt on the hills now held by the Khyens.
What this means, however, is uncertain. The Khyens of a
forthcoming section lie south of the Koladyn on the Yuma
Mountains. If these, then, were the men who displaced
the Kami and Kumi, the Kami and the Kumi them-
selves, when they moved upon the Mru, moved north-
wards. But this need not have been the case. Khyen
is a name given to more populations than one ; and the
very Mru of the last noticed are sometimes called
Khyen. If so, it may have been from one part of the
Mru country that the Kami and Kumi moved against
another part. I do not give this as histor}^ ; scarcely
as speculation. I only give it as a sample of the com-
plications of the subject. Word for word, I consider
the Kami and Kumi to be neither more nor less than
the name of the Khumia of Chittagong. I also think
that Mru is Miri. The Kami (Kumi) of British Arakan
amount to 4129 souls.
The Sak or Thak. — The Sak, or Thak, are a small
tribe on the river Nauf
English. Mrl. Kumi. Kami. Sak.
Man mrti ku-mi ka-mi lu
Head 16 a-lu a-lti a-khu
Hair s'hdm s'ham a-s'ham kfi-mi
Eye min me a-mi a-mi
Uar pa-ram ka-no a-ga-na a-ka-n4
Tooth yun he a-fha a-^Aa-w4
iTV/
THE KAMI, ETC.
41
English.
Mm.
Kumi.
Kami.
Sale.
Mouth
naur
li-boung
a-ma-ka
ang-si
Hand
rut
ka
aku
ta-ku
Foot
khouk
khou
a-kho
a-tar
Shin
Pi
pe
a-phti
mi-lak
Blood
wi
a-tM
a-tki
th^
Bone
a-hot
a-hu
a-M
a-mra
Sun
ta-nin
ka-ni
ka-ni
sa-mi
Moon
pu-la
hlo
14
f/tat-ta
Star
ki-rek
ka-si
a-shi
«Aa-geing-fM
Fire
ma-i
mha-i
ma-i
ba-in
Water
tu-i
tu-t
tu-I
mi(?)
Bird
ta wa
ta-wii
ka-va
wa-si
Fish
dam
ngho
moi
pan-na
Snake
ta-ro-a
pu-wi
ma-khu-i
ka-pu
Stone
ta-wlia
lun-s'houng
ka-mn
ta-lon
Tree
tsing-dung
din-koung
a-kun
pung-pang
Mountain
shung
mo-i
ta-kun
ta-ko
Fiver
au
ka-wti
ka-va
pi-si
Village
kwa
a-v§,ng
vang
thing
Home
kin
6m
in
kyin
Egg
diti
diu
du
wa-ti
Horn
anSng
ta-ki
at-ta-ki
a-rung
One
loung
h^
ha
su-war
Two
pre
nhti
nl
nein
Three
shun
turn
ka-tun
thin
Four
ta-li
pa-lu
ma-li
pri
Five
ta-ngd
pan
pang-nga
nga
Six
ta-ru
ta-r<i
ta-6
khyouk
Seven
ra-nhit
sa-ru
sa-ri
tha-ni
Eight
ri-yat
ta-ya
ka-ya
a-tseit
Nine
ta-ku
ta-kau
ta-ko
ta-fu
Ten
ha
hau
ha-suh
si-su.
The Reuma or Shendu. — In 21° 15' N. L. the
Meeykyoung falls into the Koladyn from the east. It,
of course, arises on some higher level, and this higher
level is the watershed between it and the drainage of
the Manipur system. The Shendu is known through a
short vocabulary of Captain Ticket's.
Sylhet and Tipperah are like Asam ; i. e. more or less
Indian. The aboriginal dialects, however, are allied to
each other and to the Burmese.
It may safely be said that all the preceding speci-
mens represent dialects or sub-dialects of a single group ;
42 THE KOREKG.
all spoken by rude tribes, and all indigenous to the north-
western parts of the Peninsula.
And now we go on from the Nagas. Of the frontier
between the southern members of the group represented
by them and the northern tribes of Munipur I can give
no account. It seems, however, that over and above
the civilized and Buddhist occupants of the capital and
the parts around, the phenomena which we have seen in
the Naga districts repeat themselves. From the southern
slope of the Patkoe range the feeders of the western
branch of the Irawadi cut channels and fertilize valleys,
the occupancies of rude tribes.
That some of the forthcoming samples may represent
dialects rather than separate substantive languages is
probable. If so, as our knowledge increases, the de-
tails will be fewer. This, however, is no more than has
taken place with the philology of Caucasus itself
The language of this class which more especially leads
to those of the last, is (I think) the Koreng ; so that if
we make the Munipur the centre of our group, the
Koreng is its osculant or transitional member, leading
toward the Naga division.
The following specimens are all taken from a paper
by the Rev. N. Brown in the seventh volume of the
Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and they
are. accompanied by a table giving the percentage of
words common to any of two of them : —
(!•)
English.
Koreng.
Songpu.
Man .
cha mai
mai
Head
cha-pi
pi
Hair
ta-tham
sam
Mouth
cha-mun
mhoang
Tooth
ahu
hu, nai
Eye
mik
mhik
Ear
kon
anhukon
THE KORENG.
English.
Koreng.
Songpu.
Blood
ta-zyai
zyai
Bone
para
karau
Hand
cha-ben
ban
Foot
cha-pi
phai
STcy
tiBggem
tingpuk
Sun
ting-naimik
naimhik
Moon
charhu
VM.
Star
chagan
ganchongna
Day
nin
kalhan
Fire
cha-mi
mai
Water
ta-dui
dui
Bird
ntliikna
nroi
Egg
pabum
nroidui
Earth
kadi
kandi
Fish
cba-kba
kha
Tree
sing-bang
thing bang
Stone
talo
ntau.
43
(2.)
English.
Luhuppa.
North TankhuL
Man
mi
mil
Head
kui
ak^o
Hair
kosen
sam
Mouth
khamor
ania
Tooth
ha
aha
Eye
mik
amicha
Ear
khana
akhana
Blood
ashi
asii
Bone
arii
arUk^u
Hand
pang
akhui
Foot
phai
akho
STcy
kazing
kazirang
Sun
tsingmik
yimit
Moon
kachang
kacheang
Star
serva
sapachengla
Day
ngasun
masiitum
Fire
mai
mai
Water
taru
aichu
Bird
va
ata
Egg
haru
hachii
Fish
khai
khi
Stone
ngalung
lunggan
Tree
thingrong
thingbang.
44
THE KORENG.
(3.)
English.
Khoibu.
Maring.
Man ,
thami
hmi
Head
lu
lu
Hair
sam
sam
Mouth
mur
mur
Tooth
ha
ha
Eye
mit
mit
Ear
khana
nhamil
Blood
hi
hi
Bone
thuru
kru
Hand
khut
hut
Foot
wang
ho
STcy
thangwan
nungthau
Sun
nongmit
nungmit
Moon
tangla
tangla
Star
tikron
sorwa
Day
nongyang
nunghan
Fire
mai
mai
Water
yui
yui
Bird
watsa
wacha
Egg
wayxii
wayui
Fish
thanga
hnga
Stone
thuUung
khlung
Tree
hingtong
(4.)
hingbal.
English.
Kapwi.
Maram.
Man
mi
m
Head
lu
a-pi
Hair
sam
tham
Mouth
mamun
ta mathu
Tooth
nga
agha
Eye
mik
mik
Ear
kana
ink on
Blood
thi
a-zyi
Bone
maru
mahu
Hand
kut
Tan
Foot
ki
phai
Sky
tangban
tinggam
Sun
rimik
tamik
Moon
tha
Iha
Star
insi
chaghantai
Hay
tamlai
lanla
Fire
mai
mai
Water
tui
a-thui
THE KOREKG.
45
English.
Bird
Egg
Fish
Stone
Tree
Kapwi.
masa
makatui
lung
thingkung
Marani.
aroi
aroigliuTn
khai
akoi
ntau.
As the table itself, containing as it does some lan-
guages foreign to the present district, will be required
elsewhere, I satisfy myself by giving the following
extracts from it. The percentage of Munipur words in
the preceding vocabularies is as follows : —
In the Maring 50
Kapwi 41
Khoibu 40
Middle Tankhul .... 35
South Tankhul .... 33
Luhuppa 31
North Tankhul . . . . 28
Champhung 28
In the Koreng itself it is 18.
All dialects giving, in Brown's Tables, more than 25
per cent., I have classed as Munipur, the classification
being provisional, and, by no means implying that 25
jper cent., constitutes a dialect. The great point to
work-out here is the direction of the affinities.
Word for word Koreng seems Karen ; Maring
Maram ; and Mru, Mrung, and Miri.
But it is not only from the Naga that the Koreng leads.
The Munipur, which has only a percentage of 16 with
the Proper Burmese, has one of 1 5 with the Karen, 1 5
with the Abor, 16 with the Jili (decidedly Singpho) 21
with the Songphu, 25 with the Maram, and 25 with
the Singpho.
Between the Burmese Proper and the Siamese area
there intervene —
The Karen Dialects. — The Karen tribes are believed
to have great extension in a vertical direction, i. e. from
46
THE KAREN.
North to South, being said to extend from 28° to 10°
N. L. If so, some contain Siamese, some Burmese, and
some Chinese subjects. It is the southern section, how-
ever, which is best known ; the languages here having
commanded great and especial attention on the part of
the American missionaries, whose exertions seem to have
been rewarded with unusual success. The Proper Karen
dialects are the Sgau and the Pwo : to which a third
form of speech the Thoung-lhu is closely allied. Limited,
as it is, by the literary Burmese, the Siamese, and the
Mon of Pegu, the Karen division is a natural one, so
far as the dialects that belong to it are known to us at
the present time.
English.
Sgau.
Pwo.
Thoung-IM.
Man
po-khwg,
psh4'
Ian
Head
kh6'
kho' ■
katu
Hair
kho-thu
kh6-thu
tu-lu
Eye
me
me
may
Ear
na
na
nau
Tooth
me
thwa
ta-gna
Mouth
tha-kho
n6
proung
Hand
tsM
tshu'
su
Foot
kho
khan'
khan
Skin
phi
phi
phro
Blood
thwi
tshii thwi
thway
Bone
ghi
ghwi
htSDt
Sun
mu
mu
mu
Moon
14
1&
lu
Star
tsM*
sh&<
hsa
Fire
me'u
m6*
may
Water
thi
thi
htl
Bird
tho'
th6'
a-wa
Fish
nya'
y4*
lita
Snake
gu
wgii
h'm
Stone
lu
Ion
lung
Tree
the'
th6n
thing-mu
Mountain
ka-tsii
kh6'-lon
koung
Fiver
thi-klo'
thi-kl6
nhrong
Village
tha-wo
ta-wun
dung
Home
hi
yen
sam
Egg
di'
di*
de
Horn
ku-nu
n6n-
nung
One
ta
kada
ta
THE BURMESE PROPER. 47
Two.
ni
thun
li
yei
gliii
nwi
gho
khwi
Ten ta-tshi ka-tshi
English.
Sgau.
Two
kM
Three
thu
Four
Iwi
Five
ye
Six
ghu
Seven
nwi
Fight
gh6
Nine
khwi
Thouug-lbu.
ne
thung
leet
ngat
ther
nwot
that
koot
tah-si.
The Burmese Proper now finds its place. It is a lite-
rary language ; and, not only is it this, but it is the
only important one of the group. It has been culti-
vated as such some centuries — it is not safe to say how
many. Perhaps it is six or seven hundred years since
the first composition in Burmese was written. The
alphabet is of Indian origin, and it came in with Budd-
hism and the Pali literature. To this, the ordinary
Burmese has always been subservient ; so that it has
been limited to secular literature. What this is will
appear when we speak of the Siamese ; for the difference
between the literary Siamese and the literary Burmese
is but small. It is a mere difference of degree. The
philological view of the Burmese is, that it was originally
a dialect of the parts about Ummerapura, to which,
after an alphabet had been supplied, it became current
over a large district, and was embodied and kept, more
or less, stationary in books. At the same time it was
a dialect of a valley belonging to the broader part of a
river, and, as such, was a dialect of considerable geo-
graphical magnitude in the first instance.
Its literature is purely Buddhist ; and, in this, it differs
from the Munipur form of speech, which, to say nothing
about its being a dialect of a smaller area, was, to a
great extent, Brahminic as weU. But its true Buddhist
literature is Pali.
The older notices, and they are scarcely older than the
early volumes of the Asiatic Researches, wherein we find
48
THE BURMESE PROPER.
valuable Papers by Buchanan and Leyden, divide it into
four dialects ; the Burmese Proper, the Arakan, the
Tenasserim, and the Yo. This means merely the diffe-
rent ways in which Burmese, as Burmese, was spoken.
It never anticipated such divisions as the present work
has indicated, viz. Khen forms of speech from the Yoma,
or Yo country ; and dialect after dialect from one river,
the Koladyn, along with the several southern forms found
in Tenasserim ; though these are less marked than the
others. I think that it merely meant the variations
which the Burmese, or Avan, eo nomine, as a separate
substantive language, underwent. According to the
view implied in this division, there would have been
one great, and several smaller, languages.
However, the Burmese and Rukheng (of Arakan),
under this view, are as follows : —
English.
Burmese.
Rukheng.
Man
lu
yonkkya
Woman
mairima
mingma
Head
k'haung
gaung
Eye
myitsi
myitsi
Mouth
n'hiok
kandwen
Sun
na
rii
Moon
la
la
Star
ke'nekkat
kre
Shy
moh
kaungkan
Fire
mih
mi
Water
re
ri
River
myit
mrik
Sea
pengle
panle
Stone
kj-auk
kyauk
Mountain
toung
toung
One
tit
taik
Two
n'hit
n'haik
Three
thon
thong
Fm/r
le
le
Five
nga
na
Six
k'hyaiik
khrauk
Seven
k'how-n'hit
k'hu-naik
Eight
s'hit
s'hit
Nine
ko
ko
Ten
tase
tase.
TREATISE OF SCHLEIERMACIIER. 49
Before the Rukheng became Burmese it, doubtless, gave
us the analogues of the Kami, Mru, and Sak, multiplied by
the number of the hills and vallej^s. With the Yoma this
was still more the case ; less so with Tenasserim, where
the Burmese is recent and intrusive and (as such) not to
be found in the aboriginal dialects ; or (if found) found
in a less degree.
One of the opera major a in Comparative Philology is
connected with the Burmese — a prize essay of Schleier-
macher's. The question to be investigated was the
effect of writing upon language. Schleiermacher argued
that it was slight ; and, to justify his doctrine, compared
the Burmese which had, according to all opinions, been
written but a few centuries, with the Chinese that had,
according to many opinions, been written for almost as
many millennia. He showed that both were, essentially,
the same ; and he inferred from this that languages
could be kept stationary without writing. The merit of
Schleiermacher's treatise lay in its inductive character.
It took two facts and compared them. Had the
work been worse than it is (and it is not unworthy of
the great powers of the writer) it would have deserved
the prize simply from this fact. I imagine that the
majority of the candidates worked the question a priori;
but —
" illacrymabiles
Urgentur ignotique, long^ ....
Nocte, carent quia vate sacro."
The first I knew of the Burmese was from this
dissertation. I have not seen it quoted, either in
Germany or in England. Nevertheless, from the simple
fact of its inductive character, I look upon it as a
landmark ; and that, not only in the philology of these
parts, but in comparative philology altogether.
50 , THE THAY LANGUAGES.
CHAPTER VI.
The Thay, or Siamese, Group. — Its Extent and Direction. — Tlie Siamese
Proper.— The Laos.— The Khamti.— The Ahom.— The Shans.— The
Palaong. — Cultivation of the Siamese Proper.
The general name for the group now coming under
notice is either Thay, or Siamese. It is represented by
the literary language of Siam ; so that, being a small
class, it is not very important whether we call it by the
one name or the other. By a small class, 1 mean one
which falls into few minor groups ; also one in which
the differences of its two extremes are inconsiderable.
In other respects the group is a large one.
The Thay area is remarkable for its inordinate exten-
sion in a vertical direction, i. e. from north to south. A
Thay form of speech is spoken at the north-eastern end
of Upper Asam, in contact with the Mishmi and the
Sing-pho. This is in N. L. 28°. And a Thay form of
speech is again spoken at the neck of the Malayan
Peninsula, or as far south as N.L. "7°. Meanwhile, the
breadth of this preposterously long strip of language is
inconsiderable. Neither is its continuity demonstrated.
How the Khamti districts meet the Laos, or whether
they meet it at all, no one knows ; the details of the
Singpho dialects and the Chinese of Yunnan being
obscure.
The Thay of the Lower Menam is the ordinary
Siamese ; and it is in Siam where the Thay civiliza-
tion is at its maximum. This is essentially Buddhist.
I know of no Thay tribes that retain their original
paganism. I know of none where Brahminism has
THE THAY LANGUAGES.
51
made progress, and the language been j^^reservec?. The
sacred literature of Siam is in the Pali tongue ; the
secular in the native language. It is pre-eminently
metrical ; little beyond the correspondence of ordinary
life being in prose. The songs are in verse, the dramas
in verse, the histories in verse.
The Lau occupy the Upper and Middle Menam, their
political relations being with Siam rather than Burma.
A Lau is a Siamese Shan ; a Shan a Burmese Lau.
Ruder than the Siamese of Bankok, the Lau are not
only lettered Buddhists, but the possessors of a some-
what peculiar alphabet.
English.
Laos.
Siamese.
Man
khon
khon
Hair
pliom
phom
Head
ho
hoa
Ear
pu
pu
Eye
ta
ta
Blood
leut
leut
Bone
duk
kaduk
Foot
tin
tin
Hand
mu
mii
Tooth
khiau
khiau
Sun
kangwan
tawan
Moon
denn
tawan
Star
lau
dau
Fire
fai
fai
Water
nam
nam
Stone
pin
Iftn
Tree
ton
ton
One
niing
nUng
Two
song
song
Three
sam
sam
Four
si
si
Five
ha
ha
Six
hok
hok
Seven
tset
chet
Eight
pet
pet
Nine
kau
kau
Ten
sip
sip.
The Khamti of the north-eastern parts of Asam are
rude tribesmen, though not unlettered pagans. Their
E 2
52
THE THAY LANGUAGES.
creed and alphabet are those of the Siamese. They are
intruders, the original population having been akin to
the Singpho. Such, at least, is the inference drawn from
the condition of the Kbaphok ; the Khaphok being said
to be not only serfs to the Khamti but serfs who speak
a language which certain Singpho understand. A por-
tion, however, of the Khamti area may also have been
Mishmi.
The Khamti, however, are not the first members of
the Thay family whose language found its way into
Asam. The details of the Ahom conquest are obscure ;
as is the date of it. When it took place, however,
the Ahom, like the present Siamese, were a lettered
nation, with a Buddhist creed and an alphabet like the
Lau. Although, at the present time, there may be
found much Ahom blood among the men who speak
the Indian of Asam, the Ahom dialect itself is nearly
extinct.
The Thay of the Burmese Empire are called Shans ;
the Shans being the occupants of a number of small
States between the Burmese, the Siamese, and the
Chinese frontiers. They are neither pagan nor unlet-
tered ; their creed being Buddhist, their alphabet Lau
or Thay. Of the Shan dialects, eo nomine^ I know
but little. I imagine, however, that the following voca-
bularies must represent something like two extreme
forms ; the former being from the Tenasserim frontier,
the latter from the east of Bhamo.
EngUsh.
Ahom.
Western Shan.
Eastern Shan.
Khamti.
Man
kun
ktonputrihn
koun
kun
Hair
phrum
khonho
khounho
phom
Head
kha
ho
ko
ho
Bar
pik
h<i
mahou
pu
Bye
ta
matta
weta
ta
mood
let
lit
let
lilt
Bone
tau
sot
loak
nuk •
Foot
tin
ten
tin
tin
Hand
kha
ml
mhi
mu
Tooth
khui
khyo
khio
khui
THE THAY LANGUAGES.
53
English.
Ahom.
Western Shan.
Eastern Shan.
Khani!
Sun
ban
kawon
kanwan
wan
Moon
den
len
leun
liin
Star
dau
loung
lao
nan
Fire
fai
hpihn(?)
fai
fai
Water
nam
ndn
nam
nam
Stone
fra
mahein
mahin
pin
Tree
tun
ton
toun
tun
One
ling
nein
neun
niing
Two
sang
Ltsoung
tsong
song
Three
sam
htsan
tsam
sam
Four
si
htsi
tsi
si
Five
ha
ha
ha
ha
Six
ruk
hoht
houk
hok
Seven
chit
tsit
tsat
tset
Eight
pet
tet
piet
pet
Nine
kau
kown
kao
kau
Ten
sip
tseit
sib
sip.
Thei Palaong inhabit the valleys that lie beyond the
first range of mountains to the south-east of Bhamo ;
the mountains themselves being the occupancy of the
Kakhyen — the Kakhyen being decidedly Singpho. To
the south and west lie the Shan : to the east the
obscure frontiers of the northern and north-western por-
tions of the Kambojian and Antlmitic areas. The fullest
specimen of the Palaong language, eo nomine, is one
collected by Bishop Bigaudet of the Ava and Pegu
Mission ; upon which there is a short commentary, by
Mr. Logan, with whom I, unwillingly, differ as to its
affinities. I cannot connect it with the language of Co-
chin-China and Kambojia rather than with those of
Siam and Burma ; though it has (as is to be expected
fi:om its locality) decided south-eastern affinities. Mr.
Logan attributes its Shan elements to contact and inter-
mixture ; in my mind, gratuitously.
English. Palaong. ^
Read
kun
kho, Shan^ dec.
Ear
biok
pik, Ahom
Eye
metsi
—
Foot
djeuri
tin, Thay
Sun
sengee
—
Star
lao
lao, Shan, <Scc.
54 THE THAY LANGUAGES.
English.
Palaong.
Water
em
nam, Shan
Stone
mao
mahin, Shan
Tree
tangae
tun, A horn
One
he
—
Two
e
hai, Ana^nitic
Three
06
ba, Anamitic
Four
phoun
bon, Anamitic
Five
phan
nam, Anamitic
Six
to
sau, Anamitic
Seven
phou
bay, Anamitic
Fight
ta
tam', Anamitic
Nine
tim
chin', Anamitic
Ten
keu
mu'oi, Anamitic.
The extent to wliicTi the Burmese and the Siamese
lanofuao^es have been cultivated is much the same in
CD O
each. Each is the language of a Buddhist population ;
each is embodied in an alphabet of Indian origin ; and
each, as a vehicle of literature, is placed in a disadvan-
tageous position — each being, for every thing except the
most ordinary secular purposes, replaced by the Pali.
From this each has taken a great number of words.
Still there is a native literature in both the Burmese
and the Siamese.
The earliest inscription in the latter language is
referred to the beginning of the thirteenth century ;
the grounds, however, that justify the assumption of
antiquity are not very clear.
The popular poetry is sometimes sung, sometimes recited :
the music of the Siamese being spoken of with higher
praise than that of the Burmese. The chief minatrels
are from Laos. "When an entertainment is given, a
priest is invited to the house who recites a short story
or an ode. Hence, a small vernacular literature of a
lyric and romantic character — a very small one. Besides
this, there is an approach to the drama. Except that
the ode appears somewhat worse, and the drama some-
* The numerals are apparently borrowed.
THE THAY LANGUAGES.
55
what better, than in Siaio, this is the character of the
Burmese literature as well.
Siam itself is, as may be expected, the chief seat of
the Thay stock ; probably the area which contains the
greatest number of Thay individuals ; at any rate that
where the Thay civilization is at its maximum.
Whether the blood be the purest is another question.
It is probable that this is far from being the case. If
the dominant population be of northern origin, there is
every chance that the conquest of the country was made
by a male rather than a mixed population. And even
if it were not so, there is an enormous amount of
Chinese elements superadded to the original basis.
Pallegoix's calculations make the sum-total of the popu-
lation of Siam 6^0 00, 000. Dr. Bowring puts it at
something between 4,500,000 and 5,000,000. Palle-
goix's elements are as follows : —
Thay
Laos
Kan
Khongs
Mon
Kambojians
Chinese
Malays .
ren, \
ongs I
1,900,000
100,000
50,000
50,000
500,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
Like the Burmese, the Siamese have encroached on
their neighbours. There has been, as has been stated, a
Thay conquest of Asam. Kambojia pays tribute to
both Siam and Cochin-China. In the Malay Peninsula,
Ligore, Kedah, Patani, Perak, Kalantan, and Tringanu
are, more or less, directly or indirectly, under Siamese
control.
56 THE MON AND KHO.
CHAPTER VII.
The M6n Language of Pegu. — The Kho of Kambojia. — Their Original
Continuity.
Pegu gives us a new language — the Mon ; the name
being native. It is what the inhabitants of the Delta
of the Irawadi call themselves. Their neighbours the
Burmese call them Talieng. The Mon alphabet is of
Pali origin: the Mon literature Buddhist. The Mon
themselves are now British subjects. Before the cession
of Pegu, they belonged to Ava — a fact which has a
bearing on the history of their language. The Burmese
has encroached upon it, and is encroaching ; indeed, I
am told that there are few M6n who do not speak Bur-
mese, some having unlearned their native language.
In the 16th century the king of Pegu seems to have
been a powerful monarch ; inasmuch as the Thay
histories speak of a Pegu invasion of Siam, and a Pegu
conquest. Whether, however, the leading men in this
event were actual Mon is uncertain. A conquest from
the kingdom of Pegu may have been effected by Bur-
mese.
But little, too, is known of its nearest congener, the
Kho, Kamer, or Chong of Kambojia. Its alphabet is
Pali origin ; its literature Buddhist. It appears (though
the evidence is not conclusive) to fall into more dialects
and sub-dtalects than one.
Lying between Siam and Cochin-China, the kingdom
of Kambojia has had the ordinary history of areas simi-
larly situated. When it has been strong it has struck
its own blows — to the right and to the left. When it
THE MOH AND KHO.
67
has been weak, it has been stricken on both sides. When
the Portuguese first discovered the country, its power was
at or near its zenith ; and Siam and Cochin-China were,
at best, but its equals. At present they encroach upon
it ; yet, jealous of each other, leave it a modicum of
independence. So that, with the parts to the east of
the Mekhong under Cochin-China, and with the western
side under Siam, there is still a central portion under
the king of Kambojia. The population is about
500,000, of which about 400,000 are of the Kho
family, the rest being Chinese, Cochin- Chinese, Siamese,
Malays, Portuguese, and half-bloods.
English.
Mdn.
Kambojia.
Ka.
Khong.
Man
bani
manus
—
rum
Head
kadap
kabal
tuwi
tos
Eye
mot
panek
mat
mat
Mouth
pan
mat
boar
raneng
Sun
man-tangwe
tangai
tangi
tangi
Moon
man-katok
ke
kot
kang
Star
nong
pakai
patua
sum
Sky
taka
kor
krem
pleng
Fire
kamet
plung
un
pleu
Water
dat
tak
dak
tak
River
bukbi
tanle
dak-tani
talle
Sea
taUe
sarmot
—
—
Stone
kamok
tamo
tamoe
tamot
Mountain
tu
pnom
manam
nong
One
mue
moe
moe
moe
Two
ba
pir
bur
bar
Three
pai
bai
peh
peh
Four
pol
buan
puan
pon
Five
pasun
pram
chang
pram
Six
ka-rao
pram-moe
trao
ka-dom
Seven
ka-bok
pram-pil
pub
ka-nul
Fight
ka-cliam
pram-bai
tam
ka-ti
Nine
ka-chit
pram- buan
chin
ka-sar
Tm
cboh.
dap
chit
rai.
The Carnicobar language is Mon with Malay ele-
ments.
58 THE Ai!TDAMAN ISLANDERS.
CHAPTER VIII.
The Andaman Islanders.
So much has been said about the black skins and
the savage habits of the Mincopie or Andaman is-
landers, that the opinion of many ethnologists has
been in favour of separating them from the populations
of their neighbourhood, and either mixing them up
with the so-called Negritos, or making a separate class
of them. They are noticed as early as the twelfth
century, i. e. by the two Mahometan travellers of Re-
naudot. These write, that beyond the Nicobar Islands
" lies the sea of Andaman. The people on this coast
eat human flesh quite raw ; their complexion is black,
their hair frizzled, their countenance and eyes frightful ;
their feet are very large, and almost a cubit in length,
and they go quite naked. They have no embarkations ;
if they had, they would devour all the passengers they
could lay hands on.'' Marco Polo writes equally unfavour-
ably— " Andaman is a very large island, not governed
by a king. The. inhabitants are idolators, and are a
most brutish and savage race, having heads, eyes, and
teeth resembling those of the canine species. Their
dispositions are cruel, and every person, not being of
their own nation, whom they can lay hands on, they
kill and eat.'"*
A Paper, by Lieutenant Colebrooke, is the chief
source of our knowledge concerning the Mincopie, the
author being indebted to his predecessors Major Kyd
and Captain Blair, for some of his facts. He describes
them as plunged in the grossest ignorance and barbarity ;
THE ANDAMAN ISLANDERS.
69
barely acquits them of the charge of cannibalism ; and
unhesitatingly affirms that they are guilty of the
murder of the crews of such vessels as may be wrecked
upon their coast. Does he do this on the strength of
his observation or his reading ?
The late Sir Charles Malcolm, who had had one of
the natives aboard-ship with him, took considerable
pains to dilute the charges that lay against this ill-famed
population, and spoke in strong terms as to the gentle-
ness and docility of the individual with whom he thus
came in contact.
With the last year or two our knowledge of them
has increased, and the extent to which they are Burmese
is likely to be recognized.
Englisli.
Andaman.
Man
kamolan
cbamai, Koreng, <i:c.
Hair
otti
kbotu, Sgau.
Head
tabay
tuwi, Ea.
Eye
jabay
Ear
kwaka
Mouth
morna
boar, Ka,
Am
pilie
Nose
melli
Finger
mornay
Hand
gonie
onie
pang, Lukuppa.
Blood
kotsbengoM
Belly
napoi
Teeth
mahoi
Breast
kah
Tongue
talie
Bone
gitongay
ghi, Sgau.
Chin
pitang
Foot
guki
Knee
ingolay
Leg
tshigie
Fire
mona
in6u, Sgau.
Water
migway
may, Thounglhu.
Sky
madaino
&un
abay
Moon
table
Star
tshelobay
English. ■
Andaman.
LJ.1 JLtJJLl^X^X/JiiXVO.
Wind
tomjamy
Wood
tanghi
ton = tree, Siamese; i
House
beaday
Kapwi.
Bird
lohay
tho, Sgau; tawu, Mru.
Fish
naboM
nya, Sgau.
Black
tshigiuga
Cold
tshoma.
thinkung,
(A^'
COCHIN-CHINA. 61
CHAPTER IX.
Cochin-China, or Annam, and Tonkin.
The ethnology of Cochin-China is also that of Tonkin ;
the language, manners, and physical conformation of the
occupants of the two countries being the same. The
collective name for them is Anam, or Annam ; when(;e
we get the adjectives Anamese or Anamitic, as the name
of the group ; which is a section of the division to which
the Chinese belong. The Tonkinese call the Cochin-Chi-
nese Kuang and Kekuang ; names which are, probably,
the same as Khyen and Kakhyen. The Cochin-Chinese,
on the other hand, call the Tonkinese Kebak.
Tabard, in the preface to the Anamitic Dictionary,
expressly states that the language is spoken beyond the
boundaries of both Tonkin, and Cochin-China, and that it
extends into Siam, Kambojia, and Tsampa. If it ex-
tend far into Kambojia, the Kho area must be of the
smallest.
In Kambojia, where we find Buddhism, we find it con-
nected with a knowledge of the Pali language and the
use of an Indian alphabet. The alphabet, however,
in Anam is Chinese ; and it is Chinese which is the
learned language.
English.
Cochin-China.
Cochin-China.
Tonkin,
Man
nga'oi
danon
nguoi
Head
dau
tu
drau
Eye
male
mok
mok
Mouth
mieng
kau
kau
Sun
mat-troi
nhet
nit
Moon
mat-tran
blang
blang
Star
sao
sao
sao
62
cocHii;
r-CHINA.
English.
Cocliin-China,
Cochin-China.
Tonkin.
Sky
troi
bloei
bloei
Fire
lu'a
hoa
boa
Water
nu'oe
nak
nak
River
song
sou
sou
Sea
bien
be
be
Stone
da
ta
dra
Mountain
nui
nui
nui
One
mot
mot
mot
Two
hai
hai
hai
Three
ba
teng
tarn
Four
bon
bon
bon
Five
nam
lang
lam
Six
sau
lak
luk
Seven
bay
bai
bai
Fight
tarn'
tang
tarn
Nine
chin'
cbin
chim
Ten
mu'oi
taap
tap.
The An am analogues of the Ka and Chong, the rude
tribes of the more impracticable parts, are the tribes of
the Nguon, Moi, Romoi, Kemoi and, Diditsh (all un-
known in detail), who occupy the mountain ranges
between Tonkin and Cochin-China, and Cochin-China and
Kambojia.
OHINA. 63
CHAPTER X
China. — Canton, Fokien, and Mandarin Dialects. — Stages. — Are there any?
— Gyami. — Tangnti.
Of the dialects of the Chinese Proper, as opposed to the
Anamitic of Tonkin, we know but little ; little, at least,
for such a country as China, with its vast area and its
numerous inhabitants. Indeed, if we consider this, it is
a country for which our knowledge of its local dialects
is at a minimum. Elsewhere we generally know some-
thing of the details of what may be called the fringe ;
i. e. the tract where two countries come in contact with
each other. But China has so thoroughly overlapped all
its neighbouring populations, that knowledge of this
kind is out of the question. Add to this, the fact of its
being, as China, a terra incognita for anything but a
few points on the coast.
Still there are a few weak lights. They chiefly shine
on the south and the west.
The most southern dialect for which we have speci-
mens, is that of the province of Quantong, or Canton —
and next to this, that of Hokien, or Fokien, for which
we have the elaborate dictionary of Medhurst. Med-
hurst himself was not in China ; but he knew the
Chinese as a resident in Liverpool, who had made it his
business to attend exclusively to the Irish, might know
the Irish Gaelic. He was connected with the Chinese of
the great immigration to the Malayan Peninsula and the
Indian Islands. Of these the majority were from the
south.
Medhurst commits himself most explicitly to the
64 CHINESE DIALECTS.
statement that there are forms of even the Canton and
the Fokien dialects which are mutually unintelligible ;
and adds that, in his intercourse with the Chinese emi-
grants of the Indian Archipelago, he has more than
once had occasion to interpret between them. He also
adds that, in the same province, the difference of dialects
is sometimes so great, that people divided by a moun-
tain, a river, or twenty miles of country, are mutually
unintelligible. That statements of this kind must be
received with caution has already been suggested.
Meanwhile, in the ten divisions of the province of
Fokien, there are as many dialects ; Fokien being one
of the smallest provinces of the empire.
The Fokien is not so provincial a dialect as to re-
main unwritten. On the contrary, the work from
which the preceding observations are drawn, is founded
upon a native publication, the Sip gnoe yiTn— fifteen
sounds f published in 1818, in which not only the pecu-
liarities of the Fokien dialect are given, but the
difference between the reading idiom and the colloquial.
Another work of the same kind is quoted by Adelung
from Bayer, and, doubtless, there are more of the same
kind. This means that the Fokien, though not the
classical, is one of the written languages of China.
The classical language of China is the Mandarin, it
being in the Mandarin dialect that the business of
the empire is carried on. It is also the language of the
Chinese literature. Whatever may be the antiquity of
this, the antiquity of the oldest specimen of the language
is but moderate. It is, of course, as old as the oldest
copy of the book that contains it, and it is very probable
that it is not much older. At any rate, any antiquity
beyond this that may be claimed for it, should be proved
rather than assumed. Those who believe in the great
age of the earliest Chinese literature, e. g. those who Qot
only believe that the works of Confucius (for instance)
have come down to us, but that Confucius lived some-
STAGES OF CHINESE. 6*5
where between the times of Archiloehus and ^schylus,
reasonably expect that, as the Greek of the days of
Solon differs from the Greek of the reign of King Otho,
the Chinese shall do the same ; not, perhaps, to the
same extent, but still to some extent — to an extent
sufficient to enable us to talk about the stages of the lan-
guage, and to compare the old Chinese with the middle,
and the middle with the modern. Something, too, they
may reasonably expect illustrative of the history and
development of the language ; though, from the fact of
the present Chinese being in an early stage of develop-
ment, not very much. Little, however, of all this will
they actually find. The difference between the Manda-
rin of to-day, and the oldest classical Chinese is (roughly
speaking) the difference of two centuries, rather than
two millenniums — assuming, of course, anything like an
ordinary rate of change.
But is there not in China an amount of unchanorinsf
immobility, in language as in other matters, which w^e
fail to find elsewhere ? To this I answer that such may
be, or may not be, the case. Let it be proven, and it
is an important fact in the history of mankind. At
present it is enough to state that nothing in the
way of the language of China is older than the oldest
copy which exhibits it, except so far as its antiquity
is supported by better reasons than the supposed an-
tiquity of the author.
Concerning the dialect out of which the Mandarin
was more especially developed, we may safely say
that it must be sought to the north of the province
of Fokien, and the south of the province of Pecheli.
This means that the group to which it belongs has its
area in the middle of the empire. The extent to which
it is other than southern has already been indicated.
The extent to which it is other than northern, is in-
fierred from the direction in which it has extended
itself. On some points (at least) it is less archaic than
the Canton.
F
66
CYAMI VOCABULARY
English.
Mandarin',
Canton
Head
teu
te'u
Eye
mu
mok
Ear
61
y
Nose
pi
pi
Mouth ,
ke'u
hou
Tongue
Shi
shit
Hand
gheu
sheu
Foot
kio
koh
Blood
khiue
hint
Sun
2hi
yat
Moon
yue
yuet
Star
zing
zing
Eire
kho
ho
Water
shui
shoi
Tree
mu
mok
Stone
Bhi
shap
One
i
yik
Two
ny
y
Three
zan
zam
Four
BZU
si
Five
ngu
ong
Six
m
lok
Seven
tsi
tsat
Eight
pa
pat
Nine
kieu
kou
Ten
Bhi
shap
Of tlie Chinese of the extreme west I only know
the Gyami vocabulary of Hodgson. A vocabulary
of Stra-lenberg's, headed "Tanguhti who belong to the
Dalai Lama, and have one religion with the Kalmucs
and Mungals/' is Bhot.
English.
Gyami.
English.
Gyami.
Man
rin
Two
liangku
Head
thau
Three
Bangku
Hand
syu
Fowr
siku
Foot
chyaa
Five
wuku
Sun
rethau
Six
leuku
Moon
yoliang
Seven
chhiku
Star
singshu
Eight
paku
Fire
akkha
Nine
chyaku
Water
shiu
Ten
issha.
One
iku
TANGUHTI VOCABULARY.
67
2.
English.
Ta^gult'.
Englsh.
Tanguliti.
Father
pha, abba
Foot
kangwa
Mother
mha, amma
One
dschyk
Brother
pungu
Tioo
ny, na
Sister
poima
Three
ssuum
Wife
dsgymse
Four
dscysz
Fire
may
Five
duga
Water
tzu, loo
Six
uruch
Earth
tza
Seven
dliun
Mountain
la, rhe
Eight
dsquat
Sun
nara, nima
Nine
dsgu-tomba
Moon
dawa
Ten
dsgyn
Horse
tha
Eleven
dsgii-dschyk
Dog
ky
Twelve
dsgu-ny
Head
mgho
Twenty
nyr-dschyk
Stream
tzu
Thirty
nyr-dsgu-tomba
Wind
long
Forty
dschyack-dsgu
Man (homo)
my
Fifty
duga-dsgu
Eye
mybi
Sixty
dbuin-dsgu
Tongue
thgi
Seventy
dsguat-dsgu
Mouth
cha
Eighty
dsgU-tomba-dsgu
House
tungwa
Ninety
dsgu-dsgU
Iron
tscha, tawar
One Hundred
yreen
Gold
sin-, kinsa
One Thousand
namm.
Silver
mui, insa
F :i
68
BROWN'S TABLES.
CHAPTER XI.
observations on the Preceding Groups. — Brown's Tables. — Affinity between
the Burmese and Tibetan. — Direction of the Chinese. — Nearest Con-
geners to the Malay. —Indian Affinities of the Mon.
The first reduction of the languages of the preceding
chapter to anything like system is to be found in the
papers of Buchanan and Leyden in the early numbers
of the Asiatic Transactions. The next landmark is
Brown's vocabularies and table. Of the former we
have already spoken. The latter is as follows : —
1
6
92
1
1
1
5
8
i
8
d
3
10
6
3
3
i
1
1
i
0
1
1
1
1
0
bf)
a
'ft
o
0
i
s
0
■a
1
0
i
Q
0
■a
g
0
'o
0
0
i
a
<
5
Khamti ....
Siamese . . .
92
0
0
3
6
8
3
10
1
3
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
c
0
5
A'ka
1
0
47
20
17
12
15
15
5
11
3
10
3
8
8
8
5
6
10
8
10
0
A'bor
1
0
47
20
11
10
18
11
6
15
6
1]
6
8
6
8
8
8
10
10
18
0
Mishirai . . .
5
3
20
20
10
10
10
13
10
11
0
11
0
3
5
6
8
6
13
10
8
1
Burmese . . .
8
6
17
11
10
23
23
26
12
16
8
20
6
11
11
11
10
13
13
16
16
1
Karen
8
8
12
10
10
23
17
21
8
15
10
15
8
12
4
12
8
12
12
10
15
2
Singpho . . . •
3
3
15
18
10
23
17
70
16
25
10
18
11
11
13
15
13
25
13
20
18
5
Jill
10
10
15
11 13
26
21
70
22
16
10
21
13
11
11
18
20
20
13
20
20
3
Graro
3
1
5
6 10
12
8
16
22
10
5
6
5
8
5
8
13
11
5
5
5
3
Manipuri . . .
3
3
11
15 11
16
15
25
16
10
21
41
18
25
28
31
28
35
33
40
50
6
Songpu . . . .
1
1
3
6
0
8
10
10
10
5
21
35
50
53
20
23
15
15
13
8
15
6
Kapwl . . . .
0
0
10
11
11
20
15
18
21
6
41
35
30
33
20
35
30
40
45
38
40
5
Koreng . . . .
1
1
3
5
0
6
8
11
13
5
18
50
30
41
18
21
20
20
10
15
3
Mar^m . . . .
0
0
8
8
3
11
12
11
11
8
25
53
33
41
21
28
25
20
16
23
26
3
Camphung . .
0
0
8
6
5
11
4
13
11
5
28
20
20
18
21
40
20
20
16
15
25
3
Luhuppa . . .
0
0
8
8
6
11
12
15
18
8
31
23
35
21
28
40
63
55
36
33
40
5
N. T^ngkhul .
0
0
6
8
8
10
8
13
20
13
28
15
30
20
25
20
63
85
30
31
31
3
C. Tangkhul .
0
0
6
8
6
13
12
25
20
11
35
15
40
20
20
20
55
85
41
45
41
1
S. Tangkhul .
0
0
10
10
13
13
12
13
13
5
33
13
45
11
16
16
36
30
41
43
43
5
KhoibH . . . .
0
0
8
10
10
16
10
20
20
5
40
8
38
10
23
15
33
31
45
43
78
3
Maring ....
0
0
10
18
8
16
15
18
20
5
50
15
40
15
26
25
40
31
41
43
78
3
Anamese . . .
5
5
0
0
1
1
2
6
3
3
6
6
5
3
3
3
5
3
1
5
3
3
DIRECTION OF THE CHINESE. - 69
Whoever studies it must see that, between the per-
centages of the Anamitic and Siamese on one side, and
those of the remaining forms of speech on the other,
there are the elements of a great class. This comprises
the Singpho and the Jili — specially allied to each other.
But it also gives a decided affinity between the Jiji and
the Garo, which brings the languages of India and the
extremity of Asam in connection.
The affinities of the Garo with the Tibetan were
indicated by Robinson, and the indication w^as legiti-
mate ; though it would have been better, perhaps, to
have made them Burmese. At any rate it was good
against Mr. Hodgson's view, which made them Indian
rather than Monosyllabic at all — a view wdiich, with
laudable candour, he afterwards relinquished.
Soon afterwards additional vocabularies, accompanied
with a few short but sound remarks, added the whole
Naga group to this class.
The relations of the Burmese, Mon, Siamese, Anamitic,
and Chinese to each other form the basis of more than one
speculation. They bear upon tlie history of the exten-
sion and development of the Chinese itself. They bear
upon the origin and direction of the Thay and Burmese
movements. They bear upon the relations of the Malay
languages to those of the continent. Finally, the
Indian elements of the Mon have commanded atten-
tion.
1. If the nearest conveners of the Chinese be in the
south and east, the lines of conquest and encroachment
on the part of that inordinately-extensive population
must have run north and west. At present the lan-
guages with which the Chinese lies in contact give con-
trasts rather than affinities. With the Mantshu and
Mongol, and even with the Corean, this is notoriously
the case ; and, to a great extent, it is the case with
the Tibetan. On the north and west the Chinese keeps
encroaching at the present moment — at the expense of
70 PERCENTAGES OF BROWN'S TABLES.
the Manfcshu and the Mongolian. For the provinces of
Chansi, Pe-tche-li, Chantung, Honan, &c., — indeed, for
four-fifths of the whole empire, the uniformity of speech
indicates a recent difi'asion. In Setshuen and Yunnan the
type changes, probably from that of the true Chinese to
the Tibetan, Thay, and Burmese. In Tonkin and Cochin -
China the language is like but different — like enough to
be the only monosyllabic language which is placed by any
one in the same section with the Chinese, but different
enough to make this position of it a matter of doubt
with many. Putting all this together, the south and
south-eastern provinces of China appear to be the oldest
portions of the present area.
2. Separated as they are, the Mon and Kho are liker
to each other than either is to the interjacent Siamese;
the inference from this being that at one time they were
connected by transitional and intermediate dialects, ab-
original to the lower Menam, but now displaced by the
Siamese of Bankok introduced from the parts to the
northwards.
3. If so, the nearest congener to the Malay of the
Malayan Peninsula is not the present Siamese, but the
language which the present Siamese displaced.
The southern Thay dialects are not only less like the
Mon and Kho than is expected from their locality, but
the northern ones are less like those of the Indo-Bur-
mese frontier and Asam than the geographical contiguity
prepares us to surmise ; since the percentage of words
common to the Khamti and the other dialects of Muni-
pur and Asam is only as follows.
Siamese. Kham'I.
0 per cent, with the Mar^m.
, , , Camphung.
, ,, Luhuppa.
, ,, Nortli Tankhul.
, ,, Central Tankhul.
,, Khoibti.
, , , Maring.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
INDIAN ELEMENTS IN THE MON.
71
Siamese.
Khaiiiti.
0
0 per cent.
with the Kapwr.
1
1 n
, , Koreng.
1
1
, , Songpu.
0
1
„ Aka.
0
1
„ Abor.
0
3 ,,
,, South Tankhul
1
3 ,,
, , Garo.
3
3
, , Munipnri.
3
5
, , Misshimi.
6
8
,, Burmese.
8
8
, , Karen.
3
3
,, Singpho.
10
10 „
„ Jill.
The further the Thay runs south, the more it stands
in contrast to the languages by which it is bounded.
Those with which it has the most affinities are the
Singpho dialects, and after these the Western Ehot. It
seems as if the Menam directed its course. It follows
its stream, displaces the forms of speech by which the
Mon and Kho may reasonably be held to have gradu-
ated into each other, and, having done this, comes in
immediate contact with the Mala}^, with which it has
fewer affinities than its juxtaposition suggests. For —
The true Malay affinities are with the Kho and Mon, or
rather with that intermediate variety which the spread of
the Thay abolished. No wonder, then, that its connec-
tion with the languages of the continent is obscure.
4. A paper of Mr. Mason's, in the Transactions of
the American Oriental Society, exhibits some remarkable
points of likeness between the Mon and certain lan-
guages of India. The first numerals are especially
prominent in this comparison.
Does this justify us in connecting the two forms of
speech ? I doubt it. The question, however, will bo
considered when India comes under notice.
72 THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES.
CHAPTER XII.
The Tungus Class. — Mantshu and Orotshong.— Orthography of Gastrin's :
Tungtis Grammar.
The Tungus area is large in extent, irregular in outline,
and obscure in its relations. On the south it comes in
contact with China and Corea ; on the south-west with
Mongolia. Between Corea and the Amtir, it reaches the
sea ; the peninsula, however, of Sagalin and the mouth
of the Amiir itself are Kurilian. It crops out again to
the north ; and the shores of the Sea of Okotsk are
the occupancy of the Lamut Tungus to the south and
the Koriaks to the north. There are sporadic Tungus
further on — on the coast of the gulf of Penjinsk, and
even in the peninsula of Kamtchatka. The Aldan, a
feeder of the Lena, is pre-eminently a Tungus river : so
is the Tunguska (as its name indicates), a feeder of the
Yenisey. And this gives us a notion of the magni-
tude of the area in its western and northern prolonga-
tions. Between the Yenisey and the Kolyma it is con-
tinually presenting itself; so that there are Tungus
in contact with the Koriaks, the Jukahiri, the Jakuts,
and the Samoyeds. There are Tungus on the Wall of
China, and there are Tungus on the shores of the Arctic
Ocean.
The class falls into two divisions — the Mantshu and
the Orotong or Orotshong ; the former giving the Tungtis
of the Amur, the latter the Tungus of the Lena and
Yenisey. The former gives the Tungiis of the Chinese
Empire, the Tungus of the Imperial Dynasty, the Tungus
of a Buddhist literature and Mongol alphabet, the Tun-
THE TUNG US LANGUAGES. 73
giis of the civilized section of the name. The latter
belongs to Russia and Siberia, and, except so far as it
has been cultivated by Europeans, is an unwritten lan-
guaoje.
The term Orotong is Mantshti ; being applied by the
Mantshlirians to such other members of the stock as are
other than Mantshti. The tribes, however, of the Lower
Tunguska apply it to themselves. In its more limited
sense, Tungiis itself coincides with Orotong. No one
ever calls a Mantshti a Tungtis. A Tungus Gramrnar,
however, is the title of Castren's work on the Orotong
of Irkutsk, and its allied dialects.
In respect to the direction in which the Tungtis lan-
guage has spread itself it is safe to say thus much, viz.
that it runs from east to west, and from south to north,
rather than vice versa. There are good grounds for
holding that both the Corean and the Kurilian extended
beyond their present limits ; so that it is likely that the
Mantshiis were originally strangers to the Sea of Japan.
The evidence that the Tungtis of the Arctic and Sub-
arctic regions is intrusive, is more satisfactory still. The
head-waters of the Amur, and the parts about Nerts-
hinsk, give a good provisional origin to the Tungus.
The Mantshti alphabet — the alphabet of a language
with a very scanty literature — is a modification of the
Mongol. The Orotshong dialects, however, are given
either in Russian or Italian letters : the Tungtis Gram-
mar of Castren being in the latter.
The following are the more important terms connected
with the ethnology and philology of the Tungtis : —
Lamut. — This means sea, and it applies to the Tun-
gtis of the Sea of Okotsk. The affinities of the Lamut
dialects run in the direction of —
Dauria. — The Daurian Tungtis are those of the
Baikal Lake, the Sayanian Mountains, and the circles of
Yerkneudinsk and Nertskintsk. It is the dialects and
74 THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES.
sub-dialects of these tribes that are more especially illus-
trated in Castren's Grammar, which most particularly
gives the dialects of the Urulga and Maniko tribes. Of
the language of
Tshapodzhir Tungus, we have vocabularies only.
They occupy the banks of the Yenisey, and constitute
the most western division of the stock.
The differences of the Timgus forms of speech lie
within a narrow compass, and (I believe) coincide with
the geography of the area. Between the Lamut and
the Tshapodzhir there is, apparently, a greater difference
than can be found between any interjacent varieties.
The same applies to the Nertshinsk dialects of the south,
and more northern dialects of the Yakut and Samoyed
districts. In short, the different forms of speech gra-
duate into each other. They also take slight modifica-
tions from the languages of their several frontiers. On
the south, the Mantshli is encroached upon by the
Chinese. In Siberia, it takes in Russian, Mongol, and
Turk words. About the Mantshii of the Kurilian fron-
tier more will be said in the sequel.
The Mongols call the Mantshu either Uzun DzTixirtshit
or Angga Dzhurtshit ; and this is a word which appears
and reappears under a multiplicity of forms. It is
Tshurtshit, Zhudzhi, Nyudzhi, and Geougen ; the
latter being a name of some, real or apparent, historical
importance. Castren has allowed himself to believe
that a population bearing this name in certain of the
Chinese compositions, was as old as the eleventh cen-
tury before our sera. They were barbarians who paid
an insignificant tribute to China. The truly historical
Nyudzhi, however, are the founders of the present
Chinese dynasty, their conquests having been effected
about A.D. 1644 ; and it may be added that a Nyudzhi
vocabulary, taken by Klapoth from a Chinese narrative,
is Mantshli.
THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES.
10
Castren found outlying Tshapodzhirs as far west as
the Obi. In Bronson, a vocabulary of the Giliak lan-
guage, often — I believe, generally — considered to be
irilian, is Mantshu.
The Mantshu call —
China ....
Nikan.
The Mongolians .
Monga
The Russians
Oros.
Nertshinsk
Niptshi
The Giliak ....
FiaJca.
Korea ....
Solgo.
The last name is remarkable because the Mantshu
tribes of the Upper Sagalin are called Solon ; and
because there is evidence of other kinds that a portion,
at least, of what is now Mantshuria, was once Korea.
English.
Maiitblm.
Timgus of the Amur.
Man (homo)
beye
Head
udzhu
topti
Hair
funiekhe
nurikta
Eye
yasa
yesa
Ear
shan
syen
Nose
okhoro
ongokto
Mouth
anga
ommiiu
Tongue
ilengu
ini
Tooth
veikhe
ikta
Hand
gala
nyala
Foot
betkhe
adbigi
Sim
shlin
delesa
Moon
bia
bega
Star
uzhikha
ohikta
Fire
tua
toho
Water
muke
mu
Stone
vekhe
dsholo
One
emu
mu
Two
dzheio
dyul
Three
elan
ela
Four
diun
duye
Five
sundzha
tonsa
Six
ningsun
nyuyu
Seven
nadan
nada
Eight
dzakun
tshapku
Nine
uyun
khuyu
Ten
dzhuan
dzh.i.
76
THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES.
The following short tables give a notion of the sub-
dialects of this division : —
English.
Middle Amur.
Mouth of Sangara.
Mantshu.
Kisi.
One
amun
omu
amoa
omu
Two
dyno
dzur
dzhoua
dyul
Three
elan
ela
gilang
ela
Four
diyin
duye
tuye
duye
Five
tonsya
tonga
sundzha
tonsa
Six
nunyun
nyungu
nyunguen
nyungu
Seven
nadan
nada
nadang
nada
Fight
dzabkun
dzhakfo
tsakoi
tshapku
Nine
yogin
huyu
uyen
khuyu
Ten
dzhan
dzhoa
dzliuyen
dzha.
Dialects other than Mantshu.
1.
English.
Nertshinsk.
Yakutsk.
Lamut.
Man (homo)
boie
boye
bye
Bead
deli
dyll
del
Hair
nyurikta
nyuritta
nyurit
Eye
isal
eha
esel
Ear
zin
zen
korot
Nose
ongokta
ongokto
ongata
Mouth
amga
hamun
amga
Tongue
ingni
ingni
ilga
Band
dzhalan
nggala
ngal
Foot
bokdil
halgan
bodan
Swn
shivun
ziguni
nyultan
Moon
biga
bega
bekh
Star
oshikta
haulen
otshikat
Fire
togo
togo
toh
Water
mu
mu
ma
Tree
too
mo
mo
Stone
dzhalo
dzholo
dzhola
One
omon
omukon
omin
Two
dzhur
dzhur
dzhur
Three
ilan
elan
elan
Four
dygin
dygin
dugun
Five
tongna
tonga
tongau
Six
nyungun
nyungun
nyungun
Seven
nadan
nadan
nadan
Eight
dzhapkun
dzapkan
dzhapkan
Nine
yagyn
jagin
uyun
Ten
dzhan
dzhan
men.
THE TUNGUS LANGUAGES.
77
English.
Yenesei.
Tsbapodzliir.
L. TungiTska.
Mangasela.
Man (homo) boya
doyo
boya
boyo
Head
dil
dyl
dil
dil
Hair
nyurikta
nyurikta
nuriktalx
nyurikta
Eye
osha
esha
obsah.
esha
Ear
shin
shern
syen
shen
Nose
nigslia
oiokota
onoktah.
ongokto
Mouth
amga
amga
amga
ammungah
Hand
hanga
nali
ngala
ngala
Foot
halgar
bodol
khalgan
halgan
Sim
shiggun
dylega
delatsba
delyadzya
Moon
byega
baga
beya
Star
oshikta
osliikta
oshikta
oshikta
Fire
toggo
togo
toggo
togo
Water
mu
mu
muh
mu
Tree
mo
mo
mo
mo
Stone
dishollo
zhynlo
hysba
dzyollo
One
utninukon
omukon
mukon
ommukon
Tico
dzyur
dzhur
dyur
dyur
Three
illun
ilan
ilan
illen
Four
diggin
dygyn
degenn
diggin
Five
• tungya
tunga
tonga
tongna
Six
nyungnn
nugun
nungun
nyungun
Seven
nadan
nadan
naddan
naddan
Eight
dzyapkun
dzhamkun
dzhapkul
dzapkun
Nine
yegin
yegin
iyogyin
yogyin
Ten
dzyan
dzban
dyann
dzhan.
Castren's Tungiis Grammar is drawn up in the ordi-
nary Roman alphabet, the author having preferred this
to the Russian. The latter would, indeed, have fitted
the language well, being both more copious than the
Roman, and being already applied to more than one
language of Northern Asia. More than this : one of
Castren's own grammars — that of the Ostiak language
— is Russian in respect to its letters. Nevertheless, the
Tungus orthography is Roman, the grammar itself being
in German.
The introduction of the European alphabets into Rus-
sian Asia is a point which we may advantageously con-
template, inasmuch as the principles by which it has
been regulated are, if not unexceptionable; at least laud-
able.
78 TUKGUS ORTnOGRAPHY.
These alphabets are two : the Russian and the
Koman or Italian. The former is the easier to handle
— the easier by far. By this I mean that, when an
unwritten language has to be written, and the elemen-
tary sounds of that unwritten language are new and
strange, the Russian orthography can be applied with
greater ease than any other in Europe. Of the pre-
viously unwritten languages, the following have, within
the last few years, been embodied by means of the
Russian alphabet : —
1. The Aleutian of the Islands between Kamtskatka
and America.
2. The Iron, or Osset, of Caucasus ; the application
being made by Sjogren.
3. The Ostiak ; the application being made by Cas-
tren. This was in 1849.
4. The Yakut ; the application being made by Mid-
dendorf and Botlinck.
What have been the applications of the Roman alpha-
bet ? — what the principles on which those applications
were made ? To the Fin of Finland it had been applied
from the beginning; Finland having, until 1812, been
Swedish. On the other hand, the Zirianian and the
Permian languages are written in Russian. The Esto-
nian, however, and the Magyar are Roman ; so that, on
the whole, it is not too much to say that the Roman is
the alphabet for the Fin family.
In 1830, the great Danish philologue, Rask, found
his attention dii'ected to the Georgian and Armenian
languages ; each with an alphabet one- third longer than
our own, and each with strange sounds for those alpha-
bets to express. However, they did express them ;
having signs or letters to match. These signs Rask
transliterated into Roman ; and that upon a principle
which, though negative rather than positive, is worthy
of imitation as far as it goes. He avoided the expres-
sion of simple sounds by complex combinations. If a
TUNGUS ORTHOGRAPHY. 79
new sound appeared, a new sign was excogitated. Tt
might be wholly new, it might be an old letter modified.
The former gives us the better and bolder, the latter the
more usual and easier, plan. How^ever, in the proposed
alphabet the Georgian runs thus : —
a, e, i, o, u, p, f, v, jz,
t, d, ]>, k, g, K, r, q, X,
s, z, s, z, c, 3, 3, c, i,
3. j, h, h, 1, m, n, r, 1).
y:, Ip, and h, were sounded as the 2^K tK f^i^d ^^^^ i^
ha-p/iazard, nu-thook, and in-Morn ; the original alpha-
bets having thus compendiously expressed three pairs of
compound sounds. If it were not for this, the combina-
tions of p, t, k, and h would have sufficed. The y was,
nearly or exactly, the Arabic c, a variety of g. The
corresponding variety of k is expressed by q, compared
to the Arabic -:. Another guttural was expressed by x
(Arabic •). For two varieties of h, were proposed h
and t) ; for the sibilants s' (sh) ; z' (zh) ; c (ts) ; c' (tsh) ;
5 (dz) ; 3 (dzh or the English j). Then, for a pair of
sounds described as approaching dhz, and dhzh, 3 and 3.
The Ai-menian transliteration had the additional signs e,
e, t, and i'.
a,
e,
^,
i,
0,
u,
P.
b, u or w
V,
F^
t,
d,
f;
k,
g.
k,
X or i
X,
s,
z.
1
%
c,
3,
3.
c,
i
i
1.
m,
n,
1%
1',
h
h.
Previous to the work in which these two alphabets
were proposed, the author had been engaged on the Lap
of Norw^egian Lapland, and had published a grammar
on it, in which the signs 5 and 3 were introduced ; as
well as n for the ng in king, sing, &c.
Though Castren's Ostiak Grammar, published in
1849, is in Russian, his Zirianian Grammar, published
80 NYUTSHI RECORDS.
in 1844, is in Roman letters; these being those of
Rask, except that for 5 and 3, he used dz and dz.
The Samoyed was the next sound-system he found
it necessary to investigate. Here there were two
modifications of I, viz., t, \, and {) the sound of the gii
in French words like Boulogne, along with similar modi-
fications of d, t, s, z, and c ; which were written dy, ty,
sy, zy, tshy — there or thereabouts.
Lastly, the Tushi alphabet of Schiefner contains x, h,
^, g, c, c, c, i, s, z, t, p, 1, ^
All this, though exceptionable in many respects, is
better than the system too much in vogue amongst our-
selves of making combinations.
It has already been stated that there is such a thing
as a Mantshu alphabet, and that it is a modification of
the Mongol. This implies a Mantshu literature. It is
a scanty one ; as may be seen from Klaproth's Mantshu
Chrestomathy. Neither is it ancient. It is possible,
however, that it may be both older and more important
than it seems. A paper,* by Mr. Wylie, of Shanghae,
gives us the following list of Neu-chih translations from
the Chinese, during, or earlier than, the Ming dynasty :
(1,) History of Pwan-kti ; (2,) History of Confucius;
(3,) Travels of Confucius ; (4,) Domestic Discourses ;
(5,) Discourses of the Wise and Able from the Domestic
Discourses ; (6,) History of Keang Tae-kung ; (7,) His-
tory of Woo Tzye-seu ; (8,) Narrative of the Display of
Rarities by Eighteen Kingdoms ; (Q,) History of Sun
Pin ; (1 0,) Treatise on Carriage Driving ; (11,) History
of Hae Tseen Kung ; (12,) History of Madame Hwang;
(13,) National Surnames ; (14,) Ha ta yang urh kan, — •
whatever that may mean.
More interesting, still, is the notice of two Neu-chih
inscriptions. The first, which from its locality, may be
called the Kin -chow monument, has been seen in situ
by no European. Neither is it copied verbatim et
* Joiirnal of the Royal Society. Vol. xvii. Part 2. 1860.
NEUCHIH RECORDS. 81
literatiTn in China. Still, there is a Chinese work in
which there is a notice of it, and in which there is a
translation ; viz. The Choice Selections from Lapidary
Literature. This is the translation of the author whom I
follow of Shih mih tseuen hwa, by Chaou Han, and is
dated 1618. It contains the Chinese equivalent of the
Neuchih ; of which the following is the translation in
English, by Mr. Wylie : —
The local military director and prince of the blood, brother to the emperor
of the Great-Kin dynasty, having enjoyed a season of tranquillity within the
boundary of his jurisdiction, was hunting on the south side of Leang Hill.
On coming to Keen -ling (the imperial sepulchre) of the Tang dynasty, finding
the pavilion and side buildings in a state of decay, every vestige of magnifi-
cence having disappeared, he gave orders to the local authorities to assemble
artisans to repair and beautify the place. Now having again visited the
sepulchres, finding the paintings all renewed, and the side galleries completely
restored, he was inexpressibly delighted, and returned after partaking of an
entertainment by the Prefect of Le-yang.
T'een-hwuy, 12th year (a.d. 1134), being the 51st year of the sexagenary
cycle, 11th month, 14th day, Hwang Yung-ke, Territorial Secretary to the
Supreme Council, and Wang Kwei, Secondary Prefect of Yew-chow, members
of the suite, have written this in compliance with the command.
Translation of the preceding in^cnption.
The heading of the tablet reads ' ' Record of the journey of the military
director and prince of the blood, the emperor's brother."
The author of the Shih mih tseuen hwa adds the following note ; — name or
surname is mentioned. As the date is 1134, it should be the brother of
T'ae-tsung, according to the history of the Kin dynasty. She-tsoo had eleven
sons ; there being eight besides Kang-tsung, T'ae-tsoo and T'ae-tsung, it is
uncertain which is the one referred to. We cannot decipher a single word of
this inscription, which is written in the Neu-chih character. This table cor-
roborates what Wang Yuen-mei says : — " When enlightened princes are watch-
ful over their virtue, foreigners are attracted from every region. There is a
translation at the end, in the Chinese character, consisting of one hundred
and five characters, inscribed on the left side, but it is entirely different.
The engraved inscription is at Keen-ling, on the characterless tablet."
This is not the only notice. How far, however, the
testimonies of the two authors quoted may be inde-
pendent is more than I can say ; but in the Record of
the Metal and Stone Inscriptions of Shense {Kwan-
chung kin shih ke), dated 1781, the following statement
G
82 NEUCHIH KECORDS.
concerning the inscription in question occurs: — "the first
part is written in the Neu-chih character, the latter part
is a translation written in the ordinary character ; the
heading is in the seal character. At Keen-ling, in ^ Kin-
chow/''
Of the other inscription, we still want even the pre-
liminary details. There is only a general notice of its
existence.
THE MONGOL LANGUAGES. 83
CHAPTEK XIII.
The Mongol Class. — Mongolian Proper. — Buriat. — Olot. — Aimauk. —
Pelu.— Sok.
The Mongol area is large, but not very irregular ;
neither are its frontiers very varied. On the south, it
marches with China and Tibet ; on the west, with the
Turk area ; on the east, with the Mantshu. On the
north, there are the Tungus and the Russian of Siberia
along with the languages of a few fragmentary abori-
gines. There are two isolated offsets, one in Cabul, and
one on the Volga. The differences of dialect lie within
a narrow compass. The divisions are (1) the East Mon-
golian, or Mongol Proper ; (2) the Kalka ; (3) the Buriat ;
(4) the Ulut, Olot, or Eleut, or Kalmuk ; (5) the Aimauk.
1. The Mongol was reduced to writing in (about) the
time of Kublai Khan : the alphabet being taken from
the Uighur Turks. The classical composition in this dia-
lect is a Mongol history by Sanang Seetsen. The literary
influences are, at the present time, Chinese and Tibetan.
Buddhism, however, was preceded by Fire-worship and
(apparently) by an imperfect Christianity.
2. The Kalka, in which the chief compositions are
songs, leads from the Mongol Proper to
8. The Buriat ; the Buriats being (like the Orotong
as compared with the Mantshu) Siberian rather than
Chinese. Amongst the Buriats, Buddhism prevails ; the
Buriat Christianity being inchoate, the Buriat Maho-
metanism inconsiderable in amount. As contrasted with
the Mongols Proper, the Buriats are, to a great extent,
G 2
84j the MONGOL LANGUAGES;
Pagans and in contact with Pagans — except (of course)
so far as they are under the influences of Russia.
In 1831, they numbered 72,000 males and 80,000
females : the present census amounting to about
190,000. They fall into the Buriats beyond, and the
Buriats on this side of, the Baikal. The former are the
Khorin, the Selenga, the Barguzin, the Kudarin, and the
Kudin (in part) tribes ; each with some peculiarities of
dialect. The latter — named after the rivers along which
they lie — are the remainder of the Kudin, the Upper
Lena, the Olkhon, the Ida, the Balagan, the Alari, and
the Tunka divisions ; the latter being, to some extent,
Turk and Samoyed in blood. The Selenga form of speech
is spoken in the greatest purity by the Atagan, Tsongol,
Sartal, and Tabang-gut.
The Buriat of the parts about Nizhni Udinsk, the
Buriat of the extreme west, call —
Themselves Buriat,
The Russians Mangut,
— Tungus Kaldzhak-shin,
— Katshintsi Turks Kat-kum,
— Kot Kotoh-kum,
— River Birus Byr-hu.
The chief difference between the Buriat and the
Kalka seems to be political. Neither is it quite certain
that Castren's divisions between the Buriat of this side
of the Baikal, and the Buriat beyond the Baikal, is
natural.
The Selenga forms of speech approach most closely
to the written or literary language.
English.
Selenga.
Khorin.
Nizhni Uda.
Tunkin.
Man (vir)
ere
ere
ere
ire
Man (homo)
khung
khung
kung
kung
Head
tologoi
tarkM
tologoi
tologi
Hair
usu
uhun
uhung
uliung
Eye
nyude
nyudeng
nyideng
nyudeng
MONGOL DIALECTS.
8^
English.
Selenga.
Kliorin.
Nizlmi Uda.
Tunkiu.
Ear
shikhe
shikheng
shikeng
shikeng
Nose
khamar
khamar
kamar
khamar
Mouth
ama
amang
amang
amang
Tongue
khele
kelen
keleng •
khelengn
Hand
gar
gar
gar
gar
Foot
khul
khol
kol
kol
Sun
nara
narang
narang
narangn
Moon
sara
hara
hara
hara
Star
odo
odon
odong
odong
Fire
gal
gal
gal
gal
Water
oso
uhan
uhung
uhungn.
4. The Ulut are the Mongols of Dzungaria ; the
Kalmuks of the Volga being Dzungarian in origin.
5. On each side of a line drawn from Herat to
Cabul, lies, to the north of the proper Afghan, and to
the south of the Uzbek and Turcoman, frontier, a great
range of undulating country, often mountainous, almost
always hilly, well-watered in some parts, bleak and
rough in others. This falls into a western and an
eastern division, with an important watershed between
them. From the west flow the Murghab, the Tejend,
and the Furrarud ; from the east, the Helmund, the
south-eastern feeders of the Oxus, and the north-western
feeders of the Cabul river. The former of these dis-
tricts, lower and less mountainous, is the occupancy
of the Tsliehar Aimauk ; the latter that of the Hazara.
Both are noticed in Elphinst one's Caubul : both are
placed in the same category. The only doubt in the
mind of the author is as to the nature of the class that
contained them. He hesitates to make them Mongols.
They generally spoke Persian. A sample of the lan-
guage, since published by Lieut. Leach, settles the doubt
— for the speakers of it, at least : —
English.
Aimauk.
Kalka.
Head
ekin
tologoi
Ear
tshakin
tsike
Nose
kabr
khamar
Eye
nuddun
nidu
SQ
THE SDK VOCABULARY.
English.
Aimauk.
Ralka.
Tongue
kel^i
kole
Hand
ghar
gar
Fire
ghar
gal
Water
ussun
usu
Tree
darakt*
modo
Stone
kuri
tsholo
One
nikka
nege
Two
koyar
klioyiu
Three
ghorban
gurba
Four
dorban
diiiba
Five
tabun
tabu.
There are a few Mongols in Bokhara ; traces, real or
supposed, of some in India ; the same in Persia and
Syria ; the same in parts of Russia and Tartary.
The Soh, or Sokpa, of the northern frontier of Tibet,
and, apparently, the most southern member of the group
is Mongolian.
English.
Sok.
English.
Sok.
Man
khiin
Fire
kwal
Head
thola gwe
Water
usu
Hair
kechige
Stone
chhilo
Hand
kar
Tree
moto
Mouth
ama
One
nege
Ear
khikhe
Two
hoyur
Eye
nutu
Three
korba
Tooth
syuchi
Four
tirba
Foot
khoil
Five
thaba
Blood
khoro-gwe
Six
chorka
Bone
yaso
Seven
tolo
Day
wundur
Eight
nema
Sun
nara
Nine
yeso
Moon
sara
Ten
arba.
The Pelii. — From the Japanese encyclopaedia, known
in China as Kho-khan Zanzai-tu-khuy, completed A.D.
1713, Klaproth gives a specimen of a Mongol dialect
entitled Pelu ; adding that Pe means north, and Iw
means western barbarians. If so, the Pelu are the
north-western barbarians.
• Persian.
THE PELU VOCABULARY.
87
English.
Pelu.
Mongol.
Man
kore
ere
Woman
khoton
khatun
Father
kozike
etshige
Mother
koke
eki
Brother
teuge
dagu
Girl
oka
okin
Sky
tengri
tangri
Sun
nara
nara
Moon
zara
zara
Star
khuton
odon
Sea
talai
dalai
River
murun
muran
Water
uzo
uzu.
Word for word, I hold that Pelu is the same as
Paloung, the name of a T'hay popidation already
noticed, and of one which lay west of Cochin-China,
and, to some extent, north as well.
88 THE YENISEIANS.
CHAPTER XIY.
The Yenlseians. — Objections to the name Ostiak.— Castren's Researches. —
Northern Branch. — Inbazk, Denka, and Pumpokolsk vocabularies of the
Asia Polyglotta.— Southern Branch.— The Assan. — Kot. — Castren's Dis-
covery of a Kot Village. — The Ara Legend.— Kan skoi and Kamassintzi
vocabularies. — The Glosses Kot and Kem. — Speculations as to the origi-
nal extent of the Yeniseian area.
This is, perhaps, the most broken-up population in the
world ; so that I shall say nearly all that I know about
it. It is possible that a large proportion of this is
ethnographical, rather than philological ; still, it is so
fragmentary a population that I shall write a few pages,
even though they may be out of place. I shall also add
my speculations as to the original importance of the
class.
Yeniseian was the name proposed by Klaproth,
though it is not the term used by Adelung before, nor
that used by Castren after him. It may, possibly,
be exceptionable ; inasmuch as the Yeniseians are, by
no means, the only populations of the Yenisey. On the
other hand, however, they are nearly limited to the
drainage of that river, and they also seem to be the
aboriginal occupants of a great portion of its valley.
They extended as far south as 53° N. L., and as far
north as 67° N. L., at least. Adelung and Castren call
them the Yeniseian Ostiaks. They are, however, widely
different from the true Ostiaks — those of the Obi.
It is to be regretted that Castren laas gone back to
the old term, and that when he speaks of the populations
under notice, he calls them Ostiaks of the Yenisey, just
as he calls the Samoyeds of the Ket and Tshulim, Os-
THE YENISEIANS. 89
tiak Samoyeds. In each case, the word is used impro-
perly. Indeed, it is doubtful whether it is the best
term for the Ostiaks Proper, though it is a convenient
one. It is a convenient one, because they have no other
general name at all.
The Turk is the language to which (in the first in-
stance, at least) it belongs ; for it is the Turks who
apply the name. And they apply it to more populations
than one. They apply it to the Ostiaks Proper and
they apply it to the Bashkirs. Whether they have not
applied it elsewhere, and that in unexpected quarters, is
a question from which, for the present, Ave refrain.
When Castren undertook his second journey, he was
specially instructed to ascertain the ethnological and
philological relations of those "tribes which, dwelling
between the Yenisey on the east, and the Obi on the
west, bore the indefinite name of Ostiak.'' It is un-
necessary to say that these instructions were carried out
with zeal and skill. The investigation, however, was, at
first, left in the hands of his fellow-traveller Bergstadi,
who passed a part of the year 1846 in the village of
Anzeferova, on the Pit. After a while, however, Castren
descended the Yenisey, and, after coming in per-
sonal contact with the tribes of the Sym and parts about
Turukhansk and Inbazk, made himself master of the
language sufficiently to become the author of a grammar
and a vocabulary.
Their most northern limit is the country about Man-
gaseia or Turukhansk, in (jQ° N. L., where their neigh-
bours to the north are the Avamski and Karasin
Samoyeds, to the west the Samoyeds of the Tas, and to
the east the Tungtis of the northern Tunguska river.
Of the exact dialect here spoken there are no specimens.
It seems to be taken for granted that it is the same as
that of the next group.
This appears about 63° N. L., where, in the parts
about Inbazk, the Yelogui falls into the Yenisey from
90 THE YENISEIANS.
the west, and the Bakta from the east. Here the fron-
tagers are again Samoyeds (of the Karakon section)
and Tungus. An Inbazk vocabulary, eo nomine, is to
be found in the Asia Polyglotta : akin to which is a
shorter one of the 6dh (or sable) Ostiaks, who, in 1723,
called themselves Denka. According to Messerschmidt,
they could count no further than five. The Denka were
especially found on a stream called 6dh-Shosh {Sable
river), a feeder of the Podkamennaya Tunguska — the
name being apparently of Tungus origin ; for several of
the Tungus tribes call themselves Denka, which means,
in Tungus, men. Though it is expressly stated that ,
this name was native, and as there is no sign of the
w^ord under notice having any meaning in any Yeniseian
dialect, it is possible that the blood of the Denka was
Tungus. Be this as it may, the dialect belongs to the
Inbazk division.
In 60° N. L., the Sym and Pit fall into the Yenisey,
much after the manner of the Yelogui and the Bak^ ;
the former from the west, the latter from the east. $he
banks of each are Yeniseian localities. A little to the
south of the latter lies the village of Anzeferova, the
spot where Bergstadi and Castren made their chief
researches in the Yeniseian. Hence, it must be sup-
posed that it is the Pit and Sym forms of speech that are
most particularly represented in the grammar. The
frontier on the east is Tshapodzhir ; on the west,
Samoj^ed and Ostiak.
To the south and west, the Ket is a Yeniseian locality,
the dialect of which is represented by the Pumpokolsk
vocabulary of Klaproth, a dialect which, like the last,
is in contact with the Samoyed and Ostiak. The
river Kem, which falls into the Yenisey, a little below
Yeniseisk, bears a Yeniseian name. Of the Yeniseian of
the Ket, as represented by the Pumpokolsk vocabulary,
I think that thus much may be said, viz. that, notwith-
standing certain special affinities with the dialects of the
THE YENISEIANS. 91
next group, it is a northern rather than a southern form
of speech, i. e. that it belongs to the Sym group of
dialects.
About 5*7° N. L. is the boundary of philological
area ; and we no longer meet what may be called the
proper Siberian populations, like the Samoyeds, Ostiaks,
and Tungus, but populations whose language is Turk.
In other words, the philological frontier changes ; and,
with it, change the Yeniseian forms of speech. All the
preceding dialects appear in Castren's Grammar, under
the name of Ostiak of the Yenisey. The name that
now presents itself is Kot.
A few Russianized Kot were seen by Gastrin as far
west as Ansir, Barnaul, and Yelansk. They stated that
they were a remnant of the Baginov Uluss, which mi-
grated from the River Poima. These, he thinks, are the
Yeniseians, whom Klaproth calls the Kongi'oitshe, a name
which, he also thinks, has originated out of the Tartar
name for Krasnoyarsk, the town where the tribute was
paid. It means, a place with a bell. The Poima is a
feeder of the Ana.
Now, it is on the Ana, along with the Ussolka, that-
Klaproth fixes another division of the southern Yeni-
seians, of whose language he gives a specimen, which
differs from the Kot only as one dialect or sub-dialect
differs from another. He calls them the Assan. Gas-
tren sought for them with care and pain. He found
none on the Ussolka ; though he especially visited the
chief or only volost on its drainage. All he found was
Russians, who knew of nothing older than themselves.
Two families were, apparently, of Tungus blood ; but
nothing did either they or any one else know about the
Assan.
Neither was he successful on the Lower Ana. Towards
its head-waters, however, he found an account of some
Kot who had lived there lately, but who had been
ordered to move to the Uda, where they then lived with
92 THE YENISEIANS.
the Buriat, in a village named Badaranovka, thirty
versts below Nizhni Udinsk. Before they left the Ana,
they spoke Buriat. They amount, now, to eleven tri-
bute-payers, half of whom (the division is difficult)
speak Buriat, half Russian. They call themselves Ko-
tovzy, the name being native, the form Russian. The
Karagas Turks call them Kodeglar. I imagine that
these are the Assan, or nearly so.
At length, he found the Kot, eo nomine and eci lin-
gua. But they were but a fragment. Their original
area was the drainage of the river Kan. There were
Kot settlements near the present villages of Agulskaya
and Korastelia. There were Kot settlements about Ansir,
Yelansk, and the now important town of Barnaul. A
few years ago, seven Kots paid tribute from the neigh-
bourhood of Kansk. The Agul, the Kungus, and the
XJlka were once Kot rivers. There were Kots on the
Mongol frontier, whose language is now that of the
Buriats.
: Nevertheless, a few. speakers of the Kot language still
exist ; a single village on the Agul being their locality —
their neighbours being Kamass Samoyeds, themselves
more than half Turk.
The Kot of the Agul, being lighter taxed than if
they were passed for Russians, make much of their little
nationality, and keep up their language accordingly.
Five individuals from the settlement were seen by Cas-
tren ; and his Kot Grammar was the result.
The Arini were all but extinct in the middle of last
century. A specimen, however, of their language has
survived. So has the following legend : —
Before they left the main stream of the Yenisey for
their present occupancy in the district of Sayania, and
whilst they called themselves Ara (being called by the
Russians Arinzi), they lived part of the year in one
place, part in another. Their summer residence was an
island in the Yenisey, named, in Russian, the Tates-
THE YENISEIANS. 93
hewki Ostrog. In winter, they joined the Katsha Turks,
and fed their flocks on Mount Kumtige, near the Katsha.
Their tribe was, at first, a large one ; but they fought
against each other, and became weak. While these wars
were going on, a young Ara walked out, and found a
snake. He cut it in two. The head, which still kept
in a little life, went back to the king of the snakes, and
told his tale. So the king of the snakes held a council,
and asked the wise men of Snakeland what was to be
done. It was summer-time, and ail the Ara were in
tlie island. The snakes agreed to do this — they were to
swim across to the opposite bank, and then cry out,
" Boat ! boat ! " So they swam across, and the Ara
heard a cry of " Boat ! '' They went with all the boats
they could muster : but, wonderful to relate ! they found
no men on the shore (for they thought that it was one
of their countrymen who had called), but only snakes —
especially young ones. There were more young than
old. They were almost all young ones, and they all
wanted to speak — all at once. But the old king of the
snakes told them to be quiet, and then put as many of
them in the boat as it would hold. Then he made the
old man row them over to the island, one boatful after
another, until they were taken across. Then the king
of the snakes himself got in, and was rowed over by
the old man in like manner with the rest.
As they were rowing, the king of the snakes said to
the old man, " When you get back again to your own
home, remember to strew ashes all round your tent, and
then to drag over them a sail-cloth of two different
colours, and made of two kinds of horse-hair — one
white, the other black.'" So the old man did as the
king of the snakes had bid him ; and went home, and
took the ashes, and dragged over them a sail-cloth made
of two kinds of horsehair, and went to rest. And he
awoke in the morning, and, behold ! the whole TJluss
was gone, and all the men of the tribe dead. Only the
94
THE YENISEIANS.
old man and his family were spared ; and from liim
come all the Ara.
When an Ara dies, his bow and arrows are placed in
his grave, over which his best horse is slaughtered, and
flayed. The skin is then stretched over a pole, set up
on the grave, and the flesh is feasted on. The women,
after their confinements, wash themselves three times
within the first seven days, and then fumigate them-
selves with a herb named irhen. The first friend that
visits them names the child. Their oaths are taken
over a bear's head, of wliich the swearer fixes his teeth
in the nose. When a sentence equivalent to banishment
is pronounced against a culprit, he is placed between a
dog and a reindeer. These are then set free. Whichever
way they run must be taken by the man also, who is no
longer allowed to remain where he was. Even a draught
of water from his old locality is forbidden. So is all
farther intercourse with any of his original neighbours.
These remarks apply to the Dzizerti or Yesirti, as well
as the Ara ; the Dzizerti being, like the Ara, an extinct
or amalgamated tribe.
The word Ara is said to mean wasps ; the population
to which it applies being so denominated from their war-
like activity. But it most likely means nothing of the
kind. Word for word, it seems to be Yarang.
English.
Inbazk.
Pumpokolsk.
Assan.
Kot.
Arini.
Man (hoTno)
ket
kit
hit
Hit
khitt
{vir)
tshet
ilset
hadkip
hatkit
birkhanyat
Head
tsig
kolka
takai
tagai
kolkya
Hair
tonge
kliynga
khingayang
hingayang
khagang
Foot
toigen
aning
pulang
pulang
pil
Eye
des
dat
tesh
tetshagan
tieng
Ear
hokten
klokan
kalogan
utkhonong
Nose
olen
hang
an
ang
arkhui
Mouth
ko
kan
hohui
hohu
bukhom
Tongue
ei
iiygyi
alup
alup
alyap
Sun
i
hikhem
oga
ega
ega
Moon
kMp
khep
shui
shui
eshui
Star
koogo
kaken
alak
alagan
. ilkhoi
THE YENISEIANS.
95
English.
Inbazk.
Pumpokolsk.
Assan.
Kot.
Ariiii.
Fire
bok
butsh
bat
kbott
kbott
Water
ul
ul
ul
ul
kul
River
ses
torn
ul
kem
sat
IJdl
kai
kbai
yii
dzbii
kar
Tree
oksa
oksy
atsh
atsbsbi
kusb-osbtsbe
Stone
tshugs
tsbys
sbish
sbish
kbez
Egg
ong
eg
sbulei
sbulei
ang
Fish
isse
gite
tyg
tig
ilti
God
eis
es
etsb
esb
es
Sl:y
eis
es
etsb
esb
es
House
khush
bukut
biisb
busb
bu
Milk
mamel
den
tengul
Saoiv
begges
tyg
tik
tik
tbe
One
khus-ein
kbuta
hutsba
butsba
kbusei
Ticp
un-em
binneang
una
inya
kina
Three
dong-em
donga
tongya
tongya
tyonga
Four
zi-em
ziang
sbeggiang
tsbega
sbaya
Five
gag-em
kbeilang
geigyan
kega
kbala
Six
ag-am
aggiang
gedudzbiang
kelutsba
ogga
Seven
enh-am
onyang
geiliniang
kelina
unnya
Eight
unem-boisan
- bing-basi-
geiltaniang
kbeltonga
kina-mant-
kbogen
kbaiyang
sbau
Nine
khusem-boi-
kbuta-yamos
- godzbi-buna-
butsbabunaga kusa-mant-
san-kbogen
kbaiyang
giang
sbau
Ten
kbogen
kbaiyang
bagiang
baga
kboa.
I think that, in investigating the extent of the origi-
nal area of the Yeniseians, we may use the words het
and hem as instruments ; the first meaning man, the
second river.
Let us consider, then, the presence of these forms as a
presumption in favour of Yeniseian blood, and ask how
far they lead us.
(1 .) Kot, het, &;c. — The Mongol form for the Teleuts is
Teleng-^i/^ ; the Teleuts being considered to be Mongols
in blood, though Turk in language.
The Iv-het are a small tribe of fifty-seven tribute-
payers, near Tunka — at present considered as Soiot.
What Castren heard about the Irket was that they had
migrated from the river Sikir, and that they had
divided themselves into two divisions. One took to the
level country belonging to the Bucha Gorkhon tribe of
96
THE YENISEIANS.
Buriats. With these they intermarried, probably from
the necessity of their taking a wife out of a tribe dif-
ferent from their own ; they themselves being only a
single tribe.
(2.) Kemi. — The twenty-eight Dyon or Yon of the
Tshulim Turks were originally called Tutal, a name which
is now limited to two of these tribes. The people of the
towns call them Uriankbai. The Tutal name, however,
for the Tshulim river is Tshum. I think that, word for
word, this is Tom as well as Kem and Tshem. In the
Pumpokolsk dialect this (torn) is the actual word for
river.
The Alakh and the ^em-tshik form the western'
soiu-ces of the Yenisey, which is named by the Chinese
and the Mongols Ulu Kem = great river, ulu being a
Mongol term, but kem a Yeniseian one. Here dwell the
Soyon, Soyony, or Sayanzi, the only names, according
to Tshitshatsheff, which are known in these parts ; the
form Soiot being inaccurate. The language and manner
of life of these nomads are partly Mongol, partlj" Turk.
At present they fall into two divisions, one of which
is directly dependent upon China, whereas the other is
under a zaizan, who resides at Urgha. This confirms
the doctrine suggested by the word Irket^ viz. that the
Soiot are, more or less, Yeniseian in blood.
I now subjoin the following vocabularies from Stalen-
berg : —
( I .) That of the Kanskoi, of the river Kan, who call
themselves Khotovzi.
English.
Khotovzi.
One
opp
Two
tzida
Three
naghor
Four-
thseta
Five
ssoumbulang
Six
muctu
Seven
seigbe
Eifjht
schidfetse
Nine
togus
English.
Khotovzi.
Ten
bud
Eleven
biid-op
Twelve
biid-tzida
Twenty
tuserm
Thirty
nogh-tuserm
Forty
nogb-opp-tuser.
Fifty
soum-tuserm
Sixty
mouck-tuserm
Seventy
seig-tuserin
THE YENISEIANS.
97
English.
Khotovzi.
English.
Khotovzi.
Eighty
Fire
tbuy
Ninety
togus-thiserm
Water
ai
Hundred
thun
Earth
dscha
Thousand
byat-tun
Mountain
bia
God
num
Sun
kaya
Father
abam
Moon
kysschtin
Mother
imam
Horse
nunda
Brother
aya
Head
stiba
Sister
yhse
Man {homo)
hya.
Wife
nah
This is Samoyed. Still, the people call themselves
Kotovzi ; as do the existing Kotovzi, who are probably
their descendants, but who speak Buriat.
(2.) That of the Kamacintzi, who call themselves
Kishtim, and hve on the River Mana : —
English.
Kamacintzi.
English.
Kamacintzi.
One
chuodschse
Sixty
bkelusa-tu
Tioo
ynge
Seventy
hkelina-tugu
Three
tonga
Eighty
cbeltong-tugu
Four
schagae
Ninety
hwelin-tugu
Five
bkagse
Hundred
dnss
Six
hkelusa
Thousand
hag-duss
Seven
hkelina
God
esch
Eight
cheltonga
Heaven
urach
Nine
bwelina
King
patschai
Ten
haga
Water
uhl
Eleven
baga-chuodschge
Earth
pang
Tivelve
haga-inse
Mountain
kgy
Twenty
yn-tung
Sun
egje
Thirty
tonga -tu
Moon
tzui
Forty
tonga-tu-chuodsclia3
Wind
japei.
Fifty
hkog-tugu
These are simply Yenisei an.
(3.) A Turk dialect in the Asia Polyglotta head Kan-
gazen, in the few words, wherein it is other than Turk,
is Yeniseian.
%
Library.
98 THE TURK DIALECTS.
CHAPTER XY.
The Turk Languages. — Import of the term.— The Uighur. — Tshagatai. —
Uzbek. — Turcoman. — Kirghiz. — Barabinski. — Tshulim. — Teleut. —
Koibal. — Karagas. — Soyony. — Yakut. — Bashkir. — Kazan. — Nogay. —
Meshtsheriak. — Kumuk. — Kuzzilbash. — Cumanian.
When the word Turk is used by either the ethnologist
or the philologue, it has so wide a signification that the
Turks of European Turkey form but an inconsiderable
fraction of the great population to which it applies. The
so-called Tartars (or Tatars) of Independent Tartary
are Turks ; so are the Turcomans of the Persian fron-
tier ; so are the occupants of more than one district
named Turkestan ; so are several other populations with
several other names. Even in respect to its literary
development, the Turkish of Constantinople divides its
honours with the Uighur and Tshagatai dialects,
which, at the present time, are, comparatively, incon-
spicuous dialects, but which, in point of priority of cul-
ture, are to be preferred to their congeners of the west.
Turk, then, is a generic name, and the class it applies
to is a large one. Its area is of great magnitude, and
that in every direction. A language intelUgible at Bok-
hara is spoken on the very confines of Afiica. A lan-
guage scarcely unintelligible at Constantinople is spoken
at the mouth of the Lena, on the shores of the Arctic
Sea. We have a vocabulary of the Cumanian Turk
once spoken in Hungary. The Uighur Turk is spoken,
at the present moment, on the frontiers of Tibet and
Mongolia.
The Turk area, then, is large, and it is irregular as
well ; and very various indeed are the districts with
THE TURK DIALECTS. 99
which it comes in contact. In the south-east, it touches
Tibet ; in the south, India and Persia. By the Kurd,
Arabic, Syriac, Armenian, and Greek, the Turkish of
Asia Minor is irregularly bounded. It mixes itself with
the languages of Caucasus ; is spoken in contact with
the Russian in the Crimea ; and with the Bulgarian,
Servian, and Romaic in European Turkey. The govern-
ment of Caucasus and Astrakan, to the south ; of Viatka
and Perm, to the north ; and of Grodno, to the west,
contain Turks. Orenberg is Turk in language : so is
Kazan. Tobolsk and Tomsk give us the Turks of
Southern, Yakutsk those of Northern Siberia. Dioscu-
rian, Mongolian, Tungus, and Ugrian forms of speech,
all come in contact with the Turkish.
In some cases, the Turk has been encroached on ;
in others it has encroached. In Hungary, it has given
way : indeed, as a general rule, it has given way where
the language with which it has come in contact has been
European. In Siberia, for instance, it yields to the
Russian. Where the language is Ugrian, it encroaches.
It has most especially encroached on the Samoyed. In
consequence of this, the coincidence of Turkish blood
with the Turkish language is anj^thing but close. The
blood is Turk where the language is Hungarian or Sla-
vonic. The language is Turk where the blood is Ugrian or
Mongol.
Notwithstanding the inordinate size of the Turk area,
the differences which it presents are but slight. As a
general rule, the dialects graduate into each other ; and
I doubt whether even the extreme forms — provided that
the conversation be on a simple subject — are mutually
unintelligible.
In respect to the direction in which the Turk lan-
guage has diffused itself, we may safely say that in the
north and west it is intrusive. Except Independent
Tartary and Turkestan, there is no spot where Turkish
is spoken where it cannot be shown to be exotic. The
H 2
100 THE UIGHUR.
claims, however, of Independent and Chinese Turkestan
to be considered as the fountain and origin of the Turk
language has yet to be examined. These, however, are
matters for the ethnologist rather than the philologue.
The name Turk, totider/i Uteris, first appears in A.D.
569, when Justin sent an embassy to the Khan Zemar-
chus, whose residence was near the Ek-tagh ; the words
in italics being Turkish glosses.
Of the Turk of this district, Klaproth gives the
following words, taken from Chinese authorities, who
refers them to the language of the Tuk'iil, i. e. Turks.
English.
T'uk'iii.
Turkish.
Sky
tangri
tiingri
House
ui
ui
Helm
t'uk'iii
tekhieh
Bair
shoka
shadzh
Chief
kan
khan
Black
koro
khara
Old
kori
khan
Wolf
furin
buri.
As the source of these samples is China, it is fair to
suppose that they represent a language of the Chinese
frontier, i. e. one of the most Eastern divisions of the
group. It to this that the name Uighur most especially
applies ; the proper Uighur being the population which
most closely came in contact with two of the languages
— the Tibetan and Mongol — which lay to the east of it,
and approached the third, i. e. the Chinese. This is an
inference from the fact that, at the present time, a tribe
calling itself Ighnr speaks Tibetan, and touches the Sok
districts of Mongolia.
The Uighur Turks were the first of their stock to
use an alphabet, and used it betimes, perhaps as early
as the seventh century. The Mantshu alphabet (as has
been stated) came from Mongolia ; and the Mongolian
from the Uighur Turks, the Uighur Turks having taken
it from Syria, under the instructions of the Nestorian
missionaries.
THE UIGHUR. 101
It is chiefly in its descendants — the Mongol and the
Mantshti — that this interesting alphabet survives ; since
it was replaced by the Arabic when Mahometanism re-
placed Christianity. Nevertheless, a few samples of it
are extant, viz. (1) the Baktyar Nameh of the Bodleian ;
(2, 3) the Miradzh and Tezkirehi Evliyd of the Bihlio-
th^que du Roi ; and (4) Kaudatkuhilik in Vienna.
None of these, however, except so far as the alphabet is
concerned, are much more tlian literary curiosities. The
first was written A.D. 1434, the second and third A.D.
1436, the fourth, A.D. 1459. The Miradzh, a history
of the ascension of Mahomet, is a translation from the
Arabic ; the Tezkirehi Evliyd, or Legend of the Saints,
being one from the Persian. The Baktyar Nameh is
either a translation from the same language, or rifac-
ciamento. The Kaudatkuhilik, or Science of Govern-
ment, shows a little more originality — the matter, and
perhaps the composition itself, being older than the MS.,
perhaps as old as A.D. 1069.
The Mogul dynasty was Tshagatai, and the Indian
descendants of the Great Mogul are of Tshagatai blood.
So are many families in Caubul, just as certain families
in England are Norman. The familj^ of Timur was
Tshagatai ; Kokan, or Ferghana, being the district where
the Tshagatai language was most especially cultivated.
The Persian, however, was in immediate contact with it,
and in some of the provinces prevailed over it. Ande-
jan, however, the district of the capital, was so Turk,
that " there was no one/' writes Baber, *' who did not
understand the Turki tongue." Asfera and Marghinan
were Persian. The languages acted and reacted on
each other. Persian models were copied by Tshagatai
writers, and Persian works translated by them.
Of the Tshagatai, eo nomine, as spoken at the present
moment, I have seen no specimens. Nor is this strange.
The language spread itself beyond its own boundaries,
102 THE UIGHUR.
and, having found its way into Persia, Afghanistan, and
India, became Persian, Indian, or Pushtu.
Theoretically, the main differences between the Tsha-
gatai and Uighur are considerable ; and they would be
more so if the existing Uighur works were older. But
they must be the newesfc of their class. Were they not
all subsequent to the Hegira ? subsequent to the intro-
duction of the Arabic alphabet, which must have been
used concurrently with the Uighur, and subsequently to
the predominance of Persian and Arabic models ? The
old Uighur compositions would have been different, they
would have been Christian in creed and Syriac in style.
But none such exist. Yet they must have existed, or
why the alphabet ? Why its extension into Mongolia ?
Uighur, then, as the word has been used, means New
Uighur.
But what if the Uighur alphabet, concurrent with the
Arabic in the newer Uighur literature, were also concur-
rent with the Arabic in the earlier Tshagatai? In such
a case, the works in question may be Tshagatai — for, it
must be remembered, that it is only the alphabet which
makes them Uighur. Their date is that of the Tshaga-
tai dynasty. If so, the division between the two groups
is either artificial or provisional ; in which case Uighur
means the Turk of Chinese Turkestan, Tshagatai the
Turk of Bokhara and Ferghana. However, according
to common parlance, the works already enumerated are
Uighur. A Uighur alphabet makes a Uighur work.
At the same time, it should be added that Davies
(though without quoting his authority) especially states
that during the period immediately subsequent to their
conversion, the Tshagatai made use of the Uighur
alphabet.
The Memoirs of Timur, and the Institutes of Timur,
though translated from a Persian original, are said to be,
in their earliest form, Turkish compositions — the Turk
THE UIGHUR. 103
dialect being the Tshagatai. These earlier forms, how-
ever, have yet to be discovered. Ulug Beg, about A.B.
1446, was a Tshagatai poet, as well as a Tshagatai
patron of astronomy. His age, it should be observed,
is within ten years of that of the Uighur MSS. Then
comes Mir Ali Shir, a poet also, whose works, though
unedited, are extant. Thirdly, comes the Emperor
Baber himself
The evidence of the Arabic alphabet being used con-
currently with the Uighur, is to be found in the MS. of
the Koudat, where there are interlineary glosses and re-
marks, some in Arabic, some in Persian — all, however,
in the ordinary alphabet of the Koran. Now, whether
these be as old as the rest of the MS. or not, the reader
who wrote them must have been the reader of a work
in Uighur.
The Uzbek has, to a great extent, replaced the
Tshagatai, if, indeed, the two dialects were notably
different. Khiva is Uzbek. The dominant populations
in Bokhara and Ferghana are Uzbek — the remainder
being Tajik. So it is elsewhere. This means that,
except in the parts about Khiva, there is in the Uzbek
countries, side by side with the ruling nation, a subor-
dinate population speaking Persian — differing in its
numerical proportion to that which speaks according
to the country. Thus —
In Khiva, the Uzbek is at its maxiTnum.
It preponderates in the parts about Balk.
So it does in Kunduz.
So it does in Huzrut, Imaum, and Khullum.
On the other hand, in Khost, Inderaub, and Taulik-
haun, the Tajik element prevails.
In Meimuna, Andkhu, and Shibbergaun, the second
element, though other than Uzbek, is still Turk, i. e.
Turcoman.
The Turcomans are independent nomads between
104
THE KIRGHIZ.
Bokhara and the Caspian, bounded on the south by
Persia, and on the north by the Uzbeks and Kirghiz.
Whether the Kirghiz can be separated from the
Turcomans and the Uzbeks by any definite line of de-
marcation, is uncertain. The central portions, however,
of their area may be looked upon as the points where
the blood and language most closely coincide : where
foreign elements and foreign contact are at the mini-
tnum, and where the type of the group is to be sought.
On the east and north the character changes. There
is contact with strange languages ; those languages being
no longer Persian and Tibetan, but the Ugrian and Rus-
sian of Siberia. That the Kirghiz of the northern portion
of their area are intrusive is certain, though it is difficult
to give the exact boundaries of their original occupancy.
The name deserves notice. In Menander's account of
his embassy to the Turk king Dizabulus, whose sove-
reignty seems to have lain in the Tshagatai district, we
find the word Xep^i'S — a Kirghiz female slave being one
of the presents. In the Chinese geographers, Kilikiszu
are placed on the Yenisey, where the term is current at
the present time. Finally, I believe that, word for
word, Kirghiz is Tsherkess, i. e. Circassian. The
Kirghiz of Pamer are on the Persian and Uzbek
frontier.
English.
Uzbek.
Turcoman.
Kii-ghiz.
Head
bash
bash
baz
Hair
zatsh
zatsh
tshatsh
Hand
al
kol
kol
Foot
ayak
ayak
ayak
Eye
kyus
kus
kus
Ear
kulak
klak
kolak
Tooth
tish
dish
tiz
Blood
kan
kan
kan
Day
kUndus
kyondos
kundus
Sun
kyonash
koyash
kUn
Moon
ai
ai
ai
Star
yoldos
yoldos
dzhildzhis.
THE BARAMA TURKS. 105
English.
Uzbek.
Turcoman.
Kirgliiz.
Fire
ud
Ot
Ut
Water
zu
zu
zu
Tree
agatsh
agatsh
agatsh
Stone
tash
tash
taz
One
bir
bir
ber
Ttoo
ike
iki
oki
Three
utsh
utsh
utsh
Four
dyort
durt
tyort
Five
bish
bish
bez
Six
alty
alto
alty
Seven
edi
edi
dzhede
Eight ^
zigis
zikis
zikes
Nine
tokas
tokos
tokus
Ten
on
on
on.
The Barahinski, Baraha, or Barama Turks, between
the Obi and the Irtish, touch the Ostiaks on the north,
and are probably the occupants of an originally Ostiak
area. At any rate, their language is Turk, the soil
Ugrian, their blood, in all probability, mixed. Their
political relations are Russian, and their creed Sha-
manism, or imperfect Christianity rather than Mahome-
tanism.
Like the Barabinski, the so-called Tartars of Tobolsk
are Turks ; occupants of ground originally Ugrian, and
so far as it is not Russian, Ostiak.
The Verkho-Tomski tribes. — Verkho means upper,
and is a Russian word. Hence, the Verkho-Tomski are
the Turks of the Upper Tom, i. e. the Tom above
Kuznetsk.
The Abintsi are a part of them. Their dialect, pro-
bably, graduates into that of
Kuznetz, where the frontier is Mongol and Samoyed.
The Teleut are believed to be Mongols in blood,
though Turk in speech. Below Kuznetsk
The tribes of the Tshulim, though occupants of a
district originally Ugrian, are said to mix Mongol (? Ye-
niseian) words with their vernacular Turkish. Their tribes
are called Dyon or Yon.
106 THE TURKISH OF SIBERIA.
The Turkish of the Yenisey, especially in the circle
of the Minusinsk, and in the Sayanian mountains, is
spoken by individuals who seem to have adopted it after
the abandonment, not only of some native language
other than Turk, but after the adoption of some inter-
mediate one, different from both the Turk and the ori-
ginal mother-tongue. Thus, a language which will be
noticed in sequel under the name of Yeniseian, seems to
have been replaced by the Samoyed, the Samoyed itself
having been replaced by the Turk. Phenomena of this
kind make the parts about Minusinsk one of the most
obscure areas in Asia. We may advantageously con-
sider these strata and substrata of languages in detail.
1. There is the Kussian — recent in origin, but en-
croacbing upon even the Turk.
2. There is the Turk, which has spread itself in the
west, at least, at the expense of the XJgrian, and which,
in its Barabinski, Tobolski, and Tshulim elements, so
far as it is heterogeneous, is XJgrian.
3. There is the Mongol, which on the Tom, and in
the Teleut districts may have preceded the Turk, itself
preceded by something Samoyed or Yeniseian.
4. There is the Ostiak of the Obi — the language
which best represents the Ugrian of the Kirghiz fron-
tier.
5. There is the Samoyed, spoken as far north as the
Arctic Sea, and as far south as the parts about Lake
Ubsa within the Chinese frontier — the Samoyed which,
in some cases, has been replaced by the Mongol, itself
replaced by the Turk.
6. There is the Yeniseian — a language known only
in fragments, but which, in one case at least, has been
replaced by Samoyed.
THE TURKISH OF SIBERIA.
107
English.
Baraba.
Tobolsk.
Tshulim.
Kuznetik
bash
Head
bash
pash
bash
Eye
kos
kus
kos
kus
Ear
kulak
kulak
kulak
kulak
Nose
Month
mondu
aksy
parun
auus
murun
agus
XrX UUiHO
Hair
tshatsh
tsats
tshatsh
tshatsh
Tongue
til
til
til
Tooth
Hand
tish
khal
tish
kal
tish
kol
Sun
kyosh
kun
kun
kun
Moon
ai
ar
ai
ai
Star
eldar
yoldus
yoldus
tshlitis
Fire
ut
ot
ot
ot
Water
zuu
su
su
su
Tree
agaz
yagats
agats
agatsh
Stone
tash
tash
tash
tash
One
bir
bir
bir
pir
TXM
ike
ike
ike
iki
Three
ytsh
itsh
itsh
utsh
Four
tyort
dort
dyort
dort
Five
bish
bish
besh
bish
Six
alte
alty
alte
alty
Seven
sette
siti
sette
setti
Eight
zogus
segis
zegus
segys
Nine
togus
togus
togus
togus
Ten
on
on
on
on.
Respecting the Teleuts, it has already been suggested
that though Turk in Lxnguage, they have generally been
looked upon as Mongols in blood : and it has also been
suggested that, in the way of blood, they may be less
Mongol than Yeniseian. The Mongol name is Teleng-
gut, as has already been stated ; whereas Abulgazi calls
them Uriat, which, word for word, is Urianchaiy Yarang,
and the like — all apparent derivatives of Ara. At the
time of the Russian conquest they were called White
Kalmuks.
Etiglisb.
Teleut.
English.
Teleut
Head
bash
Sun
kun
Eye
kus
Moon
ai
Ear
kulak
Star
yiltis
Nose
muran
Fire
ot
Mouth
ous
Water
su
Hair
tshatsh
Tree
agash
Tongue
til
Stone
tash.
Hand
kol
•
108
THE KOIBAL.
Of the language of the Katshintsi Turks, the Kats-
halar, of the Turks of Katsha, although we hear much
about them in the way of history, we have, eo nomine,
but few words ; mere obiter dicta of Castren's. Their
dialect is essentially Koibal or Soiot.
English.
Katsha.
EngUsh.
Katsha.
Woman
ipthi
Saddle
izer
epthi
Butterfly
irbakai
Wind
aba
Sable
kish.
The Koihals form eight tribes ; in two of which the blood
is Samoyed, in three Yeniseian. In 1847, a few old
people knew a few Samoyed words. From the generation
which preceded them a vocabulary in Samoyed was col-
lected. Even then, the Samoyed was going out fast.
English.
Ktibal.
English.
Koibal.
Man (vir)
ir
Snake
dilan
{homo)
kizi
tbilan
er
Tree
agas
Woman
ipthi
Earth
dhir
epthi
tbir
Head
baa
Stone
tas
Hair
sas
Hill
tax
Ear
kulak
tag
Eye
karak
Fiver
khem*
Mouth
axse
Ice
bus
Bone
sok
Village
&1
Blood
kan
One
ben
Hand
kol
Two
ike
Foot
azak
iki
Tooth
tis
Three
tis
Tongue
til
us'
Shy
tiger
Four
t6rt
t^ger
Five
bis
Sun
khun
bes
Moon
ai
bis'
Star
.dhetes
bes'
theltes
Six
al
Fire
ot.
alty
Water
sus
Seven
dhite
sug
thite
8U
Eight
sigus
Bird
kus
s6gus
Egg
numertka
Nine
togos
numerka
t6gos
Fish
balak .
Ten
on.
* Yeni
seian.
THE KARAGAS.
109
The Koibal is stated by
Castren to have as dialects,
the Kondakov and the Salbin. Out of the few words
he gives, I pick out a few evidently Turk.
English. Kandokov.
Salbin.
Hair
shash
Tooth
tish
Beard
sagal
Belly
karyn
Star dhettes
thythysh
theltes
thyltesh
Earth dMr
— - thir
Bain nangmer
nangmyr
Tree
agasb.
The Karagas, amounting in 1851
to 284 and 259
females, fell into
a. The Kas ;
K The Sareg Kash ;
c. The Ty^ptei ;
d. The Tyogde ;
e. The Kara Tyogde.
They all, now, speak Turkish.
English. Karagas.
English.
Karagas.
Man (vir) er
Water
sug
(homo) kishi
Ice
tosh
Woman epshe
Egg
Dyumurha
kat
Fish
balak
£ye karak
Snake
thulan
Ear kulak
Bill
tag
Mouth akse
dag
Tooth dish
Stone
taish
Tongiie tel
Village
nyon
del
One
bira
Hair thash
Two
ihi
Hand kol
Three
ixis
Foot but
Four
tort
Blood khan
dort
Beard sahal
Five
beis
Shy t^re
Six
alte
Sun kun
Seven
thede
Moon ?ai
Eight
sehes
Star settes
Nine
tohos
Fire ot
Ten
on.
Water sux
IJO
THE SOIONY.
The Soiony (TshitshatshefF takes pains to tell us that
this is the right form of the word) are chiefly within
the Chinese frontier. Still some are Russian. Their
original language I hold to be Yeniseian ; yet, now,
they speak Turkish. In Castren, as obiter dicta,
and as illustrations of his Koibal and Karagas vocabu-
lary we have a few Soyony words. They are the tribes
from whom the Sayanian range takes its name. Some
of the Soyony, as here stated, speak Turkish; others
Buriat ; some, probably, Saraoyed. The basis, however,
seems to be Yeniseian.
English.
Soiony.
English.
Soiony.
Head
pas
Star
theltes
Hair
tiik
Fire
ot
Tooth
tes
Water
sux
Tongue
tib
sug
Eye
karak
su
Ear
kar
Earth
dhir
Foot
put
thir
Beard
sagal
Stone
tas
Belly
karen
Hill
tag
Sun
kar
Ice
tosh
Star
dheltes
■ Tree
yas.
The Sayanian tribes, one of which is said to be
named Sokha, lead to the Sokhalar of the Lena and the
Arctic Sea, the Turks of the extreme north, the Turks
who are usually called Yakuts ; but whose native names
must be carefully remembered as Sokhalar — lar being
the sign of the plural number. The Sokhalar, from the
parts about Lake Baikal, are said to have separated
from the Bratli (? Buriats), with whom they formerly
made one nation, under a chief named Tarkhantegin ;
the land upon which they intruded themselves having
been Samoyed, Tungtis, and Yukahiri.
The language of the third column of the following
table is from the Asia Polyglotta. It is simply headed
Yeniseian, i. e. Turk of the Yenisey.
THE SOKHALAR OR YAKUT.
Ill
English.
Yakut.
Yeniseian.
Head
baz
basH
Eye
kharakh
karak
Ear
kulgakh
kulak
Nose
jnurun
buruu
Mouth
* ayakh
akay
Tongue
til
tyi
Tooth
tiz
tish
Sun
kun
kun
Moon
ai
ai
Star
Zulus
tshiltis
Fire
wot
ot
Water
wi
su
Hill
taz
tag
One
bir
bir, nagysh
Two
iki
iki
Three
uz
utsh
Four
tirt
tort
Five
vez
besk
Six
alta
alta
Stven
seta
dzhuti
EigM
ag,5*r
segus
Nine
dogys
togos
Ten
on
ongir^.
Such are the details of the Turks of Siberia, who are
so far exceptional as to be, to a great extent, Pagans,
rather than Mahometans, and, of course, unlettered.
Since the Russian conquest of Siberia, Christianity has
made some way amongst them. There is, however,
some Mahometanism, and a little Buddhism.
The Turks of the Khanats of Kazan, Astrakan, and
the Crimea now claim notice. They are all intrusive,
i. e. other than aboriginal to the countries where their
language is spoken.
The Bashkirs, chiefly occupants of the Government of
Orenburg, Turk in tongue, are, more or less, Ugi'ian in
blood. So are, probably,
The Meshtshenaks, who are believed to have immi-
grated from the Oka, in the Mordvin and Tsherimiss
neighbourhood.
112
2
THE
KAZAN,
ETC.
English.
Kazan,
Meshtsheriak.
Bashkir.
Nogay.
Head
bash
bash
bash
bash
Hair
tshatsh
tsats
zaz
zatsh
Homd
, kol
kul
kol
kol
Eye
kus
kus
kyus
gyos
Ear
kolak
klak
kulak
kulak
Tooth
tyesh
tish
tish
tysh
Tongue
tyel
til
tel
til
Blood
kan
kan
kan
kan
Day
kyun
kun
kyun
giin
Sun
kuyash
kuyash
kun
gyon
Moon
ai
ai
ai
ai
Star
yaldus
yuldus
yuldus
ildis
Fire
ut
ut
ut
ut
Water
zu
zu
zu
su
Tree
agatsh
agatsh
agatsh
agatsh
Stone
tash
tash
tash
tash
One
ber
ber
ber
bir
Two
ike
ike
ike
iki
Three
utsh
uz
ysh
utsh
Four
diirt
dyort
dort
dort
Five
bish
besh
besh
bish
Six
alty
alty
alty
alty
Seven
yedi
idi
yedi
siti
Fight
zigis
zigis
zigis
zegis
Nine
tokus
togus
togus
togus
Ten
on
on
on
on.
rhe Kuzzilbash is the Turk of Persia :
English.
Kuzzilbash
English.
Kuzzilbash
Head
bash
Hand
el
Eye
gos
Sun
gun
Ear
kulakh
Moon
a
Nose
buruni
Star
yuldus
Mouth
aghis
Fire
oth
Hair
sadzh
Water
su
Tongue
til
Tree
dyadzh
Tooth
dish
Stone
dash.
The Basian, Karatshai, and Kumuk that of Caucasus.
English. Kumuk. Karatshai.
Head bash bash
Eye fljos gos
Ear kulakh kulakh
Nose burun burun
Mouth * aus ul
Hair sadzh gadzh
Tongue dil til
Tooth dish dish
TURK PATER-NOSTERS. 113
English.
Kumuk.
Karatshai,
Hand
kol
kol
Sun
gun
gun
Moon
ai
ai
Star
yoldus
iildus
Fire
ot
ot
Water
su
su
Tree
terek
ayadzh
Stone
tash
tash.
Of the following Pater-nosters, all of which are taken
from the Mithridates, the first three represent the lan-
guage of the parts to the north of the Caucasus or to the
east of the Caspian, i. e. the Tartar of Independent
Tartary. The last three, on the other hand, give the
Turkish of Asia Minor. The first of them is from Georgie-
wicz, who, in the sixteenth century, lived thirteen years
in Anatolia as a slave. The second is the Turkish of
Armenia ; the third, like the first, of Anatolia ; its date
being A.D. M566 — earlier than the Armenian specimen,
but later than that by Georgiewicz. — JDe Turcarum Mo-
ribus, Lyons, A.D. 1555. They are given, verbatim, et
literatirrij as they stand in Adelung, i. e. they have not
been collated with the originals.
1.
Atha vizum, ki kok-ta sen ; evlia ol dur senung ad-ung ; kelsen memleket-
ung ; olsun senung iradat-ungale jer-dahi gug-de ; ver visum gundelik et-
mege-muzi bu-giun ; va vizum jasu-ngisch kail ot-nitegim kail biz juz jasun-
gisleru muze ; dahi koima bilzi visvasije ; killa kurta vilzi jeman-dan. Amen.
2.
Atha wisum, chy chok-ta sen ; algusch ludur sinung ad-ung ; kelsuum sen-
ung hauluchung ; belsung sinung archung aley gur-da uk ackta ; wer wisum
gundaluch otmak cbumusen wou-gun ; kay wisum jasochni alei wis dacha k a
yelle nin wisun jasoch lamasin ; dacha koima wisni suna-macha ; ilia garta
wisni geman-dan.
3.
Ya Ata-muz, ki yuksek ghiogh-da sen ; aadin ari olsun ; padashah-lighin
ghelsun ; boiruklerin itsmish olsun giogh-da, kibi dahi yirda ; her-ghuinaghi
e kmeki-vir bize bu-ghiun ; muzi va burgjleri-muzi bize bagishla, nitshaki biz
dahi burgjleri-muza baghishleriz ; va bizi sinisha ghiturma; likin Yarama-
zdiz bizi sali-vir (va kortar va sakla) ; zira-ki senungh-dier padisha-lik, va
kadirlik, va bojuklik, ta gjanid gjavidana. Amin.
I
114 THE CUMANIAN.
4.
Baba-moz hanghe gugte sson ; chuduss olssum ssenung ; adun gelsson ssen-
ung memleclitun ; olssun sseimng istedgting nycse gugtlie, vie gyrde ; echame
gu-mozi hergunon vere bize bu gun ; hem bassa bize borsligo-moze, nycse bizde
baslaruz bortsetiglere-mozi ; hem yedma byzegeheneneme ; de churtule bizy
Jaramasdan. Amen.
6.
Baba-miz ki chioiler-de sin ; senin ad-in mubarek olsun ; senin padischia-
lij-in chielsin ; nikhe chi§i-de boile kher-de senin murad-in olun-sun ; her-
chiun laziru oalaru ekmekhe-mizi bize ver cu chiun ; ve borglari-mizi bisc
baghishla nikhe ki biszde borghila-miza baghishlariz ; ve bizi ighva-den emin
eile ; amma bizi fena-den kurtar.
6.
Bisum Ata-mus ki kiokler-deh sin ; seniing ad-Ung mulcaddes olsun ; senling
7nelait-xmg kielsun ; siniing iradet-ViXig olsun nitekim kioh-deh dachi jer-deh ;
her kiunki bisiim etmeke miisi wer bise bu kiun ; we-bisiim burdschler-iimi
bise baggischlek, nitekem bis dachi bisiim burdschluler-iimiisi baggischlerus ;
w6-bisi tadschnhe adehal etma; lekin scAenV-den-bisi nedschat eile; sira
senung-diir melcut, we sultanet, tve Medschi ta ebed. Amin.
In A.D. 1770 died Yarro, a native of Czarszag, the
last Hungarian who spoke the Cumanian dialect of the
Turk. For this we have the five following Pater-nosters ;
all imperfect.
1.
Bezom Afcta-masz, kem-ke kikte. Szelezon szen-ad-on ;
dosson szen-kiiklon netze-ger-de, ali-kiik-te ; bezom ok nemezne ( ? okne-
mezne) glit biittor gungon borberge; eli bezon mene-mezne ther-mez-bezgo
ovgyi tengere
2.
Bezen Atta-maz, chen-ze kit-te. Szen liszen sin-ad-6n ;
Boson mittigen kenge .... ale-kik-te ; puthuter kingiri ilt bezen
iltne, bezen kutin ; Bezen migni bolsotati bocson
megne tenge nizni. Amen.
3.
Bezon Atta-maz kem-ze kek-te. Szen leszen szen-ad-on ;
mitzi jegen-ger-de, ali kek-te ; bezom akko mozne bergezge pibbiitoor kiingod;
lit bezon mene-mezde utrogergenge ilt mebezde. ..... Olyon
angja manya boka tsali botsanigjs tengere. Amen.
4.
Bezam Atta-masz ken-ze kek-te. Szen-lezon szen ad-on ;
Boson szen-kiiklon netze ger-de, ali guk-te ; bezamok menemezne ( ? bezam
okmene-mezne) gutba tergunger ( ? gutbater gunger) ; ali-bezam me-mezne
tscher-mez-bezga ; kutkor-bezga eniklem-bezda ;
Ovia malna szembersank bokvesate ; tengeri ovia tengeri
tengeri. Amen.
THE TSHUVASH.
115
5,
Bezen Atta-maz ken-ze kik-te. Szen leszen szen ad-on ;....,
Doson szen kiiklon nicziegen ger-de, ali kek-te ; bezen ako-moze ( ? okne
mezne) bergezge pitbiitor kiingon ; il bez mene-mezne neszem-bezde, jermez
bezge iitrogergenge iltma tscher-mez-bezga ; bezne olgya> manga kutkor bezne
algya manna szen borszong boka csalli {aliter osalli) bocson igyi tengere. Amen
In the Government of Kazan reside as many as
800,000 Tshuvashes, differing from the other Ugi^ian
populations in their somewhat superior civilization, and
from the so-called Tartars in the fact of their being
Christians rather than Mahometans. Respecting their
language much has been written ; some inquirers main-
taining that it is essentially Ugrian upon which a great
deal of Turk has been engrafted ; others that it is Turk
at bottom, but Ugrian in respect to its superadded ele-
ments.
English.
Tshuvash.
Osmanli.
Tsheremis.
Head
puz
bask
bui
Eye
kos
gos
shinsya
Ear
khulga
khnlak
piliksh
Nose
sumsah
burun
ner
Mouth
zuvar
aghis
usbmu
Hair
zuz
satsh
ip
Tongue
tsbilge
dil
elmye
Tooth
shil
dish
puntshal
Hand
alia
el
kit
Sun
khwel
gyun
ketshe
Moon
oikb
ai
tilsye
Star
zuldur
yildis
shuder
Fire
wot
od
tul
Water
sbiva
su
wut
Tree
evyz
agatsh
pu
Stone
tshol
task
ku
One
pra
bir
iktet
Two
■ ikke
iki
koktot
Three
vise
utsh
kumut
Four
dwatta
dort
nilit
Five
pilik
besh
visit
Six
alta
alty
kudut
Seven
sitshe
yedi
shimit
Eirjht
sakar
sekis
kandashe
Nine
tukhon
dokiis
indeshe
Ten
wonka
on
lu.
I 2
]16 THE TSHUVASH.
The Tshuvash plurals end in -zam or -zem ; the
Osmanli in -lai% or -lev. In Tshuvash ap, or a&, in
Osmanli, 7nen=-I. The Tshuvash verb substantive is
holah zz sum ; the negative, -asb- ; as kazariadip = oro ;
kuziarmastap =z non oro.
Schubert reckoned the Tshuvash at 370,000 ; a high
number for a Ugrian, or even a Turk, population in
these parts.
The Pater-nosters of the preceding pages were taken
down before the grammatical structure of the dialects
which they represent was studied. As such, they are,
more or less, inaccurate. On the other hand, they are
better samples of the average character of the Pater-
nosters of rude languages than more accurate com-
positions would have been.
They show difference rather than likeness : whilst, on
the other hand, words like those of our vocabularies
show likeness rather than difference. Hence, we get, as
a rough rule, the doctrine that, in the present work,
languages are more like each other than the Pater-nosters
make them, and less like each other than the lists of
words make them.
THE YUKAHIRI.
117
CHAPTER XYI.
Tlie Yukahiri.
Due east of the Sokhalar lie the Yukahiri, or Yuka-
giri, who call themselves Andon Domni — Yukahiri being
the Turk, and Atal the Koriak, name. ''Their lan-
guage/' writes Klaproth, is " one of the most outlying in
Asia/' It is one, too, of which next to nothing is known.
It is, also, a language of a receding frontier. In a.d.
1739 the numbers of the Yukahiri were high. The
tribes of the Omolon, according to Sauer, were called
Tsheltiere ; those of the Alasey, Omoki ; those of the
Anadyr, Tshuvantsi and Kudinsi. A numerous tribe
named Konghini occupied the Kolyma. *' Wars,'*
writes Prichard, " with the Tshuktshi and Koriaks have
almost exterminated them.''
But there must (if the views of the present writer be
correct) have, also, been encroachment from the West —
effected, most probably, by the Sokhalar.
The language is certainly very different from that of
any of the surrounding populations*
English.
Yiikahiri.
Koriak.
Yakut.
Tungis.
Head
monoli
lawut
baz
dyll
Eye
angdzha
lalat
kharakh
eha
Ear
golendhi
vyilut
kulgakh
zen
Nose
yongyul
enigytam
murun
ongokto
Mouth
angya
zekiangin
ayak
liamun
Hair
manailae
katshugui
az
nyuritt
Tongue
andzhui)
giigel
tyl
ingni
Tooth
tody
wannalgyn
tiz
ikta(?)
Hand
tolondzha
myngakatsh'
ili
ngala
118
THE YUKAHIRI.
English.
Yukaliiri
Koriak.
Yakut.
Tungus.
Day
bondzhirka
hallo
kun
inangi
Sun
bugonshe
tyketi
kun
ziguni
Moon
kininsbe
geilygen
ui
bega
Stcbt-
lerungundzhia
lelapitshan
Zulus
haulen
Fire
yenyilo
milugan
wot
togo
Water
ondzM
mimal
u
mu
Tree
tsbal
uttepel
maz
mo
Stone
kaU
guggon
taz
dzholo
One
irken
onnon
bir
omukon
Two
antaklon
nioktsh
ike
dzhur
Three
yalon
niyokh
uz
ilyan
Four
yekalon
niyakh
tirt
dygyn
Five
onganlon
myllangin
ves
tongo
Six
malhiyalon
onnanmyllaDgin
alta
nyungun
Seven
purkion
langin
seta
nadan
Eight
malhielekhlon
niyokh-myllangin
agys
dzTiapkun
Nine
khuni-izkeel-
lendzbin
khonnaitskinkin
dogys
yagin
Ten
kuniella
mynegytkin
on
dzhur.
The root malhiy in the Yukahiri numerals for six and
eighty is the onalhuk (r\%alguh) — two of several of the
dialects of North-west America ; and I may add, that,
East of the Lena true American characteristics present
themselves, and that prominently.
In 1850, I published, in my work on the Varieties of
Man, the following tables, one of which gave a certain
number of affinities between the Yeniseian and the
Yukahiri, the other some between the Yeniseian and the
Samoyed. I also expressed the opinion that, on the
strength of these affinities, the three gi'oups might be
thrown into one, and that the name of the class thus
formed may be Hyperborean. Whether the tables were
sufficient to justify the formation of such a class is
another question. They ought to have been fuller.
A.
The itenisean and the Yukahiri of the Asia Polyglotta.
English, beard Kott,
Inbask, Tculye, Jculgung
Pumpokolsk, clepuk
Assan, culup, chulp
Arinzi, horolep
Yukahiri, bu-gylbe
THE YUKAHIRI.
119
English, head
Inbask, tshig
Yukahiri, yoh
English, moutli
Pumpokolsk, Ichan
Yukahiri, any a
English, nose
Inbask, olgen, olen
Pumpokolsk, Jiang
Assan, ang
Yukahiri, yonyul, iongioula.
English, tongue
Assan, alUp
Kott, alUp
Arinzi, alyap
Yukahiri, andzhub
English, ear
Assan, Jcologan, Mohan
Kott, Icalogan
Yukahiri, golondzhi
English, man
Inbask, ^et. Net
Pumpokolsk, ilset
Kott, hatket
Yukahiri, yadu
English, dog
Inbask, tsip, tip
Yukahiri, tahaka
English, thunder
Arinzi, eshath-yantu
Yukahiri, yendv.
English, lightning
Inbask, yakene-hoh
Yukahiri, hug-onshe
English, egg
Inbask, onge
Arinzi, ang
Pumpokolsk, tanyangeeg
Yukahiri, langdzhango
English, leaf
Assan, yepan
Kott, dipang
Yukahiri, yipan
English, eat
Assan, rayali
Yukahiri, lagid
English, yellow
Kott, shuiga
Yukahiri,, tshakatonni
English, moon
Pumpokolsk, tui
Arinzi, shui
Yukahiri, Tcinin-shi.
B.
The Yenisean and the Samoyed of the Asia Polyghtta.
English, arm
Arinzi, Tchinang
Mangaseia, kannamunne
English, finger
Inbask, tokan
Pumpokolsk, tok
Tawgi, fyaaka
Yurass, tarka
English, flesh
Arinzi, is
Assan, ig, igi
Pumpokolsk, zig
Mangaseia, osa
Turuchansk, odzha
Narym, &c., ueg
Karass, hueg
English, fir-tree
Inbask, ei
Arinzi, aya
Obdorsk, ye
English, egg
Inbask, Ong
Arinzi, ang
Pumpokolsk, eg
Tas, iga
120
THE YUKAHIRI.
English, egg
Assan, shulei
Kott, shulei
Motorian, shlok
English, tree
Assan, atsh
Kott, &c., agshe
Motorian, &c., cha
English, brother
Assan, pohesh
Koibal, pa^im— younger
English, butter
Assan, hayah
Motorian, chayaJc
moon
Assan, shvA
Koibal, Tcui
English, sun
Assan, cfcc, ego,
Motorian, haye
English, stone
Inbask, gijgs, tyes
Pumpokolsk, <^ys, Tcit
Kott,
Arinzi, Tches
Motorian, dagia,
English, summer
Assan, shega
Kott, chtishsJtega
Arinzi, shei
Motor, claghan
Koibal, taga
English, they
Asssin,'hatin
Arinzi, itang
Motor, tin
woman
Inbask, ^ft^fi'm
Arinzi, byJc-hamalte
It is clear that, if Castr^n^s
moyed with the Fiu be (as it is)
Obdorsk, pug-utsu
Pustosersk, pug-iga
English, river
Denka, chuge
Pustosersk, yaga
English, great
Assan, paga
Arinzi, hirhha
Pustosersk, pirge
English, evening
Inbask, his
Pumpokolsk, bigidin
Assan, pidziga
Yurass, pausema
Obdorsk, paus-emya
Pustosersk, paus-emye
English, hill
Inbask, &c., chai
Samoyed, syeo, Jco
English, bed
Inbask, chodzha
Obdorsk, choha
Tawgi, Jcufu
English, birch -tree
Inbask, uusya
Assan, uga
Kott, uga
Pustosersk, chu
Tawgi, &c., }:uie
Ket, tiue
English, leaf
Yeniseian, yp-an
Pumpokolsk, ejig
Pustosersk, wyba ]
Obdorsk, wiibe
Yurass, newe
Tomsk, tyaba
Narym, gabe
Kamash, dzhaba
association of the Sa-
right, the Yukahiri and
o^J
THE YUKAHIRI. 121
Yeniseian should be in the same category, and, as such,
IJgrian also. Does Castren make them so ? The answer
to this question is as follows : —
Of the Yukahiri he says little or nothing any way.
Of the Yeniseian he expressly states that it is other
than Ugrian,
An opinion to this effect and from such a quarter
rendered a re-consideration of the doctrine involved in
the previous classification imperative ; and so sensible
was I of this that, having published a notice of the
tribes under consideration between the publication of
the Lectures on the Altaic family, and the Grammar of
the Kott and Yeniseian, " in deference to his " (Castren 's)
"opinion, I suspended my judgment until the last-named
work should be published.''
When published, as it was soon after, it' put the
Yeniseian as it stands in the present work — -leaving the
Yukahiri to be dealt with as it best may.
In Sauer's account of Billing's Expedition there is a
list of 250 Yukahiri words. These, in conjunction with
the list of Imperial Vocabularies, and a Pater-noster
from Witsen's North and East Tartary, constitute the
whole of our data. The greater part of them appears
in the Asia Polyglotta ; in the body of the work by
itself, and in the Atlas in a tabular form, compared or
contrasted with the Koriak, Kamskadale, and Eskimo
languages ; from all of which (as aforesaid) it differs
visibly.
How far is it Samoyed — the Pater-nosters being
compared? The following are the details, clause for
clause.
Yukahiri. — Otj^ mitsje.
Turuklmnslc Samoyed. — Modi Jescje.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Mi Jeseme.
Arcliangel Samoyed. — Mani Nisal.
OstiaJc. — Jez mi.
Vogul. — Mem Jef.
122 THE YUKAHIRI.
(2.)
Yukahiri. — Kandi Kudsjunga.
TuruJchansh Samoyed. — Teio na Csonaar.
Tawgi Samoyed.'- — Neiteio Nuontone.
Archangel Samoyed. — Huien tamuva Numilembarti tosu.
OstiaJc. — Kundina jejand Nopkon.
Vogul. — Conboge Eterdarum.
(3.)
YukaJiiri. — Temlalangli nim totlie.
Turukhansh Samoyed. — Todi nilo torcke csuzuiro.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Tonon nilo tontokui kusiuro.
Archangel iSamoT/ec?. —Tadisse pider nim.
Ostiah. — Nuni nip tat.
Vogul. — Naerderoin amut nema.
(4.)
YuJcahiri. — Legatei pugandallanpoh tottlie.
Turukhansk Samoyed. — Todi naksiaro toretusu.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Tonon nuontomeiro tondo tuifantu.
Archangel Samoyedj. — Pider parowadie tosu.
Ostiah — Tule nutkotsj tat.
Vogul. — Nerosia sochtos.
(5.)
Ytdcahiri. — Latiot t'sjemol alkatei, konda koet zjuga (? kundsjunga) je
leviangh.
TuruJchansJc Samoyed. — Todi agnaara toretusu tone na csonaar i jacsona.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Tonon nianzepsialo tuifano, tondone nuontono mamoru-
tono.
Archangel Samoyed. — Pider gior amgade numilembart, tarem jae.
OstiaJc. — Tat tenel tat tat nopkon its jots jogodt.
. Vogul. — Omut nun gerae tegali eterdarum scinan maanki.
(6.)
Yukahiri. — Lunliangel miltj^ monidetjeliih keyck mitin telaman.
Turukhansk Samoyed. — Modi puieresiudara kirva toratsin mena ereksone.
Taiogi Samoyed. — Mi niliusiame kirvu tozu nanc jele.
Archangel Samoyed. — Man jeeltema nan tuda.
Ostiak. — Nai me 'tsjelelemi tallet meko shek titap.
Vogul. — Candalas tep mi me tiegalgad.
(7.)
Yukahiri. — Jeponkatsj mitin taldelponmitlapul, mitkondan (? mit kondan)
poniatsjock tannevinol mitlapUl.
Turukhansk Samoyed. — I kai nene noina oteine, tone imodinani kalodie
neine oteoponede.
Tawgi Samoyed. — Kuoje nane mogorene oteine, tondone oniede kuvojefan-
tome naine oteaoponteinianan.
THE YUKAHIRI. 123
Archangel Samoyed. — Ali ona mani isai, tai mano wangundar mani mi
manuo.
OstiaTc. — Kvodtsjedi mekosjek kolzja mei, tat mei kvodtsjedi kolzja mei.
Vogul. — Julokults me gavorant, tuigali menik julgoli amut tzagaraldin.
(8.)
Yuhahiri. — Je kondo olgonilak mitel olo oimik.
Turukhansk Samoyed. — Iro sirene ta ora basiedo.
Taiogi Samoyed. — Letancto men koli cakento.
Archangel Samoyed. — Ja merum haniia sa neninde baka.
Ostiah. — Nik jegosjid kvondik mat kekend.
Vogul. — An mengolen julvagarias.
(9.)
Yukahiri. — Kondo moliak mitel kimda annelan,
Turukhansk Samoyed. — I role sireno kodago chore.
Taiogi Samoyed. — Si lupto men muzcy logoto.
Archangel Samoyed. — Japtan mane suadera.
Ostiak. — Tat . . . mat losogod.
Vogul. — Toromalt derku mem kul.
(10.)
Yukahiri. — Le dot pugundal lenpoh, je tonbank, je tiindalov kundejank.
Turukhansk Samoyed. — Tone todi tonea naksiaro i niclioro i su vui-aaro i
reine.
Tatvgi Samoyed. — Tondo tonon noncinu nu ontomouro ni ebomeon ni timeon
nlecneeno.
Archangel Samoyed. — Tekindapt scbin pider parowadea ni hooka, wadado,
il iwan.
Ostiak, — Tat tat nudkotsj, orup, uvorganin, tam nun. Nat.
Vogul. — Tagolodamu negotsku, vaan booter, nemonsoigi nekostatiu. Peitse.
Eernarks.
1.
Otje is, apparently, the Russian otets, otce. That mitsje is the Turuk-
hansk modi is probable. Compare totlie (thine) with todi, and the probability
increases.
2.
Kandi is the relative pronoun, and, word for word, the Ostiak kundina.
8-4.
Nim is German. Totlie has akeady been noticed.
5.
Latiot.—Whsit la means is uncertain. Perhaps it should be separated
from tiot, which is totlie = thy. T'sjemol is, perhaps, the Ostiak tenel. In
leviangh, the -ngh is inflexional, probably the sign of a locative case. The
simple form in Billing is hvjie.
124 THE YUKAHIRI.
Miltje and mitin are the pronouns of the first person. Monidetjelah and
telaman = this day and daily. The root is tel; and it appears in both the
Samoyed and Ostiak. It appears, too, with the terminations -ma and -mi.
In Billing, pondscherJca = day, whilst pondscherJcoma = to-day, the tna
being man.
7-10.
The likeness here seems limited to the roots pon and tan, in No. 7, as com-
pared with the Oiea^^onteinisxnaLTx of the Tawgi.
THE UGRIAN CLASS. 125
CHAPTER XVII.
The Ugrian Class. — Its Importance and Peculiarities. — Castren's Researches.
— The Samoyed Division.
Every language is, in its way, a philological study ;
and so is every group of languages. The Ugrian class,
however, is one of pre-eminent importance. It is the
most northern of all : and, in remembering this, we
must also remember that the world is a sphere. It is
like an apple or an orange. Now it is one thing to cut
round an apple in the latitude of its pips : it is another
thing to do so just below its calyx, or just above the
stalk. The one section is a long, the other a short, one.
A language (if such a one existed) that went round the
world at the equator would cover infinitely more ground
than one that encircled one of the Poles. Yet the
number of degrees would be the same. The Malay
tongues are spoken over fewer degrees of latitude than
the Ugrian. How different, however, is the real length
of their ai*ea. If they were spoken within the Arctic
Circle, they would cover less ground than the Turk.
Now the Ugrian tongues belong to the region where
the degTees of latitude are of the narrowest. Some of
them, indeed, lie to the south — e. g. the Magyar. As
a general rule, however, they are northern.
Again — there are certain parallels which may be
called zones of conquest and encroachment. The extreme
north is unfavorable to the development of mind and
muscle. So are the Tropics. Hence, the nations of
the medium, or temperate, districts are like two-edged
126 teE UGRIAN CLASS.
swords. They cut both ways — encroaching accord-
ingly.
The Ugrian tongues are the tongues of the North, 'of
the narrow longitudes, and of the un:ftivoured climates.
They have been inordinately encroached on. Again —
they lie, to a great extent, between Europe and Asia.
The Ugrian area was once continuous. It is now
fragmentary. Many of the Ugrian districts are islands,
with a sea of Slavonism around them. Or we may
change the metaphor, and call them oases. The desert
around them is sometimes Slavonic, sometimes Turk.
The Tungus, the Mongol, and the Turk were philo-
logical classes in the way that the Solidungula con-
stituted a class in Zoology. The difference between the
horse and the ass was all the difference they embraced.
The Ugrian is a class in the way that the Rodentia are
a class. There are many members, and the differences
embraced are the differences between a mouse and an
agouti.
The chief languages of the Ugrian class are the
Ostiak, the Vogul, the Magyar, the Permian, the Votiak,
the Tsherimis, and the Mordwin — all recognized by the
earlier philologues. Then comes the Samoyed, recognized
as Ugrian since the researches of Castren. Then the
Yukahiri and the (?) Yeniseian, of which much has al-
ready been said.
The Koriak and its congeners can only be made
UgTian by raising the value of the class.
In three respects Ugrian philology is easy. A lan-
guage spoken in the centre of Asia has affinities on each
side— north, south, east, and west. A language
spoken on the northern end of the world has affinities
in one direction only — to the south. The affinities of
the Lap are one-sided ; those of the Turk (to borrow an
expression from the geologists) quaquaversal.
Secondly — the boundaries of an island or an oasis
are easily marked out. The limits of a tract in tl;^
THE SAMOYED. 127
middle of a continent may easily be indefinite. Now,
many of the Ugrian tongues are absolutely isolated.
Thirdly — the Ugrians have generally been encroached
on. Hence, there is much. which, though Russian, Li-
thuanic, German, or Turkish in speech, is Ugrian in
blood ; although the converse is (comparatively speaking)
rarely the case.
There are not ten millions of Ugiians (tested by their
language) in the world. Of these nearly half are in
Hungary ; three-fourths of the remainder being the
Fins of Finland. Assuredly, the Ugrian is a fragmen-
tary class.
The Ugrians lead not only from Asia to Europe, but
to America as well.
The data for the Ugrian languages are ample. This
is because the nationality of the Finlanders, not discou-
raged by Russia, has been devoted with more than merely
laudable activity to the study of them. From the days
of Porthan to those of Sjogren and Castren, the inves-
tigation of Ugrian ethnology has been pursued with
learning and acumen.
The language of the present group which is best
known, and which most especially illustrates the word
Fin or Ugrian (for the two terms are nearly synony-
mous), is the Fin of Finland. As a literary language it
is, by no means, unimportant. Neither is it the lan-
guage of a nation destitute of political importance.
Still it is not the right language to begin with. It is
part and parcel of the present work to make an approx-
imate sequence in the way of connection : and the group
of prospective languages which comes nearest to the
preceding is —
The Samoyed : this being a name for a class of
dialects which, within the last ten years, has commanded
more attention than any class of equal political and lite-
rary unimportance. Yet fifty years ago they were
known only by name. The Mithridates gives us little
128 THE SAMOYED.
more than a few Pater-nosters. The Asia Polyglotta, by
means of the Vocabularies of Strahlenberg and Messer-
schmidt, gave us fuller materials. Nor were they neg-
lected. Klaproth, who spared so few that few have
cared to spare him, has got less credit than he deserves
for the amount of arrangement which he introduced
amongst them. Castren has been hard upon his errors;
— perhaps unduly so : but when men deal in hard mea-
sures towards others, hard measures is all they can expect
for themselves. I find no notable and really material dif-
ferences between his divisions and Castren's — no notable
and really material ones. Some, however, exist ; though
unimportant. As for Castren^'s own, I take them as I
find them ; seeing plainly that they are made on the
principle of demarcation rather than type ; and (as such)
only provisional. How far they are based upon single
characters rather than upon a multiplicity of characters
in mass, the incomplete state of his Grammar and Dic-
tionary (both of which are posthumous works, with little
or no original matter added by the able editor) prevents
me from ascertaining.
The first fact connected with the class is the vast
style of its area both in respect to latitude and longi-
tude. The first Samoyeds are found as far west as the
neighbourhood of Mezen ; the last on the banks of the
Chatunga. Considering, however, their Arctic locality,
this is nothing very extraordinary. The degrees of
latitude in the neighbourhood of the Icy Sea are
narrow. Much more interesting is the extension south-
ward, or the fact of their being found so low as 50°
N.L. within the Chinese frontier. Of these southern
Samoyeds there are two divisions ; one on the upper, or
middle, Obi ; one on the upper, or middle, Yenisey.
Between the two there is this difi^erence — the Samoyed
area of the Obi is either nearly, or wholly, continuous;
in other words there is a chain of Samoyed localities
which, either nearly or wholly, continues the chain of
THE SAMOYED DIALECTS. 129
dialects fi'om the Barabinski steppe to the mouth of the
river. The Samoyeds, however, of the upper Yenisey
are utterly isolated. They are found on the Yenisey
where it is cut by the Russian and Chinese boundary, and
they are not found again until we approach its mouth.
In man}^ respects these South-eastern Samoyeds (the
simple term Southern is insufficient) are the more impor-
tant members of the class. In the first place, it is likely
that they represent the occupants of the original situs
of the family: so that it spread from south to north
rather than from north to south. This, however, is a
matter which requires more consideration than it has
received. Neither is it a doctrine to which the writer
commits himself without reserve and conditions. In the
next place, it is in the south that the Samoyed has been
(what we are scarcely prepared to expect) an encroaching
language.
Who would unlearn his own mother-tongue for the
Samoyed ? Not the Turks, not the Mongols, scarcely the
Tungus — though it is possible that certain tribes belong-
ing to some (or all) of these divisions may have done so
to some slight extent. The populations which have most
especially, either by amalgamation or conquest, allowed
their own language to.be replaced by the Samoyed are the
Yeniseians of the Kot and Ara divisions. This, however,
we have already seen. On the other hand, the Samoyed,
(in some cases as pure Samoyed, in others as Samoyed
which has superseded the Yeniseian,) is, itself, replaced
by the Turk ; as we saw when speaking of the Koibal
and Karagas, and as we suggested when speaking of the
Tuba and other dialects. Probably, also, certain Tungus
and Buriats are Samoyed in blood though other than
Samoyed in speech. Of the Turk language, however, in
Samoyed mouths,* there is no doubt.
Its encroachment is recent. In the Asia Polyglotta,
there are two Vocabularies ; one headed Motorip.n, re-
presenting tlie language of the Matar, Matlar, or Matorzi,
K
130 THE NORTHERN SAMOYED.
and one headed Koibal. Both these were collected by
Messerschmidt, in the last century. The Motorian Sa-
moyed, then nearly extinct, is now no longer to be found
— at least eo nomine. The Koibal may possibly be
spoken by a few individuals. Still, the Koibal of the
Koibal Grammar of Castren is simply Turkish. The
Kamas, the third of Klaproth's (or Messerschmidt's) Vo-
cabularies, is still spoken ; and Castren has given us a
Grammar of it. Still the main language of the division
is Turkish — with the exception of a minimum of
Kot. There m^ay be a Soiot form of the Samoyed;
though this, if it exist, is, probably, Samoyed in the
mouth of Yeniseians. The few words, however, that
we know of the Soiot are Turk. Still the details of
the country within the Chinese frontier are most im-
perfectly known. On the part of the Northern Samoyeds,
the philological encroachment has been less. Still there
have been encroachments. Castren writes that some of
the frontier Ostiaks have learned to speak Samoyed.
Of the J^orthern Samoyeds the chief divisions, ac-
cording to Castren, who founds them upon the differ-
ences of dialect, are three ; (1 ), the Yurak ; (2), the
Tawgi ; and (3), the Ostiak.
(1.) The Yurak Samoyeds are those that lie in the
closest contact with the Kussians. To them the name
Samoyed was first applied. It is a name which is, by
no means, native. The native name is Kasovo {Hasa-
wayo), or Nyenets ■=. man.
The Yurak Samoyeds, or the Samoyeds of Yugoria,
appear on the eastern coast of the White Sea, towards
the mouth of the river Mezene. On the lower course
of the Petshora they are more abundant still. They are
separated from the Russian Laplanders by the White Sea
and by the valley of the Dwina ; fof the parts about
Archangel have long been wrested from them and Rus-
sianized.
Between the Petshora and the Ural, the Samoyed is
THE NORTHERN SAMOYED. 181
bounded on the south by the Zirianian area. On the
Obi he comes in contact with the Ostiak ; and that at
the very mouth of the river. In the parts, however,
about Obdorsk Samoyed is spoken. From tlie Obi to
the Tas all is Yurak Samoyed. On the Tas, however,
there is a break ; beyond which the details are obscure.
The Yurak division is generally carried as far east as
the Yenisey. We will here, however, carry it to the Tas.
The Yurak Proper is only one dialect out of five ;
the other four being represented by the (a), Kanin and
Timan ; (h), the Ishim ; (c), the Bolshizemla and
Obdorsk ; {d), and the Kondin, or Kazym, forms of
speech.
(2.) The Tawgi division reaches from the lower Yeni-
sey to the Chatunga ; the tribes which belong to it being
sometimes called the Avam, or Avamski, Samoyeds.
(3.) The Ostiak Samoyeds have the disadvantage of
being described by an inconvenient name. The true
Ostiaks are something else, as has been seen.
Of their dialects, however, in situ, the most northern
is that of the parts about the Tym and Narym ; next
comes that of the river Ket ; thirdly, that of tlie Tshulirm
The Ket forms of speech extend as far as the rivers
Parabel and Tshaya, feeders of the Obi, on the frontier
of the Barabinski steppe. The dialect of the Circle of
Pumpokolsk is also akin to the Ket.
The migrations are represented by the Karasin and
Tas forms of speech ; the former being spoken in the
parts to the north of Turukansk, on the Yenisey, and
the latter by the Tym and Karakon tribes of the Tas ;
tribes that use the reindeer and call themselves Mo-
kase.
In the way of language, the Kamash, Kamas, Kang-
mash, or Kamasintzi (the Motorian and Koibal being
extinct), are the only existing representatives of the
Southern Samoyeds. They are Nomads and Shamanist
pagans, on the head-waters of the Kan and Mana,
K 2
132 THE SOUTHERN SAMOYED.
From one division of them Castren got the materials
for his Grammar.
I have said that between the groups of Klaproth and
Castren there were some differences of detail. Klaproth
lays the Tawgi in the same class with the Yurak ; along
with which he places the Pustosersk, the Obdorsk, the
Mansaseia, and the Turukansk dialects. His second
class contains the Tas, Tomsk, Narym, Ket, Tym, and
Karas forms of speech, along with a short specimen of
what he calls the Lak. Finally, a list headed Taigi
(the import of which is not explained), finds place in
tlie third division, containing the Motorian, the Koibal,
and the Kamash.
Even in Castren the details and value of a fourth
section called (most inconveniently) the Yeniseian, are
obscure. The class itself is small. Its name gives the
locality of its members. They lie between the Yurak
and Tawgi divisions on the lower Yenisey.
It is from Castren that all the following specimens
are taken, and it is in the orthography of his Samoyed
Grammar and Dictionary that they are given.
NORTHERN
SAMOYED.
(!•)
Yurah.
English
YuraV.
English,
Yurak.
Man {homo)
nenete
Ear
h4
nienece
Beard
munate
nieneca
munace
nience'
munac'
nienec'
munabt'
Man (vir)
b^sawa
Tongue
nami
Head
~aewa
Tooth
tibea
Hair
iiotba
tiwe
~6bt
teu
6abt
tiw
eabt
Hand
~uda
tar
Foot
"ae
tabor
Blood
h^m
Eye
saeu
xeam
SAMOYED DIALECTS.
133
English.
Yurak.
EngHsh.
Yurak.
Blood
horn
Earth
ya
Nose
puiyea
yea
Mouth
na
Hill
sea
Bone
ly
sa
le
Tree
pea
Sun
h4yer
Iron
yesea
haiyer
yese
hayar
Fish
halea
Moon
yiry
hale
yiry
hale
yiri
Dog
yandu
Star ■
numgy
yando
Night
pi
House
h4rad
Egg
s^rnu
xdrad
Fire
tu '
Water
yi
Stone
pae
Rain
saru
Mountain-range soty
sani
soty
Lake
to'
The Kondin vocabulary is
the chief words wherein it
Yurak : —
short. The following are
differs from the ordinary
English.
Kondin.
Yurak.
Man (vir)
huberi
nienece
hiiweri
Eye
haem
saeu
Mouth
ivang
»a'
House
xarad
h&rad
Iron
wese
yfise
Rain
satu
s&iu
Lake
m^ri
lo'
Water
wit
(2.)
Tawgi.
yi'
English.
Tawgi.
English.
Tawgi.
Man (vir)
kuayuma
Hand
yutu
Head
~aewa
Foot
~oai
~aiwTia
Nose
puiyea
Hair
~apta
Mouth
na
~&bta
Blood
kam
Eye
saime
Bone
lata
Ear
kou
Sun
kou
Beard
munduis^ang
Moon
kitada
Tongue
sieya
Star
fata
Tooth
timi
Night
fing
134
SAMOYED DIALECTS.
English. . Tawgi.
English.
Tawgi.
Egg manu
Fish
kolu
Fire tui
Bog
b&ng
Stone fala
House
koru'
Earth mou
Water
U
mamara
Bain
soruang
Tree fa
Lahe
turku.
Iron basa
(3.)
OstiaJc.
^
English — man (homo)
X.
Tas— sai
Narym — kop
Tshwaia — sei
Ket—^vim.
Nat-pumpoholsk-
-saiji.
Middle Ostia^—'kma.
English — hand
Ket—uiiQ
Nat-pumpoJcolsJc—knme
Yelogui — kup
Nat-pumpoholsh-
-utte
Baihha — ^kup
Yelogui—vA
Tas— kup.
Tas—ut
English — head
Baihha — ut
Ket—o\\Q
Karassin — ut.
Nat-pumpoJcolsk — ul
English — nose
Yelogui — ul
Narym — tob
Baihha — ul
^ei— toppa
Karassin — ul.
Nat-pumpoholsk-
-toppa.
English — heard
Tshwaia — toba
Narym— und
Baihha — tobe
Yelogui — unde
TfiLS — tope
Baihha — unde
Karassin — tup.
Karassin — unde
English— 6^ooc?
Middle Obi — umd
Narym— kan
JCet — nmdde.
Tshulim — kam
English — tongue
Nat-pumpoholsh-
-kame
Narym — se
Yelogui-kem
Tshulim—sie.
Baihha — kem
English— eye
Narym — hai
Tas—kem
Karassin— kem.
Ket—a&i
English — lone
Yelogui — sal
Narym — li
Baihha — sal
f
Nat-pumpoholsh-
-le.
English.
Uppei
rObi.
Man (homo)
kum
also Middle Obi,
(mr)
teba,
also Tshaia.
Hair
opte
SAMOYED DIALECTS.
135
English.
Upper Obi.
Beard
umde
Eye
sei, ako Tshaia.
Ear
kuc, also Tshulim.
Nose
puto; Tshaia, ^vXo; Mid. 05/, pot
Mouth
eang ; Tshulim, oang.
Hand
ude; Tshulim, uto
Foot
tobe ; Tshulim, toba.
Blood
kam, also Tshulim.
Bom
la,
Sim
tel, also Tshaia.
Moon
ire, also Tshaia.
Star
kasangka; Tshaia, k^sanka.
Night
pa ; Middle Obi, pe.
Fire
tii, also Tshaia
Fiver
kegea, aho Tshulim.
Stone
tang ; Tshaia, t4.
Tree
puo, also Tshaia.
House
muat
Egg
kegai, also Tshulim.
Salt
seak ; Middle Obi, sak.
English — earth
3.
English — moon
Middle Ohi—U
Narym — are
Ket—tii
Ket—ivQ
Narym — 'cu
Tshulim~\vQ
Tas— so
Yelogui — ire
Iiaikha—%vi
Tas — irea
Karassin — sii.
Nat-pumpoholsh — era
Karassin — era.
English — hill
Narym — kd
English — water
Baikha—\A
Narym— ixt
Yelogui—ki
ot.
Karassin— M.
English — stone
English — house
Narym — po
Narym — m4t.
Tshwaia — pii
Nat-pumpokolsk—-pu.
English — lake
Yelogui — pd
Bakta — tu
Baikha — pd
Tas— tvi
Tas—^h
Karassin — tu
Middle Obi— to
English — sun.
Ket— to
Narym — *cel
Upper Obi — to
Yelogui, tfcc. — tel
Tshwaia — to
Tshwaia, c&c. — tyel.
Nat-pumpokolsk — to.
136
SAMOYED DIALECTS.
English-
-rain
Tas—^xji
Narym—
-liurom3
Baikha — pu
Bailcha — sorom3
Karassin — p<i.
Karassir
. — sorpma
English— /s7t .
Ket—^VkTO
Tas— kuele
Middle OU—%oro
Tshivaia—soTO
Nat-pumpoJcolsk— kuele
Yelogui — kuele.
Nat-pumpokalsJc—
-semi.
English— 6(75^
English—
-tree
Narym— yidihi
Narym—
-po
Ket — napi
TsJuvaia-
— puo
Yelogui — eng
Nat-picmpoTcolsk—
-pe
Tas— eng
Yelogui-
-pu
Karassin — eng.
(?4.)
Yeniseian.
Englisb.
Yeniseian.
Chant a.
Baikha
Man {homo)
ennete*
{vir
)
kasa
Head
abuli
eba
Hair
to'
t6'
Beard
muddute'
Eye
sei
Ear
kd
k6
Nose
fuiya
puiya
Mouth
t'
na»
Tongue
siolo
sioro
Tooth
tl
Hand
ura
uda
Foot
"k
~6
Blood
ki
Bone
Hri
lidi
Sun
kaiya
Moon
ilio
yirie
Star
foresee
fadesei
Night
fi'
fi
Fire
tu
tu
Water
bi'
bi'
River
yaha
yoha
Rain
sale
sare
Snow
sila
sira
Earth
da
y^
Stone
m
fu
Tree
fe
fe
House
kamoro
kamodo
Salt
si
si'
Egg
niona
Fish
kale
kare.
SAMOYED DIALECTS,
137
B.
SOUTHERN SAMOYED.
English.
Kamas.
English.
Kamas.
Man {homo)
keiza
Moon
khi
Head
ulu
Star
khinzigai
Hair
adde
Night
pki
Eye
sima
phy
Ear
ku
Eire
*sii
Beard
miiizen
Bain
surau
Tongue
*sika
LaTce
thu
Tooth
thima
Water
bu
Hand
uda
Stone
phi
Foot
iiyii
Hill
iiyu
Hill-range
bor
Nose
phiya
Earth
tu
Mouth
ang
Tree
pha
Blood
khem
Iron
batza
Bone
le
Fish
kola
Sun
kuya
Dog
men
The Yurak Samoyeds call {X\Qms,Q\ve^Hdsawayo = mien;
the Tawgi and Yeniseian Samoyeds call them Juraka
and Julaka ; the Samoyeds of the Obi, Ko'elak, Kwdlak,
and Kwdleng. Meanwhile the Yurak call the Ostiaks
Hahi. It is the Yeniseian Samoyeds who give to the
great river on which they are fixed the name which
nearest approaches its European one. They call it
YeddosL The Tawgi call it Yentayea. The Obi
Samoyeds, on the other hand, know it as the Nyandesi,
the Kola {^rivev), and the Tyagandes Kola — broad
river.
138 THE OSTIAK.
CHAPTER XVIII.
The Ugrian Class. — The Ostiak, the Vogul, and the Magyar.
The Ostiah is the language of the Obi and Irtish on
the drainage of which it is spoken from about 56° to 67°
N.L. I am not aware that it touches any part of the
water-system of the Yenisey ; though certain tribe^
belonging to the Samoyed and Yeniseian groups have
improperly been called Ostiak. This inaccuracy, with
which Klaproth and others found it necessary to contend,
is now unimportant. The latest authorities, when they
have not discarded the term altogether, have, in general,
warned the reader of its impropriety. So influential a
writer, however, as Castren still applies the term Yeni-
seian Ostiak to a form of speech which, whatever else it
may be, is certainly different from the dialects under
notice.
These belong, as has just been stated, more especially
to the Obi and the Irtish, where they are bounded on
the south by the Barabinski and Tshulim Turks, on the
west by the Voguls and Zirianians, on the north by the
Samoyeds of the Icy Sea, and on the east by other
Samoyeds, and the Yeniseians of the Ket. In 1838
the number of Ostiaks was about 19,000. Narym,
Surgut, Beresov, and Obdorsk are the towns which lie
most especially on the Ostiak frontier.
The only Grammar of the Ostiak is one by Castren,
in which, contrary to his ordinary habit, he has repre-
sented the language in Russian, rather than Italian,
letters — Russian as adapted by Sjogren to the Iron.
The dialect is that of the Irtish ; besides which there
THE OSTIAK. 139
are, at least, two others on the Obi, viz : the Surgut
and the Obdorsk. The former falls into sub-dialects ;
at any rate certain words are quoted as belonging to the
upper Surgut, or the Surgut of the river above, and
others as belonging to the lower Surgut, or the Surgut
of the river below, the city.
That the language of a nation of fishers and foresters
should be uncultivated and unlettered is what we both ex-
pect and find. That it has been largely superseded by the
Barabinski and Tshulim Turk is probable. That cer-
tain Ostiaks of the Samoyed boundary have exchanged
their mother-tongue for that of their frontagers is es-
pecially stated by Castren.
The Ostiaks call the river Obi As.
The As~yakh=Men of the As=Asicol3d, or 06icolse,
call
The Ostiaks of the Demianka, Tahonto-yahh.
Irtysh, Long-gol-yakh.
other rivers, Nang-wanda-yahh.
Narym, and the banks of the river Ket, are the
most eastern points of the Ostiak occupancy ; and there
the Ostiaks come in contact with the Samoyeds. Now
the term for ifaan changes here, and is —
In the singular number, hup = homo,
plural ■ kula — homines.
Hence the compound Gentile names end differently,
and a Narym Ostiak calls
Himself
The Surgut Ostiaks
— Russians
— Turks in general
Dshumul-hula.
Tangyl-hula.
Ruzhil-kula,
Tul-kula.
of the Tshulim Tshulim-kti-kula,
— Tungusians . . Guellon-kula.
of the river Obi Koldy.
Tym KoLsukh-ku.
140
THE VOGUL.
The Asjakli of Surgut call tbemsolves Naxta-yahh.
the Ostiaks of Naryrn NyoruTn-
yakh.
— — Samoyeds Yeryan-yaJch.
Turks . Katan-yakh.
■ Russians Rutsh-yakh.
Germans AHmet-yakh.
Word for word, Njorum=N'aTym,==fen ; and, as a
Ugrian gloss, it is an instruuient of criticism. Where
the root n-r-m and a swampy locality go togetlier, we
have a presumption in favour of either a Ugrian occu-
pancy or a Ugrian neighbourhood.
The Vogul language belongs to the ridge of the Urals
and to its two sides ; being spoken by about 900 indi-
viduals in the Government of Perm, and 5000 in that
of Tobolsk, a few of whom are tillers of the soil, the
majority being fishers and hunters. It is the only
Ugrian language of which we have no Grammar ;
indeed, it is the one which, upon the whole, has com-
manded the least attention. The Vocabularies, however,
are sufficient to show not only that it is truly Ugrian,
but that it belongs to the same class with the one which
now comes under notice.
English.
Ostiak.
Vogul.
Man {vir)
kuim
kom
(homo)
koiet
klas
Head
ngol
pank
Hair
upat
ata
Eye
sem
sliam
Ear
pel
bal
Nose
nal
nol
Mouth
lul
tozh
Tongue
nalim
nelma
Hand
ket
kat
Foot
kur
lat
Sun
syunk
kotal
Moon
tylesh
yankop
Star
koz
kenza
Fire
tyod
taut
THE VOGUL. 14
English. OstiaV. Vogiil.
Water ying ^it
Tree yog yo
Stone kiw ku
One ogy ,
Tivo ketto
Three kholyni • •
Four nul
Five uet
Six kut
Seven labiit
-Ei^A< nuul
yirteng
iyani
*
The Yoguls hold a cheerless and inhospitable tract of
land bounded by the Zirianians, the Samoyeds, and the
Kondicho, whom Voguls call by the name they give
themselves, viz. Mansi.
In the south part of the Vogul country Christianity
has advanced a little ; feebly and imperfectly, but still a
little. In the north, paganism prevails.
The Yoguls caU the Irtish . Simp.
■ Tawda . Tagget.
Konda . Khonda.
How far the Ostiak and Vogul extended southwards
before the encroachment of the Turks is unknown.
Neither is it known whether their extension was easterly
or westerly. The opinion of the closest investigators,
amongst whom may be placed Castren, is in favour of
their having extended themselves bodily from the south.
Be this as it may, the Government of Orenburg, though at
present the chief occupancy of the Bashkirs, was origin-
ally Ugrian. More than this, its Ugrian elements, though
not exactly either Ostiak or Vogul, were closely akin to
both. In Orenburg, however, no one, at the present
moment, uses the original language. It is spoken
nevertheless. It is spoken elsewhere ; far to the south
and far to the west of its original locality. It is
142 THE MAGYAR.
spoken by more individuals than any Ugrian tongue
whatever ; indeed, by more than all the speakers of all
the Ugrian tongues put together. It is the language of
no less than 4,000,000 Hungarians, the native name of
whom is Magyar.
Magyar, then, is the term by which we denote the
descendants of those Ugrians who, in the tenth century,
cut their way from the ridge of the Ural and the
streams of the Yaik to the rich pastures and fertile
tilths of Hungary, as opposed to the Slavonians,
Rumanyos, and Germans of that kingdom ; and Magyar
is the name of the language as well as the people. The
time when it was introduced into Europe is one of
which the history is too obscure to allow us to give the
exact details of the languages which it displaced. Thus
much, however, is certain, viz. : that it came in contact
with German on the west, with Rumanyo in the east,
and with Slavonic forms of speech on every side ;
besides which there were the dialects which it actually
displaced, the majority of which, I believe to have been
Turkish.
As the first Magyar Christians were converts to the
Latin rather than the Greek Church, their alphabet is
Roman, so that the history of their civilization and
literature is that of Poland and Bohemia rather than
Servia and Bulgaria ; indeed, Poland and Hungary are
the two countries where the Latin, from its inordinate
use as the language of law, religion, and learning, has
made the nearest approach to an actual vernacular
without becoming one.
The early works in Magyar were few and far between.
Neither were they important. In a bibliographical list
of all the compositions in Magyar, printed in 1803, the
total number of works referred to the j^ear 1784 (a date
of which the importance will soon appear) amounted to
no more than 29 : the majority of which consisted of
funeral sermons. Amongst the most important ones of
THE MAGYAR. 143
the list at large were three translations — one of a for-
gotten tragedy of Cronegk's, one of Yoltaire's Zaire^
and one of the Cyropcedia.
The year 1784 was the year of the Emperor Joseph's
famous edict by which he attempted to introduce German,
as the language of the Diet, the Law Courts, and all
pubHc offices. It enacted, inter alia, that within three
years from that time, unless special circumstances could
be adduced which should justify him in allowing a
respite, all the cases in all the Courts, whether in first
instance or as appeals, were to be conducted in German.
This excited universal consternation. The Diet at
Presburg resolved that the records of its proceedings
should be in Magyar ; and that a committee should
report on the best means of fostering the study of the
native tongue. One of the recommendations of this
Committee was the establishment of a national theatre :
another was the establishment of an academy. Neither
was carried into effect at the time : both bore fruit in
the sequel.
The language of the claims thus enforced was the
Magyar. The language, however, against which the
edict of Joseph was more especially directed was the
Latin ; for it was the Latin, rather than the Magyar,
which had up to then become the language of the laws
and the constitution. And, to a great extent, it was tlie
Latin, rather than the Magyar, which was defended.
Still, the upshot of the national movement was the de-
velopment of the Magyar.
The history of the Magyar literature now becomes
the personal history of those energetic patriots who
availed themselves of the reaction in its favour : first
and foremost of whom was Francis Kazinczy. For more
than forty years he laboured at the language. I say the
language rather than the literature, because his literature
was a means rather than an end. It was the language
which he wished to improve. The efforts of the Ger-
144 THE MAGYAR.
mans in the same direction were before his eyes ; and
he claimed for the Magyar the same freedom in deahng
with its elementary terms and making new compounds
out of them as the Germans were indulging in. He
substituted home-made terms for terms of foreign origin.
In a language upon which both the Latin and the German
had so long exercised what he (as a purist) would consider
baleful influence, there was much to be done in this way ;
yet Kazinczy was not the reformer that was tempted by
his opportunities. Some went farther than he did. He
was, however, upon the whole successful in his coinage.
For secretary and counsellor he introduced titoknok, and
tanacsnotj from titok, a secret , and tanacs =^ counsel.
With the words ending in ne the sign of the feminine
gender, he dealt more boldly still. They correspond to
the German forms in -inn, as freundinn = female friend,
to a certain extent only. Baratne, from harat = a friend,
meant, up to 1800, not so much friend of the female
gender as a friend's wife. In like manner kircdyne,
from kiraly, a king, meant a king's wife rather than a
queen or female king. Both these words either changed
or enlarged their meaning under the influence of
Kazinczy. There was a word for the Latin virtus
wanted, and there was a competition between Kazinczy
and others as to who was to coin it. There was also
a prize of fifty florins oflfered for a native equivalent
to spiritus ; another one for universum. These words,
though manufactured rather than grown, have kept
their place better than was to be expected.
At the same time, the quantity of still-born words in
Magyar is very great. No wonder. The births are nu-
merous. In 1845 Dr. Block published a German and
Hungarian Lexicon. In 1847 a second edition was
o
wanted, and the whole work had to be recast ; so great had
been the additions to the language within the last two
years. I take this, as Mr. Watts takes it, i. e. as a mea-
sure of the rate at which innovation goes on ; adding
FIN AFFINITIES OF THE MAGYAR.
145
?<
that it is from a paper of Watts' in the Philological
Transactions that the whole of the foregoing notice is
taken.
The following list of the Fin affinities of the Magyar
is picked out of the tables of the Asia Polyglotta. By
going to other sources it might be largely increased.
English.
Magyar.
other Ugrian Languages.
Eye
szem
sem, OstiaJc, d-c.
Belly
has
waz, Fin
Tree
fa
pu, Fin and Permian
Hill
hegy
kuruk, Tsherimis
Leaf
lewel
lybet, &c., Ostiah, d^c.
Blood
wer
wyr, ditto
Bad
kar
kurya, Fin
Bread
kenyer
kinda, Tsherimis
Thou
te
ty, &c., Permian, (be.
Ice
jeg
yenk, &c., OstiaJc, d-c.
Egg
mony
muno, Tsherimis, dsc.
Feather
toll
tuul, Vogul, d'C.
Fire
tiiz
tut, OstiaTc, d'c.
Finger
uij
lui-yoi, ditto
Fish
hal
kul, ditto, d'C.
Spring .
tawasz
kaved, Karelian
Foot
lab
lal, Vogul
Goose
lud
lond, Ostiak, d-c. [vin
'Grass
pasit
^a.dj,Ostiak ; ^izhe,Mord-
Throat
torok
tun, Ostiak, d-c.
Good
30
joivo, Fin
Code
kakas
kikkas, &c., Estonian
NecTc
- nyak
naugol, Ostiak
Hand
kez
ket, Ostiak, dc.
House
haz
kat, ditto, d'c.
Heart
sziv
sem, ditto
Spy
meny
manen, Mordtin
Horn
szarv
saw, &c., Estonian, dc.
Cold
hideg
itek, Ostiak
Bone
czont
koint, Fin
Head
fo
pa, ditto
Herh
fu
pum, Ostiak
Slow
lassan
lasy, Vogul
Live
elet
let, &c., Ostiak, dc.
Easy
konmu
kunna, Vogul
Man (vir)
fery
veres, Zirianian
Mouth
szaj
su, Fin
Night
es
at, Ostiak
Take
elvenni
wain, Vogul
L
146
FIN AFFINITIES OF THE MAGYAR.
English.
Magyar.
Other Ugrian Languages
Ear
ful*
pel, Ostiak
Horse
lo
lo, Vogul
Rye
ros
oros, ditto
Reed
veres
Tyr, ditto
Sow
vetek
vidit, Mordvin
Sand
humok
yema, Yogul
Sleep
alom
olm, ditto
Surf
gyors
tshuros, Fin
sereny
saray, Ostiak
BlacTc
fakete
puqqete, ditto
Sister
hugom
iggem, ditto
Silver
ezyst
esys, Permian
Son
fui
pu, Vogul
Sun
nap
nai, Ostiak
Stone
ko
ku, Vogul
Star
tzillag
tisil, Permian
Deep
mely
mil, Ostiak, &c.
Dead
hallal
kul, ditto
Drink
iszom
asokh, Vogul
Over
felette
palla, Fin
Under
allat
alia, ditto
Water
viz
wisi, ditto
Wind
szel
tyl, Permian 5
Winter
tel
telli, Ostiak
We
mink
mung, Vogul
Worm
fereg
perk, ditto
nyii
nynk, ditto
Tooth
fog
penk, Ostiak
Tongue
nyelu
nalem, ditto
One
egy
ogry, Ostiak
Two
ketto
ketto, ditto
Three
harom
korom, Vogul
Four
negy
niil, Ostiak,
Five
ot
net, ditto
Six
hat
kut, ditto
Seven
het
sat, Vogul
Eight
nyoltz
nuul, Ostiak
Ten
tiz
das, Permian.
The dialects. of the Magyar are few and unimportant.
They are said to fall into two divisions, divided by the
Danube.
Note. — The statement made in the previous sheet, that there is no gram-
mar of the Vogul, requires correction. There is a very recent one, in Hun-
garian.
THE MORDVm. J 47
CHAPTER XIX.
The Volga Fins. — The Mordvin.— The Tsherimis.
Next to the Magyars, and the Finlanders Proper, the
MordviDS are the most numerous of the Ugrians. They
are the most southern members of the family ; the Hun-
garians, as strangers to their present locality, being laid
out of the account. They are also the most western ;
some being found in the Governments of Tambov and
Penza. For this reason, the Mordvin area takes great
prominence in all speculations as to the original extent of
the Ugrians in the direction of the Euxine and Poland.
That they have extended further is a matter of history.
That they have extended very much further is one of the
most reasonable of ethnological opinions.
They fall into three divisions, the Mokshad, the
Ersari, and the Karatai ; of these, the second has a
name sufficiently like that of one of the Turkoman
tribes, to be, in all possibility, more or less Turk in blood
— though the conjecture rests on only colourable data.
The same applies to the Karatai ; inasmuch as Karatshai
is also a Turk name. The Mokshad give no such com-
plications.
The Mokshad are on the Sura ;
— Karatai near Kazan ;
— Ersari on the Oka.
In the southern part of the Government of Astrakan
some fifty Mordvins constitute an outlying group of (I
believe) recent settlers. So do 340 individuals in the
Crimea.
L 2
148
THE MORDVIN
•
)utioii of the others is
as folloA;^
In Penza ...
106,025
— Simbirsk . .
98,968
— Saratov .
78,010
— Samar .
74,910
— Nizhni Novogorod
53,383
— Tambov . . .
48,491
— Kazan ....
14,867
— Orenbm-g . .
5,200
The name Mordvln is native, and signifies man ; as
it does, not only in other Ugrian languages but in certain
Persian and Indian dialects also.
The Mordvin, so far as it is written (which is very
* little), is written in Eussian letters ; the Mordvin
Christianity being that of the Greek Church.
The Mordvins are far more Russianized than either
the Tsherimis or the Votiaks. Their language, too, is
one of the most outlying members of its stock.
The Mordvin Grammar of Gabelentz is founded upon
a translation of the Gospels ; the alphabet being the
Russian. In this the vocalic harmony shows itself but
partially. "Whether this be due to the language or the
author, is doubtful. Gabelentz refers to the latter.
The Tsherimis language is spoken by nearly 200,000
individuals, of which nearly three-fourths are inhabitants
of the Governments of Viatka and Kazan. The dialects
on the two sides of the Volga differ from each other ;
and, it is probable, that they fall into sub-dialects ; for
the population is sporadic and fragmentary, and the
Tsherimis villages stand far apart. The native cultiva-
tion of the language amounts to nothing beyond a few
songs. The exertions of the missionary have given a
Catechism, and a translation of the Gospels — the alpha-
bet being Russian. In Gastrin's Grammar, however, it
is Roman, and so it is in Wiedemann's German. There
is no reason for believing that any notable number of the
THE TSHERIMIS.
149
speakers of the Tsherimis language are other than Tsher-
imis in blood. The converse, however, is far from being
the case. Both Turks and Russians may be, more or
less, Tsherimis in blood.
As a member of the Ugrian group the Tsherimis is
comparatively isolate. Its nearest congeners, I believe
to be the Ostiak, Yogul, and Magyar.
The Tsherimis falls into two dialects, divided from
each other by the Volga. One has, the other has not,
the vocalic harmony. Such, at least, is the statement of
Wiedemann. Our data, however, are scarcely sufficient to
bear out a negative statement.
English
Tsherimis.
Mordvin.
Man {vir)
mara
mirda
{homo)
edem
loman
Head
hui
pra
Hair
ip
tsher
Eye
shinsha
syalme
Ear
piliksh
pUye
Nose
ner
sudo
Mouth
ushma
knrgo
Tongue
yolma
kel
Tooth
pu
p&i
Hand
kit
ked
Foot
yal
pilge
Sun
ketshe
tshi
Moon
tilsye
kov
Star
shuder
teshtye
Fire
tul
tol
Water
wiit
wat
Tree
pu
tshufto
Stone
ku
kav
One
iktet
wait
Two
koktet
kafto
Three,
kumut
kolmo
Four
nilit
nilye
Five
wisit
waze
Six
kudut
kota
Seven
shimit
sisem
Eight
kandashe
kauksa
Nine
indeshe
waiksye
Ten
lu
kamen.
150 THE VOTIAK.
CHAPTER XX.
The Yotiak, Permian and Zirianian.
The Votiah is the TJgrian of the Government of Viatka ;
in which the circle of Glasov is the chief Votiak locahty
— then, those of Malmysh, Yelabuga, and Sarapul. Into
the Yelabuga dialect the Gospel of St. Matthew, into
the Glasov dialect that of St. Mark, has been translated.
Many of the Votiaks speak Turk as well as their own
language ; the Turkish elements being at their maximum
in Yelabuga and their minimum in Glasov. In the
library of the Bible Society at Viatka is a translation of
all the Four Gospels, except a part of St. Luke. Though
not without decided Tsherimis elements, the Votiak
affinities are less with the languages that have preceded,
than with those that are about to follow it ; these
being
The Permian and the Zirianian ; the former, the
XJgrian of Perm ; the latter, the Ugrian of Vologda.
They are closel}^ allied dialects of one and the same form
of speech. The Zirianian section falls into four sub-dialects,
three being pretty closely allied to each other, but the
fourth being an .outlyer, much mixed up with the
Saraoyed. Nevertheless, somewhat unfortunately for the
philologue, it was in the northern, the outlying, and the
modified dialect of the Zirianian that the first attempts at
a grammar were made. This was Florov's, published in
1813, the dialect being the Udorian — i. e. that for the
parts about Udorsk. Since then, the Gospel of St.
THE ZIRIANIAN.
151
Matthew has been translated into the Ustsyssola dialect ;
probably the purest of the four. Yet, even here we
have a great number of Russian words. The other two
forms of speech, allied (as aforesaid) to each other and to
the Ustsyssola, are the Zirianian of the Upper Yytshegda,
and the Zirianian of the Yaren.
English.
Votiak.
Permian.
Ziriauian.
Man (vir)
kart
aika
weres
(homo)
mura
mort
mort
Head
jor
jor
jor
Hair
jirsi
jors
jorsi
Eye
sin
sin
sin
Ear
pel
pel
pel
Nose
nyr
nyr
nyr
Mouth
im
im
worn
Tongue
kyl
kyl
kyv
Tooth
pin
pin
pin
Hand
ki
ki
ki
Foot
pud
kok
kok
Sun
shunde
shonde
shonde
Moon
tples
tyles
tyles
Star
kesele
kod
kadzil
Fire
tul
by
bi
Water
. wu
wa
wa
Tree
pu
pu
pu
Stone
is
is
is
One
odyk
otyk
ytyp
Two
kik
kyk
kyk
Three
kwin
kwiu
kuim
Foiir
nU
njula
njul
Five
^t
wit
wit
Six
kuat
kwet
kwait
Seven
sisim
sysim
sisim
EigU
kiyamis
kykamys
kekames
Nine
ukmys
okmys
ykmis
Ten
das
das
das.
The Zirianians have long been converted to the Greek
Church ; being, along with the Permians, the first of the
Eastern Ugrians to whom the Gospel was preached.
Their apostle was St. Stephanus.
152 THE FIN PROPER.
CHAPTER XXI.
The Fin Proper. — Division into Tavastrian and Karelian. — The Tver Dialect.
—The Vod.— The Estonian.
A DISTINCTION, drawn by the native investigators in
Fin philology, now requires notice. Whatever may be
its real value, it is a distinction upon which much stress
is laid. It is that between the Tavastrians and the
Karelians.
The Tavastrians are the Finlanders of the south-west,
especially of the parts about Tavastahus, the Karelians,
those of the interior; the interior meaning those parts
both of the Duchy and of the Government of Olonets
which are drained by the Lakes rather than by the
Baltic. To either the Tavastrian or the Karelian area
belongs the great mass of the Fins of Finland.
But besides these, and besides the Ugrians of Estonia,
of whom more will be said in the sequel, there are
several sporadic populations, lying like islands in the
midst of a Russian population, sometimes forming an
imperfect connection with the Ugrians to the south of
the Gulf of Finland, and sometimes absolutely detached,
of which the ethnological history has been investigated.
Some of these are recent settlers : others the representa-
tives of an original population which was once Ugrian,
but is now Slavonic. To separate the old from the
new has been one of the objects of the n.ative inquirers.
To separate the Karelian from the Tavastrian has been
another.
Again — the names Fin and Finland are anything but
THE FIN PROPER. 153
native. The nearest approacli to a general name is
Suomelaini (in the plural Suomelaiset) a word which
means the men of the fen, morass, or swamp. Word for
word it is the Sabme of the Laps ; a name which will soon
re-appear. Suomelaiset, however, is only an approach to
a general name. The Quains are Kainulaiset, and the
Karelian s Kirialaiset. A third division is Hamalaiset.
Now the name Yam is prominent in the history of the
early contests between the Slaves and the Ugrians ; as
the name of a separate section of the Suomelaiset — the
Hamalaiset being supposed to coincide with the Tavas-
trians.
Beyond the proper Fin districts the language of
Finland is spoken in Norway, where, in the district of
Soloer, on the Glommen, a Fin settlement, from Sweden,
was effected in 1624. The chief Fin parishes are Hof
and Grue ; where the district is called Finskoven or
the Forest of the Fins, and where the settlers amount
to about 2000.
The following populations are al], more or less, spo-
radic, and all held to be recent settlers rather than
aborigines, as well as to be Karelian rather than Tavas-
trian.
1 . The Auramoiset of the Government of St. Petersburg
— 30,000 in number.
2. The Savakot to the number of 43,000.
3. Karelians of —
The Government of Archangel . ] 1,228
Novogorod . 27,076
St. Petersburg . 3,660
Tver . . . 84,638
Yaroslav . . 1,283
To which add some in Olonets.
The following is the Parable of the Sower, in the Fin
of Tver, contrasted with that of Finland Proper.
154 THE YOB.
Tver.
Ka laksi kulvaa kulvamax ; I kulvmssa mulvvennet uvat langettyx deda-
vas : i tuldyx linnut ; i giat nokittyx. Muvvenet langettyx kivi ruopahilla
kumbazien-pzalla yaga oli muS-dda: i tervax guo novstyx, zen-tax, evldu
muassa suvax : Paivazen novstuo guo kellissuttix, i kuin evldu uurdunuSt
kuivettyx. Muvvennet langettyx tug'iix i kazvo tug'ii i gz'at katto. A muv-
vennet langettyx huvalla mu5;lla i kazvettyx lizavon-kera, kumbane toi su&n
kumbane kuuzikummenda, kumbane kolmekummenda. Kella ollax korvat
kuiilla kuulgax.
Mn.
Katso kylwaja mene kylwamaan. Ja hanen kylwaissansa, lankesiwat
muutamat tien obeen, ja linnut tuliwat, ja soiwat ne. Muutamamat taas
lankesiwat kiwistohon, kussa ei beilla ollut paljo maata, ja nousiwat peari
paalle, ettei heilla ollut sywaa maata. Mutta koska aurinko nousi, niin he
poudittin : ja orjantappurat kawiwat ylos, ja tukabuttiwat ne. Muutamat
taas lankesiwat hywaan maahan, ja tekiwat hedelman, mutuama satakertaisen,
muutama kuudenkymmenen kertaisen, ja muutama kolmenkymmenen kertai-
sen. Jollo on korwat kuulla, se kuulkaan.
The Ugrians of the parts to the south of the proper
Fin area who pass, and that on good grounds, for
aboriginal, are —
1. The Tshud, or Yesp.
2. The Izhor.
3. TheVod.
1. The Tshud or Yesp (15,617) on the bank of the
Onega and Bielozero, speak a dialect which is held to be
Tavastrian, and which they call Liudin Kiele, i. e.
Lingua Ludina.
•2. The Izhor (17,800) in the Government of St.
Petersburg, who call themselves Ingrikot or Ingriaus.
3. The Yod, who occupy a few villages in the circles
of Yamburg and Oranienbaum, to the number of
15,148, who call themselves Yadjalaine and Yadjalaiset
and whose language is the Yes — tunnet paiattaa
Vaihsi = loquerisne Votice.
What has been written about the division between
the Karelian and Tavastrian deserves notice, as a fact in
the history of opinion rather than as a fact in language.
It is one, however, that must needs be known if we wish
TAVASTRIAN AND KARELIAN. 155
to look at the Fin question from a Fin point of view.
I have doubts, however, whether it is more — doubts
that, coming from an amateur in London, in opposition
to the decided and (I believe) unanimous voice of such
competent judges as the native philologues themselves,
must be taken at the reader's, rather than the writer's,
valuation. I cannot, however, see that the report is
borne out by the evidence ; admitting, at the same time,
that it is very likely that I have not seen the evidence
in full. Indeed, it is morally certain that I have not.
Still, I see a generalization of great breadth, and along
with it probable and particular sources of error — one of
which is the love of generalization itself, combined with
the fact that in comparative philology it is over-hastily
indulged. I think that, "mutatis mnutandis, what the
Fins write about Tavastrians and Karelians has been
written by Englishmen of equal eminence about the
Angles and Saxons ; and, as an Englishman, I am well
aware that nine-tenths of what is so written is wrong.
It is written by able men, nevertheless. At the present
moment, Ahlqvist's Grammar of Vod is lying before me ;
and it fully verifies the statement that, even when we
have got our results as to the distribution of the
several Fin forms of speech over the two divisions, they
are, by no means, decided. The Vod, itself, is a Yarn
dialect with Karelian elements. The written language
itself is more Karelian than is generally believed. The
Ugrian of Ingria is, more or less, Vod. Lastly, the
Estonian and Vesps are less Karelian than the rest. Upon
the recognition of Karehan elements in the literary Fin,
great stress is to be laid ; since it is probable that, either
consciously or unconsciously, most inquirers have taken
it as the standard Tavastrian.
Such are the qualifications. As to the characteristics
themselves, they are, to a great extent, arbitrary ; at
any rate, the evidence to any one of them being the
sign of others is wanting. Again — though the details
156 , FIN PROPER.
of the sporadic Fins are numerous, our information
as to the local dialects of Finland itself — vast as is
its area — are of the scantiest. Lastly, neither the
Karelian nor Tavastrian are extreme forms. They may
graduate into one another less than the present writer
believes them to do.
All this means, that, in the division before us we
have a classification by definition, where, in the pre-
sent state of our knowledge, definition by type is alone
practicable.
The earliest specimens of the Fin language are
referrible to the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries ; amongst
which is a Translation of the Psalms by Agricola,
Bishop of Abo. It is preceded by a short poem in
which the heathen gods and goddesses, in whom a
latent belief, notwithstanding the professed Christianity
of the country, still existed. The list contains more
than twenty names ; the majority of which can be found
at the present time. Indeed from the time of Bishop
Agricola till now, the old Fin mythology has commanded
the attention of able inquirers ; of Ganander and
Porthan, followed by Topelius in the last generation,
and Lonrott and Castren in the present. Topelius col-
lected more especially the poems which bore upon the
history of a particular personage — Wainamoiuen ; so
forming what we may call a Wainamoinen cycle. With
this the Fin lays took form, until, from accretion upon
accretion, the Kalevala was the result. If we look at
this remarkable poem in respect to its parts, it is a
series of rhapsodies. If we look to it as a whole, it
may be dignified by the name of Epic. It is pagan
in respect to its machinery and subject-matter, though
not without decided Christian elements : indeed, towards
the end, the Virgin Mary under the name Marietta,
and Herod appear. It should be added, however, that
this is in a kind of appendix to the work rather than
in the body of the poem itself.
THE ESTONIAN. 157
Whatever may be the age of either the oldest or the
newest portions of the Kalevala, the language is the
Fin of the present day.
The TJgi'ians who occupy Estonia are in contact with
the Germans and Lets rather than with the Scandina-
vians, For this reason the foreign influences have been
German rather than Swedish. The Estonian alphabet
is Roman, the religion Protestant. At one time, when
all Ingria was Ugrian, the Estonian and Fin populations
must have been in contact.
The Estonians call themselves Rahwa, and their coun-
try Marahwa, or Rahwa Land ; the parts north of the
river Salis being their chief area.
In Liefland the Rahwa number .
— Estonia .
— Yitepsk — ..
— Pskov .
— St. Petersburg
252,608
9,936
8,000
7,730
633,490
The Estonian is divided into two main dialects ; one
with Reval, the other with Dorpat as its centre ; so that
we hear of the Dorpatian and the Revalian forms of
speech as paramount. I believe, however, that almost
every parish presents some peculiarities, and I am by
no means sure that the distribution of the numerous
dialects and sub-dialects thus developed corrresponds with
the usual classification.
A love for son or and music is exhibited throuorhout
the Rahwa country ; and of this we may judge by more
than one collection of songs, legends, charms, nursery
rhymes, and the like. The harp was the instrument —
the harp, or kandel. With this the bards, the exact
analogues of the Gaelic bards of almost our own days,
musical and locomotive, used to wander from place to
158 THE ESTONIAN.
place, as the harvest-home, or the wedding-feast, might
tempt them. The last of them died in 1813. He had
no fixed residence ; but was known, and welcomed,
whithersoever he chose to roam, as the wanna laulumees,
or the old singer.
Those who apply classical names to modern pheno-
mena describe the Ugrian metres in general as trochaic ;
sometimes being dactylic, but never iambic. This means
that the accent is on the first, third, and fifth syllables,
rather than the second, fourth, and sixth ; a fact which
arises out of the structure of the language.
The common formula is -^, -«, -v, -«; sometimes
with -»^w» instead of -^, more rarely with --, or the
so-called spondee ; e. g.
Toulis rebbust Korge-sare,
Mufla walgest Tiittar-sare,
Mufia tumest teised sared.
or,
Kotkad lensid Some -male,
Some-maalta Soksa-male.
Within a certain interval, a certain number of words
must begin either with a vowel, or, if with a consonant,
with the same ; as
Minna sulg ei annud suda
Egga ^arg ei ^obmud ^eada.
This is the alliteration of the old German metres ;
almost to its minutest details. It is held, however,
to be no more German in origin than the German is
Ugrian.
Archaic words are, in Estonia, as elsewhere, poetical ;
a fact which creates trouble and perplexity to modern
commentators ; indeed, many expressions which have
wholly dropped out of the current language are to be
found in the songs.
FIN AND ESTONIAN.
159
English.
I'm.
Yod.
Estoniau.
Man {vir)
mios
m^s
mees
{homo}
ingemin
mSs
innimene
Mead
poja
pa
peja
Hair
iwusa
karw
Eye
silme
silma
silm
Ear
kyrwa
korwa
korw
Nose
njena •
nena
ninna
Mouth
suu
s<i
sun
Tongue
kieli
c'6U
keel
Hand
kesi
c'asi
kilssi
Foot
jalka
jalka
jalk
Blood
weri
weri
werri
Sun
poiwa
paiwa
paw
Moon
kou
ku
kuu
Star
togyt
tjecht
Fire
tuli
tuli
tulli
Water
wesi
wesi
wesi
Tree
ptiu
vh
pu
Stone
kiwi
'ciwi
kiwwi
One
yks
uhsi
yks
Two
kaks
kahsi
kaks
Three
kolmi
kolme
kolm
Four
nelja
nell'a
nelje
Five
wisi
wtsi
wis
Six
kusi
kasi
kuus
Seven
seitseman
seitse'
seitse
Eight
kadeksan
kahetse
kattesa
Nine
ydeksan
uhetse'
uttesa
Ten
kymmemen
'cijmme
kuemme.
English.
Kareliar
1.
Olonets.
Man {vir)
mizajh
L
mes
{hx)mo)
inegmine
mes
Head
pija
pa
Hair
tukka
tukka
Eye
silma
silma
Ea/r
korwa
korwu
Nose
nena
nena
Mouth
shun
su
Tongue
kijali
keli
Hand
kasi
kasi
Foot
jalja
jalgu
Blood
weri
weri
Sun
paiwane
pewen
■
Moon
kuudoma
ku
Star
tagti
techte
Fire
tuli
tuli
160
KARELIAN.
English.
Karelian,
Olonets.
Water
wesi
wesi
Tree
pun
pu
Stone
kiwi
kiwi
One
juksy
juksi
Two
kaksi
kaksi
Three
kolmje
kolshe
Four
neUa
nelU
Five
wiisi
wizhi
Six
kuuzhi
kusi
Seven
zMtslieman
setshemi
Fight
kagekshan
kaesak
Nine
iujekshan
igokse
Ten
kymmen
kiimmene.
The Liefs gave its name to Liefland or Livonia.
In Livonia, about twelve individuals still speak the
Lief language.* They are to be found near the mouth
of the river Salis.
In Curland about 2000 use an allied form of speech
— falling into an Eastern and a Western dialect.
* Elsewhere, the number of these Liefs is put at twenty-two.
number, however, is only twelve.
The present
THE LAP. ]C1
CHAPTER XXII.
The Lap of Norwegian, Swedish, and Russian Lapland.
The last division of the Ugrian stock is, at one and
the same time, the most northern and the most western.
It is also the one whereof the physical form of the men
who constitute it is the most abnormal. Notwith-
standing a considerable amount of exaggeration as to
the shortness of their stature and the slightness of their
frames, the Laplanders are an undersized population ;
and those who enlarge upon the differences between lan-
guage and blood make much of tlie phj^sical contrast
between the Lap and his well-fed and warm-housed
congeners. They also make much of his nomad habits,
as opposed to tlie agriculture of the cow-keeping Fins.
Yet the Ugrian character of the Lap language has long
been recognized. It was recognized before the word
Ugrian came into vogue ; indeed, one of the first
inklings as to the true nature of the Magyar arose
out of comparisons made with the Lap.
In the way of dialect the Lap language falls into
two primary divisions ; the basis of which is, perhaps,
political and religious rather than truly ethnological.
There are the Laps of Russia and the Laps of Scandinavia.
The imperfect Christianity of the Laps of Russia is
that of the Greek Church ; the alphabet applied to their
languages being Russian. They amount in the Govern-
ment of Archangel to 2289.
The Laps of the Duchy of Finland are Scandinavian
rather than Russian ; or, if not actually Scandinavian,
transitional.
The Scandinavian Laps fall into two divisions — one
containing those of Sweden, the other those of Norway.
M
162 THE LAP.
It is from want of information that I have but little
to say about the former.
The Norwegian Laps are called, by the Norwegians,
Fins ; the Fin of Finland being called a Quain — so that
Finmarken, the great Lap district, is the March of the Fins.
They called themselves Sabme ; but are not displeased
to be called Fins by their neighbours. Between the
Norwegian Lap and the Fin Proper, there is much in-
termarriage ; a little between the Lap and Norwegian.
Their imperfect Christianity is that of the Latin
Church, in its Protestant and Lutheran form. Their
alphabet, in its present form, is an improvement on the
Norwegian. It is an improvement, because the first of
three elaborate Lap Grammars was the work of one of
the first of comparative philologists — Rask. He met
the fact of the Lap system of elementary articulate
sounds being in many respects peculiar, by the bold
application of new and well-adapted letters. These
have been recognized both by Stockfleth and Friis ; by
the former in his Norwegian and Lap Dictionary, by the
latter in his Grammar and Reading-book.
According to Friis, the Lap of Norway falls into two
main dialects, a northern and a southern. The north-
ern, or that of Finmark, falls into the subdialects of th
parishes of
1. TJtsjok, Tanen, Varanger, Vestertanen, and Lang-
:Qord.
2. Karasjok, Laxfjord, Porsanger:Qord.
3. Kontokseno, Hammerfest, Lopper, Allen, Skjoervo,
Karlso, Lyngen..
The southern into those of
1. Yalsfjorden and Tyfjorden, with the intermediate
parishes.
2. Yessen and Roraas, with the intermediate parishes.
South of Roraas the Lap area ceases to be continuous.
A few outlying families, however, are to be found in
Hedemarken.
THE LAP.
163
That the extension of the Laps to the south was,
at one time, greater than at present is a matter of
history. That the whole of the Scandinavian Peninsula
was originally Lap is a fair inference. The statement
that fragments of a Lap population were to be found on
the very shore of the Baltic at the beginning of the
historical period is, perhaps, exceptionable. Many, how-
ever, of the provincial terms from the parts about Ber-
gen are of decided Lap origin. That some of the Fins
Proper may be Lap in speech is probable. With this
exception the Lap language coincides pretty closely
with the Lap blood.
As a general rule the Russian Lap has fewer details
in the way of inflection and vowel-changes than the
Norwegian and the Swedish. It has in many cases
replaced the final vowel by the Russian liquid. It has,
in one district, Norse, in another Karelian, in another,
Russian glosses. To judge of it in its purity these must
be eliminated. Of the Norse dialects it is the Lap of
the Hill Laps to which it comes nearest. It is divided
into three main dialects.
1. That of Petsingi, Muotki, Patsjoki, Synjel, Nuoto-
sero, Jokostrov, and Balra.
2. That of Semiostrov, Lavosero, Voronesk, Kildin,
Maanselka.
3. That of the Terski Peninsula, on the West of the
White Sea.
English.
Lap.
English.
Lap.
Man {vir)
olma
Fire
tollo
(homo)
almaz
Water
tatse
Head
oike
Stone
kedke
Eye
tjalme
One
akt
Ear
pelje
Two
kwekt
Nose
njuone
Three
kolm
Mouth
nalme
Four
nelje
Tongue
njuoktem
Five
wit
Hand
ket
Six
kot
Foot
juolke
Seven
kjeta
Sun
peiwe
Eight
kaktsat
Moon
mano
Nine
aktfe
Star
taste
Ten
tokke
M 2
164* THE LAP.
The Lap is usually connected more closely with the
Fin Proper than the present writer connects it. Klaproth,
for instance, throws both into a class headed Germanized
Fins; a class which contains the Magyar, the most
southern of the Ugrian forms of speech, just as the Lap
is the most northern. The languages which this very
unnatural class brings together, are simply certain lan-
guages which have been in contact with the Germans of
either Germany Proper or Scandinavia. The present
place of the Lap, which gives it a sub-order to itself,
is, more or less, subject to correction. It rests upon the
extent to which tlie Lap is a language of which the
frontier has receded, rather than upon any minute philo-
logical investigation of the structure of the language
itself. As far, however, as the writer has examined
this, it confirms his view. Upon the whole, however,
the displacement of probably transitional forms in the
retrocession of the Lap frontier is his chief argument.
0\y-i
PKNINSULAR GROUP. 165
CHAPTER XXIII.
The Peninsular Languages. — Korean. — Japanese and Luchu. — Aino or Ku-
rilian. — Koriak and Kamskadal.
For the group that now comes under notice I have sug-
gested the name Peninsular ; inasmaich as the area to
which it belongs stands in strong contrast to those of
the preceding ones ; all of which lay inland, and con-
sisted of large blocks of land. The area, however, under
notice, is essentially maritime ; so much so that it has
but one large mass of inland district, whereas, on the other
hand, it has two (if not three) well-known peninsulas,
and one important archipelago. From this we may
anticipate its chief details. lb belongs to the north-east
of Asia, and contains, along with other tracts of minor
importance, Korea, Japan, the Kurile Isles, and Kam-
tshatka.
It is, in respect to its import, a wider class than any
one of the last four, — wider than even the Ugrian ; by
which I mean that the difference of its extremes is
greater than the difference between any two Ugrian
forms of speech. It falls, too, into divisions of greater
magnitude — indeed, it is possible that there may be
points of view from which those who contemplate it may
think it should be broken up. Upon the whole, how-
ever, I consider that it is natural.
Upon one condition required to make it so there is
neither doubt nor shadow of doubt — viz. : the extent to
which it is separated by broad and trenchant lines of
demarcation from the other languages of Asia. With
the Ocean on one side, and with languages which have
1Q6 THE KOREAN.
effected such vast displacements as the Chinese and
the Tungus on the other, anything like ambiguity in
respect to its boundaries is out of the question.
Its nearest approximations, then, are distant — distant,
but important. Nothing is, at one and the same time,
other than monosyllabic and even approximately akin to
the Chinese. The Korean, however, the most southern
continental language of the present group is less distant
from the Chinese than anything else — anything else
other than monosyllabic. Indeed, if this affinity were
all we looked to, the present group would have been
taken earlier, i. e. in the place of the Tungus. Se-
quences, however, of this kind are impracticable.
On the north the affinities are decidedly with the lan-
guages of America — a fact upon which more will be said
when the philology of the New World comes under
notice.
The several members of the group not only stand
clearly and definitely apart from one another, but the
distances between them are considerable — at least in the
present state of our knowledge. In the present state,
too, of our knowledge they seem equal — this meaning
that the Japanese is (there or thereabouts) as like (or
unlike) the Korean on the one side as the Aino on
the other. This doctrine, however, will probably be
modified as our information increases.
Of the Korean I know of no grammar, and only a
few vocabularies — the chief of which is Medhurst's.
Klaproth's, upon which the greater part of the current
opinions is founded, is taken partly from Broughton's
Voyage, partly from Witsen, and partly from Chinese
and Japanese sources.
To this, as well as to the remainder of our materials,
much can, doubtless, be added ; since the Korean is a
lettered language, the immediate origin of the alphabet
being obscure.
THE JAPANESE.
]
English.
Korean.
English.
Korean.
Eye
nuon
Tree
nan
Head
mati
Stone
tu, tol
Ear
kui
Fish
koki
Nose
ko
One
hodzhun
Mouth
yip
Two
tupu
Tongue
hie
Three
sai
Tooth
ni
Four
nai
Hand
sun
Five
tashu
Foot
pal
Six
ishu
Sun
heng
Seven
iki
Moon
oru
Eight
ita
Star
pern
Nine
yahao
Fire
pol
Ten
ye.
Water
mu
16'
The Japanese is purely and exclusively insular ; i. e.
has no congener on the continent with which it can be
immediately connected, or from which it can be definitely
derived. The Keltic of the British Isles is nearly in
this predicament — nearly, but not quite. It has the
Armorican of Brittany as a congener ; not to mention
the ancient language of Gaul, which has an historical,
though not a present, existence ; whilst the Gaelic of
Ireland and Scotland, though itself strange to conti-
nental Europe, is, still, indirectly connected with it
through the British. There is nothing, however, on the
mainland of Asia which is so near to the Japanese as
the Armorican is to the Gaelic. In no other island is
the isolation (or insulation, as we may call it) so com-
plete. The language of the Luchii islanders is Japanese.
English.
Japanese.
Luchu.
Eye
mi
mi
Head
kaote
busi
Ear
mimi
mimmi
Nose
khana
honna
Mouth
kuti
Tongue
sita
stska
Tooth
kha
kha
Hand
te
ki
Foot
ad
shanaa
168
THE J
APANESE.— THE
Amo.
Eiiglisli.
Japanese.
Lucliu.
Sun
fi
tida
Moon
zuki
gwazi
Star
fosi
fusM
Fire
fi
fi
Water
midz
mizi
Tree
ki
ki
Stone
isi
ishi
Fish
ivo
io
One
fito
tizi
Two
fitak
tazi
Three
miz
mizi
Four
yots
yuzu
Five
izuts
Six
muts ■
mutsi
Seven
nanats
nanatsi
Eight
yats
yatsi
Nine
kokonots
kannizi
Ten
tovo
tu.
The small islands between the Luchii group and For-
mosa are in the same category with the Ltichus them-
selves, i. e. they are Japanese rather than Malay. The
names of them end in -sima (Madzhikosima, &c.) ; sima
meaning island.
In Yesso the Japanese is intrusive ; the original lan-
guage being the Aino, or Kurilian. The Kurilians, or
Aino, occupy two localities on the main land and all
the islands between Kamtshatka and Japan. The locali-
ties on the main land have been already mentioned.
One was at the mouth of the Sagalin, one at the
southern extremity of Kamtshatka.
That the Kurilian area, like the Korean, once ex-
tended beyond its present frontier, is likely. The
numerals of the Mantshti of the frontier seem to have
taken the Aino ending in /.
English.
Aiuo of Kamtsliatka.
Tarakai.
YesQ.
Man
okkaiyu
okkai
oikyo
{vir)
ainuh
ainu
ainu
{homo)
guru
guru
Eye
sik
Bhigi
*_^—
Head
gpa
shaba
THE AmO DIALECTS.
169
English.
Aino of Kamtshutka.
Tarakai.
Yeso.
Hair
ruh
numa
karnu
Ear
gsahr
kisara
Nose
ahdum
idu
Mouth
tshar
paru
Tongue
aukh
ai
Tooth
imak
uimaki
mimak
Hand
dek
tegi
Foot
kehmma
kima
Blood
kehm
kim
Sun
tshupu
tshukf-kamoi
touki
Moon
tshupu
tshukf
zuki
Star
kytta
nodzi
noro
Fire
apeh
undzhi
abe
Water
peh
raka
vakha
Tree
nyh
nii
Stone
poinah
shioma
Egg
nokh
nuku
_
Fish
tshep
zepf
zizf
One
syhnap
shnepf
senezb
Two
dupk
tup
zuzb
Three
raph
repf
rezb
Four
yhnap
inipf
inezb
Five
ahsik
ashiki
asaraniof
Six
ihguahn
yuvambi
yuiwambe
Seven
aruahn
aruvambi
aruambe
Eight
duppyhs
tubisambi
zuyemambe
Nine
syhna.pyhs
slinebishambi
sinesambo
Ten
upyhs
wambi
fambe.
The Kamskadal, (or KamtshatJcan,) and the KoriaJc,
are members of the same chiss, though separated by
Klaproth.
Engl-sh.
Koriak.
Off Karaga.*
Man (vi'))
oiakotsh
■ {homo)
nuteiran
nutaira
Head
lent
leut
Hair
kytyhuir
kitigil
Tongue
iilygyl
yilegit
Mouth
dzhekergen
homagalgen
Ear
wilugi
welolongen
Eye
lelugi
lalangen
Nose
eyekitshg
haahgeng
Beard
lelyugi
* This means that part of the coast which lies opposite the island of
Karaga, in opposition to the island itself, for which see the following table.
170
THE KORIAK.
English.
Koriak.
Off Karaga
Blood
mulumul
Bone
khattaam
komlathom
Hand
mynnagylgen
mylgalgen
Night
nigonok'
kyhmeu
Sky
khayan
haian
Sun
titkapil
dykupyhsol
Moon
gdilgen
yailgat
Star
engen
angehri
Fire
milhemil
milgupil
Water
mimel
mimlipil
Earth
nutelkhan
nutalgan
Tree
uttuut
utut
Hill
gyeigor
knayukM
River
weiom
woyampyh
Sea
Egg
inung
inu
ligliguh
Fish
innaen'
annaau
House
rat'
Horn
yinnaVgin'
Dog
atar'
hathan
atan
Milh
nyokin
One
onnen
ahnahn
Two
hyttaka
ytahgau
Three
ngroka
rohgau
Four
ngraka
ragau
Five
myllanga
millangau.
English.
The Kolyma.
Karaga.
Man (vir)
khuyukutsh
inylakhylsh
(homo)
uimtahula
oshamshahal
Head
lawut
tennakam
Hair
katshugui
lankhshakh
Tooth
wannalgyn
Tongue
giigel
laksha
Mouth
shekiangin
shekshen
Ear
wyilut
ilyufi
Eye
lalat
ellifa
Nose
enigytam
enku
Beard
lelu
lilyuf
Blood
mull j omul
mutl'muth
Bone
hatamfa
Hand
myngakatsh
k'onmenkhlan
Night
nekita
tenkiti
Sky
khain
shilkhen
Sun
tykete
shahalkh
THE KORIAK.
English.
The Kolyma.
Karaga.
Moon
geilygen
shagalkh
Star
lelapitshan
L
engysh
Fire
milugan
mi'lchamil
Water
mimal
iin
Earth
nyutinnyut
Tree
uttepel
nguft
HiU
nayu
mysankosi
River
waim
gykhi
Sea
ankan
nyungen
Bgg
lygby
t'higlhifuha
Fish
kokayalgating
tahataha
House
yayanga
shishtshu
Dog
attahan
atapela
khatalan
MiUc
lyukhoi
One
onnon
ingsing
Two
niokhtsh
gnitag
Three
niyokh
gnasog
Four
niyakh
gnasag
Five
myllangin
monlon.
English.
Reindeer Tshuktslii.
Man (vir]
1
oyakutsh
klaul
Head
leut
Hair
kirtshivi
Tooth
rytlynti
%
Tongue
gil
Mouth
inkigin
Far
weliulgin
Eye
lilagin
Nose
ekhaekh
Beard
walkalorgiid
Blood
mullumul
Bone
attitaam
Hand
mingilgin
Night
nikittya
Shy
eikhi
ying
Sun
titktshit
Moon
geilgin
Star
engerenger
Fire
JJiilgin
Water
mimil
Farth
nutetsh
in
Tree
uttuu
Hill
piet
171
172
THE KAMTSHATKAN.
English.
Reindeer Tsliuktsl
mu
khallelegin
River
waem
Sea
angka
Egg
ligli
Fish
annegui
House
oranga
Horn
ritten
Milk
lukhai
One
ennene
Two
giyakh
Three
guakh
Four
gyrakh
Five
millgin.
The following is the Kamtshatkan of the Middle of
the Peninsula.
English.
Kamtshatkan.
English.
Kanilshiitkan.
Head
kobbel
Fish
etshuda
Eye
elled
Fiver
kug
Ear
ilyud
God
kutkhai
Nose
kayako
Mouth
tskhylda
Sky
kokhal
Hair
tsheron
kollaa
Tooth
Snow
kolaal
Tongue
dydzil
One
dysyk
Hand
tono
Two
kaas
Day
taazh
Three
tsuk
Sun
koatsh
Four
tshaak
Moon
quingan-kuletsh.
Five
kumnak
Star
ezhingin
Six
kylkoak
Fire
pangitsh
Seven
etakhtana
Water
1
Eight
tshonutono
Tree
00
Nine
tshanatana
Stone
kual
Ten
tsliemyktagona.
Egg
nygagada
To the north of this Kamtshatkan of the Middle dis-
trict is spoken the language of the former, to the south
of it the language of the latter of the following tables :
in the first of which it is to be observed that one of the
vocabularies, though it represents a Kamtshatkan form of
speech, is headed Koriah,
THE KAMTSHATKAN.
173
English.
Koriuk of the Tigil.
Kamtsh itkan of the Tigil.
Man (vir)
kymshan
kamzhan
(homo)
tshandzhal
uzhkamzha
kelgola
Head
komptko
ktkhyn
koltsli
Hair
tshelgad
kuiba
Eye
leUe
■ lella
Beard
luel
luulla
elnn
Hand
kh'ketsh
khkatsh
Shy
kysha
keis
God
kuikynakhu
kutkha
Fire
hymlee
brjuumkhitsli
Tree
ua
uu
Earth
nutelehan
Egg
lylkhatsh
Fish
nishatkin
onnitsh
dentsh
River
kytshme
Hill
enzalkhen
aala
House
kisht
kisba
Snow
Dog
kosha'
hetan
English.
Ukah.
South Knnitshatkan.
Man (vir)
kangge
elku
{homo)
kliyllgoglila
uzhkamzba
kulusanga
Head
hbhahel
tsbysba
kols
Hair
zelgakh
kubiin
Eye
ellath
nannin
Beard
kuukun
Blood
mythlung
Bone
kotham
Hand
sotong
sytbi
STcy
kokhau
kagal
Ood
dusdeakhtshik
kut
Fire
blumligtsh
Tree
utha
uuda
Earth
b'sjTnth
ua
symmit
Egg
lylida
Fish
entshude
entsbudu
174 THE KAMTSHATKAN.
English.
Ukah.
South Kara
River
kothhoul-kygh
Hill
pehkugtsh
namtid.
Dog
koslia
kosha.
I know of nothing that illustrates the grammatical
structure of either the Karatshatkan or the Koriak.
The Kamtshatkan call themselves Itulman ; the
Koriaks call them Kontshala and Numelaha ; the
Kurilians call them ArutaTunkar.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 175
CHAPTER XXIV.
General Obsei-vations on the preceding Languages. — Value of tie Class. -
Original Turk, Mantshu, Mongol, Yeneseian, and Ugrian Areas.
In taking a review of the group which has just been dealt
with, we cannot but be satisfied with the precision
and definitude of all its boundaries : those of the class
itself, taken as a whole, being pre-eminently broad
and clear. Where the Mantsliu and the Chinese, the
Mongol and Bhot, the Turk and Bhot, the Turk and
Persian, confront each other, there has been encroach-
ment accompanied by the obliteration of transitional
forms, on both sides — the Mantshu, for instance, press-
ing southward, on the one hand, and the Chinese press-
ing northwards on the other. And so on with the rest.
Where the Turk and Persian cease to confront each
other, the Caspian intervenes with its waters. After
this comes the mountain-range of Caucasus, to the
very feet of which the Turk and Russian have extended
themselves — doubtless at the expense of some language
akin to the Circassian, or, at any rate, more akin to it
than. they are themselves. In Europe, all beyond the
Dnieper, at least, though now Russian, was originally
other than Russian ; so that whatever may have been the
affinities of the original languages of the Governments of
Kursk, Penza and the districts nearest the Mordvin area
to the Mordvin and its congeners, all such transitions as
they may have efiected are annihilated. Again — ^in
Norway and Sweden the present Norwegian and
Swedish are intrusive ; so that whatever came in contact
176 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
with the southern area of the Laps is annihilated also.
The remaining boundaries are formed by the Ocean.
Still the distances between the languages of the pre-
sent group and those of the rest of the world, though
great, are, by no means, equal. There are points where-
at there is an approximation. These are the neigh-
bourhood of Behring's Straits ; Korea ; and Lithuania
—in other words, the Koriak is notably American, the
Korean notably Chinese, and the Lithuanic notably
Ugrian. This merely means that there are certain points
about which the encroachment and displacement have
been less than they have been about others.
This applies, in a less degree, to the minor divisions
which lie between the secondary groups. The Tungtis,
the Mongol, and the Turk, with their intrusions, have
effectually obliterated any such congeners as may have
led from one of them to the other. From the small
amount of difference between their extreme dialects we
infer that their diffusion has been recent.
The Ugrian, on the other hand, was a large class,
falling into divisions and sub-divisions, and covering a
surface which grows wider and wider the more we go
back. It is now discontinuous ; the result of its dis-
continuity being definitude of boundary. In Hungary
alone it has been intrusive — we might say protrusive ;
for the Magyar of Hungary is separated from its nearest
congener by many degrees of latitude, having found its
way into Hungary not by any gradual extension of the
Ugrian frontier, but by being bodily projected (so to say)
into a strange and foreign country. Of pure protrusion
and projection — protrusion and projection accompanied
with a separation from its congeners — it is one of the
most remarkable examples in ethnographical philology;
and one which should never be either forgotten or over-
looked when we have languages in extraordinary locali-
ties to account for.
Something in the way of an approximation to the
OIT THE TURANIAN CLASS. 177
original area of the Tiingus, Mongol, and Turk languages
is possible. It is the easiest with the Turk. There are
many localities where we know that the Turk is not in-
digenous. It never came from Hungary ; nor yet from
Constantinople ; nor yet from the Lower Lena ; notwith-
standing the existence of the Cumanian, the Osmanli,
and the Yakut forms of speech in those districts. It
scarcely originated on the northern side of the Caucasus
in immediate contact with the Tsherkess ; nor yet in the
Sayanian range, where it is spreading itself at the
present time. It could scarcely have originated in the
immediate contact of either the Tunglis or the Mongol,
from which it differs as a language which meets another
from some distant quarter and in an opposite direction.
If the doctrine that it is more L^gi'ian than either Mon-
gol or Tungus be true, it must be a language of western
rather than Eastern Asia.
The area for which the evidence of the Turk being
intrusive is at its minimuTrt, and (changing the ex-
pression) the area for which the evidence of its being
indigenous is at its niaxiTiiuin, is Independent Tartary.
On the other hand, it is little better than a desert.
Next to this comes Chinese Tartary. This, however,
is unfavourable to its Ugrian and (I may add) its
Yeniseian) affinities.
Next comes the Tshuvash and Tsherimis frontier.
To go in detail through the remainder of the groups
would be to give a theory of the ethnology of Siberia.
The conditions, however, which are required are the
same throughout. Where can we prove intrusion ?
Where is the residuary locality where it cannot be
proved ? When this is obtained, how will it account
for the affinities ? Such is the method. As far as I
have been able to work it, I have been led to place the
Mongol nucleus in the parts about the Hi and the lakes
of its vicinity ; the Tungus on the Upper Anmr, the
Korean somewhat to the west of its present area ; and
N
178 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
the Aino to some portion of the districts now occupied
by the Lamut. The Koriak, the Jukahiri, the Yeniseian,
the Samoyed, the Yogul, and the Ostiak, I refer, one
and all, to some point considerably to the south of their
present northernmost localities. In this, however, there
is a mixture of ethnological and philological conside-
rations.
The best name for this class, and perhaps the com-
monest, is Turanian : a term which sometimes gives a
larger and sometimes a smaller class than the one which
we are now leaving, for India, Persia, and Caucasus.
THE PARAHI, ETC. J 79
CHAPTER XXV.
The Darahi (Denwar) and Kuswar.— The Paksya and Tharu. — The Kooch.
The present section of the class now coming into notice
is artificial. It is ambiguous. It is more than this. It
is only equivocally ambiguous. The languages which it
contains take their present place because they are, to
some extent, both Bhot and Indian. Yet they may be
so much more Bhot than Indian, or so much more
Indian than Bhot, as to require no intermediate classifi-
cation. Again, one of them may be Bhot, one Indian,
and one truly ambiguous. They are so Tamul. What
they really represent is the author's want of knowledge
and leisure.
The class, then, is provisional. Thus much, however,
may be said of its members.
1 . That they are Indian in respect to their numerals,
throughout ; and Indian in a great many other words.
2. That, so far as they are other than Indian, they
are Monosyllabic and Tamul.
The degree to which they are this varies with the lan-
guage ; and it is possible that, in some of them, the ori-
ginal element may be so thoroughly displaced, as to leave
the other bases Monosyllabic and Tamul only in the way
that a knife with a new blade and a new handle is still
the same knife. But, again, the group is artificial,
and the Hindii character of the numerals is, to a great
extent, an arbitrary test.
The Darahi and Kuswar are spoken by two broken
tribes (I use Mr. Hodgson's expression) in Nepaul.
N 2
180
THE DARAHI, ETC.
English.
Duralii.
K us war.
Man
manas
gokchai chawai
Head
mud
kapa
Han-
bar
bar
Eye'
ankhi
ankhi
Ear-
kan
kan
Mouth
muhun
muhu
Tooth
dant
dant
Hand
hat
bath
Foot
god
gor
Blood
ragat
rakti
Bone
had
hadh
^Tcy
sarag
sarang
l>ay
din
dini
Night
rato
ratbi
Sun
gama
suraj
Moon
Janha
jun
Star
tirya
tarai
Fire
age
aghi
Water
hate
hani
Earth
mati
mati
Mountain
danda
pahar
Stone
pathar
pathar
Bird
chari
chari
Dog
kukur
kukol
Pm
anda
dimba
Fish
machha
jbain
Floiver
phul
phul
Horn
sing
sinjek
House
ghar
ghara
River
khola
kosi
Snake
samp
samp
Tree
rak
gatch
One
ek
ek
Two
dwi
dwi
Three
tin
tin
Four
char
char
Five
panch
panch
Six
chah
chah
Seven
sat
Eight
ath
„ _
Nine
nou
Ten
das
The Denwar is nearly identical with the Darahi-
differing, however, inter alia, in the following words.
THE DARAHI, ETC.
J81
En-lisli.
Demvar.
Daralii.
Egg
dimba *
anda
Mother
ambai *
uya
Mountain
pakha *
danda
River
lari
khola
Road
bat*
panya
Stone
donkho
pathar
Tree
gatch*
rak
Water
kyu
pati.
The Pakbya and Tharu, like the Daralii and Kuswar,
are Nepalese in respect to their geography.
English.
Pakhya.
Tharu.
Man
manchha
manhai
Head
manto
mudi
Hair
rawa
bar
Eye
ankha
ankh
Ear
kan
kan
Mouth
mukha
mukha
Tooth
data
data
Hand
hatkela
tar-hatti
Blood
ragat
lohu
Bone
had
had
Day
duiso "
dina
Night
rati
rati
Sun
gbama
rauda
Moon
chandramabel
chandraraajuu
Fire
ago
agi
Water
pani
pani
Earth
mato
mati
Mountain
pahar
parbat
Egg
pliul
anda
Fish
machha
macheri
Floiver
phul
phul
Horn
sing
sing
House
ghar
ghar
River
khola
khola
SnaTce
sapa
sapa
Tree
rukha
gatch
One
yek
yet
Two
dui
dui
Three
tin
tin
Four
char
char
Five
pach
pacLe
Six
chha
chha
Agree with Kuswar^
182
THE
DARAHI,
ETO.
English.
Pakhya.
Tharu.
Seven
sat
sat
Eight
Nine
ath
nau-
ath
nau
Ten
das
das.
The Kooch belong to India (and Sikkim ?) rather
than to Nepal ; being occupants of the northern parts
of Rungpur, Purnea, Dinajpur, and Mymangsing. The
Bodo of their frontier call them Kooch ; the more distant
Bodo of Asam call them Hasa. The Dhimal call them
Kamul, which, word for word, seems to be Dhimal.
For the Brahminic Kooch the following is a vocabulary.
For the Kooch, however, who are still the pagan occu-
pants of the more impracticable forests, we have no
specimens.
English.
Kooch.
English.
Kooch.
Man {vir)
beta clioa
Star
tara
Woman
beti choa
Fire
agni
Son
beta
Water
jal^
Daughter
beti
Fiver
nodi
Head
mura
Stone
pathar
Eye
chakbu
Wind
batas
Nose
nak
One
ek
Ear
kan
Two
du
Beard
dadbi
Three
tin
Mouth
mukh
Four
char
Tongue
jivha
Five
panch
Tooth
dant
Six
choi
Hand
hatb
Seven
sat
Foot
bhori
Eight
ath
Blood
lohu
Nine
nou
Sun
bela
Ten
das.
Moon
chand
The Kooch, whose separation from the Bodo and Dhi-
mal, is philological, rather than ethnological, and which,
even philologically, is, to some extent, artificial, are
bounded on the south by the Bengali area. The
Bengali language, however, is not the nearest congener
of the class to which the Kooch, though an outlying and
equivocal member, belongs.
THE KOL DIALECTS. 183
CHAPTER XXYI.
The Kol group. — Its Affinities with the Mon.
The dialect, other than Bengali, which, in the way of
geography, is nearest to the most southern language of
the Tibetan, Burmese, or Nepalese group, is that of the
natives of the Rajmahal hills ; but this, for a reason
which will appear in the sequel, is pretermitted for the
present ; instead of which we notice the Kol dialects of
Ramgurh, Mongliir, Chuta Nagpur, Gangpur, Sirgujah,
and Sumbhulpur : which fall into divisions and sub-
divisions. The Sontals, indigenous to the parts about
Palamow, have recently intruded themselves amongst the
Rajmahalis, and, having so done, constitute the most
northern section of the group. Still they are intrusive,
and must be kept separate.
Ho, meaning man, is the true and native name for
the Kol of Kolehan,
The Singbhum Kol is the same as the Sontal except
that some of its forms are somewhat shorter, as ho = horl,
ho = huho, moya and turia = mone-gotang, turin-
gotang, &c. The same is the case with the Bhumij and
Mundala dialects. In these, however, the numerals for
7, 8, 9, and 10 are Hindu — sath, ath, nou (noko), and
das (dasgo).
English.
Sontal.
English.
Sontal.
Man
horh
Foot
suptijanga
Head
buho
Blood
myun
Hair
uh
Bone
jang
Eye
met
Sun
singmanal
Ear
lutu
Moon
chandu
Hand
thi
Star
ipil
184
t
KOL AND MON.
English.
Sontal,
English.
Sontal.
Fire
sengel
Five
mone-gotang
Water
dah
Six
turin-gotang
One
midli
Seven
lair-gotang
Tivo
barria
Eight
iral-gotang
Three
apia
Nine
are-gotang
Four
ponia
Ten
gel-gotang.
An observation, and an important one, of Mr. Mason's,
respecting the affinities of the Mon of Pegu and the Kol,
requires notice. The first numerals and several other
words in the Mon are also Kol. I cannot, however,
with Mr. Mason, infer from this any affinity between the
Kol and Mon which is, at one and the same time, funda-
mental and direct. What I see is this — the chances of a
considerable influence from the east coast of India upon
Pegu and, perhaps, Cambojia at an early period. The
Mon are called by the Burmese Talieng ; which is, word
for word, Telinga, The number of the monosyllabic
languages, which, in an early stage, had no numerals of
their own beyond five, is considerable. The Mon nu-
merals, then, and the other words may have come from
India — imported and incorporated. More than this is
not necessary to explain the facts ; which, on other
grounds, will scarcely cover the inference of Mr. Mason.
The eastern coast, however, of India when the words
in question were introduced (and, with them, the name
Talien), must have been Kol rather than Telinga.
THE KHOND DIALECT. 185
CHAPTER XXVII.
The Khond Class. — Khond. — Cadaba and Yerikala. — Savara.
The Khonds come next ; belonging to Orissa rather than
Bengal. The Khond calls his own country Kui Dina or
Ku Pruti, and that occupied by the Uriyas Sasi Dina. The
word malo is Uriya, and means a Highland. Within
the Sircar of Ganjam (in which the Uriya and Telinga
languages meet) lie the Zemindaries of Gumsur, Koradah,
Souradali, and Kimidi. Each has its "nialo — and the
Kimidi Malo is pre-eminently Sour. It falls into —
1. The Sano Kimidi Malo.
2. The Bodo Kimidi Malo. Observe the word Bodo.
3. The Pariah, or Porolah, Kimidi Malo.
In the Bodo Kimidi Malo the Khond and Sour are
both spoken. The Pariah Kimidi Malo being chiefly (or
exclusively) Sour.
On the south-east and east of the Kimidi Malo lies
the Souradah — which seems to mean the Sour Country ;
though Khond in population.
The smaller divisions of the dina are called in Khond
khand = piece, or part. The dina is specified by the
name of the chieftain ; thus Rogo Dina or Gune Dina
is the fief (so to say) of Rogo or Guni. The people are
Rogo Millaka, or Dina Millako, i. e. Children of Rogo.
There is no collective name. The following is Khond,
eo nomine ; the numerals being Indian — -
English.
Khond.
English.
Khond.
Man
lokka
Ear
kirru
Head
tlavu
Motith
sudda
Eye
kannuka
Tooth
ahami
186
THE KHOND DIALECT.
English.
Kliond.
English.
Khond
Hand
kaju
One
rondi
Foot
vestamu
Two
jodeka
Blood
rakko
Three
*tini-gota
Bone
■ pasu
Four
*sari
Sun
bela
Five
*paiichu
Moon
layadi
Six
Star
sukala
Seven
*sata
Fire
nade
Eight
*ata
Stone
viddi
Nine
*nogatta
Tree
mranu
Ten
*doso.
The following, viz. the Gadaba, belongs, I presume, to
the TYialo of Gaddapur, one of the districts of Gtimstir : —
English.
Gailaha.
English.
Gadaba.
Man
lokka
Stone
birel
Head
bo
Tree
sunabbo
Eye
olio
One
vokati
Ear
nintiri
Two
rendu
Mouth
tummo
Three
mudu
Hand
titti
Four
nalugu
Foot
adugesananu
Five
ayidu
Blood
yignan
Six
aru
Bone
vondramgoyi
Seven
yedu
Sun
singi
Eight
yeni-mede
Moon
arke
Nine
torn-inidi
Star
tsukka
Ten
pade.
Fire
sungol
Of the following I am unable to give the exact lo-
cality.
English,
Yerukali
English.
Yerukali.
Man
lokka
Stone
kellu
Head
talayi
Tree
chede
Eye
supan
marom
Ear
soyi
One
vondu
Mouth
vayi
Two
rendu
Tooth
pallam
Three
mume
Hand
ky Kol
Four
nalu
Foot
keru
Five
anju
Blood
regain
Six
aru
Bone
yamaka
Seven
yegu
Sun
berule
Eight
yethu
Moon
tarra
Nine
ombadu
Star
tsukka
Ten
pothu.
Fire
nerupu Tamil
The numerals marked thus are Hind6.
THE SAVARA.
1
The village is also named Millaka, preceded by the
name of the founder. Thus Diggo Millaka is the village
founded by Diggo. In Uriya it is a gam = Diggogam.
English.
Savara.
Man
mandra
Head
abobumu
Eye
amu
Ear
lav
Mouth
amuka
Tooth
ajagna
Blood ■
mijamo
Bone
ajagna
Hand
asi
Foot
aji
Day
tamba
Sky
agasa
Sun
Tuyu
Moon
vonga
Star
tute
Englisli.
Fire
River
Stone
Tree
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
Savara.
togo
nayi
aregna
anebagna
aboy
yagi
vonjii
mollayi
kudru
gulgi
tamuji
tinji
galliji.
The Savara numerals are Kol rather than either
Khond or Tamul, though the Sours are, by no means,
the nearest to the Kol area.
188 ^__ THE GHONDS.
CHAPTER XXYIII.
The aiionds.
The barest part of the maps of India (and by hare I
mean a district which the paucity of names, whether of
villages or natural objects, proclaims to be unexplored)
is a large space named Ghondwana — -large and undefined,
the occupancy of a population named Ghond. Word
for word, this is Khond. Nothing, however, in the
way of either affinity or difference between the Khonds
and Ghonds is to be inferred from the similarity.
Neither is a native name. Each is a name which cer-
tain Hindus apply to certain tribes which they consider
ruder and more barbarous than themselves. Like other
names of the same kind it may denote anything or
nothing in the way of relationship. It may apply to
tribes closely allied ; or it may apply to tribes, toto coelo,
different.
The western frontier of the Klionds of the Giimsur
Malo and the frontier of the most eastern Ghonds touch
and run into each other. " At Sarangaddah, the Uriya
quarter is situated between a Khond village to the west,
and a Ghond settlement to the east. In other places
a Khond village aligns with it.
" A few families of the Ghond race have emigrated from
Kalahandi and Bastar at various times. Some have set-
tled at Sarangaddah, while others have passed on into the
Goomsur Malo, and penetrated as far to the eastward as
Udyagiri, near the head of the Kurminghia Pass, where
a colony has established itself. They are also met with,
as a few families, at Chachingudah, and Kiritingiah, of
Goomsur, lying between the above points. These emi-
ff\:^'
THE GHONDS. 189
grations still continue in times of scarcity, but their
numbers are v^ry trifling. It is in the countries bor-
dering this malo to the west that they are known as a
people. The Patros of the frontier divisions of Lonka-
godah and Bellagodah are of this race, as is also the
Chief of Mohangiri, under Kalahandi, not to mention
in this place other men of influence. The Gonds settled
at Sarangaddah, i^eceive land of the Patro in return for
general service. They intermarry with the families of
their race in Goomsur : they reside at the godah. With
regard to their customs, their mythology difiers from
that of the Uriyas or Kondhs. They sacrifice animals,
drink ardent spirits, eat flesh, but eschew that of the
cow : they will not partake of food with any other
class. Their feelings on the question of human sacrifice
are not, as yet, accurately ascertained ; but it is asserted
that they do not perform the rite. The titles amongst
them are Dalbehra and Magi. They esteem them-
selves of great purity of race, so that in former days
they considered the approach of a Brahman to their
dwellings as conveying an impurity to the spot ; they
are now, however, somewhat less rigid on this ground.
The Uriyas of the hills, while they regard the Khonds
as a distinct and inferior race, assign to the Ghonds a
common origin with themselves. The tradition received
at Sarangaddah is as follows : —
"A certain raja, named Sobhajoi Singh, being unmar-
ried, and desirous of issue, called to his bed four parties
in succession. Those selected were the daughters of a
washerman, a potter, a distiller of spirits, and a Brah-
man ; and the respective issue was a Doholo or Dolo, a
Kohouro, a Gond, and the Nolo Benso Patro — the proge-
nitors of the four classes now met with in the Malo."*
The details of the Kol frontier are not so well-known.
Neither are those of the districts where the Ghond and
* Paper by Lieut. J. P. Feye, — Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
vol. xvii. part 1.
190
THE GUNDI.
Mahrafcta, the Ghond and Bengali, the Ghond and Telngu,
the Ghond and the Hindi forms of speech come in con-
tact. These, however, are the languages by which it is
bounded.
A short vocabulary by Mr. Manger, of the Ghond, is
to be found in the 1 45th number of the Journal of the
Asiatic Society, and a longer one in a previous number.
The former gives the language of the parts about Ellich-
poor, where the Mahratta is the language with which
it is most in contact. The latter is from the district of
Seonee ; on or near the Kol frontier. The following
extracts are from Mr. Manger's notice of it;
English.
Gundi.
Englisk
Giindi.
MaU
m^ndsa
Back
murchur
Boy
perga
Ai-ms
kayik
Infant
chowa
Thighs
kurki
Young man
pekur
Navel
mud
Old man
sena
Knees
tungru
Woman
maiju
Legs
potri
Girl
pergi
Feet
kal
Young woman
rayah
Water
er
Married woman
lunguriar
Fire
kis
Head
tulla
Tree
murra
Forehead
kuppar
Flower
pungar
Eyebrows
kunkunda
Firewood
kuttia
Eyelids
mindi
Salt
sowur
Eyes
kunk
Oil
ni
Nose
mussur
Ghee
palni
Ears
kohi
Milk
p^l
Cheeks
korir
Butter
nenii
Lips
sewli
Mare
kr(ip
Mouth
tudhi
'Cow
mura
Tongue
wuiija
Heifer
kullor
Teeth
pulk
Calf
paia
Chin
towrwa
Bullock
koda
Throat -
gunga
Udder
tokur
Neck
wurrur
Horns
kor
Shoulders
sutta
Buffalo
urmi
Nails
tirrls
Horse
perr^l
Armpit
k^ukli
Wheat
gohuc
Stomach
pir
Bread
gohuc sari
Loins
nunni
nice
paraik
Entrails
puddu
She goat
peti
GUNDI GRAMMAR.
191
English.
Gundi.
English.
Gundi.
Dog
naie
Between
nuddum
Cat
bhongal
Behind
Pija
Wild cat
wurkar
Above
purro
Fowls
kiir
Beneath
sidi
Code
gunguri
On account
lane
Chickens
chlwar
Hither
hikkg
Eggs
mesuk
Thither
hukke
Mice
uUi
Now
indeke
Serpents
turrds
When
boppor
Fish
mink
Here
iga ^
Tiger
p611ie
Thus
ital atal
WalTc
takana
Daily
dink
Run
witt^na
One
undl
Laugh
kowana
Two
rund
Sing
wurana
Three
miind
Dance
yendana
Four
nalo
Speah
wtinkana
Five
saiyan
Fight
turritana
Six^
s6,r(in
Beat
jittana
Seven
6ro
Weep
urtana
Eight
armtir
No
hille
Nine
urmah
Yes
hinge
Ten
pudth
Near
kurrun
Twenty
wisa
Before
nunne
Fifty
punnas
Within
rupper
Hundred
nur.
Kora
a horse.
Korank hor
ses.
Korana
Korada
\
of
a horse.
Korankna of horses.
Korat
n
to
a horse.
Korankun horses.
Kor^tu
Koratsfin
by
a horse
Koranksiin by horses
Nak or nunna
1
Imma
thou
Wur
he
Nowa
my
Niwa
thy
Wnnna
his
Nakun
me
Nikiin
thee
Wunk
him
Naksun
hy me
! Niksiin
by thee
Wunksun by him
Mak
we
Imdt.
you
Wurg
they
Mowan
our
Miwat
your
Wurran
their
Makun
us
Mekun
you
Wurrun
them
Mdksun
by us
Miksun
by you
Wurrunsun by them.
Yii-g
this
Bur
who
Ud he, she, it.
Yenna
oft
his
Bona
whose
Yenk
this
Bonk
whom
Ten \ h
Tdne;
im, her, it,
Yenksun
hy this
Bons6n
by wliom
them
192
GUJSTDI GRAMMAR.
Yirg
these
Burk
toho
Yirran
of these
Boran
of whom
Yirkun
these
Bonk
whom
Tunna, his, hers, theirs.
Yirruusun
hy these
Bonsun
hy whom
Bore, some one.
Bara, something.
Bora, what ?
Plural, Barauk, what ?
Wunka
speah
Wunkunna
to speak
Wunki
speaking
Wunktur
spoken
Wunksi
having spoken
Nunna wunki
I speak
Imma wunki
thou speakest
Wur wunki
he speaks
Mar wunki
we speak
I mar wunki
ye speak
Wurg wunki
they speak.
Nunna wunkundan \
I Nunna, wunksi howe
Imma wunkundi > / was
speaking, &c. \ Imma, wunksi howe, &c
Wur wunkundur )
( same for all persons.
Mar wunkundum
)
Imar wunkundir
> I shall have spoken.
Wurg wunkundurg
)
Nunna wunktan, / spoke.
Imma wunkti
Wur wunktur
Wunka, speak thou.
Mdr wunktum
Imar wunktir
Wurg wunkttirg
Nunna wunksi
Imma wunksi
Wur wunksi
Mar wunksi
Imar wunksi
Wurg wunksi
Nunna wunkika
Imma wunkiki
Wur wunkaniir
Mar wunklkum
Imar wunkikir
Wurg wunkanurg
Wunkar, speak ye.
I had spoken, &c.
I shall speik.
ff\J
GUNDI GRAMMAR. 193
Nunna ■wunkundan howe
Imma wunkundi howe
Wlr wunkundur liowe f- / shall he speaU
Mar wunkundir howe
Wurg wunkundurg howe
1.
Mowa Dowial budrut purro muddar-warre ; Niwa purrol dhurmat-ma
aie. Niwa nijpat waie. Niwar bichar ital budrit purro mundar atal durtit
purro d,ud. Mowa pialda sarin neut mak punkiut : unde babun mar upnun
reina dhen-6m kisia-turrum, atal imma mak dherum kisiut, unde makun
miwa jhara-jberti te niuni watnat unde burrotsun mak pisib^t, barike
niwa rajpat, unni niwa bul, unni niwa dburmat mal sudda mund ital
and.
In English.
Our Father heaven above inhabitant ; Thy name hallowed be. Thy king-
dom come. Thy will as heaven above is, so earth on be. Our daily bread
to-day to us give : and as we our debtors forgive, so thou to us trespasses for-
give, and us into thy temptations do not throw, and from evil us deliver, for
thy kingdom and thy power and thy glory established remain, so be it.
2.
1. Kodawund niwa Purmesur nunna andur, namunne niwur Deo bor6
hille audur.
2. Apun lane kital penk, bore budde ai jins ital budrate nuni dhurtile,
unni yete mundar, atal miuni kemut imat wurea k^l minni kurmat, unde
wurrun rdmakisni minni kemat ; iden laine laine m^k an mundur, unde
dourana papun sate chawtin purro s^siut dusta-tona, nati unni punti-lor
purro, wurg admirun bor nowa bairi munda, unde mat awen — men sun
hazaron nakun mink pundaturg, unde nowa wunktan purro taki-turg, nunna
wurrun purro durmi kia tona.
3. Purmesur-da parrol labarit purro minni yeumat, tin-lainun papi ainun
wurg manwal bor Purmesur-da parrol labarit purro yetanur.
4. Purmesur-da pidl purriat unde tan swaf ir^t sarrun pialk bunni buta
kimpt, unde sub miwa k^m kimpt, at ernfida pi^l Purmesur-da pial mundur,
ud pial imma buttiai kam kemut, imma unni niwa pergal unni niwa pergol,
unni niwa rutkawal unni niwa kunda, unni niwa pownalur run munddr ; tin
laine Purmesur sarun pialk ne budra unni dherti unni sumdur unni cheit-
kunne jinsk iwite mundatan, awen kitur, nude yerrfin pial rum tur, tuilaine
id pialtun Purmesur dhurmat-mal tane kitur.
5. Imma upnon babonna unni awunna sewa kimpt, ten sun niwa yarbul
durtit purro Purmesisr nikun situr, par^l aud.
6. Imma mauwan minni jukmat.
7. Imma pap minni kema.
8. Imma kulwein minni kema.
9. Imma upnon biganun purro labari gohai minni sena.
10. Imma upnon biganun -ta rota lob minni kema. Imma upnon biganun-
na maigu-na lob minni kema, unde wunna rutkawal unde wunna kfinda,
innui wunnal guddal unde buttie-jins, upnon biganun-na mundar tan purro
lob minni kema.
O
194 SPECIMENS OF THE GUNBI.
Jn English.
1. Tlie Lord thy God I am, besides me thy gods not any shall he.
2. Ta yourselves graven images, any sort of creature such as in heaven and
on earth, and in s^, are, such do not make — you their feet do not embrace,
and their obeisance do not perform ; because to* me jealousy is, and father's
sins for children on, punishment inflict, grand childrea and great-grand chil-
dren upon those men who my enemies are, and I from amrnig those a thou-
sand (who) me as a friend take, and my commands according to walk, I on
them my shadows throw,
3. God's name in, falsehood do not take, for guilty will be that man who
God's name in falsehood shall take.
4. God's day remember and it holy keep ; six days daily work do, and all
thy labour perform, but seventh day God's day is, that day thou any kind of
work do not make, thou and thy son, and thy daughter, and thy servants,
and thy cattle, and thy stranger (thy) house dwelling ; because God six days
in, heaven, and earth, and sea, and each creature in them existing, them
made, and seventh day rest took, therefore that day God hallowed estab-
lished.
5. Thou thy father^s and mother's service perform, therefore thy life, the
land upon, God to thee has given, prolonged may be.
6. Thou a man not kill.
7. Thou adultery not do.
8. Thou theft not do.
9. Thou thy neighbour against false witness not give.
10. Thou thy neighbour's house covet not. Thou thy neighbour's wife covet
not, and his ho use -servants, and his ox, and his ass, and anything, that thy
neighbour's is it upon covetousness not make.
3.
Sandsumjee-na saka kuydt, ro Bafcan,
Sark ask kitur, Sing-Baban hille puttur,
Yirrun ask kitur, awlte Sing-Baban autarietur.
Aular yetana Baban punwake.
Taksitun Baban, tunwa pari sumpte kiale
Barike bouke aie penk putta sika.
Hikke Sing-Baban putti-le-ai latur.
Loro askna sowati, sarun mutta.
Awitun, koti annate tulla dtirissT, *'assun inga chawa putti,"
Ud it, ahe kint annate tullatun durritun,
Unni Sing-Baban purtUr,
Sing-Baban techi urmi sarte michitun,
Unni nai-plla taniga dussitfin,
Unni itttir, nai-jula wattoni,
Nai-pilla mis^te ; tank kawai kede kiate tare kitfm,
Sing-Baban, urmi ittfin, ke yenk borre minni jera^t,
Na tokar jemat, unni torde pal ptirsi ten tihat.
Au sarlinge ask whdr setfin, pistur ka satur ?
Sing-Baban gursunddr.
Augrul tinde techi mfira na sarkte nuchitun.
SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDI. 19.
Murai itttin Sing-Baban bore jarniut
Natokar jemat torde pal pirsi ten tihat,
Agra kubber tuUick setun, satur ke pisltir ?
Sing-Baban gursunddr,
Agral techi kuan ruppa nucbitun.
Tisro dian bur settin, satur ka pistur ?
Sing-Baban aga tinde gursunddr.
Agral dnde ttinsi ptillia-na surrit purro.
Nucbicbi situn, Pfillial ask mandsal wandurg ;
Sing-Baban na arana kinchturg.
PuUial mian tras lakt, naur murri atidtir,
Ingi tecbi ygt, Tunwa rtind wot unni tunwa pilausdn niaro irt,
Khandk tullana tunwa pilautin tbitana
Pillan hotlta, pal Sing-Baban uhnud
Tbe kina kina ke, Sing-Baban husiar atur.
Undl dian wunna avari tunwa pilanstin
Milaf kissicblsi, unni pi Ian tin indalat
Immer urpa mundana turrim^t minni
Tisro diaii Sing-Baban itturke, mowa kaia desita
Makun putchial, kor, pheta tuchim
Adungi battum surde ucclii raimat
Punkatur unni marratur maralur agdol passiturg
Tecbi wit, wurg tunwa guttri potri nuchi surrit^rg
Ud tecbi tuccbit, Sing-Baban tunsi kursi yetiin . ,
Unni tunwa awarinna kal kurttir,
Munna munnake tinde dian unde indalatur
Ki nak gullele tuccbim ud benbud
Uccbi raimat, Wtirrtir sipabi gullele-warre agdol pussittir
Ud vit ktissi, Gtillele nucbi surrittir.
Ud tecbi urriwat Sing-Baba sit ;
Sing-Baba tunna tummtir singne gursi latur,
Pittun ptidtir tunna tummur tan tindlir
Tbe kina ke, Sandsumji niga sube wattir
Unni Sandsumji nida latur peuk bouk wandum ? lour ebat •
Penk bouke waiyun ? aga Sing-Baba timhen kitun
Sing-Baba taksittir tunna tummur sungue muttur
Wasiaauttir, uddam atur wtirrtir Bummenal
"Wtin Sing-Baba teta latur, Wur tedtir ;
Tunnardn gussalakt wur Bummenal tingiettir
Sing-Baba penk tecbietur.
Sube indalattir ke imma boni audi ?
Wur ittur ke immer urmitiun unni mtiramtir keat
Unni tunwa tumman indalatur, hun dain kesi terah
Wur vittar kesi tuttur.
Yen mtinte jins unde punchatite puna atur
.Tub Sing-Baba indalatur k^ iwen puche kimpt
Awen sun pticbe kial latur, yir btir audtirl
Mtinne urmi wunktun yir Sandstimjeentir murri audur.
o 2
196 SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDL
Wtirg indalatur, imma bane putti ? Awitttin
Maiga rundidian mungi muttur. Bahur mungi muttur
Awittun niwa sartinge ask tuttchi maiga pikklle nuchi angi
Unni igga Mile sai6r, to murana sarte nuchiche sittir
Awen ptiche kial atlir, Maiga Baban at ?
Miiraittin ke, Maiga rund dian mungi muttur
Awen sarlingi ask agral wosi kfiante nuchi sltlin
Aga tinde bille saitir. To agrul tunsi kojane bewatun
Sing-Baban pticbe kial attirk^ agral imma behuth ?
Wtir ittur id nowa awan pucbe kimpt
Wunna awal ptillian pticbe kia latur
Imma bugga punne mat! ] Ud it
Mowa surde awe sardnge ask mucHche mutta
Nunna techi urri wat^n, nowa pil§,n notita
P^l y^n iihth^n unni hinda hiinda bala buttir
Nowa chowanfin thet^n sube j^nk ptilliS.na
Kal ktirt^r unni tane penk thaira kitur.
Unni awe sarunge askntin ^den pdllian sitlirg.
Udnetl t^l Sing-Baban putt41 attir
Unni pulli^l nlide penk thairi mat
Sandsumjee Bab^na id saka §,ud
Bhirri b^ns-BLirri-ta s^ka ^ud.
In English.
Sandsumjee's song hear, 0 Father.
Six wives he took, Sing-Baba not bom,
Seventh wife took, by her Sing-Baba was conceived.
Of her pregnancy Father was not informed.
Departed Father, his kinsfolk being assembled together
For this reason to some one it happened to offer a sacrifice to a God.
Hereupon Sing-Baba began to be bom.
Small wife was sleeping, the other six were there.
Said they, grain basket's mouth into, her head let us introduce in our hous
child is bom,
So said, so done, into mouth her head introduced,
And Sing-Baba was bom,
Sing-Baba having taken up, into Buffaloes' stable threw,
And a puppy instead placed,
And said, a puppy is born,
A puppy having brought forth, thence crows to frighten they set her,
Sing-Baba, buffaloes said, that him let none hurt,
Nor blow strike, and into his mouth milk having poured him suckled.
The six wives said, let us go and see him, is he living or dead 1
Sing-Baba was playing.
Thence indeed having taken him into cows' stable threw.
The cows said Sing-Baba let no one hurt
Or blow strike, into his mouth milk pouring him suckled,
Therefore information they sent to seek, is he living or dead ?
SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDI. 197
Sing:Bal)a was playing.
Thence having taken well into threw.
On the third day having gone to see, is he living or dead ?
Sing-Baba there indeed was playing.
Thence indeed having taken, Tiger's path upon.
They threw him, Tiger's female and male were coming ;
Sing-Baba's cries they heard.
Tigress compassion felt, "my child it is."
Having said so, took him away. Their den came to and their pups from
apart set,
Meat bringing their pups to feed
Their pups weaning, with milk Sing-Baba suckled,
So continuing to do, Sing-Baba grew up.
One day his mother her whelps
Together brought, and to whelps began to say
Yourselves among together stay, fight not.
The third day Sing-Baba said, my body is naked
To me a dhoty, dohur, and pugrey give.
She going Bazar road seated remained.
A muslin-maker and cloth-maker that way came
Having got up ran, they their bundles having thrown away fled,
She having taken up brought Sing-Baba took and put on
And his mother's feet kissed.
Staying staid then one day indeed began to say
That to me a bow give. She again went
Seated remained a sepoy armed with a bow that way came.
She ran having cried out. Bow thrown away, he fled.
She having it came and to Sing-Baba gave;
Sing-Baba big brother little brother together played.
Birds shot big brother little brother to them gave to eat
So continuing to do, Sandsumji home returned with his friends
And Sandsumji began to say has any one become inspired, let him arise ;
God into one not entered] Then Sing-Baba inspiration received.
Sing-Baba was coming, big brother little brother together were
Coming came, in the midst was a brahman
Him Sing-Baba required to get up, he refused ;
Big brother became angry, the brahman eat up
Sing-Baba the image took up.
All began to say, that you, who are you I
He said that you the Buffaloes and cows ask
And to his little brother said, mother go and call.
He ran and called.
These three species before the punchaite assembled came.
Then Sing-Baba said that them question.
From them they asked, this one who is he ?
First the buffaloes said this Sandsumjee's son is.
They said, you how understand ? These said
In our house two days staid* How did he remain ?
198 SPECIMENS OF THE GUNDI.
These said thy six wives having taken into our house to kill threw
And there not injured, then cows' house into threw
From these asked, How into your house Baba came ?
The cows said, At our house two days stayed.
These six wives thence having taken into well threw,
There indeed not injured, thence taking I know not where took.
Sing-Baba they questioned that thence you went where ?
He said of my mother ask.
They mother-tigress asked
You where found ? She said
On my road these six wives threw away ;
I having taken brought, my whelps weaning.
Milk him suckled and here there with prey
My young fed. All-understood, tigress'
Feet embraced, and her a Grod established.
And these six wives to this tigress gave.
That day Sing-Baba illustrious became
And Tigress indeed as a God established became.
Of Sandsumjee Baba this song is.
Of Bhirry bamboo-jungle Bhirri the song is.
Data for the Gundi are pre-emiuently deficient.
THE URAON AND RAJMAHALI. 199
CHAPTER XXIX.
Uraon and Eajmaliali.
It has already been stated that, though the Kol dialects,
eo nomine^ were the ones which were noticed next to
those of the class represented by the Darahi and Kus-
war, the form of speech, other than Hindu, which lay
in the closest geographical proximity to the Himalayas
was not, eo nomine, KoL
The notice of it was postponed for the following
reason — its affinities are believed to lie with Khond to
the south, and with the Uraon to the west of the Kol
area rather than with the Kol itself.
Such, at least, is the doctrine expressed in a work
which, from both its merits and its circulation, is likely
to influence the opinion of investigators — Mr. Caldweirs
Grammar of the Dravirian Language — Dravirian mean-
ing akin to the Tamid and its immediate congeners.
That the Tamul is a language of the extreme south we
have seen : whereas the language under notice, though
scarcely one of the extreme north, is a northern one —
northern enough to be spoken along a mountain-range,
the foot of which is washed by the Oanges. Near to
where this river is cut by the 25 th degree of N. L.
stand the Rajmahal Hills : where two forms of speech
are used. One is the ordinary Suntal of certain intru-
sive Kols. The other is an older, and apparently a
native, dialect — which we may call the Eajmahali.
Now, Caldwell has committed himself to the doctrine
that the Rajmahali is more Dravirian than the Kol —
though further from the centre of the Dravirian a^rea :
200
THE URAON AND RAJMAHALI.
indeed, he excludes the Kol from the Dravirian class —
or, at any rate, hesitates to admit it.
I treat, then, the Rajmahali as more Khond than Kol
— only, however, provisionally and until further materials
for forming a judgment are supplied.
In the following table the words marked are from the
list in Caldwell's Grammar ; the others from a vocabu-
lary by Major Roberts in the fifth volume of the
Asiatic Researches : —
English.
Rajmahali.
English.
Rajmahali.
Man
*male
Nail
uruk
Head
kUk
Hand
*sesu
*kupe
Fingers
angilli
Hair
tuUi
Foot
tshupta
Nose
moi
*kev
Blood
kiss
Arm
tat budahi
*kesu
Sun
*ber
Eye
kun
Moon
*bilpe
Eyebrow
kunmudha
Star
badekah
Ear
kydule
bindeke
*khetway
Fire
tshutsha
Tooth
pul
Water
um
Belly
kutshah
Stone
tshatshar
Bone
*koclial
Tree
intin
kutshul
Fish
min
Bach
kukah
SnaJce
nlr.
The following (from Caldwell) is a comparison of the
Rajmahali and Tamul pronouns : —
English.
£ajmaha,li.
Tamul.
/
en
en, nan
Thou
nin
nin
He, she, it
ath
&ta
We
nam
nd,nL
om*
6ni
Ye
nina
nim
They
awar
avar
This
Ih
1
That
Ah
>
Here
Irio
inge
There
&no
ange.
The Uraon, compared, by Caldwell, with the Raj-
THE URAON AND RAJMAHALL
201
maliali, is placed by liim in the same category. It is a
language of western rather than the northern frontier of
the Kol area, within which it is spoken. It is held,
however, to be intrusive from the parts about Hotasghur
near the junction of the Coylle and Soone.
Its position is provisional.
English.
Uraon.
English.
Uraon.
Man
alia
Foot
dappe
Head
kuk, M.
Hand
khekhali
Hair
chutti
Sun
dharmi
Ear
khebda
Moon
chando
Eye
khan
Star
binka
Blood
khens
Fire
chek
Bone
khochal
Water
um.
The words marked with an asterisk are from Caldwell.
202
THE TEiiEGU.
CHAPTER XXX.
The Tamul Class. — Telugu or Telinga. — Tamul Proper. — Malayalim. — Cana-
rese.--Tulu or Tulava. — Rude Tribes. — Tuda. — Budugur. — Irular. —
Kohatar.
The Telugu, or Telinga, is spoken from Chicacole to
Pulicat, and extends westwards as far as the eastern
boundary of the Marathi ; being the chief language of
the northern Circars as well as parts of Hyderabad,
Nagptir, and Gondwana.
English.
Telugu.
English.
Teluo;u.
Man
al
Thou
nivu
Head
tala
He
vadtt
Hair
ventruka
She
ame
Ear-
chevi
It
adi
Eye
kannu
We
memu
Mouth
noru
Ye
miru
Tooth
pallu
They
varu
Bone
emika
Mine
nadi
Blood
netturu
Thine
nidi
Egg
gaddu
His
vadidi
Bay
pagalu
Our
madi
Night
reyi
Your
midi
Sky
minnu
Their
varidi
Sun
poddu
One
vokati
Star
chukka
Two
rendu
Fire
tippu
Three
mudu
Water
nillu
Four
nalugu
River
€ru
Five
ayidu
Stone
rayi
Six
&TVL
Tree ■
chettu
Seven
«du
Village
uni
Eight
€nimidi
Snake
pama
Nine
tommidi
I
nenu
Ten
padi.
THE TAMUL.
SOS
The Tamul succeeds the Telinga about Pulicat, and is
spoken along the coast of Coromandel as far as Cape
Comorin. It then turns north ; but is succeeded in the
parts about Trevandrum by the Malay aUm. Inland, it
extends to the Ghauts and Nilgherries. It is spoken,
also, in the north of Ceylon, and by numerous settlers
and emigrants in Pegu, Penang, Singapore, and the
Mauritius.
English.
Tamul.
English.
Tamul.
Man
al
/
nan
Head
talei
Thou
ni
Hair
mayir
He
avan
Ear
kadu
Slie
aval
Eye
kan
It
adu
Mouth
vayi
We
nam
Tooth
pal
Ye
nir
Bone
elumbu
They
avar
Bhod
udiram
Mine
enadu
Egg
muttei
Thine
unadu
Day
pagal
His
avanadu
Night
ira
Our
nam adu
Sky
vanam
Your
umadu
Sun
pakalon
Their
avarudu
Moon
tingal
One
onru
Star
vanmin
Two
irandu
Fire
neruppu
Three
mnnru
Water
tanni
Four
nalu
River
aru
Five
anju
Stone
kal
Six
aru
Tree
sedi
Seven
ezhu
maram
Eight
ettu
Village
ir
Nine
ombadu
Snake
pambu
Ten
patta.
The Malayalmi is the language of the western side
of the coast of Malabar. On its east lies the Canarese ;
on its north the Tulava ; on its south the Tamul. The
Tamul touches it at Trevandrum ; the Tulava and Cana-
rese of Canara about Mangalore. It stretches over
about six degrees of latitude, but only in a narrow strip
between the Ghauts and the sea. It is the vernacular
204
MALAYALIM.
of Cochin, and the northern and middle parts of Tra-
vancore. It is a separate substantive language, possibly
more akin to the Tamul than its other congeners — but
no Tamul dialect.
English.
Ma'ajalim.
English.
Malayalim
Man
al
I
gnan
Head
tala
Thou
ni
Hair
talamudi
He
avan
Ear
kada
She
aval
Eye
kanna
It
ada
Mouth
vaya
We
guangal
Tooth
palla
Ye
ningal
Bone
ella
They
avara
Blood
chora
Mine
enre
Egg
mutta
Thine
ninre
Bay
pagal
His
avanre
Night
rav
Our
nangade
Sky
manam
Your
ningade
Sun
surga
Their
avarude
Moon
tingal
One
onna
Star
minjawna
Two
rendu
Fire
tiyya
Three
munnu
Water
vellam
Four
nala
River
piizha
Five
anja
Stone
kalla
Six
ara
Tree
chedi
Seven
ezha
maram
Fight
etta
Village
tara
Nine
ombada
desam
Ten
patta.
SnaJce
The Canarese touches the Telinga in the north-east,
and the Tamul in the south-east. Mysore is its centre.
It touches the coast between Goa and Mangalore ; where,
however, it is intrusive.
English.
Canarese.
English.
Canarese.
Man
alu
Tooth
kallu
Head
tale
Bone
eluvu
Hair
kudala
Blood
netturu
Ear
kivi
Egg
tatti, motti
Eye
kannu
Hay
hagalu
Mouth
bayi
Night
iralu
THE KODUGU, OR CURGI.
205
English.
Canarese.
English.
Canarese.
Sky
banu
They
avaru
Sun
hottu
Mine
nannadu
Moon
tingalu
Thine
ninnada
Star
chukki
His
avanu
Fire
henki {Sing.)
Our
nammadu
Water
niru
Your
nimmadu
River
hole
Their
avaradu
Stone
kallu
One
ondu
Tree
gida, niara
Two
eradu
Village
halli, uru
Three
muru
Snake
havu
Four
nalku
I
nanu
Five
ayidu
Thou
ninu
Six
aru
He
avanu
Seven
elu
She
avalu
Eight
entu
It
adu
Nine
ombhattu
We
navu
Ten
hattu.
Ye
nivu
In Curgi the language changes, and is, as may be ex-
pected, of so transitional a character, that whilst Ellis
calls it a dialect of the Tulu, Mogling of Man galore
states that it is more allied to the Tamul and Malay alim.
It is called the Kodugu.
The Tulu, itself, is the most northern language of its
class which touches the sea ; and it is essentially a
language of the coast. It has extended further north ;
having been encroached on by the Konkani dialect of
the Marathi, which abounds in Tulu words, apparently
derived from the earlier occupants. It is a language of
not only a small area but a decreasing one : being
pressed upon by the Canarese. It extends from the
Nileswara on the south, in N.L. 18° 30', where it
touches the Malayalim to the Bhahavara in N.L. 13°
30, four miles north of Upi, where it is succeeded by
the Konkani. The German missionaries at Mangalore
preach to the upper classes in Canarese, but to the
lower in Tulu.
English.
Kodugu.
Tulu.
Man
maniis
al
Head
mande
tare
Hair
oraraa
kudalu
206
THE KODUGU, OR CURGI.
English.
Kodugu.
Tooth
pall
Eye
ane
Ear
kemi
Mouth ■
bayi
Hand
Foot
Blood
chore
Bone
Day
pagil
Sun
Moon
Star
Fire ■
Water
nir
Earth
Mountain
Rker
pole
Stone
Tree
mara
Bird
pakki
Egg
Fish
Flower
jiovn
Snake
pamb
I
nan
Thou
He
She
It
We
Ye
They
Mine
There
His
Ours
Yours
Theirs
One
Tivo
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Tulu. .
kuli
ane
kebi
bayi
kai
tajji
nettar
elu
pogal
polutu
tingalu
daraya
tu
nir
nela
gudcle
tude
kalla
mara
pakki
mutte
tetti
min
pu
kombu
parapunu
en
aye
aval
av
enklia
inukulu
akulu
ennow
innow
ayanow
enknlanow
inkulanow
akulunow
onji
erad
muji
nalu
ayinu
aji
el
THE KODUGU, t)R CURGL
207
English. KodugiL Tulu.
EifjTit ename
Nine orambo
Ten pattu.
The following are, according to Caldwell, the writer
from whose Dravirian Grammar the preceding details
are exclusively taken, the statistics of the above-men-
tioned languages ; one of which, apparently, includes
the Curgi.
1. Tamul is spoken by
2. Telinga
3. Canarese „
4. Malay alim „
5. Tulu
10,000,000
14,000,000
5,000,000
2,500,000
150,000
3J, 650,000
The previous forms of speech constitute a natural
group — a natural group, and not a very large one.
They all belong to the Dekhan. They are all spoken
by populations more or less Hindu. They are all t'ue
languages of the civilized Indian. Their area is con-
tinuous ; in other words, they are all in contact with
each other, and their frontiers join. There is nothing
between the Telinga and the Tamul, the Tamul and the
Canarese, the Tamul and the Malayalim. Their area is
continuous.
The following are from the. Nilgherry Hills. They are
all rude dialects of the Canarese ; of the Canarese rather
than the Tamul ; though not without Tamul elements.
1.
EndLh.
Erglish.
Tuda.
Man
al
Wom.an
knell
ITead
madd
Eye
kann
Ear
kevvi
Tooth
parsh
Mouth
bor
Blood
bach
Bone
elf
Foot
Hand
Day
Sim
Moon
Star
Fire
Water
River
Tuda.
kal
koi
nal
birsh
teggal
nebb
nir
pa.
208
THE BUDUGUR, ETC.
2.
English.
Budugur.
English.
Budugur.
Man
manija
Star
Woman
hennu
Fire
kichchu
Head
mande
Water
niru
Eye
kannu
Fiver
holla
Ear
kive
One
vondu
Tooth
haUu
Two
yeradu
Mouth
bai
Three
muru
Blood
netra
Four
nalku
Bone
yellu
Five
eidu
Foot
kalu
Six
aru
Hand
kei
Seven
yellu
Day
dina
Eight
yettu
Sun
hottu
Nine
vombattu
Moon
tiggalu
Ten
hattu.
English,
Imlar.
3.
English.
Irular.
Man
manislia
Fire
tu, tee
Woman
ponnu
Water
dani
Head
tele
Fiver
palla
Eye
kannu
One
vondu
Ear
kadu
Two
erndu
Tooth
pallu
Three
muru
Mouth
vai
Four
naku
Blood
latta
Five
eindu
Bone
yellambu
Six
aru
Foot
kalu
Seven
yettu
Hand
kei
Eight
yettu
Bay
nalu
Nine
vombadu
Sun
podu
Ten
pattu.
Moon
nalavu
English.
Kohatar.
English.
Kohatar.
Man
ale, manija
Moon
tiggule
Woman
pemmage
Water
nire
Head
mande
Fiver
pevi
Eye
kannu
One
vodde
Ear
kive
Two
yede
Tooth
paUe
Three
munde
Mouth
vai
Four
nake
Blood
netra
Five
anje
Bone
yelave
Six
are
Foot
kalu
Seven
yeye
Hand .
kei
Eight
yette
Bay
nale
Nine
vorupade
San
potte
Ten
patte.
(^J
THE CANARESE.
209
There is an old Literary, or High Canarese (as,
indeed, there is an old Literary, or High Tamul, and (?)
Malayalim), with a greater admixture of Sanskrit. It
gives p rather than A, in which several of its modern
congeners agree with it.
English.
Old Canarese.
New Canarese.
Dmj
pagalu
hagalu
pagil — Tulu
Floxoer
puvvu
huwu
puwu — Tuda
Horn
pandi
lia,Tidi
pandi — Kodugu
Name
pesaru
hesaru
pudar — Tula
River
pole
hole
pole — Kodugu
Road
pade
hadi
Snake
pavu
havu
^sih—Tuda
Tiger
puli
huU
pivri — Tuda
Tooth
pallu
hallu
pall — Kodugu.
All the languages of this class may be grouped round
the Canarese. This, says Mr. Eeeve, is so like the Telugu
that, in many cases, the change of an initial or inflection
will make a complete correspondence. Still, if many
initials or many inflections are changed, the difference
will amount to a good deal. That the Tulu and Kodugu
of Curg are mutually intelligible is beyond doubt, and it
is not unlikely that, for short and simple sentences, the
Tulu and Malayalim may be the same. The same is said
to be the case with the Tamul and Malayalim. In this
(the Malayalim) and the Telinga we have the two ex-
tremes ; one for the north-east, one for the south-east.
210 THE BRAHUI.
CHAPTER XXXI.
The Bralitii.
The language which now comes under notice lies not
only beyond the proper Tamul area but beyond the
geographical boundaries of Hindostan. It is a language
of Biluchistan — but not the Biluch itself. That the
Brahui, Brahuiki, or Brahooi, differed from the lan-
guage of both the Biluches and the Afghans was known
to both Elphinstone and Pottinger; for both state the
fact. Both, however, treat the Brahui as Biluches with
certain differential characteristics ; neither asking how
far some of these may be important enough to make
them other than Biluch. This is because the political
term Biluchistan has concealed one of the most import-
ant and interesting affinities in ethnology.
A short specimen of the Brahui language in Leach's
Vocabularies commanded the attention of Lassen, who,
after enlarging upon its difference from the Persian,
Biluch, and Pushtu, drew attention to some notable
similarities between, the numerals and those of the
South Indian dialects. Following up this suggestion,
the present author satisfied himself that the Brahui
tongue was, in many respects, Tamul — an opinion which
others have either recognized or been led to form from
their own researches.
In the country, however, which they now occupy, the
Brahlii consider themselves aboriginal ; the Biluch, ad-
mitting that they are, themselves, of foreign origin. The
rugged and impracticable nature of the Brahui moun-
tains favours this view.
THE BRAHUI.
211
It is from LeacVs notice that the following para-
digms are taken. They consist, however, solely of cer-
tain Brahlii forms and their English equivalents —
grammatical terms, su(;h as Case, Number, and the like,
being avoided. They stand in the text of Leach — more,
however, in deference to "old-established usage'' than
because the Brahui and Latin grammars are believed to
give parallel forms.
Extract.
To denote abstraction an is introduced, as viatan asit = one from two, and
hulidn ditar = hlood from the horse; ustat dua = wishes from the heart.
To denote donation, ne or e is added, as ddde yete=give to him.
To make a noun the instrument of a circumstance, ene is added, as zagh-
mene=-with a sioord, from zaghm = a sioord; latene^with a stick, from lat =
a stick.
To make a noun the cause of a circumstance, an is added, as ta]pdn =from
a wound, the original case being tap=a wound.
To denote inclusion, tt is added to the noun, as sharti=in the city, from
shar=a city ; jangatt TcasTcune = died in battle, from jang = battle.
Position is denoted by adding at to the noun, as da Tcasarat duzare — there
is a thief on that road, from hasar — a road, speaking of a road as a whole,
or by adding ai as hasarai pirii araghase — there is an old man on the road,
in the limited sense.
To denote approach or direction, di is added to the noun, as /' Haidrd-
hadai kawd'^I will go to Hydrahad.
Superposition is denoted by the addition of d; as hull d = on the horse ;
katd likhakh^put on the bed.
Companionship is denoted by the addition of to, to the inflected case of the
pronouns ; as neto bafar = / \vill not go tvith thee, from ni = thou.
A good Man.
sharanga
narina
sharang^
narinagh^k
sharangd,
narinan^
sharang^
narinaghata
sharangd,
narinaie
sharanga
narinaghate
sharang^
narinaghan
sharang^
narinaghatiyan
Dd, juw£ln e
that is good
D^ juwanosite
that is better
Da kuUn juwanosite
that is better than
all
Dk edan juwan
e
this is belter than that
D^ kul meettyan doulatmand e
Be is richer than all the Meers.
I
I
Nan
we
Kana
my
Nana
ours
Kane
me
Nana
us
Kany^n
from me.
Nany^n
from us
P 2
212
THE BRAHUI.
m
thou
Num
ye
m
thy
Numa
yours
Ne
thee
Nume
you
Ny^
from thee
Numyan
from you
m
this
Dafk
these
Bkn^
of this
Dafta
of these
Dade
to this
Dafte
to these
Dadan
from this
1 Da%an
from these
Od or 0
that
Ofk
those
Ona
of that
ofta
of those
Ode
to that
Ofte
to those
Odan
from that
Oftyna
from those
Eor
ed
that
Efk
those
Ena
of that
Efta
of those
Ede
to that
Efte
to those
Edan
from that
Eftyan
from those
Tenat
self
Tena
of self
Tene
to self
Tenyan
from self
Tenpaten
among
'hemselves {h]^3LB =
Der
who?
Dinna
whose ?
Dere
whom ?
Deran
from whom ?
V asitut
/ am
alone
Nan asitan
We are one
Ni asitus
Thou
art alone
Num asiture
We are one
Od asite
Re is
alone
Dafk asitur
They
are one
I' aret
I am
Nan aren
We are
Ni ares
Thou art
Num areri
You
are
Od are
He is
Dafk arer
They
are
I' asut
I was
Nan asun
We were
Ni asus
Thou wast
Num asure
You
were
Od asak
He was
Dafk asur
They
were
I' masasut
I was
being
Nan masasun
We were being
Ni masusus
Thou wast being
Num masasure
You
were being
Od masas
He was being
Dafk masasu
They
were being
I' masunut
I had been
Nan masunun
We had been
Ni masunus
Thou hadst been
Num masanure
You had been
Odmas
He had been
D£
ifk masun<i
They
had been
men)
THE BRAHUI.
213
T' niarev
/ will nolo he
Nan marsn
We will now he
Ni mares
Thou wilt noio he
Num mareri
You will now he
Od marek
He will now he
Dafk marer
They will now he
I' marot
I will hereafter he
Nan maron
We will hereafter he
Ni maros
Thou wilt hereafter he
Num marode
You will hereafter he
Od maroi
He will hereafter he
Dafk maror
They will hereafter he
Ni mares
Be them
Num marere
Be you
Od mare
Let him he
Dafk maror
Let them he
Preceded by agar=if.
I' masut
If I might he
Nan masun
If we might he
Ni masus
If thou mightest he Num masude
If you might he
Od masuk
// he might he
Dafk masur
If they might he
Infinitive or verhal substantive, liarrafing.
I' harraffiva
I ask
Nan barrafon
We ask
Ni harraffisa
Thou askest
Num barraf ore
You ask
Od harraffik
He asked
Dafk barrafor
They ask
I' harraffenut / asked
Nan barrafFenun
We ashed
Ni harraffenus Thou ashedst
Num barraffenure
You asked
Od harraffene He asked
Dafk barraffenur
They asked
I' harraffeta
I was asking
Nan barraffena
We were asking
Ni harraffesa Thou wast asking
Num barraffere
You were asking
Od harraffek
He was asking
Ofk barraffera
They were asking
I' harrafesasut / had asked
Nan barrafesasun
We had asked
Ni harrafesasus Thoih hadst asked
Num barrafesasure You had asked
Od harrafesas ffe had asked
Dafk barrafesasti
They will ask
I harrafot
I will ask
Nan barrafeniin
We will ask
Ni harrafos
Thou wilt ask
Num barraf onure
You will ask
Od harrafo,i
He will ask
Dafk barrofen^
They will ask
Harraf
Ask thou
Harrafbo
Ash you
Preceded by agar = if.
V harrafut
If I might ask
Ni harrafus
If thou mightest ask
Od harrafuk
If he might ask
Nan hurrafuna
We might
ask
Num harrafude^
You might
ask
Dafk barrafur
They might ask
I' harrafiv
I shall have asked
Ni barrafos
Thou shalt have asked
Od barrafoi
He shall have asked
Nan barafina
We shall have asked
Num barraf ere
You shall have asked
DMk barrafenure
They shall
have asked
214
THE BRAHUI.
Adverbs.
To-day
amli
On this side
Mudk
To-morroio
pagi
Whence
arakS,
Day after to-morrow palrae
Above
burzd,
Day after that
ktide
Belotv
shef
Day after that
ktidram^s
Instead
3%ai
Yesterday
daro
Every day
harde
Day hefore yesterday mulkhudti
As far as
iska
Day before that
kumulkhudti
Again
pada^
Day hefore thai
kudirmulkhudu Whe^'ever
arangl
Fwrnerly
ewadai
Opposite
moni
Midday
manjan
Enough
bas
Afternoon
digar (tire pare)
Instead
p^rae
Midnight
nem shaf
Successively
pahn^d,pahndati
Now
dksh
Near me
knear, as kanek
After
guda
When
chi wakt
Here
dade
Yes
hand on
There
ede
No
a ha
Out
pesban
For saTce
mat
In
fahti
At first
awal
Beyond
inur
QuicJcly
zu
As far as
harr^nk
In the evening
beg&
Late
madana
Sometimes
asi asi wakt
Near
nrnsti
Slowly
mada
On all sides
char man kund
{ There
hamengi
On the left side
chapa p^ran
On the right side r^sta paran
Also
tarn
Even so
ha mon
But
guda
Besides
baghair
According to
mujibat
Even so
handoan
Merely
beera
Without
baghar
Where
ar^de
Glossal^.
English
Bralmi.
English
Brahui.
ITead
katumb
Face
mon
Hair
pisbkou
Son
mar
Beard
rish
Daughter masid
Mustache
barot
Wife
arwat
Lip
ba
Brother
celum
Eye
khan
Father
bav
Sar
hhaff
Mother
lumma
Tongue
duvi
Sister
id
Tooth
dandan
Woman
zaif
Nose
bamtis
Sun
dey
Foot
nath
Moon (new) nokh
Nail
zU
Star
istar
ffa/nd
du
Fire
khakar
Back
baj
Water
dir
THE BRAHUI.
215
English
Tree
Stone
I
We
Thm
Ye
One
Two
Brahui.
darahht
khaU
I
nan
ni
num
asit
irat
English
Brahtii.
Three
musit
Four
tshar
Five
pandzh
Six
shash
Seven
haft
Eight
hast
Nine
nu
Ten
dah.
Data^ for the Bralilii, as for the Gtindi, are pre-
eminently deficient.
21 G LANGUAGES AKIN TO THE HINDI.
CHAPTER XXXII.
Languages akin to the Hindi. — Its Dialects. — The Punjabi. — The Hindostani.
The Gujerathi.— The Marathi.— The Bengali, &c.— The Uriya.
Of the foUowing languages all that need be said at pre-
sent is, that they are akin to the (1 ) Hindi. They are —
(2) The Gujerati, or Gujerathi, of Gujerat.
(3) The Mahratta, or Marathi, of Aurungabad, &;c.
(4) The Bengali of the lower Ganges, the valley of
Asam, and parts of Sylhet and Chittagong.
(5) The Uriya of Orissa.
I give these divisions as I find them, adding that,
though convenient, they are, by no means, unexception-
able. In the first place, the difierence between a lan-
guage and a dialect has never been satisfactorily ex-
plained : so that neither term has yet been defined. It
will be seen, ere long, that there are several other forms
of Indian speech, of each of which, though we may say
with truth that it is more Hindi, more Bengali, or more
Marathi than aught else, we cannot say that it is a
Marathi, a Bengali, or a Hindi dialect. For this reason
it is inexpedient to give the numbers of individuals by
which each tongue is spoken. And it is also incon-
venient to say whether such and such languages are
mutually unintelligible. It is only certain, that whatever
difi'erence may exist between any two is exaggerated
rather than softened down when they are written. This
is due in a great degi*ee to the difierence between the
alphabets. Though they are all of Sanskrit origin they
differ fi:om each other in detail.
LANGUAGES AEUT TO THE HUTD . 217
Of the languages und^ notice, the Gashmiii the
Gajerati and the IJiija^ are spoken not only over the
smallest areas hat hj the fewest individiials ; the hugest
areas heing those of the Maraihi and Hmdi ; the largest
mass of speakers heing those of the Bengali language.
It is the Bengali which has the greatest tendency to ex-
tend itself heyond the frontiers of India ; the Bengali of
Asam and Chittagong being the form of speedi which is
more especially encroaching npon the Tibetan and Bur-
mese areas.
The languages that lie in the closest geographical con-
tact with the members of the Tamnl gronp are the Marathi
and Uriya. The affinities of the Cashmirian witii the
Dard tongues aie decided.
I guard against the notion that the differenoe be-
tween the six tongues of the forgoing list is greater
than it reaUy is. A little more Sanskrit or a little
less ; a little more Persian or a little less ; a Telinga
or a Canarese element more or less; an alphabet of
more or less detail — ^in these points and the like of
them consist the chief differences of the languages akin
to the HindL
I guard, too, against the notion that the preceding
list is exhaustive. Before Hindostan has been traversed
we shall hear of such sectional and intermediate forms as
the Jutki, the Sindi, the Punjabi, the Hamti, ihe Mar-
wari, the Konkani, and others ; of all whereof thus much
may be said —
1. That they are allied to each otiier and to the
Hindi.
2. That they are not akin, to the Sanskrit in the
manifest and unequivocal way in whicli the Sanskrit,
Pali, and Persepolitan are akin to each other.
3. That they are not Tamul or Telinga in the way
that the Canarese, the KJiond, &c., are Canarese, Tamul,
and Telinga.
218
THE PUNJABI.
English.
Hindi.
Englisli.
Hindi.
Man
manas
Water
pani
Woman
nari
Fiver
nadi
Head
sar
Stone
pathar
Eye
ankh
Tree
rukh, &c.
Ear
kan
Wood
lakri
Nose
nak
One
ek
Mouth
mukh
Two
do
Tooth
dant
Three
tin
Hand
hath
Four
chhar
Foot
pan
Five
paneh
Blood
lohu
Six
chah
Sky
nak
Seven
sat
Sim
snraj
Eight
ath
Moon
chand
Nine
nao
Star
tara
Ten
das.
Fire
ag
In Kumaon and Gurwhal this dialect takes the name
^ of Khas ; and in Nepaul, (where it is also spoken, eo
nomine) there is another variety of it, the Purbutti.
These are essentially the same with the following :
■with Gadi (akin to the Handuri) for the parts between
Gurwhal aod Cashmir.
English,
Punjabi.
Gadi.
Man (homo)
manas
{vir)
garwali
zanana
Head
muna
Hair
akh
akr
Eye
kan
kan
Ear
nak
nak
Nose
ma
Mouth
dand
dand
Tongue
hath
hath
Tooth
pao
par
Hand
ragat
Foot
amr
Sun
suraj
dera
Moon
chand
chandar
Star
tara
tara
Fire
ag
ag
Water
pane
pane
nai
Stone
patthar
nar
Tree
rukh
rukh
THE PUNJABI.
219
English.
Punjabi.
Gadi.
Tree
kath
cliiri
One
ak
Two
do
Three
tre
Four
char
Five
panj
Six
cliek
Seven
sat
Fight
ath
Nine
nao
Ten
das.
The following, from Leach, gives a rough sketch of the
grammatical character of the Punjabi, eo nomine.
Ghoda
Ghodeda
Ghodenu
Ghodeton
Ghodi
Ghodida
Ghodinil
Ghoditon
a horse
of a horse
a horse
from a horse
a mare
of a mare
a mxire
from a mare
Ghode
Ghodyanda
Ghodyanu
Ghodyanton
Ghodiyan
Ghoniyanda
Ghodiyanu
Ghodiy^nton
hon
of
horses
from, horses
mares
of mares
to mares
from mares
Hacha ghoda a good horse Hache ghode good horses
Hache ghoded^ of a good horse Hachyan ghodyandA. of good horses
Hache ghodenu a good horse Hachyjin ghodyanu good horses
Hache ghodeton from a good horse Hachyan ghodyanton fi'om good horses
Main or m^n / Asi we
Meda or mend^ my Asad^ sad^ our
Menu or maink^ me Asan^ sd,nil vs
Medekulon J
Medethon > or
Mede pason )
maithon
maithin
mendekulon
Tdn
Teda, tenda, tond^
Tenu, tunnu
Tethon, tuthon
£
isda
Isnil
Iskulon, isthon
Asathon sathon
Sathi nasathin
thou
thy
thee
from thee
this
of this
this
from this
from us
TusI, tus^n you
Tuhada, tusad^ your
Tuhannu, tusann^ you
Tuhathon, tus^thon froin you
E these
Inh^nda of these
Inhanu these
Inha kulon, inh^ p^on from these
220
THE PUNJABI.
0
Usda
Usnii
Usthon
that
of that
that
from that
Main h^n, an
Tun hen, en
0 hen, en
Main hais^n, sa
Tun haisen, sae
0 haisi si, ah^
A'pe
A'pna
A'pnu
A'pthon
Kouna
Kisda
Kisnu or k^nu
Kisthon
Kya or ki
Kisd^ or kd,da
Kisnu, kanu
Kisthon, kaithon
I am
thou art
he is
a I was
1 thou wert
he was
Main hund^ san / was being
Tun hund^ saen thou wert being
0 hunda si he was being
Main hoy^ san
Tun hoya saen
0 hoy^ si
Main howang£b
Tiin liowengEl
0 heveg^
Tfin ho, 0
/ had been
thou hadst be
he had been
I shall be
thou shalt be
he shall be
be thou
Main how^n / may be
Tun hoven thou mayst be
0 hove he map be
Main hundan / had been
Tun hundon, hun- thou hadst been
0 huud^ he had been
0
Onh^nd^
Onhanu, onh^nii
Onakulon
Onhathon
Onha pason
self
of self
to self
from self
who?
whose ?
from whom ?
what ?
of what ?
what ?
from what ?
those
of thos
those
from those
Asi han, an
Tusi ho, 0
0 hain, ain
Asi haisen, ^he
Tusi haisao, ahe
0 haisin, sin
Asi hunde san
Tusi hunde s^,o
0 hunde san
Asi hoye san
Tusi hoye sa,o
0 hoye san
Azi howange
Tusi hovoge
0 ho ange
Asi hoviye
Tusi hovo
0 howan
Asi hunde
Tusi hunde
0 hunde
we are
you are
they are
we were
you tve7'e
they ivere
we were
you were
they were being
we had been
you had been
they had been
we shall be
you shall be
they shall be
Tusi hovo, vo be you
we may be
you may be
they may be
vje had been
you had been
they had been,
THE PUNJABI,
221
Ism i m^hful hoyS,
Ism i fail honewaU
Masdar hond,
been
he
to he
Main akhn^
Tun akhnain
0 aMdai
Main ^khy^
Tun ^khyai
Us ^khy^
Main a^Ada skn
Tun aMd^ saen
0 kJchdsb si
Main akhd^ si
Tun akh^ si
Us akhya si
Main ^khanga
Tun akheng^
0 akhega
/
thou
he speaks
I spoke
thou spokest
he spoke
Asi §,Mnyan
Tus^ ^khde,o
0 a^Viden
Asan akhyl,
Tus^n ^khya
In^ akhya
/ was speaking Asi hkhde san
thou wast speaking Tusi ^Mde s^,o
he was speaking 0 a,khde sin
/ had spoken Asan ^khya si
thou hadst spoken Tus^n akhy^ si
he had spoken Ina d,khya si
/ will speak
thou wilt speak
he will speak
Tun hkh or akh speak thou
Main akhan
Tun ^klien
O^khe
/ may speak
thou maysi speak
he may speak
Asi akhange
Tusi akhoge
0 akhange
Tusi akho
Asi ^khiye
Tusi ^kho
0 ^khan
Maink^Ad^,akMa / might speak Asi ^Mde
Tun ^khdo thou mightest speak Tusi akhde
0 ^Mdd, he miqht speak 0 kkhde
we speak
you speak
they speak
we spoke
you spoke
they spoke
we were speaking
you were speaking
they were
we had spoken
you had spoken
they had spoken
we will speak
you will speak
they will speak
speak you
we may speak
you may speak
they may speak
we might speak
you might speak
they might speak
Main kehni an / am telling
Tun kehni en
0 kehni e
Main ke,ai
Tun keai
Usne keai
thou art telling
she is telling
I told
thou toldst
she told
Asi kehni ^n, we are telling
kehndiyan
Tusi kehndiyano you are telling
0 kehndiya en, they are telling
kehndiyan
Asan keai
Tusan ke,ai
Un^ keai
we told
you told
they told
Main kehndi san / was telling
Asi kehndiyan ^ve were telling
Tun kehndi s^en thou wast telling Tusi kehndiygln you were
0 kehndi si she was telling 0 kehndiyan sin they were telling
222
THE ]
PUNJABI.
Main kehS, si
Tun ken^ si
Us keha si
/ had told
thou hadst told
she had told
Asan keha si
TusEln keha si
Una keha si
we had told
you had told
they had told
Main kahangi
Tun kahengi
0 kahegi
I tcill tell
thou tvilt tell
she will tell
Asi kahanginy^n
Tusi kahogiyo
0 kahanginyan
we will tell
you will tell
they will tell
Tun koh
tell thou
Tusi koho
tell you
Main kahan
Tun kahen
Okahe
I may tell
thou mayst tell
she may tell
Asi kahyye
Tusi kaho
0 kehan
we may tell
you may tell
they may tell
Main kehandi
Tlin kehandi
0 kehndi
I might tell
thou mightest tell
she might tell
Asi kehndiy^n
Tusi kehndiyo
0 kehndiy^n
we might tell
you might tell
they might tell.
In Tirhut the language is transitional to the Hindi
and Bengali.
The Multani of Multan graduates from the Punjabi to
the Yutki, or vice versa.
The Hindi of the Mahratta frontier is called hy the
Mahrattas, Rangri Basha ; a contemptuous term, such
as barbarous would be in the mouth of a Greek, meaning
a language other than Mahratta. Being a negative term
we can attach no very definite import to it.
The Marwari is the Hindi of Marwar — the chief
dialect of Rajputana. The Bikaner is another Hindi
dialect ; i, e. it is a dialect of Northern India, which is
not Gujerathi, not Marathi, not Bengali, and not Uriya ;
and which is more Hindi, eo nomine, than aught else.
In Rohilcund the blood is, more or less, Afghan ; so
that Hindi, in its full purity, is not to be found there.
This must be sought in Delhi and Oude.
Bundelcund and Bahar are more Hindi than Bengali ;
though, to some extent, Bengali also. In Bahar, how-
ever, we are within the old Kooch area ; and in Bundel-
cund. on the Ghond, and Khond frontier.
The Hindustani, which means the language of Hin-
dostan in general rather than that of any particular
0\J
THE HINDUSTANI.
223
population, and which differs from the Hindi, eo nomine,
much as a King of the French differs from a King of
France, is a language with a Persian, rather than an
Indian, name. As such, it is a general, ratlier than a
particular, term ; and it was originally applied not by
the Hindus themselves, but by a population on the
Hindu frontier.
The Hindustani is a mixed tongue, scarcely, however, a
Lingua Franca in the way of the Italian of Algiers and
Anatolia. It is essentially Hindi, as may be seen from
both the vocabulary and the paradigms. At the same
time it contains much Persian, and some Arabic which
is wanting in the true vernaculars. Above all, it is the
lanoruao'e of the Mahometan rather than the Brahminic
population of India ; so much so, that in the Grammar
of Mr. Hadley, in which we find either the first or an
early attempt to reduce it to rule, it is called the Moors,
i. e. the Moorish. It is written in the Arabic alphabet,
and not in any alphabet derived from the Sanskrit.
The following details of its Accidence are from the
Professor M. Williams' Grammar, in which the English
alphabet, with certain modifications, is both used and
recommended. The extreme simplicity of the declension
should be noticed, as well as the postpositive character
of the affixes by which the several relations which in
Latin and Greek are rendered by true cases, are ex-
pressed. In mardkd, &c., there is no true case at all,
but only an approximation to one : in other words,
there is merely a noun with a preposition — the Pi'^posi-
tion itself being a Pos^-position.
Nouna.
Hard
man
Mardkg,
marCs
ke
kl
Mardko
man-to
Mardse
man-from
Mardmen
man-in
Mardne
man-by
•mard
men
mard-on-k^
mens^
ke
kl
mard-on-ko
m£n-to
mard-on-se
men- from
mard-on-men
men-on
mard-on-ne
men-hy.
224
THE HINDUSTANI.
The oblique cases (or rather their equivalents) of the
pronouns are formed in the same way. So are those of
the adjectives.
Ver\
Main htin
Tti hai
Wuh hai
J am
thou art
he she it is
Ham hain
Tum ho
We hain
we are
ye are
they are
Main thg,
Ttitha
Wuh tha
z.
Masculine.
I was Ham the
thou wast Tum the
he, or it was We the
3.
Feminine.
I was Ham thin
thou wast Tum thin
she was We thin
we were
ye were
they were
Main thi
Tfi thi
Wuh thi
we were
ye were
they were
Main m§,r-tin
tti m^r-e
wuh mare
/ may strike
thou mayest strike
he may strike
Ham m^r-en
Tum m^r-o
We mar-en
we may strike
ye may strike
they may strike
Main mar-tin-g^
Tu mar-e-g^
Wuh mar-e-g^
0.
Masculine.
I will striJce Ham m^r-en-ge
thou wilt strike Tum mar-o-ge
he will strike. We m^r-en-ge
we will strike
ye will strike
they will strike
Feminine.
Main mar-un-gi Ham mar-en-gin
Tu m^r-e-gi Tum mar-o-gin
Wuh mar-e-gl We mdr-en-gin
The participial character of these forms is apparent ;
the forms in -a and -i being as truly masculine and
feminine as amatus and amata, amaturus and amatura,
in Latin. Indeed, if a male, instead of ego amaturus sum,
and a female, instead of ego amatura sum, said ego ama-
turus, or ego amatura, we should have a participle with
the omission of the auxiliar taking the garb of a true
tense. The same is the case with main mdr-td and
mxiin mdrtt.
The equivalent to the infinitive ends in -na ; as
mdrnd = to strike zzferire = rvirTeiv.
THE HINDUSTANI.
225
English.
Hindustani.
English,
Hindustani
Man {homo)
admi
Hand
hath
(vir)
mard
Foot
panw
Woman
randl
Sun
fcuraj
Head
sir
Moon
chand
Hair
bal
Star
tara
Eye
ackh
Day
din
Ear
kan
Night
rat
Nose
nak
Fire
ag
Mouth
munh
Water
pani
Tongue
jibh
Tree
per
Tooth
dant
Stone
patthar.
The geographical boundaries of the Hindustani are
indefinite ; inasmuch as it is the language of a creed
rather than a locality. It has been placed, however,
next to the Hindi Proper because it is the Hindi Proper
which has the best claim to be looked upon as its
groundwork — the Hindi Proper meaning the Hindi of
Delhi and Oude.
The affinities of the dialects that now come under
notice are so thoroughly reticular (by which I mean
that the connection between them resembles that of the
meshes of a net rather than the links of a chain) that
no arrangement of them can be strictly natural. In
passing, then, from the Hindustani to the Gujerati I
consult convenience rather than aught else. On the
south the Gujerati is bounded by the Marathi ; and on
the west by the Marwari dialect of the Hindi. It
probably comes in contact with certain Bhil forms of
speech, though the details upon this point are obscure.
In Cutch it graduates into the Sindhi.
Sir E. Perry expressly states that the Gujerati inter-
preters of the Supreme Court can understand the natives
both of Sind and Cutch. At the same time there are
certain dialects of which they can make little or
nothing.
English.
Gujerdti.
English.
Gujerati.
Man {homo)
jana
Head
mathum
{vir)
manus
Hair
nimalo
Woman
bayadi
Eye
ankh
226
THE HINDUSTANI.
English.
Gujerati.
English.
Gujerati.
Ear
kan
Moon
chand
Nose
nah
Star
taro
Mouth
mohodum
Day
din
Tongue
jubh
Night
rat
Tooth
dant
Fire
a?
Hand
hath
Water
pani
Foot
pag
Tree
jhada
Sun
suraj
Stone
patthar.
In the Collectorate of Surat the passage from Gujerati
to Marathi begins. In Durhampur and Bundsla, petty
States to the south of the town itself, the Marathi shows
itself In Penth, still further to the south, though
north of Damaun, the language is "Marathi with nu-
merous Gujerathi words/' South of Damaun the
Marathi, eo nomine, and, in unequivocal forms, extends
along the coast of Goa ; and, inland, as far as the Ghond,
Telinga, and Canarese frontiers.
English.
Mahratta.
English.
Mahratta.
Man {homo)
maiish
Foot
paie
iyir)
purush
Sun
suria
Woman
baiko
Moon
tshundr
Head
doksheh
Star
tshandani
Hair
kes
Hay
vuas
Eye
doleh
Night
vatr
Ear
kan
Fire
vistfi
Nose
nakh
Water
panni
Mouth
• I'hond
Tree
. dzad
Tongue
jib
bruksh
Tooth
dant
Stone
duggud.
Hand
hat
The limits of the Marathi to the east are. obscure.
In Candeish it comes in contact with certain Bhil
dialects, with their congeners. Aurungabad, Berar,
and Poonah are pre-eminently Marathi. Nagpur is
Marathi where it is not Ghond. About Berar the
Marathi, the Canarese, the Telinga and Ghond meet.
In Bejapur and Satpura, Canarese and Marathi villages
alternate with each other. In the parts about Pandarpur
lie the limits of the Canarese to the north.
THE MARATHI. 227
Roughly speaking, the Konkani, a well-marked dialect
of the Marathi, stretches in a narrow strip, between the
Ghauts and the sea, from Goa on the north to Mangalore
on the south. The more minute details, as given, on
sound authorities, by Sir Erskine, bring the Marathi a
little lower down and carry the Tulu a little further
up. At Carwar, about 55 miles south of Goa, Konkani
is the vernacular; but all the inhabitants can speak
Marathi. The limit to the south is a village about
four miles from LTdapi near Cundapur, where the Tulu
begins.
In the Konkani there are differences ; though not
(perhaps) local ones. It is the mother-tongue of the
Shenvi Brahmins in Bombay who pronounce certain
words more fully than others. Thus : —
The Shenvi udak = water = the common udih ;
vriksh= tree = vrikh ;
trin = grass = tan.
For a, the sign of the masculine gender in Hindi and
Marathi, the Konkani gives o — as do the Marwd,ri and
the Gujerati.
The Konkani contains numerous Tulu and Canarese
words.
The Bengali, or the vernacular of Bengal as opposed
to the Hindustani, is spoken by more individuals than
any of its congeners — perhaps, by more than all of them
put together. It is the Bengali, too, which more than
any other dialect of India has encroached upon the area
of the monosyllabic languages of the Bodo, Garo, and
Kasia districts ; upon Asam, Sylhet, and Tipperah.
EngUsh.
Bengali.
English.
BengalL
Man
manushya
chul
Tooth
danta
Mouth
mukh
Head
mastak
Eye
chhakhyuh
Hair
kesh
Ear
karna
Q 2
228
THE BENGALI.
English.
Bengali.
English.
Bengali .
Hand
hat
Moon
Chandra
Foot
haa
Star
tara
Blood
rakta
Fire
agni
Bay
din
Water
pani
Night
ratri
Stone
prastan
Sun
surjya
Tree
gachh.
English.
Asam.
2.
English.
Asam.
Man
manuli
Bay
din
Tooth
dant
Night
rati
Head
mur
Sun
beli
Hair
suli
Moon
jun
Mouth
mukh
Star
tora
Eye
soku
Fire
J'ui
Ear
kan
Water
pani
Hand
h^t
Stone
hil
Foot
bhori
Tree
gosh.
Blood
tez
In Arakan the three following forms of speech are
current ; all Indian. The Rtiinga is used by the Mahome-
tans ; the Rossawn by the Hindus.
English.
Kuinga.
Rossawn.
Banga S.
Man
manush
munusa
manu
Woman
mialaw
stri
zaylan
Head
mata
mustok
tikgo
Mouth
gab
bodon
totohan
Arm
bahara
baho
palpoung
Hand
hat
osto
hatkan
Leg
ban
podo
torua
Foot
pan
pata
zamkan
Sun
bel
suja
baylli
Moon
sawn
sundra
satkan
Star
tara
nokyotro
tara
Fire
aniri
aagani
zi
Water
pannse
dzol
panni
Earth
kul
murtika
mati
Stone
shil
shil
hil
Wind
ban
pawun
bo
Bain
jorail
bisti
buun
Bird
paik
pukyi
pakya
Fish
maws
mutsse
mas
Good
gum
gum
hoba
Bad
gumnay
gumnay
hobanay
THE
URIYA.
English.
Euinga.
Rossawu.
BangaS,
Great
boddan
danger
domorgo
Little
thuddi
tsuto
hurugu
Long
botdean
dingol
digul
Short
baniek
bati
bate.
229
The Udiya, or Uriya, of Orissa is bounded on the
north by the Bengali, on the south by the Telinga, and
on the west by certain Ghond and Khond dialects. It
is spoken by few individuals and over a small area.
English,
Uriya.
English.
Uriya.
Man {homo)
minipo
Moon
chando
Star
tara
Woman
•maikiniya
Fire
nina
Head
motha
Water
paid
Pair
balo
Stone
pothoro
Eye
akbi^
Tree
gocbcho
Nose
nako*
One
eko
Mouth
muho
Two
dui
Tooth
daT.to
Three
tini
Tongue
jibho
Four
chari
Hand
hato
Five
pancho
Foot
goro
Six
chlio
Blood
rokto
Seven
shato
Day
dino
Fight
altho
Night
rati
Nine
nov
Sun
surjiyo
Ten
dosho.
With the Uriya we take leave of the languages of
the eastern side of the Peninsula and the languages of
the Khond and Kol frontiers, and pass to the other side
of India.
The Sindhi (of Sind) falls into dialects and sub-
dialects ; the Kutch being treated as one of tliem.
How this stands to the Gujerathi has already been
stated. The Siraiki is the dialect of Upper, the Lar of
Lower, Sind : to which may be added a fourth, spoken
in the Desert, as far east as Jessulmer.
English.
Siraiki.
Lar.
Man
maru
murs
Woman
zal
mihri
Head
matho
sisi
Hair
war
jhonto
230
THE SINDHI.
English.
Siraiki.
Lar.
Hair
choti
Eye
ak
Ear
kan
Hand
hath
kar
chambu
Foot
per
Mouth
wat
Tooth
dand
danda
Tongue
jhibh
Day
dink
Night
rat
Sun
srjj
adit
Moon
chandr
Star
taro
Fire
bar
jando
jeru
Water
pani
sandaro
Tree
wan-per
Stone
rahan
khod
On the south, and south-west, the Sindhi is bounded
by the Biluch and Brahui.
As the Cashmirian (of Cashmir) belongs geographi-
cally to India, I place it in the present division : from
which it leads to the next but one.
English.
Cashrair.
English.
Cashmir
Man
manyu
Water
ab
Woman
zanana
pani
Head
kalah
Fiver
kul.
Eye
ach
Stone
kain
Ear
kan
Tree
kulu
Nose
nast
Wood
zun
Mouth
afio
One
ak
Tooth
dand
Two
zih
Hand
atha
Three
trah
Foot
kor
Fou/r
tsor
Blood
rath
Five
panz
Sky
nab
Six
shah
Sun
aftab
Seven
sat
Moon
tzandar
Eight
ath
Star
tarak
Nine
noh
Fire
nar
Ten
dah.
agan
(r^J
THE CASHMIRIAN. 281
Such is the vernacular Cashmirian, or the Cashmirian
of common life ; the language of literature and polite
society being Persian — Persian rather than either Cash-
mirian Proper, or Hindi. As far, however, as the
Cashmirian Proper is written at all, it is written by
means of an alphabet of Sanskrit, rather than Arabic,
origin. In creed the Cashmirians are more Mahometan
than Hindu.
282 THE SINGALESE.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
The Singalese. — The Rodiya. — The Maldivian.
The nearest representatives of the aboriginal language of
Ceylon must be sought for in the dialects of the ana-
logues of the Khonds, Glionds, Kols, Tudas, and tlie
like : and these we expect to find in a rude state in the
more impracticable parts of the island. We expect, too,
to find them in a broken and fragmentary condition.
And such is the case. One population which, on the
strength of its pagan, or semi-pagan barbarity, has com-
manded no little attention on the part of investigators,
bears the name Vaddah, a name which is, more or less,
general, and which is of Hindu origin. Whether, how-
ever, it represents the aborigines of the island, is
uncertain. I know of no monograph that gives us
the minute details of the Vaddah creed. I learn, how-
ever, from Dr. Rost, who has kindly favoured me with
more than one valuable fact relating to the population
under notice, that their language varies but little fi-om
the common Singalese. If so, however much they
may represent the indigenous blood of Ceylon, they
are no representatives of the aboriginal language, except
so far as fragments of it may be preserved in their
dialect. However, of the Yaddah, eo nomine, I have
seen no specimens.
Still, there is a representative of the primitive tongue
in Ceylon ; and the Rodiyas, a broken and sporadic
population, amounting to (perhaps) a thousand in all,
give it.
THE SINGALESE.
233
English.
Bodiya.
Englisli.
Rodiya.
Man (vir)
gawa
Hand
dagulu
Woman
gawi
Blood
talu
Head
keradiya
Sun
ilay at teriyang^
Hair
kaluwali
Moon
Jiapa teriyangd
Eye
lawate
Star
h^pangawal
Ear
irawuw6
Fire
dulumvi
Nose
galla
Water
nilatu
Mouth
galagewunu
Tree
uhalla
Tongue
dagula
Stone
boraluwa.
The Singalese Proper is not only more Hindi than
the Tamul, Malayalim, and their congeners, but more
Hindi than most of the dialects of the preceding group.
It is the language of a Buddhist as well as that of a
Brahminic population — the sacred language of the Budd-
hists being Pali rather than Sanskrit.
Englisli.
Singalese.
English.
Singalese.
Man (homo)
manushyay&
Blood
rudhiraya
minih4
Day
dawasa
(vir)
purshay^
Night
ratriya
pirimay^
Sun
ira
Woman
stri
Moon
handa
gani
Star
taruwa
Head
oluda ?
t^ruwaka
isa
Fire
ginna
Hair
isa kesas
gindara
Eye
asa
Water
diya
akhsiya
diyara
net
watura
Ear
kana
Tree
galia
Nose
nahe
Stone
gala
Mouth
kata
One
ek
Tooth
data
Two
de
Tongue
duva
Three
tun
Hand
ata
Four
liatara
hastlaya
Five
pas
Foot
patula
Six
ha
pad^ya
Seven
hat
Bone
ashiya
Eight
ata
atiya
Nine
nama
Blood
le
Ten
daha.
The language of the Maldives and Laccadives is Sin-
galese ; the alphabet Arabic.
234
THE MALDIVE.
English.
Maldive.
Man {homo)
niihung
(vir)
firihenung
Woman
ang-henung
Head
ho—Kol
Hair
istari
Hand
aitila
Foot
fiyolu
Tongue
du
Tooth
dai
Nose
nefai
English.
Mouth
Eye
Day
Night
StLn
Moon
Star
Fire
Water
Tree
Maldive.
aga
lo
duas
re
ini
hadu
tari
alifang
feng
The following is a specimen of the language ; it is a
copy of a letter written by the Maldive Malim of a
boat at Columbo to his countrymen at Galle : —
At Galle stopping of the Maldives all to the people, Arab boat the Malim.
The chiefs salam ; now at this port are boats Arab boat Finladu boat offering
boat Fadiyaru's boat Ahanima didi's boat mandu house boat bitter-tree-
corner -house boat ; now all people health in remain ; at your port you have
news you must send ; at this port there is news I hereby send ; from Europe
a new governor is come ; England's king is dead ; lacs many strings salams ;
this port's fish we have sold Himiti fish seven tens seven dollars, Male ato?u
fish five twelves seven, Fading fulu weighed fish forty seven ; thus having
sold it stopping for the price ; lacs many strings salams ; this is written here
Thursday on the day. If God permits in fourteen days sailed I shall be ;
desire is to me.
Galigai tibi Diwehing-ge em^me kalungna^r, Arabu od\ Malimi. Kalegefanu
salamen ; mifahara^f mirarhugai hurhi oc^i faharhi Arabu-oc?i Finladu odi
wedung odi Fac^iydru odi Aham,ma did! oc^i, mandu ge odi hiti gas darhu ge
odi ; mifahara^r em^me kalung gada weeba tibuwewe ; tiya rarhugai hurhi
kabareng fonuw^ti ; mirarhugai hurhi kabaru mi fonuwie ; welatung au boc?a
sahibeng atuewe ; Wilatu rasge maruwej/jewe ; lanka gina farhu^r salamen ;
mirarhu mas vik^i Himiti mas hang diha hai riyalaya^/, Male atoZu mas fas
doZos hataka^. Fading iwlu kira mas sa^is hatakagr ; mihidang vik^kaigeng
tibi agimiwewe ; lanka gina farhung salamen ; miliyunl mitangwl burasfati
duwahung. Mai kalageru^fsewiyai sauda duwahu a?ugac?w fur^nemewe ; hitai
hurbi mewe.
In ordinary English, thus : —
'* The Malim of the Arab boat to all the people of the Maldives stopping
at Galle.
The chief's greeting ; the boats now at this port are the Arab boat of
Finladu, the offering boats * of Fadiyaru and Ahammadidi, and the boats of
* These are the vessels which bring the annual presents to the Government
of Ceylon.
THE MALDIVE. 235
Manduge and Hiti-gas-darhu-ge ; all the people are in good health ; send
what news you have at your port ; I hereby send what news there is at this
port. A new governor is come from Europe ; the king of England is dead.
Very many greetings. We have sold at this port Himiti fish for seventy-seven
dollars, Maleatolu fish for sixty-seven, and Fadingfulu fish weighed (?) for
forty-seven ; having sold the fish we are waiting for the price. Very many
greetings. This is written on Thursday. If God permits, I shall sail in
fourteen days ; such is my wish."
236 THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
The Paropamisan Grroup. — The Dard Branch.— The Shina, — The Deer and
Tirhai. — The Arniya or Kashkari. — The Cohistani or Lughmani and
Pashai, — The Siaposh.
I NOW come to a class for which I propose the name
Paropamisan; its chief area being the parts between
the southern slope of the Hindukush, and either the
main stream of the Indus itself, or that of its feeder, the
Caubul river. To these drainages, however, it is by no
means limited. Some of its members are on the water
systems of the Oxus, some on that of the Yarkend river,
some (perhaps) on that of the Amur. They are all
mountaineers, most of them being independent, and
some being either actual Kafirs (i. e. infidels) or im-
perfect converts to Mahometanism. Our knowledge of
them is eminently imperfect.
The language of a Paropamisan is Indian rather
than Persian. If so, the class under notice is tran-
sitional. I repeat, however, the statement, that it is
one concerning which our details are of the scantiest.
If the district over which the languages of this class
are spoken be (as I hold that it is) the country from
which the Hindi elements of the Hindi Proper and its
congeners was introduced, scanty as the details are, they
are important. They are important even if this be not
the case : inasmuch as they belong to Persia rather than
Hindostan in the ordinary geographical and political
sense of the word : and show how little the philological
frontiers and the physical frontiers coincide. This, how-
ever, is no more than what we found to be the case with
the Brahui.
THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES.
237
Again — Casbmir is quite as much Paropamisan as it
is Indian in the strict sense of the term.
The dialect spoken due north of Cashmir, and in
contact with the Bhot of Ladak and Little Tibet is the
Sldna, known through a Vocabulary of Captain Cun-
ningham's ; closely akin to which are the Deer and
Tirhai Vocabularies of Leech. These latter are spoken
in, or about, the Valley of Swaut, and may (perhaps)
be called the representatives of the Swauti form of
speech.
English.
Shina.
English,
Man
musha
Fire
Woman
grin
Water
Head
shis
River
Eye
achhi
Stone
Ear
kund
Tree
Nose
noto
Wood
Mouth
anzi
One
Tooth
duni
Two
Hand
hath
Three
Foot
pa
Four
Blood
lohel
Five
Sky
agahi
Six
Sun
suri
Seven
Moon
yau
Eight
Star
taro
Nine
Fire
agar
2
Tm
English.
Deer.
Man
mish
Woman
is
Head
shish
Foot
khor
Eye
achhi
Nose
nistui
Tongue
jib
Tooth
dand
Hand
thoho
Lip
dudh
Ear
kan
Day
dus
Water
wahe
Milk
shid
Shina.
phu
wahi
sin
bat
turn
katho
ek
do
che
chhar
shah
sat
ast
no
dahi.
Tirhai.
achha
nasth
zhibba
dand a
hast
kan
das
wa
dudh
ik
288
THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES.
Englisli.
Deer.
Tirliai.
Two
do
4u
Three
shta
tra
Four
chor
tsor
Five
panch
pants
Six
sho
kao
Seven
sliat
sat
Eight
paslit
akt
Nine
noh
nao
Ten
das
das.
I would call the sub-section to which these belong
the Dard group. Captain Cunningham would include
under this the Arniya of Chitral and Gilghit : which is
nearly the Kashkari of Leech. I give, however, less
generality to the word, and would simply call the group
Kashkari.
English,
Amiya.
Kashkari.
Man
rag
moashi
Woman
kamri
kumedi
Head
sur
sur
Eye
ghach
ghach ?
Ear
kad
kad
Nose
naskar
naskar
Mouth
diran
Tooth
dond
dond
Hand
hast
Foot
pang
pong
Blood
le
Shy
asman
Sun
Moon
Star
satar
Fire
ingar
ingar
Water
augr
ugh
River
sin
Stone
Tree
kan
Wood
Jin
One
i
i
Two
ju
D'u
Three
triu
trui
Four
chod
chod
Five
punj
punj
e\J
THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES.
239
English.
Arniya.
Kashkari.
Six
chui
chui
Seven
sut
sut
Eight
ansh
ansh
Nine
neuhan
nehan
Ten
ash
ja^.
The south-western sub-section (which we may call
the Cohistani) is represented by the Lughman and
Pashai of the Cohistan of Caubul.
English.
Lughman
Pashai.
Man
adam
panjai
Woman
masi
zaif
Head
shir
sir
Nose
matht
nast
Tongue
jub
jib
Eye
aneh
anch
Ear
kad
kad
Hand
atth
ast
Tooth
dan
dan
Foot
pae
Sun
thur
Moon
mae
mae
Day
lae
dawas
Night
veil
vyal
Fire
angar
angar
Water
warg
wark
Tree
kati
kadi
Stone
wad
wad
Fish
mach
macch
One
i
i
Two
do
do
Three
te
te
Four
char
char
Five
panj
panj
Six
khe
she
Seven
that
sat
Eight
akht
ash
Nine
no
no
Ten
de
de.
The populations hitherto mentioned are, one and all,
Mahometan : though in different degrees. The nearer
they are to Persia the more decided the creed. Some,
however, are such imperfect converts that they are
24^0 THE PAROPAMISAN LANGUAGES.
denominated by their purer neighbours Half Maho-
metans.
But the tribes which now come under notice are not
even Half Mahometans. They are, in the eyes of the
true behevers, actual infidels ; so that Kafir is what they
are called, and Kaferistan is their country.
That the difference of creed exactly coincides with a
difference of dialect is unlikely. Hence, the Kafirs
Proper may graduate into the Cohistanis on one side
and into the Kashkaris on the other. The particular
division for which we have a specimen of the dialect
calls itself Siaposh ; its occupancy being the right bank
of the Kuner and the watershed which divides it from
the eastern feeders of the Oxus. According to Dr.
Gardiner* the typical Kafirs, eo nomine^ as opposed to
the Half Mussulmen, are —
The Kafirs of Esh, calculated at 15,000
Ushah „ 12,000
27,000
Now, whether Kafir, or half Kafir, this, at least, is
certain of the western tribes ; viz. that the fragments
of their creed are Hindu.
It is also certain that several legends point to India ;
though not exclusively. They point to India on one
side, and to Persia on another.
That they are Franks is believed in some quar-
ters. There is, however, a Cohistani population which
calls itself Purauncheh. It is just on the cards
that this may have given rise to the word Feringi =
Frank. Upon their setting on stools and chairs in pre-
ference to lying-down like the mass of orientals I lay
but little stress. As little do I lay on the fact of their
being notorious wine-bibbers. The grape grows in their
* Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Vol. xxii.
o\J
LEGENDS. 241
country, and they know how to convert it into wine.
Under these conditions they may easily indulge in drink,
without being, of necessity, Europeans in blood.
There is a tradition that they are descended from
Alexander the Great.
A small pool, near a place called Door, to the east or
north-east of Bamian, where there is an intrusive popu-
lation of Kalzubi Turks, but where the aborigines are
Therba and Shu Paropamisans, gives us the following
legend.
It is believed to be bottomless. The water is bitter and bituminous,
bubbling up with sulphuretted hydrogen, and surrounded by incrustations of
sulphur. Lambent flames are said to occasionally play over its surface. Near
it is a dark cave, and in this cave are the remains of idols — more than one.
The chief of these represent Moh and his wife, Mabun, deities whom even
the Mahometans of the district reverence. No one enters the cave with his
shoes on.
Two other caves are dedicated to Sheh, the Destroyer, iand Zhei, the God of
Fire. At each new moon the Therba (who reckon by months rather than
years) make a fire-offering to Zhei.
Two other caves are dedicated to Hersh and Maul. Small beads of gold
and stone, found in these parts by natives who dig for them, are called Solo-
mon's grains,
Moh created the earth, and his wife Mabun created the wilderness. From
them sprang the first giant race. They slept alternately for 999 moons
and reigned 450,000 moons. After this period, three sons rebelled, viz.
Sheh, the life-destroyer, Zhei, the fire-god, and Maul, the earth-quaker ; and,
by their combined efforts, Moh was buried beneath the mountains. Confusion
lasted 5000 moons, after which the three victors retired each to his own
region for 10,000 moons. Maul was lost in darkness of his own creating,
Sheh fled with his family towards the sun, which so much enraged Zhei, that
he caused fire to spread over the earth ; this was quenched by the spirit of
Mabun, but not till the whole giant race was destroyed, and the earth re-
mained a desert for 3000 moons. Then Hersh and Lethram, originally slaves
of Moh, and great magicians, emerged from the north, and settled in these
mountains. By some Lethram is considered as the incarnate spirit of Mabtin
and the Queen to whom Hersh was vizier. Hersh had three sons, Uz, Muz,
and Alk. These he left in charge of all their families, while with a large
army he travelled toward the sun in pursuit of Sheh, who was supposed to
be still living. So the three sons of Hersh and their descendants reigned
happily for 18,000 moons, till Khoor (Cyrus?) invaded and conquered the
country, but, after many years' struggle, they expelled the invader, and re-
tained the name Koorskush (Cyrus killed), now Khirghiz. The descendants of
Hersh continued to reign for 10,000 moons more, till Khoondroo (Alexander ?)
R
242 LEGENDS.
invaded the country ; after which no separate legend of them seems to be
recollected.
In the same district stands the fort of Khornushi, to which you ascend by a
series of steep steps on hands and feet. Then comes a narrow ledge of rock,
from which a ladder of skin ropes, or a basket and windlass, takes the ex-
plorer upwards. At the top, a bason of bubbling brilliant water, hot in the
winter and cold during the summer, always full, and never over-flowing,
gives rise to the following legend — an echo of remarkable clearness, adding to
the mysterious character of the spot.
When Noah was at Mecca, Khor, the chief of the district, went to pay
homage to him : thereat Noah was well pleased, and promised to grant him
any favour for which he should ask. So Khor asked for water, but the
voice in which he spoke was rough and loud, and his manner coarse. At this
the patriarch was offended. So that instead of blessing the land of Khor he
cursed it, and condemned it to become solid rock, nevertheless he kept his
promise in the matter of the water, and sent his grandson Shur to carry it into
effect. The grandson cried Nu Shu. Echo answered Nu Shu. The sound
Nu Shu reached Mecca. And now Nu Shu is the sound which the water
murmurs, and which Echo still conveys to Mecca ; the place retaining the name
of the three parties concerned— Khor, the prince who spoke so rudely ; Noah,
the patriarch who disliked Khor's manners ; and Shu, the grandson who did
the work in opening the basin and calling out the words which Echo delighted
in repeating.
As far as this belief in Alexander goes, the Paro-
paraisans are simply in the position of the most western
of the Bhots ; inasmuch as the same belief prevails in
Bultistan or Little Tibet. Indeed, I believe that, at one
time, the Paropamisan area extended further to the east.
In the collection of ethnographical casts brought home by
the brothers Schlagintweit, it was remarked by the col-
lectors, and assented to by the present writer, that the
faces from the extreme east, though the faces of Bhots,
were, to a great extent, Persian in form and feature. If
so, there are good grounds for holding that the blood and
the language do not, very closely, coincide ; and that
there is Paropamisan blood in the veins of men and
women whose language is Bhot, and whose creed (in
some cases) is Buddhist. And this is borne out by Dr.
Gardner's tables — approximations as they are — wherein
we find the following statistical catalogue, which is, evi-
dently, to a very considerable extent, either inferential or
conjectural.
PAROPAMISANS.
(1-)
Bu, or Bull, calculated at
12,000
Kahuz, or Huhi „
12,000
Phali, or
Phagi „
12,000
Aspah
)j
12,000
Kulis
»
12,000
Muklu
»
12,000
Maha
»
12,000
Ka-lesh
)
Ma-lesh
and >
12,000
Lesh
)
84,000
(2.) _
Chinese Subjects.
Beh, or Bethel „
12,000
Plahi, or
Plaaghii „
12,000
Bhoti (?)
i}
12,000
36,000
243
In respect to the wine it should be noticed that one
of the poetical, or rhetorical, names of the Paropamisus
points towards the fact of the grape growing there. It
is called in Persia and Cashmir the Wine-cellar of
Afrasiab.
It should also be added that on the western frontier
we have the venue of several of Rustam's exploits ;
Rustam being the great hero of Persia.
The Dangri (i. e. Dunger) of Yigne, is Paropamisan.
There are numerous architectural and sculptured re-
mains in the Paropamisan country.
English. Siali P6sh.* Sanskrit *
Star tarah tara
Sun sol ' surya
Moon
Fire
m^s
From Prichard,
R 2
244
PAROPAMISANS.
English.
Siali P6sli.
Sanskrit.
Rain
wash
varsha
Snow
zuin
himd
Spnng .
vastink
vassanta
Hot
tapi
tap
Man
naursta
nara
Woman
mashi
manuschi
Mr
kar
karna
Eye
achan
aksclian
Nose
nasii
nasa
Teeth
dint
dante
Finger
agun
anguli
One
ek
eka
Two
du
dui
Three
tre
tri
Four
chata
chatur
Five
pich
pancha
Eight
asht
ashtan
Nine
nu
navan
Ten
dosh
dasan.
The Puraunchehs are mentioned by Elphinstone, who
only knows them as a class of carriers, called Hindki
or Indians. He adds, however, that Baber gave them a
separate language. I have been told that this is still
spoken by a few families.
MIGRATORY TRIBES.
245
CHAPTER XXXV.
The Languages of certain migratory Populations of India.
There are numerous forms of speech iu India, which,
like the Hindustani, belong to certain classes of indi-
viduals rather than to certain districts. They partake,
more or less, of the nature of Cant or Slang. Of many
of them a good account is given by Mr. Balfour.
The following are the Tkug numerals.
English.
Thug.
Bagwan.
One
udanka
ungud
Two
sheluke
duke
Three
udanu
ruk
Fmr
poku
phoke
Five
molu
but
Six
shely
dag
Seven
pavitru
puyater
Eight
mungi
mung
Nine
tiosu
kone
Ten
avataru
sula
Eleven
ekpuru
ekla
Twelve
habru
jewla.
le Taremuhi are. wandering
tinkers.
English,
Taremuki
English.
Taremuki.
Man
lokro
Hand
hath
Woman
chaU
Foot
pug
Head
mathoe
Water
pani
Eye
dolo
Stone
duggru
Nose
nak
Earth
mattri
Ear
kan
Tree
jhar.
The Bhatui are jugglers, posture-makers, and exhibit-
ors of feats of strength.
246
MIGRATORY TRIBES.
English.
Bhattii.
Man
mfins
Woman
30
Head
mtindhi
Eye
akhoe
Nose
luk
Ear
kunnu
Hand
hut
le Korawi
are mu
English.
Korawi.
Man
amlun
Woman
punjeri
Fire
nerpu
English. .
Blmtui.
Foot
pae
Fire
ugg
Water
pani
Stone
pathar
Earth
bhui
Tree
ihar.
English.
Korawi.
Stone
kellay
EaHh
tirri
Tree
muru.
The Ramusis are men of predatory habits in the
Mahratta country, but Canarese or Telinga in origin.
^Englisli. Ramusi. English. Ramusi.
Eye
kunnul
Fire
dhupa
Tooth
punnul
Water
nidul
Sun
goanda
Stone
ratul.
Moon
phakut
So are the Mangs who also belong to the Mahratta coun-
try.
English.
Mang.
English.
Maog.
£ye
kewrja
Fire
dhupa
Tooth
chawur
Water
nir
Sun
goanda
Stone
upalla.
Moon
goanda
There are seven castes of Nuts* or BazighurSj imperfect
Mahometans, who dance and juggle in Bengal.
English.
Hindostanee.
Nut.
Nut.
Fire
ag
ga
kag
Bamboo
bans
suban
nans
Oven
chilum
limchi
nilum
Breath
dum
mudu
num
Femembrance
iad
dal
kiad
Beggar
fuqir
riqifu
nuqir
Home
ghur
rughu
rhur
India
Hindustan
Dusitanuk
Kindustan
Here
idhur
dhuri
bidhur
Captain Richardson, in Asiatic Transactions, vol. viii.
MIGRATORY TRIBES.
247
English.
Hindostanee.
Nut.
WJien
jub
buju
Who
kon
onk
Long
lumba
balum
Mouth
mas
samu
Sect of people
nut
tunu
Age
omr
muru
Saint
pir
ripu
Fort
qilla
laqeh
Opposite
ruburu
bururu
Gold
sona
naso
A search
tulash
lashtu
Disagreement
iimbunao
nunbeh.
Heir
waris
ruswa
Nut.
nub
ron
kumba
nas
kut
komr
chir
rulla
kuburu
nona
nulash
kunbunao
quaris.
The Katodi are catechu gatherers in the Mahratta
country.
English.
Katodi.
English,
Katodi.
Call
akh
Hawh
moregai
Boiled rice
anuj
Take
li
Hedgehog
ahida
Give
wope
Kite
alav
Turban
salu
Crab
kirlu
Dog
s6na
Foivl
kukdai
Boy
sora
Iguana
gohur
Girl
sori
Arrow
cliumboti
Crow
hadia
Munjus
nagulia
Man
hodus
Crane
bugad
Woman
hodis.
To these add the Bowri £
tnd Gohuri.
English.
Bowri
Gohuri.
Man
mank
hoe
gohur
Woman
manu
ssi
gohurni
Head
goddo
mathoe
Eye
dolo
ankhi
Nose
nak
nak
Ear ■
kan
kan
Hand
hatha
hath
Foot
pae
Water
pani
pani
Stone
bhatti
1
bhatta
Earth
bhoe
jami
Tree
jbar
jhaiT.
Of the characteristic elements in these forms of speech
some are purely artificial like those in the Nut Vocabu-
lary) ; others of Tamul origin — Tamul meaning, not
only the Tamul proper, but its congeners.
24a
THE GIPSY.
CHAPTER XXXYI.
The Gipsy.
Wherever we find a Gipsy who retains any portion of
his original language, no matter where we find him, that
primitive element, be it much or little, is Indian. It
is also Indian of the Hindi, rather than Indian of the
Tamul type. The first of the following short vocabula-
ries of the Gipsy language of different countries, is from
Persia, the next from ^gy pt, the last from Norway.
The Gipsies of Persia are known under the names of
Ghurbat (or Khurbat), Goabaz (probably the same word),
Duman, and Kaoli.
(1.)
English.
Khurbat.
Dumau.
Head
sir
murras
Hair
val
khaUuf
Ewr
kan
priuk
Eye
akki
jow
Tooth
dandeir
ghiolu
Hand
kustum
dast
SVM
gaham
gaham
Moon
heiuf
heiuf
Star
astara
astara
Fire
ag
ar
Water
pani
how
I
man
man
Thou
to
to
He
hui
hui
One
ek
ek
Two
di
di
Three
turrun
sih
Four
tshar
tshar
Five
penj
penj
Six
shesh
shesh
Seven
heft
heft
Eight
hest
hest
Nine
na
na
Ten
das
deh.
THE GIPSY.
249
In Egypt they are known as Ghagar, Helebi, and
N^wer ; the first being the least Arabic of the three.
(2.)
EngUsh.
Ghagar.
Helebi.
Nawer.
Head
sir
ras
shirit
kamoklili
Hair
bal
shara
Eye
hank a
hazara
Ear
kirkawiyeh
wudu
Teeth
dandi
sinnan
sinnam
suvan
Sun
kam
shems
shems
karzi
karieh
Moon
kano
kamr
mahtaweh
kariz
Star
astra
nejm
Fire
ag
meguindara
ag
Stone
path
hajjar
Tree
kerian
(3.)
misbgareh
kannin.
Englisli.
Gipsy of Norway.
Tater.*
One
gikk
jek
Two
dy
dui
Three
trin
triu
Four
schtar
schtaar
Five
pansch
pantsch
Six
sink
schoov
Seven
schuh
efta
Eight
okto
ochto
Nine
engya
enja
Ten
ty
desh.
To which add astro =z star, bal =. hair; si zz heart ;
sap zz snake; RorriTnanozz Gipsy. f
With these specimens for the two extremes we may
easily believe that the Gipsy of the interjacent countries
is truly Indian in its basis.
* A variety of the ordinary Gripsy, which, in Norway, is called Fante.
t Sundt. Beretning om Fante eller Langstrygerfolket.
250
THE KAJUNAH.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
The Kajunah.
In Cunningham's Ladak is a specimen of the language
of Hunz-Nagar, to the north and north-east of the
Chitrali : and in contact with it ; with the Bhot ; with
the Turk of Chinese Turkestan ; and, probably, with
some Mongol form of speech. I cannot, like its collec-
tor, connect it, ofi-hand, with the Shin a and Arniya.
The following table shows too much difference for this.
English.
Sliina.
Arniya.
Kajunah.
Man
musha
rag
hir, er
Woman
grin
kamri
gus
Head
shis
sur
yetis
Eye
achhi
ghach
ilchin
Ear
kund
kad
iltumal
Nose
noto
naskar
gomoposh
Mouth
anzi
diran
gokhat
Tooth
duni
dond
gume
Rand
hath
hast .
gurengga
Foot
pa
pang
goting
Blood
lohel
le
multan
Sky
agahi
asman
ayesh
Sun
suri
sa
Moon
yun
halans
Star
taro
satar
asi
Fire
agar
ingar
phu
phu
Water
wahi
augr
chil
River
sin
sin
sindha
Stone
bat
dhan.
Besides which, the numerals are not only different
from the Dard dialects, but from those of all other lan-
guages known to me.
THE KAJUNAH.
251
One
bin
Seven
talo
Two
altas
Eight
altambo
Three
husko
Nine
huncbo
Four
walto
Ten
tormo
Five
sundo
Twenty
altar
Six
mishando
Ja ba=
I am.
Hurtu bai=
ive are.
Um ba
= thou art
Ma bau=ye
are.
Ai ba =
-he is.
Menig bau=
-.they
are.
Meanwhile, the following forms are from the Shina ;
the first being (apparently) Kajunah ; the second Indian ;
the third Brahui.
1.
Be = be thou, being.
Bilo = <o be.
Bo je = being.
2.
Mo bos = 7 aw.
Tu hsiO = thou art.
A'b hao= Jie is.
Be ha,s:=we are
Tso bath=2/e are.
A'b 'hk=zthey are.
Mo asulus = / was.
Tu d>&u\\x — thou wast.
Ah usulu=Ag xcas.
Be asilis=:M;e wei'e.
Tso asilit=ye were.
Ze asili=<Ae2' ivere.
The Kajunah is just more Paropamisan than aught
else. Still, provisionally (and only jprovisionally), I
separate it.
252
THE AFGHAN.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
The Pushtu, Patau, or Afghan.
Afghan and Afghanistan are Persian names. The
native name is Pukhtu in one, FusJitu in another dialect.
English.
Western Pushtu.
Eastern Pukhtu.
God
khoda
Heaven
asman
Father
plar
Mother
mor
Son
zoe
Daughter
loor
Brother
wror
Sister
khor
Husband
meru
Wife
ourut
khizu
Girl
peghlu
Boy
zunki
huluk
Man
uieru
Head
sur
Nose
puzu
pozu
NostHl
spuzhmen
spegme
Hair
veshtu
Eyebrow
w66 rtidzgge
wrtize
Eyelashes
baua
Eye
sturgi
lemu
Forehead
wuchwely
wuchwoly
Beard
zhiru
giru
Nech
tsut
tsut
mughzy
Arm
las
Hand
mungol
Nail
nook
Belly
nus
gera
Bach
sha
THE AFGHAN.
English.
Western Puslitu.
Eastern Puklitu.
Flesh
ghwushu
ghwukhe
Bone
hudtiky
Blood
vini
HeaH
ziru
Ear
gwuzh
ghwug
Mouth
khoolu
Tongue
zuba
zhebu
Tooth
gasli
ghakh
Foot
pshu
khpu
Day
rwudz
Night
shpu
Sun
nmur
nwur
Moon
spozhmy
spogmi
Star
stori
Fire
or
Water
obu
River
rod
seen
Sea
deria
Tree
wunu
Stone
kane
I
zu
We
muzh
mungu
Thou
tu
Ye
tase
One
yo
Two
dwu
Three
dre
Four
tsulor
Five
pinza
Six
spuzh
Seven
owu
Eight
uti
Nine
nu
Ten
lus
253
In India the word Fukhtu becomes Patau.
254 THE PERSIAN.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
The Persian.— The Huzvaresh.— TheParsi.— The Modem Persian.— The
Biluch.— The Kurd.- The Buruki.
I BEGIN the notice of the languages of Persia and its
congeners with the following extract from Prichard.
The first appearance of the ancient Medes and Persians, during the sixth
century before our era on the theatre of human affairs, was almost as sudden
as that of the Huns, or Turks, or Mongoles, in a later age. Shortly before
the period when they gained the mastery of the world, their name seems to
have been unknown to Europe and to Western Asia. The Greeks of the
Homeric age, and while the kingdom of Lydia was growing up in Asia Minor,
appear never to have heard of the Persians ; nor have we any proof that their
existence was known except by the predictions of the Prophets to the ancient
Hebrews. Even in the historical records referring to preceding times, which
the Greeks afterwards found in the east, there is no trace of an ancient
empire, or even of an independent nation, in the countries between the
Tigris and the Indus, dating its existence many generations before Cyrus.
The Assyrian kingdom of Ninus and Semiramis and their successors is said to
have reached to the borders of India. Whence, then, came that great and
powerful race, who suddenly overturned all the dynasties of Asia, subdued
the civilized parts of Africa and of Europe ? Were they one, perhaps the
first, of those great swarms, who, from the remote regions of High Asia, have
poured themselves down in different ages to overrun the Eastern world ? or
had they been, as it is generally supposed, the primeval inhabitants of some
region in the vast extent of Iran, who, like the Arabs in later times, after
remaining for ages in quiet obscurity, suddenly emerged, as if moved by some
inward impulse, and like that people became almost universal conquerors ?
Samples of the language of the Sassanian period have
come down to us as inscriptions, as legends on coins, and
as written compositions. As the dynasty reigned from
the third to the seventh century, and as the reigns
of both the earliest and the latest of the kings are illus-
trated by memorials of some kind, the presumption is
against uniformity. So is the fact. There are divisions,
sub-divisions, and cross-divisions in the criticism of the
THE PERSIAN. 255
Sassanian memorials. The older differ from the newer,
both in respect to the language whicli they exhibit, and
in respect to the alphabet in which they are embodied.
The notice of the inscriptions comes first. The chief
are from Nakhsi-Rustam, Persepolis, Kirmanshah, and
Hajlabad. They have long commanded the attention
of Orientalists. The chief of the earlier memoirs upon
them was by De Sacy, and it is a memoir to which later
investigators have added but little. The inscriptions are
neither numerous nor long : neither are they rich in
forms and words. Titles, as in inscriptions in general,
form a large part of them. Of verbs, there is no in-
stance. The alphabet is Semitic ; and, like the other
Semitic alphabets, with the exception of the -Ethiopian,
is read from right to left. The alphabet is Semitic, and
lapidary, i. e. it is, comparatively speaking, rectilinear
and angular rather than curvilinear and round.
The older the coin, the more lapidary the character of
the letters of its legend ; a fact upon which Mordtmann
has suggested the following classification; a classification
which gives (1 ) coins with their legends in the lapidary
alphabet ; (2) coins with their legends in an alphabet
more cursive than lapidary ; (3) coins with their legends
in an alphabet actually (or nearly) cursive. The first
class represents a period from Artaxerxes to N arses, when
the tendency to transition begins. All, or almost all, of
the bilingual inscriptions belong to this period.
The second, of which the typical representatives are
the coins of Varames lY., reaches from Sapor II. to
Chosroes II. : the third from Chosroes II. to the end of
the dynasty, and a little beyond it ; a little beyond it
inasmuch as some of the early Caliphs used the Sassa-
nian alphabet in their legends. A series of coins fi:om
Taberistan belongs to this period. That the three classes
graduate into each other is plain.
The same applies to the language, so far as our scanty
data allow us to judge. Mordtmann suggests that the
256 THE PERSIAN.
earliest and the latest legends belong to different lan-
guages ; or rather to the same language in stages suffi-
ciently different to be treated as such. Spiegel, on the
other hand, refers them all to one language.
So much for the inscriptions and coins. It was ne-
cessary to begin with them, because they give us dates,
which the literary compositions, though much more valu-
able as representatives of the language, do not.
The particular dialect that the Sassanian memorials
represent is that of south-western Persia. The extent to
which it is mixed with Semitic elements is in favour of this.
So are the localities of the chief inscriptions ; especially
those of Persepolis and Nakhsi-Rustam. The dynasty I
believe to have been other than Persian ; so that it would
take the language of the capital as it found it. The Se-
mitic alphabet, also, lay near at hand. It was current
in Syria, and Mesopotamia ; not to mention the fact of
its having extended itself to Caubul some generations
before. The use, however, of it was, as far as we
can judge from negative evidence, an innovation — the
legends of the Arsacidan coins having been Greek.
The common name for this form of speech, from the
time of D'Anquetil du Perron until the last ten years,
was Pehlevi, Spiegel, however, in the preface to his
Parsi Grammar, a forerunner of his one upon that of the
Sassanian compositions, has named it Huzvaresh ; and
given fair reasons for doing so. At any rate, the name
Pehlevi is inconvenient.
What Spiegel calls the Parsi is treated by him as
either the actual Huzvaresh, or a near congener of it,
in a newer form, and, as a kind of Huzvaresh of the
early Mahomedan period, i. e. of the time between the
last of the Sassanians and Firdusi who wrote under
Mahmud of Ghuzni. The Parsi compositions are, one
and all, translations from the Huzvaresh. Their alpha-
bet is Huzvaresh. They are without either dates or
names. The translations, however, of two works, the
THE PERSIAN DIALECTS. 257
MmoJchired, and the Shikand-guondni, are held to be
older than that of a third, the Patet Irani. Finally,
the language is held to be transitional to the Huzvaresh
and the modern Persian.
A well-known statement from the Fevheng-i-Jihdngiri
tells us, that when that work was written there were
seven dialects of the Persian language, of which four
were obsolete, and three in use. These seem to have
been literary forms of speech ; or, at any rate, forms
of speech which had been subjected to a certain amount
of cultivation. I imagine that there were written
compositions in all of them, and that they were men-
tioned by the writer just as the Sicilian, the Bolognese,
or the Milanese might be mentioned by an Italian
critic as dialects of the Italian Peninsula. If so, they
were provincial or local forms of speech. If so, they
were forms of speech which were scarcely dialects in
the strictest sense of the word ; inasmuch as literary
influence had, to some extent, acted upon them — such
influences always having an assimilating tendency.
Of these, the four obsolete dialects were the Herevi,
the Segzi, the Zavuli, and the Sogdi, i. e. the dialects of
Herat, Seistan, Zabulistan, and Bokhara — the ancient
Sogdiana. The three in use were the Pehlevi, the
Parsi, and the Deri. Of these names four are not only
geogi'aphical, but are visibly so. Parsi is ambiguous.
It may mean eitlier the dialect of the province Ears, or
the dialect of certain books belonging to the Parsis.
Pehlevi is, perhaps, the Huzvaresh — though the iden-
tification is not without its elements of uncertainty.
Deri is a difficult term, being, apparently, word for
word, the same as Deer, Tirhai, &:c. If so, it is a
geographical term. If so, however, is it geographical
without being definite? — inasmuch as D-r means no
particular place, but any place with certain physical
characters. It means no more than the word Highland^
s
258 THE PERSIAN DIALECTS.
a word which may apply anywhere where the Lands
are High.
Simply from finding that the vocabularies headed
Der, Tirye, &;c., come from Caubul, and the Indian
frontier rather than from the western side of Persia,
T am inclined to make the Deri an Eastern dialect.
Whether it is that of Firdusi is another question ; indeed,
the whole question concerning the seven dialects of the
Ferheng-i-JihdngM, is rather one of exegesis than one
of proper philology. That a language like the Persian,
which is spoken over a vast area, should fall into dia-
lects and sub-dialects, is no more than what we expect
a priori. We expect, too, a priori, that some of these
should be of sufficient importance to command the
attention of native commentators. That any such
commentator should give us either the whole details,
or an accurate classification, is unlikely. It is only
likely that he will give some extreme or well-marked
forms.
Upon the actual details of the Persian dialects, as at
present spoken, I can give nothing definite. The dialects
of Ghilan, Mazenderan, and Aderbijan, are said to ex-
hibit notable characteristics — indeed the statement may
be found in good books, that Pehlevi is still spoken in
certain parts of the last-named province. Whether this
be the case or not, depends upon the meaning attached
to the word. All that can safely be inferred from the
assertion is the existence of some archaic dialect. Upon
the dialects of the towns, and upon those of the country
in general, the literary language, in its cultivated form,
has had great influence ; in other words, the ordinary
language of a great part of Persia approaches it in the
way that the ordinary language of the towns of England
approaches the English.
THE BILUCH.
c
English,
Persian.
English.
Persian.
Man (homo)
admi
Moon
mah
(vir)
mard
Star
sitara
WoTnan
zan
Fire
eatash
Head
sar
Water
ab
Hair
mu
Stone
sang
Eye
chashm
Tree
dara,kht
Nose
bini
One
yak
Mouth
dahan
Two
do
Tooth
dandan
Three
sih
Tongue
zabaa
Four
cbahar
Hand
dast
Five
panch
Foot
pa
Six
sha,Rh
Blood
khun
Seven
haft
Day
roz
Eight
hasht
Night
shab
Nine
nau
Sun
aftab
Ten
das.
259
Of either the Persian eo nomine, or a language which
differs from the Persian in name rather than in structure,
spoken beyond the boundaries of Persia, the most im-
portant are —
] . The Persian of the Sarts of Bokhara, on the
north-east.
English.
Head
Hair
Hand
Foot
Eye
Ear
Bokhara.
tser
mui
dest
pai
qush
2. The Biluch of Biluchistan,
English.
Biluch.
Hair
phut
Eye
tsham
Tongue
zawan
Tooth
dathan
Nose
phonz
Foot
path
Moon (new)
nokh
Fire
as
Water
aph
Tree
darashk
St&ne
sing
I
ma
We
md
English.
Bokhara.
Sun
aftab
Moon
mah
Star
sitara
Water
ab
Stone
tsenk.
on the south-east.
English.
Biluch.
Thou
than
Ye
shurn^
One
yak
Two
do
Three
shai
Four
tshyar
Five
pantsh
Six
• shash
Seven
hapt
Eight
hast
Nine
nu
Ten
dah.
s 2
260
THE KURD.
3. The Kurd of Kurdistan, falling into the Luristan,
the Felleh, and other dialects.
English.
Kurd.
English.
Kurd.
Man
piaou
Foot
peh
Head
ser
Blood
khura
Eye
tshav
Sun
hatava
Nose
kuppu
Moon
mahang
Ear
gheh
Star
asteria
Hair
jakatani
Bay
ruzh
Mouth
zar
Night
show
Tooth
didan
Fire
aghir
Tongue
ziman
Water
aw
Beard
rudain
Stone
bird
Hand
dest
Tree
dar.
In the following list (the Zaza is a Kurd dialect from
the north-western frontier) observe the affix min. It is
the possessive pronoun, upon which more will be said
when the American and Kelsenonesian languages come
under notice. In a vocabulary which I took from a
gipsy in England, I found the same incorporation.
English.
Zaza.
English.
Zaza.
Head
sere-mm
Star
sterrai
Eyes
tchime-miw
Mountain
khoo
Eyebroios
burne-mm
Sea
aho
Nose
zinje-mm
Valley
derei
Moustache
simile-min
Eggs
boiki
Beard
ardishe-mm
A fowl
kergbi
Tongue
zoane-mm
Welcome
lebexairome
Teeth
dildone-mm
Come
beiri
Ears
gusbe-mm
Stay
roshe
Fingers
ingishte-mm
Bread
noan
Ann
pazie-mm
Water
awe
Legs
binge -mm
Child
katcbimo
Father
pre -mm
Virgin
keinima
Mother
mai-mm
Orphan
lajekima
Sister
wai-mm
Morning
sbaurow
Brother
brai-mm
Tree
dori
The back
pushtiai-mm
Iron
asin
Hair
pore -mm
Hair
aurisb
Cold
serdo
Greyhound
taji
Hot
auroghermo
Pig
kbooz
Sun
rojshwesbo
Earth
ert
Moon
hashme
Fire
adir
THE B
ARAKI.
i
English.
Zaza.
English.
Zaza.
Stone
see
Mare
mahine
Silver
sem
Grapes
eslikiishi
Strength
kote
A house
ke
Sword
shimsliir
Oreen
kesk
A fox
krevesh
Crimson
soor
Stag
kive
Blach
siah
Partridge
zaraj
TMiite
supeo
Milh
shut
Sleep
ransume
Horse
istor
Go
shoori.
261
4. In Afghanistan and elsewhere, there are certain
populations which the Afghans, or whoever may be the
predominant population, separate from themselves, some-
times under the general name of Tadzhik, Deggaun, or
Parsiwan, and sometimes under some specific or particular
denomination. Most (perhaps all) of these use a form
of speech which is essentially Persian. Such is that of
the Barakis, of Afghanistan, a population of which there
are two divisions, one in the province of Lohgad, who
speak Persian eo nomine^ and one of the town of Barak,
" who speak,'' writes Leach, " the language called Baraki/'
But this is Persian also — i. e. the Persian of Barak,
though not of the purest kind. Possibly it contains
an artificial element ; at any rate, Leach's notice of it
should be known.
It makes the Baraki originally inhabitants of Yemen,
whence they were brought by Mahmud of Ghuzni, when
he invaded India ; the Sultan, pleased with their services,
was " determined to recompense them by giving them in
perpetual grant any part of the country they chose ;
they fixed upon the district of Kaniguram in the country
of the Waziris, where they settled. There are 2000
families of the Rajan Barakis, under Rasul Khan who
receives 2000 rupees a year from Dost Muhammed Khan.
The contingents of both these chiefs amount to 50
horsemen who are enrolled in the Ghulam Khana divi-
sion of the Cabul army. There are also 2000 families
of Barakis at Kaniguram under Shah Malak, who are
independent. The Barakis of this place and of Barak
262
THE BARAKI.
alone speak the Baraki language. We receive a warning,
from the study of this vocabulary, not to be hasty in
inferring the origin of a people merely from the construc-
tion of their language ; for it is well known that the
one now instanced was invented by Mir Yu'zu'f, who led
the first Barakis from Yemen into Afghanisthan : his
design was to conceal and separate his few followers from
the mass of Afghans (called by them Kash), who would
no doubt at first look upon the Barakts with jealousy as
intruders. The muleteers of Cabul, being led by their
profession to traverse wild countries and unsafe roads,
have also invented a vocabulary of passwords."
English.
Baraki.
English.
BaraU.
Head
sax
Village
gram
Nose
neni
House
ner
Eye
tsimi
Egg
wolkh
Ear
goi
Milk
pikakh
Tooth
gishi
Fish
mahi
Sun
toavi
One
she
Moon
marwokh
Two
do
Star
stura
Three
ghe
Day
rosh
Four
tshar
Night
gta
Five
penj
Fire
arong
Six
ksha
Water
wokh
Seven
wo
Stone
gap
Eight
antsh
Tree
darakt
Nine
noh
City
ksliar
Ten
das.
How far the dialects of Wokhan, Shugnan, and Roshan,
are Persian rather than Paropamisan, or Paropamisan
rather than Persian, or how far they are transitional to the
two, is a point for which we want data.
Note.
At the risk of appearing unduly speculative and presumptuous, I venture
on the following suggestion, viz. that the true name is Husvadesh rather than
Huzvaresh. The preliminary remarks of Spiegel (pp. 22-23) supply the
bases of this conjecture. Quatremere gives the following translation of a
passage in the Kitab-ul-Jihrist — "Zes Perses ont au^si un alphabet Zewaresh
dont les lettres sent tantdt li4es, tantdt isoUes,^' &c. This gets rid of the
THE BARAKI. 263
initial syllable. It also renders it probable that the r is a clerical error for d.
If so, it is simply the language, or alphabet, of Siwdd.
I also suggest, on the strength of Mohl's conjecture, that the root of the
word Pehlevi — boundary or march, that the term, like the German Marco-
mannic, may be the language of any district which constituted a frontier, so
that there may have been more Pehlevis than one. One of these was the
district named FeMeh, which, comprised the five towns of Kei, Ispahan,
Hamadan, Mah-nehavend, and Aderbijan. The authority for this is Ibn
Hauqal, who travelled in Persia in the fifth century of the Hejira. Other
statements (which may be found in Spiegel) confirm this by connecting the
Pehlevi with the Ghilan dialect.
Geographically, then, the Pehlevi was a dialect of the north-west, the Deri
(which was spoken with great purity in Balkh) being one of the north-east.
But it was also used in a chronological sense, and meant (as Spiegel remarks)
Old Persian.
The geographical Pehlevi, then, may be one dialect, the chronological or
historical Pehlevi, another. It is this latter which is most especially con-
nected with the Huzvaresh.
264
THE IRON,
CHAPTER XL.
- The Iron.
Iron is the native name for a population which is called
by its neighbours Osset : its occupancy being the parts
about the Vladikaukasus, where it is bounded by the
Georgian on the south, and certain Lesgian and Tshetsh
dialects on the north, east, and west. Of all the lan-
guages of Caucasus, it is the one which nearest ap-
proaches the Persian, and (through it) its real or sup-
posed congeners of what is called the Indo-European
class : for which reason it has commanded more than
ordinary attention. It cannot, however, be separated
from the other languages of the great mountain-range
to which it belongs.
English.
Man
Head
Eye
Nose
Ear
Hair
Mouth
Tooth
Beard
Iron.
English
moi
Hand
ser
Foot
tsaste
Blood
findzh
Sun
khuz
Moon
dzikku
Star
dzug
Fire
dendag
Water
awsag
Stone
botso
Iron.
kukh
kakh
thuh
khor
mai
stal
sing
dun
dor.
The nearest congeners of the Iron are the Persian on
the one side and the Armenian on the other, the rela-
tionships on each side being distant ; or, at any rate, less
near than the geographical relations of the three lan-
guages would lead us to expect.
OR OSSET. 265
Among the Persian forms of speech the Iron is nearest
to the Kurd.
Next to the Georgians, the Iron is the population of
Caucasus which is most thoroughly brought under
Russia. Hence, the language, so far as it is written at
all, is written in Russian characters. Such is the case
with the Dictionary of Sjogi'en ; in which the Russian
alphabet, with the addition of several new signs, is the
medium.
Of Iron dialects there are, at least, two — the or-
dinary Iron and the Dugorian. A third, quoted as
the Tagauriany may be one of two things. It may
be a real fresh dialect or it may be another form for
Bugoo^ian.
Of the grammatical structure of the Iron, a short
sketch (of which an abstract is given in the present
writer's Varieties of Man) is published by Rosen.
That the Iron are the descendants of the Alani, who
were, themselves, the descendants of certain Medes, by
whom a district of Caucasus was colonized in the time
of the Achsemenidse, is a doctrine of Klaproth's, which
has met with more approval than it deserves. It rests
on a confusion between the name As (=:Ossef) as applied
to the Iron by themselves, and the name As ( = Osset) as
applied to them by some one else.
The similarity of form between Iron and Iran, the
name of a province of Persia, as well as the Sassanian
for Persia in general, is more important. The true ex-
planation, however, of this has yet to be given.
Upon the claims of tlie Iron to be placed in the same
class with the Latin, Greek, German, Slavonic, and Li-
thuanic, more will be said in the sequel.
266
THE ARMENIAN.
CHAPTER XLI.
The Armenian.
The nearest congeners to the Armenian are the Iron on
the one side, and the Georgian on the other : the rela-
tionships on each side being distant ; or, at any rate, less
near than the geographical relations of the three lan-
guages would lead us to expect.
English.
Armenian
Man (homo)
mart
(mr)
air
Bead
klukh
Hair
hyer
lav
mas
Eye
agn
atsk
Nose
untsh
kit
Mouth
pyeran
Ear
ungn
Beard
Blood
morusk
ariynn
Englisli.
Armenian
Tooth
adamn
Hand
dzyern
Foot
wot
Tongue
tyesu
Heart
zird
Sun
aryev
Moon
luzin
Star
azdegh
Fire
hur
grag
Water
tshur
Snow
ziun
Stone
khar
Bill
sar
Fish
tsugn.
There are Armenians beyond the limits of Arme-
nia. There is a colony in Persia near Isfahan, founded
by Shah Abbas, the founder of the Georgian colony in
Khorasan. There are Armenians in India, and many
thousands in Constantinople. In European Russia their
census is as foUows : —
THE ARMENIAN. 267
In the Government of Astrakan . , 5,272
Bessarabia . . 2,353
_ Ekaterinoslav .14,931
St. Petersburg . 170
Stauropol. . . 9,000
— - Tauris. . . . 3,960
Kherson . . . 1,990
Total . . . 37,676
But the most important settlement is that of the Mechi-
tarist monks on the Island of St. Lazarus, in Venice.
Here is the centre of the Armenian literature ; with its
library, rich in MSS., some published, some unpublished.
Nine-tenths of the Armenian compositions that appear
in print proceed from this Venetian press. The Arme-
nian literature goes back to the fifth century, and the
Armenian alphabet, which, as far as the relation of signs
to sounds is concerned, is one of the completest in exist-
ence, has, in the form of its letters, deviated from its
prototype (whatever that was) to a great degree. It
affects straight lines and angles, and exhibits a mini-
Tnum of curves. In the order and names of its letters
it is Greek.
The languages that have more especially encroached
on the Armenian are the Turk and the Persian.
268 THE GEORGIAN.
CHAPTER XLII.
The Dioscurian Group, — Meaning of the Term. — Georgian Division.
So much is said and written about the Caucasian di-
vision of the human species, where the word is used in a
general sense, that, when we come to the mountain-range
of Caucasus itself, and find ourselves in the midst of
details which are truly and strictlj^ Caucasian, we are
constrained to either repudiate the current meaning of
the word, or to use it with a circumlocution, and talk of
Caucasus in the limited, or Caucasus in the geogra-
phical, sense of the word.
We may do this, or we may coin a new term. The
term, here and elsewhere, proposed by the present writer,
is Dioscurian; Dioscurias being the name of one of
those towns of the Caucasian sea-coast which is not
only mentioned by ancient writers, but mentioned with
reference to one of the most remarkable characteristics of
modem, as it also was of ancient, Caucasus. This is the
multiplicity of languages and dialects. The business,
says Pliny, of Dioscurias had to be transacted through
the medium of thirty interpreters. Now, the number
that would be requisite for a similar function in modern
Caucasus, is undoubtedly less, the Turkish being pretty
generally understood, and serving as a kind of lingua
franca. Nevertheless, the actual number of separate
substantive languages, dialects, and sub-dialects, is, still,
considerable, as will be seen when we come to the de-
tails. Meanwhile the leading groups are represented
THE GEORGIAN. 269
by the following languages : (1 .) the Georgian ; (2.) the
Lesgian ; (3.) the Tshetsh ; (4.) the Circassian.
The most northern, and at the same time the rudest,
of the Georgian populations, are the descendants of the
Suani, lying inland, at the head- waters of the Zkhenist-
zkhah, Eguri, and Egrisi, between Sukhumkaleh and the
Phasis. They call
Themselves
. Suan.
The Abkhas .
. Mibkhaz,
— Kartuelians
Mkarts.
— Mingrelians
. Mimrel.
— Karatshai .
Ows.
— Iron .
. Sawiar.
The Mingrelians face the Euxine, belonging to the
drainage of the Phasis ; the upper portion of which is
Imerithi, the land of Imer, or Iber ; word for word,
the ancient Iberia. To the east of Imerethi lies the
watershed of the Phasis and Kur, the occupancy of the
Kartuli, Kartueli, or Kartulinians, the Kartueli
form of speech being the Georgian of Tiflis ; the Geor-
gian of the literature and alphabet.
Guriel is connected, in the way of dialect, with Min-
grelia, being, probably, transitional to the speech of that
principality and
Lazistan, or the country of the Lazi. This extends
along the sea-coast, from the parts about Batum, at
the mouth of the Tsorok, to Rizeh, east of Trebizond —
perhaps further. Inland it extends over the country
between Kars and the Black Sea. Its exact boundaries,
however, are not known.
The Lazi are subject to Turkey, and are Mahometan
in creed. The other Georgians are Christians, according
to the church of Armenia, and subject to Russia. Like
some of the Tsherkess, the Lazi were originally Christian ;
their conversion having been effected about the seventh
270 THE GEORGIAN.
century. Even now, they abstain, to a great extent,
from polygamy.
The Georgian alphabet, which, as far as the relation of
signs to sounds is concerned, is one of the completest in
existence, affects, in the form of its letters, curves, and
eschews straight lines and angles. This places it in
strong contrast with the Armenian. Yet it is from the
Armenian that it was, most probably, derived. Indeed,
the ecclesiastical alphabet (for the preceding remarks
apply to the vulgar alphabet only) is evidently of Arme-
nian extraction
LESGIAN DIALECTS. 271
CHAPTER XLIII.
The Dioscurian Group. — Lesgian Division.
The Caucasians of the Koisu and Terek, rivers whicli
fall into the Caspian, constitute the Lesgian group ; occu-
pants of Eastern, rather than of Central or Western
Caucasus ; occupants of parts of Daghestan and Tabas-
seran, and conterminous with Shirvan, a province of
Persia. The Georgians call the Lesgians Lekhi, which
is the Greek Arlyat,.
Daghestan, or Leghistan, the country of the Lesgi, is
the ancient Albania ; the country conquered by Pompey.
Lesgian, like Circassian, is no native name ; for the
Lesgians, like the Circassians, have no term which is at
once native and collective. Its details are to be found
in the hilly country out of which the rivers of Daghes-
tan arise, the actual coast of the Caspian being Turk
and Persian rather than Lesgian.
In the watershed between the Aksu and Koisu
(Turkish terms) lie the Avar and Marulat tribes. Word
for word, Marulat, the plural of Marul, from Mehr a
hill, is the Greek MavpdXoL. The Marulat tribes are —
Khunsag, Kaseruk, Hidatle, Mukratle, Ansokul, Ka-
rakhle, GuDibet, Arrakan, Burtuna, Anzukh, Tebel,
Tumurga, Akhti, Eutul, Tshari, Belakan.
The Andi and Kabutsh are outlying members of this
group. So are the Dido and Unso, whose districts lie
as far south as the upper Samur.
The Kasi-kumuk lie to the east of the Koisu, in the
Kara-kaitak district, and in part of Tabasseran.
272
LESGIAN DIALECTS.
The Akush and Kubitsb lie between the Koisu,
the upper Manas, and the Buam ; the Kura in South
Daghestan.
The Leso:ians are called
By the Circassians
Hannoatshe.
T<a>iP^-^l->
. Sueli,
Tshari.
English.
Avar.
JLoJJc
\JiDi-k •
Antsluikli.
Andi.
Man (liomo)
bahardzli
tehi
tshi
{vir)
tshi
bahartsh
bahartsh
heka
Head
beter
beter
beker
mier
Hair
sab
sab
sab
zirgi
Eye
beer
beer
kharko
een
in
een
hanka
Nose
kbomag
khumug
mushush
mahar
Mouth
kaal
kaal
kaal
kol
Tooth
sibi
sibi
sibi
solvol
Tongue
maats
maats
maats
mits
Foot
pog
pog
pog
tsheka
Hand
kwer
kwer
kwer
kazhu
Sim
baak
baak
baak
mitli
Moon
moots
moots
moots
horts
Star
zoa
zoa
zabi
za
Fire
tsa
tsa
tsa
tsa
Water
htlim
htlim
khim
tlen
Stone
itso
teb
khezo
hinzo
Tree
guet
tketur
One
zo
zo
hos
zev
.Two
kigo
kigo
kona
tshego
Three
shabgo
tavgo
khabgo
khlyobgu
Four
ukgo
ukkgo
ukhgo
boogu
Five
sugo
shogu
shugo
inshtugu
Six
antgo
antic
ankhgo
ointlgu
Seven
antelgo
antelgo
antelgo
ot'khkhlugu
Eight
mitlgo
mitlgo
mikgo
beitlgu
Nine
itshgo
itsgo
itshgo
hogotshu
Ten
anntsgc
)
antsgo
anzgo
khotsogu.
English-
Dido.
Akush.
Kusi Kuinuk.
Man {homo)
murgul
viri
{vir)
tsekvi
adim
tshu
Head
tkin
bek
bek
Hair
kMi
ashme
tshara
Eye
ozurabi
uhli
ya
Nose
mail
kank
mai
LESGIAN DIALECTS.
273
English.
Dido.
Akush.
Kasi Kumuk.
Mouth
haku
moli
sumun
Tooth
kitsu
tsulve
kertsbi
Tongue
mets
limtsi
maz
Foot
rori
kash
dzan
Hand
retla
kak
kua
Sim
buk
beri
barkh
Moon
butsi
baz
bars
Star
tsa
zuri
tsuka
Fire
tsi
tsa
tsba
Water
htli
shin
tsbin
Stone
gul
kaka
tsheru
Tree
gurushed
kalki
mursh.
Euglish.
Curali.
English,
Curali.
God
Kysser
Horse
belgan
Man
adam
Dog
byz
Beard
szrall
Sheep
langat
Hand
kill
Finger
tapalar
Belly
sarar
Cow
slavra
Fox
ihi
Wolf
wiUi
Foot
kokar
Mouth
damni.
I know of no grammar of any Lesgian form of
speech.
274 THE TSHETSH.
CHAPTER XLIV.
The Dioscurian Group. — The Tshetsh Division.— Grammatical Structure of the
Tushi.
The tribes of the next group occupy the watershed
between the Kuban and the Terek, being an inland and
central population ; a population with affinities in the
way of language which connect it with both its eastern
and its western neighbours.
This population is called by the Russians Tshetshents
by the Turks, Tsherkes, and by the Audi Lesgians, Miz-
dzhedzhi. One of their tribes is named Kisti, the Georgian
name for their area being Kisteti. Guldenstadt has
used this name as a general denomination for the whole
group ; for which he is blamed by Klaproth. The word,
however, has the merit of being pronounceable, which is
scarcely the case with the name of Klaproth's choice,
Mizdzhedzhi. In the opinion of the present writer,
Tshetsh, the Russian word divested of its non-radical
elements, is the most eligible.
The Galga, Halha, or Ingush tribes of the Tshetsh,
in contact with the Circassians of the Little Kabarda,
are the most western members of the gToup. They call
themselves Lamur, or Hillmen.
The second section is called
By themselves . . Arshte.
— the Tshetshents . Aristoyai.
— certain Turk tribes Kara-hulakh.
They occupy part of the valley of the Martan.
THE TSIIETSH.
275
The third section is that of the Tshetsh, or Tshet-
shents Proper, in contact with and to the east of the
Arshte.
English.
Tshetsh.
Ingush.
Man (horno)
steg
stag
(mr)
maile
mairilk
Head
korte
koi-te
Hair
kazlieresh
beshkenesh
Eye
berik
berg
Ear
lerik
lerk
Nose
mara
mirha
Mouth
bagga
yist
Tooth
tsargish
tsergish
Tongue
mot
motte
Foot
kok
kog
Hand
kuit
kulg
Sun
malkh
malkh
Moon
but
but
Star
seta
seta
Fire
tze
tze
Water
khi
kha
Stone
kera
kera
Tree
khie
keie
One
tza
tza
Two
Shi
shi
Three
koe
koe
Four
di
di
Five
pkhi
pkhi
Six
yalkh
yalkh
Seven
uor
uor
Eight
bax
bar
Nine
ish
ish
Ten
itt
itt.
The Tushi lie on the upper Alasani, within, or on, the
Georgian frontier. They are the Only members of the
Tshetsh group of whose language we know the gram-
matical structure ; of which the following is a sketch.
The declension of the personal pronouns is as follows.
With a slight modification it is that of the ordinary
substantive as well.
T 2
276
THE TSHETSH.
Singular.
Nominative
Genitive
I.
so
sai
Dative
son
Instructive
as
Affective
Allative
SOX
sogo
Elative
soxi
Comitative
soci
Terminative
Adessive
Ablative
sogomci
sogoh
sogredah
Thou.
ho
hai
hon
ah
aha
hox
hogo
hoxi
hoci
hogomci
hogoh
hogredah
He.
o
oxu
oux
oxuin
oxun
ouxna
oxus
oxuse
ouxse
oxux
oxugo
ouxgo
ouxxi
oxxi (?)
oxuci
ouxci
oxci (?)
ouxgomci
ouxgoh
ouxgore
ouxgoredah.
Plural.
We.
Ye.
Nominative
wai
*txo
su
Genitive
wai
'txai
8ui
Dative
wain
'txon
sun
suna
ais
Instructive
wai
a'txo
asi
Affective
waix
*txox
sux
Allative
waigo
'txogo
sugo
Illative
wailo
'txolo
sulo
Elative
waixi
*tzoxi
8UX1
Comitative
waici
*txoci
suci
Adessive
waigoh
'txogoh
sugoh
Inessive (c)
wailoh
'txoloh
suloh
Ablative (c)
waigre
'txogre
sugre
Elative (c)
waike
<txobe
sulre
Conversive
waigoih
'txogoih
sugoih
Thou.
ohi
oxri
oxarn
oxar
oxra
oxarx
oxargo
oxarlo
oxarxi
oxarci
oxargoh
oxarloh
oxargore
oxardah
oxarlore
oxargoih.
That some of these forms are no true inflections, but
appended prepositions, is speedily stated in the text.
THE TSHETSH.
2'
Cardinal.
Ordinal.
Cardinal.
Ordinal.
1. cha
duihre
8. barl
barloge
2. si
silge
9. iss
issloge
3. xo
xalge
10. itt
ittloge
4. ahew
dhewloge
11. clia-itt
cha-ittloge
6. pxi
pxilge
12. si-itt
si-ittloge
6. jetz
jeixloga
19. tqeex9
iqeexcloge
7. worl
worloge
20. tqa
tqalge.
This last word the author of the gi-ammar connects
with the word tqo = also, over again {audi, wied,
erum) ; as if it were 10 doubled, which it most likely
is. In like manner tqeexc is one from twenty = un-
deviginti : —
100 =pxauztqa = 5x20.
200 =i9atatq= 10X20.
300 = pxiiseatq =15x20.
400 =tquaziq = 20x20.
500=tqauzig pxauztqa = 20x 20+100.
1000 = sac tqauziqa icaiqa = 2x 400+200.
The commonest signs of the plural number are -i and
-si. The suffixes -^le and -bi, the latter of which is
found in Lesgian, is stated to be Georgian in origin.
No reason, however, against its being native is given.
In verbs, the simplest form is the imperative. Add to
this -a, and you have the infinitive. The sign of the
conditional is he or h ; that of the conjunctive le or I.
The tenses are —
(1.) Present, formed by adding -a or -u to the root :
i, e. to the imperative form, and changing the vowel.
(2.) Imperfect, by adding -r to the present.
(3.) Aorist, formed by the addition ©f -r to the
(4.) Perfect ; the formation of which is not expressly
given, but which is said to differ from the present in not
changing the vowel. However, we have the forms xet
=Jind, oceti= found (perf.) ; xetin= found (aorist).
From the participle of the perfect is formed the
(5.) Pluperfect by adding -r.
(G.) The future is either the same as the present, or a
modification of it.
278 THE TSHETSH.
I give the names of those moods and tenses as I find
them. The language of the Latin grammar has, pro-
bably, been too closely imitated.
The first and second persons are formed by appending
the pronouns either in the nominative or the instructive
form.
Tha participle of the present tense is formed in -in ;
as dago = eat^ dagu-in = eating.
The participle of the preterite ends in -no ; as xace
= hear, xac-no = heard.
There are auxiliary verbs, and no small amount of
euphonic changes, of which one, more especially, deserves
notice. It is connected with the gender of nouns. When
certain words (adjectives, or the so-called verb substan-
tive,) follow certain substantives, they change their initial.
Thus, hatxleen wd^ = the prophet is, hatxleensi ha. =
the prophets are, waso wa, = the brother is, wasar 6a
= the brothers are.
The nearest congeners of the Tshetsh are the Lesgians,
and, without unduly raising the value of the group, they
could be thrown in the same division. The same is
probably the case with the populations who use the next
forms of speech.
THE CIRCASSIAN. 279
CHAPTER XLV.
The Dioscurian Gfroup.— The Tsherkess, or Circassian, Division.
The word Circassian is of Italian origin, and should be
pronounced as if the initial G were Tsh — ^indeed, the
word itself may be written (as it generally is written
by foreign authors) Tsherkess. It is no native term ;
but one applied by the Turks and Russians. The really
native names ai'e Adig^ and Absne ; each denoting a
different division of the population — no name at once
collective and indigenous being known.
The Absn^ occupy the sea-coast between Sukhum-kaleh
and the Straits of Yenikale, along with the valleys of
the rivers that descend from the western slope of Cau-
casus. The Georgians call them Mibkhaz, and Abkhazi,
their country being Abkhazeti. This ending in -eti ap-
pears and re-appears. It is the Georgian for -land; so
that Abkhazeti is Abkhaziland. Word for word, Abkhazi
is the Greek and Latin *'A^acr<yoc and Abasci.
The Great Abaska-land, or Abkhazeti proper, extends
from the frontier of the Adig^ to MingreHa and the Suan
country — both Georgian. The six tribes of the Little
Abaska-land call themselves Tepanta.
Word for word, A-dig-e is Ztj^oi, the name under
which the author of the Periplus of the Euxine, written
in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian, speaks of one of
the tribes of the coast. In doing this, he places them
east of their present locahty ; which is more inland, and
lies to the north of the axis of Mount Caucasus, on the
drainage of the Kuban.
280
THE CIRCASSIAN
The tribes of which the Adig^ are the representatives,
although now exclusively mountaineers, were, probably,
once spread, more or less, over the plains to the north
of the Caucasus, as well as over the hills and valleys of
the great range itself No wonder. Both Turks and
Russians have encroached on their area, once larger than
it is at present. More than one map of the fourteenth
century carries a Circassian population from the Straits
of Yenikale to the mouth of the Don, along the whole
eastern coast of the Sea of Azof; and Klaproth believes
that the present Kosaks of these parts are, more or less,
Circassian in blood. Equally strong is the evidence to
a Circassian population in the Crimea. The upper part
of the river Belbek, in the south of that peninsula, is
called Tsherkestus, or the Circassian plain, to this day.
On it stand the remains of the Tsherkes-kyerman, or
Circassian fortress. But this may, possibly, represent
an intrusion.
The A dige dialects are (1.) the Circassian Proper;
(2.) the Besleneyevtsi ; and (3.) the Kabardinian.
English.
Tsherkess.
Absiie.
Man (homo)
dzug
agn
{vir)
tie
katzha
Head
shha
kah
Hair
shhats
kuakokh
Eye
nne
uUah
Ear
takumah
lemha
Nose
peh
pintsa
Mouth
dzhe
utslia
Tooth
dzeh
pitz
Tongue
bsa
ibz
Foot
., tie
shepeh
Hand
ia
meppe
Sun
dgeh
marra
Moon
masah
mis
Star
vhagoh
yetshua
Fire
mapfa
mza
Water
pseh
dzeh
Stone
miweh
kau
Tree
dzig
adzh
THE CIRCASSIAN. 281
English.
Tsherkess.
Absn6.
One
se
seka
Two
tu
nkh-ba
Tliree
shi
khpa
Four
ptle
pshiba
Five
tkhu
khuba
Six
khi
ziba
Seven
ble
bisbba
Eight
g»
akhba
Nine
bga
ishba
Ten
pshe
zbeba.
The languages of Caucasus have no near congeners ;
or, rather, their nearest congeners are remote. This is
the case both on the north and the south side of the
range. The Tsherkess stands as much by itself as the
Armenian ; the Armenian as the Tsherkess. No wonder.
In the first place, the relations of the area are only bi-
lateral ; i. e. there are no frontagers on the Euxine, and
the intrusion has been inordinate.
And it began betimes on its northern side. Centuries
before the time of Herodotus the influx of Asiatic tribes
into Europe had set in ; and the level plains to the
north of the Caucasus lay in their way, either as roads
or as halting-places. The result of these movements
was the enormous displacement represented by the term
European Scythia. Concurrent with this would be the
obliteration of anything in the shape of a northern
prolongation of the Tsherkess and its congeners. Nor
would any approach to the original situs be obtained
until we reached the Mordvin frontier. Here we expect
(and find) Caucasian affinities ; but they are (as we expect
them to be) few and faint.
Hence, the apex of the Dioscurian area is what a
botanist would call truncate; i, e. it terminates ab-
ruptly along its whole northern boundary.
On each side, too, it ends abruptly. This is because
it has the Caspian to the east, and the Black Sea to the
west.
282 THE CIRCASSIAN.
All the languages, however, are, there or thereabouts,
in situ ; a condition suggested by the mountainous cha-
racter of the district.
On the south, the Persian, by which the Dioscurian
area is bounded, is an encroaching language. On the
south-east there is the Turk of Asia Minor, and, before
that, there was the Greek. Originally, both the Georgian
and Armenian must have extended much further in this
direction. The ethnographical archaeology, however, of
Asia Minor is obscure.
With such geographical conditions the Dioscurian
tongues seem much more isolated than they really are.
Ugrian elements, however, have long been recognized
in them ; and lately Tibetan — this being what the situs
and the displacements suggest.
On the other hand, the Persian affinities of the
Iron have long been known ; and it is possible that
they are closer than the present writer makes them.
Bopp has written upon those with the Georgian —
though the conclusion at which he arrives, viz. that the
latter language is what is called Indo-European, is denied
by the present writer. If the Georgian be Indo-Eu-
ropean, so many other tongues must be in the same
category, as to raise the value of the class indefinitely,
and to make it no class at all.
Upon the Persian and Armenian, more wiU be said
in the sequel.
THE MALAY.
283
CHAPTER XLVI.
The Malay and its more immediate Congeners. — The Tshampa. — Samang. —
Nicobar. — Silong. — Malay of the Malayan Peninsula. — Of Sumatra. —
The Rejang and Lampong. — Of the Malagasi of Madagascar. — Of the
small Islands off Sumatra. — From Java to Timor.
We now return to the frontier of the Mon of Pegu, the
Kam of Kambojia, and the Thay of Siam. The con-
tinuity, which once existed between the first two, has
been broken by the intrusion of the third. Hence,
the forms of speech belonging to the Malayan Penin-
sula have no longer their nearest congeners with which
they can be compared. This gives them the appearance
of comparative isolation — but only the appearance.
If we treat the Malayan Peninsula as an island, all
the languages of the group now coming under notice are
insular, or, at any rate. Oceanic : with the single excep-
tion of the Tshampa, spoken along a strip of land on
the coast of Kambojia.
English.
Tshampa.
English.
Tshamp
Man
orang
Sky
langi
Head
ako
Fire
apoi
Eye
mata
Water
aya
Mouth
chabui
River
sungai
Sun
naharai
Sea
laut
Moon
bulan
Stme
bj^tao.
Star
bintang
Of the Peninsular forms of speech the most northern
for which we have a specimen — is the Samang. It is
also the rudest ; the men who speak it being so dark in
respect to their complexion as to have been classed
among the Negritos.
284
NICOBAR.— SILONa.
English.
Juru Samang.
Kedah Samang
Man
teunkal
tumkal
Woman
mabei
badon
Head
kala
kay
Eye
med
med
Nose
muk
muk
Mouth
temut
ban
Tongue
litig
Tooth
lemun
yus
Ear
pol
anting
Hand
tong
chas
Foot
chau
Blood
koad
cheong
Bone
gehe
aieng
Shy
kael
Sun
mitkakok
mitkakok
Moon
bulan
kachik
Star
bintang
Fire
us
us
Water
hoh
bateac
Tree
kuing
chuk.
Then come the languages of the Nicobar Islands —
Nicobar and Carnicobar ; of which all that can be said
is, that they have Malay elements. Their place here is
provisional.
English.
Carnicobar.
Teressa.
Nancowry.
Man (homo)
bayu
dzhubayu
Head
goseb
Hair
kbeui hehok
Eye
obmat
Ear
nang
Nose
ebelme mbang
moah
Mouth
monoi
meno
Hand
•
genas
Foot
gundron
Blood
mam
vboa
San
huik
Moon
tingset hahae
khaset.
en those of the Mergui Archipelago ; e. g. that of Sil(
English.
Silong.
English.
Silong.
Man
mesa
Ear
tengah
Head
atak
Tongue
klek
Hair
dutak
Tooth
lepadn
Eye
matat
Hand
langan
THE MALAY PROPER. 285
English.
Silong.
English.
Silong.
Foot
kakai
Fire
apoi
Sun
matai-alai
Water
awaen
Moon
bulan
Stone
batoe
Star
bituek
Tree
ki.
The Malay Proper, as far as several important points
in its grammar go, is by no means very widely separated
from the languages of tlie stock to which the Thay
and its congeners belong. As far as the absence of de-
clension and conjugation are concerned, both are in the
same predicament. The Malay denotes gender by the
addition of words meaning male or female; number
by that of terras signifying many ; case by prepositions
— many of which are themselves nouns. The degrees
of adjectives are equally expressed by circumlocutions.
Verbs exhibit, as the equivalent to the signs of tense
and mood, numerous separable and inseparable particles.
Sometimes a singular noun is made plural by simple
reduplication, as orang orange men.
The phonesis, however, which gives so monosyllabic
a character to the languages of the Continent, changes
its character in the Archipelago. The vowel sounds are
simple. Like those of the consonants, they are clean
and clear as far as they go — which is not far. The
sounds of the so-called aspirates, /, v, th, dh, sh, zh, are
wanting — though the latter exist as compound sibilants,
tsh and dzh — a phenomenon found elsewhere. The
semivowels and liquids are prominent. So is the nasal
ng (as in king), and the Spanish n. The former is often
initial — which it never is in English. A Malay, for
instance, says ang ; but he can also say nga — the
sound of the ng remaining the same in both cases.
The concurrence of consonants, in the same syllable,
when both are mutes, is avoided — just as it was in the Fin.
The majority of the themes are dissyllabic, with the
accent on the penultimate. . All this gives the conditions
of a soft and melodious language, with an easy intona-
tion, and few harsh combinations. At the same time
(as aforesaid) the inflection is at a miniTnum.
286
THE MALAY PROPER.
I am unable to give the exact locality from -which the
Malay Proper was derived. It is believed to have
spread from Menangkabaw in Sumatra ; but Mr. Crau-
furd remarks that the Menangkabaw form of speech,
though truly Malay, was somewhat less so than some of
the dialects of the Peninsula. The difference, however,
between the Malay of commerce spoken with a difference
in a given locality and the true provincial dialects of the
same, has not been sufficiently attended to. The Malay of
commerce is certainly, in many senses, a lingua franca.
In distinction to the proper languages of the islands, it
is spoken in Java, in the Moluccas, in Borneo, in Celebes,
and elsewhere. It does not seem to have altered much
since the time of Pigafetta, who, as a companion of
Magalhaens, collected a Malay vocabulary. Its literature
is scanty, consisting of little more than songs, tales,
and unimportant histories. The language, however, of
all is the same ; and few archaic words occur. There
are no inscriptions, no old manuscripts, no native al-
phabet— the one in use being the Arabic.
Of foreign elements, the Sanskrit, the Arabic, and the
Telinga are the most important. Though rich in little
songs and lyrics, the Malay metres are few and rude :
the poetical element consisting in the idea rather than
in the versification. The language boasts no classic.
English.
Malay.
English.
Malay.
Man (homo)
orang
River
kaK
ivir)
lake laki
sungi
Woman
perampuan
Bill
gunung
Head
kapkala
■bukit
Eye
matu
Sun
mata bari
Nose
idung
Moon
biilan
Mouth
mulut
Star
bintang
Tooth
gigi
Day
hari
Ear
talinga
Night
malain
Hair
rambut
I
aku
Hand
tangan
Thou
angkau
Foot
kaki
One
satu
Land
tanah
Ten
sapulu.
Sea
laut
BATTA8, ETC.
287
But though not a literary, the Malay is, as aforesaid,
pre-eminently a commercial language. Hence, the de-
tails of the provincial dialects, as spoken by the Orang
Benua, or the Men of the Country, in the Peninsula,
though very important, are nearly unknown.
One of these is the Jakun.
EngUsh.
Jakun.
English.
Jakun.
Head
ulah
Water
yeho
Hair
bulu-ulah
EaHh
bumi
Hand
kokot
Shine
shongkor
Day
trang
Sun
matu-hari
Dead
mago
Moon
hantu-jahat
White
BUlcTc
balhut
hedjeaow
Star
cheong.
The gambler seekers, like the Katodi of India, have a
sort of slang of their own.
The occupants of the extreme North of Sumatra are
the Orang Achi, or men of Achin ; a town once famous
and powerful, but now reduced, though still independent
of the Dutch. The political limits of the State are un-
known, or undefined. It is only certain that they have
been contracted. The Dutch have encroached on the
West ; whilst, on the East, small independent States have
been formed — Langkat, Balu China, Dili Sirdang, Batu
Bara, and Asahan. The nearer the town, the greater
the population. Of all the Sumatrans, the Orang Achi, or
Achinese, are the most Arab. I do not mean by this
that their Mahometanism is either purer, or more ex-
clusive than that of the other Malays ; inasmuch as
upon this point I have no accurate information. I
only mean that Arab manners and Arab modes of
thought are more conspicuous in Achin than else-
where. The amount of Arab blood, in the way of in-
termixture, is probably in proportion to the other Arab
elements.
South of the Orang Achi lie the Orang Batta, or
Battas, a population which has commanded more of the
288
BATTAS, ETC.
attention of ethnologists than any other occupants of
Sumatra. This is because they are cannibals ; and can-
nibals of a peculiar kind, under peculiar circumstances.
They are cannibals and yet not Pagans. They are can-
nibals, and yet not without an alphabet. They are
cannibals with either the germ or the fragments of a
literature.
In respect to creed, the Battas are in the same class
with some of the Orang Benua, who have adopted a
certain amount of Hinduism without abandoning their
original pagan creed. The exact proportion of the two
superstitions is not easily ascertained. The Battas, how-
ever, seem to be both more Indian, and more Pagan,
than the Johore tribes.
English. Atshin.
Singkal Batta.
Pakpak Batta.
Toba Batta.
Banjak Batta.
Man orang
dyelma
delma
dyolma
atha
Head uluy
takal
dagal
ulu
ulu
Hair ook
buk
bee
obuk
bo
Eye mata
mata
mata
mata
mata
Nose idong
igung
ebgu
igung
igong
Mouth bawa
bawa
baba
baba
baba
Tooth gigoi
eppen
eppe
mgiengi
yeng
Ear Tiluyung
tshopping
penggen
prengol
telinga
Nech takui
gabarong
ran
kukong
lingau
Breast dakda
tandan
tanden
andora
arop
Arm dzharro6
tangan
tangan
botohon
gau
Hand tappa dzharroe tappa tangan
Leg kakie
nehe
paha
ha6-hae
Foot udzhung, kakie tappa nehe
palan paha
pat
Blood darra
darro
daroh
moedar
Bird tshitshim
manu
pedo
pidung
mauo
Fish ilkait
ekan
ikan
dekee
ennas
Dog assiu
biezang
pangeia
bieyang
assu
Hog bui
babie
babie
babie
Ox lemau
lembu
lembong
lomon
dzhawie
Sand annu
grosiele
grassie
horsiek
Stone batu
batu
batu
batu
batu
Earth tano
tano
tano
tano
leppel
Fire apui
apie
apie
apie
ahee
TTo^er yeyer
leiy
leiy
oek
oee
Sky kilet
kilat
kilat
porhas
kilat
THE KORINCHL
289
English
. Atshin.
Siugkal Batta.
Pakpak Batta. Toba Batta.
Banjak Batta.
Sun
matoroi
mato arie
mata harie
mata-ni-harie mata bolal
Star
bintang
bintang
bintang
battang
bintau
Moon
buluan
bulan
bulan
bulan
bawa
I
ulun
aku
kam
aho
rehu
Thou
deku
rona
rene
ho
rio
He
dzhie
iya
yebana
dio
We
ulun ulun
rita
kamu
ha mis
memainam bune
Thy
dzhie dzhie
adina
nasieda
One
sa
sada
sara
sada
assa
Two
duwa
duwa
dua
dua
dua
Three
Uo
telu
telu
telu
telu
Four
puet
ampet
ompat
opat
ampe
Five
liman
limai
liema
liema
lima
Six
nam
anam
enam
anam
anam
Seven,
tudzhu
pitu
pitu
pitu
fitu
Eight
lappan
walu
ualok
ualu
walu
Nine
sekurung
siwa
siwa
siea
siwa
Ten
pulu
sapula
sapulu
sappulu
fulu.
The Singkal, Pakpak, and Toba of the preceding
tables are dialects of the Batta. The Banjak is spoken
by the aborigines of a small island off the coast, who
must be distinguished from a concuiTent population of
settlers from Atshin.
The Malays of MenaoigJcahaw occupy the most fa-
voured parts of Sumatra ; viz. the drainage of the
Indrajiri and Lake Sinkara. In one portion of their area
the population is reckoned at 128 to the square mile ;
in another at 300, and even 400 ; an estimate which
gives 385,000 for the whole Menangkabaw district.
Continued southward the mountain range of the
Menangkabaw Malays becomes more and more imprac-
ticable ; so that the details of its population are
unknown. It is only known that it is Malay ; and
that it is thinly spread. Wilier makes a separate
division of it, containing the Malays of Sapulo Bua
Bandar^ and the Malays of Gunong Sungu Pagu.
South of these lies the country of the Korinchi,
who differ from the Battas in being Mahometans, and
from the Menangkabaw Malays in using an alphabet of
Indian, rather than Arabic, origin — an alphabet not
U
290
THE KORINCHI,
identical with that of the Battas, though not unlike it
in detail, and evidently of the same general character.
Whether the following list represent a Malay ; a native
Sumatran, dialect, pure and simple ; a native Sumatran
dialect modified by Malay influences ; or, so much Malay
modified in Sumatra, is uncertain. The want of data for
the solution of this question has just been indicated. The
difference of alphabet tends to disconnect it with the
Malay proper.
English.
Korinchi.
English.
Korinchi.
Head
kapala
Fire
apui
Eyes
mata
Water
aiyah
Nose
idong
Earth
tana
Teeth
gigi
Swine
jukut
Hand
tangan
Bird
buhong
Blood
darah
Egg
tetur
Day
ari, hari
Fish
ikal
Night
mala
Sun
mata-awi
Dead
mati
Moon
bula
White
putih
Star
binta.
Blach
ita
The Southern Sumatran s, so far as they are of pure
blood, are in the same category with the Korinchi ; i. e.
they are Mahometans with alphabets different from
that of the Koran, alphabets suggestive of a prior
connection with India. Of these there are two ; the
JRejang and the Lampong, allied in general character,
yet different in detail ; allied, too, in general character to
the Korinchi and Batta — different, however, in detail.
(!•)
English.
Rejang.
English.
Rejang.
Head
ulau
Sun
matti-bili
Eyes
matty
Moon
bulun
Nose
long
Fire
opoay
Hair
bu
Water
beole
Teeth
aypiri
Earth
pita
Hand
tangan
White
putiali
Day
bili-beeng
Black
melu.
Night
bili-kalemun
/
THE REJANG AND LAMPONG.
291
(2.)
English.
Lampong.
English.
Lampong.
Head
iiluh
Sxm
mata-ranni
Eyes
raattah
Moon
bulun
Nose
iong
Fire
appay
Hair
biilio
Water
wye
Teeth
ipun
Earth
tanali
Hand
chulii
Wliite
mandak
Day
ranni
Black
mallum.
Night
binghi
The Eejang alphabet is used by the Orang Serawi, and
the Orang Palembang ; the latter being only partially
Sumatran. Javanese settlements now become numerous
and important ; and it is Javanese blood with which the
proper Palembang population is largely crossed.
According to Zollinger the Lampong language is no
original tongue, but a mixture of all the languages of its
neighbourhood on a Malay basis. I doubt whether this
be the exact explanation of the fact of its containing a
notable proportion of Sunda, Javanese, and Bugis words,
and but few peculiar ones. It is, probably, more or
less, a transitional form of speech. It is strongly
accented ; words which are totally different from each
other in meaning being distinguished only by either
the quantity of the syllables, or their tone. This makes
it difficult to write in European letters.
We now ask whether analogues of the rudest Orang
Benua are to be found in Sumatra. The answer will be in
the affirmative. That there is something older than the
civilization of the Mahometan Malays is clear. There are
the influences suggested by the Batta, Korinchi, Rejang,
and Lampong alphabets. More than this, there are half-
Pagan and half-Indian elements in the creeds of the Battas
themselves. This, however, is scarcely the exact parallel
to the true aboriginal condition of the rudest — the very
rudest — Peninsular tribes. What is there that represents
Sumatra before the advent of the Indians ? There are
two wild populations, one in the northern, one in the
southern parts of the island, unknown to each other, and
probably speaking mutually unintelligible languages.
u 2
292
LUBU AND ULU.
The men of the northern division are known under
the name, which the Battas give them, of Orang Lubu.
They are found up the Mandau river above Siak.
The southern aborigines are the Orang Kubu ; so-
called by the people of Palembang, occupants of the
jungle, rude and naked.
For the former we have specimens in two dialects.
English.
Lulju.
Ulu.
Man
obang
orak
lokiloki
lokloki
Woman
paradusi
pedjussi
Head
kapolo
kopolo
Eye
moto
motto
Nose
hedong
idung
Mouth
muli
montshong
Tooth
gigi
Ear
talingo
leliengo
Hair
abok
ebo
Hand
palakpak
tangan
Foot
palakpak
tapa
Land
tana
Sea
loi
River
batang ao
aiyer
Hill
tandzhong
gunung
Sun
motobi
motori
Moon
bulen
bulet
Star
bintang
bientang
Day
obi
ari
Night
kalam
mallem
J
oku
oku
You
aka
enko
One
satu
eso
Ten
sapulu
sepulu.
Now follow, for the small islands off Sumatra, the
Maruwi and Nias (closely allied), and the Poggi, or
Mantawi, forms of speech.
English.
Maruwi,
Nias.
Poggi.
Man
alia
niha
mantaow^
Head
ulu
huhguh
ootai
Bye
matta
mata
matah
Nose
iahong'
ihong
bu
ighu
assak
Hair
bu
ali
* Whence the name of the people and the islands.
SMALL ISLANDS OFF SUMATRA.
293
English.
Maruwi.
Nias.
Poggi
Teeth
ahean
ifuh
chone
ahin
Hand
anaku
tanga
kavaye
Blood
ndob
logow
Day
hallal
mancheep
Night
bangi
bongi
geb-geb
White
matti
mate
mataye
Black
uding
afusi
mablow
Dead
mutome
aituh
mapuchu
Fire
awal
alituh
ovange
Water
wai
idanau
jojar
Earth
wei
lansa
tannh
polack
Svdne
bachu
buku
bavi
babui
Bird
manno
manok
umali
fohfoh
Egg
antU
ajuloh
agoloh
Fish
nass
ia
eibah
Sun
matta
ballal
mata-luoh-chulu
Moon
bowah
bawa
lago
Star
bantun
onoh u'dufi
panyean.
The last of these minor islands is that of Enganho,
on the southern side of the eastern end of Sumatra. It
stands more alone than any of the preceding ones.
English.
Enganho.
English.
Enganho.
Man
taka
Water
lewo lewo
Head
oeloe
Stone
bakoe bakoe
Hair
boeloe
Sand
hawo hawo
Eye
bakka
Fish
kwau
Ear
kaleha
Bird
weo weo
Nose
fanoe
I
oe4
Mouth
haure
Thou
bareg
Tooth
kaa
He
bohej
Hand
afa
One
dahei
Finger
gaheho
Two
adoea
Belly
koedei
Three
agoloe
Foot
afo
Four
aopa
San
kahaa
Five
alima
Moon
moena
Six
akiakia
Day
ilopo
Seven
alimei-adoea
Night
tikodo ilopo
Eight
agoloe
Earth
tehopo
Nine
aopa
Sea
parowa
Ten
tahapoeloe.
Fire
howi howi
294 MADAaASGAR.
Now comes an area which, as a phenomenon in the
distribution and dispersion of languages, is the most re-
markable of all on the earth's surface. Asa general rule,
the populations and languages of islands are represented
by those of the nearest continent. With the exception of
Japan, where a continental congener of the Japanese is
wholly wanting, and Iceland, which has taken its language
from Norway rather than from Greenland, this is always
the case. Britain dates from Gaul : the Canaries from
the opposite coast of Africa : Sumatra from the Malayan
Peninsula : Newfoundland from North America.
In conformance with this, Madagascar ought to have
been peopled from Africa, and the Malagas! (or language
of Madagascar) ought to find its nearest congeners on
the coasts of Zanzibar and Mozambique. But it does
not. The Malagasi is, essentially, a Malay language ;
and that it is so has long been known. The learned
Keland knew it two centuries ago.
Whether it were the first language spoken on the
island is another question.
There is no lack of statements to -the effect that a
second population, with black skins, crisp hair, and
African features, is to be found in the island. But this
may be found, to some extent at least, in the true
Malay islands of the Indian Archipelago : and, in many
cases where it is not found, it has been invented. I
lay, then, but little stress on it.
Of African elements in the Malagasi none have been
pointed out : though it should be added that few, with
adequate knowledge, have made a search for them. Of
the language itself, I believe that the dialects and sub-
dialects are few. If so, we h^ve a fact in favour of its
comparatively recent introduction. This, however, is a
point upon which our data are deficient.
The Malagasi grammar is much more complex and
elaborate than the Malay, or (changing the expression)
the Malay is much less elaborate and complex than the
Malagasi. Humboldt has drawn attention to this, and
MADAGASCAR.
295
suggested that it is in the Philippine division of the
Malay group that the origin of the Malagasi is to be
sought. Mr. Craufurd has urged this as an argument
against the reality of the affinity. It is, certainly, a
fact which requires explanation — perhaps confirmation.
English.
Malagasi.
English.
Malagasi.
Man
ulu
Swine
lainbu
Head
luha
Bird
vurong
Eye
maso
Sun
aduli
Nose
urong
Moon
fia
Hair
vnlu
masso-auru
Teeth
nifi
vula
Hand
tango
Star
vinta
Blood
ra
One
issa
Day
anru
Two
rue
Night
halem
Three
telu
Dead
matti
Four
effat
White
futi
Five
lime
Black
mainti
Six
ene
Fire
afu
Seven
fitu
Water
ranu
Eight
valu
Earth
tane
Niyie
siva
Stone
vatu
Ten
fulu.
The western third of Java is the area of the Siinda
language ; the language of the district which gives its
name to the Sunda Straits. The little that is written
in the Sunda is written in the Javanese alphabet : the
language itself being less cultivated, less ceremonial, and
less studied by Europeans than the Javanese.
The Javanese, closely allied to the Malay Proper, is
the most cultivated of all the tongues of the Archipelago.
It has long been written ; and that in a native alphabet.
At present the creed is Mahometan : yet the alphabet,
along with the literary influences, is other than
Arabic.
The NgokOy however, or natural vernacular, is used
only between equals in rank. For the purposes of
ceremony there is an artificial form of speech called the
Bhasa Krama. This, with most especial care, avoids
such terms as are not merely vulgar in the ordinary
296
JAVANESE.
acceptation of the word but current in common life;
for which it substitutes paraphrases, archaisms, introduc-
tions from the Kawi, the Malay, and the like. In
epistolary correspondence the ceremonial language is used
even by superiors addressing their inferiors. In books
it is mixed up with the Ngoho.
English.
Sunda.
Ordinary Javanese.
Basa Krama.
Man {vir)
mantisa
manlisa
jalmi
lalaki
lanang
jaler
pa-megat
jalma
uwong
tiang
Woman
awewek
wadon
istri
Head
pulu
andas
sirah
sirah
mustaka
mustaka
Eye
mata
mata
maripat
panon
tingal
Ear
cheuli
kuping
talingan
karha
Nose
irung
chungun
ru
pangembu
irung
grana
Tooth
untu
untu
waja
Tongue
letah
elat
lidah
Hand
panangan
tangan
astah
Foot
suku
sikil
suku
Shy
langit
langit
akasa
Sun
metapoek
srengenge
suria
Moon
bulan
wulan
sasi
rembutan
Star
benteung
lintang
Earth
taneu
bumi
buntala
Stone
batu
watu
sela
Water
chai
banui
toya
Fire
seuneu
geni
latu
brama.
The learned language of Java — the analogue of the
Sanskrit in India and the Pali in Ava — is known under
the name of Kawi; a language in which there are
numerous inscriptions and, at least, one long poem — the
Bratayuda founded on the Sanskrit Mahabarata. The
opinion of Sir Stamford Raffles, who first gave pro-
minence to this remarkable dialect, was that the Kawi
JAVANESE.
297
language was Sanskrit modified by the vernacular Ja-
vanese. The opinion of Wilhelm von Humboldt, an
opinion in which Mr. Craufurd agrees, is exactly the
reverse. It makes the Kawi neither more nor less than
archaic Javanese with an inordinate intermixture of
Sanskrit.
The island Madura gives another variety : a variety
falling into two divisions, the Madura Proper and the
Sumenai^. The language of Bali is closely allied to the
Javanese. The alphabet is Javanese also. Bali, how-
ever, differs both from Java, and all the other islands
of the Archipelago, in being, at the present moment,
what it was before the extension of Mahometanism to
Sumatra — Braminic and Hindu. The Kawi language in
Bali is what the Arabic — the language of the Koran —
is in Java. Nor is the native literature unimportant.
It is partly Kawi, partly Balinese — -just as, in the middle
ages, the literature of Italy was partly Latin, partly
Italian.
English.
Madura.
Sumenap.
Bali.
Man {vir)
manosa
manusa
mantisa
laki
lalaki
lanang
muani
oreng
oreng
janma
wong
Woman
bini
bibini
luh
histri
Head
chetak
chetah
tanggak
sirah
tandas
sirah
Eye
mata
mata
mata
socha
pening'alan
Ear
kopeng
kopeng
kaping
karna
karna
Nose
elong
elung
chunguh
grana
Tooth
gigi
gigi
gigi
waja
Torigue
jila
jila
layah
elad
elat
Hand
tanang
tanang
tanang
298
s
SUMBAWA.
English.
Madura.
Sumenjip.
Bali,
Foot
soko
soko
suko
Sky
lang'it
lang'e
lang'it ■
ankasa
Sun
ngareh
are
mata-nai
suria
Moon
bulan
bulan
bulan
sasih
Star
bintang
bintang
bintang
Earth
tana
tana
gumi
bumi
bumi
Stone
bato
batu
batu
Fire
apoi
apoi
api
geni
yeh
Water
aing
aing
toya.
The language of Lombok — the Sasak — belongs to
the same group as the Bali. Lombok, however, is
Mahometan. What the Sasak contains in the way
of literature is unknown.
Sumbawa contains two written and one unwritten form
of speech. The Surnibawa Proper is written in the Bugis
character. So is the Biwua, This latter language, how-
ever, has also an alphabet of its own — little known,
embodying next to nothing of a literature and bearing
a general resemblance to those of Celebes and Sumatra.
In Sumbawa the decided Malay character undergoes a
modification and Bugis elements become somewhat
prominent. The Sumbawa, however, and the Bima are
as little Bugis, as they are Malay or Javanese, dialects.
English.
Sasak.
Bima.
Sumbawa.
Man {homo)
kelepe
dho
tau
{vir)
mama
dho-mone-mone
lake-laki
Woman
nina
dho -si we
perampuan
Head
otah
tUta
ulu
Eyes
m^ta
mada
mata
Nose
irung
ilu
ing
Hair
bulu
honggo
welua
Teeth
gigi
woi
isi
Belly
tian
loko
baboa
Hand
ima
rima
umang
Fool
nai
ede
aje
SUMBAWA.
English.
Sasak.
Bima.
Sumbawa.
Blood
geti
rah
dara
Day
kelelie
mrai
iso
Swn
mota-jelu
liroh
singhar
Moon
ulan
wurah
vrulan
Star
bintang
ntara
bintoing
Fire
api
api
api
Water
ai
oi
jerie
Stone
batu
wadu
batu
One
satu
sabua
satu
Two
dua
lua
doa
Three
telu
toin
tiga
Four
mpat
opat
ampat
Five
lima
lima
lima
Six
nam
Ini
dnam
Sei:m
pitu
pidu
tfiju
Eight
balu
waru
delapan
Nine
siwa
chewi
sambelan
Ten
sapulu
sampulu
sapulu.
299
The Timhora (perhaps, the same word as Timor)
known only through a short vocabulary, is one of the
first of languages of the Indian Archipelago in which
Kelsenonesian elements were detected ; several of its
words being Australian.
English.
Timhora.
English.
Timhora.
Man (homo)
dob
Star
kingkong
— (vir)
sia-in
Fire
maing'ang
Woman
onayit
Water
naino
Head
kokore
Stone
ilab
Eyes
saing'ore
One
sina
Nose
saing kome
Two
kalae
Hair
bulu
Three
rub
Teeth
sontong
Four
kude-in
Belly
somore
Five
kutelin
Hand
taintu
Six
bata-in
Foot
maimpo
Seven
kumba
Blood
kiro
Eight
koneho
Bay
kongkong
Nine
lali
San
inkong
Ten
sarene.
Moon
mang'ong
Flores, or Ende, gives, according to Craufurd, no less
than six forms of speech — the Ende, the Mangarei, the
Kio, the Roka, the Konga, and the Galeteng. I only
know the first two through any vocabulary. Like the
300
FLORES.
Timbora, the Mangarei has Australian elements. The
Malay and Bugis words decrease. Neither is the lan-
guage written. We are beyond the influences of Maho-
metanism as a predominant religion. We are (in the
present state of our knowledge) beyond the influences of
India, and its literature.
English,,
End?.
Englisli.
Ende.
Man (homo)
dau
Star
dala
(vir)
uli-dau
Fire
a pi
Woman
ana-dau
Water
wai
Head
ula
Stone
batu
Eye
ana-mata
One
sa
Nose
niju
Two
zua
Hair
fu
Three
telu
Teeth
nihi
Four
wutu
Belly
tuka
Five
lima
Hand
lima
Six
lima-a
Foot
wahi
Seven
lima-zua
Blood
raha
Eight
ruabutu
Day
giah
Nine
trasa
Sun
reza
Ten
sabulu.
Moon
wMan
2.)
English.
Mangarei.
English.
Mangarei.
Man
amunu
Swine
bai
Head
jahe
Bird
olo
Eye
nana
Egg
asowa
mate
Fish
appi
Nose
mini
Moon
uru
Hair
jahe
Star
ipi-berri
Teeth
wasi
One
isaku
Hand
tana-raga
Two
lolai
Bay
usa
Three
lotitu
Night
gamu
Four
lopah
humu
Five
lima
White
buti
Six
daho
Black
metam
Seven
fitu
Fire
atta
Eight
apu
Water
ira
Nine
siwa
Earth
tana
Ten
turn.
The language of Omhay is known through a single
vocabulary. It agrees with the Timbora and Mangarei
SAVU.
801
in the fact of Australian words having been detected
in it.
Rotti, of which the language
fectly, is more Timor than aught
scarcely a dialect of that language
The same applies to the Solor.
is known but imper-
else. It is, however,
English.
Hair
Head
Blood
Neck
Hand
Svm,
Moon
Star
Solor.
rata
kotang
me joe
wulin
liman
rarak
wulan
etak
English.
Solor.
Tree
pokang
Fire
apeh
Man (homo)
atadiekan
(vir)
bailikej
Eye
matan
Ear
tilong
Tooth
iepang.
The same to the Savu.
English.
Head
Eye
Nose
Hand
Blood
Day
Night
Black
Dead
Fire
Water
Earth
Swine
Fish
Bird
Egg
Sun
Moon
Star
Savu. (1*/ dialect.)
naka
naka-funu
nah
namanas
mesinokan
muti
matin
hai
owai
nahieh
fatu
fafi
koloh
tainoh
ekan
nainoh
fulun
fafinomi
Savu. (2n<i dialect.)
katu
katu
matta
namata
ingutu
wulaba
wolaba
dupudee
bulla
ailei
voorai
wovadoo
vave
doleelab
manoo
dulloo
ika
lodo
lodo
wTirroo
weru
wetu
302
SAVU.
English.
Savu. {\st dialect.)
Savu. (2«rf dialect.)
One
aisa
usse
Two
nua
Ihua
Three
tenu
tuUoo
Fowr
hah
nppah
Five
lema
lumme
Six
naen
unna
Seven
petu
pedu
Eight
panu
arru
Nine
saioh
saio
Ten
boaisa
singooroo.
For Timor itself, although we have an amount of
specimens of the most prevalent language, we are greatly
in want of details, in the way of dialects. Yet there
are few countries in which such details are more needed.
Timor is the most eastern island of its range — as its name
(which means eastern) implies. This makes it the nearest
point in the ordinary Asiatic world to Australia. If
this fact stood alone, it would be important. Still more
important is it when taken in conjunction with the
Australian elements in the Timbora, the Mangarei, and
the Ombay vocabularies. For every one of them in these,
we may expect two in Timor, i. e, in the languages
which are the analogues to the Jakun in the Malay
Peninsula, or the Ulu and Lobo in Sumatra. Such,
doubtless, exist. What they are has to be learned.
English.
Timur.
Manatoto.
Rotti.
Man
aima
loh
ulu
etobu
hahalohi
Head
ulu
langa
naka
garain
Eyes
mata
matak
mata
Nose
enur
enol
pana
Hair
fnhk
garerun
langa-bulu
Teeth
nehan
nihi
nesi
resiel
Blood .
rahan
rahan
dah
Day
loron
lailon
laido-anok
Night
halan
hainin
makah-atuk
Dead
matai
matai
mati
White
mutin
rabuti
fulah
Black
maitan
zuamaitan
mati
TIMOR.
803
English.
Timur.
Manatoto.
Rolti.
Fire
ahi
amarin
hai
Water
vehi
vehi
owai
EaHh
rahi
raia
dahai
Stone
fatuk
hahe
batu
Swine
fahi
hati
bafi
Bird
manoli
manoli
man
foheli
hoi
^99
tolon
tailon
tolon
Fish
nahantasi
elian
ehak
Sun
loroh
lairon
lailoh
neno
Moon
fulan
•ulun
bulak
funan
Star
fetoen
atah
du
k'fun
One
eida
nehi
aisa
Tioo
rua
erua
dua
Three
tolo
etellu
tellu
Fmr
haat
ehaat
haa
Five
lema
lema
lema
Six
naen
naen
naen
Seven
hetu
hetu
hetu
Eight
walu
walu
falu
Nine
sioh
sioh
sioh
Ten
sapulu
sapulu
sapulu.
With the following
specimens from the small islands
east of Timor, I conclude the notice of the
languages of
the present division.
Englisli.
Kissa.
Baba.
Keh Doulan.
Wokan.
Man
mohoni
amenmeni
bunran
lesi
Woman
mavek
wata
wat-waat
kodar
Head
ulu-wakhu
otone
uhu
fuku
Hair
murukon
murutne
morun
kuku
Hand
liman
liman
liman
lima
Foot
ehin
logami
chaa
ebahi
Eyes
makan
makne
matan
mata
Nose
iruni
irinne
mirun
juri
Mouth
nuran
norinne
ngoen
fafahi
Ears
kiUn
telinne
arun
tahari
Sun
leri
leher
leher
larat
Moon
woUi
voile
huan
fulan
Star
kaleor
tiola
nahr
tawar
Earth
noha
noha
noho
fafa
Fire
ai
Water
oira
iera
wair
waA'a.
304
KISSA AND MALAY.
Of these, the Kissa has commanded attention from
the character of its letter-changes when compared with
the Malay.
English.
M.lay.
Kissa.
Stone
batu
wahku
Sea
tase *
kahe
Eye
mata
makan
Dead
mati
maki
HeaH
ati
akin
Heavy
brat
werek
Broken
»patah
pahki
Ear
telinga
kilin
East
timur
kimur
Hog
babi
wawr
Feather
bubi
wulu
Hot
panas
manab
Wrong
sala
hala
Ha/rd
kras
kereh
Milk
huhu
Wash
baso
baha
New
bharu
wohru.
In this prevalence of the sound of k we have a
Polynesian characteristic.
BORNEO. 305
CHAPTER XLVII.
Languages of Borneo, &c., to Ceram.
In Timor (for reasons which will appear in the sequel)
it is convenient to finish the present group ; having
done which we go back to the longitude of Java, and
move along the line of the Equator ; in other words, we
begin with a series of languages and dialects, for which
the great island of Borneo is our starting-point.
In Borneo there is no native alphabet ; yet there
are traces in the aboriginal creeds, not only of Indian
influences, but of Mahometan as well.
In Borneo there are numerous foreign elements, which
vary with the district. As a rule, they attach them-
selves to the coast ; but they difier with the different
parts of it. On the west the Malays, on the south-east
the Bugis, on the north the Sulu populations have made
settlements.
All that belongs to the natives is, roughly speaking,
unlettered and pagan. Where they have contracted
decided maritime habits, they are Biajuks, Biajus, or
Bajovjs ; these terms being (generally) equivalent to
Orang Lautzz the Men of the Sea. The rudest among
them have been called Sea Gipsies. "^ Where they are
river boatmen or landsmen they are Dyaks ; though
neither term can be taken absolutely. The division,
then, between the two denotes a difibrence of habits
rather than of blood.
306
BORNEO.
The details for Borneo, until lately, were scanty.
Since Labuan, however, has become English, they have
increased. For the remainder of the island, the Dutch
are our chief authorities ; and it is probable (indeed
certain) that the knowledge of what is to be found in
Holland is, on the part of the present writer, very
imperfect.
Dialects for the parts about Labuan from Sir J.
Brooke.
English.
Sangouw.
Biajuk.
Murung.
Kupuas.
Man
ulu
ulu
urun
icho
Head
takulu
kohong
utok
Eyes
mata
mata
mata
Nose
ingher
urung
Hair
buk
balau
baru
buru
Teeth
ifie
kasingye
kusing
kusing
Hand
tesa
lengye
rongo
renga
Blood
daha
doho
doho
Day
andau
onong
sunit
Night
malem
homoram
kaput
Dead
matty
matei
matoe
motoe
White
pute
bapute
putich
mitu
toete
brea
BlacTc
menaram
babilem
Ttiahuk
morim
apy
apui
apoi
bakok
danom
danum
bea
tuhasak
Earth
boenoe
petak
potak
tanak
hntn
botu
boui
botu
bowi
Stoim
bawie
IJaAiU.
babui
Bird
burong
burong
burong
^99
tantelu
tolu
tolu
Fish
lauk
lauk
rouk
uchin
Sim
mata-sou
matan-andau
ma.ta,n-onong matan-onong
bolan
bulan
buran
pun-allah
bientang
bintong
(2.)
bintong
bintong.
English.
Suntah
. Sow.
Sibnow. Sakarran. Meri.
Millanow. Malo.
Man
dari
dali
orang orang
idek
tooli babak
Head
ubok
bok
bok bok
fok
bok bok
Hair
obak
bak
pala pala
uho
ulow ulu
Ear
kagit
kagit
pundin punden telinga
linga telingj
Eye
buttok button
mata mata
mata
matta mata
Nose undong indong idong idong singote udong ingar
BORNEO.
807
English
Suntah,
Sow.
Sibnow.
Sakarran. Men.
Millanow.
Malo.
Mouth
bubbah
bubbah
mulut
mulut munong
bah
baba
Teeth
jipuk
jipun
gigi
gnali nipun
nipun
isi
Totvgue jurah
jurali
dila
dila jillali
jullah
lela
Hand
tangan
tonga n
lungan
tangan tujoh
agum
tangan
Shy
rangit
longit
langit
langit langit
rangit
suan
Sun
batundu battun unde mata'an
mata'an mattadullow mattalow
matasu
Moon
buran
bulan
bulan
bulan tukka
bulan
bulan
Star
betang
betang
api undow
bintang futtak
bintang
bintong
River
sungei
sungee
sungee
sungei like
sungei
simgei
Egg
turo
tulo
tillo
tullo tujjoh
tello
telui
Stone
batu
batu
batu batu batow
sanow
batu
Fowl
siok
ok
manuk manuk aal
slow
manuk
Bird
manuk
burong
bukong burong manuk
manuk
burong.
For the central parts of the island.
English.
Kay an.
Eiighsh.
Kayan.
Man
laki
Foot
kasa
Woman
doh
Sea
kala
Head
kohong
Earth
tana lim
Hair
bok
Sky
langit
Beard
bulo
Sun
matin-dow
Eye
mata
bulan
Ear
apang
kraning
Nose
urong
Fire
apui
Mouth
ba
Water
atta
Tongue
jila
Fish
masik
Teeth
knipan
Egg
tilo.
Hand
kama
Celebes, in respect to our knowledge of its philological
details, is more like Sumatra than Borneo ; in other
words, we have a fair amount of data for its numerous
dialects.
English.
Mandhar.
Macassar.
Bugis.
Man (homo)
tau
tau
tawTi
(mr)
chacho
borani
horoani
Woman
bahini
bahini
makonrai
Head
ul
uluna
ulu
Eyes
mata
matana
mata
Nose
eng'a
ing'a
ing'a
Hair
welua
rambut
welua
Teeth
isi
gigi
isi
Belly
porot
batan
babua
Hand
lima
liman
lima
Foot
aje
banuge
aji
Blood
dai-a
dara
dai-a
X 2
308
English.
Sun
Moon
Star
Fire
Water
Earth
Stone
Bird
^99
Fish
BORNEO.
Maiidhar.
Macassar.
Bugis,
matahari
singhar
matasa
wulan
bulan
wulan
binoin
bintoin
bitoin
api
pepe
api
wai
jene
wai
tana
bntah
tana
batn
batH
batu
mantHnanu jang'anjang'an
manumanu
ndoh
bayu
iteloh
bale
juku
baleh.
The Bugis, like the Batta, the Korinchi, the Kejang,
and the Lampong, has an alphabet, which, saving such
exceptions as may be taken from the fact of its being
common to ^ve languages, is a native one, i. e. is neither
decidedly Arabic like the Malay, nor decidedly Indian
like the Javanese. It is Batta, &c. in its general
character — not in its details. It embodies more of a
literature than any of its congeners. I have before
me a Bugis poem, on the hero of a recent war against
the Dutch.
English.
Gunnngtello.
Menadu.
Man {homo)
manusia
to
(vir)
satulai
toama
Woman
tabua
wewone
Head
lunggongo'
ulu
Eyes
mata
waren
Nose
ulingo'
nirung
Hair
woho
wubuk
Teeth
dang'eta
wahang
BeUy
mbong'a
poot
Hand
otoho
leng'an
Blood
duhu
raha
Sun
mutuhari
ndoh
Moon
ulano
lelehon
Star
olipopo
tototian
Fire
tolu
api
Water
teloho
rano
Earth
huta
tana
Stone
batu
watu
Bird
burung
koko
ErjU
putitor
atelu
Fish
tota
pongkor.
ff^
CELEBES.
309
The Menadu falls into numerous dialects, and sub-dia-
lects ; though, probably, into no more than several of
its congeners. Its minutice, however, have been given
in detail by A. J. F. Jansen, from whose paper the
following short extract is taken as a specimen of the
amount of variety which obtains in these parts.
English
Man {homo)
Man (vir)
Sea
Wind
Rain
Tonsea
touw
tuama
laur
reges
nuran
Klabat-atas
tasik
uran
Likwpang
laur
AHs
Negrijbaru
Klabat-bawa
nuran
Tondano
lawanan
naro
Rembokeng
lour
uran
Kdkas
nuran
Langowan
tasik
uran
Saroinsoig
lur
Tournshon
tasik
Kahaskassing
unner-untasik
Tounbaririj
laur
Bonder
taasik
reger
Romohon
laur
reges
Tounbassian
Touwasang
salojon
kakab
tukam
Tounpasso
lur
reges
uran
Kawangkoan
Ponosakan
intouw
lolakij
balangan
sompot
ujan
Passatig
tomata
maanij
wolangon
sonsam
L tihiti
Ratahan
mouanij
wolangon
wahe
tahiti
Bantik
toumata
mahuanen
rawdouw
pipihi
tahiteij
Sangij
eseh
lauduk
anging
tahiti
Tagulangdang
Talaur
kawenua
angin
uran
Hotontalo
tau
tololai
auhu
dupoto
didih
Botango
momata
rorach
augu
hibuto
huah
Parigi
tau
langai
tampanao
uda
Taheang
tau
nganemaini
Bolong-mongondo intau
lolakij
dagat
tompot
ujan
Bolong-itang-ota
bolango
dupota oha
Kaidipang
Biiol
tau
maane
ulano
Patos
tona
langai
asih
poiri
udah.
In Buton and Amboyna, the variation of dialect is
but slight ; increasing in Saparua, Ternati, and Ceram.
310
CELEBES.
English.
Buton.
Man {homo)
tau
{vir)
tau
Woman
makonrai
Head
ulu
Eyes
mata
Nose
ing'a
Hair
welu
Teeth
isi
Belly
babrea
Hand
liman
English.
Saparua.
Man (homo)
tuma-tawu
{vir)
manawau
Woman
pipinawa
Head
uruni
Eye
maani
Nose
iiini
Hair
rhuwon
Tooth
nioni
Belly
tebfini
Hand
rimani
Foot
ahini
Blood
lalani
Bay
kai
Sun
ria-ma-ano
Moon
hulano
English.
Ternati.
Man (homo)
manusia
{vir)
nonau
Woman
fohekeh
Head
dopolo
Eyes
t^ko
Nose
Idling
Hair
rambut
Teeth
gigi
Belly
hoot
Hand
tangan
Foot
kaki
Blood
dara
Day
modiri
Sun
m^ta-hdri
Moon
btilan
English.
Foot
Blood
Bay
Sun
Moon
Star
Fire
Water
Stone
Bird
English.
Star
Fire
Water
Stone
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
English.
Star
Fire
Water
Stone
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
Buton.
aje
dara
matabari
wulah
bintoing
api
ayer
batu
manuk.
Saparua.
bumario
babtilo
waelo
hatuo
isahi
rua
oru
baan
rima
nobo
bitu
w&m
siwah
dbuttibi.
TematL
tina-bintan
ukut
aki
marib
rimoi
romo-didi
ra-angi
raba
roma-toba
rara
tomdi
tof-kangi
siyu
yagiraoi.
TERNATL
Euglish.
4
Ceram.
English.
Ceram.
Mmi {homo)
tau-mata
Stars
butlung
— (mr)
ese
Fire
putung
Woman
babini
Water
4ke
Eyes
mata
Stone
b£tu
Nose
irung
One
sembua
Hair
tita
Two
dartia
Teeth
isi
Three
t4telu
Belly
tiang
Four
epa
Hand
takiar
Five
lima
Foot
bisi
Six
n6ng
Blood
d^ra
Seven
pltu
Day
eloh
EiglU
w41u
Sun
eloh
Nine
sioh
Moon
btUan
Ten
mapuru.
311
Here ends the north-eastern line, from the extremity
of which we return to the parts due north of Borneo, i. e.
the Sulu Archipelago.
312
THE SULU.
CHAPTER XLVIII.
The Languages of the Sulu Archipelago. — Philippines. — Formosa.
Of the dialects of the long island of Palawan, I know
no specimens. They are probably Sulu like the follow-
ing.
English.
Sulu.
EngKsh.
Sulu.
Man
ossoog
White
mapote
Bead
00
Black
maitom
Eye
mata
Fire
kalaryu
Ewr
taingah
Water
tubig
Nose
ilong
Stone
bate
Hair '
bohoe
Bird
manok
Teeth
nipun
Egg
iklug
Hand
kamot
Fish
ista
Blood
dugu
Sun
adalow
Belly
tian
Moon
bulon
Bone
btkug
Star
bitohon
Foot
siki
Earth
leopah
Day
hadlaou
Black
maitum
Night
gabi
Dead
miatai nah
In Mindanao the Bissayan falls into no less than Gye
dialects. It changes again in lolo, in Bohol, and in
Samar where it approaches the Tagala. The Capul or
Bissayan of the island of Abac falls into the Inabacnum
dialect of the north, the Inagta of the south, and the
General Language in which our authority Garcia de
Torres preached and administered the sacraments.
The Bissayan of Panaz also falls into sub-dialects —
one of which is the Hiligueina, the other the Haraya.
The Camarinos of the next group is the most
THE PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES.
313
Bissayan of the class, and it is probably transitional.
The Tagala is the language of the capital, Manilla.
The Pampanga and the Iloco approach the Tagala. Of
the Pangasinan I only know the name. The Zambali
is a mountaineer, the Maitim a (so-called) Negrito, form
of speech.
English.
Bissayan.
noco.
Cayagan.
Tagala.
Man
lalaqui
lalaqui
lalaqui
tauo
Hair
boboc
Head
olo
Tooth
ngipin
Tongue
dilah
Eye
mata
Ear
tayinga
Nose
hilaga
Hand
Camay
Blood
dugu
darat
daga
dugu
Day
adiau
ad Ian
aggao
arao
Sun
adlao
init
bilac
arao
Moon
bulan
bulan
fulan
buan
Star
bitoin
Fire
apuy
Water
tubig
danum
danum
tubig
Bird
mamuk
tumatayab
mamanu
ibon
Fi^k
isda
ikan
sira
isda
Milk
gatas
tubigtisoso
gatto
gatas
Tree
ponosacahuy
kago
kayu
cahuy
Stone
bato
bato
battu
bato
One
usa
meysa
tadday
ysa
Two
duha
dua
dua
dalaua
Three
tulo
taUo
talu
tatlo
Four
apat
eppat
appa
apat
Five
lima
lima
lima
limo
Six
unum
innem
anam
anim
Seven
pito
pito
pitu
pito
Eight
ualo
ualo
ualu
ualo
Nine
siam
siam
siam
siyam
Ten
napulo
sangapulo
mafulu
iangpono.
The following are said to be Negrito forms of speech.
1.
English.
Umiray.
St. Miguel.
St. Matheo.
Man
laqui
lacay
lacay
Woman
tuvanac
bacus
bacus
Ear
talinga
talinga
talinga
314
THE PHILIPPINE LANGUAGES.
English.
Umiray.
St. Miguel.
St. Matheo.
Blood
saquo
dalaa
galaa
Hand
cumot
gumut
gavat
Foot
siquii
tecut
daadaa
Sky
langot
Moon
panuodan
bulan
bnlan
Star
butatalaa
bitung
bitung
Fire
gagavas
nayan
nayan
Water
urat
vagut
lau
Stme
batu
batu
batu
Tree
pamutingueo
labat
labat
Bird
manoc
manoc
manoc
Fish
ican
ican
isda
I
yaco
tiyac
heyaco
Thou
icamo
hicamu
hica
That
edu
yiay
We
dicame
Mcami
Ye
dicamu
decamu
hicamu
They
ediya
sediya
huya.
English.
2
Dnmagat.
English.
Dumagat.
Hair
i^ede
Moon
bilanc^
Eye
mataade
Star
bitone
Ear
sugede
NigU
alinde
Beard
baangc^e
Sea
dagat
Hand
alemside
River
sayogc^e
Feet
hitiade
Earth
limacdle
Knee
bolongde
Tree
hapoyofe
Neck
liog
Forest
cabutanrfe
Sun
pigluncZe
For the BasM islands, the following vocabulary is
taken from E. Belcher's Voyage of the Samarang.
English.
Bashi.
English.
BashL
Head
ogho
Moon
bughan
Hair
buoc
Earth
madedah
Eye
mata
Fire
apui
Ear
titiduan
Water
danum
BeUy
budek
Egg
ocloy
Bone
tughan
Fish
amon
Foot
cocon
Black
mabaghen
Day
arao
Dead
nadiman.
In FoTTYiosa we reach the end of the long series of
languages akin to the Malay in this direction ; for to the
FORMOSAN. 315
north of Formosa the Japanese dialects begin. That a
Malay form of speech was spoken in Formosa was known
to Klaproth. That there were more forms of speech than
one on the island was also known. Whether they
were all Malay was another question.
Between 1624, and 1661, the Dutch occupied the
island, and attempted not without a partial success, to
introduce Christianity. The result was the data for
what, until lately, was the only Formosan vocabulary
known : one of the Sideia dialect. About twenty
years ago, however, a Favorlang dictionary by Gilbert
Happast, A.D. 1650, was discovered and published.
This gave a second dialect — almost a second lan-
guage.
A MS. discovered at Utrecht, and published by Yan-
der Vlis, has supplied a sub-dialect of the Sideia,
which, inter alia, gives a regular letter change between
r and s.
English.
Klaproth's Formosan
{SideU.)
Vander Vlis.
Father
rama
sama
Mother
rena
sena
Water
ralaum
salong
Tlmnder
rungdung
singding
Tree
parannah
pesanach
Foot
rahpal
sapal
Great
irang
isang
Two
ranka
(so) soa.
It is reasonably suggested by Gabelentz that this is
a specimen of a dialect, elsewhere called SaJcam.
The Tackais and Tiloes are apparently dialects, or
sub-dialects of the Favorlang.
Upon the Formosan languages, with the additions
supplied to the original Sideia data by the Favorlang,
we have a valuable monograph by Gabelentz ; the au-
thority for everything contained in the preceding,
notice, which is not found in Klaproth. Its main object
is the fixation of the places of the Formosan in the
Malay class. Gabelentz decides that its affinities are in-
316
FORMOSAN.
definite and miscellaneous, i. e. that it is not so decidedly
Philippine as its geographical relations suggest. From
this work, I take the following tables, which give twenty-
four words out of one hundred and twenty-six. In the
present work they serve a secondary purpose, viz., the
elucidation of the general characters of the affinities
which bind the several languages of the present group
together. With the exception of Guaham, Chamori,
Yap, Ulea, and Satawal, all the names have already
been met with ; so that, if the reader will remember
that these are names for certain dialects from the
Ladrone and Caroline archipelagoes, he will be suffi-
ciently master of the nomenclature.
English.
Man
Head
Hair
Forehead
Favorlung bahosa, sjara
oeno
tdu, ratta
tees
Sida
paraigh
vaungo
vaukugh
Tagala
lalaqui
olo
bolo, bohoc
noo
Bissayan
lalaqui
olo
bolbol, bohoc
adtang
Pampango
t lalaqui
buntuc
bulbul, icat
canuan
Iloco
lallaqui
olo
Malay
laki
ulu, kepala
rambut, bulu
dahi, batuk
Javanese
tijang djaler
sirah, kepolo
rambot, woeloe
bathok
Bugis
woroane
ulu
weluak
linroh
Dayalc
olo hatu4
takolok
bulu, balau
lingkau
Sunda
laki, pamegat
hoeloe, mastaka
boe-oek
tarang, taar
Bali
muwani, lanang
tandas, sirah
Lamj)ong
bakas
hulu
buho
Batta
morah ^
ulu
obu
Guaham
lahe
oulou
gapoun oulou,
hai
Chamori
lahi
ulu
gapunulu
Yap
pimohn
elingeng
lalligel
Ulea
m3,moan
methackitim
timui
Satawal
mal, mar
roumai, simoie
alerouma, timoe
man hai
Malagasi
ahy
loha
volo
handrina.
English.
Eye
Nose
Ear
Mouth
Favorlang
macha
not
charrina
ranied, sabbacha
Sida
matta
gongos
tangira
motaus
Tagala
mata
ylong
tayinga
bibig
Bissayan
mata
ylong
talinga
baba
Pampangc
1 mata
arung
talinga
asboc
Iloco
Malay
mata
mata *
idung
talinga
miilut.
FORMOSAN.
317
English.
Eye
Nose
Ear
Mouth
Javanese
moto
grono, hiroeng
taliengngan
tjangkem, tjotjot
Bugis
mata
ingok
dachuling
timu
Dayah
mata
pinding
njama
Sunda
mata
hiroeng
tjeli, tjepil
soengoet
Bali
mata
kunguh
kuping, karna
bungut, changkam
Lampong
mata
egong, long
chiuping
Batta
mahta
igung
suping
bawa
Guaham
mata
goui inn
talanha
pashoud
CTmmori
mata
guihin
talanja
patjud
Yap
eauteg
busemun
ilig
langach
Vim
matai
wathel
talengel
eol
Satawal
metal, messaii
poiti, podi
talinhe
ewai
Malagasi
maso
orana
Bofina
vava.
English.
Tooth
Tongue
Beard
NecJc
Favorlang
sjien
tatsira
ranob
bokkir, arriborri-
bon
Sida
waligh
dadila
taang
Tagala
ngipin
dila
gumi
lyig
Bissayan
ngipun, salat
dila
sulang, bungut
liog
Pampangc
► ipa,n
dUa
baba
batal
Iloco
'
atingnged
Malay
gigi
lidah
janggut, ramos
leer, jangga
Javanese
wodjo, hoentoe
hilat
djenggot
djouggo, goeloe
Bugis
isi
lila
jangkok
olong
Dayah
kasinga
djela
djanggut
ujat
Sunda
hoentoe, waos
leetah, ilat
djanggot
beheng
Bali
gigi, untu
layah, hilat
bahong
Lampong
ipon
ma
galah
Batta
ningi
Guuham
nifin
oula
agaga
Chamori
nifin
hula
atschai
hagaga
Yap
mulech
athaen
i-ap
liigunag
IJlea
nir
luel
elsa-1
uel
Satawal
ni, gni
Jouei laouel
alouzai, alissel
faloui, ounouga'i
Malagasi
nify
lela
volom-bava
tenda, vozona.
English.
Breast
Belly
Arm
" Ha/nd
Favorlang
arrabis, zido
chaan
tea
rima
Sida
av^u
vauyl
pariau
rima
Tagala
dibdib, soso
tiyan
patay
Camay
Bissayan
dughan, soso
tian
butcon
camot, Camay
Pampango
salo, susu
attian
tacdai
camat, camauo
Iloco
barucung, susu
ima
Malay
dada, susu
prut
tangan
asta, tangan
Javanese
djodjo, soesoe
pedahaarrau
langngen
hastho, tangngan
318
FORMOSAN.
English.
Breast
Belly
Arm
Hand
Bugis
aroh, susu
babuwa
lima
Dayak
usok, susu
knai
lenga
lenga
Sunda
dada, soesoe
betteng, lamboet
lengen
lengen, panangan
Bali
niu-niuh
basang, watang
lima, tangan
Lampong
susu-amah
batong
chiulok, chulu
Batta
boldok
tangan
tangan
Guaham
ha ouf, soussou
touiann
hious
kanai
Chamori
hauf, susu
tudjan
kanei
kanei
Yap
niierungoren, thi
thi
- thugunem
pach
karovinarine-pagh
Ulea
uwal, thithi
siel
bai
humutel
Satawal
loupai, oupoual,
ti, toussagai
segai oubouoi
rape lepei
ga leima, pra
nema
Malagasi
tratra
kibo
sandry
tdnana.
English.
Finger
Foot
Heart
• Blood
Favorlang apillo
asiel
totto, tutta
tagga
Sida
kagamos
rahpal, tiltil
tintin
amagh
Tagala
dali
paa
poso
dugo
Bissayan
torlo
teel, siqui
posoposo
dugo
Pampango taliri
bitis
pusu, busal
daya
Iloco
naquem
dara
Malay
jari
kaki, pada
ati
darah
Javanese
derridji
soekoe, podo
batos, hati
rah
Bugis
jari
ajeh
ati
dara
Dayak
tundjuk
pai
atei
daha
Sunda
ramo
soekoe, dampal
djadjantoeng
gettih
Bali
jariji, hanti
chokor, suku
jantung
gateh, rah
Lampong
jari
chiukot
jantung
rah
Batta
djidi muduk
mutter
Guaham
kalouloud
adin
Chamori
kalulud
adding
haga
Yap
pugelipagh
garovereven
ratta
Z/lea
kasthel
petehl
ta
Satawal
attili pai
pera perai
atchapon
Malagasi
rantsan-tanana
tongotra
fo
ra.
English.
FUsh
Bone
Milk
Skin
Favorlang
' b6a
oot
tach 0 zido
maram
Sida
wat
toural
hakey
validt
Tagala
laman
bot-d
gatas
balat,
Bissayan
onor, tayor
tulan
gatas
anit, panit
Pampango
0 laman, bulbul
butul
gatas, sabad
balat, catat
Iloco
dumara
Malay
daging
tulang
susu, ayar-susu
kulit
•
FORMOSAN.
31!
English.
Flesh
Bone
Milk
Skin
Javanese
dhaging
tosan, baloong
to jo soesoe
koelit
Bugis
juku
buku
susu
uH
Dayah
isi
tolang
djohon-tusu
upak
Sunda
laoek, daging
toelang
tji-soesoe
koeUt
Bali
hisi, daging
tulang, balung
nyonyo
kulet
Lampong
Batta
Guaham
dagaing
tulan
wai-susu
bawa
tolan
Chamori
tschugususu
Yap
lengiren
.
Ulea
f &U
Satawal
fetougoul
roulou pei
pouai
Malagasi
nofo
taolana
ronono
hoditra.
Whether this be the language of the aborigines of
Formosa is doubtful. All that can be said is, that no
sample of any second language is known.
320
TOBI.
CHAPTER XLIX.
Micronesia. — Tobi. — The Pelew islands. — The Caroline and Marianne (or
Ladrone) Archipelagoes. — The Polynesia.
By Micronesia is meant everything between Gilolo and
the Philippines on one side, and the Navigator's Is-
lands, or Sarnoan Archipelago, on the other. The first
steps in the passage are long ones, and the group is, to
some extent, artificial.
For Tobi, or Lord North's Island, and the Pelew
group ; important as these islands are for any investiga-
tion which, like the present, derives Polynesia fi:om
Micronesia, and Micronesia from either the Philippines
or the parts about Tidore and Gilolo, we have but
scanty data.
English,
Tobi.
English.
Tobi.
Man
amare
Moon
mokum
Woman
vaivi
Star
uitsh
Head
metshemum
Fire
yaf
Hair
tshim
Water (fresh)
taru
Beard
kusum
{salt)
tat
Hand
kaimuk
Stone
vas
Foot
petchem
Bird
karum
Bone
tshil
Fish
ika.
Sun
yaro
For the Pelew islands we have the following voca-
bularies, the first of v/hich is from lilarsden, the second
from Keate's account of the islands.
English.
Pelew (1.)
Pelew (3.)
Man
arracat
masaketh
Head
pudeluth
botheluth
Eye
muddath
colsule
Nose
koyum
kiule
Beard
unwulel
ungelell
Hand
kurruel
kemark
THE PELEW ISLANDS.
321
English.
Pelew (1).
Pelew (2).
Blood
arrasaack
Day
kuguk
cucuk
Night
kapisongi
kaposingi
Dead
luathe
raathee
White
kalelu
kellelu
Black
kaletori
cattetou
Fire
ngaou
karr
miul
Water
ralm
an-al
Earth
kutum
Storve
path
Bird
kochayu
cockiyu
malk
Egg
niese
Fish
nikel
neekel
Sun
kioss
coyoss
Mom
puyur
pooyer
Star
beduk
bethuck
One
tang
tong
Two
urung
oroo
J. Iiree
othay
othey
Fwur
awang
oang
Five
aim
aeem
Six
lollom
malong
Seven
awith
oweth
Eight
ai
tei
Nine
etteu
etew
Ten
truyuk
tricook
magoth
makotli.
Few languages are more important than those of tlie
small islands hereabouts. They should be compared not
only with the Philippine, but the Formosan — with which
the Pelew has some remarkable coincidences.
The typical languages of Micronesia are the following.
English. Guaham.
Chamori.
Yap.
Man lahe
laM
pimolin
Woman palawan
palauan
wupin
Ulea.
Head ouloii ulu elingeng
Hair gapoun-oulu gapunulu laliigel
mamoan
tabut
Satawal.
mal
rabout
faifid
methackitim rouinai
simoie
timui aleroumai
timoi
Y
322
MICRONESIAN LANGUAGES.
English.
Guaham.
Chamori.
Yap.
Ulea.
Satawal.
Eye
mata
mata
eauteg
matai
metal
Nose
goniinn
guihin
busemun
wathel
poiti
Tooth
nifin
nifin
mulech
nir
ni, gni
Tongue
oiila
hula
athaen
luel
laouel
Beard
atshai
rap
elsal
alouzai
NecTc
agaga
hagaga
liigunag
uel
faloui
ounougai
Ear
talanha
talanja
ilig
talengel
talinhe
Mouth
pashoud
patjoud
langach
eol
ewai
Breast
haouf
hauf
niierungoreng
uwal
loupai
susu
susu
thithi
thithi
ti
BeUy
touiann
tudjan
thugunem
siel
segai oubouoi
Arm
hious
kanei
pach
bai
rape lepei
Hand
kanai
kanei
karovenarenepagh humutel
galeima
pranema
Finger
kalouloud
kalulud
pugehpagh
kasthel
attilipai
Foot
adin
adding
garovereven
pethl
peraperai
Blood
haga
ratta
ta
achapon
Sky
langin
lang
lang
Day
haani
— —
_ —
Night
poeni
kainep
ebong
poum
Sun
addau
al
al
ial, alet
Moon
pulan
moram
moram
ma.ram
alig ouling
Star
putiun
tuv
fiss
fiez
aoud
mapagahes
tharami
tharami
saronn
ieng manileng
Wind
mangeu
niveng
aang
ianhe
Rain
utjan
nu
uth
oroo
Water
ha,noum
kanum
munum
eliimi
ral
River
saddug
luU
eatsh
nao
eath
Sea
tassi
tahsi
lao
tati
amourek
Fire
goifi
quafi
eaf
iaf
Smoke
assu
athanenevi
aevi
oath
Earth
tahno
wunau
vaUi
merolo
Stone
ashou
atju
malang
vas
fahou
Tree
uddunhadju
pan
oluel
pelagoullouk
Great
dankulu
poga
eolep
etalai
Little
dikiki
watich
edigit
emouroumors
Cold
olliim
isaleu
Warm
eatho
lass
issa pouers
.
elief
I
quaho
igagk
ngang
Thou
hago
MILLE AND TARAWAN.
323
The Marianne islands are continued into the Kingsmill
(Tarawan) group, and the Radack and Ralik chains ; our
scanty clcda for these being due to Mr. Hale, the philologue
under Captain Wilkes in the United States Exploring
Expedition.
(1.)
English.
Mille.
English.
Mille.
Man
momam
Stone
rukkah
Head
borrum
Bird
pao
Ea/r
ladzhilligin
Egg
lip
Eye
middarn
Fish
ik
Hand
ban
I
1
Foot
nen
He
ia
Mouth
langwen
One
dzhuon
Nose
bathart
Two
rua
Teeth
nin
Three
tilu
NaU
agguk
Four
emen
Sim
al
Five
lailem
Moon
allung
Six
dildzheno
Sta/r
edzhu
Seven
adzheno
Fire
kidzbaik
EigU
dzhurigol
Water (fresh)
reniun
Nine
me dzhuon
{salt)
lajet
(2
Ten
dzhuon.
English.
Tarawan.
English.
Tarawan.
Man
umane
/
ngai
Head
atu
Thou
unggoe
Beard
buai
He
tena
Ear
taringa
One
te
Eye
mata
Two
ua
Nose
bairi
Three
teni
Tongue
newe
Fowr
a
Sun
tai
Five
nima
Moon
makainga
Six
ono
Fire
ai
Seven
iti
Water (salt)
taari
Eight
oanu
Bird
man
Nine
rua
Fish
ika
Ten
tegaun
Stone
atip
My house
im
■arh
Thy
house
im
-urn
His
house
im
-en
Our house
im-erro
Their house
im
-derh
IMiose hmse
im-en-wen.
Y 2
324
POLYNESIA.
The following represent the dialect of De Peyster's
Islands : —
English.
Fakaofo.
English.
Fakaofo.
Man
tangata
Mouth
ngutu
Woman
fafine
Nose
isu
Eye
mata
Tongue
alelo
Ear
talinga
Sun
la
Hair
ulu
Moon
masina
Beard
kumikumi
Fire
afi
talafa
Bird
manu
Tooth
nifo
Fish
ika
Foot
vae
Stone
fatu
Hand
lima
Tree
lakau.
With the Samoan Archipelago begins Polynesia Pro-
per as opposed to Micronesia.
English.
Marquesas.
Kanaka (of the Sandwich Islands)
Man
enama
kanaka
Head
upoho
poho
Eyes
mata
maka
Nose
ihu
ihu
Mouth
fafa
aba
Ear
puaina
pepeiac
Tooth
niho
nino
Tongue
eo
lelo, leo
Back
tua
kua
Beard
kumikumi
umiumi
Blood
toto
koko
Bone
ivi
iii
Hand
ima
limo
Foot
vae
vae
Day
a
la
Night
po
po
Sun
aomati
aomati
Moon
mahina
mahina
Star
fetu, hetu
hoku
Earth
henua
honua
Sea
tal
kai
Fire
ahi
ahi
Water
vai
vai
Stone
kea
pohaku
Tree
kaau
laau
Bird
manu
manu
Fish
ika
ia
One
tahi
kahi
POLYNESIA.
325
English.
Marquesas.
Kanaka (of the Sandwich Islands).
Two
ua
lua
Three
toil, toru
kolu
Four
ha
ha
Five
' uma
lima
Six
ono
ono
Seven
hita
hiku
Eight
vau
valu
Nine
iva
iva
Ten
onohuu
umi.
(•2)-
English.
Maori (of New Zealand).
EngUsh. Maori (of New Zea
Head
upoho
Nose
ihu
huruhurie
Day
ao
makawe
mahana
mahunga
ra
whakahipa
Sun
ra
Belly
kopu
rnamaru
m^nawa
Moon
komaru
rui
maraina
Back
tuara
Star
whelu
Body
tinana
Stone
kamaka
Bone
iwi
kohalii
Ear
taringa
toka
Eye
kanohi
nganga
kara
Bird
manu
Mouth
mangai
Fish
ika
waha
ngohi.
mawhera
MISCELLANEOUS VOCABULARIES.
(!•)
English.
Rotiinia.
English.
Rotuma.
Woman
hani
Eye
matho
Head
thilu
Mouth
nutsu
Ear
thalinga
Blood
toto
Tooth
ala
Sun
asa
Tongue
alele
Day
asa
Foot
afthia
Moon
hula
Nose
isu
Star
hethu
Beard
kumkum
Fire
rahi
Hair
levu
Water
vai
326
J
English
Rotunia.
English.
Rotuma.
Water
(salt)
sias
Three
(fresh)
tan
Four
hake
Stone
hathu
Five
lima
Bird
Tna.nmanu
'Six
^99
kalodhi
Seven
hithu
Fish
ia
Eight
valu
One
esea
Nine
ta
Ten
pohe
Two
sanghulu
(2.)
English.
Ticopia.
English.
Ticopia.
Man
tanhata
Ear
tarinha
Woman
fefinetapti
Sun
lera
Bea/rd
tarafa
Moon
marama
Mmth
nhutu
Star
fetu
Arm
lima
Fire
afi
Head
ulu
Water
vai
Hair
raulu
Sea
moana
Tooth
nifo
Fish
ika
Blood
kefo
Milk
vaiu
Tongue
lelo
Egg
fouai
Nose
issu
Bird
manu
Eye
mata
Stone
fatu.
(3.)
EngUsh.
Cocos Island.
English.
Cocos Island
Eyes
matta
Moon
massina
Nose
esou
Star
fittou
Hair
urug
One
taei
Teeth
nifo
Two
loa
Hand
fatinga-lima
Three
tolou
Fire
umu
Fow
fa
Water
waij
Five
lima
Earth
kiUe
Six
houno
Stone
fattou
Seven
filou
Swine
wacka
Eight
waJo
Bird
Ufa
Nine
ywou
Fish
ica
Ten
ongefoula.
Sun
la
^
POLYNESIA.
327
(4.)
English.
Wahitaho.
English.
Waliitaha
Head
houpoco
Star
ehani
Eye
matta
One
tahi
Nose
hihou
Two
houah
Tongue
houhoho
Three
tohou
Tooth
niho
Four
fah
Hand
mana
Five
himali
Dead
matte
Six
bono
Swine
boaca
Seven
fetto
Fish
eatou
Eight
vabo
ehika
Nine
hiva
Sun
eha
Ten
onohohou.
Moon
oumati
(5.) ■
English.
Mayorga.
English.
Mayorga.
Head
hulu
One
taha
Lye
mata
Two
hua
Nose
yhiu
Three
tolu
Tongue
loulu
Four
fa
Tooth
nifu
Five
nima
Hand
afi-nema
Six
ono
Dead
matte
Seven
fito
Water
bay
EigJU
fatu
Earth
yuta
Nine
giba (?)
Swine
pauca
Ten
tongoa-fulu.
Egg
tomoa
(6.)
English.
Paumotu.
EngUsh.
Paumotu.
Man
hakoi
Sea
takarari
Woman
erire
Fire
neki
Head
penu
Water
komo
Tongue
mangee
Wind
rohaki
Bone
keingi
Fish
paru
Moon
kawake
Tree
moboki.
Rain
toite
The practice of extending the tabu to words is
Polynesian : e. g., when a chief dies the use of such
terms as are either identical with, or similar to, his
name is forbidden. There is also, in the larger islands,
328 POLYNESIA.
a kind of ceremonial language. That these are artificial
elements is plain. They are elements, however, of which
most languages show either the rudiments or the frag-
ments.
In Basque we have a ceremonial conjugation. In
South America there is more than one language where
the women use one word, the men another ; a fact
which has been exaggerated into a pair of languages
(one for each sex), with an explanatory hypothesis to
match.
Bating, however, the facts of this kind, the Polyne-
sian dialects are those wherein the artificial element is
at zero. It is but lately that they have been written at
all : nor were they, before the introduction of the pre-
sent missionary influences, in either direct or indirect
contact with any languages more cultivated than them-
selves. For the phenomena, then, of a thoroughly
natural and spontaneous development they are materials
of pre-eminent value.
NEW GUmKA. 329
CHAPTER L.
The Papua Class.— Guebe, &c. — New Guinea.— New Ireland, &c., to
New Caledonia.
In making the Malay division end at Cerara, and the
Papua begin at Guebe, I chiefly consult convenience ;
inasmuch as, along the line of contact, there are notable
signs of transition.
From the small Archipelago, at the north-western
extremity of New Guinea, and from New Guinea itself,
the line of Papua languages runs south and south-east,
via New Britannia, New Hanover, New Ireland, the
Solomon Islands, &c., Malhcollo, Erromango, Tana, Erro-
nan, Annatom, to New Caledonia. The Louisiade Archi-
pelago is also Papua ; as are the islands in Torres
Straits — i. e. they are Papua rather than Australian.
Twenty years ago, the languages of this class were all
but unknown, not one of them having ever been re-
duced to writing, or even learned by an educated Euro-
pean. That no Hollander ever spoke any of the dialects
of the north-western coast of New Guinea cannot in-
deed be asserted unconditionally — though the doctrine
de non apparentihus, kc, suggests that such was the
case. Nothing, however, of any importance concerning
them was communicated to the world at large. Of the
Tana language, a MS. grammar by Mr. Heath had
been inspected by Dr. Prichard, who stated that
the language which it represented differed entirely from
330
GUEBE AND WAIGIU.
the Polynesian. It abounded with inflections, and had
a peculiar form by which three persons were spoken
of — a form distinct from the dual, and distinct from
the plural, a form for which the term trinal was sug-
gested.
The little knowledge involved in these fragmentary
facts, created a tendency to put a high ordinal value on
the characteristics of the Papua grammar ; a value in
which there is, probably, a certain amount of exaggera-
tion.
Beginning with the language of the small island of Que-
he, which lies somewhat nearer to Gilolo than to New
Guinea, we find in the following vocabulary, at least, a
notable difference between it and the Waigiu spoken
immediately under the Equator and within sight of the
mainland of New Guinea itself
English.
Gueb6.
WaigW.
Man
syniat
Woman
pine
Head
kouto
kagala
Eye
tarn
*EyeB{'t)
tadji
jadjiemouri
Nose
kassugnor
soun
Mouth
kapiour
ganganini
Lips
kapiondjais
Teeth
kapiondji
onalini
*Tongue
mamalo
Ear
kassegna
Cheek
affoffo
Beard
ajangout
gangafoni
Hair
kalignouni
Neck
kokor
Belly
siahoro
synani
Arm
kamer
kapiani
Hand
fadlor
konkafeni
Back
kouaneteni
Foot
kourgnai
Shin,
kinot
rip
Swn
astouol
*Fire
ap
Sea
tasfi
^'
PORT DOREY.
English.
Gueb6.
* Water (fresh)
aer omissi
*Bird
mani
*Fish
hin
One
pissa
Tioo
pilou
Three
pitoul
Four
piflfat
Five
pileme
Six
pounnoun
Seven
piffit
Eight
poual
Nine
pissiou
Ten '
otsha
831
WaigilL
The Papuan Proper is chiefly known from the parts
about Port Dorey ; where the first of the following vo-
cabularies was collected by Forrest, as early as a.d.
1774-1776.
English.
Papuan.
Arago.
Man
sononman
snone
Woman
binn
biene
Head
vrouri
Eye
tadeni
grarour
Mouth
soidon
Tooth
nacoere
Tongue
ramare
Ear
kanik
Hand
konef
Ai'm
bramine
Leg
oizof
Foot
oibahene
Blood
riki
Day
ari
Sun
rass
rias
Moon
hyck
Star
mak
Fire
for
afor
Water
war
ouar
{salt)
warmassin
(sweet)
warimassin
Fiver
warbike
Sea
sorene
Fain
meker
Fish
332
PORT DOREY, ETC.
English.
Papuan.
Arago,
Bird
moorsankeen
man (?)
bourore
Hog
ben
baine
Tree
kaibus
House
rome
rouma
Egg
bolor
samoure
Hill •
bon
Sand
yean
iene
White
pepoper
Black
pyssin
One
oser
ossa
Two
serou
serou
Three
keor
keor
Four
tiak
tiak, nal
Five
rim
rime
Six
onim
oneme
Seven
tik
sik, fik
Eight
war
Guar
Nine
siore
siore
Ten
samfoor
samefou]
Taking the numerals as a test, the Archipelago and
the neighbourhood of Port Dorey give a multiplicity
of sub-dialects.
(1.)
English.
Aiopin,
Tandia.
Dasen.
One
wosio
nai
joser
Two
woroe-o
roesi
socroe
Three
woro
toeroesi
toroe
Fmr
woako
attesi
ati
Five
rimo
marasi
rembi
Six
rimo-wosie
marasimge
rimbi-oser
Ten
sagoero
(2-)
oetiu
arisa.
English.
Jower.
Wandamin,
Arfak.
One
re-be
siri
woam
Two
re-doe
mondo
jan
Three
re-oe
toro
kar
Four
re-a
at
tar
Five
brai-a-re
rim
maswar
Six
brai-a-rebe
rimmasiri
kaswar
Ten
brai-a-redoe
rimmasoerat
marswar.
NEW GUINEA.
833
(3.)
English.
Omar.
Insam.
Amberbaki.
One
kotim
keteh
toe
Two
redis
roesi
ker
Three
etirom
korisi
noer
Four
eat
aka
boat
Five
matisi
rima
mer
Six
kolim
keteh
ebetoe
Ten
maptides
boeki, roesi
onger.
(4.)
EngUsh.
Karon.
Pome.
Seroci.
Moor.
One
dik
korii
bo-iri
tata
Two
we
koiroe
bo-roe
roeroe
Three
gre
toro
bo-toro
oro
Fowr
at
at
bo-ab
ao
Five
mik
rim
rim
rimo
Six
mak
ona
boiri-kori
i.
rimo-tata
Seven
fret
itoe
bor-kori
roeroe
Eight
ongo
waro
botd-kori
oro
Nine
masiwo
isioe
boa-kori
ao
Ten
mesoe
awrali
(5.)
soerat
toverah.
Hillmen
, to the West
of Amsterdam,
and
English.
Middleburgh
I.
Ron.
Beak & Mefur.
One
inele
joser
sai
Two
ali
noeroe
doei
Three
told
'ngo-kor
kior
Four
fak
fak
fiak
Five
mafoek
lim
lim
Six.
maflenene
onim
onim
Seven
ane mele
onememaeroe
tiek
Eight
ali
onemegnokor
war
Nine
tolo
onenfak
slew
Ten
feh
(6.)
onemerim
samfor.
English.
Ansoes.
Salawatti.
One
koiri
sa
Two
korisi
roe
Three
todoe
tor
Four
moano
fat
Five
di
rim
Six
wona
onim
Seven
'/
itoe
fiet
Eight
India toro
war
Nine
india ato
si
Ten
hoera
lafa.
334
t
NEW GUINEA.
Che following vocabularies are from the south and
it, being chiefly spoken on the coast.
English.
Loho.
Utatanata.
Man
marrowane
marrowane
Woman
mawinna
CheeTcs
wafiwiriongo
awanu
Eyes
matatongo
mame
■ Hand
nimangouta
toemare
Head
umun
oepauw
Arms
nimango
too
Bach
rasukongo
urimi
Belly
kamborongo
imau
Foot
kaingo
mouw
Hair
monongfuru
oeirie
Mouth
oriengo
irie
Nose
sikacongo
birimboe
Neck
garang
ema
Tongue
kariongo
mare
Teeth
riwotongo
titi
Sun
orak
Watei-
malar
warini
Rain
■ komak
komak
River
■walar nabetik
warari napettike
Bird
manoe
Hog
bui
oe
Island
nusu
Tree
akajuakar
kai
Bow
amure.
English.
Triton Bay
Mairassis.
Onim.
Man
marowana
iohanouw
Head
monongo
nangoewoe
onimpatiu
Hair
monongfoero nangoekatoe
ampoewa
Eye
matatongc
> namboetoe
matapatin
Nose
sikaiongo
nambi
wirin
Mouth
oriengo
naros
soeman
Tooth
roewatongo sifa
Tiifin
Hand
nimangoeta okorwita
Foot
nimin kaki
Sun
orah
ongoerah
rera
Moon
foeran
foeran
poenono
Earth
ena
gengena
gai
Fire
iworo
api
Water
walar
wata
weari.
For the islands of Torres Straits, viz. : the Darnly
THE LOUISIAPE ARCHIPELAGO.
335
Islands (Erroob and Maer) and the Murray Islands,
vocabularies in the appendix to Juke's Voyage of the
Fly give somewhat full specimens. The tables in which
they appear show the difference between the South
Papua and the North Australian. It is a difference,
however, which is easily exaggerated; as in the first
seventeen words we find the following coincidences.
English.
Papua.
Australian.
Chech
bag
bag
Eye
iUcap
danacap
Eyelid
illcamush
Eyelash
dammuclie
Ear
gereep
coora
Nose
peet
peecbi.
The collective name for the Erroob, Maer, and Massied
forms of speech is Miriam.
The Redscar Bay, Dufaure Island, and Brumer Island
dialects are known through the vocabularies of the
Rattlesnake, collected by Macgillivray. They are allied
to each other — the latter being very closely allied to
the Duchateau Island of the Calvados, and the Brierly
Island of the Louisiade, group.
English.
Erroob.
Redscar Bay.
Man
kaimeer
tau
laminar
Woman
koskeer
mada
ahine
Child
kabelli
mero
Head
kerim
kwara
Eye
irkeep
mata
Ear
laip
taiya
peU
gereep
Nose
peet
uda
Mouth
nuga
tae
meet
maa
Lips
pipina
Teeth
tirreg
isi
Tongue
werrut
mala
336
NEW IRELAND.
English.
Erroob.
Redscar Bay.
Hair
moos
hui
Neck
perreg
Hand
tag
ima
Foot, or Leg
taertar
gab
Blood
mam
Sky
baz
garewa
Sun
gegger
mahana
Moon
maeb
nowarai
Star '
waer
Fire
lira
kaiwa
Water {fresh)
nea
goila
{salt)
goor
arita
Stone
bakeer
weu
Wind
wag
Sea
carrem
Sand
wae
geragera
Tree
igger
I
cai
Mine
cara
Thou
ma
Your
mara
One
netat
ta
Two
naes
ma
Three
naesa netat
toi
Four
bani
Five
ima.
Here we leave the southern, and returning to the
parts about Waigiti, follow the northern, eastern, or
north-eastern line.
English.
New Ireland.
Port Praslin.
Head
ptikltik
Ear
pralenbek
palalignai
Eye
matak
mata
Hair
iuk
epiu
Bea/rd
kambissek
katissende
Nose
kambussuk
mbussu
Mouth
lok
mlo
Tooth
insek
ninissai
Tongue
karmea
kermea
Arm
limak
Finger
oulima
lima
Neck
kondaruak
kindurua
Back
taruk
plaru
THE SOLOMON ISLES.
337
English.
New Ireland.
Port Praslin.
Foot
balankeke
pekendi
Sun
kamiss
Moon
kalan
Fire
bia
Water
malum
molum
Sea
bun
Bird
manuk
Fish
siss
sis.
Bauro, or San Christoval, along with Guadalcanar,
belongs to the Solomon Islands. The Rev. J. Patteson's
First Attempt in the Bauro Language gives us our ma-
terials, which consist of the Lord's Prayer, two short
prayers, and a catechism concerning the Fall of Man
and his Redemption.
English.
Bam-o.
English.
Bauro.
Man (homo)
inone
SJcy
aro
(vir)
sai
Moon
hura
Woman
urao
Water
wai
Hand
rima
House
oma
Day
dangi
Tree
hasiai.
English.
Guadalcanar.
English.
Guadalcanar
Man (Jiomo)
inoni
Sit
tooru
{vir)
mane
I
inau
Woman
kene
Thou
io
Father
amma
He :
ia
Son
gare
Thine
amu
Child
mare
His
ana
Good
siene
One
tai
Bad
tos
Txm
arua
Die
mai
Three
oi-u.
Hear
noro
In Vanikoro, three languages are spoken.
English.
Vanikoro.
Tanema.
Taneanxu.
Man
lamoka
ranuka
amualigo
Woman
verume
ranime
vignivi
Beard
tingtime
kole
vingumia
Arm
me
menini
maini
Tooth
ugne
kole
indzhe
Z
338
THE NEW HEBRIDES.
English.
Vanikoro.
Tanema.
Taneamu.
Mouth
ugrenili
Tongue
mea
mia
mimiae
Hair
wennbadzha
valanbadzha valanbadzha
Bach
dienhane
delenana
diene
Leg
kelenili
alenini
aeleda
Moon
mele
Fire
nebie
gnava
iaua
Water
wire
nira
ero.
The next
1 ^-vT%^«i y^ r\n
two vocabularies are
from the Ne\
leDnaes.
(1.)
EugUsh.
MaUicoUo.
English.
Mamcollo.
Man (homo)
nebok
Bird
moero
(vir)
bauenunk
Fish
heika
Woman
rambaiuk
One
sikai
rabin
Two
e-na
Father
aramomau
Three
e-roi
Child
urare
Four
e-vatz
Head
basaine
Five
e-rima
Eye
maitang
Six
su-kai
Ear
talingan
Seven
whi-u
Tooth
rebohn
Eight
oroi
warrewuk
Nine
wbi-vatz
Nose
noossun
Ten
singeap.
Hair
membrun baitang 1
(20
EngUsh.
Tana.
English.
Tana.
Man
aremana
Sea
tasi
Woman
peran
Good
niasan
Father
rumune
aumasan
Son
mati
ratutakat
Body
nupuran
Bad
ellaha
Heart
reren
Holy
ekenan
Sun
mere
Great
asori
Moon
maukua
Many
repuk
Bird
manu
Eat
ani
Fish
namu
Speah
mani
Tree
nei
mankeari
Fire
nap
Hear
matareg.
Earth
tana
The Gospel of St. Luke in Annatom was published
in 1852, by the Rev. J. Geddie ; and in 1853, that
of St. Mark in Sydney. These, along with other
external confluences, have introduced —
ANNATOM.
339
From the Oi^eelc.
Agelo
angel
Areto
bread
Apeitome
circumcision
From the English.
Slip
sheep
Flaur
flour
Mint
mint
Waina
idne
Mune
money
Wik
week
English.
Annatom.
Man
atimi
Husband
atumnya
Wife
ehgai
Woman
takata
Head
nepek
Hair
iimri idjini
Eye
esganimtai
Ear
intikgan
Nose
ingedje
Mouth
nipjineucse
Tongue
naniai
Tooth
nijin
Band
ikma
Finger
nupsikma
Foot
eduon
Blood
unja
Sky
nohatag
Aprofeta
Sito
Baptizo
Pigad
Leven
Ru
Kot
Apalse
English.
Day
Sun
Moon
Star
God
Wind
Rain
Fire
Water
Sea
Stone
Land
Rock
mil
Dog
Bird
Fish
prophet
wheat
baptize.
peg
leaven
rue
coat
palsy.
Annatom.
adiat
mahoc
moijeuw
Atua
nimtinjop
incopda
caup
wai
unjop
hat
otohtan
lo-la eduon
kuri
man
mu.
With the Polynesian and Malayan languages in gene-
ral, the Annatom has, at least, the following words in
common —
English.
Annatom.
Water
wai
wai — Ende
Fire
caup
api — Gu^e
Bird
man
mani — Guebt
Tooth
nijin
nihi — Ende
Foot
eduai
Idi — Bima
Die
mas
mati — Malay
House
eom
umah — Javanese
One
ethi
aida — Timor
Two
ero
erua — Manaioto., t&c.
God
Atua
KlMSi-- Polynesian, d-c.
z 2
340
ANNATOM.
English.
Hill
Stone
Mom
Hen
Dog
Kava
Annatom.
eduon
hat
atimi
jaa
kuri
wotang — Solor
fatu — Timor
atoni — Timor
jangjang — Macassar
kuri — Ticopia
kava — Polynesia.
Words like aJctaJctai, epto, eropse, esvi, inwai, inpas,
inridjai, imtak, uctyi, imiisjis, intas, eucjeucjaig, injop,
&c., show that the Annatom phonesis is less vocalic than
that of the other islands.
In Erromango there are, at least, two dialects ;
apparently three — the third the common language of
the island at large, or its central districts.
English.
Northern Dialect.
Southern Dialect.
Man {homo)
neteme
yirima
Woman
nasivin
yarevin
Sky •
unpokop
nimpokop
Earth
nemap
dena
Sun
nipminen
umangkam
Moon
itiis
iriis
Star
mose
umse
Sea
t&k
de
HUl
numpur
numbuwa
Bush
tebutu]
undumburui
Plant
denuok
dokmus
Ood
nobu
uboh
Chief
natA.Tnonok
yarumne
Father
itemin
rimin
Mother
dinemi
ILnin
W(yrd
nam
novul
Fire
nom
nampevang
Breadfruit
nimara
nimal
House
nimo
nima
Fruit
nobuwan-ne
nimil.
English.
Erromango.
English.
Erromango
Man
etemetallam
Yoimger brother abmissai
neteme
Son
niteni
Womom
wasiven
nahivin
Head
Eye
numpu
nimmint
Father
etemen
itemjn
Ood
Sky
Nobu
pokop
Mother
dineme
Sun
nitminen
Wife
retopon
Mom
tais
Brother
avongsai
Star
masi
THE LOYALTY ISLES.
341
English.
Erromango.
English.
Erromango.
Wind
mankep
Hill
nuinpua
Fire
nom
Stone
inevat
Day
kwaras
Bird
menuk
dan
Fish
nomn
NigU
nimerok
Tree
nei
Earth
maap
Fmit
nobowane
Sea
tak
Leaf
ankalon
Water
nu
House
nimua.
For the language of LifUj a language of the Loyalty
group, we have but few data — ^viz., A Book for Boys
and Girls ; The Lord's Prayer ; the Creed, Prayers, a
Primer (?), A Book for showing the Rule of God ; a few
words ; and the numerals.
English.
Lifu.
EngUsh.
Lifa.
One
chas
Si^
chagemen
Tioo
luete
Seven
luegemen
Three
konite
Eight
konigemen
Four
eketse
Nine
ekegemen
Five
tipi
Ten
luepi.
It is closely allied to the
Mare.
English.
Mare.
English.
Mare.
Man (homo)
ngome
Foot
wata
(vir)
chamhani
roata
Woman
hmenewe
Blood
dra
Father
chacha
God
Mackaze
Mother
ma
Shy
dwe
mani
Sun
du
Son
tei
Moon
jekole
tene
Day
rane
Boy
maichamliane
Night
bune
Child
wakuku
Wind
iengo
Daughter
moclienewe
Fire
iei
Brother
cheluaie
Water
wi
Elder brother
mama
Earth
rawa
Younger brother achelua
Hill
weche
Eye
waegogo
Stone
ete
Mouth (lip)
tubenen-gocho
Tree
iene.
Hand
ara.Tiine
In Xew Caledonia, the language of Cape Queen
Charlotte is known under the name of Baladea ; for
342
NEW CALEDONIA.
which Gabelentz would substitute the native name
Buaura. A small tract published in Rarotonga, in
1847, gives us the main materials for this dialect; it
consists of passages from the Bible, and either represents
the language imperfectly or the language is inadequate
to the translation. The sounds of /, ?, ^, and s, are
wanting. Many of the roots are monosyllabic ; many,
apparently, dissyllabic, the concurrence of consonants
being rare. Its proper inflection is of the scantiest. It
uses prefixes as weU as sufl^es ; suffixes as well as
prefixes.
English.
Baladea.
Man
ngauere
unie
Womcm
vio
Father
chicha
MotJier
nia
Child
vanikor
Son
niao
Daughter
vanivio
Hair
ngo
Face
kaua'e
Eye
erne
neme
Eair
uanea
Mmith
uange
Tongue
nekune
Nech
gouka
Hand
imi
Foot
Blood
inte
English.
Baladea.
God
Intu
Shy
okua
Srni
ni
Bay
ni
Moon
moe
Star
veo
Night
pune
Fire
dadi
Water
tei
Sea
injo
Tree
ngae
Good
ade
Bad
die
puru
Great
akae
Many (all)
chapi
Eat
ki
Speah
ni.
Compared with the other Oceanic languages it gives-
English.
Moon
Night
Earth
Land
Sea
Sheep
Man
Eye
Hand
Baladea.
moe
pune
nu
nonte
injo
mamoe
unie
neme
imi
mahoc — A nna torn
bune — Mare
ano — Bauro
nonte — Maro
injop — Annatom
mamoe — Mare
inoni — Bauro
name — Tana
lima — Malay, &c. &c.
NEW CALEDONIA.
343
English.
Baladea.
Blood
inte
unja — Annatom
Name
vane
attavanim — Erromam
Heart
nue
mori — Mare
Kingdom
toku
doku — Mare
House
tuna
oma — Bauro
Clothing
kui
kukui — Mare
High
toana
toane — Mare
Live
omoro
amurep— Erroraango.
The following numerals are from the southern portion
of the area under notice : —
FenvAi
Oalaio
Indeni*
Fonqfono
Mami
Twpua
Fenua
Galaio
Indeni
Fonofono
Mami
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
touo
bouiou
bogo
mabeo
kaveri
'■ tchika
iou
too
djiva
djini
tedja
aH
adi
abouai
naroune
nenqui
lelou
eve
ouve
idi
tat
loua
tolou
fa
lima
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
\ kaveri
( ajouo
vio
viro
reve
anharou
tchouo
timbi
ta
toudjo
nhavi
teiamoua
edouma ebouema
napou
ekatoa
1 poulenqui
polelon
I pole
polohoue
nokolou
ono
fitou
parou
iva
kadoua.
English.
Isle of Pines.
Yengen.
One
ta
bets
Two
vo
heluk
Three
veti
heyen
Fom
^
beu
pobits
Five
tahue
nim
Six
nota
nimwet
Seven
nobo
nimweluk
Eight
nobeti
nimweyen
Nine
nobeu
nimpobit
Ten
nokau
painduk.
Ueaj though one of the Loyalty Islands, is not
altogether like the rest of the Papuan districts. Its
name, even, is foreign ; Uea being the native term for
Wallis's Island. From this, one of its three languages is
* Oi Nitendi.
344 UEA, ETC.
stated to have been introduced ; the present speakers
of it being the descendants of settlers of uncertain date.
Of the two other forms of speech, one is from New
Caledonia the other (that of the following specimen)
native.
Engli8b.
Uea.
Englisli.
Uea.
One
pacha
Six
Zo-acha
Two
lo
Seven
Zo-ala
Three
kun
Eight
Zo-kunn
Four
tliak
Nine
Zo-thak
Five
thabumb
Ten
«e-bennete
In like manner FotuTia, though belonging to the New
Hebrides, is Polynesian, rather than Papuan, in speech ;
the language being more especially akin to that of
Rarotonga. Again — in some parts of Fate^ or Sand-
wich Island, a Polynesian dialect is spoken. Thirdly,
in Mau, to the north-east of Fate, the people speak the
Maori, i. e. the language of New Zealand.
THE FIJI. 345
CHAPTER LI.
The Viti, or Fiji, Group.— Its Relations to the Polynesian and the Papua.
For reasons which will appear in the sequel, the Fiji or
Viti is given in a chapter by itself.
The Fiji or Viti Archipelago extends from 1 6° to 2°
S. L. and fr'om 177° to 182° W. L. The islands them-
selves amount to more than 200 : of which not less
than 100 are inhabited. Yanua Levu and Viti Levu
are supposed to contain 40,000 individuals each. The
remaining population, spread over the smaller islands,
may amount to 90,000 more. The language, however,
is the same throughout : though dialects and sub-dia-
lects are to be expected. The chief of these are those of
Lakemba, or the Windward Islands, Somosomo, Vewa,
Inbau, and Rewa.
The following list, from Gabelentz, shows the extent
to which its vocabulary agrees with the Malay and Poly-
nesian.
English.
Shj
Moon
Clouds
Fain
Storm
Wind
East Wind
Lightning
Flame
Night
Fiji.
Malay and Polynesian.
lagi
p. langi, m. langit
vula
m. bulan
0
p. ao, m. awan
uca
p. usa, m. ujan
cava
p. afa, awa
cagi
p. angi, m. angin
tokalau
p. tokelau
liva
p. uila
udre
p. ura
bogi
p. pongi
346
THE FIJI.
English.
Fiji.
Malay or Polynesian.
Shade
malumalu
p. malu
Earth
vanua
p. fanua, m. benua
Land
qele
p. kele
Stone
vatu
p. fatu, m. batu
Hill
bukebuke
p. puke, m. bukit
Banh
taba
p. tafa, tapa, m. tepi
Reef
cakau
p. bakau
Way
sala
p. hala, ara, m. djalan
Ashes
dravu
p. lefu
Bust
umea
p. umea
Water
wai
p. wai
Fresh water
dranu
p. lanu
Sea
wasa
p. vasa
Man (homo)
tamata
p. tangata
(mr)
tagane
p. tane
Father
tama
p. tama
Mother
tina
p. tina
Elder brother
tuaka.
p. tuakana
Younger brother
taci
p. tasi
Son-in-law
vugo
p. hungoni
King
sau
p. hau
Lord
tui
p. tui
Head
ulu
p. ulu, m. ulu
Ear
daliga
p. talinga, m. telinga
Eye
mata
p. m. mata
Nose
ucu
p. isu, m. idong
Mouth
gusu
p. ngutu
Beard
kumi
p. kumikumi, m. kumia
Hand
Hga
p. lima
Breast
sucu
p. m. susu
Belly
kete
p. kete
Leg
yava
p. avae, wawae
Knee
duru
p. tuli, turi
Heart
loma
p. uma
Vein
ua
p. uaua
Bone
sui
p. sivi
Blood
dra
m. darah
Dog
koli
p. kuli
Bat
beka
p. peka
Bird
manumanu
p. manu, m. manuk
Pigeon
ruve
p. lupe
Snake
gata
_p, ngata
Fish
ika
p. ika, w. ikan
Lobster
urau
p. kura, ula, m. udang
Butterfly
bebe
p. pepe
Ant
lo
jp. lo
Fly
lago
^. lango, m. langau
English.
Midge
Louse
Tree
Root
Barh
Leaf
Fruit
Banana
Cocoanut
milk
Yam
Cane
Sugar-cane
Hedge
Canoe
Mast
Rudder
Sail
Nail
Comb
Bag
Basket
Girdle
Holy
Soft
Tarns
Right
Ready
Ripe
Easy
Empty
Weak
LiUle
New
Hot
Red
Hear
See
Cry
Eat
Drink
Bite
Spit
Taste
Stand
THE FIJI.
Fiji.
Malay or Polynesian.
nana
p. naonao
kutu
p. m. kutu
kau
p. kau, m. kaju
waka
p. aka, m. akar
kuli
p. kili, m. kulit
drau
p. lau, m. daun
vua
p. fua, m. buab
vudi
p. futi
niu
p. niu, TO. nior
lolo
p. lolo
bulu
p. pulu, bulu
uvi
p. ufi, TO. ubi
gasau
p. kaso, kaho
dovu
p. to, tolu, TO. tubbu
ba
p. pa, m. pagar
waqa
p. vaka
vana
p. fana
voce
p. fose
laca
p. la, TO. layer
kie
p. kie
vako
p. fao, TO. paku
seru
p. selu, heru, to. sisir
taga
p. tanga
kato
p. kato
van
p. fau
tabu
p, tabu
malua
p. malie
lasa
p. lata
donu
p. tonu
oti
^. oti
matua
2). TTiatua
mamada
p. mama
maca
p. maha
malumu
p, malu
lailai
jp. lahilahi
vou
J3. foU
katakata
p. kasa
kulakula
^. kula, kura
rogo
p, rongo, longo, to. di
sarasara
p. araara
tagi
p. tangi, TO. tangis
kana
p. kaina, kainga
unuma
p. inu, TO. minum
kati
p. kati
lua
p. lua
tovolea
^9. tofo
tu
p. tu
347
?ar
348
y"
English.
Lie
Come.
Go
Enter
Creep
Sleep
Grow
Die
Know
Enjoy
Possess
Hold
Bring
Loose
Bore
Shoot
Turn
Enclose
Rub
Sweep
Cut
Divide
Dig
Fall
Peel
Wash
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
Hundred
THE FIJI.
Fiji.
Malay or Polynesian.
koto
p. takoto
coa
p. tau
se
p. se
curu
p. uru, sulu
dolo
p. tolo
moce
p. mose, mohe
tubu
p. tupu, m. tumbuh
mate
p. mate, m. mati
kila
p. ilo
reki
p. reka
rawa
p. raiaka, rawa
kuku
p. kuku
kau
p. kau
talu
p. tala
coka
p. hoka
Tana
p. fana
wiri
p. viri, viK, m. pilni
bunu
p. puni
solo
p. holo
tavi
p. tafi
sele
p. sele
koti
p. koti
tava
p. tafa, m. tabang
vaci
p. fasi
kelia
ta
voci
vuluvulu
dua
rua
tolu
va
lima
ono
vitu
walu
ciwa
tini
drau
p. vase
p. keli, m. gali
p. ta
p. fohe
p. fulu, pulu
p. taha, tai
p. lua, rua, m. dua
p. tolu, toru
j9. fa, wa
j3. lima, rima, m. lima
p. ono, m. anam
p. fitu, witu
^. valu, warn
p. iva, hiva
^. tini
p. lau, rau.
With the Annatom it has the following amount of
likeness.
THE FIJI.
English.
Rji
Sun
siga
nagesega
Night
bogi
epeg
Watei'
wai
wai
Stone
vatu
hat
Man {homo)
tamata
atimi
{mr)
atagane
atamaig
Father
tama
etmai
Tongue
yame
namai
Name
yadha
idai
Bird
manumanu
man
Dove
rui^e
nalaupa
Dog
koli
kuri
Bag
kato
cat
Ale
kedhega
asega-
Dark
buto
aapat
Narrow
warowaro
ehroehro
Right
matau
matai
Left
mawi
moiii
Dry
madha
mese
Deep
nubu, titobu
obou
bukete
OJWUC
Hide
tabo-naka
adahpoi
Turn
saumaka
adumoij
Open
salia
asalage
Sit
tiko
ateuc
Weelc
ta^
taig
Sleep
modhe
timjeg
Drink
unuina
nmni
Die
mate
mas
Two
rua
ero
Who
dhei
di
They
era
ara
To
vei
vai.
349
Upon the grammatical relations of this important
language more will be said in the sequel.
350 AUSTRALIA.
CHAPTER LII.
The Australian Group.
The isolation of the Australian languages has often been
insisted on. Yet they have not only miscellaneous
affinities but three vocabularies (1.) the Ombay ; (2.)
the Mangarei ; and (3.) the Timbora, have, for some
years, been pointed* out as vocabularies from the Malay
area with decided Australian affinities.
The definite line of demarcation which is drawn be-
tween them and the Papuan of New Guinea is im-
peached by the Erroob and Darnly Island vocabularies of
Jukes ; not to niention those of Macgillivray from the
Louisiade Archipelago.
The fact that, notwithstanding the mutual unintelli-
gibility of the majority of the forms of speech of which
we have specimens, combined with the fact of these
being numerous, the languages for the whole of Austra-
lia form but one class, has been urged by Grey, Tlired-
keld, the present writer, and others' — by all upon inde-
pendent researches. Upon the value, however, of the class,
but little criticism has been expended.
Affinities, especially in respect to grammatical struc-
ture, with the Tamul languages have been indicated by
Norriss. I doubt, however, whether they are the near-
est— indeed, I think that indirect relationship and a
* Appendix to Jukes' s Voyage of the Fly by the present writer.
AUSTRALIA.
851
real or apparent partial coincidence in respect to the
stage of their development is all that the comparisons
warrant.
The numerals are on the low level of those of South
America — rarely reaching five; generally stopping at
three.
Beginning with the north, and more particularly with
the parts about the Gulf of Carpentaria, we have —
EngUsh.
Cape York.
(1.)
Massied.
Gudang.
Kowrarega.
Head
pada
quiku
Eye
dana
dana
dana
dana
Ear
cartisa
ctira
ewunya
kowra
Nose
picM
pechi
eye
piti
Mouth
anca
anca
angka
guda
Teeth
dang
danga
ampo
danga
Tongue
nay
nay
untara
nai
Hair
mucii
(0/ head) yal
eeal
odye
yal
NecTc
kurka
kercuk
yiiro
mudul
Hand
geta
geta
arta
geta
Sun
inga
gariga
Moon
aikana
•kissnri
Star
onbi
titure
Fish
wapi
wapi
wawpi
wawpi.
Then, for the eastern coast —
(2.)
English.
Moreton Bay.
Sidney.
Jervis Bay.
Muruya.
Man
kure
mika
yuen
Woman
dyin
kala
wangen
Head
kabara
hollo
kapan
Hair
cubboaeu
kitong
tirar
tiaur
Eye
mil
mebarai
ierinn
mabara
Nose
moral
nokoro
nokoro
Mouth
karka
kame
ta
Teeth
dear
yira
ira
yira
Tongue
dalan
dalan
talen
talang
Ear
bidne
kure
kouri
guri
Hand
morrah
damora
maramale
mana
Foot
tona
dana
Sun
baga
gan
ore
bogorin
Moon
galan
gibuk
tahouawan
dawara.
52
AUSTRALIA.
Inland-
__
(8.)
English.
Peel River.
Bathurst.
Wellington.
Mudji.
Man
iure
mauung
gibir
kolir
Woman
inor
balan
inur
Head
l?iira
balang
budyang
ga
Hair
tR,ikul
gian
uran
Eye
mil
mekalait
mil
mir
Nose
mum
murung
Mouth
ngankai
nandarge
ngan
Teeth
yira
irang
irang
yira
Tongue
tale
talan
talai
Ear
bina
benangarei
uta
bina
Hand
ma
mura
mara
Foot
tina
dina
dinang
dina
Sun
toni
mamady
irai
murai
Moon
palu
daidyu
kilai.
The Kamilaroi (of which the Wellington and Mudji
are dialects) is spoken over a district between 400
and 500 miles, and 50 broad: chiefly towards the
head-waters of the Hunter river.
(4.)
English.
Kamilaroi.
English.
KamilaioL
Man
giwir
Sun
do
Native
murri
Moon
gille
Head
kaoga
Star
mirri
ga
Fire
wi
Eye
mil
Water
koUe
Nose
muro
Bam
yuro
Teeth
yira
One
mal
Ear
binna
Two
bularr
Tongue
tulle
Three
guliba
Chin
tal
Four
bularrbularr
NecTc
nun
Five
bulaguliba
Foot
dinna
Six
gulibaguliba.
Day
yarai
Conterminous with the Kamilaroi are
the—
(5.)
English.
Wiradurei.
Witouro.
Man
gibir
gole
Woman
inar
bagorook
Head
balang
moornyook
Eyes
mil
mirrook
Ea/rs
uta
wingook
Nose
murung
karnyook
Bme
dal
>al
goorooh
^
WITOURO, ETC.
353
English.
Wiradurei.
Witouro.
Blood
r
kuaiugi
goortanyook
Teeth
irang
leanyook
Tongue
talain
tallanyook
Hand
r
mura
munangin
Foot
dinang
tinnamook
Sun
irai
mirri
Moon
menyan
Stars
toortbaram
Fire
win
wing
Water
kaling
moabeet
Ea/rth
takun
dax
Stone
walang
lax
One
wakol
koen meet
Twa
buloara
buUait.
I
ngatoa
bangeek
You
nngintoa
(6.)
bangen.
English
Lake Hindmarsh.
Lake Mundy.
Molonglo.
Head
boropepinack
kotagong
Hand
mannyah
marroula
Feet
jinnerr
jinygy
Eyes
mer
meerrang
magalite
Nose
kar
karbung
noor
Tooth
tungan
Sun
narwee
tharrerong
eurroga
buggarang
mummait
Moon
yarrekudyeah
bambourk
cobboton
Star
toura
yeeringminap
ginaga
Fire
wheey
wanyup
wheein
kanby
Water
gartyin
barreet
naijjon
allangope
(7.)
EugUsh.
Jhongworong,
Pinegorlne.
Gnurellean.
Head
morromgnata
poko
tonggognena
Eyes
meringgnata
ma
meregnena
Nose
kawinggnata
kowo
tandegnena
Foot
gnenonggnata
gena
genongbegnena
Sun
nowan
yourugga
nowwer
Moon
yambuk
yourugkuda
torongi
Star
fort
tutta
tortok
Fire
peda
wembe
Water
kordenok.
A A
354
PARNKALLA, ETC.
(8.)
English.
WoddowTong.
Koligon,
Dau^gart
Head
morrokgnetok
morrokgninok
benianen
Eye
mergnetok
mergnetok
mergnanem
Nose
kanugnetok
konggnetok
Foot
genongnetok
kenonggnetok
Sun
mere
na
derug
Moon
yem
bard bard
barinannen
Star
fotbarun
karartkarart
bommaramorxig
Fire
weang
wean
Water
gnobet
kan
(9.)
baret.
English.
Boraiper.
Yakkumban.
Aiawong.
Head
poorpai
petpoga
Hand
mannangy
mannourko
Foot
tshinnangy
dtun
Eye
merringy
koUo
Nose
cheengi
roonko
Tooth
leeangy
ngenko
Sun
nauwingy
ynko
ngankur
Moon
mityah
paitchoway
kakkirrah
Star
tootte
poolle
pille
Fire
wannappe
wheenje
kabungo
wolpool
koonnea
Water
tarnar
tinbomma
ngookko
konene
I
yetwa
ngappo
Thou
ninwa
nimba
ngurru
She
niyala
nin
We
yangewer
innowa
ngenno
Ye
nguno
They
wootto
ngauo
One
keiarpe
neetchar
meiter
Two
poolette
parkooloo
tangkul
Three
pooleckwia
parkool-netcharri
(10.)
tangku-meiter.
English.
Parnkalla.
Head of Bight. Westfirn Australia.
Head
kakka
karga
katta
Hand
marra
merrer
myrea
Feet
idna
jinna
jeena
Eye
mena
mail
mail
Nose
mudla
mullah
moolya
Tooth
ira
erai
nelgo
Sun
yurno
tshiadu
nganga
batta
PARNKALLA, ETC.
355
English.
Parnkalla.
Head of Bight.
Western Australia.
Moon
perra
perar
meki
Star
purle
kalga
milyarm
Fire
gadla
kaUa
kalla
Watet
kapi
gaippe
kauo
kauwe
kowwin
I
ngai
ajjo
nganya
ngatto
janna
bal
Thou
ninna
nginnee
She
panna
ngangeel
We
ngarrinyalbo
nganneel
arlingul
Ye
nuralli
nurang
They
yardna
balgoon
One
kuma
gumera
kain
Two
kuttara
kootera
karclura
Three
kappo
(11.)
ngarril.
English.
Port PhUip.
English.
Port Philip.
Man
meio
Foot
tenna
Woman
ammaik
Sky
poulle
Tongue
tatein
Moon
kaker
Head
iouk
Star
poulle
Beard
molda
Sun
tendo
Mouth
ta
Tree
ara
Nose
modla
Fire
alia
Arm
aondo
Water
kawi
Eye
mennha
Sea
kopoul
ffai/r
iouko
Bird
pallo
Ear
ioure
Stone
poure
Tooth
ta
Fish
rouia
Nail
perre
One
mangorut
Finger
malta
Two
pollai.
Hand
malla
(12.)
English.
King George's Sound.
English.
King George's Sound
Woman
iok
Tongue
talin
Head
kat
tarlin
Hand
mal
Eye
mehal
mar
Nail
piak
Beard
annok
perre
narnak
Foot
kean
Mouth
taa
dien
Arm
marok
teal
Hair
kaat
tchen
tchao
Blood
oop
Tooth
ollog
Sky
marre
orlok
Moon
meok
A A 2
356
3
KAMILAROI.
English.
King George's Sound.
English.
King George's SounJ
Star
tchindai
pouai
Sun
kiat
Bird
kierd
Fire
kal
Stone
poie
karl
boiel
Water
kepe
One
ken
Sea
mamorot
Two
kadien
Tree
tarevelok
Three
taan.
^99
kirkai
Some (at least) of the Australian languages are named
after the word meaning ]}^o ; so that the Kamilaroi, the
Wolaro% the Wailwun, the Wiralhere, and the Pikabuly
take their designations from their negatives ; these being
ka'inil, woly waily wira, and pika, respectively. Jf this
nomenclature be native it is remarkable. In Italy and
France the same principles prevailed in the twelfth
century. In the early stages, however, of rude lan-
guages it has yet to be discovered beyond the area now
under notice.
The following are paradigms for the Kamilaroi : —
mute, an opossum.
mutedu, an opossum (agent).
mute-ngu, of an opossum.
mute-gOf to an opossum.
mute-diy from an opossum.
mute- da, in an opossum.
mute-Tcunda, with an opossum.
ngaia, I.
ngulle, thou or you, and I
, ngedne, we.
ngai, my.
ngullina, he and I.
ngeane-ngu, of us.
ngaiago, to me.
ngulle-ngu, belonging to ngeane-go, to us.
ngai adz, from me.
you and me.
ngeane-di, from us.
ngaiada, in me.
ngullina-ngu, belonging ngeane-da, in us.
ngaiakunda,
to him and me.
ngeane-Tcunda, with us
with me.
nguUe-go, to you and me
ngununda, me.
&c. &c.
inda, thou.
inddU, ye two.
ngindai, ye.
inda-ngu, "1 ^.
or nginnu, J ^'
indale-ngu.
ngindai-ngu,
&c.
inda-go, to thee,
indale-go.
&c.
&c.
nglrma, he, she, or that.
ngdrmd, they.
numma or ngubho, this.
nguruma, that (iste).
"^^rb-'^Mme).
andi ? who ?
nunnlma? which?
minna or minya? what 1
nyaragedul or ngaragi
', another.
kdnvmgo, all.
KAMILAROL 357
glr bumalnge, did beat to-day.
gir bumalmien, did beat yesterday.
gir humallen, did beat some days ago.
humalda, is beating. humalla, strike.
bumalle, will beat. bumallawd, strike (empbatic and
bumabigdrl, will beat to-morroio. earnest).
bumalmia, strike (ironical — ''if you
dare'').
buTnaldai, beat (as yelle inda bumaldendai, beating ; bumahigendai,
bumaldai, if you beat). having beaten; bumalmiendai,
bumallago, to beat. baring beaten yesterday ; bumal-
lendai, going to beat.
In a systematic and general work like the present,
wherein it is scarcely possible for the writer to treat
each part of the subject with the care demanded by a
special monograph, I may be excused for giving some
extracts from certain papers, of comparatively distant
dates, bearing upon certain parts of the subject — papers
written when our data were scantier than they are at
present, and papers of which the object was less to prove
certain points, than to prepare the way to the breaking-
down of several arbitrary lines of separation and to draw
attention to the over-valuation of certain isolated
characters.
And first in respect to the affinities between the Aus-
tralian languages taken in mass among themselves.
That the Australian languages are one (at least in the way that the Indo-
European languages are one), is likely from henceforward to be admitted.
Captain Grey's statement upon the subject is to be found in his work upon
Australia. His special proof of the unity of the Australian languages is amongst
the unprinted papers of the Greographical Society. The opinions of Threl-
keld and Teichelmann go the same way. The author's own statements are as
follows : —
(1.) For the whole round of coast there is, generally speaking, no vocabu-
lary of sufficient length that, in some word or other, does not coincide with
the vocabulary of the nearest point, the language of which is known to us.
If it fail to do this it agrees with some of the remoter dialects. Flinder's
Carpentarian, compared with the two vocabularies of the Endeavour River,
has seventeen words in common. Of these, three (perhaps four) coincide.
Eye, meal, C. ; meul, E. R. : hair, marra, C. ; morye, E. R. : fingers, mingel, C.
mungal bah, E. R. : breast, gummur, C. : coyor, E. R.
358
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL.
Endeavour River. — Two vocabularies. — Compared with the vocabularies
generally of Port Jackson, and the parts south and east of Port Jackson : —
Eye, meul, E. R. ; milla, Limestone Creek : nose, emurda, E. R.: morro,
L. C. : ears, mulkah, E. R. ; moTco, Port Macquarie : hair, morye, E. R. :
mundah, Burra Burra : breast, coyor, E. R. : Tcowul, Port Jackson : fingers,
mungal bah, E. R. : maranga, B. B. : elbow, yeerwe, E. R. : yongra, Menero
Downs : nails, Tcolhe, E. R. ; karungun ? P. J. : beard, wollar, E. R. : walo,
Jervis's Bay ; woUaJc, Port Macquarie. — The number of words submitted to
comparison — twenty two.
Menero Downs (Lhotsky), and Adelaide (G. W. Earl). — Thirteen words
in common, whereof two coincide.
English.
Hand
Tongue
Menero Downs,
morangan
talang
Adelaide,
murra
taling.
Adelaide (G. W. Earl) and Gulf St. Vincent (Voyage de 1' Astrolabe),
Adelaide, Gulf St. Vincent.
mutta molda
English.
Beard
Ear
Foot
Hair
Hand
Leg
Nose
Teeth
in
tinna
yuka
murrah
irako
mula
tial
ioure
tenna
iouka
malla
ierko
mudla
ta.
Gulf St. Vincent (Voyage de I'Astrolabe) and King George's Soimd (Nind
and Voyage de I'Astrolabe) ; fifty words in common.
English.
Gulf St. Vincent.
King George's Sound.
Wood
kalla
kokol
Mouth
ta
taa
Hair
iouka
tchao
Nech
mannouolt
wolt
Finger
malla
mal
Water
kawe
kepe
Tongue
talein
talen
Foot
tenna
tchen
Stone
poure
pore
Laugh
kanghin
kaoner.
(2.) The vocabularies of distant points coincide ; out of sixty words in
common we have eight coincident.
English.
Jervis's Bay.
Gulf St. Vincent.
Forehead
holo
. ioullo
Man
mika
meio
Milk
awanham
ammenhalo
Tongue
talen
talein
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL.
359
English.
Jervis's Bay.
Gulf St. Vincent.
Hand
maramale
malla
Nipple
amgnann
amma
Blaci
mourak
pouilloul
Nails
berenou
pere.
(3.) The most isolated of the vocabularies, e. g. the Carpentarian, if com-
pared with the remaining vocabularies, taken as a whole, has certain words to
be found in different and distant parts of the island.
EngUsh.
Carpentarian.
Limestone Creek.
Eye
mail
milla
Nose
hurroo
morro.
The following is a notice of certain words coinciding, though taken from
dialects far separated : —
Lips
tambana.
Menero Downs
tamande, G. S. V.
Star
jingi,
ditto
tchindai, K. G. S.
Forehead
ullo,
ditto
ioullo, G. S. V.
Beard
yernka.
ditto
(arnga, j g. ^ g
Inanga, J ^- ^- ^-
Bite
paiandi.
ditto
badjeen, ditto
Fire
gaadla,
ditto
kaal, ditto
Heart
karlto,
ditto
koort, ditto
Sun
tindo.
ditto
djaat, ditto
Tooth I
Edge S
tia,
ditto
dowal, ditto
Water
kauwe,
ditto
kowwin, ditto
Stone
pure,
ditto
boye, ditto.
(4. ) The extent to which the numerals vary, the extent to which they agree,
and the extent to which this variation and agreement are anything but coin-
cident with geographical proximity or distance, may be seen in the following
table : —
English.
One
Moreton Bay
kamarah
Island
karawo
Bijenelumbo
warat
Limhakarajia
erat
Terrutong
roka
Limhapyu
immuta
Kowrarega
warapune
Gudang
epiamana
Damley Island
netat
Raffles Bay
loca
Lake Macquarie
wakol
Peel River
peer
Two
Three
bulla
mudyan
poonlah
madan
ngargark
2+1
ngargark
do.
oryalk
do.
lawidperra
2+1
quassur
do.
elabaio
do.
nes
do.
orica
orongarie
buloara
ngoro
pular
purla
360
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL.
English.
One
Two
mree
Wellington
ngungbai
Toula
bula-ngungbai
Corio
koimoil
Jhongworong
kap
Pinegorine
youa
Gnurellean
lua
King George's Sownd,
keyen
cuetrel
murben
Karaida
mal
bular
culeba
Lachlan, Regent Lake
nyoonbi
bnlia
bulongonbi
Wollmidilly River
medung
pulla
colluerr.
(5.) In respect to tbe vocabvlarieSy the extent to which the analysis which
applies to the grammar applies to the vocables also may be seen in the fol-
lowing instance. The word hand Bijenelumbo and Limbapyu is hirgalk.
There is also in each language a second form — anbirgalh — wherein the an is
non-radical. So, also, is the alk ; since we find that armpit=ingamb-alk,
shoulder =mundy-alk, and fingers=:mong alk. This brings the xooi=.hand
to hirg. Now this we can find elsewhere by looking for. In the Liverpool
dialect, Ur-ilz=.hand, and at King George's Sound, peer=nails. The com-
monest Toot=hand in the Australian dialects, is m-r, e.g. : —
Moreton Bay
murrah
Corio
far-onggnetok
Karaula
marra
Jhongworong
far-okguata
Sydney
da-mora
Murrumbidje
mur-rugan
Mudje
mara
Molonglo
mar-rowla
Wellington
murra
Head of Bight
merrer
Liverpool
ta-mura
Parnkalla
marra.
All this differs from th e Port Essington terms. Elbow, however, in the
dialects there spokeu=ioaare smd forearm=am,- ma-woor ; wler, too=palm,
in Kowrarega.
English.
Hand
English.
Foot
Termtong
manawiye
Gnurellean
gen-ong-begnen-a
Peel River
ma
Moreton Bay
chidna
Raffles' Bay
maneiya.
Karaula
tinna
Lake Macqaarie
tina
English.
Foot
Jhongworong
gnen-ong-gnat-a
Moreton Island
tenang
Corio
gen-ong-gnet-ok
Peel River
tina
Colack
ken-ong-gnet-ok
Mudje
dina
Bight Head
jinna
Wellington
dinnung
Parnkalla
idna
Liverpool
dana
Aiawong
dtun
Bathurst
dina
K. George's Sound tian
Boraipar
tchin-nang-y
Gould Island
pinyun and pinka
Lake Hindma/rsh
jin-nerr
Murrumbidje
tjin-nuk
English.
Hair, heard
Molonglo
tjin-y-gy
Moreton Island
yerreng
Pinegorine
gena
Bijenelumbo
yirka
AUSTRALIAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL.
861
English.
IIah\ heard
English.
Tooth
Regent's Lake
ooran
Moreton Island
tiya
Lake Macqimme
WTirung
Moreton Bay
deer
Goold Island
kiaram
Lake Macquarie
tina
Wellington
uran
Sydney
yera
Karaula
yerry
Wellington
irang
Sydney
yaren
MurrumUdje
yeeran
Peel River
ierai
Gould Island
eera.
Mudje
yarai.
English.
Tongue
English.
Eye
Moreton Bay
dalan
Moreton Island
mel
Regent's Lake
talleng
Moreton Bay
mill
Karaula
talley
Gudang
emeri=eyebrow
Gould Island
talit
Bijenelumho
mercle=eyelid
Lake Macquarie
talan
Regent's Lake
mil
Sydney
dalan
Karaula
mil
Peel River
tale
Mudje
mir
K. George's Sound talien.
Corio
mer-gnet-ok
Colack
mer-gnen-ok
English.
Ear
Dautgart
mer-gna-nen
Kowrarega
kowra
Jhongworong
mer-ing-gna-ta
Sydney
kure
Pinegorine
ma
Liverpool
kure
Gnurellean
mer-e-gnen-a
Lake Macquarie
ngureong
Boraipar
mer-ring-y
Moreton Bay
bidna
Lake Hindmarsl
. mer
Karaula
binna
Lake Mundy
meer-rang
Peel River
bine
Mtcrrumbidje
mit
Bathurst
benang-arei
K. George's Sound mial.
Gould Island
pinna.
The main evidence, however, of the fundamental
unity of the Australian languages lies in the wide
diffusion of identical names for objects like foot, eye,
toothy fire, and the like.
362
TASMANIAN.
CHAPTER LIU.
Van Dieman's Land, or Tasmania.
The earliest vocabulary we have for Van Dieman's
Land is nine words in Cook. Then follows one by La
Billardiere, then one by Allan Cunningharj, collected in
1819, then one by Gaimard taken from the mouth of
a Tasmanian woman with an Englishman as an inter-
preter, at King George's Sound, then one by Mr. Geary,
published by Dr. Lhotsky in the transactions of the
Geographical Society (vol. ix.) ; and lastly one, procured
by R. Brown, representing nearly the same dialect as
that of La Billardiere.
The following, however, from the Tasmanian Jour-
nal of Natural History, contains more than all put to-
gether, and, for practical purposes, all we have. For
which reason it is given in extenso.
English.
East.
West.
South.
North.
Uncertain.
Albatross
tarrina
Arm
altree
gouna houana
Bad
Badger
Bandicoot
publedina
padina
' carty
. peindriga
lennira
^ probaluthin
( probylathany
Baric
tolin6
Basket
terri
Beach
minna
quenitigna
Beard
Belly
minlean
cawereeny
( lomongui
< tamongui
canguin^
> mackalenna
Belonging to
{ morangui
patourana
1
TASMANIAN.
363
l«.
East.
West.
South.
North.
Uncertain.
Bird
-
mouta-mmita
Blackmail
-.
palewaredia
Blacl-en
langnoiri
Bleed
kenna teewa
Blush
wadebeweanna — —
Boat
luirapeny
lallaby
luiropay
(native)
pokak
S luiropay
\ picanini
Bone
Teewandrick
Boy
plerenny
/7-«7 X fcuckana
(^^^^^^)iludawinna|
Bread
towereela
Breast
wagley
' workalenna
lere-laidene
Brother
pleragenana
BiillocJcs
backalow
bacala
Burn
maranneck
Bush or grass
womy
Cape Gh'inim
pilree
Cat
largana
noperena
Cave
pootark
Cheeh
nobittaka
Chief
bimgana
Child
badany
leewoon
pagarai
Children
looweinna \
pickaninny j
Chin
camena
anaha haouha
Circular
Head
martula
Cloud (white
)
pona
(black)
roona
Coal
conora
Coal dust
lolra
Cockatoo
eribba
Cold
' tenna
ranana
Come
tepera
ganemerara
tarrabilyie
togannera
Coj'robory (v)
terra gomna
Country ,
round '
( wallantanal-
( inany
Covering
legunia
Coio
cateena
Crackle
tanina
Crooked
powena
Croio
nanapalla
lind
Cry
targa
Crystal
keeka
heka
Day
lanena
loina
loyowibba
364
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES.
English,
East.
Day (a)
magra
(to)
waldeapowel
{fine)
lutregala
"West.
Dead
Devil
comtena
Die
Dim
Dog {native)
{British)
Door
Drake
lamilbena
{wild)
malbena
Dress
legunia
Drinl
leguna
Drops of rain
Di-y
catrebuteany
Ear
pelverata
Earth
gunta
Eat
Eggs
Elbow
rowella
Ermi
rekuna
Evacuate
legana
patanela
loputallow
Eye
Eyebrow
Face
Family
Fare
Father
Feathers
Fetch
Fighi
Finger
Finger {fore)
Fire
Fish
Fist
lepena
niparam
munlamana
munwaddia
patarola
trew
lewlina
poUatoola
manrable
tatana
lopa
South,
f lowatka, v.
(lowatka, p.
rargeropper
namneberick
lowdina
mooboa
temminoop
North.
talba
towrick
meenawa
rinadena
cowanngga
( newinna
\ (gibbee)
palinna
leemanrick namericca
leelberrick
bringden
motook
unee
\ lopa
( unee \
Uncertain,
moogara
mata
buguee
laina laima
blatheraway
cuegnilia
vaiguiouagui
coantana
tuwie, dodoni
malquera topani
laedae
crowdo
nubere
nubamibere
tagarilia
ardoungui
ringeny
lorildri beguia
logui
wighana or
poper, nvhe
penunina
penungana
reannemara
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES.
English.
East.
^lame
rimer
hy
\- {blow)
flying
pinega
p'cetm
leward
^og
muna
foot
langaaa
frog
pulbena
frost
ulta
pirl
ludineny
( cuckana
West.
South.
lula
labittaka
North.
paraka
mounga
labrica
,,. , ^ ( cucKana )
<«'«'<=) (ludmeny }
fo on
lOo home
hod
Grass tree
Great
Ground
Gull
Gun
tabelty
naracoopa
robenganna
tack any
pandorga
Jmulu \
\ manginie |
haku-tettiga
rodidana
coratlienana
gunta
rowenanna
lUa
myna or megra neena
nala
lola
365
Uncertain,
weealeena oelle
lugna pere
1 tringena mava
< teannie mare-
{ doungui
f jackay (?)
\ tangara
( wome roonina
1 poSne nimene
lackrana
longa
I keelana
Hair
cethana
r palanma or ^
" _ pareata
parba
< pelilogueni
\ peliogirigoni
[ henimenna
Hand
anamana
rabalga
< rilia
[ reegna ri riri
Hawk
pueta
{eagle)
eugenana
cowenna
cockinna
Head
pathenanadd
li pulbeany
awittaka
ewucka
Here
lomi
High
ma
neika
weeticita
Horse
baricutana
parwothana
Hunt
poopu
mulaga
Hut
leprena
( temma
( poporook
tama lebirinna
I
■ mena
. manga
— -
f meena
\ mana
Island
leurewagera
leareaway
366
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES.
English.
East
West.
South.
North.
Uncertain.
Island J
{large) S
laibrenala •
Kangaroo \
(inale) <
lemmook
lalliga
) lathakar
\ leigli lenna,
{female)
lurgu
{pouch) kigranana
{rat)
reprenana
{sJcin)
boira tara
Kill
wanga
manglie
King
bungana
Knee
nannabenana
■ ragualia
. rouga rouga
Know
( tunapee
I manga-namraga .
tunapry
labberie
Lad
plerenny
_. —
Large
marinook
Laugh
tenalga
Leg
lathanama
leea
■ lagana
■ erai
Lie {verb)
katenna
towlangang
Light
tretetea
Lightning
nammorgun
Lips
mogudelia
Little
■ canara or \
curena j
Lobster
nuele
Long way
or time
}-
manta
relbia
Love
loyetea
Low
lewter
Magpie
canara
Mahe
— :-
pomale
Man
ludowing
periTia
penna (wybra)
{old)
' lowlobengang
I or pebleganana
I
S
Many
nanwoon
tagalinga
spears
prennatagaling
Mersey River
paranaple
Moon
lutand
weena
weipa
webba
luina weedina
Mosquito
redpa
Mother
powamena
pa.Tnena
Mountain
truwalla
Mouth
youtantalabana canea
^
1 weenina
I mougui
Muscles
.\ —
mire.mine-mine
MuMort, {bird) youla
laninyua
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES.
367
English
Nails
Navel
NecTc
Night
No
Nose
Nurse
Oak
Oar
Old
One
East.
lepera
leware
lemana
petibela
milabena
West.
denia
Other
Oysters
Parrot
Pelican
Pillow
Pipe
Plant
Plenty
Porcupine
Porpoise
Port Son^el
PiU away
Rain
River
{large)
Rivulet
Rods
Rojye
Round (tv/m) mabea
Run (verb) moltema
Sand
Say
Scold
Scorches {it me)
Scrape {wood)
Sea
Sea-weed
See
taralanorana
trewdina
mena
trewmena
warthanina
waddamana
montumana
panatana
nabowla
mella
emita
cartela
Seal
Sharpen
Sheep nemiwaddinana rulemena
Shew
South.
rorook
pootsa
rowick
^ makrie J
North,
meenamru
panna
naba
murrock
nanwoon
menna
taddiwa
caracca
lanaba
milma
parappa
talawa
tagowawmna
kenweika
nirnpa
roorga
lapree
manga namraja
keekawa
neethoba
\ lamunika
Vncertain.
pereloJd
lue
leewarry
poobyer, nudi
mongui mongui
parmery
paunera
louha or toba
mola
terre
cardia
parragoa
magog
patbana
reugnie
carne
peun-meena
I rina-nnigri
\ rouigri
lapey
368
English.
Ship
Shoulders
Shout
Sick
Side (one)
Sit
Sit you down
Sh/ -
Sleep
Small
Snake
oldina
East,
luiropony
camey
crackenicka
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES.
West. South. North.
cawella
meevenany
loila
Soon
Spear
Stars
(little)
Stone
Stop
Strike
Strong
Sulky
Sun
Swan
Swiftly
palaua
lenigugana
lenicarpeny
neckaproiny
kalipianna
ratairareny
petreanna
f robigana "1
\ wubia J
yanna
Tattoo
Teeth
Tell
They {he, her,
them or that)
Thigh
This
Throw away
Thumb
Thunder
Tiger
Tongue
Tree
Two
Waddy
Wake
Walk
nabageena
publee
yannolople
tula
tuUana
crackena
roroowu
teeboack
crackena
loina
nicka
wan
nawaun
toronna
powranna
poiranapry
rugga raccah (s)
moorden murdunnab
loyna
cocha
lowerinna
niamana
lerga rocah
lowenruppa
(tabelty)
Uncertain.
hagny bagny
raeenattie
maubia
megH mere
medi
i malougna or lo-
( gouan
prenna (v & s)
lonna loine
rogueri toidi
workalenna
pajanooboya
panubere
catagunya
r woorangitie
L penutita
palere
pegui canan
came
I para way
Xpegara paguera
peragui
calabawa boula
tawie mogor
TASMANIAN VOCABULARIES.
369
English. East. West.
Walking
Wallaby tablety
Was
Warm,
Water (fresh) legani lerui mogo
Water-bag
White-man ,-r- —
Wind
Wing
Woman (lubia)
(old) lowlapewanna
Wombai
South.
Wood
Yes
Yonder
weela
nitipa
numeraredia
lee wan
lappa
North.
( teiriga ^
(tablee S
tanah
moka
loyoranna
Uncertain,
tolo magara
tara lo cougane
crackne
( lini mocha
V roti
moclia carty
regaa
(lubia) lurga lolna (lubia) quanipatarana
watka
nana
ninga
quoiba I
walliga '
renave
narapa nina
neenie.
The following, like the extracts of the preceding chap-
ter, are from an earlier paper (indeed from the one which
gave the others), and are inserted upon the same prin-
ciple, and with the same excuse for their incomplete-
ness.
Port JDalrijmple and King George's Sound (Nind and Astrol. :)— Wound,
barana, P. D. ; bareuJc, N. : wood, moumbra, P. D. ; p&urn, N. ; hair,
l-ide, P. D. ; kaat, N. : thigh, degagla, P. D. ; tawal, N. : kangaroo,
tarameif P. D. ; taainoiir, N. : lips, mona, P. D. ; mele, K. Gt. S. : no,
pouiie, P. D. ; poualt, poort, K. G. S. : egg, Tcomelca, P. D. ; kierl-ee,
K. G. S. : bone, j^nale, P. D. ; nouil, K. Gr. S. (bone of bird used to suck
up water) N. : skin, Tcidna, P. D. ; hiao ? K. G. S. : two, kateboueve, P. D. ;
kadjen, K. G. S. (N.). Fifty-six words in common.
Po7't Dahymjile and Gulf St. Vincent. — Mouth, mona, P. D. ; tamonde,
G. S. V. (a compound word, since taa is mouth, in K. G. S.) : drink, kible,
P. D, ; kaive, G. S. V. : arm, an7ne, P. D. ; aondo (also shoulder), G, S. V. :
hawk, gan henen henen, P. D. ; nanno, G. S. V. : hunger, tigate, P. D. ;
takiou, G. S. V. : head, eloura, P. D. ; ioullo, G. S. V. : nose, medouer
(mula), P. D. ; modla, G. S. V. : bird, iola, pallo, G. S. V. : stone, lenn
parenne, P. D. ; poure ? G. S. V. : foot, dogna, P. D. ; tenna, G. S. V. :
sun, tegoura (also moon), P. D. ; tendo, G. S. V. Seventy words in com-
mon.
B B
370
TASMANIAN.
Port Dalrymple and Jerds's Bay. — Wound, barana, P. D. ; Tcaranra,
J, B. : tooth, iane, P. D. ; ira, J. B. : skin, kidna, P. D. ; hagano, J. B. :
foot, dogna, P. D. ; tona {tjenne, tidna, jeena), J. B. : head, eloura, P. D. ;
hollo, J. B, Fifty-four words in common.
What follows is a notice of some miscellaneous
coincidences between the Van Dieman's Land and the
Australian.
English.
Van Dieman's Land.
Australia.
Ears
cuengilia, 1803
gundugeli, Menero Downs
Thigh
tula, Lh.
dara, Menero Downs
Stone
S pure, Adel.
\ voye, K. G. S.
lenn parene, P. D.
Breast
pienenana, Lh.
voyene, Menero Downs
Skin
kidna, P.D.
makundo, Teichelman
Day
megra, Lh.
nangeri, Menero Downs
Run
mella, Lh.
monri, Menero Downs
Feet
perre, D. C.
birre, generally toe-nail
Little
bodenevoued, P. D.
baddoeen. Grey
Lip
mona, P. D.
tameno {upper lip), ditto. [mar
Egg
komeka, P. D.
muka, egg, anything round, Teichel-
Tree
moumra, P. D.
worra (forest), Teichelman
Mouth
Tongue
Tooth
f kamy, Cook.
i kane, P. D.
( speak )
kame < mouth > Jervis's Bay
Speak
( cry )
Leg
darra, P. J.
lerai
Knee
gorook, ditto.
ronga, D. C.
Moon
tegoura, P. D.
kakirra, Teichelman
Nose
medouer, P. D.
V mudla, ditto
I moolya, Grey
Hawk
gan henen henen, P. D.
gargyre, ditto
Hunger
tegate, P. D.
taityo, Teichelman
Laugh
pigne, P. D.
mengk, Grey
Moon
vena, 1835
yennadah, P. J.
Day
megra, 1835
karmarroo, ditto
Fire
une, 1803
yong, ditto
Dew
manghelena, rain
menniemoolong
( neylucka, Murray, P. D.
Water
boue lakade
< bado, ditto
( lucka, Carpentarian.
Papuan affinities of the Tasmanian.
Feet
Beard kongine
C perre
\ perelia (nails)
petiran, Carteret Bay
J gangapouni, WaigiH
\ yenga, MallicoUo
TASMANIAN. 3 / 1
Bird
mouta
manouk, Mallicolh
Chin
kamnena
gambape, WaigiH
Tooth
( canan
< iane
( yane
gani, movth, Waigiu
insik, teeth, Port Praslin, Mallicolh
Sand
gune
coon, yean
Wood
Tree
|gui
kaibus, Pap. and Mallicollo
Ear
koyge
gaaineng, New Caledonia
Mouth
mougui
wangue and mouanguia
Arm
houana, gouna
pingue
Shoulders
. S bagny )
' \ taguy j
bouheigha
Fire
nuba
afi, Mepp, nap, Mallicollo
Knees
rangalia
rouga
banguiligha
Dead
mata
mackie
No
neudi
nola
Ears
cuegni-lia
guening
Nails
pereloigni
pihingui
Hair
pelilogueni
bouling, poun ingue
Teeth
pegui
( penoungha
1 paou wangne
Fingers
beguia
badouheigha
Nose
mongiii
mandec, vanding
Sleep
makunya
kingo.
The Tasmanian, with its four dialects, is spoken by
fewer than fifty individuals, occupants of Flinders
Island, to which they have been removed.
B B 2
372 OCEANIC LANGUAGES
CHAPTER LIV.
Review of the preceding Class. — Its Characteristics, Divisions, and Value. —
The so-called Negritos.
The details of a large group being now done with we
may take a retrospect of the class at large.
The first thing which commands attention is its thorough
insular or oceanic character ; on the strength of which
those who choose to give it a general name may call it
the Oceanic class. Subordinate to this is the remarkable
distribution of some of its members ; even when treated
as Oceanic. Easter Island is nearer to America, Mada-
gascar nearer to Africa than to Asia. Formosa, on the
other hand, is in the latitude of China and on the verge
of the Japanese waters. The small islands that lie im-
mediately to the North of it end in a compound of sima,
which, in Japanese, means island.
In no one out of the thousand and one islands and
islets in which the preceding dialects are spoken, are
there any clear and undoubted signs of any older popu-
lation than the speakers of the present languages, dialects
and subdialects, in their oldest form. I say clear and
undoubted, because, in some, they have been either inferred
or presumed — it may be on reasonable grounds. The
strongest presumptions (not unaccompanied by evidence)
in favour of anything of this kind are in Formosa.
In one great division of the group (i. e. in Polynesia
Proper) the diffusion has been decidedly recent ; this
m GENERAL. 373
being an inference from the great uniformity with which
the language is spoken from the Sandwich Islands to
New Zealand, from Easter Island to Ticopia.
That the line of migration for Micronesia and Polynesia
was round the Papuan area rather than across it was
suggested by Forster. His suggestion, however, has been
but imperfectly recognized, so that some writers have
unconsciously re-discovered it, and others have speculated
from a point of view which they would never have
taken had the investigations of that able man been fami-
liar to them. In blaming others for this neglect the
present writer by no means exculpates himself.
Of the difference between the Oceanic tongues
and those continental forms of speech which lie
nearest to them, in the way of geography, too much has
been made. Of the continental languages those which
are the most monosyllabic, accentuate, and (to European
ears) cacophonic, (such as the Burmese and the Chinese,)
are those which are the best known in Europe, while,
on the other hand, it is the Malay and the Javanese, with
their soft sounds, their dissyllabic and polysyllabic voca-
bles, and their liquid articulations, which have commanded
the most attention. In the Manillas and Madagascar a
comparatively complex grammar adds to the elements
of contrast.
That the difference is considerable cannot be denied.
The remark, however, upon the extinction of the
nearest congener to the Malay, which was made at the
beginning of our exposition, helps to account for it.
Another series of facts that calls for a few remarks
lies in the domain of the ethnologist rather than in that
of the pure philologue — a series of facts suggested by a
term that has been used more than once — viz. Negrito.
That the Papuans, and that the Australians are of that
colour which the name Negro, as applied to the African,
suggests, is well known. As they are not yellow, and
as hrown, maroon, chocolate, and the like, are by no
374 OCEANIC LANGUAGES
means current terms in Geography, we call them some-
what laxly, and somewhat too generailiy, Blacks. And Black
let them — ^largely and generally — be called. The mam
fact connected with their colour lies in the real or sup-
posed existence of men and women of the same dark
hue, not only in New Holland and New Guinea, but in
certain islands of the Indian Archipelago. In what
particular islands they are to be found, and what shade
of darkness those that are found actually exhibit, is a
matter upon which it is difficult to obtain precise in-
formation. Twenty or thirty years ago, these indi-
viduals— individuals who may conveniently be called
the Blacks of the Malay area — were ascribed to almost
every island in the Archipelago with the exception of
Java. As the islands, however, have become better
known, the Blacks have become conspicuous from their
non-existence ; the real fact being that in certain localities
certain tribes are, at one and the same time, ruder than
the rest, more pagan than the rest, darker-skinned, and
(in some cases) worse-fed, than the rest. Of the Blacks
of the Philippines (the only group wherein their absolute
non-existence has not been demonstrated) this is (in all
probability) the most that can be said — in other words,
it may safely be stated, that the existence of a variety of
mankind forming a class to which the term Negrito can
either scientifically or conveniently apply is imaginary.
How far the same applies to the Samangs of the main-
land remains to be seen. Of the Andaman islanders,
for the philology of the present group, no cognizance
need be taken. Their affinities are with the Mon and
Burmese.
Now, however unreal this Negrito element in the
Indian Archipelago may be, it is clear that, so long as it
is assumed, it must serve as a basis for a good deal of
hypothetical speculation. In the first place, the lan-
guages which go with it run a great chance of being
separated from their geographical neighbours on a priori
IN GENERAL. 375
grounds. And on a priori grounds this separation has
been imagin'ed. After what has been stated, it is need-
less to add that it has no existence. The Umiray, the
San Matheo, and the Dun^agat forms of speech are, eo
norriine, Negrito, and ed lingua akin to the Tagala or
the ordinary Phib'ppine : as may be seen by either the
cursory inspection of them supplied by the present work,
or a reference to the fuller vocabulary of Steen Bille's
Voyage of the Galath^e, from which (the only authority
for the class) they are taken.
In respect to the relations borne by the Papuan lan-
guages to the Australian, and those borne by the lan-
guages of the two groups (taken together) with the
Malay and Polynesian (in the ordinary sense of the terms),
this same difference of physical conformation (which
is to a great extent real) has had a similar effect in en-
gendering guess-work. The statement that, between
the Black tongues and the Brown or Yellow there is
no affinity, is simply a crudity uttered upon a prioH
grounds by authorities who ought to have been more
cautious. There are plenty of affinities. What they are
worth is another question. Whatever the Papuan and
Australian languages may be like, or unlike, they are
more like one another than aught else ; they are, also,
more like the Malay and Polynesian, however little or
great that likeness may be. Whether great or small,
however, there is some likeness.
And, in like manner, whether the likeness be little or
much, the Malay languages are liker to the southern
members of the monosyllabic class than to any other
forms of speech. Indian affinities they may have, and
Turanian affinities they may have, but they have only
these so far as they have them through the interjacent
tongues, or else through being in either the same, or a
similar, stage of development. Common sense suggests
this, and observation verifies it.
That the class is a natural one is admitted ; the
376 OCEANIC LANGUAGES
only doubt being whether it be not too large a one. In
other words, it may be a congeries of three or tv»^o classes
rather than a single group. The present writer, whilst
he insists upon its being single, admits that it is a class
of a high ordinal value ; what that value is being unde-
termined. It falls into two primary divisions : —
The first contains the Malay, the word being used so
as to include everything from the Siamese frontier to
Formosa on the north and the islands beyond Timor
to the east. In this, the Malagasi and Formosan are
extreme, or aberrant, divisions : the remainder being
grouped round Flores, round Celebes, and round Min-
doro, as centres, and the principle of classification being
that of type rather than definition. The ordinary way
of taking the Malay as a starting-point is inconvenient :
inasmuch as, the Malay is an extreme rather than a
central form of speech.
The second division of the group begins with Lord
North's Island, and ends in the parts between the
Kingsraill group and the Samoan Archipelago, contain-
ing, inter alia, the Ladrones and Carolines, i. e. Micro-
nesia. That the Tobi and Pelew languages (the former
apparently with special affinities to the XJlea) belong to
this rather than to the Philippines is an inference from
the few data we possess : the Pelew being a very out-
lying language. That the class ends exactly at the
Navigators' Islands is scarcely a safe assertion. That
the Kingsmill (or Tarawan) dialects belong to it, and
that the Samoan does not, is all that is absolutely cer-
tain. It may be added that, in other respects, i. e. on
ethnological grounds, the group is a natural one. It
is one, however, for which we are greatly in want of
data, I know of no grammar for Micronesia ; and, al-
though it is nearly certain that more is known in Spain
about the Ladrone and Caroline dialects than is current
amongst philologues, I know of no written compositions
or carefully-constructed vocabularies.
IN GENERAL. 377
Witli the Navigators' Islands, or the Samoan Archi-
pelago, the third class, or that containing Polynesia
Proper, begins : the Nukahivan being more especially
Samoan, and the Hawaian of the Sandwich Islands
being more particularly Nukahivan. Then come the
Society and Friendly Islands, forming the central mass,
from which Paumoto (Dangerous Archipelago), Easter
Island, Rarotonga, the Austral Islands, and New Zea-
land— each in their several directions — seem to have
been peopled ; with Ticopia, Rotuma, Ilea, &c., as offsets
in the West. The minute detail of all this has been
carefully investigated by able philologues, missionary and
lay ; indeed the amount of material collected for Poly-
nesia Proper stands in a favourable contrast to the scanti-
ness of our data for Micronesia.
The ordinal value of the Polynesian class is as low
as that of the Turk ; and, if we allow for the difference
between a wide diffusion over a continent and a wide
diffusion over an ocean, it is with the Turks that the
Polynesians must be compared. They have spread both
recently and rapidly. In the Micronesian and Malay
groups there must be some five or six sections, each of
which is of as high an ordinal value as all Polynesia.
On the other hand, it is possible that the oldest island
beyond the Samoan Archipelago has received its popula-
tion from the Navigators' Islands subsequent to the date
of the settlement of the Norwegians in Iceland.
The second grand class may be called Keleno7iesian,
(a term which is preferable on etymological grounds to
Melanesian,) or the class appertaining to the islands
with a dark-skinned population. Of this enough has
been said already. It falls into two or three primary
divisions as the case may be — certainly into the
Papuan and Australian, perhaps into the Papuan, the
Australian, and the Tasmanian.
The Polynesians went round Kelenonesia ; and, ac-
cording to many good authorities, the Fijis give us an
878 OCEANIC LANGUAGES
area where the two streams met. Individually, I think
that the Papuan element in their dialects has been over-
valued. I commit myself, however, to no decided opinion.
The Fiji group was, therefore, dealt with by itself, and
the chief Papuan affinities (taken wholly from Gabelentz)
which its vocabularies exhibited were given somewhat
fully.
Each of the Kelenonesian groups (even if we take in
the Tasmanian as a primary one) is of high ordinal
value, especially when it is compared, or contrasted, with
the Polynesian Proper, to which it stands much in the
same relation as the Ugrian does to the Turk, Mongol, or
Tungus. This is an inference not only from certain ex-
treme forms but from the decided contrasts which certain
languages of islands in close geographical relations to each
other present. That certain phenomena of transition will
occur when the forms of speech from the central parts of
New Guinea become known is what may reasonably be
expected. Still, the extremes will remain as distant
from one another as before ; and so will the chasms in
the interjacent area. As it is, the New Guinea lan-
guages appear to constitute a group equivalent to all the
rest put together ; beyond which the Soloman Islands,
the New Hebrides, the Loyalty Islands, and New Cale-
donia, form three subordinate divisions of a second class,
themselves falling into sections and sub-sections. With
data, however, so scanty as those which we possess, no
arrangements can be other than provisional ; so that it is
only on the principle that truth comes more easily out
of error than out of confusion that the previous classi-
fication has been suggested.
That the grammatical structure of the Papuan lan-
guages has been credited with certain remarkable cha-
racteristics— characteristics of sufficient importance to
be set against a considerable amount of glossarial co-
incidence— has already been stated. I think, however,
that much of their value depends upon their novelty.
IN GENERAL. 379
Gabelentz, with whom any investigator must differ with
hesitation, lays manifest stress upon two points — the
quinary character of the Papuan numeration and the
system of personal pronouns. But the former is a nega-
tive, rather than a positive, character — all the more so
from the fact of the five numerals as far as they go,
being undeniably and admittedly both Malay and Poly-
nesian.
With the personal pronouns the matter is less simple.
They present two phenomena ; ( I ) the so-called Exclusive
and Inclusive forms, and (2) the so-called Trinal num-
ber.
Of these the Annatom gives a fair example ; where
Ainyak = /
Akaijan =^you two + /
Ajumrau = you two — I
Akataij = you three + /
Aijumtaij = you three
Akaija = you + /
Aijama = you — /.
That these are rare ways of speaking cannot be
denied. Few persons in English care to say how many
persons they address, or yet to say whether they are
themselves included in what is said. What, hov/ever,
are such expressions as nos otros, vos otros, in Spanish,
and nui altri, vui altri in Sardinian, but plurals, which
(whatever they may be at the present time) are exclu-
sive in their origin ? It can scarcely, however, be said
that these are inflections.
And the same applies to the so-called trinal number.
Who calls vje three, in English, a Number at all, i. e. a
Number in the technical and grammatical sense of the
word ? Who even calls us two a Dual ? Yet that
the Papuan Trinal is neither more nor less than this is
plain from the following forms in the MallicoUo : —
Kba-miihl = you two
Na-taroi = you three
Na-tavatz = yo^i four
Dra-tin = we three
Dra-tovatz = toe four.
Inau = /
Khai-iin =
Na-ii = he
you
Na-muhl i
Drivan j
= we
two
1 exclusive
\ inclusive
38a OCEANIC LANGUAGES
As points, then, of grammar, or, at any rate, as points
of inflection, I submit that the Quinary Numeration,
the Exclusive and Inclusive Pronouns, and the Trinal
Number be eliminated from the consideration of the
Papuan characteristics ; and I add that, even if they
were grammatical they would scarcely be characteristic ;
inasmuch as they may be found elsewhere, and that not
only sporadically, or among the languages of the world
at large, but within the Malay and Polynesian area
itself.
Other points of criticism connect themselves with the
phonesis. The Polynesian languages are pre-eminently
vocalic. They are vocalic if we look to the paucity of sepa-
rate consonantal sounds ; h, d, g, s, and r, being generally
wanting. They are vocalic if we look to the fact of few
or no words ending in a consonant. They are vocalic
if we look to the non-existence of two concurrent conso-
nants in the same syllable.
Now, in all these matters the Papuan tongues present
some contrast. In some of the islands there are conso-
nantal endings ; in some concurrent consonants ; in all
of them more elementary consonants than are to be
found in any language of Polynesia. Yet they differ
among themselves in the extent to which they are thus
consonantal ; some having many, others but few, words,
where a consonant is final. None are more vocalic
than the most vocalic of the Malay tongues ; and among
the Malay tongues themselves some are more consonantal
than others. Above all, it is not with the Polynesian
that the Papuan tongues are, in the first instance, to be
compared — still less exclusively.
As has already been stated, the ordinal value of the
Polynesian class is nil, or nearly so. The real point of
contact between the Papuan and Non-papuan tongues
lies in the parts about Ceram. From these I think
that New Guinea was peopled at a period anterior to
the peopling of Micronesia ; at a time when the remote
IN GENERAL.
381
ancestors of the Eastern Moluccas were ruder, more un-
dersized, and darker-skinned (for in this sense the term
Negrito may have an ethnological import), than they
are now ; at a time when they were cliiefly pagan ; at
a time when the useful arts were in their very rudi-
ments ; at a time when the numeration went no further
than the five fingers of a single hand. If so, the Poly-
nesians should give us the extremities of two chains,
rather than any link between them.
The relations of the Papuans to the Australians is
more equivocal. I once suggested, on the strength of
certain New Caledonian affinities, that Tasmania was
peopled by means of a migration that came via the
Papuan islands, i. e, round Australia, lather than across
it ; a doctrine which at present I am prepared neither to
abandon nor assert.
In like manner Australia may have been peopled from
New Guinea, or from Timor : if from Timor, at a period
of greater rudeness and barbarity than even that which
(by hypothesis) prevailed in the Eastern Moluccas when
New Guinea was first occupied. When Australia was
first trod numeration had not even renchad five.
The numerals are preceded by prefixes (as may be
seen in the specimen) throughout the Papuan languages ;
and in comparatively distant localities these prefixes
coincide — e. g. in the Louisiade and New Caledonia.
English
One
Two
Brierly Island
paihe-tia,
pahi-wo
Cook's New Caledonia
wa-geeaing
wa-roo
La Billardiere's do.
oica-nait
oua-dou
English
Three
Four
Brierly Island
paihe-iwaxi
paihe-^ak
Cook's New Caledonia
wa-teen
wa-mbaeek
La Billardiere's do.
owa-tguien
oua-tbait
EngUsh
Five
Six
Brierly Island
paiheAvoao.
paihe-won
Cook's New Caledonia
wa-nnim
wa-nnim-geeek
La Billardiere's do.
o?(a-nnaim
(m-naim-guik
382
OCEANIC LANGUAGES
English
Seven
Eight
Brierly Island
^aAe-pik
paihe-w&n
Cook's New Caledonia
?^-a-nnim-noo
wa-nnim-gain
La Billardiere's do.
owa-naim-dou
OM-naim-guein
English
Nine
Ten
Brierly Island
paihe-siwo
paiAe-awata
Cook's New Caledonia
wa-nnim-baeek
wa-nnoon-aiuk
La Billardiere's do.
owa-naim-bait
owa-doun-hic.
Traces of this, however, may be found within the Malay
area.
Another point worth noticing is the following ; a
point best illustrated by certain American languages,
e. g. amongst others by those of the following table : —
(1.)
English.
Mbaya.
Abi[)onian.
Mokohi.
Head
wa-guilo
we-maiat
Eye
rti-gecoge
7i«-toele
m'-cote
Ear
wa-pagate
Nose
m'-onige
Tongue
no-gueligi
Hair
na-modi
we-etiguic
wa-ccuta
Band
w^■-baagadi
wa-pakeni
%a-poguena
Foot
wo-gonagi
(2.)
English.
Moxa (1).*
Moxa (2).
Moxa (3).
Head
ntt-ciuti
WM-chuti
7m-cliiuti
Eye
mi-chi
nu-ki
Ear
wM-cioca
Nose
nw-siri
nu-siri
Tongue
WM-nene
nu-nene
nu-nene
Hand
nu-hoTB
WM-boupe
nu-hore
Foot
wr-bope
ni-ho-pe.
Here the prefix is the possessive pronoun, so that na-
guilo = TYiy head, &c. ; the capacity of the speaker for
separating the thing possessed from the possessor being,
apparently, so small as to make it almost impossible to
disconnect the noun from its pronoun.
The Papuan and (?) Tasmanian give the same amalga-
mation.
* These are three diiFerent dialects.
IN GENERAL. 383
Upon what may be called the Ablative Subject, more
will be said in the sequel.
What follows is an extract from three very short vo-
cabularies, illustrating the statement, made some chap-
ters back, that the Ombay, the Mangarei, and the Tiw-
hora, had Kelenonesian affinities.
ATm=ibarana, Ombay ; porene, Pine Grorine dialect of Australia.
'H.a.nd=oidue, Ombay ; hingue, New Caledonia.
Nose=mow?u', Ombay ; maninya, mandeg, mandeinne, New Caledonia ;
mena, Van Dieman's Land, western dialect ; minij Mangerei ; meoun,
muidge, imigui, Macquarie Harbour.
Head=imo«7a, Ombay; 7noos (=hair), Darnley Islands; moochi (=hair),
Massied ; immoos (=:beard), Darnley Islands ; eeta moochi (=beard),
Massied.
Knee={cici-houha, Ombay ; bowka, houlkay (=forefinger), Darnley Is-
lands.
Leg=M*aZ;a, Ombay ; horag-nata, Jhongworong dialect of the Australian.
Bosom=:a7nz', Ombay ; naem, Darnley Island.
Tliigh=tYg?ia, Ombay ; tinna-mooTc (=foot), Witouro dialect of Australian.
The root, tin, is very general throughout Australia in the sense of foot.
Belly=^e-Z;a_p-awa, Ombay ; coopoi (==navel), Darnley Island.
Staasz^ipi-herre, Mangarei; bering, hirrong, Sydney.
'Ha,nd=tanaraga, Mangarei ; taintu, Timbora ; tamira, Sydney.
Head=ya/<,e, Mangarei ; chow, King George's Sound.
Sia.rs=:Hngl:ong, Timboro ; chindy, King George's Sound, Australia.
M.oon=mang'' ong, Timbora ; meuc, King George's Sound.
Sun=.ingJcong, Timbora ; coing, Sydney.
Blood =:^•ero, Timbora ; gnoorong, Cowagary dialect of Australia.
Head =^'oZ:or^, Timbora ; gogorrah, Cowagary.
'Fisb.=:appi, Mangarei ; ^vapi, Darnley Island.
Of these affinities nearly all are Australian. In
those with the Papuan dialects the parts about Ceram
and Gilolo are the most abundant.
384 NORTH-WESTERN AMERICA.
CHAPTER LV.
Languages of America. — The Eskimo. — The Athabaskan dialects. — The
Kitunaha. — The Atna. — The Haidah, Chemmesyan, Wakash, and
Chinuk.
The languages of the New World now come under
notice ; languages of which the origin some few years
back was obscure. This was because most of our data
for the ethnology of America were derived from the
Indians of Canada and the United States rather than
from those of the Hudson's Bay Territory and Russian
America. As long as the parts between the Rocky
Mountains and the Pacific were insufficiently explored,
the nearest congeners to the populations of the north-
eastern parts of Asia were insufficiently known. With
the improvements in this respect the mystery has di-
minished— so much so that, even before we leave Asia,
decided affinities between the languages of Siberia and
the languages of the northern coast of the Pacific pre-
sent themselves.
The lines by which America might be peopled from
Asia are three — the first, via Behring's Straits ; the
second, via the Aleutian chain of islands — islands run-
ning from Kamtshatka to the Peninsula of Aliaska ; the
third, via the Kurile islands, from either Korea or the
Peninsula of Sagalin. Of these, though the presumptions
may be in favour of the first, the phenomena in the
present state of our knowledge, favour the second.
For Europe and Asia the Circumpolar forms of speech
THE ESKIMO. 385
belong to different genera, if not to different orders ;
and they are comparatively numerous. Above all, they
have (every one of them) decided southern affinities —
so much so as to give them tlie appearance of being
intrusive. With the Norwegian and Russian this is
not only the case, but it is known to be so. Of the
Lap and Samoyed the southern origin is less decided.
On each side, however, there are southern affinities.
With the Tungus these southern affinities are more
decided still. The nearest approacli (after the Lap) to
anything like an original Arctic situs is supplied by the
Yukahiri and Tshuktshi. Yet even here it is only an
approach.
In America, on the other hand, the Arctic region is
mainly covered by dialects of a single language — the
Eskimo ; the intrusion from the south being inconsider-
able. Hence, the Eskimo area is horizontal rather than
vertical ; broad rather than deep ; and running, in its
extension, from east to west rather than from north to
south. The language of Greenland and Labrador is
Eskimo. The language of the eastern extremity of
Asia is Eskimo. The language of the Aleutian islands
is Eskimo. The language of the interjacent regions
is Eskimo also.
So much for the breadth and continuity of the Es-
kimo area.
In respect to its depth, it has its maximum on the
Atlantic, where it reaches the latitude of Newfoundland.
It is on the side of the Atlantic* that the contrast
between the Eskimo and the ordinary Indian of North
America — the Red Indian as he is often called — is most
* It is often useful (not to say necessary) to speak thus ; indeed, we must
occasionally write Atlantic and Pacific instead of West and East. This is
because we have occasionally to shift our position. The Eskimos of Green-
land are an Eastern, and the Konaegi of Kadiak a Western, population, only,
when we look at them from Europe. When we begin with the Namollos of
the Asiatic side of Behring's Straits, and go on with the Aleutians, and the
Konsegi, East ))ecomes West, and vice versd.
C C
386
NORTH-WESTERN AMERICA.
decided. Hence, as long as the phenomena of transition
which are exhibited on the side of the Pacific were un-
known, the connection between the aborigines with
both the Siberians and the Americans was not only
doubtful, but the line of demarcation which was drawn
between the Eskimo and the Indian was exaggerated.
The Eskimo is the only language common to the two
continents ; and this it is in two ways. The Aleutian
dialects are in situ, and, as such, actually transitional.
But, besides these, there is, in the parts about the
Anadyr and Tshuktshi Noss, a population of compara-
tively recent origin, occupant of the parts between the
most western of the true Tshuktshi of Be bring 's
Straits — a population which seems (so to say) to have
been reflected back from America upon Asia. On the
other hand, however, no true Asiatic language is spoken
in any part of America.
The best known of the Aleutian forms of speech,
which probably represent a group of the ordinal value
of all the others put together, is the Unalashkan.
English.
Unalashka.
Kadiak.
Kuskutshewak.
Labrador.
Man
tayaho
sli6k
tatshu
inuit
Woman
anhahenak
aganak
Bead
kamhek
naskok
kainikuk
niakko
Hair
imlin
neoet
nuiat
nuiat
Nose
anhozin
kinaga
nikh
kingat
Mouth
ahilrek
kanot
kanik
kannerk
Ear
tutusak
khiune
tshuutuik
suit
Ears
tutasakin
khiudok
sintik
Eye
thak
inhalak
vitatuik
aiiga
Tongue
alinak
ulue
alianuk
okak
Hand
khianh
taleha
yagatshutuik
aggait
Foot
kitok
looga
igiit
itigak
Tooth
kiahuzin
hudeit
kuutuik
kiutit
Blood
ainak
auk
auk
Shy
inayak
keliok
kiilyak
kiUek
Sun
ahhapak
madzak
sekkinek
Moon
tuhedak
yalok
tangek
takkek
Star
Rta,Ti
ageke
mittit
ubloriak
Fire
keyhnak
knok
knuik
ikoma
Water
tanak
tanak
muek
immek
THE ESKIMO.
387
English.
Unalashka.
Kadiak.
Kuskutsliewak
Labrador.
Rain
khetak
ketok
River
khehanok
kuik
kvak
kok
Sand
khoohok
kabea
kaguyak
Sea
allauk
(mak
immakh-pik
immak
Snoio
kannek
annue
kanikh-obak
kannek
Stone
kuwauak
yamak
tkalhk-uk
Tree
yakak
kobohaktsbalakua
One
atoken
ataudzek
atuuchik
attousek
Two
arlok
azlha
ainak
marruk
Three
kanku
pingasvak
painaivak
pingasat
Four
sikhin
stam6k
tshanuk
sittamut
Five
khaan
talimik
talemek
taUek
Six
atln
ahoilune
akbvinok
arvanget
Seven
ukun
malehonhen
ainaakbvanam pingasullo
Eight
kankheen
inglulun
pinaiviakhvanam pinaiuik
Nine
sikheen
kulnuhin
chtameakhvanam tellimella
Ten
atek
kulen
tamemiakhvanam tellimayoktut.
It
is to the Eskimo of this
latter, lai
•ger, and more
compl
ex group
that the Namollo, or :
Eskimo of the
Asiatic continent belongs.
English.
Tshuktshi Nos.
Mouth of the Anadyr.
Head
nasbko
nashkok
Hair
nuyak
nuyet
Nose
tatUk
kbiinggak
Eye
iik
iik
Ear
tshintak
tshiftukhk
Blood
auku
auka
Shy
kiiilah
keilak
Sun
shekkinak
matshak
Moon
tankuk
iralluk
Star
igalgtak
iralikatakh
Fire
annak
eknok
Water
mok
emak
Tree
unakhtsik
unaktshek
Fish
salyuk
ikahliik
River
kuik
kuigutt
Sand
kannak
kaujak
Snow
annu
anighu
One
attashek
attazhbk
Two
malgok
malgukh
Three
pegayut
pingayu
Four
ishtamat
ishtama
Five
tatlemat
taklima
Ten
kulla
kuUe.
C C 2
388 THE ATHABASKAN GROUP.
Next to the Eskimo comes the great Athabaskan
fiimily, stock, group, or class.
The Athabaskan area touches Hudson's Bay on the
one side, the Pacific on the other.
With the exception of the Eskimo, the Athabaskan
forms of speech are the most northern of the New World.
For the northern Athabaskan s (the main body of the
family) the philological details were, until lately, emi-
nently scanty and insufficient. There was, indeed, an
imperfect substitute for them in the statements of several
highly trustworthy authors as to certain tribes whicli
spoke a language allied to the Chepewyan and as to
others who did not ; — statements which, on the whole,
have been shown to be correct ; statements, however,
which required the confirmation of vocabularies. These
have now been procured ; if not to the full extent of all
the details of the family to an extent quite sufficient
for the purposes of the philologue. They show that the
most western branch of the stock, the Chepewyan Pro-
per, or the language of what Dobbs called the Northern
Indians, is closely akin to that of the Dog-ribs, the Hare
(or Slave), and the Beaver Indians, and that the Daho-
dinni, called from their warlike habits the Mauvais
Monde, are but slightly separated from them. Farther
west a change takes place, but not one of much import-
ance. Interpreters are understood with greater diffi-
culty, but still understood.
The Takulli, Nagail, or Chin division falls into no less
than eleven minor sections ; all of which but one end
in this root, viz. -tin.
1. The Tau-im, or Talko-^m.
(?) 2. The Tsilko-im or Chilko-tin, perhaps the same
word in a different dialect.
3.
The Nasko-^m
8.
The Natliau-^m.
4.
The Thetlio-^m
9.
The Nikozliau-itm.
5.
The Tssitsno-ti7i
10.
The Tatshiau-^m, and
6.
The Nulaau-^m.
n.
The Babin Indians.
7.
The Ntaauo-^m."
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES. 389
Sir John Richardson has shown, what was before but
suspected, that the Loucheux Indians of Mackenzie
River are Athabaskan ; the Loucheux being a tribe
known under many names — under that of the Quar-
rellers, under that of the Squinters, under that of the
Thycothi and Digothi, under that of Kutshin. The
particular tribes of the Kutshin division, occupants of
either the eastern frontier of Russian America, or the
north-western parts of the Hudson's Bay territory, are
as follows : —
1. The Artez-kutshi nzH-ard people.
2. Tlie Tshu-hutshizz Waiter people.
3. The Tatzei-/<;^6^s/l^ = Rampart people; falling into
foiu" bands.
4. The Teystse-hutshi zzTeoiple of the shelter.
5. The Ysint?i-kutshi nzTeoiilQ of the lakes.
6. The Neyetse-Zci/is^i = People of the open country.
7. The Tlagga-silla = Little dogs.
This brings us to the Kenay. A Kenay vocabulary
has long been known. It appears in Lisianisky, tabu-
lated with the Kadiak, Sitkan, and Unalaskan of the
Aleutian Islands. It was supplied by the occupants of
Cook's Inlet. Were these Athabaskan? The present
writer owes to Mr. Isbister the suggestion that they
were Loucheux, and to the same authority he was in-
debted for the use of a very short Loucheux vocabulary.
Having compared this with Lisiansky's, he placed both
languages in the same category — rightly in respect to
the main point, wrongly in respect to a subordinate.
He determined the place of the Loucheux by that of the
Kenay, and made both Kolush. He would now reverse
the process and make both Athabaskan (in the widest
sense of the word), as Sir John Richardson has also
suggested.
For all the languages hitherto mentioned we have
specimens. For some, however, of the populations
whose names appear in the maps, within the Athabaskan
390
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
area, we must either rest satisfied with the testimony
of writers or rely on inference. In some cases, too,
we have the same population under difierent names.
Without, then, giving any minute criticism, I will briefly
state that all the Indians of the Athabaskan area whose
names end in -dinni are Athabaskan ; viz. —
1. The See-issaw-cZin-m m Rising-sun-meTi.
2 . The-tsawot-(imm z= Birch-rind-me?i.
3. The Thlingeha-(imm z= Dog-rib-me^i.
4. The Etsh-tawlit-c?mm = Thickwood-me?i.
5. The Ambah-tawut-cZmm = Mountain-sheep-me??..
6. The TsiUaw-awdut-cZmm zz Bushwood-me'}^.
Hare-Indians and Strong-hows are also Athabaskan
names. The ITare-Indians are called Kanclio. The
Nehanni and some other populations of less importance
are also, to almost a certainty, Athabaskan.
English.
Kenay.
Kutshin.
Slave.
Dog-rib.
Man
tinna
'tinne
Woman
mokelan
tshekwe
Head
shangge
saykwi
ta
Hair
stseahu
sakwigah
theoya
Mouth
shnaan
kwariclil
Teeth
shrlkka
saygli
baighu
Tongue
stsilue
eththadu
Ear
stsllu
settzay
bedzegai
Eye
snasha
sentah
mendi
Hand
shikuna
siiilaTi
mila
Sun
channu
sakh
sah
sa
Moon
nee
thun
sah
tethesa
Star
skin
fwun, them
thiu
Fire
taaze
khiin
khun
Water
vllni
to
tti
tu
River
katnu
dessh
Rain
dsha
chon
tshon
Day
chaan
tzinna
Night
kaak
hetleghe
Snow
ajjah
jeah
yah, teiU
Stone
kaliknike
thai
I
su
si
.-
Thou
nan
nin
FatUr{my)
stukta
se-tsay
Son {my)
ssi-jsk
se-jay
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
39]
Kuglish. Kenay.
Kutshin.
Slave.
Dog-rib.
One tsllgtan
tilagga
thelgai
*enclai
Two n<itna
nakhei
olkie
*nakha
Three toluke
thieka
tadette
*ttaglia
Four tanke
tanna
tinghi
*tting
Five tskilu
illakonelei
.saj^elle
*sastillai
Six ktijtoni
etseute
*utkettai
Seven kantsehe
thlazadie
*kliosingting
Eight Itakule
etzandie
♦etzenting
Nine Ikitslthu
etMMeihiilai *khakuli
Ten klujfin
kennatai
*honana
The Beaver Indian
is transitional to
the Slave and
the Chepewyan Proper.
The Sikani and Sussi tongues, lying as far south as
the drainage of the Saskatshewan, and as far west as
the Rocky Mountains, are, and have been for some years,
known as Athabaskan.
English.
Chepewyan.
TakullL
Man
dinnie
dim*
Woman
chequois
tsheko
Father
2?tah (my)
apa
Mother
zinah (my)
unnungcool
Son
eiazay (my)
eyoze
Daughter
zilengai
eacha
Head
ed thie
bitsa
Hair
thiegah
ozega
Ear
otso
Eye
naekay
beni
Nose
paninsrhis
Tongue
• edthu
tsoola
Tooth
goo
ohgoo
Hand
law
la
Feet
cuh
osha
Blood
deU
skai
Hov^e
cosen
kukh
Axe
thynle
shashill
Knife
bess
teish
Shoes
kinchee
keskut
Sun
sah
tsa
Moon
sah
tsa
Star
shlum
* The words marked thus are either a second dialect or a second vocabu-
lary of the Slave.
392
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
English.
Cliepewyan.
Takulli.
Fire
counn
kwun
Water
toue
too
Rain
thynnelsee
naoton
Snow
yath
ghies
River
tesse
akokh
Stone
thaih
tse
Meat
bid
utson
Dog
sliengh
tkli
Beaver
zah
tsha
Bear
zass
sus
Great
unshaw
tsho
Cold
edzah
hungkaz
Black
dellzin
dulkuz
Red
delicouse
dulkun
I
ne
si
Thou
nee
yin
One
slachy
etkhla
Txm
naghur
nangkakh
Three
taghy
ta
Four
dengky
tingti
Five
sasoulacliee
skunlai
Six
alkitachy
ulkitaki
Seven
takalte
Eight
olkideinghy
ulkinggi
Nine
cakinahanothna
lanizi etkhlahkula
Ten
canotlina
lanizi.
The Atna at the mouth of the Copper Kiver, the
Koltshani higher up the stream, and the Ugalents
around Mount St. Elias, are all Athabaskan — not, indeed,
so decidedly as the Beaver, the Dog-rib, or the Proper
Chepewyan; but still Athabaskan. They ai^not Eskimo
though they have Eskimo affinities. They are not
Kolush, though they have Kolush affinities. They are
by no means isolated, and as little are they to be made
into a class by themselves. At the same time, it should
be added that by including these we raise the value of
the class, and we raise it stiJl more when we include
the Kolush.
English.
Eye
Hair
Teeth
Ugaleuts.
Atna.
Kolstshani.
snyga
tshinfcagi
stsega
stshjga
gu
nogu
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
398
English.
Ugalcnts.
Atna.
Kolstshani.
Nose
sontshis
santshis
Hand
sla
kun
Head
ttsa
sla
Ear
stsega
stsi
SU71
kaketlkh
naai
naaitshete
Moon
kakha
goltsei
sattslietle
Star
tlakhekl
zzliun
son
One
tlkinke
slielkae
ilite
Two
loate
natekka
laken
Three
totlkoa
taakei
takei
Four
kalakakya
tiJnki
tani
Five
tsoane
altshen
taltshan
Six
tsun
kastaan
kistan
Seven
laatetsun
kontsegai
kontshaga:
Eight
katetsun
tkkhladenki
tan
Nine
kutkte
tklakolei
takolei
Ten
takakkh
plazha
natitlya.
The Athabaskan is broadly and definitely separated
from the language of its frontiers in proportion as we
move from the Pacific towards the Atlantic.
The most southern of the Athabaskans Proper are
the Sussis, in north latitude 5]° — there or thereabouts.
But they are only the most Southern of the Athabaskans
en masse. There are outlyers of the stock as far soutli
as the southern parts of Oregon. More than this, there
are Athabaskans in California, New Mexico, and Sonora.
Mr. Hale showed that the Umkwa, Kwaliokwa, and
Tlatskanai dialects of a district so far south as the
mouth of the Columbia, and the upper portion of the
Umkwa, were outlying members of the Athabaskan stock,
which dialects were afterwards shown, by a discovery of
Professor Turner's, to be only pe^iultimate ramifications ;
inasmuch as in California, New Mexico, Sonora, and
even in Ohihuhua, as far south as SO® north latitude,
Athabaskan forms of speech were to be found ; viz. the
Navaho, the Jecorilla, the Pinalero, along with the
Apatsh of New Mexico, California, and Sonora. To
these add the Hoopah of California, which is also
Athabaskan.
394
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
(10
English.
Tlatskanai.
Kwaliokwa,
Umkwa.
Man
khanane
titson
taiitsen
tone
Woman
tseokeia
oat
ekhe
tseake
Head
khostoma
nin
suga
stsie
si
Hair
khotsosea
soaktlane
suga
stsose
sala
Ear
khotskhe
khonade
tzige
stsakhai
tzuge
Eye
nakhai
nage
Nose
khointsus
dalainstzetze
ziz
Mouth
khokwaitzaale
ta
wunaya
Tongue
khotzotkhltzitzkhltsaha
uofaa
lasom
seqinakal
santkhlo
Tooth
khotsiakatatkMtson
koute
uo
cugu
Hand
kholaa
zlaa
sla
zila
Foot
khoakhastlsokai
zkhe
nokatkh
Swn
iaose
za
szlakhalaklia
khangze
Moon
taose
igaltzi
Star
khatlatze
Fire
tkhlkane
khong
Water
to
tkho.
(2.)
English.
Navabo.
Apatsh.
Pinalero,
Man
tennai
ailee
payyahnah
Woman
estsonnee
eetzan
etsunni
Head (my)
hutzeetsin
seezee
Hair (my)
hutzee
seesga,
setzezil
Face (my)
huunee
streenee
Ear (my)
^wtjah
seetza.
sitzchar
Eye (my)
hunnah.
sleeda
tshindar
Nose (my)
Awtchih
seetzee
chinchi
Mouth (my)
huzz&i
sheedsi
Tongue (my)
huttso
sheedsiTe
Tooth (my)
hurgo
sheego
eah
THE ATHABASKAN LANGUAGES.
895
English.
Navaho.
Apatsh.
Pinalero.
Sun
cliokonoi
skeemai
yahehe
Moon
klaihonoi
clanai
ilsonsayed
Star
sonh
suns
ailsonsatyou
Dap
cheen-gfo
eeska
Night
klai-gro
cla
Light
lioascen-(70
skee
Rain
naheltinh
nagostee
Snow
yas
zahs
Hail
neelo
heeloah
Fire
konh
koa
Water
tonh
toa,h
to
Stone
tsai
zeyzay
tshaier
One
tlahee
tahse
Two
nahkee
nahkee
Three
tanh
tau
(3.)
English.
Hoopah.
Jecorilla.
Head
okheh
it-se
Forehead
/lotsintah
pin-nay
Face
Aaunith
Eye
Attanah
pindah
Nose
/mntchu
-jwtehess
Teeth
Aowwa
egho
Tongue
sastha
ezahte
Ear
Aotcheweh
wickyah
Hair
tsewok
itse
Nech
Aosewatl
ttvckcost
Arm
Aoithlani
witse
Hand
AoUah
w/slah.
The Kitunahay Kutani, Cootanie or Flathow area is
long rather than broad, and it follows the line of the
Rocky Mountains between 52° and 48° north latitude.
How definitely it is divided by the main ridge from that
of the Blackfoots I am unable to say ; but as a general
rule, the Kutani lie west, the Blackfoots east ; the former
being Indians of New Caledonia and Oregon, the latter
of the Hudson's Bay Territory.
On the west, the Kutani country is bounded by that
of the Shuswap and Selish ; on the north by the Sussi,
Sikanni, and Nagail Athabaskans ; on the south (I
396
THE KUTANI.
think) by some of the Upsaroka or Crow tribes. All
these relations are remarkable, and so is the geographical
position of the area. It is in a mountain range ; and,
as such, it is a district likely to be an ancient Occupancy.
The languages of the frontiers are referable to four
different families — the Athabaskan, the Atna, the Al-
gonkin, and the Sioux ; from all of which the Kutani
differs notably ; though, like all the languages of America,
it has numerous miscellaneous affinities. In respect to
its phonesis it agrees with the North Oregon languages.
The similarity in name to that of the Loucheux, whom
Richardson calls Kutshin, deserves notice.
The Ktitani vocabulary of Mr. Hale was obtained
from a Cree Indian, and is not to be depended on. This
being the case it is fortunate that it is not the only spe-
cimen of the language. There is an earlier one of Mr.
Howse's, published in the Transactions of the Philologi-
cal Society. It is as follows ; being given in full as
representing all that is known of the language : —
Englisli.
Kiitani.
English.
Kiitani.
One
hook cain
This Indian
in nai ah quels
Two
ass
mah kin nic
Three
calie sah
That Indian
CO ah quels mah
Four
had sah
kin nic
Five
yea co
These Indians
wai nai ah quels
Six
in ne me sah
mah kin nic nin
Seven
whist taw lah
tie
Eight
waw ah sah
Which man ?
cath lah te te calt ?
Nine
ky yie kit to
Which Indians ?
cah lah ah quels
Ten
aye to vow
mah kin nic nin
An Indian
ah quels mah kin
tie?
nic
Which gun ?
cah lah tah vow ?
A man
te te calt
Who
cath lah
A woman
balle key
My son
cah mah hat lay
A shoe
cath lend
His son
hot lay is
A gun
tah vow
He is good
sook say
I
cah min
It is good
sook kin nai
Thou
lin coo
He is arrived
swan hah
He
nin CO is
I love him
hones sclah kilt
We {thou and I)
cah min nuh lah
He loves mc
sclah kilt nai
THE KUTANL
897
English.
Ki'itaui.
English.
Kiitani.
/ see him
hones ze caught
Brother, youngest
[ see his son
hones ze caught ah
{by brothers)
cats zah
calttis
Brother, youngest
He sees me
ze caught tene
{by sisters)
cah ze ah
He steals
i in ney
Sister, eldest
cats sous
I love him
hones sch\h kilt
Sister, youngest
cah nah nah
ney
Uncle
cath ah
I do not love him
cah sclah kilt nai
Aunt
cah tilt tilt
My husband
can no claw kin
Grandfatli£r
cah papa
nah
Grandmother
cah de de
He is asleep
come ney ney
Thy husband
My loife
in claw kin nah nis
cah tilt nah mo
I am a man
,te te calt ne ne
Thy wife
Son
tilt nah mo nis
I am a looman
miere ?
balle key ne ne
cas kin ?
can nah hot lay or
ah calt
Where is my gun ?
cass kin cah tah
vow?
Daughter
cass win
Where is his r/im ?
cass kin tah vow
Come here
clan nah
I'q ?
Go away
cloon no
IS i
Take care
ill kilt we In
A lake
ah CO CO nook
Get out of the way you vaw
How much ?
cack sah ?
Come in
tie cath ah min
It is cold weather
kis caw tit late
Go out
sclah nah ah min
A tent
ah caw slah co
Sto2y
mae kaek
hoke
Run
sin naek kin
My tent
cah ah kit lah
Slowly
ah nis cah zin
Thy tent
ah kit lah nis
Miserly
0 per tin
His tent
ah kit lah is
Beggarly
coke CO mae kali
Our {thy and my)
cah ah kit lah
knn
tent
nam
I give
hone silt ah mah tie
Yes
ah ah
sis ney
No
Men
waw
te te calt nin tie
Thou givest
kin nah mah tie
Women
balle key nin tie
zey
Girl {in her teens)
Girls {in their
teens)
Boy
Boys
nah oh tit
He gives
sclah mah tie zey
He gave
cah mah tie cates
nah oh tit nin tie
I beat
hone cah slah tea
stalt
stalt nin tie
Thm beatest
kin cah slah leat
He beats
kis kilt cone slah
leat
Little hoy
stalt nah nah
Child
cah mo
Give me
ah mah tie kit
Ch lldren
cah mo nin tie
sous
Father {by the cah de doo
He gave me
nah mah tie kit
sons)
sap pe ney
Father {by (he call sous
1 love you
hone sclah kilt
daughtei's)
.
ney
Mother
cah mail
He loves
sclah kilt
Brother, eldest
cah tat
Bo you love me
' kin sclah slap ?
898
THE KUTANI.
EngHsh.
Kutani.
English.
Kutani.
/ hate you
hone cah sclah kilt
Red pine
he mos
ney
Cedar
heats ze natt
Thou hatest
kin cah sclah kilt
Poplar
ac cle mack
He hates
cah sclah kilt
Aspen
ac CO CO zle mack
I speaJc
hones ah ney
Fire
ah kin ne co co
Thou speahest
kins ah
Ice
ah CO wheat
He speahs
kates ah
Charcoal
ah kits cah kilt
We speak
hones ah nah slah
Ashes
ah CO que me co
You speaJc
talk e tea leat
Kettle
yeats skime
They speaJc
seals ah
Mat tent
tah lalt ah kit lah
I steal
hone i he ne
nam
I sleep
hone come ney
Head
ac clam
ney
Eyes
ac cack leat
We sleep
hone come ney nah
Nose
ac coun
lah ney
Mouth
ac calt le mah
I die
hones alt hip pe
Chin
ac cah me zin ne
ney
cack
Thou diest
kins alt hip
Cheeks
ac que ma malt
We die
hone ah o co noak
Hair
ac coke que slam
nah slah ney
Body
ac CO no cack
Give me to eat
he shoe
Artns
ac sglat
Eat
he ken
Legs
ac sack
My gun
cah tah vow
Belly
ac CO womb
Thy gun
tah vow nis
Back
ac cove cah slack
His gun
•tah vow is
Side
ac kin no cack
Mountain
ac CO vo cle it
Ears
ac coke co what
Rocky mountain
ac CO vo cle it nook
Animals
yah mo
key
Horse
kilt calt law ah
Snowy mountain
ac CO vo cle it ac
shiu
clo
Stallion
cass CO
Road or track
ac que mah nam
Mare
stoifgalt
Large river
oath le man me
Bull
neel seek
took
Cow
slouke copo
Small river
hah cack
Birds
to coots cah min
Creek
nis cah took
nah
Large lake
will caw ac co co
Blue jay
CO quis kay
nook
Crow
coke kin
Small lake
ac CO CO nook nah
Raven
nah nah key
nah
Snakes (rattle-
Rapid
ah cah hop cle it
snake)
wilt le malt
Fall
wheat taw hop cle
Garter snake
ah CO new slam
it
Roots (camass)
hap pey
Shoals
ah coke you coo
Bitter root
nah cam me shou
nook
Tohacco root
mass mass
Channel
hah cath slaw o
Sweet potatoes
ah whis sea
weak
Moose herry
ac CO mo
Wood or trees
ah kits slah in
Strawberry
ac CO CO
THE ATNA, OR SELISH, DIALECTS.
899
EngUsh.
Kutani.
English.
Kutaui.
Pipe
couse
Red deer
kilt caw sley
Pipe stem
ac coot lah
Moose deer
snap pe co
Axe
ah coot talt
Woolvereen
ats po
Tobacco
yac ket
Wolf
cack kin
Flesh
ah coot lack
Beaver
sin nah
Calf
ah kin co malt
Otter
ah cow oh alt
Tiger
s'vie
MinJc
in new yah
Bears of aU kinds
cap pe tie
Martin
nac suck
Blach or brotcn
Musquash
an CO
bears
nip pe CO
Small grey plain
Ch'izzle bear
kit slaw 0 slaw
wolf
skin koots.
Rein deer
neats snap pie co
West of the Kutanis and south of the Takulli Atha-
baskans He the northernmost members of a great class,
which extends as far south as the Sahaptin fi'ontier. It
has been named by Hale and Gallatin Tsihaili-Selish,
It contains the Shushwap or Atna Proper, Kuttelspelm
(or Pend d'Oreilles), Selish, Spokan (or Kettle Fall),
Okanagan, Skitsuish (or Ooeur d'Alene), Piskwaus, Nus-
dalum, Kawitchen, Cathlascou, Skwali, Chechili, (Tsihaili,)
Kwaintl, Kwenaiwtl, (Kowelitsk,) Nsietshawus (or Killa-
muk), and Billechula, spoken at the mouth of Salmon
River ; a language to which a vocabulary from Mac-
kenzie's Travels of the dialect spoken at Friendly
Village
is referable.
English.
Atna.*
Pisl<aws.
Skwali.
Kowelitsk.
Man
kwlniMkh
skaltamikko
stuinsh
nawetkhlamakb
Woman
SMmotkhlitshk
swrnaem
stkhladai
kawitkhl
Father
katsa
laaus
baa
koma
Mother
kekha
shkui
sokho
kota
Son
skusS,a
ashkusas
nimjtda
nwman
Daughter
stwmkaalt
stwmkas
nibada
tsimwrnan
Head
skapkht^u
khumukwm
skhaius
khomwt
Hair
khauitwn
skhiaukwn
skhatso
kwskws
Ear
tkhlamt
tana
kholane
khoolan
Eye
khukukhlostan
sinatkhlo- }
shomttn S
khalom
mos
Nose
spitsaks
muksin
makiisin
mwkwsMn
Mmith
spiilutsin
skhumtsliin
kamukh
kwnikh
Tongue
tikhwatsk
milik
tkhlalab
tekhutsitkhl
Teeth
khalakhu
khalekhu
tswnis
yenis
Hand
lakhaleakst
k&likh
tshalash
lakhaiaka
* From Hale, in Gallati
400
THE ATNA, OR SELISH, DIALECTS.
English.
Aina.
Piskaws,
Skwali.
Kovvelitsk.
Fingers
lakhaleakst
kaiikh
tshalash
lakhaiaka
Feet
leakhin
stsoohin
tsMshin
tsotkhl
Blood
metikhea
mitkhlkaia
stulikwan
skwaitkhl
House
tshitukh
stukul
alwtkhl
khakh
Axe
tkhlumen
khaweskhan
khamatn
kbMstn
Knife
khutkhlakst
mikha.mun
snokh
kwakhomim
Shoes
skitkhltso
skhamhin
ialshin
tswtkhlshin
Shy
slkhleakhwt
khitmomtaskhut
tkhltalakun
San
skwokwa?/s
khoslium
tkhlukhatkhl
tkhlokliwaokin
Moon
makhen
suakhaam
stkhliikhwalwm tkhlokhwatkhl
Star
sukoshint
pukhpukliaiauit stshishus
kase
Day
pakhiauit
skhzdkhztlt
skhlakhel
skhaiekh
Night
khwtshitshoi
shtsowi
tkhlakh
kwaiekli
Fire
teekwu
shtshiatkitp
hot
moksip
Water
sliawitkhlkwit
sliauitkhlkwa
kho
kal
Rain
klakstan
stau
skhaktni
BtlkvfU
Snow
makha
shmaa
makho
skhlakhwit
Earth
tklilokalukh
wmaumit
suatiukhtin
twtniikh
River
tsuakh
npukwatkwi
stulakww
skewitkhlko
Stone
shkhanikh
khwtkhlot
tshetkhla
trtkalis
Tree
tsigkap
sliuopt
iamwts
Meat
tshee
skattk
maiats
kos
Dog
skakha
khMkhwtk- \
hltshin S
skobai
kakha
Beaver
skalau
skalau
Bear
skkwmkhaes ' '
(black) ;;
mikhatkhl
Bird
spiott
huhuiui
tkhlitknaalkitm
Fish
shuauwitklil
nacauitkhlkwa
Great
khaiom
kwwtunt
hekhwo
tuwuikh.
Cold
tshMatkhl
shtshilt
tws
tkhlek
White
pewkh
paiakh
khokkliwkh
kskhwokh
Black
kwaiokhwaiil
khwaii
khaimetsh
ksnwkhu
Red
tshiwkhwt*
kwil
khaikwitshltt
uktseakhu
I
ntshatshua
intsha
uis,u
wntsa
Thou
anwwl
inui
duthwe
nwwe
He
wniiwis
tswnil
tsunitkhl
tsMne
One
nkho
naksh
nutsho
ots
Two
siselw
tkhauMs
sale
sale
Three
ketkhles
katkhles
tkhlikho
katkhle
Four
mos
mushits
mos
mos
Five
tshelikst
tshiliksht
tsilats
tshelatsh
Six
takhamakst
hotshimakst
tsilatshe
takham
Seven
tshutsitkhlka
shispwlkh
tsook
tsops
Eight
nkoops
tuwin
takatshe
tshamos
Nine
twmtkhlin )
wkokaa f
khakhanot
khoMn
tookhu
Ten
opitkst
opanikst
panutshs
panutsh.
THE ATNA, OR SELISH, DIALECTS.
401
The Tsihaili-Selish languages reach the sea in the parts
opposite Vancouver's Island. Perhaps they touch it to
the north also. Perhaps, too, some of the TakuUi forms of
speech still further north do the same. The current
statements, however, are to the effect that to the south
of the parts opposite Sitka and to the north of the
parts opposite Vancouver's Island the two families in
question are separated from the Pacific by a narrow
strip of separate languages. These are, beginning from
the north —
1. The Kolush.
2. The Hccidah, spoken by the Skittegats, Massets,
Kumshahas, and Kyganie of Queen Charlotte's Islands
and the Prince of Wales' Archipelago.
3. The Chemmesyan, spoken along the sea-coast and
islands in north latitude 55°;
4. The Hailtsa, containing the dialects of the sea-
coast between Hawkesbury Island and Broughton's
Archipelago ; also those of the northern part of Van-
couver's Island.
From the Piskwaus, in the preceding group, the tran-
sition, in the opinion of the present writer, who only
attempts a provisional and approximate arrangement,
lies through the Billechula (which he makes Atna) to
the Hailtsa and its congeners of the present group.
English.
Kolusli of Sitka.
Skittegats.
Cliemmesyan.
Hailtsa.
Man
chakleyh
keeset
tzib
numus
Woman
shavvot
kna
imnaach
kanum
Head
ashaggee
hete
Hair
' koshahaoo
cutts
Ear
kakook
Nose
kaclu
coon
Mouth
kake
*
Tongue
katnoot
Tooth
kaooh
Hand
kacheen
haiasi
Feet
kahoos
Sun
kakkaan
tzue
kiumuk
tkhlikshualit
Moon
tees
kukn
kiumugumaatuk
nusikh
Star
kootahanaha
kaaldha
pialust
D D
402
THE SITKA,
ETC.
English.
Kolusli of Sitka.
Skittegats.
Chenimesyaii.
Hailtsa.
House
tasnenawin
tkwutkhle
mukatee
Axe
tkhlakatstJiin
khwestwn
taawish
Day
koondlain
tseicoosah
Fire
haan
tsinoo
tsultila
Water
ieen
huntle
use
waum
Rain
sevva
tuU
waash
yukhwa
Snow
kleyt
tuU hatter
moaks
kwispish
Stone
te
tlaha
loap
Tree
shaak
kyet
kunagun
I
chat
cagen
newyo
nuka
Thou
tingkyah
noone
tsu
He
anhest
qua
One
tlekh
skwansun
kaak
manuik
Two
teeh
stung
tupchaat
maluik
Three
nezk
thkoonweelh
gundh
yukhtuk
Four
taakun
stunsun
tuchaalpuch
mouk
Five
kejetsckin
kleith
kuhdhoouis
shiowk
Six
kletuschu
ktonell
coald
ketkhliouk
Seven
tachate uschu
tseekwah
tupooald
matkhlius
Eight
nesket uschu
stansanghah
kundh
yukhtaksimus
Nine
kuschok klathshskwasunha kustamoas
mumiskumea
Ten
tschinkat
klath
kippio
koljushun.
Next come the languages of Quadra's and Vancouver's
Island and a small portion of the opposite continent.
Then the Tshinuk and its congeners.
English.
Nsietshawus.*-
WatlalaCT'^Amji/r).
Ntitka.
Man
taiilaho
tkhlekala
checkup
Woman
suitkhlats
tkhlkakilak
klootzmah
Father
uluQ,
tkhlukhlam
noowexa
Mother
u\u&
waiak
hoomahexa
Son
twuMWon
itshikhan
tanassis checkup
Daughter
txlwnwwitn
wkttkhan
tanassis klootsmah
Head
takhen
kakhstakh
towhatsetel
Hair
tkhluakhen
wk-Mshshw
hapscup
Far
twne
amemtsha
parpee
Eye
taskhatkhl
iakhot
kassee
Nose '
tiwakhiswn
imiktshi
neetsa
Mouth
shinuotsins
emekushkhat
ictla-tzul {sing. )
Tongue
tikhitsas
mankhutkonuma
choop
Teeth
tkhlasawin
tkhlbekatsh
cheechee
Hand
tshalas
titmekshi
kookaniksa
Fingers
kwkwtsatsha
titmekshi
uc-tza
*
Or Killamuk ; a language of the Selish, or
Atna, group.
THE NSIETSHAWUS.
403
English.
Nsietsiiawus.
Watlala {Tshinuk).
Ntitka.
Feet
nikheicjins
tumepsh
kliskin
Blood
skiuo
tkhlkawwlkt
atzi-mis
Knife
tukhaiotkW
khawekhe
chiltaj'ek
Shoes
mitcinasMtim
tkaitkhlpa
Sh/
taskhitkhwn
koshakh
sieyah
Sun
tataitkhtMn
katkhlakh
oophelth
Moon
tttkhosliittMn
«ktkhl«men
oophelth
Star
nukhikliiaikhia
tkblkhekhanama
tartoose
Day
\mmiwm
iotshoktigh
nas-chitl
Night
\xu\U\
aiikap
atajai
Fire
tkhlaskhokh
watotkhl
eennuksee
Water
tkhlakhilo
tkliltshokwa
chabak
Rain
tkhlasilotkhl
ishketkhlti
meetla
Snow
tkblaskhwnMn
tkhtttka
queece
Earth
tawekh
v-elkh
klattumiss
River
nisatintslii
tkhlokhonet
tzac
Stone
tashwnsli
khalainMt
maoksee
Tree
tkhlaasklii
tkamonak
soocbis
Meat
tatse
ipkhalewa
cbis-qui-mis
Dog
tsaskhakhea
khotkliot
aemitl
Beaver
tatokhwoso
ikhwakhwa
Bear
tatontshiesbo
kanokh
cbi-mitz
Bird
tkUaskhokha
tkalakalabakh
kaenne
Fish
keesapa
Great
tuwwtkli
iakaitkhl
asco
Cold
tatsuwaii
tsometigh
ate-quitzi-majas
White
tahaklii
tkhop
atit-tzutle
Blach
tsuwwlMkhi
tkhM
Red
tkhlakiil
tklpal
I
«ntsM
naika
cheUe
Thou
ttnaike
maika
sua
He
tsMnitkhl
iaklika
abkoo
One
twheike
ikht
sahwank
Two
tkhlasale
makusht
attla
Three
tshanat
tkhlom
katsa
Four
tkhlawos
laket
mooh
Five
tm\hm
kwanan
soocbah
Six
tsiilukhatshi
takh?/m
noohoo
Seven
tutshoos
SMDitmakust
attlepoo
Eight
tukatshi
ksotken
atlabqueltb
Nine
tkhleio
kweos
sawwaukqueltb
Ten
tkhlaahantshs
tatkheelikma
hyo.
The class to which the Nutka and its congeners
belong is called the Wakash. The Tlaoquatsh and
Wakash Proper belong to it.
D D 2
404 OREGON AND CALIFORNIAN LANGUAGES.
CHAPTER LVI.
Languages of Oregon and California. — Caytis, &c. — Lutuami, &c. — Ehnek. —
Weitspek. — Kulanapo. — Copeh. — Pujuni, &c. — Costano, &c. — Eslen. —
Netela. — San Diego, &c.
All the preceding languages belong to the Hudson's
Bay Territory and to British Oregon rather than to
California. Those that follow belong to California
and American Oregon. Though the minute details
of the frontier are not accurately known there seems
to be a notable change in the parts about it. The
nature of this, in a rough way, may be illustrated
by the following table.
Contrast the two columns. How smoothly the words
on the right run, how harshly sound (when they can be
sounded) those of the left. Not, however, that they
give us the actual sounds of the combination hhl^ &c.
All that this means is that there is some extraordinary
sound to be expressed which neither any existing sign
nor any common combination will represent. In Mr.
Hale's vocabularies it is represented by a special letter.
English.
Selish.
Tshiuuk.
Shoshoni.
Man
skaltamekho
tkhlekala
taka
Woman
swma^m
tkhlakel
kWMM
Boy
skokosea
tklkaskws
natsi
Girl
shautwm
tklalekh
naintswts
Child
aktult
etshanuks
' wa
Father
iMaus
tkhliamama
dpui
Mother
sktiis
tkhlian^a
pia
Wife
makhonakh
iuakh^kal
wepui
Son
skokosea
etsokha
natsi
Daughter
stumtshaait
okwwkha
nanai
Brother
katshki (elder)
kapkhu
tamye
Sister
tklkikee
tkhliau
namei.
OREGON AND CALIFORNIAN LANGUAGES. 405
As a general rule the harsher phonesis lies to the
north, the softer to the south, of the Californian frontier.
That the difference, however, is, by no means, absolute,
may be seen from the following list : —
(1-)
English.
Wishosk.
Weiyot.
Boy
ligeritl
kushama
Married
wehowut'l
haqueh
Head
wutwetl
metwet
Hair
pah'tl
paht'l
Face
kahtsouetl
sulatek
Beard
tseh'pl
cheh'pl
Body
tah
Mt'l
Foot
wehlihl
wellih'tl
Village
mohl
katswah'tl
Chief
kowqueh'tl
kaiowuh
Axe
mahtl
mehtl
Pipe
malit'letl
mahtlel
Wind
rahtegut'l
ruktagun
Duck
ha,halitl
(2.)
hahaUih.
English.
Dieguno.
Cachan.
Leg
cwith'l
To-day
enyat'l
To-morrow
matinyat'l
Bread
meyut'l
Ear
hamat'l
smytli'l
Neck
n'yeth'l
Arm )
Hand t
selh
iseth'l
Friend
Byet'l
Feather
sahwith'l.
And the mixture may be seen on the frontier. The
Tshinuk, a harsh tongue, has for its nearest congeners
the Killamuk on one side and the Lutuami (apparently
soft) on the other.
The Gayus, or Molele, group is, apparently, transi-
tional.
406
CAYUS, ETC.
English.
Cayu9.
WiUamet.
Man
ytiant
atshanggo
Woman
pintkhlkaiu
pummaike
Father
pintet
sima
Mother
penln
sinni
Son
wai
tawakhai
Daughter
wai
tshitapinna
Head
talsh
tamutkhl
Hair
tkhlokomot
amutkhl
Ear
taksli
pokta
Eye
h&kamush
kwalakkh
Nose
pitkhloken
unan
Mouth
sumkhaksli
mandi
Tongue
push
mamtshutkhl
Tooth
tenif
puti
Hand
epip
tlakwa
Fingers
gpip
alakwa
Feet
tisli
puuf
Blood
tiweush
meeuu
House
nisht
hammeih(=^re)
Axe
yengthokineh
khueshtan
Knife
sliekt
hekemistah
Shoes
taitkMo
ulumof
Sly
adjalawaia
amiank
Sun
hue wish
ampiun
Moon
katkhltop
utap
Star
tkhlikhlish
atuininank
Day
eweiu
umpium
Night
ftalp
atitshikim
Fire
tetsh
hammeih
Water
iskkainish
mampuka
Rain
tishtkitkhlmiting
ukwii
Snow
poi
nukpeik
Earth
lingsh
hunkhalop
River
lushmi
mantsal
Stone
apit
audi
Tree
lauik
huntawatkhl
Meat
pithuli
umh6k
Dog
naapang
mantal
Beaver
pieka
akaipi
Bear
limeaksh
alotufan
Bird
tianiyiwa
pokalfuna
Great
yaumua
pul
Cold
shunga
p^ngkafiti
White
tkhlaktkhlako
kOTTlTnOU
Black
shkupshkupu
maieum
Red
lakaitlakaitu
tshal
LUTUAMI, SHASTI, PALAIK.
407
Erxglisli
Caytis.
Willamet
/
ining
tsbii
Thou
niki
maha
He
nip
kak
One
na
wrifin
Two
leplin
k^en
Three
matnin
upshin
Four
piping
taope
Five
tdwit
htiwan
Six
noind
taf
Seven
noilip
psMnimua
Eight
noimat
keemtia
Nine
tanauiaishimshin
wanwaha
Ten
ningitelp
tinifia.
The Lutuami, Shasti, and Palaik are thrown by
Gallatin into three separate classes. They are, without
doubt, mutually unintelhgible. Nevertheless they can-
not be very widely separated.
The chief language in contact with the Shasti is the
intrusive Athabaskan of the Umkwa and Tlatskanai
tribes. Hence the nearest languages with which it should
be compared are the Jakon and Kalapuya, from which
it is geographically separated. For this reason we' do
not expect any great amount of coincidences. We find
some, however.
English.
Lutuami.
Shasti.
Palaik.
Jakon.
Man
hishuatsMS
awatikoa
yatiu
kalt
Woman
sknawats
taritsi
umtewitsen
tkhlaks
Father
kaxiktishap
waii
• swnta
Mother
ankompkiswp
milatkhi
taii
tkhla
Son
yatiitsa
sinmaats
Daughter
lumauitsa
Head
nus
uiak
lah
tkhlokia
Hair
lak
inakh
tiyi
sinwtkhlosin (my)
Ear
mumoMtsh
isak
kwrnumtiats
kwolkwwtsa
Eye
lolwp
oi
as%
skikisM
Nose
psklsh
eri
iami
titsina
Mouth
shum
an
ap
khai
Tongue
P^WMS
ehena
ipili
twlela
Tooth
tut
itRa,n
itsa
stelieliki
Hand
nap
apka
il
408
LUTUAMI, SHASTI, PALAIK.
Englisb.
Lutuami.
Shasti.
Palaik.
Jakon.
Fingers
kop&
akhasik
il
kwotkhl
Feet
pats
akwes
tsiko
Blood
poits
ime
ahati
pouts
House
latsMsh
wma
tiluts
tsitsaiskia
Axe
lakotsish
aniakidi
shlakotkis
pakhtiu
Knife
wate
atsirai
shatikh
kiai
Shoes
wakslina
atsitkh
kelala
skanaiksealuista
Sh/
paishish
wwkwe
Msehela
Iaa
Sun
sapas
tsoare
tsul
pitskom
Moon
wokaukash
apkhatsu
tsul
okhon
Star
tsliol
tsamikh
tkhlalt
Bay
matikhtsi
NigU
pshin
apkha
mahektsa
kaehe
Fire
loloks
im^
mails
kilita
Water
^mpo
atsa
as
kilo
Rain
kwtolshas
titshik
enwaetsa
tkhlakos
Snow
kais
khae
ti
kimit
Earth
kaela
tarak
k^la
onitstuh
River
kokai
asurahaua
atsMma
haiu
Stone
kotai
itsa
ttlisliti
kelih
Tree
tsatiashta
Meat
mishuts
Dog
watsak
hapso
watsak lia
tskekh
Beaver
pum
tawai
pum
kaatsilawa
Bear
tokwnks
haukidai
lokhoa
kotiimamo
Bird
miak
tarar^kh
lauitsa
kv.kwaia
Fish
alish
Great
moonis
k^mpe
waw^
haihaiat
Cold
kataks
isikato
wstse
kwutitMkhwnu
White
palpal
itaiu
tiwitsi
kwakhalt
Black
posposli
epkhotarakhe
hakutshi
kaitsht
Red
taktakali
eakhti
takhlakhe
pahali^t
I
no
iaa
it
kone
Thou
i
mai
pikhk^
nikh
He
hot
hina
piklika
kwoutsi
One
natshik
tshig,mu
um\a
khwm
Two
lapit
hoka
kdki
tsokhwakhwa
Three
ntani
hatski
tsUsliti
pusuntkhlkha
Fowr
wonip
iraliaia
hatami
tsuikikhatsokhwakia
Five
tonapni
etsha
molosi
holatkhlkha
Six
nakskishwptane tahaia
Seven
tapkishwptdne
hokaikinis
Eight
ndanekisll^^ptane
hatsikiri
Nine
natskaiakish
kirihariki-ikriu
Ten
taunip
etsehewi
hamish
sauitiistw.
LUTUAMI, SHASTI, PALAIK. 409
Neither are there wanting affinities to the Sahaptin
and Cayus languages — allied to each other. Thus —
Ear=mumutsh 'LutviSimi=hu-mumuats Palaik =mw<saw Sahaptin=^8aA;
Shasti= «a^aA Cayus.
Mouth=-shum Lutuami=s7i^tw^-^•a^•sA Cayfis^Aim Sahaptin.
Tongue=pawus LutvLa,mi=pawish Sahaptin =j5ws A. Cayus.
Tooth=tut Lutuami=:^i7 Sahaptin.
Foot=.ahwes Shasti=aMMa Sahaptin.
Blood=ahati Va\aJk=.hiJcet Sahaptin.
Fire=loloJcs Lutvia,m.i=:ihikska Sahaptin.
One=natshih Lutuanii=waA;s Sahaptin:='na Caytis.
Two=lapt hx\t\iSLmi=:lapit Sahaptin=:7i Cayds.
The Lutuami seems somewhat the most Sahaptin of
the three ; and this is what we expect from its geogra-
phical position. It is also, like the Palaik, conterminous
with the Wihinast ; both Palaik and Lutuami, along with
the Shasti, having Shoshoni (for which see the sequel)
affinities.
English. Shoshoni.
Nose . moui=iami, Palaik.
Mouth timpa=shum, Lutuami.
Ear inana=:isak, Shasti.
Sun tava=sapas, Lutuami.
Water pa=ampo, Lutuami.
I ni=no, Lutuami.
Thou - i=i, Lutuami.
He oo=:hot, Lutuami.
One shimutsi =te7wamww, Shasti ; umis, Palaik.
The latter of the following vocabularies, which, with
those that follow, belong to California, was taken
from a Seragoin Indian, i. e, from an Indian to whom
it was not the native tongue. We are warned of this
by the collector — the inference being that the Tahlewah
vocabulary is not wholly trustworthy.
English.
Ehnek.
Tahlewah.
Man
ahwunsh
pohlusan'h
Boy
anak'hocha
kerrhn
Girl
yehnipahoitch
kernihl
Indian
ahrah
astowah
Head
ak houtshhoutsh
astinthah
Beard
merruhw
semerrhperrh
410
THE EHNEK, ETC:
English.
Ehnek.
Tahlewah.
Neck
sihn
ichonti
Face
ahve
wetawaluh
Tongue
upri
so'h
Teeth
wu'h
shti
Foot
fissi
stah
One
issah
titskoh
Two
achliok
kitchnik
Three
keurakh
kltchnah
Four
peehs
tshahanik
Five
tirahho
schwallah
Ten
trah
swellah.
The junction of the Rivers Klamatl and Trinity gives
us the locality for the Weitspeh. Its dialects, the
Weiyot and Wishosk, extend far into Humboldt County,
where they are, probably, the prevailing forms of speech,
being used on the Mad River, and the parts about Cape
Mendocino. From the Weitspek they differ much more
than they do from each other.
English.
Weitspek.
English.
^. Weitspek.
Man
pagehk
Moon
ketnewabr
Woman
wintsuk
Star
haugets
Boy
hohksli
Day
tehnep
Owl
wai inuksh
Dark
ketutski
Head
tegueh
Fire
mets
Hair
leptait]
Water
pata
Far
spehguh
I
nek
Eye
mylih
Thou
kehl
Nose
metpi
One
spill ekoh
Mouth
mihlutl
Two
nuehi-
Tongue
melipl'h
Three
naksa
Teeth
merpetl
Four
tohhuniie
Beard
mehperch
Five
"malirotum
Arm
melisheh*
Six
hohtcko
Hand
tsewush
Seven
tchewurr
Foot
metske
Fight
k'hehwuh
Blood
happ'l
Nine
kerr
Sun
wanoushleh
Ten
wert'Ueliwerh
Mendocino is the name suggested for the Choweshak,
Batemdaikai, Kulanapo, Yukai, and Khwaklamayu
forms of speech collectively.
], 2. The Ghoweshak and Batemdaikai are spoken
THE KULANAPO, ETC.
411
on Eel River, and in the direction of the southern
branches of the Weitspek group, with which they have
affinities.
3, 4, 5. The Kulanai^o is spoken about Clear Lake,
the Yukai on Russian River. These forms of speech,
closely allied to each other, are also allied to the so-
called Northern Indians of Baer's Beitrdge, &c. —
Northern meaning to the north of the settlement of
Ross. The particular tribe, of which we have a vocabu-
lary, called itself Khwakhlamayu.
English.
Khwakhlamayu.
English.
Khwakhlamayu
Head
khoTTiTno
Moon
kalazha
Hair
shuka
Star
kamoi
Eye
iiu
Fire
okho
Ear
sliuma
Water
aka
Nose
pla
One
ku
Mouth
aa
Tivo
koo
Tooth
00
Three
subo
Tongue
aba
Four
mui-a
Hand
psha
Five
tysha
Foot
sakki
Six
lara.
Sun
ada
(2
.)
-
English.
Kulanapo.
English,
Kulanapo.
Man
kaah
Moon
luelah
Woman
dah
Star
uiyahoh
Boy
kahwih
Day
dahmul
Girl
dahliats
Dark
petih
Head
kaiyah
Fire
k'hoh
Hair
musuh
Water
k'hah
Ear
shlmali
I
hah
Eye
ui
Thou
ma
Nose
labahbo
One
k'hahHh
Mouth
katsedeh
Two
kots
Tongue
bal
Three
homeka
Teeth
yaoh
Four
dol
Beard
katsutsu
Five
lehmah
Ann
tsuah
Six
tsadi
Hand
biyyah
Seven
kulahots
Foot
kahmah
Eight
kokodohl
Blood
bablaik
Nine
hadarolshuin
Sun
lah
Ten
hadorutlek.
412
THE COPEH.
The Copeh is spoken at the head of Putos Creek.
How far this "will eventually turn out to be a convenient
name for the group, or how far the group itself will be
natural, is uncertain. A vocabulary in Gallatin from
the Upper Sacramento, and one from Mag Readings, in
the south of Shasti county, belong to the group.
English.
Copeh.
Mag Readings.
Upper Sacramento.
Man
pehtluk
winnoke
Woman
mulilteh
dokke
Mead
buhk
pok
Hair
tiih
tomi
tomoi
Eye
sah
chuti
tumut
Nose
kiunik
tsono
Mouth
kohl
kal
Teeth
siih
sti
Beard
clielisaki
khetcheki
Arm
sa>lila.li
keole
Hand
semh
shim
tsemut {fingers)
Foot
mai'h
mat
ktamoso
Blood
sahk
chedik
Sun
sunh
tuku
sas
Wind
toudi
kleyhi
Rain
yohro
luhoUo
•
Snow
yohl
yola
Fire
poh
pan
po
Water
mehm
mem
mem
Earth
kirrh
kosh
About eighty or a hundred miles from its mouth, the
river Sacramento is said to form a division between two
languages, one using momi, the other kik, for vjater.
For the former group we have the (a) Pujuni, (h)
Secumne, and (c) Tsa^mak specimens of Hale, as also the
Cushna vocabulary, from the county Yuba, of School-
craft.
English.
Pujuni.
Sekumne.
Tsamak.
Man
9une
mailik
mailik
Woman
kele
kele
kule
Child
maidumonai
Daughter
eti
Head
t9ut5(il
tsol
t§ult9t
Hair
oi
ono
oi
THE PUJUNI, ETC.
413
English.
Pujuni.
Sekumne.
Ear
ono
bono
Eye
wat9a
il
Nose
henka
suma
Mouth
molo
sim
Neck
tokot6k
kui
Arm
ma
wah
Hand
t9apai
ma
Fingers
t9ikikup
biti
Leg
pai
podo
Foot
katwp
pai
Toe
ta^
biti
House
he
he
Bow
olumni
Arrow
huia
Shoes
sohtm
Beads
hawitt
Sky
hibi
Sun
oko
oko
Bay
oko
eki
Night
po
Fire
9a
sa
Water
momi, mop
mop
River
lokolok
mumdi
Stone
0
0
Tree
t9a
tsa
Grapes
muti
Deer
wil
kut
Bird
tsit
Fish
pala
Salmon
mai
mai
Name
ian6
Good
huk
wenne
Bad
t909
Old
hawil
New
be
Sweet
suduk
Sour
oho
Hasten
iewa
Run
tshel
gewa
Walk
iye
wiye
Swim
pi
Talk
wiwina
enun
Sing
tsol
Dance
paio
One
ti
wikte
Two
teene
pen
Three
shupui
sapui
Tsamak,
orro
hU
kulut
kalut
tamsult or tamt9ut
tcikikup
bimpi
pai
9a
momi
munti
kut
huk
maidik
414
i
THE
PUJUNI, ETC.
English,
Pujuni.
Sekumne.
Four
pehel
tsi
Five
mustic
mauk
Six
tini, 0 (sic)
tini, a (sic)
Seven
tapui
pensi (?) sic
Eight
petshei
tapau (I) sic
Nine
matshum
mutsum
Ten
t.sha.panaka
aduk
Tsamak.
Hale's vocabulary of the Talatui belongs to the
group for which the name Moquelumne is proposed ; a
Moquelumne Hill and a Moquelumne Eiver being found
within the area over which the languages belonging to
it are spoken. Again, the names of the tribes that
speak them end largely in -mne, — Ghupumne, &c. As
far south as Tuol-umne county the language belongs to
this division ; viz. (1 .) the Mumaltachi ; (2.) the Mul-
lateco ; (8.) the Apangasi ; (4.) the Lapappu ; and (5.)
the Siyante or Typoxi bands speak this language.
(1-)
English.
Talatui.
San Raphael.
Man
sawe
lamantiya
Woman
esuu
kulaish
Father
tata
api
Daughter
tele
ai
Head
tikit
molu
Ear
alok
alokh
Eye
wilai
shuta
Nose
uk
huke
Mouth
hube
lakum
Rand
iku
ak
Foot
subei
koio
Sim
hi
hi
Dap
hi umu
hi
Night
ka-wil
walayuta
Fire
wike
waik
Water
kik
kiik
Stone
sawa
lupoii
Bird
lune, ti
kakalis
Home
kodja
koitaya
One
kenate
kenai
Two
oyo-ko
oza
TJiree
teli-ko
tula-ka
THE
TALATUI, ETC.
41
English.
Talatui.
San Raphael.
Four
oi^u-ko
wiag
Five
kassa-ko
kenekus
Six
temebo
patirak
Seven
kanikuk (
?) sic
semlawi
Eiglit
kauinda
wusuya
Nine
ooi
umarask
Ten
ekuye
(2.)
kitsLisb.
English.
Tshokoyem.
Enghsh.
Tshokoyem.
Man
tai-esse
Star
bittish
Woman
kuleh-esse
Day
biabnab
Boy
yokeli (small)
Night
kawul
Girl
koyah
Fire
wikib
Head
mololi
Waier
kibk
Ear
ahlohk
River
polab
Eye
shut
Stone
lepeb
Nose
huk
I
kahni
Mouth
lapgup
Thou
mib
Tongue
lehntip
He
ikkob
Tooth
kuht
Tliey
mukkam
Neck
helekke
All
mukkam
Foot
koyok
Who
mabnti
Blood
kichawh
Eat
yoblomusib
Sky
lililih
Drink
usbu
Sun
hih
Run
bibcbiah
Moon
pululuk
See
elHb.
The tribes under the supervision of the Mission of
Dolores were five in number; the Ah wastes, the Olhones,
or Costanos (of the coast), the Romonans, the Tulomos,
and the Altatmos. Tlie vocabulary of which the fol-
lowing is an extract was taken from Pedro Alcantara,
who was a boy when the Mission was founded, A.D.
1776. He was of the Romonan tribe.
English,
Costano.
English.
Costano.
Ma7i
imben
Ear
tuorus
Woman
raticbma
Eye
rebin
Boy
shlnismuk
Nose
tis
Girl
katra
Mouth
werper
Head
tile
Tongue
tassek
416
THE COSTANO, ETC.
English.
Costano.
English.
Costano.
Tooth
Slit
River
crush
Neck
Ian
Stone
erek
Foot
kolo
T
kalinah
Blood
payan
Thou
mene
Shy
reneme
He
wahche
Sun
islimen
They
nekumsah
Moon
kolma
All
kete
Star
agweh
Who
mato
Day
puhe {light)
Eat
ahmush
Night
moor {darh)
Drink
owahto
Fire
roretaon
Run
akamtoha
Water
sii
See
atempimah
In the north of Mariposa county, and not far south
of the Tuolomne area, the language seems changed, and
the Goconoons is spoken by some bands on the Mercede
river.
The Tulare, akin to it, is probably conterminous with
the Mohave of the San Bernardin and the Santa Barbara
forms of speech.
English.
Coconoons.
Tulare.
Head
etc
utno
Hair
tolus
cells
Ear
took
took
Nose
thedick
tuneck
Mouth
sammack
shemmak
Tongue
talcotch
talkat
Tooth
talee
talee
Sun
suyou
oop
Moon
offaum
taahmemna
Star .
tchietas
sahel
Day
hial
tahoh
Fire
sottol
ossel
Water
iUeck
illick.
For the counties (missions) which touch the sea, we
have, to the south of the Costanos, the following voca-
bularies : —
(i.)
Soledad. San Miguel. San Antonio.
mue loai
shurishme tlene
nikana tata tele
English.
Eslen.
Ruslen.
Man
ejennutek
muguyamk
Woman
tamitek
latrayamank
Father
aliay
appan
SANTA
BARBARA, ETC.
4n
English.
Eslen.
Rusleu.
Soledad.
San Miguel.
Sau Antonio.
Mother
azia
aan
nikana
apai
epjo
Son
panna
enshinsh
nikinish
paser
Daughter tapana
kaana
nika
paser
Head
tshop
tobuko
traako
Hair
worokh
teasakho
Ears
otsho
tentkhito
tishokolo
Nose
us
tenento
Eyes
hun
trugento
Mouth
hai
treliko
Shy
imita
terraj
napalemak
Moon
tomanisaashi
orpetuei-isbmen
tatsoopai
Day
asatza
ishmen
trokana
Light
jetza
sliorto
Night
tomanis
orpetui
Fire
manamenes
hello
Water
azaTia,x
ziy
tsha
Bow
payunay
laguan
kakheia
Arroio
lottos
teps
tatoyen
Great
putuki
ishac
katsha
Small
ojask
pisLit
More
nitsclia
ka
There
nimetaha
me
One
pek
enjala
himitsa
toM
kitol
Two
ulhaj
ultis
utshe
kugsu
kakishe
Three
julep
kappes
tkapka
tlubahi
klap'hai
Four
jamajus
ultizim
utjit
kesa
kisha
Five
pemajala
hali izu
paruash
oldrato
ultraoh
Six
peguatanoi
hali shakem
iminuksha piaite
painel
Seven
jula jualanei
kapkamai shakem uduksha
tepa
t'eh
EigU
julep jualanei
ultumai shakem
taitemi
sratel
shaanel
Nine
jamajas jualanei packe
watso
teditrup
tetatsoi
Ten
tomoila
tamchajt
matsoso
tnipa
tsoeh.
(2.)
English.
Santa Barbara.
San Luis Obispo.
Sh,
alapai
tikbis
Sun
alishakua
s'maps
Moon
aguai
tabua
Stars
akehun
k'sbibimu
Water
oh
to
House
ahpa
Man
eheye
h'lmono
Woman
elinek
tasiyubl
Child
tupneesh
tschuilmono
Ston£
kheup
tkhenp
Bay
husiec-esini
t'chashin
E E
418
SANTA BARBARA, ETC.
English.
Santa Barbara.
San Luis Obispo.
One
paka
tskhumu
Two
shlfoho
eshin
Three
masekh
misha
Four
skumu
paksi
Five
yiti-paka
tiyehui
Six
yiti shkome
ksuhuasya
Seven
yiti-masekh
kshuamishhe
Fight
malahua
sh'komo
Nine
spa
shumotchi-makhe
Ten
keshko
tuyimili
Eleven
keilu
tihuapa
Txvelve
masekh -eskumn
takotia
Thirteen
kel-paka
huakshumu
Fourteen
kel-ishko
huaklesin
Fifteen
kel -masekh
huaklmishe
Sixteen
peta
peusi
Lake
eukeke
Sea
skahamihui
t' shnekhan
Mountain
oshlomohl
tspu
Bow
akha
takha
Arrow
yah
tslehui
Chief
huot
Bad
tsohuis
Earth
iti-kiala-kaipi
-.
River
shtejeje
tslimi
SaU
tipi
tepu
Light
neuk
tina
Night
sulcuhu
tch' khime
Cold
sokhton
Hot
sientseuk
White
ohuokh
BlacTc
akemai
Doo^'
ekeipe
Body
hekiampium
Father
hokonosh
sapi
Mother
khoninash
tuyu
Brave
akhauishash
Much
tsekhu
Little
tsihuisnin
Head
p'sho
Heart
nokhop
Hand
nupu
Ear
p'ta
Friend
tsakhsi
Enemy
tsinayihlmu.
THE NETELA, ETC.
419
(3.)
English.
Netela.
Kij.
Man
yiits
woroit
Woman
sungwal
tokor
Fatlier
nana
anak
Mother
noyo
aok
Son
nakam
aikok
Daughter
nasuam
aiarok
Head
nuyu
apoam
Ear
nanakwum
anana
Eye
nopulum
atshotshou
Nose
nomuitm
amepin
Mouth
atongin
Tongue
anongin
Teeth
noto
atatwm
Hand
natakalom
aman
Fingers
watshkut
Feet
nee
Blood
noo
akhain
House
niki
kitsh
Sun
temet
tamet
Moon
moil
moar
Star
suol
snot
Day
teme
oronga
Night
tukmwt
yauket
Fire
mughat
tshawot
Water
pal
bar
Rain
kwast
akwakit
Snow
yuit
yoat
Earth
touanga
Stone
tot
tota
Dog
aghwal
wausi
Bear
hunot
hunar
Bird
cheymat
amasbarot
Fish
mughut
kwaiing
Great
oboloo
yoit
Cold
atsho
White
kwaiknot
arawatai
Black
yottatkhnot
yupikba
Red
koiakuiet
kwauokha
I
no
noma
Thou
om
oma
He
wanal
ahe
One
puku
puku
Two
wehe
wehe
Three
pahe
pate
E E 2
420
THE YUMA DIALECTS.
English.
Netela.
Four
watsa
Five
mahar
Six
pawahe
Seven
aghwohuitsh
Eight
weheswatsa
Nine
pehelenga
Ten
wehkun-mahar
Kij.
The Yuma Indians occupy each, side of tlie Colorado
both above and below its junction with the Gila. They
are also called Cuchans, and are a fierce predatory
nation, encroaching equally on tribes of their own lan-
guage and on aliens.
Cocomaricopa.
English.
Man
Woman
Head
Hair
Ear
Nose
Mouth
Tongue
Tooth
Beard
Hand
Foot
Sky
Sun
Moon
Star
Snow
Fire
Water
I
He
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Cuchan.
epatsh
sinyak
metepaie
ecoutsucherowo
and
umwelthoocouo
eetche
smythl
epulche
aredoche
yahboineli
eesalclie
emetchslipaslapya
ammai
nyatch
huthlya
klupwalaie
halup
apatch
seniact
ametche
aka
nyat
habritzk
sin
havick
hamuk
chapop
scrap
house
kaacke
sandek
haveka
hamoka
champapa
sarap
Dieguno.
{ ^ycutcht
( epatck
sun
estar
hiletar
hu
selh
hamulyay
kha
nyah
hina
hawue
hamuk
chapop
suap.
THE YUMA DIALECTS.
421
(2.)
English.
Mohave.
English.
Mohave.
Man
ipali
Moon
hullya
Woman
sinyax
Star
hamuse
Head
cawawa
Fire
awa
Hair
imi
Water
aha
Face
ihalimi
T
nyatz
Forehead
yamapul
Thou
mantz
Ear
esmailk
He
pepa
Nose
ihn
One
setto
Eye
idotz
Two
havika
Mouth
ia
Three
hamoko
Tongue
ipailya
Four
pinepapa
Tooth
ido
Five
serapa
Arm
isail
Six
sinta
Foot
imilapilap
Seven
vika
Blood
niawhut
Eight
muka
Sky
amaiiga
Nine
pai
Sun
nyatz
Ten
arapa.
The Cocomaricopa Indians are joint occupants of
certain villages on the Gila ; the population with which
they are associated being Pima. Alike in other re-
spects, the Pima and Cocomaricopa Indians differ in
language.
422 OLD CALIFORNIA.
CHAPTER LYII.
Old California,
San Diego lies in 32^° north latitude, a point at
which the philology diverges. I first follow it in the
direction of Old California. It is stated in the Mithri-
dates that the most northern of the Proper Old Cali-
fornian tongues, the Cochhni, is spoken as far north as
33°. If so, the Dieguno maybe Old Californian as well
as New; which I think it is, believing, at the same
time, that Cochimi and Cuchan are the same words.
Again, in the following Paternoster the word for sky
— am7)ii in the Cuchan vocabulary.
Cochimi of San Xavier.
father sky
Pennayu makenamb^ yaa ambayujui mijk mo ;
name men confess and love all
Buhu mombojua tamma gkomend^ hi nogodono demuejueg gkajim ;
and sky earth favour
Pennay^a bogodofio gkajim, gui hi ambayujup maba yaa keammete decuiny :
mo puegin ;
sky earth
Yaa m blihula mujua ambayup mo dedahijua, amet 6 nd guilugui ei pag.
kajim ;
this day day
Tamad^ yaa ibo ejueg quiluguiqui pemijich 6 m5u ibo yanno puegifl ;
and man evil
Guihi tamma yaa gambuegjula kepujui ambinyijua pennayala dedaudug^jua,
giulugui pagkajim ;
and although and
Guihi yaa tagamuegla hui ambinyijua hi doomo puhuegjua, he doomo
pogonunyim ;
OLD CALIFORNIA. 423
and earth bless evil
Tagamuegjua guihi usimahel keammet e decuinyimo, guihi yaa hui ambinyi
yaa gambuegpea pagkaudugum.
Of recent notices of any of the languages of Old Cali-
fornia, eo nomine^ I know none. In the Mithridates
the information is pre-eminently scanty.
According to the only work which I have examined
at first hand, the NacliriMen von der Americanise] ten
Halbinsel Kalifornien (Mannheim, 1772 ; in the Mith-
ridates, 1773), the anonymous author of which was a
Jesuit missionary in the middle parts of the peninsula,
the languages of Old California were —
1 . The WaiJcur, spoken in several dialects.
2. The Utshiti.
3. The Layamon.
4. The Cochimi, north, and
5. The PericUj at the southern extremity of the
peninsula.
6. A probably new form of speech used by some
tribes visited by Linck.
This is what we learn from what we may call the
Mannheim account ; the way in which the author
expresses himself being not exactly in the form just
exhibited, but to the effect that, besides the Waikur
with its dialects, there were ^\q others.
The Waikur Proper, the language which the author
under notice was most especially engaged on, and which
he says that he knew sufficiently for his purposes as a
missionary, is the language of the middle part of the
peninsula. How far the Utshiti and Layamon were
dialects of it, how far they were separate substantive
languages, is not very clearly expressed. The writer had
Utshis, and TJtshipujes, and Atschimes in his mission,
"thoroughly distinct tribes — lauter verschiedene Volck-
lein," Nevertheless he always speaks as if the Waikur
tongue was sufficient for his purposes. On the other
hand, the Utshiti is especially mentioned as a separate
424 OLD CALIFORNIA.
language. Adelung makes it a form of the Waikur ; as
he does the Layamon, and also the Cora and Aripe.
Then there comes a population called Iha, probably the
Picos or Ficos of Bagert, another authority for these
parts. Are these, the sixth population of the Mannheim
account, the unknown tribes visited by Linck ? I think
not. They are mentioned in another part of the book
as known.
To the names already mentioned —
1. Ika, 3. Utshipuje,
2. Utshi, 4. Atschime,
add *
5. Paurus, 9. Mitsheriku-tamais,
6. Teakwas, 10. Mitsheriku-tearus,
7. Teenguabebes, 11. Mitsheriku-ruanajeres,
8. Angukwaros,
and you have a list of the tribes with which a mission-
ary for those parts of California where the Waikur
language prevailed, came in contact. Altogether they
gave no more than some 500 individuals, so miserably
scanty was the population.
The occupancies of these lay chiefly within the Co-
chimi area, which reached as far south as the parts
about Loretto in 2 6° north latitude ; the Loretto Ian -
guage being the Layamon. This at least is the in-
ference from the very short table of the Mithridates,
which, however little it may tell us in other respects, at
least informs us that the San Xavier, San Borgia, and
Loretto forms of speech were nearer akin to each other
than to the Waikur.
English,
San Xavier.
San Borgia.
Loretto.
Waikur.
Sky
ambayujub
ambeink
terereka-datemba
Earth
amet
amate-guang
datemba y
Fire
usi
ussi
^
Man
tamma
tama
tamma
ti /
Father
kakka
iham
keneda
Son
uisaham
tshanu.
OLD CALIFORNIA.
425
The short compositions of Hervas (given in the Mith-
ridates) show the same.
Waikur Paternoster, with the German Interlineation, from the
Mithridates.
Kepe-dare tekereka-datembi dai ;
unser Vater gehogene Erd du hist ;
ei-ri akatuike-pu-me ;
dichodas erJcennen alle werden;
tshakarrake-pu-me ti tschie ;
loben alle loerden Lent und ;
ecun gracia-ri acume care tekerekadatembi tschie ;
dien gratia o dass haben loerden wir gehogene Erd und ;
eiri jebarrakemi ti pu jaupe datemba
dir 0 dase gehorsamen werden Menschen alle heer Erd,
pae ei jebarrakere aena kea ;
wie dir gehorsamen drohen seynd;
kepecun bu. kepe ken jatupe untairi ;
unser Speis uns gebe dieser tag j
cate kuitscharake tei tschie kepecun atacamara
uns verzehe du und unser Boses ;
pae kuitscharrakere cate tschie cavape atukiara keperujake ;
wie verzehen loir auch die Boses uns thun;
cate tikakamba tei tschie ;
uns helfe du und;
cuvumer^ cate ue atukiara ;
wollen werden Nicht ivir eticas Boses;
kepe kakunja pe atacara tschie. Amen,
uns beschutze von Bosen und. Amen.
The compound tekereka-datembi = hent land — sky =i
heaven.
To this very periphrastic Paternoster we may add the
following fragments of the Waikur conjugation : —
Be ^
Ei
' ego ludo
tu ludis
Tutau
Gate
- amukirere= -
ille ludit
nos ludimus
Pete
vos luditis
Tuc^va .
L illi ludunt
Be ^
' ego lusi
Ei
tu lusisti
Tutau
Cate
■ aniukiririkeri= -
ille lusit
nos lusimus
Pete
vos lusistis
Tucava .
^ illi luserunt.
!26 OLD CALIFORNIA.
Amukirime = ludere.
Amukiri tei=ZMC?e.
Amukiri t\i=ludite.
Be-ri ■) ( I wish I had not played
Ei-ri
Tut&u-ri L , .
Gate ri r ainukinrikankara=
Pete-ri
Tucava-ri
Thou, <kc.
He, <kc.
We, c&c.
Ye, &c.
L They, &c.
Of the Pericu, spoken at the south extremity of the
peninsula, I know no specimens.
With this concludes the notice of the languages of
Old California ; languages belonging to the most neg-
lected class in philology ; languages of which our data
are pre-eminently fragaientary ; above all, languages
which (from the probably approaching extinction) are
destined to be but imperfectly known. All that can be
said of them is, that they appear to graduate into each
other, and that, at the neck of the peninsula, they
certainly graduate into those of the mainland. That
they are all Yuma is probable. What value is im-
pressed upon the class by making them so is another
question.
THE PIMA, ETC.
427
CHAPTER LVIII.
Languages of Sonora, — Mexico. — Gruatimala. — Honduras. —
Nicaragua, &c.
With the neck of the peninsula ; the southern bound-
ary of California ; the northern boundary of Sonora ;
and the line of contact between the Cocomaricopas and
the Piraa Indians, begins a new division. Upon the
difference between the Pimas and the Cocomaricopas,
there is no want of decided statements. Many notices
of the two populations are accompanied by comparative
vocabularies, in which the difference is manifest — all the
more so from the contrast it supplies to their topogra-
phical contact, and the similarity of their habits. They
" agree in everything but their languages, and in this they
differ'' is the common (and true) statement concerning
them.
But though the distinction is real, it must not be
overvalued. At the same time the Pima class (of unde-
termined value) is a real one.
That it contains the Pima Proper, the Opata, and
the Eudeve, may be seen from the Mithridates.
English.
Pima.
English.
Pima.
Man
huth
Sun
tabs
Woman
hahri
Moon
mahsa.
Indian
huup
Star
uon
Head
mouk
Snow
chiah
Hair
ptmuk
Fire
talii
Ear
ptnahauk
Water
suutik
Nose
tahnk
I
ahan
Mouth
chinits
He
yeutah
Tongue
neuen
One
ynmako
Tooth
ptahan
Two
kuak
Beard
chinyo
Three
vaik
Hand
mahahtk
Four
kiik
Foot
tetaght
Five
puitas.
Sky
ptchuwik
428 THE OPATA, ETC.
In Spanish America the character of our material
changes, and we get Artes rather than vocabularies —
the Allies, concerning which more will be found in the
sequel.
Opata.
Tamo mas ie^Miacachigua cacame;
Amo tegua santo h ;
Ame reino tame macte ;
Hinadeia iguati terepa ania teguiacachiveri ;
Chiama tamo guaco veu tamo mac;
Guatame neavere tamo cai naideni ac^ api tame neavere tomo opagua ;
Grua cai tame taotitudare ;
Cai naideni chiguadu — Apita cachi^.
That the language of the Papagos, Papagocotam, is
also Pima rests upon good external evidence. Whether
the speech of the Ciris, and population of the island of
Tiburon and the parts opposite, be also Pima, is at
present uncertain.
The Ibequi belongs to the same class — slightly en-
larged.
Hiaqui.
Itom-didhaA ^eve-capo catecame;
CLe-cherasu yoyorwa;
Itou piepsana em yaorahua ;
Em harepo in buyapo annvM amante (tevecapo?) vecapo annua beni
Machuveiiom-buareu yem itom a,micsi-itom ;
Esoc alulutiria ca-aljiton-anecau itepo soc alulutiria ebeni itom veherim
Caitom butia huenacucbi cativiri betana ;
Aman -i^om-yeretua.
So, also, the
Tubar.
/<e-canar fe^ruiuicarichua catemat;
Imit tegrmuarac milituraba teochiqualac ;
Imit huegmica carinite bacacMn-assifaguin ;
Imit avamunarir echu naiiagualac imo cuigan amo nachic ie^/mue-caricheri ;
Ite cokuatarit, essemer taniguarit, iabbe ite mzcam ;
Ite tatacoli ikiri atzomua ikirirain ite bacachin cale kuegma naiiegua cantem ;
Caisa ite nosam bacatatacoli ;
Bacachin ackiro muetzerac ite.
THE CORA, ETC. 4*29
Soj also, the
Tarahumara.
Tami nono, mamu regui guami gatiki ;
Tami noineruje mu regua ;
Telimea rekijena ;
Tami neguaruje mu jelaliki henna, guetshiki, mapu hatschibe reguega
guami ;
Tami nututuge hipeba ;
Tami guecanje tami guikeliki, matame hatschibe reguega tami guecanje putse
tami guikejameke ;
Ke ta tami satuje ;
Telegatigemeke mechka huU. Amen.
So, also, the
Cora.
Ta yaoape tapahoa, pethebe ;
Cherihuaca eiia teaguarira ;
Chemeahuabeni tahemi (to us) eiia chianaca ;
Cheaquasteni eiia jevira iye (as) chianacatapoan tup up tapahoa, ;
Eii ta hamuit (bread) eu te huima tahetze rej rujeve ihic {to-day) ta taa ;
Huatauniraca ta xanacan tetup itcahmo tatahuatauni titaxanacante ;
Ta vaehre teatcai havobereni xanacat hetze huabachreaca tecai tahemi ruta-
huaga tehai eu ene.
Che-enhuatahua.
With these end our data, but not our lists of dialects ;
the names Maya, Guazave, Heria, Sicuraba, Xixime,
Topia, Tepeguana, and Acaxee all being, either in
Hervas or elsewhere, applied to the different forms of
speech of Sonora and Sinaloa ; to which may be added
the Tahu, the Pacasca, and the Acasca, which is pro-
bably the same word as Acaxee, just as Huiimi is the
same as Yuma, and Zaque as Hiaqui. Of the Guazave
a particular dialect is named as the AJiome. Add to
these the Zoe and Huitcole, which are probably the
same as the Huite.
That some of these unrepresented forms of speech be-
long to the same class with the Pima, Hiaqui, &c., is
430 THE OTOMI.
nearly certain. How many, however, do so is another
question. It may be that all are in the same predica-
ment ; it may be only a few.
These languages lead us to the Mexican Proper ; of
which it is difficult to give the true situs. This is be-
cause it is a pre-eminently intrusive tongue. It is, pro-
bably, spoken beyond its original boundaries in every
direction ; sometimes (as in Central America) in isolated
patches. Again — there are in many of the districts which,
originally, belonged to the Mexican empire, local names
of Mexican origin which are as strange to the spot on
which they appear as the German or Kussian names in
Estonia, or Livonia. Thirdly, the ordinary name for
the language — Astek — seems to be, word for word, the
same as the Maya term Huasteca ; a fact which sug-
gests that the Mexicans were only Asteks in the way
that the English are Britons, i. e. not at all, except
so far as they took possession of a country originally
British. The nearest approach to a true Mexican name,
— a name which, in opposition to Asteh, is Mexican in
the way that English is English as opposed to British
— is Nahuatl. At any rate, Astek is an inconvenient
synonym for Mexican.
Of all the languages hitherto named, the one to which
the Mexican is nearest allied, is the Tarahumara, through
which it graduates, through the Cora, into the Sonora
tongues, and through them to California, &c., &c.
That the sound expressed by tl is Mexican, may be
seen from even the shortest vocabularies.
More has been written on the Otooni than any other
language of these parts ; the proper Mexican not ex-
cepted. It was observed by Naxera that it was nioTW-
syllabic rather than polysynthetic, as so many of the
American languages are, with somewhat doubtful pro-
priety, denominated. A Mexican language, with a
Chinese characteristic, could scarcely fail to suggest
THE OTOMI, ETC. 431
comparisons. Hence, the first operation on the Otomi
was to disconnect it from the languages of the New, and
to connect it with those of the Old World. With his
accustomed caution, Gallatin satisfied himself with stating
what others had said, his own opinion evidently being
that the relation to the Chinese was one of analogy
rather than affinity.
Doubtless this is the sounder view ; and one con-
firmed by three series of comparisons made elsewhere
by the present writer.
The first shows that the Otomi, as compared with the
monosyllabic languages of Asia, en masse, has several
words in common. But the second qualifies our in-
ferences, by showing that the Maya, a language more
distant from China than the Otomi, and by no means
inordinately monosyllabic in its structure, has, there or
thereabouts, as many. The third forbids any separation
of the Otomi from the other languages of America by
showing that it has the ordinary amount of miscellaneous
affinities.
Hence, in respect to the Chinese, &;c., the real question
is not whether it has so many affinities with the Otomi,
but whether it has -more affinities with the Otom,i than
vjith the Maya or any other American language; a
matter which we must not investigate without remem-
bering that some difference in favour of the Otomi is to
be expected, inasmuch as two languages with short or
monosyllabic words will, fi^om the very fact of the short-
ness and simpHcity of their constituent elements, have
more words alike than two polysyllabic forms of speech.
The fact, however, which most affects the place of
the Otomi language is the quasi-monosyllabic character of
other American languages, e. g. the Athabaskan and the
Attacapa.
Of the Pirinda and Tarasca we have grammatical
sketches, with abstracts of them, by Gallatin. The fol-
lowing are from the Mithridates.
432 THE TARASCA, ETC.
Pirinda.
Cabutumtaki ke exjechori pininte ;
Niboteachatii tucathi nitubuteallu ;
Tantoki hacacovi nitubutea pininte ;
Tarejoki nirihontamanicatii ninujami propininte ;
Boturimegui dammuce tupacovi cbii ;
Exgemundicovi boturicbocbii, kicatii pracavovi kuentumundijo boturicho-
chijo ;
Niantexechichovi rumkuentuvi innivocbocbii ;
Moripacbitovi cuinenzimo tegui.
Tucatii.
Tarasca Paternoster.
Tata uchaveri tukire bacahini av^ndaro ;
Santo arikeve tucbeveti bacangurikua ;
Wetzin andarenoni tucbeveti irecbeekua;
Ukuareve tucbeveti wekua iskire avandaro, na bumengaca istu umengave ixu
excberendo.
Hucbaeveri curinda banganari pakua intzcutzini yaru ;
Santzin wepovacberas bucbaeveri batzingakuareta, izki bucbanac wepocbacu-
vanita baca bucbaveri batzingakuaecbani ;
Ca bastzin terubtazema teruniguta perakua bimbo ;
Evapentztatzini yaru catzingurita bimbo. Isevengua.
Totonaca.
Quintlatcane nac tiayan buil ;
Tacollalibuacabuanli 6 mi maocxot ;
Niquiminanin 6 mintacaccbi
Tacbolabuanla 6 min pabuat
Cbolei ix cacnitiet cbalcbix nac tiayan ;
0 quin cboubcan lacalliya
niquilaixquiub yanobue ;
Caquilamatzancaniub quintacallitcan
Cbonlei o quitnan lamatzancaniyaub
6 quintalac allaniyan ;
Ca ala quilamactaxtoyaub
Nali yojaub naca liyogni
Cbontacbolacabuanla.
The same, from Uervas.
Kintaccan 6 nitiayan buill ;
Tacotllali buacabuanla o min pexca maocxot
Camill omintagcbi,
Tacbolaca buanla ixcacgnitiet ot
skiniau ebon cbolacan ocnatiayan ;
Alyanobue nikila ixkiu ki lacali chaocan ;
THE MAYA LANGUAGES. 433
Kilamatzancaniau kintacagllitcan
Kintalacatlanian oclionkinan iclamatzan —
Caniau kintalacatlanian ;
Nikilamapotaxtou ala nicliyolau
Lacotlanaeatalit nikilamapotexto
Lamatzon lacacoltana.
Chontacholacahu anla.
Mixteca Paternoster.
Dzutundoo, zo dzicani andihui ; *
Naca cuneihuando sasanine ;
Nakisi santoniisini ;
Nacahui nuunaihui saha yocuhui inini dzahuatnaha yocuhui andihui ; *
Dzitandoo yutnaa yutnaa tasinisindo hiutni ;
Dzandooni cuachiisindo dzaguatnaha yodzandoondoonhi hindo suhani sin
Huasi kihui nahani nucuitandodzondo kuachi ;
Taliui nahani ndihindo sakanayvlmaka dzakua :
Nacuhui.
Hervas writes, that the Zapoteca (probably Maya),
Mazateca, Chinanteca, and Mixe were allied. The
Mixe locality is the district around Tehuantepec.
The Maya stsiiids in contrast to the Mexican Proper
(how it comports itself to the less known languages of its
frontier is uncertain), by having a milder phonesis —
such, at least, being the inference from the ordinary
specimens.
The Maya, in the limited, or proper sense of the word,
is the language of Yucatan. It is also the name of a
group ; i. e. it is used as a general, as well as a parti-
cular, term. Mr. Squier, who has done so much for the
class that he ought to be allowed to fix its nomenclature,
suggests the name Tzendal. I believe, however, that this
is simply another form of Ghontal ; a name which will
re-appear in the sequel. Maya, too, is the older term.
The Maya phonesis, in some of the dialects at least,
is that of the Sahaptin and Shoshoni rather than the
Atna and Tshintik.
No tongue has more dialects (for they all seem to be
this) which are designated by separate names and (as
such) wear the garb of separate languages than the Maya.
* Possibly the Masya dehmalu.
F F
434j the MAYA LANGUAGES.
Some may be so. I think, however, that they are
dialects with independent names. The distribution of
them is remarkable. There is a northern section, spoken
in the parts about Tabasco, which in the present state
of our knowledge is isolated. This is —
The Huasteca — word for word, Asteh The termina-
tion -eca, is Maya. The speculations which arise out
of this similarity of name, as well as those which are
suggested by the prevalence of the termination -eca
in Mexican narratives, form no part of our present in-
quiries.
The Kachiquel is Maya : the Kachiquel being one of
the chief languages of Guatemala.
So is the Quiche, called also the TJtlateca,
So is the Zutugily called also the Zacapula, with
the Atiteca.
So is the Poconchij or Pocoman.
So is the Chorti.
The Mam is, probably, the same. Is Manche another
form of Mam ?
So, perhaps, is the Popoluca.
So is the Tzendal, spoken in Chiapas,
The Lacandona, spoken by some still independent
tribes in Vera Paz, is, probably, in the same category
with the Mam. No specimens, however, are known.
The Ache. — Of this Fray Francisco Gomez Torque-
mada writes that, " en a quella tierra (Guatemala)
aprendio brevemente la Lengua Ache : que es la de sus
Naturales y muy difficultuosa de aprender, porque le
avia comunicado Dios el don de lenguas, que refiere su
Apostol S. Pablo, y en ella aprovecho algunos aiios.''
Is it the same as the Atiteca ?
In the Mithridates is the notice of a Zapoteca
language, but nothing more. Squier suggests that it
may be the Zacapula or Zutugil, — at least his notice
of a work by Fray Luis Cancer runs thus —
THE LENCA, ETC.
435
Varias Cancionies en Verso Zapoteca (Z acapnia?) sobre los Misterios de
la Religion, para el uso de los Neofitos de la Vera Paz.
Vera Paz is the Zapoteca locality as given by Adelung.
The displacement in Honduras, Nicaragua, &;c., has
been great. Hence of the languages other than Maya
little is known ; many of them being extinct.
The Lenca language is represented by four vocabu-
laries from the four Pueblos of Guajiquiro, Opatoro,
Intibuca, and Sirmlaton ; that of the last being shorter
and less complete than the others. They are quite re-
cent, and are to be found only in the Spanish edition of
Mr. Squier's Notes on Central America; the English
edition being without them.
Honduras,
English.
Guajiquiro.
Opatoro.
Intibuca.
Man
taho
amashe
Woman
move
napu
Boy
guagua
hua
Head
toro
tolioro
cagasi
Ear
yang
yan
yangaga
Eye
saing
saringla
saring
Nose
napse
napseh
nepton
Mouth
ingh
ambeingh
ingori
Tongue
nafel
navel
napel
Teeth
nagha
neas
nigh
Neck
ampshala
ampshala
cange
Aiin
kenin
kenin
kening
Fingers
iasel
gualalasel
Foot
guagi
quagi
guaskaring
Blood
uahug
uah
quch
Sun
gasi
gashi
gashi
Star
siri
siri
Fire
uga
'ua
yuga
Water
guass
uash
guash
Stone
caa
caa
tupan
Tree
ili
iK
ili
One
ita
ita
itaska
Two
naa
Three
lagua
Four
aria
Five
saihe
saibe
Six
huie
hue
F F 2
436
LANGUAGES OF HONDURAS
English.
Guajiquiro.
Opatoro.
Intibuca.
Seven
huis-ca
Eight
teef-ca
Nine
kaiapa
Ten
isis
issis
Nicaragua.
(1-)
English.
Masaya.
Subtiaho.
Man
rahpa
wuho
Woman
rapa-ku
w-ahseyomo
Boy
sai-ka
w-asome
Girl
sai-kee
w-aheoun
Child
chichi
?i-aneyame
Father
ana
goo-ha
Mother
autu
goo-mo
/ Husband
a'mbin
'mhohue
Wife
a'guyu
wume
Sm
sacul-e
w-asomeyamo
JDaughter
saicul-a
n-asayme
Y
( a'cu
|edi
goochemo
Head
Hair
tu'su
membe
Face
enu
grote
^ Forehead
gnitu
goola
Ear
nau
nnhme
Eye
setu
nahte
Nose
ta'co
mungoo
Mouth
dahnu
nunsu
Tongue
duhu
greuhe
Tooth
semu
nahe
Foot
naku
graho
Slcy
dehmalu
nekupe
Sun
ahca
numbu
Star
ucu
nuete
Fire
ahku
nahu
Water
eeia
nimbn
(esee
( esenu
nugo
Stone
I
icu
saho
Thm
ic-a
sumusheta
He
ic-a
We
hechel-u*
semehmu
Ye
hechel-u*
They
icanu
This
ca-la
-— "
* Compare with the Tarascan uchaveri.
AND NICARAGUA.
437
(2.)
English.
Wulwa {Chontai).
English.
Wulwa (Chontai).
Man
all
Head
tunni
Woman
y-all
Eye
minik-taka
Son
pau-ni-ma
Nose
magni-tuk.
Daughter
pau-co-ma
(3.)
English.
Waikna {Moskito Coast).
English.
Waikna (Moskito Coast)
Man
waikna
Head
let
Woman
mairen
Eye
nakro
Son
lupia-waikna
Nose
kamka.
Daughter
lupia-mairen
The following is spoken in Costa Rica, between the
river Zent, and the Bocca del Tauro.
English.
Talemenca.
English.
Talemenca.
Ear
s%-kuke
Star
bewue
Eye
m-woaketd
Fire
tshuko
Nose
s^A-tshiukoto
Water
ditzita
Mouth
«w-'kuwu
One
e-tawa
Tongue
es-kuptu
Two
ho-tewa
Tooth
sa-ka
Three
msigna,-tewa
Beard
as-karku raezili
Four
Bke-tewa
Neck-j&int ?
tzin
Five
si-tewa
Arm
sa-fra
Six
si-wo-ske-le
Hand
sa-/ra-tem-sek
Seven
si-wo-wora,
Finger
/ra-wuata
Eight
" si-wo-magnana
Nail
sa-krasku
Nine
si-wo-sTce-tewa
Swn
kanhue
Ten
sa-flat-ka.
Moon
tulu
St. Salvador —
English,
Savane
ric.
Bayano.
Woma7i
auich
purra
Hair
chuga
?s
saglaga
No8e
vas'e
asagua
Eyes
siguac
va
ivia
Mouth
ca
cagtLiqui
Teeth
daj^
nugala
Ears
old
ouja
Hand
covar^
arcana
Foot
sera
naca
Srni
chuhi
Moon
datu
Sta/rs
behug
uipa
One
quenchique
438
VERAGUA.
English.
Savaneric.
Bayano.
Two
povuar
Three
Fowr
pavuar
paquevuar
Five
atate
Six
nercua
Seven
cugle
Eight
pavaque
Nine
paquevaque
Ten
ambuc.
arien —
English.
Cunacuna.
Darien.
One
quensa-cua
conjungo
Two
vo-cua
poquah
Three
paa-cua
pauquah
Fowr
paque-cua
pake-quah
Five
atale
eterrah
Six
ner-cua
indricah
Seven
cugle
coogolah
Eight
vau-agua
paukopah
Nine
paque-haguc
pakekopah
Ten
ambegui
anivego.
We now leave the Isthmus in order to take
cognizance of three other groups, which have, ap-
parently, been pretermitted in the preceding notices.
These are the languages akin to the Sahaptin ; the lan-
guages akin to the Shoshoni ; and the languages of
the Pueblo Indians — the groups being, to some extent,
artificial.
SAHAPTIN GROUP. 439
CHAPTER LIX.
Sahaptin, Paduca, and Pueblo Languages.
The reason why these languages, with their compara-
tively northern situs, have been left until the very
frontier of South America is touched, lies in their geo-
graphical relations to the languages of the next division.
As far as it has been practicable, we have, hitherto, kept
to the west of the Rocky Mountains, having begun
with the coast of the Pacific, because it was there that
lay the nearest points of contact between America and
Asia, and we have kept to the west, because, though difier-
ent in its character under different circumstances, there
has always been a connection between even such ex-
treme languages as those of Central America and those
of the Arctic Circle. Of course, this does not exclude a
similar connection with tlie languages on the other side
of the Rocky Mountains. Two chains of affinity, how-
ever, cannot be followed out at the same time. Mean-
while, that to which the preference has been given
is, to say the least, a convenient, as well as a natural,
one. The line, however, of the Rocky Mountains, them-
selves, is, by no means, purely and simply, a line from
north to south. In Utah and New Mexico it takes us
in the direction of the Atlantic.
This turns our attention to the parts about the Great
Salt Lake, and (as the dialects there spoken have defi-
nite and decided affinities which run as far north as the
440
SAHAPTIN GROUP.
Kiver Columbia) to certain districts in Oregon as well.
Here present themselves several dialects referable to
two groups. (1 .) The Sahaptin, and (2.) the Paduca.
' a-)
(From Dr. Scouler.)
Euglish.
Sahaptin.
Wallawalla.
Kliketat.
Man
nama
winsh
wins
Boy
naswae
tahnutshint
aswan
Woman
aiat
tilahi
aiat
Girl
piteu
tohauat
pitiniks
Wife
swapna
asham
asham
Child
miahs
isht
mianash
Father
pishd
pshit
pshit
Mother
pika
ptsha
ptsha
Head
huslms
tilpi
palka
Arm.
atim
kamkas
Eyes
sMlhu
atsliasli
atshash
Nose
nathnu
nathnu
nosnu
Ears
matsaia
matsiu
Mouth
him
em
am
Teeth
tit
tit
Hands
spshus
spap
alia
Feet
ahwa
waha
waha
Legs
wainsh
tama
Sun
wishamtuksh
au
au
Moon
ailhai
ailhai
Stars
witsein
haslu
haslo
Clouds
spalikt
pashst
Rain
wakit
sshhauit
tohtoha
Snow
maka
poi
maka
Ice
tahask
tahauk
toh
Fire
ala
sluksh
sluks
Water
tkush
tshnsh
tshaush
Wood
hatsin
slukls
slukuas
Stone
pishwa
pshwa
pshwa
Ground
watsash
titsham
titsham
Good
tahr
skeh
shoeah
Bad
kapshish
milla
tshailwit
Hot
sakas
sahwaih
sahweah
Cold
kenis
kasat
tewisha kasat
Far
waiat
wiat
wiat
Near
keintam
tsiwas
tsa
High
tasLti
hwaiam
hweami
Low
ahat
smite
niti
SAHAPTIN GROUP.
44]
English.
White
Black
Red
Here
There
Where ?
When ?
What ?
Why?
Who?
Which ?
How much ?
So much
How far ?
So far
How long ?
Too long
This
That
I
You
He, she, it
We
Ye
They
Togo
To see
To say
To talk
To walk
To read
To eat
To dnnk
To sleep
To wake
To love
To take
To knoio
To forget
To give
To seize
To he cold
To he sick
To hunt
To lie
To steal
Sahaptin.
naihaih
sunTilisimuh
sepilp
kina
kuna
minul
mana]
mish]
manama ?
ishi ?
ma?
mas?
kala
miwail ?
kewail
mahae ?
kohae
ki
joh
su
sui
ipi
nun
kusha
hakesha
heisha
wipisha
makosha
pinimikslia
watanisha
lukuasa
titolaslia
inisha
inpisha
iswaisa
komaisa
tukuliksa
mishamisha
pakwasha
Wallawalla.
koik
tshimuk
sutsha
tslina
kuna
mina?
mun?
misli ?
maui?
skiu?
mam]
milk?
kulk
maal?
kwal
maalh
kwalk
tsM
kwa
su
su
ipin
nama
ena
ema
winasha
hoksha
nu
siniwasa
winashash
wasaska
kwatashak
matskuskask
pinusha
tahshisask
tkeshask
apalashask
askakuaskask
slakskask
niskamask
skutskask
Kliketat.
olask
tsimuk
sutsa
stskiuak
skone
mam ?
mun ?
misk ?
skiu?
milk?
skulk
tsM
skwa
suk
suik
pink
nemak
imak
pamak
winaska
painskask
salaitisas
tskiskkskask
pakwaskask
wasaska
takskaska
tkeksak
skukuaska
wanapska
iswaiska
painska
nistewasa
tskiska
pakwaska.
442
PABUCA GROUP.
The Paduca forms of South Oregon and Utah seem
to be in situ ; those of New Mexico, Texas, and New
Leon, &c. being intrusive. In respect to these, I
imagine that a line drawn from the south-eastern corner
of the Utah Lake to the source of the Red or Salt Fork
branch of the River Arkansas, would pass through a
country nearly, if not wholly, Paduca ; a country which
would lie partly in Utah, partly in New Mexico, and
partly in Kansas. It would cross the Rocky Mountains,
or the watershed between the drainages of the Colorado
and the Missouri. It would lie along a high and barren
country. It would have on its west the Navaho, Moqui,
and Apatsh areas ; on its east certain Sioux tribes, the
Arapahos, and the Shyennes. It would begin
CaUfornia and end in the parts about Tampico.
in
(1.)
English.
Shoshoni.
Wihinasht.
Man
taka
nana
Woman
kwuu
moghoni
Head
pampi
tsopigh
Hair
tupia
ikuo
Ear
inaka
inako
Bye
pui
pui
Nose
moui
moui
Mouth
timpa
tupa
Tongue
aku
eghu
Teeth
tangwa
tama
Foot
nampa
kuki
Sun
tava
tava
Moon
mushha
musha
Star
putsihwa
patuzuva
Day
tashun
tavino
Night
tukwun
tokano
Fire
kuna
koso
Water
pa
pa
Stone
timpi
tipi
Tree
shuwi
I
ni
ni
That
i
i
He
00
00.
PADUCA GROUP.
443
(2.)
English.
Uta.
Comanch.
Ma7i
tooonpayah
tooavishchee
Woman
naijah
wyapee
Sun
tap
taharp
Moon
mahtots
mush.
Star
qualilantz
taarch
Boy
ahpats
tooanickpee
Girl
mahmats
wyapeechee
Read
tuts
paaph
Forehead
muttock
Face
kooelp
koveh
Eye
puttyshoe
nachich
Nose
mahvetah
moopee
Mouth
timp
teppa
Teeth
tong
tahnee
Tongue
ah oh
ahako
Chin
hannockq
uell
Ear
nink
nahark
Hair
suooh
parpee
Neck
kolph
toyock
Arm
pooir
mowa
Hand
masseer
mowa
Breast
pay
toko
Foot
namp
nahap
Horse
kahvah
teheyar
Serpent
toeweroe
noheer
Dog
sahreets
shardee
Cat
moosah
Fire
coon
koona
Food
oof
Water
pah
(3.)
pahar.
English.
Piede {or Pa-uta).
English.
Piede {orPa-ida).
One
SOOS
Six
navi
Two
weioone
Seven
navikavah
Three
pioone
Eight
nanneetsooin
Four
wolsooing
Nine
shookootspenkermi
Five
shoomin
Ten
tomshooin.
(4.)
English.
Chemuhuevi,
Cahuillo.*
Man
tawatz
nahanes
Woman
maruqu
%
nikil
* The affinity between the Netela and Kij with the Shoshoni, suggested by
Hale and Gallatin, has been enlarged on by Buschmann. The Cahuillo has
affinities on each side. It is not in situ. At the same time, it is only by
raising the value of the class, that all may be made Paduca.
444
PADUOA GROUP.
English.
Cheniuhuevi.
Cahnlllo
Head
mutacowa
niyuluka
Hair
torpip
piiki
Face
cobanim
nepush
Ear
nancaba
nanocka
Eye
puoui
napush
Nose
muvi
nemu
Mouth
timpouo
netama
Tongue
ago
nenun
Tooth
towwa
metama
Hand
masiwanim
nemobemosh
Foot
nampan
neik
Bone
maiigan
neta
Blood
paipi
neo
Sky
tnup
tuquashanica
Sun
tabaputz
tamit
Moon
meagoropitz
menyil
Star
putsih
cbehiam
Fire
cun
cut
Water
pah
pal
One
shuish
supli
Two
waii
mewi
Three
paii
mepai
Fowr
watchu
mewitchu
Five
manu
nomequadnun
Six
nabai
quadnunsupli
Seven
moquist
quanmunwi
Eight
natch
qiia,TiTnimpa
Nine
uwip
quanmunwichu
Ten
mashu
noTTiarChumi.
else,
The Kioway is, apparently, more Paduca than aught
English.
Kioway.
English.
Kioway.
Man
kiani
Blood
um
Woman
mayi
Bone
tonsip
Head
kiaku
Sky
kiacoh
Hair
ooto
Sun
pai
Face
caupa
Moon
pa
ForeJiead
taupa
Star
tab
Ear
taati
Fire
pia
Eye
taati
Water
tu
Nose
maucon
I
no
Mouth
surol
Thmi
am
Tongue
den
He
kin
Tooth
zun
We
kime
Hand
mortay
Ye
tusa
Foot
onsut
They
cuta
THE TESUQUE, ETC.
445
English.
Kioway.
English.
Kioway.
One
patco
Six
mosso
Two
gia
Seven
pantsa
Three
pao
Eight
iatsa
Four
iaki
Nine
cohtsu
Five
onto
Ten
cokhi.
The comparative civilization of the Pueblo Indians
has always attracted the attention of the philologue.
Until lately, however, he had but a rriinimum amount
of trustworthy information concerning either their habits
or their language. He has now a fair amount of data
for both.
Of the Pueblo languages two (the Moqui and Zuni)
belong to the drainage of the Rio Colorado, and four
(the Tesuque, the Taos, the Jemez, and the A coma) to
that of the Rio Grande.
(1.)
English.
Tesuque.*
English.
Tesuqne.
Man
sae
Snow
poh
Woman
quie
Fire
tah
Boy
enouh
Water
poh
Girl
aguuh
Ice
ohyeh
Head
pto
Stone
kuh
Hair
po
I
nah
Face
tzae
Thou
uh
Ear
oyez
He
ihih
Eye
tzie
She
ihih
Nose
heu
They
ihnah
Mouth
so
Ye
nahih
Tongue
hae
We {inclusive)
tahquireh
Tooth
mouaei
{exclusive)
nihyeuboh
Beard
hompo
One
guih
Hand
maho
Two
quihyeh
Foot
auh
Three
pohyeh
Bone
haehun
Four
ionouh
Blood
uh
Five
pahnouh
Sim
tah
Six
sih
Moon
pho
Seven
chae
Star
ahgoyah
Eight
kuhbeh
Day
tahn
Nine
kuaenouh
Night
kuriri
Ten
taheh.
Rain
kuohn
More Pima than aught else.
446
ACOMA AND COCHETIMI.
(2.)
EugUsh.
Acoma*
Cochetimi.
Kiwomi.
Man
hahtratse
hachthe
hatshthe
Woman
cuhu
coyoni
cuyauwi
Hair
hahtratni
hatre
Head
nushkaine
nashke
Face
howawinni
skeeowa
Eye
hoonaine
shaana
Nose
ouisuine
wiesMn
Mouth
ouicani
cliiaca
Tongue
watchlmiitni
watshin
One
ishka
isk
Two
kuomi
'tuomi
Three
chami
tshabi
Four
kiana
kiana
Five
tama
taoma
Six
chisa
chisth
Seven
maicana
maicliaiia
Eight
cocomishia
cocumshi
Nine
maeco
maieco
Ten
'tkatz
cahtz.
The Moqui has decided Paduca affinities.
* Perhaps, more Sioux than aught else.
ALGONKIN CLASS. 447
CHAPTER LX.
Languages between the Athabaskan, the Rocky Mountains, and the Atlantic.
— The Algonkin. — The Sioux. — The Iroquois. — The Catawba, Woccon,
Uche, Natchez, Chetimacha, Adahi, and Attacapa Languages. — The
Pawni, Riccari, and Caddo. — The Languages of Texas.
Unlike the Eskimo and the Athabaskan, the Algon-
hin area touches the Ocean on one side only — being
bounded on the west by the Bocky Mountains. Never-
theless, it is of great magnitude, being spoken in Labra-
dor, and in North Carolina ; on the Saskatshewan and
the Potomac ; in both the Canadas, in Nova Scotia,
in New Brunswick, in the Hudson's Bay Country, and
in every one of the United States north of Georgia.
On the north it is bounded by the Athabaskan, the
eastern half of the area whereof it subtends. The whole
question, however, of its magnitude, along with that of
the direction in which it extended itself, can scarcely be
entertained until the main details of the two classes
that succeed it, the Sioux and Iroquois, have been gone
into.
Though the Blackfoot is one of the most recent ad-
ditions to this class ; in other words, though the Black-
foot is one of the languages which were the last to be
recognized as Algonkin, I take it first — the Blackfoot
being in contact with the Kutani and certain forms of
the Athabaskan already named.
448
ALGONKIN CLASS.
(1.)
EngUsh.
Blackfoot.
Menomeni.
Man
tnatape
enainniew
Woman
aquie
metamo
Boy
sacomape
ahpayneesha
Oirl
aquecouan
kaykaw
Head
otocan
maish
Hair
otocan
maynaynunn
Face
otochris
oshkayshayko
Scaip
c'otoka.n
menainhquon
Ear
otokis
maytahwoc
Eye
y wapespi
maishkayshaick
Nose
mocquisis
maycheosh
Mouth
naoie
maytone
Tongue
natsini
maytainnonniew
Tooth
nogpeki
maypet
Beard
mongasti
maynaytonankkonnuck
Neclc
nogquoquini
mayke§ekon
Arm
otttis
maynainh
Shoulder
Catsiquin
ohpaykeko nainh kum
Bach
okaquin
oppainhquon
Hand
otttis
ohnainkonnon
Finger
inaquiquitsi
ohtainiioliaykon
Nail
teotenoquits
meshkanshcon
Breast
oquiquini
ohpaun
Body
stomi
mayeow
Leg
^^- osicsina
maykaut
Foot
ocatsi
mayshait
Bone
osicsi
oLkonne
Blood
apani
mainhkee
Sun
natos
kayshoh
Moon
natoscoucoui
taypainhkayshoh
Star
cacatos
ahnanlikock
Day
' apinacoush
kayshaykots
Night
coucoui
wahretopaykon
Fire
sti
ishkotajv^e
Water
ocquie
naypaywe
Stone
>',' sococotosc
ahshen
Tree
mistes
meanshab
Bird
picsi
waishkaynonh
Egg
wouaou
wahwon
I
nistoa
naynanh
Tlmi
cristoa
kaynanh
He
• hume
waynanh
She
hume
aynanh
They
wanonanh
Ye
keenwoah
We
kaynanh {inclusive).
oshneeshayak {exclusive).
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.
449
(2.)
English.
Ojibwa.
Ottawa.
Potowatami.
Head
ne ostegwon
ondip (his)
Hair
mistekiah
nisis {my)
win sis
Ear
ottowug
tawag
Eye
oskingick
tchkijik
neskesick
Nose
schangguin
tchaje
ottschass
Mouth
oton
t6ne
indoun
Tongue
otainini
tenanian
Tooth
rrieput
put
webit
Hand
nenintchen
neninch
Feet
ozia
sit (sing.)
nesit (sing.)
Sun
kisis
kisis
kesis
Moon
tepeki kisis
tipiki kisis
kesis
Star
anang
anang (pi)
anung
Day
kigik
kijig
Night
tipik
tipik
Fire
ishkoda
ashkote
scutah
Water
neebi
nipisli
nebee
Stone
ossin
Tree
metik
Fish
kekon
I
neen
neenah
Thou
keen
keen
He
ween
weene
One
paizMk
ningotchau
n'godto
Two
neezhwand
ninjwa
neish
Three
nisswaid
niswa
n'swoah
Four
newin
niwin
nnaeou
Five
nahnun
nanau
n'yawnun
Six
gotoasso
ningotwaswi
n'godto wattso
Seveti
neezhwawsee ninjwaswi
nouk
Ei^ht
shwawswe
nichwaswi
schwatso
Nine
shongguswe
shang
shocktso
Ten
medoswe
kwetch
(3.)
metato.
English.
Old Algonkin.
Knistinaux.
Man
alissinap
Woman
ichweh
esqui
Head
oostikwan
istegwen
Hair
ussis
mistekiah
Eye
ooskirishek
eskisoch
Nose
yash
miskeewon
Tongue
ooton
otoyanee
Teeth
tibit
meepit
Blood
mishweh
mithcoo
Sun
kisis J,
pesim
G G
450
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.
English.
Old Algonkin.
Knistinaux.
Moon
debikatikisis
tipiscopesim
Star
alank
attack
Day
okonogat
kesecow
NigU
debikat
tipiscow
Fire
skootay
esquittu
Water
nipi
nepee
Rain
kimiwan
kemeroon
Snow
mispoon
Fartk
ackey
askee
Noon
sispin
Stone
assin
assene
Tree
metseeb
■ mislick acbemusso {wood
standing upright)
Bird
piley
peasis
Fish
kikons
kenosee
J
nir
nitba
Thou
kir
kitba
He
wir
One
peygik
pauck
Two
ninsh
nisbiib
Three
nisswey
nisbto
Fowr
neyoo
nayo
Five
nabran
nayabnun
Six
ningootwassoo
negoto ahsik
Seven
ninsbwassoo
toboocop
Eight
nisswassoo
ian^naon
Nine
sbangasso
kaga,temetMut
Ten
metassoo
(4.)
mitatat.
English.
Sheshatapoosh.
Skoffi.
Man
napew
nabouw
Woman
scbquow
scbow
Head
stoukoaau
oostookooban
Hair
peesbquahan
teepisbquooubn
Tongue
tellenee
eelayleenee
Tooth
mepeetbex
weeeepicb
Hand
teekecbee
mesticbee
Feet
neesbetch
mesbetcb
Shy
wasbesbquaw
walk
Sun
besbung
beesboon
Moon
toposbabesbung
teepeesbowbesbum
Star
jobokata
woocbabaykatak
Day
jeesbekere
jeesbekow
Night
tapisbkow
tapisbkakow
Fire
schootoo
scbkootow
Water
nepeee
nepee
Stone
asbenee
asbenee
Tree
mistookooab
mesbtooquab.
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.
451
(5.)
English.
Micmac.
Etchemin.
Abenaki.
Man
tchinem
oskitap
seenanbe
Woman
epit
apet
phanien
Head
wnidgik
neneagan
metep
Hair
nepiesMmar
Ear
hadougan
chalkse
neta^takw (my)
Eye
poMogwl
n'siscol
tsesiku
Nose
uchickun
nitou
kitan
Mouth
neswone
nedwn (my)
Tongue
willenonk
nyllal
mirasw
Teeth
usibidul
nepit
Hand
kpiten
petin
nezetsi (my)
Foot
wkkttat
n'sit
nesit
Shy
mooshkoon
tumoga
kisukn
Sun
nakawget
asptaiasait
kizws
Moon
topanakoushet
kisos
kisous
Star
kmaaokoonich
psaisam
itatattessM
Day
naakok
kisuok
kizeuku
Night
pishkeeaukh
kizuku
Fire
hiikteu
skut
skwtai
Water
chabuguan
somaquone
nabi
Stone
kwndau
panapsqu
nimangan naz
Tree
neepeejeesh
apas
abassi
I
nil
nel
Thm
kil
He
negeum
"WTirt
One
nest
naiget
pezekw
Two
tali*
nes
niss
Three
chicht
nihi
nass
Four
new
naho
ieu
Five
nan
nane
barenesliw
Six
achigopt
gamatchine
negitdaus
Seven
atwrnoguenok
alohegannak
tanbawaus
Eight
sgomolchit
okemulchine
ntsausek
Nine
pechkwnadck
asquenandake
nuriui
Ten
ptolu
neqdensk
mtara.
(6.)
English.
MiDsi.
Nanticok.
Mohikan.
Man
lenni
wohacki
neemanaoo
Woman
ochqueu
acquahique
p'ghainoom
Head
wilustican
nulahammou (the)
■weensis (his)
Hair
weicheken
nee-eesquat
weghaukun
Eye
wichtawah
nucksskeneequat
ukeesquan (his)
Nose
wuschginqual
nickskeeu
okewon
Tongue
wichkiwon
neeannow
Mouth
M^'doon
huntowey
otoun
G G 2
452
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.
English.
Minsi.
Nanticok.
Mohikan.,
Tooth
wicbput
neeput
"wepeeton
Hand
wanachk
nuluutz
oaniskan
Foot
wichyat
nist
ussutin
Sun
giscliuck
aquiquaqueahquak keesogh
Moon
nipahump atupquonihauque
s nepauhauck
Star
alank
pumioije
anauquanth
Day
gieschku
nucotucquon
waukaumauw
Night
tpocheu
toopquow
t'pockk
Fire
tendei
nip
stauw
Water
ruby
pamptuckquah
thocknaun
Stone
aclisum
kawscup
thaunaumku
Tree
michtuk
peluicque
(7.)
machtok.
English.
Massachusetts.
Narragansetts.
Man
wosketomp
nnin
Woman
mittamwosses
squaws
Head
puhkuk
uppaquontup
Hair
meesunk
wesheck
Ear
wehtauog
wuttowwug
Eye
wuskesuk
wuskeesuck
Nose
wutch
Mouth
nuttoon
wuttone
Tongue
meenannoh
weenat
Tooth
• meepit
wepit
Hand
nutcheg
wunnicheke
Foot
wusseet
wussette
Shy
kesak
keesuck
Swn
nepauz
nippawuz
Moon
nepaushat
manepausbat
Star
annogs
anockgus
Day
kesukod
wompau
Night
nukon
tuppaco
Fire
nootai
squtta
Water
nippe
nip
Tree
mehtug
mintuck
I
neen
neen
Thm
ken
keen
He
noh
(8.)
ewo.
English. Miami.
Iliuois. Sauki.
Shawni.
Man hetaniah
inim neneo
ileni
Woman metamsah i
ickoe kwyokih
equiwa
Head indepekoneli
WTipip weshi
weelekeh
Hair nelissah ^
aississah nenossoueh
welathoh
Ear
tawakeh
nittagai
nektowakye {my) towakah
ALGONKIN LANGUAGES.
453
English .
Miami.
Iliuois.
Sauki.
Shawui.
Eye
keshekweh
isckengicon
neskishekwih
skisseeqwa
Nose
kekiwaneh
nekkiwanuek
ochan
Mouth
lonenneh
wektoneh
Tongue
wehla.Tieh
wilei
nennaneweh
weelinwie
Teeth
weepitah
nepitan
weepeetalee {his
Hand
oneksah
nich
nepakumetcheh
niligie
Feet
katali
wissit
nckatcteh (?)
kussie
STcy
kesheweh
kisik
apemekeh
menquotwe
Sun
kisipol
kejessoah
kesathwa
Moon
kesis
tepakeeskejes
I tepethaka-
\ kesathwa
Star
alangwa
rangkhoa
anakwakeh
alagwa {yl)
Day
wasekhe
kisik
keeshekeh
keeshqua
Night
pikkuntahkewe peckonteig
tapakeh
tepechke
Fire
koMeweh
scotte
eskwatah
scoote
Water
nepeli
nipi
neppi
neppee
Stone
saaneh
asenneh
Tree
mistaakuck
toauane
namateli
metequeglike(p?.)
I
neelah
nira
neenah {me)
nelah
Thou
keelah
kira
kelah
He
weelah
onira
welah.
The Bethuck is the native language of Newfoundland.
In 1846, the collation of a Bethuck vocabulary enabled
me to state that the language of the extinct, or doubt-
fully extant, aborigines of that island was akin to those
of the ordinary American Indians rather than to the
Eskimo ; further investigation showing that, of the or-
dinary American languages, it was Algonkin rather than
aught else.
A sample of the evidence of this is to be found in the
following table ; a table formed, not upon the collation
of the whole MS., but only upon the more important
words contained in it.
English, son.
Bethuck, mageraguis.
Cree, equssis.
Ojibbeway, ningwisis
negwis
Ottawa, hwis.
Micmac, unquece.
Passamaquoddy, n''kos.
=my sou.
Narragensetts, nummuchiese = my
son.
Delaware, quissau = h.is son.
Miami, ahwissima.
ungwissah.
Shawnoe, hoisso.
Sack and Fox, neJcwessa.
Menomeni, tieJceesh.
454
THE BETHUCK
English, girl.
Bethuck, woaseesh.
Cree, squaids.
Ojibbeway, ekwaizais.
Ottawa, aquesens.
Old Algonkin, ickwessen.
Sheshatapoosh, squashish.
Passamaquoddy, pelsquasis.
Narragansetts, squasese.
Montaug, squasses.
Sack & Fox, skwessah.
Cree, awdsis = child.
Sheshatapoosh, awash = child.
English, mouth.
Bethuck, mamadthun.
Nanticoke, mettoon.
Massachusetts, muttoon.
Narragansetts, wuttoon.
Penobscott, madoon.
Acadcan, mefon.
Micmac, toon.
Abenaki, ootoon.
nose.
Bethuck, gheen.
Miami, Jceouane.
Bethuck, hochodza.
Micmac, neebeet.
Abenaki, neebeet.
English, hand.
Bethuck, maemed.
Micmac, paeteen.
Abenaki, mpateen.
English, ear.
Bethuck, mootchiman.
Micmac, mootooween.
Abenaki, nootawee.
English, smoke.
Bethuck, hassdik.
Abenaki, ettoodaJce.
English, oil.
Bethuck, emet.
Micmac, memaye.
Abenaki, pemmee.
English, Sun.
Bethuck, Tceuse.
Cree, &c., kisis.
Abenaki, kesus,
Mohican, kesogh.
Delaware, gishukh.
Illinois, kisipol.
Shawnoe, kesathwa.
Sack & Fox, kejessoah.
Menomeni, kaysho.
Passamaquoddy, kisos=moon.
Abenaki, kisus = moon.
Cree, kesecow = day.
Ojibbeway, kijik = day and light.
Ottawa, kijik=do.
Abenaki, kiseoukou=do.
Delaware, gieshku=do.
Illinois, kisik — do.
Shawnoe, heeshqua=do.
Sack & Fox, keeshekeh=do.
English, fire.
Bethuck, hooheeshaiot.
Cree, esquitti, scoutay.
Ojibbeway, ishkodai, skootae.
Ottawa, ashkote.
Old Algonkin, skootay.
Sheshatapoosh, schootay.
Passamaquoddy, skeet.
Abenaki, skoutai.
Massachusetts, squitta.,
Narragansetts, si
English, white.
Bethuck, wohee.
Cree, wabisca.
wapishkawo.
Ojibbeway, wawbishkaw.
Old Algonkin, toabi.
Micmac, ouabeg, wabeck.
Mountaineer, loapsiou.
Passamaquoddy, wapiyo.
Abenaki, wanbighenour.
ivanhegan.
Massachusetts, wompi.
Narragansetts, ivompesii.
Mohican, waupaaeek.
OF NEWFOUNDLAND.
455
Montaug, wampayo.
Delaware, wape, wapsu, wapsit.
Nanticoke, wauppauyu.
Miami, wapeTcinggek.
Shawnoe, opee.
Sack & Fox, wapesJcayah.
Menomeni, zvaitbish Tceewah.
English, black.
Bethuck, mandzey.
Ojibbeway, mukhudaiwa.
Ottawa, macJcateh.
Narragansetts, mowesu.
Massachusetts, mooi.
English, house.
Bethuck, meeooticJc.
Narragansetts,
English, shoe.
Bethuck, mosen.
Abenaki, mkessen.
English, snow.
Bethuck, TcaasussabooTc.
Cree, sasagun=lasJi\..
Ojibbeway, saisaigan.
Sheshatapoosh, shashaygan.
English, speak.
Bethuck, ieroothacTc.
Taculli, yaltudk.
Cree, athemetakcouse.
Wyandot, atal-ea.
English, yes.
Bethuck,
Cree, ahhah.
Passamaquoddy, netek.
English, no.
Bethuck, newin.
Cree, namaw.
Ojibbeway, kawine.
Ottawa, Tcauween
English, hatchet.
Bethuck, dthoonanyen.
Taculli, thynle.
English, knife.
Bethuck, eewaeen.
Micmac, uagan.
English, bad,
Bethuck, muddy.
Cree, myaton.
Ojibbeway, monadud.
mudji.
Ottawa, matche.
Micmac, matoualkr.
Massachusetts, matche.
NaiTagansetts, matchit.
Mohican, matchit.
Montaug, mattateayah.
Montaug, muttadeeaco.
Dela,ware, mahhtitsu.
Nanticoke, mattih.
Sack & Fox, moichie.
matchathie.
The Shyenne language was suspected to be Algonkin
at the publication of the A ixhceologia Americana. In a
treaty made between the United States and the Shyenne
Indians in 1825, the names of the chiefs who signed
were either Sioux, or significant in the Sioux language.
It was not unreasonable to consider this as primd-facie
evidence of the Shyenne tongue itself being Sioux.
Nevertheless, there were some decided statements in the
way of external evidence in another direction. There
was the special evidence of a gentleman well-acquainted
456
THE SHYENNE
with the fact that the names of the treaty, so significant
in the Sioux language, were only translations from the
proper Shyenne, there having been no Shyenne inter-
preter at the drawing-up of the document. What then
was the true Shyenne ? A vocabulary of Lieut. Abert^'s
settled this as far as the numerals went. Afterwards a
full vocabulary, collated by Gallatin, gave the contem-
plated result : — '' Out of forty-seven Shyenne words for
which we have equivalents in other languages, there are
thirteen which are indubitably Algonkin, and twenty-
five which have afiinities more or less remote with some
of the languages of that family."*
English.
Arapaho.
other Algonkin Languages.
Man
enanetah
enainneew, Menomeni.
Father, my
nasonnah
nosaw, Miami.
Mother, my
nanah.
nekeah, Menomeni.
Husband, my
nash
nah, Shyenne.
Son, my
naah
nah, Shyenne.
nikyfithah, Shawnee.
Daughter, my
nahtahnah
netawnab, Miami.
Brother, my
nasisthsah
nesawsah, Miami.
Sister, my
naecahtaiah
nekoshaymank, Menomeni.
Indian
enenitah
ab wainbukai, Delaware.
Eye
mishislii
maisbkaysbaik, Menomeni.
Mouth
netti
may tone, Menomeni.
Tongue
nathun
wilano, Delaware.
Tooth
veathtah
wi pit, Delaware.
Beard
vasesanon
witonabi, Delaware.
Back
nerkorbah
pawkawniema, Miami.
Hand
machetun
olatsbi, Shawnee.
Foot
nauthauitali
ozit, Delaware.
Bone
hahunnah
obkonne, Menomeni.
Heart
battah
maytab, Menomeni.
Blood
bahe
mainbki, Menomeni.
Sinew
anita
obtab, Menomeni.
Flesh
wonnunyah
weensama, Miami.
Shin
tahyatch
xais, Delaware.
Town
haitan
otainabe, Delaware.
Door
tichunwa
kwawntame, Miami.
Sun
nishi-ish
kaysbob, Menomeni.
Star
ahthah
allangwb, Delaware.
Transactions of tbe American Etbnological Society, vol. ii. jx cxi. 1848.
AND .
ARAPAHO. 4
English.
Arapalio.
Otiier AJgonkin Languages.
Day
ishi
kishko, Delaware.
Autumn
tahuni
tahkoxko, Delaware.
Wind
assissi
kaishxing, Delaware.
Fire
ishshitta
ishkotawi, Menomeni.
Water
nutch
nape, Miami.
Ice
wahhu
mainquom, Menomeni.
Mountain
ahhi
wahcMwi, Shawnee.
Hot
hastah
ksita, Shawnee.
He
enun
enaw, Miami.
waynanh, Menomeni.
That {in)
hinnah
aynaih, Menomeni.
Who
unnahah
ahwalinay, Menomeni.
No
chinnani
kawn, Menomeni.
Eat
mennisi
mitishin, Menomeni.
DHnJc
bannah
maynaan, Menomeni.
Kill
nauaiut
osA-nainhaiay, Menomeni.
457
Arapaho is the name of a tribe in Kansas ; occu-
pant of a district in immediate contact with the Shyenne
country.
But the Shyennes are no indigence to Kansas. Nei-
ther are the Arapahos. The so-called Fall Indians, of
whose language we have long had a very short trader's
vocabulary in Umfreville, are named from their occu-
pancy, which is on the Falls of the Saskatshewan. The
Nehethewa, or Crees, of their neighbourhood call them
so. Another name is Big-helly, in French Gros ventre.
This has given rise to some confusion ; Gros-venire being
a name given to the Minetari of the Yellow-stone River,
who belong to the Sioux family. Not so the Gros-
ventres of the Falls. Adelung remarked that some of
their words had an affinity with the Algonkin. Um-
freville's vocabulary was too short for anything but the
most general purposes and the most cautious of sugges-
tions. It was, however, for a long time the only one
known. The next to it, in the order of time, was one
in MS., belonging to Gallatin, but which was seen by Dr.
Pri chard and collated by the present writer. His en-
quiries were simply to the effect that the language had cer-
tain miscellaneous affinities. A vocabulary in Schoolcraft
458
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES.
tells us more ; viz. not only that the Arapaho language
is the same as the Fall Indian of Umfreville, but that it
has definite and preponderating affinities with the Shy-
enne, and, through it, with the Algonkin class in gene-
ral, especially wibh the Menomeni.
English.
Arapaho.
Shyenne.
Scalp
mitliasli
metake
Tongue
nathun
vetunno
Tooth
veathtah
veisike
Beard
vasesanon
meatsa
Hand
mahchetun
maharts
Blood
bahe
mahe
Sinew
anita
antikah
Heart
battah
estah
Mouth
nettee
marthe
Qirl
issaha
xsa
Husband
nash
Tiah
Son
naah
nah
Daughter
nahtahnah
nahitch
One
chassah.
nuke
Two
neis
neguth
Three
nas
nahe
Four
yeane
nave
Five
yortlnin
noane
Six
nitahter
nahsato
Seven
nisorter
nisoto
Eight
nahsorter
nahnoto
Nine
siautah
soto
Ten
malitalitah
mahtoto.
The Sioux, second in respect to the magnitude of its
area to the Algonkin only, lies west and south, rather
than east or north, and belongs to the prairie States,
rather than to those of the sea-board.
Sioux vocabularies.
('•)
English.
Mandan.
Crow,
God
mahhopeneta
sakahbooatta
Swn
menakha
a'hhhiza
Moon
esto menakha
minnatatche
Stars
h'kaka
ekieu
Rain
h'kahoost
hannah
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES.
459
English.
Mandan.
Crow.
Snow
copcaze
makkoupah {hail)
River
passahah
ahesu
Day
hampah
maupah
Night
estogr
oche
Dark
hampaheriskah
cMppusheka
Light
edayhush
thieshe
Woman
meha
meyakatte
Wife
moorse
moali
Child
sookhomaha
bakkatte
Girl
sookmelia
meyakatte
Boy
sooknumohk
shakkatte
Head
pan
marshaa
Legs
doka
buchoope
Eyes
estume
meisbta
Mouth
ea
ea
Nose
pahoo
buppa
Face
estah
esa
Ears
nakoha
uppa
Hand
onka
buschie
Fingers
onkaha
buschie
Foot
shee
busche
Hair
hahhee
masheab
Canoe
menanko
mahesbe
Fish
poh
booah
Bear
malito
duhpitsa
Wolf
haratta
chata
Dog
mones waroota
biska
Buffalo
ptemday
bisba
Elk
omepah
eitcbericazzse
Deer
mahmanacoo
ohha
Beaver
warrappa
biruppe
Shoe
hoompah
hoompe
B&w
warraenoopah
bistuheeah
Arr<yw
mahha
ahnailz
Pipe
ehudka
ompsa
Tobacco
. mannasha
hopa
Good
shushu
itsicka
Bad
k'hecusli
kubbeek
Hot
dsasosh
ahre
Cold
shineehush
hootshere
I
me
be
Thm
ne
de
He
e
na
We
noo
bero
They
eonah
mihah
One
mahhannah
amutcat
Two
nompah
noomcat
460
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES.
English.
Mandan.
Crow.
Three
namary
namenacat
Four
tohha
shopecat
Five
kakhoo
chihhocat
Six
kemah
ahcamacat
Seven
koopah
sappoah
Eight
tatucka
noompape
Nine
mahpa
ahmuttappe
Ten
pei-ug
perakuk.
(2.)
English.
Yankton.
Winebago.
Dahcota.
Osage,
Man
weechasha
wongahah
weetshahsktah
L neka
Woman
weeah
nogahah
weenowkhindgah wako
Father
atcucu
chahchikal
atag
indajah
Mother
hucoo
chahcheekah
eenah
enauah
Son
cheecheeteoo
eeneek
r^;i;f**^M-''^"««<»^>
Daughter weetachnong
heenuhk'hahhah
meetshoongkshee
Head
pah
uahsuhhah
pah
watatereh
Hair
paha
pahkee
pauha
Ear
nougkopa
nahchahwahhah
pohe
naughta
Eye
ishtah
ischuhsuhhah
ishta
eghtaugh
Nose
pasoo
pahhah
poaghay
pau
Mouth
e-e-e
eehah
ea
ehaugh
Tongue
chaidzhee
dehzeehah
tshayzhee
Teeth
hee
Hand
napai
nahbeehah
nahmpay
numba
Fingers
napchoopai
naap
shake
shagah
Feet
ceeha
seehah
seehah
see {sing.)
Blood
uoai
waheehah
wey
House
teepee
cheehah
tea
tiah
Axe
mahs
onspa {axe)
Knife
meena
mahhee
eesahng
mauah
Shoes
waukootshey {sing.) hanipa {sing.)
analahah
Shy
mahkheehah
mahkpeea
mahagh
Sun
oouee
|haunip {day),
\ weeah {sun)
• weeahnipayatoc
^ S haunip {day), weerah
( meah {sun)
Moon
hayaitoowee
( hahnip {night),
\ weehah {sun) .
i weehah {sun) ]
weehyayahatoo
1
( hanip {night), weerah-
i meumboh {sun)
(
Star
weehchahpee
■ kohshkeh(ms-
pended) ]
1
' weeweetheestin
1
\ weerah {sun), kohshkeh
) {suspended)
Day
aungpa
haumpeehah
anipa
hompahe
Night
hahaipee
hiyetoo
hene
Fire
paita
pegdhah
paytah
pajah
Water
meenee
nihah
mi nee
neah
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES
461
English. Yankton.
Winebago.
Dahcota.
Osage.
Rain
mahajou
neezhuh
magazhoo
neighshee
Snow
wah
wuhhah
tahtey
pau
Earth
mongca
inah.'nan
mahkah
monekah
River
wacopa
olisunwah
watapafl
waucbiscab
Stone
eeyong
eenee
ceang
Tree
chaongeena
nahnan
tschang
Meat
tado
chahhah
tando
taudocab
Dog
saonka
chohnkeehah
shoomendokah
sbongab
Beaver chapa
nahapah
tschawpah
sbabab
Bear
•wahunkcaiceecha
wauhungkseetshah wasauba
Bird
zeecanoo
"wah.nigohha.h
zitka
Fish
hohung
hohhah
boa-abug
bongb
Great
tungkab
grondab
Cold
snee
seeneehee
snee
nubatcha
Whdte
scab
skah
skah
skab
BlacTc
sapah
sebhah
sabpab
saubab
Red
shah
shoosh
sbab
sbugab
I
neeah
meeab
veca
Thou
ney
neeab
deea
He
neeah
eeah
aar
One
wanche
jungklhkh
wajitab
minche
Two
nopa
nompiwi
nompah
nombaugh
Three
yameenee
tanniwi
yabmani
laubenab
Four
topah
tshoplwi
topab
tobab
Five
zapta
sahtshkh
zabpate
sattab
Six
shakpai
ahkewe
sbakkopi
sbapab
Seven
shakoee
shahko
sbabkopi
panompab
Mght
shakundoliuli
a-oo-ongk
sbabundobab
kelatobaugb
Nine
nuhpeet chee-
wungkuh
■ jungkitshooshkooni noptshi wongbah
sbankab
Ten
weekcheeniiTiuh
kahapahni
(3.)
wiketsbimani
krabra.
English.
Omaha.
Minetari.
Man
noo
mattra
Woman
waoo
meeyai
Father
dadai
tantai
Mother
eehong
eeka
Son
ee jinggai
moourisbai
Daughter
ee jonggai
macatb
Head
pah
antoo
Hair
pahee
arra
Ear
neetah
labockee
Eye
ishtah
ishtah
Nose
pah
apah
Mouth
cehah
ee-ee-eepchappab
46:
THE SIOUX LANGUAGES.
English.
Omaha.
Mitietari.
Tongue
theysee
neigh jee
Teeth
e-e-e- (sing.)
ee-ee
Hand
nomba
sbantee
Fingers
shagai
shanteeichpoo
Feet
see (sing.)
itsee
Blood
wamee
eebree
House
tee
atee
Axe
mazzapai
wee-eepsailan^
Knife
mahee
matzee
Shoes
opab
Sun
meenacajai
mahpemeenee
Moon
meeombah
obseamene
Star
meecaai
eekab
Day
ombah
mabpaih
Night
hondai
ohseeus
Fire
paidai
beerais
Water
nee
meenee
Main
naunshee
harai .
Snow
mah
mabpai
Earth
moneeka
amab
River
watishka
angee
Stone
ee-eeh
mee-ee
Tree
herabaimee
beeraiechtoet
Meat
tanoka
cuructscbittee
Bog
sheenoota
matsbuga
Bear
jabai
meerapa
Beaver
wassabai
labpeetzee
Bird
washingguh
sacanga
Fish
hoboo
boa
Cold
snee
ceereeai
White
ska
hoteecbkee
BlacJc
sabbai
sbupeesha
Bed
jeedai
isbshee
I
mee-ee
He
nee
One
meeacbchee
lemoisso
Two
nomba
noopah
Three
rabeenee
namee
Fov/r
tooba
topah
Five
satta
cbeehoh
Six
sbappai
acamai
Seven
painumba
cbappo
Eight
hrairabainai
nopuppee
Nine
shonka
nowassappai
Ten
kraibaira
peeragas.
THE IROQUOIS LANGUAaES.
463
The Iroquois falls into a northern and a southern
division, separated from one another by a mass of appa-
rently intrusive Algonkin.
(!•)
English.
Mohawk.
Cayuga.
Tuscarora.
Nottoway.
Man
oonquich
najina
aineehau
enika
Woman
ooonliechlien
konheghtie
aitsrauychkaneaweah ekening
Head
anoonjee
onowaa
oktahreh
setarake
Hair
oonooquiss
ononkia
oowaara
howerac
Ear
wahunclita
honta
ohhulmeh.
suntunke {pi-)
Eye
ookoria
okagKha
ookawreh
unkoharac {jpl.)
Nose
geneuchsa
onyohsia
ohtchyuhsay
oteusag
Mouth
"wachsacarlunt sishakaent
oskawrukweigh
eskakarant
Tongue
oonachsa
aweanaghsa
auwuntawsay
darsunke
Tooth
cuhnoojah
onojia
otoatseh
olosag {jpl.)
Hand
oochsooclita
eshoghtage
okehneh
nunke
Foot
oochsheeta
oshita {sing.)
uhsek {sin^.)
saseeke
Sun
kelanquaw
kaaghkwa
heetay
aheeta
Moon
kilanquaw
soheghkakaaghkwa heetay
tethrake
Star
cajestuck
ojishonda
otcheesnoohquay
deeshu
Day
wawde
onisrate
auwehneh
antyeke {time)
Night
aghsoiithea
asoke
oosottoo
asunta {time)
Fire
ocheerle
ojista
stire
auteur
Water
oochnecanos
onikanos
auwuh
awwa
Stone
oonoyah
kaskwa
owrumiay
okhoutakh
Tree
kerlitte
krael
oughrukeh
geree
Fish
keiyunk
otsionda
kuhtchyuli
kaiuntu
I
ni
I
ie
ee
Thou
esse
ise
tsthauwuh
He
longwha
aoha
hearooh
One
oohskot
skat
eukche (R.)
unte
Two
tekkinih
tekni
nakte (R.)
dekanee
Three
ohson
segh
aksunk (R.)
arsa
Fwi/r
kupyayrelih
kei
kuntok (R.)
hentag
Five
wissk
wis
weesk (R.)
wkisk
Six
yahyook
yei
oohyok (R.)
oyag
Seven
chahtakh
jatak
ckeoknoh (R.)
ohatag
Eight
soytayhhko
tekro
nakreuh (R.)
dekra
Nine
tihooton
tyohto
nereuh (R.)
deheerunk
Ten
weeayhrleh
waghsea
wakth'siiTik (R.)
washa.
464
THE IROQUOIS LANGUAGES.
(2.)
English.
Wyandot.
English,
Wyandot.
Qod
tamaindezue
Fingers
eyingia
Wicked SpiHt
deghshurenoh
Nails
ohetta
Man
aingalion
Body
Woman
utehkeh
BeUy
undeerentoh
Boy
omaintsentehah
Feet
ochsheetau
Girl
yaweetseutho
Bone
onna
Infant, child
cheahhah
Heart
yootooshaw
Father
hayesta
Blood
ingoh
Mother
aneheh
Town, village
onhaiy
Wife
azuttunohoh
Warrior
trezue (war)
Son
hoomekauk (his)
Friend
nidanbe {brother)
Daughter
ondequieu
House, hut
neraatzezue
Brother
haenyeha (my)
Kettle
yayanetch
Sister
aenyaha
Axe, hatchet
ottoyaye (axe)
An Indian
iomwhen (pi.)
Knife
weneashra
Head
skotau
Canoe, boat
gya
Hair
arochia
Indian shoes
araghshu
Face
aonchia
Bread
datarah
Forehead
ayeutsa
Shy, heaven
caghroniate
Ear
hoontauh
Sun
yaandeshra
Eye
yocliquiendoch
Moon
waughsuntayande
Nose
yaungah
Star
teghshu (pi.)
Mouth
esskauliereeli
Day
ourheuha
Tongue
undauchslieeau
NigU
asontey
Tooth
uskoonslieeau (jal
Morning
asonravoy
Beard
ochquieroot
Evening
teteinret
NecJc
ohoura
Spring
honeraquey.
Hand
yorreessaw
(3.)
English.
Onondago.
Seneca.
Oneida.
Man
etshinak
unguoh
loonkquee
Woman
echro
yehong
acunhaiti
Head
anuwara
oonooen
onoonjee
Hair
onuchquire
onunkaah
onanquis
Ear
ohucta
waunchta (pi.)
ohuntah
Eye
ogachra
kaka
oliknTilau
onoo-oolisahonoo-ooh
\ sah
Nose
oniochsa
cagonda
Mouth
ixhagachrahuta
wachsagaint
yesaook
Tongue
enachse
wanuchsha
owinaughsoo
Tooth
onotschia
kaimujow
onouweelah
Hand
luiages
liashrookta
snusagli
Feet
ochsita
oochsheeta (sing.)
Sky
tioarate
kiunyage
ochsheecht
THE IROQUOIS LANGUAGES.
465
English.
Onondago.
Seneca.
Oneida.
Sun
gaxachqua
kachqua
escalter
Moon
garachqua
kachgua
konwausontegeak Q)
Star
otschischtenocqua
cajeshanda
yoojistoqua
Day
wochuta
unde
weeneeslaat
Night
achsonta
nehsoha
kawwossonneak
Fire
otschischta
ojishta
ojisthteh
Water
ochnecanos
onekandus
oghnacauno
Stone
onaja
cosgua
Tree
garonta
kaeet
I
I
ee
Thwi
his
ees
He
rauh
ahwha
One
skata
skaut
kuskat
Two
tekinu
ticknee
teghia
Three
achso
shegh
hasin
Four
gajeri
kaee
cayeli
Five
wisk
wish
huisse
Six
achiak
yaee
yahiac
Seven
tsoatak
jawdock
tziadac
Eifjkt
tekiro
tikkeugh
tagheto
Nine
watiro
teutough
wadehlo
Ten
wasshe
wushagh
woyehli.
The Woccon and Catawba <
ire two languages of the
same group, spoken in
North
Carolina ; and they are
the only two languages
of that State,
for which we have
specimens
— both short.
English.
Catawba*
English.
Catawba.
Man
yalDrecha
Feet
hepapeeah
Woman
eeyauh
Blood
eeh
Father
yahmosa
House
sook
Mother
yascu
Axe
pot-tateerawah
Son
koorewa
Knife
seepah
Daughter enewah
Shoe
weedah
Head
iska
Sky
wahpeeh
Hair
gitlung
Sun
nooteeh
Eye
doxu
Moon
weechawanooteeh
Ear
peetooh
Star
wahpeeknee
Nose
eepeesooh
Day
yahbra
Mouth
esomo
Night
weechawa
Tongue
peesoomoseh
Fire
epee
Tooth
heeaup
Water
eyau
Hand
ecksapeeah
Rain
cooksoreh
Finger
eekseeah
Snow
wauh
* Slightly more akin to the Cherokee, and the Uchee, on the one side, and
the Sioux dialects on the other, than aught else.
H H
466
6
THE Ci
TAWBA.
English.
Catawba.
English.
Catawba.
Earth
munn
/
derah
River
esauli
Thou
yayah
Stone
eedee
He
oiiwah
Tree
yup
One
dupunna
Meal
weedeeyoyundee
Two
naperra
Dog
tauntsee
Three
namunda
Beaver
chaupee
Four
purrepurra
Bear
nomeh
Five
puhte-arra
Bird
koching
Six
dip-karra
Fish
yee
Seven
wassinen
Great
paukteherd
Fight
tubbosa
Cold
ckeliulichard
Nine
wuncbali
White
Black
saukchuh
haukchuh
Ten
pechana.
The old languages of the CaroliDas, Georgia, and
Florida were —
1. The Wataree.*
2. The Eeno — Compare this name with the
Texian Ini ;
3. The Chowah, or Chowan ;
4. The Conpjaree ; *
5. The Nachee — Compare with Natchez ; word
for word ;
6. The Yamassee ;
7. The Coosah — Compare (word for word) with
Coosada, and Coshatta.
In the south lay the Timuacana — of which a few
words beyond the numerals are known.
In West Florida and Alabama, the evidence (I still
follow the Mithridates) of Du Pratz scarcely coincides
with that of the account of Nunez de Vaca. This
runs thus.
In the island of Malhado were spoken languages of
1 . The Caoques ;
2. The Han.
On the coast —
3. The Choruico — Cherokee?
The name Riccar(?e, probably, belongs to these parts.
THE CHEROKEE. 4G7
4. Tlie Doguenes.
5. The Mendica.
6. The Quevenes.
7. The Mariames.
8. The Gualciones.
9. The Yguaces.
1 0. The Atayos — Adahi ? This seems to have been
a native name — "die sich Atayos nennen."
1 1 . The Acubadaos.
12. The Quitoles.
13. The Avavares — Avoyelles?
1 4. The Muliacone.
1 5. The Cutalchiche.
1 6. The Susola.
17. The Como.
18. The Camole.
Of migrants from the east to the west side of the
Mississippi, the Mithridates gives —
1 . The Pacana, conterminous with the Attacapas.
2. The Pascagula ? Muscogulge.
3. The Biluxi? Apalach.
4. The Appalach ? Apelousa.
The Taensa are stated to be a branch of the Natchez,
The Caouitas are, perhaps, word for word, the Con-
chattas ; also the Coosa, Coosada, Coshatta.
The Stincards are, word for word, the Tancards =
Tuncas = Tunicas.
The Cherokee is spoken, at the present moment, by
more individuals than any other Indian tongue. Many
of the Cherokees have taken up a portion of the Ameri-
can civilization ; cultivate land, hold slaves, and increase
in numbers. The language is also spoken by many
who are other than Cherokee in blood. It is written,
and that in a syllabic alphabet, excogitated by a native
Cherokee, in Africa, named Sequoyah, or Guess. Like the
H H 2
THE CHEROKEE.
Vei, however, it is no evidence to the truly indigenous
independent growth of an alphabet. Guess knew the
English alphabet, i. e. he knew that languages could be
reduced to writing, and the principles on which an alpha-
bet could be formed. In this lies the real invention of
an alphabet ; an invention which the present writer
maintains has only been made once.
English.
Cherokee.-
r
Chocktaw.*
Muskogulge {or Creek).
Man
askaya
hottok nokni
istahouamiah
Woman
ageyung
kottok oliyo
hoktie
Bead
askaw
nushkobo
ikah
Hair
gitlung
pansh§ {his)
isti
Ear
gule
hoksi'bbsh
huchko
Eye
tikata
mishkin
tolltlowah
Nose
koyoungsahli {my)
ibichulo
yopo
Mouth
tsiawli
ishte
chaknoh
Tongue
gahnohgah
issunliisli
tolasoah
Tooth
tetsinatutawgung {my)
notS
notte (jsZ.)
Hand
agwoeni {my)
ibbuk {his)
inkke
Feet
tsulahsedane {his)
iye {his)
eili {sing.)
Sun
nungdohegah
hashe
habsie
Moon
nungdohsungnoyee
hushmunokaja
halbisie
Star
nawquisi
fichik
kootso Isonibah
Day
ikah
nittok
nittah
Night
sungnoyee
ninnok
neillhi
Fire
atsilung
liuok
totkah
Water
ahmah
oka
wyvah
Stone
mingyah
tiille {m^tal stone) cbatto
Tree
uhduh
itte
ittah
Fish
atsatih
nun6
tlakklo
I
ayung
unno
unneh
Thou
ne
chishno
chameh
He
naski
muh
One
saquoh
achofee
hommaye
Two
talee
tuklo
hokko
Three
tsawi
tuchina
totcheb
Fov/r
nunggin
ushta
osteh
Five
hiskee
tahlape
chahgkie
Six
soodallih
hanali
ebba,h
Seven
gulgwaugih
untuklo
koolobah
Eight
tsunelah
untuchina
chinnabah
Nine
sohonhailah
chokali
ostabah
Ten
uhskoUiih
pokoli
pahlen.
* The CMkkasali belongs to this division.
THE UCHEB, ETC.
469
English.
Uchee.*
Natchez.t
A.daihe.
Chetemaclia.t
Man
cohwita
tomkuhpena
haasing
pautchehase
Woman
wauhnehung
tahmahl
quaechuke
kithia
Father
chitung
abishnisha
kewanick
hineghie
Mother
kitchunghaing
kwalneshoo
amanie
haiUe
Son
tesunung (my)
akwalnesuta
tallehennie
hicheyahanhase
Daughtt
;7'teyunung {my)
mahnoonoo
quolasinic
hicheyahankithia
Head
ptzeotan
tomne apoo
tochake
kutte
Hair
ptsasong
etene
calatuck
kutteko
Ear
cohchipah
ipok
calat
urahache
Eye
cohchee
oktool
analca
kane
Nose
cohtemee
shamats
wecoocat
chiche
Mouth
teaishhee
heche
wacatcholak
cha
Tongue
cootineah
itsuk
tenanat
huene
Tooth
tekeing
int
awat {'pl.)
hi
Hand
keanthah
ispeshe
secut
unachiekaithie
Fingers
coonpah
okinsin {sing.) iinache kitset
Feet
tetethah
hatpeshe i^'mg.)
nocat {sing.)
sauknuthe {sing.)
Blood
wace
itsli
pchack
unipe
Home
.
hahit
coochut
hanan
Axe
ohyaminoo
Knife
eoutchee
pyhewish
Shoes
tethah
popatse
Sky
houpoung
nasookta
ganick
kahieketa
Sim
ptso
wah {fire)
naleen
thiaha
Moon
shafah
kwasip
nachaoat
pautne
Star
yung
tookul
otat
pacheta
Day
uckkah.
wit
nestach
wacheta
Night
pahto
toowa
arestenet
timan
Fire
yachtah
wah
nang
teppe
Water
tsach
koon
holcut
ko
Fain
chaah
nasnayobik
ganic
kaya
Snow
stahae
kowa
towat
nactepeche
Earth
ptsah
wihih
caput
nelle
River
tauh
wol
gawichat
koneatineshe
Stone
ohk
ekseka
nonche
Tree
yah
tshoo
tanaek
conche
Meat
colahntha
wintse
hosing
kipi
Dog
ptsenah
waskkop
-
Beaver
samkkeing
culawa
Bear
ptsaka
tso kohp
solang
hacuneche
Bird
psenna
shankolt
washang
thia
Fish
potshoo
henn
aesut
makche
Great
lehkip
tocat
hatekippe
Cold
tzitakopana
hostalga
kasteke
* Slightly more akin to the Catawba and Cherokee than aught else,
f Slightly more akin to each other and Muskogulge than aught else.
470
THE UCHEE, ETC.
English.
Uchee.
Natchez.
Adaihe.
Chetemacha.
White
quecah
hahap
testaga
mechetineche
BlacTc
ishpe
tsokokop
hatoua
nappechequineche
Red
tshulhuh
pahkop
pechasat
pinnoneche
I
'te
tukehah
hicatuck
uteclieca
Thou
uhkehah
utietmhi
He
coheetha
akoonikia {;tlm
here) nassicon
hatche
One
sah
■wdtahu
nancas
hongo
Two
nowah
ahwetie
nass
hupau
Three
nokah
nayetie
coUe
kahitie
Four
taltlah
ganooetie
tacache
mechechant
Five
chwanhah
shpedee
seppacan
hussa
Six
chtoo
lahono
pacanancus
hatcka
Seven
latchoo
ukwoh
pacaness
miclieta
Fight
peefah
upkutepish
pacalcon
kueta
Nine
'tah'thkali
wedipkatepish
sickinish
knicheta
Tm
'tthklahpee
okwah
neusne
heiliitie.
Allied one to another, the Pawni and Riccari are
Caddo languages.
English.
Pawni.
Riccari.
Woman
tsapat
sapat
Boy
peeshkee
weenatch
Girl
tchoraksh
soonahtch.
Child
peeron
pera
Head
pakshu
pahgh
Ears
atkaroo
tickokite
Eyes
keereekoo
cheereecoo
Hair
oshu
pahi
Hand
iksheeree
tehonare
Fingers
haspeet
parick
Foot
ashoo
ahgh
God
thouwahat
tewaroohteh
Devil
tsaheekshkakooraiwah
kakewaroohteh
Swi
shakproo
shakoona
Fire
tateetoo
tekieeht
Moon
pa
wetah
Stars
opeereet
saca
Rain
tatsooroo
tassou
Snow
toosha
tahhau
Day
sliakoorooeeshairet
shacona
Night
eeraishnaitee
eenahgt
Light .
Bhuslieegat
shakoonah
Dmk
eeraishuaite
tekatistat
Hot
toueetstoo
towarist
Cold
taipeechee
teepse
Yes
nawa
neecoola
No
kakee
kaka
THE PAWNI AND RICCARI.
471
English .
Pavvni.
Riccari.
Bear
koorooksb
keahya
Dog
ashakish
hohtch
Bow
teeragish
nache
Arrow-
leekshoo
neeche
Hut
akkaroo
acare
Canoe
lakohoroo
lahkeehoon
River
kattoosh
sahonnee
I
ta
nanto
One
askoo
asco
Two
peetkoo
pitco
Three
touweet
towwit
Four
shkeetish
tcheetish
Five
sheeooksh
tcheetishoo
Six
sheekshabish
tcheetishpis
Seven
peetkoosheeshabish
totchapis
Eight
touweetshabish
tochapiswon
Nine
looksheereewa
totchapisnahhenewon
Ten
looksheeree
nahen
Twenty
petouoo
wetah
Thirty
luksheereewetouoo
sahwee
Hundred
sheekookshtaroo
shontan.
In a country like Texas, where the spread of the popu-
lation from the other portions of the Union has been so
rapid, and where the occupancy is so complete, we are
prepared to expect but a small proportion of aborigines.
And such, upon the whole, is the case. The displacement
of the Indian tribes has been great. Even, however, when
Mexican, Texas was not in the category of the older and
more original portions of Mexico. It was not brought
under the regime of the missionaries.
The notices of Texas in the Mithridates, taken along
with our subsequent data, are to the effect that (a) the
Caddo, (b) the Adaize or Adahi, (c) the Attakapa, and
{d) the Choktah are the prevailing languages of Texas ;
to which may be added a few others of minor import-
ance.
The details as to the distribution of the subordinate
forms of speech over these four leading languages are
as follows : —
a. The Nandakoes, Nabadaches, Alich (or Eyish), and
Ini or Tachi are expressly stated to be Caddo ; and, as
472 LANGUAGES OF TEXAS.
it is from the name of the last of these that the word
Texas is derived, we have satisfactory evidence that some
members, at least, of the Caddo family are truly and
originally Texian.
b. The Yatassi, Natchitoches, Adai^i (or AdaM),
Nacogdoches, and Keyes, belong to the Caddo confede-
racy, but without speaking the Caddo language.
c. The Carancouas, the Attacapas, the Apelusas, the
Mayes, speak dialects of the same language.
d. The Tunicas speak the same language as the Chok-
tahs.
Concerning the philology of the Washas, the Bedies,
the Acossesaws, and the Cances, no statements are made.
It is obvious that the information supplied by the
Mithridates is measured by the extent of our knowledge
of the four languages to which it refers.
Of these, the Choktah, which Adelung calls the Mo-
bilian, is the only one for which the Mithridates itself
supplies, or could supply, specimens ; the other three
being unrepresented by any sample whatever. Hence,
to say that the Tachi was Caddo, that the Yatassi was
Adahi, or that the Carancoua was Attacapa, was to give
an instance, in the way of explanation, of the obscurum
per obscurius. Since the publication of the Mithri-
dates, however, we have got, as has been seen, samples
of three more — so that our standards of comparison
are improved. They are to be found in a tabulated
form, and in a form convenient for collation and com-
parison, in both of Gallatin's papers. They were all
collected before the annexation of Texas, and they
appear in the papers just referred to as Louisiana, rather
than truly Texian, languages ; being common to the two
areas.
The later the notice of Texas the greater the promi-
nence given to a tribe of which nothing is said in the
Mithridates, viz. the Gumfianch. As late as 1844 we
had nothing beyond the numerals and a most scanty
LANGUAGES OF TEXAS. 473
MS. list of words to tell us what the Cumanch language
really was. These, however, were sufficient to show
that its affinities ran northwards, and were with the
Shoshoni.
The tendency of the Mithridates is to give prominence
to the Caddo, Attacapa, and Adahi tongues, and to in-
cline the investigator, when dealing with the other forms
of speech, to ask how far they are connected with one
of these three. The tendency of the later writers
is to give prominence to the Cumanch, and to suggest
the question : How far is this (or that) form of speech
Cumanch or other than Cumanch ?
Working with the Mithridates, a MS. of Mr. Bol-
laert, and Mr. Kennedy's volume on Texas before me, I
find that the list of Texian Indians, which these authori-
ties justified me in publishing in 1848, contained (I) Cos-
hattas ; (2) Towiachs, Towakenos, Towecas, and Wacos ;
(3) Lipans or Sipans ; (4) Aliche or Eyish ; (5) Acosse-
saws ; (6) Navaosos ; (7) Mayes ; (8) Cances ; (9) Tonca-
huas ; (10) Tuhuktukis ; (11) Unataquas or Anadarcos;
(12) Masco vie ; (13) lawanis or lonis ; (14) Wico ?
Waco; (1 5) Avoyelles ; (1 6) Washitas ; (17) Ketchi ;
(18) Xaramenes; (19) Caicaches ; (20) Bidias ; (21)
Caddo ; (22) Attacapa ; (23) Adahi — besides the Caran-
kahuas (of which the Cokes are made a branch) classed
with the Attacapa, and not including certain Cherokees,
Choktahs, Chikkasahs, and Sioux.
A Washita vocabulary, which will be referred to in
the sequel, concludes the list of Texian languages known
by specimens.
At present, then, the chief question respecting the
philology of Texas is one of distribution. Given as
centres to certain groups —
1 . The Choktah,
2. The Caddo,
3. The Adahi,
4. The Attakapa,
474
LANGUAGES OF TEXAS.
5. The Cumanch, and
6. The Witshita languages,
how do we arrange the tribes just enumerated ? Two
works help us here : — 1. A letter from the Ex-president
Burnett to Schoolcraft on the Indians of Texas. Date,
1847. 2, A Statistical Notice of the same by Jesse
Stem. Date, 1851.
Stem's statistics run thus : —
THhes.
Numbers.
Towacarros 141 )
Wacos .
114 [29
Ketchies .
38)
Caddos
161)
Andarcos
202 [ 47
loni .
113
Tonkaways
1152
Wichitas
• 100
Lipans
500
Comanches .
20,000
giving us several of the names that have already ap-
peared ; giving also great prominence to the Cumanches
— numerically at least.
In Mr. Burnett's Letter the term Caddo i^ prominent;
but whether it denote the Caddo language, or merely
the Caddo confederation, is uncertain. Neither can I
find fi:om the context whether the statements respecting
the Indians of the Caddo connection, for this is what we
must call it at present, are made on the personal autho-
rity of the writer, or whether they are talcen, either
directly or indirectly, fi^om the Mithridates. The term
that Burnett used is stock, his statement being that the
Waco, the Tawacani, the Towiash, the Aynic, the San
Pedro Indians, the Nabaduches, and the Nacodocheets are
all both Texian in origin and Caddo in stock.
His other tribes are — ■
1. The Ketchi: a small tribe on Trinity River, hated by
the Cumanches as sorcerers, and, perhaps, the same as—
2. The Hitclii, once a distinct tribe, now assimilated
with their neighbours.
LANGUAGES OF TEXAS.
475
3. The Tonkaways, a separate tribe, of which, how-
ever, the distinctive characters are not stated.
Whatever may be the exact details of the languages,
dialects, and subdialects of Texas, the general outline is
simple.
The Choktah forms of speech are anything but native.
They are of foreign origin and recent introduction. So
are certain Sioux and other dialects spoken within the
Texian area.
The Gumanch is in the same predicament ; though
not, perhaps, so decidedly. It belongs to the Paduca
class, and its affinities are with the Shoshoni and Wi-
hinast of Oregon.
The Caddo Proper is said to be intrusive, having
been introduced so late as 1819 from the parts between
the Great Raft and the Natchitoches or Red River. I
hold, however, that some Caddo forms of speech must
be indigenous.
The Witshita is probably one of these : —
English.
Caddo,
Witshita.
Head
cundo
etskase
Haw
beunno
deodske
Eye
nockkochun
kidahkuck
Nose
sol
dutstistoe
Mouth
nowoese
hawkoo
Tongue
ockkotunna
hutskee
Tooth
ockkodeta
awk
One
whiste
cherche
Two
bit
mitcb
Three
dowoh
daub
Four
peaweh
dawquats
Five
dissickka
esquats
Six
dunkkee
kehass
Seven
bissickka
keopits
Eight
dowsiekka
keotope
Nine
pewesickka
shercheke ite
Ten,
binnab
skedorasb.
'obably, also.
the following —
English.
Kichai.
Hueco.
Man
caiuquanoquts
todekitz
Woman
cbequoike
cabheie
476
LANGUAGES OF TEXAS.
English.
Kichai.
Hueco.
Head
quitatso
atskiestacat
Hair
itscoso
ishkesteatz
Face
itscot
ichcoh
Ear
atikoroso
ortz
Eye
quideeco
kidik
Nose
chuscarao
tisk
Mouth
hokinnik
ahcok
Tongue
hahtok
hotz
Tooth
athnesho
ahtk
Hand
ichshene
ishk'ti
Foot
usinic
OS
Fire
yecenieto
hatz
Water
kiokoh.
kitsah
One
arishco
cheos
Two
chosho
witz
Three
tahwithco
to-w
Fowr
kithnucote
taliquitz
Five
xs'toweo
ishquitz
Six
napitow
kiash.
Seven
tsowetate
kiownitz
Eight
naikinukate
kiatou
Nine
taniorokat
choskitte
Ten
x'skani
skittewas.
I conclude with a language which is decidedly Texian
-the Attakapa.
English
Attakapa.
Man
iol
Woma/n,
nickib
Father
shau
Mother
tegn
Son
shka
Daughter
tegu
Head
ashhat
Hair
taesh
Ear
ann
Eye
uiU
Nose
idst
Mouth
katt
Tongue
nedle
Tooth
ods
Hand
Tiish
Finger
nisliagg
Feet
tippel
Blood
iggli
House
ank
Sky
tagg
English.
Sun
Moon
Star
Day
Night
Fire
Water
Rain
Snow
Earth
Fiver
Stone
Tree
Meat
Bear
Bird
Fish
Great
Cold
White
Attakapa.
tegidlesh
ish
iggl
tegg
cam
ak
caucau
aalesat
ne
aconstuchi
wai
oged
stigne
iagghan
uishik
tsamps
cobb
LANGUAGES OF TEXAS.
477
r English.
Attakapa.
BlacTc
ianu
Red
ofg
I
ne
Thou
natt
One
hanneck
Two
happalst
Three
batt
English.
Attakapa.
Fwir
tsets
Five
nilt
Six
latst
Seven
paghu
Eight
tsikuiau
Nine
tegghuiae
Ten
heissigu.
The Attakapa is one of the pauro-syllabic languages
of America, by which I mean languages that, if not
monosyllabic after the fashion of the languages of south-
eastern Asia, have the appearance of being so. They
form a remarkable class, but it is doubtful whether they
form a natural one, i. e. whether they are more closely
connected with each other in the other elenients of philo-
logical affinity than they are with the tongues not so
characterized.
The Adahi or Adaize (? Yatassi) and the Attakapa
are the two most isolated languages of North America,
each having, however, miscellaneous affinities.
As the languages to the west of the Attakapa have
already been noticed, so those of South America now
come under consideration.
478 .LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AMERICA,
CHAPTER LXI.
Languages of South America — New Grenada, — The Quichua. — The Ayniara.
—The Chileno.— The Fuegian.
It may safely be said that there is no part of the
world, of which the Comparative Philology is more un-
certain and obscure than South America. That there
are vast tracts elsewhere, for which our data are scan-
tier, is not denied. Scanty, however, as they may be,
they are, generally, better arranged ; for in South America,
though our materials are by no means deficient, our
classification is at its minimum. The notices of the
Mithridates were chiefiy taken, either at first hand or
through Hervas, from the Jesuit missionaries, whose
communications were all of the same character. They
gave us almost always a Paternoster, occasionally a hymn,
sometimes the numerals, more rarely a full and copious
general vocabulary. They also, for the most part, gave
us a very compendious grammar or Arte ; a grammar
or Arte^ in which the principles of the ordinary Latin
Grammar of Europe were applied to forms of speech to
which they are wholly unsuited. Besides their inherent
imperfections, these Artes have the additional demerit of
being amongst the scarcest of philological works. They
are, for American books, old ; the majority being of the
LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 479
seventeenth century. They are printed in Lima and other
Transatlantic towns, rather than in Madrid or Lisbon.
Finally, they are often in MS. That many of these
were known to Adelung, is shown in almost every page
of his great work. Perhaps he knew of most of them.
Nevertheless, as a mere matter of bibliography some
have been noticed, and that for the first time, since his
death. So far, then, as this is the case, they give us new
materials. That the main mass, however, of our fresh
data consists of fresh observations is no more than what
we expect ; no more than the actual fact. Still, com-
pared with what has been done elsewhere, they are few
Whoever goes over the elaborate bibhographical work of
Ludwig may see this. He may see that the number of
languages for which there are few or no authorities later
than Hervas is inordinately large ; so large, as to con-
vince us that, whether by investigators on the spot or by
enterprizing travellers, the philology of South America
has been (as compared with that of other countries) greatly
neglected. He will see that, for all has been done in
recent times, the names of Spix and Martins, Prince
Maximilian of Neuwied, Castelnau, D'Orbigny, Sir
Robert Schomburgh, and Wallace (each in his own
special area), give a monopoly of authority. Where
these writers have either observed or collected, we have
a fairly-illustrated district. Elsewhere there is sad
barrenness.
The parts, then, where the most has been done, are
Brazil (a vast area), the Missions of Moxos and Chiquitos,
along with parts of Peru, British Guiana, and the parts to
the west of the Rio Negro ; more especially the valley of the
XJap^s. In New Grenada also, of the languages whereof
the information of the MithHdates is of the scantiest, we
have a fair mass of new details collected by the occupants
of the republic itself They are, however, from the fact
of their being chiefly published in Bogota, pre-eminently
480 LANGUAGES OF SOUTH AMERICA.
inaccessible. To the present writer at the present time,
the very existence of them is known almost wholly
through Ludwig's notices.
The parts for which our knowledge is most pre-
eminently stationary are, Venezuela, Peru, Chili, the
Argentine Kepublics, Paraguay, and Patagonia.
Again ; as the organization of the Missions is less
complete amongst the Portuguese than it is (or was)
amongst the Spanish populations of the New World, the
diiSerence between the amount of research bestowed upon
the aborigines of New Grenada, Peru, &c. and those of
Brazil, is considerable.
The details, then, of Portuguese America are more
unsatisfactory than those of Spanish. In those parts of
the continent which belong to England or Spain, or
which have been Dutch, the philology has been left to
accident — so that in respect to them we are in no
better position than we are with the languages of the
Hudson's Bay Territory and the English portion of
Oregon — a worse position than we are in with respect
to those of the United States ; where a partial investi-
gation has been undertaken by the Government. This
means that a list of words has been prepared which is
filled up as new languages present themselves ; a plan
which, whilst it stimulates and directs inquiry, makes
classification a simple matter of inspection.
The natural road from North to South America is by
the way of the Isthmus. At the same time the fact of
the West-India Islands forming a second chain of com-
munication must not be overlooked.
In the present chapter, the plan adopted in North
America will be followed, i. e. the languages to the
west of the Andes will be treated first. The great
block of land drained by the Orinoco, the Amazons,
and the Rio de la Plata will follow ; and Brazil will
come last.
THE CORREGUAGE AND ANDAQUI.
481
There are alSinities in both directions. The first line,
however, is the one which is most conveniently taken.
For New Grenada, but few vocabularies are known
to me — the Artes, «Sz;c., referred to by Ludwig, being
difficult of access.
Beginning with the parts to the south of the Choi
and Muysca (now called Chihcha) areas for which a
few words only are known to me, we come to the —
English.
Man
Correguage.
emuid
Andaqui.
Woman
dome
Head
Hair
sijope
dana
quinaji
Eye
nancoco
sifi
Ear
cajoroso
sunguajo
Nose
jiniquapui
quifi
Teeth
cojini
sicoga
Foot
coaj)i
soguapana
Heart
decocho
Tongue
sonae
Hand
sacaa
Shy
queneme
Sun
ense
caqui-kebin
Moon
paimia
mitae-kede
Star
manoco
fisona-ivine
River
siacha
jiji
Water
oco
Earth
choa
mijinae
Stone
cata,
Egg
cuejepi
guaso.
The title of the earliest grammar of the Peruvian is
Gramatica d arte general de la lengua de los Indios
del Peru ; nuevamente compuesto por el Maestor Fray
Domengo de San TJiomas de la order de Santa Domengo
en dichos reynos. The precise date of this is A.D. 1560.
In the Dictionary, however, bearing the same date, the
language is called the Lengua General de la Peru^
Llamada Quichua. The particular tribe with which
this term originated was that of the Quichua on the
Aymara frontier and conterminous with the Collas.
I I
482 THE QUIOHUA AND AYMARA.
Of the dialects, the most northern is the Quiteno
of Quito. Then follow, the Chinchasuya, between 11°
and 1 3° S. L. ; the Cauki of certain districts to the
south of Lima ; the Lamano of the parts about Truxillo ;
the Cuzcucano of Cuzco ; and, finally, the Calchaqui of
Tucuraan.
The A ymara area has its liistorical centre in the parts
about the Lake Titicaca, where the famous Peruvian
legislator, Mango Capac, first made his appearance.
The monuments of Tiaguanaco and Carangas belong
to it. So do those numerous tombs containing the
artificially flattened skulls upon which so much has
been written by ethnologists. According to Garcillasso
de la Vega it was the third Inca, Llogue Yupanqui,
who brought the Aymaras under the Quichua dominion.
They lie between 15° and 20° S. L., occupants of the
highest range of the Andes, on both sides. Some of
them belong to the drainage of the La Plata, being
found on the upper part of the Pilcomayo. This
brings tliem in contact with Chaco tribes ; whilst
in the direction of Bolivia they touch the Chiquitos.
As a general rule, however, they are surrounded by the
Quichua dialects, by which they have, to all ap-
pearance, being encroached on ; indeed, the capital
Cuzco, Quichuan as it is in many respects, is a town
upon Aymara ground. So is Potosi ; so also a great
portion of the Provinces of Tinto, Arequipa, La Paz,
and Chuquisaca, with considerable parts of Tarapaca
and Atacama.
The Mithridates names the Lupaca as the commonest,
and the Pacase as the most refined of the Aymara
dialects ; amongst wdiich are enumerated the Canchi, the
Cana, the CoUa, the CoUagua, the Caranca, and the
Charca ; this last being conterminous with the Guarani
Chiriguanos.
THE QUICHUA AND AYMARA.
483
EngUsb.
Quichua.
Aymara.
Araucanau.
Man {homo)
runa
hake
che
{vir)
ccari
huento
Woman
huarmi ,
Head
uma
pegke
lonco
Eye
nain
naira
nge
Ear
rinri
Nose
cenca
nasa
yu
Tongue
kallu
lagra
gehuun
Hair
chuccha
naccuta
lonco
Hand
maqui
arapara
cuugh
Foot
chaqui
cayu
na,Tnon
Sky
hananpacha
huenu
Earth
allpa
urakke
tue
Sun
inti
inti
antuigh
Moon
quilla
pagsi
cuyem
Fire
nina
nina
k'tal
Watei^
unu
huma
ko
yaeu
One
hue
mai
quigne
Two
ycay
paya
epu
Three
quinza
kimsa
cula.
Mainas. — The Paternoster.
Paparapoa ya-uranso inapaJce; apuri nen kema mucharinso-ni ; kema
inapa keyavei ; kema lovanturanso lelinso-ni mompuye inapaJce; napupon-
tinati isse-ke-nta ; cus-saru-mpoa taveri rosa nanni ketuke ipure ; huchampo-
anta anis nke mompupe campoanta aloyotupe saya-pita amsere campo-anta ;
CO apukesne tentacioneke co anotakeve ; ina-kera ateeke campu kera co loyave
pita.
The exact place of the Puquina of Hervas and the
Mithridates, as well as that of the Yunga (or) Mochika,
is uncertain ; all we have of them being a Paternoster
in each, which runs thus :—
Puquina.
Seniki, hanigo pacas cunana ascheno pomana upalli suhanta po capaca
aschano seilguta huachunta po hatano callacaso hanta kiguri hanigopa casna
ehe cahu cohuacasna hamp. Kaa gamenke ehe hesuma : Senguta camen sen
tanta sefi hochahe pampache sumao 'kiguiri sen, seiiguta huchachas keno
gata hampachanganch cagu : Ama ehe acrosumo huchaguta sen hotonava
enahata entonana keipina sumau.
Yunga (Mochika).
Muchef, acazloo cuzianqiiic ; Zunkoc licum apmucha ; Piican nof zungcu-
zias ; eyipmang zung polengnum mo uzicapuc cuzianguic mun ; Ayoineng
inengo much sollon piicam fiof alio molur ; Ef kecan nof ixlllis acan mux
efco, xUang museyo much ziomun ; Amus tocum nof xllamgmuse iz puzereric
namnum ; Lesnam efco ilof pissin kich.
I I 2
484
FUEGIAN.
Languages
of the P.
^mpas
3—
English.
Puelche.
Man
chia
Woman
yamcat
Head
cacaa
Cheek
yac alert
)
Eyes
yatitco
Ea/ra
jsipcjexl
e
Hand
yapaye
Sun
apiucuc
Moon
pioo
Fire
aquacak
e
Water
yagup
Mountain
atecq
From Tierra del Fue
go
English.
Alikhillip.
Man
ackinish
Head
ofchocka
Nose
nohl
Hair
ayu
Hand
yuccaba
Teeth
cauwash
Eye
telkh
Ear
teldil
Foot
cutliculcul
SJcy
accuba
Day
anoqual
Earth
barbe
Sun
lum
Moon
conakho
Star
conash
Fire
tettal
Water
chauash
One
towquiddow
Two
telkeow
Three
cupeb
English.
Puelche.
Bow
aeke
Arrow
quit
Young
yapelgue
Old
ictza
I, me
kia
He, she
sas
Give me
chutaca
Eat
akenec
Sleep
meplaumm
I will
kemo
1 will not
canoa.
Tekeenika.
oha
lukabe
cu shush
marpo
tuun
della
ufkhea
coeea
howucca
tann
lum
anoco
appernish
shamea
ocoale
combabe
mutta.
It is needless to state that the Fuegian has affinities
in one direction only ; and that, there, it is the point
of a pyramid.
YARURA, BETOI, AND OTOMAKA.
485
CHAPTER LXII.
Languages of the Orinoko, Rio Negro, and northern bank of Amazons. —
Yarura, &c. — Baniwa. — Juri. — Maipur. — Carib. — Salivi, — Warow. —
Taruma. — Iquito. — Mayoruna. — Peba. — Ticuna, &c.
We now move towards the head-waters of the Orinoko.
Furthest to the west and north He the Yarura, Betoi,
and Otomaka.
English.
Yarura.
Betoi.
Otomaka.
Man
pumme
umasoi
andua
Woman
ibi, ain
ro
ondua
Father
aya
babi
Mother
aini
mama
Head
pacchil
rosaca
Eye
joride
ufoniba
Nose
nappe
jusaca
Tongue
topono
ineca
Hair
keun
rubuca
Hand
icchi
rumcosi
Foot
tao
remoco
Day
do
munila
Sky
ande
tencucu
caga
Earth
dabu
dafibu
poga
Water
ui
ocudu
ia
Fire
conde
futu
nua
Sun
do
teo -umasoi
Moon
goppe
teo-ro
-
Beard
tambe
perega
One
caneame
edojojoi
Two
noeni
edoi
Three
tarani
ibutu
Word for word, Baniwa is, probably, Maniwa,
Maniva, Poignaviy and Guipoignavi of other writers
— especially does it seem to be, word for word, the
486 THE BANIWA, ETC.
G-uipoignavi of Humboldt. Now the Baniwa districts
are those through which runs the frontier between Brazil
and Venezuela. There are also those which give us the
point where the researches of Mr. Wallace from the
South, and of Humboldt from the North, respectively
terminated ; the former having moved upwards from the
Rio Negro, the latter downwards from the Orinoco.
Now as Humboldt names the language for the parts in
question Poignavi, giving two words of it, one of which
(oueni zz water) coincides with the ^lni and weni of
Wallace's Bmiivja, the identification under notice is
legitimate.
There are (at least) three dialects of the Baniwa,
eo nomine — the Baniwa of the river Isanna, the
Baniwa of the Tomo and Maroa rivers, and the Baniwa
of the Javita ; this last being spoken beyond the
boundary, i. e. in Venezuela.
The affinities between the five forms of speech
under notice appear to run just as Mr. Wallace
has arranged his specimens of them, i. e. Tariana,
Baniwa of the Isanna, Barree, Baniwa of the Tomo
and Maroa, and Baniwa of the Javita. Between
the extremes there is a considerable difference : a fact
which should lead us to reflect upon what would be our
opinion if, instead of being preserved, the intermediate
forms had been lost. This would depend, to a great
extent, upon the way in which these extremes were
represented ; it being certain that, if our specimens
represented those parts of the two forms of speech
which differed rather than those whicli agreed with
each other, we should pronounce them to be separate
Icinguages.
Baniwa (Toraa and
English.
Baniwa (Isanna).
Barree.
Baniwa (Javita).
Maroa).
Man
atchinali
henul
henume
catenemuni
Woman
inaru
ineitutii
neyau
thalinaferai
Boy
mapen
hantetchule
iilubevlil)
mathicoyou
Girl
niapeni
heineitutchi
neyauferium
mathicoyou
THE BANIWA, ETC.
481
Baniwa (Tonia and
English. Baniwa (Isanna).
Banee.
Baniwa (Javita).
Maroa).
Head
nhuhideu
nodusia
nobie
washio
Mouth
nonuma
nonuma
enoma
wanoma
Eye
nuiti
niiita
nofurli
waholisi
Nose
nitucii
niiti
nuyapeu
wasiwi
Teeth
. noyeihei
nahei
nasi
wathi
Belly
noshada
nodullah
paneni
wabnwiti
Arm
nozete
nodana
nanu
wacano
Hand
nucapi
niicabi
nappi
wacavi
Fingers
nucapi
nucabi heintibe napbibre
wacavitheani
Toes
rnihipa
nisi heintibe
geiut sisine
watsisiculoasi
Foot
nupepa
nisi
nuitsiphabe
watsisi
Bone
noapi
nabi
nopuina
warlaunku
Blood
nuira
niya
miasi
wathanuma
Sun
camiii
camu
namouri
Moon
keri
tbekhe
narhita
enoo
Star
iweri
wenadi
uiminari
Fire
tidge
cameni
arsi
cathi
Water
uni
uni
weni
weni.
The Ghimayios
is nearer to these than
to aught else.
English
Cliinianos.
English.
Chinaanos.
Head
nuhla
Sun
somanlu
Eye
nullata
Moon
uaniu
Nose
intshiuongeu
Earth
tocke
Mouth.
mima
Fire
oeje
Tongue nehna
Water
ubu
Tooth
nihi
One
apbuUa
Hand
gabi
Two
biagma
Foot
nou
Three
mabaagmamacke
The tlaenaTYiheu, or Himiming-Blrd Indians, lie
beyond the districts personally visited by Mr. Wallace,
i. e. on the Lower Japnra. He met, however, with
some of them on the Rio Negro, and obtained some
information concerning them, as well as a vocabulary of
their language. He connects them more especially with
the Coretu and the Juri. The point, however, of most
importance concerning this Uaenambeu vocabulary is the
fact of its representing the language of a group of tribes
already known to us — already known to us under the
name Mauh^.
The Coretu lie on the Apaporis, between the Uapes
and the Japura. The Tucano belong to the same rivers :
488
CORETU, ETC.
the Cobeu to the main stream of the Qap^s. The
G obeu, Tucano, and Coretu, are members of the same
class ; the exact value of it being uncertain. The
Cobeu bore their ears, and enlarge the hole until it will
take in a bottle-cork ; hereby illustrating our -remarks
on the word Orejones. The reason for writing Coretu
of Wallace lies in the fact of there being in Balbi
another Coretu vocabulary : which, with the exception
of one word {haie zz aoue zn sun) is not the language of
the vocabularies more especially under notice.
The Juri lie between the lea and the Japura, and
are called, also, Juripixunas = Black Juri, and Boca-
prietos =: Blackmouths from the custom of tattooing the
parts about the mouth in such a manner as to resemble
the black-mouthed squirrel- monkeys (Callithrix sciureus).
A portion of them has migrated to the Rio Negro, settled
there, and become more or less civilized.
English.
Uaenambeu.
Juri.
Coretu.
Man
achijari
tclioucu
ermeu
Woman
inaru
tchure
nomi
Boy
maishu
raiute
ingigu
Girl
maishu
nitemi
nomi amanga
Head
eribida
tchokireu
cuilri
Mouth
erinuma
tchoia
diishi
Eye
eridoe
tchoit
yealluh
Nose
nuetacu
youcoue
ergilli
Teeth
nuaei
tchatikou
gohpecu
Belly
nucutu
turaeh
tobtono
Arm
eribedo
tchoua
dicah
Hand
erikiapi
tclioupumau
muhu
Fingers
nucapi
tchoupei
muetsbu
Toes
nuipamena
tchoupomoru
giapa muetsbu
Foot
eriipa
tchouoti
giapa
Bone
nuapi
tchouino
gnueh
Blood .
nuiri
ecbonim
dii
San
camui
iye
auoue
Moon
cari
noimo
iamimiaga
Star
ibidji
ouca
omoari
Fire
itchipa
u
piulre
Water
una
coora
deco.
rhat neither Juri nor .
Juripixunas
are native names
will be seen in the sequel.
MAIPUR, ETC.
48
riie follow
mg is the Goretu of Balbi.
English.
Coictu.
English.
Core'u.
Eye
siroho
Foot
namaigo
Head
caixmeo
Sun
haie
Nose
liissapo
Moon
haio-pucku
Mouth
hiamolocko
Earth
gaira
Tongue
coahuro
Water
cootabu
Tooth
Hand
simaliapo
coholo
Fire
aegace.
The Baniwa of the Tomo and Maroa is more
especially Maipur ; that of the Isanna Carib ; whilst
that of the Javita leads, more especially towards the
languages of Ecuador. Meanwhile, it is generally
recognized that (whether the affinity be great or small)
there has always been one between the Maipur and the
Carib, en Tnasse.
English.
Maipur.
English.
Maiptir.
God
purruna-minari
River
ueni
Man
cajarrachini
LaJce
cavia
Woman
tinioclii
Mountain
japa
Shy
eno
Roch
chipa
Earth
peni
Tree
aa
Sun
chie
Head
nucliibucu
Moon
chejapi
Ear
nuachini
Star
urrupu
Eye
nupurichi
Bay
pecumi
Nose
nuchirri
Night
jatti
Mouth
nunumacu
Wind
chipucu
Tooth
nati
Cloud
tamana
Tongue
nuare
Rain
tia
Arm
nuaua
Fire
catti
Hand
nucapi
Water
ueni
Foot
nuchii.
The Achagua is ak
in to i
;his.
English.
Maipur
A-chagua.
/
nura or
cana
nuya
Thou
pia —
capi
qiya
He
ia —
he
piya
She
yyya —
cau
ruya
We
uaya —
cavi
quaya
Ye
nia —
caui
iya
They
nia —
cani
naya.
490
THE CARIB GROUP.
So is the Pareni. The next twenty vocabularies
belong to the great Garih group.
(In New Grenada.)
English
Guaque.
English.
Guaque.
Head
jutuye
Tongue
inico
Hair
jutuyari
Hand
ninare
Eye
emuni
Sun
vebi
Ear
janari
Moon
nuna
Nose
onari
Star
cbirique
Teeth
yeri
Fire
majoto
Foot
ijupuru
Earth
neno
Bone
yetije
Stone
jefu
Mouth
indare
^99
ismu.
(In Demerara and Venezuela
)
Eiiglisli.
Wapisiana
English.
Wapisiaua.
Head
uni'uai-aitana
Earth
emu
Eye
ungwawlien
Fire
tegberre
Nose
ungwiitippa
Water
tuna
Mouth
untaghu
Bow
sumara
Hand
ungwaipanna
Arrow
urregburi
Foot
unketewi
Dog
arimaragba
Sun
kamo
One
peiteieppa
Moon
keirrh
Two
tiattang
Star
weri
Three
itikineita.
English.
Waiyamera.
Guinau.
Maiongkong.
Woyawai.
Head
ipawa
intshebu
bobuba
igteburi
Eye
yenuru
nawisi
uyenuru
eoru
Nose
yonari
intshe
yoanari
younari
Mouth
tshuaduru
noma
andati
emdare
Hand
yanaroru
inkabe
yamutti
yamore
Foot
kiporu
intsbibe
obutu
borori
Sun
weyu
kamuhu
tsbi
kamu
Moon
numa
kewari
nuna
nuni
Star
serrika
yuwinti
yetika
serego
Earth
nono
kati
nono
roon
Fire
wata
tsheke
wato
wetta
Water
tuna
oni
tuni
knisbamina
Bow
urahaberaglia
tsbimar]
-tsbebi tsimare-buru klaffa
Arrow
parau
tsbimari
tsimarei
woiyu
Dog
okheri
kwashi
tsefete
tsawari
One
tuwine
pareita
toni
tioni
Two
asare
yamike
ake
asake
Three
ware
piampai
yam airtuaba
soroau.
THE CARIB GROUP.
491
English. Caribisi.
Accaway.
Macusi.
Ar6ciina.
Socrikong.
Head yububo
yubobo
pupei
opuwei
ipei
Eye yenuru
yenum
uyenu
yenuru
itaana
Nose yenetari
yen
uyeuna
uyeuna
akone
Mouth
yubotarri
hunta
undek
Hand yennan
yenarru
huyenya
uyena
omamiara
Foot pupu
yubobo
hupu
uta
itua
Sun wehu
weyeyu
web
wae
Moon nuno
nuno
kapoi
kapui
Star siriko
irema
siriko
serrika
Earth yoporo
ito
nung
nunk
Fire watto
watu
apo
apok
Water tuno
tuna
tuna
tuna
Bow htirapa
ureba
hurapi
a
urapa
Arroio purrewa
pulewa
parau
purrau
Dog keikutshi
piro
arimagha
arimaragha
One owe
tigina
tiwing
tanking
Ttoo oco
asakre
sakene
atsakane
Three orwa
osorwo
etseberauwani
eserewe
English,
Mawakwa.
Pianoghotto.
Tiverighotto.
Head
unkaua •
oputpa
Eye
ngnoso
yenei
oneama
Nose
ngndewa
yoanari
Mouth
ngnomiti
yefiri
opota
Hand
ngnkowa
yenari
Foot
ungeopa
putu
upti
Sun
kamu
weh
weh
Moon
kirsu
nuna
niano
Star
wishi
siriko
seriko
Earth
tsbimari
Fire
tsbikasi
matto
apoto
Water
wune
tuna
tuna
Bow
thseye
urapa
Arrow
kengye
purau
Dog
keikue
One
apaura
Two
woaraka
Three
tamarsi
English.
Atoria.
Daurai.
Head
unruai-eterna
wauunbarra
Eye
wawanumte
wauuni
Nose
wauuni
opebe
Mouth
otagh
lU
otagho
Hand
unkuai
okei
Foot
unkheti
okheti
Sun
kamoi
tamoi
Moon
keivrhe
kairra
492
THE CARIB GROUP.
English.
Atoria.
Daurai.
Star
watsieirhe
wonari
Earth
tari
dari
Fire
tegherre
tekeri
Water
tuna
onabo
B(m
parauri
parauri
Arrow
peiiri
werakure
Dog
teni
teni
One
peitaghpa
weitappa
Two
pauiteitegh
peitategh
Three
ipiketaub
hikeitaba.
English.
Tamanak.
Carib.
Jaoi.
Arawak.
Man {homo)
oquiri
lukku
{mr)
nuani chivacane yon
Woman
aica
biara
puti
apouitime
Head
prutpi
upupu
boppe
Eye
januru
enuru
voere
Ear
parani
pana
pannai
Nose
jonnari
enetali
hoenali
Tongue
nuru
nuru
Hair
cipoti
ubarrahu
Hand
janignari
amecu
ukkabuhu
Foot
ptari
ipupu
Shy
capu
cabo
capu
munti
kassaku
Earth
nono
nono
soye
wunnabu
Sun
wey
weyo
bR,(1dalli
Moon
nuno
nonna
Fire
wato
uapoto
elelulun
Water
tuna
wuniabu
One
ovin
aunik
tewyn
abba
Two
oco
wecu
tage
biarna
Three
ooroo
wua
terewaid kabbuin.
For these latter dialects our chief authority is Sir R.
Scliomburgh. The number of vocabularies as collected by
him during his expeditions into the interior, is eighteen,
none of which, he states, bear a closer affinity to each other
than the French and Italian. This statement, however,
is one which the present writer is not prepared to adopt.
Of these eighteen vocabularies, only one or two have
been published in extenso. From the report, however, of
the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
A.D. 1848, the foregoing short extracts have been taken.
WAROW, SALIVI, AND TARUMA.
493
(1.)
Euglisli.
Salivi.
En;ilish.
Salivi.
Shy
mumeseche
Eye
pacute
Sun
miimeseche cocco
Ear
aicupana
Moon
vexio
Nose
inam
Star
sipodi
Mouth
aaja
Earth
seche
Neck
uncua
Water
cagua
Arm
ichechee
Fire
equssa
Hand
immomo
Man
cocco
Finger
endecce
Woman
gnacu
Belly
teacce
Bird
gnendi
Heart
omagnaa
Fish
paji
Thigh
icooco
River
oclii
Knee
gnujui
Lake
iboopu *
Leg
injua
Tree
nonhue
Foot
caabapa.
(2.)
English.
Warow.
English.
Warow.
Man
nlbur4
Feet
miimu
Woman
tida
Blood
hotuh
Boy \
Girl ]
noboto
Sun
Moon
yah
wanehuh
Head
makwau
Star
keorah
Neck
mahaabey
Rain
naabaa
Eyes
maamu
Wind
ahaaka
Nose
mayhecaddy
Fire
ikkunuh
Mouth
maroho
Water
he
Hair
maaheo
Earth
hotah
Ear
mahohoko
Sky
nahaamtituh
Arms
mahaara
Hill
hotaquay
Hand
maamuhoo
Wood
daunah
Fingers
mamuhoo
Rock
hoeyu
Bone
muhu
Sand
kahemrah
Shin
mahoro
Island
bulohoh
Flesh
matumuh
One
hesacha
Bad
maalmh
Two
monatnu
Belly
mobunuh
Three
dianamu
Breast
maameyhu
Five
mahabass
Thighs
marolo
Ten
moreycooyt.
Leg
maahah
^•)
English.
Taruma.
English.
Taruma.
Head
atta
Hand
ahu
Eye
atzi
Foot
appa
Nose
assa
Sun
ouang
Mouth
merukukanna
Moon
piwa
49-fc
MURA.
English.
Taruma.
English.
Star
wingra
Arrow
Fire
hua
Dog
Water
tza
One
Earth
, toto
Two,
Bow
tzeika
Three
(4.)
English.
Muia.
Englisli.
Head
abbaih
Foot
Eye
gossa
Sun
Nose
jtauhaing
Moon
Mouth
abbassah
Earth
Tongue
abboa
Fire
Tooth
aithoa
Water
Hand
uhna
Taruma.
kupa
hi
oshe
tyuwa
ungkehah.
Mura.
cahaiiang
mettie
huaing
pae.
The next three lists from the occupancies bearing
the names at the head of the several columns, re-
present the dialects not of the Juri of Wallace (who
seem to be the true Juripixunas or Blackmouths) but
of the people who apply that name and in whose lan-
guage it is significant.
Engliah.
S. Pedro & Alnicida.
S. Pedi-0.
Alraei
Man
apiaba
apuava
Woman
ciinha
cunha
Head
acang
nhacang
Hair
aba
Java
ava
Eye
ceca
ceca
Ear
namby
namby
Mouth
juru
juru
Foot
py
iporong ava
Arm
jyba
juva
Hand
po
ipoha
Shy
ybake
yuvacca
Star
jacytata
cbacauma
Fire
tata
tata
Water
yge
yg
yg
Tree
ymyra
vuyra
House
oca
joca
Wind
ybutu
ynutu
evatu
Black
pixum^auna
sum
sun
One
oyepe
oyepenho
oyepe
Two
mocoi
moca
Three
mozapyr
mozapu
IQUITO, ETC.
4
The Iquito, akin to the preceding —
Englisli. Iquito.
English.
Iquito.
Man icouan
Ear
qiiiatoiim
Woman icouan
Hand
yanamaca
Head manaca
Foot
quiainoi
Eye panami
Sun
yanamia
Nose cachirica
Moon
cashi
Mouth kainga
Water
aqua.
Of the Xumano or Ghomano, I only
know the i
ving words.
Englisli. -■ Xumano.
Sun sima
Moon vueta
Star
vuete.
495
For the Mayoruna Castelnau has given two voca-
bularies, one representing the language of the converted,
the other that of the unconverted, tribes.
English.
Mayoruna (1).
Mayoruna (2)
Man
dara
dara
Woman
shirawa
tirahua
Head
moho
macho
Eye
bedo
Nose
delian
dizan
Mouth
ibi
ira
Ear
pabauan
pahiuran
Hand
macou
poro
Foot
tacu
tahi
Sun
bari
bari
Moon
oueu
houiji
Water
waca
houaca.
Mayoruna is a name which occurs in the Mithridates ;
the Mayoruna language being said to belong, with the
Barbudo, Iturale, and Musimo forms of speech, to the
Ui"arina class.
It is safe to say that the Peha, Yagua, and the Ore-
jones forms of speech are more closely connected with
each other than any of them is with anything else. The
exact amount of affinity is uncertain, though there can
436
PEBA, YAGUA, ETC.
be but little doubt that the tliree languages are mutually
unintelligible. The Aissuari, the Yurumagua, and the
Cahumari languages, mentioned in the Mithridates,
but not represented by any specimen, are likely to
have belonged to this class. It may easily, however,
be imagined that the distribution of unrepresented
languages over classes like those before us is doubtful.
What may probably have been Peba, or Urarina, may,
with nearly equal probability, have been Omagua,
Iquito, or aught else.
As Orejones means large-earedy it must be dealt with
as a common rather than a proper name. If so, it may
occur in more quarters than one ; i. e. whenever ears
are either naturally large or artificially enlarged along
with a language in a neighbourhood where orejo — ear.
The same applies not only to Barbudo, Encahellado,
(?) Zapara {Xeherro ?), and other names of European,
but to many of even American origin ; as may be seen
by paying attention to the manner in which (inter alia)
certain words ending in -mayo, and -agua, present
themselves at long distances from each other — these
words being Guarani.
English.
Oregones.
Peba.
Yagua.
Man
comai
comoley
huano
Woman
erigno
watoa
huatarunia
Head
huha
raina
firignio
Eye
oi
vinimichi
huirancai
Nose
hoho
vinerro
unirou
Mouth
huai
rito
huicama
Far
kinoleo
mitiwa
ontisini
Hand
onokui
vinitaily
huijanpana
Foot
etaiboi
vinimotay
moumoumatou
Sun
idoma
wana
ini
Moon
hiutsara
remelane
alemare
Water
ainoe
ain
haha.
Wherever the ticuna poison is used, with a popu-
lation in the neighbourhood which uses the name, Ticuna
Indians may be expected ; and any two groups of such
may be in any degree of relationship. One of Cas-
TICUNAS, ETC.
497
telnau's vocabularies gives us a language under this
name. It stands well apart from the ones that have
already been noticed ; but, as the samples are short, we
should remember that Hervas states that the Peba and
Ticuna (also called Xumano) are connected.
English.
Ticunas.
English.
Ticunas.
Man
iate
Ear
nachinai
Woman
niai
Hand
tapamai
Head
nahairou
Foot
nacoutai
Eye
nehaitai
Sun
iakai
Nose
naran
Moon
tahuaimaika
Mouth
naha
Water
aaoitchu.
Further south on the frontier of the Quichua we
have, from a longer list of Osculati's, the following
words for the Zapara.
English.
Zapara.
English.
Znpara.
Man
taucko
Sun
janockua
Head
anackaka
Star
naricka
Ear
taurike
Moon
cacikua
Eye
namisia
Fire
anamicukucia
Nose
mihucua
Water
muriccia
Tongue
ririccia
Tree
nackuna
Teeth
icare
Sand
hiocka
Mouth
atuapama
Bird
piscko
Beard
amu
Egg
ickuqua
Arm
curemasaca
Belly
raarama
Hand
hickoma
Foot
hinocka
Day
nuackate
Blood
nunacke.
Night
nignacka
To these parts belongs the following Paternoster of
the—
Yamea.
Neike alien arrescunia abecin ; termo atiahua renumucha hoe tanla ; habecia
nei-nin ; anto nein arresiuma hoe baceiada renua nanca naerra ino popo nin ;
mirle termo pahoinlama nei amiziara aintanei errama ; halayan nei nei huchanla
tirra nei holayan lobua remorezio-nei ; lara hiamnerra nei han hucha-nen ;
tiarre ala ninze harramale nei.
These languages belong to Ecuador ; soutli of which
is a great gap. Hence the next chapters begin on the
K K
498 ZAPARA, ETC.
eastern Andes at. the sources of the Beni and Mamore,
and (crossing the watershed) of the Vermeyo and Pilco-
mayo. The division of these into the languages of
(1.) the Missions, and (2.). the Chaco, is, more or less,
artificial ; as is the secondary division of the Missions
into those of {a) Moxos, and (6) Chiquitos. For the
Peruvian affinities of this class the Aymara, from its
being in situ, is more important than the Quichua.
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
499
CHAPTER LXIII.
The Moxos, Chiquitos, and Chaco Languages.
In the following list, the first language is in contact
with the Quichua and Aymara, with which it is, proba-
bly, more closely allied than the present classification
makes it. Here it is treated as transitional to the
Peruvian and the languages of the Missions.
English.
Yuracaies.
Man
sufie
Woman
yee
Bead
dala
Cheek
pune
Eyes
tanti
Ears
meye
Hand
bana
Sun
puine
Moon
subi
Fire
aima
Water
sama
Mountain
monono
The Sapiboconi has s
English.
Sapiboconi.
Mail (homo)
reanci
Woman
anu
Head
echuja
Eye
etuachuru
Nose
evi
Tmgue
eana
Hair
echau
Hand
erne
Foot
ebbachi
English.
Yuracarcs.
Bow
mumuta
Arrow
tomete
Young
sebebonte
Old
calasune
7, me
SB
He, she
lati
Give me
timbucke
Eat
tiai
Sleep
atesi
Twill
cusu
I mil not
nis cusu.
English.
Day
Sky
Earth
Moon
Fire
Water
One
Txoo
Three
Sapiboconi.
chine
euacuepana
mechi
bari
cuati
eubi
carata
mitia
curapa.
K K 2
500
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
0-)
Moxos Languages.
English.
Saraveca
1
English.
Saraveca.
Man
echeena
Bow
echote
Woman
acunechu
Arrow
maji
Head
noeve
Young
inipia
Cheek
nunaapa
Old
vuchijari
Eyes
nol
/, me
nato
Ears
nuniije
He, she
ecbeche
Hand
aniquaichi
drive me
ich a munazii
Sun
caame
Eat
inucha
Moon
cache
Sleep
itie meia
Fire
tikiai
I will
areaca nojajai
Water
une
I will not
maicha nojari.
Mountain
uti
English.
Cliapacura.
Ecglish.
Chapacura.
Man
kiritian
Bow
parami
Woman ■
yamake
Arroio
chininie
Head
upachi
!
Young
isohuem
CheeTc
urutarachi
Old '
itaracun
Eyes
tucuche
/, me
huaya
Ear
taitataichi
He, she
aricau
Hand
umichi
Give me
niiapache
Sun
huapirito
Eat
cahuara
Moon
panato
Sleep
huachia^
Fire
isse
I will
mosicbacum
Water
acum
I will not
masichacum.
Mountain
pecun
English.
Movima.
Cayuvav
a.
Man {home)
itlacua
jadsi
Woman
cucya
itorene
Head
bacuacu
a
abaracama
Eye
chora
iyocori
Nose
chini
ebarioho
Tongue
rulcua
ine
Hair
apotacame
Hand
chopa
arue
Foot
zoipoh
ahei
Day
ernes
iriarama
Sky
benra
idah
Earth
llacamb
11
idatu
Sun
mossi
itoco
Moon
ychcho
yrare
Fire
vee
idore
Water
tomi
ikita
One
pebbi
Two
bbera
Three
kimisa.
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
501
EngUsh.
Moxos.
English.
Moxos.
Man {homo)
acciane
Sky
anumo
Woman
eseno
Earth
moteji
Head
nuciuti
Sun
sacce
Eye
nuehi
Moon
coje
Ear
nicioca
Fire
une
Nose
nusuri
Water
jucu
Tongue
nunene
One
etona
Hand
nubu
Two
apina
Foot
nibope
Three
mopona.
Day
saccerei
English.
Itonama.
EngUsh.
Itonama.
Mail
umo
Bow
hualic/ikut
Woman
caneca
Arrow
chere
Bead
uchu
Young
tietie
Cheek
papapana
Old
viayachne
Eyes
icachi
I, me
achni
Ear
moc/itodo
He, she
oni
Hand
malaca
Give m£
macuno
Sun
apache
Eat
ape
Moon
tiacaca
Sleep
conejna
Fire
bari
I will
ichavaneve
Water
huanuve
I will not
huachichvaco
Mountain
iti
English.
Canichana.
English.
Canichana.
Ma7i
enacu
Bow
niescutop
Woman
ikegahui
Arrow
ichuhuera
Head
eucucu
Young
ecokelege
Cheek
eicokena
Old
enimai-a
Eyes
eutot
/, Trie
ojale
Ear
eucomete
He, she
enjale
Hand
eutijle
Give me
sichite
Sun
nicojli
Eat
alema
Moon
nimilacu
Sleep
agaja
Fire
nichucu
I will
huarehua
Water
nese
I will not
nolmacA.
Mountain
comee
English.
Pacaguara.
English.
Pacaguai-a.
Man
uni
Hand
mupata
Woman
yucha
Sun
vari
Head
mapo
Moon
ochQ
Cheek
tamo
Fire
chU
Eyes
huiro
Water
jene
Ear
paoki
Mountain
raachiva
502
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
English.
Pacaguwa.
English.
Pacaguara.
B(m
canati
Give me
ekiahue
Arrow
pia
Eat
hihue
Young
huakehue
Sleep
ocAahuan
Old
chaita
I will
akekia
/, me
ea
I will not
ojeamakea.
He, she
aa
Euglish.
It6n^s.
Enghsh.
Iteu^s.
Man
huataki
Bow
pari
Woman
tana
Arrow
kivo
Head
mahin
Young
iroco
Cheek
buca
Old
ucuti
Eyes
to
/, me
miti
Ear
iniri
He, she
comari
Hand
uru
Give me
huiti
Sun
mapito
Eat
caore
Moon
panevo
Sleep
upuiira
Fire
iche
I will
imere
Water
como
I will not
inimere.
Mountain
pico
(2
'■■)
Chiquitos J
Languages.
EngUsh.
Paioconeca.
English.
Paioconeca.
Man
uchanenuve
Bow
tibopo
Woman
esenunuve
Arrow
coriruco
Head
ipe
Young
umono
Cheek
ipiki
Old
ectia
Eyes
ihuikis
/, r/ie
neti
Ear
isenoke
He, she
piti
Hand
iruake
Give me
pipanira
Sun
isese
Eat
ninico
Moon
kejere
SUep
pimoco
Fire
chaki
I will
nikenino
Water
ina
I will not
isini kinovo
Mountain
• iyepe
English.
Chiquito.
Zamucu
Man (homo)
noneis
nani
Womxin
pais
cheke
Head
taanis
yatoitae
Eye
sutos
yede
Ear
umapus
Nose
ifias
yucunachu
Tongue
otus
Hair
taanis
Hand
ees
yuman?
ii
THE MISSIONS AND THE OHACO.
503
English.
Chiquito
Zamucu
Foot
popez
irie
Day
anenez
dire
Shy
apez
gnieate
Earth
quiis
nup
numi
&u,n
suus
guiedde
Mom
paas
hetoxei
Fire
tuus
yot
Water
peez
pioc
One
chomara
Two
gar
Three
gadioc.
English.
Otuke.
English.
Otuk6.
Man
vuani
Bow
revica
Woman
vuaneti
Arrow
tehua
Head
ikitao
Young
ichaoro
ClieeTc
irenara
Old
eadi
Eyes
ichaa
T, me
iki cliaocho
Ear
ichaparara
He, she
iki chaano
Hand
seni
Give me
iyura
Sun
neri
Eat
oaketa
Moon
ari
Sleep
anutake
Fire
rera
I will
wia sike
Water
uru
I will not
oraebiescate
Mountain
batari
In 1831 the number of the Cayuvava was 2073, all
of whom were Christians of the Mission of Exaltacion.
Their original locality lay about 12° S. L. where they
were conterminous with the Movima, and Itenes.
In 1830, the number of the Movima was 1288, all
of whom were Christians in the Mission of Santa Anna.
Their original locality was about 14° S. L. where they
were conterminous with (inter alios) the Cayuvava and
the Moxos.
In 1830, the number of the Itonama was, at
The Mission of Magdalena . . . .2831
San Kamon . . . .1984
Total . . .4815
All Christian.
At the junction of the Itenes. with the Mamor^, the
504 THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
Itenh language is spoken by 1000, or 1200 individuals,
whose name (Itdnes or Ite) is native.
Chiquitos is no native, but a Spanish name ; the name
which the chief divisions of the group give themselves
being J^agiunaneis — men. It is from them that the
Mission of Chiquitos takes its name, in the centre of
which the Chiquito Troiper is spoken by some 14,000
souls. The language is important now, and was im-
portant originally. At the present time it serves as a
sort of Lingua Franca, being the form of speech which
numerous other tribes who, without learning Spanish
have unlearned their own language, have adopted. It was
important in the time of Hervas, when it fell into two
dialects, three older ones having previously become ex-
tinct, or nearly so. Of these one was the Manaz ; the
tribes that spoke it being —
The Manzica The Quimomoca
— Yuracareca — Tapacuraca
— Sibacca ■ — Yirituca.
— Cuzica
The existing dialect of the Tao is spoken by —
The Tao The Peguica
• — Boro — Bocca
— Tabiica — Tubaciaca
— Taiiepica — Aruporeca.
— Xuhereca
and part of the Piococo — the Pinoco being the language
of
The Pinoco Proper The Poxisoco
— Quimeca — Motaquica
— Guapaca — Zamaquica
— - Quitaxica — Taumtoca
and part of the Piococo.
The termination -ca is specially stated to be a Chi-
quito plural. It does not, however, follow that every
tribe bearing it was Chiquito. All that is actually
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
505
needful to account for the term is a Chiquito neighbour-
hood in which the name may have originated.
Of the tribes that speak the language known by the
general name of Zamucu, or Sarnitcu (this particular
form of speech being only one out of several) some are
settled in the Missions of San Giovanni, San lago de
Chiquiti, and San Ignacio, while some run wild in the
more impracticable districts of the forest country around
them — conterminous in some part, at least, of their
fi'ontier with the Chiriguanos. Hervas gives us three
main dialects.
1. The Zamucu, in the limited sense of the term,
spoken by the Zamucu Proper, the Satienos, and per-
haps, the Ugarafios — the testimony as to these last
being doubtful ; since, according to some, they have a
peculiar language of their own.
2. The dialects of the Caipotocado, Tunachas, Imo-
mos, and Timinahas.
3. The Morotoco of the Morotocos Proper, the
Tamoenos, the Cucurates, or Cucutades, the Panonos, and
(perhaps) the Careras and the Ororebates.
Such is the list of Hervas of the Zamucu tribes as they
stood in his time. The names that I find in D'Orbigny
are Zamucu, Morotoco, Potarero, and Guaraneco.
(3.)
Chaco
Languages.
English.
Matagiiaya.
English,
Mataguaya
Man
inoon
Bow
luchang
Woman
kiteis
Arrow
lotec
Head
litec
Young
magse
Eyes
notelo
Old
chiut
Ears
nokeote
/, me
yam
Band
noquec
He, she
atachi
Sun
ijuaba
Give me
maletuec
Moon
guela
Eat
tec
Fire
itag
Sleep
nobina
Water
guag
I will not
ykite.
Mountain
lesug
506
THE MISSIONS AND THE CHACO.
Toha Paternoster.
Co-taa adoonatil keda piguem ;
Yaliateton adenagati ;
Llaca-anac comi abogot ;
Contidi-neco ked^ piguem nacaeno ena alua ;
Canadena cadimeza naax sinaax ocom uadom
Caditca mantiguema aditi-ogoden emeke comi scaiiema sitiogodenax
Tacame catino
Calac sanem comi.
EngUsh.
Mbaya.
Abiponian.
Mbokobi.
Vilela.
Lule.
Man (Aomo)uneleigua
joale
yoale
nitemoi
pele
{mr)
cualegzac
quima
cumueptito
Woman
igualo
aalo
kisle
vacae
canelma
coenac
lucueptito
Head
naguilo
napanik
icaic
niscone
tocco
Eye
nigecogee
natoele
nicote
toque
zu
Ear
napagate
[gat
maslup
cusp
Nose
nionigo
ncaatagan-
yimic
limic
nus
Tongue
nogueligi
lagra
lekip
lequi
Hair
na,modi
neetequic
naccuta
caplhe
Hand
nibaagadi
napakena
napoguena
isip
is
ycaelgrat
Foot
nogonagi
capiate
ape
elu
Shy
ytitipigime
ipigem
ipiguem
laue
cbajenk
EaHh
basle
a
Sun
alilega
grabaulai
daazoa
olo
ini
Moon
epenai
grauek
chidaigo
copi
alit
Fire
nuledi
nkaatek
anodek
nie
icue
Water
niogodi
enarap
ebagyac
ma
to
One
uninitegui
iniateda
yaguit
alapea
Two
itoata
inabaca
uke
tamop
Three
dagani
iiiabacacaocaini
nipeiuei
tamlip.
Of the Chaco languages, the Mataguaya is the most
akin to the Chiquitos ; the Vilela and Lule to the
Aymara.
THE GUARANI, ETC. 507
CHAPTER LXIV.
Languages of Brazil, — Guarani. — Other than Guarani.- -Botocudo, &c. — Lan-
guages neither Guarani nor Botocudo. — The Timbiras. — The Sabuja, &c.
The Lingua Geral, or current Indian of the Empire, is
Guarani ; a language which is not only spoken by many
Portuguese, but one for which several native tribes of
comparatively small importance have exchanged their
own. Little, however, will be said about the Guarani,
the general phenomena, connected with its remarkable
distribution being commonly known. A form of speech
akin to it is spoken on, or even within, the frontier of
Ecuador ; whilst others are spoken on the Rio Negro,
on the lower Amazons, along the coast of the Pacific
as far as the neighbourhood of Monte Video, in Para-
guay, and by the Chiriguanos and Sirionos on the
frontier of Peru. That the tribes which use this tongue
are numerous we readily believe : nor are there wanting
long lists of them. The present writer has collected
more than forty. The statement, however, that
such and such populations speak the same language is
one thing ; an actual specimen of the language itself,
eo nomine^ is another. This is often wanting, or, at
any rate, the specimen is a short one. Yet it may consist
of only a single word and still have its value. The
chief Guarani languages are —
1 . The Omagua.
2, 3, 4. The Tupi, Tupinambi, and Tupinaquin.
5. The Guarani Proper of Paraguay and the South-
west.
508
THE GUARANI, ETC.
6. The Chiriguano of the South-west on and within
the frontier of Peru.
English.
Guarani.
Tupi.
Man (homo).
aba
aba
— {vir)
me
Woman
cugna
cunha
Head
acang
acanga
Eye
tesa
teca
Ear
namby
Nose
te, tu, hu
un
Tongue
cu
apecu
Hair
og
oca
Hand
po
pu
Foot
pi
pi
Day
ara
ara
Sky
ibag
ibaca
EaHh
ibi
ibi
Sun
quarassi
coaracy
Moon
yasi
iacy
Fire
tata
•
tata
Water
i
i.
English.
Omagua.
English.
Omagua.
Man (homo)
ava
Sky
ehuatemai ritama
(vir)
mena
Earth
tujuca
Woman
huaina
Sun
huarassi
Head
yacae
Moon
yase
Eye
ssissa zaicama
Fire
tata
Ear
nami
Water
uni
Nose
ti
One
uyepe
Tongue
cumuera
Two
raucuica
Hand
pua
Three
iruaca.
Foot
pueta
East of the Murus on the Madera, extending east-
wards still in the direction of the Tapajoz, lie the
Mundrucus.
English.
Mundrucu.
English.
Mimdrucu.
Sye
ueta
Foot
worcanaputa
Head
ija
Sun
uashi
Nose
heinampo
Moon
uashiat
Mouth
woropi
Earth
ipu
Tongue
waico
Water
hu
Tooth
worno
Fire
tasha.
Hand
woipo
BRAZILIAN LANGUAGES.
509
I connect the Mura with the Mundrucu, notwith-
standing its place in a previous chapter. I also make
them both Guarani (raising the value of the class) —
but Guarani with Carib affinities. The following voca-
bularies from Castelnau, evidently, represent languages
of the great Guarani class ; though their exact place in
it is uncertain.
English.
Apiaca.
Cayowa.
Man
couimahe
awa
Woman
cogna
coniah
Head
ai-acana
siakan
Hair
ai-ava
siawou
Eye
ai-re-coara
chercisa
Nose
a-si-gna
chanl
Tooth
ai-ragna
ioway
Tongue
ai-cona
iocalike
Ear
ai-nembia
Hand
ai-pore
Foot
arpia
Sun
quara-ou
Moon
jahi
yaseu
Star
yotete
Fire
tatan
tata
Water
equat-daramau
To the Botocudo class belong (] .) the Botocudo
Proper, spoken between 18" and 20" S. L. (2.) The
Jupuroca, spoken on the Mucury near the town of
Caravellas, apparently, but not necessarily, falling into
six sub- divisions. Such at least is the inference from
the statement that the names of the heads of the
several Jupuroca chiefs are (1.) Guiparoca, (2.) Potica,
(3.) Tupi, (4.) Mechmech, (5.) Megwi Megu, (6.) Uroue.
(3.) ? Mucury.
(1.)
English. Botocudo. Jupuroca. Mucury.
Man onaba
Woman jokounang
kgipack
kerang
Brother
Hair
Head
giaecana
euqiiijacca
carenqiieti
enelem
510
BOTOCUDO CLASS.
English.
Botocudo.
Jupuroca
Mucury.
Eye
ketom
equitongh
Ear
uniaknom
gioni
Tooth
kiiomir
Beard
giakiiot
Blood
comtjaack
Hand
po
impo
imp6
Foot
po
impo
imp6
Bone
kiock
Belly
conang
Moon
concang-eion
caratuti
New
etran-him
Star
more
Fire
ghompeck
giompequi
jampec
Water
magnar
ninhanga
Tree
tachoou
^gg
bacan-nigcon
Fish
impock
eimpoca
ep
Devil
lantchong
lanchou
One
mekenum
(2.)
English.
Naknanuk.
English.
Naknanuk.
Head
kraine
Tooth
kiijounne
Nose
kujink
Hand (foot)
po.
About the languages of the next class little is said in
the Mithridates ; more in the Travels of Spix and Mar-
tins, and of Prince Maximilian of Neuwied. Balbi throws
them all into a single group, which he calls the Macha-
cari-Camacan. The area of this group is conterminous
with that of the Botocudos ; whilst the author from
whom these vocabularies are taken, commits himself to
the statement that the Machakali bears a decided
similarity to the Botocudo, having both a guttural and
a nasal pronunciation. At any rate the Rio Mucury is
occupied by both the Proper Mucury tribes and the
Machakali, or Machakaris ; though the present writer,
who, without hesitation, treats the Machacari-Camacan
of Balbi and the Botocudo as separate sections of the
same group, considers that the nearest congeners to the
Botocudo are the Mongoyos and Malali.
BOTOCUDO CLASS.
511
0.)
English.
Mongoyos.
God
Man
hoiema
Woman
Head
hero
Hair
ke
Eye
kedo
Ear
nikobko
Hand
ninkre
Arm
nikhona
Foot
Beard
nikhran
Blood
kedio
Sun
hoiseu
Fire
diakhkeo
Water
sa
River
Tree
hanoufe
Egg
White
hoai
Blach
khokada
Fish
hona
Macoui.
Machakali.
amieto, toupa
toupa
atempeep
idijun
aiento
abation
etation
epotoi
endaen, acu
idcai
idcai
impeoi
aimke
aquitktain
agnim
niponoi
ingpata
idapata
aquedhum
inken
kechiniong
abcaai
coen
cbechan
counaan
counaana
idakeng
abooi
abaai
amnietim
nipitim
crebran
imraetan taranou
tapagnon
maau
(2.)
English.
God
Man
Woman
Head
Hair
Eye
Ear
Hand
Arm
Beard
Blood
Swn
Fire
Water
Tree
Egg
White
Black
Fish
Patacho.
Camacan.
nimissoum
monactiin
cahe-
achoun
totsa
inro
epotoi
ining^
angona
inglento
incoca
incrou
aguipeaton
igihia
loghe
eughem
iso
mayon
chiou
— : —
jaron
sin
mawmipticau
he
petitieng
hai
tomeningna
micai
512
BOTOCUDO CLASS.
English.
Menieng.
Malali.
Head
inro
akeu
Eye
imgutu
keto
Nose
incMvo
aseie
Mouth
iniatago
aietoco
Tongue
gnocgno
Tooth
io
aio
Hand
iniru
aiimke
Foot
apao
Sun
chioii
hapem
Earth
e
am
Fire
iaru
couia
Water
sin
keche.
Of the languages neither Guarani nor Botocudo, I
begin with those on the drainage of the Tocantins.
English.
Timbirap.
English.
Tirahiras.
Head
jora
Sun
puttu
Eye
intho
Moon
putturagh
Nose
ingniakra
Earth
pia
Mouth
sharicoa
Fire
cochto
Tongue
ingnoto
Water
CO
Tooth
itzoa
One
itaputshitti
Hand
ingniucrahy
Two
ipiacruttu
Foot
babalnecrahuk
Three
ingere.
English.
Ge.
English.
Ge.
Head
grangbla
Sun
chughera
Eye *
alepuh
Moon
paang
Nose
aenocopioh
Earth
chgku
Mouth
aingco
Fire
ping
Tongue
aenetta
Water
aeco
Tooth
aijante
One
gumtung
Hand
senaenong
Two
uaeu
Foot
aepahno
Three
balipe.
English.
Caraja.
Apinages.
Man
abou
iprie
WomoM
awkeu
iprom
Head
woara
Hair
woara-day
Eye
wa-a-rouwai
Tooth
wa-a-djou
Tongue
wa-darato
Hand
wa-debo
Foot
wa-av
ra
TOCANTINS LANGUAGES.
513
V
English
Cai-Hja
Apinages.
Water
beai
piacom
Fire
eatou
COUCOIIDOU
Sun
bure
Moon
burua.
English.
Tocautins.
Caraho.
Chereiite.
Chavante.
Man
papay
ambeu
ambei
Woman
mentija
meca-ouare picon
picon
Head
iscran
icran
dicran
dicran
Hair
itki
ikei
Eye
into
datoi
datoi
Nose
danescri
danescri
Tooth
ninhlou
itchoua
daguoi
dagnoi
Tongue
gnoto
ioto
Hand
gnoucra
danicra
dai-iperai
Foot
it-pari
dapra
dapra-canou
Water
inko
ko
Fire
couvou
congeu
congeu
San
kathoa
put
biuden
Moon
budouvrou
oua
oua.
English.
Chuntaquiro.
English.
Chuntaquiro.
Eye
weari
Sun
katchi
Nose
weiri
Moon
ceri
Tooth
weii
Star
catahiri
Foot
waiti
Water
una.
Spoken in Bahia.
EngUsh.
Kiriri.
Sabuyah.
Head
tzambu
zabiik
Eye
po
poh
Nose
nembi
nabitzeh
Mouth
waridga
oriseh
Tongue
nunu
nunu
Tooth
dza
zah
Hand
mysa-buanghe
mussoh
Foot
by
puih
Sun
uche
utsheh
Moon
cayacu
gayacu
Day
cayapri
Earth
rada
rattah
Fire
isujiuw
essu
Water
dzu
tzoh
One
bihe
Two
wachana
Three
wachanidikie
L L
14
PURUS, ETC.
Spoken
in Rio Janeiro and Minas Geraes.
English,
Purus.
Coroato.
Coropo.
Head
n'gue
gue
pitao
Eye
miri
mere
ualim
Nose
nhe
nlie
sMrong
Mouth
jora
tshore
tshore
Tongue
tope
tompe
tupe
Tooth
dje
tshe
shorim
Hand
core
tshopre
tshambrim
Foot
jupre
kakora
tshambrim
Sun
ope
hope
nasceun
Moon
petara
petahra
nashe
Day
bricca
Earth
aje
uasche
hame
Fire
pote
pohe
ke
Water
nliama
nhaman
teign
One
omi
scombriuan
nam
Ttvo
curiri
tshiri
gringrim
Three
prica
patapakon
pateliackon(?)
Spoken in Matagrosso and in the direction of the
Chaco.
English.
Guana.
English.
Guana.
Man
tabanan
Ear
guiaibaino
Woman
zeeno
Hand
no
Head
kom baipoi
Foot
djabawai
Hair
dooti
Swi
kathai
Eye
onguei
Mom
kobaivai
Nose
agueiri
Star
ickerai
Tooth
onbai
Water
bouna.
Tongue
nabainai
English.
Guato.
English.
Guato.
Man
matai
Tongue
cbagi
Woman
monnagai
Ear ■
mavi
Head
dokeu
Hand
ida
Hair
maeu
Foot
apoo
Eye
marei
Fire
mata
Nose
taga
Water
maquen.
Tooth
maqua
English.
Guachi,
English.
Guacbi.
Man
cbacup
Hair
ioatriz
Woman
outie
Eye
iataya
Head
iotapa
Nose
ianote
PAYAGl
[JA, ETC.
English.
Guachi.
1 English.
Guachi.
Tooth
iava
1 Sun
oes
Tongue
iteche
1 Moon
oalete
Ear
irtanmete
Star
aate
Hand
iolaimason
Water
euak.
Foot
iacalep
English,
Bororo.
English.
Bororo.
Eye
itai
Sun
cuerou
Nose
kinamalo
Moon
ari
Mouth
noiri
Star
ikai
Tooth
ita
Fire
tola
Hand
chetara
Water
ikotowai
Foot
igoulai
English.
Payagua.
English.
Payagua.
Ood
haasum
Leg
yehega
Father
iralgwah
Water
waaae
Brother
yaguwah
Bread
asyah
Child
ddawat
Bow
s(iu
Mother
yosawsah
Truth
sahc
Wife
elmhirah
Pretty
laaa
Sister
yagubira
Ugly
thlak
Face
igwetshogra
One
petshaah
Hand
sumahyah
Two
serac^
Foot
sewti
Fmr
pegas.
Finger
igutsan
515
The Guanans of Martius live between the Paraguay
and the Sierra de Chainez and are stated to be related
to the Cahans, Coahunas, or Men of the Wood, whom
the Guacurus call Cayubabas. To this add that the
Guana vocabulary of Castelnau is given by Ludwig
to these same Guanans. If so, we may compare it
to the Cayubaba, or Cayuvava, of the mission of
Moxos. Doing this we shall find that the resemblance
is of the slightest, consisting chiefly (perhaps wholly) in
that between
English.
Tongue
Guana,
na-hanai
Cayubaha.
ine
But Avhat if there are two Cayubabas ?
L L 2
518 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES
on a mere cursory and superficial inspection. The Es-
kimo is a definite class, with its maximum of difierence
on the side of the Atlantic. The Athabaskan is also a
definite class when compared with the Algonkin, which
underlies it when we pass the Eocky Mountains. On
the side, however, of the Pacific, the phenomena of
transition present themselves. The Kenay was not
generally recognized as Athabaskan, until compared with
the Loucheux ; and, as long as the Kenay was unfixed,
the Ugalents and its congeners were unfixed also. As
it is, they form a definite sub-class, with Eskimo affini-
ties on one hand, and Atna afiinities on the other ; the
Kolush being truly transitional. The Chesmesyan, the
Hailtsa, the Wakash, and the Chinuk, are connected
through their miscellaneous affinities, and are all
characterized by their harsh phonesis. The Jakon and
Kalapuya lead to the languages of the Sahaptin and
Shoshoni phonesis — among the congeners of which the
sound of tl appears and reappears. In the Mexican,
this becomes prominent ; and in the Maya, to say the
least, has no inordinate prominence.
Between the Rooky Mountains and the Pacific, the
Algonkin, with its intrusive character and wide diffusion,
has done so much in the way of the displacement and
obliteration of such forms of speech as may have shown
signs of transition that it is the best-marked class on
the continent. Its spread, however, appears to have
been from west to east, and the result of it has told most
on the fragmentary and isolated languages of the Iroquois
family, which it has affected in the way that the Turk
and Russian have aflfected the Ugrian. In its ordinal value,
it is, apparently, higher than the Turk, the Mongol, or
the Tungus ; lower than the Fin. Taking it along with
the Athabaskan and its congeners as far as American
Oregon, and with the Eskimo, it probably forms a class
to which the Iroquois, the Sioux, the Catawba, the Uche
(with its congeners), and (perhaps) the Caddo, form a
THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 517
CHAPTER LXV.
General Remarks on the American Languages.
The primary division is that between North and South
America ; the difference between them being partly
real and partly what may be called subjective. It is
real, because the Isthmus of Darien is a narrow neck of
land, and the points of contact between the two penin-
sulas are few ; nor are they notably increased by taking
in the West-Indian Islands as a second passage.
It is subjective (by which I mean that it is referable
to our want of knowledge) through the scantiness of
our materials for Nicaragua, Costarica, Honduras, and
St. Salvador on the one side, and for New Grenada on
the other. There is, then, a true want or deficiency
of investigation, and there is, also, the fact of the
displacement and obliteration of the native tongues
having been great. Nevertheless, the coincidences be-
tween the two classes are numerous.
In North America the connection with Asia is de-
cided. Through the Aleutian dialect of the Eskimo,
and the Kamtshatkan, it is direct. Through the Yuka-
hiri and other tongues it is indirect. That this affinity
was concealed so long as we took the Eskimo in the At-
lantic portion of its area, and compared, or contrasted,
it with the Algonkin — itself on its Atlantic side also —
has already been stated ; and it may be added that, even
on the side of the Pacific, it is, by no means, apparent
518 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES
on a mere cursory and superficial inspection. The Es-
kimo is a definite class, with its maximum of difference
on the side of the Atlantic. The Athabaskan is also a
definite class when compared with the Algonkin, which
imderlies it when we pass the Rocky Mountains. On
the side, however, of the Pacific, the phenomena of
transition present themselves. The Kenay was not
generally recognized as Athabaskan, until compared with
the Loucheux ; and, as long as the Kenay was unfixed,
the Ugalents and its congeners were unfixed also. As
it is, they form a definite sub-class, with Eskimo affini-
ties on one hand, and Atna affinities on the other ; the
Kolush being truly transitional. The Chesmesyan, the
Hailtsa, the Wakash, and the Chinuk, are connected
through their miscellaneous affinities, and are all
characterized by their harsh phonesis. The Jakon and
Kalapuya lead to the languages of the Sahaptin and
Shoshoni phonesis — among the congeners of which the
sound of tl appears and reappears. In the Mexican,
this becomes prominent ; and in the Maya, to say the
least, has no inordinate prominence.
Between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, the
Algonkin, with its intrusive character and wide diffusion,
has done so much in the way of the displacement and
obliteration of such forms of speech as may have shown
signs of transition that it is the best-marked class on
the continent. Its spread, however, appears to have
been from west to east, and the result of it has told most
on the fragmentary and isolated languages of the Iroquois
family, which it has affected in the way that the Turk
and Russian have affected the TJgrian. In its ordinal value,
it is, apparently, higher than the Turk, the Mongol, or
the Tungus ; lower than the Fin. Taking it along with
the Athabaskan and its congeners as far as American
Oregon, and with the Eskimo, it probably forms a class
to which the Iroquois, the Sioux, the Catawba, the Uche
(with its congeners), and (perhaps) the Caddo, form a
m GENERAL. 519
co-ordinate. At any rate, the Athabaskan and Algon-
kin, the Sioux and Iroquois, belong to the same class
with one another, and to different ones when compared
in mass — whatever the value of those classes may be.
The South Oregon languages graduate into the Cali-
fornian, and the Californian into those of the Paduca
class and those of Sonora ; until we come to the two
great divisions of the Mexican and Maya ; the former
of the greater historical importance, the latter important
from the multiplicity of its dialects — dialects which
simulate separate substantive languages.
The Moqui, a Pueblo language, has decided Paduca
affinities.
If the Attakapa seem to be pre-eminently isolated, the
vast displacements which have occurred all around may
account for it. It has, for an American language, a
monosyllabic look. So has the Otomi, which has been
compared with the Chinese. So have some of the
Athabaskan tongues. So have some of the Algonkin, in
certain vocabularies ; their congeners, meanwhile, being
as polysyllabic as the American languages in general.
This leads to the consideration of certain doctrines con-
cerning what is called the general grammatical structure
of the languages of the New Woiid ; in which, we are
told, that they all agree in grammatical, though differing
in glossarial, detail. The term expressive of this general
character is jpoly synthetic. What is its import ?
It is a fact that in an American sentence the term
denoting the object coalesces with the verb ; so that,
while a Roman delivered the equivalent to I call in the
single word voco, the American can, in a single word,
say I call him, her, or therrij as the case may be.
It is also a fact that there are certain very long
words expressive of what in Europe is expressed by
short ones, and that out of these long words compounds
may be made which are no longer than either of the
single elements. This looks as if each were picked
520 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES
to pieces, and a part alone taken. There is something
in each (ct fortiori in both) of these processes which
bears out the term polysynthetic. Valeat quantum.
The former process is quite as European as American,
and is, to a certain extent, a piece of printer's philology.
In catch ^em, in je Vaime, &c., there is a true incorpo-
ration of the objective pronoun with the verb : which,
in the Norse, Lithuanic, and other languages, has given
us a passive voice developed out of a middle, itself deve-
loped out of the amalgamation of the verb with the
pronoun. In the Magyar this incorporation has com-
manded no little attention.
In respect to the other phenomenon — the phenomenon
of a composition with a decomposition to precede it —
it would be important if proven. The fact, however, of
the decomposition is more than doubtful. It is not out
of the full-formed pair of primary compounds that the
secondary compound is made, but out of the original
parts which existed while they — the apparent primary
compounds — were merely compounds in iDosse.
Another fact which suggests the term is the incor-
poration of the personal pronoun with the names of cer-
tain parts of the body, as shown in the difficulty there
is in getting an American to say eye or head^ &c. purely
and simply. He always says my-eye, your-head, or
something of the kind.* But this is Papuan, not to
say Kurd and Gipsy, as well.
The same criticism applies to the inclusive and ex-
clusive plurals ; which are, by no means, American : nor
even Asiatic, The Spanish nosotros has already been
alluded to.
Still there is polysyntheticism to a certain degree —
though much of it is of the grammarian's making. Ex-
isting, however, as it does, it may occur in every degree.
* This may be seen in almost any one of the vocabularies, wherein the most
cursory inspection tells us that the parts of the human body nearly always
begin with either the same syllable or the same letter.
IN GENERAL. 521
Where the amalgamation is perfect we have such voca-
bularies as the Iroquois and such paternosters as the
Tarasca. Where it is incomplete we have the show of
a monosyllabic language.
The doctrine, then, that the diiferences in grammatical
structure are differences of degree rather than of kind,
and that there is nothing in one language which, either
as a fragment or a rudiment, is not to be found in
another, is contravened by nothing from America.
The languages to which those of America are the nearest
equivalents in the way of development are, by no means,
their nearest congeners in the way of actual affinity.
These are the languages of the Papuan and Australian
areas ; and, to a certain extent, those of Polynesia. The
limited numeration and the concrete view of plurality
are points in which they have a decided likeness ; and
it is scarcely necessary to add that the culture of the two
families is on a like low level.
In North America the phenomena in the way of dis-
tribution and difiusion which presented themselves in
Asia re-appear ; and in South, there is a re-appearance
of the phenomena of North, America. Small areas
with a multiplicity of mutually unintelligible forms of
speech stand in strong contrast to large ones with a
minimum of dialectual difference. What the Atha-
baskan and the Algonkin are in the one peninsula, the
Quichua, the Carib, and, above all, the Guarani, are in the
other. From the want, however, of details, the direction
of the several movements by which they spread is, for
the most part, undetermined.
With any South American vocabulary of adequate
length, some North American root presents itself — some,
indeed, from the extreme north, e. g. the Eskimo area.
Now, as borrowing is out of the question (whilst the
words are not of the sort to be independently excogi-
tated by distant speakers), this, along with the phe-
nomena of transition, is the chief philological argument
522 THE AMERICAN LANGUAGES
in favour of the fundamental unity of the two classes.
That the transitions are obscure is, from the scantiness
of our data for the most important points, what we
expect, a priori.
When well within South America — for New Granada
gives us but few materials — however difficult it may be
to give a systematic classification of definitely affiliated
languages, it is much more difficult to find a language
wherein miscellaneous affinities are wanting. The stu-
dent from Peru finds Quichua words in every vocabulary
he lights upon : whilst the student from Brazil finds
Guarani ones. These languages are, certainly, the most
widely spread of any : but the same coincidences —
allowance being made for the diflference in the number
of the words compared — occur in all the other tongues ;
even those of which our knowledge is the slightest.
The details of the classification are given in the pre-
liminary table. The ordinal value, however, of the
whole American class requires a brief notice. I doubt
whether, on the whole, it is higher than that of the so-
called Indo-European in its most restricted form, i. e.
in the form to which it is limited in the forthcoming
chapters of the present work.
However, in order that this statement may not pass
for a paradox, it must be remembered that the value of a
class depends not upon the number of the minor divisions
and sub-divisions which it may contain, but upon the
amount of difference between the extremes. If, (the
limits of the English, the German, the Eussian, the
Latin, the French, and their congeners being limited to
areas no larger than the county of York,) the remainder
of Europe were filled-up with some scores or hun-
dreds of languages, each as different (and not more
different) from one another as the above-named languages
are among themselves, the value of the class at large
would be the same ; though that of its subordinate
sections would be less. Instead of some three primary
IN GENERAL. 523
divisions with a mass of divisions there would be some
scores of genera consisting of either a single species or
of few. There would be, in short, a hundred languages
resembling the E-ussian and the German in their differ-
ence from each other, but not resembling them in being
spoken over large areas. Tested by the difference be-
tween its extreme members (say the Eskimo and the
Fuegian) the American class, in my mind, is one of a
very moderate ordinal value ; for, with a view to the time
required to effect change, a little consideration tells us
that the period which will modify one form of speech
may just as easily modify a hundred.
524 THE THENICIAK
CHAPTER LXVI.
The Semitic Languages. — The Phenician and Punic. — The Hebrew and Sa-
maritan.— The Assyrian and Chaldee. — The Syriac. — The iEthiopic and
Amharic. — Graf at. — Arabic. — Hururgi, The Amazig or Berber.
The Phenician of Tyre and Sidon and the parts
around is known only by inscriptions ; and as these
are without date the exact state of language which
they indicate is uncertain. They are spread over a
wide tract of country ; a tract which agrees with the
notions suggested by the ordinary historical accounts
of the commercial and colonial relations of those two
cities. They are either rare or non-existent beyond
the range of Mount Taurus. They are rare or non-
existent along the eastern parts of Africa. They are nume-
rous in Spain, and they have been found in Sicily and
Malta. Between those which represent Carthage and
those that represent Phenicia the line of demarcation is
partly uncertain, partly conventional. Nevertheless, it
is convenient to separate, so far as it can be done, the
Phenician from the Punic — allied or identical as they
may be.
In the way of language the Phenician inscriptions
are unimportant. In the history of the alphabet they
are of interest. It was from Phenicia that the Greeks
took their letters : the Old Italians theirs ; and from
these two all the alphabets of the West have originated.
Those of the East (in the mind of the present writer)
have, also, a like origin. The proof, however, is less patent.
THE PHENICIAN. 525
The Phenician alphabet consisted of signs for the mutes
and liquids. Then comes what are considered signs for
certain breathings, as h and its congeners ; along with
certain semi- vowels and nasals. In the Phenician itself,
and in its immediate eastern descendants, these are
treated as consonants — so that the alphabets under the
ordinary doctrine are alphabets without vowels. If
so, such a word as Tnilk is written mlk ; the context
being held sufficient to say whether the actual word was
melek, or milik, or muluk, or melik, or milek, or milk,
or melkj or mlik, or mlek, or what not. Meanwhile,
the semi- vowels, in many instances, were vowels also, so
that swl might stand for sul, or syl for sil. In like
manner the sound of what, as a consonant (or rather as
a non- vowel), has been compared with the lene breath-
ing of the Greeks is, in certain cases, represented by
the equivalent of a.
In the Phenician stage, then, of the alphabet all that
can be said of certain letters is that they were occasion-
ally vowels. In the Greek and Latin, however, the}' be-
came real ones. This is a definite fact. Whatever difficul-
ties we may have in reconciling the powers of certain
letters on the Phenician inscriptions with the doctrine
that they partook so much of the nature of consonants,
and so little of the nature of vowels as to be equivalent
to the lene and aspirate breathings of the Greeks (' and *),
the semi- vowels of the English (y and w), and the na-
sals of the Portuguese {a 6), it is beyond all doubt that
in the Greek and Latin they became a, rj, e, and o, all
trace of their consonantal power having been lost at
an early period. This change, however, they underwent
only in their progress westward.
They also underwent another — this, too, in their pro-
gress westward. In Phenicia they were written from
right to left ; in Greece and Italy (after a time) from
left to right.
Again — the Phenician alphabet, as far as it is known
526 THE PHENICIAN.
to us, is known to us from inscriptions only. Hence,
it consists of capital letters only, and these in a form
that suits the carver on stone rather than the writer
on paper or parchment.
The Phenician of Carthage is conveniently called Punic,
and, like the Phenician Proper, it is known through in-
scriptions. Unlike the Punic it is known by something
more than inscriptions. In the Little Carthaginian
(Poenulus) of Plautus one of the characters is a Cartha-
ginian, who speaks his own Punic.
On the east the Phenician, in the limited sense of
the term, came in contact with the Galilean, into
which it probably graduated ; as the Galilean itself did
into the Syrian, the dialects of the country beyond
Jordan, and (on the south) the Samaritan. That there
was some difference between the Galilean and the
Hebrew of Jerusalem we learn from the New Testa-
ment : the Gahlean being, nevertheless, a Hebrew
dialect ; indeed, between the Phenician and the Hebrew
the difference was political rather than philological. It
is the Hebrew into which the Punic of the Foenulus has
been more especially transliterated.
Concerning the Samaritan, of which the chief original
speakers were of the tribe of Ephraim, we know that
it wanted the Hebrew sound of either sh or th ; so that
Sihboleth, Shibholet, or Sihholeth, was the Samaritan form
of Shibboleth.
The Samaritan alphabet was older, and more like the
Phenician than the Hebrew. That a copy of the Pen-
tateuch is written in it, that it stiU exists, and that it
gives some important variations from the Hebrew text,
is well-known, though its age is uncertain. The re-
mainder of the literature consists in a chronicle and
some private letters, written in Arabic with Samaritan
characters. In the neighbourhood of Nablus, fragments
of the Samaritans still exist ; some others, I believe, in
Cairo. It is the Samaritan characters that give the
THE HEBREW. 527
legends of the Maccabean coins. That the blood in
Samaria differs notably from the language, is an infer-
ence from the statement in Ezra, that the men and
women who returned to Samaria after the removal of
the population by Nebuchadnezzar, were (amongst
others) Babylonians, Susanites, and Elamites : i. e. Assy-
rians, or Arabs, or Persians, or a mixture.
The Hebrew of Judea now follows ; the slight differ-
ence between which and the Samaritan is enhanced by
the difference of alphabet.
The fundamental date in our criticism of the Hebrew
language in respect to its history is the second year of
the reign of Darius II., in which were delivered the pro-
phecies of Haggai and Zechariah. Though Malachi, as
the last of the prophets, is generally, and perhaps rightly,
held to follow these two in time, we have no exact dates
for him. On the other hand, those of Haggai and Zecha-
riah (more or less) are precise. Their compositions cannot
be older, though they may be later. This coincides with
the time of Thucydides, and Aristophanes in Greece, the
culmination of the Attic period. The language of these
is essentially that of the oldest composition in the New
Testament. Such being the case, one of three things is
the inference.
1. That the older writings, in their transcription,
were accommodated to the newer medium, just as was
the case with the older compositions in English, where
we have not only differences of dialect, but differences
of time as well.
2. That the newer writings were written upon the
model of the old, just as Ciceronian Latin is written by
late Italians.
3. That the language actually remained unchanged,
just as, to some extent, and for some time, and as, com-
pared with certain other languages which changed quickly,
the Old Norse of Iceland did. It is unsafe to lay down
any general rule for particular cases of this kind. Each
528 THE HEBREW.
raust be tried on its own merits; and it belongs to the
great Biblical and Semitic scholars to investigate the one
under notice. The question of permanence is one which
is, more or less, regulated by circumstances. A language
which resists influences for a century may fail to do so
for a millennium ; or a language, which, with no altera-
tive influences to touch it, may remain unchanged for a
century, may, under conditions unfavourable to its per-
manence, transform itself into something else in a gene-
ration or two.
Haggai, then, and Zechariah are loci standi for the
typical, historical Hebrew of the Jewish Scriptures,
with its massive quadrate alphabet, with Jerusalem as
its local centre, with the tribes of Benjamin and Judali
as its speakers, with Jewish or Hebrew as its name,
and with the middle of the flfth century B.C. as its date.
It covers everything in the Old Testament with the
exception of Ezra and Daniel, and gives us nothing
beyond ; i. e. nothing which exactly coincides with the
standard it exhibits.
From the names of the families or tribes in Ezra,
some of which are named from the localities which they
inhabited before the Captivity, it was the language of
Jerusalem and something more — as is to be expected.
That it did not all go back to Jerusalem we learn from
the subsequent notices of the Jews in various parts of
the Persian Empire, not to mention those of Egypt.
That Hebrew was the name for the language of the
Holy Land at the time of our Saviour's Crucifixion, we
learn from the trilingual inscriptions over the cross — in
Greek, in Latin, and in Hebrew : and that the Galilean
was a well-marked dialect of it, we learn from the
answer of the woman to Peter, whose " speech bewrayed
him." — St. Matthew xxvi. 73.
In no part of the world do small differences in the
way of speech appear greater than they do about
Judaea. The ordinal value of the whole Semitic class
THE HEBREW. 529
itself is of the smallest ; but in Judaea and on the
Hebrew frontier everything creates distinctions. To
differences in nationality and religion differences of
alphabet are added; and, out of all these combined,
come names like Hebrew, Samaritan, and Phenician —
names through which dialects take the guise of languages.
That these complications increase as we proceed we
shall soon find. How the Hebrew comported itself to
the Syrian on the north, to the forms of speech on the
Tigris and Euphrates on the east, and to the Arabic on
the south, is a difficult question : for it must be remem-
bered that, over and above the differences of name,
alphabet, and nationality, there was a difference of
time ; the newest Hebrew being older than the oldest
Syriac, and much older than the oldest Arabic.
As far, at least, as name went, the Aramaic of
the time of the kings of Judah was recognized as
a different language from the Hebrew, both before
the Captivity and afterwards. " Then said Eliakim,
Speak, I pray thee, to thy servants in the Aramaic
language ; for we understand it : and talk not with us
in the Jews' language in the ears of the people that are
on the wall.'' "Then Rabshakeh stood and cried
with a loud voice in the Jews' language, and spake," &;c.
(2 Kings xviii. 26, 28.) Then they cried "in the
Jews' speech unto the people that were on the walls,"
&;c. (2 Chron. xxxii. 18.) This applies to an ad-
dress of Rabshakeh, on the part of the King of As-
Syria, who, as speaking to Jews, addressed them in their
language — not in his. I do not look, however, upon
this answer as conclusive to the fact that, on all occasions
and under all circumstances, the Syrian was unintel-
ligible to a Jew. All that it tells is, that Eliakim, who
understood Syrian, considered that Rabshakeh, who was
unnecessarily departing from the use of his own mother
tongue, would do well in using, out of two languages,
the one which, besides being his own, was less patently
M M
530 THE HEBREW.
plain to the common people than the one he was using.
A latent wish too, to let Rabshakeh know that he (Eli-
akim) could speak Aramaic is not to be overlooked. All
that Eliakim said to Rabshakeh might be said by a
Dane who spoke Swedish to a Swede unnecessarily talk-
ing Danish, or by a Portuguese to a Spaniard under
similar circumstances. This means, that I do not look
upon the passage as conclusive to the Aramaic and the
Judsean having been mutually unintelligible languages ;
which I think they were not.
In thus calling these two forms of speech Judaic and
Aramaic I give the original terms of the Jews them-
selves. The Greek, Latin, and ordinary equivalent of
Aramaic is Syrian. Here it applies to the Assyrian,
i. e. the language of the subjects of Sennacherib rather
than those of Benhadad.
In Ezra we find a similar distinction, the date being
the time of Artaxerxes ; when the notification that the
re-constitution of Jerusalem was going on, and that it
ought to be stopped, is written in Aramaic ; as were other
documents appertaining to the administration of Judea.
But too much stress must not be laid on this ; inas-
much as a slight difference between the languages would
be enhanced by the difference between the alphabets.
In Daniel we get a new term, and it is because this
name is an important one ; an obscure one ; one which,
firom its ambiguity, has created no little confusion ; and
one of which the history is mixed up with that of the
Aramaic and Jewish, that the preceding minutice have
been indulged in. Along with Shadrach, Meshach,
and Abednego, Daniel is brought up under the master
of the eunuchs to be taught "the learning and the
tongue of the Ghasdim (Chaldees)/' Elsewhere the
Chasdim and Arameans (Chaldees and Syrians or
Assyrians) are associated. Now, it is only in the
latter half of the book of Daniel, and only when the
kingdom of which Babylon was the capital is con-
THE SYRIAC. 531
trasted with that of the Medes and Persians, that Chas-
dim is a national name. In the earlier chapters, and
when the contrast is between the Babylonians and Jews,
it means astrologer.
The Aramaic that was spoken by Rabshakeh was the
language of ^t<?syria rather than Syria. It was also
the language of Nineveh rather than Babylon. The
Aramaic of Ezra and the earlier chapters of Daniel was
also Assyrian rather than Syrian ; but it was the
Assyrian of Babylon rather than Nineveh.
It is from the Assyrian of Babylon that Chaldee, as
a name of the later Hebrew, is taken, and it is from
Nineveh that we get Gccldaiii, as a name of the exist-
ing Christians of the parts about Urumiah.
Of the true Syriac of Damascus, Emesa, and Edessa,
the literary history begins no earlier than the fourth
century.
It is Christian. It is embodied in an alphabet
which, though it agrees with the Hebrew in the number,
order, and names of its letters, difters from it in the
form of them : the language itself being in contact with
the Greek and encroached upon by it. If it were
really spoken in Cappadocia it was the most northern
dialect of its class. The Palmyrene, known only by
inscriptions of the third century, is either a peculiai-
alphabet or the ordinary alphabet adapted to lapidary
purposes.
In the third century, as now, Irak and Khuzistan
were districts in which the Persian and the Arab popu-
lations came in contact ; and in the third century (and
even earlier) the Syrian language was widely current in
both Arsacidan and Sassanian Persia. In his life of
Antony, Plutarch tells us how Mithridates, a cousin of
Moneses, asked for some one who could communicate
with him in either Parthian or Syrian. In the seventh
century a Syrian abstract of Aristotle's Dialectic is said
to have been made for Chosroes Nushirvan. More than
M M 2
532 THE SYRIAG.
this, the geographical details of the Semitic tribes of
south-western Persia are known. The particular popula-
tion which occupied Khuzistan and Irak was that of the
Nabatheans ; so-called by both the Arabian and Persian
historians ; though the name has a wide as well as a
limited signification. Masudi writes that Ardeshir Ba-
began besieged a Nabathean king in Sevad. The date,
however, is too early for this to pass as actual history.
Tabari, however, states that "at this present time the
Nabatheans who dwell in Sewad are descended from the
Arameans."
That these Nabatheans were of the rudest is likely
enough ; indeed, it is specially stated that such was the
case. Nevertheless, they could mix up their language
with that of the traders, the soldiers, and the common
people as well as more learned men. Meanwhile but a
little beyond them was the alphabet, the literature, and
the civilization of Palmjrra — largely Greek; but, at the
same time, Semitic as well. It is to the Palmyrene that
the lapidary Sassanian most closely approaches.
It is not for nothing that I have gone into these
details. With the multiplicity of names and alphabets,
the differences between the languages under notice have
been exaggerated. Let any one who doubts about
their being essentially dialects of a single language pre-
pare himself for the investigation by a due valuation of
the extreme differences between the different dialects of
Germany, France, or Italy. If he come to the conclu-
sion that such an examination proves too much, and
that the result of it is a splitting up of several French,
Italian, and German dialects into so many separate
substantive languages, I have nothing to say against his
conclusion. I have only to ask him to suppose the
Arabic, the Syriac, and Hebrew all written in the same
alphabet, and compared with one another in the same
stage. Unless this be done, differences will be exagge-
rated and names will mislead.
THE GHEEZ AND TiaRE. 533
If this uniformity be admitted, the conclusion must
give the comparative recent diffusion of the forms of
speech in which it appears — either this or a great indis-
position to change. Of the two alternatives, the former
is the more likely, though I do not press it as the only one.
The direction in which the stream of language moved
is obscure ; all that can be said is, that there are none of
the languages on the Asiatic side of the Red Sea into
which they graduate. The converse is the case in
Africa. This induces me to leave the Arabic for the
present, and to begin at the other side of the Semitic
area, and, having first considered the extremes, to pro-
ceed to the consideration of the middle ground.
The Gheez is the language of the earliest -^thiopic
translation of the canonical Scriptures, of more than oue
apocryphal portion of them, and of a few writings on
ecclesiastical subjects. It is read, at the present time, in
the churches, in the way that the Latin is read in the
Roman Catholic countries, and the Old Slavonic in
Russia. Its alphabet is syllabic, and the writing runs
from left to right, and not from right to left, as is the
case with the Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic. The details
of its origin we cannot give, nor name its immediate
prototype.
Of the descendants of the Gheez, the nearest is that
of the present province of Tigr^ ; indeed, the Tigre is
generally looked upon as modem Gheez, the Gheez as
ancient Tigr^ — the Tigr^ being a written language ; its
alphabet, the Gheez with modifications. Of its dialects
and sub-dialects we know nothing. The parts about the
ancient city of Axum are the probable localities of these
two varieties of the ^thiopic.
Gondar, on the other hand, and the southern pro-
vinces of Abyssinia, give the Amharic area : the Am-
haric language being spoken at the present time by the
majority of the southern Abyssinians ; and being written
in an alphabet of Gheez origin.
The Oaf at lies in contact with the Amharic and Agaw
534
THE GAFAT.
on the north, and the Galla on the south ; by both of
which it has been encroached on — by the former first,
by the latter recently : indeed, the Galla encroachment
is still going on. Bruce has given a specimen of it, so
has Dr. Beke : who remarks that his own vocabulary is
more Amharic than his predecessor's.
English.
Gafat (1).
Gafat (2).
Man {homo)
sabush
sebew .
(vir)
People
tab^tish
s^boach
Woman
^nsit
anset
Boy
busb^n
Girl
Head
^skbarai
damoa
demow
Hair
tsagera
chegur
Eye
yena
eiu
Ear
ankwagi
ankwagi
Nose
^unfwa
anfu
Mouth
simota
semota
Lip
kanfarish
semota
Tongue
melasish
melasi
Tooth
sinna
sena
Hand
tsatan
edzhedzhe
Foot
cbamme
chama
Bone
damush
atsemo
atsant
STcy
samai
Sun
dzh^mber
cheber
Moon
chereka
tserakit
Star
kokab
kokeb
Fire
esatsh
satawi
Water
ega
ege
Stone
dzhindzish
denguish
Tree
zafi
mazafash
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Si:)c
Seven
Eight
edzhe
helitta
sosta
arb^tta
hamista
sedista
sebatta
seminta
. ,...
Nine
zateiia
Ten
asser
It is into the Amharic that Dr. Beke believes that the
Gafat is gradually merging. The special Gafat locality is
THE GAFAT. 535
a small district in the south of Damot. It apparently falls
into dialects, or sub-dialects ; since the language of Dr.
Beke's informants varied according to the district from
which it came. Some gave to almost every word the ter-
mination ~ish ; others -oa ; others no addition at all. The
former of these affixes is truly Gafat : the latter is Agaw
as well.
The alphabet of the present Arabic is closely akin to
that of the Syriac ; from an early form of which, the
Cuhc, it seems to have been derived. But the Arabic of
the Koran is not the oldest language of which we find
memorials in Arabia. Neither does it give us the only
Arabic dialect. Certain valleys in the south-east abound
in inscriptions to which the name Himyaritic has been
applied. The alphabet of these is the ^thiopic, which
differs from all the other Semitic alphabets in being not
only written from right to left, but in being syllabic.
Whether this give us a new language in the strictest
sense of the term is uncertain. It is certain that it
gives us as much of one as is given by the Phenician, or
even the Syriac. At any rate, it gives us a dialect of
the south-east rather than one of the parts about Mecca ;
a dialect of the fourth century, rather than one of the
seventh ; and, finally, a dialect which, in its literary as-
pect, at least, connects Arabia with Ethiopia.
In favour of JEthiopic elements thus introduced upon
the cognate Arabic, the Himyaritic inscriptions only give
us a presumption. Arabic elements, however, in Africa
are important realities. That the present language of
-^gypt, Barbary, and large tracts elsewhere, is Arabic is
well-known. In all these cases, however, the analysis
is, comparatively, easy — the mixture being heterogeneous.
Arabic, however, introduced into Ethiopia would be
like Dutch introduced into England ; in which case it
would, with certain words, be hard to say to which lan-
guage they belonged. Even if the language were, for
all practical purposes, Dutch, there might still be a basis
in the older tongue.
536
TIGRE, AMHARIC, ETC.
Mutatis mutandis, this applies to several forms of
speech on the ^Ethiopic frontier — in all of -which
analysis is required ; in all of which, amid much which
is Semitic, there is something that is ^thiopic rather
than Arabic. When the Arabic has overlaid two lan-
guages instead of one the analysis becomes more intri-
cate.
The languages of Hurur and Adaiel are of this kind.
English.
Tigr6.
Amharic.
Arkiko.
Hurur.
Adaiel.
Man
saboi
wond
nas
abbok
adma
Woman
saboite
set
eseet
edok
barra
Head
ras
ras
roos
mooiya
Hair
tsuqure
tsequr
tsequr
Eye
aire(ou)
ain
en
ain
Nose
afintcha
anf
oof
Mouth
af
af
adde
aof
Teeth
sinne
ters
inob
sin
Tongue
melhas
melas
arrat
Ear
izne
djoro
izun
ut'hun
Beard
tchame
tim
dimne
dubun
Hand
eed
eedgekind
Leg
iggere
igger
igger
Foot
tscbama
God
esger
igzer
goeta
alia
Sun
tsai
tsai
tsai
eer
aire
Moon
werhe
tcherka
werhe
werhe
alsa
Star
quokub
kokub
toowee
urtoohta
Fire .
howwe
a'sat
essaat
issat
2;ira
Water
mi
waha
mi
mi
ii
Wind
nefds
nefas
nefas
doof
arhoo
Rain
_ —
zinam
zenab
rooboo
River
kolle
babr
zer
Earth
midre
mider
midur
diche
bare
Hill
amba
amba
dubr
Mountain
tarara
sare
alii
Stone
hemne
dengea
un
daha
Fountain
ain
mintch
ain
Fish
assa •
assur
tulum
kullum
Horse
f'ras
feras
feras
feras
ferasa
One
adde
and
ante
ahad
*
Two
kiUete
quillet
killi
kout
Three
selaste
sost
selass
sheeste
Four
erbahte
arrut
ubah
harrut
Five
aumishte
aumist
amoos
hammest
Six
sedishte
sedist
soos
sedeest
* Numerals said to be the same as
the Danakel.
TIGRE, AMHARIC, ETC.
537
EngUsh.
Tigr6.
Amharic.
Arkiko. Hurur.
Adaiel.
Seven
shubarte
subhat
subbu sate
Eight
shumunte
semint theman sut
Nine
tishate
zetti
fcse
zeythan
Tm
ashur
assin assur assir
Another language of this kind is the
English.
Gindzhar.
English.
Gindzhar.
Man
radzMl
Leg
kurah
Woman
marra
Foot
kafat kurai
Boy
dzhenna
Day
mabar
Girl
bint
Night
liel
Father
dbu
Morning
sobabh
Mother
urn
Evening
asbir
Brothei
akbu
Earth
wota
Sister
okbt
Water
alma
Head
ras
Grass
gesh
Hair
shar
Mountain
gallah
Eye
ein
River
hor
Nose
ad^n
Good
sammi
Month
shamak
Bad
fassil
Neck
raggaba
Black
aswad
Hand
id
White
abiad
Arm
derah
Red
ahmar.
Of the following, the fornier is the dialect which
most approaches the Himyaritic ; the latter that of the
island of Sokotra.
English.
Mahari.
Sokotran
Back
dara mothan
tadah
Belly
djof
Cow
bakaret
Donkey
heir
Eyebrow
ahajor
hajhar
Fire
sbeewot
sheiwat
Father
heb
Fish
seit
sodab
Frog
dthafzat
God
bal
Hair
shof
shif
Knee
barak
Milk
isbakbof
huf
Mouth
warak
Nose
nakhrir
nabir
Red
aufar
aufer
Rice
hiraz
arbaz
Sun
beiom
sbobum
Star
kabkob
kokab.
538 MODERN SYRIAC
We now return to the Hebrew and Syriac in the
newer forms. The language of the Talmud, written
in a modification of the Hebrew alphabet, represents
the language of the Jews after the destruction of
Jerusalem. It has largely influenced the Hebrew of
common life in conjunction with other causes ; so much
so that it may be doubted whether this latter be a true
vernacular ; by which I mean, that is it to be compared
with Latin as spoken by a mass of individuals who have
learned it either directly or indirectly through books rather
than with the Italian or Spanish which have developed
themselves freely and spontaneously. In all languages
the continual reference to written works developes an
artificial element. In the modern Jewish this is believed
to be considerable. It is a matter, however, upon which
no one but a learned and critical Jew can speak with
confidence.
The same applies, in a still greater degree, to the
fragmentary Samaritan.
The same, too, to the modern Syriac. It is said to
be spoken by a few individuals in the Lebanon. It
would, perhaps, be better to say that there are some
individuals in the Lebanon who can speak it.
Further north, the evidence of either it or an allied
dialect being a true vernacular improves ; it being spe-
cifically stated that most of the Nestorians, though they
use their own language in intercourse with each other,
are able to speak the so-called Tartar of the Turks around
them with ease and fluency. Very few, however, have
any tincture of literature ; their MSS. being scarce, and
printed works, up to A.D. 1829, non-existent. In that
year, however, the Gospels were printed from a copy, ob-
tained from Bishop Mar Johannan, through Dr. Wolff*,
by the British and Foreign Bible Society. In 1840, the
American missionaries introduced a printing-press ; so
that, over and above some important translations from
the Scriptures, a series of tracts, from the Dairyman's
Daughter to Dr. Watts's hymns, has been published. In
AND HEBREW.
539
thus adapting an ancient language to the spiritual wants
of a poor and illiterate community of oppressed Chris-
tians, the names Perkins, Halliday, Grant and Stoddart,
to the preface of whose grammar of the Modern Syrian
the foregoing facts are due, are honourably conspicuous.
The schools of the mission have gradually increased in
number, and in 1853 they amounted to eighty.
We can scarcely consider either the modern Syriac
or the modern Hebrew as a true spontaneous develop-
ment of the old language. Literary influence has en-
gendered an artificial element in them ; and the fact of
every community where either is spoken using a second
language has taken them out of conditions under which
true philological growth proceeds. What they do illus-
trate is, the laws by which such forces as the ones just
noticed act — and, in this respect, they deserve all the
attention that has been awarded them.
Even the Arabic is scarcely a language that has been
left to its own natural growth. Except in the ruder
dialects of Arabia itself, of which we know little or
nothing, the Koran has always exercised a conservative
influence ; whilst, in Malta, where there is no Koran,
there is a second language.
English.
Arabic.
Syriac.
Hebrew.
Head
ras
rish
rosli
Hair
saro
shar
sear
Eye
ayn
eyn
ayn
Ear
adzn
adno
ozen
Nose
anph
hhatm
aph
Mouth
pham
plLum
pi
Tooth
sen
sheno
shen
Tongue
lishan
leshono
lashon
Hand
yad
yad
vad
Foot
rigl
reglo
regel
Sun
shams
shemsho
shemesh
Star
kaukab
kiikbo
kokab'
Bay
yawm
yeum
yom
Night
laila
lailo
laila
Fire
anisat
eshotto
esli
Water
nia
mayo
mayim
540
THE AMAZIG OR BERBER GROUP.
English.
Arabic.
Syriac.
Hebrew.
One
akhad
hhad
ebbad
Two
thuna
tharin
shanim
Three
thaleth
tholth
sbelosh
Four
arbat
arba'
arba'
Five
hhams
hhamesh
bbamesh
Six
sit
sheth
sbesh
Seven
sab'
sheba'
sbeba
Eight
sam^a
tbmon
shemoneh
Nine
tish
tsha
tesha'
Ten
asliar
'sar
'asar.
The Amazig (or Berber) area is the largest in Africa,
extending from the confines of Egypt to the Atlantic
Ocean. More than this — the Canary Islands, until the
extermination or fusion of their aborigines, were Amazig.
Again — the ancient Mauritanians and Gsetulians
were not only the occupants of the Amazig area, but of
Amazig blood. Of Amazig blood were the native tribes
with which the Greeks of the Cyrenaica came in con-
tact. Of Amazig blood were the native tribes with
which the Phenicians of Utica and Carthage came in
contact. The subjects of Masinissa and Jugurtha occu-
pied localities of which the ancient names are explained
by means of the modern Amazig.
At the present time there are ^wq names for ^ve
divisions of the Amazig populations, and seven names
for the Amazig forms of speech. How far either series
is natural is another question.
(] .) The Kahails — who speak the Kabail language,
are the Amazig of the northern part of Algiers rather
than Morocco.
(2.) The Showiah are the Amazig of Morocco rather
than Algiers. They occupy, however, some of the
central districts of Algiers ; their language being the
Showiah.
(3.) The Shiluk lie to the south of Morocco, their
language being the Shiluk.
(4.) The Berbers belong to the south-eastern parts of
Algiers, to Tunis, to Tripoli, and the corresponding
THE AMAZia OR BERBER GROUP.
541
parts of the Sahara. Their dialects are the Larua and
Zenaitia.
The extent to which the few fragments of the Lance-
rotta and Fuerteventura dialects of the Canary Islands
agree with the Shelluh may be seen from the following
table : —
English.
Canary.
Shellub.
Barley
temasin
tumzeen
Sticks
tezzezes
tezezerat
Palm-tree
taginaste
taginast
Petticoat
tahuyan
tahuyat
Water
ahemon
amen
Priest
faycag
faquair
God
acoran
mkoorn
Temple
almogaren
talmogaren
House
tamoyanteen
tigameen
Hog
tawaeen
tamouren
Ch-een Jig
arclLormase
akermuse
Sky
tigot
tigot
Mountain
thener
athraar
Valley
adeyhaman
douwaman.
The Canary Islanders were called Guances, and their
language the Guanch.
542
THE AGAW.
CHAPTER LXVII.
The Agau, Agaw, or Agow, and Falasha. — The Gronga dialects. — The Kekuafi.
AgaumidrzuAgau-land, and one of the vocabularies
of Dr. Beke, is headed Agau of Agaumidr : a name
which suggests the notion that one part of the Agau area
was more decidedly Agau than the remainder. And
this seems to have been the case ; since Agaw is either
an Amharic or a Gheez term ; Aghagha being the native
name.
English.
Waag,
Faslaha.
Agaumidr.
Man (homo)
egir
ira
aghi
{vir)
gelua
garwa
ngardzhi
People
yek
aghi
Woman
yehona
yewina
hona
Boy
ashkir
korri
ansai
Girl
yehon-ashkir
korra
ansagha
Head
aur
agher
ngari
Hair
tsabka
aghet
tsitsifi
Eye
yel
ill
el
Ear
keretz
anko
- ankwagi
Nose
yassin
komba
san
Mouth
miya
af
kambi
Lip
kifar
kanfer
kanfar
Tooth
erruk
irku
arkui
Tongue
lakh
lanah
tsangi
Hand
nen
nan
taf
Foot
tsab
chappi
chafu
. lukkokocham
chammi
Bone
ngas
ngach
ngats
Blood
bir
karbat
beri
Sun
kwora
kuara
awas
Moon
arba
serk
arfa
Star
tsegaloa
chingaroa
bewa
THE
AGAW.
English.
Waag.
Faslaha.
Agauniidr.
Wind
figia
nefas
Rain
suwa
sua
heri
Fire
lia
ea •
ag
Water
akwo
agho
agho
Hill
aroa
debba
kan
Plain
shuwa
wulagha
wutaghi
Stone
kamga
kiinga
karing
Tree
zaf
chafa
satsi
haa
kana
kani
Eivei's
wirba
kiira
beni
Lake
bahar
bar
One
Iowa
lagha
laghu
Two
linga
linga
langa
Three
sbakwa
sigha
shuga
Four
siza
sigba
shuga
Five
akwa
ankua
ankua
Six
walta
wolta
walta
Seven
langata
langatta
langatta
Eiylit
sohota
saghotta
saghatta
Nine
tsaicha
sessa
sesta
Ten
tsikka
cliikka
tsikka.
543
The Agaw is bounded on the east, north, and north-
east by the Tigre ; being spoke in the province of
Lasta, and along the banks of the Tacazze. The par-
ticular dialect of the district named Waag is called
Hhamara — which, word for word, seems to be "Kafiapa
and Amhara ; the former term being as old as the time
of Agatharchides, who uses the expression Ka/ndpa Xe^ts
for one of the languages of these parts. In the southern
parts of Lasta, the Agaws are genuine mountaineers. In
Waag, and along the Tacazze, the land lies somewhat
lower. As a general rule, however, the Agau districts
lie in the more impracticable parts of Abyssinia, and the
dialects, pro tanto, take the appearance of aboriginal
forms of speech. The Agaws of Waag are the Tsherats
Agaws of Bruce.
Gonga is a name found in Ludolf : who places the
tribes to which he applies it in the Bahr-el-Abiad,
about 10° N. L. Dr. Beke has supplied as vocabu-
laries for the forms of speech referable to this class ; (1.)
544
THE GONGA DIALECTS.
the Kaffa; (2.) the Woraita; (3.) the Wolaitsa; (4.) the
Yangaro. Word for word, I imagine that Yangaro is
Zinzero or Gingero, a name which in the old maps de-
notes one of the most southern provinces of Abyssinia.
To this district belongs Enarea, believed to have been
once a Christian kingdom. Now, however, it is over-
run by the Galla.
The name Gonga is native. In the western parts
of the valley of Bahr-el-Abiad, visited by Dr. Beke,
and named in the native dialect Shinasha, in Agawi,
Tsintsi, in Amharic and Gafat Shinasha, and con-
verted by the Portuguese into Chinchon, the natives
believe that, before the invasion of the G alias, their
country was both populous and powerful, and their lan-
guage was spoken far, to both the south, and the west.
They also apply the name Gonga to a large tract of
country to the south.
English.
Gonga,
Kaffa.
Woratta.
Yangaro.
Man (homo)
aso
asso
assu
(vir)
lugsho
atuma
gunagtisba
People
asachi
Woman
macha
machoa
nawase
Boy
lolo
naha
nangoto
Girl
na
macbenat
keredzho
Head
toko
tommo
kommo
Hair
chig
fungilla
kommo (?)
Eye
abo
afi
afo
Ear
wadzho
wamo
aitsa
Nose
sicho
suUia
sidi
Mouth
nono
nona
nona
Lip
lelfo
nono
mitharsa
Tooth
gasso
gasho
acha
Tongue
elbeto
milaso
intsarsa
Hand
kiso
knsha
kusbia
.
Foot
cha,TnTni
God
Yiko
Yero
Tsossa
Balamo
Shy
daro
bidani
Sim
aba
abo
awa
knwa,
ainehei
Moon
azicha
agino
agena
kita
gumbehei
Star
keno
kurchihe
tsolentsa
garkamo
THE KEKUAFI.
English.
Goiiga.
Kaffa.
Woratta.
Yangaro.
Earth
decho
showo
saha
donokamo
aifareni
Wind
dzhongo
agatsa
kocho
Rain
amso
ira
iro
Fire
tamo
kako
tammo
gea
Water
acho
acho
hatsa
akka
Stone
suco
hechechence
shucha
shuha
Tree
mitto
mitto
mitsa
ihho
One
ikko
ikka
itta
isso
Two
gitta
gutta
laha
hep
Three
kedzha
kedzha
hezza
kes
Fmr
auda
haudda
hoida
achech
Five
hucha
hucha
huchesa
huch
Six
shirta
shii-ita
husupona
isson (?)
Seven
sabata
shehata
lapona
nafun
Eight
seminta
shiminta
hospona
nangiri
Nine
dzheta
yidea
hodiipona
izgin
Ten
tacha
ashiri
tama
assir.
545
Word for word, Kekuaji is Eloikob. Let us see how
this can be. Eloikob is the native name : the name
which certain tribes of the part of Africa now under
notice give themselves. Their neighbours, the Wakamba,
who lie between them and the coast, and from whom
the term has been taken, change it into Akahij for the
singular, and Mukahi, for the plural, number. A further
change converts it into Mkuafi, and Wakuqfi. The
Eloikob, or Kekuafi, area, lies, then, in contact with that
of the Wakamba
English.
Ukuafi.
Man
ortaba
Nose
orldungnana
Head
eluginia
Hair
orlbabid
Face
engomon
Ear
engiok
Eye
engon
Tooth
orlala(?)
Tongue
orlala (?)
Back
orl-gunim
Beard
osirlrimi
Blood
osarge
English.
Ukuafi.
Bone
orl-oido
Hand
engaina
Foot
engeju
Day
engorlon
Shy
engadambo
Sun
engorlon
Moon
orlaba
Star
orlogirai
Earth
engui-lu
Bird
enkeni
Fish
esingeri.
N N
54G THE COPTIC.
CHAPTER LXVIII.
The Coptic. — The Bishari. — The Nubian Languages. — The Shilluk, Denka,
&c. — The Mobba and Darrunga. — The Galla Group. — The Dizzela,
Dalla, Shankali or Shangalla.
The language of ^gypt in its oldest form is that
of the oldest hieroglyphic inscriptions. Upon the
details of the interpretation of the hieroglyphics them-
selves I can form no independent opinion. I can only
remark that the strictest test of a deciphered cypher,
viz. that of enabling the master of it to apply it
according to the rules of its decipherers and to obtain a
result of literal and self-apparent accuracy, is one which
in the existing transliterations is not come up to. If
otherwise, why have we not a series of old ^Egyptian
texts in the ordinary Coptic alphabet, of which an ordi-
nary Coptic student could judge ?
The language in its newer form is written in an
alphabet derived from the Greek, and embodies an early
translation of the New Testament, parts of the Old, and
several ecclesiastical compositions. It falls into three dia-
lects: the Sahitic, or Thebaic, of Upper, the Memphitic
of Middle, iEgypt, and the Bashmuric of the Delta ; all
giving a considerable mixture of Greek words : which,
in the Bashmuric, are the most numerous.
As a true vernacular it is extinct ; at least, though I
have heard of its being still spoken, I have not succeeded
in finding the details of the evidence. Neither would
the mere fact of its being spoken make it a true verna-
THE COPTIC. 547
cular. It might be spoken merely as any other literary
language might be used in conversation. It is the Arabic
that has superseded it ; in the case of which language the
difference, in JEgypt, between the blood and the speech
is considerable.
In structure the Coptic is more simply agglutinate
than the full Semitic tongues, with which it chiefly
agrees in the personal and possessive pronouns. It is
often (perhaps generally) treated as Sub-semitic ; though
in the application of this name ethnographical reasons
have, either consciously or unconsciously, been mixed up
with philological ones. That it is, to some extent, Se-
mitic is true ; but it is inconsistent to make it this to the
exclusion of other languaojes that are more so. It will
be noticed again in the sequel when a language from a
very different quarter — the Basque — comes under notice.
It is the valley of the Nile which gives us Egypt ;
the plateaux and hills between the river and the Red
Sea being other than Egyptian. This is what they
are now. This is what they seem to have been at the
beginning of the historical period. That the Arabic
, prevails largely in these districts is well-known : indeed,
in the northern half it prevails exclusively. The blood,
however, is less Arab than the language : while the lan-
guage itself, as we proceed southwards, becomes other than
Arabic. In the parts about Kosseir, the Bishari, or Beja,
is spoken ; the Bishari tribes being the conquerors of
the Ababde ; the Ababde being Bishari, and the Bishari
Ababde, with this difference — the Bishari speak their
own language, the Ababde have exchanged it for the
Arabic. Such, at least, is the common statement ; the
presumptions being in favour of it. At the same time
the evidence is capable of improvement. That the
Ababde are other than Arabs is shown by their colour
and by the texture of their hair. They may, however,
have been other than Arab, and yet not, necessarily,
Bishari. The presumptions, however, as aforesaid, are in
N N 2
548 THE BISHARI.
favour of the common doctrine. The Ababde lie nearer
to the Nile ; the Bishari to the sea. Both extend into
Nubia ; both into Egypt.
The country about Suakin is the occupancy of the'
Adareb, of whose language, eo nomine, I have seen no
specimen. A Suakin vocabulary, however, eo nomine,
is Bishari.
No Bishari compositions are known ; nor is it known
that the Arabic alphabet has been applied to the language
— though the tribes that speak it are, with few or no ex-
ceptions, real or nominal Mahometans. For the Haden-
doa and Hallenga languages, vocabularies, iis nominihus,
are wanted. They are spoken between the Mareb and
the Tacazze ; the few words known as Taka or Boje
(? Beja) probably represent them.
In language, as well as in physical form, and in geo-
graphical position, the nearest neighbours to the Bishari
are the Nubians.
Nubia begins where Egypt ends, i. e. at Assuan,
or Syene ; and where Nubia begins a new language
presents itself We may call it Nubian : subject to the
necessity of remembering that the term has a wide and
a restricted sense. There is the name of the class and
there is the name of a special dialect.
The Nubian class falls into two divisions of uncertain
value ; (1 .) the Nubian Proper, (2.) the Koldagi,
The Nubian Proper is spoken along the Nile, from
Egypt to Sennaar ; falling into three dialects, (1 .)
the Kensy of Kenuz on the north, (2.) the Noub, or
Nubian, in the limited sense of the word, in the middle
districts, and (3.) the Dongolawy of Dongola. The
Nubians are also called Berbers, Berberins, or Barabbra ;
a term which, from being applied to the Amazig tribes,
has occasionally created confusion. It is the Nubians,
however, to whom it applies with the least impropriety.
One of the numerous languages of Kordovan is named
the Koldagi, and I believe that it is the language of the
THE BISHARI.
549
capital. It is, liowever, only one form of speech out of
many. Like the Nubian, it is known through vocabu-
laries only. Like the Nubian, it is the language of a
rude and imperfectly Mahometan population. Its Nubian
affinities were pointed out by Riippell.
Englislt.
Bishari.
Nubitin.
Koldagi.
Man
otak
itga
kordu
Woman
tataket
ideynga
Bead
ogurma
urka
oar
Hair
tamo
shigertyga
Eyes
tilyly
mainga
kale
Nose
ogenuf
soringa
hein
Tongue
medabo
Mouth
oyaf
akka
aul
Teeth
tongrek
nyta
gehl
Ear
toiigy
okiga
uilge
Beard
hamoi
sameyga
Foot
ragad
oyga
kuddo
Shy
otryk
sema
San
toyn
mashakka
es
Moon
ondzliim
inatiga
mindo
Star
windzhega
ondu
Fire
toneyt
ika
eka
Water
ayam
amanga
otu
Tree
dzhollaga
saleg
Stone
awey
kagen
One
engaro
werka
Two
molobo
onogha
Three
mehay
toskoga
Four '
fadyg
kemsoga
Five
eyyib
didzha
Six
essagour
gordzhoga
Seven
essarama
kolodga
Eight
essambay
idonoga
Nine
ogamhay
oskoda
Ten
togaserama
dimaga
To the south of Obeyd, the capital of Kordovan, the
geography is obscure. In Africa, however, we may often
procure specimens of a language where we fail in finding
the place where it is spoken. This is because it is the
land of slavery ; and because residents in any of the
great centres of the traffic may generally find representa-
tives of even very distant languages. The vocabularies
may be relied on ; because when a man says that such
550 THE SHABUN, FAZOGLO, ETC.
or such a word means horsey man, and whatever else it
may be, he is to be believed. Their geography, however,
is to be criticized ; because when we hear that such or
such a place lies so many miles west of so and so, the
likelihood of error, both in respect to distance and in
respect to the points of the compass, is considerable.
I find it difficult to say where Kordovan ends and
Sennaar begins. Sennaar, pre-eminently an African —
not to say a Negro — country, is also the occupancy of
the Sheyga Arabs ; and where Arabic is the current
language, the indigenous dialects stand a fair chance of
being neglected. Such is the case with Sennaar. Of
non-Arab vocabularies brought from Sennaar, in the
limited sense of the term, I know none. All I know is
certain vocabularies brought from certain frontier dis-
tricts, which may reasonably be believed to belong to
Sennaar forms of speech. The proportion that the in-
digence bear to the Arabs is unknown. The chief native
population, however, is called Funge. But who has ever
seen a specimen of the Funge, eo nomine ?
That some, however, of the languages spoken to the
south of Obeyd represent the Funge is probable. Of
these we have samples in Riippell, and others. Thus —
The Shabun is said to be spoken to the south of
both the Kordovan and the Sennaar fi-ontiers. It is
not very closely allied to anything. It is nearest, how-
ever, to the Fertit — the most southern of the languages
of Riippell.
The Shilluk, whose name, from the fact of its appear-
ing elsewhere, I imagine to be Arab rather than native,
lie on the Bahr el Abiad, and, like the Denka, their
frontagers, are Pagans.
The Fazoglo language is the same as the Qamamyl
of Caillaud, and — less like the Shilluk than is the
Denka — apparently belongs to the same class ; that
class being one of small dimensions.
There is an imperfect Mahometanism in Darfur, the
country of the Furian language ; of which only one
THE FURIAN, SHILLUK, ETC.
551
language
(probably one out of many) is
known by vo
cabularies
(!•)
Euglish.
I'urian.
Takeli.
Fertit.
Shabun.
Man
duedeh
ead
kosbi
le
Head
tobu
aik
kummu
eldah
Eye
kuli
undik
allah
leg
Nose
dormi
endir
alu
nagul
Mouth
udo
engiarr
ammah.
keing
Tooth
kaki
nim
ensi
engar
Tonfjue
dali
auga
timi
denkela
Ear
dilo
hennu
utai
neni
Hand
donga
ora
adgianas
nimel
Foot
taroh
dakaak
tibrenu
ongi
Fire
utu
ebe
ouwe
yab
Water
kori
ek
ongou
knaf
Sun
dulle
ani
aloh
kwedyude
Moon
dual
oai-
ibue
eiwah
Star
ui'i
lain
berabe
robah
Tree
kurne
fa
donzu
yareh
Stone
dete
arnan
(2.)
ekbur
kokol.
EngUsli.
ShiUuk.
Denka.
Fazoglo.
Man
uguilu
moed
meloko
Head
uidzh
nam
alio
Eye
uang
ninu
are
Nose
ung
oum
kara
Mouth
dok
tok
antu
Tooth
lek
ledzh
dovidit-ufuti
Tongue
leb
leb
halla
Ear
yib
yet
ilai
Hand
kiam
ruib
raba
Foot
lustiella
kwen
Fire
maidzb
maid
mo
Water
fi
fiou
fi
Sun
kiong
akol
mondzo
Moon
goi
fai
shig
Star
kielo
kuol
iso
Tree
yad
tiem
engoule
Stone
niarkiddi
kur
bale.
The following are to the south of the Denka and
ShiUuk areas.
(3.)
EngUah.
Dor.
English.
Dor.
Man
boodoo
Hair
biddoo
Woman
koomara
Forehead
hickomoo
552
2
THE MOBBA.
Enalisli.
Dor.
English,
Dor.
Eye
komo
Sun
kade
Nose
honiogi
Star
kir
Lip
taragi
Water
mini
Beard
betara
Wood
ungor
Foot
umbundo
Fish
gooboo
Fire
fudoo
Bird
umboroam.
Shj
hitero
(4.)
Euglish.
Nyamnnra.
English.
Njamnam.
Man
koombai
Flowed'
mooma
Boy
godee
Shield
abrooda
Girl
umbagadda
Lance
baasoo
Slave
buroo
Trombash ?
gangoo
Chief
mumba kindoo
Knife
sali
Woman
ineckeri
Pig
akoroo
Hut
beia
Fire
yaw
Elephant
omburra
Wood
naaki
Buffalo
jari
Pipe
cabunga
Antelope
ombuddi
Tobacco
goondoa
Fmvl
kundoo
Come here
moicundoora
Ivory
rinda omburra
Go
mundo.
The Mohha, Maba, or Bora Mdhang is the lan-
guage of Waday Proper, and the chief tongue of Dar-
saleh : being understood by many populations to whom
it is not vernacular. It is known by a few specimens
in the Mithridates, and by a longer vocabulary of Bur-
chard t's. Barth, too, has collected more than two thousand
words of it, along with some phrases and a translation
of the Lord's Prayer, a part only of which is published.
The tribes who speak it are —
]. The Kelingen. 7. Kumo.
2. Kajanga.
3. Mald,nga.
4. Madaba,
5. Madala.
6. Kodoyi.
13. Bili.
14. Bilting.
8. Jambo.
9. Abue Gedam. 15. Ain Gamara.
10. Ogodongda. 16. Kororaboy.
11. Kawak.
12. Ashkiting.
17. Girri.
18. Sheferi.
Mararit and Menagon are the names of two tribes
of the Abu Sharib, who are specially stated to speak the
same language — a language in which Barth has collected,
but not published, about 200 words, along with a trans-
THE GALLA CLASS.
553
lation of the Lord's Prayer. The Tama speak an aUied
dialect. As for the remainder of the group, it is said
to consist of numerous tribes whose dialects differ so
much, that one can scarcely understand the other with-
out recourse to the Mobba. The Mimi are said to
speak a peculiar language, so are the Kaudard : as also
the Koringa, about 17° N. L.
(1.)
Engliih.
Mobba
English.
Mobba.
Head
kidjy
Sun
anyk
Hair
soufa
Moon
ayk
Eye
kapak
Stars
meniet
Nose
kharsounak
Day
dealka
Cheek
ghambilanak
Night
kosonga
Beard
gamur
Fire
wossyk
Mouth
kana
Water (rain)
andjy
Teeth
saateni
Stone
kodak
Tongue
adalmek
Mountain
Ear
kozah
Wood
songou
Nech
bitik
Fiver
bettak
Arm
galma
Bird
abyl
Hand
kara
Fish
hout
Foot
djastongoly
Milk
sila.
Blood
ary
(2
•)
English.
Dar-runga.
English.
Dar-runga.
Man
kamere
One
kadenda
Woman
mimi
Two
embirr
Eye
khasso
Three
attik
Ear
nesso
Four
mendih
Hand
tusso
Six
sabotikeda
Foot
itar
Seven
ow
Sun
agning
Eight
sebateis
Water
tta
Nine
atih
Fire
nissiek
Ten
buf.
The Bishari (for it is to them that we must now
I'eturn) are succeeded by the most northern members of
the great Gcdla class.
Next to the Caffre and Berber this is the largest of
all the Afi'ican groups. It is also a complete one ;
at any rate, it falls into three well-marked divisions :
(1 .) the Danakil ; (2.) the Somctuli; (3.) the Ilmormo, or
554 THE GALL A CLASS.
Galla Proper. It has a vast knovjn extent from north
to south. It has a vast unknown extent from east to
west. It has an irregular outline, being deeply indented
by the languages of the Abyssinian class ; or, rather, it,
itself, cuts deeply and irregularly into Abyssinia — ^for
the Galla tribes have long encroached upon the southern
provinces of that empire ; and much that was once
Semitic is now Galla. Bounded on the north by the
Bishari and Nubian, and on the east by the sea, it is
limited by the Tigre, Amharic, and other languages in the
north-west. South, however, of the latitude which coin-
cides with the southern boundary of Abyssinia, it ex-
tends indefinitely inland. In the parts about Hurur the
Semitic forms of speech protrude themselves largely and
irregularly. To the south-east it comes in contact with
the northernmost members of the Kaffir family : the
boundary lying near, but not on, the Equator. The
Ukuafi seem to touch it on the interior.
The Galla population is pastoral rather than agricultural,
and African rather than either Negro or Arab in
physiognomy ; i. e. the colour is more brown than black,
the features more prominent than depressed, the hair long
and twisted, rather than woolly. Paganism is still rife
amongst the southern, or pure Galla (or Ilmormo) tribes :
an imperfect Mahometanism is adopted by the Danakil.
Fragments of an early Christianity — Abyssinian in its
origin — are believed to be discoverable. The language
is known both by grammars and vocabularies. It is
unwritten ; i. e. there is no native alphabet, and no appli-
cation of the Arabic.
The Danakil call themselves Afer^ and it is not im-
probable that the term Africa comes from them. The
Egyptians may have diffused it. Danakil itself is, like
so many others, a word strange to the language to which
it applies. I cannot but think that, word for word, it
is Dongola, yet the Dongolawy are Nubians. Probably,
some third population gave them both the same name.
THE GALLA CLASS.
ODD
The Danakil begins between Suakin and Arkiko, and
extends from the Red Sea to the frontiers of Abyssynia.
The Somauli area begins near the straits of Babel-
niandel, and runs southward and inland; Berbera, the
great slave mart being the chief Somauli town : the
Somauli tribes, too, being the occupants of the parts about
the Semitic town of Hurur.
The Galla Proper, or Ilmormo, belong to the interior
rather than the coast, their area being one of great, but
unknown magnitude, with a sinuous outline, and an en-
croaching frontier. Sometimes this encroachment is
effected at the expense of the Danakil : sometimes (per-
haps oftener) at that of the Abyssinians. The former,
for instance, has given way before the Asubu, the latter
before the Edjow, tribes. The kingdoms of Shoa and
Efat are, now, more Galla than Abyssinian. The town
of Ankober is a Galla capital : though mixed in respect
to its population. No tribe in Africa has the discredit
of being ruder and more savage in its warfare than the
Gallas. Their physical appearance is that of the Bishari
rather than the Negro.
English.
Galla.
Danalfil.
Sliiho (about Arkiko).*
Man
nama
Woman
rete
Head
mata
ammo
ammo
Hair
refensa
Eye
hedzha
inte
inte
Nose
funyan
san
san
Tongue
arruba
Mouth
affan
afa
afa
Teeth
ilkae
budeua
ekok
Ear
gura
Beard
arreda
Foot
fana
Sun
addu
aero
airo
Moon
dzhea
alsa
alsa
Star
urdzhe
ettukta
ittuk
Fire
ibiddeh
gira
gera
Water
veshan
leh
le
Tree
niouka
The Arkiko of the town is Amharic.
556
THE GALLA CLASS.
English.
Galla.
Danakil.
Shiho (about Arkiko)
Stone
dagga
data
dak
One
toko
inneke
inek
Two
lumma
lumma
lamma
Three
sedde
sudde
adda
Four
affar
fere
afur
Five
shur
konoyoie
kon
Six
dzha
lelehe
leh
Seven
turbah
melhene
melhen
Eight
seddet
bahara
valir
Nine
suggul
segala
suggai
Ten
kudun
tubban
tummum.
The following are languages, more or less isolated, of
the Abyssinian frontier.
English.
Dizzela.
English.
Dizzela.
Man
gunza
Tree
gea
Woman
kwa
One
metama
Head
illukoma
Tioo
ambanda
Eyes
illikumah
Three
kwokaga
Nose
kotuma
Four
zaacha
Ear
tsema
Five
mankus
Teeth
kuusma
Six
wata
Tongue
kotettuma
Seven
linyeta
Sun
woka
Eight
sugguata
Moon
bega
Nine
sasa
Star
bega
Ten
. chik'ka.
Water
iah
(2.)
English.
Ualla.
English.
DaUa.
Man
kwa
One
ilia
Woman
dukka
Two
bella
Head
annasunga
Three
sette
Eyes
wa
F(mr
salle
Nose
bubuna
Five
bussume
Ear
ukuna
Six
erde
Sun
wah
Seven
varde
Moon
terah
Eight
kwon kweda
Stars
shunda
Nine '
kwuuntelie
Fire
tuma
Ten
kwuuUakudde
Stone
uga
(i
!•)
English..
Shankali.
Agawmidr.
Seven
langitta
langata
, &c. — Agaio
Sun
oka
Sky
wak —
9alla
THE SHANKALI, OR SIIANGALLA.
557
English.
Sliankali.
Agawmidr.
Star
bawa
bewa — Agaw
Water
aya
ahu — Agatv
Rain
Cloud
dema
dimna — Agaio
Smoke
tukwa
tikki—Tigre
Clay
tukwa
dhoke—Galla
Tree
mugha
muka — do.
Shade
gisa
cbiso — Gong a
SpHnfj
aimusa
mincha — A ga w
Market
gabea
gebaia — Galla
Bridle
sugha
lughwam — A gawi
Whip
jilanda
halinga — do.
Mouth
sima
simota — Gafat
Tooth
kussa
gSiSso—Gonga
Rainy season
china
gana — Galla.
In Salt, the Dalla and Dizzela, like tlie language
represented by the third vocabulary, are given as Shan-
galla. They are all spoken by Negroes rather than
true Abyssinians.
558 THE KAFFIR CLASS.
CHAPTER LXIX.
The Kaffir Class of Languages.
Within a degree or two of the Equator the Galla and
Ukuafi are succeeded by that large class of languages,
which those who have no dislike to double names call
South African, whilst others, who have no objection to
using a word in a general as well as a particular sense,
call Kaffre or Kaffir ; a word which is both the name
of a class and the name of a particular division.
On the western coast the languages of this group ap-
pear north of the Equator, and, with the exception of
the Hottentot area, they cover all the intervening space.
Their peculiarities of grammar have been carefully
studied and illustrated.
(1 .) If a new word be introduced into the language of
the Amakosa Kaffres, it takes an inseparable prefix
before it can become naturalized. Priest, for instance,
becomes it'TTi-priest ; Pharisee, f7'?7i-pharisee. In the
words um-tu -zz person ; ^-hashe =i horse ; m-kosi =. cap-
tain ; i^i-caca — servant ; u-sana, zz infant ; ^tm-lambo
zz river ; u-hu^o zzface ; aku-tysizzforce ; aba-ntuzz:
people; ama-zwe zz words ; in-homo = cattle ; imi^tizz
trees, &c., the syllables in Italics are wholly foreign
to the root. Adventitious, however, as they are, the
system of prefixing them is general.
(2.) When two words come into certain syntactic
relations, one of them changes its initial letter according
to that of the other, just as if, in English, w^e said, for
THE KAFFIR CLASS. 559
sunbeam or white manf bunheam (or sunseam) for
wJiiteman (or miteman).
(3.) Tlie prefix, however, is part of the word ;
whence it follows that, for the purposes of determining
the change which one word, in these syntactic relations,
impresses on another, we must look to the initial letter
(or letters) of the prefix rather than to those of the
words to which it is united. A word (no matter how
it begins) takes U7)i as its prefix ; the rule being that
when one word begins with um the other begins with
w. The Kaffre for a Tnan of the people is um-tn wa-
bantu, whereas a captain of the people is m-kosi ya-
bantu.
In this way the System of Prefixes and the System
of Alliteration, in the Amakosa Kaffre at least, are con-
nected.
That facts of this kind should tell upon the phrase-
ology of the grammarian is only natural. They give
him his declensions ; for it is clear that according to the
nature of the prefix we may arrange the noims to which
they are united into classes. Doing this, we may talk
of the Classification of Nouns, just as Latin scholars
talk of the Declensions.
Again — the form of the Plural is often determined
by the prefix. Thus, in Bakeli : —
First Declension,
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
a-\a.ta,=ckest
6i-vata=:chests
a-hohi=hat
hi-hohi=:hats
i-eli=tr€e
Second Declension.
je-]i=trees.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
di-'kaki=zstone
ma-\iaki:=stones
di-eki=lato
m-eki=:lav's.
And so on for seven other classes or declensions ; the
number of classes in the Bakeli being nine. In other
languages, however, they are more numerous ; e. g. in
the Herreo they are eighteen.
560
THE KAFFIR CLASS.
The origin of these prefixes is another question. They
are noticed here for the sake of ascertaining their value
as characteristics.
The forms of speech which immediately underlie the
Galla and XJkuafi are the following — belonging to the
inland districts rather than to the coast. On the coast
the language is the Suaheli, Suwaheli, or Sohili, contain-
ing numerous Arabic elements and partaking of the na-
ture of a Lingua Franca.
English.
Wanika.
Wakamba.
Msambara.
Sohili.
Man
muta
muntu
mgossi
mtu
Woman
mtsheta
muka
mdere
mtunke
Head
dzitzoa
mutue
mtoe
kitoa
Eye
dzitjo
ido
yisso
dshito
Nose
pula
embola
pum
pua
Tongue
lamini
uimi
uraka
ulimi
Tooth
dzino
ino
zino
dzhino
Ear
sikiro
idu
gutui
shikio
Hand
mukoTio
mukono
mukono
makono
Foot
gulu
mudumu
emrondi
gu
Sun
dzua
kua
zua
dzhua
Moon
muesi
moi
muesi
muesi
Star
nioha
nioa
niniesi
niota
Fire
muotto
muagi
muotto
muotto
Water
madyi
mandzi
mazi
madzhi
Stone
dziwe
dziwe
ziwe
dzhiwe
Tree
muhi
inutte
muti
mti
One
emmenga
umue
mosi
emmodsha
Two
embiri
ili
kaidi
embili
Three
tahu
itatu
katatu
tatu
Four
enne
inna
kanna
enne
Five
tyano
idano
kashano
tano
Six
tandaho
dandatu
ententatu
setta
Seven
fungahe
mama
fungate
sabaa
Eight
Dane
munda
nane
nani
Nine
kenda
kenda
kenda
kenda
Ten
kumi
kumi
kumi
kumu.
The Makua extends, at least, as far as Quilimani.
The Monjii, Muntu, or Makoa, is spoken to the back
of the Mozambik coast ; of which the Maravi of KoUe's
Polyglotta is, perhaps, the most inland dialect. In In-
hambane, where Portuguese influences succeed to Arabic,
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC.
561
such differences as exist are, probably, political rather
than philological. At any rate, the dialects seem to
graduate into each other. South of. Inhambane and
Sofala begins the Kaffraria of the British and Dutch
frontiers with, iis nominibus, the Zulu, the Kaffre
Proper, and the Bechuana as important and well-illus-
trated lano^uaojes — the last in contact with the Hotten-
tot ; to the north of which the Heriro, a true Kaffir
tongue, appears in the parts about Walwisch Bay. To
this, on the north, succeed the Benguela, the Angola, the
Congo, and, on the Equator, the Rungo, or Orungo, of the
Gabun. For the parts about Corisco Bay, we have
evidence that the language is essentially the same ;
whilst for Fernando Po and the Cameroons we have
abundant details — the languages being the Ediya of
Fernando Po and the Isubu and Dualla (little more than
dialects) of the Cameroons.
At the head waters of the Gabun lie the districts of
the Bakele, estimated by the missionaries at about
100,000 — lighter coloured than the tribes between them
and the sea ; darker than those of the mountains
behind them. Compared (as it is by either the author
or the editor of the grammar) with the Mpongwe of
the Gabtin it differs very materially ; the verbal resem-
blances being about one in ten. The present list,
however, makes them more.
English.
Mpongwe.
Bakele.
Man
kadia
makalie
Woman
owanto
raiali
Child
onwana
mana
erumbe
ndenbisliili
White man
otangani
ntanga
Head
ewonjo
langaka
Hair
orue
lashoi
Tongue
onleme
latheni
Mouth
ogwana
gwana
Tooth
ina
dishoa
Eye
intya
dishi
Ear
oroi
gwale
0 0
562
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC.
English.
Mpongwe.
Bakele.
Nose
inyoi
dioi
Beard
ilelu
jeli
Blood
ntyina
dikitha '
Belly
iwumu
mai
Bone
epa
avesha
Heart
ntyondo
lema
Foot
ntyozyo
dibo
Arm
oga
mbo
NecTc
ompele
kinh
Nail
ntyanga
landaka
Milk
ambeningo
manyadibo
House
nago
mbank
Hill
nomba
mbeka
Sun
nkombe
dioba
Moonlight
ilanga
mieli
Star
ogegeni
vietch
Cloud
evindi
avingi
Flower
olonda
tapesha
Tree
erere
jeli
Sand
intya
dishi
Fire
inu
du
Water
aningo
madiba
Wind
ompunga
punga
Fat
nye
dia
Burn
pia
dika
Bite
noma
kiele
Dig
tumba
kwete
Write
ten da
lenda
Fill
jonia
lonisha
Speak
kamba
lubila
Drink
jonga
nata
Run
pula
punda
Die
juwa
shasha
Boil
benla
taka
Kiss
samba
viba.
The following are miscellaneous illustrations of the
languages on the north-western portion of the Kaffir
area.
(From the Polyglotta Africana.)
Woman Head
muhata muntue
mehetu mutue
mbant umodsh
English
Man
Kisama
diala
Songo
diala
Runda
ekiunds
Luhalo
diyala
muhetu
muntue
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC.
563
English
Man
Woman
Read
Basunde
bakala
kento
tu
Nyombe
iyakala
nkelo
ntu
Kasange
diala
muketu
motue
Bumhete
balera
okasu
modsue
Babuma
balga
mokas
modsue
Mutsaya
lebalaka
mukeat
motsue
Ntere
bara
mokas
motsue
Kanyilca
muanumulon
muanumekas
motu
Mbamba
balera
okas
otue
Musentando
yakala
kento
ntu.
English
Nose
Eye
Far
Kisama
dizolu
diso
ditue
Songo
dizunu
liso
litu
Runda
mushor
liz
didsh
Lubalo
lizulo
liso
litue
Basunde
mbombo
odiz
kutu
Nyombe
dizulu
liso
kutu
Kasange
dizolu
aso
kutue
Bumbete
yolo
odisn
ledsue
Babuma
yulo
dsis
dsue
Mutsaya
yul
dsijs
dsui
Ntere
yilo
dsis
dsue
Kanyika
muol
diz
ditu
Mbamba
yolo
diz
tue
Musentando
luzunu
dizu
kutu.
English
Mouth
Tooth
Tongue
Kisama
dikanu
diso
demi
Songo
ndikanon
lizo
lemi
Runda
mulam
dizeu
ardim
Lubalo
likano
lizo
limi
Basunde
noa
dinu
ludimi
Nyombe
monu
dieno
ludimi
Kasange
kanua
lizu
limi
Bumbete
moyu
dinu
ukumonyui
Babuma
monyua
dsino
lelim
Mutsaya
monyua
dseni
lilim
Ntere
monyua
dsina
limi
Kanyika
mosuk
din
ludim
Mbamba
onyun
dini
lelemi
Musentando
nua
dinu
ludimi.
English
Fire
Wafer
Sun
Kisama
tuwia
menya
de kombi
Songo
tubia
menya
moanya
Runda
kasli
menyi
muten
o 0 2
564
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC.
Water
raema
nlangu
nlangu
meya
andsa
madsa
madsa
madsa
moaz
andsa
maza
To these add the numerals of the Fan,
much is made in Mr. Du Chaillu's work,
to the same class as the rest.
English
Fire
Lubalo
tibia
Basunde
mbazu
Nyombe
mbazu
Kasange
tubia
JBumbete
mba
Babuma
mbaa
Mutsaya
mba
mere
mba
Kanyika
mudil
Mbamba
mba
Musentando
tiwia
Sun
moanya
muini
tangu
likombi
ntangu
mi
mui
tari
munyenyi
nyango
tango.
of which so
They belong
English.
One
Two
Three
Fov/r
Fan.
fo
vei
m
tani
English.
Six
Nine
Ten
Fan.
sheme
zangoua
moftm ouam
iboum ibou
woom aboum.
On the Old Calabar the change is somewhat greater.
Still, the so-called Kaffir or South-African characters
have long been recognized in these parts ; and the
nearest congeners of the Otam, TJdom, or Old Calabar,
are the Isubu and Dualla.
{Languages with Otam, Isubu, Bakele, and Nufi,
affinities from the Polyglotta Africana.)
English.
Afudu.
Mfut.
Mbe.
Nso
Nose
idsion
nkodiu
etsoei
dzui
Eye
edsi
dsit
ero
ze
Ear
kato
ti
atone
ketor
Mouth
akuan
ndum
etsou
su
Tooth
edsin
dedson
ason
son
Tongue
nyuam
derim
inemi
kendemi.
EngUsh,
Murundo.
Undaza.
Ndob.
Tumu.
Nkele.
Konguan
Nose
mofiki
dsolu
dsu
edsu
diodsu
nyuen
Eye
diso
diz
dziet
dzid
dis
nies
Ear
ditoi
eloi
inyu
eyu
ore
atu
Mouth
mombo
madumba num
num
wuana
nyu
Tooth
disonga
dini
min
dzen
disuna
nenyan
Tongue
woena
lelimi
demog
demo
lawem
deler.
r^
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC.
665
English.
Mbarike.
Tiwi.
Boritsu.
Nose
ruan
ehinga
geu
Eye
ayip
asie
egi
Ear
aton
ator
atu
Mouth
ndso
itsoa
onu
Tooth
anyi
inyik
odun
Tongue
odsia
nomboro
omien.
English.
Yala.*
English.
Yala.
Man
onuro
Tongue
ugblenye
Woman
onya
Fire
ola
Head
lefu
Water
yenyi
Hair
ndsirehu
L
Sun
yeno
Nose
leni
One
osi
Eye
eyi
Two
epa
Ear
•woro
Three
eta
Mouth
okono
Fowr
ene
Tooth
anuro
Five
erua.
English Mmth
Tooth
Tongi
he Nose
Eye
Ear
Bayon ndsu
sonta
lem
dsi
li
eton
Pati nso
nzou
lim
adsi
all
aton
Kum ndso
son
den
nkontse
tse
ton
Bagha ndsu
aso
alo
atse
ali
aton
Balu nsud
nzon
lem
le
le
ntud
Bamon ndsot
nson
alem
edyi
ele
atot
Ngoala atsor
ason
andio
esuye
ndi
atonuri
Momenya ndsue
son
lam
dzoti
litab
tonti
Papiah nsu
esan
alam
nquerse
arse
tonule
Param ndzue
izon
titep
atsi
eti
eton.
English
Fire
Water
Sun
Bayon
mu
ndsib
nyum
Pati
mu
ndsi
nyu
Kum
mu
ndsab
nyam
Bagha
mu
ndsab
no
Balu
mu
. nke
ngam
Bamon
mu
nke
nyam
Ngoala
mu
nki
muno
Momenya
mu
ndsob
no.
Papiah
mu
nsi
nyam
Param
mo
nzi
minoch.
English.
Ngoten.
Melon.
Nhalemoe.
Nose
die
dio
do
'Eye
dis
dek
deih
Ear
eto
eto
eto
Mouth
nsiol
nsol
nsear
Tooth
esyon ,
eson
ason
Tongue
egeam
egiera
egiem.
*
See pa
ge 688.
566
LANGUAGES OF THE GABUN, ETC.
English.
Ekamtulufu.
Udom.
Mbofon.
Eafen.
Man
manum
manu
manun
nindun
Woman
raanka
manka
manka
nike
Head
esi
esi
esi
idsi
Hair
nnji
nnu
nyu
ndu
Nose
miu
ntanaman
ntanamin
nnui
Eye
amar
lemar
amoramer
ayet
Ear
eton
eton
etun
otun
Tooth
aman
leman
nemen
eyin
Tongue
liliwi
leliwe
neriwe
erib
Sun
no
ndsol
ndon
ndsudsi
Fire
ngon
ngun
ngon
ngun
Water
alap
alap
aneb
ayib.
The languages akin to the Otam have been so
thoroughly recognized as Kaffir, or South African, that
they are given in the present chapter ; though they are,
really, transitional. Of those that next come under
notice all that can be said is that they have, gene-
rally, been associated with their congeners to the north
rather than the south. They have, however, affinities
on either side.
BONNY AND IBO DIALECTS.
567
CHAPTER LXX.
The Bonny, Brass Town, Ibo, and Benin languages. — The Mandingo, Accra,
Krepi, Kru, &c. — Remarks on the Mandingo class. — The Begharmi. -
Mandara. — Kanuri. — Hawssa. — Sungai. — Kouri,— Yoruba. — Tapua or
Nufi — Batta.— Fula, &c.— The Serawulli— WolofF, &c.— Hottentot.
The Okiiloma and Udso are Obane (or Bonny), the Aro
and Mbofia, Brass Town (Oro or Ejo), dialects. The
remainder belong to the interior of the Delta of the
Niger ; the Isoama and Isiele being Iho Proper, or Ibo in
the limited sense of the term. It is a name, however,
which may be given to the whole class.
English.
Okuloma.
Udso,
Aro.
Mhofia,
Sobo.
Man
oubo
owebo
nowoke
unyoka
osale
Woman
erebo
yorobo
unwai
nuame
aye
Head
dsibe
tebe
isi
isi
uhiomi
Hair
nume
dime
abosi
ebesi
eto
Nose
nini
nine
imi
imi
unwe
Eye
toru
toro
anya
enya
ero
Ear
beli
beri
nte
nte
eso
Tooth
aka
aka
eze
ezie
ako
Tongue
bele
belo
ile
ile
ereme
Sun
erua
erei
anyano
enyan
ore
Fire
fene
fene
oko
oko
esale
Water
minqi
beni
mmeli
min
ame.
English,
Egbele.
Bini.
Olomo.
Isoama.
Isiele.
Man
omoi
okpea
asi
nuoke
onyeke
Woman
ogbutso
ogwoho
asarae
ndiora
onyui
Head
usumi
oh una
qika
isi
isi
Hair
etc
eto
ehu
asi
edsi
Nose
isue
ihue
iso
imi
imi
Eye
eloe
aro
ilogo
anya
enya
Ear
eo
eho
goso
nte
anti
Tooth
ako
ako
ako
eze
esi
568 THE DAHOMEY DIALECTS.
English.
Egbele.
Bini.
Olonio.
Isoama.
Isiele.
Tongue
olemi
oneme
ore
ile
ile
Sun
ele
ufore
ahoni
anyanu
enyanu
Fire
itari
. etare
igesane
oko
oko
Water
ame
ame
ame
mmeli
mmi.
I now come to a group, which, in the present state
of our knowledge, must be treated as the Bhot and
Burma group was treated in Asia. It is a large one in
every respect : large in respect to its geographical area ;
large in respect to the members of which it consists.
It is a complex one as well : inasmuch as it falls into
divisions -and sub-divisions. And it is also a wide one ;
i. e. its extremities differ greatly from each other.
Lastly, it is provisional, and, more or less, artificial.
I shall exclude from it the Woloff and some other
tongues on the north. I have excluded from it the Ibo
and some other tongues on the south. Yet, I fail to
find a clear line of demarcation. The class, in short, is
certainly either too large or too small. It stands, how-
ever, as it is, because it is valid as far as it goes ; be-
cause it is convenient ; and, finally, because any miscon-
ception as to its character, any possibilitj^ of mistaking
it for a natural instead of an artificial one, has been
guarded against.
Eoughly speaking, it extends from the Niger to
the Gambia, and includes the numerous dialects and
subdialects of the Slave, Gold, Ivory, Pepper, and Grain
Coasts, along with the Mandingo languages. Towards
the interior its extent is uncertain ; whilst, on the coast,
there is a strip of low land not belonging to it : so
that, in tracing it along the Atlantic, we first lose and
then find it again.
At the mouth of the Formosa the Yebu dialect of
the Yoruba touches the sea with the Benin at its back
stretching inland. The main language, however, is that
of Dahomey, spoken (there or thereabouts) from Lagos to
the Volta, and extending far inland, with ^he Anfue, the
THE DAHOMEY DIALECTS.
569
Dahomey Proper, and the Mahi as its chief dialects ;
each with divisions and subdivisions. The numerous
vocabularies headed Fot, Popo, Widah, Atye, Mahi,
and Badagry, &;c., belong to this great group.
English.
Widah.
Dahomey.
Mahi.
Man
sunu
sunu
nyaneou
Woman
nyoni
nyonu
iyon
Head
Ota
ta
onta
Hair
da.
da
oda
Nose
awoti
asti
awote
Eye
nuku
nuku
onuku
Ear
oto
to
otogue
Tooth
adu
adu
adu
Tongue
ede
de
ede
Sun
ohwe
pewesiwo
uque
Fire
ozo
zo
uzo
Water
zi
zi
ezi.
The Accra, Inkra, or, as the natives call it, the Gha
language, is nearly related to the Otshi, being spoken
near Cape Castle ; the Ada^npi being a dialect of it.
The Kerrapay is spoken in Abiraw, Odaw, Aokugwa,
Abonse, Adukrum and Apiradi, villages or towns of
Akwapim, other than Otshi ; in which, however, the
Otshi, as the language of the dominant population, is
generally understood.
Date and Kubease, like Abiraw, &;c., are Akwapim
villages, whereof the language is other than the Otshi.
It is, also, other than the Kerrapong, Kerrapay, Kerrapi,
or Krepee ; what it is being uncertain. *
(1-)
English.
Adampi.
Anfue.
Man
nuzu
nutsu
Woma'-i
nyoru
lonu
Head
eta
ita
Hair
eda
eda
Nose
DOti
anati
Eye
onku
anku
570
THE GOLD COAST DIALECTS.
English.
Adampi
Anfae.
Ear
eto
eto
Tooth
adu
adu r'
Tongue
ade
ade
Sun
ewo
oudo
Fire
ezo
itso
Water
ezi
edsi.
(2.)
English.
Accrah.
Adampi.
Krepee.
God
mah'u
mab'wu
mah'nu
Devil
bo'san
az'za
baiya
Man
bom' ma
nu'mu **
u'chu or amiLa
Woman
yo
ye'o
yonno
Boy
Vaka
j ho' qua
deyve
Girl
ob'bli'o
ya'yo
tubboqua
Infant
abbe'fah'o
jho'qvia-borbio
veve'ahja
White man
blofonyo
blofon'o
yovo
Wife
n'yah
a'yo
sun'no
Head
echu or echo
ye
tab
Hair
echawe
yebuob
dah
Bye
emay or hingma
hingmai
unku
Nose
gungo
gugon
watt6
Mouth
narbo
ny'am
nume
Teeth
ngoneeng
lun'go
addu
Tongue
lilla
lilla
adda
Ear
toe or toy
toe
etto
Sun
un
pun
awa
Moon
yon'che'16
u'ramme
wa:a
Star
ou'rabme
ii'ramme dodo'e
rotev'e
Air
koy'ah
koiyo
av'vu-voh
Fire
lab
lah
edjo
Water
noo
Tiyu
ech^
SJcy
n'wa
e'om
jimma
One
eku'me
kok'ka
dek'kah
Two
en'yo
en'yo
a'ya
Three
etta
et'ta
atong
Four
edj'wa
adj'way
en'ua
Five
en'nu'mo
en'nuo
atton
Six
ek'pah
ek'pah
ad'da
Seven
pah' wo
m'pah'go
adderre
Eight
pah'no
pahn'yo
en'yg
Nine
na'ing
na
en'yeda
Ten
nu'mah
nu'mah
a' wo.
The Otshi is the language of the Gold Coast ; such,
at least, is the name given by the chief authority for
THE AVEKVOM.
571
its grammatical structure — Riis. The numerous vocabu-
laries of Bowdich named Inta belong to this class.
Another general name, (and perhaps) the best, is Fanti.
The Ashanti of Coomasee, the capital, along with
the Coromantin and the Boroom, belongs to this group.
So do the numerous vocabularies of the Mithridates
headed Akkim, Akripon, Fetu, &c.
For the Ivory coast the following vocabulary of the
Avekvom is the only one I know.
English.
Avekvom.
Other Languages.
Arm,
ebo
ubok, EJih
Blood
evie
eyip, EJik; eye, Jebu.
Bone
ewi
beu, Fanti.
Box
ebru
br^nh, G7'ebo.
Canoe
edie
tonh, Grebo.
Chair
fata
bada, Grebo.
Dark
eshim
esum, Fanti ; ekiin, EJik.
Dog
etye
aja, ayga, Jebu.
Door
esliinavi
usuny, EJik.
Ear
eshibe
esoa, Fanti.
Fire
eya
ija, Fanti.
Fish.
etsi
eja, eya, Fanti.
Fowl
esu
suseo, Mandingo ; edia, Jebu.
Ground-nut
ngeti
nkatye, Fanti.
Hair
emu
ihwi, Fanti.
Honey
ajo
ewo, Fanti ; oyi, Jebu.
House
eva
ifi, Fanti ; ufog, Efik.
Moon
efe
h&.bo, Grebo ; ofiong, EJik.
Mosketo
efo
obong, Fanti.
OU
inyu
ingo, Fanti.
Main
efuzumo-sohn
sanjio, Mandingo.
Rainy season
eshi
ojo, mm, Jebu.
Salt
etsa
ta, Grebo.
Sand
esian-na
utan, Efik.
Sea
etyu
idu, Grebo.
Stone
desi
sia, shia, Grebo.
Thread
jesi
gise, Grebo.
Tooth
enena
nyeng, Mandingo; gne, Grebo.
Water
esonh
nsu, Fanti.
Wife
emise
muso, Mandingo ; mbesia,
Cry
yaru
isu, Fanti. [Fanti
Give
nae
nye, Grebo; no, Efik.
Go
le
olo, Jebu.
Kill
bai
fa, Mandingo ; pa, Jebu.
572
THE MANBINGO LANGUAGES.
That the Kru languages are either actually Man dingo,
or members of a closely-connected class, is certain. Dr.
Kolle, indeed, separates them. The present writer did
so in 1847 ; the data being, at that time, both insuffi-
cient and imperfectly known to him. Soon, however,
after the publication of his treatise Mr. Dupuis informed
him that he held the two groups to be intimately allied ;
if, indeed, they, really, were two. Dr. Bleek has expressed
himself (and I believe he is the first writer who has done
so in print) to the same effect: — "The Mena " (Man-
dingo) " family which includes the dialects spoken by the
Krumen,"" &;c.
. {From the Polyglotta Africana.)
English. Dewoi.
Woman
nyero
ma
Head
duru
tru
Hair
mi
mi
Nose
mera
mola
Eye
gire
gire
■ Ear
lo
lo
Tooth
mire
nire
Tongue
mia
mio
. SVM
owu
giro
Fire
nae
nye
Water
ni
ni.
English.
Km,
Grebo.
Gbe.
Man
nyiyu
nyebeyu
gandsie
Woman
nyiro
nyire
nyiro
Head
debo
lu
duru
Hair
nui
pumle
mi
Nose
mera
mia
mra
Eye
gie
yie
girie
Ea/r
nogu
nua
dohu
Tooth
nye
'
nye
nyire
Tongue
me
mme
meo
Swn
giro
unwe
giru
Fire
ne
na
nasuru
Water
ni
ni
ni.
The Mandingo Proper is the language of the Maho-
metan Blacks of Medina and the Lower Gambia. Being
occasionally written in the Arabic character, it has a
THE MANDINGO LANGUAGES. 573
tincture of cultivation. Though we can scarcely call it
classical, the Mandingo of Medina is the standard dialect
of the group.
If we look to the Polyglotta Africana for the proper
Mandingo forms of speech we find the following thir-
teen : — 1 . Mandingo z= Kalbunga, Toronka, Jallunka,
Kankanka ; 2. Bambarra ; 3. Kono ; 4. Yei ; 5. Soso
(SlisTi, or Soosoo) =: Solima and Kisekise ; 6. Tene ;
7. Gbandi ; 8. Landoro ; 9. Mendi ; 10. Gbese ; 11.
Toma; 12. Mano ; 13. Gio.
The differences between the Mandingo, Jallunka, and
Bambarra, have always been considered small. The
Kono is an allied form of speech under a new name. The
Yei is more like the Mandingo Proper than its geogra-
phical position suggests.
The Susu, probably, includes the Tene.
In Jallonkadu the language is in contact with the
Fulah of Futa-torro.
In Bambarra, the language is said to be mixed
with the Woloff and Fulah.
In Bambarra, too, it has departed considerably from
the strict Mandingo type, and becomes either a well-
marked dialect, or a fresh language. Between Sego and
Jenn^ (both on the Niger) it is replaced by the Sunghai.
More divergent than the Jallunka and Bambarra,
but, still, visibly .Mandingo, the Susu is spoken over a
large unexplored tract at the back of Sierra Leone, of
which the best-known tribes are the Sulimas, described
by Major Laing. Bounded on the north by the Fulahs
of Futa-dzhallo, they are Black Pagans, with warlike
dispositions, and commercial aptitudes.
The Kissi lies to the south of the Sulima ; being,
probably, a dialect of the Susu.
Between the Vei district about Cape Mount and the
Kissi country, lies the 'Mendi.
The Vei, spoken over a small tract of country, extends
574 THE VEI ALPHABET.
from tlie Gallinas to Cape Mount : extending inland
40 or 50 miles. It seems to be intrusive; and there
is a belief amongst the Yei themselves that they
migrated from the Mani country under the captainship
of two brothers Fabule and Kiatamba. When this took
place is uncertain.
The existence of a native alphabet has given promi-
nence to the Yei language. The first notice of it was
given by Lieut. Forbes, in 1849, who inquired whether
the missionaries of Sierra Leone had ever heard of a
written language amongst the natives of the parts about
Cape Mount. He also showed a MS. which was soon
afterwards in England and in the hands of Mr. JNorriss,
who deciphered and translated it. Meanwhile the
missionary committee appointed Mr. Kolle to visit the
country referred to by Lieut. Forbes and to make
inquiries on the spot. This led him into the presence
of a Yei native, named Doalu Bukere, about forty years
old ; who, assisted by ^ye of his friends, invented the
alphabet in question.
Without undervaluing Doalu Bukere's ingenuity, we
must remember that, as a boy, he had learned to read
English, and afterwards, Arabic. When grown-up to be
a man he was all but a regular letter-carrier. His
masters, who were slavers, and traders, despatched him
to distant places as a messenger, and he told Mr. Kolle
that the communication of distant events by means of
the letters he conveyed struck him forcibly. " How is
this, that my master knows everything I have done in
a distant place ? He only looks at the book, and this
tells him all. Such a thing we ought to have, by which
we could speak to each other even though separated by
a great distance."
The Sokko is associated with the Jallonka in the
Mithridates ; and when we remember how scanty
were our data when that great work was composed.
THE SOKKO, ETC. 575
we may readily infer that its affinity is pretty palpable.
It probably belongs to the most eastern division of
the proper Mandingo class ; since it must be looked
for in the district of the Kong Mountains, with their
direction from west to east, and their parallelism with
the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. Whether it lie to
the back of the Grain Coast, where the Kru prevails,
is uncertain. It is more likely to be found to the north
of the Ivory Coast. At any rate Oldendorp, who took
his information from three individuals of three tribes,
states that their country bordered on that of the Amina
— the Amina belonging to the Fanti class, the Fanti class
of which the Gold Coast is the special occupancy. I
have enlarged upon this, because the extent to which an
undoubted Mandingo tongue comes in contact with both
the Fanti and the Kru areas is a point in favour of the
affiliation of the three groups.
I now give a sketch of eleven languages which are
conveniently taken together. They form as natural a
group as circumstances permit ; and are as follows ; —
1. Begharmi, the most eastern of the group.
2. The Mandara.
3. The Kanuri of Bornii.
4. The Hawsa.
5. The Sunghai.
6. The Kouri.
7. The Yoruba.
8. The Tapua or Nufi.
9. The Batta.
10. The Fula.
11. The Tibbu.
Their general order is from east to west ; and the dis-
trict to which they belong reaches from Lake Tshad to
the Niger. It is pre-eminently an inland district. It is
an intertropical one. It is, to a great extent, destitute
of great rivers ; without being a desert. It is sub-
tended by the parts below 9° N. L., or, the terra incog-
S'je THE BEGHARMI, ETC.
nita, for the northern half of Africa ; from which it
follows that, whether the lano^uao*es under notice have or
have not affinities on their southern frontiers, such affi-
nities as may exist are unknown. This is much the
same as saying that the further we go south, the farther
we recede from Mahometan, and advance into Pagan,
Africa.
So much for its southern limit. On the north it under-
lies the Sahara in respect to its geography, and the
Arab and x^Lmazig areas in respect to its ethnology and
philology — the Arab and Amazig areas both being
Mahometan. It may be added (though the remark is
in anticipation of what will appear as we proceed) that
it is nearly co-extensive with the ground covered by
the Fula conquests.
It is a zone, or band, and, though some of its occu-
pants have comparatively light-coloured skins, it is, as
contrasted with the broader zone to the north, a Black
Band. It has been called Nigritia. It has been called
Sudania. But it is a Black Band only when contrasted
with northern Africa.
All the above-named languages are, in the present state
of our knowledge, separated from each other by definite
lines of demarcation. It may, perhaps, be added that
they are all equi-distant from each other, i. e. the first
on the list is (about) as like or unlike the second as the
second is like or unlike the third. They have all miscel-
laneous affinities ; though the special ones are less than the
geographical relations suggest. At the same time, as far
as they go, it is with the geographical relations that
the affinities coincide. Tlie intrusive Fula, with its
wide and irregular distribution, is, perhaps, an exception
to this rule.
To the north of Lake Tshad, along with the Tibbu of
Kanem, the Arabic of the Beni Suliman and other tribes,
is spoken; whilst farther to the west lies Darsaleh, Wa-
day, or Borgho, of which notice has already been taken.
THE BEGHARMI, ETC.
577
( 1 .) The Begharmi is conterminous with the Tibbu, the
Bornui, and the Mandara on the north, west, and south,
the details of its eastern frontier being unknown. It
may or may not touch the Mobba and Dar-runga areas.
It is known by vocabularies only, of which Denham's is
the chief.
(2.) The Mandara is the nearest approach we have to
a language of the interior of Africa, being the only one
spoken south of the tenth degree of latitude in any part
of the continent equally central. Indeed, the tenth
degree on each side of the equator bounds the terra
incognita. Towards the eastern and western extremi-
ties of the zone thus described, Burton, Livingstone,
and others have explored ; but for the interior Denham
and Barth are our only authorities. The Mandara is
one of the languages^ given in the forthcoming list of
the languages of Adamowa, Hamarua, and the parts
around. (See p. 589.)
English.
Begharmi.
Mandira.
Man
gaba
geela
Woman
nee
mugsa
gala (cfirl)
Head
geujo
erey
Eye
kammoo
echey
Teeth
nganah
Mouth
tara
okay
Nose
amo
ukteray
Feet
njanja
Sun
kaja
Fire
heddoo
Water
mane
yowah
Wind
belee
Wood
clieree
One
keddy
mtague
Two
sub
sandah
Three
mattah
kighab
Four
soh
fuddah
Five
mee
elibab
Six
meeka
n'quaha
Seven
chilly
^ oubay
Eight
marta
teesa
Nine
doso
musselman
Ten
dokemy
klaon.
P P
578 THE KANURI, ETC.
(3.) It is a current statement that as many as thirty
different tongues are spoken in Bornu. This we get
from a notice by Lucas whose informant was an official
of that country. Seetzen throws a httle light upon this ;
his informant having been a negro of Affadeh. The first
language enumerated by him is —
1 . The Mana Birniby, or speech of Bornu itself.
2. The Amszigh Mpade, a country six days' journey
northwards.
3. The Mszaiin onkalone Karama, or the speech of a
country seven days east of Affadeh, called by the Arabs
Kalphey.
4. The Amszigh Affadeh.
Towards our knowledge of the other twenty-six, the
following list was obtained by Seetzen from a negro of
Mobba, whom he met at Cairo.
5. The Kajenjah. 6. The Upderrak 7. The Alih.
8. The Mingon. 9. The 3faraTet. 10. The Massalit
11. The Szongor, 12. The Kuka. 13. The Dadshu.
14. The Bandalah. 15. The Masmajah. 16. The
Njorga. 17. The Dembe. 18. The Malangoe. 19. The
Mime. 20. The Koruboih. 21. The Gonuk 22. The
Kabha. 23. The Guranguk 24. The Dshellaba.
Of these the Amszigh Mpade may be the Amazigh,
a language of the Sahara rather than Bornii itself. In
like manner some of the others may belong to the Bornu
Empire rather than to the district so-called. Of the
Affadeh, however, we have, eo nomine^ short specimens.
It is closely akin to the Mana Birniby, the Proper
Bornui, or Kanuri.
The Arabic alphabet hg^s been applied to the Kanuri ;
the data for Norriss's Kanuri Grammar having been a
collection of dialogues from Madame de Genlis's Manuel
de VoyageuT, a translation of two chapters of the New
Testament, and the draft of an agreement to be made
with one of the petty kings of the interior of Africa.
These were written at Tripoli, and sent to England by the
late Mr. Richardson ; there was a similar translation into
THE KANURI, ETC.
the Hawsa. The author 'was an Arab. Kolle's grammar
was framed upon conversations with a native of the pro-
vince of Gazir whom the author found at Sierra Leone.
Mr. Norriss, enlarging upon the extent to which the
Kanuri differs from the other languages, compares its
structure with that of the Turk dialects. Its roots are
not subject to any modification ; it forms its plural by
adding a syllable, and it has a somewhat full inflection,
consisting wholly of postpositions.
(Bornu dialects.)
English.
Bode.
Ngodzen.
Dodi.
Man
gemsenen
gemseg
amsey
Woman
game
ama
uma
Head
adatka
ada
ada
Hair
dadsin
yat
yad
Nose
iskinen
ten
Stan
Eye
dat
da
ida
Ear
gutanen
aqut
quat
Tooth
yanuanen
yanou
nayou
Tongue
muret
marinyi
Sun
afan
afa
afa
Fire
akan
aka
aka
Water
amu
am
aam.
Englisli.
Kanuri.
Munio.
Nguru.
Kanem.
Man
koa
kangoa
kangoa
koa
Woman
kamu
kamu
kamu
kamu
Head
kala
kala
kala
kela
Hair
kanduli gazi
kanduli
kundali
Nose
kentsa
kindsa
kindsa
kenza
Eye
sim
sim
sim
asim
Ear
sumo
sumo
sumo
tsumo
Tooth
timi
temi
temi
temi
Tongue
telam
telam
tetam
tatam
Sun
kau
kau
ka.u
kengal
Fire
kanu
kanu
kanu
kanu
Water
nki
engi
ngi
ngi.
English.
Buduma.
English,
Buduma.
Man
hagoei
Ear
homogu
Woman
ngerem
Tooth
haneni
Head
kodagu
Tongue
talamdagu
Hair
ndsige
Sun
adsi
Nose
dsenegu
Fire
ou
Eye
yelegu
Water
amei.
p p 2
680 THE KANURL ETC.
English.
Logone.*
Mobha*
One
teku
tek
ser^dia
Two
ksde
bar
Three
gaxkir
kungal
Four
gade
asal
Five
sesi
tor
Six
venaxkir
settal
Seven
katul
mindri
Eight
venyade
Tya
Nine
disxien
adoi
Tm
xk^n
atuk.
(4.) Whatever may be the areas for the (?) twenty-
seven unknov^n languages of Bornti, they are not on any
of the explored portions of the Hawsa frontier, inasmuch
as the two languages meet. The Hawsa, like the
Bornu, has been written in Arabic characters, whilst
from Schon's grammar we learn the details of its struc-
ture. It gives either the germ or the fragment of a pe-
culiarity, of which more will be said when the Yoruba
comes under notice.
(5.) Roughly speaking, the Sunghai area is bounded
by 1 3° N. L. and the Niger ; the line of demarcation
being a chord and an arc. The line of latitude runs
straight, whilst the river, which meets it at both its
extremities, approaches N. L. 18°. Between these lies
the great mass of the Sunghai area, though not ex-
clusivety. On the north it is bounded by the Arabic
and the Amazig, both encroaching languages ; on the
west by the Serawulli (?) and the Bambarra ; on the
East by the Fula and Hawsa ; on the south by the
Kouri of Tombo, Mosi, and Gurma ; the line of de-
marcation here being pre-eminently obscure. All along
the northern frontier there is great intermixture —
men of Sunghai blood using the Fula, Hawsa (?),
Amazig, Arabic, Serawulli (?), and Mandingo dialects,
and vice versa. Gogo, the ancient capital of a kingdom,
stands in Sunghai ground. Timbuktu, more famous
* For the explanation of these two columns see the appendix.
TUB KOURI.
581
still, does the same. To the south of Timbuktti the
Ireffenaten Tuariks have intruded far in the direction of
the Kouri frontier ; between whom and the Niger lie
several independent tribes ; amongst whom, it is proba-
ble, that foreign admixture is at the 'ininimuTii. Their
land, however, is a terra incognita. Of their language
I only know one sample from the extreme west, and
one from the parts about Timbuktu.
(6.) The chief districts of the Kouri area are Gurma,
Tombo, and Mosi. Of these, the former is less Kouri
than the other two ; this is because Gurma is on both
the Sunghai and the Bambarra frontiers, from each of
which there have been pressure and encroachment. Pres-
sure, too, and encroachment have also been effected by
the Fulas. That Gurma is a Sunghai name, as sug-
gested by Barth, is probable. At any rate, it is not
native. The Gurma people call the Hawsa people
Jongoy. The Tombo, like Gurma, has been encroached
upon by the Fulas, so that Mosi is the district which
is most especially Kouri. It is Pagan, and broken up
into small principalities. The Bambarra name for the
Mosi is Moreba. The Mosi themselves call —
The Fulas .
— Sunghai
— Gurma
Chilmigo,
Marenga,
Bimba,
— Wangara
— Hawsa
— Ashantis
Taurearga,
Zangoro,
Santi.
Kolle calls it the North-Eastern High Soudanian, but
the present writer, in 1855, suggested the name under
notice on the strength of a vocabulary of Mrs. Kil-
ham's, representing the same language with the Tembu
of the Mithridates. In the Polyglotta Africana there
is also a Kaure, as well as a Kiamba, Dzhamba, or
Tem specimen.
The members of this group, according to Kolle, are
582 THE KOURI.
1. Mose ; 2. Dselana ; 3. Guren ; 4. Gurma ; 5. Le-
gba ; 6, Kaure ; 7. Kiamba ; 8. Koama ; 9. Bagba-
lan ; 10. Yula ; 11. Kasm. Of all of these forms of
speech KoUe gives specimens.
To this we may add the Yngwe, and Dagwhumba
numerals of Bowdich.
In Clarke we get the following additions: — ^1. Yana;
2. Brinni ; 3. Nibulu ; 4. and no less than 4 Tsham-
bas.
Yana is stated to be near Appa and Tshamba. It is,
probably, a transitional dialect, with Inta, Mandingo,
Yoruba, and I bo affinities.
The Brinni are called a tribe of the Fula race in the
interior, not far from Umwalum and Tshamba. Bangsa
and Pumpluna are near to Tshamba. This statement as
to the Fula affinity is exceptionable. They are de-
cidedly in the same class with the Nibulu.
Nibulu is simply said to be in the Tshamba country.
When we look to the word Tshamba itself, we learn
that there are three or more places of this name, 1st,
near Igarra, on the river Odu ; 2nd, between Mandingo
and the Kong Mountains ; 3rd, near Corisco Bay at
Nibulu. Now as Tshamba is the word of salutation
at this place, some confusion may have arisen, which
future researches will explain. At any rate, the
combination mb preceded by k, t, sh, &c., is common.
There is the Tim6u country on the Senegambia, Kim6o,
Tim6u-ctu, Aquim6o, Adampi. In Balbi there is a
Tjem6u or Kassenti. The Tambu of Oldendorp is the
TdamY>i of the Gold Coast. Whatever may be the
explanation of all this, it is clear that the word as a
name of the class under consideration is inconvenient.
Whether Kouri (the term proposed by the present writer)
be the best name is another question. It is less am-
biguous than Tshamba ; shorter than North-Eastern High
Sudanian.
The watershed, marked in the map as the Mountains
THE KOURI.
583
of Kong, between the rivers which empty themselves into
the Gulf of Guinea (the Yolta, &c.) and the feeders on
the right bank of the Niger, belongs to the Kouri country,
which, in some parts, touches the Niger itself It lies in
the longitude of Greenwich, and (perhaps) 8 degrees on
each side of it, and in 1 0 N. L. It is certainly a broken
and mountainous country with a pagan population.
The question which now arises touches the accuracy
of the boundary by Kolle, who limits the group under
notice to the forms of speech enumerated by him. I
would add to it, at least, two of his South African lan-
guages, the Barba, and the Boko. The Barba he iden-
tifies, from memory, with the Borgu of the Hawsa.
Boko touches Busa on the Koara.
English, head, hair.
Barba, wiru, siru.
Mose, zuru.
Legba, nyoro.
Kaure, nyoro.
Kasm, yum.
Aku, &c., oru.
English, face.
Barba, wusoa.
Legba, esa.
Kaure, esa.
Kiamba, esancla.
Aku, odsu.
Kambali, Hsu.
English, nose.
Barba, nueru.
Mose, nyore.
Guresa, nyor.
English, eye.
Barba, noni.
Mose, nini.
Gruresa, nun.
I English, ear.
j Barba, so.
Boko, zea.
Guresa, tui.
English, mouth.
Barba, no.
Legba, nolo.
Koama, ni.
Kasm, ni.
That the Boko and Barba should be Kouri is only
what we expect from their geographical situation.
Is there any other class besides the Kouri for the un-
explored parts between the Kong Mountains and the
Niger ? In other words, do we, when we get the Kouri
class, get a class that completes our ethnographic and
philologic knowledge for these parts? We do. No
unplaced language is likely to be discovered. This is
inferred from the fact of the limits of the Kouri class,
being formed, on all sides, by some known language.
Thus:
I. On the north, it touches, and, perhaps, graduates
into, the Mandingo, Sunghai, and Hawsa.
684
THE KOUKI.
2. On the south, it touches the Km, the Avekvom,
the Inta, the Dahomey, and Yoruba groups of the
Grain, Ivory, Gold, and Slave coasts.
3. On the east it reaches the Hawsa, and
4. On the east, and south-east, the Nufi.
With all of which it has miscellaneous affinities.
If the Kouri has relations to the Mandingo and the
Nufi on one side, it has also relations to the Sunghai of
Timbuktu on the other. Perhaps, it is the language to
which the Sunghai of Timbuktu is most especially like.
The pronoun of the first person singular is ai, or a in
both the Timbuktti of Kolle, and his Yula and Kasm ;
to say nothing of other definite glossarial likeness.
That the so-called South-African characteristics were
likely to be found in the Kouri is stated in the paper
of April 27, 1855. I now add that ahalo — man.
The name of a Kouri population is nibalu ; probably
=2 men. Should this be shown to be the case, we have
the Kaffir-like plurals in a fresh language.
{Kouri dialects.)
English.
Koama.
Bagbalan.
Man
mbal
bala
Woman
hal
hala
Head
nynn
nyi
Hair
nyipose
nyupun
Nose
mese
misan
Eye
se
sian
Ear
dera
deral
Tooth
kele
nila
Tongue
mandelem
dendelman
Sun
iya
iwia
Fire
nien
nyin
Water
le
uen.
English.
Kasm.
Yula.
Man
nokio
baro
Woman
kam
kam
Head
yiru
yuru
Hair
iye
yua
Nose
moe
mui
Eye
yi
yibn
Ewr
ze
zoa
THE YORUBA.
5
English.
Kasm.
Yula.
Tooth
nyal
iyele
Tongue
dendele
dendele
Sun
iya
we
Fire
men
men
Water
na
na.
English.
Kambali.
English.
Kambali.
Man
wale
Ear
atsuvu
Woman
waha
Tooth
uno
Head
adsin
Tongue
anga
Hair
hondsi
Sun
urana
Nose
vunu
Fire
ahina
Eye
lisn
Water
moni.
English.
Mose.
Dzelana
Guresa.
Gurma.
Man
dawa
do
nedo
odso
Woman
para
pora
pura
wopua
Head
zuru
zoh
zu
yuli
Hair
kodwdo
zuih
su
tiyudi
Nose
nyore
mer
nyuara
amiare
Eye
nine
nump
nun
numu
Ear
towre
tepar
tui
tuwili
Tooth
nyena
nor
nanbana nyawu
Tongue
zilamd
dselenk
gingelona lamba
Sun
nuende
gmint
wumbr
oyenu
Fire
burum
borom
bolam
omu
Water
kom
nyam
nylam
nyima.
English.
Legba.
Kaure.
Keamba.
Man
abalo
abalo
ebalo
Woman
alo
alo
alo
Head
nyoro
nyoro
kudyo
Hair
nyos
nyos
nyoz
Nose
mire
moro
numbon
Eye
esire
esire
esire
Ear
mungbanuro
tingbanu
eligbamu
Tooth
nolo
nor
noa
Tongue
isuromule
nsolumere
esuromo
SVM
elim
wes
woze
Fire
koko
gmin
nimin
Water
lam
lem
lem.
585
(7.) The YoTuha area lies, there or thereabouts, be-
tween 2° and G° W. L., and 6° and 10° N. L., being
bounded by the Dahomey, the Kouri (?), the Nufi, and
the Ibo languages and the sea. The Fula has en-
croached upon it. It has a well-defined boundary, and the
586 THE YORUBA.
language is well defined also : indeed, few African lan-
guages are better capable of being definitely limited. So
is it geographically, so philologically. Its nearest con-
geners are the Kouri, Nufi, and Ibo, and it has miscel-
laneous affinities besides. Until the publication of Crow-
ther's grammar, the author of which, himself a native
of the country, is a clergyman of the Church of Eng-
land, little was known of it beyond a few vocabulary
specimens. It has now been studied with more than
average attention. A paper upon it by D'Avezac in
the Transactions of the lYench Ethnological Society
enlarged upon the extent to which it was what was
called a monosyllabic language. . But are not all lan-
guages, when we get to the roots, something of the
kind ? The real fact is this — without being more mono-
syllabic than many other tongues, the Yoruba is more
easily than many others reducible to its elements. The
best analysis of it is by Bishop Vidal the editor of Crow-
ther's second edition. He enlarges upon the extent to
which it is deficient of inflection. This means that the
relations of time and place are expressed by separate
words. He takes note of the important part played by
accents.
He notes, too, what he calls the Vocalic Euphony.
Let the vowels be separated into two classes, and let o, e,
i, ^, u, and u be called open ; whilst o, e, a, and a, are
close. Let the full forms of the pronouns be erne z=. I,
iwo — thou, on — he, she, or it. When these precede
verbs like ko, shi, she, shi, ku, or lu, they are mo, o, and
6, i. e. open. Whereas if they precede verbs like ko, fe,
la, or kco, they are close. The same is the case with the
negative particle which is ki, ko, or kg, according to the
vowel of the verb. He indicates either a germ or a
fragment of a like system in the Hawsa.
Another reniarkable phenomenon — by means of a
regular system of prefixes we get fi'om a root like shezz
sin, the following derivatives : —
THE YORUBA. 587
a. Prefix i, and the root becomes either an infinitive
verb, or something closely akin to it, i. e. if she =. do, fe
-zzlove, mo=:knoWy or loz=.go, ise, ife, irao, ilgzzthe act
of doing, loving, &c.
h. A more concrete meaning is given by substituting
a for i. Thus, afe iz a state of loving, alozna going.
c. Ali gives an inchoative sense ; thus atilozzthe act
of going ; atife-zzthe act of loving, considered as not
yet in full exercise, but about to be so.
d. A 'w, B, negative ; hence, a-imo =. not knowing, or
igno7^ance.
e. A also denotes an agent; thus, from pejja=:fish,
and konrin =. sing, we get apejja =. a fisherman, aJconrin
zza singer.
f Ni = have ; and, as a prefix, implies the posses-
sion of the attribute suggested by the verb. Thus,
idajq zz. judgment comes nidajo =. to j^ossess judgment.
In certain cases in which the vocalic euphony plays a
part, this n becomes I, as it is in the example of tbe
table.
g. Prefix, where ni is retained, o, and, in other
cases, the initial vowel of the word which it precedes,
and it gives a noun like onidajo — one who judges, or
judge.
Vocabularies headed (1) Ota, (2) Egba, (3) Idsesa,
(4) Yagba, (5) Eki, (6) Dsumu, (7) Oworo, (8) Dsebu,
(9) Ife, (9) Ondo, (10) Dsekiri, in addition to the
Yoruba Proper, are all to be found in Kolle, as sub-
dialects of the Aku : followed by one of the Igala as a
separate dialect — falling, however, into no sub-dialects.
(8.) The Nufl Class. — Mutatis mutandis, the criticism
which applies to Kolle's North-Eastern High Sudanian,
applies to his Niger-Tshadda, class. It may more con-
veniently be called Nufi, from its chief language.
Additions are to be made to it from the pages of the
Polyglotta Africana itself ; viz. : —
588
THE NUFI.
1. The Yala, an unclassed language, is Nufi.
2. The Dsuku and Eregba, which Kolle makes South
African, are Nufi.
In the Polyglotta Africana, the Dsuku, along with
the Eregba, forms the third section of the eighth group,
headed Atam Languages ; whilst the first of Part 2
contains South African Languages, distinguished by
an initial inflection. As such, it is separated from 1.
Nupe ; 2. Kupa ; 3. Esitako ; 4. Musu ; 5. Goali ; 6.
Basa ; 7. Ebe ; 8. Opanda ; 9. Egbira-Hima. To
these, however, the vocabulary connects it, at least, as
much as to any other group.
English.
Appa.
Eregba.
Dsuku.
One
uniieen
unye
atsu
Two
ifa
ifa
apiana
Three
ita
ita
atsala
Four
ini
ini
anyera
Five
itun
ithu
tsoana
Six
teniieh
itinye
tsindse
Seven
tifa
itafa
atsumpi
Eight
tita
itita
tsuntsa
Nine
tini
itini
tsunyo
Ten
ubo
ubo
atsue.
If we now look back upon the details of these two
classes, we find them to run as follows : —
1. In the Kouri, we have the Kouri of Mrs. Kilham,
the Tembu of Oldendorp, and the Mithridates, the Hio,
Ypgwe, and Dagumba of Bowdich, the Mose, Dselana,
Guren, Gurma, Legba, Kauri, Kiamba, Koama, Bagba-
lan, Barba, and Boko of Kolle ; the Yana, Brinni,
Nibulu, and 4 Tshambas of Clarke.
2. The Nufi contains the forms of speech illustrated
by the following vocabularies : Nupi, Appa, Kupa,
Esitako, Musu, Goali, Basa, Ebe, Opanda, Egbira-Hima,
Ergeba, Dsuku, Tapua (Tappa), Biyanni, Shabbie, Ka-
kanda, Nupaysi.
Apparently, a language of Kolle's, called the Kambali,
is intermediate to the Nufi and the Kouri.
THE BATTA.
589
(9.) The preliminary remarks of Dr. Barth on the
Batta lano^uage are as folloAVs : — '' The Batta-ntshi is
spoken from Garrua, a place three days E. of Yola, in the
district of Kokorni, as far as Batshama, three days E. of
Hammarua. To this language belong the names of the
two large rivers of Adamawa, Faro, ' the river/ and
Benoe, Hhe mother of waters/
" The other languages are the following : — The Btima-
ntshi, spoken by the Umbum and in Baia ; the Dama-
ntshi, the language of Bobanjidda ; the Buta-ntshi ; the
Tekar-tshi ; the Munda-ntshi ; the Fala-ntshi ; the
Marga-ntshi ; the Kilba-ntshi ; the Yangur-tshi ; the
Guda-ntshi, spoken by a very learned people, the Gudu,
living on a plain surrounded by mountains, near Song ;
the Tshamba-ntshi ; the Kotofa-ntshi, spoken by the
Kotofo, whose large river, the Dewo, comes from Kout-
sha and joins the Benue ; the Wera-ntshi ; the Dura-
ntshi ; the Woka-ntshi ; the Toga-ntshi : the Lekam-
tshi ; the Parpar-tshi ; the Kankam-tshi ; the Nyang-
eyare-tshi ; the Musga-ntshi ; the Mandara-ntshi ; the
Gizaga-ntshi ; the Ruma-ntshi ; the Gidar-ntshi : the
Daba-ntshi ; the Hina-ntshi ; the Maturna-ntshi ; the
Sina-ntshi ; the Momoyee-ntshi ; the Fani-ntshi ; the
Nyega-ntshi ; and finally the Dewa-ntshi ; all these lan-
guages being so widely different from each other, that a
man who knows one of them does not at all understand
the others/'
English.
Batta.
English.
Batta.
Sun
motslie
Water
be
Heaven
kade
Fire
die
Star
motshe kan
People
manope
Wind
koe
Man
mano
Rain
bole
Woman
metslie
Dry season
ptia
Mother
nogi or noi
Rainy
bole basi
Father
bagir
Day
motsbe
Child, hoy
labai
NiyU
motsheken
Daughter
jetslie
Yesterday
zodo
Brother
labenno
To-day
fido
Sister
jetsbono
To-morrow
tua
Friend
dawai
590
THE BATTA.
English.
Batta.
English.
Batta.
Enemy
kawe
Mountain
faratshe
Sultan, king
homai
Valley
kadembe
Slave
keze
River
be-noe, faro
Female slave
kezametshe
River overfloio
Mg be-bake
Bead
l)6daslii
Garden
wadi.
Eye
bashl
Well
btilambe
Nose
ikilo
Tree
kade?
Ear
kakkilo
Grass }
Herbage y
Mouth
bratshi
tsbame
Tooth
nesudabtshe
Small
keng
Tongue
ateazido
Large
baka
Arm
boratshe
Far, distant
bong
Heart
teleshe
Near
abong
Leg
bora
Good
Izedo
Milk
pamde
Bad
azedo
Butter
mare
Warm
tenibo
Ghussuh
lamashe
I hear
hakkeli
Ghafuli
kakasbe
I do not hear
takeU
Rice
boiyanga
I see
hiUe
Baseen
dabtshe
I do not see
tale
Honey
moratshe
I speak
nabawata
Salt
fite
I sleep
bashlno
Meat
lue
I eat
nazumu
Fruit
nawa dokade
Eat, imp.
ZTiazum, zuengosso
Shirt
tirkute
/ dnnh
nasa
Spear
kube
Drink, imp.
zuabasa
Sword
songai
I go
nawado
Bow
rie
Go, imp.
joado
Arrow
galbai
I come
nabasi
Quiver
kossure
Come, imp.
sua
Boat
damagere
Give, imp.
tenigo
Hut, home
final
Take, imp.
zu^ngura
Nat
kaje
/
hennebo
Cooking-pot
borashe
Thou
mano
Basket
sbilai
One
hido
Horse
dual
Two
pe
Mare
dometsbi
Three
makin
Ox
nakai
Four
fat
Cow
metsbe nakai
Five
tuf
Camel, donkey
do not exist
Six
tokuldaka
Sheep
bag^mre
Seven
tokulape
Goat
bagai
Eight
farfat
Bog
borashe
Nine
t^mbido
Lion
turum
Ten
bu
Fish
rufai
Eleven
bu umbidi hide
Bird
yaro
Twelve
bu 6mbidl pe
A plain
yolde
Thirteen
bu timbidi makin
THE
FULA.
69
Englisli.
Batta.
English.
Batta.
Twenty
raanobupe
Eighty
manobu farfat
Twenty-one
manobupe hido
Ninety
manobu t^mbido
Thirty
manobumakin
One hundred aru
Forty
manobufat
One thousand debu (Hausa)
Fifty
manobutuf
Forms of Salutation.
Sixty
manobutokuldaka
bokuda yo
Seventy
maonbu tokulape
yalabare bide.
(10.) A few remarks may now be made upon another
language : one of greater political and geographical im-
portance than any of the preceding class ; a language
hitherto uncultivated, but one which is, by no means, un-
likely to develope itself as the medium of an imperfect
native literature, nor yet likely to be overlooked by the
missionary and merchant for religious and commercial
purposes. I mean the Fula, Fulah, Felletta, Fellata,
Fulani, Fulanie, Filani, and Filanie tongue. A native
conqueror, scarcely a generation back, named Danfodio,
spread the Fula conquests as far west as Bornu and the
frontier of Waday. He carried them far into the Hawsa,
Yoruba, Sunghai, and Kanuri countries. He was a Ma-
hometan, and, as such, the leader of a population strongly
contrasted with the native pagans of the true and typical
Negro conformation. From this the Fula physiognomy
departed, though not always to the same extent. As a
general rule, however, the Fula skin was lighter ; so
much so, that one section has long been known as the
Eed Peuls or Fulas.
The chief languages with which the Fula was at
first compared, were those of the countries into which
it intruded ; the Hawsa, Yoruba, Bornui, &c. It was
not likely to show very decided affinities with these ;
inasmuch as they lay beyond the pale of its proper and
original situs. What this original situs, however, was
is easily investigated. The home of the race seems to
have been the highlands that form the watershed of the
Senegal and Gambia ; so that the languages with which it
originally came in the closest contact were the Woloff
and Mandingo. But as the Mandingo itself has en-
592 THE SERAWULLI.
croaclied on the forms of speech in its neighbourhood,
much displacement and obliteration of such intermediate
forms of speech as ma}^ have originally existed has been
effected. We do not, then, expect very decided affinities
even here. It is tlie opinion of the present writer, how-
ever, that, whether great or small, they are greater in
this direction, than any other ; the Woloff being the
nearest congener, and the nearest approach to a tran-
sitional tongue being the SerawuUi. The very scanty
specimens of the Mitlividates are enough to suggest this
— these making the Serawulli partly Woloff, partly
Mandingo, partly Fula. If so, the affinities are thus :
Woloff Serawolli
Felup, &c., Serere Fula
I I
Mandingo
This, however, is in anticipation of the languages of
another group.
(11.) The Tibbu will be noticed in the Appendix.
The jfirst language of the next class is the Sera-
wulli or Seracolet, conterminous with the Arabic on the
north, and the Woloff on the west, and spoken over an
extensive, but imperfectly-explored district towards the
Fouth-western frontier of the Sahara. Parts of Ludamar,
Galam, Kaarta, and the Bambarra country, are Sera-
wulli. Kolle states that there are six Serawulli tribes,
the Gadsaga, the Gidemara, the Hanyaga, the Dzafuna,
the Haire, and the Gangari. Their physical form is that
of the Woloff, and Sereres ; their Mahometanism equally
imperfect. Their energy and intelligence have been
extolled.
The area given to the Azeriye, Aswarek, or Swaninki,
by Barth, is of considerable size and importance : ex-
tending from the parts about Sangsangdi, which he par-
ticularly says was, originally, an "Aswarek town, to Wa-
nad, in N. L. 21°. Now this is the most northern spot
where a Negro population is found in situ. The lan-
guage is, of course, in contact with the Arabic and
THE WOLOF, ETC. 593
Amazig, or with the Arabic by which the Amazig has
been replaced, no Negro language being at this degree of
latitude in contact with it. On the south, it is met by
the Wolof, the Sungai, the Fula, and the Mandingo of
Barabarra : possibly by some of the Kouri dialects.
The blood of many a man who speaks Arabic must be
more or less Azeriye.
The great centre of the Aswarek seems to have been
El Hodh ; Baghena being the district wherein, at present,
they are most numerous.
The Sereres is spoken about Cape Verd, the Wolof
being spoken all round it. It is isolated, but has
miscellaneous affinities. We have no grammar of it and
but few vocabularies.
The Wolof, or Jolof, is spoken between the Senegal
and the Gambia ; not, however, continuously. It is
interrupted in the parts about Cape Yerd. On the
north it is bounded by the Arabic of Ludamar.
It is the first true Negro language of the seaside
which is met with on the western coast of Africa.
The States or kingdoms of Walo, Baol, and Kayor
(this last being to the north of the Senegal), are
Wolof. Kajaga, or Galam, is partly so.
A grammar by Dard {Grammaire Ouloff) is our chief
authority for its structure ; in which the peculiarity
which has attracted most attention is the initial change
of the article. It begins with the consonant of the noun
to which it belongs ; whatever that consonant may be.
Such congeners as the Wolof may have had to the
north have been swept away by the Arabic of the
Moors ; so that on one side, at least, it is an isolated
language. Neither are its other affinities either very
decided or very numerous ; but, on the contrary, few and
miscellaneous. They are greatest, however, with the
languages with which it is conterminous. On the west,
it is cut off by the ocean. In the direction of Cape
Verd it seems to have encroached.
Q Q
594
PAPEL, ETC.
Now comes a group of a miscellaneous, artificial, and
provisional character ; consisting of certain true Negro
languages spoken between the Wolof and Mandingo
areas and the Ocean.
Padsade is the name of a vocabulary in Kolle, taken
from a native of a town called Udadsa three or four
days' journey from the sea.
English.
Padsade.
English.
Padsade.
Man
usia
Ear
kunofe
Woman
udsafe
Tooth
manye
Head
pofa
Tongue
pulema
Hair
pasads
Sun
pudyade
Nose
nyasin
Fire
nukus
Eye
masa
Water
mambea.
The Biafada, akin to it, is spoken on some, but not
on all, of the islands of the Bissago group.
English.
Biafada.
English.
Biafada.
Man
usa
Ear
gunufa
Woman
unali
Tooth
akede
Head
buofa
Tongue
w'udema
Hair
gamboei
Sun
wunari
Nose
gandzini
Fire
furu
Eye
agiri
Water
mambia.
The Pap el, a representative of a fresh class, lies to
the south of the Cacheo and on one or more of the
Bissaofo islands.
English.
Papel.
Kanyop.
Man
nyient
nent
Wom^n
nyas
nat
Head
bene
behen
Hair
oyele
uel
Nose
bihl
bies
Eye
pekil
kikasi, behen
Ear
kebars
kabat
Tooth
pinyi
iromagi
Tongue
perempte
priamd
Sun
Fire
ono
buro
buno
Water
inunsop
mleg.
THE FELUP, ETC.
595
English.
Sarar.
Bolar.
Man
nyient
nyendz
Woman
nyat
nyadz
Head
bugou
bukou
Hair
wel
wuel
Nose
biz
biz
Eye
pugas
pekatz
Ear
kewat
kebadz
Tooth
punin
punyi
Tongue
pundiamont
pndemnt
Sun
onuar
onor
Fire
budua
mel
Water
budo
mel.
The Bulanda, akin to the Papel, &;c., is spoken in a
part of the Bissago archipelago and on the continent.
English.
Bulanda.
English.
Bulanda.
Man
nyendz
Ear
gelo
Woman
gnin
Tooth
ksit
Head
ko
Tongue
demadn
Hair
wul
Sun
lehn
Nose
pfuna
Fire
kledsa
Eye
fket
Water
wede.
Three populations are named Bago ; one of which
— that of the Kalum Bago — speaks a dialect of the
Timmani.
English.
Timmani.
Bago.
Landoma.
Man
Woman
wanduni •
wunibom
iriquni
irani
oruni
orani
Head
Hair
rabump
rafon
dabomp
kofon
dabump
kofon
Nose
Eye
asot
rafor
tasot
dafor
tasut
dafor
Ear
Tooth
Tongue
Sun
alens
rasek
ramez
ret
aranes
dasek
darner
det
alenas
dasik
da,inir
keten
Fire
Water
nant
mant
nants
namun
nents
damun mants
The Felups lie along the coast between the Gambia
and the Casamanca.
Q Q 2
596
English.
Man
Woman
Head
Hair
Nose
Eye
THE
FELUP,
ETC.
Felup.
English.
aneine
Ear
aseh
Tooth
fokou
Tongue
wal
Sun
enyundo
Fire
gizil
Water
Felup.
gano
finin
furcrop
bunah
sambul
momel.
Two other languages still stand over for notice ; the
I^alu and the Bagnon, spoken on and to the south of
the Nunez. Of the Sapi, eo nomine^ we have no
specimens.
English.
Nalu.
Bagnon.
Man
lamkiele
udigen
Woman
lamfai
udikam
Head
konki
bigof
Hair
mileou
dsegan
Nose
miayeni
nyankin
Eye
nkiet
kegil
Ear
mineau
kinuf
Mouth
misole
bure
Tooth
mfet
harl
Tongue
milembe
buremudz
Sun
miyakat
binek
Eire
met
kuade
Water
nual
mundu.
English.
Wolof.
Serawulli.
Mandingo
Bullom.
Man
gor
yugo
ke
nopugan
Woman
dzhigen
yahare
muso
noma
Head
buob
yime
ku
bol
Nose
bokan
norune
nu
umin
Eye
bot
yare
nya
llfol
Ear
nop
taro
tulo
nui
Mouth
gemei
rake
da
nyen
Tooth
bei
kambe
nyi
idsan
Tongue
lamei
nene
ne(i
limelim
Sim
dzhagat
kiu
tele
lepal
Fire
sefara
imbe
ta
dyom
Watei^
ndoh
dsi
dsi
mem.
The system of affinities here is complex. In the
Mandingo class the Gbandi, Landoro, and Mendi, appear
to lead, through the Kissi, the Timmani, and the Bullom,
and through these to the Papel, Felup, Wolof, &;c.
TABLE OF AFFINITIES, ETC.
597
The Gbese, Toma, Mano, and Gio lead (as their geo-
graphy suggests) to the Kru forms of speech ; these
leading to the Inta tongues of the Gold Coast, &c.
Lastly, the Mandingo Proper points to the Wolof,
through the Serawulli.
If so, the classification is that of the following map,
table, or diagram : —
Wolof-
Felup
Serawulli, &c.
Mandingo
Susu
I
Mendi
Kissi
I I
Timmani
I
Mano and Gio
I
Kru
I
Inta, &c.
Of these the Timmani and Wolof, from the con-
spicuous character of their initial changes, which, in the
latter of the two languages, are well known, have gene-
rally been treated as either isolate or South African.
598
THE HOTTENTOT.
CHAPTER LXXI
The Hottentot.
With the Hottentots, decided philological, coincide with
decided anatomical, differences ; though, with each, there
has been exaggeration. In the Danimara country the
difference between the Hottentot and the Kaffir is at
its minimum.
English.
Bushman.
Korana.
Saldanha Bay.
Hottentot.
Man {homo)
t'kui
t'kohn
quorque
(vir)
t'na
kouh, kauh
Woman
t'aifi
chaisas
ankona
kyviquis
Mead
t'naa
minuong
biqua
Eye
t'saguli
mumh
mu
^ar
t'no-eingtu
t'naum
nabo
nouw
Nose
t'nuhntu
t'geub
tui, zakui
thuke, quoi
Tongue
finn
tamma
tamme
tamma
Hair
t'uki
t'oukoa
nuqua-an
Hand
t'aa
t'koam
onecoa
orama
Foot
t'o6ah
t'keib
coap
itqua, yi
SJcy
t'gachuh
homma
Earth
t'kanguh
bo
kamkamma
Hun .
t'koara
sorohb
sore
sorre
Moon
tkaukSruh
t'kaam
toba
Fire
t'jih
t'aib
ei
Water
t'kohaa
fkamma
ouata
kam
One
t'koay
t'koey
q'kui
Two
t'kuh
t'koam
k'kam
Three
t'norra
k'oune.
The sound expressed by t' is what is generally known
as the Hottentot click. It is said to be found in some
of the Bichuana dialects of the Kaffir.
r^
THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL. 599
Library^
Of
CHAPTER LXXII.
On the African Languages in general.
Like Polynesia, Africa is connected with Asia by an
isthmus ; a fact which narrows the range of its philolo-
gical affinities.
Like South America, Africa is separated from its
nearest continent not only by an isthmus but by a
narrow pass of water besides ; a fact which gives two
lines of migration — neither of them either implied or
excluded by the other.
In the way of displacement on the frontier between
Africa and Asia, the movement has been double.
From Arabia there has been an extension northward ;
from Tartary and Persia an extension southwards and
westwards. Add to this that for the whole of northern
Africa we have little but the dialects of the Berber
and Arabic, and the great width of the separation of
the languages on the outcrop becomes evident ; for,
from Nubia and Abyssinia there is little in situ
before we reach Caucasus on the one side and the
Brahui districts of Persia on the other. Let those, how-
ever, who believe that any amount of displacement pro-
duces anything like absolute isolation (i. 6. a language
without, at least, miscellaneous affinities,) compare, en
masse, Beke's Abyssinian and Klaproth's Caucasian vo-
cabularies. Should they put down the coincidences to acci-
dent, let them compare the vocabularies of either series
with something still further apart and they will find a de-
600 THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES
crease. Whether few or many, coincidences are distri-
buted regularly rather than hap-hazard.
The African and Semitic languages are said to be cha-
racterized by a great development of the predicate, the
Indo-European by a great development of the copula.
This means, so far as it means anything, that whilst
certain modes of action, such as the inchoative, fre-
quentative, and the like, are predicative ; others, like
those involving the ideas of certainty, contingency, and
time — those that give us the moods and tenses — are
copular. As a matter of fact this is absolutely erro-
neous : inasmuch as the copula merely denotes agree-
ment or disagreement between the subject and the
predicate, having nothing to do with modes of any kind.
There are few elementary works upon logic, which fail
to tel] us this. All, then, that can be said concerning
the difference between a form giving a tense or mood,
and a form giving an inchoative or a causative verb,
is that, though they are both modes, they are modes
belonging to different divisions of the genus ; and this
the grammarian well knows, or, not knowing, acts upon
it unconsciously ; making words like now and then
adverbs, whilst he makes words like frequently, often,
&;c., no more — the one adverbs of time, the other of
manner. Whether he be consistent in drawing so broad
a distinction between ^^rnood and tense (vocavi and vo-
carem) on one side, and simple mode, &c. (yocito), on
the other, is a different question.
The expression, then, is exceptionable. How stands
the fact it is meant to convey ? As far as it goes it is
real. It is, however, anything but the fact in its integ-
rity. The dictum applies to other languages besides the
African : indeed, to all in an early stage of their de-
velopment. In other words, forms like vocito, fee, origi-
nate earlier than forms like vocavi, vocem.
Upon the African character here given to the so-
called Semitic languages, I should find it necessary to
IN GENERAL. 601
enlarge had there been any definite criticism applied to
the question. However, what with mixing up ethno-
logy with philology and looking out for Indo-European
affinities in grammar because the Jews and Arabs are
liker to Europeans than to Negroes ; what with treating
an order consisting of a single genus as a large
family or sub-kingdom ; what with the fanciful dicho-
tomy between the Semitic and the Hamitic — what with
these and similar elements of confusion, the main facts,
(viz. those found in the actual examination of the African
languages themselves) have been omitted ; the researches
upon the Berber and Coptic being exceptions. Out of
these has come the term iS^u^-semitic ; a term which tells
its own story. More than this — philologues, like Newman
and others, have recognized beyond the pale of the Berber
(or Amazig) Berber (or Amazig) affinities ; the Hawsa
and other languages being what they might (but do not)
call Sub-amazig, or Sub-coptic ; affinities which, in-
directly, extend the Semitic class Still, unless I read
them wrongly, all these observations, however true, seem
to be run one way only, i. e. they make the Hawsa, the
Galla, and their congeners, Asiatic, rather than the
Arabic, &c., African.
Yet the system of initial changes with the conso-
nants and of medial changes with the vowels — characters
which have always been held Semitic — is far commoner
in Africa than it is in Asia, and far more characte-
ristic of many African languages than it is of any
Asiatic ones.
Something of the same kind of single-sightedneps
appears in the criticism upon the Kaffir cliaracteri sties.
They have been found far beyond the Kaffir area. But
the effect has been to get the Fanti, tlie Grebo, and
other languages, called South, rather than to get the
Kaffir called JS^orth, African.
The Semitic and the Kaffir (laying aside the Hot-
tentot) are the two classes for which the lines of demar-
cation have been the strongest. They are, also, those
602 THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES
which I confidently predict that further inquiry will,
more especially, break down. Kespecting the other
groups, it need only be added that Africa is the land
which, above all others, requires us to classify by type
rather than definition ; and that, where the divisions are
the clearest, and the isolation the greatest, the evidence of
encroachment and obliteration is, sometimes, historical
as well as inferential. It is pre-eminently historical
with the Fula. It is a most legitimate inference with
the Hottentot. It is historical with the Galla. It is a
legitimate influence with the Berber.
On the direction in which the languages of the
larger groups seems to have extended themselves I
have but little to suggest. The uniformity of speech,
primd facie evidence in favour of recent diffusion,
seems to point in the great Galla class to the Danakil
area as the starting-point. The Berber has, apparently,
moved from east to west ; the Fula from the
high regions between the Senegal and Gambia. The
Hottentot, probably, has its nearest congeners to the
north of the great Kaffir area ; but where does this
end ? The Semitic dialects are, perhaps, Abyssinian in
origin.
The phenomena of distribution are those of Asia and
America, giving large groups, like the Berber and Kaffir,
in contrast with moderate, though rarely with excessively
small, ones. The difficulty, however, in the present state
of our knowledge, of saying where the dialect ends and
where the language begins prevents us from generalizing
here.
The range of type, as well as the multiplicity of
types, is greater in Africa than elsewhere ; by which I
mean that, if we look to single characters alone, there
are more languages in Africa which exhibit strong
single characteristics, than there are in Asia, America,
or Europe. Of the internal changes of the Semitic,
and of the alliterations and prefixes of the Kaffir,
languages, notice has already been taken. The Man-
IN GENERAL. 603
dingo, as far as it is known, is distinguished by the
want of them ; whilst the Timmani and Wolof exhibit
them. The Coptic has long been recognized as pre-
eminently agglutinate. The Galla and Kanuri run
strongly on ^^os^-fixes rather than ^re-fixes. The Yoruba
has been called monosyllabic — which it may be in the
way that some American languages are, i. e. sporadi-
cally.
In respect to the value of the classes, the Semitic and
Berber, on one side, and the Kaffir on the other, may,
each, be held as equivalent to all the others put together.
Of the languages between the Mobba and Yoruba
districts (both inclusive) the affinities are obscure
from the linear character of the district they cover.
To the south lies a terra incognita ; to the north the
intrusive Amazig. Hence, they have, as a general
rule, possible (to say nothing of actual) congeners
on their sides only, and, at the extremities of the
range, only on one side.
In considering their stage of development we must
criticize the African languages from some average series of
examples rather than from either of their extremes, such
as the Semitic languages on one side, and the Hottentot
on the other. Those of central Africa, the Hawsa and
Kanuri for instance, are fair ones to go by. They are,
undoubtedly, on a higher level than the Polynesian, the
Kelanonesian, and the American. They are this, at
least, in the greater development of their numeral
system, and, apparently, in many other details besides.
No wonder. Great contact with the civilization of
Europe and South-western Asia has given this as its
result ; in other words, new wants, new ideas, and an
enlarged experience have played their part in Africa as
elsewhere. In favour of any inherent superiority or in-
feriority of the African family Afi^ican philology supplies
no argument. The common-sense doctrine that the
development of language follows the development of
civilization, and that the development of civihzation is
604; THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES IN GENERAL.
determined by the points of contact between different
populations of different habitudes, is the true rule in all
these matters.
Blood and language, upon a whole, coincide but
slightly. In Northern Africa the difference is pre-emi-
nently great. The Arab blood of the millions who speak
Arabic is at a minimwm. With the Berber this is
largely, though to a less degree, the case. The Kaffir,
too, must have encroached inordinately on the language
represented by the Hottentot. Again, the Galla, the
Mandingo, and the Fala are all encroaching languages.
Lastly, with Africa as the land, wherein, of all others,
slavery has been chronic, the intermixture, on that score
only, must be great.
Of the numerous grammatical processes which
(though found sporadically, in their fragments, or in
their rudiments,) are, nevertheless, found in certain
areas with a greater development than elsewhere,
Africa is the country wherein three attain inordinate
prominence, viz : (1 .) internal change of vowels and
accents which goes to the extent of altering even the
syllables of the words in which they occur ; (2.) the
system of initial consonantal changes ; and (3.) the
system of prefixes. The first of these is Semitic,
but not exclusively so. The second is Kaffir, Wolof,
and much else besides. The third is chiefly Kaffir ;
but is found elsewhere. On the habit of the Galla
and Kanuri to prefer post-fixes to prefixes I lay
but little stress. The whole class is, in the main,
agglutinate ; but I lay little stress on this. With the
exception of the languages of South-eastern Asia, repre-
sented by the Chinese on one side, and languages like
the Greek, Latin, Sarmatian, and German on the other,
agglutination is the rule rather than the exception all
the world over.
^
SKIPITAR OR ALBANIAN. GO 5
CHAPTER LXXIII.
The Indo-European languages (so-called).— 'The Skipitar, Arnaut, or
Albanian,
The class which now comes under notice contains as
primary groups — (1.) the Skipitar ; (2.) the Sarmatian ;
(3.) the Latin and Greek ; (4.) the German ; (5.) the
Keltic ; — the Sarmatian containing the Lithuanic, the
Slavonic, and the Sanskrit.
It is submitted that the Keltic division is of the
ordinal value of all the others put together ; the Skipitar
of the ordinal value of the rest of the section ; the
German of the value of the Sarmatian and Latin and
(or) Greek.
Oceanica, America, and Africa, touched Asia by either
narrow isthmuses or a strait between two (comparative)
points ; a kind of contact which defined the lines of
their affinities. Europe touches Asia along the whole
long stretch of the Uralian range, not to mention the
minor points of approximation at the Hellespont and the
Crimean Bosphorus. Hence the lines of affinity may
vary, i. e. there may be one for the north, one for the
centre, one for the south. This, however, creates no
difficulty. Omitting the fact of the XJgrian tongues
being, to a great extent, European, the displace-
ments effected by the Russian and Turk have so tho-
roughly obliterated everything that could ever have
been transitional, that the line of demarcation between
606 SKIPITAR OR ALBANIAN.
our present class and our second is both broad and defi-
nite.
The encroachments and obliterations have been great.
They, also, began early. The Herodotean Scythians, or
Skoloti, show this for a part of the area. But it may
also be inferred, for the remainder, by a consideration of
the condition of x'^ sia Minor at the beginning of the his-
torical period. Over the whole of that peninsula the
presumptions are in favour of a form of speech akin
to the most southern and western of the Dioscurian
group having been originally spoken. Still, there was
intrusion, upon even this, by the languages of Persia, of
Tartary, of Greece, and of the Semitic area. Nor was
it one-sided. There is a fair amount of evidence in
fixvour of Europe having projected itself eastward as
well as of Asia having projected itself westward.
If we took the whole frontage between the two con-
tinents a case might be made out in favour of the
nearest congeners of the most western of the Asiatic
languages having been either Slavonic or Lithuanic ; and,
if we took up our line at the end of the notice of the
Mordvins, such might be really the case. The Lithuanic
and Slavonic, however, have such undoubted European
affinities that, even if the conditions were equal, the lan-
guage with which we now begin is the fit one.
This is the Shiintar, Epirot, Arnaut, or Albanian of
Albania, with a harsh phonesis, and with {inter alia) a
post-positional article. It was the language of the ancient
Illyrians (in the Greek sense of the word) ; perhaps the
language of the bulk of the Macedonians ; a language,
perhaps, of the whole of ancient Greece ; and a language
which was almost certainly spoken far to the north,
the east, and the north-east of its present frontiers ; in
other words, it is a language which has receded.
It falls into two main divisions, the Tosk and the
Gheg : is spoken beyond the boundaries of Albania, in
Greece, in Calabria, and in Sicily, doubtless with varia-
^
SKIPITAR OR ALBANIAN. G07
tions in tlie way of dialect which have yet to be studied
in detail. It is written by means of the Greek alphabet
adapted to the Skipitar phonesis. Such, at least, is the
common practice. There is, however, a second set of letters
restricted to the town of Elbassan ; which, is, apparently,
more of a cipher than a true alphabet. Hahn considers
that it is of great antiquity ; possibly running back into
the times when the spelling on the coasts of the Adriatic
was Phenician rather than ordinary Greek. In my own
mind it is founded on the Glagolitic. The national
songs of the Albanians are numerous ; and one poet,
at least, has written classically, i. e. as a man with an
artificially cultivated taste and after Turkish and (at
second-hand) Persian models.
Of the two main dialects it is the Ghegh which lies
on the northern, or Slavonic, the Toski which touches the
southern, or Greek, frontier ; the valley of the Skumbi, or
Stirnatza, between Berat and Elbassan, being (there or
thereabouts) tlie division between the two. In the
Ghegh district the Mirdites are Roman Catholics. Of
the Tosks, the Lyapid and Tshamid tribes are sub-divi-
sions ; among which are numerous Christians of the
Greek Church. The mass, however, of the Skipitar are
Mahometans ; though the use of the Arabic alphabet is
at a minimum.
uOS
THE SANSKRIT.
CHAiPTER LXXIV.
The Sanskrit. — Persepolitan.— Pracrit, — Pali. — Kawi. — Zend,
The Sanskrit is the old literary language of India.
Indian, however, as it is in respect to the country in
which it was cultivated, the following short tables are
amply sufficient to prove that its nearest congeners are
the Sarmatian, the Classical, and, to a great extent, the
German tongues of Europe.
They give a selection from its inflections — a selection.
This means that those only are taken which, in form and
name, run on all fours with either the Latin and
Greek or the Lithuanic. By taking the Slavonic, or
even the German, a similar result would have been
obtained.
The Latin and Lithuanic best illustrate the substan-
tives and pronouns ; the Greek (with special reference
to the conjugation in -fii) the verbs.
Singular
Plural
Sanskrit.
Latin.
Sanskrit.
Latin.
Nominative
agnis
ignis
agnayas
ignes
Genitive
agnes
ignis
agninam
ignium
Dative
agnaye
igni
agnibhyas
ignibus
A ccusative
agnim
ignem
agnln
ignes.
Nominative
pitd
pater
pitaras
patres
Genitive
pitus
patris
pitrinam
patrura
Dative
pitre
patri
pitribhyas
patribus
Accusative
pitaram
patrem
pitrin
patres
Nominative
naus
navis
navas
naves
Genitive
navas
navis
navam
navium
Dative
nave
navi
naubhyas
navibus
Accusative
n^vam
navem
ndvas
naves.
THE SANSKRIT.
609
Sanskrit. Latin
Litlmanic.
Sanskrit. La.tin. Lit
Nominative aham ego
asz
twam
tn
Genitive mama mei
mano
tava
tui
Dative mahyam mihi
manim
tubhyam tibi
A ccusative mam me
mane
twam
te
He.
She.
Sanslsrit.
Litlmanic.
Sanskrit.
Lithuanic.
Nominative sas
szis
sa
szi
Genitive tasya
tasyas
tos
Dative tasmai
tamui
tasyai
A cciisative tarn
ta
tarn
ta
Ablative tasmat
tasyas
tas
Locative tasmin
tasyam
— . — .
Instrumental tena
tumi
taya
ta.
They (Masculine).
They(i
tas
feminine).
Nominative te
te
tos
Genitive tesh^m
tas^ra
Dative tebhyas
temus
tabhyas
tomus
A ccusative tan
tus
tas
tas
Ablative tebhyas
tabhyas
Locative teshu
tuse
tasu
tose
Tnstrumental tais
tais
tabbis
tomis.
Nominative
yas (qui)
kas (quis)
Genitive
yasya ^
kasya
Dative
yasmai
kasmai
Accusative
yam
kam
Ablative
yasm^.t
kasTTi^t
Locative
yasmin
kasmin
Instrumental
yena.
Creo, <fcc.
kena.
Singular.
Dual.
plural.
1. srijami creo
srijavas
sri jamas
creamus
2. srijasi creas
srijathas
srijatha
creatis
3. srijati creat
srijatas
Creem, &c.
srijanti
creant.
Singular.
Dual.
Plural.
1. srijeyam creem
srijeva
srijema
creemus
2. srijes crees
srijetham
sri j eta
creetis
3. srijet creet
srijetam
Creavi, d-c.
srijeyus
creent.
Compare loith GreeJc Aoristus Primus — (augmented).
Singular.
Dual.
Plural.
1. a-srijam
a-srijava
a -sri jama
2. a-srijas
a-srijatam
a-srijata
3. a-srijat
a-srijatam
a-srijan.
tu
tavo
tavim
tave.
R R
610
THE SANSKRIT.
Creav
,cfcc.
[Compare with ri-ru
fa and mo-mordi.
Singular.
Dual
Plural.
1. sa-sarja
sa-srij
iva
sa-srijima
2. sa-sarjifha
sa-srijathus
sa-srija
3. sa-sarja
sa-srijatus
sa-srijus.
Sanskrit. Latin,
Lithuanic.
Sanskrit.
Latin.
Lithuanic.
1. asmi sum
esrui
1. syama
simus
2. asi €s
esu
2. syata
siiis
3. asti . est
esi
3. syus
slnt
1. smas sumus
esme
1. asam
eram
2. stha estis
este
2. asis
eras
3. santi sunt
3. asit
erat
1. sy^in sim
1. dsma
eramus
2. syas sis
2. asti
eratis
3. syat sit
3. asan
erant
Compare with
(j)VfjLL conji
igated as
a verb in
-fJ.1.
1. bhavami fui
huvao
1. bhavamas fuimus
buvoim
2. bhavasi fuisii luvai
2. bbavata
fuistis
luvote
3. bhavati fuit
huvo
3. bhavanti fuerunt
Upon the whole the Lithuanic is the nearest congener
of the Sanskrit, and, after it, the old Slavonic ; though,
in asserting this, there is a certain amount of assump-
tion. It is assumed not only that the Slavonic
languages (especially in respect to their verbs) had a
fuller inflection than they have now, but that that
inflection delivered reduplicates, verbs in -fjn, and
(perhaps) augments, which, now, either no longer exist,
or exist only in fragments. With the analogies of the
Latin and Italian, of the Moesogothic and English, &;c.,
this is not too much to assume ; indeed, it is what,
either consciously or unconsciously, most philologues,
when they are constrained to compare one language in
a late with another in an early stage, do assume.
The present assumption, however, is subject to the
criticism of professed Slavonic scholars.
In the phonesis, especially with reference to the use
of the sibilants rather than k or g, the Sanskrit is
pre-eminently Slavono-Lithuanic.
THE SANSKRIT. 611
If this be the case the original situs of the Sanskrit
must have been in either approximate or actual contact
with that of the Slavono-Lithuanic ; nor is this a matter
upon which there is much (if any) difference of opinion.
The Sanslo-it, however, with its congeners, comes from
India ; the Lithuanic, the Slavonic, the Latin, the Greek,
and the German, from Europe ; and between the areas
of the two groups there is a wide geographical interval.
Has the Sanskrit reached India from Europe, or have
the Lithuanic, the Slavonic, the Latin, the Greek, and
the German, reached Europe from India ? If historical
evidence be wanting, the a priori presumptions must
be considered.
I submit that history is silent, and that the presump-
tions are in favour of the smaller class having been
deduced from the area of the larger rather than vice
versa. If so, the situs of the Sanskrit is on the
eastern, or south-eastern, frontier of the Lithuanic ; and
its origin is European.
As I know of no one else who maintains this hypothe-
sis, and as the opposite doctrine of the Asiatic origin of the
so-called Indo-European languages is dominant through-
out all the realms of philology, I must be allowed to ex-
plain what I mean by it. I do not deny the fact, as it is
usually stated, as a fact. It may be one in spite of any
amount of presumptions against it. If sufficient evi-
dence be brought forward in favour of it, I am prepared
to take it as it is given ; just as, upon sufficient evidence,
I would believe that sixes with the dice might be thrown
two, three, four, five, or any number of times running.
The fact may be real ; but it is against the chances.
To assume it, however, when there is nothing but the
chances to go by, is illegitimate.
I may be wrong, however, in asserting the absolute
non-existence of evidence ; in other words, in holding
that the presumptions are, really, all we have to go on.
Upon this I am open to correction. I can, however, truly
R R 2
612 THE SANSKRIT.
say, that, if there be evidence on the matter, T have failed,
after a careful search, to find it. What I have found in
its stead is a tacit assumption that as the East is the
probable quarter in which either the human species, or
the greater part of our civilization, originated, every-
thing came from it. But surely, in this, there is a con-
fusion between the primary diffusion of mankind over
the world at large and those secondary movements by
which, according to even the. ordinary hypothesis, the
Lithuanic &c. came from Asia into Europe. A mile is
a mile and a league a league from whichever end it is
measured, and it is no further from the Danube to the
Indus than it is from the Indus to the Danube. In
zoology and botany the species is always deduced from
the area of the genus, rather than the genus from the
area of the species ; and this is the rule which I go upon
here. To the actual fact I do not absolutely commit
myself — not, at least, in the present work, which
troubles itself more about methods than results.
The fact of a language being not only projected, so to
say, into another region but entirely lost in its own is
anything but unique. There is no English in Germany.
A better example, however, is found in the Magyar of
Hungary ; of which no trace is to be found within
some 700 miles of its present area. Yet the Magyar
is not twelve hundred years old in Europe.
As to the a priori presumptions against a language
being introduced from Eastern Europe into Western
India, they are no greater than those which lie against
one being carried from the Jaik to the Danube. No one
derives the Fin tongues from Hungary ; though Hun-
gary is the country in which more than half the indivi-
duals who use a Ugrian language of any kind, dwell.
That this is an important fact is clear ; yet it is nothing
when compared with the weightier ones connected with
its situs. The Magyar stands in contrast with the lan-
guages with which it comes in contact. The languages
THE SANSKRIT. 613
with which it stands in connection are at a distance.
Where they are spoken, they form an order. Where
the Magyar is spoken it forms a species.
The relations of the existing languages of India to
the Sanskrit have but a slight bearing upon the question.
They may, one and all, be her true daughters (though I
maintain that none of them are) without the Sanskrit,
on that account, being indigenous to the soil. Whether
a language introduced from without take sufficient root
to retain its identity for a thousand (or ten thousand)
years, or merely take root enough to modify the original
languages to such an extent as to give them the guise
of its own descendants, is a question of degree.
As slight a bearing upon the question has the anti-
quity of the Indian literature. Those (with whom I
unwillingly differ) who carry it high, only make the
intrusion of the language in which it is embodied so
nmch the earlier.
At the same time these doctrines, as they are com-
monly represented, are more for than against the
common notion ; in other words, they are not against
it at all. As far as they are relevant they are favour-
able. Their relevancy, however, is only apparent.
Treating, then, the Sanskrit in Asia as (with an allow-
ance for its difference of antiquity) the Magyar in
Hungary or the English in England might be treated,
and taking its locality as we find it ; the nature of the
memorials in which it has come down to us, along
with the question of their date, locality, and authorship,
presents itself And here the uncertainty is great.
The few remains that have either date or place are
the best to begin with.
Of the remains of any language belonging to the
same class with the Sanskrit with an approximate
date, the earliest are the cuneiform inscriptions deliver-
ing the edicts of the kings of Persia, ranging from
B.C. 470 to B.C. 370 — there or thereabouts. Of these
61-4 THE SANSKRIT.
the following specimen is from the tomb of Darius at
Naksh-i-Rustam, according to the text and translation
of Sir H. Rawlinson : —
1 Baga wazarka Auramadzd, hya im
2 am bumim ada, hya awam asm
3 anam ada, hya martiyam ada, h
4 ya shyatim ada martiyahya,
5 hya D^r(a)yavum khsh%athiyam ak
6 unaush aivam paruwanam khshayath
7 iyam, aivam paruwanam framata
8 ram
The Great God Ormazd, {he it was) who gave this earth, who gave that
heaven, who gave mankind, who gave life (?) to mankind, who made Darius
King, as well the King of the people, as the lawgiver of the people.
It is the edicts of the Achseraenian kings which this
language more especially embodies. In respect to its
structure it is closely akin to the oldest Sanskrit.
There is no evidence, however, to it having ever been
spoken in India, nor yet in the east of Persia. It is
on the Kurd frontier and in Fars that samples of it
most abound. It is only in inscriptions in the
cuneiform character that it is found. Whether these
give us the oldest compositions, in the class of languages
to which they belong, is uncertain. Most Sanskrit
scholars would say that they do not. It is certain,
however, that they are the oldest compositions that bear
a date.
The next in order of time is the language of the
Caubul coins, in an alphabet written, like the Semitic
ones, from right to left ; the latest of which are (so to
say) overlapped by a second series for the same parts in
an alphabet (like the Devanagari) written from left to
right. The vocabulary they exhibit is, of course, of the
scantiest.
Later than the earliest, but earlier than the latest of
the coins, are certain inscriptions bearing the name of
Priyadasi. We may call them the Priyadasi Edicts.
There are four of them — all with the same text ; the
THE SANSKRIT. 615
most western of which is the famous Kapar-di-giri
inscription from Caubul, the most eastern in Orissa.
One in Ceylon is said to exist, but has yet to be dis-
covered.
All these have dates — the coins, that of the kings
whose approximate superscription they bear, the Priya-
dasi edicts, not only the name of Priyadasi (which would
be but little), but that of one of the Antiochi. Hence,
roughly speaking, we may refer them to the early part
of the dynasty of the Seleucidse.
After these, there are no definite dates until after the
Mahometan conquest.
The conquerors found a literature in a native lan-
guage and a native alphabet — a native literature and a
rich one. As such it was, of course, older than their own
conquest. How much ? The historical portion of this
literature was of the smallest, and in what there was
of it there was but a minimum amount of chronology
and topography. Everything in this way was, to say
the least, indefinite. Still, there were the real dates of
the edicts and the coins, and there were certain names
in certain Indian works which could be connected with
these important landmarks. There was especially the
name of Chandragupta, which was identified with the
Sandracottus mentioned by Justin, and, though the
true dynasty of consecutive Gupta kings with a real
historical coinage lived several centuries later, the
identification has passed muster, and serves as an
instrument of criticism. The process, then, by which
approximate dates are found in Sanskrit is to find some
one mentioned within or near the historical, or Ma-
hometan, period, who is stated to have stood in some
relation to some one else, who stood in some relation
to some third person, v/ho was a contemporary of
.Chandragupta, who was Sandracottus, whose date is
known.
I give this train of argument — the argument which
6J6 THE SANSKRIT.
rests upon external, as opposed to internal evidence, and
which, as such, is historical rather than inferential —
as I find it. It has been worked with skill, ingenuity,
and learning. The facts, however, which it deals with
are of the inconclusive kind here indicated.
Similarly inconclusive, though obtained by equal
learning, ingenuity, and skill, are the results got by
inference. In form (or language), in matter, or both,
certain systems of literature, philosophy, or religion not
only differ from each other but differ as older and
newer. As factors in the appreciation of these differences
approximate measures of both the differences themselves,
and the average rate of change are required ; that of the
latter being founded upon a careful induction from the
phenomena presented by languages, religions, and philo-
sophies during periods of change, over the whole world,
sufficiently long and sufficiently diversified to give a
constant. Add to this the avoidance of the confusion
between changes in consecutive time and concurrent
changes (by the neglect of which we may make the
present Islandic older in the way of actual date than
the Danish of the fifteenth century) and a provisional
approximation is the result. That more than this is
claimed by almost every Sanskrit scholar is well-
known.
The difference, however, finds no support on the part of
the present writer ; who simply admits that in Sanskrit
there is something more archaic than something else.
The term archaic is used with a purpose. It means
antiquity ; an ambiguous or equivocal antiquity ; one of
two kinds, as the case may be. It may mean antiquity
in the way that Chaucer is older than Addison, or it
may mean antiquity in the way that the Icelandic news-
paper of the present week is older than the Copenhagen
Morgenblad of the year 1820. Chronological, serial,
or linear, antiquity is one thing ; developmental, dialec-
tual, or concurrent antiquity is another.
THE SANSKRIT. 617
Still the comparative archaism is a fact. Apply it,
and —
The Sanskrit falls into two divisions —
1. The Vedaic of the Yedas, older in language and
matter than —
2. The Non-vedaic, classical, or ordinary, Sanskrit.
This falls into sub-divisions. There is a Sanskrit drama,
and, just as in Moliere, certain characters talk Gascon or
something else equally provincial and French, so do
certain dramatis personce of Asia talk a certain amount
of something equally provincial and Indian. These
popular dialects are called Pracrits.
If we call everything that is neither Vedaic nor
classical Sanskrit a Pracrit, a language of, at least,
equal political importance with the Sanskrit itself, the
Pali, is one.
The Pali is the language of Buddhism ; be it that of
the Singalese, of the Burmese, the Siamese, the Mon of
Pegu, the Kambogians, the Tibetans, the Mongols, or
the Mantshus ; the Sanskrit being the language of Brah-
'ininismi. We may call it a Pracrit, if we will, but we
can scarcely do so if we attach to the term even the
slightest notion of disparagement.
The alphabet of the Sanskrit — Yedaic and Non-
vedaic — is the Devanagari ; no specimen of it being
older than the Mahometan conquest. The later Puranas
which are truly Sanskritic, are, as far as form goes, later
still. Hence, the triple alternative (if the phrase may
be used) which was suggested when the Hebrew of the
Holy Scriptures was under notice has its application here.
It is merely referred to. It is always repeating itself;
and it will again have an application when we come to
Greece.
The Sanskrit, as we have it, has a great number of
words which re-appear in the existing languages of India.
It may be that they are all of Sanskrit origin, and 'all
borrowed by the modern tongues. It may, also, be that
618 THE SANSKRIT.
they are all Indian, taken up into the Sanskrit. Either
generalization is exceptionable. Each word must be
tried on its own merits.
The Sanskrit has a series of true aspirates (i. e. aspi-
rates like the ph, kh, and th in hap-hazard, ink-horn,
and nut-hook, rather than false aspirates like the 2^h and
th in Philip and thin) which are wanting in its Euro-
pean congeners, but which are common in Tibet and the
Himalayas. Did it take these in India, or did its
western congeners lose it in Europe ? I cannot say. I
can only say that the doctrine that the Sanskrit takes
nothing, whilst other languages lose what they may fail
to have in common with it, is illegitimate.
The Sanskrit has a series of cerebral letters common
in Southern India but foreign to Europe. To these
apply the preceding question.
The expositors of the Sanskrit language are the Brah-
mins. The evidence, however, that they are the descend-
ants of the men with whom it was vernacular is defi-
cient. They are known to have kept their blood pretty
pure for a certain number of centuries. They are, how-
ever, presumed to have kept it so for a much longer period,
because the documents for which they are repositories
enjoin that such should be the case. The importance of
this is shown in the question of phonesis. The purity
of the source from which the present stream of Sanskrit
learning flows has never been shown ; and except under
undue assumptions, by which alone the objection may be
rebutted, the facts of the phonesis are against it.
The cultivation of the Sanskrit language is partial.
In poetry with compounds after the fashion of the
Orphic hymns it is rich. It has a code of laws, and
innumerable logographies. The matter of its philoso-
phical works has commanded attention which it has not
disappointed. Its grammar is a very remarkable phe-
nomenon— so remarkable as to have reflected many of its
merits on the language. There are approaches to the Ian-
THE SANSKRIT. 619
guage of common life in the drama. For real common
life, however, for history and oratory, it gives us nothing.
From what we know of it, it can hardly be realized as
a truly vernacular and generally spoken language.
If this be the case, it has no true vernaculars as its
descendants : indeed, it is only known to us as a language
of either a few dialects or a few stages, with a purely
literary cultivation (and that partial), with an im-
perfect claim for being accurately handed down, with a
questionable date, and an uncertain locality.
On the other hand, it gives us a third member to that
class of languages which, up to the time at which it be-
gan to attract notice, consisted only of the Latin and the
Greek, with, perhaps, the addition of the Moeso-Gothic
— a class wherein true inflection is at its maximuTn ;
this inflection being, in the Sanskrit, exhibited in an
independent and native grammar. To this add its great
political value as the language of Brahminic India, and
the mystery connected with its localization in Asia is en-
hanced by its real importance ; which is great, but limited.
After a series of exceptions like the preceding, it is
needless to add that the writer is (to say the least)
adverse to the whole system on which the well-known
merits and importance, as currently claimed for the
Sanskrit, are based. That the whole tenor of his
mental habitudes and aptitudes is against them is saying
too much. There is nothing condemned in the preced-
ing remarks which he has not, at one time of his life,
supported. What they are opposed to are his rules of
evidence. The fact may be all that the extreme San-
skrit scholars make it, provided the evidence make it so.
Upon this, as an advocate (to draw an illustration from
the common-sense of the English world at large as
shown in the courts of law) he has no authority to
speak. The facts lie in the Sanskrit language itself, of
which he has no more cognizance than is shown in the
foregoing statements. As a judge he has a voice less
620 THE SANSKRIT.
important still. The knowledge of the facts and the
law combined is, a fortiori, beyond him. Still more, ct
fortiori (he might say a fortissimo) is the private cog-
nizance of any material data which are not vouchsafed
to him, in common with the least Sanskrit-minded man
in England, by the Sanskrit scholars themselves. His
position is simply that (if he may use the word with-
out presumption) of an intelligent jury-man, who,
knowing that he is no judge, putting a wholesome dis-
trust in the barrister, and ignoring anything which he
may or may not know aliunde, simply looks to the
evidence ; feeling sufficient confidence in himself to trust
his judgment in determining whether it bear, or do not
bear out, the case. Upon this point, without con-
demning it, or (what is the same thing) only condemn-
ing it provisionally, he pronounces it insufficient for the
present.
As far as he goes beyond this, and, instead of being
satisfied with a merely negative condemnation on the
score of insufficiency, ventures upon an approximation
in the way of anything positive, he is not afraid of com-
mitting himself to the doctrine that, when philologues
make the Vedas 3000 and odd years old, and deduce
the Latin and its congeners from Asia, they are wrong
to, at least, a thousand miles in space, and as many
years in time. Of course, with views of this kind, he
looks upon the Sanskrit as a language towards which,
rather than one from which, we are to argue. We are
to end, rather than begin, with it.
The last congener of the Sanskrit is the Zend, or
the language of the Parsi Scriptures. It is written in
the alphabet of the Sassanian inscriptions in a cursive
form, and with the addition of the Sanskrit system of
vowels. It was discovered in the last century by
DAnquetil Perron, among the Parsis of Bombay. Older
in form than the Huzvaresh and Parsi, and more decidedly
akin to the Sanskrit, it is written in a newer alphabet.
THE SANSKRIT.
621
and it was discovered in the eleventh hour, and in India.
The notion of its being anything but a genuine lan-
guage (whatever might have been the case in the last
century) finds, at present, but few supporters.
Perhaps, however, certain loose generalizations, con-
cerning what is called the impossibility of forging a lan-
guage have had much to do with the opinions which are
favourable to its antiquity. Fictitious languages, how-
ever, are entirely questions of more or less ; in which the
nature of the subject, the skill of the forger, and the
acumen of the critics are the factors — just as they are
in any other forgery. This, however, is merely a sug-
gestion. I put a courteous, and otiose belief in the
teaching of the special Zend scholars ; though I know
of no one amongst them who has fairly met the difficulties
involved in the contrast between the ^7i^e-Sassanian
structure of the language and Pos^^Sassanian character
of the alphabet, combined with the fact of the additions
to the alphabet being, like the differentiae of the lan-
guage, Sanskrit from a Sanskrit locality.
In the following table the Kawi is the sacred lan-
guage of Java, which, according to some, is Sanskrit
with a mass of Javanese incorporated ; according to
others, Javanese with so much Sanskrit superadded.
English.
Sanskrit.
Pali.
Kawi.
Man
nianusha
manut
manusa
jana
jana
purdsha
burutsa
purusia
Woman
stri
itthi
istri
varangani
warraggana
Head
siras
siro
'' mastaka
ket
mastaka
Eye
netra
. net
sotia
akshi
akkhi
Nose
nasa
nasa
glirana
grana
Mouth
mukham
mukham
Hair
kesa
kesa
kesa
TeetJi
danta
danto
danti
Tongue
jivha
jivha
622
THE SANSKRIT.
English.
Sanskrit.
Pali.
Kawi.
Belly
garbha
gerba
udara
tithon
Hand
hasta
hat-tho
asta
Foot
pada
pado
pada
Blood
lohitam
lohitam
raktam
rap
sonita
-
rudhira
ludira
Day
dinam
dinam
divasa
raera
Night
ratri
ratti
ratri
kulam
Sun
surya
suriyo
suria
prabahkara
prabang-kara
Mitya
athit
raditia
Moon
Chandra
pera-chang chandra
sitangsu
sitangsu
Star
tara
dara
tara
Fire
agni
ak-khi
agni
Water
jala
khonkha
jalanioli
Stone
apa
sila
sinla
sela.
The following
■ is Sanskrit from a
Chinese grammar
English.
Chinese.
Sanskrit.
He is
po'
-po-ti
bhavati
They two are
po'
-po-pa
bhavapa
They are
po'
-fan-ti
bhavanti
Thou art
po'
-po-ss€
bhavasi
You two are
po'
-po-po
bhavapa
You are
po'
-po-ta
bhavatha
I am
po'
-po-mi
bhavami
We two are
po'
-po-hoa
bhavavak
We are
po'
-po-mo
bhavamah
Man
pu-
■lu-sha
purushah
Two men
pu-
lu-shao
purushau
Men
pu-
•lu-shaso
purushas
Of a man
pu-
■lu-sha-tsie
* purushasya
Of two men
pu-
-lu-sba
-pien
purushabhyara
Of men
pu
-lu-sha
-nan
purush^nam.
It is called Sanskrit rather than Pali from having a
dual number.
THE LITHUANIC CLASS. 623
CHAPTER LXXY.
The Lithuanic Division of the Sarmatian Class. — The Lett, Lithuanian, and
Prussian.
LiTHUANic means the languages of the group at large;
Lithuanian the Lithuanian Proper or the Lithuanian of
Lithuania.
The Lithuania falls into three branches : (1 .) the Li-
thuanian Proper, (2.) the Lett, (3.) the Prussian, or (as
the language has been extinct for nearly three centui'ies)
the Old Prussian.
The Lett is spoken in Estonia, Livonia, and ClirlancI,
as well as in some of the neighbouring Governments ;
the Lithuanian in Grodno, Vilna, and Kovno, and parts
of East Prussia. The Prussian is known only through
some Paternosters and a catechism of the sixteenth cen-
tury.
The chief locality for the chief dialect of the Lithu-
anic is Samogitia.
Encroached upon by the Russian, the German, the
Polish, and (perhaps) even the Estonian, the Lithuanian
(with all its high philological importance) is a broken and
fragmentary language, with only one author who has
any pretension to the rank of even a minor classic ; but
with a large mass of simple popular poetry, little of
which is older, in the way of language, than the date of
the first collection. This was made A.D. 1 745. Hence,
there are no stages in the Lithuanian languages, a cir-
cumstance which largely subtracts from their value as a
624 THE LITHUANIC CLASS.
philological study — which in other respects (especially
from the affinities between the Lithuanic and the Sans-
krit, not to mention others with the Latin and the
Greek) is of the highest. Nor does it make up for this
want of lineal history through either its local dialects or
through its congeners, the Lett and the Prussian. I have
met with the statement that the former of these stands
in the same relation to the Lithuanian that the Italian
does to the Latin — a statement of mischievous inac-
cm-acy. In some points the Lett forms are the older,
and throughout the languages the difference of develop-
ment is but slight. The same applies to the Prussian :
which is often called the Old Prussian ; and, if we only
compare the modern Brandenburghers with the ancient
Lithuanians, the prefix is a good one. But it is of
doubtful fitness if Ave look to the structure of the lan-
guage. In some points the Prussian is really the Li-
thuanic with certain old forms ; but in others it is a
younger and more advanced language. It has a definite
article, which the other Lithuanian languages, as well as
their Slavonic congeners, want — an article which has
grown, like the article in Greek, out of the demonstra-
tive pronoun.
One language of the Lithuanic class is extinct ; the
population by w4iich it was spoken having been perma-
nently broken-up as early as the thirteenth century.
This bore the name of Jaczwing (YatsJiving), Jatwag,
or something similar — according as the spelling of it was
Polish, Russian, German, or Latin.
All that remains of this language is a few proper
names. The external evidence, however, to its having
been Lithuanic is sufficient.
The Lithuanian is written in Roman letters ; and in
an orthography for which tlie Polish has served as a basis.
Unlike most other languages it ignores the principle by
which an Englishman, in order to show that the preced-
ing vowel is short, repeats the consonant which follows
^f^'
THE LITHUANIC CLASS. 625
(as in 'pitted, flitting, &lq.), and has no double letters.
It has, on the other hand, an over-abundance of dia-
critical marks in the way of accents, superfixes, and
suffixes. One of these represents a sound which no
longer exists, but which must have existed when the
modification was first resorted to. The signs of a and g,
originally represented nasals. At present, they are
sounded as the ordinary e and a. A change, then, of
some importance in the phonesis has taken place since
the language was first reduced to writing.
The Lithuanic, as a language, is full of interesting
points ; though it may easily be imagined that its affini-
ties with the Sanskrit have commanded almost exclu-
sive attention. Its affinities with the Latin and Greek
showing themselves every now and then, in unexpected
words, are also remarkable.
It has an approximation to the post-positive article,
i. e. it has a definite inflection of the adjective formed
by the incorporation, as an affix, of the demonstrative
pronoun. Thus geixcs = good, geramzzto good, geroin
of good ; whilst the good, to the good, and of the good
are gerasis, geramjam, gerojo, the pronoun being jis,
jam, and jo. On the other hand, except in the
Prussian, there is no definite article, eo nomine, at all.
With a language so fragmentary as the one before us,
everything connected with the question of its original
diffusion is of value ; and one of the points thus in-
vested with interest is this same approximate post-
position of the article. The four languages in Europe
where it is most conspicuous, are the Rumanyo, the Norse,
the Bulgarian, and the Albanian. That the Albanian lies
both too far south, and too much in situ to belong to an
area originally Lithuanic is denied by no one. That the
language of the Dacians, before the Roman conquest,
was Lithuanic, is held by many, and that on pre-emi-
nently good grounds ; its relations to the Scandinavian
being more doubtful. Elsewhere the present writer has
S S
626 THE LITHUANIC CLASS.
given reasons for holding that before Scandinavia became
German it was, to a great extent, Prussian or Lithuanic
— in other words, he has given reasons for transferring
a great many of the conquests of the Goths, usually
given to the Germans, to the Lithuanians ; who he
holds were, at one and the same time, the Gothini
of the Marcomannic frontier and the Gothones of the
Amber coast ; their area being, then, continuous — i. e.
extended from the most southern point of their present
occupancy in Grodno to Gallicia. If so, of the two
languages mentioned by Tacitus, one as Gallica, the
other as Britannicce proprior, the former was Galician,
the latter Prussian (Pruthenian) ; or, as the informants of
Tacitus (who, on other grounds, seem to have been
Germans) would have called it, Pryttisc.
At present the coincidence between the blood and the
language in Lithuania is only partial. The Letts, at
least, have encroached on the Fins.
The Lithuanic area, then, originally lay south-
wards ; its direction being from south to north ; the
south being the quarter in which it has, itself, been
the most displaced.
The Lithuanic area lies east of the Slavonic. This is
noted because its present relations to the Russian and
the German conceal the true character of its early situs.
The German touches it in the Baltic provinces : the
Russian stretches far beyond it into Asia. Both, how-
ever, have spread within the historical period. Mean-
while, on the Polish frontier there is an approach to the
original relations ; whilst, of all the Sarmatian languages,
it is the Lithuanic which is in the fullest contact with
the Fin.
THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. 627
CHAPTER LXXVI.
The Slavonic Division of the Sannatian Class. — The Russian, Servian, and
lUyrian. — The Slovak, Tshek, Lusatian, and Polish. — The Kassub and
Linonian.
The most eastern, and, by extension, the most northern
member of the Slavonic division of the Sarmatian class,
the Russian, is spoken from Galicia to Kamtskatka,
with a minimum amount of variation ; the reason for
this lying in the recency of its diffusion. In the older
portions of its area, however, there is the distinction
between the Little Russian of Galicia and the Ukraine,
and the Gi^eat Russian of Muscovy. This latter, again,
falls into subdivisions, of no great value, except so far
as they supply information concerning those populations
of Ugrian origin whose mother-tongue was displaced by
the Russian — for in Russia the coincidence between the
blood and the language is, by no means, close. In
Archangel a,nd Olonets the Fin words are (I believe)
more numerous than elsewhere ; and, then, in the Sus-
dalian dialect to the east of Moscow. In Kursk they
would probably be found if looked for ; and a fortiori^
in the districts further east. In the White Russian of
Smolensko and the Black Russian of Grodno Lithuanian
elements may be expected. With the exception, how-
ever, of the Malo-Russian, Ruthenian, Russinian, Rusniak,
or Little Russian, rich in national songs, none of the
dialects of Russia have commanded much attention.
From its nearest congener, the Servian, the Russian
s s 2
628 THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES.
is separated by the Wallachian — the Servian, like the
Malo-Russian, rich in national songs, being the chief
representative round which we may group the Bosnian
(spoken by a Mahometan population, and, perhaps,
w^ritten in the Arabic alphabet) ; the Herzegovinian ; the
Montenegrin (where h is used, in the place of g) ; the
Croatian ; and the Slavonian Proper of that part of
Hungary so-called.
The alphabet of the Servian and Russian is that of
the old Slavonic translation of the Scriptures, attributed
to the missionaries Methodius and Cyrill. Its basis is
the Greek.
The exact dialect which the old Slavonic represents is
doubtful.
A priori, and upon geographical grounds, the Bul-
garian has the best claims. The Old Slavonic wants,
however, the chief Bulgarian characters ; a fact which
transfers the claim to the Russian or the Servian. Con-
sidering, however, the great displacement that has taken
place in these parts, it may easily be the descendant of
some division or sub-division now extinct.
The Illyrian or Slovenian of Carinthia and Carniola,
closely akin to the western dialects of the Servian
group, is the language of the Roman rather than the
Greek, church, and is written in Roman characters rather
than in an alphabet of Greek origin. I can give no
account of its dialects, nor of the links which connect it,
with the Croatian and Dalmatian into which it probably
graduates. One of these was originally written in an
alphabet akin to the Old Slavonic and called the Glago-
litic.
In the northern and north-western counties of Hungary,
separated from the Poles and Rusniaks of Gallicia by
the Carpathians, and from Croatia, fee, by the intru-
sive Magyar, the Slovak, with a minimura amount of
literary culture, is spoken — the language of Moravia or
Bohemia being preached. Into the Moravian it, probably,
THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. 629
graduates ; the details of the Moravian dialects being un-
known. The common Moldavian language differs from
the Bohemian in little except name ; the native name
for the Bohemian being Tshek.
The Sorb, Serhy or Sorahian of Lusatia, and
a part of the circle of Cotbus, intermediate to the
Bohemian and the Polish, falls into two dialects — a
Protestant dialect to the north and a Roman Catholic
dialect to the south.
The Kassuh and the Linonian (extinct) are frag-
mentary forms of a near congener of the Polish spoken
in Pomerania and Luneburg.
The Sarmatian languages may easily have their in-
flectional character (by which is meant their approxima-
tion in the way of stage to the Latin, Greek, and Sans-
krit) overvalued. Take their declensions and compare,
or contrast, them with the English or Italian, and they
look like languages of the classical, rather than the
modern, period. Their conjugation, however, by no
means, bears out this inference. Taking, however, this
view, we must disconnect the participle from the verb,
and treat it as a noun ; for the Lithuanic, which has
dropped, or is dropping, even the signs of the third
person, is pre-eminently rich in participles. Like most
other languages, however, these are in different degrees
of development in different parts ; a fact which,
except with extreme languages like the English on one
side and the Latin on another, should caution us against
any general predications of old or new, synthetic or
analytic, and the like, as terras applied to languages in
general.
Though it is scarcely safe to compare the Sarmatian
tongues with the Latin and Greek, they are nearer the
Latin and Greek stage than the Italian or English.
Their nearest analogues, however, in this respect, are, the
Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon. At any rate, it is unsafe to
suppose that they are in so early a stage as to have lost
630 THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES.
nothing : a fact which, in comparing them with the
Sanskrit, is important. We must think what they were
when they had a full conjugation of verbs in -yttt, and
a system of reduplicate perfects (the latter being a
phenomenon which we should never have known to have
been German if it were not for the Moeso-Gothic) ; and
what the Sanskrit would have been if it had come
down to us after these had (as in the newer German and
Latin tongues) been dropped.
The phonesis of all the Sarmatian tongues is peculiar.
Less vocalic and liquid than the Greek, they are pre-
eminently sibilant. They are this ; though their ortho-
graphy exaggerates their sibilancy. In separate sounds,
indeed, they are scarcely richer than the English or
Italian ; but they do what both those languages eschew.
They combine two. To the cli in chest they will prefix
the sh in shire, so as to give the combination shish.
All this disguises their Latin and Sanskrit affinities.
As many of these sibilants represent a. g or k, preserved
in German, Latin, and Greek, they must be considered,
in this point, at least, as new ratlier than old. However,
as has been stated, they are new in some points, old in
others. The oldest Slavonic is not old in the way that
Latin is old as compared to Italian. It is rather old in
the way that the Moeso-Gothic is old as compared with
the Anglo-Saxon — if, indeed, it be this. Still, Old
Slavonic is the name for the nearest congener of the
Russian, Servian, and Bulgarian in its oldest form.
In parts of Poland, in Lusatia, in Bohemia, and Mo-
ravia, in the Slovak parts of Hungary, in the Ruthe-
nian parts of Gallicia, in Carinthia, Carniola, Croatia,
Bosnia, and Servia, the blood and language coincide.
In Muscovy, or Great Russia, the blood is largely Fin.
The original situs and direction of the Sarmatian
languages now comes under notice. How far did they
reach eastwards ? How far did they reach northwards ?
This depends upon the original extent of the Ugrian
^-^
THE SLAVONIC LANGUAGES. G31
area. For other i-easons besides those suggested by the
mere similarity of name, I imagine that it may in (say)
the time of Herodotus, have stretched as far as Minsk
and Pinsk ; its southern districts being overrun by in-
trusive Scythians, or Skoloti — ethnologically Turks.
Along the Baltic we may carry it, even at the beginning
of the historical period, to the frontier of East Prussia ;
and upon a few slight facts, at a still earlier period, to
the Elbe. This, however, is a point which I do not press.
I only remark that if I brought it to the Weser, or the
Rhine, I should not be supporting the Fin hypothesis
which carries it all over Europe. What is suggested
here is merely a question of more or less. That the
Pomeranian Slaves, and the Lithuanian Prussians, were
on the Baltic before the Christian era is nearly certain.
I think, however, that they had reached it from the
South, and that there were intruders there as truly as
were the Scythians, at even an earlier period, in South-
ern Russia.
How far did they reach westwards ? This depends
on the area allotted to the Germans and the Kelts ;
points which will be considered in the sequel.
632 THE LATIN, ETC.
CHAPTER LXXVII.
The Latin and the Languages derived from it. — The Italian. — Spanish. —
Portuguese. — French. — Romance — Romanyo.
If the views to which the writer committed himself in
the last chapter, as to the antiquity of the Slavonic lan-
guage in the Carnic Alps and the probability of its
having extended as far westwards as Savoy, be accurate,
we must suppose that, in the first instance at least,
either the northern frontier of the class of languages to
which the Latin belonged touched the southern frontier
of the Slavonic, or that some intermediate class has been
annihilated without leaving any sign whatever of its
existence. To do this, however, is to assume phenomena
unnecessarily.
Imagine, then, that (say) one thousand years B.C. the
Slavonic and Latin frontiers touched each other, and
that throughout the whole length of the latter — a doc-
trine which treats the Gallic of Cisalpine Gaul as intru-
sive and comparatively recent ; a doctrine, however,
which, though it connects the Latin far more closely
with the Slavonic than with the Keltic (or indeed any
other language except the Greek), by no means denies
the existence of Keltic elements in it.
This, however, is a question connected with the
analysis of the Latin language itself rather than with
its geographical distribution.
Where the Slavonic ended and where the most northern
congeners of the Latin, previous to the Gallic in-
vasions, began is unknown. Neither do we know
THE LATIN, ETC. C33
what was the philological ethnography of Etruria before
the descent of the Etruscans. When Latium first
becomes known to us its area is eminently truncate, i. e.
cut ofi" abruptly on the north by the Tibur ; beyond
which lay the Etruscan. On the south lay the Yolscian,
and on the east and north-east the dialects of the
Hernici and the Sabines, all three of which appear to
have been other than Latin in the strict provincial sense
of the term.
The Sabine led from the Latin to the Umhrian,
wherein the differences were sufficient (the Umbrian
being known to us from the Eugubine inscription) to
either simulate, or constitute, a fresh language ; how far
the Umbrian extended beyond the Rubicon being uncer-
tain. In Gallia Togata the intrusive Gallic, the Etruscan,
and the (Slavonic) Venetian prevailed.
The third congener of the Latin for which we have any
beyond mere glosses is the Oscan, known to us through the
Bantine and other inscriptions. It was spoken in parts
of Samnium and Campania ; and probably graduated
into the Latin through the Volscian, and into the
Umbrian through the dialects of the Peligni, Vestini,
and Piceni.
Of the languages of the south of Italy more will be
said in the sequel. Among those in the centre of the
peninsula, it is manifest that, before the spread of the
Latin, the dialects were numerous, well-marked, and in
two cases, at least, of sufficient importance to pass as
separate substantive languages.
Of the Latin Proper the history, as compared with
that of the Greek, begins late : the remains of what
may be called the Latin of the Early Republican
period being scanty. The details of the changes
which took place during the lifetimes of Caesar and
Cicero, and which give us the difference between
Virgil and Horace on one side, and Catullus and
Lucretius on the other, are obscure ; and are, perhaps.
634 THE LATIN, ETC.
connected with the orthography rather than the lan-
guage itself. This, however, has now taken its literary,
classical, and standard form ; and, unfortunately, it is
in this form alone that it has come down to us. The
analogue of the classical Latin is not the Greek language
en masse, but the Greek of the Attic, the Ionic, or some
single dialect. The language of the cultivated classes of
Kome may have differed from the vernaculars of its
immediate neighbourhood as the Florentine of Dante
differed from the dialect of the nearest Apennines, or
as the Athenian of Pericles from that of the neighbour-
ing Megara. The local dialects of the Latin are known
less than those of the Greek, and of the common lan-
guage of the lower Romans and of the army we know
nothing. Yet to this rather than to the classical Latin
were those forms of speech out of which the modern
derivatives of the Latin have been developed, in all
probability, akin.
These derivative languages are, roughly speaking, the
Italian, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the French, the
Romance of the Grison Cantons in Switzerland, and
the Rumanyo, or Roumain, of Wallachia and Moldavia.
Of these, the last alone is isolated. The others all
touch each other on their frontiers. How far they
graduate into each other will be seen as we proceed.
In the growth of the modern languages out of the
Latin three questions command attention —
1. The condition of the Latin itself, both in respect
to the stage of its development, and the class of indi-
viduals by which it was introduced :
2. The language or languages with which it came in
contact :
3. The changes which have subsequently taken place ;
especially with reference to the introduction of foreign
elements.
In the history of all mixed languages these three ele-
ments must be recognized. In the Latin, however, and
ETC. 635
its derivatives the phenomena with which they are
connected are to be studied on a great scale.
The Etruscan, and its own immediate congeners, such
as the Sabine, and the Volscian, were the first languages
and dialects other than Latin in the limited sense of the
term upon which the Latin of Latium encroached — then
it touched the Gallic of Cisalpine Gaul and Liguria, the
Euganean and Venetian dialects of (?) the Slavonic, the
Umbrian, the Oscan, the Greek of the southern extremity
of the peninsula, and, perhaps, certain offshoots of
the Epirot, Illyrian, and Dalmatian from the opposite side
of the Adriatic in the parts between Mount Garganus
and the lapygian promontory. Extended to Sicily it
came in contact with the Greek of the colonies, as well
as with the original language of the island (so far as it
was spoken at all) ; which was probably Greek, though
of a peculiar kind. In Sardinia and Corsica it is
diflicult to say with what vernaculars it met. They may
have been, like itself, Italian, They may have been
Gallic, Slavonic, Iberic, African. They may have been
some or all of these : dashed, perhaps, with intrusive
Greek and Phenician. In Spain, the Keltic and Iberic
languages were spoken widely ; and, in special localities,
the Punic of Carthage along with, perhaps, the Numi-
dian, the Mauritanian, or some other (? Amazig) lan-
guage of Africa. In Gaul there was the Iberic on the
south, the Keltic on the north, and, perhaps, along the
Rhine some German ; and in Savoy (by hypothesis) some
Slavonic. In the Grisons I believe the basis to have
been by no means Keltic, but a near congener of the
Etruscan ; and (as such) Slavonic. That Slavonic was
the chief language of Pannonia I have no doubt ; though
I would not say that Lithuanic forms of speech were
wholly wanting. In Dacia I believe that the two
existed concurrently : possibly in concurrence with a
southern offset of the Scythian — a doctrine for which
I have given my reasons elsewhere.
636 TIIR LATIN, ETC.
The changes that have subsequently affected the several
portions of this area belong to general history rather
than to comparative philology. So do the details of
the conquests of Spain, Gaul, Dacia, and the like.
Between the first and last of these there was an
interval of more than four hundred years ; and between
the character of the different settlers there was a corre-
sponding difference. Dacia, the last to be reduced, was
the first to be given up. Nevertheless (as already
stated) the Wallachian and Moldavian of tlie present
time is a daughter of the Latin.
Every language that has grown out of the Latin
is either decidedly Latin or something else ; i. e. it is
either Latin or French, Latin or Italian, and the like.
In other words, there is no such thing as an equivocal or
ambiguous language. The earliest French, the earliest
Proven9al, the earliest Italian, are just as Italian, Pro-
vengal, or French as are the latest. In no sense of the
term can any of them be called Latin or even Semi-
Latin. The Sardinian is believed to have the best
claim to this name : but it has only an imperfect one.
It is essentially a derivative of the Latin and not the
Latin itself
This absence, however, of intermediate forms is only
subjective, i. e. it rests upon our want of data rather
than upon any real fact. The Latin served for the
little writing that was wanted so long after it had
ceased to be spoken as Latin that every one of its
modern descendants may reasonably be supposed to have
undergone notable modifications long before the earliest
record of them. This want of data for the French,
Italian, and their congeners during the period between the
last days of the pure and simple Latin and the eleventh
century (the date of the earliest Proven9al compositions)
is the great desideratum in the philological history of
this great language — in other respects so prolific in
valuable details.
THE LATIN, ETC. 637
That it is the Latin, eo nomine, rather than the
Umbrian, the Oscan and their congeners, out of which
the modern dialects of the Italian in Oscan, Um-
brian, and similar localities have grown, is a reason-
able presumption : though it is possible that the Oscan
and Umbrian, &c., if known in their full details,
might fairly be considered to have been the direct
progenitors of some of them. Upon this, and its
allied questions, much close thinking is wanted — all the
more because what may be called the break-up of the
Latin language is the great field for the study of all
similar break-ups.
In a notice of the numerous and well-illustrated
dialects of modern Italy it is convenient to begin
with :— (] .) The Sicilian, (2.) The Calabrian, (3.) The
Neapolitan, and (4.) The Roman : to which we may
add the dialects which (whatever they were originally)
are so modified by the influences of the literary
Italian, or Florentine, as to be independent of the
dialects of the districts around them. This means, in
general, those of the towns ; a difference recognized by
the admission of a Lingua Urbana and Lingua Rustica.
The former, as a general rule, means the language of the
towns ; every one of which is more Italian, even when
beyond the proper Italian boundary (a term which will
soon make itself understood) than the dialects of the
parts around it.
In Tuscany the difference between the rural and
urban dialects is at its minhnum.
Not so, however, in the district circumscribed by the
Alps, the Apennines, and (there or thereabouts) the
drainage of the Foglia. On the south of this area
those strong characteristics which distinguish the
literary Italian from the French of Paris on the one
side, and the Romance of the Grisons on the other,
suffer diminution.
638 THE LATIN, ETC.
All these dialects are called by Biondelli Gallo-
Italian, and whether we attribute the name to their
belonging to that part of Italy which constituted Cisal-
pine and Cispadane Italy (Gallic districts) or to the
occurrence of French characteristics in the existing
dialects, the name (except so far as its compound form
makes it cumbrous) is a fair one. It falls into families.
(1.) the Piedmontese ; (2.) the Lombard; and (3.) the
Emilian, these latter lying on the line of the Via Emilia ;
just as, in England, we might make a group of the
dialects lying along the whole, or a part, of the Watling
Street. The classification is definitional ; in each case,
however, it is specially stated that the continuous dia-
lects graduate into each other. A little alteration,
therefore, enables us to convert the arrangement into
a typical one, the arrangement itself being natural.
To this, add the Ligurian family on the one side, and
the Venetian and Carnic on the other ; the former
giving the Lingue Eustiche for Genoa, the other the
Lingue Rustiche for Venice and Fiume. The extreme
members of this latter graduate into the Romance ;
and it is because some of the north-western members
of the so-called Gallo-Italian do the same that I make
the very slight objections which I do make to either
the name or the class.
The Emilian dialects which come nearest to the
Tuscan and Ligurian in structure seem to be those of the
frontier. Of these the following extracts from the
Parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke xv.) in the dialect
of Bobbio may serve as specimens.
Bohhiese.
11. Un om 11 gh' aviva dli fio ;
12. Al pti giuvan d' lur 1' k dit so p^dar ; PapS,, dem la part di ben ch a
m' tocca ; e lii u gh' ^ sparti la sostanza.
13. Da li a pochi di, miss tiitt insem, al fio minur, u s'n' e anddt an 1' un
pais lunt^n, e 1' ^ consUm^ tiitt al fat so in bagurd.
THE LATIN, ETC. 639
14. E cina, r e stat nett dal tixtfc, u gh'e vnii na gran caristia in 1' quel pais,
e a lii u gli' e cmens^ a manca al nesessari.
15. E r e andat, e u s' e miss con un paisan d' quel pais, ch 'u 1' ^ mand^ a
la so campagna apriss ai purse.
16. E u dessiderava d' impiniSs la panz a die giande cli 'i mangiavan i
giugnen ; ma nsiin gh' in dava.
As we move northwards the dialects of Mh'andola and
Mantua take us into the Lombard and Venetian areas ;
while the Broni leads to Piedmont.
The Lombard family falls into two primary divisions,
the western and the eastern, the former represented by
the Milanese, the latter by the Bergamasco. Here, as
before, I shall take more special cognizance of the
Alpine varieties.
The Valteline and Ticino dialects are nearly as much
Romance as Italian.
Ticinese {Val Maggia).
11. U jera un um con dii tosoi ;
12. El piii piscen de gnist 1' a die al padri ; atta, dem al me part da quel
che m' toca ; e liJ 1' a fee i divisivi e u gh' 1' a deci.
13. Da li a poc, V k ramassd,o el fa2 su, e u s' n' e ne2 in pais da lunz, e 1' ^
raffabiao tiitt coss vivend da pore.
14. E dop ch' r k bill fee net, 1' e vegnii in quel pais una gran carestia, e
r k comenzao a senti la sgajosa ;
15. E r e ne8, e F ^ scercao apress a un scior i da quel pais, e quest u 1' sL
mand^o al bosc'a ciir^ i pore.
16. E u scercava da mangia i giand, cb' k mangia i por2 : ma i un gh' dava
gnanc da quii.
Valtelinese {Val Pregallia).
11. Un 6m veva diii fi ;
12. A plii gidvan dget con se bap : Bap, dam U me part de roba ; a '1 lur
gpartit i se ben.
13. A poc di dre, cur ch' al plii gijivan vet tiit quant robaca, al get davent
in iir paes Ionian, a 1^ '1 dissipat la se roba, menant na vita deSmresiirada.
14. A cur ct 'el vet tiit fat andaal nit na gran famina in quel paes, a '1
scomanz^t a senti la misera ;
15. Alua '1 get, a s'metet al servisei pet' iin da qui dal paes, ch' it mand^t
in t' i si fond a ciira i pore.
16. A '1 ves dgiii giidgent da s' pode sazia da quel ch' a mangiavan i por8 ;
ma nagiin n' i am deva.
The dialect of the valley of the Borniio is peculiar ;
it having constituted a separate estate upon certain
640 THE LATIN, ETC.
conditions ; one of which was to have nothing to do
with the men of either Ticino or the Valteline.
Bormio.
11. Un omen el gh' avea dol fioi ;
12. E '1 plu gi6en de qui al gh' k dit al pd ; P^, dam la part de roba.
13. E poc di dop, mess insema tot, al fiol plu gioen 1' e gi in paes lontan e li
I^ sciolt al fat se, a far al putaneir.
14. E popo clie r a avu consumd, tot, 1' e vegni fora una gran penuria in quel
paes, e 1' ^ scomenz^ a sentir la miseria :
15. L' e gi, e '1 s' e met^ con un de qui de quel paes, ch' el 1' d, manda fora in
tin se loc a past coi porcei.
16. E '1 desideraa de impleniss ol se ventro deli giande, che i mangiaan i
porcei ; ma nigun i gh' en daan.
The Bergomasco is one of the most marked dialects
of Italy.
Bergomasco.
11. On om el gh' ia du fioi ;
12. E '1 pio zuen de lur 1' a deg a s5 pMer : Tata, dem la porsi^ de sostansa
ch' el me toca ; e lu '1 ghe divide la sostansa.
13. Dopo poc de, ol pio yuen 1' h regondit tot ol s5, e 1' e 'ndac in pais lont^,
8 la, r k dissipat quat al gh' ia a viv de baracher.
14. E dopo ch' el s' e maj^t tot ol s6, al s' e, fag in quel pais ona carestea
gajarda, e '1 comense e ess al bisogn ;
15. L' e 'ndac doca a tac-dss a ii benest^nt de quel pais ch' el 1' amandat
fo 'n da so campagna a fa pascola i porsei.
16. E la il desiderd,a de impieniss la pansa di giande ch' i mangi^ a i stess
Buni ; ma nissU gh' en dia. *
The rustic Brescian from the Yal Camunica is as
follows.
Brescian.
11. On om el gh' ia du matei.
12. E '1 pio zuen de lur el gh' k dit al pare ; Bub^, dam la part de la sos-
tanza che m' toca : e lii 1' ^ diidit a lur la sostanza.
13. E poc de dopo, el fiol pio zuen, tot so tota la so roba, 1' e 'ndat en d'iin
pais lonta, e la 1' a consomat el fat so a godisla.
14. E dopo i consomat tot, el gh' e gnit ima gran caristia en quel pais, e' lii
r a scomensat a pati ;
15. E r e 'ndat a ier con giii de quel pais, ch' el'l' k mandat en d' ona so cam-
pagna a pasture i porsei.
16. E '1 gh' ia via d' empienis el veter de le giande ch' i majad, i porsei ; e
nigu i gh' en daa.
The sub-division of the Piedmontese family is into
DIALECTS OF THE ITALIAN, ETC.
641
three primary groups: (1.) the Montserrat on the south,
which is especially stated to approach the Ligurian, (2.)
the Piedmontese Proper on the east, and (3.) the Canavese
on the north. But, besides this, there is a division of the
Piedmontese Proper into the dialects of the comparatively
level country and those of the Alpine district. I have no
hesitation in calling this a cross-division, and in adding
that it finds a place in the other two divisions, as well as
in the Lombard, the Venetian, and the Carnic families.
The extent to which the Alpine division is French may
be got from Biondelli himself; the following contrasts
being taken from him.
(1-)
Italian
padre
fratello
muojo
tocca
Piedmontese Pi
'optr
pare
fratel
mori
toca
A Ipine
paire
fraire
(2-)
muero
tudccia.
Italian
peccato
capretto
cantare
calzare
Piedmontese Propei'
peca
cavret
cante
causse
Alpine
peci^
ciabn
ciantd,r
ciaussar
French
peclie
chevreau
(3.)
chanter
chausser-
Italian
detto
fatto
quanti
quinto
Piedmontese Proper
dit
fait
quanti
riva
Alpine
dig
fag
(4.)
quang
giiing.
Italian
i porci
i mei amici
le femmini
allegri
Alpine
lus cusciuns
muns amis
les femmes
allegres
French
les cochons
mes amis
les femmes
allegres.
Italian per levarsi
Piedmontese Proper pr levese
Alpine per se lev^r
(5.)
di ritomarmene per godermi
d'artornemne pr godemla
de m' entournEir per me regiui
French
Italian
Turin
Cureo
pour se lever de m'en retourner pour me rejouir.
• (6.)
andato fatto dato
and^it fait dait
andeit feit deit
mandate stato
mandait stait
mandeit steit.
T T
642
DIALECTS OF THE ITALIAN, ETC.
Italian
mangiamo
(7.)
anddvano
facevano
avevano
Piedmontese Proper
mangio
andavo
fasio
a 710
Corio
mangien
and^ven
(8.)
fasien
avien.
Italian
dir6
fard
portero
custodiro
Valdieri
vai dir
vai far
vai porter
vai gardar
French
vais dire
faire
porterai
garderai.
In the Yinadio the nasals prevail ; as does the
habit of laying an accent on the last syllable. As far
as the specimens go, the pre-eminently French dialects
are those of Graglione, Oulx, Yiu, Usseglio.
The Genoese has the sound of ng between two vowels,
as well as the French eu and u. The word lunha=z
luna = moon is a sort of Genoese shibboleth.
Of the Piedmontese dialects those of Garessio and
Ormea are pre-eminently Ligurian — being spoken on the
frontier.
Less Italian than these, though, perhaps, not more
French, is the dialect of the valley of the Soana, as
spoken in Ingria, Ronco, Roncato, and Campiglia.
Italian.
ha, avesse viene
era aveva
voleva
entrasse
Soana.
hat iisset vint
eret aveit
(2.)
voleit
intrasset.
Italian.
fossero morlvano
mangiano
davano
av^nzano
Soana.
fussent crevavont
cucunt
donavant
avansunt.
Castelmagno.
11. tin ome avia diii figi ;
12. E tu pii giijve da chisti k diti a, sun pMre ; "Fkire diineme la part dia
roba ch' me toca. E el ^ fa2 tra tur les part dies sostanses.
13. E papa car'che gium, biitt^ tut ensem, lu figi pii picot se n' e an^ en te
d' pais logn, e isi a 1' £l consiima tut tu fac sio en d' porcheries.
14. E eart a 1' a gu fini tutes es coses, gli es sagli na gran earestio eu
I'achet pais, e el a cumens^ a patir lu fam.
15. En I'acliest mentre gli es vengii en t'la testa d'an^r trub^r tin sitadin
d'acbet pais, cb' a 1' d, mand^ a gardar i puerc.
16. Ea I'avia voglia d'empirse ta tripa dies giaudes cbe mingiaven i puerc,
degijn guen douava.
SARDINIAN. 643
Oulx.
11. Un omme avie dus eifans ;
12. Le plii zune d' iellus di a sim paire ; Paire, duname la purziun de ben
che me reven ; e ie lus a paitaS^ le ben.
13. Coches zurs apre aien tut rebata le plii zuve garsrin parti par I'eitrangi,
par tin pai eilunia, e ithi u 1' d, dissipa sun ben en viven luxuriusmen.
14. Me apre ch' ul' a agii tut cunsiimd, 1' es siirvegU Une grande famine dins
que pai, eje meime u 1' a cumensa a esse in besun.
15. Alure u se n' ei an^, e u s' ei attasa a iin dus abitan de qu6 pai, e set-
issi r a mand^ a sa meisun de campagne, par fa paisse lus cusciuns.
16. Ithi u deisirave rempli sun ventre de las crofas cbe mijaven tus cus-
ciuns, e nengii n' 1 en dunuave.
In Sardinia, with su for its definite article, and with
its plural ending in s, we have, inter alia, the elements
of, at least, as good a language (as opposed to a dialect)
as the Portuguese is to the Spanish and the Danish to
the Swedish, or vice versa. It falls into dialects and
sub-dialects ; the main divisions being apparently —
(] .) The Southern, represented in its Lingua Urbana
by the Cagliari form of speech.
Ruth I. 1.
A su tempus de is giugis candu unu solu fiat autoridadi, est accuntessin unu
grandu famini in sa terra. Eun omini de Betlem de Giudas fiat andau a
biviri in su paisu de Moab cun sa muUeri sua e cun duus fillus.
Matthew ii. 1, 2.
1. Essendi duncas nascin Gesus in Betlem de Giudas a tempus de su rei
Erodis, eccu cbi benint a Gerusalemmi is Magus de orienti.
2. Narendi ; Aund'est su, ch' est nascin rei de is Giudeus ? poita nos heus
bistu sa Stella sua in s' orienti e seus benius a ad' adorai.
(2.) The Central Sardinian.
Ruthi. 1.
Ad SOS tempos de unu Juighe quaudo sos juighes guvernaiant, succedesit
una carestia in sa terra. Et un' homine de Bethlehem de Juda sind' andesit
pro peregrinare in sa terra de Moab, cum sa muzere sua et cum duos fizos.
(3.) The Northern Sardinian.
Matthew ii. 1, 2 (Logudore).
1. Essende edducas naschidu Jesus in Bethlehem de Juda in sas dies de sn
rp Herodes, ecco qui sos magos dai s'oriente benzesint a Jerusalem.
2. Narzende : " Ue est su naschidu Re de sos Judeos? hamus bidu s'istella
sua in s'oriente, et semus bennidos a lu adorare."
T T 2
644 THE DIALECTS OF THE FRENCH, ETC.
Ruth i. 1 (Tempio).
Alu tempu d'un giudiei, candu li giudiei cuman daani, accadisi una caristia
in la tarra. Un omu di Betlem di Giuda andesi a pilligrin^ in Tincuntiata
di Moab, cu' la mudderi e cu' li so' dui fiddoli.
The plural in s is, at least, a point wherein the Sar-
dinian is Spanish rather than Italian.
Through its northern dialects, the Sardinian graduates
into the Corsican.
Matthew ii. 1, 2 (Corsican).
1. Adunque essendu natu Grhiesu in Betlemme di Grhiuda, in tempu che
regnana lu re Erode, eccu che i Maghi arrivonu da I'oriente in Ghierusa-
lemme.
2. Dicendu : Duv' e quellu ch' e nalu re di li Grhiudei 1 Avemu vistula so
setter nel' oriente, e semu ghiunti per adurallu.
Between the Proven9al of Southern, and the French
Proper of Northern, France, the Loire is generally con-
sidered the boundary. The forms of speech themselves
are separate languages rather than dialects of any single
one. At present the French has the prerogative. It
was the Proven9al, however, which was first cultivated.
The following is the earliest specimen of it.
Oath of the King (a.b. 842).
Pro Deo amur et pro Xristian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d' ist di
en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salverai eo cist meon
fradre Karlo, et in ajudha et in cadhun a cosa, si cum om per dreit son
fradra salvar dist, in o quia il mi altresi fazet ; et all Ludher nul placa nun-
quam prindrai uni, meon vol, cist meon fradre Karlo in damno sit.
Oath of the People.
Si Loduwigs sagrament, que son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat ; et Karlus,
meos sendra, de suo part non lo stanit ; si io returnar non Tint pois, ne lo,
ne nuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig nun li
iver.
Vaudois.
Luke XV. 11-15.
11. Un horn avia du fill ;
12. E lou pi giouvon di k so pare, "Pare; donne-me la part de ben que me
b6n." Et a r i ha partagia seni ben.
13. E un poc apreu, quant lou fill pi giouvon ha agii tut rabast^, a se n' 6
anil forca ent un pais lengu ; et lai a 1' ha dessip^ so ben en vivant ent la des-
bancia.
THE DIALECTS OF THE FRENCH, ETC. 645
14. E apreu qu' a 1' ha agu tut despendxi, una gran fanina e vengvia ente
quel pais lai : e a 1' e aresta coun ren dar tout.
15. Aloura a se n' e ana, et a s' e butta d patroun coun un di habitant
d' aquel pais, que 1' ha mandzi ent seui poussess per gard& li pueic.
Northern French.
Luke XV. 11-14.
11. Un home avi6 dous enfans.
12. Lou plus pichoun diquet a son paire, ''Moun paire, dounas mi ce que
mi reven de vouastre ben ;" Lou paire faquet lou partage de tout ce que pous-
sedavo.
13. Paou de jours apres, lou pichoun vendet tout se que soun paire il avi6
desamparat, et s'en anet dins un pais fourco luench, ounte dissipet tout soun
ben en debaucho.
14. Quand aquet ton arcaba, unogrosso, f amino arribet dins aqueou pais, et
leou, si veguet reduech k la derniero misero.
South-western French.
Luke XV. 11-14.
11. Ain hommeavouait deeux garoheons.
12. L'pus jone dit a sain pere, "Main pere, bailie m' chou qui doiio me
'r 'venired vous bren," et leu pere leu partit sain bren.
13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, cheon jours apres 1' pus ti6 d' cries deeux
ef eans oyant r'cuelle tout s'n peritt main , sot' ain voye dains nain pahis gra-
mair toiion, du qu" il echillatout s'n argintain fageant 1' braingand dains ches
cabarets.
14. Abora qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mie et tout drele, il o 6nu adonc dains
eh' pahis lo ainn 'famaire cruUele, et i c'mainchouait d' avoir fon-ye d' pon-ye.
The Provencal is common to France and Spain ; for,
between the Catalonian and the Castilian, there is much
the same difference as between the French Proper and
the Provencal. Indeed, the Catalonian is, really, Pro-
ven9al spoken in Spain. Again — the Gallician of Spain
is, in like manner, Portuguese — the difference between
the Portuguese and the Spanish being, to a great ex-
tent, political. Throughout, however, the whole range
the general phenomena are those of transition. In
Liege the language bears the name of Wallon : and is, as
we expect from its locality, an extreme form of the north-
ern French. Contrasted w4th the French of Paris it is
a different language. This, however, may be said of so
many other dialects that it means but little.
646 THE DIALECTS OF THE FRENCH, ETC.
Catalonian.
Luke^y. 11-15.
11. Un home tenia dos fills :
12. Yl mes petit dique a son pare : "Pare, donaume la part quern toca de
vostres bens." Y ell los reparti bens.
13. Y al cap de poehs dias, juntant lo fill menor tot lo que era sen, seu
and illuny k un pais estrany, y alii dissipa tots sos bens vivint dissolutament.
14. Y quant ho hagne gastat, vingue una gran fam en aquella terra y
comensd k patu miseria.
15. Llarors seu and, y s'arrimd 4 un dels ciutadans d'aquella terra, qui
I'enira 's sa granja 4 guardar porchs.
S'paiih'K.
Lulce XV. 11-15.
V 11. Un hombre tuvo dos hijos.
12. Y dico el menor de ellos k su padre : Padre, dame la parte de la haci-
enda, que me toca. Y el les repartio la hacienda.
13. Y no muchos dias despues juntando todo lo suyo el hijo menor se fue
lejos £i, un pais muy distante, y alll malroto todo su haber, viviendo disoluta-
mente.
14. Y* quando todo lo hubo gastado, vino una grande hambre en aquella
tierra, y 61 comenzo a padecer necesidad.
15. Y fue, y se arrlmo a uno de los curdadanos de aquella tierra : el qual lo
envida a su cortijo 4 quardar puercos.
Matthew ii. 1-6.
1. Habendo pois nacido Xesus en Belen de Xud^ reinando Herodes, ve
aque que uns magos vineron do oriente a Xerusalem.
2. Preguntando : j Onde estd o nacido rei dos Xudios ? porque nosoutros
vimos en oriente a su estrella, e habemos chegada con fin de adorarlo.
3. Oindo esto o rei Herodes, turbouse, e consigo toda Xerusalem.
4. E chamando a todas os principes dos sacerdotes, e aos escribas do pueblo,
purguntaballes onde tina que nacer o Cristo ou Mesias.
5. Ao cal eles responderon ; en Belen de Xuda ; que asi se ten escrebido
no profeta ;
6. E ti Belen terra de Xuda, non eres certamente a mais cativa entre as
principales vilas de Xuda ; pois que e de ti que ten de salir o xefe, que
gobeme o meu pueblo de Israel.
Portuguese.
Luke XV. 11-15.
11. Hum homem teve dous filhos ;
12. E disse o mais mogo delles a seu pai, Pai, dd-me a parte da fazenda, qua
me toca. E elle repartio entre ambos a fazenda.
13. E passados n^o muitos dias, entrourando tudo o que era seu, partia o
filho mais mo90 para huma terra muito distante n'hum paiz estranho, e Ik
dissipou toda a sua fazenda vivendo dissolutamente.
14. E depois de ter consumido tudo, succedeo haver naquelle paiz huma
grande fome, e elle coma90u a necessitar.
16. Returoi-se pois dalli, e accommodou-se com hum dos Cidadaos de tal
terra, Este porein o mandou para him casal seu a guardar os porcos.
ROMANCE. 647
Swiss and Protestant, the Grisons are separated from
Italy ; the language of the Grisons being called the
Bumonsch or Romance. Its orthography, too, is
German rather than Itahan. So that it passes for a
separate substantive language ; as, in its extreme forms,
it is. Except in name, however, several of the Italian
dialects are Komance.
Of the Romance Proper, the two main dialects are —
1 . That of the valley of the Rhine ;
2. That of the valley of the Inn — this latter falling,
at least, into the Upper and the Lower Engadino.
The elements subsequent to the Latin are chiefly Ger-
man. The language upon which the Latin, chiefly intro-
duced by the conquest of Drusus and Tiberius, encroached,
was a near congener of the Etruscan. At the present
time the Romance phonesis is largely Slavonic.
Romanese,
Luke XV. 11-15.
11. Un Hum veva dus filgs.
12. Ad ilg juven da quels schet alg ball ; *' Bab, mi dai la part da la
rauba c' aud' S, mi;" ad ed parcbe or ad els la rauba.
13. A bucca bears gis suenter, cur ilg filg juven vet tut mess ansemel, scha
til a 1 navent en iinna terra dalunsch ; a lou sfiget el tut sia rauba cun viver
senza spargn.
14. A cur el vet tut sfaig, scha van git ei en quella terra iin gronae fumaz:
ad el antshavel a ver basengs.
15. Ad el m^, a sa plide cun iin burgeis da quella tetra : a quel ilg tarma-
tet or sin ses beins a parcherar ils pores.
Engadin.
Luhe XV. 11-15.
11. Un crastien haveiva dos filgs.
12. E '1 plii juven d' els diss al bap, "Bap, da 'm la part dalla raba ch' Im
tocca." E '1 bap partit ad els la raba.
13. E pane dids davo, il filg plU juven, haviand miss insemmel ogni chi-
aussa, giet el inavaunt seis viadi in pajais luntaun, e qua dissipet el sias
facultads, vivana dissoluta maing,
14. E dapo ch' el ha vet spais ogni chiaussa, vene iina greiva charestia in
quel pajais : tal ch' el cumanzet ad havair bsceng,
15. E giet, e s' matel cun un dais havadaduors da quella contrada, il qual il
tramatet siin seis bains, k perchDrar ils pores.
648 THE RUMANYO.
As a division in the class containing the derivatives
of the Latin, the E-umanyo, or Roumain, of Wallachia,
Moldavia, Bessarabia, and parts of the Bukhovinia, and
Transylvania, stands (to repeat a well-worn illustra-
tion) as a genus with a single species ; being, single-
handed, of equal value with all the others. Nor is this
wholly due to its geographical isolation. It has true
points of internal difference — inter alia the post-posi-
tive article Qiomulzuhomo illezzil uomo, el hombre,
rhomme elsewhere) like the Bulgarian and the Albanian,
to the south, and the Lithuanian and the Norse lan-
guages to the north, of it. The change, too, from c to ^
is very regular.
English.
Latin.
Rumanyo.
Breast
pectus
Vepie
Milk
lac
la2)te
Hip
coa;a
koa^jsa, &c.
Night
noa;
nqpte.
The glossarial elements which have been engrafted on
the fundamental are what we expect a priori — Turk,
Greek, Slavonic, and German. The remains of the lan-
guage upon which the Latin itself intruded, would be,
if collected, neither more nor less than the original
Dacian. That they are Sarmatian is the decided opi-
nion of the present writer as well as of other better
judges. So influential an authority, however, as Grimm
has persuaded himself, and perhaps others, that the
Dacian names of certain plants and animals in Diosco-
rides are German.
Rumanyo. Latin.
Bela in larga valle ambU, Puella in larga valle ambulabat,
Erba verde lin cale^ : Herbam viridem leniter calcabat,
Cantd,, qui cantand plangea, Cantabat, et cantando plangebat,
Quod toti munti resun^, Ut omnes montes resonarent :
Ea in genunchi se pune^, Ilia in genna se ponebat,
Ochi in sus indirept^ : Oculos sursum dirigebat ;
Ecce, Asi vorbe face^ : Ecce, sic verba faciebat :
Domne, dorane, bune domne. Domine, domine, bona domine.
Mica, fugu, frassinu Nux, fagus, fracinus,
THE RUMANYO.
649
Rumanyo.
Mult se certa intra s6ne
Nuce, dice frassinu,
Quine vine, nuci cuUege.
Cullegend si ramuri frange :
Vaide dar de pelle a tua !
Da tu fage, mi vecine,
Que voi spune in mente tene :
Multe fere saturasi :
Qui prebene nu amblasi ;
Quum se an geru apropiat
La pament te an si culcat,
Si in focu te an si aruncat, &c.
Latin.
Multine certant inter se.
Nux, dicit fracinus
Quisquis venit, nuces legit,
CoUigendo ramos frangit :
Vse itaque pelli tuae !
At tu fage, mi vicine,
Quae exponam mente tene ?
Multas feras saturasti.
At baud bene ambulasti :
Quum gelu appropinquat
Ad pavimentum te deculcant,
Ad focum projiciunt.
In French Philology, the Norman -French, or Anglo-
Norman, is simply so much French in an older form.
For English Philology it must be treated as a separate
language ; the words introduced from it being fuller in
form, and, often different in meaning, from their descen-
dants in the present French,
The Latin of the classics, notwithstanding its value,
its antiquity, and the fact of its being the standard or
typical dialect, is, in the way of bulk, a mere fraction
of the language. The Low Latin is full of incorporated
words, expressive of new ideas, and of foreign (often of
German) origin. Besides this, in Poland, in Hungary,
in Croatia, and elsewhere, the Latin has partaken of the
nature of a vernacular ; and is, more or less, modified by
the true vernaculars along with which it has been con-
cuiTently spoken. Even in the Latin of French, Ger-
man, Italian, and other scholars, who have used it as a
learned language, traces of the several native languages
are to be found. In this respect it is to be compared
with the Hebrew of the dispersed Jews. The Latin is,
undoubtedly, of more importance than any two lan-
guages put together ; and if it were not for one great
desideratum would be nearly perfect as a disciplinal
study in the field of philological induction. What we
miss is the knowledge of the exact nature of that
Roman language which has so decidedly impressed itself
650 THE RUMANYO.
on so many of the nations conquered by Rome. It can
scarcely have been the only Roman which is known to
us, i. e. the Latin of the classics. However extreme
may be the character of certain opinions, and however
illegitimate many of the current statements concerning
the differences between the Classical Latin and the
Lingua Rustica may be, no one believes that every
legionary of every legion in every portion of the Roman
dominions spoke the Latin of Caesar and Cicero. Not
to mention the very evident fact that many legions
bore the name of foreign populations, there were the
differences, within Italy itself, of the Samnite, Etruscan,
Marsian, Campanian, and what not, as compared with
either the Latin of Latium, or the pure Roman of Rome.
And that these differences were real, there is a fair
amount of historical evidence.
There Tnust have been a Lingua Rustica, though
what this was is unknown ; and, of all the languages of
Latin origin, it is the Rumanyo which this question
touches the most closely.
THE GREEK. 651
CHAPTER LXXVIII.
The Greek.
The situs of the Greek is on the frontier of the Latin.
No one who recognizes the close affinity between these
two languages can doubt as to their having, at some
early period, graduated into one another. If, however,
our views concerning the original diffusion of the Sla-
vonic be right, it was only on its southern frontier that
the Latin (through the Oscan of Campania) could ever
have touched the Greek area ; inasmuch as on the east
and west lay the sea.
In order, however, to come to what the writer feels
to be a philological paradox, viz. that the Greek lan-
guage, foreign to the soil of Greece itself, was indigenous
to Southern Italy and Sicily, and that it comports itself
to the Italian of its original, and to the Albanian of its
secondary area, much as our own English comports
itself towards the German on the one side and the
Welsh on the other — the English and the Greek being
equally foreign to Greece and England — in order, I say,
to have this apparent improbability forced upon us, one of
the last vestiges of what may be called the Oriental
hypothesis must be cast away. To the inquirer who
beheves that both the Latin and the Greek can be de-
rived from Asia (or, indeed, any other country), or who
considers that anything in the way of history is to be
got out of the current doctrines concerning the Pelasgi
and others, no such necessity suggests itself
652 THE GEEEK.
But if the languages of Southern Italy and Sicily were
Greek, how came the fact to be unknown to the early
Greek colonists in those parts, who treated the abori-
gines as barbarians ? In this lies the main objection to
the present hypothesis,
I do not altogether deny its validity. I only re-
mark that, even if it were ever so much of a fact, it
would only give the grounds of a slight objection. Let one
district supply a colony to another, and let the country
thus settled, after even a few generations, re-colonize the
mother- country, and, what with change, on the one side,
the other side, or both sides, the chances are that the
original relationship will not be recognized. That this
is scarcely what we expect a priori may be true. It is
a fact nevertheless ; and it is not, improbably, the rule
rather than the exception. The best instance known is
that supplied in the Malayan peninsula, where the
Malays of Sumatran origin, with the Mahometan re-
ligion and with a fair amount of civilization, either
overlook or ignore the close affinity between themselves
and the aborigines ; and, just in this way, may the co-
lonial Greeks have overlooked the fundamental affinity,
assumed by the present writer, between themselves and
the Siculi, the Sicanians, and their congeners.
The arguments deducible from the Greek character of
the local names in Sicily contrasted with the i\^o?i-Greek
character of those in Hellas, and other points of minute
criticism, find no place here. In a work like the pre-
sent, all that is given is a notice of the conditions re-
quired for the situs of language in hand, and it is
submitted that the only possible situs for the Greek is
Southern Italy — Southern Italy including Sicily.
If this be the case, the analysis of that part of the
Greek language which is other than Latin must be made
with a special view towards the Albanian.
If this be the case, the affinities of the Greek with
the Sarmatian and German will, as a general rule, be
^
THE GREEK. 653
indirect, i. e. the Greek will be what is called Indo-
European chiefly, so far as it is Latin — chiefly, but not
wholly. That such is the case with the German may
be seen by any one who will make a list in English,
Latin, and Greek. The words which are Greek and
English will be Latin also. The words which are Eng-
lish and Latin will not so frequently be Greek. That
there are exceptions — -such as OvyaTrjp, daughter^ filia —
is true. The rule, however, is as it has just been given.
With the Slavonic the case is somewhat difierent ;
the proportion of words other than Latin, but common
to the Slavonic and the Greek, being greater. Subse-
quent, however, to the (hypothetical) Italian conquest of
Hellas, there has been (and is) a great amount of
Slavonic and Hellenic contact. The Non-latin elements
common to the Lithuanic and the Greek, and the Sans-
krit and the Greek, though not numerous, are obscure.
If this be the case, some of the differences between
the Greek dialect may be due to differences originated
on the soil of Italy. That the Doric took some of its
Doric characteristics is probable : Ionian, however, and
JEolian seem to belong, in the first instance, to the seas
and shores of Italy rather than Asia.
If this be the case, there is between the Greek lan-
guage and the Greek blood a minimum amount of
coincidence.
If this view be right, the ordinary views of the Greek
dialects are materially affected ; and the Ionic and ^olic,
instead of having become what they were in the Ionia,
and iEolia of Asia, may have become what they were on
the shores of the Ionian Sea and the ^olian Islands.
At any rate, the fact of there being two lonias, and two
-^olias (one of each being Italian), must not be ignored.
Neither must the circumstance of the Italian havino^ been,
apparently, the older ones. The Doric, on the other
hand, seems to have taken its name, and some, at least,
of its characteristics on the soil of Hellas. The evidence
Q5i! THE GREEK.
of this, however, lies beyond the pale of the present
notice.
Different from the question concerning the local origin
of the Greek dialects is the question as to their value.
That the division named Doric is of the same ordinal
import as the other three is held by few. It is, rather, a
co-ordinate of the .^olic Proper, and other forms of speech.
If measured by their external relations, i. e. by the ex-
tent to which they differ, or agree, with other Hellenic
dialects, the Attic and Ionic are classes of considerable
value. If measured by their contents, i. e. by their
divisions and subdivisions, they are small ones. In a
great degree, however, they are scarcely dialects at all
— not, at least, truly vernacular ones. They are literary
languages ; or, at any rate, literary languages in the
way that the Lingua Urbane of Italy are literary lan-
guages as compared with the Lingue Rustiche of their
neighbourhoods.
The real data for anything beyond a general and
conventional view of the ancient Greek dialects are the
fragmentary compositions of minor writers, glosses, local
decrees, inscriptions, and, to a slight extent, theatrical
imitations or caricatures. From these, taken altogether,
we may safely infer that the true vernaculars of the
Athenian frontier and the Ionian area were anything
but the Attic of the dramatists, and the Ionic of Hero-
dotus.
The ancient Greek, as it sounded in the ears of the
common people, is as little known to us as the Lingua
Kustica of the Romans : and it is well to be aware of
the extent of our ignorance concerning it. When the de-
tails of the modern dialects shall have commanded the
attention they deserve, the question which, has already
suggested itself in Italy will suggest itself in Greece.
Is this the descendant of the languages of Archilochus,
of Pericles, of Sappho, of Epicharmus, or of some obscure
dialect, which in the time of the classical writers was
THE GREEK. 655
really or nearly a different language ? Such is the ques-
tion which will be asked frequently. Such is the ques-
tion which is asked (but not answered) now.
With the dialects of the modern Greek, or Eomaic,
more has been done than I have had the opportunity of
studying. I have seen thirteen given as the number of
them. This is, probably, either too much or too little.
It is too much if we look at the primary groups ; and
too little if we take in the Tninutice. The departures,
however, in the few dialects I have inspected, from the
ordinary Greek of any classical writer are so consider-
able, that an independent origin must be assumed.
There is also a great range in the phonesis ; the Lesbian
dialect, for instance, being, like the dialects of Northern
Italy as compared with the Itahan Proper, characterized
by a nasal n like that of the French.
The form of speech, however, which has most especi-
ally stimulated the curiosity of scholars is the Tzakonian
(Laconian), spoken in a few villages on the eastern slope
of Mount Taygetus. This it is which is more especially
set-up as an independent language, a language bearing
the same relation to the ordinary Romaic that the Pro-
ven9al does to the French.
This may be the case. That it is the descendant of
some extreme form of ancient Greek — the Cynurian
dialects as suggested by Thiersch who has carefully
studied it — is certain.
It is from Thiersch that the following extracts are
taken : —
Singular. — Nom.
iffOU
ixtou
Gen.
fii
Tt
ffi
Dat.
fit
Vi
vi
Ace.
iviou
xiou
ffi
Plural. — Nom.
ii/v, ifiu
\fA,OV
Gen.
veifiou
VIOVfiOV
ffOU
Dat.
voifjt,ov
VlOVfAOU
ffOU
Ace.
Ificovvavi
ifcov
Of the so-called verb substantive the following is
656
THE GREEK.
the conjugation for the Present and Preterite Indica-
tive.
Present,
Sing.
Plural.
1. 'in
1. 'ifA.[X,%
2. Ui
2. Uri
Preterite.
Siny. Plural.
1. %(/.» 1. iufjt,a'i
2. irai
2.
'Ui
3.
tyxixi
The following for the Aorist and Perfect.
Sing.
Plural.
1.
2.
3.
y^oi-4'Oi
y^a-^t^i
y^d^i
1. y^a^pafis
2. yca-^oiTi
3. y^a-v^ai*
Aorist. Perfect.
Sing. Plural.
1. iy^a(ioi 1. iy^ecfiaf^s
2. iy^ajis^i 2. iy^oifiart
3. iy^oi(ii 3. ly^a(iai
The Paternoster.
'A(psvy« vdfiov 5r' iV/ 'j tav ovpavi. Na Ivvi ayiafl"T« ra ovoficivri, va fioX^ a
(iatriXudvTi, \a, vocSri ro hkyif/uvri trav 'tov ot/^avi 'i^^ov ^s 'rav lytj. Toy oLvh rov
Wiovffiov Vi tdfiov VI ffd.fjt.ipi, ^ a(p£ vdfji.ov ra, x,^li vd[/,ou xadou ^s hv ififji.a <p7vTS
rov ^piou(psX7<ri vetfjcou, p f^i] vx (ps^i^i^e If/.ovvavi 'j xii^afffio, ocXXa ikiu^i^DV d'Zo
TO xaxo.
On the other side of Mount Taygetus the Mainot dia-
lect is spoken, being Messenian rather than Laconian.
An offset of the Mainot is spoken by the Greeks of
Corsica — of which the following is an extract from the
only-known specimen.
Luhe XV. 11-19.
11. "Eva? aS^wTfos ti^i ^vo vous.
12. Ka/ i'tfi 0 TXio fiix^os asro' avrevs r u<pt^ov rov, 'Ai^eJj?, lof^ov ro fM^'^ixa
rod <!r^oixiov otov fiou r^i^it. Ka.) rovg lf.ci^a,ffi to ir^oixio.
13. Ka} vffTi^a. OCT okiyocis rif4.i^Kis fjiotZ,ofji.ivo Toiffoi, -r^'dyficx. o tXio fitx^o;,
l5/«}' its [Jt,iix, x^i'^ dkd^yev xoi\ ixi7 iffxo^Tiffi to T^oixto Z^uvtu ffct^xixd,
14. Ka.) vffTi^a, OCT ov s'^o^iaffi Taffoi ^^a,y/jt,a, Yi^Ti fjt,ia /.aydXri tH^o, i'lg
IxiTvyi rh X'^i"'' *'*' IxiTvcs ei^x^"'^ "' ^^" Xi'-'"-
15. Ka) i^ict)' xa) iff/^i^i yX 'Ivocv toXity^v \xi7vns i^VS X^i^^' "■"" '''^^ 'iffrnXi
its ra x^^^^'^ '^"'^ ''^ jSaVxjj revs X'""?""'^-
16. Ka) dyd<ra vx yofji,iff^ rriv xeiXixv rov xto tx /SsXav/a oTou 'ir^uxvi o)
^lov^ot' xx) xxvivxs ^iv rov 'i^i^i.
17. 'Epx^f^^^"* "'» ixvrov roV) iJ-TS, Toffoi ^avXoi r xi^ihoZ f^ev ;(^a{T£y(««v8 xTo
i^ufi), xx) lyu ipo(pu XTO "Xilvx !
18. Inxovofjuxi xx) 9rda ffr x(pi^ov fzoVy xx) rev Xiu, 'A(psJ»j, ifix^rx us rov
ol^xvev xx) xt^offrx gov,
19. Ka) ^sv uiAXi TXio oi^ios vx ((uvax^^ "°( '*''' ««V*' i*** ^* tvxvi x-ro rovs
^eZXovs ffov.
THE GREEK. 657
Though the earliest specimens of the Greek are
earlier than the earliest specimens of the Latin, it by no
means follows that the Greek is the older language :
indeed, as it rarely happens that any one language is
wholly and in every part more archaic in its form than
another, the terms older and newer must be used with
extreme caution.' As far as the Latin preserves the
neuter and accusative forms in -m (which in Greek become
v), along with other characteristics, it is, jpro tanto, older.
With its preterites in ~ka, its greater amount of verbs in
-fii>, as well as in other points, the comparative antiquity
is on the side of the Greek. In its eschewal of conso-
nantal terminations, (no words in the standard language,
with the exceptions of €k and ovk, ending in any con-
sonant but (7 or V,) the Greek reminds us of the modern
Italian rather than the ancient Roman : indeed, for any
language but the Greek, its extreme liquidity and
vocality would earn for it the character of weakness
or something equally disparaging.
XT U
658 THE GERMAN LANGUAGES,
CHAPTEE LXXIX.
The German Class. — The Moesogothic. — The High and Low German. — The
Anglo-Saxon and English. — The Frisian. — The Norse, or Scandinavian.
The language belonging to the German group, for which
we have the earliest specimens, is known by the some-
what exceptionable name of Moesogothic ; wherein we
have a large portion of the Gospels, as translated by
Ulphilas, in the fourth century, for the Goths of the
Lower Danube ; along with a few other minor fragments.
It is the earliest as well as the latest member of its
class. It was spoken by a population projected into
a foreign locality, and by a population of which the
original locality has been filled up by dialects from
another area. Its original area was probably Thuringia.
As compared with the modern German dialects (the word
being taken in its widest sense, so as to comprise the
English and the Swedish), it is old : and it is old even
when compared with the Anglo-Saxon, the Icelandic, and
the Old German : though not in every point. It has (as
stated) no direct descendants.
Then come the languages of Southern Germany, in
which we have compositions as old as the eighth cen-
tury: some being what is called Alemannic or German
of the Upper Rhine, rather than Bavarian or German
of the Upper Danube, and vice versa. They graduate,
however, into each other.
The German of the Middle Rhine, often called Frank,
is intermediate in character to the German of the
THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. Go 9
South and North, the former being called High, the
latter Low, German. And, in their extreme forms, they
are so named with propriety. They graduate, however,
both in the older and newer dialects, into one another,
and can only be separated by an arbitrary line ; in other
words, by fixing upon some single character — and even
that is not constant.
In these two divisions the modern literary German
is the cultivated representative of the High, the Dutch
of Holland, of the Low group. Neither, however (as is
the case with literary lang-uages in general) represents
any dialect exactly.
The old standard of the High German is the Bible
translation of the reformers ; and, as Luther was a
Saxon, it passes for being more akin to the language of
the parts about Dresden and Leipzic than aught else.
When it was pressed upon the Low Germans it was con-
temptuously called Luther's Misnian. Yet the dialect
of Meissen is, by no means, either the literary German
or its pure and simple progenitor.
The High German dialects are numerous ; and it
is probable that some are, in complex sentences,
mutually unintelligible — especially in certain outlying
districts, such as Monte Rosa, the Italian Tyrol,
the Sette and Tredici Commune in Yenetia, and the
Siebenbiirgen in Transylvania. The Swiss German be-
longs to this division ; indeed, it is probable that the
Swiss, the Suabian, and the Bavarian all form divisions
of equal value with that of the High German itself.
At present there is (with one small exception) nothing
spoken in Germany Proper but dialects belonging to
one of these two divisions. A thousand years ago,
however, in the parts about the Sauerland and the Ysel,
the language of Northern Germany was Saxon. Herein,
the most southern dialect was the Old Saxon of West-
phalia, of which a few specimens have been preserved.
To the north and north-east of this lay the Anglo-
u u 2
660 THE GERMAN LANGUAGES.
Saxon, or the English in its oldest form — bounded on the
one side by the sea, on the other by the Danish and Sla-
vonic. Little more than a variety, to the west lay the
Frisian of Friesland : of which a modification named the
North Frisian is spoken in Sleswick. In Saterland, too,
one of the fenniest districts of Germany, Frisian is still
spoken; and this exception to the general statement that
there is nothing in Germany but the German is the one
alluded to. The statement itself meant that the Saxon
forms of speech have been obliterated. In Holland it is
spoken largely.
The Frisian is transitional between the German and
the Scandinavian (or Norse) branch of this important
class ; the Scandinavian or Norse languages being the
Icelandic, the Feroic, the Danish, the Swedish, and the
numerous dialects of Norway — the literary Norwegian
being the Danish. With a post-positive article, and a
so-called passive voice (arising out of a middle ; itself the
result of a fusion between the verb and the reflective
pronoun), the Norse languages are sufficiently separated
from the German — neither of these characteristics being
found in even the Frisian. At the same time they are
phenomena of wliich we may easily overvalue the
import. Both are of comparatively recent origin ; and
in the Danish of Sleswick, the post-positive article is
wanting. The other Danish dialects are the Northern
and Southern Jute ; the island dialects (of which those
of Sealand and Fyen are the chief) ; and the dialect
of Bornholm. In Sweden, that of Scaane is sufficiently
Danish to have been ascribed to Denmark — probably
on insufficient grounds.
North of Scaane the main dialects are those of East
and West Gothland, of the island of Gothland, of
Upland, Smaaland, and Dalecarlia. More outlying still,
is the dialect of the free Swedish yeomen (Jria Svenska
bonder), of parts of Estonia and some of the small
islands opposite.
THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. 661
In Norway, where the dialects have met with more
than ordinary attention, and where some extreme
patriots hope to evolve out of them a literary language
by which the novj foreign Danish may be superseded,
the approach to the old Norse, accurately represented
by the Icelandic, and approximately by the Feroic, is
closer than in any part of Denmark, and (with the
doubtful exception of Dalecarlia) any part of Sweden
either — the characteristic which has drawn the most
attention being a third gender ; the feminine. In the
literary language there is only a common gender and a
neuter.
Among the Norwegian dialects we have specimens of
twenty in the curious work of Aasen.
Northern. — Lofoden, Helgeland, Inderoen, Stjordalen,
Orkedalen, Nordmor.
Western. — Sondmor, Sond^ord, Sogn, Nordhordland,
Yoss, Hardanger, Sondhordland, Ysederen.
Southern. — Ssetersdalen, Tellemarken, Valders, Hal-
lingdal, Gullbrandsdal, Osterdalen.
It is difficult to arrange these ; inasmuch as the speci-
mens are either short narratives taken from the mouth
of the common people or descriptions of some locality :
the object of the collector being less the exhibition of so
many forms of his mother-tongue as dialects, than the
collection of materials for the development of a common
Norwegian language, as opposed to the Danish now
current.
It is evident, however, that they all agree on one
point, viz. in approaching nearer than the present lite-
rary language to the Old Norse. Generally, if not al-
ways, they have a feminine gender ; often a dative case.
In the use of a instead of e, at the end of words, many
of them approach the Swedish.
For the new Norwegian dialect to be obtained by a
free and eclectic use of these materials there are sugges-
ted {inter alia) an infinitive in a, giving fara^ doma,
662 THE GERMAN LANGUAGES.
fee, instead of the existing fare, dome, &lc., and a femi-
nine gender — a restoration which few Englishmen will
mistake for an improvement.
A series of facts upon which the evidence of the
Greek and Latin languages is silent, is well exhibited in
the history of those of the German group — best, perhaps,
and most especially by that of the Norse tongues. This
is because (out of it) no fewer than three literary languages
have been evolved ; not to mention numerous dialects and
sub-dialects. Of these —
1 . The modern Icelandic has preserved the old lan-
guage with a oninimum amount of alteration ; practically
speaking, indeed, the modern Icelandic and the Old
Norse are synonymous.
2. The Swedish either changed more slowly than
Danish or began its changes later.
3. The Danish either changed more quickly than the
Swedish or began its changes earlier. Petersen, to whom
the best investigation of these interesting points is due,
considers that Denmark was (so to say) about a century
ahead of Sweden ; in other words, that if the Danish had
reached a given stage in (say) A.D. 1400, the Swedish
reached it about A.D. 1500. Meanwhile, the Norwegian
remained in a comparatively unaltered condition until
the Reformation, when change set in so rapidly that half
a century put it on the level with its sisters.
I lay this before the reader not because the statement
can be taken strictly and literally (which was, by no
means, the author's intention), but, because (being true
in the main), it illustrates phenomena, for which we
have no superabundance of data, but, unfortunately on
the contrary, a deficiency — viz. the conditions under
which change sets in, and the rate of the change itself.
Incidentally, too, they show what is even of greater in-
terest, i. e. the regularity with which the same changes
are undergone by different forms of speech. Roughly
speaking, we may say that in the break-up of the Old
THE GERMAN LANGUAGES. 663
Norse the same inflections are lost, in the same order ;
and that they are replaced by the same substitutes.
The changes (in other words) are the same ; the rate
only being different.
The blood and language in this family coincide but
slightly — the range of the latter being the widest.
Before the spread of the German, Scandinavia was
Ugrian, and, probably, to some extent Prussian or
Lithuanic ; Denmark, whether Ugrian or Sarmatian,
other than German ; all the parts beyond the Elbe, and,
possibly beyond the Teutoberger Wald, Slavonic ; all
the parts to the South of the Mayn (in the opinion of
the present writer) the same ; Britain, Keltic Koman
and mixed. Hence, the original area of the Germans is
included by the Teutoberger Wald, the Elbe and Saale,
the Mayn, and the Rhine — an area which, small as it
is, when compared with the present magnitude of the
German, is greater than that of the Latin family.
It should be added, however, that these limitations
are, by no means, currently admitted ; least of all in
Germany itself, and that they are incompatible with
two current doctrines — (1.) that all the populations
mentioned in the Germania of Tacitus were German,
and (2.) that the name Goth indicates a German popula-
tion. His objections to both these doctrines have been
given by the present writer elsewhere. The Germans
were Goths just as the English are Britons, i. e. they
took the name when they settled in a country originally
Gothic.
664^
THE KELTIC.
CHAPTEK LXXX.
The Keltic Languages. — British Branch. — Gaelic Branch.
Of the Keltic Stock there are two Branches.
(1.) The British, represented by the Welsh, the
Cornish and the Armorican, or Breton, of Britany. It
is almost certain that the old British, and the ancient
language of Gaul, belonged to this branch.
English.
Welsh.
Head
pen
Hair
gwallt
Eye
Uygad
Nose
trwyn
Mouth
ceg
Teeth
dannedd
Tongue
tafod
Ear
clust
Bach
cefn
Blood
gwaed
Arm
braich
Hand
Haw
Leg
coes
Foot
froed
Nail
ewin
Horse
. cefiyl
Cow
buwch
Calf
Ho
Sheep
dafad
Lamb
oen
Goat
gafr
Dog
ci
Fox
llwynog
Goose
gwydd
Crow
bran
Bird
adar
Fish
pysg
Cornish.
pen
bleu
lagat
tron
genau
dyns
tavat
scovom
chein
guit
brech
lof
coes
truit
ivin
march
bugh
loch
davat
oin
gavar
ky
lonvem
guit
bran
ezn
pysg
Breton.
penn
bleo
try
guenon
dant
teod
scouarn
chein
brech
doum
garr
troad
ivin
march
vioch
leue
danvat
oan
chaour
chy
louarn
oaz
vran
ein
■ TI
m KELTIC.
English.
Welsh.
Cornish.
Breton,
One
un
onan
unan
Two
dau
deu
daou
Three
tri
try
tri
Four
pedwar
peswar
pevar
Five
pump
pymp
pemp
Six
chwech
whe
chuech
Seven
saith
seyth
seiz
Eight
wyth
eath
eiz
Nine
naw
naw
nao
Ten
deg
dek
dec
Twenty
ugain
ugenis
ugent
Hundred
cant
cant
cant.
665
The Cornish hterature is of the scantiest. A poem
called Calvary, three religious dramas or mysteries,
and a vocabulary, are, perhaps, as old as the fifteenth
century. Then there is another religious drama, by
William Jordan — A.D. 1611, a few songs, a f^w pro-
verbs, a short tale, two translations of the first chapter
of Genesis, which Mr. Norriss (the authority for all
these statements) says are very poor, translations of the
Commandments, Belief, and the Lord's Prayer, one of
which is called ancient, the other modern ; but this (I
again quote Mr. Norriss) without any apparent reason
for the distinction.
Cornish.
Bens Pater.
Adam, otte an puskes, -„,^
Ythyn a'n nef ha'n bestes,
Kefrys yn tyr hag yn mor ;
Ro thethe aga hynwyn,
Y a thue the 'th workemmyn,
Saw na byhgh y war nep cor.
Adam.
Yt 'hanwaf bugh ha tarow,
Ha margh, yw bast hep parow
The vap den rag ymweres ;
Gaver, yweges, karow,
Daves, war ve (?) lavarow
Hy hanow da kemeres.
In English.
God the Father.
Adam, behold the fishes,
The birds of heaven, and the beasts.
Equally in land and in sea ;
Give to them their names,
They will come at thy command.
But do not mistake them in any
sort.
Adam.
I name cow, and bull.
And horse, it is a beast without
equal
For the son of man to help himself ;
Goat, steer, stag.
Sheep, from my words
To take their names.
666
THE KELTIC.
Lemyn hanwaf goyth. ha yar,
A sensaf ethyn hep par
The vygyens den war an beys ;
Hos, payon, colom, grvgyer,
Swan, bargos, bryny ha'n er,
Moy drethof a vyth hynwys.
Y wf hynwyn the'n puskes,
Porpus, sowmens, syllyes,
01 thy'm gustyth y a vyth ;
Leneson ha barfusy,
Pysk ragof ny ura skvsy
Mar corthyaf dev yn perfyth.
Deus Pater.
Eag bones ol tek ha da.
In whed dyth myns yw formyys,
Aga sona a wra :
May fe seythves dyth hynwys.
Hen yw dyth a bowesva
The pup den a vo sylwys ;
Yd dysguythyens a henna,
Ny a boves desempys.
Now I name goose and fowl,
I hold them birds without equal
For food of man on the earth ;
Duck, peacock, pidgeon, partridge,
Swan, kite, crows, and the eagle.
Further by me are named.
I give names to the fishes.
Porpoises, salmons, congers.
All to me obedient they shall be ;
Ling and cod,
A fish from me shall not escape
If I honour Grod perfectly.
Ood the Father.
For all that is fair and good.
In six days all that is created.
Bless them we will :
Let it be called the seventh day.
This is a day of rest
To every man that may be saved ;
In declaration of that
We will rest forthwith.
The Pater-nosteb.
Older Form.
An Taz, ny es yn nef, bethens thy hannow ughelles, gwr^nz doz thy gulas
ker : Bethens thy voth gwr&z yn oar kepare hag yn nef : ro thyn ny hithow
agan peb dyth bara ; gava thyn ny ny agan cam, kepare ha gava ny neb es
cam ma erbyn ny ; nyn homfrek ny en antel, mez gwyth ny the worth drok :
rag gans te yn an mighterneth, an creveder, hag an' worryans, byz a venitha.
Newer Form.
Agan Taz, leb ez en n6v benigas beth de hanno, gurra de gulasketh deaz, de
voth beth gwrez en' oar pokar en nev ; ro dony hithow agan pyb dyth bara ;
ha gava do ny agan cabmow, pokara ny gava an gy leb es cam ma war bidn
ny ; ha na dege ny en antail, brez gwitha ny dort droge : rag an mychteyr-
neth ew chee do honnen, ha an crevder, ha an 'worryans, rag bisqueth ha
bisqueth.
(2.) The Gaelic or Erse Branch, represented by the
present Irish Gaelic^ the Gaelic of the Highlands of
Scotland, and the Manks of the Isle of Man.
English.
Irish.
Scotch.
Manks.
Head
cean
ceann
kione
Hair
folt
folt
folt
Eye
stiil
siiil
scoil
Nose
sron
srdin
stxpln
THE KELTIC.
English.
Irish.
Scotch.
Manks.
Mouth
beul
beul
beeal
Tooth
fiacail
fiacal
feeackle
Tongue
teanga
teanga
chengey
Ear
duas
duas
cleaysh
Bach
druim
druim
dreem
Blood
full
full
fuiU
Arm
gairdean
gairdean
clingan
Hand
laiah
lamb
lave
Leg
cos
cos
cass
Nail
iongna
iongna
ingin
Horse
each
each
agh
Cow
bo
bo
booa
Calf
laogh
laogh
Iheiy
Sheep
caor
caor
keyrrey
Lamb
uan
uan
eayn
Goat
gabhair
gabhar
goayr
Dog
cu
cu
coo
Fox
sionnacb
sionnach
shynnagh
Goose
geodh
geodh
guiy
Crow
feannog
feannag
feeagh
Bird 1
-ban
eun
eean
Fish
iasg
iasg
eeast
One
aon
aon
unnan6
Two
do
dha
dhaa
Three
tri
tri
tree
Four
ceathar
ceithin
kiare
Five
cuig
cuig
queig
Six
se
se
shey
Seven
seaclit
seachd
shiaght
Eight
ocht
ochd
hoght
Nine
naoi
naoi
nuy
Ten
deich
deig
jeih
Twenty
fitche
fichead
feed
Hundred
cead
ceud
keead.
667
The Cornish and Armorican are more closely allied
than the Cornish and Welsh.
The Armorican, or Breton, falls into (at least) two
dialects, the Breton Proper and the Yannetais of Vannes.
Song of Solomon ii. 1-4.
Breton Ordinary.
1. Me eo ar rosen Sharon, hag el lilien ann traouennou.
2. Evel a lilien e-kreiz ar spern, evel-se e-ma va miiiounez e-kreiz a
mere' bed.
668 THE KELTIC.
3. Evel eur -wezen avalore e-kreiz gwez ar c'hoadou, evel-se e-ma va
minoun e-kreiz ar vipien. Dindaw he skeud ounn bet azezeb, hag he frouez
a oa c'houek d'am genou.
4. Va lekeat en dedz da ront 6 ti ar gwin ; hag he arwez dreist-ounn a oa
karantez.
(2.)
Breton of Vannes, or Vannetais.
1. M6 zou er rosen Sharon, hag el lilien en douareu-izel.
2. El nl lilien e creis e spem, el-c6 e-'ma me harante etre er merhed.
3. El ur hueen-aveleu 6tve que er hoedeu, el-c6 e-ma me muian-caret e
mesq er pautred. Azeet e-on bet idan e squoed quet ur vourradiqueah bras,
hag e freh e oe huek a p'en tanhouas.
4. Ean em gassas d'en ty a chervad, hag e arres, dreist-on, e oe carante.
The following is the parable of the Sower in (1.) the
Gaelic of Connaught, (2.) the Gaelic of Munster.
Feuch, do chuaidh sioladoir a mach do chur sil:
Agus ag cur an tsil do, do theut cuid dhe chors na sligheadh, agus tangadar
na he^nlaith, agus a d6adar 6 :
Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe a bhfearan chlochach, mar nach raibh moran
uire aige : agus do fhas se go luath, do brigh nach bhfuair s^ dorinhneachd na
talmhan :
Agus ar n6irghe don ghrein, do doidheadh e ; agus ar son nach raibh
freumh aige, do shearg se.
Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe eidir mhuineach ; agus do eirghe an muineach
s<ias, agus do mhuch se e :
Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe a dtalamh mhaith, agus tus se toradh, cuid
ceuduired, cuid tri fichid uiread, cuid a deich fichead uiread.
Gidh be agd bhfuillia cluS,sa chum eisdeachda, eisdeagh se.
(2.)
Feuch, do cheiaid sioladoir amach ug cur sil.
Agus ag cur an tsil do, do thuit cuid de cois na sllghe, agus thainigh na
heanlacha agus d'itheadar suas d ;
Do thuit cuid eile dhe air thalamh bhi Ian do chlocha, ait, na raibh mo-
r^n cr§ aige ; agus dfh^s se suas a' urchar, mar na raibh doimhnios na talm-
han aige ;
Agus air eirlghe don ghrein do doghag 6 ; agus mar na raibh aon phreumh
aige, do chrion se ;
Agus do thuit cuid eile dhe a measg deilgnidhe ; agus dfhas na deilgnidhe
suas, agus do mhfichadar § ;
Ach do thuit cuid eile dhe air thalamh mhait, agus thug toradh uaig, cuid
de a chead uiriod f em, cuid a thri fichid uiriod, agus cuid a dheich der fhichiod
uiriod.
Pe duine go bfuil cluasa chum eisdeachta aige, eisdigheach se,
1. In Irish there is a peculiar fcrm for the dative
plural as cos —foot, cosaibh = to feet (-ped-ibus) ; and be-
yond this there is little else whatever in the way of case
THE KELTIC.
669
as found in the German, Latin, Greek, and other tongues.
Even the isolated form in question is not found in the
Welsh and Breton.
2. In Welsh the pronouns for we, ye, and they, are ni,
chwyi, and hwynt respectively. In Welsh also the root =
love is car. As conjugated in the plural number this is- —
car- lu n = am-a772 us.
car- ych = am-af is.
car-a?i^ = ^mi-ant
Now the -w)i, ~ych, and -ant of the persons of the
verbs are the personal pronouns, so that the inflection is
really a verb and a pronoun in a state of agglutination ;
i. e. in a state where the original separate existence of
the two sorts of words is still manifest.
3. The Keltic noun changes its initial letter according
to its relation to the other words of the sentence ; of
course subject to rule.
{From the Welsh.)
Ca,r, a kinsman.
l.fonn, CSiragos, a near kinsman.
2. Ei gdr, his kinsman.
3. Ei ch4r, her kinsman.
4. Yy nghdr, my kinsman.
T4d,
1.
2.
3.
4.
a father.
form, Tad y plentyn, the child's
father.
Ei dad, his father.
Eithad, her father.
Yy nhad, my father.
Pen,
a head.
1.
2.
3.
4.
form, Pen gwr, the head of a
man.
Ei ben, his head.
Ei phen, her head.
Yy mhen, my head.
Gwds, a servant.
1.
3.
form, Gwks ijdhlon, a faithful
servant.
Ei wds, his servant.
. ^> ngwas, my servant.
Duw, a god.
1. form, Duw trugarog, a merciful
god.
2. form, Ei dhuw, his god.
3. Yy nuw, my god.
Bara, bread.
1. form, Bara cann, white bread.
2. Ei vara, his bread.
3. Yy mara, my bread.
Lhaw, a hand.
1. foim, Lhawwenn, awhitehand.
2. Ei law, his hand.
Mam, a mother.
1. form, Mam diiion, a tender mo-
ther.
2. Eivam, his mother.
Rhwyd, a net.
1. form, Rhwyd lawn, afidl net.
2. Ei rwyd, his net.
{From the Erse.)
Suil, an eye.
1. /(WW, Suil.
2. A htiil, his eye.
Slainte, health.
2. form. Do hliinte, yow health.
670 THE KELTIC.
The following is found in the fly-leaf of a copy of
Juvencus. It is pronounced to be not Welsh ; not
Cornish ; but Pict.
(1.)
Ni guorcosam nemheunaur henoid
Mi telun it gurmaur
Mi am franc dam an calaur.
(2.)
Ni con ili ni guardam ni cusam henoid
Gel iben med nouel
Mi am franc dam an patel.
(3.)
Na mereit nep leguenid henoid
Is discinn mi coweidid
Don nam Riceur imguetid.
Translation of Mr. Nash.*
I shall not sleep a single hour to-night,
My harp is a very large one,
Give me for my play a taste of the kettle.
(2.)
I shall not sing a song, nor laugh or kiss to-night,
Before drinking the Christmas mead.
Give me for my play a taste of the bowl.
(3.)
Let there be no sloth or sluggishness to-night,
I am very skilful in recitation.
God, King of Heaven, let my request be obtained.
Translation of Archdeacon Williams.
(1.)
I will not sleep even an hour's sleep to-night.
My family is not formidable,
I and my Frank servant and our kettle.
(2.)
No bard will sing, I will not smile nor kiss to-night ;
Together .... to the Christmas mead
Myself and my Frank client and our kettle.
(3.)
Let no one partake of joy to-night.
Until my fellow soldier arrives.
It is told to me that our lord the King will come.
* Taliessin ; or, the Bards and Druids of Britain, p. 79.
THE KELTIC. 671
I have given it as I found it. The word Noel^
ChHstmas is Anglo-Norman. It is not an impossible,
though not a likely, word to be found in the Pict ;
though it is quite as likely as the fact of a Pict reading
Juvencus.
For the details of the early stages of the Keltic lan-
guages the valuable work of Zeuss is the great reper-
torium, the materials being for —
The Irish. — 1 . Glosses on Priscian, in. the library of
St. Gallen. They are marginal and interlinear ; written
in three hands. A few are in the Ogham character ;
the majority in the ordinary Latin. The seventh century
is the assigned date of these glosses on Priscian.
2. The glosses of the Codex Paulinus. — This is a
MS. in the library of the University, originally of the
Cathedral of Wirtzburg. They apply to the Epistles of
St. Paul. The PauUne glosses are possibly as old as the
Priscian.
3. The Milan glosses. — These are a Commentary on
the Psalms, rightly or wrongly ascribed to St. Jerome.
They are, perhaps, as old as the preceding.
4. The glosses on Beda, in the Carlsruhe Library. —
Somewhat later than the Milan, Wirtzburg, and St.
Gallen MSS.
5. The Carlsruhe glosses on Priscian. — In some parts
these are based upon the St. Gallen MSS., or, at any
rate, originate in a common source. In others they are
independent.
6. The St. Gallen Incantations, or formulae for effect-
ing charms ; more or less metrical, if not poetical, in
character.
7. The Codex Camaracensis. — This contains Canones
Hihernii Concilii, A.D. 684. The MS., however, belongs
to the ninth century.
Of works of equal antiquity with these, in the Bri-
tish division of the Keltic tongues, Zeuss gives fewer for
Wales than for Ireland. They are —
672 THE KELTIC.
The Welsh: — 1. Codex Oxoniensis "prior (Bodleian,
origiDally NE. D. 2. 19, now F. 4. 4 — 32), containing
glosses on Eutycliius and Ovid's Ars Amandi, also the
alphabet of coelbren y heirdd, along with De mensuris
et jponderihus qucedam, Camhrica intermixta Latinis,
pp. 22^ — 23^
2. Codex Oxoniensis ^posterior (Bodleian, originally
NE. B. 5. 9, now MS. Bodl. 572), membranaceus,
formae rainoris, res theologicas continens, in medio autem ;
and p. 41*, usque ad 47''' persa qusedam Latina ad prse-
bendam pueris verborum copiam (ut videtur) cum vocibus
Cambricis, quae scriptse sunt aut supra vocabula Latina
aut post ea in linea cum signo i. glossatorum solito.
3. Codex Ecclesice Lichfeldensis (an tea Landavensis).
The Gospels, with certain entries of donations made to
the Cathedral of Landaff — adnotatse sunt Latine, sed
cum nominibus vel etiam sententiis Cambricis. Pub-
lished by Wanley.
4. Folium Luxemhurgense. Published by Mone, in
Die Gallische Sprache Karlsruhe, 1851.
5. Liber Landavensis.
6. Codex Legum Venedotianus. — The Laws of
Howell Dda.
7. Codex Ruber Hergestensis (the Red Book of Her-
gest). In the library of Jesus College. Intermediate
between the Old and Middle British.
The Cornish. — 1. The Cotton MSS., British Museum,
Yesp. A. 14.
2. Carmen de Passione Christi.
The Breton. — 1. Glosses in the Chartularies of the
Monasteries of Rhedon and Landevin.
2. Vita S. Nonnce. A mystery of the twelfth cen-
tury. Published as the Buhez santez Nonn, with an
Introduction by the Abb^ Sionnet, and with a literal
translation by M. Legonidec. Paris, 1837.
The researches of Mr. "Whitley Stokes have added to
our materials for the Irish, and Er. Bradshawe, of
THE KELTIC.
673
Cambridge, has made the important discovery of a
specimen of what may be called the Middle Scotch
Gaelic ; in which language there had previously been
nothino^ older than the Reformation.
The following inscriptions are from Gaul (i. e. un-
doubted Keltic ground), and they are treated by Keltic
scholars as Keltic — so far, of course, as they are not
Latin.
a-)
lAPTAI :• i : i AAAN01TAK02 AEAE
MATPEBO NAMAY2IKAB0 BPATOYAE
(2.)
CErOMAPOG
OYIAAONEOC
TOOYTIOY
NAMAYCATIC
EICDPoYBHAH
CAMICOCIN
NEMHTON
(3.)
MARTIALIS • DANNJli
lEVRV • VCVETE • SOSIN
CELICNON ctETIC
GOBEDBI • DVGIIoNIiIo
5|cVCVETIN.
IN ALISIIA.
(4.)
BVSCILLASOSIOLEGASITINALIXIEIMAGALV
(5.) (6.)
DOIROS • SEGOMARI
lEVRV • ALISANV^
(7.)
ICCAVOS • OP
PIANICNOSIEV
RVBRIGINDON .
CANTABOIX . . .
LICNOS CoN
TEXTOS • lEVRv
ANVALoNNACV
CANECoSEDLoN
(8.)
ANDE
CAINIV
LOSTOVTI
SSICNOS
lEVRV
(9.;
.CRISPOS BOVI
. RAMEDON
. . AXTACBITIEV5 ....
OO CARADITONV . . .
VTASEIANISEB0DDV5 . .
REMIFILIA
DRVTA GISACICIVIS SV
X X
674
THE KELTIC.
(10.)
RATN BRIVATIOM
FRONTV TARBEL j INOS
lEVRV
(11.)
IVBRON
SVMELI
VORETO
VIRIVS^F
(12.)
. N • H • D
DEO • MERCV
VASSO • CALETI
MANDALONIV
GRATVS • D
(13.)
BISGONTAVRIONANALABISBISGONTAVRION
CEANALABISBISGONTAVRIOSCATALASES
VIMCANIMAVIMSPATERNAMASTA
MASTARSSETVTATEIVSTINA QVEM
PEPERIT SARRA
The following are from Italy, i. e. from ground not
undoubtedly Keltic. Keltic scholars treat them as Kel-
tic, nevertheless.
I. II.
. . S.. V
OISIS • DRVTIF
RATER EIVS
INIMVS LOCAVIT
. ATVITQV .
. EKNATI • TRVTIK • I
. .NITV.LOKAN- OISIS
. VTIKNOS
MEP . CRVM
.... IS
DRVTEIFFRATER
EIVS
MINIMVS LOCAV
IT • ET STATVIT
ATE KN ATI TRVT
IKNI • KARNITV
ARTVA>cKOISIS • T
RVTIKNOS
The range of the Keltic blood is inordinately larger
than the range of the Keltic language : the former
being found, to a great extent, in the French parts of
France, and the English parts of England, and North
America.
THE BASK. 675
CHAPTER LXXXL
The Bask, Basque, or Biscayan.
This is the language with which I conclude ; and
although it is a language which comes at the end
of a work which professes to have dealt with nearly
all the known forms of speech in the world, it is,
in the way of philological importance and interest, equal
to any two of the ones which have preceded it. That
this interest and importance arise, to a great extent, out
of the mystery with which it is enveloped, is easily
surmised.
No language stands so much alone as the Basque.
To a certain extent this is what we expect. In the
first place it is spoken on the side of the vast Atlantic
Ocean, with nothing nearer to it, due west, than the
languages of America, and with nothing nearer to it on
the south than the languages of Africa ; for the Spanish,
a descendant of the Latin, must, in respect to its origin,
be looked upon simply as a language of Italy.
Nor is this all — Spain and Portugal constitute a
peninsula rather than an ordinary part of a continent ;
so that it is only on one side (a broad one no doubt)
with which it comes in contact with anything but the
speechless sea ; and that sea a sea of the extreme west.
More still — on few (if any) portions of the earth's
surface have the displacement and obliteration of what,
in an earlier period of the world's history, may have
been transitional forms, been greater. The Latin has, for
above two thousand years, been dominant in Spain. The
X X 2
676 THE BASK.
Latin hap, for more than fifteen hundred years, been
dominant in Gaul. Of the original languages of
Corsica and Sardinia nothing except what can be ob-
tained by minute trains of inferential instances exists.
Nor is the case very different when we go further.
Beyond the Slavonic, the Keltic, the German and the
Latin, what is there with which the Bask can, in the
first instance, at least, be compared ? To assume the
prior existence of a family or families of languages now
lost is to explain the igjiotum per ignotius ; whilst (as
has just been stated) the Bask has on the west, the
south, and the east nothing but the sea. Many lan-
guages, such as those in the centre of a continent, have
what may be called quaquaversal aspects. Most lan-
guages have frontagers on two sides. The Bask never
had frontagers except in one direction ; and in that
direction those frontagers have been displaced.
In all this we have real, material, external and
objective elements of mystery. The others are subjec-
tive ; i. e. they relate to our ignorance as it arises from
the neglect of our data rather than from the non-exist-
ence of the data themselves. Except for philological
purposes, the Bask has never been a language to com-
mand attention ; and for philological observation (unless
an exception can be made in their favour on account of
the researches of the Jesuits upon the rude languages of
such pagans as they either failed or succeeded in con-
verting to Christianity) the natives of the Spanish
peninsula have never been eminent.
That the Basks themselves should have studied their
language is what we expect ; but knowing how, until
lately, the Keltic tongues were studied by patriotic
amateurs in the way of philology, we are fully prepared
to find that they have done it with more zeal than
criticism.
Much of the Bask area is now covered by the philo-
logical descendants of the Latin. The Keltic, that pre-
THE BASK. 677
vailed in Gaul before the time of Caesar, although the
extent of its diffusion has been enormously overrated,
was, in Gaul and on the German frontier at least,
an encroaching language ; so that, even if we should
have succeeded in reconstructing the original situs of
the languages before the time of Caesar, the recon-
struction of an earlier $itus would still stand over.
Taking things, then, as we find them, the nearest
Keltic to the present Bask area is in Brittany, the
nearest German in French Flanders, and the nearest
Slavonic in Bohemia. The original extension of these
lanofuaofes towards the south, the west, and south-west
no one knows in its details. Even its generalities are
a matter of surmise and inference.
In all this we find an approximate reason for the
great extent to which the Bask has been either sepa-
rated from other languages or connected with the most
improbable ones.
The Fin hypothesis, in the technical sense of the
term, and in opposition to the opinion of those who
have merely found Fin and Siberian coincidences with the
Bask, — the Fin hypothesis, which taught that not only
did the Kelts, the Germans, the Sarmatians, the Latins,
and the Greeks come from Asia, but that before their
advent into Europe there was a population of congeners
continuously spread over the whole continent from
Hammer fest to Gibraltar, of course, gave much import-
ance to the Basks ; giving them also their nearest exist-
ing kinsmen in Lapland, in Estonia, and in the Govern-
ment of Penza — the three points nearest to tlie Pyrenees
which are, at the present moment, occupied by Ugrians.
Little has come out of this beyond some incidental
assertions resting on an otiose belief in the doctrine.
At the same time, it is probable that, as far as there are
any positive opinions at all on the matter, they are
more or less connected with the Fin hypothesis. Nor
is this unnatural.
678 THE BASK.
Of the fifty-six words in Bonaparte's Specimen
Lexici Gomparativi omnium Linguarum Europoe-
arum the isolation of the Basque is most conspicuous ;
even after we have made due and full allowance for the
fact of its being the only member of its class. Herein —
The words like Spirit, Angel, Paradise, &;c. are, as
is to be expected, Latin ; being which they may be
eliminated.
With the Latin, however, beyond these, there is no
Bask word in common. Nor yet with the Greek. Nor
yet with the German. Nor yet with the Keltic. Nor
yet with the Skipitar. There is nothing, in short, like
anything in Southern, Central, or Western Europe.
What is more legitimate than to look for them in the
parts beyond — at the outcrop, so to say, of the secondary
and later layers of populations ?
With the Fin there are the following approxima-
tions : —
English.
Basque.
Ugrian.
God
jainco
jen, Zirianian
Thunder
turmoi
diermes, Lap
NigU
gau
gi) jy, Vogul
Rain
uri, euri
jor, Tsheremiss.
with the Slavonic the following :
English.
Bask.
Slavonic.
LaTee
aintzira
ezero
River
errio (? Spanish)
re'ka
Ice
lei
led.
This is Httle enough : nor do we find much more if
we look in a direction, first suggested (I believe) by
Leibnitz, viz. : towards Africa : where Semitic afiini-
ties, Berber affinities, Egyptian affinities have been
noticed. Of these the latter has commanded attention
from the remarkable coincidence it gives us in the names
for the numerals one, six and seven ; where accident and
borrowing seem to be equally out of the question. Add
THE BASK.
079
to these the words for evening and rain, and the Coptic,
the Fin affinities become about equal.
English.
Basque.
Coptic.
English.
Basque.
Coptic.
Head
burua
afe
Fire
sua
klom
Hair
illea
bo
Water
ur
mau
Eye
beguia
bal
Rain
uri
eroou
Ear
belarria
maake
Cloud
odei
kloole
Nose
sudurra,
sha
Earth
lur
kab
Mouth
aboa
ro
Sea
itsaso
iom
Tongue
mingana
aspe
Bird
egastia
halet
Hand
escua
tot
Fish
arraya
tebt
Foot
oina
rat
Egg
arraultza
soouhi
Blood
odola
snab
Stone
arria
al
Bone
ezurra
kas
Tree
an-ecba
khaf
Beard
bizarra
malt
One
bat
ouot
Day
egun
meri
Tivo
biga
snau
Night
gau
eusbi
Three
hiru
shonit
Sun
eguzqui
ri
Four
laur
fto
Moon
illargui
ioh
Five
bortz
tiou
Star
izar
siou
Six
sei
soou
Morning
goiz
atooni
Seven
zazpi
shashp
Evening
aiTats
aroupi
Eight
zortzi
shmen
Shy
ceru
pe
Nine
bederatzi
psit
Wind
aiz
nibe
Ten
amar
met.
Amongst the other languages of Northern Africa, with
which the Bask could, with any likelihood of success, be
compared, I have found no more than is found in the
Coptic: and, recognizing the bare possibility of the
Alani, who, in conjunction with the Silingian Vandals,
invaded Spain in the fifth century, having introduced it,
I have brought even the Turk dialects within the range
of my comparison ; finding as little as I expected. Still,
to some slight extent, the ground has been cleared.
Tentavimus hcec ne iterum tententur.
The Afi^ican affinities, however, few as they are, create
a serious complication. They suggest the notion that
the Bask language is not in situ : sl fact which cer-
tain speculations concerning the old Celteberians sup-
port ; these being to the effect that the Keltic element
suggested by the name was the older, the Iberic, the
680 THE BASK.
newer : the Kelts being aborigines, the Iberians in-
trusive. Hence, even the important preliminary ques-
tion as to whether the Basque be the original language
of the peninsula can scarcely be considered as finally
settled ; though the significance of the old geographical
names therein is strongly in favour of it.
The exact geography of the Bask part of Spain gives
us the Caristi and Farduli as the most definite ancestors
of the present Biscayans and Na'yarrese. Roughly
speaking, however, the indomitable Cantabri are fair
representatives of the Old Bask spirit — the Cantabri
belonging to Asturias rather than Biscay ; in which
province, however, Bask is still spoken. But the whole
of Spain appears to have been what the north was ; at
any rate, the termination -am, as in Carpetam, -uli, as
in Turduli, -bed, as in the Iduhedsb Mons, and the Oros-
heda Mons, are generally distributed. More characte-
ristic still are the names of towns ending in -gurris and
'beris, as CsHeLgurris and Illi6eHs .* and, in a somewhat
less degree, the forms in -asc-, -ucca-, -br-, -murg-, -urc-,
-issa-j -bare-, -lamhr-, as Mendascus, Morasgi, Yerea-
succa, Artabrum, Lacomurgis, Illurco, Nebrissa, Uxa-
mabarca, and Flaviolarabris.
With the distribution of these we may compare that
of the Keltic elements. That the names for the River
Duria and the Mons Vinnlus are the Keltic dwr and
pen is possible. If so, they are Keltic names for na-
tural objects : which none of the others are. There is
a town or two, like Sebendunnm, in -dun, and, perhaps,
a few places in -mag : but, as a general rule, the Keltic
names are all of one sort — towns ending in -briga :
many of which have, for their first element, the name of
one of the Emperors, e. g. Augusto-briga, Julm-briga.
These look as if they represented military colonies, with
Gallic garrisons, rather than true Keltic localities — add
to which, that they are found sporadically and indiffe-
rently all over the peninsula. Whatever may have been
THE BASK. 681
the Keltic population of Celtiberia, all this is against its
having been aboriginal.
As to the area of the Bask in France, there is no
need to refine upon the statements which carry it
as far north as the Garonne, and as far west as the
Rhone. Climherris and IWiberis are decidedly Bask
names ; though they will not carry us very far.
Individually, I think that (early though they show
themselves in history) the Kelts of both the Narbonensis
and Aquitania were intrusive ; and that (say) a thousand
years B.C. the Iberic and Slavonic frontiers touched at
some point between the Rhone and the Alps. If so,
the Keltic and Slavonic languages are the nearest con-
geners to the Bask which the situs suggests — and they
are very distant.
Everything, in Bask, is an a/fix, sufTix, or post^x,
rather than a prefix ; i. e. the inflection is the preposi-
tion incorporated with the theme, and the p?'eposition is
a 2^os^-position.
What is roughly called the declension runs thus : —
mendis = mountain
mendik = mountain
mendiz = mountain-by
menditan = mountain-in
mendiri = mountain-to
mendiren = mountain-of
mendirekin = m^imtain-with
menditako = mountain-for
menditarik = mountain-from
menditarat = mountain-towards.
Insert a between the theme and affix, and it becomes
definite : —
mendia = the mountain j mendiarehin = the mountain-with.
It is clear that the number of possible cases is that of
the possible affixes. Some of these, however, express
notions which are so different from those ordinarily .
represented by the case-endings of other languages that
they are conveniently separated from the declension.
More than this, they can themselves be declined ; thus
from handizz great, we get handiago z=: greater, handi-
shagozna little greater, handiegi-=.too great, JiandisheH
zza little too great, all of which may take the endings
682 THE BASK.
in tan, rekin, toko, &;c., and comport themselves as
nominatives.
Like mendi are declined the personal pronouns, ni
= 1, gu=z we; niketin =. me-with; gurekin =z us-with ;
and, in like manner, hi =. thou ; zu =i ye, &c.
In this way, too, are declined all the pronouns and
all the participles.
The possessive pronouns precede, the adjectives follow,
the substantive.^ The Basks say mea mater, but matres
honce.
When a substantive and adjective agree and come
together the latter only is declined ; just as if we said
in Latin vir bonis instead of viris bonis.
The possessives — enia = my or mine, guria = our,
&;c., seem to be little more than the pronoun plus the
letter a — ^the definite article if we choose to call it so :
indeed this, the postpositious, and the change from a to
e in the plural seem to be chief, if not the sole factors
in the declension. Of course there is great regularity,
just as there is great regularity in English in the use of
to, by, on, &c.
After recognizing the difierence between (say) voco
and vocito, let us extend it to many shades of difference
between many verbs. That this will give us the basis
of a number of moods and tenses is clear. But the
form itself is, if not a mood, like vocem, a mode. Let
it be called so, and instead of potentials, and subjectives,
we may have inchoatives, frequentatives, desideratives,
and what not ? In this the Bask is rich.
Its deferential conjugation is another characteristic.
Deferential modes of address are at their Tnaximum,
in the Oceanic languages : though found in either frag-
ments or rudiments elsewhere. What is our fiction of
treating the single person spoken to as two and saying,
you for thou but this ? Still, for a European language
though in contact with the Spanish, the deferential style
in Bask is highly developed.
THE BASK. 683
The main dialects of the Modern Basque are (!) the
Biscayan ; (2) the Guipnscoan ; (3) the Labourd ; (4)
the Soule — the first two exclusively Spanish. How
they fall into sub-sections is seen from the following ex-
tracts of the apocryphal song of the Three Children,
from the Bonaparte repertorium of facts on those
points.
I.
Ordinary Biscayan.
1. Jaunaren obra guztiak, bedeinkatu egizue Jauna : alabau ta guztien
ganetik goratu egizue beti.
2. Jaunaren Angeruak, bedeinkatu, &c.
3. Zeruak, bedeinkatu, &c.
4. Zeruen ganean dagozan ur guztiak, bedeinkatu, &c.
5. Jaunaren birtute guztiak, bedeinkatu, &c.
6. Eguzkia ta irargia, bedeinkatu, &c.
7. Zeruko izarrah, bedeinkatu, &c.
8. Euri ta inontz guztiak, bedeinkatu, &c.
9. Jaungoikoaren espiritu guztiak, bedeinkatu, &c.
10. Sua ta beroa, bedeinkatu egizue, &c.
11. Otza ta beroa, bedeinkatu, &c.
12. Inofitzak eta zurdea, bedeinkatu, &c.
13. Leya ta otza, bedeinkatu, &c.
14. Karraldoa ta edurrah, bedeinkatu, &c.
15. Gawak eta egunak, bedeinkatu, &c.
Ochandian,
1. Jaunen obea gustijek, bedeinketu eisuku Jaune : alabau da gustijen
ganetik goratu eisube heti.
2. Jaunen Angerubek, bedeinketu, &c.
3. Serubek, bedeinketu, &c.
4. Seruben ganien daosan ur gustijek, bedeinketu, &c.
5. Jaunen birtute gustijek, bedeinketu eisube, &c.
6. Eguskije da iretargije, bedeinketu, &c.
7. Seruko iserrak, bedeinketu, &c.
8. Euri da iflontz gustijek, bedeinketu, &c.
9. Jaungoikuen espiritu gustijek, bedeinketu, &c.
10. Sube da berue, bedeinketu, &c.
11. Otza da berue, bedeinketu, &c.
12. Iflontzak da surdie, bedeinketu, &c.
13. Leije da otza, bedeinketu, &c.
14. Leije da edurrek, bedeinketu, &c.
15. Gaubek da egunek, bedeinketu, &c.
Marquenese.
1. Jaunaren obra guztijak, bedeinkatu ezigube Jauna : alubau ta guztige
ganetik goratu egizube beti, &c.
684 THE BASK.
2. Junnaren Aingerubak, bedeinkatu, &c.
3. Zerubak, bedeinkatu, &c.
4. Zeruben ganian dagozan ur gustijak, bedeinkatu, &c.
5. Jaunaren birtute guztijak, bedeinkatu, &c.
6. Eguzkija ta illargija, bedeinkatu, &c.
7. Zeruko izarrak, bedeinkatu, &c.
8. Euri ta iflontz guztijak, bedeinkatu, &c.
9. Jaungoikuaren espiritu gustijak, bedeinkatu, &c.
10. Sube ta berua, bedeinkatu, &c.
11. Otza ta berua, bedeinkatu, &c.
12. Iruntzak eta intzierra, bedeinkatu, &c.
13. lyotza ta otza, bedeinkatu, &c.
14. lyotza ta edurrak, bedeinkatu, &c.
15. Grabak eta egunak, bedeinkatu, &c.
11.
Guipuscoan {Central}.
1. Jaunaren obra guztiyak, bedeinkatu ezazue Jauna, alabatu eta guztiyen
gafietik goratu ezazue beti.
2. Jaunaren Aingerubak, bedeinkatu, &c.
3. Zerubak, bedeinkatu, &c.
4. Zeruben ganian dauden ur guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c.
5. Jaunaren birtute guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c.
6. Eguzkiya ta illargiya, bedeinkatu, &c.
7. Zeruko izarrak, bedeinkatu, &c.
8. Euri eta intz guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c.
9. Jaungoiknaren espiritu guztiyak, bedeinkatu, &c.
10. Suba eta berua, bedeinkatu, &c.
11. Otza ta berua, bedeinkatu, &c.
12. Intzak eta intziarra, bedeinkatu, &c.
13. Izoztea eta otza, bedeinkatu, &c.
14. Izotza eta elurrak, bedeinkatu, &c.
15. Gabak eta egunak, bedeinkatu, &c.
Guipuscoan (2).
1. Jaunaren obra guziak, bedeikatu ezazute Jauna : alabatu eta guzien
gafietik goratu ezazute beti.
2. Jaunaren Aingeruak, bedeikatu, &c.
3. Zeruak, bedeikatu, &c.
4. Zeruen gaiiean dauden ur guziak, bedeikatu, &c.
5. Jaunaren birtute guziok, bedeikatu, &c.
6. Eguzkia ta illargia, bedeikatu, &c.
7. Zeruko izarrak, bedeikatu, &c.
8. Euri eta intz guziak, bedeikatu, &c.
9. Jaungoikoaren espiritu guziak, bedeikatu, &c.
10. Sua eta beroa, bedeikatu, &c.
11. Otza ta beroa, bedeikatu, &c.
12. Intzak eta intziarra, bedeikatu, &c.
THE BASK. 685
13. Izotza eta otza, bedeikatu, &c.
14. Orma eta elurrak, bedeikatu, &c.
15. Gauak eta egunak, bedeikatu, &c.
III.
Upper Navarre {Baztana).
1. Yaunaren obra guziat, benedika, zazue Yauna: lauda eta guzien ga-
netik goratu zazue beti.
2. Yaunaren Aingeruak, benedika, &c.
3. Zeruak, benedika, &c.
4. Zeruen gafiean dirin ur guziak, benedika, &c.
5. Yaunaren birtute guziak, benedika, &c,
6. Iguzkia eta ilargia, benedika, &c.
7. Zeruko izarrak, benedika, &c.
8. Uri eta intz guziak, benedika, &c.
9. Yaungoikoaren izpiritu guziak, benedika, &c.
10. Sua eta beroa, benedika, &c.
11. Otza eta beroa, benedika, &c.
12. Intzak eta izotza, benedika, &c.
13. Izotza eta otza, benedika, &c.
14. Orma eta eturrah, benedika, &c.
15. Gavak eta eguanak, benedika, &c.
Laburtanian.
1. Yaunaren obra guziak, benedika zazue Yanna : lauda eta ororen gain-
etek alcha zazue bethi.
2. Yaunaren Aingeruiak, benedika, &c.
3. Zeruah, benedika, &c.
4. Zeruen gainean diren ur guziak, benedika, &c.
6. Yaunaren bertbute guziak, benedika, &c.
6. Iguzkia eta ilhargia, benedika, &c.
7. Zeruko izarrak, benedika, &c.
8. Uri eta iliintz guziak and benedika, &c.
9. Yinkoaren iziritu guziak, benedika, &c.
10. San eta beroa, benedika, &c.
11. Hotza eta beroa, benedika, &c.
12. Nintzak eta izotza, benedika, &c.
13. Izotza eta hotza, benedika, &c.
14. Horma eta elburrah, benedika, &c.
15. Granak eta egunak, benedika, &c.
Lower Navarre (Baigorres).
1. Yaunain obra guziak, beneika zazi. ZazI Yauna: lauda eta oroin
gainetik alcba zazi bethi.
2. Yaunain Aingeriak, beneika, &c.
3. Zeriak, beneika, &c.
4. Zerien gainian diren ur guziak, beneika, &c.
6. Yaunain berthute guziak, beneika, &c.
6. Tuzkia eta ilhaigia, beneika, &c.
686 THE BASK.
7. Zeruko izzarak, beneika, &c.
8. Euri eta ihintz guziak, beneika, &c.
9. Yinkoain izpiritu guziak, beneika, &c.
10. Suya eta beroa, beneika, &c.
11. Hotza eta beroa, beneika, &c.
12. Ihintzak eta izotza, beneika, &c.
13. Izotza eta notza, beneika, &c.
14. Khairoina eta elhurrah, beneika, &c.
15. Granak eta eunak, beneika, &c.
IV.
Lower Navarre (Mixe).
1. Yaunain obra guziak benedika zazie yauna lauda eta oroin ganetik
aloha zazie bethi.
2. Yaunain Ainguriak, benedika, &c.
3. Zeriak, benedika, &c.
4. Zerien ganan dien un guziak, benedika, &c,
5. Yaunain berthiite guziak, benedika, &c.
6. Ekbia eta argizaitia, benedika, &c,
7. Zeriiko izarrak, benedika, &c.
8. Euri eta izarrihitz guziak, benedika, &c.
9. Yinknain ispiritii guziak, benedika, &c.
10. Suya eta berua, benedika, &c.
11. Hotza eta berua, benedika, &c.
12. Izarriliitzak eta izotza, benedika, &c.
13. Izotza eta hotza, benedika, &c.
14. Kharrona eta elhurrah, benedika, &c.
15. Ganak eta egunak, benedika, &c.
Soule {French).
1. Jaunaren lanhegin guziak, benedik' ezazie Jauna, lauda eta orotan
gainti alch' ezazie bethiere.
2. Jaunaren Ainguriak benedik', &c.
3. Zeliak, benedik', &c.
4. Zelietan ganendiren her gUziak, benedik', &c.
5. Jaunaren berthiite giiziak, benedik', &c.
6. Ekhia eta argizazia, benedik', &c.
7. Zeliiko izarrah, benedik', &c.
8. Euri eta ihitz guziak benedik', &c.
9. Jinkuaren izpiritii giiziak, benedik', &c.
10. Suya eta berua, benedik', &c.
11. Hotza eta berua, benedik', &c.
12. Thitzak eta izotza, benedik, &c.
13. Kbarruntia eta hotza, benedik, &c.
14. Kharruak eta elhiirrah, benedik, &c.
16. Gayak eta egiimak, benedik', &c.
Soule (Spanish).
1. Jeinaren obra guziah, benedika zazei Jeina; alaba eta guzien gain-
etik aska zazei beti.
THE BASK. 687
2. Jeinaren Ainguriak, benedika, &c.
3. Zeuriak, benedika, &e.
4. Zeurien gainian danden ur guziak, benedika, &c.
5. Jeinaren birtute guziak, benedika, &c.
6. Eguzkia eta argizagia, benedika, &c.
7. Zeuriko izarrak, benedika, &c.
8. Euri eta aguada guziak, benedika, &c.
9. Jangoikoaren espiritu guziak, benedika, &c.
10. Sua eta beroa, benedika, &c.
11. Otza eta beroa, benedika, &c.
12. Aguadak eta arrosoda, benedika, &c.
13. lyotza eta otza, benedika, &c.
14. Karroya eta elurrah, benedika, &e.
15. Gayak eta egunak, benedika, &c.
Even with a reconstitution of its grammar the Bask
stands alone. It stands alone when all allowance has
been made for the efiects of displacement and en-
croachment on its frontier. If in situ, it ought to be
nearer the Keltic and Slavonic than it is. If African,
it ought to be more Berber, Coptic, Hawsa, Sungai,
than it is. If introduced by the Phenicians (a bare pos-
sibility, but entertained as such in order to clear the
ground), it ought to be more Semitic than it is : and if
Scythian, introduced by the Alans (a barer possibility
still, but entertained for the same reason), it should be
more Tm^k than it is. As far as its grammar and pho-
nesis goes, it is, certainly, more Ugrian than aught else
— a fact which is, to some extent, in favour of the Fin
hypothesis, and against the views of the present writer.
Still; the UgTians may possibly (though not probably)
have covered Western Europe, and, yet, left room for
the so-called Indo-European languages in the more cen-
tral parts. I do not hold this to have been the case.
I onl}^ hold that such a primeval distribution of them
is compatible with the European origin of the European
languages. I admit any amount of "more or less in the
question. I oply hold that they were never in Bohemia,
Italy, Greece, and elsewhere, to exclusion of the Slaves,
Latins, and German from each and every part of the
wide districts west of the Dai-danelles. The Fin hypo-
688 THE BASK.
thesis which requires all Europe for some population
anterior to the chief Europeans, and Asia as the home
and origin for them, is the Fin hypothesis I oppose.
With the present tendency of certain opinions among
the naturalists, opinions which recent speculations upon
recent facts have led to favour the claims of the genus
Homo to a high antiquity, it is scarcely superfluous
to say a little upon a question even more tran-
scendental than the Fin hypothesis. They suggest the
possibility of certain outlying members of our kind
having belonged to certain continents now under water.
One of these, or a part of one, was in the parts beyond
Spain. If so the Bask area may be the remains of a
vast Atlantic system, of which Madeira and the Azores
are fragments, belonging to the Miocene period.
If the language belong to this, it forms a class of
equal value with all the other languages of the world
put together. But the proper geological evidence of
mankind having existed at this period is wanting ; so
that we had better confine our attention to an accurate
valuation of the peculiarities which have supplied the
text of the preceding overlengthy dissertation — pecu-
liarities which, great as they are, have possibly been
exaggerated. Not only may the Bask be liker to other
languages than it is considered, but other languages may
be liker to the Bask. A Greek grammar wliich made,
out of words like ovpdvoOev and ovpdvovBe, cases, (as,
upon Fin principles, it might,) would do something
towards an approximation. The differences that gram-
matical manipulation makes it may also unmake. Be-
fore this problem is thrown-up as insoluble let some
competent Slavonic and Keltic scholar consider what
may have been the condition of each of their respective
languages in an early period of the agglutinate stage,
and then compare it with the Bask.
GENERAL REMARKS. 689
CHAPTER LXXXII.
General Remarks upon the Indo-European Class.
In several of the preceding notices there is so much at
variance with the doctrines of the highest authorities
that the present chapter must, perforce, be, to a great
extent, purely critical : the points whereon the little
that our space allows an opportunity of writing being
four in number, viz. (1.) the value of the primary and
the subordinate groups; (2.) the European origin of
the Sanskrit ; (3.) the original area of the Slavonic ;
and (4.) the stage of the Keltic.
(1.) Of the outlying character of the Skipitar we
have a good measure in the fact of its having been, with
the doubtful exception of the Keltic, the last to be re-
cognized as Indo-European.
That the value of the classes is exactly what it is said
to be is scarcely likely. Few such valuations run quite
on all fours. It is well, however, to indicate them ;
inasmuch as nothing is more productive of careless phi-
lology than the otiose belief that when once you have
got a class of languages it matters little whether one or
the other be the nearest congener of a third. It is held,
for instance, to be a serious error to treat the Sanskrit
at one time as if it were as much Greek as Latin, at
another as if it were as much Slavonic as German.
This class, like all others, arranges its members round
some common centre, and the nearer two languages are
Y T
690 GENERAL REMARKS.
to the two extremes the greater the difference between
them. In the present group it is the Slavonic lan-
guages which are the centre, from which the Greek and
German are, decidedly, more distant than the Latin and
the Sanskrit.
The magnitude of the group itself is involved in the
doctrine explicitly stated in the first chapter, that the
distance of groups from each other is determined by the
amount of the actual or hypothetical obliteration of the
transitional forms, and implicitly suggested, by almost
every page of the work, in the doctrine that, if it were
not for these obliterations, forms of speech would graduate
into each other. If so, it is clear that it is a mere waste of
power for one writer to circumscribe a class of languages
by means of a particular denomination, and for another
to show that some member of some other class has a
certain amount of affinities with it.
That this is done largely is true, and it is a pity that
it is as true as it is. Most of the so-called discoveries
and generalizations in Comparative Philology consist in
some one correcting an overdrawn distinction of some
one else's. Hence, it must create no surprise if we hear
that certain Asiatic languages have European character-
istics of an important kind. Their existence is not
denied. It is only asked whether they are numerous
enough to make (say) the Armenian or the Fin allied to
(say) the Slavonic or the Latin as those two languages
are to each other. If they fail in this they fail alto-
gether ; being merely facts in favour of the fundamental
unity of languages in general ; facts of great importance
in their proper place, but irrelevant in a question of
classification, where we deal not with mere afiinities but
with afiinities in their different degrees.
Those, however, who have not taken this view, have,
after making the Persian Sanskrit, made the Iron Persian,
and the Georgian Iron. Others have made the Malay
Indian : others, the Fin and Armenian, Indo-European
GENERAL REMARKS. 691
in general. All this (except in the eyes of those who
deny an affinity of any kind) is merely raising the
value of a class ; which is, in other words, merely alter-
ing the import of a term. This is legitimate enough,
provided that fair notice be given of exactly what is
done, and if any good come from the change. All, how-
ever, that is, at present, apparent is, that if we take one
language into a given class we must take its congeners
— and where this will end few know beforehand. The
persons of the verbs, especially in the first person, are
very permanent. They seem to have been adopted as
inflections early, and to have been kept long. They
occur in languages which, in other points, differ notably.
They are common to the Iron and the Armenian. If this
make those languages Indo-European, well and good.
But they also occur in the Lap. If this make the Lap
Indo-European, better still. But all Caucasus must
follow the Iron, and all Siberia the Lap. Then, with
the outliers of Caucasus, there are Tibetan, and with
the outliers of Siberia, American affinities. When are
we to stop ? Only when the whole world shall have
made one great class which has to be divided afresh.
But that is where we begun.
(2.) Of the European origin of the Sanskrit it is
held that enough was said when the presumptions
against the Asiatic origin of its undoubted European
congeners was stated. It showed where the onus pro-
handi lay.
Upon its value, however, as a language, much depends
upon the relation which it bears to the modem dialects
of India. If it be the mother-tongue of them it shares
with the Latin, the Greek, and the German, the merit of
giving us an older and a newer stage of growth ; and,
so doing, rivals those languages in value as a philological
datum. There are no reasons, a priori, why it should
not do this ; or rather (roughly speaking) the presump-
tions on each side are equal. The Sanskrit may have
Y Y 2
692 GENERAL REMARKS.'
fixed itself in India as the Anglo-Saxon did in England.
Or it may have fixed itself only after the fashion of the
Anglo-Norman. The actual fact must be determined by
examination.
A common way of speaking of the modern languages
of Northern India is to say that they contain nine out of
ten, eight out of ten, five out of ten, or any number out of
any other number, as the case may be, of Sanskrit words
— the maximum being in either the Hindi or Bengah,
the minimum in the Mahratta. This may or may not be
the case. The details, however, have never been given,
except in the way that the pedant of Hierocles gave the
details of his house by showing a brick. Say, however,
that the fact is, to a great extent, true. Nineteen-
twentieths would not prove a lineal descent unless the
field over which the induction extended were sufficiently
wide. An Englishman who goes through the letter A
in Johnson's dictionary scarcely finds one word in
fifty of Anglo-Saxon origin, though in B he finds a
preponderance of them, and in K a larger one.
Again, many of the comparisons are founded on the
translations of the Lord's Prayer, a series of sentences
which pre-eminently requires, in most rude languages,
exotic words. The real data lie in the unwritten local
dialects, of which we know little. Yet the more we
know of them the more we find them containing ele-
ments other than Sanskrit.
Another assumption is, that everything* (with few
exceptions) which is common to the Indian vernaculars
and the learned language is treated as if the borrowing
were all on one side — all on the side of the vernacular,
and nothing on the side of the learned, language. Yet
such is rarely the case. The only undoubted Sanskrit
elements are those which are Greek, Latin, Slavonic,
Lithuanic, or German as well. The others may or may
not be aboriginal. Some of them, in all probability,
are so.
GENERAL REMARKS, 693
In the matter of grammar, the reader of the present
work can, to some shght extent, judge for himself. If
he know French and Latin, let him compare the grammar
of the former hinguage with that of the latter. Let
him see how they agree and how they differ ; let him
then compare the Sanskrit inflections with the Hindi or
Punjabi. Great as is the difference between the French
and Latin, the difference between the two Asiatic tongues
is greater. What likeness the Mahratta, &lc., in the way
of grammar, bear to any languages at all, is borne to
languages in other quarters.
The relations of the Persian to the language of the
Achsemenian inscriptions are by no means the parallel
of the relations of the modern languages of India to the
Sanskrit. The Persian can be traced through the Parsi
to the Huzvaresh. Can the Huzvaresh be traced to the
Persepohtan ? The presumptions balance each other. If
the Persepolitan can fairly be compared, a priori, with
the Anglo-Norman in England, it can also, a pHori, be
compared with the Anglo-Saxon. The result lies in the
details of the facts. On these, the writer has no means
of passing an opinion. Upon the Sanskrit and its
Western origin he spoke, not as a scholar, but as a logi-
cian. In Persia, however, where there is less play for
for the antiquarian imagination than in India, there is
less to be condemned on merely general grounds.
Still, it is probable that those points of grammar
wherein the Persian is Indo-European are not the result
of Indo-European descent. They may be of the same
kind as the personal endings of the verbs in the Iron,
Fin, and Armenian, a fact which connects itself with
another, which will be noticed in the sequel. Mean-
while, the classification just suggested is the one which,
subject to correction, is adopted in the present volume.
Whether we deduced the Sanskrit from Asia or Europe
its affinities with the languages of Armenia and the dis-
tricts around would be nearly the same. As an Asiatic
694 GENERAL REMARKS.
language it would touch them on its western, as a Euro-
pean one, on its eastern extremity. Hence, in either
case, we get a situs which supplies some affinities. One
of the difficulties in making the Persian Indo-European
lies in its relations to the Iron, which is essentially Dios-
curian — so much so that, on the strength of these very
affinities, Bopp makes the Georgian (which is, undoubtedly,
Dioscurian) Indo-European. This is but a different read-
ing of the same fact. To the fact itself it is very decided
evidence ; though, like many others, it proves too much.
To conclude : it by no means follows that, because
a writer doubts as to the modern languages of India
being of Sanskrit origin, he, therefore, makes them
Tamul. The fact of the Brahui being, at one and
the same time, Tamul in its affinities and Persian in
its locality, suggests the possibility of even the Tamul
family having been originally of foreign origin. Other
reasons suggest the doctrine that, at a very early
period, the congeners of the Himalayan languages
reached from the Ganges to Cape Comorin ; so that the
Sanskrit belongs to the third rather than the second
layer of languages introduced from without. This,
however, is a point which, in the present work, is only to
be taken as a suggestion. It is certain that, in many
respects, the Ghond, Khond, and Kol tongues are largely
Himalayan, Tibetan, Nepalese, or whatever the class to
which the languages of the northern frontier of India
belong, may be called.
(3.) That the early area of both the Lithuanians and
the Slaves was very different from what it is at present,
has been suggested. The limit of the Slavonic on the
south-west has not, however, been considered : the
original extent of the Keltic and German tongues east-
ward and southward being one of the preliminaries to
its consideration. I find no occasion for carrying either
the original Germans to the south of the Mayn or the
Iberians and Gauls much beyond the Rhone. On the con-
GENERAL REMARKS. 695
trary, I find some reasons for believing that some Sla-
vonic form of speech of which the present Tshek is the
nearest existing representative extended both far to the
west and far to the south of the present Slavonic
frontier.
Indeed, I carry it as far as Savoy ; the reasons for
which I hope to exhibit in some special m.onograph.
They lie chiefly in the Slavonic character of numerous
local names in the Alps : especially in the root k-m-n zz
rock, and k-r =: boundary, which I hold to be the etymons
of the Yal Camunica, Charnouni, Ingria, the Alpes
Graice and many other obscure names. These (two out
of many) are given as illustrations of the criticism
applied to the question rather than as anything which
can be mistaken for even approximate evidence.
(4.) The Keltic, in respect to its stage, I place in the
same class with the Ugrian, &c., rather than in that of
the English and the French ; so that what are fragments
of inflection in the eyes of the best Keltic scholars are,
in mine, rudiments. That there are minute facts in
favour of the opposite opinion which I cannot deal with
offhand, I admit. Still, under a general view of the
subject the main principles are these. There are a
few languages concerning the stage of which there
are doubts, and there are the modern descendants of
the Latin, the Greek, and the old German, of which
the advanced character is beyond doubt. With these
three we may begin as absolute and primary data, and
with no others. Will anyone, after a due consideration
of the real characteristics of the English, Frencl?, Ko-
maic, Danish, and Swedish, say that they are to be
found in the Gaelic and British ? Let anyone gen-
eralize the differentice between a language in the fourth
and a language in the second stage, and he will know
what to answer.
696
GENERAL REMARKS.
Albanian.
Lithuanic.
Slavonic.
Latin.
Greek.
English.
0*0
akis
oko
ocidua
e^6a,Xfi»s
Eye
yon
burn^
geba
OS
ffrofjLoe,
Mouth
Jij^i
ranka
reka
marnis
z^'e
Hand
filtK^t
barzd^
broda
barba
ruyeav
Beard
hrt
diena
dzien
dies
^m"-
Day
van
naktia
noc
nox
^vl
Night
htk
saule
stonce
BOI
nXiof
Sun
;^"«^
menu
miesiac
luna
ffiXrivn
Moon
iXt
zvaigzdo
gviazda
BteUa
etirrYi^
Star
f^iyyts
rytas
ranek
mane
yiui
Morning
fi^^tfit
vakaras
wieczon
vesper
tffCTf^OS
Evening
Xlt\
dangua
nebo
coelum
ovpavos
Sky
HS*
vejas
viatr
ventus
avtf^oi
Wind
ovys
vandu
voda
aqua
V^O)^
Water
l^o^it
snegas
snieg
nix
Xiojv
Snow
fAyn^EovXi
debesis
oblok
nubes
vi<ptXn
Cloud
h
zieme
ziemia
terra
yn
Earth
hr
jures
morze
mare
SxXuffcra
Sea
Z^oxyev
pauksztis
ptak
avis
e^vts
Bird
'JCKfKoa
zuwik
ryba
pisus
iX^vs
Fish
yoo^
akmu
kamiens
lapis
Xthi
Stone
Xuffffi
medis
drzewo
arbor
Jsv^^av
Tree
vtt
Y^nas
jeden
anus
us
One
2u
da
dwa
duo
"^vu
Two
vtt
trys
try
tres
v^tos,
Three
XUTtt
keturi
cztery
quatuor
TiTTa^a
Four
trto't
penki
piec
quinque
^TiVTl
Five '
yiaa-Tt
szeszi
szesc
sex
jl
Six
ffran
Beptyni
siedm
septem
iTra
Seven
rtrt
asztuni
osin
octo
OKTCa
Eight
vivh
devyni
dziewiec
novem
tvntx.
Nine
htTl
deszimtis
dziesiec
decern
tixa
Ten.
Here the English column not only translates the
other languages, but stands as the representative of the
German group.
LANaUAGE. 697
PART II,
CHAPTER I.
Language in General. — Stages.
Language begins with voice. The language of the
eyes is a mere metaphor. Gesticulation on the part of
men and women is mere mimesis. Movements on the
part of the lower animals, however much they may
express, are merely dumb show.
Language ends with voice. Written language, as a
genus of speech, is a misnomer. It is a mere record,
register, or representation ; and is as different from real
language as a portrait is from the person who sat for it.
Whether every significant vocal sound be conveniently
called language is another question. If it be, laughing,
crying, and groaning give us language. This, however,
may be disposed of by dividing language into articulate
and inarticulate.
As there is no reason to believe that the vocal sounds
uttered by the lower animals are destitute of significance,
we cannot deny to the great mass of air-breathing
animals an inarticulate, or, at least, an imperfectly articu-
late, language.
Every animal that can make its breathing heard can
make an approximation to the sound of h. When it
does this by drawing-m its breath there is an mspira-
698 LANGUAGE IN GENERAL.
tion. When it does it by giving it out there is an ex-
piratiou. H, then, though an articulate sound (inas-
much as it can be united with other sounds so as to
form syllables) is scarcely a vocal one. Its connection
is with respiration rather than language. It is common
to man and all the air-breathing animals.
Vocal sounds begin with the batrachians. Snakes can
utter hisses which are of the same degree of sonancy as
the letters which we call sharp or surd, i. e. the sounds
of/?, /, t, h and s. Sounds of the same degree of sonancy
as 6, Vy d, g and z they cannot utter ; though most of the
batrachians can. The other sounds to which the nearest
approach is made by the lower animals are those of
b, rrij and n, by sheep, oxen, and horses, respectively.
They are those which require the least special aptitude
on the part of the tongue. The sounds of v, and /,
which require the contact of upper teeth and the under
lip, are harder. So are those of t and d, requiring a
delicate manipulation of the tongue and teeth.
The nearest approach to a true articulation, i. e. the
union of one elementary sound to another, is exhibited
in the mu and haa of oxen and sheep.
No animal has the command of two consonantal
sounds. No one articulates freely and distinctly.
Domestic animals have the greatest compass ; and it is
probable that this is due to the imitation of man, rather
than to any special organization. Parrots and starlings
confirm this position. The simiadse, which are not do-
mesticated, approach man nearer in shape than voice.
Human language begins when the elementary sounds
are combined so as to form syllables ; in which case they
are not only articulate but articulated.
The case of syllables consisting of only a single sound
is, here, put out of the question. Indeed, etymologically
speaking, they are not syllahles. In this case (a hypo-
thetical one) language consists of nothing but interjec-
tions : using the term with sufficient latitude to include
STAGES. 699
commands like go^ vocatives like puss, and demonstra-
tives like lo !
A word may either coincide with the syllable, or
exceed it — i. e. it may be monosyllabic or other than
monosyllabic. That no word is unnecessarily long is
an inference ct lyriori, suggested by the rule which
forbids us to multiply causes unnecessarily. The de-
duction from it, that all roots were originally monosyl-
labic, partakes of this a priori character ; and, although
it is, to a great extent, borne out by actual investigation,
it can scarcely be taken absolutely and applied indis-
criminately. In a rough way, however, and provision-
ally, most philologues, either consciously or unconsciously,
act on it.
Syntax, or the combination of words in a state of
mutual relation to each other, begins when out of two
or more words we deliver either a proposition or the
part of one.*
Agglutination begins when one of two words in a
syntactic relation to one another, is so subordinated to
its fellow that it undergoes a change in either form or
meaning — a fortiori, when it does so in both.
To this it should be added that the change need not
be a change of its component articulate elements. It is
enough if it be a change of accent. Indeed, the change
of accent is, in many respects, the more important one of
the two. A word thus affected becomes enclitic. Hence
we may say that agglutination begins when one of two
words becomes enclitic or suffers any greater change than
that term implies.
* I think that the term Syntax may fairly be used here ; because, though
even when there are no inflections and no approach to them (so that the
phenomena of concord, government, and the like, are out of the question),
there is still the necessity for some Syntaxis or Arrangement. This, of
course, consists in the order in which the words follow each other, i. e. in
position. Without, then, pressing the term, I submit that, in a proposition
consisting of two or more words differently arranged, there is not only a
difference but a difference of what may conveniently be called Syntax.
700 STAGES.
When one word in a language is thus affected, the
language to which it belongs is, pro tanto, agglutinate,
and when all the words are thus affected, the whole lan-
guage becomes so. Between these two extremes there
is every intermediate degree. When, however, a notable
majority has thus presented the phenomenon of aggluti-
nation, tlie language, unless there are other reasons against
it, may be classed as Agglutinate.
Inflection begins when a word originally enclitic loses
its capability of being separated from its principal and
being presented in an isolated form.
When the word has not only lost its individuality, but
is so far transformed as to be incapable of being explained,
i. e. incapable of having its original form re-exhibited,
the inflectional character has taken the most decided
form it is capable of taking.
When one word in a language is thus affected, the
language to which it belongs is, jpro tanto, inflectional ;
and when all the words are thus affected the whole lan-
guage becomes so. Between these two extremes there
is every intermediate degree. When, however, a
notable majority of words has thus presented the
phenomenon of non-individuality, the language itself,
unless there are reasons against it, may be classed as
Inflectional.
Inflections may be lost : the loss of them being
either pure and simple, or attended with the evolution
of some equivalent circumlocution. When one inflec-
tion is thus dropped, the language to which it belongs
has, pro tanto, departed from its inflectional character,
and when all inflections are dropped, the whole lan-
guage has become something else. Some writers apply
the term analytic to this stage ; but there is no good
name for it. It is, however, the stage which the
English and French, as contrasted with the Anglo-
Saxon and the Latin, represent.
Simply considered with a view to their want of in-
LANGUAGES PROPAGATED BY IMITATION. 701
flection, languages in their fourth resemble languages in
their second stage. The resemblance, however, is only ap-
parent ; in other words, there is no such thing in language
as a true anamorphosis, i. e. a simple repetition of the
same forms. The prepositions and auxiliar verbs which, in
many cases, serve as equivalents to the ejected inflections,
are of a more general and abstract character than the
words used in the infancy of language. Again ; inflec-
tions often impress on the main word certain secondary
changes, which may remain as efiects after the inflection
out of which they originated has departed. The
difference, however, between the fragments and the
rudiments of an inflection has already been noticed.
In whatever way language originated it is by
imitation that it is propagated. With the exception
of the cry uttered by the infant at birth, which is a
purely reflex action, and which is of the same kind
for infants of all nations and countries, with the addi-
tion of, perhaps, a few others, everything that is
uttered by the child is the effect of imitation. He
speaks as others speak about him, as he has heard them
speak, and as he strives to imitate them. Hence all
known philological phenomena are facts in the history
of the communication, reception, and representation of
language rather than facts in its birth, or origin.
They all assume a language as it is — ready-made and
previously existing. They are facts of transmission
rather than of aught else.
After a time, however, simple imitation ceases,
and differences between the speech of two or more
speakers develope themselves. Of that particular form
of his mother- tongue which any individual uses, the
speaker is thoroughly, and in every sense, the master.
He uses it as an instrument of his own. He uses
it as he uses his arms and legs ; to a great extent
unconsciously, but almost always instinctively. He
702 SPONTANEITY OF LANGUAGE.
cannot err in this, so long as he is at one and the same
time, unconscious, spontaneous, and intelligible. If he
think about grammar, and, by so doing, modify its spon-
taneity, it is, 23TO tanto, a language influenced aliunde.
In all cases, however, it is the only language he under-
stands in full. As long as he speaks it simply from his
instincts, it is in good grammar ; being simply what he
makes it. What is called bad grammar is a detail in
which he differs from some one else who calls his form
of speech good grammar. This means that there is no
such a thing as bad grammar. For every apparent
solecism there is a reason. If it were not so, bad gram-
mar would be a force exerting itself as such. That
these reasons have been but imperfectly investigated is
true, and it is true that the imperfect investigation which
has neglected them so thoroughly passes for a good one,
as to have obscured the philological truth that whatever
is, is right Such, however, is the fact : whatever comes
spontaneously comes naturally, and whatever comes
naturally is a growth which we must take as it comes,
and not regulate by any preconceived notions. The real
bad grammar is on the part of those grammarians who
venture to lay down rules for the representation of
language which they cannot complete, rather than on
that of the speakers. To cut down language to gram-
mar is to regulate faces by pictures of them.
The man who, instead of / am, says / are, so speaks
because the unconscious analogies which regulate his
expression suggest these words. What he does others
will do also. Of such as do so aU that can be said is,
that they use a dialect which is limited to the illiterate ;
and, amongst them, only to those who are within the
range of a certain set of philological influences. Yet, if
these men formed a community by themselves in (say)
an island of the Pacific, and were visited by a mis-
sionary there, who formed his grammar solely on what
INCORRECTNESS OF GRAMMAR ONLY APPARENT. 703
he found, and, by forming such a grammar, had fixed
the language, the vulgarism would become classical ; for,
if the language stood quite alone, tliere would be no
means of seeing that (even in the eyes of the gram-
marian) it had once been what he would call wrong.
No one calls jeg er, bad Danish. Yet, word for word,
it is the English / are. In Danish, as in English, there
was the older form in -m; and in Danish, as in
English, some one spoke what is called bad grammar
when he, for the first time, used the form in -r in its
stead. In Denmark, however, the so-called bad lan-
guage has prevailed, i. e. has become good.
But how was it that the bad preference set in ?
We cannot say. This, however, we can say — that it
was determined by the forces which determine the
growth of language ; and that, as a force, it is as
little to be condemned as the conservative force which
would have resisted it is to be praised. Each is simply
to be investigated ; in the neglect of which investigation
lies the real fault, whatever that may be.
It does not follow, however, from this, that there is
no such a thing as bad grammar. The term has two
meanings. It signifies the actual representation of a
language, and the formal scheme of a language. Lan-
guage, as a fact, must be taken as it is, and represented
as it best may be. Nevertheless there is a standard by
which it must be measured. In one sense the words myself
and himself are good English ; so good that men may
be laughed at for saying his-self In another sense, one
of them must be wrong. If self mean exactly the same
in each compound, and if the two compounds stand in
exactly the same ratio to the pronouns I and he, and if
"my and him be in decidedly different cases, there must be
something wrong somewhere ; the wrong being a formal
one.
The rule in English that two negatives make an
affiTmative is, as a rule of language, absolutely incom-
704 INCORRECTNESS OF GRAMMAR ONLY APPARENT.
patible with the rule that du(B aut plures negativoi
apud Grcecos vehementius negant, so long as we keep
the word negative to one precise signification. By
making the second negative, however, an expletive, by
ignoring it altogether, or by making it express, in some
vague manner, the mode of the negation, we can recon-
cile the two.
Again — whatever may be the origin of the sign of
the first person in verbs, it is beyond doubt that, in cer-
tain stages of certain languages, it was the equivalent to
the first personal pronoun as the name of the subject of
the proposition. This is what the -m in am is : just like
the -fjLi in elfjil. When / am, then, was first said there
was one of four things. The combination meant the I
which is is I ; or J, / am with emphasis ; or it was
a simple piece of tautology ; or the -m was entirely
merged in the a. So far as it was purely tautological,
it was (so far as grammar is formal) a paralogism. Yet
it was, and is, a fact in language ; and its evolution was
the efiect of some philological force which it is the
business of philologues to elucidate. Anything short of
this, such as the mere condemnation of certain expres-
sions on the score of bad grammar, is only cutting
the knot when it ought to be undone. There is, doubt-
less, wrong somewhere ; but the language adopts the
wrong, and the language we must take as we find it :
in other words, the wrong rights itself. And this (if we
may speak in metaphors without coming under the
charge of haziness) is the fact. Wrongs in language
have a tendency to right themselves ; language itself
being, at one and the same time, in a state of unstable
equilibrium and incapable of disorganization.
Its primary function is to be a medium of com-
munication, and it is impossible to imagine any na-
tural change in it which is not regulated by the con-
ditions herein applied. Men and women may have
more or less to say according to the range of their wants
INCORRECTNESS OF GRAMMAR ONLY APPARENT. 705
and experience ; but if language, at all times and in all
places, stands in the same relation to its ideas as an
exponent, it is equally good as language. What certain
changes do is this — they modify the particular phases
of the language, and, so far as they do this, change its
individual character.
Lest this should be thought incompatible with the
acknowledged fact that languages differ from each other
in copiousness, harmony, and development of inflection ;
lest it should seem to cut at the root of the doctrine
implicit in much of what this work is intended to
convey, I guard against any misinterpretation of my
meaning by saying (what is, perhaps, superfluous) that
a language representing a high state of civilization is
one thing, the manner in which it represents it is
another. All that is here argued is that, given a
certain range of ideas on the part of the speakers, all
languages represent it with an equal degree of ade-
quateness — the relation of the language, as a medium
to the ideas represented, being constant. A picture of
a stunted idiot is as good, as a mere representation,
as the picture of equal artistic skill of a genius, an
athlete, or an Antinous. The matter alone difiers.
The relation of the representation, supposing it always
to be adequate, (as it is held to be in the case of
language,) is the same.
z z
70G CLASSES.
CHAPTER II.
On Classes, and affinity.
Observe, in the remarks upon the several stages in which
languages are to be found, the word classed. Koughly
and practically speaking, a language may be agglutinate
or inflectional, and yet, on the first view, cannot be
treated as such, without inconvenience. Such is the
case when it belongs to a large class, wherein its
congeners are in a different stage of development. It is
only, however, laxly and superficially that this exception
holds good. The real view is, that agglutination or
inflection, as the case may be, is to be treated as a
single character overbalanced by others. Some of the
Ugrian forms of speech exhibit this complication. Their
congeners are agglutinate, whereas, the Fin is (in the
eyes of many) at least sub-inflectional. Still the original
classification holds good ; inasmuch as we classify by
affinity, rather than form.
Languages, in other respects but distantly related,
may agree with each other by being in the same stage :
this being agreement without affinity. Languages,
on the other hand, closely connected with each other
in the way of descent, may be in different stages ; in
other words, languages are related to each other according
to the time at which they are either known or believed
to have diverged from some common stock.
Differences in the rate of change, complicate, without
altering, this principle.
How far physical conformation coincides with blood,
or descent, is another question ; a question that belongs to
CLASSES. 707
the ethnologist almost exclusively. It is a question upon
which many extreme opinions are afloat ; but it is not a
question upon which the study of language has any
direct bearing, though it is one upon which many
philologists have committed themselves.
Several of the writers who have done me the honour
of either adopting or disparaging my opinions have been
pleased to look upon me as an investigator who lays
undue value upon the evidence of language as a test of
ethnological affinity. Having written on philology
before I touched the study of medicine, I may, many
years ago, have held opinions that justify this view. I
am not, however, aware of having ever expressed them
in any published work, or, indeed, of having entertained
them at all for upwards of twenty years. In aU works on
ethnology, philology must preponderate ; simply because
the facts of language are numerous, definite, and, above
all, capable of being studied anywhere and at all times,
at first, or second, hand ; in the closet, or museum, as
well as in the country or open field. But identity
of language is, at the most, only a presumption in
favour of identity of blood. Being this, it must stand
as an important test — a provisional test no doubt ;
but, still, as a test that is satisfactory and valid so long
a3 nothing is brought against it. It fits, however, but
loosely.
It is clear that changes in the physical conformation
of a population of speakers and changes in the language
they speak may go on at different rates. A thousand
years may pass over two nations undoubtedly of the
same origin, and which were, at the beginning of those
thousand years, of the same complexion, form, and lan-
guage.
At the end of those thousand years there shall be
a difi*erence. On the one the language shall have changed
rapidly, the physical structure slowly. On the other
the physical conformation shall have been modified by a
z z 2
708 CLASSES.
quick succession of external influences, whilst the lan-
guage shall have stayed as it was.
With an assumed, or proved, original identity on each
side, the difference in the rate of action on the part of
the different influences is the key to the discrepancies
between the two tests. The language may remaiu in
statu quo, whilst the hair, complexion, and bones change ;
or the hair, complexion, and osteology may remain in
statu quo, whilst the language changes.
Apparently this leaves matters in an unsatisfactory
condition ; in a way which allows the ethnologist any
amount of assumption he chooses. Apparently it does
so ; but it does so in appearance only. In reality we
have ways and means of determining which of the two
changes is the likelier.
We know what modifies form. Change of latitude,
climate, sea-level, conditions of subsistence, conditions of
clothing, &LG., do this ; all (or nearly all) such changes
being pliysical.
We know, too (though in a less degree), what modifies
language. New wants gratified by objects with new
names, new ideas requiring new terms, increased inter-
course between man and man, tribe and tribe, nation
and n-atiou, island and island, oasis and oasis, country
and country, do this. It is our business to learn from
history what does all this.
In the assumption of an original continuity (running
through the whole of this book, though subject to
con-ection from new facts) of aUied forms of speech
there is, doubtless, hypothesis ; and in the doctrine of
the obliteration of intermediate forms and the outcrop
of affinities there is hypothesis also. How much ?
In the facts themselves none. The hypothetical element,
such as it is, lies in the application of them. For
the French, Italian, and Spanish, the former is a
matter of history. It has gone on to some extent
already. To some extent it is going on before our
CLASSES. 709
eyes at the present time. In like manner, the out-
crops of the Fin languages, which lie in fragments
like islands in a Russian sea (as aforesaid), are simple
facts — without an atom of hypothesis in them. The
nearest congener of A is not the contiguous B but dis-
tant C. It accounts, then, for something. The present
writer makes it account for much ; perhaps for too
much. Let those who differ with him, then, take ex-
ceptions to his several applications in detail, each on the
merits of the particular case ; not to the primary fact.
The primary fact with a partial application is a truism.
How far it extends is a oase of more or less.
Coincidence is an actual fact in more parts of the
world than one. As a general rule, however, neither
the phonesis of a language, nor the stage of its develop-
ment, are of much value in a question of relationship
— at any rate, they are not of primary importance.
Neither is the character of the grammatical structure.
Of two nations closely allied the one may prefer prefixes
to postfixes, whilst the other uses the postfix rather than
the prefix ; or, again, two languages may agree in
preferring prefixes which agree in little else. In the
way of generalizing the phonetic and ideologic character
of large groups of languages much good work has been
done. For the investigation, however, of affinities a
great deal of it is out of place. It is only to a certain,
though, doubtless, to a considerable, degree that languages
genealogically allied are also in the same stage of de-
velopment. This means that no single character is worth
much.
We may have, however, likeness without a cor-
responding affinity. Some thousand years hence, when
the differences between the English of America and of
Australia will have notably increased, the genitive cases in
-s may still exist. Their history will be known. They
will be known to have existed in the mother tongue at
the time of tlie division of the languages, and that as signs
710 SCHEMATIC FORMS.
of the genitive case. They will, therefore, represent
an inflection ready-made in or before the nineteenth
century : facts which will amply account for their ex-
istence elsewhere and at a later period. They mighty
however, represent something else. It might be that all
that the Australians on their part, and the Americans, on
theirs, took with them from their mother-country was a
series of uninflected substantives, a short word of which
the letter s was the main element with a meaning
akin to the meaning of the inflectional s, and a tendency
to combine the two. In this case the combination it-
self would have been efiected within each of the two
countries at a period subsequent to the division from the
mother-tongue, and independently, as far as the combi-
nation went, of the mother-tongue itself.
But it was not so : as the critics of the time in pros-
pect will know from history. It was not so ; for the
inflection was part and parcel of the paradigms and
scheme of the mother-tongue. Let us call an inflec-
tion of this kind — imported rather than developed —
schematic.
Schematic inflections tell us that the languages in
which they appear broke off* from the mother-tongue
during a stage of its development sufficiently advanced
to be, jpTO tanto, at least, inflectional.
With the other alternative the case is different, and
separation took place during a stage of which all that
can be said is, that a tendency to inflection existed, and
that the elements out of which it was evolved along
with the tendency to combine them, existed also. This
stage was, of course, an earlier one.
Nevertheless, a separation during the inflectional stage
is simulated.
This is no hypothetical case ; on the contrary, it is a
real one. The root of. the Latin se, the so-called reflec-
tive pronoun, is common to the Norse and Lithuanian
languages. It is common to many other forms of
ISOMORPHISM. 711
speecli besides ; but these two are the only ones now
under notice. The Lithuanians append it in the way of
an agglutination to the verb, making thereby an ap-
proximation to a reflective, or middle, voice. The Scan-
dinavians did the same. They did more. Within the
historical period we have seen this same reflective pro-
noun (] .) as a full appendage like kalla sik-zicall him^
self; (2.) as a modified appendage, kallasc ; (8.) as
kcdlast, applying to all three persons, and meaning not
only call himself, but call one's self, call thyself, call
myself, call ourselves, yourselves, and themselves ; (4.)
as kallas and kalles, in which forms it is treated
both in Danish and Swedish as an ordinary passive
voice. Now, if it were not for the older forms we
might never have known all this ; and if it were not
for the known newness of its origin, we might fancy
that it originated at a period when the mother-
tongues of the Norse and Lithuanian were one. We
might, also, entertain the notable blunder that, as it is
wanting in the allied languages of Germany and Eng-
land, it is the fragment of a full inflection once pos-
sessed by the whole class.
Let the Lithuanian and Norse middles be called
isomorphic.
If isomorphic combinations be something less as signs
of affinity than schematic the forms which we are
about to call isomeric are somewhat less than isomor-
phic. In Norse and Rumanyo the article is post-posi-
tional, i. e. the former language has mand=zonan, and
mand-enz=.the man, whilst the latter has omozzman
and om-ulzzthe man. The Norse -e?! is hin, the Ruman-
yo -I- is ille, each being the pronoun of the third person.
Here, though the words difier, the logical elements of
the com.bination are the same. This, in logic, is the
parallel to isomorphism. It wil\ never be true isomor-
phism ; but always run parallel with it ; isomorphism
being inchoative, possible, or contingent schematism.
712 CLASSES.
But in order to have either isomerism or isomorphism,
full and perfect, we must take cognizance of the logical
import of the fundamental, as well as of the appended or
sub-inflectional, element : inasmuch as it is not only a
possible, but a highly probable, phenomenon in language
that the same process may give a different result. Let a
word be doubled. The result will be different accord-
ing as the word itself is the name of a substance or an
action. I say man man or heat heat where the parts
in combination are the same ; or, rather, where there is
only one part made two by doubling or gemination.
But we can see our way to the results being dif-
ferent. The former may come out the equivalent to
avOpcoTTOL, i. e. a plural number. The latter may come
out an equivalent to T6Tu<^a. In each case we can see
our way to the ideas associated. In the first it is that
of repetition, pure and simple, which gives a plural at
once. In the latter there is the notion not only of
repetition, but of repetition combined with continuance,
in which idea of continuance that of past time is
implicit in the idea of the connection between a
beginning and an end. Let this element preponderate,
and we have a perfect tense, i, e. a tense combining a past
with a present meaning. But in order for this to be
possible the notion of time must be implicit in the word
doubled, i. e. it must be a verb.
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 713
CHAPTER III.
Analytic and Synthetic View of Methods. — Origin of Derivatives and of
Koots — of derived Forms, Voice, &c
The difference between Analysis and Synthesis, which
is good in so many departments of inquiry is pre-
eminently good in Comparative Philology. Each has
its own proper ground ; each illustrates its own definite
portion of the subject ; ea,ch requires appropriate
aptitudes and appropriate knowledge on the part of
the investigator.
Analysis, taking language as it finds it, is glad to
find it in as advanced a condition as possible ; every
element of complexity giving it fresh details in the way
of material. Its special fields are languages like the
English and French with such others as approach them
in character. These it traces back to the Anglo-Saxon
and Latin ; and, beginning at the latest, and working
back to the earliest, known point, gets its results. In
this all those etymologies which deal with both secondary
forms and secondary meanings find their application.
So does all the excellent information concerning letter-
changes and the like.
Synthesis has its basis in psychology and logic,
rather than in proper philology. It strives at a picture
of the earliest form of the earliest language, and asks
how, by addition after addition, it has become complex.
It is to a great extent a priori in its arguments : yet
not wholly so ; indeed, it would be an unsafe method
if it were. It owes much to the anal3^ical method,
•714' ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS.
and is, to a great extent, dependent on it. If we
wish to know what language was at first there is no
better way of learning than by beginning at the end,
and by eliminating such elemetits of which the com-
paratively recent origin can be shown, to come to an
approximation of the simplicity of its original form.
Still, the two methods begin at different ends of the
subject, and require different aptitudes and different
masses of information. Synthesis is deduction based
on previous induction.
Respecting each, there are two facts of primary im-
portance ; which are these — each method covers a certain
amount of ground, and each leaves an enormous amount
of ground uncovered ; neither do the two combined,
when we consider the width of the field, cover much.
Yet there is no third method.
The view taken in the preceding pages was syn-
thetic, i. e. it began with the earliest stage of lan-
guage and went on to the latest. Yet the other might
just as easily have been taken, and I might, after writing
on the English or the French of the present year, have
asked what it was out of which they were developed,
and then what it was which preceded — so going back-
wards instead of forwards.
A competent inquirer should be able to take either
line as occasion requires ; the advantages which the
one has over the other, being different under differ-
ent circumstances ; just as it is in chemistry and else-
where.
Let us apply this. The palmary problems in Com-
parative Philology are two, and two only — the me-
chanism of derivative forms (especially the inflections)
and the origin of roots. Everything else is subordinate
and auxiliary to these two main questions. Whether all
the points concerning them will ever be solved is another
matter. It is only certain that they give us the s^vmma
genera of the inquiry. What do we know about them ?
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 715
How far are we on the right road for discovering them ?
It is enough, for the present, to state that the analytic
method does the most for the one, the synthetic method
the most for the other, department.
The mechanism of derivatives most especially appeals
to the analytic method for elucidation. The very fact
of a secondary form, or a secondary meaning, implies
this.
It is consequently worked from the scholastic, rather
than the logical, side ; and deals most especially with
languages of which we have the longest history and the
most stages. Practically, it draws half its facts from
the Latin and its derivatives.
Hence, the order in which the primary divisions of
the facts which are now coming under notice are ex-
hibited is the reverse of that in which they are exhibited
in the general outline.
1. Roots are what we Uegan with. They are what
the sequel will end with.
2. Then come those modifications of the root which
give such differences as those between (pXejo) and (piXeyeOco,
voco and vocito, &lc., modifications which do not aflfect, or
only indirectly aflfect, the inflections. These give us
what is called crude forms or themes — which may, how-
ever, as they often are, be limited to the distinct root.
The so-called frequentative, inchoative, causal, diminutive,
and other modifications, belong to this class.
3. Thirdly comes modification in the wety of Accidence
or Inflection. As the ordinary Accidents of the current
grammar contain something more than true and proper
inflections, this class, like the last, is not strictly defined.
As tlie error, however, is on the side of comprehension, it
is excusable. Useless as they are for investigation of the
phenomena of growth and development in language, such
terms as Voice, Mood, Tense, &c., are such familiar, tan-
gible, and definite terms that, with all the exceptions
which lie against them, they will determine the extent
of the class : though it is clear that the -im in words
716 ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS.
like injiraus, the -er in words like miserrimus, are
as little inflectional as the -it' in vocito. I admire,
then, rather than imitate, the boldness of one of the
ablest living philologues, Schleicher, who, in his Lithu-
anic grammar, has ejected them from the category in
which he places the case-endings of Nouns and the per-
sons and tenses of Verbs — recognizing comparative and
superlative degrees, only so far as they agree with the
positive in its signs of Case, Number, and Gender,
the true accidents of nouns.
The boundary in each of these classes is uncertain.
Many elements which seem to be adjuncts may really
be radical. More elements, apparently radical, will
really, when more carefully studied, prove adjuncts.
The class of Diminutives more especially simulate
radical forms ; but the refined investigations of Key
and others have put many of them in their true light.
The question most especially connected with this class of
words is the formation of Decomposites, or words con-
taining more superadded elements than one. Are these
elements ever added at once ? In the earlier stages of
languages, though the matter is difficult to prove, No.
In the later stages the compound affixes are common,
witness the number of words which, in the present Eng-
lish, end in -ally, where the adjective ends in -ic. Many
a man has said characteristically without having recog-
nized such a form as characteristical.
Of inflections, the separable ones are the simplest.
In many words, however, as in domin-CBy a single sound
expresses case, number, and gender at once.
To begin with the simpler forms. In the Greek
perfects the reduplication gives us a part of the original
as a prefix. Here we have a secondary element without
a second word to evolve it from. The same is the case
with the Malay orang orang = men.
Again, tip differs from top, without any second word
to give the difference.
That these exceptions are not universally allowed is
INFLECTIONS. "717
probable. Whether any one hold that t eruc^a = reru^a
TeTV(j)a (a true reduplication in full) I cannot say.
That many hold that changes like tip and top are
secondary results is beyond doubt. No fact is more
certain than that many additions effect a change in
the contiguous syllables, and that the addition may
drop off whilst the change remains. Such, indeed,
is the case with our own perfects, which were once,
like the Greek, reduplications with a change of
vowel. The reduplication is lost ; the changed vowel
remains. That this explains many apparently simple
changes of vowels is certain. How many it explains
is another question.
Let us caU this accommodation. It is of two kinds.
Sometimes the vowel of the theme is accommodated to
the vowel of the addition. Sometimes the vowel of
the addition is accommodated to the vowel of the theme.
Again, the addition may be either a prefix or an affix ;
so that the change may be effected from the beginning
and proceed forwards, or from the end and proceed
backwards.
Sometimes the vowel may be wholly elided ; in which
case there is the actual dislocation of the syllables.
Again, the consonant may be changed, as it is in the
Keltic and other inflections.
All these processes are factors in numerous important
changes of words ; and, as a general rule, each is more
especially afi^ected by some languages than by others.
But they are only factors — not principles.
Subject to exceptions of the kind indicated, I believe
that it is now the current doctrine that all modifica-
tions in the form of words are the result of secondary
changes, and that derivation is only composition in
disguise. If so, the disguise must be taken away.
I begin with the verbs.
In many of these the agglutination is simply a
matter of history. In combinations like the English
718 INFLECTIONS.
cant, and the Scotch canna, the negative has lost its
original form.
In the Italian 'parlero=:I shall speah, the analysis is
parlare +ho — I have to speah.
Even in a language in the stage of the Sanskrit the
future is the verb plus the auxiliary am.
1. Sr&sht'dsmit 1. Sraslit-(fswias.
2. Srasht-asi. 2. Srasht-as^Aa.
Equivalent to the Latin
1. Creabo. 1. Creabimus.
2. Creabis. 2. Creabitis.
In the Greek passives, i. e. the true ones for the
Aorist (all the rest being middles with a passive power),
the addition is that of the same auxiliar; the power
of the original word being participial.
In catch'em and thank'ee the name of the object is
incorporated with that of the action by which it is
affected ; these expressions though vulgar being real, and
the independent existence of the pronominal elements
being concealed by the fact of their amalgamation.
Grammarians, it must be allowed, have not admitted
these forms into their grammars ; but that is merely
because their grammars only partially represent the
language. In the Italian, similar amalgamations are
recognized — indeed greater and more complex ones —
such as darmilo :=. give it me, where the object con-
veyed as well as the object to which it is made over is
named. In many rude languages these facts are
noted ; and, when this is done, pass for peculiarities.
They merely show that the principles of language are
general ; the practice of grammarians partial, irregular,
and inconsistent.
The formation of much which is called voice is
equally agglutinate ; so much so that it can scarcely be
called an inflection.
The combination of a term denoting an action with
INFLECTIONS. 719
a term denoting the object which that action effects is
sufficiently common ; though its great prevalence in cer-
tain rude languages has been treated as if it were a com-
parative rarity elsewhere. The ordinary reflective con-
struction, however, supplies its elements — which in the
French places the pronoun before, in the Italian after,
the verb.
Let us apply this to voice. When two out of the
three reflective pronouns, thus brought into contact
with the governing verb, have not only been super-
seded by the third, but have become so far incorporated
with the word expressive of the action as to have lost
their independent form, the result is a middle voice.
A man who heats or washes himself is beaten or
washed, and, on the strength of this fact, middles be-
come passives. The palmary illustrations of this, as
may be anticipated, are to be found in the Norse
languages. Here sikz=.sezzself, in its original the
equivalent of Mmself, hei'self, or themselves. From
an extension to ones-self it proceeds to represent
myself, thyself, ourselves, and yourselves, just like
e and even iavrov in Greek. This gives, in the oldest
Norwegian of Norway, from kalla = call, Jcalla-sezz
call ones-self, myself, thyself &c. ; wherein the change
is limited to the elimination of the i. In the Icelandic
of the same period the form is generally (though not al-
ways) -st : the sense being more middle than passive :
thus, whilst hann var nafnadr means he was called,
hann nefdist means he gave as his name, or called
himself.
In modern Swedish and Danish the t is lost ; and
words like hallas in the one language, and halles in the
other, are treated as simple passives, just like vocor, or
amor.
The languages just referred to give some interesting
examples of the reciprocal, or doubly-reflective, power of
Y20 INFLECTION OF VERBS.
these forms in -st, such as oettust =. fight one another, drepiz
= kill one another, and which, in a later stage, give us
such words as vi slas, vi brottas, vi modes, vi skilles,
ha. z=. we fight, we wrestle, we meet, vje part, 8zc., isomeric,
and, indeed (with the difference of arrangement), iso-
morphic with the French se hattre, se quereller, ha.
This gives us certain, perhaps all, deponents.
The nearest known approximation to a true series of
passive, rather than middle, verbs is that given by the
Aorist Passive in Greek, where e-TV<f> O-rjv, e-rv^-O-rjs,
€~TV<f)-67], TV(f)-0 7]Ti, TV(j)-0 CLTJV, TV(f)-0-Ci}, and TVcfi-O-TJVai,
shew a verb plus the participle of the substantive
verb, i. e. the addition of 7)v, tjs, 7)tc, eLrjv, ©, and eivai.
Concerning passives not accounted for by either of
the preceding two methods I have nothing definite to
suggest.
The general nature, however, of the participle, along
with that of the infinitive (the two forms wherein the
verb passes into the noun or vice versa), demands
notice, since it breaks down the distinction between the
noun and the verb.
Infinitives are verbs in respect to what they mean,
but Substantives in every other respect. They are
names of actions with abstraction of the agent. In
this respect they comport them like words like
redness. They are names, though not concrete ones ;
being the names of substances with single attributes.
All we know of a runner, when we know not
whether it be a man or a horse, or what it is, is,
that it runs ; and all that we know of running is,
that it is the act of a runner. This act may take
place in past, present, or future time ; so that Infinitives
are susceptible of what is called Tense. It may also be
an act on the part of one who is more noted for what
is done to him than what he does ; so that voice is one
of these accidents.
INFLECTION OF VERBS. 721
These actions may be either singular or plural, or
even dual ; two acts of running, or a hundred acts of
running, being just as intelligible as one ; besides which,
they may have the same relations in the way of space
that a tovjn or a house may have, i. e. we may go
towards such or such an action or come froon it.!
In one sense the Infinitive is susceptible of Gender,
though not in the way that a Participle is so. The
gender of a Participle is that of the agent. This for an
Infinitive is as impossible as it is for an ordinary verb ;
inasmuch as such gender as full verbs are supposed, in
some cases, to possess, is only the gender of their parti-
ciple. But the kind of gender which makes gladius
masculine and hasta feminine may make the same dis-
tinction between two kinds of actions. The Greek In-
finitives are all neuter ; but, logically, they might just
as well be masculine or feminine, as may be seen from
the way in which they are translated into Latin.
Though TO /jLtaeiv =2 odium,, to (pOoveiv zzijiwidia.
Of person, however, ex vi termini, they are essen-
tially destitute ; person being the character of the agent
from which they are abstracted, or changing the expres-
sion, which is abstracted from them.
All this is made plain by reference to those languages
which contain true verbal abstracts, one of them being
our own. Cleansing, from the Anglo-Saxon cleansung,
is simply a substantive of the feminine gender.
Whether we can think the import of words like
PaTTTLa67)vaL, fie^aTTTKrOai, &;c., exactly as it was
thought by an ancient Greek, is uncertain ; and it is
even more uncertain, from the fact of his having no
experience of such recent forms as our own, whether an
ancient Greek could think the import of such a phrase
as to have been dipped exactly like an Englishman. It
is only certain that both expressions are substantially
one ; and we can talk of wishing to have been dippedy
just as we can of wishing for a dipping.
3 A
722 INFLECTION OF VERBS.
It is not by accident that Gender and Number,
though possible inflections of an Infinitive Verb, are
either rare or non-existent.
For gender the great determinant, viz. the difference
of real or supposed sex on the part of the agent is
wholly wanting ; all that remains being the hypothetical
or conventional gender of the action.
In respect to number, we must remember that even
in words like redness plurality is an exceptional pheno-
menon. Abstracts are essentially one and indivisible ;
so that such plurals as we have, are, in the very strictest
sense of the word, no abstracts at all. We can only
talk of rednesses when we mean either two different
shades of red, in which we really have two abstracts so
much alike as not to be distinguished, or the reds of
two different concrete substances, in which we have an
abstract with a substance in the background.
In respect to what they mean, participles, like infini-
tives, are verbs ; except that, instead of being actual
names of actions, they are words which suggest an action
and denote an agent ; whereas infinitives, whilst they
only suggest the agent, denote the action. Hence, the
participle has voice and tense to about the same extent as
the Infinitive ; but case, number, and gender to a much
greater. In all these it follows the substantive, towards
which it comports itself like an ordinary adjective. As
to Mood, the Infinitive is one ; the Participle being with-
out it — or rather, being, in some sense, a mood itself.
Have participles Persons .^ I know of no lan-
guage wherein the participle, preceded by a pronoun
of the first person, has a different form from a participle
preceded by a pronoun of the second, or a participle
attended by a pronoun of the second person from a par-
ticiple attended by one of the third. At the same time
there is no logical reason against such a concord. From
this point of view, participles converted into tenses, by
losing their auxiliaries, cease to be participles.
INFLECTION OF VERBS. '723
The participle of the middle voice seems to have
arisen late, and to have been lost early ; such being the
inference from the Greek rvTrrofievos and the Latin
regimini, amamini, &c. ; these last, though nominally
persons plural being really for the second person plural
just what T6TV/jifjL€voL {eLaC) is for certain third persons
in Greek. In Latin, however, they have lost their auxi-
liary, and exist only as fragments of a participial in-
flection— fragments unless we prefer to consider them as
rudiments.
In these, as well as in rvwrofj^evoL, with which they
are isomorphic, the sign of the participle (y) follows the
sign of the voice (fi) ; so that rvTrro/jbevos is newer than
TVTTTO/jUaC.
Passives like rv^Oeus are merely participles upon a
participle, just like having been in English. Whether
TV(f>6eis or eTv^6r)v be the older form, is not the present
question. It is certain that tv(J>'0- is the basis of both.
In the Middle voice, then, the participle is later than
the tenses and the persons, whilst in the Passive it pre-
cedes them. Indeed, it is (as has been stated) the only
element which is truly and primarily passive. As for the
V in TVTTTOfjbevos it is active^ being part of a word de-
noting an action, in which the complementary noun is
both the name of the agent and the person suggested as
the object. I am not aware of any successful or even
plausible attempt at isolating any participial element and
even guessing at what it was as an independent word.
The contrast between the r in rvc^Oeis and the n in
stricken is remarkable. In languages like our own,
where the Passive Participles stand either alone or with-
out any such agglutinate passives, as erv^Orjv, &c. in
paradigm with them, there is the perplexing fact of
such connections as they have at all, being Active.
Form for form sivum and burnt, the passive participles
are identical with swum and burnt, the active preterites.
In an earlier stage of our language there was a differ-
3 A 2
724 THE PERSONS OF VERBS.
ence, and whilst the participles were svjummen and
hoerned, the preterites were swummon, swumme or
swam, and hoernde. Even this, however, is but a slight
distinction.
Participles by losing their auxiliars simulate tenses —
often tenses with gender. But, then, as before stated,
they are something more than participles.
Now comes a short notice of the Persons. Many
grammarians have suggested that the signs of the
persons in the verb might be neither more nor less than
the personal pronouns appended, in the first instance,
to the verb, but, afterwards, amalgamated or incorporated
vsdth it. Mr. Garnett, however, observed that the ap-
pended pronoun was not so much the personal as the
possessive one : that the analysis of a word like inqua-m
was not so much, say + /, as saying + my ; in short,
that the verb was a noun, and the pronoun either an
adjective (like mens) or an obhque case (like mei),
agreeing with, or governed by, it.
It is certainly so in some cases. The Magyars, in-
stead of saying my apple, thy apple, say what is equi-
valent to apple-m, apple-th, &c. ; i. e. they append the
possessive pronoun to the substantive, and, by modifying
its form, partially incorporate or amalgamate it. They
do more than this. They do precisely the same with
the verbs in their personal, as they do with the nouns
in their possessive, relations. Hence, olvas-om, &c., is
less I read than m^/ reading ; less read + /, than read-
ing -h m^y.
(1.)
Olvas — om =: I read = reading -my.
od :=. thou readest = reading-thy.
uk = we read = reading-otir.
atok = ye read = reading -your.
(2.)
Almk — m = my apple = apple-my.
d = thy apple = apple-thy.
nk =: our apple = apple-our.
tok = your apple := aptple-your.
THE ARTICLE. 725
From the verb, I pass to the Article. If we look to
the derivation of the word article = joint, it suggests
nothing more than one word so united, or articulated,
with another as to have lost its own separate existence.
Such is the case with a which is an, an being ane or
one. Without a substantive it is nothing : though ane
is a separate and separable word. The same is the case
with the, which is a derivative of the root of this and
that. Yet it only exists as a prefix : however much its
congeners may exist as separate terms. Some years back
I found no added to the list of English articles, and, at
once, admitted that it was one. I have since added every.
None of these words can exist without a substantive of
which they are a concomitant part — separable, inasmuch
as the substantive can exist without them ; separable,
inasmuch as they are full words in the matter of pro-
nounceability ; but inseparable, inasmuch as when away
from their noun, they are only words iii posse.
All these words are pronominal in origin, and they are
all recognized articles. They form a natural class, inas-
much as they are the terms which play an important
part in Logic. They convey the notions of quantity or
its absence, of definitude or its opposite. They are a
natural class : but it does not follow from this that they
constitute the whole of the group to which the term
article may apply. Nothing in the etymology of the
names conveys this. All that the etymology requires is
their nou -independent character. It does not even
limit them to nouns, still less to pronouns. When the
so-called possessive pronouns,' instead of constituting a
whole term (as in onine is here, this is mine), form only
a part of one, they change their form, and are just as
articular in their construction as the, a, no, and every. We
say my, thy, our, your, their, or her — horse, but no one
says this horse is my, or this hat is thy. When the
article becomes post-positive it becomes a recognized
inflection ; pre-eminently agglutinate in its origin.
726 THE ARTICLE.
Certain participles simulate (we may say become)
tenses. Cases may simulate (or become) adjectives.
Cujum is a neuter of cujus, word for word, koIov ;
which in Greek is treated as an actual adjective. Let a
case denote a quality (and, in the Fin, cases do so) and it
may take the gender of its substantive ; in other words,
agree with, instead of being governed by, it. Which
is the case is a mere point of grammatical phraseology.
Wallis calls mans in a mans hat an adjective. It is,
and it is not.
The above shows that parts of speech grow out of
parts of speech, and accidents out of accidents ; yet
little or nothing has been done towards even getting
to the fundamental inflection.
This alone implies a great deal of work as a mere
preliminary to the origin of the primary agglutination.
That all the preceding examples of inflection reduced
to agglutination are in reality no cases of inflection is
an objection easily made ; and it is one which the
author admits. When all inflections have been analyzed
and reduced, our phraseology may require alteration.
The present notices are based on the current language
of grammarians as it is found. How far a higher phi-
lology than the present will recognize the present gram-
matical nomenclature, no man can tell. For two sets,
however, of languages,— for languages in the most ad-
vanced, and languages in the most rudimentary, stage — •
they are, for the most part, useless or something worse.
Numher in some cases arose out of reduplication.
The following from a' rude African language, the
Tumali, is a suggestive instance of another origin : —
Ngi =: /. Ngi-n-de = we.
Ngo = thou. Ngo-n-da = ye.
Ngu = he. Nge-n-da =: they.
Da = with.
Me -cum = me.
The da (or de) in the second column^ is the sign of
CASES WITH GENDER. 727
the plural number. It is also the preposition with. Now
with denotes association, association plurality. Hence
Ngi-n-de = 7 +>= "^oe.
Ngo-n-da = thou +, =■ y€.
Nge-n-da= Ae +, = they.
This is just as if the Latins, instead of nos and vos,
said me-cum and te-cum.
Such are some selected instances out of those recog-
nized inflections which can be traced back to agglutina-
tion. Strictly speaking, indeed, they are not so much
inflections as agglutinate forms in a language otherwise
inflectional.
728 SUBSTANCE AND ATTRIBUTE.
CHAPTER lY.
Roots. — Attributes and Substances.
Here we begin with the difference between the Attri-
bute and the Substance.
A yellowish, round, sapid, fragrant object, in a certain
place, of a certain size, and one in number, provided
it have other characters as well, is an orange. Its
colour, its roundness, its sapidity, its fragrance, its place,
its size, and the fact of its being of a certain number,
are so many attributes. The complex of these gives us
a substance ; such as the orange under notice, and many
millions of other objects besides are known to be. Let
us, however, strip it of its attributes one by one, with-
out replacing them by fresh ones. If we begin with its
place, the matter is easy. It is abolished at once. It
is not in its old, and, by our hypothesis, we find it no
new, one. It is nowhere, i. e. non-existent. Let this,
however, pass. When one after one all the attributes,
even to the very last, have disappeared, what remains ?
This is easier asked than answered. All we need know
at present is, that attributes are single, and that (with
one exception, which has no bearing upon our present in-
quiries) substances are complex. These last are the result
of a certain number of attributes combined. I do not
say that by dint of profound thought in the higher
regions of metaphysics this complex character on the
part of substances may not be done away with, and
that with all their multiplicity of attributes they may not
be reduced to unity. They may be looked upon as forms.
SUBSTANCE AND ATTRIBUTE. 729
ideas, or archetypes ; or they may be looked upon as
bonds of union, or nexus {nexusses), by which the attri-
butes are held together. For inquiries, however, like the
present, a substance which is other than a complex of
attributes is impossible. So much follows from the dis-
tinction that the reader's attention is especially directed
to it.
More important than the fact that metaphysicians can
give unity to a substance is the fact that the language
itself does so. It names many of them as if they were
the simplest of the simple. Orange is as simple a name
as fragrant, and it is older than orange-coloured. A
pebble is hard, round, smooth, and heavy, yet no one
knowingly calls it the hard, the smooth, the heavy,
or the round. Still less do they call it by a name
which implies hardness, smoothness, heaviness, and
roundness all at once. Yet, without more than one of
some such attributes it is no pebble ; and without more
than one of some attributes or other no substance is
what it is. They are all complex : yet most of them are
named as if they were simple. I leave this for the pre-
sent, and, for the sake of impressing the fact on the at-
tention of the reader, I call it a philological paradox; of
course, in preparation for an attempt at an explanation.
Attributes fall into two primary divisions ; (1 .) Attri-
butes of Quality, (2.) Attributes of Relation. Attributes
of Quality tell us what an object is in itself, and with-
out relation to other objects around it ; and are charac-
terized by being fixed, permanent, or invariable in mean-
ing, and inconvertible in respect to their application.
Red and white apply to colour : siveet and bitter to
tastes, and what they mean in the mouth of one
speaker they mean in the mouth of all others
also. Contrast with these such words as I and thou.
The first means the speaker, whoever he may be ; the
second the person spoken to; and if ten different persons
address ten different persons in succession, each word
730 QUALITY AND RELATION.
means ten different individuals. The same with this and
that. Talk of two balls at different distances, and
change their relative places, and this becomes that, and
vice versa. In short, attributes of relations give
convertible terms, terms of which the import is only
temporary ; and which may mean men, horses, stones,
and what not, ad infinitum, and in succession.
Another difference between attributes of Quality and
Attributes of Relation is that, while the former can form,
by themselves, only the predicates of propositions, the
latter can form both subjects and predicates. Thus we
can say —
The fire is hot.
but not
Hot is fire.
If we do, we either use hot for heat, or hot thing, or
else transpose the order of the terms. IMeanwhile we
can say —
This is fire.
These are hot.
This is in favour of the division being natural. Indeed,
it is not only natural, but generally acknowledged.
As to the grounds of this difference of power as
measured by the part which the two classes of words
play in propositions, they are sufficiently patent. Rot
means nothing, except so far as it applies to some object
endowed with heat ; and what this object is no one
knows without being told. With words like this and
that it is different. They are never used except when
the object to which they apply, either from having been
mentioned before, or from being within sight (perhaps
within touch), is already known. For this they are,
simply, not a qualifying word, but another name — tem-
porary and ephemeral indeed, and, except so far as they
are interpreted aliunde, obscure, but still neither more
nor less than a second name. If John Smith says *' /,''
QUALITY AND RELATION. 731
he knows well enough who he means, and so does the
man whom he addressed as you.
Words like red and hitter are no true names, but
only words suggestive of names. Words like / and
this are, if not true names, their equivalents in every-
thing but steadiness of application. In grammar they
comport themselves as names.
Attributes of Quality fall into two divisions, which,
though they graduate into one another on their confines,
are sufficiently distinct when we take extreme, or even
medium, instances. In the one, the words express con-
ditions rather than actions, in the other actions, rather
than conditions. The sun is round gives us an instance
of the first ; the sun is scorching of the second. Be-
tween, however, the sun is shilling and the sun is
bright the difference is comparatively slight.
Attributes of Kelation do the same. 7, thou, he, this,
that, convey Relation in the limited sense of the term.
One, two, three, and the other numerals convey the attri-
bute of Quo tie ty, or Howmanyness.
Quantity, as applied to mass, comes between the two
primary classes. To the question. What is the size of Lake
Superior ? we may answer, either as large as Yorkshire,
or so many square miles ; according as we betake oiu*-
selves to mass or numbers.
It is because terms like this, &c., are terms of Re-
lation, Relations being changeable, that they are con-
vertible ; and it is because they are explained by some-
thing within either the context or the actual range of
the speakers' senses that they can be used by them-
selves. The two properties are connected, and their con-
nection makes the division natural. This, however, is
not all. Words like me, thou, this and that must be
among the oldest of the languages. More than this.
They are words that play an important part in the
secondary formations — constituting, as we have seen.
732 QUALITY AND RELATION.
articles, and the personal affixes of verbs, to a certainty
— and, probably, much more.
A rose, besides being fragrant, and endowed with a
certain form, is red, in other words, besides possessing
certain other qualities, it has that of redness. The idea
of redness by itself, I get by neglecting the other quali-
ties and contemplating that of redness only. I may
also get it by drawing off and throwing aside all the
other qualities until redness alone is left, which I take
as a residuum. In either case I get redness. If I do
this without connecting it with any other substance,
such as a boiled lobster or a soldier's coat, I get redness
jper se. In the first case, I get it as an abstract proper,
by having selected it from so many other qualities, and
drawn it off. Here it is an abstract properly so called ;
inasmuch as the process that gave it was one which
made it an abstractum — i. e. a thing drawn off. In
the other, as far as the result obtained is the test, it is
just the same : only the name abstract is less proper.
The result is a relict, or thing left, rather than an ab-
stract proper. The result is the same (redness per se, or
redness without any particular thing to which it be-
longs) ; but the process in the first instance is one of
selection ; in the second one of exhaustion. If the
logicians, who have most to do with the distinction,
find it necessary, they will distinguish between the two
when the distinction is needed. Meanwhile, let it be
neglected.
Abstracts of the kind in question are common, and
very intelligible. We know how to make them. We
do it in English by adding -th, or -ness, as in length and
happiness. The basis is an adjective ; and there is no
doubt as to what an adjective is. The only question is
whether an abstract term is the name of a substance
or an attribute. It is the name of an attribute and it
is not. It is the name of an attribute, inasmuch as it is
QUALITY AND RELATION. 733
a name which arises out of red^ which is undoubtedly
attributive : and it is not the name of any red object,
inasmuch as it is an abstract solely and wholly on the
ground of its being separated from any object and from
all. It is also the name of a substance, and it is not.
If qualities be substances, the name of a quality is the
name of a substance also. In fact it is substantive with-
out being concrete : and herein lies its peculiarity. As
a general rule, substances are substances because they
give a concretion of attributes. An abstract, however,
must be looked upon as a substance with a single attri-
bute. These may exist, like as corporations sole, or
corporations consisting of a single individual, may exist.
In this view I differ from so high an authority as Mr.
Mill, who states that abstracts are the names of attri-
butes. Is he prepared to deny that a name is a sub-
stance ? I admit that the vast extent to which concretes
and substances coincide (a fact upon which no one builds
more than myself) makes substances with single attri-
butes no better than concretes — concretes which have no
greater content and extent than an abstraction — and that
it reduces the doctrine just propounded to a very near
approximation to a philological fiction ; and I also admit
that for the question which Mr. Mill has to deal with,
his own definition may, possibly, be the right one. I
insist, however, that in philology substances with single
attributes must be recognized. In the way of declen-
sion length and redness, with their genitive cases and
plural numbers, are substantives, if not substantial.
I urge, then, the doctrine for philology only : and
even here I admit that, wlien we talk of length and
redness in the plural number, the pure abstract idea is
relinquished, and that we mean sorts, kinds, or varieties
of redness, rather than the indefinite unity suggested
by the pure abstract itself Substances, then, with
single attributes, are admitted laxly, exceptionally, and
734 QUALITY AND RELATION.
as philological fictions. They are admitted laxly, because
in some of the substantival forms the strict abstract
meaning is departed from ; exceptionally, because there
are not many of them ; by a philological fiction and
partially, because it may be that it is only in philology
that their recognition is required.
Perhaps, considering the fact that it is only in their
being attributes and units that the rudimentary words
of which the origin has just been investigated, agree
with the true abstracts of the logician, too much has
been written upon them. Still, the extent to which
extremes meet may have been worth the time spent
upon its elucidation. More than this. The opposite to
the abstract of the logician is concrete ; and, though the
former term is a word which is of no great use in the
infancy of a language, the latter is a very convenient
one. Having no ambition to introduce new words
before the things to which they are applied are familiar,
I have kept the one where it is not wanted for the sake
of its fellow whicli is. I may add that, according to a
doctrine exhibited by myself elsewhere, concrete is, in
respect to its probable etymology, a term of doubtful
propriety for its new use. I have, elsewhere, derived it
from cerno, and connected it with discrete. The present
use, however, goes upon the common notion that it
comes from cresco, and means grown together. Hence,
I use it because it is convenient, rather than because it
is unexceptionable.
Again — I shall use it in a wider sense than it has
hitherto been used in.
In logic, the term red in redness is the name of an
attribute taken by itself, i. e. as (as has been stated) a
term in the abstract — red in the abstract.
The same word as applied to one of the numerous
attributes of which the complexus give us the substan-
tive name rose, or blood, is red in the concrete.
QUALITY AND RELATION. 785
In the eighteeenth century we take a substance and
by analysis, decomposition, or disintegration of its con-
cretions, pick out the abstract.
For (say) the year 1 of human speech, we attempt to
reverse the process, and beginning with a single attri-
bute, by a process of synthesis or construction, consider
the conditions under which it can be made to form a
concretion which shall constitute a substance. The sim-
ple reversal of the process tells us what to do. We have
to add to it just so many other attributes as, in a later
stage of language, we took away. The orange which we
made into no orange by subtraction, we make into an
orange by adding, to any oue of its attributes, the remain-
der or complement. Doing this, we get a long compound ;
as long, perhaps, as the long word in Aristophanes. Or, I
should rather say, that we should get this if we wasted
our time on the process : for a waste of time it most cer-
tainly would be. Substances, in the way of name, were
not built up by a mere reversal of the process by which
they can be pulled down. How were they ? Was there
a system of short-hand, by which every name of an at-
tribute had its most essential element taken out and
combined with a similar element from the attributes of
the complement ? There might have been this in Laputa
amongst a body of philosophers. Was there a long
series of names in the mind of the first speakers which
were given to the objects around them as occasion de-
manded ? Upon sufficient testimony we might believe
this ; but it is scarcely the doctrine at which we arrive
by inference. Were names given, as a man might put
a mark on a door, either drawing a figure haphazard, or
after mature deliberation as to which was the best suited
for the purpose ? Upon sufficient testimony, we might
believe this, as we believe upon sufficient testimony even
the most incredible statements (if we do not believe them
the testimony is insufficient) ; but we shall not get at it
by inference. We may safely pretermit all such supposi-
736 QUALITY AND RELATION.
tions as these : adding, with unfeigned reverence, that
until inference has been exhausted we should not have
recourse to intervention from above ; or rather we should
say that if this cutting of the knot be our first step,
scientific inquiry is out of place, and the problem is
either no problem at all, or an historical, rather than an
inferential one.
Attributes are essentially simple, and the names of, at
least, the primary attributes are simple also. Substances
are essentially complex ; yet the names of them are fully
as simple as, and, in some cases, simpler than those of
the attributes. Both classes, as far as the names go,
equally give us the names of unities.
I submit, then, that in the name of a substance, the
denotation of its complex of attributes cannot, at one
and the same time, be simple and significant ; mean-
ing by significant, being in the category of those names
of attributes which will soon come under notice, i. e.
capable of being reduced to some intelligible connection
between the speaker and the environment.
If redness, which is a substantive, be a name, red,
which is an adjective, is not one. It suggests redness.
It applies to a red object But it is something different
from each. Like all adjectives (and every adjective has
either its real or its possible abstract) it is a word which
suggests a name, but which is, itself, no name. Mr.
Mill, with whom I again unwillingly differ, treats it as
a name. But, surely, name is a correlative word, and
wherever there is one, there is a thing named. But
there is no such thing as a red ; or, if there be one, the
fact of its existence makes red a substantive. I write,
however, again as a philologue. The question is one as
to the definition of the word name, and there is no ne-
cessity for its being the same in philology and logic.
In philology we must understand most distinctly that
adjectives are words suggestive of names rather than
names themselves, and that abstracts are the names of
EARLIEST NOTION OF ATTRIBUTES. 737
substantives with a single attribute — if necessary we
may (fictionally and exceptionally) call them concretes
without conci*etion.
Whatever they are, they are mentioned at the present
time, not because they are made much of, but because
they are neglected, or even ignored. Tliey are noted as
exceptions, to be got rid of for the sake of clearing the
ground. They belong to the later stages of language,
and what is now under notice are the earlier ones. They
are all derivatives ; and what we are now considering
is roots.
You may get an actual building-stone by picking
one out of a ready-made castle : but you may also get a
building stone in jposse from the first quarry you meet
with. With this, as an illustration for the difference
between what may be got in the way of a simple
element from a thing constructed and a thing in the
process of construction, let us turn to the opposite end
of our inquiry, and ask how far an abstract can be got
from a language under a course of formation.
As far as it is attributive it can certainly be obtained.
Whether it can be got as the name of an attribute is
another question. The date of our inquiry is, perhaps,
too early for names. A child burnt by putting his
hands too near a stove in a dark room, or dazzled by
opening his awakening eyes to the burning sun, has
certain sensations, and these sensations are referable
to the attributes of heat and light. He has an im-
pression. His expression in the lowest form is a scream
or a whimper. If it go farther, and an attempt be
made to communicate his feelings to a second person, a
name is approached. Never mind how imperfectly ; it
is the attribute which has suggested it — the attribute
by which the feeling was created. Of the other attributes
connected with the cause he takes no cognizance : so
that the cause, though his elders know it to be substan-
tial, is simply attributive. In other words, his intellect
3b
738 EARLIEST NOTION OF ATTRIBUTES.
has taken cognizance of nothing, and all that his senses
have perceived is an attribute. As he grows older he
knows that suns and fires do something else besides
burning and dazzling, and that other objects, besides
fires and suns, dazzle and burn. Hence, he separates
them, and understands why they have different names
accordingly. This, however, is knowing them as sub-
stances. So long as he knows nothing of them but
their respective heats and lights he knows nothing but
attributes.
Say that this attribute has a name — is that name an
abstraction ? It is, and it is not ! Etymologica,]ly, it
is not. Though pure and simple, it is got out of no
analysis, decomposition, or disintegration. It is got
neither by selection nor exhaustion. It belongs to the
rudiments instead of the climax of language ; to the
infancy rather than the manhood of the mind ; to the
senses rather than the intellect. It can only be called
an abstraction, for want of a better name, and a better
name will, doubtless, be got for it when needed. Never-
theless, it is attributive, and it is a unity ; and in this
way the extremes meet.
The notions of any one who writes upon cases like
this must, perforce, be obscure and vague. The simple
fact of his being able to write at all removes him from
that state of mind in which alone they approach dis-
tinctness. And in this state of mind no cognizance can
be taken of them. Savages, children, and the men and
women who lived when language was in its embryo, alone
felfc them ; though, feeling them, they could not think
upon them. Hard as it is for a Papuan to compass a
modern abstraction, it is nearly as hard for a German or
an Englishman to understand these rudimentary abstracts
of our nonage. What we know about them belongs
to that inferential kind of knowledge which we have
in all purely psychological inquiries ; inquiries in which
the subject examined is itself the conductor of the exa-
EARLIEST NOTION OF ATTRIBUTES. 739
mination. Nay, it is harder. It should be com-
pared with the investigator scrutinizing himself as a
child.
Three facts, however, concerning what we may call
these representative abstractions, with all our ignorance,
we do know.
1st. — That they are simple.
2nd. — That they strike the senses and excite the
emotions rather than the intellect.
3rd. — That between impressions on the senses, and
the external expression of them, there is always a con-
ceivable, and often an intelligible, relation.
And these facts are of paramount importance.
Of the first two propositions no further notice will be
taken at present. Upon the third there is something to
be said. Between simple sensations and the emotions in
their extreme form there is a broad difference : little,
however, on the confines of the two. We must prepare,
then, for transitional phenomena, a debateable land, and
a doubtful boundary. I shall put down to the account
of simple sense all cases where the feeling is one of
neither pleasure nor pain, neither satisfaction nor dis-
satisfaction. Where there is an element of the latter it
will give an emotion : and anything that implies a
wish (either directly or indirectly conveyed) for change
will pass as emotional. This will be carried so far that
a man's pointing-out to something (whether he want it
or not) providing he does so with an indistinct feeling
that he is trying to make himself understood, will be
considered as a man desiring something — i. e. as a man
unsatisfied in some point.
The very simplest, even the n on -articulate utterances
in this way have characteristics enough to make them the
representatives of a class : for gi'oans and screams agree
in being independent of imitation and independent of
memory. A certain stimulus provokes a certain sound,
even when that sound has not been uttered before ; or,
3 B 2
740 ANALOGY OF IMPRESSIONS.
if uttered, forgotten. That the emotions give us those
inarticulate sounds which are imperfect imitations of
articulate ones is clear. They also give us our inter-
jections. But this is little. I claim for them, however,
another class of words which is an important one. I
submit that when we point out anything with (say) the
finger, and at the same time utter a word, the word so
uttered is the result of a definite consensus between
the tongue and the hand. I can not only easily conceive
that, when the hand goes forward, the tongue does the
same, but I am sure, from examinations in the field of
actual language, that such is sometimes the case.
We now go to the next class : and begin with purely
imitative sounds. As long as these are inarticulate they
are unimportant. They grow into importance when
they become articulate and representative, or (as, availing
myself of the diflference of language which gives us the
distinction between a botanist and a florist, I shall call
them) wiimetic. Hum, buzz, whizz, fizz are the types
of this class ; some of them, as mew for the noise of a
cat, tictac for that of a watch, being nearly imitative.
Herein the word is a sound addressed to the organ of
hearing, and is the result of an impression made on the
same organ ; the expression and impression being homo-
geneous. But what if they be heterogeneous ?
There is a well-known statement, which has done some
service in its time, that Cheselden couched a man for a
cataract, who on seeing a piece of scarlet cloth said it
was like the sound of a trumpet. Whether he really
said what he thought, whether Cheselden said that he
said ■ so, whether the fact were true, are matters of in-
difference. All that is needed is the fact that every one
who meet 5 with the anecdote sees (to use a common ex-
pression) that there is something in it. We can under-
stand the man thinking so. We can fancy that we
might ourselves, in the same situation, have said the
same, and that we should not have said so of a puce-
ANALOGY OF IMPRESSIONS. 741
coloured piece of silk ; any more than we should have
compared the blind man's piece of scarlet to the murmur
of a rivulet. One, to be sure, was a colour and the
other a sound. For all that there was an analogy.
Now, if this fact were the only one of the kind under
notice, it would explain something ; however little. It
would tell us how the man who had developed a v7ord
for the sound of a trumpet upon the principle that he
had called the sound from a bee-hive a hum would, tyiu-
tatis mutandis, use an equivalent expression upon seeing
something very bright and very red.
That biologists can carry this train of reasoning
further than it has been dreamt of being carried I
believe, and with them I leave the question — to return
to a distinction between attributes of quality and
attributes of relation, which is one of primary im-
portance. Attributes of quality, the moment they take
part in the formation of a substance, however simple
that substance may be, are always more than one in
number ; whereas attributes of relation, however com-
plex, heterogeneous, and numerous may be the elements
of which the substance which they help to build-up
consists, are, in number, one, and no more than one.
A stone considered as a stone has weight, or some other
quality, plus something else. A stone considered as this
or that has nothing but its thisness or thatness.
Yet this and that are its names. They may be its
names for a moment only, disappearing or changing
when the relations of the stone to the speaker are
altered ; but, for the time, they are names ; temporary
names, convertible names, variable names, non-essential
names, equivocal names if we like to call them so —
but still names. All relations, however, end (or begin)
with the speaker: so that in relational names there is
what we may call an egoist element ; i. e. every relational
name has either a direct or an indirect connection with
the person who uses it. With /, or me, this is plain ;
742 THE SPEAKER THE BASIS OF ALL RELATIONS.
and with thou, and he, it is equally so. They are in the
relation of the object spoken to, or spoken of. This, is
nearer ; that, fiirther from the speaker. Even words Like
same and other, gravitate, so to say, to him : though the
connection is indirect. They denote something that is re-
lated to him by its relation to some third object, of which
he has already measured the relation borne by it to him-
self. If so, every word has two names, one taken from the
complex of its qualities, another taken from its relations
for the time being ; one permanent, one mutable. And
such is the fact, of which grammar has taken cognizance :
inasmuch as the relational names give the important,
though small, class of Pronouns ; the names based on the
complex of the permanent attributes the larger, but not
more important, class of Substantives.
From this it follows that all the difficulties alluded to
above, the difficulties connected with the conflict between
the simplicity of name and the complexity of attribute,
in the case of substantives, vanish when we come to
the pronouns ; so that if they were the only ones, the
philology of the pronouns would be easy.
Can substantives grow out of pronouns ? Can the
mystery connected with the antagonism between the
complexity of substances and the oneness of attributes
be explained by any of the attributes of relation ?
Definite and patent facts, sufficiently certain to be taken
as a basis for further trains of reasoning upon this
point, have yet to be found.
Can the converse take place ? Can pronouns grow out
of substantives ? or, changing the form of the question,
can substantive names, with all their complexity, become
simply attributive, their attribute being that of relation?
To this the history of the numerals says Yes — the
diiference between the cardinals and the ordinals being
the point which most demands attention. The car-
dinals as compared with the ordinals are certainly
abstract, and, as such, ought, at the first view, to be
CARDINALS AND ORDINALS. 743
the newer terms. They ought also to be derivative.
Yet the converse is the case. The concrete ordinals
are derivative, the abstract cardinals simple. To under-
stand this let us notice a distinction.
Objects which are designated as this, that, yon, are
also objects which can be designated as first, second,
third. Of a series of objects submitted to the process
of numeration the first — this. The second is another
this. The first, however, has ceased to be this, and
is what it is through its relation to the second. In
this way each object is this for the time being.
With third the ideas of relation get complicated, there
being first the relation of third to second, and next
that of second to first. Third, however, is what it is
from being preceded by second. In other words, order
is necessary to our notions.
Let this mode of forming a series of numeration be
called the relational method ; the place of each number
in the sequence, series, or system being determined by its
relation to the ones by which it was preceded and
followed. It is clear that such a phenomenon as the
idea of a fifth before a third, a thii^d before a second,
is impossible. In this way, then, number is order, and
things numbered are objects to which ordinal numbers
are applied.
Again, except with arithmeticians and algebraists,
there is no number without an object to which it
applies ; just as there is no this or that without an
object characterized by what we call its this-ness or its
that-ness. But words like thisness or thatness are ab-
stracts which languages in their earlier stages may and
do dispense with. At any rate they originate out of
the concrete term, with its special, definite, and often
palpable, application. Now, there or thereabouts, ten,
nine, &c. are to tenth and ninth as this-ness and that-
ness, or near-ness and far-ness are to this and that.
Why, then, are the forms so simple ?
744 CARDINALS AND ORDINALS.
Because they are really the older and more original
words ; and they are the older and more original words
because the otherwise natural evolution of numbers in
the way of ordeTy and as concrete ordinal terms, is
traversed by the existence of certain natural monads,
duads, triads, tetrads, pentads, the effect of which
has been to give us what may be called the representa-
tional method of numeration in addition to the rela-
tional.
The number for which we have the most natural
symbol is five — the symbol, or natural pentad, being the
hand (zz five fingers). If so, the following pheno-
menon, impossible with the relational, is possible with
the representational, method. There may have been
a name for five before there was one for four, three, or
two. Without asking how far this is a real fact or
imaginary illustration, let us deduce from it the infer*
ence that although the representational system of count-
ing may be more natural than the relational it is less
scientific. We may also add that though it may give
us numeration it gives us numeration of a very equi-
vocal kind, i. e. numeration without order, and (as such)
possibly no numeration at all. More natural than the
relational method it is ; inasmuch as investigation tells
us that language has adopted it to the total, or nearly
total, exclusion of the other. But it is natural only
from what we call the accident of the existence of
certain natural monads, pentads, fee.
Of all these monads, duads, triads, &c. (words for
which we want a general term, and for which I
suggest the word tosad) the most natural, as aforesaid,
is the hand with its five fingers. In other words, the
pentad is the most natural of the tosads ; but if the
number of our fingers had been variable, it might
never have existed.
Next to this, perhaps, is the duad. In certain of the
North-American tongues the names for a pair of shoes.
CARDINALS AND ORDINALS. 745
a pair of snow skates := two. In our language we
have brace, pair, couple, synonyms for two; whilst, for
three, we have only the word leash, for four nothing.
The triad is less of a natural tosad than the duad,
and the tetrad less of one than the triad — the triad
being, generally, two + one, the tetrad two + two. In
other words, the natural tetrad is generally two duads.
Just as a tetrad is two duads, a decad is two pentads
— but as there is such an object as a pair of hands zz a
decad of fingers, the decad is one of the very natural
tosads.
An eikosad is also natural := the fingers and toes.
Amongst the Caribs one handzz^ye, tivo hands = ten,
a hand + a foot =. fifteen, a whole man (i. e. two hands
and two feet, or ten fingers and ten toes) ir twenty.
Now it is clear that a system of numeration may
consist of those numerals only for which there exist the
natural tosads for two, five, ten, fifteen, and twenty —
the others being wanting. It is equally clear that it is
only in the eyes of the savage that this is a system of
numeration at all. To the arithmetician it is only a
series of names for a few out of many collections of
units : and for the purposes of his science one which is
wholly useless, being deficient in the great element of
order.
The three classes of words which give the minimur)i
amount of complexity and the nearest solution of our
problem are (1) the verbs and adjectives, the latter
being connected with the former through the participle ;
(2) the pronouns. Both give unities ; the former the
unity suggested by a single permanent quality which,
when it is contemplated as an element of a substance in
a given state, is adjectival, but which when contemplated
as an element of a substance aflfecting the senses, or,
in motion, is verbal ; the verbal element being the
primary one, i. e. the one which most afiects tlie
observer. The attribute of relation gives us pronouns.
746 CHANGES OF FORM AND MEANING.
Both are unities, and, by being this, they limit the
question to the simple consideration of their origin.
The substantives give the names for certain com-
plexes of attributes, superadding to the question of
origin, the second and more difficult one by which we try
to reconcile the complexity of constitution with the single-
ness of name. In other words, they give us concretes
with simple names — the main mystery in the question.
That pronouns may become substantives is possible ;
though unproven. That substantives become pronouns
is a fact verified by the history of the numerals. Still,
the evolution of substantive names out of pronominal
ones would (if proven) explain but little The only
hypothesis tliat covers much ground is the one which
holds that the name of some permanent attribute grew
into a representative of the whole complex: or concretion.
Being this, it would undergo changes, and that both
in form and meaning.
Word for word, eveque and bishop are the same, yet
they have not a single letter in common.
Idea for idea, a deal at cards is the same as deal =
plank of wood.
Where is the connection on either side ?
For the first, we have the Latin episcopuSj or the
Greek lirlaKOTros, with the intermediate evesque.
For the second a great deal ; where deal zzpart, the
German theil, the Danish del.
We here see then the links. The psychologists explain
the hiatus. Concept A may agree with concept B,
but B shall be linked with C, by some element not
common to it and A. The same apphes to sounds.
Hence, even if we knew the original phonetic ex-
pression of the primitive concepts, there are the phe-
nomena of transition to be explained. Induction helps
in both, and the further it goes the less mysterious
language becomes.
In the laws which regulate these changes superadded
rr^
THE TWO METHODS. 747
to the cognizance of the names of the primary
attributes, the application to the relations between
the organization of the speaker and its environment,
and the process by which they could be extended from
the representation of a unity to that of a concrete, lie
the problems of the Terra Incognita — a wide one, no
doubt, but not hopelessly beyond investigation.
As unities, the abstracts of the nineteenth century
agree with the primitive word out of which the substan-
tive concretes, by hypothesis, grew. These can scarcely
be called abstracts. At best they are abstracts before the
concretes, which are, etymologically, no abstracts at all.
Still, they are unities ; they give the key to the origin
of the chief elements in language. It is not easy to
realize their import. Still, they command our attention.
According to the present writer, the primary problems
of language are these or none.
If, out of the two methods exhibited above, the
synthetic only explain the origin of the words huTYiy
buzz, and the name of the cuckoo, it does something ;
and if the analytic only tell us that both bishop and
eveque come from lirlo-Koiros, it tells us what is worth
knowing. Each covers some ground. It may be a
small plot, a mere cabbage garden in a hemisphere.
Still, some ground at each end is covered ; and the only
question is, how much ? And common-sense tells the
looker-on thus much ; viz., that it is less than the
defender of his own domain claims and more than is
allowed him by the claimant at his antipodes. Let the
two, however, work and work until something like an
approximation, by which the vast terra incognita
which intervenes may be covered, is effected. When
the limit on either side is attained we shall probably
know that it is a limit, and vjhy it is one — ^just as we
know, not only that the circle has not been squared,
but that its quadrature is impossible.
I conclude with a few remarks upon the claim of Com-
748 HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE?
parative Philology to be called a Science. It may and it
may not. At any rate it is an approximation to one.
To a certain extent, however, the answer depends upon
the country in which the question is put. It must do
so perforce ; inasmuch, as to a great extent, it is a matter
of definition. In England, where we pique ourselves
upon being a practical country, anything is Science
which is neither Art nor Literature : and, assuredly
Philology, in its higher branches, is neither the one
nor the other.
As a department of human knowledge, as a province
in a map, as an element in an organon, it is neither
more nor less than a branch of anthopology, or the
natural history of man as distinguished fi'om the lower
animals, with a special bearing on ethnology or the
histary of the varieties of man as a species. What
this is, and how it stands in its relations to de-
scriptive anatomy on its material, and to ontology on
its spiritual extremity, psyciiologists are the proper
persons to determine. As an art it is an adjunct to
the art of learning foreign languages, living or dead ;
and it is unsatisfactory to think that many admirable
linguists and accurate scholars know it in this aspect
only. As an applied science (to use a current term) it
is an instrument in what we may call prehistoric, ante-
documental, or ante-monumental, history ; especially in
ethnology. But this does not either make or unmake
it as a science.
That words apparently identical are distinct ; that
words without a letfer in common are only one ; and
that they can be shown to be so by irrefragable and
refutation-tight lines of argument, are facts of an un-
doubted scientific character. So is the fact that nothing
is arbitrary or accidental. But this is not enough.
Where is there accident ? If the absence of it sufiice,
everything is scientific.
More relevant are the facts that depend upon the
HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE? 749
character of mind wliicli is required for the successful
pursuit of any given study.
The study of language is one thing, that of languages,
another. They are different ; and the intellectual
powers that they require and exercise are different also.
The greatest comparative philologists have, generally, been
but moderate linguists. A certain familiarity with differ-
ent languages they have, of course, had ; and, as compared
with that of the special scholar, their range has been a
wide one ; but it has rarely been of that vast compass
which is found in men after the fashion of Mezzofanti, &c.
— men who have spoken languages by the dozen, or the
score ; but who have left comparative philology as little
advanced as if their learning had been bounded by their
own mother-tongue.
In stating this, no opinion is given as to the com-
parative rank or dignity of the two studies ; no decision
upon the nobility or ignobility of the faculties involved
in the attainment of excellence in either. The illus-
tration of a difference is all that has been aimed at.
There is a difference between the two classes of subjects,
and a difference between the two kinds of mental
faculties.
Upon the intellectual differences, however, of the ex-
treme literaieur, and the extreme savant, it is needless to
enlarge. The one is strong in the history of opinions,
isolated facts, authorities and the like ; the other in prin-
ciples, concatenated phenomena, and forms : the model
mind, in which the two strengths are exactly balanced,
being
" The faultless monster that the world ne'er saw."
That Comparative Philology requires scientific rather
than literary aptitudes is certain : though in ordi-
nary scholarship, where language is the object of an
art, the exact reverse is the case.
Stronger still in favour of the application of the term
Science are the inferences from the method of philo-
750 HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE?
logical investigation. In this respect, with its arguments
from effect to cause, from the later to the earlier, from
the known to the unknown, it has exactly the method
of Geology— that typically palseontological science. At
the same time, like geology, comparative philology is a
history. It is a record of events in sequence, just like
a common history of Kome or Greece. It covers more
ground, and it goes over a greater space : but this is a
question of degree rather than kind. It is a material
history rather than a moral one : but this also is only
a difference of degree. It is not, however. History in re-
spect to the way in which its facts are obtained : inas-
much as, whilst current history gets them from testimony,
and proceeds in its narrative from the earlier to the later,
palseontological history reverses the process, and, proceed-
ing from the later to the earlier, infers as it recedes.
Now for this method, scientific rather than literary apti-
tudes are required.
As little, however, as the absence of the accidental
and the arbitrary, will the existence of scientific apti-
tudes or the palseontological method make a science, in
the strict sense of the term ; although it may make
both an actual approximation to one, and a science in
posse. Neither will simple certainty. The knowledge
a man has of his own existence, whether material or
immaterial, subjective or objective, at the moment he is
thinking about it, is certain enough for anything, but
it is not a scientific certainty. The knowledge, of
another kind, that a logically-constructed syllogism gives
a logically-true inference, like the knowledge that two
and two make four, is equally certain: but the certainty
is formal rather than scientific ; and, if the word phi-
losophy were not at a discount in England, truths of
this kind might be conveniently treated as truths in
philosophy rather than as truths in science.
For Science, as a term, to be sufiiciently limited to be
usefril, it must (I submit) imply knowledge beforehand,
HOW FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE? 751
i. e. law and prevision, or rather prevision through law.
No mere record can become a law. A law looks for-
wards ; its essence being the anticipation of contingent
cases.
The question is, of course, one of definition, and I
think that both etymology and practice justify the sug-
gested limitations.
Let, then, the position of any given branch of human
knowledge, as a science, be determined by the number
and the generality of the laws which it exhibits — laws
whicli imply a force, and which, doing this, are notably
different from the mere forms and conditions of the
mathematician and logician ; from which they are to be
distinguished on the one side, just as they are to be dis-
tinguished from the method of the geologist on the
other. If this be the case, the physical sciences, properly
so-called, are the typical ones. From the standard
suggested by these, comparative philology is, without
doubt, far distant ; so that, just in proportion as these
are our measures, comparative philology is other than
scientific. On the other hand, so far as the methods of
the geologist, or the forms of the logician, are scientific,
comparative philology is scientific also. At any rate,
its method is that of the geologist. Add to this that
its results are those of the historian, and that its
application is in the domain of the psychologist. All
beyond is a matter of definition rather than fact.
In respect to its bearings upon other branches of
knowledge, over and above those general and indirect
ones which every study exerts over every other, com-
parative philology has several definite and special claims
to attention. In what we may call pre-historic history
it is of primary importance. Upon logic it bears
decidedly, and strongly. No logician has yet written
at all who would not have written better with even a
smattering of comparative philology. That language is
the instrument as well as vehicle of thought, is a state-
52 now FAR IS PHILOLOGY A SCIENCE?
ment to be found in most logical works. Without a
single detail in the way of illustration, this is, at pre-
sent, little better than a platitude. Without the phe-
nomena of language, logic is a mere a priori symbolism.
Perhaps, in its properly-purified form, it is this. But
why talk about instruments when even the names of
the chief tools are unknown ?
As a disciplinal study we get its measure in the ex-
tent to which it finds a place in the English educational
curriculum; where, though denuded of principles and
with an eminently artificial grammar, it still predomi-
nates : asserting its intrinsic value in spite of inordinate
disadvantages.
In psychology, on one side, and in special scholar-
ship on the other, it finds its chief auxiliaries. Only,
however, will these become important when special
scholars and psychologists, each in their own depart-
nient, shall have combined, with their proper subjects,
the instructive study which gives generality to the one
and great masses of relevant facts to the other.
ADDENDA AND COERIGENDA,
Page 131.
Motorian and
Koibal vocabularies ;
from the
Asia
Polyglotta.
English.
Motorian.
Koibal.
Head
namban
iilu
Mouth
agma
an
Hair
ipti
apte
Ear
kuma
ku
Eye
sime
sima
Tooth
tyme
tyme
Tongue
kashta
seka
Hand
udam
oda
Nose
eyem
piya
Blow
kern
kam
Foot
hoi
musta
Bone
le
le
Day
kain
dziala
Night
inde
po
Sky
num
num
Sun
kaye
kuya
Moon
kishtit
kuii
Star
kindzhekei
kynsygei
Fire
tuek
siii
Water
bu
bu
Tree
kha
pa
Hill
biya
myya
Earth
tshia
dzhia
Fish
kele
kola.
Page 160.
Since the notice of the Liefs was written an elaborate
posthumous monograph of Sjogren's, on the Lief lan-
guage, has been published in St. Petersburg, edited by
Weidemann.
3 C
754
GEORGIAN.
Page 270.
Specimen
of the Georgian, from the Asia
Polyglottc
English.
Georgian.
English.
Georgian.
Man (homo
) kazi ^
Sun
mse
Man (vir)
kmari
Moon
mt'are
Head
t'awi
Star
warsk'lawi
Tooth
k'bili
Fire
zezkhli
Tongue
ena
Water
tzquali
Ear
quri
Wind
kari
Nose
zkhwiri
Rain
tzwima
Eye
tVali
Sand
kwisha
Moidh
piri
Earth
mitza
Beard
tzVeri
Hill
mta
Hair
tma
River
mdinare
Blood
sishkli
tzquali
Hand
kh'eli
Egg
kwerzkhi
Neck
geU
Fish
tewsi
Bmie
dzwali
Milk
rdze
Day
dge
Snow
t'owli
Night
g'ame
Stone
kwa
Shy
za
Bird
prinweli.
English.
Georgian.
Mingrelian. Suanic.
Lazic.
One
erthi
arthi es'gu
ar
Two
ori
shiri jeru
dzur
Three
sami
sumi semi
dshumi
Four
othchi
otchi wors'tcho
atch
Five
chuthi
chuthi wochus'i
chut
Six
ekhwssi
apchs'ui usgwa
as'
Seven
s'widi
'sqwithi is'gwit
s'kit
Eight
rwa
ruo ara
ovro
Nine
zehru
c 'chore c*chara
c^choro
Ten,
athi
wit
hi je'st
wit.
Page 427.
Specimen of the Heve or Eudeve, from a translation
by Buckingham Smith of a Spanish grammar in MS.
English.
Heve.
English.
Heve.
People
dohme
Face
vusva
Woman
haquis
Mouth
tenit
Head
zonit
Tooth
tanus
Heart
hibes
Nose
dacat
Eye
vusit
Blood
erat
Ewr
nacat
Beard
himsi
EUDEVE, MEXICAN, AND AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 755
English.
Heve.
English.
Heve.
Belly
siquat
Fire
te
Arm
nocat
Water
bat
Finger
mamat
Rain
duqui
Hand
mamat
River
baquit
Leg
morica
Earth
tovat
Day
taui
Sand
sa
NigU
cliugoi
Stone
tet
Sky
teguica
Snow
sutepri
Sun
tuui
Tree
cut
Moon
metzat
Dog
chuchi
Star
sibora
Egg
aiavora.
Pages 480-434.
Mexican, Maya, and Otomi vocabularies.
English.
Huasteca.
Maya.
Mexican.
Otomi.
Man
tlacatl
inic
uinic
nxihi
Woman
cinatl
uxum
ixal
behhid, danxu
Head
totzontecon
oc
tool
nk, n^xmu
Hair
tomitt
jugul
tzotz
xi, xt^
Eye
ixtololotli
gbual
nich
daa
Nose
yacatl
zam
ni
xlnt
Mouth
camatl
huy
cM
ne
Tooth
totlan
camablce
ca
tzi
Hand
maitl
cubac
cab
ye
Foot
iczitl
acan
uoc
gua
Blood
eztli
xihtz
kik
ghi
Sun
aquicha
kin
tonatuih
hiadi
Moon
aytz
citlali
zana
Fire
k'akk
tleti
dehe
Water
labtay^
atl
dehe.
Page 598.
Additions and corrections for the languages of Africa.
English.
Ako.
Nufi.
Ashanti.
Man
okuri
bage
obaramba
Woman
obiri
isagi
owesia
Head
ori
eti
eti
Hair
eru
tinyi
ehui
Face
odsu
eye
enimu
Nose
imo
eye
ehui
Eye
odsu
eye
enyua
Ear
eti
tugba
aso
Mouth
eru
emi
aim
Tooth
eyi
ika
ese
3 c 2
75t)
AFRICAN LANGUAGES.
EngHsh.
Ako.
Nufi.
Ashanti.
Tongue
iwo
dseritara
tekerema
Blood
osi
edsa
bogia
Sun
oru
eyi
eiwia
Fire
ino
ena
ogia
Water
omi
nua
insuo
Bay
oso
eyali
adeaki
NigU
oru
eyasi
adeaza.
English.
Timbuktu.
Hawsa.
Eula.
Man
har
namidsi
gorko
Woman
woi
madsi
debo
Head
bono
kai
here
Hair
hamber
gasi
dsukuli
Face
nigiiie
fusga
yeso
Nose
nine
handsi
kinal
Eye
mo
ido
yitere
Ear
hana
kunne
noru
Mouth
me
baki
Lunduko
Tooth
hinije
hakoli
nyire
Tongue
dene
halisi
dengal
Blood
kuri
dsini
gidsam
Sun
woina
ana
nange
Fire
nune
wuta
yite
Water
hari
lua
ndiyam
Day
dsari
lana
nyaloma
Night
kigi
dele
dsemma.
English,
man (people).
English,
eye.
Bangba,
dinga {man).
Bangbay
Tcamto.
hernea {people).
Bornli, sim.
Munio, Jcangoa=
man.
Kanem,
dsim.
Nguri, Jcangoa.
Bagherru
, Tcami
.
Kanyop,
nent.
Pepel, nyient.
pi. haent.
English,
Bangbay
ear.
dudu
Sarar, nyient,
pi. hient.
Bamom, atot.
Balu, ntud.
Bola, nyendz.
Handing
0, tula
Gbandi,
siena.
Kanyika
didu.
Landoro, hinga.
Mendi, hindo.
Runda,
pi. matu.
didsh.
Toma, zunu.
madsh.
Whida,
sunu.
English,
water.
Dahomy
sunu.
Bangbay
inji.
English,
head.
man.
Bangbay, daigell
es.
Bulora, men.
Bornfi, &c., hala
.
Mumo, engi.
AFRICAN LANGUAGES.
757
English, rain.
season.
Km, giro=.sun.
Yoruba, oru.
Bengbay, injiTcetar* :=rain
.
Ntere, tari.
bar
=rainy season.
English, moon.
Bulom, ipon=
zrain.
Bangbay, mai.
Munio, engie
%labi:^7'ain.
Udom, &c., me.
English, sun,
sky.
Boko, mo.
Bangbay, Tear
=sun.
Bute, mao pfonti=new moon..
tar=
-sTcy.
English.
Pika.
Karekare.
Man
momosi
mezi
Woman
mondu
mendo
Head
ko
ka
Hair
sowo
sago
Nose
wunti
wunten
Eye
ido
idau
Ear
kumo
kuno
Tooth
udo
utu
Tongue
lisi
lusu
Sun
poti
pati
Fire
wozi
yasi
Water
ama
amTu.
English,
Ankaras.
Wun.
Man
ompen
• owude
Woman
okanto
okanto
Head
bu
bo
Hair
iwa
. iwa
Nose
nomo
nomo
Eye
ne
ne
Ear
kono
nano
Tooth
kanye
kanye
Tongue
nunume
numume
, Sun
ibande
yanyo
Fire
munturo
nutugo
Water
nyo
nyo.
1!his=Sky-water.
INDEX.
Abenaki vocabulary .
Abiponian vocabularies
Abor vocabulary
Absne ,,
Abstract and Concrete
Abstraction of two kinds
Accaway vocabulary
Accommodation .
Accrah vocabulary
Achagua , ,
Acoma ,,
Adaiel ,,
AdaiM ,,
Adampi vocabularies
Adelaide ,,
Adige dialects .
^thiopic, two varieties of
translation of the
PAGE
. 451
382, 506
. 29
. 280
. 732
. 732
. 491
. 717
. 670
. 489
. 446
. 536
. 469
670
358
280
633
669,
Scrip-
tures . . .
Afghan language
African languages in general
to be classified
by type
vocabularies of
■- observations on
peculiar pro-
cesses in the . . . .
Afudu vocabulary
Agawmidr . . . .
Agawarea . . . .
Agawmidr vocabulary
Agglutination . . . .
Ahom vocabulary
Aaiawong ,, . . .
Aimauk ,, . . .
Aino dialects . . . .
of Kamtshatka vocabulary .
Aka tribes . . . .
Akush vocabulary
Albanian language, two main divi-
sions of ....
Albanian, list of words
Alemannic language
Aleutian forms of speech .
Algonkin languages
633
252
699
602
649
604
664
642
543
657
700
62
354
86
169
ih.
28
272
606
696
658
386
449
Algonkin vocabulary .
(Old) vocabulary .
Alikhulip vocabulary
Almam, &c. . , . .
Almeida vocabularies . . .
Alphabets, their multiplicity ex-
aggerates the differences of lan-
guages - . . _ .
observation on the Russian
PAGE
456
449
484
725
494
632
78
and Roman ....
Alpine dialect compared with French
and Italian .... 641
Amazig or Berber area . . 640
populations, divisions of the ih.
Amberlaki vocabulary . .332
Amazons, languages of the northern
bank of 485
America, general grammatical struc-
ture of its languages . .519
languages of North Western 384
(south) languages of .478
philology of, neglected . 479
(Portuguese,) languages of . 480
and Asia, dialects connecting 517
no Asiatic language spoken
American languages, general remarks
on the
Amharic area ....
vocabulary
Amur (middle), vocabulary
-Tungus of the, vocabulary of
517
533
636
76
76
387
713
Anadyr vocabulary
Analysis and synthesis
Anam or Ann am, the collective name
of Cochin-China and Tonkin . 61
Andaman islanders described by early
voyagers .... 68
■' modern character of ib.
vocabulary . . .59
Andi
Anfue ,,
Angami , ,
Anglo-Saxon
Annatom vocabularies
272
569
31
659
349
INDEX.
759
Ansoes vocabulary
Antes ,,
Antonio (San) ,,
Antshukh , ,
Apiaca , ,
Apinages ,,
Apatsh ,,
Appa ,,
Ara (Arini), meaning of the word
Arabic Alphabet, the present, akin
to the Syriac .
vocabulary
Arago ,,
Aramaic language
Syrian .
Arapaho vocabularies . . 456
Araucanan vocabulary.
Arawak , ,
Areas of languages, large, small
and medium ...
seven great
Arecuna vocabulary
Arfak ,, . .
Arini, or Ara, legend of the
vocabulary .
Arkiko vocabularies
Armenian literature
alphabet, one of the com
pletest in existence .
vocabulary .
Armorican language, vocabulary
Arnaut language .
Arniya vocabularies
Aro vocabulary .
Aropin , ,
Artes of South American languages
Articles
Ashanti language
Asia and Europe one Continent for
ethnological purposes
and America, dialects con
necting . . . .
Aspirates, distinction between true
and false
Assam languages .
Assan, the ....
vocabulary .
-Assyrian, acceptation of the term
Astek ....
Athabaskan dialects divided into
sections .
Atna dialects
vocabulary .
Atoria , ,
Atshin , ,
Attakapa ,,
PAGE
333
516
416
272
509
512
394
588
94
535
539
331
529
530
, 458
483
492
4
7
491
332
92
94
536, 555
267
ib.
266
667
606
238, 250
567
332
478
726
571
517
618
28
91
94
530
430
ib.
491
288
476
PAGE
Attributes and Sub^ances . .728
■- of Quality and of Rela-
tion 730
Australia, Western vocabulary . 354
Australian ,, .370
languages, fundamental
unity of the . . . . 357
— in general,
comparison of . . . . 358
group, Malay affinities of
the
350
numerals . . 351,
359
Avar vocabulary ....
272
Avekvom .....
571
Aymara area ....
482
vocabulary
483
Baba vocabulary ....
303
Bagbalan ,, ...
584
Bagnon ,, . .
596
Bago ,, ...
595
Bagwan „ ...
245
Baikha ,,
139
Bakeli affinities, languages with .
564
vocabulary
561
Baladea ,, •
342
Bali „ . . . .
297
Banga ,,....
228
Baniwa vocabularies .
486
Banjak Batta vocabulary
288
Baraba >> •
107
Barabinski, or Barama Turks
105
Baraki vocabulary
262
Barbara (Santa) vocabulary .
417
Barree • ,, . .
486
Basa Krama , ,
296
BashI
314
Bask, Basque, or Biscayan lan-
guage
675
its isolation
677
Ugrian, Slavonic, African
affinities ....
678
geographical names signifi-
cant in it
680
its declension
681
dialects . .^ . 683
, 687
general view of its possible
relations ....
688
its relation as Iberic to the
Kelt
679
Bashkir vocabulary . . * .
112
Bashmuric dialect of Coptic
546
Bassa vocabulary
572
Bathurst ,,
352
Batta language. Dr. Barth's re-
marks on the .
589
760
INDEX.
Batta dialects, vocabularies of
Battas, the
Bauro vocabulary-
Bavarian language
Bayano vocabulary
Beak and Mef ur vocabulary
Begbarmi vocabulary .
Bengali ,,
Benin language .
Berber area
Bethuck, the native language of
Newfoundland
Bergamasco dialect of Italian, spe
cimen of .
Bishari vocabulary
Bhatui ,,
Bhot, or Bhotiya group of lan-
guages, philological boundaries of
the
Biafada vocabulary
Biajuk ,,
Biluch „
Bima ,,
Bini
Blackfoot ,,
Blackmouths, curious origin of the
Blasan, blasennes, hlasenne .
Bode vocabulary
Bodo ,,
Bokhara ,,
Bolar , ,
Bonny language
Boraiper vocabulary
Borgia (San) ,,
Boritsu ,,
Bormio, dialect of Italian, speci-
men of .
Borneo, language of .
Bornii, thirty different languages
spoken in . , , .
Bororo vocabulary
Borro ,, ...
Botocudo class of languages .
vocabulary .
Bowri ,,
Brahmins, the expositors of the
Sanskrit ....
Brahdi forms and their English
equivalents ....
■ glossary ....
vocabulary
Brass Town language .
Bi~azil, languages of .
Brescian, dialect of Italian, speci-
men of
PAGE
288
287
337
658
437
332
577
227
567
540
453
640
649
246
12
694
306
259
298
567
313
448
488
722
679
26
259
595
567
354
424
565
640
305
578
515
26
509
ih.
247
618
211
214
20
567
507
640
PAGE
Breton language, specimen of the . 667
vocabulary . . .664
of Vannes, specimen of the 668
British branch of Keltic . . 664
Brown's tables of dialects . . 42
Anamitic, Siamese
and other languages . . 68
Buddhism, Pali the language of . 617
Budugur vocabulary . . . 208
Buduma ,, . . . 579
Bugis ,, . . .307
Bulanda ,, . . .595
BuUom ,, . . .596
Bultistan, Bhot of . . .12
Buriats Siberian rather than Chi-
nese ..... 83
Burmese group of languages 11, 36
Proper, a literary language 47
vocabulary . . .48
and Tibetan, affinity be-
tween ..... 68
Bushman vooabulary .
Btitan, Bhot of
Buton vocabulary
Caddo vocabulary
Cahuillo ,, . .
Caldani, the modern .
Caldwell's Dravirian grammar
California (Old) lang
Camacan vocabulary
Canarese .....
vocabularies, new, old, and
literary .....
Canary vocabulary
Canichana ,, ...
Canton dialect of China, vocabu-
lary of .
Caraho vocabulary
Caraja ,, ...
Carib group ....
vocabulary
Caribisi ,,
Carnicobar language .
vocabulary
Caroline Archipelago, languages of
the
Carpentarian vocabulary ,
Cashmir ,, . .
Castelmagno dialect of Italian
Castren's researches, specimen of 89
Tungtis grammar .
Catalonian, specimen of
Catawba vocabulary
Caubul coins, language of the
Caucasus, languages of the .
598
13
310
475
443
531
207
422
611
204
209
541
601
613
512
490
492
491
67
284
321
359
230
642
128
72
646
465
614
36
INDEX.
761
PAGE
Cayagan rocabulary . . .313
Cayowa ,, ... 609
Cayubaba language . . .515
Cayuga vocabulary . . .463
Cayus ,, ... 406
Cayuvava ,, . . .500
Celebese dialects . . . 307
Celtiberians of Spain . . .679
Ceram vocabulary . . .311
Ceylon, aboriginal language of . 232
Circassian, an Italian form of
Tsherkess . . . .279
Circumpolar forms of speech . 384
Chaco languages .... 505
Chaklee 531
'Kafji,a^a Xi^ig . . . .543
Chamorri vocabulary . . . 321
Cbandragupta said to be identified
witb Sandracottus . . . 615
Changlo vocabulary . . .16
Chanta ,, . . .136
Cbavante ,, . ■. .513
Chemmesyan .... 401
Chemuhuevi vocabulary . , 443
Chepang ,, . .21
Chepewyan ,, . .391
Chiquito Proper, a sort of Lingua
Franca . , . . 504
Cherente vocabulary . . .513
Cherokee spoken by more indivi-
duals than any other Indian lan-
guage , . . . . 467
alphabet invented by a
native . . . . . ih.
vocabulary . . . 468
Chetimacha ,, . . . 469
Chileno language . . . 478
Chimanos vocabulary . . .487
Chinese Proper, dialects of . .63
comparative vocabulary of
Sanskrit and . . . .622
Chiquitos, a Spanish name . . 504
languages . . . 502
plural in -ca . . 504
vocabulary . . . 502
Classification of languages, modes of 6
Clidc, the Hottentot . .' . 598
Cochetimi vocabulary . . .446
Cochimi of San Xavier, specimen
of 422
Cochin-China vocabulary . . 61
Cocomaricopa ,, . . 420
Cocos Island ,, . . 327
Coconoons ,, . .416
Cohistani language . . ,239
Comanch vocabulary . . . 443
PAGE
Concrete and Abstract , . 732
Copeh vocabulary . . .412
Coptic extinct as a true vernacular 646
three dialects of . . ih.
superseded by Arabic . 547
Coptic vocabulary * . . .679
Cora, specimen of . . . 429
Coretu vocabulary . . .489
Corio dialect of Italian . . 642
Cornish language, list of existing
specimens of . . . .672
vocabulary . . .664
Keltic, specimen of . ^Q5
Paternoster, old and
newer foiTQs .... QQQ
Coroato vocabulary . . . 614
Coropo ,, . . . ih.
Corsican, specimen of . . .644
Costano vocabulary . . .415
Chocktaw ,, . , . 468
Chuntaquiro „ , , ,513
Chutia Deoria „ ... 35
Creek ,, . . .468
Crow ,, ... 458
Cuchan vocabularies . . 405, 420
Cumanch language . . . 472
Cumanian dialect, Paternosters in
the 114
Cunacuna vocabulary . . . 438
Cuneiform inscription from the
tomb of Darius, and translation 614
Cuneo dialect of Italian . . 641
Curgi or Kodugu vocabulary . 205
Cypher, strictest test of a deci-
phered 646
Dahcota vocabulary . . . 460
Dahomey j, • • • • ^^9
Dalla ,, . . .556
Dairy mple (Port) vocabulary . 369
Danakil vocabulary . . . 555
Danish „ . . .662
Darahi „ ... 180
Dard group . . . .238
Darien vocabulary . . . 438
Darius, cuneiform inscription from
the tomb of . . . . 614
Dark-skinned tribes, theory re-
specting . . . .39
Dar-runga vocabulary . . 553
Dasen ,, . . . 332
Daurai ,, . . . 491
Dautgart ,, . . .354
Deer ,, . . .287
Definition, classification of languages
by 6
762
INDEX.
PAGE
PAGE
Denka Ostiaks, dialect of the
90
Estonian bards ....
157
vocabulary
551
vocabulary .
159
Denwar ,,
181
Etchemin ....
451
Deoria Chutia ,,
35
Euphony, vocalic, explained
586
De Peyster's Islands, dialect of
324
Deri, meaning of the term
257
Fan, numerals of the
564
Derivation of words .
732
Faslaha vocabulary
542
Dewoi vocabulary
572
Favorlang dictionary, Happast's .
315
Dhimal ,, . .
26
Fazoglo vocabulary
551
Dialects, how distinguished fron
Felup „ ...
596
languages
1
Fertit „ ...
551
Dido vocabularies
272
Fiji group, its relations to the Poly-
Dieguno ,, . .40
5, 420
nesian and the Papuan .
345
Dinni an Athabaskan termination
390
vocabulary
ih.
Dioscurian group of languages
Fin districts, proper
153
meaning of the term
268
- — languages, conjectures respect-
Dizzela vocabulary
556
ing the ....
155
Doalu Bukere's invention of th
language, earliest specimens of
Vei Alphabet .
576
the
156
Dodi vocabulary
579
mythology ....
il.
Dofla „ .
29
poem, the Kalevala
ib.
Dog-rib „
390
vocabulary ....
159
Door, legend concerning the bot
and Samoyed, Castren's asso-
tomless pool of
241
ciation of ... .
120
Dor vocabulary
551
and Ugrian nearly synonymous
127
Dravirian language, Caldwell's
or Ugrian, hypothesis . 677
687
grammar of the
. 199
Flatbow area ....
395
Dsuku vocabulary
. 588
Flores or Ende dialects
299
Dumagat „ .
. 314
Fokien dialect ....
64
Duman ?> •
. 248
Formosa, Malay form spoken in .
314
Dzelana ,, .
. 585
Frank language ....
658
French, dialects of the
644
Eafen vocabulary
. 566
(northern), specimen of .
645
Ecuador, language of .
. 497
(south western) ,,
ih.
Ehnek vocabulary
. 409
patois ....
5
Egbele „ . .
. 567
Frisian transitional between Ger-
Egypt (Upper and Middle), Copti
man and Norse
660
dialects of
. 546
Fuego (Tierra del), languages of .
484
Ekamtulufu vocabuary
. 566
Fula language, its importance for
Eloikob proved to be the same wo
rd
religious and commercial pur-
as Kekuafi
. 645
poses
591
Emilian dialects, where spoken
638
Furian vocabulary
551
Ende vocabulary
. 300
Engadin, specimen of
. 647
Grabelentz on the Formosan lan-
Enganho vocabulary .
. 293
guages
315
English language
660
Gabun, languages of the
561
Eregba vocabulary
. 588
Gadaba vocabulary
]86
Erromango ,,
. 340
Gadi
218
Erroob ,,
. 335
Gaelic branch of Keltic
QQQ
Erse branch of Keltic
. QQQ
Middle Scotch .
672
Eskimo languages
. 385
Gafat language .
533
the only langua
?es
vocabularies
534
common to Asia and America
. 386
Galilean a dialect of Hebrew
521
Eslen vocabulary
. 416
Gall a, class, divisions of the
553
Estonian divided into two main
Proper, its vast extent
554
dialects
. 157
vocabulary
•
655
INDEX.
763
Garnett, his doctrine concerning the
persons of verbs
Garo vocabulary ....
Gbe ,,....
Georgian populations .
alphabet, completeness of
the .....
Geral (Lingua), the current Indian
of the Brazilian Empire .
German languages
High and Low
modern literary
High, standard of .
dialects
Germans, in what sense Goths
Ghagar vocabulary
Gheez, the language of the ^thi-
opic translation of Scripture
its relation to the Tigre
Gheg dialects of the Albanian
Ghonds, the ....
Ghindzhar vocabulary .
Gipsies of Persia
Gipsy language, its primitive ele-
ment Indian ....
of Norway vocabulary
Gnurellean ,,
Gohuri ,,
Gold Coast dialects
Gonds, tradition respecting the
origin of the ....
Gonga vocabulary
Grebo ,, ...
Greek language, its origin .
dialects, remarks on the
(modern) or Romaic, dialects
of
of Corsica, only known spe-
cimen of ....
list of words
Grenada (New), languages of
Guachi vocabulary
Guadalcanar , , ...
Guaham ,, ...
Guajiquiro ,, ...
Guana ,, ...
of Castelnau .
Guanch language
Guaque vocabulary
Guarani, the current Indian of
Brazil
vocabulary
Guatimala, language of
Guato vocabulary
Gudang „ ...
PAGE
725
26
572
269
270
507
658
659
ib.
ih.
ib.
ib.
663
249
633
ib.
606
188
537
248
ib.
249
353
247
670
199
544
572
651
653
655
656
696
479
514
337
321
435
514
515
541
490
607
508
427
514
351
Guebe vocabulary
Guinau ,,
Gujerati interpreters, statement
of Sir E. Perry respecting
vocabulary
Gundi grammar
vocabulary
PAGE
330
490
225
ib.
192
190
specimens of, with translation 194
Gxmungtellu vocabulary . .308
Gursea ,, . . 585
Gurung ,, . . 19
Gyami ,, . . GQ
Gyarung ,, . . 16
Haggai, a locus standi for Hebrew
Haidah language
Hailtsa vocabulary
Hamitic language
Hatigor vocabulary
Hawsa, Schon's Grammar of
Hayu vocabulary
Head of Bight (Australia),
cabulary
Hebrew language, date of criticism
of the ....
of Judea
modern .
vocabulary
Helebi ,, . .
Hiaqui, specimen of .
Hieroglyphic inscriptions
Hillmen near Amsterdam and Mid
dleburg (New Guinea), vocabulary
of the .....
Himyaritic inscriptions
Hindmarsh (Lake) vocabulary
Hindi, languages akin to the
vocabulary
Hindostanee, a mixed tongue
details of its accidence
History, what parts of a language
important for ....
Hodgson (Mr.) on the Kiranti
dialects
Honduras, dialects of .
Hoopah vocabulary
Hor or Horpa ,, . . .
Hottentot ,,
Hueco ,,
Humming-bird Indians
Hurur vocabulary
Hururgi language
Huzvaresh ,, ...
suggested alteration of the
628
401
ib.
601
32
680
21
354
527
ib.
539
540
249
428
546
332
535
353
216
218
223
ib.
Hyperborean class
24
435
395
17
598
475
487
536
624
256
262
118
764
INDEX.
PAGE
Ibo language . . . .567
Icelandic, modem . . .662
Illinois vocabulary . . . 452
lUyrian or Slovenian language . 628
Illyrians, language of the . . 606
Ilmormo or Galla proper . . 555
Iloco vocabulary . . .313
Inbazk vocabulary in the Asia
Polyglotta .... 90
vocabulary . . .94
Incorrectness of grammar only
apparent . . . .705
India^ migratory populations of . 245
Indo-European languages . . 605
— character of the 600
, remarks on the
class so-called ; position in it of
the Sanskrit, Slavonic, Skipitar
and Keltic . . . .689
extension of it . 691
Infinitives and Participles, their
nature and inflection . . 720
Ingush vocabulary .. . .275
Insam „ ... 332
Inscriptions treated as Keltic, and
found on undoubted Keltic
ground 673
. treated as Keltic,
though found on doubtfully
Keltic ground . . . .674
Insular and Continental distribution
of languages .... 4
Intermediate forms of language, ob-
literation of .... 5
Intibuca vocabulary . . .435
Iquito ,, . . . 495
Irish language, materials for inves-
tigating the . . . .671
vocabulary . . , %QQ
Iron ,, . . . .264
Iroquois languages . . .463
Irular vocabulary . . .208
Isanna ,, ... 486
Isiele ,, ... 667
Islands, rule respecting languages of 294
Isle of Pines vocabulary . . * 343
Isoama ,, . . 667
Isomeric inflections . . .711
Isomorphic ,, . . .711
Isubu affinities, languages with . 564
Italian, dialects of the . . 641
— — jjatois .... 5
Italy, division of the dialects of
modem . . . .637
Itonama, number of the . . 503
vocabulary . . . 501
Jakon vocabulary
Jansen on the dialects of Menadu
Jaoi vocabulary .
Japanese ,,
Jakun ,, . . .
Java, Kawi the sacred language of
Javanese language
vocabulary .
Javita
Jecorilla ,,
Jervis's Bay vocabularies 351
Jewish Scriptures, Hebrew of the
Jhongworong vocabulaiy
Jili „
Joboca ,,
Jower ,,
Jupuroca , ,
Juru Samang
PAGE
407
309
492
167
287
621
295
296
486
395
358, 370
528
Juvencus,
found in
specimen
1 copy of
of Pictish
Ka vocabulary
Kadiak ,,
Kaffa ,, , . .
Kafirs, legends respecting the
tradition resi^ecting their
descent from Alexander the Great
Kaffir class of languages
languages, miscellaneous illus
trations of the
prefixes
alliteration
curious syntactic peculiarities
Kajunah vocabulary
Kakhyen ,, .
Kalka ,, .
Kalmuks of the Volga
Kamacintzi vocabulary
Kamas ,,
Kamassintzi ,,
Kambali , ,
Kambojia ,,
Kami ,,
Kamilaroi , ,
paradigms for the
Kamtshatkan of the Tigil .
vocabulary .
Kanaka, the language of the Sand
wich Islands ....
Kandokov vocabulary ,
Kanem ,,
Kanuri grammar, contents of Nor
riss's ....
vocabulary
Kanyop ,,
Kapwi ,,
353
34
33
332
509
284
670
67
386
644
240
241
658
562
558
ih.
659
250
34
85
85
96
137
94
686
67
40
352
356
173
172
325
109
679
678
679
594
44
INDEX.
765
PAGE 1
PAGE
Karaga vocabularies . .169, 170 |
Kolyma vocabulary
.
170
Karagas vocabulary
109
Kondin ,,
,
133
Karatsbai ,, ...
112
Konguan ,,
664
Karelians, the ...
152
Konkani, a dialect of the Marathi
227
Karelian vocabulary .
159
Kooch language
.
25
Karen tribes ....
45
vocabulary
.
182
Karon vocabulary
332
Koran, conservative influence ex-
Kiamba ,, ...
685
ercised by the
539
Kedah, Samang vocabulary
284
Korana vocabulary
698
Keh D^ulan ,,
303
Korawi ,, . .
246
Kekuafi, proof of the identity oi
Korean ,, . .
167
the word with Eloikob
545'
Koreng ,, . .
42
Kelenonesian class, meaning of
Koriak vocabularies .
117
169
the term
377
Koriak of the Tigil, vocabulary .
173
Keltic languages . :
664
Korinchi ,,
.
290
inscriptions from Gaul
673
Kot language still existing .
.
92
Italy
674
village, Castren's discovery of a
92
of the Britisl
vocabulary .
94
Isles, observation on tbe
167
Kouri area ....
581
nouns
669
dialects
584
Kenay language
389
Kowelitsk vocabulary .
399
vocabulary
390
Kowrarega ,,
351
Kashkari ,, . .
238
Kichai „
475
Kasm ,,
584
Kij „ . .
419
Kassub language
629
King George's Sound, vocabu-
Katodi vocabulary
247
laries ... 35
5, 358
, 369
Katsha ,, . .
108'
Kioway vocabulary
444
Kaure ,, . .
585
Kirata, or Kiranti vocabular
Y
23
Kawi, the learned language of Jav£
I 296
Kirghiz, area of the .
104
a sacred language
621
Kiriri vocabulary
513
vocabulary
621
Kisi
76
Kayan „ . .
307
Kissa vocabularies
. 303
, 304
Kazan ,,
. 112
Kitunaha area .
395
Kazinczy's labours on the Magyaj
Kiwomi vocabulary
446
language
143
Kliketat „
440
Khamti vocabulary
. 52
Krepee ,,
570
Khari „ . .
. 32
Kru languages .
672
Kho of Kambojia
. 56
vocabulary .
ih.
Khoibu vocabulary
. 44
Kuki, origin of the
36
Khond „ . .
185
old and new
ih.
Khong „ . .
57
Kulanapo vocabulary .
411
Khonn ,,
84
Kumi ,,
40
Khotovzi ,, . .
96
Kumuk ,,
112
Khumia and Kuk, the
. 36
Kupuas , ,
306
Khurbat vocabulary .
. 248
Kurd „
260
Khwakhlamayu ,,
. 411
Kurilian or Aino vocabulary
168
Knistinaux „
. 449
Kusi Kumuk vocabulary
272
Kodugu or Ctirgi vocabulary
. 205
Kuskutshewak ,,
386
Koama ,,
. 584
Kusunda ,,
21
Kohatar „
. 208
Kuswar ,,
180
Koibal „
108
Kutani area
395
Kol dialects
. 183
38
396
390
Koladyn river, tribes of the
Kutshin ,,
Koldagi vocabulary
549
Kuznetsk , ,
107
Koligon ,, . .
354
Kuzzilbash ,,
112
Kolush of Sitka vocabulary
401
Kwaliokwa ,,
394
766
INDEX.
Labrador vocabulary .
Laconian or Tzakonian dialect, spe
cimen of the
Ladak, Bhot of
Ladrone languages " .
Lampong vocabulary .
Lamut ,, . .
Landoma ,, . .
Language, vocal, articulate .
its stages and develop
ment
its spontaneity .
its incorrectness
only
apparent
Languages, bow distinguished from
dialects .
— of Europe and
western division of .
of Europe and
northern and south-western
-^— — of Europe and
south-eastern .
Laos vocabulary .
Lap language, Ugrian character of
the ....
two primary divi
sions ....
: three main dialects
vocabulary .
dialects of Norwegian
Lapidary alphabet, meaning of the
term ....
Laps, Scandinavian
Lar vocabulary .
Latin, and the languages derived
from it .....
enumeration of languages de
rived from
three questions relating to
those languages
great desideratum in the phi
lological history of .
Latin, list of words
A^yat = Lekhi .
Legba vocabulary
Lenca language .
Lepcha vocabulary
Lesgians, the
Lett language, where spoken
Lhopa vocabulary
Lief language
Lifu vocabulary .
Limbu ,,
Limestone Creek vocabulary
Lingua Urbana and Lingua Rustica
655
12
323
291
76
595
697
700
702
705
8
9
10
51
161
ib.
163
ib.
162
163
255
161
229
632
634
ib.
271
585
435
24
271
623
13
160
341
23
359
637
Linonian language . •
Literary influence. on language
engenders an ar-
tificial element in languages
Lithuanic division of the Sarma-
tian class . . . - .
distinguished from Li-
thuanian . . . .
its three branches
aflinities with Sanskrit,
Latin,
and Grreek
- list of words
Lobo vocabulary .
Logone
Lombard languages, divisions of
Loretto vocabulary
Louisiade Archipelago .
Low Latin . .
Loyalty Isles
Lubu vocabulary .
Luchti ,,
Lughman ,,
Luhuppa ,,
Luis Obispo (San) vocabulary
Lule vocabulary .
Lusatian language
Lutuami vocabulary .
Macassar vocabulary .
Maccabean coins .
Machakali vocabulary .
Maconi = ,,
Macijsi , ,
Madagascar , ,
Madura , ,
Mag Readings,,
Magyar language and literature .
■■ attempted sup-
pression of the
of Hungary intrusive
changes effected by Kazin-
lan-
czy . • . .
coinage of wdrds
Fin affinities of
and other Ugrian
guages, vocabulary of
literature, reaction in fa-
vour of .
Mahari vocabulary
Mahi ,,
Mahratta , ,
Mainas paternoster
Mainot dialect of modern Greek
Maiongkong vocabulary
Maiptir vocabularies .
PAGE
629
257
539
623
ib.
ib.
623
691
334
580
639
424
335
649
341
292
167
239
43
417
506
627
407
307
527
511
ib.
491
294
297
412
20
142
143
176
144
ib.
145
ib.
143
537
569
226
483
656
490
489
INDEX.
767
Mairassis vocabulary . . •
Malagas! (Madagascar) essentially
a Malay language .
. vocabulary .
Malali ,, . • •
Malay and its congeners
. a commercial language
grammar ....
affinities with the Kh6 and
Mon ....
vocabularies . 286
Malayalim vocabulary .
Maldive ,,
language, specimen of the
Mallicollo vocabulary .
Malo ,,
Manatoto ,,
Mandan ,, . . •
Mandara ,,
Mandarin, the classical language of
China .....
. dialect of China, vocabu-
lary of .
Mandhar vocabulary .
Mandingo languages .
vocabulary . . .
Mang „ ; . • .
Mangalore, Grerman missionaries at
Mangarei vocabularies . . 300,
PAGE
334
294
295
512
283
287
285
304, 345
. 204
. 234
ib.
338
306
302
458
458
64
66
307
568
696
246
205
383
77
Manks ,,
Mantshu, original area of the
vocabularies.
Manyak vocabulary
Maori (New Zealand) vocabulary .
Maram ,,
Marathi, limits of the
Mare vocabulary . . . .
Marianne, or Ladrone Archipelago
Maring vocabulary
Maroa ,,
Marquesas islands, language of
Maruvi vocabulary
Massachusetts , ,
Massied ,,
Mataguaya ,,
Matheo (St.) ,,
Mawakwa ,,
Maya languages
Mayorga vocabulary
Mayoruna vocabularies
Mbarike vocabulary
Mbaya vocabularies
Mbe vocabulary .
Mbofia ,,
, 175
75, 76
. 16
. 325
. 44
. 226
. 341
321
44
. 486
. 325
. 292
. 436
. 452
. 351
. 505
. 313
. 491
. 433
. 328
. 495
. 565
382, 506
. 564
. 667
PAGE
Mbofon vocabulary . . ,566
Mbokobi ,, . . .606
Mefur ,, . . .332
Melon ,, . . .565
Memphitic dialect of Coptic . 646
Menadu, dialects of . . . 309
vocabulary . . .308
Mendis=7aountain in Bask ; its
declension . . . .681
Menero Downs vocabulary . . 358
Menieng ,, . .512
Menomeni ,, . ,448
Meri ,, . .306
Meshtsheriak ,, . ,112
Mexican language (Proper) . . 430
Mfut vocabulary . . . .564
Miami ,, . . . . 452
Micmac >> • • • • 451
Miguel (St.) „ . . . .313
(San),, . . . .416
Mikronesia, meaning of the term . 320
Milchan, meaning of the word . 15
Millanow vocabulary . . .306
Mille „ . . .323
Mincopie, or Andaman . . 58
Minetari vocabulary . . .461
Minsi ,, ... 451
Mir Yusuf invents the Baraki
language .... 262
Miri vocabulary . . , .29
Miriam, a collective name . . 335
Mishmi, dialects of the . . 29
Missions, language of the South
American
Mithan vocabulary
Mixteca paternoster .
Mobba language .
vocabularies
Mobilian=Chocktah .
Moesogothic language . . .658
Mogul dynasty, Tshagatai . . 101
Mohave vocabulary . . . 421
Mohawk ,, . . .463
Mohikan ,, . . .451
Mokobi ,, . . .382
Molonglo ,, . . .353
Mon, its affinities with certain lan-
guages of India . . .71
with the Kol
group 183
vocabulary .... 57
Mongol class
language, original area of the 177
vocabulary , . .87
Mongoyos ,, . , .511
Monosyllabic languages, numerals of 184
. 499
. 33
. 433
. 552
553, 580
. 472
768
INDEX.
Monosyllabic applied to languages,
remark on the term
in what sense the Ame-
rican languages are
Moor vocabulary
Moquelumne group
Mordvin language
vocabulary
Moreton Bay vocabulary
Mose ,,
Movima, number of the
vocabulary
Moxa , ,
Moxos languages
vocabulary
Mpongwe
Mrii
Msambara
Mucury
Mudji
Mugs, the .
Mundrucu vocabulary
Mundy (Lake) ,,
Munio ,,
Munipur gi-oup of dialects
words, percentage of in
several dialects
Mura vocabulary
Murmi ,,
Murundo ,,
Murung ,,
Muruya , ,
Muskogulge ,,
Naga dialects
Naknanuk vocabulary
Nalu ,,
Samoan lan-
Nancowry ,,
Nanticok ,,
Narragansetts ,,
Natchez ,,
Natural groups of languages
Navaho vocabulary
Navigators' Islands, or
guages .
N^wer vocabulary
Ndob „
Negrito element in the Indian
Archipelago
Negro (Rio) languages of the
Nepaul or Nepalese languages
Nertshinsk vocabulary
Nestorian Gospels
Netela vocabulary
Neu-chih translations from the Chinese 80
586
603
332
414
148
149
351
585
503
500
382
600
601
661
40
660
509
352
37
508
353
679
42
46
494
19
564
306
351
468
32
610
696
33
284
451
452
469
10
394
325
249
664
374
485
19
76
638
419
PAGB
Neu-chih inscriptions . . 80
New Caledonia . . .341, 844
Guinea dialects . . . 332
Hebrides vocabularies . .338
Ireland vocabulary . . 336
Zealand or Maori language . 825
Newar vocabulary . . .22
Newfoundland, native language of 463
Ngodzen vocabulary . . . 679
Ngoko language . . . .295
Nogoten vocabulary . . .565
Nguru ,, ... 579
Nhalemoe ,, . . .665
Nias ,, ... 292
Nicaragua, dialects of . .436
Nicobar Islands, language of the . 284
Nigritia, limits of the term . 576
Niznih IFda, vocabulary . . 84
Nkele „ . . 664
Nogay „ . . 112
Norse languages . . , 660
Norwegian dialects . . .661
Danish, the literary . 660
Nottoway vocabulary . . . 463
Nowgong ,, . . .32
Nsietshawus ,, . . . 402
Nso ,, ... 664
Nubian languages . . .646
class, divisions of the . 648
Proper, its three dialects . 648
vocabulary . . .549
Nufi class 687
vocabularies illustrating the . 688
affinities, languages with . 664
Nukahiva, the language of the Mar-
quesas ..... 325
Numerals, general rule respecting 25
Nut vocabulary . . . .246
Ndtka „ . . . .402
Nyamnam,, .... 652
Nyutshi records .... 80
Obi vocabulary . . . .134
Oceanic" languages in general . 372
Ojibwa vocabulary . . . 449
Okuloma ,, ... 667
Olomo ,, , . » ib.
Olonets „ ... 169
Olot, the „ . . .85
Olvasom, &c. . . . .725
0 magna vocabulary . . .608
Omaha ,, ... 461
Omar „ ... 332
Ombay, language of . . . 300
vocabulary . . .383
Oneida ,, ... 464
INDEX.
69
PAGE
Onim vocabulaiy . . . 334
Onondago ,, . . . ih.
Opata, specimen of . . . 428
Opatoro vocabulary . . .435
Orang Laut, meaning of the ex-
pression . . . . ,305
Oregones vocabularies . . . 496
Ore Jones, a common rather than a
proper name .... ih.
Origin of inflections . . .716
middle voices, of pas-
sive voice, &c. . . .719
Orinoko, language of the , . 485
Orotshong tribes . . .73
Osage vocabulary . . . 460
Oscan known through the Bantine
inscriptions .... 633
Osmanli vocabulary . . .115
Osset or Iron ,, . . . 264
Ostiak Proper . . . .89
Castren's grammar of the . 138
vocabulary . . .134
Otam affinities, languages with . 564
Otomi language .... 430
Otshi, the language of the Gold
Coast 570
Ottawa vocabulary . . .449
Otuke „ ... 503
Oidoff, Dard's Grammaire . . 593
Oulx dialect, specimen of the . 643
Pacaguara vocabulary . . . 501
Padsade ,, . . .594
Paduca group .... 442
Pahri or Pahi vocabulary . , 22
Paioconeca ,, . . 5U2
Pakhya „ . .181
Pakpak Batta vocabulary . , 288
Palaik „ . .407
Palaong ,, . .53
Pali ,, . .621
the language of Buddhism . 617
Pampas, languages of the . . 484
Panos glosses and inflections . 516
Papel vocabulary . . .594
Papuan ,, . . . .331
Pamkalla ,, . . . .354
Paropamisan group of languages . 236
Parsi language . . . .256
Scriptures . . . .620
Participles and Infinitives, their
nature and inflection . .720
Pashai vocabulary . . . 239
Patacho ,, ... 511
Patau or Pukhtu vocabulary . 253
Paternosters in Turkish dialects . 113
Patois, graduating forms of
ambiguous . . ,
Paumotu vocabulary .
Pauro-syllabic languages
Pawni vocabulary
Payagua „ . . .
Peba ,, . . ,
Pedro (S.) vocabularies
Peel River vocabulary . -,
Pegu, Mon language of
Pehlevi language
Pelew vocabulary
Pelu „* . . .
Peninsular languages . ,
Permian vocabulary
Persepolitan language .
Persian ,,
vocabulary
Pern, the general language of
Peruvian grammar and dictionary,
account of a . , ,
Phenician alphabet . ,
knowTi only from inscrip-
tions
inscriptions
far
PAGE
5
ih.
328
477
470
515
496
494
352
256
320
87
165
151
608
254
259
481
ih.
525
526
526
313
707
708
491
Philippine languages .
Physical conformation, how
coincident with language .
what affects
it, what affects language .
Pianoghotto vocabulary ,
Pict language found in' a copy of
Juvencus, specimen of, with
translations by Nash and Williams 670
Piede (or Pa-uta) vocabulary . 443
Piedmontese Proper vocabulary
compared with French and
Italian 661
Pima vocabulary . . .427
Pinalero ,, . . .394
Pinegorine ,, ... 353
Pinoco language, subdivisions of
the 504
Pirinda, specimen of . . .432
Piskaws vocabulary . . .399
Plautus, specimen of Punic in .526
Plurals 726
Pcenulus of Plautus, the . . ib.
Poggi vocabulary . . . .292
Poignavi of Humboldt . . .486
Polish language .... 630
Polynesia Proper . . . 324
Polynesian languages, eminently vo-
calic 380
Polysynthetic languages . .430
import of the term . 519
3 B
770
INDEX.
Pome vocabulary
Port Dorey, language about .
Port Philip vocabulary
Port Praslin >i •
Portuguese, specimen of
Potowatami vocabulary
Pracrit, meaning of the term
Priyadasi inscriptions
PAGE
332
331
355
336
449
617
614
Pronouns, exclusive and inclusive
Oceanic ..... 379
Provengal, earliest specimen of . 644
■ common to France and
Spain 645
Prussian, Old .... 624
Pueblo languages . . . 445
Pujuni vocabulary . . .412
Pukhtu ,, . . .252
Pumpokolsk vocabulary . . 94
Punic language in Plautus, speci-
men of . . . . . 526
Punjabi, its grammatical character 219
vocabulary . . .218
Puquina, paternoster . . . 483
Purus vocabulary . . .514
Pushtu „ ... 252
Pwo „ . . , 46
Quantity and Quotiety . . 731
Queen Charlotte (Cape), language
of 341
Quichua, the general language of
Pprn ..... 481
vocabulary .
Quinary numeration .
Bajmahali vocabulary .
Raphael (San) ,,
Eask's Lap grammar .
Redscar Bay vocabulary
Reindeer Tshuktshi ,,
Riccari ,,
Rodiya ,, . ,
Romaic or Modern Greek, dialects
of
Roman alphabet, applications of the
llomance language, two main dia-
lects of
Romanese, specimen of
Ron vocabulary ....
Rossawn ,, . ." .
Rotti, language of . . .
vocabulary ....
Rotuma ,, . . . .
Rtiinga ,,....
483
380
200
246
414
162
335
171
290
470
233
655
78
647
647
332
228
301
302
326
228
PAGE
Rukheng vocabulary ... 48
Rumanyo or Roumain vocabulary . 648
compared with Latin . ib.
Ruslen vocabulary . . .416
Russian alphabet, observations on
the 78
Rustica (Lingua). . . . 650
Sabuyah vocabulary . . .513
Sacramento (Upper) vocabulary . 412
Sahaptin group of languages . 440
Sapitic dialect of Coptic . . 546
Sak vocabulary .... 40
Saka:ran ,,
. 306
Salawatti ,, .
. 332
Salbin „
. 109
Saldanha Bay vocabulary
. 598
Salivi vocabulary
. 493
Salt Lake dialects
. 439
Samaritan language .
. 627
alphabet older than the
Hebrew 526
Samoyed, to whom the name first
applied . . . . .130
dialects, recent investi-
gations of . . . 127, 129
' and Yenisean, affinities
between ..... 119
Samucu language, dialects of the . 505
Sandracottus identified with Chan-
dragupta . . . .615
Sandwich Islands, language of * 325
Sangara (mouth of) vocabulary . 76
Sangouw vocabulary . . .306
Sanskrit, the old literary language
of India .... 608, 610
substantives and pro-
nouns, Latin illustrations of . ih.
substantives and pro-
nouns, Lithuanic illustrations of 609
verbs, Greek illustrations
of . . . . . .610
Lithuanic its nearest con-
gener . . . . , ib.
Slavono - Lithuanic in
phonesis . . . . . ib.
conjectures on the origin
of its connection with European
languages . . . .611
two divisions of the . 617
its true aspirates . . 618
Brahmins its expositors ib.
works in . . . ib.
vocabularies . . 243
comparative vocabula-
ries of Chinese and . 621, 622
IKDKX.
771
Saparua vocabulary
Sapiboconi ,,
Sarar ,,
Saraveca ,,
Sardinian, specimens of North,
South, and Central .
Sarmatian languages sibilant
Sasak vocabulary
Sassanian memorials .
Satawal vocabulary
Sauki ,, ...
Savaneric ,, ...
Savara ,, ...
Savoy, patois of ...
Savu, vocabularies of
Scandinavian languages
peninsula originally
Lap
Schematic inflections .
Schleiermacher's prize essay on
Comparative Philology
Scotch Keltic vocabulary . ,
SeleAga vocabulary
Semitic languages, character of the
initial and me-
dial changes in . . .
Serawulli or Seracolet language
vocabulary .
Seroci ,,
Serpa ,, ...
Servian, alphabet of the
Sekumne vocabulary .
Selish dialects ....
vocabulary
Seneca ,, ...
Sgau „ ...
Shabun ,, ...
Shan, Eastern and Western, voca-
bularies of ... .
Shangalla language
vocabulary .
Shankali ,,
Shasti ,,
Shawni ,, . . .
Shellu ,,
Shendu, Capt. Ticket's vocabulary
of the .....
Shenvi Brahmins, mother tongue
of the
Sheshatapoosh vocabulary .
Shibboleth, Samaritan form of
Shilluk vocabulary
Shiho ,, ...
Shina vocabularies
Shoshoni ,, . 404,
PAGE
310
499
595
500
643
630
298
255
321
452
437
187
5
301
660
163
710
49
666
84
600
601
592
596
332
14
628
412
399
404
464
46
551
52
546
557
557
407
452
541
41
227
450
526
551
555
250
Shyenne language
237,
409, 442
. 455
Shyenne vocabulary .
Siah Posh ,,
Siam, population of
Siamese group .
poetry and music
vocabulary
Siberia, ethnology of .
Turkish of
Sibnow vocabulary
Sideia, vocabulary of a sub-dialect
of .
Sikkim languages
Silong vocabulary
Singalese ,,
Singkal Batta vocabulary
Singpho group of dialects
vocabulary
Siraiki , ,
Sitka , ,
Skipitar language
Skittegats vocabulary .
Skoffi „
Skulls, artificially flattened
Skwali vocabulary
Slave , ,
Slavonic division of the Sarmatian
class
list of words
Slovak, where spoken .
Slovenian or Ugrian language
Soana dialect of Italian
Sobo vocabulary .
Socrikong ,,
Sohili ,,
Soiony ,,
Sok or Sokpa vocabulary
Sokhalar, the
Sokko language .
Sokotran vocabulary .
Soledad ,, -
Solomon Isles , .
Solor vocabulary
Songpu „
Sonora, language of
Sontal vocabulary
Sow ,,
Spanish, specimen of .
patois
Stages of languages
Sub- Semitic, application of the
term
meaning of
Substance and Attribute
Subtiabo vocabulary .
Sudania or Nigritia .
Sulu vocabulary
772
INDEX.
PAGK
PAGE
Suiliatra, dialect of
. 287
Teleut
107
rliilrrt" nt \c'}nnAa nfF 905^ 1
Tengsa
Teressa
32
Sumbawa vocabulary .
. 298
284
Sumcbu , ,
. 15
Ternati vocabulary
310
Sumenap ,, .
. 297
Terra incognita of Africa defined .
755
Sunda language .
. 295
Tesuque vocabulary
445
vocabulary
. 296
Texas, derivation of the word
472
Sunghai area
. 580
leading languages of
471
Suntah vocabulary
. 306
Texian Indians, list of
473
Sunwar , ,
Swedish language
26
f-.4-^4-'i-.4-T rtrt /^-P
474
! '. 662
475
Swiss German language
. 659
Thaksya language
15
Sydney vocabulary
. 351
Tharu vocabulary
181
Synthesis and analysis
. 713
Thay group ....
50
Syriac of Damascus,
Emesa, and
Thebaic dialect of Coptic
546
Edessa .
. 531
Theburskud dialect
15
vocabulary .
. 539
Thochu vocabulary
16
modern
.538
Thoung-lhti ....
46
Thug numerals ....
245
Tablung vocabulary
. 33
Tibbu language ....
692
Tagala
. 313
Tibetan language, written and spo-
Tahiti „
. 325
ken, compared
13
Tahlewah ,,
. 409
vocabulary
17
Takeli „
. 651
and Burmese, affinity be-
Takpa ,,
. 13
tween
68
Takulli
. 391
Ticino dialect of Italian, specimen
Takyul, language of
. 13
of the
639
Talatui vocabulary
. 414
Ticopia vocabulary
327
Talamenca , ,
. 437
Ticuna poison ....
496
Talmud, language of t
fie . . 538
Indians ....
ib.
Tamanak vocabulary .
. 492
Ticunas vocabulary
497
Tamul vocabularies
. 200, 203
Tigre, its relation to the Grheez .
533
.Tana vocabulary .
. 338
vocabulary
536
Tandia ,,
. 332
Timbiras ,, . . .
512
Taneamu , ,
. 337
Timbora vocabularies . . 299
, 383
Tanema , ,
. ib.
Timmani vocabulary .
595
Tanguhti ,,
. 67
Timor language ....
299
Tankhul, north .
. 43
meaning of the term .
302
Tanna language, grami
aar of the . 329
Timur, memoirs and institutes of .
102
Tao, existing dialect of
the . . 504
Tirhai vocabulary
237
Tapua, or Nufi languag
e . .575
Tiverighotto ....
491
Tarahumara, specimen
of . . 429
Tiwi
565
Tarakai vocabulary
. 169
tl, a Mexican sound .
430
Taraska paternoster
. 432
Tlatskanai vocabulary .
394
Tarawan vocabulary
. 323
Toba paternoster
506
Tarerauki , ,
. 245
Batta vocabulary
288
Taruma , ,
. 493
Tobi vocabulary ....
320
Tasmanian spoken bj
^ less than
Tobolsk „ .
107
fifty individuals
. 371
Tocantins ,, . .
613
' its Papuan i
iffinities . 370
Toma ,,....
486
abularies of 362
Tonga „ .
325
Tater vocabulary .
. 249
Tonkin ,,....
61
Tavastrians, the .
. 152
TO (p^ovtiy, &C
722
Tawgi vocabulary
. 133
Tosk dialect of the Albanian
606
Tekeenika ,,
. 484
Totonaca, specimen of . .
432
Telegu or Telinga voca
bulary . 202
Trinal number (Oceanic)
379
INDEX.
773
PAGE
Triton Bay vocabulary . . 334
Tsagatai blood, the Mogul dynasty
of 101
Tsamak vocabulary . . .412
Tshamba, different applications of
the word . . . .582
Tshapodzhir vocabulary . . 77
Tshari ,, . .272
Tshek, the native name for the
Bohemian . . . .629
Tsheremis vocabulary . . .115
Tsherimis ,, . . .149
Tshetsh ,, . . .275
Tshinuk language . . . 402
vocabulary . . .404
Tshokoyem ,, . . .415
Tshulim, tribes of the . .105
vocabulary . . . 107
Tshuvash „ ... 115
Tshampa ,, . . .283
Tsherkess division . . .279
vocabulary . . . 280
Tshetsh grammar . . .277
Tshuktshi Nos vocabulary . .387
Tubar, specimen of . . . 428
Tuda vocabulary . . . 207
T'uk'iu ,, . . . .100
Tulare ,, . . . .416
Tulu or Tulava vocabulary . . 205
Tumu vocabulary . . . 564
Tung Mru tribe . . . .39
Tungus languages . . .72
orthography, observations
on 79
grammar, Castren's . . 72
vocabulary . . .117
Tunguska „ . . .77
Tunkin ,, . . .84
Tupi vocabulary .... 608
Tvirrofjtivos and Tv^hti . . 723
Turanian class, general observations
on the 177
Turcomans, the . . . .103
Turin dialect of Italian . . 641
Turk, first appearance of the name
in history . . . .100
language, original area of the 177
wide signification of the word 98
area, its great extent . ib.
• language, displacements
effected by the ... 9
paternosters . . .113
Turks of Siberia . . .111
Turkish vocabulary . . .100
Tuscarora ,, ... 463
Tushi, grammatical structure of the 274
Tver, Fin of
Type, classification
according to
of languages
Uchee vocabulary
Udom ,,....
Udso ,,....
Uea=Wallis's Island .
vocabulary
Ugrian class of languages
chief languages of the
area, original
metres, analysis of
and Fin, nearly synonomous
Ugrians, territorial distribution of
the
aboriginal
Uighur Turks
Uigur vocabulary
Ukah ,,
Ukuafi ,,
Ulea ,,
Ulu
Ulut, the
Umiray vocabulary
Umkwa ,,
Unalaska , ,
Undaza , ,
Uraon ,,
Uriya ,,
Uta „
Utatanata ,,
Uzbek dialect .
PAGB
153
6
469
666
567
343
344
125
126
176
158
127
127
154
100
17
173
545
321
292
85
113
394
386
664
201
229
443
334
103
Vaddab, language of the . . 232
Valdieri dialect compared with
French and Italian . , . 642
Valteline dialect of Italian, speci-
men of the .... 639
Van Diemen's Land, earliest voca-
bulary of . . . .362
vocabulary . 370
Vanikoro vocabulary . . .337
Vannes, specimen of the Breton of 668
Vaudois, specimen of . . . 644
Vayii vocabulary ... 21
Vedas, hypothesis repecting the . 620
Vei alphabet, history of its inven-
tion ..... 574
Veragua ..... 438
Vilela vocabulary . . ,506
Vincent (Gulf of St.) vocabu-
laries .... 358, 369
Viti (or Fiji) Archipelago . .345
Vocalic euphony explained . . 586
Vod dialect . . . .154
774
INDEX.
PAGE
PAGE
Vod vocabulary . . .
159
Wylie (Mr.) Translation from the
Vogul language .
146
Chinese by ... .
81
Volga Fins, the .
147
Votiak vocabulary
151
Xavier (San) vocabulary
Xumano ,, , .
424
495
Waag vocabulary
642
Wahitaho ,,
328
Yagua vocabulary
496
Waigifi ,,
330
Yakkumban ,, . .
354
WaikuT paternoster
425
Yakut vocabularies . . Ill
117
conjugation
.
ib.
Yakutsk vocabulary
76
vocabulary
424
Yangaro ,, ...
544
Waikna ,,
437
Yala „ ...
565
Waiyamera ,,
490
Yamea paternoster
497
Wakamba ,,
560
Yankton vocabulary .
460
Wakash class
403
Yap „ .
321
Wallawalla vocabulary
440
Yanesei ,, ...
77
WaUis's Island .
343
Yengen „ ...
343
Wandamin vocabulary
332
Yeniseian, import of the term
88
Wanika ,,
Wapisiana ,,
560
490
between the .
118
Warow ,,
493
vocabularies. . Ill
, 136
Watlaka „
402
Yeniseians, Kot and Kem glosses to
Weitspek ,,
410
determine the area of the
95
Weiyot „
405
Yerukali vocabulary .
m
Wellington , ,
352
Yeso ,, ...
le
Welsh pronouns united with
verbs
669
York (Cape),,
351
language, list of wo
rks in
Yoruba area ....
685
the .
672
a monosyllabic language .
603
664
analysis of its prefixes
587
. ... vOCdiUUlclXjf
Widah ,,
569
i^*»/\T«r-l-'K/\-*»'n r»t»r» *v\ -rv^ rt ■*• i-v-P
Wihinasht,,
442
the
586
Willamet ,,
406
Yukahiri, remarks on the .
123
Winebago ,,'
460
compared with the Sa-
Wiradurei ,,
352
moyed and other dialects .
121
Wishosk „
405
vocabulary .
117
Witouro ,,
352
Yula ,, . . .
684
Witshita ,,
475
Yuma dialects ....
420
Woccon language
465
Yunga paternoster
483
Woddowrong vocabulary
354
Yuracares vocabulary .
499
Wokan
303
Yurak ,,
132
Wolof or Jolof language,
Dard's
grammar of
593
Zamucu language, dialects of the .
505
vocabulary
596
vocabulary
502
tables of affinities
*. 592
, 597
Zapara ,, ...
497
Women tattooed to become u
giy .
38
Zaza ,, . . .
260
Woratta vocabulary
544
Zechariah a locus standi for He-
Woyawai ,,
490
brew
528
Written works create an ai
•tificial
Z«;^7/=Adige . . . .
278
element in language .
538
Zend the language of the Parsi
Wulwa vocabulary
437
Scriptures ....
620
Wyandot ,,
464
Zirianian vocabulary .
151
Printed by Woodfall and Kinder, Angel Court, Skinner Street, London.
E E E A T A.
Page 154, line 1—for mulvvennet read muvvenn6t ; for ^igdavas read tJMavas.
2— for giat read gi'at ; for Muvvenet read Muvveunet ; for kivirufipahilla read
kivi-ru6ppahilla.
?r—for muadda read niuSda.
4:— for raiiassa rea(/ muassa; for Paivazen reaci Paivazen ; for uurdimuot read
uurdimuot.
6 — comma after mutilla.
Page 643, line 22— /or accuntessin reoil accuntessiu.
2S—for Eun read E un.
26— for nascin read nasciu.
28— /or nascin read nasciu.
29 — insert comma after s'orienti, and/or ad'adorai read dd'adorai.
Dele (3) The Northern Sardinian.
In Matt. ii. 1, 3, dele (Logudore) ; substitnte comma for fnll-point at end of v. 1,
and dele inverted commas in verse 2.
Page 644, line \— Insert (3) Northern Sardinian.
lu the Tempiese version of Ruth I 1, for Alu read A. lu ; for giudiei (in two places)
read giudiei ; and for cuman daaui read cumandaani.
Matt. ii. 1,— /or regnanarra(i regnava; and substitnte comma for full-stop at end.
Verse 2 — comma hetween quellu and ch' ; for nalu read natu ; for Vistula read
vistu la ; and for setter read Stella.
Page 646, insert Galician at the head of the version of Matt. ii. 1-6.
Matt. ii. 1-6, verse \—for aque read aqui ; comma at end for full-point.
%—for Xiidios read xudios ; for su read sua ; for habernos read habemos ; for
chegadci read ehegado; and /or adorarlo read adoralo.
4^—for todas read todos ; for principes read priiicipes.
0 — co??t/Hrace Ao tal eles responderon: En lieien, &c.
Page 656, Corsican Greek, verse 12— /or airo avrous read ajro S'aurous.
Page 667, verse 1— /or traouennou read traouiennou.
'^—for a at end of first line read ar.
Page 668, verse 3— /or wezen read wezen ; for avalore read avalou ; for evel-se read evel-se ;
for genou read genou.
As— for karantez read kara?itez.
Vannetais. verse '2.— for e-'ma read e-ma.
3— /or que read gue ; for e read e in two places in first line ; in the second,
for Azeet read Azeet ; for quet read guet ; for vourradiqueah read vour-
radigueah ; in the third, /or h read e ; for freh read freh ; for ah read oe.
4t—for oe read oe ; for carante read CHrante.
Page 683, Ordinary Biscayan, No. 1—for izarrah read izarrak.
14— /or ediuTah read edurrak.
15— /or Gawak read Gauak.
Ochandian, No. 1— /or obea read obra ; for eisuku read eisube.
Marquenese, No. 1— /or alubau read alabau ; for guztige read guztijen.
Page 684, 2— /or Junnaren read Jaunaren .
'^—for ganian read gafiian ; for gustijak read guztijak.
8— /or guztijak read guztijak.
9 -for gustijak read guztijak.
13 and 14— /'or lyotza read Izotza.
Guipuscoan Central, No. 4— /or ganian read ganian.
9— for Jaungoiknaren read Jaungoikuaren.
Guipuscoan (2), No. 5— for guziok read guziak.
Page 685, Upper Navarre, No. 1— /or guziat read guziak ; for ganetik read gafietik.
4— for dirin read diren.
14— /or eturrah read elurrak.
15— /or Gavak read Gauak ; for eguanak read egunak.
Laburtanian, No. \—for gainetek read gainetik.
2— for Aingeruiak read Aingeruak.
3— /or Zeruah read Zeruak."
8 — dele and.
9— for iziritu read izpiritu.
10— for San read Sua.
12— /or Naintzak read Intzak.
14— /or elhurrah read elhurrak.
15— /or Ganak read Gauak.
Lower Navarre (Baig'orres), No. 1, line 1—for zazi. Zazi Yauna read zazi Yauua.
2— for zazi read zazi.
No. 6— /or Tuzkia read luzkia.
Page 686, Lower Navarre (Baigorrea), No. 7— /or izzarak read izarrak.
13— /or notza read hotza.
14— /or Khairoina read Kharoina.
15— /or Ganak read Gauak.
Lower Navarre (Mixe), No. 4— for un read ur.
9— for Yinkuain read Yinkuain.
15— /or Ganak read Gauak.
Soule (French), No. 4— /or gafiendiren read gafien direu.
6— for argizazia read argizagia.
7— for izaiTah read izarrak.
12— for Thitzak read Ihitzak ; for benedik read benedik'.
13— /or benedik read benedik'.
14 -/or eliiilrrah read elhiirrak ; /or benedik read benedik'.
15— for egiimak read egiinak.
Soule (Spanish), No. 1— /or guziah read guziak.
Page 687, „ 4— for danden read dau len,
12— /or arrosoda read arrosada.
13— /or lyotza rend Izotza.
14r—for eiurrah read elurrak.
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